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 New lands 
 
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 3 1924 031 245 255 
 
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NEW LANDS: 
 
 THEIR RESOURCES AND PROSPECTIVE 
 ADVANTAGES. 
 
UNIFORM WITH THIS WORK. 
 
 THE "NEW LAND" SERIES 
 
 Of Practical Handbooks for Prospectors, Explorers, Settlers, and all 
 
 interested in the Opening up and Development of New Lands. 
 
 Edited by GRENVILLE A. J. COLE, M.R.I.A., F.G-.S., 
 
 Professor of Geology in the Royal GoUege of Science for IreUmd. 
 
 Second Eoiiioh, Kevised. With Slustrations. Price in Cloth, 6s. ; 
 stronely bound in Leather, 68. 6d. 
 
 PROSPECTING FOR MINERALS. 
 
 Br S. HERBEKT COX, Assoo.R.S.M., M.Inst.M.M., F.G.S., &o. 
 
 OxHEJtAl^ COHTIKTS.— Introduction and Hints on Geology— The Determination of Minerals : 
 Use of the Blowpipe, &c.— Bock-forming Minerals and Non-metallic Minerals of Commercial 
 Value: Rock Salt, Borax, Marbles, Lithographic Stone, Quartz and Opal, &c., 4;c.— Precious 
 Stones and Gems— Stratified Deposits: Coal and Ores— Mineral Veins and Lodes— Irregular 
 Deposits— Dynamics of Lodes: Faults, &c.— AUuTial Deposits— Noble Metals: Gold, Platinum, 
 8ilver,&c.— Lead— Mercury-Copper- Tin— Zinc— Iron— Nickel, &c.— Sulphur, Antimony, Arsenic, 
 &c.— Combustible Minerals— Petroleum-General Hints on Prospecting— Glossary— Index. 
 
 " This ADMIRABLB LITTLE VOKK." —Mming JownMl. 
 
 With many Engravings and Photographs. Handsome Cloth, 4s. 6d. 
 
 FOOD sxj:pi»i- 3r. 
 
 By ROBERT BRUCE, 
 
 AffrwuMv/ral Superintendent to the Boyal JDnblm Society. 
 
 With Appendix on Preserved Foods by C. A. MmcheIjL, B.A., F.I. C. 
 
 Gbhieal Costihis.— Climate and Soil— Drainage and Rotation of Crops— Seeds and Crops- 
 Vegetables and Fruits-Cattle and Cattle-Breeding-Sheep and Sheep Rearmg-Pigs— Poultry- 
 Horses- The Dairy— The Farmer's Implements— The Settler's Home. 
 
 " The work is one which will appeal to those intending to become farmers at home or in the 
 Colonies."— <7burna£ of the Boyal volvmal Inat. 
 
 In Prepa/ration, Uniform with above. 
 
 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION 
 
 IN WOOD, STONBJ, AND CONCRBTB. 
 
 By JAS. LYON, M.A., 
 
 Professor of Engineering in the Royal CoUege of Science for Ireland; sometime Sv^erintendent of 
 
 the Engifneermg Department im. the Unvversity of Gamlridge ; a/nd 
 
 J. TAYLOR, A.R.C.S.I. 
 
 With a Sectioji on Health and Disease in Warm Ciimates by Jas. Cantlie, H.A.,M.B., F.R.C.S. 
 
 Thiett-Fockth Editioh of this valued Household Compendium of Medicine, 
 with Additions, New Sections, &c. Royal 8vo, Cfloth, 10s. 6d. 
 
 DOMESTIC MEDICINE AND HOUSEHOLD SURGERY. 
 
 BY SPENCEE, THOMSON, M.D., and J. C. STEELE, M.D. (late of Guy's Hospital). 
 
 Thoroughly Revised and brought Up-to-Date by Albekt Wbstland, M.A., M.D., 
 and Gbo. Rbid, M-D., D.P.H. 
 With Appendix on the Management of the Sick Room, and many Hints for the Diet and 
 Comfort of luvalids. A number of new Illustrations and Di£«rams have been added, and all 
 directions are given in such form as to he readily and safely followed. 
 " The amount of useful knowledge conveyed in this work is surprising."— JHedusol Time*. 
 
 LONDON : CHARLES GRIFFIN & CO., LIMITED, EXETER STREET, STRAND 
 
NEW LANDS: 
 
 THEIR RESOURCES AND PROSPECTIVE 
 ADVANTAGES. 
 
 HUGH ROBEET MILL, 
 
 D.So. (Bdin.), LL.D. (St. And.), 
 F.R.S.E., F.R.MET.SOC, r.Il.G.S., F.R.8.G.S., 
 
 HONOBABY COBB^PONDINC MEMBER OF THE GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETIES OF PARIS, BERLIN, 
 BUDAPEST, AMSTERDAM, PHILADELPHIA, AND BRISBANE. 
 
 BEING THE INTBODUCTOET VOLUME OF 
 
 GBIF FIN'S "NEW LAND" SERIES, 
 Edited by PROF. GRENVILLE A. J. COLE, M.R.I. A., F.G.S. 
 
 WITH TEN MAPS. 
 
 LONDON: 
 
 CHARLES GKIFFIN & COMPANY, LIMITED; 
 
 EXETER STREET, STRAND. 
 
 1900. 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 In acceding to a request to write for Griffin's " New Land " 
 Series for Prospectors, a volume on New Lands, it was the 
 desire of the author to present a short, simple, and practical 
 account of the conditions of life in those parts of the world 
 where there is still an opening for the energies of English- 
 speaking people desiring to make their home or invest 
 their capital in a new country. Considerations of space 
 made it necessary to limit the scope of the survey, and it 
 was found desirable to treat of little more than the coun- 
 tries of the temperate zone. 
 
 The only part of the book in which the author speaks 
 from personal knowledge of the country is that dealing 
 with the Dominion of Canada. The value of the brief visit 
 which he paid to the far west lay mainly in enabling him 
 to satisfy himself of the careful accuracy of the official 
 publications regarding the western provinces and terri- 
 tories, and to form the acquaintance of public men and 
 settlers whose information has been gratefully utilised. 
 
 With regard to the other colonies and countries dealt 
 
 with, the author depended less upon official reports than 
 
 on the writings and personal statements of independent 
 
 residents or visitors. In some cases there was a conflict 
 
 a2 
 
PRErACE. 
 
 of opinion, and in these an effort was made to give promi- 
 nence to the evidence which appeared most trustworthy 
 on account of the experience or independence of the 
 witness. 
 
 One piece of advice is given by all practical men and 
 cannot be too emphatically repeated. It is that no new- 
 comer in any country should invest money or start any 
 enterprise on his own account until he has resided some 
 little time in the place and has become familiar with the 
 peculiarities of the climate and resources, and with the 
 mode of life which the experience of earlier comers has 
 proved to be the best. In almost every case it will be 
 found that the crux of a new land is the water supply. 
 Water, as rain or rivers, is indeed the very life-blood of 
 the habitable world, and the phenomena of its circulation 
 are often complicated and require much study to elucidate. 
 
 Further information regarding the countries treated of 
 may be obtained from the books cited in the various 
 chapters, from the Colonial and Foreign Office Reports 
 of the British Government, the annual official handbooks 
 of the colonies published locally, and the publications of 
 the various public departments of the countries. The States- 
 man's Year Book, edited by Dr. J. Scott Keltic, is the most 
 compact and up-to-date annual repertory of statistics. 
 
 H. R. M. 
 
 1 Savilb Row, W. 
 Jidy, 1900. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 INTRODUCTORY. 
 
 FAGBS 
 
 New and Old Lands— Hints to Emigrants— Personal Idiosyn- 
 crasy — Occupations in New Lands — Value of Experience — 
 Educated Women in New Lands, 1-5 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 THE DEVELOPMENT OP NEW LANDS. 
 
 Development of Land — Classification of Resources — Utilisation of 
 Resources — Maintenance of Resources — Attractive Power of 
 Gold — The Idea of a Self-Sufficing Country — Foreign Trade 
 and its Dangers — Possible Advantages of State Control of 
 Trade — Geographical Conditions and the Past Development of 
 Old Countries — Origin of Towns and Villages — Origin of 
 Roads and Railways — Contrast between Old and New Coun- 
 tries — Geographical Boundaries — Government of New Lands — 
 Topographical Surveys — Geological Surveys — Hydrographie 
 Surveys — Climatological and other Surveys — Irrigation — 
 Planning a System of Commiinications — Town Sites and 
 Town Plans — People for New Lands — The Problem of Native 
 Races — The Problem of Newcomers — Patriotism and the 
 Land — Theory and Practice, 6-29 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 THE DOMINION OF CANADA. 
 
 General Position and Boundaries — Surface — Climate — Government 
 — Laws — Currency — Time — Composition of Population — Re- 
 sources of the Dominion — Fur Trade — Fisheries — Forests — 
 Mineral Wealth — Agriculture — Existing Agricultural Re- 
 sources — Government Encouragement to Agriculture — Public 
 Lands — Dominion Lands — Railways and Water-ways — Ocean 
 Steamers, 30-52 
 
Vlll CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 THE DOMINION OF CANADA— EASTERN PROVINCES. 
 
 FAGZa 
 
 Nova Scotia — Farming — Mining— New Brunswick- Forests- 
 Prince Edward's Island— Quebec — People— Climate— Natural 
 Divisions — Communications — Resources — Lumbering — 
 Minerals — Mining Laws — Ontario — Access and People — 
 Natural Divisions — Climate — Communications — Laws — Re- 
 sources — New Agricultural Land — Timber — Fisheries — 
 Mining — Corundum — Iron — Copper and Nickel — Silver and 
 
 Platinum— J&old — Mining Laws, 53-74 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 THE DOMINION OF CANADA— WESTERN PROVINCES 
 AND TERRITORIES. 
 
 Manitoba — Surface — Climate — Communications — Laws — Minerals 
 — Forests— Fisheries — Agriculture — Settlements and Farms. 
 Organised Districts — North- West Territories — Assiniboia — 
 Saskatchewan and Alberta — Climate — Communications — 
 Laws of the Territories — Forests — Minerals — Mining Laws 
 of Manitoba and the Territories — Farming and Ranching — 
 Irrigation — Future Development. Remote Territories — 
 Athabasca — Mackenzie, Keewatin, and Ungava — Reported 
 Mineral Wealth. Yukon Territory — Position — Climate — 
 Resources — Routes to Klondike — Conditions of Life in the 
 Klondike Region — Mining Regulations. British Columbia — 
 Position and Surface — River System —Climate — Communi- 
 cations — People and Laws— Forests — ^Agriculture — Fisheries 
 — Mining-^Gold and Silver — Mining Laws, .... 75-110 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 NEWFOUNDLAND. 
 
 Position and Government — The French Shore — People — Surface — 
 Climate — Communications — Fisheries — Farming — Mining — 
 Mining Laws 111-117 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Growth and Progress — Position and Boundaries — Configuration— 
 Climate — Communications — Resources — Agriculture — Stock 
 Raising — Mining — Coalfields — Petroleum — Metals — Manu- 
 factures — People — Settlement of the Country — Government 
 
CONTENTS. IX 
 
 PAGES 
 
 and Laws — Aliens and Naturalisation — New Lands of the 
 United States — Acquisition of Public Lands — Gulf States — 
 Mississippi — Alabama — Florida— Texas — States of the Great 
 Lakes — Michigan — Wisconsin — Minnesota — Central States — 
 North Dakota — South Dakota — Nebraska — Kansas — 
 Arkansas — Missouri — Oklahoma — Cordilleran and Plateau 
 States — Wyoming — Idaho — Montana — Pacific States — Cali- 
 fornia — Oregon — Washington — Alaska — Position and Area — 
 Administration and Laws — Ports and Communications — 
 Climate — Possibility of Agriculture — Resources — Gold in 
 Alaska — Cape Nome Goldiields— Coal in Alaska, . . . 118-153 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 LATIN AMERICA— MEXICO. 
 
 Latin American Republics — Bureau of American Republics — 
 Religion — Immigration — Communications — Why South 
 America is Neglected — Mexico — Surface and Climate — Re- 
 sources — Railways — People — Government — Prospects for 
 Development, 154-160 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 LATIN AMERICA— TEMPERATE BRAZIL AND CHILE. 
 
 Brazil — United States of Brazil — People and Resources — Southern 
 States of Brazil — Communications — Colonies in South Brazil 
 — Hints to Farmers — Southern Chile — The Republic of Chile 
 — Population and Immigration — Openings for Capital — 
 Southern Provinces of Chile, 161-171 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 ARGENTINA. 
 
 Position — Surface — Climate — Resources ^ — Exports and Trade — 
 Government — People — Tariff and Currency — Railway Enter- 
 prise — Provinces — The Argentine Railways — New Lands of 
 Argentina — Province of Buenos Aires — Entre Rios — Cor- 
 rientes — Santa FS — Central Provinces — Western Provinces — 
 Central Territories — Southern Territories — Patagonia, . . 172-186 
 
 CHAPTER XI. 
 
 THE FALKLAND ISLANDS. 
 
 Surface — Climate — Resources — Prospects , 187-188 
 
X CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 AUSTRALIA— VICTORIA. 
 
 FAG£» 
 
 Commonwealth of Australia — Australia — People and Towns — 
 Victoria — Position — Surface — Climate — Area and Population 
 — Communications — Resources — Gold-mining — Laws — Allot- 
 ment of Crown Lands — Mining Laws — New Lands of 
 Victoria — Gippsland — Murray District — Wimmera District 
 —Irrigation "Colonies," 189-198 
 
 CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 AUSTRALIA— NEW SOUTH WALES. 
 
 Position — Geology — Surface and Climate — Coast Strip — EleTated 
 Table Lands — Western Plains — Area and Population — Com- 
 munications — Resources — Irrigation — Rabbits — Laws — 
 Crown Lands — New Lands of New South Wales — Riverina 
 District — Prospects for Parmers — Minerals — Forests and 
 Fisheries, 199-210 
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 AUSTRALIA— QUEENSLAND. 
 
 Position and General Character— Climate of Temperate Queens- 
 land — Area and Population — Labour Question — Assisted 
 Immigration — Mineral Resources — Agriculture — Land Laws 
 — Mining Claims — Railways of Temperate Queensland, . . 211-216 
 
 CHAPTER XV. 
 
 AUSTRALIA— SOUTH AUSTRALIA. 
 
 Area— Northern Territory — The Province of South Australia — 
 Climate — Population — Pastoral Resources — Agriculture — 
 Minerals — Conditions and Prospects 217-220 
 
 CHAPTER XVI. 
 AUSTRALIA— TASMANIA. 
 
 Position and Surface — Communications — Climate — Mineral Re- 
 sources — Farm Produce— Population and Immigration— New 
 Lands of Tasmania — Prospects, 221-225 
 
CONTENTS. XI 
 
 CHAPTER XVII. 
 WESTERN AUSTRALIA. 
 
 PAGES 
 
 Position and Coasts — Surface — Climate — Mineral Resources — 
 Farming — Population and Immigration — Communications - 
 Mining Laws — Land Divisions — Land Laws — New Lands for 
 Agriculture — Mineral Lands —Tropical Goldfields — Murchison 
 Goldfields — Yilgam and Coolgardie Goldfields — Mount 
 Margaret and Dundas Goldfields 226-238 
 
 CHAPTER XVIII. 
 
 NEW ZEALAND. 
 
 Position — Configuration and Geology — Climate — Population and 
 Immigration — Legislation — Land Laws— Mining Laws — Re- 
 sources of New Zealand — Pastoral Products — Agriculture — 
 Minerals — Forests and Fisheries — Manufactures — Towns and 
 Communications — Possibilities of New Zealand, . . . 239-248 
 
 CHAPTER XIX. 
 
 THE RESOURCES OP SOUTH AFRICA. 
 
 South Africa — Configuration of South Africa — South African 
 CUmate — Fauna — Communications — People — Political 
 Divisions — Prospects for the Future— Cape Colony— Position 
 and Surface — Settlement — Eastern Districts — Northern 
 Districts — Bechuanaland — Trade — Resources — Natal — Sur- 
 face ajid Climate — Trade and Resources — New Lands in 
 Natal — Transvaal— People and History — Surface and Re- 
 sources — The Rand — Other Goldfields — Orange River Colony 
 — General Conditions — Resources 249-266 
 
 CHAPTER XX. 
 
 SOUTHERN RHODESIA. 
 
 British South Africa Company— Development of Rhodesia— Rail- 
 
 ■^ays — Surface and Resources — Climate — Gold, . . . 267-270 
 
MAPS. 
 
 FIG. PAGE 
 
 1. Canadian Township Plan, 18 
 
 2. The Dominion of Canada, 33 
 
 3. Wbstbkn Canada 76 
 
 4. Alaska, , 147 
 
 5. Temperate South America, 165 
 
 6. The Colonies of Australia, 191 
 
 7. The Western Australian Goldfields, 235 
 
 8. New Zealand, 246 
 
 9. South African Railways, 253 
 
 10. The Transvaal Goldfields, 264 
 
NEW LANDS, 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 INTEODUCTOEY. 
 
 New and Old Lands — Hints to Emigrants — Personal Idiosyncrasy — 
 — Occupations in New Lands— Value of Experience — Educated 
 Women in New Lands. 
 
 Evert country probably possesses some valuable and still 
 undeveloped resources which promise a good return for labour, 
 vigorously and intelligently applied. The old lands of Great 
 Britain, which are slipping out of cultivation year by year, 
 might possibly be restored to their former purposes by a 
 judicious employment of capital in introducing, instead of grain 
 crops, some form of industrial "raw material," which would 
 thrive in the soil and climate. The Highlands of Scotland, which 
 have ceased to support a population of sheep-farmers, are already 
 being turned to fresh account by the utilisation of their 
 abundant water-power as a source of electric energy for manu- 
 facturers. In this way invention and discovery may make 
 " new " the oldest lands ; but this is not the sense which we 
 propose to attach to the word. 
 
 By "New Lands" we mean those which have not hitherto been 
 fully exploited or settled, in which land can still be easily and 
 cheaply obtained by anyone -willing to work, and -where a man 
 may live in comfort, if not in luxury, enjoying freedom of opinion 
 and of action, and where, finally, he can, if he likes, take part 
 in shaping the destiny of a rising nation. 
 
 Political influences are, in almost all old countries, powerful 
 in excluding or heavily handicapping foreign competition ; and 
 on this account we shall omit from consideration the whole 
 of Europe, and of those countries in Asia and Africa which are 
 
2 NEW LANDS. 
 
 held and administered by strong nations of alien speech.^ In 
 that category -we may for the present leave the Chinese 
 Empire ; but we include in the scope of this book all temperate 
 parts of the British Empire and of the United States not 
 yet fully taken up — temperate South Africa, Australia, New 
 Zealand, and such of the Latin - American Republics as 
 are politically stable, yet lack the financial means or adminis- 
 trative strength to complete their own development. We do 
 not, however, propose to treat the question from the financial 
 point of view only, but rather from that of the full and per- 
 manent development and utilisation of a country. These can 
 only be brought about by the permanent settlement therein of a 
 working population, whose entire interests are centred in the 
 land of their adoption. At the same time, the position of the , 
 investor who desires an outlet for his capital, and one which 
 will yield a good return, will not be lost sight of; for capital is 
 nowhere more essential to the success of labour than in the 
 development of new lands. 
 
 In this volume an endeavour is made to bring together such 
 information as to the countries of the future as will be best 
 calculated to help the intending emigrant to decide where he can 
 turn his natural ability, training, and enterprise to the best 
 account. The descriptions cannot be exhaustive, for the practical 
 considerations, which should be taken into account, are very 
 numerous, and it is only possible to make this handbook useful 
 by limiting its scope. Nothing is said regarding the vast fields 
 for trading enterprise which lie on the point of becoming 
 available in Eastern Asia, and nothing of such tropical countries, 
 the development of which, by the capital of white men, 
 necessitates the labour of the black. Both of these are legiti- 
 mate and profi.table fields of work, but they necessitate the 
 consideration of difierent conditions and a different method of 
 treatment. . 
 
 No one should rest content with the information herein set 
 forth if he intends to make practical use of it. He should 
 supplement it by reading the books referred to in the descrip- 
 tion of the particular region in which he proposes to try his 
 fortune. It is both wrong and foolish for any one to commence 
 life in a new land ignorant of the country, its laws, and the 
 customs of its people ; but it is scarcely less dangerous to go 
 out with cut-and-dried views derived from books alone. The 
 most exact statistics of climate, for instance, may convey very 
 little real idea of what the daily weather of a particular place is 
 like ; the formulation of the laws and regulations laid down 
 
INTRODUCTORY. 3 
 
 by authority cannot enable one to judge how far these may be 
 enforced, or how their influence may be felt. Even official 
 statistics may be imperfectly collected, and perhaps present 
 facts in a more favourable light than strict impartiality might 
 permit. It must be remembered that full and trustworthy 
 statistics are the product exclusively of old and fully occupied 
 countries. As far as possible, we shall endeavour to combine 
 with the statements of official authorities the experiences of 
 those who have lived in the countries, and are therefore able 
 to judge. But it must be remembered that no two people have 
 identical experiences, nor look at things from quite the same 
 point of view. 
 
 It is, of course, to be understood that this book is intended 
 for persons of some education and intelligence, who desire to 
 take part in the development of new lands by professional 
 enterprise, the direction of labour, or the employment of 
 capital, and who are not afraid of taking their own part in 
 any work which may be necessary. It is not intended for the 
 mere labourer, nor for the man with neither practical knowledge 
 nor the desire to work ; for the latter, indeed, there is no land 
 " new " enough to offer the life he would desire to live. 
 
 Certain general considerations of a personal character, which 
 in themselves are trivial, may mean a good deal in practice, 
 for little things are apt to bulk more largely than we 
 care to acknowledge. Some of these may be briefly character- 
 ised. 
 
 Personal Idiosyncrasy. — No dweller in an old country can 
 expect to carry with him to a new land the habits of his early 
 life. These habits are the growth of that environment from 
 which he desires to disentangle himself, in order to find fuller 
 scope for his energies, and more result for his effi)rts. Luxuries, 
 and even common comforts, must often be laid aside, and the 
 less dependent a man is upon his ordinary surroundings the 
 sooner will he be able to achieve the most effective results 
 under new conditions. Hence the enormous advantage which 
 the total abstainer and non-smoker has, at the outset, as a 
 pioneer. On the other hand, the determination to obtain 
 certain cherished luxuries may be powerful in overcoming 
 difficulties with regard to communications, or in supplying 
 incentives to work. Natural aptitudes and likings should not 
 be neglected without real cause. Some men are better adapted 
 by nature for a hot, others for a cold, climate; some suffer 
 abnormally from the attacks of mosquitoes and other insects, 
 just as some suffer abnormally from sea-sickness. To some the 
 
4 NEW LANDS. 
 
 deprivation of society is torture, while others are at their best 
 in solitude. One finds the acquisition of a new language the 
 worst of toils, another views it as a pleasant recreation. It 
 is really of importance to recognise and distinguish between 
 these individual constitutional peculiarities and the temporary 
 feelings of discomfort induced by a change in one's habits and 
 surroundings. Before a determined will the greatest natural 
 difficulties may be forced to give way ; but, in most cases, the 
 necessity of fighting against a constitutional antipathy or pre- 
 dilection means a great increase in the chances of failure. 
 
 Occupation. — The best prospect of success in a new land 
 will probably be found in the exercise of a familiar occupation, 
 provided that it is one adapted to the new conditions of life. 
 The trained agriculturist will succeed best in farming, and the 
 miner in a mine ; a medical man will probably do best in his 
 own profession, when he has adapted himself to the changed 
 conditions of the place. Still, it is by no means so necessary 
 for the shoemaker to stick to his last in a new, as in an old 
 land. High specialisation in most branches of industry is only 
 possible in old or highly developed communities. On gold- 
 fields which are sufficiently developed to admit of the use of 
 machinery, specialists in the processes of gold extraction have, 
 of course, better prospects than those who have to learn 
 the work. Where population is scattered and work scarce, a 
 certain facility in passing from one occupation to another is 
 exceedingly valuable. The man who can turn his hand to any- 
 thing usually gets on best in opening up new lands; but when 
 development of a country fairly sets in, the man who has had 
 technical training in some one useful art comes most rapidly to 
 the front. To know something of everything and everything of 
 something is, in fact, the best preparation for the pioneer in the 
 formative work of a new land, as for the cultured conversa- 
 tionalist. If one profession more than another will fit a man to 
 be a good pioneer in a new country, it is that of an engineer 
 — mining, mechanical, or civil. 
 
 The great personal qualities for a pioneer to possess are 
 perseverance and adaptability. There must be no superstitious 
 adherence to rule-of-thumb methods, which did fairly well at 
 home; but, on the contrary, an open mind, quick to observe 
 and ready to adopt new ideas. Labour-saving devices, for 
 instance, which were little more than toys in the old home, may 
 become vital elements of success in the new one. A clear under- 
 standing of the points of similarity and difierence between the 
 natural conditions of the old and the new surroundings is highly 
 
INTKOI^UCTORY. O 
 
 important, for in the recognition of these differences often lies 
 the key to success and progress. 
 
 Precautions to be Observed. — One piece of advice is given 
 by all who have studied the practical working of immigration in 
 new countries. It is that the newcomer should never invest any 
 money he may possess until he has had some experience of his 
 new home, and seen how those who came before him manage 
 their affairs. Thus a young farmer should work for wages for a 
 year in the neighbourhood in which he proposes to settle before 
 taking up land on his own account ; and a miner should, for a few 
 months at least, acquire experience by working under old hands 
 before he pegs out a claim for himself. 
 
 While the first opening up of new lands is work for young 
 men without domestic ties, the development of a country on the 
 best lines demands home life as its basis. At a time when 
 athletic pursuits are common to both sexes, it may safely be said 
 that young women, even of the highly-educated classes, are as 
 well fitted as their brothers for a simple and arduous life. The 
 instinctive domestic economy of an educated woman will do very 
 much to round off the rough edges of life, even in the primitive 
 outposts of the prairie or the bush, and, in a sister or a wife, 
 will give permanence to efforts which might otherwise be without 
 result. Another important consideration is that, if the benefits 
 of civilisation are to be preserved, even though simplified in 
 expression, the pioneer must be on the watch to avoid relapsing 
 to the condition of the savage. The loneliness of life on the 
 verge of a settlement has dangers in this respect ; and the moral 
 risks run in centres such as mining camps, where the only female 
 society to be found is in the dancing and gaming saloons, have 
 more to do with the failure of well-meaning young fellows than 
 any amount of hard work or rough living. 
 
 Miss Mora Shaw, the well-known authority on colonial matters 
 strongly recommends the emigration of educated girls to join 
 their brothers after the advisable period of probation has been 
 passed and a permanent settlement secured ; but, of course, in 
 Buch cases they must go out to work, and to work hard, not to 
 lead " ornamental lives." 
 
CHAPTER II. 
 
 THE DEVELOPMENT OP NEW LANDS.* 
 
 Development of Land — Classification of Resources — Utilisation of 
 Eesouroes— Maintenance of Resources — Attractive Power of Gold — 
 The Idea of a Self-Sufficing Country— Foreign Trade and its Dangers 
 —Possible Advantages of State Control of Trade— Geographical 
 Conditions and the Past Development of Old Countries — Origin of 
 Towns and Villages— Origin of Roads and Railways — Contrast between 
 Old and New Countries— Geographical Boundaries — Government of 
 New Lands — Topographical Surveys — Geological Surveys — Hydro- 
 graphical Surveys— Climatological and other Surveys— Irrigation — 
 Planning a System of Communications — Town Sites and Town Plans 
 — People for New Lands — The Problem of Native Races — The Problem 
 of Newcomers— Patriotism and the Land — Theory and Practice. 
 
 Development of Land. — The question of ,the development of 
 land may be treated from many different points of view and 
 in the light of different interests. In this chapter we take the 
 matter up from the theoretical side and from the geographical 
 point of view, which concerns itself rather with the land itself 
 and its inhabitants than with the people who employ money in 
 working its resources in the hope of muking a profit without 
 themselves living on the land. The word "development" has 
 been so frequently used in the sense of expending capital on a 
 country with a view to immediate profit, that it is necessary ta 
 define the larger sense in which it is used here. The reader, 
 bearing in mind that this book is intended less for speculators 
 than for investors, and more for settlers than for visitors in a 
 new land, will recognise the value of taking geography in its full 
 modern scientific sense as a guide for determining in what the 
 development of a country consists. Such " development " as is 
 produced by the endeavour to make the largest possible sum of 
 money in the shortest practicable time, may possibly be the only 
 kind applicable to very remote regions, which could never be 
 made available for permanent human habitation ; but for such 
 
 * Parts of this chapter have appeared in an article by the author entitled 
 " The Development of Habitable Lands : a Study in Anthropogeography," 
 published in The Scottish Oeographical Magazine, for March, 1900. 
 
THE DEVELOPMENT OF NEW LANDS. 7 
 
 lands only. Looking on the world as not only the home of man, 
 but as subservient in all its phenomena to the welfare of the 
 human race, we may consider the development of any region to 
 mean such treatment of its natural resources as will enable the 
 land to continue to support an increasing number of inhabitants. 
 In the case of a new land — that is, of a region the resources of 
 which are yet unutilised, and which is practically without inhabi- 
 tants — the problem of development is presented in its easiest form. 
 It becomes very difficult, however, when the density of population 
 approaches the limit at which the means of subsistence threaten 
 to become insufficient ; then it becomes the serious problem of 
 the restoration of old lands. The only case to be considered 
 here is the development of the new lands of the temperate zones ; 
 but the possibility of a land growing old and exhausted must 
 always be borne in view. Immediate advantage would be pur- 
 chased too dearly if it involved exhaustion instead of develop- 
 ment — killing, instead of feeding, the goose which should lay the 
 golden eggs of the future. The question of developing lands 
 becomes complicated in detail, because it involves large economic 
 considerations and difficult distinctions bdiween investment and 
 speculation ; but the broad principles are clear enough. It 
 would appear that fortune-hunting is inimical to development in 
 its true sense. A fortune acquired through production or 
 speculation can usually be made by only a few individuals, and 
 almost always entails the exhaustion of natural resources or the 
 lowering of wages ; a prosperous livelihood, on the other hand, 
 can often be secured to a multitude without permanent impoverish- 
 ment of the land. 
 
 The development of a habitable region, which implies the 
 expenditure of labour or capital with a definite end in view, is 
 essentially a process of securing the permanent adjustment of 
 people to the land on which they live — a geographical problem 
 which lies, it is true, at the root of politics, but which is not 
 treated here from its political side. 
 
 Classiflcation of Resources. — The natural resources of a 
 region may be broadly divided into two classes, those which 
 occur naturally in the crust of the Earth and are therefore 
 limited in quantity, and those which utilise sources of energy 
 external to the Earth and are therefore capable of being increased 
 in quantity by appropriate means. The former class includes all 
 minerals, precious metals, metallic ores, coal, precious stones, 
 <feo. These form a sort of reserve fund, the amount of which 
 cannot be increased, and which even if very large should not be 
 treated as if it were inexhaustible. The latter class includes all 
 
8 NEW LANDS. 
 
 veg^able and animal products. They can be improved by 
 cultivation and breeding, as well as increased, in favourable 
 conditions, to almost any desired extent. The latter class 
 includes also such natural sources of energy as the heat and 
 light of the sun, the power of wind and of running water. These 
 resources may be looked upon as income, which cannot be drawn 
 upon in advance, but is always punctually paid, and may in some 
 cases be laid by for the future. As a transitional form between 
 the two classes one may consider such resources as can only be 
 produced slowly but may be readily destroyed. Of these, forest* 
 are the best example ; if once destroyed, they cannot be renewed 
 before the lapse of several generations, and sometimes not 
 at all. 
 
 Utilisation of Besources.— Generally speaking, the require- 
 ments of a civilised people which ought to be furnished by 
 their own land are (1) material for food and clothing, derived 
 from the reproducible resources of the vegetable ^nd animal 
 worlds, and depending upon soil or climate ; (2) material for 
 houses, implements, machinery, and means of transport; these 
 come, for work on a small scale, from the forests, but, for work 
 on a large scale, only from the substance of the Earth's crust, 
 and their distribution has nothing to do with the present dis- 
 tribution of climate ; (3) the power of doing work. This third 
 requirement is of very far-reaching importance, for it has to do 
 with every form of agriculture, of mining, of manufacture, and 
 of transport. Too little energy can be supplied by human or 
 by animal power to be of much service in doing work on a 
 large scale. It is true that primitive tribes may do a good deal 
 in the way of hunting and fishing, in cultivating ground and 
 building dwellings, in making canoes and travelling thousands 
 of miles in them on inland waters, all by the strength of their 
 own arm, or the aid of their domestic animals. But neither 
 distant voyages on the ocean nor rapid travel on land is possible 
 without making use of the larger powers of nature. These may 
 be drawn from the accumulated treasure of mineral fuel, which, 
 once exhausted, is unlikely to be replenished, or from the wind, 
 rnnning and falling water, and solar radiation, to which, for 
 practical purposes, may be added the tides and the internal heat 
 of the Earth. The second class of sources of energy may be 
 drawn on freely without risk of exhaustion ; and when, in a few 
 centuries, coal and petroleum can no longer be obtained, the 
 work of the world must be carried on by the powers which were 
 in use before mineral fuel was discovered, but applied by methods 
 unknown in ancient times. It is conceivable that economical 
 
THE DEVELOPMENT OF NEW LANDS. 9 
 
 processes of storing and transmitting light, heat, and motive 
 power electrically may be invented, which will supersede the use 
 of coal even while it is still available in large quantities. The coal 
 problem, which thirty years ago seemed to be the key to the 
 whole history of civilisation, has now ceased to be a source of 
 supreme anxiety. As yet, indeed, the coalfields continue to 
 rule the industrial world, and in all industrial countries they 
 are the seats of the densest population. But within the last few 
 years we have seen great industrial centres being formed not 
 only round the giant falls of Niagara, but near the torrents of 
 all hilly and rainy countries. If the movement of poprflation 
 from the coalfields may be said to have not yet begun, at least 
 the industrial monopoly held by coalfields for a century is being 
 threatened by a rival destined to success. It is clear that at 
 different stages of culture or of practical inventiveness difierent 
 natural resources attain the chief importance, and different 
 regions come temporarily to the front as the most favoured 
 by nature, in these special respects, for the life of the time. 
 The new tendency as regards the sources of power is an 
 eminently healthy one, being towards the utilisation of the in- 
 exhaustible supplies due directly or indirectly to daily solar 
 radiation. 
 
 Maintenance of Resources. — If a self-sufficing region is to 
 continue self-supporting ah. effort should be made to regulate 
 the use of mineral resources so as to postpone their exhaustion, 
 while not reducing the output to such a degree as to hamper the 
 development of the agricultural resources or of industry. The 
 soil, on the other hand, should be treated so as to maintain or 
 increase its fertility, by the ultimate return of all the mineral 
 salts extracted by the crops, and the restoration also of the 
 combined nitrogen removed in the same way. The necessity for 
 this is not at once apparent in virgin soils, but many years of 
 continuous cropping can not elapse without a significant reduc- 
 tion of fertility calling for remedial measures. An ideal state of 
 things results in those places where grain is grown not for 
 export but for feeding live stock, which, living on the land, 
 return to it most of the valuable salts as manure ; and where 
 the animals are exported as preserved meat or meat extract, the 
 bones and waste products of the slaughter-houses being worked 
 up into fertilisers which restore the balance. In the scientific 
 sense it is only the adoption of advanced agricultural methods 
 which can be said to develop the land at all, but in the long run 
 if all the forests are sacrificed to make room for fields, too much 
 agriculture may help to ruin a country. Forest and field should 
 
10 NEW LANDS. 
 
 exist together, and, in the proper places, efforts as strenuous 
 must be made to protect extensive woodlands from fire or 
 reckless cutting, or to replant waste land with trees, as are 
 usually bestowed in wooded countries on making clearings 
 for farms. 
 
 Attractive Power of Gold. — Finds of gold or of diamonds 
 have often been of service in drawing population to countries 
 not otherwise attractive, but which, when developed by agricul- 
 ture, have yielded far more from the fields than from the 
 mines ; California and Victoria are cases in point. There is 
 no development possible in working out a small supply of 
 precious metal by the introduction of an army of men, fed for 
 a year or two on imported provisions, and withdrawn as soon 
 as a better-paying field is discovered, perhaps at the other end 
 of the world. Per the true development of a country, mines 
 of iron and coal, leading to the establishment of industrial 
 works on a small scale at first, and growing gradually with 
 -the local demand, are far more valuable than a rush of 
 thousands of diggers to a new goldfield. Naturally, an excep- 
 tion to the conservative treatment of mines may be made in 
 the case of mineral resources occurring in countries incapable 
 of being permanently inhabited, such as the polar regions. 
 There can be no objection to robbing a land fit for no better 
 fate. 
 
 tiold exercises an infiuence on the imagination which can 
 only be characterised as magical, for it is not reasonable. The 
 physical toil of getting alluvial gold is perhaps heavier than 
 any other, the prices of the necessities of life are higher on gold- 
 fields than anywhere else, and more money seems to be wasted 
 on drink or lost in gambling in the intervals of mining than 
 under any other conditions. The fact that gold is the common 
 standard of value probably accounts for the illusion that gold- 
 fields are better worth travelling to and working on than 
 coalfields or brickfields. If the reader takes the trouble to 
 divide the annual output of the goldfields of the world as 
 ofiicially declared, by the official number of miners engaged 
 upon these fields, he will find that the output per man often 
 does not exceed £1 per week, and very rarely exceeds £2. (See, 
 for example, the notes on the output of gold in Australia and 
 South Africa, '^os^ea.) Wages on these goldfields usually run 
 from £3 to £5 a week at the cheapest, and there is the cost of 
 machinery and interest on capital, looming large behind. There 
 is certainly something wrong, perhaps with the statistics, but 
 perhaps in the idea that gold-getting is usually profitable. That 
 
THE DEVELOPMENT OF NEW LANDS. 11 
 
 some gold mines pay high dividends, then, only makes it more 
 mysterious how the others continue to exist. It has been 
 suggested that, taken over all, gold-mining never pays, that 
 more than £i has to be expended in order to extract gold 
 enough to make a sovereign, and that this fact explains why 
 gold maintains its value nearly unaltered in spite of the 
 enormous increase in its production. 
 
 The Idea of a Self-sufficing Country. — In speaking of the 
 development of a self-sufficing country, we introduce a condi- 
 tion which can be satisfied only by a country which covers 
 half a continent like the United States, or a whole one like 
 Australia. But when the high state of efficiency of means of 
 transport, especially by sea, is taken into account, even the 
 British Empire, scattered over all the world, may be considered 
 as a single country, Which might certainly be self-sufficing. The 
 possible extension of the principle of federation or economic 
 union even raises the thought — visionary enough as yet — that 
 the only self-sufficing "country " to be ultimately dealt with is 
 the whole land-surface of the planet. Most of the countries of 
 the world are only endowed by Nature with a portion of the 
 commodities which civilised life demands as necessaries or 
 refinement requires as luxuries ; hence for most countries trade 
 is as imperative as production, and the question as to the sym- 
 metrical development of the existing resources is beset with 
 additional difficulties. One may inquire whether it is necessary 
 to work any of the resources of a country except the most pro- 
 fitable, buying the other commodities where they can be had 
 cheapest. 
 
 Foreign Trade and its Dangers. — For many years the 
 agriculture of the United Kingdom has been allowed to decline, 
 while food has been bought from other countries with the 
 money paid for the products of British mines and factories. 
 This is a natural consequence of the specialisation of modern 
 life, but there is an underlying condition which often seems to 
 have been lost sight of; from which, indeed, it is more com- 
 fortable to avert the mind. That condition is the continuance of 
 peace. As long as amicable relations last there is no reason 
 why each district or country, however small or large, should not 
 produce only the products which suit it best, and trust to trade 
 to supply all the rest; but when dissensions set in, the manu- 
 fecturing and mining country, which does not produce food for 
 its people, may be starved into subservience by a jealous rival. 
 The myth that lapse of time and growth in civilisation make war 
 impossible prevailed at the millennium of Christianity in 1000 
 
12 NEW LANDS. 
 
 A.D. ; it was accepted as a demonstrated truth at the first Inter- 
 national Exhibition in 1851, and the Peace Conference of 1899 
 may have been taken seriously by some people at the time. 
 Events have shown in every case that war is an eventuality 
 which can never be disregarded; and that the usages of inter- 
 national law are not to be depended on in the life and death 
 struggles of nations. 
 
 Apart from such human and theoretically preventible diffi- 
 culties, there are natural accidents to beware of. Transport 
 may be interrupted by storm, the staple crop may be destroyed 
 by disease, and then the district dependent on one resource must 
 suffer acutely, while that in which several resources have been 
 developed proportionately may escape with only some temporary 
 hardship. The old sugar-growing countries furnish a good 
 example of the first case; Ceylon, of the second. These considera- 
 tions show that the development of every separately organised 
 portion of habitable land — be it country, colony or island — 
 should be made as complete and all-round as possible, while 
 maintaining the natural advantages given it by the predomi- 
 nance of any one resource. The staple should "be the chief, but 
 never the exclusive, production. 
 
 Possible Advantages of State Control of Trade. — The 
 strictly scientific point of view looks to the final result of any 
 course of action, but the commercial point of view must take 
 account of temporary conditions, such as fluctuations in prices, 
 which may ruin one country and raise another to prosperity, 
 without affecting the general balance of the world. The indi- 
 vidual is of necessity at the mercy of financial considerations.. 
 When the price of copper falls he must shut up his copper 
 mines ; when the price of wheat goes down too low he must 
 grow something else. When, after a time, the prices revive 
 the miners have gone elsewhere, the works are filled with water, 
 and their restoration is so costly that they may be permanently 
 abandoned ; but the wheat crops can be brought back to the 
 field in a year's time. In such conditions it is a question 
 whether the individual should not be supported by the com- 
 munity until the stress in his particular department is over. 
 The Government of a country is bound to take steps to 
 minimise the effects of natural accidents so as to avoid evil 
 results to the country, and no finer instance of such a re- 
 sponsibility being assumed could be found than the treatment 
 of famines by the Government of India. Great commercial 
 disasters, too, have been recognised as occasions justifying 
 public support; the principle is perhaps important enough to 
 
THE DEVELOPMENT OF NEW LANDS. 13 
 
 be more definitely accepted as a preventive, as well as a pallia- 
 tive, measure. 
 
 If the ultimate question is to be how to find room for the 
 inhabitants of the Earth, it would seem right that the main 
 resource of a new land should not be allowed to be worked in 
 such a way as to make impossible the subsequent development 
 of minor resources essential to its habitability. For instance, 
 if enormous masses of a sulphide ore of copper, or even of gold, 
 underlie a wooded and cultivable country, would it not be 
 wrong to work that ore to such an extent, and in such a manner, 
 as to destroy the woods, sterilise the soil, and leave the place a 
 desert when the ore is exhausted ? On the other hand, it would 
 be foolish to prohibit mining in an agricultural country in order 
 not to reduce the ground available for crops ; for where corn- 
 land may bear a population of ten per square mile, and supply a 
 large export trade, the mines might enable a population ten or 
 twenty times as dense to find a comfortable living, and form a 
 market on the spot for all the agricultural produce. So far as 
 we can see the age of parochial exclusiveness is past, and that of 
 cosmopolitan equality has not arrived, and the standard by 
 which the development of a region has to be judged at the 
 present day is that of a national policy. Nothing should be 
 permitted in the way of utilising resources which, in enriching 
 the individual, impoverishes or endangers the interests of the 
 whole community — that is, of the country. 
 
 Geographical Conditions and the Past Development of 
 Old Countries. — The study of the gradual growth of any 
 of the old countries of Europe shows that geographical con- 
 ditions, often unrecognised, directed the relation of the people to 
 the land. It is possible to make too much of these conditions, 
 which are only in rare cases sufiiciently powerful to override all 
 other considerations, and actually to dictate the order of devel- 
 opment ; but it is more common to make too little of them. 
 The most powerful of all geographical conditions, the fundament- 
 ally geographical condition, is the relief of the land. This brings 
 to the surface or buries beyond reach, mineral wealth, acts directly 
 upon climate, conspires therewith to influence the nature and 
 distribution of native plants and animals, and all together form 
 an environment which moulds the destinies and directs the 
 growth of human communities. 
 
 To take a familiar instance: the people of the mountains 
 difiier essentially in their manner of life from the people of the 
 plains. Small communities grow up in separate mountain 
 valleys practically under the same natural conditions, but shut 
 
14 NEW LANDS. 
 
 off one from another, and left to develop independently.' The 
 hunters and crofters of each group of valleys naturally form 
 themselves into separate clans, at enmity or allied with each other, 
 as the case may be, and very similar in organisation all over the 
 world, whether in the Highlands of Scotland, the Caucasus, or the 
 Himalaya. All are at one in viewing the property of the plain- 
 dwellers as lawful spoil, and raiding as a natural calling. Later, 
 such clans naturally tend to confederate while retaining complete 
 local autonomy, as in Switzerland, unless compelled by external 
 forces to assume other forms. On the plains small communities 
 could not keep wholly apart, unless separated by forests or 
 marshes, and thus the agriculturists of a fertile plain tend to 
 coalesce into larger political units, and to give rise to countries 
 of great size, reaching from the sea to the mountains, or to some 
 great river. They have few natural strongholds to help them 
 to become a law to themselves, and so in mutual self-defence they 
 come to live at peace with each other, and exchange the valour 
 of the warrior for productive industry and trade. 
 
 The influence of land-forms is indirect as well as direct, acting 
 even more powerfully through the control of climate than 
 through the mere physical bar to intercommunication. The 
 wet seaward slopes of a country in the temperate zone naturally 
 become better adapted for green crops than for grain, which in 
 turn flourishes on the more sheltered land of moderate rainfall. 
 Again, the dry climate of the heart of a continent, or in the lee 
 of a great mountain range, is, as a rule, only available for grazing, 
 and favourable to a nomadic life. Thus the native peoples who 
 have grown up in different stages of culture on the great plains 
 of North America, the pusztas of Hungary, the steppes of 
 Russia, or the semi-deserts of Mongolia, are curiously alike in 
 their manner of living and in the elements of their social 
 organisation. 
 
 Origin of Towns and Villages'. — It is chiefly in their 
 influence on the sites of settlements, and the lines of communi- 
 cations, that geographical conditions have shaped the old 
 countries of the world, acting continuously and gently on count- 
 less generations of difiierent races, and, in spite of the apparently 
 revolutionary changes due to conquests by alien peoples, these 
 causes have, as a rule, continued to bind the old villages and the 
 old highroads to their ancient sites and tracks. The town grew 
 up round the rock which gave a defensive position to the strong- 
 hold of the protecting baron; or it clustered on the level shelf 
 of a raised beach or river-terrace round a deep and sheltered 
 inlet of the sea; or at the highest point up-stream which the 
 
THE DEVELOPMENT OF NEW LANDS. 15 
 
 ships of the period could reach; or it grew beside the ford where 
 prudent travellers, arriving at nightfall, wished to stay when 
 the river ran high before risking a crossing ; or at the mouth of 
 a valley which led up to a high pass; or in the middle of a gap 
 across a narrow range ; or perhaps on a strip of water-bearing 
 rocks, where wells could be readily sunk for domestic supply ; or 
 the site might be fixed by the occurrence of valuable minerals, or 
 perhaps by the presence of water-power. This natural law of 
 selection, as applied to sites for settlements, accounts for the 
 fact that even in England to-day, though the average density 
 of population exceeds 500 per square mile, there are large tracts 
 where one may travel on foot for hours without seeing a house, 
 and where villages are nearly a day's journey apart. And there 
 are places where the villages are strung together on some 
 narrow belt of a particular geological formation — such as the 
 Upper Greensand in the Weald — like beads on a necklace, or 
 where the whole surface of some outcrop — say of the Ooal- 
 measures — is covered with town joined to town, as with a 
 carpet. 
 
 Origin of Scads and Railways. — Roads arose either from 
 the widening of footpaths skirting the fields from village to 
 village, or they were constructed to join distant points of 
 particular importance, running straight across the open plain, or 
 clinging to the bare ridges of the Downs so as to avoid the woods 
 and marshes of the low ground, or winding through the gorges of 
 a river-valley to cross a stretch of broken country, or climbing 
 by laborious zig-zags iip the side of some wall-like range. The 
 trunk-roads of a country usually follow the great structural 
 lines of the land, either the valley-floors or the water-sheds. 
 Upon the trunk-roads settlements spring up where travellers 
 find it convenient to halt, or the people of adjoining hamlets to 
 meet for trade. The chief street of such towns is formed of the 
 road itself, the High Street, and so the roads built to connect 
 great cities are themselves the cause of the growth of smaller 
 towns. When railways began to take the place of roads their 
 tracks were less dependent on local conditions. The hill which 
 the road had to turn or cross was tunnelled by the railway ; but 
 in old countries the railways have to serve towns which the roads 
 had created, so the main lines of the two systems are rarely 
 dissimilar, though the track of the rails is more direct and the 
 gradients easier. The sterner features of regional relief control 
 railways like any other means of communication. In rough 
 cotmtry the rails jostle the old road and the older river 
 through narrow valleys, or wind along the sinuosities of the 
 
16 NEW LANDS. 
 
 coast-line, or skirt rugged hill-slopes in search of an easy 
 crossing. 
 
 Contrast between Old and New Countries. — In an old 
 country everything has grown gradually, each new thing has 
 been grafted upon that which it was about to supersede. In 
 domestic lighting, for instance, the candle gave place to the oil- 
 lamp, and oil to gas, and gas is yielding to electric light, each 
 new advance being hampered and often rendered nearly useless 
 by restrictions arising from the old. The amount of capital 
 locked up in the results of the past prevents the free adoption of 
 the advances of the present. Vested interests form one of the 
 strongest barriers to the development of an old country. It is 
 evident that new countries can and must be developed on 
 different lines from those which led to the slow advance of the 
 old. The trail of the first few pioneers must be followed by the 
 railway, and the road may often be omitted. The candle is 
 followed directly by a complete installation of the electric light; 
 the first rough wagon to jolt along the half-made streets of a new 
 town is followed by an electric railway. The latest machinery 
 is introduced at once in agriculture and in every budding 
 industry, so that a single year may see a larger population 
 established and a firmer hold taken of the land than a century 
 would have seen under the conditions of a thousand years ago. 
 One is tempted to believe that these great advances in invention 
 and application have overleaped, and may ignore, the barriers 
 which controlled the old wayfarers and handworkers. This is 
 not the case however. The primary control exercised by land- 
 forms, and the secondary control by climate, are there just as 
 they always were, although their action is to be measured by 
 the standard of cost rather than by that of possibility. A 
 town can be founded and a railway can be built anywhere, if 
 sufi3.cient money is available for the purpose; but the town 
 will not be prosperous, and the railway will not pay, unless 
 the site of the one and the route of the other have been 
 chosen with reference to geographical conditions. When the 
 British Isles were colonised, a knowledge of the principles of 
 geography was unimportant, for events moved so slowly that the 
 slight difierences of the resistances opposed to progress afforded 
 suflBcient guidance ; and when a mistake was made, the result 
 affected only a small district and a few people, and was easily 
 retrieved. Now, things are done so rapidly and on so large 
 a scale that a mistake involves very serious consequences, and 
 may affect a vast number of people. The failure to dig a 
 canal in Saxon England was never very far-reaching in its 
 
THE DEVELOPMENT OF NEW LANDS. 17 
 
 «£Fects ; but the failure of the Panama Canal Company was 
 one of the great calamities of the world. Such mistakes can 
 be avoided by studying the natural conditions which will come 
 into play, and, as a rule, engineers recognise this, and form their 
 plans accordingly. 
 
 Geographical Boundaries. — The blunders made by states- 
 men in attempting to draw international boundary lines so as 
 to be capable of demarcation and to secure a fair division of 
 natural advantages, have been frequently held up by the geo- 
 graphers of all nations as terrible examples of the workings of 
 geographical ignorance. A definite, practical, and easily demar- 
 cated boundary is absolutely essential to the tranquil development 
 of a country with neighbours. Such a muddle as that respecting 
 the boundary of Alaska, and futile suggestions like those which 
 were made for the boundaries of British Guiana, before the final 
 settlement, could never have been made if the statesmen who 
 were responsible had consulted geographers, and had acted on their 
 advice. But within a securely marked boundary the necessity 
 of following a scientific method of development is equally urgent. 
 The boundary lines of the subdivision of a country (e.g., into 
 provinces and counties) should, as a rule, be meridians and 
 parallels, or at least lines staked out to represent these — for it 
 would be monstrous to have to shift boundary lines by a few 
 yards if a more accurate determination of longitude showed that 
 they were not quite in the intended position. In certain cases 
 where there are natural boundaries, such as a lake shore, a wide 
 river, or a definite mountain range, the larger boundaries might 
 advantageously follow these. 
 
 Government of New Lands. — While the blunders of 
 governments have been often held up to the light, it is pleasant 
 to be able to refer to many acts of far-sighted policy, such as the 
 magnificent survey of India, the charting of the coasts of the 
 world by the British navy, the censuses of the United States, 
 and the geological surveys of almost all British Colonies and 
 American states. Still, these measures are not always as well 
 supported as they are planned. We may suppose a great new 
 country just appropriated by a civilised Power, and about to 
 be opened for exploitation, and try to indicate the manner in 
 which geographical principles and past experience seem to require 
 that such a country should be developed. There should be at 
 the outset a central government of educated men with no per- 
 sonal pecuniary interest to serve. If it is decided to develop 
 the land by means of great commercial companies, such com- 
 panies should be strictly confined to their own work. Data for 
 
 It 
 
18 
 
 NEW LANDS. 
 
 computing the risk of putting a company in possession of great 
 political and territorial power, and the expense of buying them 
 back, may be found in the history of India, Canada, and tropical 
 Africa. 
 
 Topographical Surveys. — It is the duty of a government 
 to know its country. Surveys are of the very first importance, 
 and it would be a good investment to make them thorough. 
 Such work in developing a country might with justice be made & 
 charge on posterity ;by the creation of a national debt. A 
 trigonometrica network should be laid down first, with the 
 smallest number of triangles of the greatest size possible, to 
 cover the country and fix the exact position of important points 
 on the coast and in the interior. The large triangles form a 
 
 Fig. 1. — Canadian Township plan. 
 (From " The Internatitmal Geography") 
 
 framework on which to base secondary triangulationsjfand [fill 
 in the detailed survey. The detailed survey should be topo- 
 graphical, and should aim at providing a map of the country on 
 the scale of at least 1 : 50,000, or, say, the familiar and slightly 
 smaller scale of one inch to the mile. Lines of levels should 
 be run so as to enable the important features of vertical relief 
 to be shown accurately by contours. The work, with modern 
 photographic methods, can progress very rapidly in a country 
 where there are only natural features to map, and no roads, 
 buildings, or bewildering pai'isb or county boundaries to b^ 
 
THE DEVELOPMENT OF NEW LANDS. 19 
 
 hunted for and laid down. The expense would necessarily be 
 heavy, but not so heavy for a large survey as for a small war, 
 and a timely survey may be the means of averting or greatly 
 shortening a campaign. If the Survey of British South 
 Africa had been begun years ago, or even as late as 1880, 
 and pushed forward with an ample supply of trained surveyors, 
 the war of 1899-1900 within its borders would have been 
 simpler, safer, and immensely cheaper. 
 
 The survey when completed should be made the basis of all 
 land transfers, as in Australia ; the large scale necessary for 
 cadastral maps in old countries is not required when the 
 parcels of land are large and divided by straight lines at right 
 angles, as in the American township plans. (See Fig. 1). 
 When small plots have to be transferred, a special survey of a 
 small square on the land map could be made, and registered 
 without more expense than the routine legal formalities demand 
 in old countries. 
 
 Geological Surveys. — As each sheet of the topographical 
 map is completed, the area it represents should be surveyed 
 for its geological features, and the geological map produced with 
 the least possible delay. In subdividing land into provinces 
 designed ultimately to become units of local administration it 
 may be well, if the relief of the land does not demand a 
 different course, to draw the boundary lines at right angles to 
 the prevailing line of strike of tlie strata, or to the coastline, 
 so that each province will share the full variety of the natural 
 resources. This was done by natural selection in many places 
 in the old world. For instance, the communes surrounding 
 some of the Hungarian lakes are divided by boundaries radiating 
 from the water's edge, each commune having an equal share of 
 the coast line, and widening as it ran inland. So also in part 
 of the Weald district, the parishes are long and narrow, 
 crossing the strike of the strata at right angles, and securing 
 to each a strip of sheep pasture on the Chalk Downs, a strip 
 of dry but water-bearing rock suited for a village site on the 
 Upper Greensand, a strip of stiff arable land on the Gault, 
 and a strip of rough cattle pasture on the Lower Greensand, 
 ■where the river runs with its water carriage and water power. 
 Such an arrangement adopted in a new country, when the 
 geological features favour it, would help to secure a uniform 
 distribution of population, with every kind of occupation repre- 
 sented in each unit, and to prevent the high specialisation and 
 one-sided interests of a population exclusively mining, exclusively 
 agricultural, or exclusively industrial. In order to lay out 
 
20 NEW LANDS. 
 
 boundaries with reference to these features, it is necessary that at 
 least a preliminary geological survey should be made, before settle- 
 ment on a large scale is encouraged, so that the population which 
 is introduced may be of the kind likely to benefit most by the 
 resources and to develop the country in the most advantageous 
 way. The practical value of a geological survey with regard to 
 mineral resources is understood and acted upon in all countries ; 
 but it is rare to find such surveys carried out with the good 
 equipment they deserve. The first discovery of valuable 
 minerals has probably been made more often by accident than 
 in the course of a geological survey ; and this is natural, as 
 pioneers precede all surveys. But once the existence of a mineral 
 deposit has been proved, the value of a geological survey becomes 
 manifest. The extent and arrangement of rocks similar to those 
 in which the valuable deposit has been found are definitely 
 ascertained, and prospectors are thereby supplied with a service- 
 able guide, which shows them what regions to avoid, as well as 
 in what parts their search is likely to be successful. The 
 discovery of alluvial gold is perhaps less likely to be made, in 
 the first instance, by geologists than that of coalfields, oil- 
 fields, or deposits of metallic ores ; but when gold mining enters 
 upon its more advanced stage, the quartz reefs may often be 
 mapped out by geological surveyors, to the great benefit of the 
 public. No less important is the light thrown by a knowledge 
 of the geological structure of a country on the position of water- 
 bearing rooks, and the best positions for sinking artesian wells . 
 in arid districts. 
 
 Hydrographic Surveys. — A hydrographic survey of the 
 coasts is also of great importance. All dangers to navigation 
 should be sought for and discovered without waiting for the 
 shipwrecks which have charted the coasts of the old world. 
 The natural harbours should be sought out, and their 
 relation to the land lines of communication studied, so that 
 expensive artificial harbours may not be built in ignorance of 
 the existence of better havens. The best sites for lighthouses 
 also should be fixed a!nd marked with beacons, to be super- 
 seded by proper lights when the increase of trade demands it. 
 The hydrographic survey should not stop at the coast. The 
 streams and lakes also deserve to be surveyed, and accurate 
 data obtained not only of the navigability of every river, but of 
 the volume of its water at different seasons, the slope of its bed, 
 the rapids or waterfalls with the available horse-power of their 
 energy. The government of Finland has made such a survey and 
 issued a map which is of high importance in a country without 
 
THE DEVELOPMENT OF NEW LANDS. 21 
 
 coal. The exact relation of the level of the river bed to the 
 surrounding country becomes vitally important in the deltaic 
 lands near the mouth, where floods are often to be feared, and 
 have to be guarded against by extensive works, and also in arid 
 or semi-arid regions where the possibility of irrigation may be 
 the touchstone of prosperity. 
 
 Climatological and other Surveys. — A climatological 
 survey is another important desideratum which has hitherto 
 been much neglected even in well-peopled lands. It is not 
 enough to equip a number of stations with instruments for 
 observing temperature, rainfall, pressure, wind, and sunshine. 
 The stations must be frequently inspected, and the observers 
 kept up to, at least, the minimum standard of efficiency, while 
 the stations must be placed in carefully selected positions so as 
 to take account of the difierent local climates of a country. 
 Good observations have to be collected for at least ten years, 
 and often much longer, before any values which can be trusted 
 to show the average climatic conditions can be secured; and 
 once these are obtained, the necessity for maintaining the 
 meteorological service is not diminished, but increased. It 
 becomes more easy every year for the central office to forecast 
 the approach of changes of weather ; and, once the habitual 
 storm-tracks of a country have been discovered, the establish- 
 ment of a few additional stations in the places thus suggested 
 may be the means of greatly improving forecasts, and adding to 
 the security and prosperity not only of fishermen and seafarers, 
 but of farmers and miners. How important an extensive 
 t-ystem of rain measurement is in some new countries appears 
 strikingly in the common Australian calculation of converting 
 inches of rain into number of sheep or even pounds of wool per 
 acre. The part which the configuration of the land or its degree 
 of cultivation plays in influencing local climate has never yet 
 been fully discussed for any country, although such attempts as 
 have been made, on a small scale, in that direction, show that 
 the subject is a promising one to pursue. 
 
 Further, a biological survey may be undertaken. The distri- 
 bution of forests, and the nature of the trees composing them, 
 ought to be accurately ascertained. Much of the prosperity of 
 a country depends on the maintenance of a proper proportion of 
 the surface under wood ; and an enlightened system of forestry 
 will tend not only to keep the supply of timber continuous, but 
 to maintain the regular flow of rivers, and thereby the fertility 
 of the cleared land. In selecting lands for clearing in countries 
 covered with natural forest care should be taken to distinguish 
 
22 NEW LANDS. 
 
 between the areas which will yield good agricultural land, and 
 those which are fit for forest trees and nothing else. The kinds 
 and habits of fish and land fauna should be studied by the 
 government of a new land in time to prevent the extinction of 
 useful species, and the introduction of species that prove 
 hurtful. 
 
 It is not necessary that the various surveys mentioned above 
 should each have a separate and costly organisation. One field 
 party, selected so as to contain a few specialists and several 
 general assistants, could attend to all departments of the land 
 surveys. The main thing to secure is official recognition and 
 adequate provision for such work, which is indeed often per- 
 mitted as a sort of concession to the non-professional hobbies of 
 surveyors. 
 
 Irrigation. — Of all the methods by which governments assist 
 in developing new countries, the most important is perhaps the 
 promotion of irrigation works. It is believed, although the 
 evidence on the subject is perhaps not yet conclusive, that a 
 gradual process of desiccation is going on in all the continents, 
 diminution of rainfall and increase of evaporation leading to the 
 extension of deserts and the sterilising of steppes. The fact at 
 least is certain that in every continent there is a vast area of 
 arid or sub-arid land, the rainfall on which is insufficient for a^y 
 form of agriculture, or even for good pasture. The great plains 
 which stretch along the east of 'the Rocky Mountains from the 
 borders of the sub-arctic forest to the Gulf of Mexico, the 
 pampas of Patagonia, the high veldt in South Africa, the whole 
 interior of temperate Asia, and almost the whole continent of 
 Australia require pnly a water supply to become permanently 
 productive lands. The works required for irrigation on a large 
 scale are too costly, and involve the treatment of too great an 
 area of country to be undertaken profitably by individuals or 
 even associations. They necessitate geographical changes of the 
 first order : the construction of reservoirs as large as lakes, the 
 diversion of rivers where they flow full and perennial from the 
 mountains, so that instead of reaching the deep-sunk beds which 
 literally drain the country, they are made to run at the level of 
 the general surface, above the valleys towards which the water 
 must be trained to flow through irrigation-channels which 
 vivify the land. Already governments have begun to bestir 
 themselves in this direction, and the irrigation surveys of the 
 United States are a fine example of what can be done. But 
 every land surface has its own intimate character, the treatment 
 of which must be, if one may so put it, personal to itself, and 
 
THE DEVELOPMENT OF NEW LANDS. 23 
 
 methods successful in one place may not prove to be equally 
 applicable to another. This is, indeed, true of all efforts to 
 develop land ; imitation of work accomplished elsewhere is not 
 enough, every region must be studied in itself before the 
 appropriate treatment can be prescribed. In the much rarer 
 cases of land with an imperceptible slope and heavy rainfall, 
 drainage may become as important a problem as irrigation is in 
 dry regions, and the dyking and draining of marshy ground 
 subject to floods becomes an obligation on the government. 
 
 Planning a System of Communications. — Next to the 
 stock-taking of national resources, the development of a country 
 demands the provision of a serviceable system of communi- 
 cations. To plan such a system requires the solution of a 
 difficult problem in practical geography, involving the foresight 
 of probable town sites and centres of population. The main 
 lines of communication are usually supplied by the river 
 systems, either as channels of navigation or lines for roads and 
 railways. In a temperate country it is natural to find con- 
 vergent lines of communication closing in at the head of sea- 
 navigation on a great river. Such lines, whether for water or 
 land carriage, require to be completed artificially across the 
 watersheds linking the various river basins landward, and a 
 final line to join together the towns which will ai'ise along the 
 coast would complete an ideal outline. As time goes on the 
 great arterial lines of communication would be inter-connected 
 at numerous points according to the exigencies of trade .; but 
 while the initiative and support of a government are necessary 
 for the great trunk lines of the framework, the subsequent com- 
 pletion may safely be left to private enterprise. River valleys 
 are not the only natural lines of communication. In some types 
 of country the watersheds ofier superior advantages for roads, 
 as, for instance, in New South "Wales ; or some peculiar geo- 
 logical formation, like the great line of eskers parallel to the 
 south coast of Finland, may compel both road and railway to 
 occupy a ready-made track. 
 
 The advisability of considering general principles in planning 
 a system of communications for a given region is sometimes 
 forcibly demonstrated by the absurd schemes which are put 
 forward for railways to reach any place which comes tem- 
 porarily into prominence. It is shown also by the frequent 
 construction of two railway lines in a district which could quite 
 ■well be served by one. 
 
 All navigable inland waters should be brought into connection 
 with the general system of communications of a country as early 
 
24 NEW LANDS- 
 
 as possible, for a light-draught steamer plying on a river becomes 
 a good pioneer of a railway line. The placing of stations along 
 a new line of railway should be regulated by regard to the 
 natural converging points for roads, even if roads do not yet 
 exist ; attention has also to be paid, of course, to the proximity 
 of supplies of water or fuel. The device of running the main 
 trunk roads in a system of rectangles is contrary to nature, and 
 apt to result in unhappy gradients even in easy country. The 
 main roads should run in harmony with the natural lines of 
 the country-side, a mile or so of increased distance being 
 balanced by easy gradients ; but there is no reason why a 
 rectangular system of bye-roads to connect adjacent settlements 
 should not be associated with naturally aligned high-roads. 
 
 Every type of land-surface requires its special system of road 
 location. As a general rule, the less engineering that is neces- 
 sary, the more commodiously will the road perform its function 
 of opening up a country. But, of course, exceptional cases de- 
 mand exceptional treatment. On a dry level plain the roads may 
 run straight from point to point ; over a rugged mountain region, 
 which is only a barrier, it is often a question of relative cost alone 
 whether a line will cross through a tunnel or wind over a pass. 
 
 Town Sites and Town Plans. — In a new country the sites 
 of towns are usually determined by the positions of the most 
 convenient harbours, the junctions of lines of communications, 
 and the neighbourhood of extensive mineral resources. In the 
 course of natural development the village or the town comes 
 before the province, which is rarely a natural growth. But in 
 many new lands the provincial boundaries are first drawn, and 
 a centre of administration has to be placed somewhere within 
 the area. It is by no means necessary to have this centre in 
 the middle of the province ; in fact, nothing is more striking 
 on the political map of any continent than the non-central 
 position of the capital of almost every country. Madrid is the 
 only conspicuous exception. 
 
 'ihe j)ractice of planning out towns in rapidly growing 
 countries on one common chessboard pattern has many points 
 in its favour. It is simple, allows of easy registration of build- 
 ing lots, and a stranger can always find his way about. The 
 plan, however, is only adapted for level or slightly undulating 
 sites. A town ought to be planned and built for a site as 
 carefully as a suit of clothes is cut and made for a man. A 
 rectangular plan for a site on a triangular tongue of land at 
 the junction of two rivers, or in an amphitheatre of hills 
 rising from a bay, or in a narrow mountain valley, is a 
 
THE DEVELOPMENT OF NEW LANDS. 25 
 
 misfit, and can never be either comfortable or convenient. It 
 stands to reason that on a broken site one set of streets should 
 run nearly in the curves of the contour-lines, keeping almost 
 to one level, vrith just slope enough for ready drainage, while 
 the connecting streets descend the slopes not at right angles, 
 bnt obliquely to reduce the gradients. Planned thus, a town 
 acquires distinctive character from its site, and avoids the shame 
 of rectangular intersecting streets, each horizontally straight, 
 but undulated like a switchback railway, or perhaps with its 
 row of houses broken here by a bridge over a gorge, there by 
 a face of rock in a deep cutting. In selecting the site for a 
 new town the questions of drainage, water-supply, and security 
 from risks of flood or landslips have all to be taken into account. 
 From the neglect of one or other of these precautions new 
 towns have time after time been failures. The familiar un- 
 healthiness of new goldtields is usually due to the completer 
 neglect to provide any system of either drainage or water- 
 supply, and these are only acute instances of a chronic defect 
 in the growing towns even of the most progressive colonies. 
 The question of sewage disposal is quite as urgent a problem 
 in a new community as in an old one ; and there is the less 
 excuse for neglect where one can start from the beginning with 
 experience bought by more deaths than have followed all the 
 battles of all ages. 
 
 People for New Lands. — The last and most important 
 element in the development of new lands is the introduction 
 of the right sort of people to inhabit them. The chief difference 
 between a new land and an old is the more primitive character 
 of the former, and thus one might be tempted to suppose that 
 the best type of inhabitants would be those who care least for 
 the comforts of life, and are least dependent on elaborate 
 methods of Working. But in a new country, where labour is 
 scarce and dear, every labour-saving contrivance must be used, 
 and the best machinery is worth obtaining, so that adaptability 
 to new conditions and intelligence to make the utmost use of 
 the latest advances count for much. The farmer who at home 
 still looks upon steam machinery as " new-fangled " may find 
 himself confronted in Australia by sheep-shearing machinery 
 run by electric power. At the present day, it would be hard 
 to find in any developing colony the four-armed windmill 
 against which Don Quixote fought; but modern wind-motors 
 on their lofty steel shafts are common. New lands must be 
 developed by modern methods, and the best type of man whO' 
 can be found is not too good for the work. The desirable 
 
26 NEW LANDS. 
 
 qualifications are to be strong, practical, educated, and open- 
 minded. 
 
 From the point of view of government, the new lands of the 
 temperate world are almost equally divided between, on the 
 one hand, the autocracy of Russia, as exercised in Siberia (which 
 contains more than half of the new lands comfortably habitable 
 by Europeans) ; and, on the other, the republican govern- 
 ments of the United States and South America, and the 
 no less liberal forms of self-government followed in the British 
 colonies of Canada, Australia, and South Africa. The new 
 lands of the second category have become refuges for people 
 subject to political or religious disabilities at home, and so are 
 gathering in, amongst a prevailing Anglo-Saxon population, a 
 mixture representing almost every European race. There can 
 be no doubt that new racial types are now developing in the 
 environments of the new countries by the grafting of branches 
 of every variety of the white type of mankind into the prevail- 
 ing Anglo-Saxon stock. It is a healthy sign that in almost all 
 new countries efforts aire made to prevent the intrusion of 
 undesirable immigrants, while those who are suitable are 
 welcomed, regardless of race or creed. 
 
 While the future of the new lands now undergoing develop- 
 ment is more in the hands of the people who are carrying on the 
 work than was ever the case before, the necessity of state guid- 
 ance and help at the outset was never greater. The whole 
 community repognises the necessity of a complete system of 
 communications, of holding and administering the vacant lands 
 as the property of the State until required for allotment, of 
 keeping order in thinly settled districts and amongst the 
 shifting crowds of mining camps, of assisting and encouraging 
 agriculture, and generally aiding in the development of the 
 country by an expenditure of capital which could in no other 
 way be obtained without the establishment of monopolies that 
 would hamper the free enterprise of individual settlers. 
 
 The Problem of Native Races. — Many complications arise 
 in the devopment of a country which require to be faced and 
 dealt with. No land can be looked upon as absolutely "new"; 
 some one has been there before, and some artificial disabilities 
 have to be contended with in addition to those arising from 
 nature. Amongst these the most serious arises from the pre- 
 sence of aboriginal inhabitants of a low grade of culture. Such 
 primitive peoples are dangerous in many ways. They may 
 resent the settlement of their hunting-grounds, and make 
 reprisals on settlers for the loss of their game, as in Australia ; 
 
THE DEVELOPMENT OF NEW LANDS. 27 
 
 they may cause the deterioration of the superior race by inter- 
 marriage, as in South America ; or, without going to either 
 extreme, they may lead to constant irritation and slow degra- 
 dation among the settlers on the outposts. It is rarely that 
 native races make good workers. Sometimes, b}'' careful man- 
 agement, small communities are trained to work in civilised 
 methods, and show great aptitude for special callings ; for 
 instance, the Indian pilots who steer the steamers through the 
 rapids of the St. Lawrence. Frequently the contact of white 
 and dark races results in the rapid extinction of the latter ; but 
 there are cases where the compulsory preservation of peace 
 between native tribes leads to a rapid increase of the coloured 
 population, as in Natal. 
 
 The problem of the treatment of subject races is very diffi- 
 cult. The spread of a knowledge of reading and writing, or 
 the adoption of Christianity, does not necessarily fit the native 
 for self-government ; and however widely the political suffrages 
 of a country where white and coloured races live together may 
 be drawn, means are usually found to prevent the exercise of 
 any real political power on the part of the latter. It is a ques- 
 tion worth discussing whether a frank recognition by the 
 administration of a state of matters which exists might not be 
 a sounder policy than that of proclaiming equality before the 
 law, and allowing the proclamation to be nullified by the force 
 of custom. There is no doubt that by wise treatment from the 
 beginning, native races might preserve their self-respect, and 
 be brought to occupy a useful position in the growing life of 
 a new country. But it is unfortunately rare to find a native 
 race unhurt by premature contact with the scum of white 
 society, which floats over all the world in advance of the wave 
 of worthy settlers ; and the mischief once done is hard to repair. 
 Again and again, since the first successes of the Jesuits in 
 South America, Christian missions have succeeded in bringing 
 isolated native tribes into a state of industry and happiness, 
 without loss of health or vitality ; but if there are any cases of 
 primitive peoples brought into a state of civilisation high 
 enough to enable them to resist deterioration by contact with 
 degraded whites, they must be very few. 
 
 The civilisation of the white race is the result of long develop- 
 ment in conditions which have been gradually changing ; and it 
 is now being generally recognised as unreasonable to expect to 
 bring races, inferior at the start, to a high plane of culture in a 
 few generations. The development of new lands must be viewed 
 from the point of view of the European conquest of the world ; 
 
28 NEW LANDS. 
 
 and it is mere affectation to pretend that native races, handi- 
 capped by an inheritance of intellectual and moral inferiority, 
 can be placed at once or soon upon an equal platform with the 
 white. That exceptions exist it is a pleasure to recognise, but 
 the rule prevails. If it is necessary to impress on people at 
 home the folly of treating prematurely and superficially civilised 
 tribes as equals, it is unfortunately even more necessary to warn 
 white settlers in distant lands of the wickedness of treating the 
 aborigines as people without rights. The brutality of white 
 settlers with regard to natives is a scandal usually denied in 
 print, but often frankly acknowledged in conversation. It 
 should be the business of every government to secure the 
 right of all natives to undisturbed possession of a sufficiency 
 of good land, and to see that the punishment of natives 
 for crimes which they do not understand should be more 
 lenient rather than heavier than the punishment of similarly 
 offending whites. It is not difficult to secure the passing of 
 excellent laws on this subject, the difficulty lies in their 
 application. 
 
 The Problem of Newcomers. — A problem of another kind 
 arises in many cases from the conflicting interests of new 
 immigrants in a country and the descendants of earlier settlers, 
 perhaps of a different European race, who have grown into 
 harmony with their new surroundings, but cling to old ideas 
 which the newcomers have outgrown. In time, with a good 
 deal of mutual forbearance, the dissensions due to racial 
 antipathy die away, for the newcomers in their turn take the 
 colour of the country and adopt the resultant mode of life. The 
 accentuation of racial troubles may perhaps be usually referred 
 to periods during which the rate of immigration is too rapid, 
 and the newcomers have not had time to acquire that adaptation 
 to their new conditions which would bring them into friendly 
 touch with the earlier occupants. These, too, require time to 
 recognise that they must allow new methods of development of 
 the land which they have been accustomed to ignore or despise. 
 Such dissensions, painful and disastrous as they sometimes may 
 be, are mere episodes in the process of the adjustment of the 
 human organism to its environment, which is always going on, 
 and which is always tending to a condition of ultimate equili- 
 brium. The rebellion on the Red River, in Canada, in 1870, 
 may be traced to this cause, and it has led to the result indi- 
 cated by general principles. The applicability of a similar 
 line of argument to the position in South Africa, which led 
 to the war of 1899-1900, is obvious. 
 
THE DEVELOPMENT OF NEW LANDS. 29 
 
 Patriotism and the Land. — Settlers in a new land become, 
 at any rate in the second generation, creatures of that land; and 
 although they may maintain the most cordial and loyal relations 
 with the country of their origin, they are bound primarily to 
 their adopted soil. No land can be fairly developed by people 
 who merely wish to snatch a fortune or a competence from it, 
 and go elsewhere to spend it. It is impossible to transport a 
 nation to a new land ; the result of anthropogeographical study 
 is to show that in a new land a new nation is developed, the 
 power and influence of which in the world's history does not 
 depend upon maintaining old nationality, though it depends 
 largely on retaining old sympathies. Who can say that New 
 France has lost in any degree in becoming Canadian ; or that 
 New England is less influential since it became American 1 The 
 grip of the land on its inhabitant is a thing of nature, the source 
 and safeguard of patriotic feeling. Just as the loyalty of a 
 Scotsman is fervent to his narrower fatherland, yet unquestioned 
 to the kingdom and the empire; so through the devotion of 
 the people to their land, which grows with time, and not quickly, 
 a real yet a diverse patriotism is arising in every associated 
 unity of the British Empire, held together in virtue of the 
 common sympathy, until, perhaps, in some future time, it enters 
 as a majestic unit into a vast English-speaking union, and in 
 a more distant age merges, we may dream, into the wider 
 "Federation of the World." 
 
 Theory and Practice. — This chapter has been in the main 
 theoretical. Its purpose, like that of all theoretical writing, is 
 to make the reader think. It may be that the author is wrong 
 in some of the conclusions which he has ventured to draw from 
 the consideration of special facts in the light of general theories ; 
 but to the practical man such ideas cannot but prove of value if 
 he uses them wisely. Certain suggestions are thrown out which 
 the author believes to be true, but it is quite certain they are 
 not the whole truth, and their application in detail and in actual 
 cases must be left to those who are engaged in the real work. 
 The following chapters contain no theory, but merely records 
 of fact, but these facts will be found to support the theory 
 sufficiently to induce a thoughtful pioneer to consider the plan 
 of his work in the light of geographical principles. In that 
 way alone can the utmost value be obtained for the time, labour, 
 and money spent by a settler, although that full value will 
 not, perhaps, be realised in the lifetime of the pioneer. 
 
30 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 THE DOMINION Or CANADA. 
 
 General Position and Boundaries — Surface — Climate — Government— Laws 
 — Currency — Time-i— Composition of Population — Kesources of the 
 Dominion — Fur Trade — Fisheries — Forests — Mineral Wealth— Agri- 
 culture — Existing Agricultural Kesources— Government Encourage- 
 ment to Agriculture — Public Lands — Dominion Lands — Railways — 
 Ocean Steamers. 
 
 Position and Boundaries. — The Dominion of Canada occupies 
 the northern half of the continent of North Atnerica, with the 
 exception of a strip of the coast of Labrador, which is admini- 
 stered by the colony of Newfoundland, and a strip of the coast 
 and peninsula of Alaska in the north-west, which are part of the 
 United States. It ranges in latitude from the Arctic Archi- 
 pelago beyond 80° N., to the Ontario peninsula, which crosses 
 the parallel of 42° N. In longitude it reaches from 57° W. on 
 the Atlantic, to 141° on the Pacific. The land boundary with 
 the United States is in many ways an awkward line, not yet 
 quite settled in parts, and formerly a source of international 
 friction. From the Pacific coast to the Lake of the Woods, the 
 frontier is the parallel of 49° N., a perfectly definite line which 
 has been marked out with posts on the ground ; but since the 
 main mountain features of North America run north and south, 
 the boundary is not marked by any natural feature, and would 
 be difficult, if not impossible, to fortify. From the Lake of 
 the Woods eastward it follows the centre of Eainy Kiver, 
 the centre of Lakes Superior, Huron, Erie, and Ontario, 
 and the St. Lawrence river to near Montreal, and then 
 strikes eastward overland with a definitely fixed but irregular- 
 course. 
 
 The western boundary with the territory of Alaska is still (1 900) 
 the subject of diplomatic negotiations, but the trouble whicb 
 this uncertainty caused has been diminished by a provisional 
 agreement as to the most critical part, which leaves the harbours 
 for the goldfields of Yukon district in the United , States, and 
 draws the line at the summit of the passes in the coastal range. 
 
THE DOMINION OF CANADA. 
 
 31 
 
 The northern portion is perfectly deiinite, being the meridian 
 of 141° W., from the Arctic Sea to a point ten marine leagues 
 from the coast of the Pacific. At the most important places — e.g., 
 where it cuts the Yukon river — this line has been fixed and 
 staked out. Alaskan territory runs as a narrow strip along the 
 coast to 56° N., and it is the breadth of this strip which is in 
 dispute. The boundary is defined as following the summit of 
 the mountains parallel to the coast, but whenever the summit 
 of these mountains is situated more than ten marine leagues 
 from the ocean, the limit shall be "a line parallel to the winding 
 of the coast, and which shall never exceed a distance of ten 
 marine leagues therefrom." The chief difficulty in interpreting 
 this clause is the uncertainty whether the " winding of the 
 coast" includes or excludes the long narrow fjords which run 
 inland from the sea. 
 
 The total area of the Dominion is greater than that of Europe, 
 but, on account of the extreme climate of the Arctic portion, 
 and the absence of natural resources in other parts, the com- 
 parison with Europe is fallacious, so far as the capability of the 
 country to support population is concerned. 
 
 Arba and Population of the Dominion of Canada. 
 
 
 
 Population in 1891. 
 
 
 Area in 
 Square Miles. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Number. 
 
 Density. 
 
 Nova Scotia, 
 
 20,600 
 
 450,396 
 
 22 
 
 Prince Edward Island, . 
 
 2,133 
 
 109,078 
 
 54 
 
 New Brunswick, .... 
 
 28,200 
 
 321,263 
 
 11 
 
 Quebec, 
 
 347,350 
 
 1,488,538 
 
 4 
 
 Ontario 
 
 222,000 
 
 2,114,321 
 
 10 
 
 Manitoba, 
 
 73,956 
 
 152,506 
 
 2-4 
 
 British Columbia, .... 
 
 383,300 
 
 98,173 
 
 0-3 
 
 Assiniboia 
 
 89,535 ) 
 
 
 
 Saskatchewan, .... 
 
 107,092 > 
 106,100 ) 
 
 66,799 
 
 
 Alberta 
 
 
 
 Keewatin 
 
 478, 800 N 
 
 
 
 Athabasca, 
 
 251,300 
 
 
 
 Mackenzie, 1 
 
 
 32,168 
 
 
 Yukon, [ 
 
 998,214 / 
 
 
 Ungava, ) 
 
 
 
 
 Franklin, 
 
 300,000 >' 
 
 
 
 Great Lakes of St. Lawrence, 
 Total, . 
 
 47,400 
 
 
 ... 
 
 3,455,980 
 
 4,833,239 
 
 1'4 
 
S2 NEW LANDS. 
 
 The area of the smaller lakes and rivers is included in the 
 above estimates. 
 
 It may be stated generally, as regards the provinces, that 
 Prince Edward Island is fully occupied, that Franklin, which 
 consists of the Arctic Islands, is valueless, while Ungava, 
 Yukon, Mackenzie, and Keewatin are likely to prove of value 
 only where gold or other valuable minerals may be found ; but 
 that the greater part of Quebec, Ontario, Manitoba, British 
 Columbia, Assiniboia, Saskatchewan, Alberta, and Athabasca are 
 capable of, and still awaiting, development. This must be done 
 by the introduction of population, and of capital, for the working 
 of the forests, fisheries, minerals, and especially the agricultural 
 and pastoral lands. The resources and the conditions of life of 
 each province will be described later. 
 
 Stirface. — Vast as Canada is, the physical geograpliy is re- 
 markably simple. The St. Lawrence River, and its associated 
 great lakes, sweep round the eastern half of the southern part 
 of the country bordered closely on the north by a water-shed, 
 for the most part in the form of a gentle elevation called The 
 Height of Land. Along the west coast runs a broad strip 
 of rugged highland, about 400 miles wide in the south and 
 narrowing northward, the eastern margin of which is formed 
 by the Rocky Mountains, and the western by the Coast 
 Range. This mountainous region drains mainly to the Pacific, 
 and is intersected by numerous valleys and plateaux, while fjords 
 penetrate it from the sea and islands fringe the shore. East of 
 the Rocky Mountains the land slopes from an elevation of about 
 5000 feet in great plains or prairies to the Arctic Sea and 
 Hudson Bay. The Mackenzie . River flows northward, but the 
 rest of tlie drainage of the country flows into Hudson Bay 
 from every side. So far as an ordinary map shows, Hudson 
 Bay is the heart of Canada, the natural focus of its trade, 
 and of the means of penetration to the interior, for it carries 
 the deep water of the ocean to the very centre of the continent. 
 Unfortunately, the severe winter climate completely closes the 
 flea for many months, and during the time when it is open for 
 navigation the narrow entrance is always liable to become 
 obstructed by drifting ice, so that it has remained practically 
 unused. 
 
 The geology of Canada stands in close relation to the surface 
 features of the country. Hudson Bay is the centre of a vast 
 V-shaped region of Archsean rocks, which extends southward to 
 the St. Lawrence and westward to the Mackenzie. This 
 Archasan nucleus is surrounded by a belt of Palaeozoic rocks, 
 
THE DOMINION OF CANADA. 
 
 33 
 
34 NEW LANDS. 
 
 separated from the Palseozoic and Mesozoic masses of the moun- 
 tainous western strip by the broad plains and prairies, -which are 
 underlain by more recent formations. All the low grounds of 
 Canada, from the Atlantic to the Rocky Mountains, have been 
 greatly altered by the ice sheet of the great ice age, the under- 
 lying formations being in many cases completely covered by 
 boulder clay, the accumulations of which have given to the river 
 systems a peculiar indecisiveness. Thus the smaller lakes have 
 frequently outlets by two rivers, tributary to different systems, 
 and other rivers which do not meet at a common source approach 
 ao nearly that their navigable waters are only separated by a 
 short stretch of nearly level ground. It is this feature which 
 has made the canoe so universal a means of travelling in the 
 vast regions of the remote north-west during summer. 
 
 Climate. — On the west coast of Canada, particularly in 
 Vancouver Island, the climate closely corresponds to that of the 
 British Isles. The prevailing sea winds ensure cloudy skies and 
 a high rainfall, with cool summers and mild winters. But from 
 the crest of the Coast Range, a few miles distant from the 
 Pacific shores, to the Atlantic, across the whole breadth of the 
 continent, the climate is severely continental, intensely hot in 
 summer and intensely cold in winter, while the rainfall, 
 although subject to local variations, is relatively low. The 
 distribution of the rainfall throughout the year, however, in 
 some cases renders nearly three-quarters of the annual supply 
 available in the spring months, when it is of service in agri- 
 culture. 
 
 Except for a narrow strip on the Pacific coast the mean 
 temperature of the air in every part of Canada is below the 
 freezing point during December, January, and February, and 
 except in British Columbia, during November and March also. 
 Winter may thus be said to last for five months throughout the 
 country, while the average temperature of the month of 
 January is below zero Fahrenheit as far south as 50° N. latitude 
 in the centre of the country. Such extreme temperatures, how- 
 ever, do not appear to have a bad effect ; a farmer in the North- 
 Western Territories will drive across the frozen prairie for a 
 week, sleeping each night in the open air with the mercury in 
 the thermometer frozen ( — 40° F.), and be none the worse for it. 
 Precautions have, of course, to be taken against frost bite ; but 
 Canadians are unanimous in saying that in that exhilarating 
 atmosphere a temperature far below zero is enjoyable, and that 
 nothing so trying as a, raw wet winter's day in England is ever 
 experienced. 
 
THE DOMINION OF CANADA. 35 
 
 In summer there is a -wonderful contrast, the difference 
 being most marked in the north-west. Thus the average 
 temperature of the two months, July and August, is 60° in the 
 valleys of the Mackenzie and the Yukon, almost up to the 
 Arctic circle, and the average for the south of the Dominion 
 is over 70° ; the extreme temperatures in the low plains are, 
 indeed, often overpowering. The influence of these climatic 
 conditions on farming will be noted when we describe the 
 various provinces. 
 
 The percentage of bright sunshine is greater for all parts of 
 Canada than for northern Europe, clear sky and exhilarating air 
 at all seasons being charactei-istic of the climate. 
 
 Government. — The Dominion of Canada is a federation of 
 self-governing provinces, with a Federal Government possessing 
 certain rights over the whole territory. The executive authority 
 is vested in the British Crown, and is exercised by a Governor- 
 General appointed by the British Government, and a Privy 
 Council. The legislative power of the Federal Government is 
 vested in two Houses of Parliament, a Senate or Upper House 
 of 81 members, appointed for life by the Governor-General, and 
 a House of Commons of 213 members, elected by the people, the 
 qualifications of electors being different in the various provinces. 
 The Parliament meets in Ottawa, where the Governor-General 
 resides. The Government, as in the United Kingdom, is com- 
 posed of the leading members of the political party which has a 
 majority in the House of Commons. Except for the right of 
 appeal from its decisions to the Privy Council in London, the 
 Dominion of Canada is free from any political or judicial control 
 on the part of the Mother Country. 
 
 The functions of the Dominion Parliament include, amongst 
 others, the regulation of Trade and Commerce, the working 
 of the Post Office (but not of the Telegraphs, which are in the 
 hands of private companies), Defence, Navigation, Quarantine, 
 Currency and Coinage, Indirect Taxation, Criminal Procedure, 
 Marriage Laws,* and all legislation as to "Weights and Measures, 
 Bankruptcy, Indian affairs, &c. Thus throughout Canada there 
 is uniformity of fundamental laws, the administration of which 
 is the concern of the central government, in contrast to the 
 United States, in which the several States exercise larger 
 rights and differ greatly from one another in many important 
 particulars. 
 
 * Marriage with a deceased wife's sister, or a deceased wife's sister's 
 daughter, is legal in the Dominion of Canada, as, indeed, in almost all 
 British colonies. 
 
36 NEW LANDS. 
 
 Each province has its own Legislature elected by the people, 
 and consisting in some cases of two chambers, in others of one. 
 They have the control of direct taxation, of education, public 
 works, and the liquor laws, and the provinces which were 
 formerly colonies have the disposal of the unoccupied lands as 
 well. Each province has also its own system of municipal 
 government, the units being usually counties, townships, 
 villages, and cities. 
 
 "With regard to the spirit of the Canadian people, two points 
 never fail to strike the visitor to the country — the respect for 
 law, ensuring the security of life and property, even in the mining 
 camps, and the hearty loyalty of the whole population to the 
 British Crown. The position of Canada as a central link in the 
 British Empire, intermediate between the United Kingdom on 
 the east of the Atlantic, and Hong-Kong and Australia on the 
 west of the Pacific, is well understood and highly prized in the 
 Dominion. 
 
 Laws. — There are comparatively few restrictive laws in 
 operation, and such as exist are for the most part framed with 
 the object of ensuring the prosp^ity of the working man, who, 
 in almost all the provinces and territories has a lien on the 
 product of his work for the payment of his wages. The right is 
 maintained of excluding undesirable immigrants, and Chinese on 
 landing are subject to a tax of £10 ; but one of the chief needs 
 of the country being population every encouragement is offered 
 to respectable European settlers. Great care is taken to prevent 
 the introduction of epidemic or contagious diseases, and the 
 quarantine service is well organised. No one is allowed to land 
 who cannot produce evidence of having been vaccinated or of 
 having had smallpox. 
 
 More than half the public revenue of the Dominion of Canada 
 is derived from duties levied on imports, the average rate in 
 1897 having been 30 per cent, ad valorem. About four-tenths 
 of the imports are, however, admitted free, and the duties are 
 differential in favour of free-trade countries, which is practically 
 an encouragement to trade with the United Kingdom in pre- 
 ference to foreign countries. 
 
 Ctirreiicy. — The system of currency is identical with that 
 of the United States, the unit being the dollar, and the ratio 
 being fixed by statute at £1 = $4-86. The hundredth of a 
 dollar, or cent, is thus equal to one halfpenny ; but it may be 
 noted that the silver five cent piece is the smallest coin usually 
 current. In 1897 articles appeared in the newspapers of 
 Victoria, B.C., expressing disgust at the action of the Post 
 
THE DOMINION OF CANADA. 
 
 37 
 
 Office in introducing the custom of giving change less than 
 five cents. Evening papers nominally priced at two cents are 
 vended by the newsboys with the cry of "three for five" — i.e., 
 three different papers for a five cent piece. The Dominion 
 Government issues notes for 25 cents, one, two, and four 
 dollars ; the banks, which are numerous, have the right only 
 of issuing notes of $5, or over. 
 
 There is no mint in Canada, and nearly all the gold mined in 
 the country is sent to the Ilnited States to be assayed and 
 coined. In this respect Canada is behind the Australian 
 colonies. 
 
 "Weights and measures are the same as in England, except 
 that the hundredweight is reckoned at 100 lbs., and the ton 
 (" short ton ") at 2000 lbs., as in the United States. 
 
 Time. — The regulation of time has also been assimilated to 
 that in the United States. The principle adopted is to have 
 a series of standard times, each differing by an exact hour, and 
 based on the meridian of Greenwich. There are six north-and- 
 south belts of 15° of longitude, within which one time holds 
 good ; but for practical convenience some slight modifications 
 are made. The designations of the local times with the hour at 
 Greenwich noon, the meridian to which the time corresponds, 
 the boundary meridians at which the hour changes, and the 
 stations on the Canadian Pacific Railway at which the change 
 is made are as follows : — 
 
 The Time Zones op North America, 
 
 Designation. 
 
 Atlantic. 
 
 Eastern. 
 
 Central. 
 
 Mountain. 
 
 Paciflo. 
 
 Central Meridian, . 
 Greenwich Noon, . 
 C.P.R. Stations where 
 Standards Change, 
 
 60° 
 8 a.m. 
 
 75° 
 7 a.m. 
 
 90° 
 6 a.m. 
 
 105° 
 5 a.m. 
 
 120° 
 4 a.m. 
 
 Fort- 
 William 
 
 Brandon. Donald. 
 
 It will be noticed that the time remains unchanged in actual 
 usage from Quebec to Port-Arthur, a range of 28° of longitude, 
 and in this belt by far the greater part of the population of the 
 Dominion is located. 
 
 Composition of Population, — Although a British posses- 
 sion, the Dominion of Canada is by no means homogeneous in 
 respect to the origin of its population. In 1891, 86 per cent. 
 
38 
 
 NEW LANDS. 
 
 of the population were native-born, and the origin of the 
 remaining 14 per cent, was as follows : — 
 
 Origin, . 
 Number, . 
 
 Origin, . 
 Namber, . 
 
 Origin, . 
 Number, . 
 
 British Empire. 
 490,200 
 
 Bussia. 
 9,200 
 
 Southern Europe 
 3,000 
 
 United States. 
 80,900 
 
 Scandinavia. 
 7,800 
 
 China. 
 9,100 
 
 Germany. 
 27,700 
 
 Prance. 
 5,400 
 
 Other Countries. 
 13,900 
 
 There are about 100,000 aborigines belonging to different tribes 
 of "Red Indians." Several thousand Austro - Hungarian 
 ■subjects, chiefly from Galicia and Bukovina, have immigrated 
 since 1891 ; and the number of Russians has also been notably 
 increased; but the tendency is for all the foreign elements, 
 ■except the French, to become absorbed in the general popula- 
 tion, and to adopt English as their sole language in the second, 
 or, at most, in the third generation. The reason of the non- 
 assimilation of the French is historical. Eastern Canada was 
 originally a French colony, and, on its conquest by the British, 
 in 1759, the French Roman Catholic population were guaranteed 
 in the possession of their language, laws, and religion. They 
 numbered at that time only about 60,000, but, being perhaps 
 the most prolific civilised people in the world, they now amount 
 to nearly a million and a-half. Thus it happens that the census 
 of 1891 recorded 1,405,000 French speakers and 3,428,000 
 English speakers in the Dominion. 
 
 The geographical grouping of the people is important. The 
 French live mainly in the province of Quebec, which is more 
 French than English; while the recent immigrants from con- 
 tinental Europe are scattered in groups amongst a predominantly 
 British population in Manitoba and the North- West Territories. 
 The "Indians" live, for the most part, beyond the settled 
 areas ; and the Chinese are practically found in large numbers 
 only in British Columbia. The half-breeds between French 
 and Indians carry on a great part of the trade by dog-sledge 
 .and canoe in the northern part of the country. There is, of 
 I course, perfect religious freedom, and no established church 
 ■exists ; the Roman Catholic Church includes two millions of 
 the population, and the Methodists, Presbyterians, and 
 Anglicans number about three-quarters of a million each. Such 
 peculiarities of the prevailing population as may be of im- 
 portance to the settler or trader will be described when speak- 
 ■' ing of the several provinces. It is to be noted that the 
 'population is far more uniformly distributed over the land than 
 
THE DOMINION OF CANADA. (39 
 
 is the case in Australia or temperate South America. The 
 tendency to concentrate in a few large cities has never manifested 
 itself to the same degree in Canada as, for example, in Victoria, 
 New South Wales, or the Argentine Republic. 
 
 Resources of the Dominion. — Originally the fur trade was 
 the staple industry of Canada ; subsequently, lumbering took 
 the first place in the interior, and fisheries on the coast ; at the 
 present time the agricultural resources are the chief source of 
 wealth in the country, while in the near future mining bids 
 fair to outdistance all rivals. Ultimately, if the land is wisely 
 developed, and the population is steadily augmented, the pro- 
 portionate development of all the varied resources foreshadows 
 a brilliant future to Canada as a highly-civilised country, de- 
 pendant on the outer world for nothing but tropical products. 
 The ratio of value of the various exports from Canada in 1897 
 may be stated roughly as follows : — 
 
 Products of . . Farming. Poresta. Mines. Fisheries. Total. 
 Percentage value, .51 30 10 9 100 
 
 Thus it appears that, from the point of view of external trade 
 the farming interest (especially cattle-breeding and dairy 
 farming) in Canada outweighs all others taken together, and 
 the Government policy for developing the country is shaped 
 mainly in accordance with this circumstance. 
 
 Before considering the opportunities for further development 
 in the different provinces, and the encouragement held out by 
 the governments, federal and provincial, it is necessary to look 
 at the general condition of the whole .Dominion in the light of 
 each of the great groups of industries. 
 
 Fur Trade, — The Hudson Bay Company, founded in 1670, 
 was the first to develop the fur trade in the north and west of 
 America, and is still the principal agency, although with 
 changed times it has undergone development, and its stores, 
 originally created to trade with Indians in the wilderness, have 
 grown into the finest emporiums of retail trade that have ever 
 been established in a new country. Furs are collected by the 
 Indians throughout the whole of the North- West Territories 
 and in British Columbia, and brought to the posts maintained 
 by the company at intervals over the country. While the posts 
 from Victoria and Vancouver along the railway line eastward to 
 Montreal and Quebec are in daily communication, the outlying 
 forts on the Mackenzie and on the rivers flowing into Hudson 
 Bay are only visited once a year by boats bringing supplies 
 and taking away skins. Tyro centres of coUection are still 
 
40 NEW LANDS. 
 
 maintained on Hudson Bay — York Factory, at the mouth of 
 the Nelson River, visited annually by a steamer from London ; 
 and Moose Factory, at the head of James Bay, also visited 
 by a sailing vessel from London once a year. The company's 
 annual fur sales realise, as a rule, from £200,000 to £300,000. 
 The furs which are produced in greatest quantity are, in order 
 of number — Beaver, marten, mink, and musquash ; but include 
 also large quantities of badger, bear, deer, fisher, fox, lynx, 
 otter, rabbit, racoon, skunk, wolf, and wolverine.* The fur 
 trade is not, however, one which is susceptible of any great 
 future development. 
 
 Fisheries. — Although fishing vessels of every nationality ply 
 their trade on the Grand Banks of Newfoundland, and much of 
 the catch is landed on that island and in foreign ports, the share 
 which falls to Canada, together with the coast fisheries on the 
 east and west and the fresh-water fisheries, make up a vast and 
 rapidly-increasing source of wealth. The total value is indeed 
 estimated at $30,000,000, or £6,000,000 annually, or two 
 hundred times as much as in the year 1850. There are over 
 60,000 fishermen in the Dominion. Professor Prince t recognises 
 seven great fishery divisions, which may be briefly summarised 
 as follows : — 
 
 1. The Atlantic, from the Bay of Fundy to the coast of 
 Labrador, including both deep-sea and inshore fishing of cod, 
 mackerel, haddock, halibut, herring, and hake. To these the 
 capture of seals and white whales, and the taking of lobsters and 
 oysters, may be added to make up a total of $10,000,000 
 (£2,000,000) a year. 
 
 2. EstiiMrine and Inland Waters of tJie Maritime Provinces 
 yielding salmon, shad, gaspereaux (alewife), striped bass, &c., 
 to a total value annually of $2,500,000 (£500,000). 
 
 3. The Great Lakes and Tributaries. — Here the lake whitefish, 
 lesser whitefish or lake herring, great lake trout, sturgeon, 
 pickerel, black bass, and many other fresh-water fish are caught 
 to the annual value of $2,000,000 (£400,000). 
 
 4. Great North-West Lakes (including Manitoba) yielding 
 similar fish to the value of $1,000,000 (£200,000). 
 
 5. Rocky Mountain Plateau, fresh-water fisheries, including 
 land-locked salmon, whitefish, &c., as yet little utilised, and the 
 value of which is not recorded. 
 
 * From articles on the fur trade, by Sir Donald Smith (Lord Strathcona), 
 in the Handbook of Canada. Toronto (British Association meetine). 
 i897. ^ 
 
 t Handbook to Canada, Toronto, 1897. 
 
THE DOMINION OP CANADA. 41 
 
 6. Pacific Coast Fisheries. — These include salmon of several 
 species which are caught at various places on the coast and in 
 the estuaries, and tinned in enormous quantities ; but there are 
 also halibut, skill (black cod), oolachan (candle fish), anchovy, 
 herring, and others, which as yet have hardly been touched. 
 The annual value is about |4,000,00U (X800,000), but this is. 
 capable of being enormously increased. 
 
 7. Hudson Bay and Arctic Waters, in which whale, walrus, 
 and seal hunting are still to be carried on, and where fish of 
 marketable value are also doubtless to be found. 
 
 The fisheries of Canada are regulated, and the statistics 
 collected, by a highly efficient department of the Federal 
 Government, and a fleet of armed cruisers ensures from the 
 fishing boats respect for the regulations, and collects and 
 distributes information as to the movements of the shoals of 
 migratory fishes. Close seasons are established during spawning 
 time, fishing licences are granted, specifying the nature of the 
 nets to be employed, obstructions to the movement of fish and 
 the pollution of rivers are prohibited, and the artificial pro- 
 pagation of fish is carried out at a number of stations. 
 
 On the east coast there is little room for additional com- 
 petition, but in the great lakes, the inland waters, and all along 
 the west coast, there are still great opportunities for developing 
 the fisheries. 
 
 Forests. — The traveller along the Canadian Pacific Railway, 
 from the Atlantic to the Pacific Oceans, looks in vain for a 
 typical Canadian forest. Everywhere, where trees once grew, 
 either the axe of the settler in clearing land for cultivation, or 
 the unguarded fire of the prospector and railway engineer, has 
 wrought destruction. If not checked, the fires that follow the 
 pioneer will, before many decades, have destroyed one great 
 resource of the Dominion of Canada. As yet, however, beyond 
 the burnt railway belt, the forests stretch for vast distances, 
 and cover an area estimated altogether at from 1,000,000 to 
 1,250,000 square miles. A continuous forest may be said to 
 extend right across the continent from the interior of the 
 Labrador peninsula and the Maritime Provinces to the Pacific 
 coast, bounded on the north by the Tundra, along a line running 
 from 60° N. on Hudson Bay to 67° on the Mackenzie River, and 
 interrupted on the south by the belt of prairies or treeless plain* 
 which run from the international boundary on the Red River of 
 the North to the Saskatchewan. Even the prairie belt i» 
 naturally wooded on its occasional hills and along the rivers. 
 While coniferous trees chiefly prevail, there are great woods 
 
42 NEW LANDS. 
 
 of birch, aspen, elm, maple, and many others, the distribution 
 of which will be described when speaking of the separate 
 provinces. 
 
 In 1891 a capital of over $100,000,000 (£20,000,000) was 
 invested in industries directly dependent on the forests, and 
 yielded an annual product of the value of $125,000,000 
 (£25,000,000.) The slow-growing white or Weymouth pine 
 is at present the most important tree in Canada from 
 the economic point of view, and it grows abundantly in 
 the eastern provinces ; but, from the amount of cutting, 
 its extinction as a commercial timber tree is already threatened. 
 Next to it in value comes the spruce, the chief timber of 
 the Maritime Provinces and of the region north of that in 
 which the pine flourishes. In the subarctic forest and in the 
 richly wooded Pacific slope of British . Columbia there is a 
 vast supply of timber but no market. The eastern rivers 
 flowing to the St. Lawrence and to the sea are naturally the 
 best adapted for floating timber down to tide water for export 
 to Europe, and hence the lumbering trade has developed mainly 
 round the St. Lawrence. Here there is little opening for new- 
 comers, as all the operations of cutting and floating timber 
 require trained workmen, and the various contingencies 
 affecting the trade make experience absolutely essential in 
 directing proceedings. However, in the west, on the margin of 
 the prairies, or in the neighbourhood of new mining camps, 
 lumbering and saw-milling may still prove remunerative, even 
 to new hands. 
 
 Timber cutting in the Crown forests, which include most of 
 those still available, is carried out under the supervision of the 
 provincial governments, and under regulations which differ in 
 different places. As yet sufficient regard is not paid to forestry, 
 and, unless some very definite action is soon taken to ensure the 
 reproduction of the woods, Canada must cease to be a great 
 timber exporting country. The destruction of forests always 
 brings other evils in its train, both as regards the climate and 
 the soil, deterioration in either of which must inevitably affect 
 agriculture. 
 
 Mineral Wealtli. — The mineral resources of Canada are of 
 vast extent, and as yet so Httle utilised as to form an almost 
 new field for capital. Hitherto the development of the country 
 has been carried on mainly from the agricultural point of view, 
 a,nd as Professor Coleman observes " the bulk of the population 
 have grown up with no knowledge of mines, and with the thrifty 
 yirtues of farmers and merchants averse to risking their savings 
 
THE DOMINION OF CANADA. 43 
 
 in an untried and hazardous occupation." * More capital, particu- 
 larly from Canadian and British sources, is, in fact, the great 
 desideratum in order to make the vast mineral wealth of Canada 
 an instrument in the economic development of the country. 
 
 Nothing strikes the visitor to the mining centres more 
 forcibly than the fact that so many of the well-equipped and 
 flourishing establishments are filled with American machinery, 
 maintained by American capital, and directed by American 
 mining and metallurgical experts. The mineral wealth of 
 Canada is, indeed, to a very large extent, utilised in enriching 
 citizens of the United States. 
 
 The main work of the Dominion Government towards utilising 
 the mineral resources is carried on by the Geological Survey, 
 a department admirably administered and very efficiently 
 manned. Its duties are to construct a geological map of the 
 whole Dominion of Canada, and this is being done on various 
 scales, and with different degrees of detail. No topographical 
 maps of the outlying regions being as yet in existence, the first 
 task of the Geological Survey is to construct a topographical 
 map, on which the geological data are afterwards laid down. 
 In the far north, where the geological surveyors have in many 
 cases been the first explorers, the scale adopted is usually from 
 8 to 25 miles to an inch, but in the regions actually undergoing 
 development the work is much more exact, and the scale 
 enlarged to 4 miles, or even 1 mile to the inch. These maps 
 form invaluable guides to the prospector who knows how to use 
 them, and the first work of any one investigating the mineral 
 value of a region that has been surveyed is to study the 
 published maps. They must be looked upon merely as guides, 
 for the work has been in most cases rapidly done, and many 
 details are necessarily disregarded. Handbooks to the maps, 
 and elaborate reports, place the investigations of the surveyors 
 at the service of all. The Survey also takes account of the 
 statistics of mineral production throughout the Dominion. 
 
 The present state of mining, and the nature of the chief 
 mineral products, are only partially shown in the. following 
 table, which includes the whole Dominion. The rapid progress 
 of gold mining has been remarkable since 1898. 
 
 These are all the minerals the production of which exceeds a 
 million dollars in annual value, but asbestos, iron ore, mica, 
 phosphates, and several other minerals, besides building stones, 
 are by no means unimportant ; and every one of these products 
 exists in an easily accessible form and in enormous quantities. 
 * Handbook to Canada, p. 306. 
 
u 
 
 NEW LANDS. 
 Mineral Prodttcts in 1897. 
 
 Product. 
 
 AmountBaised voino in t 
 in Tons. ^*'"® '° *■ 
 
 Value in £. 
 
 Coal, .... 
 
 Gold (in 1899, $21,000,000), 
 
 Silver, . 
 
 Copper, . 
 
 Nickel, . 
 
 Lead, . 
 
 Petroleum, 
 
 3,876,000 
 
 7,442,000 
 6,190,000 
 3,322,000 
 1,500,000 
 1,400,000 
 1,397,000 
 1,011,000 
 
 1,488,400 
 1,236,000 
 663,400 
 300,000 
 280,000 
 279,000 
 202,000 
 
 Gold is found in every province, and will be referred to under 
 each of those in which its presence in payable quantities is 
 assured. The provinces producing most were formerly the 
 same as for coal — Nova Scotia and JBritish Columbia. Recently 
 the Yukon Territory has sprung into rivalry with both, and 
 great goldfields have been discovered in western Ontario. It 
 is necessary to distinguish between (1) the placer deposits, 
 in which the nuggets and particles of gold have simply to be 
 picked up or washed from the gravel and sand ; (2) the 
 quartz mines, which must be quarried or mined out, the ore 
 crushed, and the gold extracted by amalgamation or chemical 
 processes ; and (3) the ore in which gold is chemically com- 
 bined with other elements, or so mixed as to require smelting 
 and elaborate metallurgical operations in order to separate it. 
 The amount of capital required for successful working thus 
 differs greatly in different localities on account of the machinery 
 required, as well as the convenience or difficulty of providing 
 means of transport and of obtaining supplies. 
 
 Silver has been produced in Quebec, Ontario, and British 
 Columbia; and at present it is obtained almost exclusively 
 from silver-lead ores in the Kootenay district of British 
 Columbia. 
 
 Copper ore is mined in Quebec, Ontario, and British Columbia. 
 It has been usual to export the roughly smelted maUe to the 
 United States to be worked up, not so much for the copper 
 as for the nickel with which it is associated at Sudbury, in 
 Ontario, and the gold by which it is accompanied in the 
 Kootenay district. But copper ore was formerly mined for its 
 own sake at many points along the shores of the Great Lakes, 
 and the supply is by no means exhausted. 
 
 The Nickel deposits at Sudbury are the most extensive in the 
 world, and are largely worked, the ore being nickeliferous 
 
THE DOMINION OF CANADA. 45- 
 
 pyrrhotite; but none of the metal is produced in Canada, the 
 final metallurgical process being carried on in the United States. 
 
 The small quantity of Iron mined in the Dominion is surprising, 
 and while over 1,000,000 tons of pig iron were produced in 1893, 
 not one-half of that amount is now made, the low price of 
 British and American iron, and the cheapness of transport, 
 making it cheaper to import than to manufacture. Ores of 
 platinum, zinc, chromium, and mercury exist in many places, but 
 are scarcely utilised. 
 
 Coal is worked mainly in the extreme east and west — in Nova 
 Scotia and Vancouver Island — but vast deposits, estimated to 
 underlie an area of 65,000 square miles, exist in the North West 
 Territories along the base of the Rocky Mountains. 
 
 Petroleum, often accompanied by natural gas, is most worked in 
 the Ontario Peninsula ; but a vast untouched field is believed 
 to exist in the North West Territories, and smaller quantities 
 occur at many different points. 
 
 While the Dominion Government exercises rights, grants 
 mining claims, and exacts royalties on gold in the territories, 
 several of the provinces have their own Department of Mines 
 and their own mining laws. Such departments exist in Nova 
 Scotia, Quebec, Ontario, and British Columbia. 
 
 Agriculture. — The present wealth of Canada arises mainly 
 from its farm lands, and it is a matter of great importance to 
 know how far these can be extended in the outlying districts. 
 Soil, climate, and surface are the main factors to consider, and 
 these have all been carefully studied. The question is so large 
 that it must be treated with some degree of detail. 
 
 Existing Agricultural Besources. — At the census of 
 1891, the total area of improved land was 28,500,000 acres, of 
 which nearly 20,000,000 acres were used for growing grain. 
 Yet Canada has not become the great grain exporting country 
 that these figures would seem to promise ; as a matter of fact, 
 the export of oats and barley, once of great importance, has 
 almost ceased, and the export of wheat was once nearly twice as 
 large as it is now. Of the 100,000,000 bushels of oats and the 
 20,000,000 bushels of barley grown annually in the Dominion, 
 fully nine-tenths are used in the country as food for animals, and 
 the same is true, though to a less extent, for wheat. Mr. 
 William Saunders, Director of the Dominion Experimental 
 Farms, says* : — " While Canadian farms are producing annually 
 increasing quantities of grain, these, with the exception of wheat, 
 are being mainly converted into animals and their products, 
 • Handbooh to Canada, 1897, p. 341. 
 
46 NEW LANDS. 
 
 which constitute the principal items of export. The increase in 
 the manufacture of dairy products has been very helpful to the 
 cattle trade, and at the same time it has promoted a rapid 
 development of the swine industry. . . . By exporting 
 animals and their products, in place of coarse grains, the 
 elements of fertility taken from the ground by these crops are 
 largely returned in the manure of the animals, and thus the 
 fertility of the land is kept up." 
 
 The agriculture of Canada takes account of fruit to a very 
 considerable extent, especially apples. The distribution of the 
 various products ■will be referred to when speaking of the pro- 
 vinces ; but it may be stated generally that " mixed " and 
 dairy farming prevail in Quebec and eastern Ontario, fruit 
 growing in the Ontario peninsula, wheat growing in Manitoba, 
 and cattle ranching in the territories occupying the great plains 
 that slope up to the Rocky Mountains. 
 
 The actual value of the various classes of agricultural exports' 
 in 1897 was as follows : — 
 
 ExpoBTS or Animal Products in 1897. 
 
 Cheese. Cattle. Horses. Sheep. Eggs. "product™^' 
 
 $14,676,000 $7,133,000 $1,711,000 $1,002,000 $978,000 $13,745,000 
 £2,935,000 £1,426,600 £342,200 £200,500 £195,600 £2,749,000 
 
 BxpoETS or Vegetable Products in 1897. 
 
 Whpat ^ Other 
 
 and Wheat Flour. ^«^- -*»»'«»• H»y- A^icultural 
 
 Products. 
 
 $7,085,000 $2,353,000 $2,682,000 $999,000 $4,863,000 
 £1,417,000 £470,600 £536,400 £199,800 £972,600 
 
 Government Encouragement to Agriotdture. — Both the 
 Dominion and the provincial governments devote much atten- 
 tion to the improvement of the land already in use, the settling 
 of new land by farmers, and the introduction of new methods 
 and crops. The departments of the Dominion Government 
 concerned in these works are the Ministries of the Interior and 
 of Agriculture. 
 
 Under the Minister of Agriculture a number of experimental 
 farms and agricultural schools and colleges have been estab- 
 lished. The function of the experimental farms cannot be 
 better expressed than in the words of the Act which called them 
 into existence : — 
 
 " To test the merits, hardiness, and adaptability of new op 
 untried varieties of cereals and other field crops, of grasses, 
 
THE DOMINION OF CANADA. 47 
 
 forage plants, fruits, vegetables, plants, and trees, and to dis- 
 seminate among persons engaged in farming, gardening, or fruit 
 growing upon such conditions as may be prescribed by the 
 Minister, samples of the surplus of such products as are con- 
 sidered to be specially worthy of introduction. 
 
 " To test the relative value for all purposes of different breeds 
 of stock, and their adaptability to the varying climate or other 
 conditions which prevail in the several provinces of the 
 Dominion and in the North- West Territories. 
 
 " To examine into the economic conditions involved in the 
 production of butter and cheese. 
 
 " To analyse fertilisers, whether natural or artificial, and to 
 conduct experiments with such fertilisers, in order to test their 
 comparative value as applied to crops of different kinds. 
 
 " To examine into the composition and digestibility of foods 
 for domestic animals, to conduct experiments in the planting of 
 trees for timber and shelter, to examine into the diseases to 
 which cultivated plants and trees are subject ; also, into the 
 ravages of destructive insects, and to ascertain and test the 
 most useful preventives and remedies to be used in each case. 
 
 " To investigate the diseases to which domestic animals are 
 subject, to ascertain the vitality and purity of agricultural 
 seeds, and to conduct any other experiments and researches 
 bearing upon the agricultural industry of Canada which are 
 approved by the Minister." 
 
 The Central Experimental Farm is situated at Ottawa, in a 
 convenient place for experiments required in the populous 
 provinces of Quebec and Ontario. Four others on a somewhat 
 smaller scale are scattered over the Dominion, performing 
 similar services for the other provinces. One of these is at 
 Nappan, in Nova Scotia, near the New Brunswick boundary ; 
 a second is at Brandon, in the middle of the prairie province, 
 Manitoba ; a third at Indian Head, in Assiniboia, in the drier 
 climate of the plains sloping to the Rocky Mountains ; and the 
 fourth at Agassiz, in British Columbia, takes account of the 
 mild and moist climate of the Pacific coast belt. Besides the 
 experimental work, the staffs of these farms form so many 
 bureaux of agricultural information, answering without charge 
 the inquiries addressed to them. Samples of grain or of seeds 
 sent in by farmers are tested, and samples of new varieties 
 of grain, the qualities of which are likely to suit particular 
 localities, are sent out free of charge to any farmer willing to 
 try them. Within seven years no less than 120,000 applicants 
 availed themselves of this opportunity. Seedling trees are also 
 
48 NEW LANDS. 
 
 distributed in the same way. Applied botany and entomology 
 are also part of the work done on the experimental farms ; 
 new fruits and trees have been introduced, and warnings as to 
 noxious insects issued. The soils of new parts of the country 
 are analysed at the experimental farms before settlement has 
 taken place, and fertilising agents are also analysed and reported 
 «n. 
 
 A former source of considerable export trade, the ginseng 
 plant, seems to have entirely dropped out of sight. This 
 plant (Panax quinquefolium), though yielding a root inferior 
 to the allied species in Korea, meets with an unfailing demand 
 in China, and amongst Chinamen everywhere, and its cultiva- 
 tion should be profitable. 
 
 An elaborate quarantine system for live stock is designed to 
 keep the Dominion of Canada free from contagious cattle disease, 
 and to stamp out any disease that may appear within its 
 boundaries. All imports of cattle or other live stock by sea 
 must take place at Oharlottetown, in Prince Edward Island ; 
 Dartmouth, opposite Halifax, in Nova Scotia; St. John, New 
 Brunswick ; Point Levis, opposite Quebec ; or Victoria, on 
 Vancouver Island ; and three months' quarantine is imposed 
 before the animals are allowed to be removed to the farms. Since 
 1897, inspection has been substituted for quarantine on cattle 
 entering from the United States, the arrangement being 
 reciprocal. " There is," according to Professor M'Eachran, the 
 chief inspector of live stock for the Dominion, " no stock country 
 in the world where the health of animals is so remarkable. 
 Rinderpest, pleuro-pneumonia, and foot-and-mouth disease do 
 not exist." 
 
 The agricultural schools and colleges give practical instruction 
 in the methods of farming best suited to Canada, and any young 
 man going to Canada with a view to settling as a farmer would 
 do well to take out a course of instruction in one of them. The 
 Canadian Government especially warns people against paying 
 a premium to unknown farmers as pupils. The system has 
 given rise to much abuse, and it is always better to take employ- 
 ment as a farm hand, receiving wages and acquiring practical 
 insight at the same time. 
 
 Public Lands, — By the Act of Confederation the public 
 lands — i.e., lands not held by individuals or corporations — and 
 minerals situated in the provinces of Ontario, Quebec, Nova 
 Scotia, and New Brunswick were vested in the provincial 
 governments, by which alone they can be assigned. In 1870 
 the territorial rights of the Hudson Bay Company in the north- 
 
THE DOMINION OF CANADA. 49 
 
 -west were surrendered to the Dominion Government in return 
 for a money payment, and the grant of land around the trading 
 posts, and of one-twentieth of all the land in the "Fertile Belt" 
 — i.e., the great area lying between the Lake of the Woods and 
 Lake Winnipeg on the east, and the Rocky Mountains on the 
 west, and stretching from the international boundary to the 
 North Saskatchewan River. When British Columbia joined the 
 Dominion, all the land within 20 miles of the Canadian Pacific 
 Railway was made over to the central Government, and later on 
 3,000,000 acres in the Peace River district were similarly trans- 
 ferred. The regulations as to provincial Crown lands will be 
 considered later, it is only necessary here to describe the 
 arrangements made by the Dominion Government as to the 
 public lands of Manitoba, the North- West Territory, and the 
 assigned portions of British Columbia. 
 
 Dominion Iiands. — The Dominion Land Survey is charged 
 with surveying and laying out in townships the public lands 
 available for agriculture or pasturage, before these are opened to 
 settlement. In order to simplify the registration of land and 
 the transfer of property, the townships are all formed on a 
 common plan, each measuring 6 miles square, or 36 square miles 
 in area. The townships are bounded north and south by 
 parallels of latitude, and in order to adjust their square forms to 
 the converging meridians of longitude, the lines running at 
 right angles to these (nearly north to south) only extend through 
 four rows of townships, and are re-adjusted for the four further 
 north. The townships are numbered from south to north, 
 starting from the international boundary, and the ranges or 
 rows of townships from east to west, starting from the principal 
 meridians. The first "principal meridian " is nearly coincident 
 with longitude 97° 30', lying a little west of Winnipeg, and is 
 the only one from which ranges are measured east as well as 
 west. To the west 34 ranges lead to the second principal 
 meridian (102° W.), and west of that 30 ranges lead to the 
 third principal meridian (106° W.), in the west of Assiniboia 
 and Saskatchewan, and so on to the fifth. 
 
 Each township is subdivided into 36 " sections," each of which 
 measures 1 square mile, and they are numbered consecutively in 
 ■east and west rows alternately, backward and forward as shown 
 in Pig. 1, p. 18. A uniform system is adopted for Manitoba and 
 the territories lying west of it, so that any square mile of land 
 in these districts may be exactly defined by the number of the 
 section, the number of the township row, and of the range, the 
 last being qualified by the words east or west of a particular 
 
 4 
 
50 NEW LANDS, 
 
 meridian. The sections are subdivided into quarter sections of 
 160 acres. These, when not already disposed of, are open to 
 settlement, a homestead of 160 acres being given free of charge 
 (except for a registration fee of $10 or £2), on condition that the 
 applicant builds a dwelling, lives on the land for at least six 
 months of each year, and brings a certain proportion of it, under 
 cultivation. The patent of ownership is not given until the 
 homestead has been occupied for three years, but a settler is 
 allowed to obtain full possession of his homestead at an earlier 
 date, by purchase, if he so desires. An adjoining quarter section 
 of land may be subsequently purchased at a fixed rate from the 
 Dominion Government. No. 8, three-quarters or the whole of 
 No. 26 in each township, are, by agreement, the property of the 
 Hudson Bay Company. The other even-numbered sections are 
 available for homesteads. Most of the railways in the far west 
 have extensive grants of land within a belt of 24 miles on each 
 side of the line, having all the odd-numbered sections except 
 Nos. 11 and 29, which are reserved as endowment for schools. 
 The school lands are to remain vacant until the township is 
 fairly well settled, then when they have attained a reasonable 
 approximation to their maximum value they are to be sold, and 
 the purchase money invested in Canadian Government stock, 
 the proceeds being applied to the maintenance of public schools. 
 The Hudson Bay and Railway lands are usually available for 
 purchase at low rates, the situation of the Railway lands giving 
 them considerable value. 
 
 Grazing leases are granted on Dominion lands at the rate of 
 one penny per acre per annum, 100,000 acres being the largest 
 amount let to one person. The lease is held subject to the 
 immediate and continuous utilisation of the land, by placing 
 upon it in each of the first three years one head of cattle to every 
 60 acres, bringing up the total to one head of cattle for every 20 
 acres. 
 
 Special rules are in force as to mineral lands, which will be 
 dteseribed under the provinces. 
 
 The holders of homesteads or purchased farms on Dominion 
 lands, which are without timber, are entitled, on obtaining a 
 licence from the Crown Timber Agent (for which a nominal 
 registration fee is charged), to cut as much timber as they 
 require for constructive purposes or fuel, on unoccupied Crown 
 land. When there is timbered land in the vicinity a settler 
 may purchase a wood lot not exceeding 20 acres at a low rate. 
 Licences to cut timber for sale on surveyed or unsurveyed 
 Dominion lands are granted by the Crown Timber Agent, after 
 open competition, to the highest bidder. 
 
THE DOMINION OF CANADA. 51 
 
 The work of the Dominion Land Survey had, up to the end of 
 1898, completed the survey of a little over 80,000,000 acres, or 
 500,000 farms of 160 acres each. This, although equal to 
 125,000 square miles, is a very small fraction of the vast areas 
 of Crown lands available for cultivation between Lake Superior 
 and the Rocky Mountains. 
 
 The disposal of the Dominion lands is carried out through a 
 number of local agencies, as well as at the central office in 
 Ottawa, and the Railway and Hudson Bay lands are also to be 
 had through local agents. Information is freely given to 
 inquirers ; letters should be addressed to the Commissioners of 
 Dominion Lands, Ottawa ; or to the Agent for Dominion Lands 
 at the following towns in the west : — Winnipeg, Minnedosa, 
 Dauphin, Brandon, Alameda, Yorkton, Prince Albert, Regina, 
 Lethbridge, Edmonton, Red Deer, Calgary, Kamloops, and New 
 Westminster. 
 
 Railways and Waterways. — Canada possesses railways to 
 the length of almost 17,000 miles, most of these being single 
 lines. The most remarkable railway system is the Canadian 
 Pacific (familiarly known as the C.P.R.), on which through 
 trains run from Montreal to Vancouver, a distance of 2906 
 miles, in four days. The line has several branches, the most 
 important being that through the Crow Nest Pass, from Leth- 
 bridge to the Kootenay gold-mining region. Other lines run 
 out towards the north-west from several points of the Canadian 
 Pacific west of Winnipeg ; and there are junctions with United 
 States lines in the east, the centre, and the west. The Grand 
 Trunk Railway has an extensive system in eastern Canada, 
 especially in the Ontario peninsula ; and the Inter-Colonial 
 Railway (which belongs to the Dominion Government) connects 
 the Maritime Provinces' with Montreal. There are many 
 junctions with the railways of the United States in the eastern 
 provinces, at Winnipeg, and in British Columbia. The develop- 
 ment of the North- West Territories is being largely carried on 
 by a system of railway extension, river and lake navigation also 
 playing an important part. 
 
 Inland navigation takes place mainly on the St. Lawrence 
 system. Access to the great lakes from the sea is given by the 
 St. Lawrence and Niagara Rivers, the various rapids and water- 
 falls being avoided by 70 miles of canals. The locks on these 
 are mostly 270 feet long by 45 wide, and have 14 feet of water 
 on the sills ; but a few short lengths have smaller locks, and 
 admit vessels of only 9 feet draught. These are, however, 
 being enlarged to a standard size. The rapids of the St. Marie 
 
62 NEW LANDS. 
 
 River, between Lake Superior and Lake Huron, are overcome 
 by the Sault Ste. Marie Canal (usually known as the Soo 
 Canal), under 1 mile in length, with its single lock 900 feet 
 long and 60 feet wide. The rivers and lakes of British 
 Columbia and of the North-West Territories are in many cases 
 navigated by light draught steamers for great distances. 
 
 A railway from Winnipeg to a port on Hudson Bay has often 
 been suggested, in order to bring the centre of the country 
 within easy reach of ocean steamers ; but the uncertainty of the 
 navigation of Hudson Strait, on account of ice, has hitherto 
 prevented its adoption. 
 
 Ocean Steamers. — The Allan, Dominion, and Beaver lines 
 run large passenger steamers from Liverpool direct to Quebec 
 and Montreal in the summer, and to Halifax or St. John in 
 winter, when the St. Lawrence is frozen. They take about nine 
 days for the passage ; but a service of faster steamers has been 
 spoken of, which should reduce the time to six days or less. 
 The Canadian Steamship Company, in 1898, started steamers 
 from Milford to Charlottetown, Prince Edward Island, and the 
 port of Paspebiac, on Chaleur Bay, in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, 
 ■which is never blocked by ice, although there is considerable 
 risk in being caught in floating pack ice in the Gulf of St. 
 Lawrence during the winter months. On the west side, the 
 Canadian Pacific Company runs steamers fortnightly or monthly 
 to Japan and to Australia. 
 
53 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 THE DOMINION OP CANADA— EASTERN 
 PROVINCES. 
 
 Nova Scotia — Farming — Mining — New Brunswick — Forests — Prince 
 Edward's Island — Quebec — People — Climate — Natural Divisions — 
 Communications — Resources — Lumbering — Minerals — Mining Laws — 
 Ontario — Access and People — Natural Divisions — Climate — Com- 
 munications — Laws — Resources — New Agricultural Land — Timber — 
 Fisheries — Mining — Corundum — Iron — Copper and Nickel — Silver 
 and Platinum — Gold — Mining Laws. 
 
 Nova Scotia. 
 
 The Province of Nova Scotia occupies the peninsula between 
 the Atlantic Ocean and the Bay of Pundy. It lies further 
 east and south than any other province in Canada, but the 
 advantages of climate due to low latitude and proximity to 
 the sea are largely counterbalanced by the frequent fogs due 
 to the cold current which passes along the coast. The ex- 
 cessive cutting of the forests in the eastern coast belt has led 
 to a deterioration of the climate of the interior, by allowing the 
 raw sea winds to penetrate unchecked. Halifax, the capital, is 
 one of the few Canadian seaports which is open all the year 
 round, and the Inter-Oolonial Railway carries a considerable 
 volume of trade in winter to the inland provinces. 
 
 The fishing and lumbering industries, which are carried out on 
 a large scale, occupy a considerable part of the population, but 
 require local knowledge and experience in those seeking to 
 pursue them. 
 
 Panning. — The best farming land is all occupied, and the 
 Crown lands of the province, which are still undisposed of, do not 
 oflFer much inducement to newcomers. The salt marsh land of 
 the Annapolis Valley is one of the best parts of Canada for 
 fruit growing, especially for apples, and also for general farming. 
 This land is consequently comparatively dear, costing from £3 to 
 .£8 per acre when improved and in good order. The general 
 conditions of life are easy, the farmhouses being particularly 
 
54 NEW LANDS. 
 
 well built and comfortable, -with good markets for all 
 farm products, while the variety . of other industries which 
 flourish in the province make it more like the old country than 
 most parts of Canada. The majority of the inhabitants were 
 born in the province, and, as a rule, are of Scottish descent. 
 
 Grovernment help is o£fered in promoting creameries and 
 cheese factories, and dairy farming is consequently being 
 developed. 
 
 Mining. — The best opportunities for enterprise will probably 
 be found in the mining industry. The coalfields of the province 
 cover about 635 square miles, and produce nearly 2,500,000 tons 
 of coal annually. Most of the mines are at Sydney, in Oape 
 Breton Island, in Cumberland County, at Joggins and Spring- 
 hill, on the Inter-Colonial Railway, in the extreme west of the 
 province, and in Pictou County, near New Glasgow. The total 
 quantity of available coal in the province is estimated at 
 7,000,000,000 tons.* A royalty of 10 cents (5d.) per ton is paid 
 to the provincial government on all coal sold or removed from 
 the mine, or used in the manufacture of coke. 
 
 Iron is also mined and manufactured to some extent, the ores 
 being of very high quality. The Dominion Government pays 
 a bounty of from $2 to $3 per ton on pig iron and steel manu- 
 factured in Canada from Canadian ore. 
 
 Gold is found in considerable quantities all along the south- 
 east coast from Cape Breton to Yarmouth, the yield approaching 
 30,000 ounces per annum, worth, approximately, $637,000 
 (£127,000.) The gold of Nova Scotia occurs in quartz veins in 
 Cambrian quartzites or slates. The fissure veins are usually 
 narrow but rich, while the great bulk of the quartz is of low 
 grade, and is only now being seriously attacked. The convenient 
 situation of the goldfields, the favourable climate, and the steady 
 supply of labour, permit of the ore being worked economically, 
 the cost of mining and milling combined not exceeding $1.65 
 (6s. 8d.) per ton. The average richness in gold was, in 1893, 
 $8.68 (39s. 6d.) per ton, but formerly it averaged $12 (50s.) The 
 chief goldfields are at Stormont, on the coast, about 48 miles 
 from Oape Canso ; the other important centres being Brookfield, 
 Oaribou, TJniacke, Fifteen-mile Stream, and Sherbrooke. The 
 industry could doubtless be greatly extended. 
 
 The search for minerals in Nova Scotia is subject to the 
 
 control of the provincial government, which grants a licence to 
 
 prospect for gold or silver at a rate of 50 cents (2s.) per area per 
 
 annum, the minimum number of areas taken being six and the 
 
 * Statistical Tmvt Booh of Canada, for 1897, p. 116. 
 
THE DOMINION OF CANADA — EASTERN PROVINCES. 55 
 
 maximum 100. These gold or silver areas are laid out with the 
 uniform dimensions of 250 feet north and south and 150 feet 
 east and west. When a claim is made a lease of gold mining 
 land is granted on the annual payment of 50 cents per area, 
 and a royalty of 2 per cent, is charged on the metal produced, 
 gold being officially valued at $19 per ounce smelted, or $18 
 per ounce unsmelted, and silver at $1 per ounce. In order to 
 encourage alluvial gold mining, an Act was passed in 1898, 
 allowing a grant of 500 areas to any person who expends 40 
 cents per area within three months, after which a payment of 
 $250 (£50) secures a prospecting licence over the 500 areas for 
 a year. 
 
 Probably there is no other gold-mining region in the world 
 where the precious metal may be obtained in circumstances 
 so comfortable for the miner who does not wish to lose touch 
 with civilisation, and who yet seeks to avoid the turmoil of 
 great cities. 
 
 Prospecting licences for other minerals are given for $30, 
 available for five square miles for a year. 
 
 New Brunswick. 
 
 This province depends mainly on its forests, with which 
 most of the surface is still covered, although the pine, the most 
 valuable tree from the lumberer's point of view, has been nearly 
 exhausted. Maple, beech, and other hardwood trees abound on 
 the higher ground. 
 
 The climate of New Brunswick is more continental than that 
 of Nova Scotia, the winters being colder and the summers 
 hotter. The conditions of agriculture are correspondingly more 
 arduous, as the soil is, on the whole, no more favourable. Stock 
 raising and dairy farming are more profitable than grain crops 
 or fruit growing. 
 
 The Grown lands, which are mostly rough, undulating ground, 
 covered with forest, may be bought outright in any quantity at 
 $1 per acre ; but free grants of 100 acres are made subject to 
 a certain amount of clearing being done and a house built. The 
 clearing of the land costs from 503. to 60s. per acre ; and, on the 
 whole, the agricultural development of this province does not 
 appear likely to attract the attention of outsiders. 
 
 The fisheries are valuable, and the port of St. John does a 
 considerable over-sea trade, and ha^ direct steamer services to 
 and from England. 
 
 Coal occurs in the Carboniferous rocks of the province, but it 
 
56 NEW LANDS. 
 
 is inferior in quality to that of Nova Scotia, and less easily 
 worked. The mines are situated at Grand Lake, south-east of 
 Frederioton. 
 
 No great finds of gold have been made in the province. 
 Prospectors' licences are issued in the same manner, and on 
 almost the same terms, as in Nova Scotia. 
 
 The direct railway from St. John to Montreal passes across 
 the State of Maine, but other lines meet the Inter-Colonial 
 Railway passing entirely through Canadian territory. 
 
 Peince Edward Island. 
 
 This is the smallest of the provinces of Canada, and, being 
 a good country for mixed farming, it has been fairly well settled, 
 so that, so far as new land is concerned, it need not be 
 discussed here. The calling of the direct steamers from Milford 
 to Paspebiac at Charlottetown, the capital of the island- 
 province, may possibly tend to improve the commercial position 
 by supplying a ready market to the farmers ; but, in default of 
 mineral resources, no very great development is to be looked for. 
 
 The Province of Quebec. 
 
 People. — Quebec is the oldest province of Canada, the direct 
 representative of the original seventeenth century colony of 
 New France, and still the home of a large and increasing 
 French-speaking population. In 1891, out of a total population 
 in the province of 1,488,000, the number of French-speaking 
 Eoman Catholics was 1,200,000, leaving 288,000 people of 
 British origin, or, at least, of English speech. The large families 
 of the French Canadians are a matter of great importance in a 
 new country, the principal need of which is population, and it 
 is interesting also to observe that there is a tendency for the 
 return to Canada of French Canadians who had been induced 
 to cross the frontier into the United States. Yet a great 
 movement of population prevails from Quebec to the richer 
 lands of the west. 
 
 Climate, — The climate of Quebec is continental in character. 
 The winters are long, with deep snow and severe frosts, the 
 mean temperature during this period being 14° F., and tempera- 
 tures falling below 0° F. are often registered. From the middle of 
 November to the middle of April the rivers are frozen, and 
 navigation on the lakes is stopped. The only seaport of the 
 province which remains open all the year round is the fine 
 Larhour of Paspebiac, on Chaleur Bay, in the Gulf of St. 
 
THE DOMINION OF CANADA — EASTERN PROVINCES. 57 
 
 Lawrence. Except at the time of thaw, in spring, the winter 
 weather is dry, bright, and invigorating, offering no hindrance 
 to such out-door work as lumbering, or to travelling. The 
 summers are hot and dry, the latitude being that of southern 
 Europe. A great variety of fruits which cannot be cultivated 
 in England ripen out of doors. The rainfall is everywhere 
 sufficient for agriculture. 
 
 Natural Divisions. — The province of Quebec extends from 
 the boundary of New Brunswick, along the south of the St, 
 Lawrence, adjoining the United States, until the international 
 boundary coincides with the centre of that river above Mon- 
 treal. The western boundary with Ontario is formed by the 
 Ottawa River and the meridian of 79° 30' W. as far as James 
 Bay, in Hudson Bay. Thence the northern border lies along 
 the East Maine and the Hamilton Bivers almost to the coast 
 of Labrador, approximately in 53° N. The total area is nearly 
 three times that of the United Kingdom, but at present the 
 population is almost entirely confined to a narrow belt on each 
 side of the St. Lawrence Biver. 
 
 The natural divisions of the province are three in number — 
 (a) The mountainous country on the United States border south 
 of the St. Lawrence, forming the northern extremity of tli© 
 Appalachian chain. The rocks forming this chain vary in age 
 from Archaean to Devonian, and contain considerable mineral 
 wealth, while the surface is thickly wooded. 
 
 (b) The St. Lawrence Plain runs, between the mountains on the 
 south and the edge of the plateau on the north, from a little below 
 Quebec to the western extremity of the province. It has an area 
 of about 10,000 square miles, upon which almost the whole popu- 
 lation is concentrated, the land being for the most part cleared 
 and cultivated. Indeed, there are few parts of Europe which 
 present a richer or more settled appearance, or a closer succession 
 of villages and farms, than does the St. Lawrence Plain between 
 Quebec and Montreal. The portion of this track south of the 
 river is called the " Eastern Townships," and is mainly settled 
 by an English-speaking population. The soil, formed of glacial 
 sands and clays, is very fertile. 
 
 (c) The Laurentian Plateau occupies the whole of the north of 
 the province. The greater part is uninhabited, except by a few 
 native Indians, and much of it is still unexplored and unmapped. 
 The plateau is composed of Archaean rocks, the surface having 
 a mean elevation of from 500 to 2000 feet, and is strongly 
 worn by glacial action. It presents a maze of interconnected 
 rivers and lakes, which form the only lines of communication 
 
68 NEW LANDS. 
 
 ■with the interior. The rivers flow to the St. Lawrence, to 
 Hudson Bay, and to the Labrador coast respectively. 
 
 Communications. — The largest towns are all situated on the 
 St. Lawrence. Quebec, the most eastern, is almost wholly 
 T'rench as regards language and customs. It is the port at which 
 all emigrants to Canada are landed, and has a railway running 
 south-west to Montreal, and another running north to Lake St. 
 John and the Saguenay River on the Laurentian Plateau. The 
 Inter-colonial RaiWay, on the right bank of the St. Lawrence, 
 is reached by means of a ferry to Levis. 
 
 Montreal, 168 miles further up the St. Lawrence, is the 
 largest town of Canada, with a population approaching a quarter 
 of a million. The largest ocean steamers can reach it, the 
 shallows in the river having been dredged out, and it is the 
 great trade emporium of the country. The St. Lawrence is 
 here crossed by the first railway bridge, and lines radiate in all 
 directions — up the St. Lawrence to Toronto and the Ontario 
 peninsula; up the Ottawa to Ottawa and the far west; due 
 south to New York, and east to Quebec and to the Maritime 
 Provinces. The St. Lawrence canal system begins near 
 Montreal, at the Lachine rapids, which form the first obstruction 
 to free navigation from the direction of the sea. 
 
 Montreal being the terminus of the Canadian Pacific Railway, 
 as well as of the St. Lawrence canals, is the gateway to western 
 Oanada. 
 
 Resources. — The main resources of the province are agricul- 
 ture and lumbering. Both are capable of great extension, 
 although so much attention is given to the farming lands farther 
 west, that little of the rougher country in Quebec has been 
 taken seriously in hand. The breeding of cattle and the manu- 
 facture of cheese receive great attention. The St. Lawrence 
 Plain is in every way the fittest for agriculture, and it may be 
 said to be fully occupied. In addition to maize and the ordinary 
 farm crops of temperate countries, tobacco is largely grown, and 
 apples, pears, and plums come to great perfection. 
 
 On the Plateau fruit growing is unimportant, and the farmers 
 are content with growing grain and keeping live stock. The 
 provincial government pays great attention to the improvement 
 of agriculture, by establishing and subsidising agricultural 
 societies and shows, farmers' clubs, and organising lectures, as 
 well as by opening agricultural schools. 
 
 The growing of plants for industrial purposes, such as the 
 sugar beet, flax, and hemp, might probably be introduced; 
 while the industry of extracting sugar from the sap of the sugar 
 
THE DOMINION OF CANADA — EASTERN PROVINCES. 69 
 
 inaple is one that might perhaps be extended. The ginseng trade 
 was once of great importance, but the author has been unable to 
 find if it is still carried on. With the direct service of train and 
 steamer to China now available, it would seem to be worth 
 considering. 
 
 The price of unimproved land in the Eastern Townships is 
 from $2 to $5 per acre, but it may cost as much as $15 an acre 
 to clear partially. Improved land costs from $20 to $30 per 
 acre, and the system of railways is so good that there is always 
 a ready market for farm produce. This is the only part of 
 Quebec which at present offers great attractions to English- 
 speaking settlers. 
 
 In the less desirable parts of Quebec, especially on such parts 
 of the Laurentian Plateau as have been opened up by railways 
 for settlement — e.g., the Lake St. John and Saguenay districts — 
 land may be obtained free of charge. It may also be bought at 
 from lOd. to 2s. 6d. an acre, on certain conditions as to clearing. 
 Any one over eighteen may get 100 acres of uncleared land free, 
 on condition of building a house and having 12 acres cleared 
 within four years. A farm of 100 acres (presumably in a more 
 favourable locality than the ordinary homesteads) may be 
 claimed under a special Act of the provincial Parliament, by the 
 father or mother of a family of twelve living children. 
 
 Lumbering. — There is hardly any part of the province, 
 except the cleared portion of the St. Lawrence Plain, without 
 a covering of forest. The white pine of the Ottawa Valley is 
 the most valuable timber tree, and the largest lumbering trade 
 is now carried on in the north-west of the province round 
 Lake Temiscaming. There is no railway to the mining camps 
 in this district, the route lying up the Ottawa Valley. The 
 second great centre of lumbering camps is along the railway 
 from Quebec to Lake St. John, where there are extensive woods 
 of spruce, cedar, hemlock, and birch. As time goes on the 
 timber - cutters have to move farther and farther into the 
 interior, but the limiting condition is always the neighbour- 
 hood of a river, to serve as a means of transport for the timber 
 to the market. Hitherto the light coniferous woods which float 
 readily have alone been cut in large quantities, there being no 
 means of carriage for hard wood, which floats deeply or sinks in 
 •water. As the only outlet from the country is by the St. 
 Lawrence, timber-catting is confined to the basin of that river. 
 
 Beyond the Height of Land, there lies a vast virgin country 
 richly wooded and drained by great rivers to Hudson Bay and 
 the Labrador coast. The rivers flowing into James Bay are well 
 
60 NEW LANDS. 
 
 adapted for floating timber, and if the navigation of that sea is 
 seriously undertaken, there should be a great future for the 
 timber trade on these northern slopes. Until that is done the 
 forests cannot be utilised. Unlike most of the rest of Canada 
 this region has not been devastated by forest fires, the few 
 travellers who have passed through reporting only small patches 
 of burnt trees. 
 
 Here then is a great new land, not yet adequately explored, 
 but from the reports of Mr. O'Sullivan, of the Quebec Land 
 Survey, Dr. Bell, and Mr. Low, of the Dominion Geological 
 Survey,* a region of vast resources. When cleared, the ground 
 will in most cases form good agricultural land, there being many 
 extensive deposits of rich clay soil; but the time when the 
 land can be divided out into farms is still far distant. 
 
 At present the only part of the Laurentian Plateau to be made 
 available for settlers is in the Lake St. John region ; but when- 
 railways are extended northward great developments may be 
 expected in the Lake Temiscaming district and the Keepawa 
 region west of it, as well as in the more remote regions to the 
 north. 
 
 The timber industry in Quebec is carried on by virtue of 
 licences to cut wood issued by the provincial government, and a 
 royalty is payable on the timber cut, which is measured for the 
 purpose by a Government agent attached to each lumbering 
 camp. 
 
 Minerals. — Quebec suffers perhaps more than the other 
 provinces from the neglect which mining has hitherto met with 
 in Canada, and the available mineral wealth of the province is 
 still practically unknown, while the statistics of actual mining 
 are very unsatisfactory. Indications, however, are not wanting 
 that there is a future for mining. 
 
 Gold has been worked to a small extent in the auriferous 
 gravels of the Chaudifere River, on the south of the St. Lawrence, 
 and some attempts have been made at quartz mining in the 
 county of Beauce, in the Southern Higlilands. So far as is 
 known at present there is no large deposit of gold in the 
 region. In the northern districts, especially in the rivers 
 flowing to Hudson Bay, promising traces of gold have been 
 reported, and it would certainly be worth the while of prospectors 
 to pay attention to that region, where it is quite probable that 
 goldfields may exist ; and if not gold other minerals of value 
 are almost sure to be found. When once gold or some other 
 
 * " Geological Survey of Canada," Annual Report, vol. viii. (1896), Part 
 I. ; also Oeographical Journal, vol. x. (1897), p. 1. 
 
THE DOMINION OF CANADA — EASTERN PROVINCES. 61 
 
 valuable mineral has been discovered, a railway could easily be 
 constructed to reach the deposit and the existing timber 
 industry, and the prospective agriculture that would be thus 
 aided in their development promise prosperity to the country, 
 even should the mines become exhausted. Dr. Bell says of the 
 northern region* : — " The Huronian rocks, which constitute our 
 most productive ore-bearing system, are largely developed within 
 its borders. The great belt of these rocks, mingled with eruptive 
 greenstones and granites, which runs from Lake Superior to 
 Lake Mistassini, attains its maximum width in this region, and 
 measures 150 miles on a line drawn straight north from the head 
 of Grand Lake to Lake Mattagami. A considerable proportion 
 of the Huronian system of the district consists of various 
 kinds of crystalline schists and pyroclastic rocks. These and 
 the greenstones are intersected by numerous veins of quartz, 
 many of which have a promising appearance for gold. Iron 
 pyrites in economic quantities, and containing copper, was 
 found in several localities on the Broadback Eiver." 
 
 Silver, in small quantities, and Copper are obtained from the 
 copper pyrites in the Oapelton district of the Eastern Townships, 
 the ore being used mainly for the production of sulphuric acid. 
 The metals are not reduced in Canada, but are exported as ore 
 or matte to the United States. 
 
 Iron is widespread in the form of bog ore, and other ores also 
 occur, but they are mined and smelted only to a small extent. 
 Magnetite and hematite could be largely extracted if there were 
 a market, but tariffs restrict exports to the United States, and 
 there is no coal supply in the province. It might be found 
 profitable to send the fine ores to Nova Scotia for reduction, if 
 the iron industry of Canada were taken up energetically. Chrome 
 iron ore is mined to some extent in the Eastern Townships for 
 export to the United States. 
 
 Though coal is apparently quite absent from Quebec, and 
 very little petroleum or natural gas occurs, there are immense 
 deposits of Peat which have not yet been utilised. How far it 
 would be profitable to compress and dry this peat for fuel 
 depends rather on the state of the market than on the nature 
 of the raw material. 
 
 The Thetford district of the Eastern Townships is the greatest 
 Asbestos mining district in the world, the mineral occurring in 
 veins in solid serpentine. In 1896 about 12,000 tons were 
 raised. The demand for asbestos is steady, and the production 
 will doubtless be increased. 
 
 * OeographicalJourncd, vol. x. (1897), p. 12. 
 
62 NEW LANDS. . . 
 
 Mica is extensively mined in the Ottawa valley, and phos- 
 phates, which are occasionally worked for the manufacture of 
 fertilisers, also occur in that region, although not as yet exported 
 in large quantities. The land in the neighbourhood is, more' 
 over, still unexhausted, and does not demand manure. 
 
 The present low standard of mineral production in Quebec 
 does not seem likely to last, and it may confidently be stated 
 that the vast northern region in particular will repay careful 
 prospecting, for hitherto the Eastern Townships and the neigh- 
 bourhood of the large towns alone have been properly examined. 
 
 Mining Laws.* — In Quebec mining rights are held to be 
 property separate from the land on which the minerals are 
 found. Mining concessions are divided into three classes, which' 
 differ in unsurveyed and surveyed lands. 
 
 (1) In unsurveyed territory a concession of the first class 
 comprises 400 acres, one of the second class 200 acres, and of 
 the third 100 acres. 
 
 (2) In surveyed townships the classes contain four, two, and 
 one lots respectively. 
 
 A single individual can acquire mining rights over more than 
 400 acres only in exceptional cases, when the Governor in 
 Council may increase the holding to 1000 acres, which is the 
 maximum allowed in such cases. Crown lands of mineral 
 value are obtained from the Commissioner of Colonisation and 
 Mines, either as mining concessions by purchase, or on the' 
 condition of being occupied and worked under a mining licence. 
 In the sale of mining lands there are conditions as to com- 
 mencing work within two years of purchasing, and expending 
 a certain minimum sum in developing the mines. Minerals are 
 divided for the purpose of land sales into two groups, some- 
 what inaccurately termed "superior metals" and "inferior 
 metals." Land containing the "superior metals" (which' 
 include gold, silver, lead, copper, nickel, graphite, asbestos, 
 mica, and phosphates) are sold at $10 (£2) per acre if within 12 
 miles of a railway, and $5 (£1) if more than 12 miles from 
 a railway. Lands containing the "inferior metals" (which 
 include all minerals not enumerated above) cost from $4 to $2 
 per acre. 
 
 Exploration and prospecting licences cost from $2 to $5 per 
 100 acres if on surveyed territory, and $5 per square mile in. 
 unsurveyed territory, the licence being valid for three months, 
 and renewable. Such a licence implies an option of purchasing- 
 any lot on which minerals may be discovered. 
 
 * From the Statistical Year Book of Canada for 1897. 
 
THE DOMINION OF CANADA — EASTEEN PfiOVINCES. 63 
 
 It is to be presumed that exploration and prospecting in 
 the unexplored territory to the north of the province is un- 
 hampered by Government restrictions, which, indeed, it would 
 be impossible to enforce in that region. 
 
 The Pkovince op Ontaeio. 
 
 Access and People. — Ontario is practically an inland 
 province, for it only touches the sea on the southern shore of 
 Hudson Bay, and the rapids of the St. Lawrence prevent largo 
 ocean-going vessels irom reaching its borders. The system of 
 canals, now being improved on a regular system, admits smaller 
 vessels to the great lakes, which are themselves navigated for 
 eight months in the year by large lake craft of considerable ton- 
 nage. The lakes aiford a coast line of over 1700 miles in Ontario. 
 
 This province offers a great contrast to Quebec in the 
 character of its population, which is mainly of British origin, 
 although Canadian born. A considerable number of the people 
 are descended from the United Empire Loyalists, who left the 
 United States at the close of the revolutionary war in order to 
 remain British subjects. English is practically the only 
 language used in the province, the alien elements being rapidly 
 assimilated ; while the laws of the province are derived from the 
 English common law, and not from the old French law, as in 
 Quebec. The large city of Toronto, on Lake Ontario, is more 
 akin to those of the United States than any other town of 
 Canada, and is a centre of great industrial and commercial 
 activity. 
 
 Natural Divisions. — Ontario lies entirely to the north of the 
 St. Lawrence River, and the central line of the great lakes — 
 Erie, Ontario, Huron, and Superior. It is separated from 
 Quebec by the Ottawa River and the meridian of 79° 30' W. up 
 to James Bay, while the Albany River, flowing into that bay, 
 with Lakes St. Joseph and Lonely, separate it from Keewatin 
 on the north. In the west, the Rainy River forms the inter- 
 national frontier, and Ontario meets Manitoba on the Lake of 
 the "Woods. 
 
 The surface of the province is of an undulating character, with 
 neither mountains nor great elevations, the watersheds being 
 usually marked by no prominent ridges. The portion surround- 
 ing James Bay, unlike the adjoining part of Quebec, is made up 
 of Silurian and Devonian limestones, which present little surface 
 relief, and the district is swampy, thinly wooded, and practically 
 without white inhabitants. 
 
64 NEW LANDS. 
 
 The greater part of the province, like Quebec, lies on the 
 LaurerCtian Plateau, part of the great Archaean axis of the 
 continent, made up of the much contorted Laurentian and 
 Huronian rocks. The Huronian rocks, with the igneous intru- 
 sions which characterise them, are of peculiar importance on 
 account of the mineral wealth they contain. The Laurentian 
 Plateau comes down to the coast of Lakes Huron and Superior, 
 and stretches to the Lake of the Woods. In the south-west it 
 contains some hilly scenery of a bold type, but the prevailing 
 •character of the formation is a succession of gently undulated 
 hills and hollows, much modified by ice action. The summits of 
 the hills are usually almost bare rook with a very thin covering 
 of vegetation, but in the valleys there are valuable forests of 
 spruce and pine, which also flourish on the glacial and lacustrine 
 deposits which fringe the borders of the lakes. This vast area is 
 just beginning to be peopled. 
 
 The prolongation of the St. Lawrence Plain occupies a com- 
 paratively small area along the St. Lawrence, east of Lake 
 Ontario, and this is not as yet thickly settled except in favoured 
 parts. 
 
 The fourth natural division of Ontario is the peninsula pro- 
 jecting southward of the Laurentian Plateau between Lakes 
 Ontario, Erie, and Huron. It is mainly underlain by horizon- 
 tally stratified Silurian and Devonian limestones and other 
 rocks, which, however, are in most cases thickly covered by 
 glacial and lacustrine deposits forming a remarkably fertile soil. 
 This is the most thickly settled part of the province, and 
 perhaps contains the very best land in Canada, while it is 
 actually the most southerly part of the Dominion extending 
 to 42° S. 
 
 The rivers of Ontario, except those forming the boundaries, 
 are comparatively unimportant, although the Abittibi and 
 Moose rivers, and others flowing into Hudson Bay may ulti- 
 mately become useful. 
 
 Climate. — The climate of the different parts of the province 
 differs greatly. On the whole it has a more marked continental 
 character than that of Quebec. North of Lake Superior the 
 winter is very severe, the thermometer occasionally descending to 
 — 50° F. The snow does not usually vanish from the forests 
 until May, but the summer comes on quickly and is warm, the 
 weather for four months being delightful. In September frosts 
 begin, and by November navigation on the great lakes has 
 ceased. Farther east, towards the Ottawa valley, the winters 
 are less severe, and, although 0° F. is a common enough tem- 
 
THE DOMINION OF CANADA — EASTERN PEOVINCES. 65 
 
 perature, the air is particularly exhilarating. The Ontario 
 peninsula has a milder, although still cold winter, but the 
 severity of the season is tempered by the surrounding lakes, the 
 temperature of which, of course, never falls below the freezing 
 point. The summers are decidedly hot, resembling those of 
 southern Europe, and fruit of many kinds ripen admirably. 
 Snow does not cover the ground permanently until about the 
 middle of December. The rainfall for the province, as a whole, 
 is between 30 and 40 inches, well distributed throughout the 
 year. The summer rainfall comes for the most part from 
 passing thunderstorms, and cloudy days are uncommon at all 
 seasons. 
 
 Communications. — For the transport of grain and timber 
 the shipping of the great lakes during the open season is very 
 important, and will increase in importance when the canals con- 
 necting the lakes with the St. Lawrence have been deepened, 
 and the locks enlarged to admit vessels of 14 feet draught. 
 
 The railway system of the Laurentian plain and the peninsula 
 is highly developed. The lines of the Grand Trunk system run 
 from Montreal along the St. Lawrence and Lake Ontario to 
 Toronto, whence they radiate over the peninsula, and make 
 many junctions with the lines of the United States. The north 
 of the province is untouched by the railway, but the Canadian 
 Pacific line from Ottawa branches at Sudbury, one line running 
 into the United States at Sault St. Marie, and the main line 
 continuing along the northern shore of Lake Superior to the 
 Lake of the Woods where it enters Manitoba. 
 
 Laws. — The laws of Ontario are in some ways more repressive 
 than in the other provinces. Sunday observance is enforced by 
 the prohibition of labour in bakehouses, and by the prohibition 
 of all sales and of pleasure excursions, either by railway or 
 steamer, on that day. The liquor trade is carried on under 
 licences which will be refused if against the wish of a majority 
 of the ratepayers ; and drink must not be sold to persons under 
 twenty-one years of age, nor tobacco to persons under eighteen. 
 How far these regulations are enforced it is difficult to say, but 
 in some places within the province the liquor laws and the rules 
 for Sunday observance were certainly not rigorously interpreted 
 in 1897. 
 
 Besoirrces. — Farming is the chief industry of Ontario, and, 
 as in the other parts of Canada, the tendency is to depend less 
 on cereals and more on animal produce, especially upon the 
 manufacture of cheese and butter, both of which are produced 
 in very large quantities. In 1898 there were over 2,200,000- 
 
 5 
 
66 NEW LANDS. 
 
 head of cattle in the province, 965,000 of which were milch cows, 
 with about 1,600,000 sheep and 1,500,000 swine. In addition to 
 ordinary farm produce, tobacco is grown to a considerable extent, 
 and grapes, peaches, tomatoes, as well as commoner fruit, thrive 
 well in the peninsula. It may be said that the rich land of the 
 Ontario peninsula is fully taken up, and that only farmers with 
 experience and capital need hope to make their way there. On 
 the other hand, the reputation of the district induces many who 
 intend to take up new land in more remote situations to learn 
 their trade from the Ontario farmers, or at the admirable 
 provincial agricultural college at Guelph. The farming of 
 eastern Ontario, where the ground has long been cleared and 
 cultivated, is the most scientific and prosperous in Canada. 
 
 New Agrieultural Land. — As the Canadian Pacific Rail- 
 way runs for almost a thousand miles through the unalienated 
 Grown lands of the province, there is easy access to a large belt 
 of country. Most of the land is covered with forest, or the 
 remains of forests devastated by fire ; but, even if cleared, much 
 of it is so rocky as to be almost valueless for agricultural 
 purposes. Still, here and there, there are patches of' good land, 
 and occasionally large areas presenting all the conditions 
 required for successful settlement. The pine on land sold or 
 granted to agricultural settlers remains the property of the 
 crown. The settler is allowed as much as he requires for build- 
 ing purposes, and all other kinds of timber becomes his absolute 
 property. To pioneers content to work hard and live in 
 solitude, the creation of new farms in Ontario offers some advan- 
 tages, although perhaps less than in Manitoba or in the 
 Territories. The available portions of the 106,000,000 acres of 
 provincial lands cannot be more concisely described than in the 
 words of Mr. T. W. Gibson, Secretary of the Bureau of Mines 
 in Toronto, in the British Association Handbook to Canada, 1897 
 (pp. 216-218):— 
 
 " 1. In the districts of Muskoka, Parry Sound, Haliburton, and 
 Nipissing, and parts of the counties of Peterborough, Hastings, 
 Frontenac, Addirigton, and Renfrew. Between five and six 
 millions of acres in these districts have been opened for settle- 
 ment, mainly under the provisions of the Free Grants and 
 Homesteads Act, which give an actual settler 100 acres if he 
 be a single man, or 200 acres if the head of a family, free 
 of cost, on his performing settlement duties. These consist 
 <rf five years' residence, clearing and cultivating at least 15 
 acres, and erecting a habitable house. Much of these sections 
 is rocky, and not adapted for tillage, but there are many arable' 
 
THE DOMINION OF CANADA — EASTERN PROVINCES. 67 
 
 areas, and the running streams and nutritious grasses "which 
 abound give ample scope for dairying and stock raising. 
 
 "2. At various points along the main line of the Canadian 
 Pacific Railway, in the districts of Nipissing and Algoma, such 
 as Mattawa, North Bay, Sturgeon Falls, Sudbury, and Sault Ste. 
 Marie, also on St. Joseph and Manitoulin Islands (the latter 
 administered as Indian lands by the Dominion Government). 
 About 900,000 acres contiguous to these several places are 
 ofiered to settlers, partly as free grants, but mostly for sale, at 
 20 or 50 cents per acre. Three or four years' residence, the 
 erection of a habitable house, and clearing and cultivating 10 
 per cent, of the area, are required previous to the issue of the 
 Crown patent. Broken land is here also the rule, though there 
 are many tracts well suited for farming, and some well-settled 
 and prosperous neighbourhoods. 
 
 " 3, At Port- Arthur, where there are several free grant 
 townships, and at Dryden, on the C.P.R., between Port-Arthur 
 and Eat Portage, where two townships have been opened for 
 sale, and two others recently surveyed and laid out. There is a 
 large area of strong clay land here, equal in extent to a good-sized 
 county, easy to clear, and free from boulders. A pioneer farm, 
 started by the Department of Agriculture in 1894, has led to a 
 considerable settlement, and a large amount of land being taken 
 up. The price is 50 cents per acre, and the usual settlement 
 duties are required. 
 
 " 4. In the valley of the Rainy River, in the north-western 
 part of the province, the Ontario side of which comprises a 
 fertile alluvial belt of 500,000 or 600,000 acres. This section 
 is one of much promise, as the gold-mining industry of the Rainy 
 Lake and Seine River regions, now being rapidly developed, 
 will afford an excellent market for agricultural products. There 
 are twenty townships open for settlement under the Free Grants 
 Act. Continuous steamer navigation connects Fort Frances, at 
 the foot of Rainy Lake, with Rat Portage, on Lake of the 
 Woods. 
 
 "5. On Lake Temiscaming, where at least 500,000 acres of 
 rich calcareous subsoil, covered by many inches of vegetable 
 mould, is found in one block stretdiing to the north and north- 
 west of the lake. Twenty-five townships have been surveyed, 
 of which five have been placed on the market at 60 cents per 
 acre to actual settlers. The timber is mostly small, and the 
 land ia not difScult to clear. Considerable settlement is now 
 going in. 
 ■"Besides ijhese areas now available, there are Inany others 
 
68 NEW LANDS. 
 
 of greater or less extent which are yet inaccessible, or too remote 
 from markets to be of immediate use. One of these is a tract 
 of land containing many thousands of acres, well adapted for 
 settlement, discovered in 1896, near the upper waters of the 
 Montreal Kiver, by an exploring party sent out by the Depart- 
 ment of Crown Lands. In the valleys of the great rivers 
 running northward into James Bay, or on the tablelands 
 between, there is reason to believe large areas of good agricul- 
 tural land exist." 
 
 Timber. — The resources of Ontario in forests yielding timber 
 and wood for pulp manufacture were formerly enormous, and are 
 still great. Seckless timber cutting and the prevalence of 
 forest fires have already caused a great waste of wealth, and 
 even reduced the agricultural value of the land too thoroughly 
 cleared. When it is remembered that a very large part of the 
 province is unfit for tillage, and not likely to contain mineral 
 wealth, the loss of the old timber is seen to be an irremediable 
 disaster. Attention on the part of the Government is only now 
 being directed to this criminal waste of the resources of the 
 country. Professor Macoun says : — * 
 
 " Twenty-five years ago the Algoma district, over 1000 miles 
 from east to west, and, we may say, 200 miles from north to 
 south, was a solid coniferous forest. To-day most of it is so 
 completely denuded of trees, that even the dead and whitened 
 trunks of some localities have disappeared, and nothing is to be 
 seen for miles but bushes and young trees growing in the crevices 
 of the naked rocks, repeated fires having burnt up every particle 
 of the former covering, which was the accumulation of ages." 
 
 Professor Macoun looks on the lumbering industry in Ontario 
 as less than a doubtful benefit to the country, considering that 
 in the interest of the people of the future the dwindling forests 
 ought to be protected, and not further depleted and destroyed. 
 
 The region where lumbering is now carried on most extensively 
 is in the Ottawa Valley, close to the Quebec frontier, and 
 particularly on the shores of Lake Temiscaming, which is 
 reached by river steamer from the station of Mattawa, on the 
 Canadian Pacific Railway. The outlet for the timber is by river 
 to Ottawa, where the principal saw mills of the province are 
 situated. A good deal of lumbering is also done in the district 
 of Algoma, north of Lake Superior, and a great wood-pulp mill 
 is established at Sault Ste. Marie, by the side of the Canadian 
 " Soo " Canal. The most westerly lumbering camps are in the 
 neighbourhood of the Lake of the Woods, and the timber is 
 • Handbook of Canada, Toronto, 1897, p. 276. 
 
THE DOMINION OF CANADA — EASTERN PROVINCES. 69 
 
 sawn up near Eat Portage, and mainly utilised in the locality, 
 or sent by rail to the treeless districts of Manitoba and the 
 North-West Territories. 
 
 Untouched forests cover a considerable part of the drainage 
 area to Hudson Bay; but these are still inaccessible and un- 
 explored. 
 
 Fisheries. — The fine whitefish of the great lakes are superior 
 in flavour to the Canadian salmon, and give rise to a considerable 
 local industry. When better known in other countries there 
 seems to be no reason why a great canning industry should not 
 be developed on the lakes, the supply being vast and the fishing 
 trade by no means fully developed. The sturgeon is also a 
 valuable fish, and not uncommon. There is some trade in the 
 roe or caviare on the Lake of the Woods, and if proper attention 
 be paid to the preparation, Canadian caviare might compete 
 openly with that of Kussia ; it is whispered that already not a 
 little caviare on the continental European markets sold as 
 Russian is in reality " made in Canada." 
 
 Mining. — The prosperity of Ontario will largely depend 
 upon the manner in which the vast mineral resources of the 
 province are made available. If wisely developed, in conjunction 
 with agricultural settlement, the mines of Ontario should be a 
 source, not only of Canadian, but also of imperial prosperity. At 
 present a great part of the capital employed in the mines is 
 derived from the United States, and the final metallurgical 
 processes are, for the most part, carried on in the latter country. 
 The fact that the mineral wealth of Ontario is only beginning to 
 be utilised, and that the discoveries have not been of a sensa- 
 tional kind, may perhaps account for the small amount of 
 British capital invested ; but the work of the Geological 
 Survey has demonstrated that there are few richer metalliferous 
 regions in the world. The absence of coal is the most serious 
 drawback, nor is there much likelihood of any being found in 
 the future, for there are no strata in the province newer than 
 the Devonian, except the glacial and lacustrine deposits, in 
 which a little lignite sometimes occurs. Near Sudbury large 
 veins of a curious mineral, which closely resembles anthracite, 
 but is more nearly pure carbon, have been found. It has been 
 termed anthraxolite, but its value as a fuel and the extent of the 
 supply are not yet known. The conditions, in fact, are not 
 unlike those prevailing in the metal-mining regions of Norway 
 and Sweden, and either imported coal — which can readily be 
 obtained at the lake ports from the United States — has to be 
 iised, or else charcoal from the forests, or electrical energy derived 
 
70 NEW LANDS. 
 
 from water-power must be employed, and neither of these have 
 as yet been essayed to any extent. Petroleum occurs in large 
 quantities in the Ontario Peninsula, where natural gas wells are 
 abo in use, and oil has been found on Manitoulin Island. The 
 supplies are being worked to their full extent. 
 
 Corundwm. — The valuable abrasive mineral, corundum has 
 been found by the Geological Survey, in 1897,* to be widely 
 distributed in the counties of Hastings and Renfrew (situated 
 between the Ottawa River and Lake Ontario), in a well settled 
 country, where labour and supplies are cheap and plentiful, 
 and where water power is abundant. The deposits crop out 
 at many places, and access to them may be had from Barry's 
 Bay, a station on the Ottawa, Amsprior, and Parry Sound 
 Railway, about 108 miles west of Ottawa. A steamer runs 
 from this station on Kaminitkeg Lake and the York River 
 to Havergal. Scarcely a year passes without some similar 
 discovery of minerals, valuable for industrial purposes, and for 
 the profitable working of which only experience and capital are 
 required. 
 
 Iron. — Iron ore of good quality occurs abundantly, and 
 the provincial governmeiit ofier a bounty of $1 per ton on 
 pig iron produced in Ontario from ores mined in that province, 
 this being in addition to the bounties offered by the Dominion 
 Government. In 1896 there was one blast furnace at work in 
 Hamilton, and in that year 15,000 tons of iron ore were raised in 
 the province. Formerly there was a considerable export of 
 magnetite and hematite to the United States, but this has ceased 
 owing to a hostile tariff. There are extensive deposits of those 
 valuable ores in western Ontario. 
 
 Copper and Nickel. — Copper ore occurs in veins on the north 
 of Lake Superior and Lake Huron. In the latter locality it 
 was formerly worked to some extent, but this source of supply 
 has scarcely been touched for the last twenty years. At present 
 copper is mainly obtained, combined with the much more valu- 
 able nickel, from the ores of the mines at Sudbury. In the matte, 
 as produced in the mines by roasting and smelting the sulphide 
 ores, copper and nickel occur in nearly equal proportions. The 
 matte is sent to the United States for further reduction. 
 
 The only other region in the world where nickel is produced 
 in any quantity is the French Australasian colony, New 
 Caledonia. 
 
 Nickel ores occur in vast quantities in the Sudbury district, 
 
 * Summary Report of the Geological Survey of Canada for 1897, Ottawa, 
 1898, pp. 48-56. 
 
THE DOMINION OF CANADA-r-lSASTERN PROVINCES. 71 
 
 on the margin of the masses of intrusive rocks of Huronian 
 age, the ore consisting mainly of a mixture of pyrrhotite 
 (magnetic pyrites) and copper pyrites, which contains from 2J 
 to 10 per cent, of nickel. Pyrrhotite also occurs in other parts 
 of the country, where it is found in association with Laurentian 
 rocks, and is almost free from nickeL The Sudbury deposits were 
 discovered in 1883, while a cutting was being made on the 
 Canadian Pacific Railway. 
 
 The importance of nickel is not only as an alloy in " German 
 silver," as a cheap and durable plating for exposed metal work, 
 and as a material for cooking utensils, but mainly as an 
 alloy with steel. When present in the proportion of 2 or 3 per 
 cent., it renders this metal extremely hard, and therefore 
 peculiarly suited for the manufacture of armour-plate for war- 
 ships and forts. It would consequently be of material im- 
 portance to Canada, and to the British Empire generally, if 
 this metal was refined in the country of its production. 
 
 Silver and Platinum. — Small quantities of platinum occur 
 in the Sudbury nickel ores, and the metal has been recognised 
 by prospectors in the form of an arsenide called sperrylite in 
 the same neighbourhood ; but it has never been produced on 
 a paying scale. Silver was formerly worked to a considerable 
 extent, the ores in the north-west of Lake Superior being very 
 rich in native metal as well as argentite and other silver-bearing 
 minerals, Mines were worked on the mainland west of Thunder 
 Bay, and, in particular, on Silver Islet in that bay ; but the 
 flooding of the chief mine, and the fall in the value of silver, 
 have put a stop to the work, and practically no silver is now 
 produced in the province, although the industry will probably 
 be revived. 
 
 Gold. — The prosperity of Ontario, so far as mineral products ■ 
 are concerned, is now due mainly to the extensive goldfields 
 which have recently been surveyed and exploited in the west 
 of the province. The fact that alluvial gold is not found makes 
 it impossible for individual miners to work profitably, and the 
 utilisation of the supplies necessitates the employment of ex- 
 perience and capital. Professor Coleman, of Toronto, who has 
 carried out extensive geological investigation in the gold- 
 producing districts, thus sums up his opinion of the value of 
 of the mines in Western Ontario: — * 
 
 " Unlike the adjoining province of Quebec, Ontario conjtains 
 no placers, the whole of the gold being obtained from quartz 
 veins found at or near the contact of bands of Huronian schist, 
 * Handbook of Canada, 1S97, pp. 308, 309. 
 
72 NEW LANDS. 
 
 ■with areas of Laurentian gneiss or granite, or eruptive bosses 
 of the latter rock. Gold has been found at various points for 
 nearly a thousand miles along almost the whole length of the 
 northern Archaean portion of the province ; but the richest and 
 most numerous finds have been made in a region 250 miles 
 long and about half as broad, lying to the west of Lake Superior. 
 The returns of gold for the province are somewhat less than 
 133,000 for the year 1893, and the same for the following year. 
 In 1895, $50,281 were produced, while the sum for eleven months 
 of 1896 was $142,605, an average of $14.83 per ton of ore 
 crushed, whereof $12.30, or 83 per cent, of the whole, was free 
 milling. 
 
 "There is every prospect that a number of mines will be 
 producing gold in 1897,* and that the total will rapidly increase. 
 The area of auriferous country is so enormous, and the ores, as 
 a whole, so easily treated — being like those of Nova Scotia, 
 mainly free milling — that within a few years a very large out- 
 put may be expected."t 
 
 The actual position and accessibility of the new goldfields may 
 be briefly stated. In most cases they promise permanent develop- 
 ment to the country, as gold-bearing quartz requiring heavy 
 machinery for its treatment is not usually soon worked out, and 
 the demand for timber and supplies will tend to attract settlers, 
 who will be firmly established before the mines are exhausted. 
 Most of the land now being prospected or worked for gold lies to 
 the north and west of Lake Superior, and is reached from various 
 stations of the Canadian Pacific Eailway, or, in some cases, from 
 ports on Lake Superior. 
 
 The nearest of the new goldfields is at Michipicoton, near 
 Lake Superior. It is at present reached only by canoes from 
 Missanabie Station, on the C.P.K.., a distance of about 70 miles ; 
 or by a short canoe trip from Michipicoton itself, a calling place 
 for the Lake Superior steamers, 75 miles from Sault Ste. Marie. 
 It is a new, but promising field. 
 
 Good gold-bearing quartz has been found near the station of 
 Jack Pish Bay, and the next centre is Wabigoon, on the C.P.R. 
 Auriferous quartz occurs in the district to the north, but it 
 would appear not in paying quantity. 
 
 To the south there is gold along the Manitou Lake, and 
 out-crops occur throughout all the Huronian rocks, as far as 
 the international frontier. In summer communication is only 
 possible by canoes, with frequent portages, so that machinery 
 
 * This forecast has since been conflrmed. 
 
 t Bulletin No. 1, Bureau of Mines of Ontario. 
 
THE DOMINION OF CANADA — KA.STERN PEOVINCES, 
 
 73 
 
 can only be transported in winter over the snow. The most 
 developed mines are reached through Eat Portage, a station on 
 the C.P.R., at the outlet of the Lake of the Woods. Some of 
 the best locations are in the immediate neighbourhood, and an 
 immense extent of gold-bearing country is reached by the small 
 steamers which ply upon the lake. Fort Frances, on Eainy 
 River, which flows into the Lake of the Woods from the south- 
 east, is reached by steamer from Rat Portage in two days. It is at 
 the outlet of Rainy Lake, and forms a centre whence steamers ply 
 to Lake Manitou and the Seine River, both traversing country 
 rich in gold-bearing quartz, and now dotted by little settle- 
 ments and active mines. Throughout the whole of these districts 
 timber is abundant, the water supply is ample for washing the 
 crushed ore and for the supply of electric power, and agricultural 
 settlement is beginning. The whole region has been mapped by 
 the Geological Survey, and the prospectors have learned to use 
 the geological maps, to aid them in their search. The rock is 
 frequently thickly covered with moss, and some of the richest 
 gold quartz has been discovered by accident. Professor Cole- 
 man narrates the discovery of a rich vein on Shoal Lake, west of 
 the Lake of the Woods, on the Manitoba boundary * : — " An 
 Indian, crossing the portage from Helldiver Bay, which lies a^ 
 mile to the south, dropped his axe as he came down to the land- 
 ing at Bag Bay, and thus knocked off some moss. Stopping to 
 pick up the axe he saw something glitter, and picked up several 
 specimens, which he brought to Mr. Bunn, Hudson Bay officer 
 at Rat Portage. The pieces brought in were brilliant gold 
 specimens." 
 
 The working of goldfields, such as those of western Ontario, 
 requires skill, experience, and capital, and is not always re- 
 munerative at first, as the following table, from the report cited 
 above, shows : — 
 
 Gold Pkodugtion in Ontaeio. 
 
 
 1892. 
 
 1893^ ' 
 
 ■ 1894, 
 
 1895. 
 
 Ore mined, . Tons, 
 Gold product, . Ozs. , 
 Gold value, . . $ 
 Wages paid for labour, $ 
 
 3,710 
 
 36,900 
 22,750 
 
 5,560 
 
 1,695 
 
 32,950 
 
 49,027 
 
 2,428 
 
 2,022 
 
 32,776 
 
 38,032 
 
 6,500 
 
 3,030 
 
 50,281 
 
 56,234 
 
 ' Fifth Report of the Bureau of Mines (of Ontario), Toronto, 1897, p. 8. 
 
74 NEW LAMDS. 
 
 The Statistical Year Book of Canada for 1897 (p. 137), how- 
 ever, gives entirely different figures for the total gold valne 
 of Ontario. The discrepancy may be partly explained by the 
 year in the two cases being calculated from different dates. 
 
 Year, . . 1891. 1892. 1893. 1894. 1895. 1896. 1897. 
 €old value, $2,000 7,118 14,637 39,624 62,320 115,000 189,294 
 
 In 1898 the value of the gold produced was $275,000. 
 
 Mining Laws.— Royalties on all ores raised in Ontario are 
 payable to the provincial government, the rate not exceeding 
 2 per cent, of the value at the mine after deducting cost of 
 production, if the lease was granted before January 1st, 1900, 
 and not exceeding 3 per cent, if granted after that date, but 
 royalties are not imposed or collected until seven years after the 
 date of the patent or lease. 
 
 No licence is required for exploration or prospecting on any 
 Crown land which is not staked out, occupied, or withdrawn 
 from sale by an Order in Council. Crown lands supposed to 
 contain minerals may be sold as mining locations, or when 
 situated in a mining division, may be staked out and worked as 
 mining claims under a miner's licence. 
 
 Mining locations are rectangular areas, containing not less 
 than 40 acres, and are sold at the following rates : — If in a 
 surveyed township within 6 miles of a railway, %Z per acre ; 
 if beyond 6 miles, |2.50. In unsurveyed lands the rates go 
 •down to from $2.50 to $1,50 per acre ; but in all cases the 
 location reverts to the Crown unless, at least, $1 per acre is 
 expended in actual mining operations in the first two years, and 
 ■$1 per acre each year for the five following years. Mining lands 
 may also be acquired on lease from the Provincial Government. 
 
 Miners' licences, in territories set apart as mining divisions, 
 are granted for $10 for one year, renewable at the same rate for 
 the next, and, if desired, the miner may acquire the land on 
 fulfilling certain conditions as to working it. The claims which 
 may be selected and staked out by miners may be either 15 or 
 20 chains square (22| or 40 acres). 
 
75 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 THE DOMINION OP CANADA — WBSTEBN 
 PBOVINCES AND TEBRITOBIES. 
 
 Manitoba — Surface — Climate — Communications — Laws — Minerals — 
 Forests — Fisheries — Agriculture — Settlements and Farms. Organised 
 Districts — North- West Territories — Assiniboia — Saskatchewan and 
 Alberta — Climate — Communications — Laws of the Territories — 
 Forests — Minerals — Mining Laws of Manitoba and the Territories — 
 Farming and Ranching — Irrigation — Future Development. Remote 
 Territories — Athabasca — Mackenzie, Keewatin, and Ungava — 
 Reported Mineral Wealth. Yukon Territory — ^Position — Climate — 
 Resources — Routes to Klondike — Conditions of Life in the Klondike 
 Region — Mining Regulations. British Columbia — Position and 
 Surface — River System — Climate — Communications — People and Laws 
 — Forests — Agriculture — Fisheries — Mining — Gold and Silver — Mining 
 Laws. 
 
 The Provincb of Manitoba. 
 
 Surface. — Manitoba occupies very nearly the centre of the 
 North American continent, and is the youngest province of the 
 Dominion. From an economic point of view, it differs materially 
 from the eastern provinces, where capital and experience are 
 required in developing the land, and where the resources are 
 various, for in Manitoba it is labour rather than capital which 
 is required for individual success, and the whole value of the 
 country lies in its agriculture, and in industries directly con- 
 nected with farming. 
 
 The province is nearly square in outline, with sides about 270 
 miles in length, and extends from the international boundary, 
 49° N., to latitude 52° 45' N., and the eastern and western 
 boundaries may be given approximately as 95° and 101° W. 
 
 The province may be divided into three natural regions, the 
 boundaries of which run approximately in a north-west and 
 south-east direction. The first of these is the end of the 
 Laurentian Plateau of Archaean rocks, lying entirely to the east 
 of Lake Winnipeg. It has the characteristic appearance of the 
 plateau everywhere, an undulated rooky surface with numerous 
 
76 
 
 NEW LANDS. 
 
THE DOMINION OF CANADA — ^WESTERN PROVINCES. 77 
 
 lakes and rivers, and scattered forests of the sub-Arctic type. 
 A little more than half the area of the province is occupied by 
 the dry bed of an ancient glacial lake, the flat surface of which is 
 now known as the First Prairie Steppe. The soil is, for the most 
 part, a rich clay, forming the most fertile wheat land in the world. 
 Lakes Winnipeg, Winnipegosis, and Manitoba occupy hollows 
 in the northern part of this belt, while the southern portion is 
 traversed from south to north by the navigable Red River of the 
 North fl^owing from the United States to Lake Winnipeg. This 
 region is bounded westward by the Manitoba escarpment, a belt 
 of steeply sloping land which leads up to the Second Prairie 
 Steppe, an elevated region of more pronounced variety of type, 
 having deep river valleys and occasional hills. The surface for 
 the most part is covered with good soil, but except along the 
 river banks, the general surface of both prairie steppes is 
 without trees. 
 
 The general elevation increases from 700 feet in the Red 
 River valley, to about 1500 feet at the western boundary, 
 the general slope of the country being thus from west to east. 
 The river system is ip. accordance with this configuration, the 
 streams flowing from west to east towards the lakes, all of which, 
 except in the extreme south-east, drain to Hudson Bay. The 
 chief river is the Assiniboine, which, entering the province 
 about the middle of the western border, runs at first south, and 
 after receiving the Qu'appelle from the west, turns towards 
 south-east, and finally runs eastward till it enters the north- 
 flowing Red River. 
 
 Climate. — The climate of Manitoba is undoubtedly severe, 
 although it is found not unhealthy. The air is remarkably dry 
 at all seasons, and the rainfall is much smaller than in the 
 eastern provinces ; 17 J inches may be taken as about the 
 average. Nearly three-quarters of the whole annual precipita- 
 tion takes place between April 1st and October 1st, so this 
 small annual fall suffices for agriculture, as it occurs while 
 growth is active. The temperature in summer is higher than in 
 any part of England, the average for July at Winnipeg being 
 66°, but the cold in winter is intense, the average temperature 
 for January being - 5° F., and the mercury is frequently frozen 
 (below — 40°). The snowfall is lighter than in the eastern 
 provinces. Winter begins early, sharp frosts being frequent in 
 September, and perhaps the greatest drawback to agriculture is 
 found in the spring and early autumn frosts which occasionally 
 occur. Summer thunderstorms also do occasional damage, but 
 there seems to be an entire absence of the winter blizzards and 
 
78 NEW LANDS. 
 
 the summer tornadoes which are so destructive in the prairies 
 and the great plains of the United States. 
 
 Communications. — The navigable Eed River, and its tribu- 
 tary the Assiniboine, played their part in the first development 
 of Manitoba, and determined the site of Fort Garrj, which has 
 grown into the city of Winnipeg at the junction of the two 
 rivers, and of Lord Selkirk's Scottish colony, planted in the 
 then nearly inaccessible wilderness in 1812. Later, the route 
 to Winnipeg was by rail through the United States and steamer 
 down the Red River; and when, in 1870, a route through British 
 territory had to be found for Lord Wolseley's military force to 
 put down the Red River rebellion, the journey was made in 
 boats with frequent portages through the Lake of the Woods, 
 and by the Winnipeg river. With the completion of the 
 Canadian Pacific Railway in 1884, the importance of the water- 
 ways was at once diminished, and Winnipeg grew rapidly to be 
 a great railway centre. It is 1424 miles from Montreal, and 
 1482 from Vancouver; the actual half-way station is Marquette, 
 29 miles farther west, which is 1453 miles from each of the 
 terminal ports. Most of the railways were constructed on 
 the land-grant principle described on page 50, and they have 
 mainly been built with the view of opening up the province and 
 adjoining districts, and carrying the farm produce to Winnipeg. 
 Small towns have grown up at important points, and the general 
 railway system may briefly be described as follows : — The main 
 line of the C.P.R. runs for 102 miles in the province before 
 reaching Winnipeg from the east, and for 212 miles farther 
 along the Assiniboine valley, passing Brandon, the second town 
 of the province, 133 miles from Winnipeg. The line approxi- 
 mately follows the parallel of 50° N., and in the belt of country, 
 about 70 miles wide, which stretches southward to the United 
 States frontier, there are two other parallel lines from the Red 
 River to the western boundary, while a fourth line runs parallel 
 most of the way. Thus no part of the southern third of 
 Manitoba, west of the Red River, is more than 20 miles from a 
 railway, and few are more than 10 ; while the stations on all 
 the lines lie very near each other. 
 
 From Winnipeg two lines, one on each side of the Red River, 
 run south into the United States, and a railway running south- 
 eastward to Duluth is projected. The north of the province is 
 gradually being penetrated by lines which are being extended 
 from Winnipeg, Portage-la-Prairie, and the neighbourhood of 
 Brandon. The projected Hudson Bay line is planxted to run 
 between Lake Winnipeg aod Lakes Manitoba and Winnipegosis,. 
 
THE DOMINION OF CANADA — WESTERN PROVINCES. 79 
 
 and if the navigation of that sea is seriously undertaken, it 
 should prove a vast benefit to the country, affording an outlet 
 for the grain or flour to be exported. 
 
 Koads are scarcely necessary in the open prairie country, 
 across which " rigs," or light four-wheeled vehicles, can be 
 driven in any direction ; and, as in all steppe countries, many 
 horses are kept in proportion to the population. Manitoba is, 
 however, essentially a province for railways, and already there 
 are very few, if any, regions of so recent development which 
 have been so largely covered with a network of lines, the total 
 mileage open in the province in 1897 having been 1557. 
 
 Laws. — In Manitoba the restrictive laws regarding the sale 
 of liquor and tobacco are similar to those of Ontario. The 
 observance of Sunday is enforced by somewhat severe penalties. 
 All sales on that day are unlawful, no games or public amuse- 
 ments for which an entrance fee is charged are permitted, and 
 work (except " work of necessity or charity ") is strictly pro- 
 hibited. In 1897 a man was imprisoned at Portage-la-Prairie 
 for working on his own farm on Sunday; his defence, that he 
 kept the seventh day of the week as a day of absolute rest, being 
 held of no avail.* This seems to be a mistaken policy, for the 
 Canadian Government, in encouraging immigration, has offered 
 special inducements to the settlement of persons whose 
 heterodox religious views subjected them to persecution in 
 their native countries. To such immigrants legislative regula- 
 tions as to the day of the week to be held sacred must bear an 
 unpleasant resemblance to the persecution from which they 
 had fled. 
 
 As in most parts of Canada, workmen have a lien on the 
 produce of their work for the payment of their wages. 
 
 Minerals. — The minerals of Manitoba are of very little 
 importance at present, and will never compete with the mineral 
 resources of other provinces. Gold-bearing Huronian rocks 
 occur in the east, and in 1898 over 200 mining claims were 
 granted, mainly on the east shore of Lake Winnipeg ; but the 
 certainty of profitable wheat-growing draws away attention 
 from the more precarious and speculative occupation of quartz 
 mining. Iron ore occurs, as in all the provinces, and will 
 probably be utilised at some future time. Coal, mostly of the 
 nature of lignite, is found in the south-west of the province in 
 the Souris River district, and close to the international frontier j 
 but the deposits in Aasiniboia have as yet attracted more 
 attention, and are not much farther from Winnipeg. It is 
 * Winnipeg newspapers of August 31, 1897. 
 
80 NEW LANDS. 
 
 estimated that the lignite-yielding area in Manitoba measures 
 15,000 square miles.* 
 
 Good building stone can be quarried on the shores of Lake 
 Manitoba, though it is not as yet utilised. 
 
 For mining purposes, Manitoba is grouped along with the 
 North-West Territories, and subject to the regulations laid 
 down by the Dominion Government (p. 49). 
 
 Forests. — Although Manitoba is mainly a prairie province, 
 it contains large areas of woodland. Every stream is bordered 
 by trees, and the eastern portion, situated on the Laurentian 
 Plateau, shares the sub-Arctic forest of the north, while the 
 south-east was formerly very thickly wooded with aspen and 
 other trees. The value of the timber is enhanced by the demand 
 for building purposes in the treeless prairie region farther west, 
 although the greater part of the supply required is brought by 
 rail across the frontier from the State of Minnesota. 
 
 The Dominion land agents in Manitoba and the North-West 
 Territories are Crown timber agents as well. They grant 
 licences to cut timber (p. 50), and, as far as possible, endeavour 
 to reduce the risk of forest fires, and to regulate or prohibit 
 cutting in certain places, so as not to destroy the forest growth. 
 Government encouragement is given to the planting of trees 
 round farms on the prairie, but it has proved to be difficult to 
 induce the settlers to work for benefits so remote as those 
 resulting from tree planting. 
 
 Fisheries. — The fish of the north-eastern Lakes are of 
 great value. They include the whitefish (the finest edible fish 
 of the country), the pickerel, and many other varieties. Efforts 
 are being made to protect these fish, and to increase their num- 
 ber by the establishment of hatcheries. 
 
 Agriculture. — Manitoba is essentially a farming country, and 
 as such one of the richest in the world. In travelling westward 
 across Canada, after more than a thousand miles of the rocky 
 woodland of northern Ontario, where stations follow one 
 another at intervals of an hour or more, and no cultivated land 
 is to be seen, the contrast on entering Manitoba is very striking. 
 A transitional belt of scrubby woodland gives place, near 
 Winnipeg, to vast level fields of wheat, broken by frequent 
 farms, the train stopping every twenty minutes or so at stations 
 with some show of life in them, and the tall forms of the grain 
 «levators where the wheat is stored form familiar landmarks as 
 they occur singly or in groups. Passing along the line at 
 harvest time, one sees the succession of west-bound trains laden 
 * Statistical Tear Booh of Canada far 1897, p. 116. 
 
THE DOMINION OF CANADA — WESTERN PROVINCES. 
 
 81 
 
 with agricultural machinery, and of east-bound trains laden with 
 wheat or cattle from the ranges farther west. No fertilisers are 
 as yet necessary for the deep rich clays of the Prairie Steppes, and 
 the remarkable circumstance of a purely agricultural country 
 rapidly developing so complete a railway system is proof of the 
 profitable returns which farming may be made to yield. The 
 best land nearest the railway stations is, of course, all occupied, 
 and although farms are always to be had for purchase ir. such 
 neighbourhoods, their prices are high. For instance, near 
 Winnipeg improved land costs as much as $25 (£5) per acre, 
 while throughout the province unimproved land costs from $3 to 
 $5 per acre. As the country suitable for agriculture is usually 
 open and free from timber, the cost of bringing unimproved land 
 under cultivation is relatively low. Agriculture is subject to 
 certain drawbacks incident to the nature of prairie districts. 
 Although the vast herds of buflfalo which once wandered over 
 the country are now extinct, the burrowing gophers remain in 
 swarms which often do serious damage to crops ; prairie fires 
 sometimes sweep over great areas of grass when it dries into 
 na,tural hay in the later summer, and it is necessary to surround 
 houses and stackyards with a "fire-belt" of ploughed land, 
 within which the grass is burned ofi". Summer frosts, too, are 
 not of rare occurrence, and do much harm ; but it has been 
 noticed that after the soil has been for some time under culti- 
 vation the tendency to these frosts diminishes, even in the north 
 of Manitoba and beyond its borders. 
 The crop of 1898 is given as follows : — 
 
 
 Area under Crop. 
 
 Yield per Acre. 
 
 Total Yield. 
 
 Wheat, 
 
 Oats, 
 
 Barley, 
 
 Acres. 
 1,488,232 
 514,824 
 158,058 
 
 Bushels. 
 1701 
 33-6 
 27-06 
 
 Bushels. 
 
 25,313,745 
 
 17,308,252 
 
 4.277,927 
 
 The surface of the prairie in many parts is very dry, although 
 the rainfall is usually sufficient for agricultural purposes, and 
 artesian wells in most parts of the province yield a plentiful 
 supply of water for domestic use. 
 
 Settlements and Farms. — Manitoba is a province of small 
 farms as a rule, and settlement on farms of 160 or 320 acres is 
 alone encouraged by the Government. Still experiments have 
 been made by companies acquiring and cultivating immense 
 
 6 
 
82 NEW LANDS. 
 
 area§ of ground in the neighbourhood of the railways. The 
 keeping of live stock is increasing, and mixed farming becomes 
 more common every year. Generally speaking, it may be said 
 that one half of the area of prairie land in the province lies 
 south of the Assiniboine River, and is entirely devoted to wheat. 
 The other half, lying to the north of the Assiniboine, lends itself 
 more to mixed farming, and the proportion of live stock kept 
 there is much greater than in the south. 
 
 A constant stream of immigration flows into the province, and 
 vast areas of Dominion lands still remain to be assigned, while 
 recently a good deal of land that had been taken up by settlers, 
 who faded to fulfil settlement conditions, has been resumed by 
 Government and re-allocated as homesteads. In this way some 
 farms have been available in the southern part of the province 
 near the railways ; but, as a rule, free grants are now only to be 
 had in the outlying districts. As yet the farmers are much 
 isolated from each other, except where groups like the Russian 
 Dukhobors and Mennonites, Icelanders, Scottish crofters, and 
 the like are settled in one neighbourhood. The northern third 
 of the province is only just beginning to be touched by railways, 
 and is still for the most part unsurveyed and unsettled, but 
 where the railway reaches its farthest northerly extension, and 
 the land has been laid out in the Lake Dauphin district, the 
 influx of homesteaders in 1898 was actually in excess of the 
 capacity of the surveyed lands, and the laying out of new town- 
 ships was proceeding as rapidly as possible. 
 
 Still farther north, in the Swan River district, beyond the 
 railway, a great company of the Russian religious sect known 
 as Dukhobors (8000 in all) were settled in 1898 and 1899. 
 
 The method of disposing of the Dominion lands is the same 
 for Manitoba and the territories and has been described on p. 49. 
 In Manitoba about 1400 homesteads were granted in 1898. 
 
 While Manitoba has rich soil, and vast areas of it, specially 
 suited for the growth of wheat, not every homesteader who takes 
 up a quarter section prospers. Some experience and much hard 
 work are necessary if a man is to reap advantage of the good 
 natural conditions. But no one bringing these to bear will 
 be disappointed of a comfortable living, which, if rough at first, 
 can gradually be surrounded with much solid comfort. Every 
 effort is made by the Government agents to give settlers an 
 opportunity of making the most of their farms. Rights to cut 
 timber and hay on adjoining unoccupied lands are given either 
 free, if for the use of the farmer, or at a small charge if 
 for sale ; the experimental farms supply samples for new 
 
THE DOMINION OF CANADA — WESTERN PROVINCES. 83 
 
 crops, and give advice gratuitously on many subjects ; the 
 Dominion Government is always ready to support railway 
 extension, and the great wheat dealers, following the growing 
 lines, establish their elevators, at which grain is purchased 
 or received on deposit at almost every station. Stress has 
 been laid by a recent Times correspondent (Miss Shaw) on the 
 importance of encouraging young women from the United 
 Kingdom to settle in Manitoba and the adjoining territories 
 along with their brothers, thus preserving traditions of home 
 life. 
 
 The Orsanised Districts. 
 
 Worth-West Territories. — The North- West Territories 
 comprise the whole of western Canada between Manitoba, 
 Hudson Bay, and British Columbia. They are more directly 
 under the control of the Dominion Government, and enjoy less 
 complete home rule than the provinces. As far as regards 
 police, the survey and sale of lands, and the utilisation of re- 
 sources, the North- West Territories and Manitoba are classed 
 together ; but the greater part of the region is still practically 
 an unknown land, and is to be distinguished from the southern 
 portions, which are well known, fairly settled, and rapidly de- 
 veloping. The three southern divisions are known as the 
 Organised Districts of Assiniboia, SasTiatchewan, and Alberta,, 
 and each is a province in the making. Meanwhile they are 
 associated — together with Athabasca, which lies north of them 
 — for the purposes of local government, under a lieutenant- 
 governor, with an elected parliament meeting at Eegina, and 
 representation — though not to the same numerical extent as a 
 province — in the Dominion Parliament. 
 
 Assiniboia, Saskatchewan, and Alberta. — Alberta is 
 bounded on the west by the crest of the Rocky Mountains, and 
 on the east by the meridian of 111° W., and reaches from 49° 
 on the United States frontier to the parallel of 55°, which bounds 
 it on the north. Assiniboia runs along the international frontier, 
 between Alberta and Manitoba, and is separated from Saskat- 
 chewan to the north of it by the parallel of 52°. From the 
 mountains the Athabasca, Pembina, and North Saskatchewan 
 Rivers flow north-eastward across Alberta, the Bow, the Belly, 
 and the Red Deer Rivers flow south-eastwards to form the South 
 Saskatchewan, which, turning north-eastward across Assiniboia, 
 unites with the North Saskatchewan in the district of Saskatche- 
 wan, and flows into the north end of Lake Winnipeg. The 
 escarpment of the Cypress Hills runs from west to east through 
 
84 NEW LANDS. 
 
 Southern Assiniboia, and the Qu'appelle and Souris Rivers run 
 thence eastward to join the Assiniboia in Manitoba. The north- 
 eastern corner of Saskatchewan lies on the Laurentian Plateau ; 
 the rest of the districts continues the gradual rise from Mani- 
 toba to the Rocky Mountains, with an average slope of 5J feet 
 to the mile. The low line of moraine hills, called the Missouri 
 Coteau, marks the transition from the second to the third, or 
 highest prairie steppe. The western part of the districts is 
 underlain by Cretaceous rocks, usually deeply covered with 
 glacial drift, but often yielding valuable minerals, including 
 coal. 
 
 The general surface of the plains is that of a grassy prairie, 
 like western Manitoba, stretching in monotonous apparently 
 level tracts, but rising here and there into hills and ridges, 
 while the rivers have cut for themselves deep valleys. In these 
 valleys and on the hills there are trees, but it is estimated that 
 over 190,000 square miles (including part of Manitoba) is treeless 
 prairie. In the north the sub- Arctic forest begins with park- 
 like land, containing isolated clumps of trees, which thicken in 
 the district of Athabasca in the north, into continuous wood- 
 land, covered with forests of spruce and larch. 
 
 Climate. — The climate is severe ; the summers are hot and 
 the winters very cold, while the air is always dry and the rain- 
 fall slight, although increasing somewhat towards the east The 
 prevalence of the Chinook wind descending dry and warm from 
 the summit of the Rocky Mountains, mitigates the severity of 
 the winter to such a degree that cattle may remain outside 
 without shelter, and in many places the layer of light powdery 
 snow is so thin that cattle can reach the natural hay with which 
 the prairies are covered. The rainfall is slight, and, especially 
 in the western districts, insufficient for agriculture. The annual 
 fall is between 6 and 1 2 inches. Although the Chinook wind 
 makes the southern territories milder than Manitoba in winter, 
 it has also the effect of producing great and sudden changes of 
 temperature, causing occasional thaws in the coldest months. 
 It is said that a range of 60° in temperature has been experi- 
 enced within twenty-four hours. 
 
 Communications. — The resources of the Organised Districts 
 are more varied than those of Manitoba, and the land much less 
 settled. Agriculture is relatively less important, while ranching 
 and mining are already more.developed and promise great things 
 for the future. At present the vast resources are scarcely 
 touched ; they require increased population and improved 
 means of communication before they can be utilised, and. 
 
THE DOMINION OF CANADA — WESTERN PROVINCES. 85 
 
 although population is steadily coming in, and railways are 
 steadily pushing their termini farther and farther into the more 
 remote corners, generations must elapse before the country can 
 achieve its full development. 
 
 The first and chief line of communication is the Canadian 
 Pacific Railway, through Assiniboia and Alberta, on which a 
 series of small but prosperous and progressive towns have 
 grown up. Regina, the capital of the Territories, is situated 
 357 miles west of Winnipeg, and nearly 1900 feet above the sea. 
 A branch line runs thence northward to Prince Albert on the 
 North Saskatchewan river not far from its confluence with the 
 South branch, both of which are navigated in summer by 
 steamers. The Manitoba and North-Western Railway from 
 Winnipeg and Brandon crosses the north-eastern angle of 
 Assiniboia, and is being extended to Prince Albert in Saskat- 
 chewan. At Pasqua, a few miles farther west on the C.P.R., a 
 direct line from the south-east brings passengers from Minne- 
 apolis and the central parts of the United States. This line 
 passes through Estevan in the south-east of Assiniboia, a 
 mineral centre connected with the Manitoba railway system. 
 Dunmore, 653 miles west of Winnipeg, and about 2000 feet 
 above the sea, is the station where the important branch runs 
 due west to the mining centre of Lethbridge in Alberta, and on 
 to cross the Hocky Mountains by the Crow Nest Pass to the 
 Kootenay district. The main line, turning north-westward, 
 enters Alberta, and ascends the slope of the plains to the fine, 
 stone-built town of Calgary (3400 feet), 840 miles west of 
 Winnipeg. Here one important branch, on which a train runs 
 twice a week, goes north 192 miles to Edmonton, on the navi- 
 gable North Saskatchewan, and another goes south to Fort 
 Macleod, just west of Lethbridge, and from Lethbridge a line 
 runs into the United States. The district of Athabasca farther 
 north is not yet touched by railway, and can be reached most 
 easily by boat journeys with several portages from Edmonton. 
 The construction of a railway north-westwards to the Yukon 
 Territory has been spoken of as of importance for the develop- 
 ment of the extreme north-west. 
 
 Laws. — The North-West Territories maintain a special armed 
 force of 800 men, the North- West Mounted Police, a fine body 
 of cavalry with headquarters at Regina, but usually scattered in 
 small bodies over the territories, looking after the Indians and 
 keeping order generally. It is not too much to say that no part 
 of the world equally remote from centres of government, and 
 containing considerable numbers of an aboriginal race in contact 
 
86 NEW LANDS. 
 
 with white settlers, is so peaceful and well-ordered as these 
 territories. The native Indians in all parts of western Canada 
 are well disposed and trustworthy when kept from drink, and 
 many of them have settled down to agricultural work. Most of 
 them, however, are engaged in hunting and trapping for the 
 Hudson Bay Company. Although now without administrative 
 rights this company is still the great power in the territories. 
 The Hudson Bay Stores, while no longer possessing a monopoly 
 of trade, maintain the lead in all the towns by their large stock 
 and fine premises ; while, beyond the railways, the only 
 organised means of transport are their steamers or boats on the 
 rivers, and the only representatives of civilisation their trading 
 posts for buying furs from the Indians. 
 
 The restrictive laws are, as a rule, the same as for Manitoba. 
 The sale of drink to any one under 18, or tobacco to any one 
 under 16, is prohibited, and the employment of barmaids is 
 forbidden, the only women allowed to sell drink being licence- 
 holders or the wives of licence-holders. How far these regula- 
 tions are enforced it is not easy to say. 
 
 Forests. — The North-West Territories are not likely ever to 
 yield timber for export, but in the sub- Arctic forest in the north, 
 on the slopes of the Eocky Mountains, on the hills in the south, 
 and in the river-valleys everywhere, there are valuable woods, 
 and sawmills for the supply of local needs can be worked profit- 
 ably. The value of the forests is as yet, however, quite insignifi- 
 cant as compared with that of the open prairie land. The 
 regulations regarding timber-cutting are those which apply also 
 to Manitoba, mentioned on p. 50. 
 
 Minerals. — The known mineral resources of the territories 
 are sufficient to lead one to expect that much has yet to be 
 discovered, especially in Athabasca, where very little ex- 
 ploration and practically no prospecting has yet been done. 
 Whoever proposes to explore these regions must rely much on 
 himself. He must be content with the society of the few 
 Indians and half-breeds who navigate his canoes, must live on 
 the unvarying bacon and beans of the typical Canadian pro- 
 spector (except when game or fish can be procured), must 
 become inured to the heat and mosquitoes of summer and 
 the intense cold of winter, with inadequate shelter. But in 
 return he will have the satisfaction of being a pioneer in 
 a really new land where anything in the way of discovery of 
 economic resources is possible. 
 
 Gold occurs in the gravels of many of the rivers flowing from 
 the Rocky Mountains, and it is probable that auriferous quartz 
 
THE DOMINION OP CANADA — WESTERN PROVINCES. 87 
 
 veins also exist in. the^e mountains or along the course of tribu- 
 taries, from which the alluvial supply is derived. The Huronian 
 formation has come to be recognised as the richest gold-bearing 
 rock system in Canada, and the origin of the auriferous gravels 
 of the Saskatchewan and other rivers is assigned by the Geologi- 
 cal Survey to the great Laurentian Shield, the mass of ancient 
 rocks surrounding Hudson Bay. About $50,000 worth of gold 
 is annually obtained from the North Saskatchewan, near Edmon- 
 ton, the richest stretch of the river being the 60 miles above 
 and the 60 mQes below the town. The method employed is 
 by dredging the gravel from the river-bed and washing it on 
 board the dredging vessel which is moored in the stream, licences 
 being given by the Government covering so many miles of river. 
 A bad year for farming drives many settlers to gold-dredging, 
 but a good harvest tempts them away to the more certain profits 
 of the farm. 
 
 The North- West Territories contain an immense area of coal- 
 bearing strata of Cretaceous age, the quality of the coal ranging 
 from the lignite of the Manitoba frontier to the bituminous 
 coal of Lethbridge, and to anthracite at some points in the 
 Eocky Mountains. It is estimated that 60,000 square miles in 
 Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Assiniboia are coal-bearing. The 
 annual production is about 200,000 tons, most of which is raised 
 at Lethbridge. The existence of coal at Lethbridge and other 
 points nearer the Eocky Mountains was, indeed, the controlling 
 reason for constructing the railway through the Crow Nest 
 Pass into the Kootenay gold and silver mining district, and had 
 its value been known earlier there is little doubt that this route 
 would have been chosen for the main line of the C.P.R. The 
 Souris River lignite is being increasingly worked at Estevan and 
 other points in Assiniboia. Coal is mined on a smaller scale near 
 Edmonton, Calgary, at Banff in the middle of the Eocky Moun- 
 tains, and at Cochrane in Bow Pass, where anthracite is worked. 
 Ooal-mining is bound to develop, and accessible seams near the 
 towns or at points convenient for ready transport will become 
 very valuable. 
 
 Petroleum of rather poor quality occurs in large quantities 
 near the Saskatchewan River. Experimental borings at Victoria, 
 near Edmonton, and elsewhere have as yet failed to yield a com- 
 mercial supply, but there is every prospect of paying oil wells 
 being found. The trial borings at Victoria, near Edmonton, and 
 at points on the Athabasca River, in the north-east of Alberta, 
 were stopped by the immense quantities of natural gas liberated. 
 This gas field is probably very extensive, and promises to be 
 
88 NEW LANDS. 
 
 important for manufacturing purposes when the district is more 
 developed. 
 
 Mining Laws of Manitoba and the Territories. — For 
 Manitoba and the Territories — not including Yukon, for which 
 separate regulations are in force — mining is subject to the 
 following conditions, which are under the control of the Minister 
 of the Interior of the Dominion Government : — 
 
 A fee of $10 is charged for a permit to prospect for coal over 
 an area of 320 acres for sixty days. Goal lands are sold at the 
 rate of $20 per acre for anthracite lands and $10 per acre for 
 other coal, but no applicant is allowed more than 320 acres. For 
 minerals other than coal, iron, and mica the maximum size of a 
 mining location is 1500 feet by 1500 feet. 
 
 A free miner's licence is granted to any individual over 
 eighteen years of age at the rate of $10 per annum. A joint- 
 stock company may obtain a similar licence for $50 if the 
 nominal capital of the company does not exceed $100,000, for 
 companies with larger capital the charge is $100. The free 
 miner's certificate is not transferable, and gives to the holder 
 alone a right to enter, locate, prospect, and mine on any vacant 
 and non-reserved Dominion lands, except in British Columbia, 
 and to shoot, fish, and cut timber for his actual necessities. On 
 locating a claim the free miner must stake it out, and record it 
 with the Mining Recorder within fifteen days, if the claim is not 
 more than 10 miles from the Recorder's office, an additional day 
 being allowed for every 10 miles. Once registered, a claim may 
 be held as long as the miner pleases to work on it to the value of 
 $100 a year, or pays that sum to the Mining Recorder. The free 
 miner may obtain a Grown grant of the location by paying a 
 sum of $500 in lieu of expenditure on the claim and $5 per 
 acre as purchase money. 
 
 Farming and Banching. — The nature of the farming 
 carried on in these territories varies according to the climate, 
 and especially the rainfall. Wheat-growing predominates along 
 the Ganadian Pacific Railway from Manitoba as far as Regina, 
 west of which mixed farming is more practised, and on the dry 
 plains leading up to the foot-hills of the Rocky Mountains, in 
 Alberta, ranching practically monopolises the attention of the 
 settlers. The land is being surveyed into townships and sections 
 for settlement by purchase or free grant as homesteads under the 
 Dominion Government, according to the system described at 
 p. 49. JThis holds good as yet only for parts of Assiniboia, 
 Saskatchewan, and Alberta, although in time it will be extended 
 to the best parts of the northern territories. But experience 
 
THE DOMINION OF CANADA — WESTERN PROVINCES. 8& 
 
 has shown that in the sub-arid belt, in the west of the Third 
 Prairie Steppe, the absolute ownership of a small holding is not 
 the most economical or satisfactory method. Accordingly, in 
 southern Alberta and western Assiniboia, the large herds of 
 cattle are kept on grazing leases, covering a great extent of open 
 country, and managed to a large extent on co-operative prin- 
 ciples. The cattle are left free to roam over hundreds of square 
 miles of country, and only collected twice a year, the herds 
 being managed by mounted cowboys, in the proportion of one 
 man to about 500 cattle. The conditions of healthy life for 
 cattle in respect to climate and herbage, are, in fact, nearly the 
 same as those which governed the native herds of buffalo. This 
 kind of stock keeping, of course, applies only to the breeding of 
 cattle for export as live stock or as beef. For dairy-farming 
 enclosures are necessary ; but the dairy-farming districts lie 
 in the eastern divisions, leaving the west as a land of ranches.. 
 The wooded districts of northern Alberta and Saskatchewan, 
 where rainfall is greater and snow deeper, necessitating 
 shelter and food for cattle in winter, are better adapted for 
 mixed farming, and some of the best agricultural land and 
 the best breeds of cattle are found round Edmonton and 
 Prince Albert. 
 
 To ensure successful and profitable ranching on the sub-arid 
 steppes it is necessary to have a considerable acreage per head 
 of live stock, to have large herds and few cowboys, and to arrive 
 at an understanding by which strayed cattle may be recovered, 
 even if found beyond the limits of the districts or of the country. 
 To secure these advantages the ranchers of Alberta and the 
 other districts have formed a voluntary organisation, the mem- 
 bers of which work the herds together, although the live stock 
 remains the individual property of the owners. Thus the 
 owner of 2000 cattle takes part in the annual " round-up," bring- 
 ing, say, three cowboys, the owner of 200 cattle comes alone, 
 the owner of half a dozen probably acts as a cowboy to one of the 
 wealthier ranchers, and takes the opportunity of branding the 
 calves of his own cows as he meets them. The only guide to the 
 property in calves is the brand on the cow with which they are 
 running. Such an organisation is not one to lead ultimately to 
 a dense population. When the wealthier owners add to their 
 herds, until what they believe to be the limit of the grazing 
 capacity of the country is reached, they will naturally admit na 
 new settlers into the organisation, and so close the country to 
 farther development. Until the time comes when the profits 
 will be greater by holding a monopoly than by encouraging an 
 
90 NEW LANDS. 
 
 increase of herds, the method will doubtless work to the benefit 
 of the community ; but there is a danger in a purely pastoral 
 region of the land becoming prematurely closed to newcomers. 
 From this fate the mineral resources of the territories will 
 probably save them. 
 
 The herds set free on the plains are usually in the proportion 
 of six bulls to 100 breeding cows. Hay has to be provided to 
 feed the weaklings in winter ; the strong cattle require, how- 
 ever, neither shelter nor attention. The first "round-up" of 
 the year takes place in June, when the calves are branded ; the 
 second in autumn, when the cattle selected for beef are captured, 
 and sent off by rail to the markets in the mining districts of 
 British Columbia, or eastward to Montreal for ultimate shipi 
 ment to Europe. 
 
 Irrigation. — In the best ranching country of Alberta 
 attempts to grow grain have never been successful ; the remark- 
 able dryness of the air prevents the grain from ripening. 
 Recently, however, irrigation has been resorted to with marked 
 success. At the close of 1898 there were 177 irrigation ditches 
 in operation in southern Alberta and western Assiniboia, with 
 a total length of 409 miles, and capable of irrigating 103,400 
 acres. The irrigation works near Calgary, M'Leod, and Leth- 
 bridge have been very successful. So promising was the 
 preliminary work, that the Dominion Government ordered a 
 special irrigation survey of the whole eastern slope of the Rocky 
 Mountains and the foot-hills in Alberta, a work which is being 
 carried on energetically. Its purpose is to ascertain the avail- 
 able supply of water in the rivers flowing from the Rocky 
 Mountains, the best sites for storage reservoirs in the sub-arid 
 regions, and the most advantageous lines for canals to bring 
 river water to the reservoirs. It is estimated that about 
 6,000,000 acres of sub-arid land, or about one-tenth of the whole, 
 may be successfully irrigated, and turned from pasture to very 
 rich agricultural land. 
 
 Future Development. — By the proportionate development 
 of all their natural resources, Assiniboia, Alberta, and the 
 scarcely touched Saskatchewan territories will one day un- 
 doubtedly become great self-supporting provinces, providing for 
 a population of many millions. As the pressure of the popula- 
 tion on the means of subsistence begins to be felt, the less 
 inviting northern territories of Athabasca and Mackenzie will 
 also be gradually settled, less densely, doubtless, but yet under 
 conditions no worse than those of many prosperous communities 
 in the Russian Empire. 
 
THE DOMINION OF CANADA — WESTERN PROVINCES. 91 
 
 The actual areas of available land have been stated as 
 follows : — 
 
 Abea of the Noeth-West Territories (probably 1897).* 
 
 I. Area of districts of Alberta, Assiniboia, Saskat- Acres. 
 
 chewan, and Athabasca (approx.), . . .345,000,000 
 
 Acres. 
 Area reserved for railways, . 55,234,880 
 „ of Indian reserves, . 2,337,908 
 „ of school endowment, . 19,200,000 
 ,, of timber reserves, . 573,440 
 „ of Hudson Bay Com- 
 pany (^V of the fertile 
 belt), . . . 5,800,000 
 „ Disposed of as home- 
 steads, sales, &o., . 4,453,772 
 Total area disposed of, . . 87,600,000 
 
 Leaving area available for settlement, sale, &c. , 257,400,000 
 
 II. Areas in which no land has been disposed of — 
 
 Area of Mackenzie District (approx. ), . .313,600,000 
 ,, Keewatin „ „ . . 294,400,000 
 
 Of these immense areas, however, a great deal could never be 
 settled, and a great deal more could never yield more than a 
 hard and scanty subsistence to its inhabitants ; but it is not 
 excessive to estimate the population which the western terri- 
 tories are capable of supporting comfortably as 25,000,000, or 
 five times the present population of the whole Dominion. 
 Indeed, 'good judges of the capacity of the country consider 
 that the prairie regions alone may support 100,000,000. 
 
 Remote Teeeitoeies. 
 
 Athabasca. — The district of Athabasca, north of Alberta and 
 Saskatchewan, is at present beyond the limits of survey and 
 settlement, but it may be expected in the future to develop at 
 least sufficient agriculture to support the miners which its 
 undoubted mineral wealth will attract. About 600 miles of 
 the lower Peace Eiver valley are reported to be rich agricul- 
 tural land, and the valley may be taken as 50 miles wide. Wheat 
 and cattle are raised by the few settlers near the centres of 
 river traffic, Fort Vermilion and Dunvegan ; and the climate is 
 said to be no more severe than that of Manitoba. The Pine 
 River Pass, leading through the Rocky Mountains to British 
 
 * From Canada : an EncydopcBdia, Toronto (not dated, but probably 
 1898), vol. v., p. 67. 
 
92 NEW LANDS. 
 
 Columbia, is an easy one, -which would offer little diflSculties to 
 the construction of a road or railway. 
 
 Mackenzie, Keewatin, and TTngava. — These districts 
 occupy the lands surrounding Hudson Bay and the Arctic Sea. 
 They are still very imperfectly explored ; but enough is known 
 of their soil and climate to prove that any great future devolop- 
 ment must depend on mineral wealth alone. At present they 
 are merely hunting grounds for the fur traders of the Hudson 
 Bay Company, although gold prospectors are paying more and 
 more attention to the river gravels. The possible extinction of 
 the beaver and other of the finer fur-bearing animals suggests 
 that the time may be approaching when fur farms will have 
 to be established, like the feather farms of ostriches in South 
 Africa. The life-habits of the valuable fur-bearers should be 
 carefully studied, in order to find which kinds could be pre- 
 served together, and protected from their natural enemies, 
 perhaps by enclosing very large tracts of country. The rivers 
 and lakes in summer offer good means of communication, con- 
 sidering the remoteness of the region, and in boats or canoes 
 the region may be easily traversed from south to north, or from 
 east to west in a single summer. Steamers belonging to the 
 Hudson Bay Company run on the Athabasca, Peace, and 
 Mackenzie Rivers during the navigable months, and the delta, 
 of the Mackenzie can be reached by sea through Bering Strait 
 in summer. Athabasca and Keewatin and the southern part 
 of Ungava are almost all covered by the great sub- Arctic forest, 
 which also covers the Mackenzie Valley up to the Arctic 
 circle. The eastern part of Mackenzie, however, belongs to the 
 Barren Grounds, a desolate region, with a little stunted wood in 
 parts, but mostly covered by moss and swamps, like the Siberian 
 tundra. The climate in these districts is extremely severe, the 
 summers short, hot, and rendered wretched by mosquitoes, 
 the winters very long and cold. Yet grain has been experi- 
 mentally grown and ripened far north in the Mackenzie Valley, 
 and the posts of the Hudson Bay Company have gardens 
 yielding a great variety of excellent vegetables, even where 
 the ground remains permanently frozen at the depth of 6 feet, 
 or so. Good agricultural land is reported on the Liard River, 
 which flows through north-eastern British Columbia to the 
 Mackenzie. The conditions of life there are perfectly tolerable 
 to hardy settlers. 
 
 Reported Mineral Wealth. — The mineral resources of these 
 districts have only been tested in isolated places. Inexhaustible 
 quantities of the richest iron ore (magnetite and hematite) are 
 
THE DOMINION OF CANADA — WESTERN PROVINCES. 93 
 
 known to exist in Ungava, and the forests and peat of the 
 Labrador peninsula might supply fuel capable of smelting it if 
 transport could be provided. 
 
 Gold occurs in the Huronian rocks everywhere throughout 
 the districts, and gold-mining will doubtless be prosecuted on a 
 large scale in the course of time. Prospectors have found some 
 alluvial gold on the Athabasca and Peace Eivers, and the 
 excitement consequent on the great gold discoveries in the 
 Yukon district led a number of prospectors and would-be miners 
 to make the long journey from Edmonton by the Athabasca and 
 Mackenzie Rivers, down which they travelled seeking an easy 
 route westward to the Yukon Valley. On the way a good deal 
 of prospecting was done, and, although no very definite reports 
 have yet been received, it would appear that there is a vast area 
 of rich mineral land extending from Great Slave Lake in 61° N. 
 on by Great Bear Lake to the Arctic Sea.* It is suggested that 
 that this region may, if the deposits prove paying, be reached by 
 steamers from the Arctic Sea ascending the Mackenzie River. 
 The mouth of the river is accessible from Bering Strait, and 
 whalers have repeatedly wintered in the vicinity, but we are 
 not aware that any vessel has attempted to find a navigable 
 channel into the river from the sea. 
 
 Lignite occurs on the Peace River, the Liard, and in the 
 Mackenzie Basin, where, near Fort Norman, lignite beds were 
 discovered on fire by Sir A. Mackenzie on his great exploring 
 journey in 1788, and for several miles these beds are still 
 burning. The importance of a supply of natural fuel in a 
 region of intense winter cold and great mineral wealth need not 
 be insisted on. 
 
 The Yukon Territory. 
 
 Position, — The discovery of alluvial gold in exceptionally 
 large quantities in the valleys of the Klondike River and 
 Bonanza Creek in 1897 led to a " rush " of miners from all parts 
 of the world to the upper Yukon Valley. From, perhaps, one 
 hundred individuals the population has, in two years, risen to 
 considerably over 30,000. Consequently, the Yukon District 
 has been separated from the North- West Territories, of which it 
 formed part, and has been given a separate administrative 
 organisation under the Dominion Government. Lying north of 
 British Columbia and west of Mackenzie, the Yukon District is 
 
 * Annual Report of the Department of the Interior for 1898. Ottawa, 
 1899, p. 34. 
 
94 NEW LANDS, 
 
 bounded by the United States Territory of Alaska on the west, 
 the boundary line being the meridian of 141° W., but in the 
 south-west a portion of the boundary was undefined and has 
 been a cause of serious difficulty. The coast strip of Alaska, 
 cuts off the interior from the sea ; and as it is not' decided 
 whether the "coast" from which the" 30-mile strip is to be 
 measured is the general coast line on the ocean or the actual 
 contour of every inlet, a temporary understanding has been, 
 come to which leaves the seaports in United States territory 
 and makes a provisional boundary at the watershed. 
 
 Yukon Biver System. — The district had been geologically 
 explored by Dr. G. M. Dawson, Director of the Canadian Geo- 
 logical Survey, some years before the "rush" took place. Thus 
 the general outlines of the river system were well understood in. 
 advance, and the Dominion Land Survey promptly sent up a 
 surveyor, Mr. Ogilvie, to fix and mark the position of the 
 boundary meridian where it crosses the rivers so that no new 
 international difficulties should arise. The following account of 
 the geography of the Yukon District and the routes leading to 
 it is mainly taken from Mr. Ogilvie's reports* and from the 
 more recent publications of the land and geological surveyors, 
 both of which have been engaged on the district every summer. 
 Some facts have also been supplied to the author by Mr. J. B. 
 Tyrrell, of Dawson, formerly one of the geological surveyors. 
 
 The Yukon River is formed by the junction of two main 
 branches, the Pelly and the Lewes, which come from the south- 
 east and meet at a point nearly in 63° N. and 137° W. Each is 
 formed by the convergence of a number of important tributaries. 
 The Pelly has a length of about 320 miles from its source to the 
 confluence, and it rises near the head waters of the Liard River, 
 which offers a means of communication with the east of British 
 Columbia and the Mackenzie Valley. The Lewes has two main 
 branches ; the Teslin, or Hootalinqua, flows from the long 
 narrow Teslin Lake on the southern border of Yukon District, 
 and lake and river together have a length of 200 miles of 
 navigable water to the confluence with the Lewes proper. The 
 Lewes comes from a series of lakes, Atlin, Tagisli, and Bennett, 
 farther west, less than 30 miles from the Pacific, and flows for 
 187 miles to the confluence with the Teslin. ' This course com- 
 prises some fairly wide lakes, and is broken about half-way by 
 two serious obstacles to navigation — Miles Canyon, where the 
 stream is narrow and the current very rapid, and the White- 
 
 , * Summarised in his paper in the Oeographical Journal, vol. xii., 1898, 
 p. 21. 
 
THE DOMINION OF CANADA — WESTERN PROVINCES. 95 
 
 horse Rapids, the passsage of which downstream in boats has 
 led to many fatalities. From the junction with the Teslin to 
 the month of the Pelly is a distance of 169 miles, which includes 
 the Five Finger Hapid, not a serious obstacle, and a farther 
 distance of 175 miles of clear river navigation leads to Dawson 
 (formerly called Dawson City), the largest mining camp ever 
 known in Canada. Thus from the head of Lake Bennett to 
 Dawson is a distance of 531 miles navigable downstream by 
 boats, but with two obstacles which steamers could not pass ; 
 and from the head of Teslin Lake to Dawson is 54.4 miles of free 
 navigation adapted for river steamers both up and down. The 
 Pelly B/iver receives an important tributary, the Macmillan, 
 from the east ; and the Lewes receives the Big Salmon Eiver on 
 the right bank from the south-east, and the Nordenskiold River 
 on the left bank from the south. The united Yukon, about 100 
 miles below the confluence of the Lewes and Pelly, receives. 
 Stewart River from the east and White River from the south- 
 west. Sixty-Mile River comes in from the west lower down, 
 and the short Klondike River enters from the east close to 
 Dawson. From Dawson to the frontier is a distance of 90 miles 
 down the Yukon, the most important tributary being the Forty- 
 Mile River, coming in from the west. The Porcupine River 
 runs north through an almost unknown part of the district, and 
 may be easily reached from the delta of the Mackenzie in 67A°N. 
 There it turns round, crosses the frontier, and enters the Yukon 
 River at Fort Yukon. From Dawson to the mouth of the 
 Yukon in Bering Sea is a distance of 1577 miles, all navigable 
 for light-draught steamers in summer (see Map, Fig. 4, p. 1 47). 
 
 The country is as a whole mountainous, or at least elevated, 
 the valleys of the smaller rivers being deep and narrow, and 
 those of the larger rivers wide and gently sloped ; but above the 
 valleys, which are heavily timbered, there are bare uplands so- 
 smooth and level that roads can be easily constructed from point 
 to point. Along all the rivers there is a plentiful forest growth 
 changing into low scrub on the hills. 
 
 Climate. — The climate is sub-Arctic, the soil permanently 
 frozen from a foot or two below the surface to a depth of about 
 200 feet, and the thawing of the surface in summer gives rise to 
 marshes on all the low ground. The summer is short and hot, 
 and in the northern part of the district the sun does not set at 
 midsummer for several days, while mosquitoes are a terrible 
 plague. Near Dawson, however, little or no trouble is experi- 
 enced from these insects. The winters are long, and about as 
 cold as in any part of tlie world ; the rivers are frozen for several 
 
n 
 
 NEW LANDS. 
 
 months, and snow lies thickly. Still, once good houses have been 
 built, the cold is no drawback to a comfortable life, even although 
 in mid-winter the period of daylight ia restricted to a few hours. 
 Those who have had experience of the winter in all parts of 
 Canada consider that Dawson is no worse to live in as far as 
 -climate is concerned than Winnipeg or even Ottawa, the spring 
 being equally early, while a great variety of wild flowers appear 
 as soon as the snow departs. Mr. Ogilvie gives observations of 
 temperature, from which the following figures are selected from 
 the records of five incomplete years : — 
 
 
 Maximum 
 
 Minimum 
 
 
 Maximum 
 
 Minimum 
 
 Month. 
 
 Temperature 
 
 Temperature 
 
 Montli. 
 
 Temperature 
 
 Temperatme 
 
 
 Beading. 
 
 Beading. 
 
 
 Beading. 
 
 Beading. 
 
 
 Defsrees. 
 
 Degrees. 
 
 
 Degrees. 
 
 Degrees. 
 
 January, . 
 
 13 
 
 -67-9 
 
 July, . . 
 
 81 
 
 33 
 
 February, . 
 
 32 
 
 -64-8 
 
 August, . 
 
 76 
 
 21-6 
 
 March, 
 
 39-5 
 
 -54-3 
 
 September, 
 
 63 
 
 4-8 
 
 April, . . 
 
 49 
 
 -37-7 
 
 October, . 
 
 51 
 
 -12-7 
 
 May, . . 
 
 62 
 
 - 1'8 
 
 November, 
 
 38-5 
 
 -36-3 
 
 June, . . 
 
 80 
 
 27-8 
 
 December, 
 
 11 
 
 -55-4 
 
 Prom November to March the temperature usually falls below 
 zero every night, and from December to February it is rare for 
 the mercury to rise above zero at any part of the day. 
 
 Besoiirces. — Wild berries ripen under the long Arctic sun- 
 shine, and small quantities of vegetables have been raised in 
 gardens by exercising great precautions ; lettuce is said to thrive 
 best. Doubtless a great deal could be done by growing vege- 
 "tables under glass, and as long as the great population of gold- 
 seekers remains in the Yukon Valley it would pay a hardy 
 market gardener to try the cultivation of vegetables under 
 artificial shelter, which would probably bring him in a larger 
 income than gold-mining. 
 
 Mineral products other than gold abound. Excellent silver- 
 bearing lead has been found at Forty -Mile River, the silver 
 averaging 34 ounces per ton in some samples examined. Native 
 oopper has been brought in by Indians, and great supplies could 
 probably be found if sought for. What is more important is that 
 coal occurs in large quantities, chiefly in the form of lignite, and 
 often in the banks of the streams in the most favourable position 
 for mining. 
 
 Boutes to Klondike. — As Dawson on the Yukon, near the 
 mouth of the Klondike River, has been made practically the one 
 
THE DOMINION OF CANADA — ^WESTERN PROVINCES. 97 
 
 centre and emporium of the Canadian Yukon, it forms the head- 
 quarters whence explorers and prospectors must start, and to 
 which newcomers must make their way in the first instance. 
 The routes leading overland from Edmonton by the- Mackenzie 
 River and its western tributaries are quite impracticable except 
 for men who wish to prospect on the way. The transport of 
 supplies is practically impossible, until railways, or at least 
 waggon roads, are built to connect with steamers on the 
 navigable waterways. The same is true for land routes 
 through the interior of British Columbia. The route which 
 at first sight is most attractive is by steamer up the Yukon 
 River from its mouth, but this is slow and troublesome. 
 Though the river becomes navigable in May, the sea ice 
 does not clear away from the mouth of the delta until July, 
 and the stream begins to freeze in the middle of October, 
 so that barely three and a half months are available for the 
 traffic. Sometimes it is said that the navigable season scarcely 
 exceeds six weeks. St. Michael, the nearest port for tranship- 
 ping to river steamers is 3000 miles from Victoria, B.C., or from 
 Seattle, whence supplies are sent, and is separated from the 
 actual mouth by 70 miles of sea, across which river steamers can 
 only venture in fine weather. The cost of freight delivered in 
 Dawson by this route is from $125 to $130 (say £25) per ton, 
 and the time required from St. Michael to Dawson is from 
 sixteen to twenty days, if no serious stoppage occurs. 
 
 The most practicable routes at present are from west coast 
 ports to the upper navigable waters of the Lewes and down that 
 river in boats. Only three of the many which have been traversed 
 need be referred to here. The first of these, by the Stikine River, 
 has the advantage of passing entirely through Canadian territory, 
 thus avoiding any custom-house. The mouth of the Stikine is in 
 the Alaska coast-strip, and the transfer from the ocean steamer 
 to a river steamer must either be made at Fort Wrangell, sub- 
 ject to transit dues, or else at Fort Simpson, in British territory, 
 170 miles further south, in which case the ocean swell in crossing 
 Dixon entrance, 40 miles wide, may prove dangerous. The 
 Stikine is navigable for 150 miles to Telegraph Creek,* and 
 from this point it is 150 miles across comparatively easy country 
 to Teslin Lake, whence there is river navigation direct to Daw- 
 son, subject, however, to detention by several shallow bars. If 
 a railway were built for this distance the route would possess 
 
 * There is no telegraph ; the name commemoratea the surveys for a land 
 line from Europe to America via Siberia, with a cable across Bering Strait, 
 before the possibility of an Atlantic cable was realised. 
 
98 NEW LANDS. 
 
 certain advantages, but the Upper House of the Dominion. 
 Parliament threw out the bill for such a railway in the autumn 
 of 18i98, and it was not proceeded with. 
 
 The most direct route is from the head of the Lynn Canal from 
 Dyea up to the Chilkat River, along which a trail or pack road 
 has been cut which leads to the Nordenskiold River, by which 
 the Yukon may be reached, 240 miles above Dawson. This route 
 is known as the Dalton trail, from the constructor of the road. 
 It traverses a rich but as yet untouched mineral country. 
 
 The route now in favour is from Skagway at the head of 
 the Lynn Canal, whence a railway has been built over the 
 White Pass, crossing the Coast Range to Lake Bennett, a total 
 distance of 48 miles. There is a United States Custom House 
 to be passed at Skagway. That port is four days by ocean 
 steamer from Victoria or Vancouver, and Lake Bennett is three 
 days by river steamer to Dawson, the period of navigation being 
 from June to September. The Skagway route will hold a prac- 
 tical monopoly until other railways are constructed. 
 
 Conditions of Life in the Klondike Region. — It is esti- 
 mated that from £2,000,000 to £5,000,000 worth of alluvial gold 
 was taken out of the Yukon district in 1898, and no less in 
 1899.* An equal amount may be obtained annually for many 
 years without exhausting the supply. The Commissioner of 
 Yukon District estimated in 1898 that for 25 years to come the 
 goldfields would attract and hold a large population, t The 
 whole country is auriferous, although prospecting is seriously 
 retarded by difficulties of transport and the immense cost of all 
 Supplies. The gold is not found on the surface, but, on the 
 Klondike and its tributary creeks, is covered, first by a layer of 
 soil a few feet thick, and then by a bed of gravel from 10 to 20 
 feet thick, the lower layers of which, resting on the bedrock, 
 contain large quantities of gold dust and nuggets, sometimes of 
 considerable size. Hence the conditions of mining are arduous, 
 and the cost of freight makes it impracticable to employ heavy 
 Machinery. The usual method of working is to sink shafts in 
 winter through the frozen gravel to the bedrock, and to tunnel 
 Along the rock, hoisting up the " pay-dirt " which is stacked on 
 the surface till summer. Great fires hare to be lighted in the 
 shaft to thaw the frozen soil sufficiently to allow it to be dug 
 oat, and in summer, when it softens, the pits fall in. The 
 
 • The figures officially published probably considerably understate the 
 funount of gold produced. They were a^roximately £2,000,000 in 1898, 
 and £3,200,000 in 1899. 
 
 ■^Annwd Report of Dipaiimmt of (he Imleriorfw 1898. 
 
THE DOMINION OF CANADA — WESTERN PEOVINCES. 99 
 
 summer is occupied in -washing out the gold. Another method 
 is employed which, however, is practicable only in summer. 
 It consists of stripping off soil and gravel, and then -washing the 
 -whole of the "pay-dirt" which lies on the bedrock. Experts 
 believe that many other creeks in the Yukon basin will yield 
 as rich returns as the Klondike if they are fairly tested. The 
 only difficulties in the way of doing this are the expense of 
 provisions and of hired labour. In 1898 £2 per day was 
 ordinary pay for shovelling gravel ; in 1897 the day's wage was 
 £4:, and cases are recorded where many thousand pounds worth 
 of gold have been obtained at a loss. These enormous wages 
 did not mean great gains to the earners, for in those years the 
 cost of living was very high, and supplies very scanty. All the 
 alluvial claims in the neighbourhood of Dawson have been taken 
 up long ago, and newcomers must first find, then stake out, and 
 register their claim before they set to work upon it ; or, which 
 is more likely to be profitable, they must buy a claim from some 
 one who is "going out." 
 
 So far hydraulic mining has not been attempted, although 
 it will doubtless soon be introduced. Dredging the river bars 
 has also yet to be commenced. When it is possible to introduce 
 machinery, quartz mining will probably be undertaken, although 
 as yet the quartz veins have not been seriously sought for. 
 Auriferous rock is known to exist at Cone Hill near the town of 
 Forty Mile, averaging about 24s. of gold per ton, while other 
 exposures have been found opposite Dawson and in the Klon- 
 dike Valley, yielding a much higher assay. The extent of the 
 rock cannot be determined at present, but is believed to be 
 enormous. 
 
 The hardships of the pioneers who located and first worked 
 the gold at Klondike, will have to be repeated by any prospec- 
 tors who hope to open up new regions of great richness, and it 
 is probable that fortunes will be made more rapidly by the 
 numerous traders and caterers who wait upon the wants and 
 amusements of the miners, than by the men who actually 
 extract the gold. Miss Shaw, the special correspondent of The 
 Times, came to the conclusion, as the result of enquiries on the 
 spot, that only 4000, or at most 5000, men were actually engaged 
 in mining in 1898, the other 20,000 to 25,000 being either idle 
 or occupied in trade. The conditions of mining also are onerous 
 on account of the heavy government royalties which cut down 
 the margin of profit. Dawson, like all sudden agglomerations of 
 population, is not a healthy town. Scurvy and typhoid fever 
 are common and the death rate is high. On the other hand. 
 
100 NEW LANDS. 
 
 although there are liquor shops and gambling saloons in abund- 
 ance, and much extravagance and recklessness, law is respected 
 and property is safe. A telegraph line has been laid from Skag- 
 ■way to Dawson, and banks have been established through which 
 the thrifty miner may remit his gold to the outer world by pay- 
 ing a handsome percentage. There is a regulation that no one 
 shall enter the district unless he brings two months' provisions 
 and £100 in cash, or six months' provisions and £iO, a con- 
 dition made necessary by the sufferings of the early gold-seekers, 
 who, in many cases, were almost without resources. 
 
 The Commissioner of the District was of opinion that not 
 more than one quarter of the population on the goldfields were 
 British subjects in 1898 ; the great majority were Americans 
 from the tjnited States, but almost every nationality was 
 represented. The sudden rise of the Nome diggings in Alaska, 
 in 1899, is expected to cause a movement from Dawson to the 
 newer goldfield. 
 
 Mining Begulations. — The free miners' licence, costing 
 $10 a year, as in the other territories, is necessary for all 
 prospecting and mining. Oreek and gulch claims (i.e., claims 
 in the narrow valleys) are 250 feet in length, measured along the 
 stream, and extend to the sides of the valley, if these are not 
 farther than 1000 feet from the centre. Eiver claims are also 
 250 feet long, but apply to one side of the river only; and placer 
 claims on the hill sides or on benches (raised river terraces) 
 are 250 feet square. In all new allotments every alternate ten 
 claims are reserved by the Government. A fee of $15 per 
 annum is charged for each claim, and a royalty of 10 per cent, 
 of the gold produced, is payable if the total annual output 
 exceeds $2500. Hydraulic mining claims are put up to auction, 
 and an annual rental of $150 is also payable, while at least 
 $5000 per annum must be spent on the work. Quartz mining 
 claims are subject to the game conditions as in the North- 
 West Territories (see p. 88). 
 
 The Province of British Columbia. 
 
 Position and Surface. — British Columbia is the largest and 
 most western of the provinces. Facing the Pacific Ocean, and 
 shut out from the eastern provinces by a double chain of lofty 
 mountains, it has developed independently, and retains, around 
 the capital at least, more resemblance to the Mother Country in 
 ways of life than any other province in the Dominion. Separated 
 from the North-West Territories by the eastern ridge of the 
 
THE DOMINION 01" CANADA — WESTERN PROVINCES. 101 
 
 Rooky Mountains, as far as 55° N., and then by the meridian 
 of 120° W., from the United States by the parallel of 49° N. on 
 the south, and from Yukon by the parallel of 60° in the north, 
 British Columbia is bounded by the ocean on the west as far 
 north as Dixon Entrance, beyond which the coast strip of Alaska 
 occupies the west. The coast is deeply indented with fjords, 
 running up amongst the mountains of the coast ranges, like 
 the fjords of Norway or of the South Island of New Zealand, 
 and a chain of hilly islands runs parallel to the general trend 
 of the coast, the largest being Vancouver Island, the nucleus 
 of colonisation and the site of the capital. Between the roughly 
 parallel mountain systems of the Rocky Mountains and the 
 Coast Range, each of considerable breadth, there»is an irregular 
 interior plateau, for the most part cut up into deep valleys, and 
 containing some fairly high mountains. 
 
 River System. — The river system is complicated. In the 
 extreme north-east the Liard River flows to the Mackenzie, and 
 in 56° N. the Peace River, belonging to the same system, also 
 runs eastward. South of 56° the chief rivers flow in curiously 
 curved courses through great valleys parallel to the Rockies and 
 the Coast Range. The Fraser River, rising in the Yellowhead 
 Pass in the Rocky Mountains, runs north-west to about 54° N., 
 where it bends southward round the Cariboo Mountains, 
 receiving the drainage of many lakes from the north-west, and 
 on its southward way receives the Quesnelles and Thompson 
 Rivers from the east, and the Chilcotin, Lillooet, and other 
 short rivers from the west ; finally, the Fraser turns abruptly 
 westward, and enters the Strait of Georgia. Farther south, in 
 the same long valley, of which the north-flowing Fraser occupies 
 the northern part, two rivers, flowing in opposite directions, 
 come so close together that they have been connected by a short 
 canal. These are the Columbia and the Kootenay. The 
 Columbia flows north-westward to about 52J°, then turns 
 abruptly southward, encircling the Selkirk range, the southern 
 part of the Cariboo range, and widening as it flows into the 
 Upper and the Lower Arrow Lakes, issuing from which it 
 receives the Kootenay, and crosses the frontier into the United 
 States. The Kootenay, after flowing south from its source into th& 
 United States, wheels northward again into Canada, and enters 
 the south end of Kootenay Lake (parallel to the Arrow Lakes),, 
 from the middle of which the river escapes to join the Columbia. 
 West of the Arrow Lakes, beyond the Gold Mountains, another 
 long, narrow lake, the Okanagan, drains southward to join the 
 Columbia in the United States, These form the principal 
 
102 
 
 NEW LANDS. 
 
 north and south waterways of the province. In the northern 
 half two considerable streams, the lower courses of which are 
 navigable, enter the Pacific. These are the Skeena and the 
 Stikine. On the northern border, Bennett Lake, on the Lewes 
 River, and Teslin Lake, on its tributary, the Teslin, form the 
 heads of river navigation to the Yukon. 
 
 The geological structure is complicated, all the formations of 
 the continent being represented. The Cretaceous series are 
 perhaps the most characteristic ; but igneous rocks and Archaean 
 formations occur plentifully in the Coast Range and on the 
 plateau. 
 
 Climate. — British Columbia has every variety of climate. 
 That of Vancouver Island is typically oceanic, with relatively 
 warm winters and cool summers, as in England, and a heavy 
 rainfall. The western slope of the Coast Range has a similar 
 character, but farther inland on the plateau extremes of 
 temperature are experienced, and there is a deficiency of rainfall 
 in many places. In every instance where the mountains slope to 
 the west they are covered with magnificent forests. The 
 difference between the climate of the coast and the interior in 
 the south of the province may be understood from the following 
 comparison between Esquimalt in Vancouver Island and Fort 
 Steele, on the Crow Nest Railway, in East Kootenay* : — 
 
 
 Average 
 Temperature, "JF. 
 
 Average Monthly 
 Extremes, °F. 
 
 Annual Indies. 
 
 Jan. 
 
 July. 
 
 Year. 
 
 Mean Min. 
 
 Mean Max. 
 
 Eainfall. 
 
 Snow.t 
 
 Esquimalt, . 
 Agassiz, 
 Fort Steele,, 
 
 38 
 32 '5 
 21-5 
 
 60-5 
 
 66 
 
 67 
 
 47-5 
 47-5 
 43 
 
 33-8 
 27-9 
 12-4 
 
 70-8 
 82-3 
 85-8 
 
 37-5 
 
 62 
 
 11-5 
 
 31 
 49 
 40 
 
 In the far north the climate is similar to that of the adjoining 
 Yukon and Mackenzie districts. 
 
 Communications. — The Canadian Pacific Railway is the 
 main artery of British Columbia, without which its present 
 rapid rate of progress would be impossible. The line crossing 
 the Rocky Mountains at Banfl^ crosses the Columbia River 
 twice, and then follows the Thompson River down to the Fraser 
 and the Fraser to the sea, the terminus, Vancouver, being 
 
 * From the Year Book of British Columbia, 1897, p. 204. 
 + Unraelted. 
 
THE DOMINION OF CANADA — WESTERN PROVINCES. 103 
 
 situated a little to the north of the river mouth, on Burrard 
 Inlet. The whole route of the railway across the province forms 
 a succession of scenes of bewildering beauty and incredible 
 variety. From the railway three branches run southward. The 
 first from Revelstoke follows the Columbia River downwards to 
 the Arrow Lakes and connects with fine river steamers which 
 run to Trail, in the Kootenay. The new railway from Leth- 
 bridge, through the Crow Nest Pass, has been carried across 
 the Columbia River and extended westward, parallel to the 
 international frontier to the foot of Okanagan Lake, on which 
 steamers ply, and the upper end of which is in railway com- 
 munication with the O.P.R. This line will doubtless before long 
 be pushed through to the coast. Other short lines connect 
 mining centres in the Kootenay with the navigable lakes, and 
 junctions with the railways of the United States are made in the 
 Kootenay and near the coast. A railway also runs in Vancouver 
 Island from Victoria, the provincial capital, to Nanaimo and 
 Wellington. As yet there are no railways north of the C.P.R. 
 main line ; but good roads stretch northward to the various 
 goldfields. River steamers also run on certain sections of the 
 Fraser, and all the points on the coast are accessible by sea. 
 Ferry steamers run to Victoria from Vancouver, and from New 
 Westminster (about 80 miles), and also from Vancouver to 
 Nanaimo. The Canadian Pacific Railway has also two lines of 
 ocean steamers plying regularly from Vancouver to Japan and 
 Hong Kong on one side and to New Zealand and Sydney on the 
 other. 
 
 People and Laws. — The resources of the province are ex- 
 tremely varied, mining, agriculture, timber, and fishing being 
 all in a state of healthy growth. The supply of labour is 
 exceptional, because the native Indians have been trained to 
 work on farms and in fishing, while there is a large Chinese 
 population supplying excellent domestic service and having a 
 practical monopoly of the laundry business and many branches 
 of retail trade. There is, however, a strong feeling on the part 
 of white workers against the employment of Chinese, and 
 restrictive legislation is likely to increase. For a new country, 
 the elaborate restrictions imposed by statute in British Columbia 
 on every branch of enterprise would appear excessive ; but there 
 may possibly be some difference between the letter of the law 
 and its actual application. Close seasons for fish and game are 
 enacted, and the provincial legislature even goes to the extreme 
 . — very rare in any British possession — of refusing to give 
 licences to fishermen, or claims to miners who are not Britigh 
 
104 NEW LANDS. 
 
 subjects. Every man between 21 and 50 years of agie is liable 
 to be called upon to provide two days' labour on the roads 
 every year without payment. The employment of Chinese and 
 Japanese labour on various kinds of work — e.g., mining under- 
 ground — is prohibited, the regulations varying from time to 
 time. As regards the prohibition of Japanese labour, the 
 Dominion Government in 1899 disallowed the provincial law on 
 the ground that it was in opposition to imperial interests. 
 
 The health of the new, hastily-built and overcrowded mining 
 towns leaves much to be desired. But, as soon as there is a 
 fair prospect of permanence, and a proper drainage system and 
 water supply have been established, the cases of typhoid fever 
 become less frequent and tend to disappear. The widespread 
 use of wood for house building leads to great risks of fire. 
 Every now and again a railway station, or, perhaps, the greater 
 part of a town is destroyed in this way. 
 
 Forests. — The forests of British Columbia are the finest 
 in the Dominion in respect both of size and abundance of 
 trees, amongst which the magnificent Douglas fir (Oregon pine) 
 is conspicuous. The red and yellow cedars are also of great 
 value on account of their straight grain and fine appearance, and 
 there are many other valuable coniferous and hardwood timber 
 trees. The abundance of timber has not, however, led to a 
 great development in lumbering, on account of the distance from 
 markets and the practical impossibility of exporting timber 
 eastwards by rail. The supplies have been worked mainly for 
 local needs. Forest fires are not so destructive as in the east, 
 and if care is taken to preserve the more accessible woods from 
 reckless cutting they will in time acquire very great importance, 
 not only for timber, but also for wood-pulp. Until the Nicaragua 
 Canal is opened there is little prospect of any important export 
 of timber from the province, although a few cargoes are sent out 
 every year, chiefly to Pacific ports. 
 
 Agriculture. — From the mountainous nature of the province 
 farming operations are necessarily confined to the valley bottoms, 
 the coastal plains, and the interior plateau. The coastal plains 
 are so heavily wooded that clearing at great expense is required 
 before a farm can be laid out, while the valleys are subject to> 
 occasional floods, and a great part of the interior plateau has 
 deficient rainfall, although, when irrigated, it is very fertile. 
 North of the main line of the C.P.E.. there is still very little 
 agriculture, although some of the valleys could be utilised, and 
 the return of prosperity to the old goldfields should create a 
 good market. Along the railway, and especially in the neigh- 
 
THE DOMINION OF CANADA — WESTERN PROVINCES. 105 
 
 tourhood of Kamloops, there is good ranching land, and 
 irrigation would render a large area available for keeping cattle. 
 The Lower Fraser valley and the delta of that river round New 
 "Westminster are at present the districts where farming has had 
 most attention, and if the low lands bordering the river could 
 be permanently protected from floods they would become pros- 
 perous through agriculture alone. One of the Dominion 
 experimental farms is situated at Agassiz, on the Fraser. South 
 of the main line of the O.P.R., in the Okanagan district, fruit 
 farming has been found very successful, and hops are there 
 cultivated with good results, the necessary cheap labour being 
 supplied by the native Indians, families of whom ride in from 
 near and far and pitch their tents picturesquely round the hop- 
 fields in the picking season. This district contains good pastoral 
 land also, the scenery much resembling that of the southern 
 uplands of Scotland, and it is peculiarly favourably situated for 
 transport. The Okanagan Lake, which is navigated by steamers, 
 is connected at the north end, where Vernon is the chief town, 
 with the main line of the C.P.R. at Sicamous, and at the south 
 end at Fairview near Penticton with the extension of the Crow 
 Nest line leading to the mining towns of the Kootenay. The 
 western division of the Kootenay has comparatively little land 
 suitable for farming ; most of it in the low ground of the 
 Kootenay River and the head of Kootenay Lake, which has 
 been embanked against floods, the rest of the country being 
 forest-covered or bare mountain side. In East Kootenay there 
 are good ranching lands, where farming is also possible by the 
 aid of irrigation. The chief centre for farming is at Fort Steele, 
 but there is, of course, competition with the great ranches of 
 Alberta in supplying the mining population along the Crow Nest 
 Railway. 
 
 The most profitable stock has been found to be swine ; cattle 
 also are in good demand, but sheep are little kept, although from 
 the appearance of the hillsides of the interior plateau there 
 would appear to be good pasturage for them in summer at 
 least. 
 
 The agricultural prospects appear to be best for fruit, all 
 varieties of which, from apples to grapes and peaches, thrive on 
 irrigated land in the southern part of the interior plateau, and 
 for hops. There is a future also for market gardening, which is 
 at present almost a monopoly of the Chinese settlers. Hemp 
 and flax might also probably be cultivated; experiments cer- 
 tainly show that flax thrives well in the New Westminster 
 district and at Agassiz ; but for a long time to come the produc- 
 
106 NEW LANDS. 
 
 tion of food for the mining population is likely to occupy the 
 attention of the farmers of British Columbia. 
 
 The discovery of new placer mines^as a tendency to withdraw 
 attention from farming for a time, as only experience teaches 
 that certain profit attends the supply of food to miners, while 
 the personal search for gold is a precarious speculation. 
 
 Improved farms in the neighbourhood of towns are not cheap, 
 but there is abundance of land to be had in remoter parts at Ipw 
 rates, or free on performing homestead duties. Homesteads are 
 granted by the Dominion Government in the railway belt 20 
 miles on each side of the line, and in other parts of the province 
 by the Provincial Government, but, as a rule, only in remote 
 parts of the country where there is little inducement to settle. 
 
 Fisheries. — The fisheries of the province are extremely im^ 
 portant, and still capable of much development. In total valjie 
 they were equal in 1896 to the gold and silver produced in the 
 province, and British Columbia ranks with New Brunswick, and 
 is inferior only to Nova Scotia in the value of its fisheries. The 
 ehief industries are those of the capture and canning of salmon, 
 which are carried on mainly near the mouths of the Fraser in 
 the south, and of the Skeena in the north. The fishermen are 
 largely the coast Indians, who are magnificent boatmen and 
 boat-builders, and the work in the canning factories is mainly 
 done by Chinese, under white superintendence. The Quinnat, 
 Chinook, or Tyee salmon {Oncorhynchus tschavnitscha) is the 
 -variety most esteemed for food, and runs in spring, or from 
 November to April ; but the sock-eye or blue-back salmon (0. 
 nerkai) is preferred for canning, on account of the deep red 
 oolour of its flesh, and its amazing abundance. The great shoals 
 begin to enter the rivers in July, and continue throughout 
 August ; a third variety, the Cohoe salmon (0. kisutch), of less 
 ■value, appearing in September. As many as 2000 boats have 
 been seen at work off the Fraser River in autumn, and each 
 boat may, under favourable conditions, catch from 100 to 50O 
 fish in a night. The export of canned salmon in 1897 amounted 
 to 1,000,000 cases of 48 lbs. each. 
 
 Halibut fishing all along the coast, and especially round the 
 Queen Charlotte Islands, has recently assumed considerable 
 proportions, the fish being of remarkable size and quality. They 
 are usually dispatched in ice by rail to eastern Canada and the 
 United States. Many other varieties of fish are also to be 
 obtained. 
 
 Every fisherman requires a licence, costing $10 per annum. 
 There is a good deal of legislation as to fishing, including the 
 
THE DOMINION OF CANADA — WESTERN PROVINCES. 107 
 
 imposition of close times, the prohibition of Saturday and 
 Sunday fishing for salmon, and of obstructions in rivers which 
 might cut the fish ofi' from their spawning ground. 
 
 Milling. — The mines of British Columbia are its greatest 
 source of wealth at present, and if they continue productive 
 long enough to attract a large population and encourage agri- 
 culture, lumbering, and fishing, they will make the colony 
 permanently prosperous. 
 
 Gold and Silver. — British Columbia has been famous for its 
 placer goldfields since 1858, but the development of the country 
 through gold has been fitful, and subject to long periods of 
 depression. Since the commencement of lode mining, however, 
 the production of gold promises to become a steady source of 
 prosperity, which will lead to improved communications, and 
 help to develop all the resources of the country. The gold 
 produced in British Columbia in 1897 amounted to $2,724,000, 
 nearly half of the output of the Dominion, but the province now 
 ranks second to the Yukon. 
 
 Gold has been found in almost all the rivers of the province, 
 and auriferous rooks have been discovered in so many parts of 
 the country that it is probable that no district is without a 
 supply of the metal, which it may pay to work. Naturally, 
 however, it is only the richest regions that have become 
 sufficiently well known to attract public attention, and hitherto 
 mainly the placers. To recount all the places where signs of 
 gold have been found, would be merely to detail the geography 
 of the province, as far as it is known. It will only be possible 
 to indicate the regions where the appearances promise a large 
 future supply. 
 
 Gold was first worked in the canyons of the Fraser River, and 
 the prospectors quickly made their way to the upper tributaries 
 where the Cariboo field once had immense camps. More pro- 
 ductive placers drew away the fickle " diggers," but within 
 the last few years the gold of the Fraser has been attacked 
 by modern methods. Dredgers have been set to work in the 
 river itself, and yield a fair return. Hydraulic mining is prac- 
 tised in the Quesnelle and Barkerville districts, about 300 miles 
 from the junction of the Fraser and Thompson, on a very large 
 scale, there being no agricultural land near enough to be damaged 
 by the tailings, and no serious risk of silting up the navigable 
 part of the river. Some of the banks of old river gravel attain 
 a thickness of 200 feet and over, and yield a good return when 
 washed. In some places, however, the deeper gravel is cemented 
 into a solid mass which must be quarried and crushed in order 
 
108 NEW LANDS. 
 
 to liberate the gold. The work is necessarily in the hands of 
 large companies whose operations are sometimes of a gigantic 
 nature, involving in certain instances the damming back of lakes 
 in order to lay bare the beds of the effluent rivers. The route 
 to the Cai'iboo fields is by coach on a good road, with excellent 
 inns, the journey occupying three days from Ashcroft on the 
 C.P.R., which can be shortened by a night's steamer journey 
 -on the Eraser from Soda Creek to Quesnelle. Barkerville is 
 one day further by road. 
 
 In the far north of the province promising goldfields are 
 being opened up on the Omineca River, one of the head streams 
 of the Peace River, and only accessible by trails or rough pack 
 roads ; in the Cassiar district, which is reached by steamer up the 
 Stikine River to Telegraph Creek, and thence by trail ; and on 
 the Atlin Lake, which is easily reached from Lake Bennett, the 
 terminus of the White Pass railway from Skagway. These 
 mines, however, have not proved very attractive to individual 
 miners, and it is believed that they will only yield a fair return 
 when hydraulic working has been introduced. 
 
 The Lillooet mines, on the Cayush Creek, about 40 miles up 
 the Fraser from Ashcroft, yield a return from quartz mining. 
 
 The richest rock mines, and those that promise greatest 
 permanence, on account of the immense quantity of low-grade 
 ores present, are those of the West Kootenay, now approached 
 by the Columbia River steamers from the C.P.R. line on the 
 north, by the Crow Nest Pass line on the south, and by direct 
 rail from the United States. This region contains mountains 
 rising to 8000 feet above the sea, divided by deep valleys. 
 The rocks are largely Archsean and igneous, great intrusions of 
 granite occurring in parts. The gold ore is usually in the form 
 of pyrrhotite — not unlike the nickeliferous pyrrhotite of Ontario 
 — and chalcopyrite, occurring in a rock of dioritic character. 
 This ore is a complex combination of sulphides of copper and 
 silver with gold, and has to be subjected to elaborate metal- 
 lurgical processes before the gold can be obtained. The copper 
 forms a valuable bye-product. Hence there is no possibility of 
 success from individual attempts at mining. 
 
 The chief centre is the town of Rossland, situated at a con- 
 siderable elevation on a bench, or old river terrace, on the steep 
 slope of a mountain in which the mines are worked by horizontal 
 galleries and shafts. The winter is very cold on account of the 
 altitude, and, until the opening of the Crow Nest line, com- 
 munication in winter, after the withdrawal of the Columbia 
 steamers, was very difficult. In less than five years Rossland has 
 
THE DOMINION OF CANADA — ^WESTERN PROVINCES, 109 
 
 attracted a population of over 8000, and has been laid out in 
 streets, where buildings of stone and brick are rapidly replacing 
 the first wooden shanties. The ore is sent by rail to Trail or 
 Nelson on the Columbia river to be smelted. 
 
 The mining at Rossland appears to be on a more permanent 
 basis than that in districts where placer workings are relied 
 upon, and with the advance of prospecting a number of small 
 mining towns will arise in the district, forming good markets 
 which should encourage agriculture on the available lands in 
 the neighbourhood. 
 
 Silver, mainly in the form of silver-lead ores, is obtained in 
 great quantities both in the West and East Kootenay districts 
 from many mines. The average proportion of silver exceeds 200 
 ounces to the ton of lead. The importance of these ores has led 
 to the construction of very difficult railways from the Arrow 
 Lakes, Slocan Lake, and Kootenay Lake to Sandon. The 
 Slocan district has proved the most productive. The industry 
 is being carried on with great energy ; but new deposits are 
 still being met with, and, as the geological survey of the pro- 
 vince proceeds, the labours of the prospectors will be guided to 
 other regions where great results will doubtless also be obtained. 
 
 Coal, of excellent quality, is abundant in the Cretaceous 
 rocks of Vancouver Island, where it is mined to the amount of 
 nearly 1,000,000 tons per annum, in the neighbourhood of 
 Nanaimo, for export to the mainland ports of British Columbia 
 and of the United States. Farther north, at Comox, there are 
 also workings, and the area of good coal is believed to be greater 
 than at Nanaimo. In the Queen Charlotte Islands large 
 quantities of coal exist, some of which, on Skidegate Inlet, is 
 anthracitic in character. On the mainland coal has been 
 reported at several points on the Eraser and Thompson Rivers, 
 on the Skeena River, and in the almost unknown region in the 
 north-east. The finest fields are, however, in the Crow Nest 
 Pass, and this region is sure of prosperous development on 
 account of the demands for working the machinery and the 
 smelters of the Kootenay district. Extensive coking ovens 
 have been established at Eernie to supply the fuel required for 
 the smelters. 
 
 Iron ores of good quality are abundant in many places 
 throughout the province, but no metal has, as yet, been 
 manufactured. 
 
 Mica deposits of fine quality yielding unusually large sheets 
 of the mineral occur in the upper Fraser Valley, close to the 
 Yellowhead Pass, but can scarcely be worked on account of the 
 
110 NEW LANDS. 
 
 long journey of seventeen to twenty-five days by pack-horse 
 required to reach Kamloops or Edmonton, the nearest railway 
 points. 
 
 Mining Laws. — Miners require to take out a mining 
 licence, costing $5 per annum for individuals and |50 or $100 
 for companies, according to capital. All claims must be pegged 
 Out, and particulars written on the "discovery peg," before 
 registration is possible, Eind they must be registered within 
 certain time limits from the date of discovery. In quartz 
 mining a claim is 1500 feet square, and may be bought out- 
 right for |500, or held as loig as $100 per annum is spent in 
 working it, or, in default of working, paid as rent. 
 
 Leases of not more than five miles of the bed of a river 
 may be granted for twenty years for the purpose of gold 
 dredging. Claims for placer mining measure 100 feet square, 
 except in the case of creek claims, which are 100 feet long, and 
 extend from base to base of the hills. A placer claim must be 
 worked continuously, and is liable to be forfeited if untouched 
 for 72 hours, " except for reasonable cause, satisfying the Gold 
 Commission." 
 
 A licence to prospect for coal on 640 acres of land costs 
 $50 for one year, and if coal is found a lease may be obtained 
 for five years at the rate of ten cents an acre, and a royalty 
 of five cents per ton of coal raised. If contiguous claims up 
 to ten are located by miners working in partnership, they may 
 be permitted to concentrate the working upon one claim with- 
 out forfeiting the others. No boys under twelve, no females of 
 any age, and no Chinamen are allowed to be employed under- 
 ground in any mines, and there are numerous regulations in 
 force for the safety of the miners. The mining laws are ex- 
 tremely, voluminous and minute, as many as twenty-four Acts 
 dealing with mines and mining having been passed by the 
 Provincial Parliament between 1888 and 1898.* 
 
 * Statistical Tea/r Book for Canada, 1897, p. 158. 
 
Ill 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 NEWFOUNDLAND. 
 
 Position and Government — The French Shore — People — Surface — Climate 
 — Communications — Fisheries — Farming — Mining — Mining Laws. 
 
 Position and Government. — Although the oldest British 
 colony, Newfoundland still remains one of the least developed, 
 so far as the land is concerned, because it has been used mainly 
 as a landing place for fishing fleets and the headquarters of 
 sealing vessels. The island lies at the entrance of the Gulf of 
 St. Lawrence, and is the portion of America nearest to Europe, 
 being only 1700 miles from the west coast of Ireland. 
 
 The area ia about 42,000 square miles, and the population, 
 at the census of 1891 (including the coast of Labrador), was 
 202,000. The government is that of a ministry responsible 
 to the Colonial Parliament, a governor being appointed by the 
 Colonial Office in London to represent the British Crown. The 
 coast of Labrador is under the jurisdiction of Newfoundland. 
 
 The French Shore. — By a curious interpretation of an old 
 treaty, the west and north coasts of the island itself can scarcely 
 be viewed as part of the colony. By the Treaty of Utrecht, in 
 1713, the French were confirmed in the possession of the two 
 little islands, St. Pierre and Miquelon, and were also guaranteed 
 the right of landing and drying their nets and curing fish on 
 the west and north coasts of Newfoundland, these being known 
 now as the French Shore. In 1783 the Treaty of Versailles 
 further provided that the French, in using the French Shore, 
 should have " freedom from interruption by the competition of 
 the British." Unfortunately, the exact nature and extent of 
 these rights have never been defined, and many misunderstand- 
 ings between British and French fishermen have resulted. The 
 prosperity of the colony has been retarded, and the uncertainty 
 as to the treaty rights and disabilities was one of the causes 
 which has kept Newfoundland outside the Dominion of Canada. 
 A modus vivendi with the French Government, arrived at in 
 1898, is expected to be extended over 1900 ; but a final under- 
 standing is much to be desired. 
 
112 NEW LANDS. 
 
 People. — About one-third of the population is Roman 
 Catholic in religion, nearly one-third belong to the Ohurch 
 of England, and the remainder are chiefly Methodists. The 
 coinage of the island is similar to that of Canada. The current 
 rate of wages is lower than in any part of the Dominion, but 
 the cost of living is also lower in the same proportion. 
 
 For many years the condition of Newfoundland has been 
 unsatisfactory from a financial point of view, and although 
 vigorous efforts have recently been made to develop the country, 
 it cannot as yet be termed prosperous. The people are almost 
 all colonial born, immigration being very small; while there is 
 a strong tendency to emigration, encouraged, perhaps, by the 
 seafaring habits, but possibly due in part to the difficulties 
 hitherto found in making a livelihood by work on land. 
 
 Surface. — The island is rugged in character, the coasts are 
 deeply cut up into a vast number of bays and peninsulas, and 
 the rough uplands of the interior remain still but little known, 
 and practically uninhabited. On the west coast the land rises 
 abruptly from the sea to form a line of heights known as Long 
 Range, attaining about 2000 feet in the highest part ; and from 
 the summit the land undulates away across the island, forming 
 an irregular plateau, gradually falling towards the east coast. 
 
 Geologically, Newfoundland is part of the great Archaean 
 mass of North America, mainly Laurentian, but Huronian in 
 the south-east. At various points round the coast, and here 
 and there in the interior, there are patches of old sedimentary 
 rocks, mainly Silurian and Carboniferous. No formations more 
 recent than the Carboniferous are found except the glacial clays, 
 which cover a considerable part of the surface. The interior is 
 diversified by many lakes of all sizes, usually called ponds, 
 most of them — so far as is known — running from south-west 
 to north-east, and draining to the east coast. The Humber 
 is the only river of any size which crosses the Long Range 
 and enters the sea on the west. The eastern rivers are 
 much longer, especially the Exploits, which nearly bisects the 
 island, and falls into the Bay of Exploits; and the G-ander 
 system, which enters Gander Bay by one branch and Bonavista 
 Bay by another. None of the rivers are navigable for craft 
 larger than canoes. 
 
 The banks of these rivers are wooded with well-grown pine 
 and other coniferous trees, and with birch; and a certain 
 amount of lumbering has been carried on for a long time, 
 although never on a large scale. Forest fires have done much 
 damage near the railway. The rest of the interior is very 
 
NEWFOUNDLAND. 113 
 
 rugged, treeless, and barren, being covered mainly with moss 
 and shrubs ; and as yet the greater part is unsurveyed, and a 
 great deal of it even unexplored. 
 
 Climate. — The climate is less severe than that of most parts 
 of Canada, the winters being warmer — temperatures below zero 
 Fahrenheit rarely occurring — and the summers are like those of 
 the north of England. The rainfall is ample, but does not 
 appear to exceed 40 inches per annum, and in winter snow does 
 not lie so thickly as in eastern Canada. But there is not the 
 same amount of clear sky or dry atmosphere as on the mainland. 
 In summer the east and south coasts are tormented with fogs, 
 due to the cold Labrador current ; but the west and north coasts 
 do not suffer so much, and the sea-fogs do not penetrate far into 
 the interior. The occasional stranding of a large iceberg on the 
 coast has a remarkable effect on local climates, and an iceberg is 
 often held responsible, by its chilling of the air, for the failure of 
 crops to ripen. 
 
 The coast of Labrador is dreary in the extreme ; although lying 
 in the same latitude as the British Islands, it has an Arctic 
 climate, on account of the ice-laden currents which drift along 
 it, and it is only visited by fishermen and sealers in the summer. 
 Its mineral character is almost unknown, but it would not be 
 surprising if iron and other ores were found to be abundant. 
 
 Communications. — Direct steamers of the Allan line run 
 fortnightly in summer from Liverpool to the port of St. John's, 
 the capital, in the south-east ; and there is communication by 
 steamer from Halifax, Nova Scotia, all the year round. Small 
 steamers ply along the south coast all the year, and along the 
 east and west coasts for nine months. A railway across the 
 island was opened in 1897. It runs from St. John's through 
 the peninsula of Avalon, north to the Gander and Exploits 
 Rivers, curving westward to the Humber, and thence south 
 along the west coast to Port aux Basques at the extreme south- 
 west. A steamer runs thence to Cape Breton Island, and con- 
 nects with the Intercolonial Railway. It is hoped that the line 
 across Newfoundland will form a link in the shortest sea passage 
 between Europe and America — a passage Which steamers of the 
 most powerful type could reduce to a little over three days in 
 favourable weather. 
 
 Several of the European telegraph cables are landed at Heart's 
 Content, in Trinity Bay, and land wires place all the settlements 
 on the three coasts (south of 50°) in communication with the 
 capital. Outside the peninsula of Avalon in the south-^east, 
 where most of the population is concentrated, there are no 
 roads. 8 
 
114 NEW LANDS. 
 
 Fisheries.— Nine-tenths of the inhabitants are engaged in 
 fishing and in- industries connected with fish; indeed, scarcely 
 any attention has hitherto been paid to anything else. Practi- 
 cally the whole export trade (averaging a little over $6,000,000 
 per annum) is in fish, mainly dried and salted cod caught in 
 summer on the Grand Banks and in the inshore waters. Salmon 
 are also caught and cured in summer, and in winter herrings are 
 fished and exported in a frozen state. The canning of lobsters 
 has recently acquired great dimensions, and this trade is one of 
 the chief causes of friction on the French Shore. Seal-hunting is 
 also a piirsuit of some importance. 
 
 While the native population always turn their eyes to the sea 
 for occupation and support, newcomers may look inland, where 
 much hard work and a rough life will probably in time result in 
 a comfortable livelihood. The amount of timber fit for the 
 lumber trade is not very great, but there is an immense supply 
 of small wood suited for pulping, and the manufacture of wood 
 pulp has already been commenced. 
 
 Farming. — Agriculture has been much neglected, but is 
 improving, although there is scarcely a farm in the colony 
 out of sound of the sea. About 65,000 acres of land were culti- 
 vated in 1891. There is a good deal of very fair farming land 
 round the heads of the bays and in the valleys of the chief rivers, 
 which are tapped by the railway, but road-making en a consider- 
 able scale will be required before farming can really pay. As 
 regards crops, wheat is not likely to yield good results, but oats, 
 barley, buckwheat, rye, and root crops, especially potatoes, do 
 well. There seems to be no future for farming on or near the 
 south coast. The Humber Valley, opening to the west, contains 
 perhaps the best land, but the Exploits and Gander Valleys on 
 the east and several places along the south-west coast, all near 
 the railway, are promising. As yet they are nearly all un- 
 touched. Insects are said to do a good deal of damage to 
 crops. 
 
 There are great areas of first-rate grass for pastoral purposes, 
 and the farmer should look to live stock rather than to tillage as 
 his main support. There is summer pasturage even in the parts 
 of the island known as the Great Barrens on which cattle and 
 sheep thrive. The great difficulty, however, is the supply of food 
 and shelter for stock during the winter months. This would 
 involve a great increase of hay-harvesting and root-growing, and 
 the introduction of artificial grasses. The chief advantage of 
 Newfoundland for rearing live stock is the short voyage to 
 Europe, as compared with Montreal or New York, If the trade 
 
NEWFOUNDLAND. 115 
 
 were properly organised there should be no difficulty in landing, 
 cattle at Liverpool within a week of their leaving the pastures. 
 
 Land for agricultural purposes may be obtained free, as in 
 Canada, by settling upon it, building a house and improving the 
 soil, no payment beyond a homestead registration fee of $1Q 
 being required. Crown lands may be purchased in quantities up 
 to 600 acres at not less than 30 cents per acre, and subject to the 
 condition that 10 per cent, of the land shall be cleared and occu- 
 pied within five years. Occupation licenses are also granted at 
 a very moderate rate, with a right to ownership if the land ig 
 improved, occupied, and cultivated for five or ten years, accord- 
 ing to circumstances. 
 
 It is doubtful if agricultural immigrants will be attracted to 
 Newfoundland in large numbers ; for, although a living can 
 probably be made, the conditions of life are no better — unless 
 proximity to Europe be counted an advantage — than in the rich 
 lands of the west of Canada. 
 
 Mining. — Gold-bearing rocks have been found in the south- 
 east at Cape Broyle, about 40 miles south of St. John's, and speci- 
 mens are said to have yielded 3 ounces of gold to the ton. The 
 gold, so far as is known, occurs in combination with other metals, 
 and must be separated by elaborate processes after crushing. 
 As nearly .one-third part of the island is made up of Huronian 
 rocks, with which, in America, gold is usually associated, it is 
 not improbable that the metal may be found in considerable 
 quantity. The south-eastern corner of Newfoundland may 
 roughly be said to be underlain by Huronian rocks, while the 
 rest is mainly Laurentian ; the dividing line runs from the 
 western side of Bonavista Bay across the island south-westwards 
 to the western side of Fortune Bay. 
 
 The mines which have been worked to the greatest extent 
 are those of copper, the ore (copper pyrites) being exported, 
 for the most part, unsmelted. Copper is mined at many places 
 along the east coast, the supply is large, and the output could 
 easily be greatly increased. The actual value of copper ore 
 exported in 1897 was only £84,000, much less than the value 
 of the tinned lobster exports. As yet there has been prac- 
 tically no prospecting for copper or other ores in the interior 
 of the island. 
 
 Nickel is found, associated with copper, at Tilt Cove on 
 N6tre Dame Bay, and was worked when the price of the 
 metal was high. 
 
 Iron ore also occurs in immense abundance, and some of it 
 is Tery rich. Hematite and magnetite are worked already to 
 
116 NEW LANDS. 
 
 some extent. Bell Island, in Conception Bay on the east, 
 is particularly rich in brown hematite, which occurs close to 
 the surface, and can be quarried out and delivered by shoots 
 into vessels lying in deep water. On one occasion 1800 tons 
 of iron ore were loaded in this way directly into the holds 
 of a steamer in 4f hours. Iron pyrites is extensively mined 
 on Pilley's Island in Exploits Bay, and exported to the 
 United States for the manufacture of sulphuric acid. 
 
 Chrome iron ore occurs in the cliflfs of the west coast at Port- 
 au-Port, and is being worked, although, on account of powerful 
 monopolies in the chrome ore trade, it is sometimes difficult to 
 secure a market. 
 
 Lead and silver ores have been found and tested on the 
 shores of Placentia Bay, and are probably widely distributed. 
 They also appear at Port-au-Port on the west coast, where 
 mining was begun in 1875, but was stopped on account of 
 disputes as to the rights of the fishermen on the French Shore. 
 
 There are considerable deposits of coal in the Carboniferous 
 strata of the neighbourhood of St. George's Bay, on the west 
 coast, and near Grand Lake, both localities being on the line of 
 railway. This coal should be of great value as fuel for smelting 
 the various ores ; and in many ways Newfoundland is peculiarly 
 well fitted for metallurgical enterprises. There is no great 
 extent of fertile land, nor forests of such value as to make the 
 establishment of extensive metallurgical works objectionable to 
 other industries ; and in the course of time the innumerable 
 deep inlets of the coast might give rise to a steel shipbuilding 
 industry from native supplies. This, however, must remain a 
 dream of the remote future, unless large capital were devoted to 
 the purpose ; at present capital can be applied elsewhere with 
 better prospects of a quick return. 
 
 Serpentine rocks are extensively represented, and asbestos of 
 fair quality occurs in them. The serpentines are also looked 
 upon as a guide to copper deposits, copper ore frequently 
 occurring in the schists through which the serpentine dykes run. 
 Other mineral products such as gypsum and building stone 
 occur in abundance. There is one remarkable granite quarry in 
 which the rock occurs naturally split up into blocks of various 
 sizes, so rectangular and uniform, that shiploads have been 
 dispatched ready for use as building material without any cutting 
 or trimming.* 
 
 •A. E. Outerbridge, "The Undeveloped Mineral Wealth of New- 
 foundland," Journal of the Franldin Institute, Philadelphia, vol. oxliv. 
 (1897), p. 168. 
 
NEWFOUNDLAND. 117 
 
 Petroleum has been found near St. Paul's Inlet, about the 
 middle of the west coast, and is being worked. 
 
 There is no doubt that Newfoundland abounds in mineral 
 wealth. Were it not for the immense richness of its fisheries, 
 this would have attracted attention long ago, because so much is 
 exposed to view in the best positions for working and shipping 
 in the cliffs of the deep-water inlets. The fishing people cared 
 nothing for the minerals, and many stories are current of how their 
 ignorant appreciation of accidental qualities drew the attention 
 of prospectors to the supplies. Thus a pretty yellow stone set 
 as an ornament on the chimney-piece of a fisherman's cottage 
 led to the discovery of the copper mines of N6tre Dame Bay ; 
 the heavy " stones" taken onboard as ballast, and thrown care- 
 lessly ashore at St. John's, led to the discovery of the hematite 
 on Bell Island;* while the brilliant carmine paint on the bottom 
 of a fishing boat seen as she heeled over in a squall,. served to 
 reveal a mine of silver ore, which an unkind landslip buried 
 beyond rediscovery before it was utilised, t Now that a rail- 
 way has been built across the island, there will undoubtedly 
 be a great impulse given to prospecting in the interior, and 
 within a few years there will be- some evidence from which to 
 judge of the part mineral wealth may take in developing this 
 oldest, but least known, of British colonies. 
 
 Mining Laws. — A license to search for gold over an area 
 of 320 acres costs $25 for one year, and twice as much for 
 a second. A gold mining lease of an area of one quarter of 
 a mile square (40 acres) is granted at the rate of $50 per 
 annum for a period of 21 years, with an obligation to spend at 
 least $500 per annum in working each area. 
 
 A mining license for one square mile of land costs $20 for 
 the first year, $30 for the second, and $50 for the third, with 
 certain obligations as to working. A mining lease, conveying 
 the right to the minerals under 1 square mile of land, and to 
 the occupation of 50 acres of surface, is granted to the holder 
 of a mining license for a period of five years on payment of $25. 
 The holder must, however, expend at least $800 during each of 
 the first four years, and $2800 during the fifth year in working 
 the minerals, and as soon as he can prove the expenditure of 
 $6000 he is entitled to a grant of the minerals in the square 
 mile, and of the 50 acres of land. 
 
 * Harvey, NewfouncUaivl in 1897 (London, 1897), pp. 89 and 94. 
 t Outerbridge, Journal of the Franklin Institute, Philadelphia, vol. cxliv, 
 (1897), p. 170. 
 
118 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 THE TJlflTED STATES. 
 
 Growth and Progress — ^Position and Boundaries — Configuration — Climate 
 — Communications — Resources — Agriculture — Stock Raising — Mining 
 — Coalfields — Petroleum — Metals — Manufactures — People — Settle- 
 ment of the Country — Government and Laws — Aliens and Naturalisa- 
 tion — New Lands of the United States — Acquisition of Public Lands 
 — Gulf States — Mississippi — Alabama — Florida — Texas — States of the 
 Great Lakes — Michigan — Wisconsin — Minnesota — Central States — 
 North Dakota — South Dakota — Nebraska — Kansas — Arkansas — 
 Missouri — Oklahoma — Cordilleran and Plateau States — Wyoming — 
 Idaho— Montana — Pacific States— California — Oregon — Washington — 
 Alaska — Position and Area — Administration and Laws — Ports and 
 Communicaitions — Climate — Possibility of Agriculture — Resources — 
 Gold in Alaska — Cape Nome Goldfields — Coal in Alaska. 
 
 Growth and Progress. — The history of the United States of 
 America since the declaration of independence by the thirteen 
 British colonies of the Atlantic coast, in 1776, is a record of the 
 most remarkable and continuous progress ever known, in the 
 development of a vast unoccupied region, and the creation of 
 a great nation. With the exception of Nova Scotia and Prince 
 Edward Island, no province of the Dominion of Canada is at 
 present one-half so densely peopled as the average of the whole 
 United States. In area and population the United States 
 exceed any other civilised Power under a single government 
 except Russia ; and no other country in the world, except 
 possibly China, contains three separate towns each with a 
 population exceeding one million, like New York, Philadelphia, 
 and Chicago. In wealth and enterprise, and in the intelligence 
 displayed in utilising their resources, the people of the United 
 States have no superiors. Hence it is now more natural to class 
 that country along with the fully occupied countries of Europe 
 than with the undeveloped lands of the New World. 
 
 There is still, however, vast and almost unlimited scope for 
 development and increase in prosperity ; but this will come 
 ^bout rather by the adoption of improved methods, the inven- 
 tion and adaptation of which are characteristic of the American 
 people, than by the opening up of new lands from the outside, 
 
THE. UNITED STATES. 119 
 
 and more and more by the redistribution and natural increase of 
 the existing population than by the continuance of the vast im- 
 migration which has taken place during the past half century. 
 The story of the westward march of population is a very remark- 
 able one. There were 305,000 square miles of settled land in 
 1800 confined to the Atlantic border, 980,000 in 1850, and 
 1,950,000 in 1890. As the rich lands of the centre of the con- 
 tinent were taken up, and railways placed them in easy 
 communication with eastern markets, the old, infertile farms 
 of the east dropped. out of cultivation, and, with the increasing 
 prosperity of the country, the population of some of the north- 
 eastern states has actually declined. Yet, for many years to 
 come, the States will continue to attract young and ambitious 
 men from every quarter of the globe ; and although competition 
 in every department is keen, and the whole machinery of life 
 runs at high pressure, there is no country in the world where 
 the prizes open to individual work and native merit are so 
 numerous or so great. The freedom from many of the traditions 
 and conventions which hamper progress in the Old World has 
 allowed free scope to modern ideas of organisation, government, 
 and social life in the New ; but modern abuses of power in the 
 formation and working of monopolies on a gigantic scale in 
 trade, labour, and politics threaten, in some cases, to neutralise 
 these advantages to the community at large. 
 
 Position and Boundaries. — The United States occupy the 
 whole breadth of the North American continent, from the 
 Atlantic to the Pacific ; this huge slice being the very choicest 
 portion, neither penetrating into the tropics on the south, nor 
 approaching the sub-Arctic region on the north. The limits of 
 latitude are 49° on the north, along the parallel which forms 
 the Canadian boundary, and 25° at the extremity of the 
 Peninsula of Florida on the south. There are land boundaries 
 on the north with Canada (see p. 30), and on the south with 
 Mexico, the latter being formed by the Rio Grande, from the 
 Oulf of Mexico to about 32° N., and thence by an irregular line 
 across the plateau to the Pacific Ocean, which is met nearly in 
 33° N. The frontiers have been surveyed, and columns erected 
 along them at intervals. The area between these limits is 
 estimated at 3,025,600 square miles. The outlying territory of 
 Alaska, in the extreme north-west of America, the uncertain 
 boundaries of which are referred to at p. 31, contains an 
 additional area of about 570,000 square miles. In 1898 outlying 
 island possessions were acquired, including Cuba and Porto 
 Bico in the West Indies, and Hawaii, the Philippine Islands, 
 
120 NEW LANDS, 
 
 and Guam in the Pacific, while in 1899 Tutuila island in Samoa 
 ■was added. The total area may be compared in size with the 
 Dominion of Canada, or the continent of Australia, than either 
 of which it is at least twelve times more populous, or with 
 Europe, of which the States contain only one-sixth the 
 population. 
 
 Configuration. — The configuration of the main body of the 
 country is very simple. The great lakes lie on the north, and, 
 except for the Eed River of the North, which flows into the 
 province of Manitoba, and the Columbia River, which rises in 
 the province of British Columbia, the whole hydrographic 
 system lies in the country itself. The great Missouri-Mississippi 
 Valley forms the centre of the United States, stretching from 
 near the great lakes to the Gulf of Mexico, and receiving large 
 tributaries from east and west. The flat expanse of the centre 
 of the Mississippi Valley is known as the Prairies, and forms the 
 greatest stretch of rich treeless agricultural country in the 
 world. On the east the prairies rise up to the broken country 
 of the low Appalachian Ranges, which form an irregular water- 
 shed separating the Mississippi basin from the low coastal plain 
 which borders the Atlantic and sweeps westward round the Gulf 
 of Mexico. To the west the prairies rise more gradually to form 
 the Great Plains which, lying at altitudes up to 6000 feet, run 
 along the whole length of the States to merge in the prairie 
 steppes of Canada. These great plains, deeply seamed by the 
 valleys of the long tributaries of the Mississippi, lead up to the 
 abrupt and lofty range of the Rocky Mountains, whose peaks 
 exceed 14,000 feet in height, and which form the watershed 
 between the Atlantic and Pacific. Beyond the crest the Rocky 
 Mountains sink to the level of a lofty plateau, which in one 
 portion forms a large inland drainage area, known as the Great 
 Basin, and containing Great Salt Lake; but otherwise diversified 
 by many high mountain ranges, deep valleys, and profound 
 canyons. The plateau is bordered on the west by the Sierra 
 Nevada, and Coast Ranges, between which lie some remarkably 
 sheltered valleys, and through which great rivers — especially 
 the Colorado in the south and the Columbia in the north — 
 make their way, gathering in their courses the waters of many 
 tributaries. 
 
 Climate. — The dividing lines between all the grand natural 
 divisions run from north to south, and there is a striking 
 absence of mountain ranges in an east and west direction. The 
 result upon the climate is very marked. Extreme range of tem- 
 perature and quick variability characterise it, on account of the 
 
THE UNITED STATES. 121 
 
 ease with which cold winds from the north in winter, and hot 
 winds from the south in summer, can sweep its whole length. 
 The tempering influence of the sea is excluded by the Coast 
 Hange on the west and the Appalachians on the east, so that the 
 interior is little affected by the ocean. The mean annual tem- 
 perature varies greatly with the latitude, ranging from 40° F. in 
 the north-west to 75° in the south of Florida. A mean tempera- 
 ture, equal to that of the British Islands, prevails, as a rule, a,long 
 a belt from 40° to 42° N. — i.e., more than twelve degrees farther 
 south than in Europe, but the range between summer and winter 
 is very different. In winter the cold over all the northern 
 states is severe. In the west it is worse than in the North- 
 West Territories of Canada, on account of the less pronounced 
 action of the Chinook winds, and the occasional occurrence of 
 blizzards or snow tempests, which no living creature can with- 
 stand. The heat of summer is no less pronounced in all parts 
 of the country, except in places where it is modified by altitude. 
 The central prairies of the Mississippi are subject to the 
 visitation of tornadoes or whirlwinds, which work extraordinary 
 havoc, destroying trees and houses in their track. Yet, despite 
 all these disadvantages, the climate as a whole is not only 
 healthy, but the air is stimulating and exhilerating in a remark- 
 able degree. 
 
 The distribution of rainfall is naturally much influenced by 
 the configuration. To the south-east of a line drawn from the 
 Mexican frontier, at the Gulf of Mexico, to the outlet of Lake 
 Ontario, the total annual precipitation exceeds 40 inches, and 
 the same is true for most of the Pacific coast and the western 
 faces of the Coast Range and the Sierra Nevada. But almost 
 the whole of the great strip of land between 100° and 120° W. 
 has a rainfall under 20 inches, and a very large part of it, 
 on the great plains and the plateau, has under 10 inches, which 
 is far too little to permit successful agriculture, or even in some 
 cases to allow of the growth of pasture grass. In these arid and 
 sub-arid regions, the value of farming land is expressed, not 
 by the amount of land held, but by the amount of water avail- 
 able for irrigation. 
 
 The attention paid to meteorology is such that no country in 
 the world is better supplied with predictions of coming weather 
 changes than the United States. The Weather Bureau distri- 
 butes its warnings to all parts of the country by telegraph, and 
 special signals are displayed by railway trains in some of the 
 thinly peopled districts. This systematic dissemination of 
 weather forecasts is rendered possible by the vastness of the 
 
122 NEW LANDS. 
 
 area from, which the necessary data is derived, and is of great 
 practical utility to all concerned. 
 
 Communications. — The eastern ports of the United States, 
 of which New York is by far the most important, are reached by 
 the fastest steamers from Liverpool and Southampton, a voyage 
 of a little over 3000 miles, in six days. It is upon this route 
 that the highest developments of fast and luxurious ocean travel 
 have taken place. On the western side, the magnificent harbour 
 of San Francisco (3000 miles, or six days' continuous travel by 
 rail from New York) communicates by means of regular lines 
 of steamers with Japan, China, Hawaii, the Philippine Islands, 
 and Australia. 
 
 Traffic on the rivers and canals is now mainly confined to the 
 carriage of goods, the enormous mileage of railways having 
 reduced the river passenger traffic, once the largest and most 
 luxurious in the world, to very moderate dimensions. In 1850 
 there were only 9000 miles of railway in the United States ; 
 in 1880 they had increased to 93,000 miles, while in 1897 
 they had reached the immense total mileage of 184,600 miles. 
 This gives one mile of railway for every 23 square miles, or 
 for every 390 inhabitants, which may be compared with 1 
 mile for every 5^ square miles, or for every 1870 inhabitants 
 — the proportions which exist in the United Kingdom. A 
 great deal of the rapid development of the United States is 
 due to the enterprise with which railway lines have been pushed 
 out into uninhabited regions in advance of settlement, and to 
 the competition produced by the duplication of lines betweea 
 all the more important centres. There are, for instance, five 
 separate routes by which, within the borders of the United 
 States, the continent can be crossed from ocean to ocean. 
 
 Resources. — With their vast and varied natural resources, 
 the United States approach more nearly than any other country 
 to the ideal of being absolutely self-sufficing. No necessaries 
 need to be imported, except possibly tea and coffee, while every- 
 thing else could be, and is to a great extent, produced within 
 their boundaries. Yet, pending more economical methods of 
 working, tropical produce, raw materials, and particularly manu- 
 factured goods, are still imported in large quantities, the latter 
 in spite of heavy protective duties. 
 
 The chief support of the States is farming, including under 
 this term the cultivation of food products, and of raw materials 
 for manufacture, and the raising of live stock. Every year, how- 
 ever, manufactures are becoming more important, and before 
 iong factories and not farms will provide the larger share of 
 
THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 123 
 
 national wealth, if, indeed, the time is not already come. 
 While the United States have not the same necessity for 
 maintaining a great export trade as weighs upon a country 
 of more limited resources, the exports supply certain indica- 
 tions as to the produce of the country. The following is, in 
 round numbers, a statement of the value of the chief exports 
 for the year 1897-98 :— 
 
 Products 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Pounds 
 
 Sterling. 
 
 Per Cent, ol 
 Total. 
 
 Agriculture, 
 
 Mines, .... 
 Forests, .... 
 Fisheries, .... 
 Manufactures, . 
 
 Total, 
 
 854,000,000 
 
 20,000,000 
 
 38,000,000 
 
 5,500,000 
 
 290,500,000 
 
 171,000,000 
 
 4,000,000 
 
 7,600,000 
 
 1,100,000 
 
 58,100,000 
 
 70-70 
 1-66 
 3-15 
 0-46 
 
 24-03 
 
 1,208,000,000 
 
 241,800,000 
 
 100-00 
 
 Agriculture. — Nearly the whole of the area of the United 
 States east, and some very rich valleys and coast strips -west, 
 of the Rocky Mountains, are available for cultivation, or in 
 the drier region for cattle ranching or irrigation farms. The 
 nature of the staple crops necessarily differs according to the 
 climate. The coastal plain of the South Atlantic and Gulf of 
 Mexico is mainly devoted to cotton-growing, an industry of 
 immense importance, and largely dependent on negro labour. 
 Tobacco, although cultivated in almost every state, is most 
 important as a crop in the states lying just north of the 
 ootton-grdwing region, and especially in Kentucky and Virginia. 
 The area of prairie land between the Ohio River, the great 
 lakes, and the Great Plains of the west, is the richest grain- 
 growing region in the world, its staple crops being maize 
 {universally called "corn" in the United States), wheat, and 
 oats. To this region must be added the rich California Valley. 
 The states which produce the greatest quantity of Indian corn 
 are those of the centre — Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Iowa, Missouri, 
 Kansas, and Nebraska. Those in which wheat is most largely 
 cultivated lie farther to the north and west. 
 
 The greatest wheat-growing states in 1897 were Minnesota, 
 California, Kansas, North Dakota, South Dakota, Indiana, and 
 Ohio. In Minnesota and the Dakotas, which occupy part of the 
 isame rich land as Manitoba, which lies just to the north of them, 
 •wheat cultivation absorbs practically the whole energy of the 
 population, and wheat is grown to the exclusion of other crops. 
 
124 NEW LANDS. 
 
 Hence, as the population is small, these states have a large 
 surplus available for the supply of the eastern industrial states, 
 which do not raise nearly enough for their own food supply, and 
 beyond this also for export. As long as the wheat crop in the 
 western states continues to provide more than sufficient to 
 supply the east, the United States will continue to be a 
 wheat-exporting country ; but this cannot go on always. The 
 virgin soil available for ploughing diminishes in extent every 
 year, and every year the increasing exhaustion of the soil under 
 cultivation demands the aid of fertilising agents, so that the 
 boundary line of land, upon which manure has become neces- 
 sary, is constantly creeping farther and farther west. Agri- 
 culturally speaking, land in need of fertilisers is already old 
 land, and the cost of cultivating it steadily increases. The time 
 when the whole wheat crop of the United States will be needed 
 for the food of its own people, although in sight, is probably far 
 off. The handling of the crop in the north-western states 
 illustrates the latest developments of industrial economy, which 
 the possession of cheap land, combined with dear labour, can 
 stimulate an inventive people to employ. 
 
 Oats are grown everywhere in the north, but the states 
 devoting the largest acreage to this crop are Iowa and Illinois, 
 where it has sometimes been found more profitable than wheat. 
 Although mainly used as food for horses, the use of oats as 
 human food is rapidly increasing in America,* a fact curiously 
 in contrast with the state of things in the United Kingdom, 
 where — especially in Scotland — oat-eating communities have 
 been largely converted to the use of wheat, a change not wholly 
 advantageous. 
 
 Although these products are specially mentioned on account 
 of their immense preponderance, there is no farm product of the 
 temperate or sub-tropical zones which does not go to swell the 
 vast agricultural wealth of the United States. Taking the 
 country as a whole, the areas devoted to the leading crops, and 
 the yield, are given in the following table (p. 125). 
 
 In 1890 the number of separately occupied farms in the 
 United States was 4,500,000, but although the number of &rms 
 had increased steadily, the proportion of the population engaged 
 in farming had notably diminished. In 1870 fully 47 per cent, 
 of the wage earners were engaged in agriculture ; in 1890 not 
 quite 37 per cent, were so employed. The decrease is accounted 
 for by the more rapid development of manufacturing industries. 
 
 * H. Gannett, in Stanford's Compendium of Geography amd Travel — North 
 America; vol. ii., The United States, 1898, p. 368. 
 
THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 125 
 
 In 1890 the total area of the farms was 632,000,000 acres, of 
 ■vfhich 357,000,000 acres were improved land. 
 
 AGBIOULT0BE OF THE UNITED STATES, 1897. 
 
 Crop. 
 
 Acres. 
 
 Bushels 
 per Acre. 
 
 Total Value of Crop. 
 
 Indian Com, . 
 
 Wheat, . 
 
 Oats, . 
 
 Hay, . . . 
 
 Cotton, . 
 
 80,000,000 
 39,500,000 
 25,700,000 
 42,400,000 
 23,300,000 
 
 23 '8 
 13-4 
 
 27-2 
 
 $501,000,000 
 428,000,000 
 148,000,000 
 401,000,000 
 319,000,000 
 
 £100,200,000 
 85,600,000 
 29,600,000 
 80,200,000 
 63,800,000 
 
 Stock Raising. — The keeping of live stock is not only an 
 incident in mixed farming, but in the states of the Prairie and 
 the Great Plains forms a highly specialised industry by itself. 
 Cattle ranching is pursued chiefly on the sub-arid area of the 
 Great Plains — that vast stretch of country west of the fertile 
 land, and reaching from Canada to the Gulf of Mexico. The 
 cattle on these ranches are bred mainly for their value as beef, 
 and, in passing eastward to the market, they are often fattened 
 in the Prairie States before being slaughtered at the great meat- 
 packing centres. No less than 1,365,000 square miles — mainly 
 on the Great Plains — are utilised for cattle ranches exclusively.* 
 Sheep are kept on the western plains also, mainly for food 
 supply, but their number is relatively smaller. Sheep, for the 
 production of wool, are pastured largely in the eastern states, 
 just as milch cattle are kept mainly in the neighbourhood of 
 the great centres of population. 
 
 The Prairie States, especially those in which the Indian 
 corn yield is greatest, excel in rearing swine, or hogs, as 
 they are always called in America ; indeed, a great part 
 of the maize crop is used for fattening swine for the great 
 centres of pork packing in Omaha, Chicago, Cincinnati, and 
 elsewhere. 
 
 The tendency throughout the whole country is to conduct 
 farming operations on a very large scale, with a high degree of 
 organisation, so that the small farmer, although able to make a 
 comfortable livelihood in favourable districts, will never be able 
 to compete successfully with the great trading organisations 
 backed by large capital. 
 
 * Statesman's Year Booh — United States, 1,899. 
 
126 NEW LANDS. 
 
 'Estimate of Animals ik United States (Round Numbers) 1897/ 
 
 
 Number. 
 
 Value. 
 
 Horses and Mules, . 
 Milch cows. 
 Other cattle, . 
 Sheep, .... 
 Swine, .... 
 
 16,500,000 
 16,000,000 
 30,500,000 
 37,000,000 
 40,600,000 
 
 $545,000,000 
 
 369,000,000 
 
 508,000,000 
 
 67,000,000 
 
 166,000,000 
 
 £109,000,000 
 
 73,800,000 
 
 101,600,000 
 
 13,4004000 
 
 33,200,000 
 
 Mining. — Tlie mineral wealth of the United States is, 
 perhaps, the greatest and most varied of any country in the 
 "world ; it is already to a large extent exploited. Indeed, so 
 rapid are the methods of extraction of valuable ores, and so keen 
 is the competition in the production of the precious metals, that 
 large areas of the country have been overrun, worked out, and 
 abandoned as valueless, in situations which a more deliberate 
 method of working might have rendered prosperous for many 
 years. If, for example, there is gold in a district which the 
 labour of 1000 'men could extract in 50 years, it is most probable 
 that before the end was reached some other mode of making a 
 livelihood would have been devised, and the small community, 
 gradually accustomed to the locality, would have been rendered 
 permanent. But if 50,000 miners rush into the district and 
 exhaust the mines in a single year, the land is doomed to be a 
 perpetual wilderness, unless it should happen to have an excep- 
 tionally fertile soil, a rare thing in a mining region. 
 
 The distribution of minerals in the IJnited States is of 
 peculiar interest. The most easily worked fields containing the 
 best coal are in the Appalachian Mountain district on the east, 
 where petroleum, natural gas, and iron ore also abound. Hence 
 the dense population which naturally clusters on the Atlantic 
 seaboard is supplied with all the materials for developing exten- 
 sive manufactures and inaugurating an export trade. On the 
 other hand, in the uninhabited, and, for a long time, inaccessible 
 mountains of the west, immense deposits of the precious metals 
 were discovered. These rapidly attracted a population, and 
 thus formed a second centre of wealth, trade, and industry. 
 In some places, like California, the genial soil and climate have 
 perpetuated, in agriculture, prosperity begun in precious metals ; 
 in others, like Nevada, the mines when exhausted left the land 
 
 s, iiKe iM evaaa, tne mines wnen exnaustea leit tne land 
 
 * U.S. TectrbooJc of the Department of Agriculture, 1898. The year 1897 
 for comparison with the statistic^ of crops, which in 1898 were 
 ! averatre- 
 
 is chosen for comparison 
 below the average. 
 
THE ITNITED STATES. 
 
 127 
 
 desert. Between the eastern and the western centres of popu- 
 lation railways had to be constructed in spite of immense 
 natural difficulties, and these led settlers into the great agricul- 
 tural lands which lay between. In many places mineral wealth 
 in coal and iron has since been discovered, underlying the 
 prairie lands, the utilisation of which is helping forward the 
 transition from an agricultural to a manufacturing community. 
 In the production of iron the United States now lead the world, 
 having surpassed the United Kingdom a few years ago, while 
 the production of coal also promises before many years to occupy 
 the first place. 
 
 Chief Metallic Products op United States in 1897. 
 
 
 Amount. 
 
 Value.* 
 
 Pig iron, . 
 Silver, 
 Gold, . 
 
 SX' : 
 
 Zinc, . 
 
 long tons, 
 
 . oza., 
 
 . ozs., 
 
 . lbs., 
 
 short tons, 
 
 short tons. 
 
 9,650,000 
 
 53,860,000 
 
 2,774,000 
 
 491,638,000 
 
 208,000 
 
 100,000 
 
 $95,100,000 
 69,640,000 
 57,363,000 
 54,000,000 
 14,900,000 
 8,500,000 
 
 £19,050,000 
 
 13,926,000 
 
 11,472,500 
 
 10,800,000 
 
 2,980,000 
 
 1,700,000 
 
 Chief Non-Metallic Products of United States in 1897. 
 
 
 Amount. 
 
 Value, t 
 
 Bituminous coal, 
 Pennsylvania 1 
 anthracite, / 
 Petroleum, . 
 Building stone, 
 Natural gas, . 
 
 short tons, 
 
 long tons, 
 
 . barrels. 
 
 147,800,000 
 46,800,000 
 60,570,000 
 
 $119,740,000 
 
 79,130,000 
 
 40,900,000 
 36,000,000 
 13,800,000 
 
 £23,948,000 
 
 15,826,000 
 
 8,180,000 
 7,200,000 
 2,760,000 
 
 The total value of metallic and non-metallic minerals together in 1897 
 was $632,000,000 or £126,400,000. 
 
 In the foregoing table the quantities are expressed in the 
 units employed in America, which are even more inconsistent 
 
 * These values are calculated according to the price at Pennsylvania for 
 iron, at New York for copper, lead, and zinc ; and the coining value for 
 ^old and silver. In the case of silver the commercial value in 1897 was 
 only $32,300,000. 
 
 + These values are calculated on the spot, after the product is raised to 
 the surface and prepared for sale, but before being put on the market. 
 
■128 NEW LANDS. 
 
 i 
 
 and confused than the ordinary British system of weights, if 
 that be possible. The long ton is the British ton of 20 cwts. = 
 2240 lbs. J the short ton contains 2000 lbs. The values are 
 derived from the Report on the Mineral Resources of the 
 United States published annually by the U.S. Geological 
 Survey. 
 
 Coalfields. — Mines of gold and silver afford at best only 
 temporary stimuli to the development of a country, while 
 mines of coal and iron usually lead to permanent prosperity. 
 Practically all the anthracite is derived from a few hundred 
 square miles of country in the north-east of Pennsylvania, and 
 that state also contributes more than one-third of all the 
 bituminous coal produced. Ohio, West Virginia, and Alabama 
 are the only other states situated on the Appalachian coalfield 
 which produce over 5,000,000 tons of coal per annum, although 
 smaller amounts are obtained in Maryland, Kentucky, Tennessee, 
 and other eastern states. The next coalfield in importance lies 
 ■east of the Mississippi and north of the Ohio, and the mines 
 within it make Illinois rank next to Pennsylvania as a coal- 
 producing state. Another great coalfield lies west of the 
 Mississippi, and is worked extensively in Iowa and Kansas, and, 
 to a lesser extent, in other States. All these coalfields are in 
 Tooks of the Carboniferous age, and are separated by a broad 
 belt of country- — on the Great Plains — from the coal and lignite 
 found in the Cretaceous and Tertiary strata of the eastern part 
 of the Great Plains, the Rocky Mountains, and the Pacific coast. 
 These coals, usually of inferior quality, occur in a number of 
 small separate basins, and are most largely mined in Colorado. 
 
 The iron manufacturing district is in the east ; Pennsylvania 
 smelts half the pig iron of the United States, while Ohio and 
 Alabama account for most of the rest. The ores in the immediate 
 localities are much less used than those brought from the 
 southern shores of Lake Superior, where the states of Michigan, 
 Wisconsin, and Minnesota share what is perhaps the largest 
 deposit of hematite in the world. Other large supplies of fine ore 
 are known, especially in Missouri, but not worked, because of 
 the greater economy arising from the use of the mines farther east. 
 
 Petroleum. — Petroleum is obtained chiefly from the great 
 oilfield of north-western Pennsylvania, and the neighbouring 
 parts of New York and Ohio. Natural gas occurs in the same 
 regions, and many factories in Pennsylvania, Indiana, and Ohio 
 use natural gas as a motive power, although the supply is not 
 likely to prove permanent, and some works have been obliged to 
 return to coal. 
 
THE UNITED STATES. 129 
 
 Metals. — Colorado, Montana, and Utah produce most of the 
 silver and lead ; California and Colorado yield most of the gold, 
 although other western states and territories also supply a con- 
 siderable proportion. 
 
 Copper is obtained most largely from the south-west of 
 Montana, the Keweenaw peninsula, on the south shore of Lake 
 Superior in Michigan, where the ore is native copper scattered 
 through conglomerate, and from the territory of Arizona. 
 
 Manufactures. — As in other countries, the manufacturing 
 centres of the United States lie on the coalfields, or in the neigh- 
 bourhood of other great natural sources of power, such as 
 Niagara Falls. If we include in manufacturing industries the 
 felling and sawing of timber, and the slaughtering and packing 
 of animals for food, the manufacturing industries of the United 
 States greatly exceed in value those of any other country in the 
 world. The fact that all but a small fraction of the manufactured 
 goods are consumed in the country has helped to produce the 
 impression, common in Europe, that American manufactures are 
 trifling in amount compared with the production of raw 
 materials. The total value of the product of all manufacturing 
 industries in 1890 was $9,372,000,000, or £1,874,000,000, and 
 4,700,000 hands were employed. The largest establishments are 
 concentrated in the north-eastern states and in the neighbour- 
 hood of Chicago, so that in 1890 more than one-half of the 
 establishments and of the capital were found in the states of 
 New York, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Massachusetts, and Illinois. 
 Here the organisation of labour and capital is more complete, 
 and the struggle between them keener, than in any other part of 
 the world ; competition increasing between the great firms 
 engaged in the same industry until they are driven to coalesce, 
 forming gigantic trusts or monopolies against which no new 
 firm can by any possibility contend. The immense power 
 wielded by these trusts enables them to control the legislature 
 to such an extent as to secure themselves against competition 
 from foreign sources. Prom this point of view the eastern 
 states are less " new lands," in the way of furnishing openings 
 to the energies of outsiders, than the oldest or most despotic 
 countries in Europe. 
 
 Only one-third of the annual crop of raw cotton is as yet 
 manufactured in the United States ; but this is in large 
 measure due to the well-established fact that a humid atmos- 
 phere is essential to rapid manufacture, and the air of the 
 United States manufacturing districts is everywhere too dry. 
 Another industry that has been very slow in developing is steel 
 
 9 
 
130 
 
 NEW hANVS. 
 
 shipbuilding. As a consequence, only 25 per cent, of the 
 foreign trade of the country is carried under the American flag. 
 The coasting trade and the navigation of the rivers are, how- 
 ever, reserved for vessels built and registered in the United 
 States, no foreign ship being allowed to carry cargo from any 
 United States seaport except to a foreign country. 
 
 People. — The original nucleus of the people was of English 
 origin, with a very small Irish and Dutch admixture, but from 
 the Declaration of Independence, in 1776, onwards, the new 
 elements introduced have become more and more diverse, , 
 although they have rapidly fused into a new and wonderfully 
 homogeneous American type, using the English language, and 
 following fundamentally English laws. The attempt to class the 
 United Kingdom and the United States together as "Anglo- 
 Saxon " has recently acquired a certain amount of popularity; 
 laut the term is unsatisfactory. The British peoples themselves 
 axe only in part descended from the early German tribes, and 
 the proportion of Anglo-Saxon blood of English origin in an 
 average American must be small indeed. " English speaking " 
 is the only accurate term of comprehension. Whatever the 
 nationality of the immigrants, a member of the third generation 
 is, as a, rule, truly Anierican, and free from the traditions of his. 
 grandfathers. 
 
 Population of UnrrBD States in 1890. 
 
 Foreign bom, 9,250,000 
 
 Native bom whites of foreign parents, . . 11,014,000 
 
 Native bom whites of native parents, . . . 34,720,000 
 
 Native bom coloured, 7,638,000 
 
 Classifying the foreign born according to nationality, the 
 distribution at the census of 1890 was as follows : — 
 
 CotmTBIES OF ObIGIN of rOEBIGN BOEN WHITES. 
 
 Germany, 
 
 2,785,000 
 
 Ireland, 
 
 1,871,000 
 
 Great Britain, 
 
 1,251,000 
 
 Canada,* 
 
 981,000 
 
 Scan<iinavia,,t 
 
 933,000 
 
 B,ussia,J . 
 
 . 330,000 
 
 Aiistria-Hnngry, 
 
 . 304,000 
 
 Italy, . . 
 
 . 182,000 
 
 France, 
 
 . 113,000 
 
 Switzerland, . 
 
 . 104,000 
 
 The foreign born have a tendency to concentrate in the large 
 cities, and to follow industrial occupations. They are most 
 numerous in the north and east. Germans congregate mainly 
 in the states of New York, Illinois, Wisconsin, Pennsylvania 
 
 'And Newfoundland. fi,e., SVeden, Norway, ajid Denmark, 
 t Including Poland. 
 
THE UNITED STATES. 131 
 
 and Ohio. The Irish usually remain in the eastern states, 
 especially in New England, New York, and Pennsylvania, and 
 preferably in the large towns. Natives of Great Britain 
 are more widely spread, but still show a tendency to remain 
 in the east ; while the Scandinavians prefer the north-central 
 and western states, their chief centres being in Minnesota, 
 Illinois, and Wisconsin. The French Canadians (who make up 
 the greater number of the immigrants from Canada) are, as a, 
 rule, confined to the states in the extreme north ; they are most 
 numerous in Massachusetts, Michigan, New York, and Maine. 
 The native born of foreign parentage are very similarly dis- 
 tributed. Great migrations of the native born whites of native 
 parentage have taken place from the eastern states to the west. 
 
 The south-eastern states receive few immigrants, but they 
 are the home of most of the 7,470,000 persons of negro blood 
 who were recorded by the census of 1890. The negro popula- 
 tion is mainly employed on plantations, in small farming in 
 the country, and in personal service in the towns, filling such 
 posts as waiters, barbers, gardeners, house servants, &c. The 
 negro is kept, as a class, apart^not allowed to travel in the 
 same cars, or worship in the same church, as the white ; and, 
 although legally entitled to equal civil rights, he exercises no 
 political influence even in states where more than half the 
 population is "coloured." In California, and to a less degree 
 in other western states. Chinamen, to the number of about 
 100,000, supply most of the domestic service, and monopolise 
 the laundry trade. The cheapness of Chinese labour has led to 
 very determined efibrts on the part of white wage-earners to- 
 exclude them from the country, and, thanks to the rigorous 
 application of the laws prohibiting Chinese immigration, the 
 number of the Chinese inhabitants has ceased to increase. 
 
 Many small reservations all over the western states are set 
 apart for the native Indians, of whom there are about a quarter 
 of a million. About 50,000 of these have abandoned their 
 tribes and live amongst the whites. About 50,000 more occupy 
 Indian Territory as " civilised tribes," exercising the right of 
 self-government, and secured in' the possession of their land, 
 which belongs to the tribes and not to individuals. But, although 
 white men are not allowed to hold property in Indian Territory, 
 the white population there is at least twice as numerous as the 
 red. Many of the whites have married Indian women, and as 
 " squaw men " are included in the tribes ; the others are simply 
 intruders, holding and working mineral lands or farms, andl 
 carrying on trade without any legal title. 
 
132 NEW LANDS. 
 
 The immigration into the United States, on the average, 
 exceeded half a million persons per annum between 1891 and 
 1893, but had diminished to less than 220,000 in 1898. The 
 character of the immigrants is less satisfactory than it used to 
 be. A very large proportion now consists of illiterate people 
 from southern Europe, of inferior type, and — a more serious 
 grievance — willing to work for low wages. They tend to 
 deteriorate the American character, and the feeling is increasing 
 that the time has come when wholesale immigration should be 
 checked, and the resources of the country reserved for its own 
 inhabitants and their natural increase. Already there are laws 
 excluding imbeciles, lunatics, criminals, and paupers, and immi- 
 grants who become a burden to the State within a year of 
 landing are liable to be returned to their country of origin. 
 Hundreds are sent back under these laws every year, the 
 number so returned in 1887 having been 1880. It would not 
 he surprising if within the next ten or twenty years immigra- 
 tion to the TJnited States should be altogether stopped. 
 
 Settlement of the Country. — Restless energy, inventive- 
 ness, independence of all tradition, and an unexampled power of 
 voluntary association and organisation characterise the people of 
 the United States as a whole. The resources of the country are 
 utilised with feverish haste, and the land is often left exhausted 
 and useless. The settled area of the States is considered to be 
 all the country containing a population of more than 2 to the 
 square mile. In 1890 the settled area amounted to 1,947,000 
 square miles, or 64 per cent, of the country, if Alaska is 
 excluded. There is now no unsettled land left east of the 100th 
 meridian, except a little round the great lakes, a little in Florida 
 and the Gulf States, and (technically, at least) Indian Territory. 
 Very little land worth settling remains unoccupied. 
 
 Mr. H. Gannett, the chief geographer of the United States 
 Geological Survey, points out how settlement is often a mere 
 passing incident in the history of a region. In speaking of the 
 growth of new towns he says* : — 
 
 "Again, many of these incipient towns die prematurely. 
 Mining excitements give birth to numberless "cities" which 
 perish when the mines become exhausted, or, from one reason or 
 another, work on them is stopped. The oil regions of Pennsyl- 
 vania contain many of those mushroom towns, which, from the 
 failure of the oil wells, are now in a state of decay. All over 
 the high plains of the Dakotas, ^Nebraska, Kansas, and Colorado 
 
 •Stanford's Compendium of Geography and Travel — North America, 
 vol. ii. (1899), p. 162. 
 
THE UNITED STATES. 133 
 
 are the remains of " cities " which were started during the hoom 
 period of 1885 to 1888, and which were depopulated by the 
 droughts of succeeding years. All over the west are deserted 
 towns, monuments of departed placer diggings, or "played-out" 
 quartz leads. The railroads, too, continue their quota of recent 
 ruins. Every important railroad, during its construction, 
 carried at its end a town — even a city in some cases. As the 
 end of the road moves on the town follows it." 
 
 Government and Laws. — The United States form a Federal 
 Republic, consisting, in 1899, of 45 States, three organised 
 Territories, two unorganised Territories (Alaska and Indian 
 Territory), as well as some island possessions. Theoretically, 
 the Government of the States is a perfect democracy, every 
 community from the township or county up to the State and 
 the Union, as a whole, having the sole right of appointing not 
 only its legislative, but also its executive, bodies. Party 
 politics are so highly organised that the ordinary elector 
 has merely to record his vote as he is told, according to the 
 party to which he belongs. A class of professional politicians 
 thus practically wields the chief influence, but it frequently 
 happens that the great commercial monopolies control the 
 politicians. Thus it is only in cases when the public con- 
 science is deeply stirred, as was the case with regard to the 
 abolition of slavery years ago, that the individual elector 
 exercises his independent influence in the manner contemplated 
 by the authors of the constitution. 
 
 Every State has a Governor and a Legislature of two houses, 
 elected by the people and exercising control over all matters 
 afiecting the internal administration of that State. Each 
 organised Territory has a similar legislature likewise elected by 
 the people, but the Governor is appointed by the Government of 
 the United States. Each State and each Territory has its own 
 judiciary, and every State has also its own militia force under 
 the command of the Governor. Alaska has at present a 
 Governor appointed by the United States Government, without 
 a legislature, and the General Government also manages the 
 affairs of Indian Territory and of the District of Columbia, the 
 latter being a small area containing the city of Washington, the 
 Federal capital. 
 
 The diversity of laws in the various States is very great, 
 and sometimes troublesome. The franchise in Colorado, Utah, 
 and Wyoming is extended to women, in the other States it is. 
 restricted to men, all males over 21 having, as a rule, a vote, 
 but in some an educational or (in Rhode Island only) a property 
 
134 NEW LANDS. 
 
 qTialificatibn is necessary. Although the States have no power 
 to impose duties on trade, they have the right of legislating on 
 certain commercial matters ; the liquor trade, for example, is 
 prohibited in some States, and very severely controlled in others. 
 The laws of marriage and divorce difier greatly ; in some States 
 divorces are granted for the most trivial reasons. One State 
 (Nevada) permits prize fighting. The diversity of laws often 
 makes what is considered a harmless, or even praiseworthy, act 
 in one State a misdemeanour in another, and vice versd. While 
 the fully settled States are as loyally law-abiding as any country 
 in Europe, in others, where racial hatred is strong, or the rough 
 manners of the early mining camps survive, there are frequent 
 appeals to the summary, though not always unjust, methods of 
 "Judge Lynch." 
 
 The General Government of the United States consists, first, 
 of an executive head, the President, and a Vice-President (who 
 succeeds him in case of death), both of whom are elected for a 
 term of four years, by an indirect vote of the people. The 
 President appoints the heads of the departments forming a 
 cabinet. Next, it consists of a Congress of two Houses, the 
 House of Representatives and the Senate. The House of 
 Kepresentatives is elected for two years directly by the people, 
 the number of representatives of each State being based on the 
 population at the last census, so that there is a redistribution of 
 seats every ten years. One representative for each 175,000 
 inhabitants was the ratio in 1890. The Senate consists of two 
 senators for each State, elected by the legislature of that state, 
 one-third of the senators retiring every two years, so that only 
 one-third of the body changes at a time. The main difference 
 between Congress and a Parliament on the British pattern, is 
 that there is no dissolution of the House of Representatives, 
 and the Ministers do not resign if the Government is defeated. 
 
 The General Government is not entitled to levy direct taxes, 
 but it possesses the sole right to impose and collect duties on 
 imports, and this is usually exercised to the full, as the United 
 States are strongly Protectionist. All foreign productions 
 which could possibly compete with native industries are heavily 
 taxed. The General Government exercises control over the 
 small standing army, the usual employment of which is police 
 ■duty in the Territories and on the Indian reserves, of the navy, 
 and of the Post-office ; but the telegraph system is in the hands 
 of private companies. 
 
 The judiciary of the United States comprises the Supreme 
 Oourt, which is charged with considering all appeals against 
 
THE UNITED STATES. 135 
 
 State laws whicli may be considered to be contraventions of 
 the constitution of the United States. There are also United 
 States Courts which exercise sole jurisdiction in the Territories, 
 and likewise take cognisance of all cases of contravention of the 
 general laws of the United States. In addition to this each 
 State possesses a judicial body, engaged in the investigation of 
 all offences against the specific laws of that State. 
 
 Aliens and Naturalisation. — The Alien laws of the United 
 States are directed mainly against the introduction of undesirable 
 foreigners ; but they have also a protective object as regards 
 certain industries. The return of imbecile, criminal, diseased, 
 and destitute aliens exemplifies the first object, the prohibition 
 of any one entering the United States under contract to perform 
 any work exemplifies the latter. There are, however, exceptions 
 in the Contract Labour Law in favour of some classes of skilled 
 labour required for the establishment of new industries, and also 
 of artists, professional, and scientific men. Throughout the 
 United States there prevails the most perfect liberty of opinion 
 and belief, and all white men are placed on a footing of absolute 
 equality before the law. In many of the states, however, even 
 the suspicion of a remote intermixture of negro blood may 
 produce uncomfortable results. In other respects likewise this 
 equality is more apparent than real. The voluntary political 
 associations and trade unions exact absolute obedience to 
 instructions from headquarters, and it is often difficult to avoid 
 joining such bodies without running the risk of being boycotted. 
 It is not legally compulsory for a foreigner settling in the United 
 States to become naturalised ; but the laws of some States 
 impose disabilities on aliens in the way of holding property, 
 or engaging in certain kinds of work, and it is practically 
 necessary to become a naturalised citizen before the full 
 advantages can be enjoyed. Thus only citizens, or those who 
 announce their intention of becoming citizens, are allowed 
 to obtain possession of vacant public lands. The conditions 
 necessary for citizenship are five years residence, and an oath 
 before any supreme, district, or circuit court, declaring the 
 intention to become an American citizen, renouncing any other 
 allegiance, and renouncing any title of nobility. This oath 
 must be made and registered at least two years before citizen- 
 ship caii be granted — i.e., at latest three years after commencing 
 residence, if the citizenship is to be obtained at the earliest 
 possible date. In some of the western States the franchise 
 is conferred on aliens who have expressed their intention of 
 becoming naturalised. 
 
136 NEW LANDS. 
 
 New Lands of the United States. — East of the hundredth 
 meridian, for the most part, and east of the Mississippi altogther, 
 the useful land of the United States is fully occupied, and is 
 being utilised, if not already to the fullest extent possible, at. 
 least to the greatest extent which is profitable under the present, 
 circumstances. The eastern States are already old countries, 
 with a dense population steadily pressing on the means of 
 subsistence, and giving rise to keen competition in all depart- 
 ments of industry. About half a million acres of unoccupied 
 land exist in Florida and the same amount in Michigan. West 
 of the Mississippi, however, there were in July, 1898, no less 
 than 719,100,000 acres of land in the possession of the General 
 Government, and nearly 370,000,000 acres in Alaska. Altogether 
 48 per cent., or nearly one-half of the area of the United States, 
 remains unappropriated. Of this, however, 145,000,000 acres 
 are reserved from settlement, either permanently, as in the 
 case of the national parks and the Indian reservations, or 
 temporarily, as in the case of the reserved forest lands. Hence, 
 excluding Alaska, practically the whole of which is available 
 for appropriation, there are in the United States 574,000,000 
 acres, or 30 per cent, of the area, ready to be disposed of to 
 any citizen who cares to take up the land. At present the 
 whole of this property remains vested in the General Govern- 
 ment, and not in the governments of the separate states. 
 Texas is the one exception to this rule, as it retained, on 
 entering the Union, the right to the public lands which it 
 possessed as an independent republic. In the following table 
 it is treated as not reserved nor open to settlement by the United 
 States Government. 
 
 The distribution of the public domain is shown in the table 
 on p. 137.* 
 
 This prodigious acreage of unappropriated lands — twelve times 
 the entire area of the British Islands — is, unfortunately, for 
 the most part, quite unfit for occupation. Some of it is 
 uninhabitable from its great altitude and rocky soil, some from 
 its Arctic climate (in Alaska), but the greater part is valueless, 
 because of its aridity. The utility of such land is measured 
 solely by the supply of water available for irrigation. Hence 
 arises a peculiar difficulty, for each state has absolute control of 
 its own water rights, but no control over the land, while the 
 General Government holds the land, but can do nothing as to 
 
 * Adapted from the detailed table given in Dr. Max West's paper on 
 " The Public Domain of the United States," in the Year Book of the United 
 States Department of AgricvMurefor 1898, p. 326. 
 
THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 137 
 
 the water. There is consequently a demand in many quarters 
 that the General Government should make over to the indivi- 
 dual States all property in the land, so that irrigation work on a 
 large scale could be carried on before the land is appropriated to 
 private owners, as it is only on a large scale that irrigation can 
 be profitably undertaken. Elaborate irrigation surveys have 
 been carried out by the General Government, and an immense 
 amount of legislation passed by the legislatures of the arid 
 states defining water rights in order to obtain the maximum 
 benefit from the streams without destroying their value to 
 landowners in the same State on their lower courses. 
 
 The Public TiAwds of the United States, 1898. 
 
 
 state. 
 
 Unappropriated and 
 Unreserved. 
 
 Eeserved. 
 
 Appro- 
 priated. 
 
 
 Acres. 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 
 
 of area. 
 
 of area. 
 
 of area. 
 
 Alaska, .... 
 
 370,000,000 
 
 100-00 
 
 
 
 Montana, 
 
 71,567,000 
 
 75-13 
 
 12-03 
 
 12-84 
 
 Nevada, 
 
 61,358,000 
 
 87-23 
 
 8-51 
 
 4-26 
 
 New Mexico, . 
 
 54,550,000 
 
 69-76 
 
 10-69 
 
 19-55 
 
 Arizona, 
 
 51,735,000 
 
 71-07 
 
 21-12 
 
 7-81 
 
 Wyoming, 
 
 49,035,000 
 
 78-54 
 
 13-16 
 
 8-30 
 
 Idaho, . 
 
 44,207,000 
 
 83-68 
 
 3-67 
 
 12-65 
 
 Utah, .... 
 
 43,870,000 
 
 83-43 
 
 10-37 
 
 6-20 
 
 California, 
 
 42,443,000 
 
 42-72 
 
 16-35 
 
 40-93 
 
 Colorado, 
 
 39,708,000 
 
 59-81 
 
 9-38 
 
 30-81 
 
 Oregon, . 
 
 35,898,000 
 
 58-25 
 
 8-87 
 
 32-88 
 
 North Dakota, 
 
 20,574,000 
 
 45-82 
 
 6-79 , 
 
 47-39 
 
 Washington, . 
 
 13,442,000 
 
 31-49 
 
 26-08 
 
 42-43 
 
 South Dakota, 
 
 12,784,000 
 
 26-55 
 
 23-09 
 
 50-36 
 
 Nebraska, 
 
 10,548,000 
 
 21-47 
 
 0-14 
 
 78-39 
 
 Oklahoma, 
 
 7,007,000 
 
 28-31 
 
 29-11 
 
 42-58 
 
 Minnesota, . 
 
 5,720,000 
 
 11-07 
 
 9-64 
 
 79-29 
 
 Arkansas, 
 
 3,697,000 
 
 11-02 
 
 0-01 
 
 88-97 
 
 Florida, .... 
 
 1,757,000 
 
 4-98 
 
 0-06 
 
 94-96 
 
 Kansas, .... 
 
 1,061,000 
 
 2-02 
 
 1-89 
 
 96-09 
 
 Louisiana, 
 
 755,000 
 
 2-62 
 
 5-11 
 
 92-27 
 
 Alabama, 
 
 552,000 
 
 1-60 
 
 0-26 
 
 98-14 
 
 Michigan, 
 
 505,000 
 
 1-37 
 
 0-24 
 
 98-39 
 
 Missouri, 
 
 446,000 
 
 1-02 
 
 
 98-98 
 
 Wisconsin, 
 
 414,000 
 
 1.17 
 
 I'-M 
 
 97-79 
 
 Mississippi, . 
 
 384,000 
 
 1-29 
 
 
 98-71 
 
 Indian Territory, . 
 
 
 
 loo'-oo 
 
 
 Other States, . 
 
 
 
 0-4 
 
 99-96 
 
 Total, 
 
 944,017,000 
 
 41-51 
 
 6-34 
 
 52-15 
 
138 NEW LANDS. 
 
 The total area which can be irrigated by the existing per- 
 ennial water supply is calculated oflBcially at 74,000,000 acres, 
 but the process of irrigation must be slow and costly. A great 
 many suitable sites for irrigation reservoirs have, in the mean- 
 while, been surveyed and reserved from settlement. 
 
 Most of the land which is fit, either naturally or by irriga- 
 tion, for occupation, and is not included in any of the Indian or 
 timber reservations has been surveyed and laid out in townships 
 six miles square, arranged and subdivided into sections and 
 quarter-sections as in Canada (p. 18). The township plan is, 
 however, differently numbered, and two sections of one square 
 mile each are devoted to the advancement of education. A 
 considerable amount of public land has been disposed of by 
 grants to railways, usually as alternate sections in a belt 40 
 miles wide, and these railway lands, although regarded in the 
 above table as appropriated, are still available for settlement, 
 and are to be obtained by purchase from the railway companies. 
 
 The unappropriated pubKc lands are in many cases used 
 yithout restriction for grazing, and their value is often 
 deteriorated by over stocking. Regarding the western States 
 and Territories, Dr. West gives the following estimate of the 
 value of the unallotted public lands from the point of view of 
 farming. From the point of view of mining, they have already 
 been partly exhausted, and are still largely occupied, so that the 
 prospect of future discoveries of great supplies of mineral wealth 
 is not encouraging. 
 
 ChABACTBB OB' THE PuELIC LANDS OF THE WeST, 1898. 
 
 Character of Land. . Amount in Acres. 
 
 Woodland and Forest, .... 124,300,000 
 Grazing land, .... . 365,400,00© 
 Desert 69,000,000 
 
 Total, 558,700,000 
 
 The largest extent of woodland and forest is in Idaho, 
 Montana, and Oregon, which average 20,000,000 acres each. 
 There is none in Nebraska, Oklahoma, or South Dakota. Most 
 of the grazing land is found in Montana, New Mexico, Nevada, 
 and Wyoming, these four states accounting for one-half of the 
 whole. Irrigation would convert these areas into agricultural 
 land. Deserts, hopeless at present even for grazing, occur in 
 five States in amounts ranging from 5,000,000 to 20,000,000 
 acres — these States being Nevada, California, Arizona, Utah, 
 and Wyoming. 
 
THE UNITED STATES. 139 
 
 Acquisition of Public Lands. — The public lands fit for 
 settlement are divided into two classes, which are valued at a 
 minimum price of $1.25 and |2.50 per acre respectively. 
 Formerly they might be sold at that rate by the agents of the 
 <jreneral Government ; but now they can only be entered under 
 the homestead laws. The higher price is charged, as a rule, 
 for the alternate sections in the belt of railroad land grants, and 
 the lower price for land remote from railways. Under the 
 homestead laws, any citizen or intending citizen is entitled to 
 settle on 160 acres of the land valued at $1.25, or on 80 acres of 
 that valued at $2.50, on condition of residing upon, cultivating, 
 and improving it for five years, and paying fees for registration, 
 <fec. Special advantages are given by statute to settlers who 
 have served as soldiers or sailors of the United States, and in 
 some cases the period of occupation before the title is complete 
 is reduced to one year. 
 
 Desert lands, " which will not without irrigation produce 
 some agricultural crop," can be acquired in lots of 320 acres by 
 resident citizens on payment of $1.25 per acre, spending $1 per 
 acre per annum for three years in constructing irrigation works, 
 •or buying water rights, and cultivating one-eighth of the land. 
 
 The "Carey Act" of 1894 provided for the donation of 
 1,000,000 acres of arid land to each of the arid land States, on 
 their submitting a plan showing a proposed scheme of irrigation. 
 The patent of ownership is issued to the State or its assigns as 
 the irrigation works are completed ; but the State is not per- 
 mitted to dispose of more than 160 acres of the irrigated land to 
 any individual. In 1898 only two States had applied for such gifts. 
 
 It is absolutely essential that all purchases of land should 
 be made through the Government or through the railway 
 land agents, and then only after seeing the land, as many of 
 the numerous private land companies are not trustworthy. No 
 one inexperienced in the peculiar methods of prairie or arid land 
 farming would have the slightest chance of making a livelihood 
 on any of the western public lands now open to settlement. 
 Some men have a genius for pioneer work, and find pleasure in 
 acquiring, breaking in, and improving new farms only to sell 
 them as improved lands, and move on further into the un- 
 occupied region. People attracted by life on the borders of 
 civilisation, with capital enough to buy a farm made by one of 
 these pioneers, may easily make a livelihood. 
 
 It may be useful to deal briefly with each of the States and 
 Territories containing large areas of public lands available for 
 settlement, and to point out the peculiar conditions of each. 
 
140 NEW LANDS. 
 
 The Gulf states.— The almost tropical climate, and the large 
 proportion of coloured people amongst the inhabitants of the 
 States bordering the Gulf of Mexico, gives them quite a peculiar 
 character. Agriculturally, cotton, sugar cane, and fruit are the 
 most important products, but in Florida and Alabama there are 
 great stretches of pine and cedar forest. A large proportion of 
 these forest areas is vacant land, and there are also stretches of 
 unclaimed swampy land on the coast, the drainage of -which 
 ■would be difficult. 
 
 Mississippi. — In the State of Mississippi some extremely rich 
 land is vacant on the low ground bordering the great river; but 
 the reason why it has not been taken up is the risk of disastrous 
 inundations when the banks of the river, which flows above the 
 general level of the country, burst during floods. 
 
 Alabama. — In the north of Alabama there is some unoccupied 
 land on the rugged mountainous region in which the Appa- 
 lachian chain terminates. The land is not productive agricul- 
 turally, but it may contain iron and coal, which proximity to 
 the cotton fields would render valuable for future manufactures. 
 
 Florida. — Florida contains a quantity of low-lying pine land, 
 and a vast extent of swamp, much of which is unsurveyed and 
 even unexplored. The swamp lands have been granted to the 
 State, and in many cases are of value on account of the beds of 
 phosphate which they contain. Market gardening on a large 
 scale — known as truck farming — and orange growing are the 
 most remunerative forms of agriculture. Both, of course, require 
 experienced management, and necessitate much expense when 
 new land has to be laid out. 
 
 Texas. — Texas, the largest State in the Union, retains the 
 management of its own public lands, the character of which 
 varies from swamps on the coast, where drainage is the great 
 difficulty, to arid deserts in the far west, where irrigation is 
 essential. The mineral wealth of this State is comparatively 
 unimportant. There is no other part of the United States 
 where individuals and companies have been permitted to acquire 
 such large areas of land, and by the expenditure of capital it 
 has been made productive. Cattle and sheep ranching are the 
 typical industries, and are still capable of great expansion. The 
 absence of limitations as to the acquisition of land to home- 
 steaders here, affords a peculiarly favourable field to farmers with 
 considerable capital, as land in large quantities can be purchased 
 from the State at prices from $2 per acre as a minimum, with 
 long credit for payment on the security of the land. The climate 
 is peculiarly severe on account of the intense heat, due to its 
 
THE UNITED STATES. 141 
 
 latitude, and the sharp contrast of bitter cold produced by the 
 " Northers," or winds sweeping over the open plains from the 
 north. The maximum and minimum shade temperatures 
 recorded in Texas are quoted as 103° and - 14°. 
 
 States of the Great Lakes.— The western States bordering the 
 great lakes — Michigan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota — still contain 
 a considerable proportion of unappropriated public lands, 
 although naturally the best and most accessible portions have 
 long been in private hands. 
 
 Michigan. — In Michigan there are about half a million acres 
 vacant, mainly in the Upper Peninsula which lies between Lake 
 Superior and Lake Michigan, and consisting chiefly of sandy soil 
 partly covered with beech, birch, and maple forests. Some 
 vacant land is also to be found in the northern part of the Lower 
 Peninsula between Lakes Huron and Michigan, but here there 
 is no unappropriated woodland. The land is of fair quality for 
 agriculture, with a light soil, but, as is natural, the unoccupied 
 part of the country is unfavourably situated as regards roads and 
 railways. 
 
 Wisconsin. — ^Wisconsin contains nearly as much vacant land 
 as Michigan^ most of it being in the extreme north, bordering 
 Lake Superior. It is woodland, covered for the most part with 
 pine and hardwood forests, but a considerable amount of the 
 area is swamp. 
 
 Minnesota. — This State, similar in character to western 
 Ontario and Manitoba, although the scene of an extraordinarily 
 rapid agricultural development, still contains nearly six million 
 acres of public land, including some Indian reservations recently 
 opened to settlement. The rich prairie lands are now only to 
 be obtained by purchase at a good price ; the districts available 
 for new settlers are situated in the difficultly accessible northern 
 region between the Red Lake and the Lake of the Woods. 
 Half of the available land lies in the two 'counties of Beltrami 
 and Itasca. A large part of this region is still unsurveyed and 
 it is mainly covered with forest. In some parts there is good 
 farming land which only lacks facility of transportation to 
 render it valuable. A good deal of mineral wealth is believed 
 to be contained in the unoccupied land. This is chiefly iron 
 ore, but nickel occurs in the north-east of the State, and 
 there are also indications of payable gold in Itasca county, 
 and in the neighbourhood of the Lake of the Woods and 
 Rainy Lake. As yet, however, gold mining has not attracted 
 great attention. 
 
 The State is one with a great future before it on account of 
 
142 NEW LANDS. 
 
 its unusual combination of agricultural, forest, and mineral 
 wealth. 
 
 The Central States. — The Great Plains from the Canadian 
 frontier to Texas are occupied by the States of North and South 
 Dakota, Nebraska, Kansas, Missouri, Arkansas, Oklahoma 
 Territory, and Indian Territory. While the last named is 
 reserved from settlement, and can only be legally settled by 
 white men under the degrading condition of becoming " squaw 
 men" — i.e., husbands of Indian women — there is a vast amount 
 of land in all the others still available for any intending settler. 
 Here, perhaps, more than in other new lands, not fortune but 
 merely a hard living is what the average pioneer must expect. 
 There is a large area of vacant public land on the plains, but 
 towards the west the semi-arid belt makes agriculture useless 
 without irrigation, and in nearly all the States large areas of the 
 best river lands are at present reserved for Indians. A vast 
 basin in which artesian wells can reach a copious subterranean 
 water supply stretches for 500 miles from Manitoba through the 
 Dakotas and far into Nebraska, and is sure in the near future to 
 prove of the utmost valug. 
 
 North Dakota. — North Dakota, iu spite of its very rapid 
 development in wheat growing, contains about 20,000,000 acres 
 of public land, as well as 3,000,000 reserved for Indians. The 
 portion of the valley of the Red River of the North, which falls 
 to this State, may be said to be fully taken up by farms, and is 
 well served by railways. The western portion of the State con- 
 taining most of the unappropriated public land is too dry for 
 anything but grazing, although the soil is fertile enough when 
 water is available. East of the Missouri artesian water is 
 largely and increasingly used, and it is expected that south of 
 Bismarck a large area will ultimately be irrigated by these means. 
 On account of the gentle slope of the land, and the deeply cut 
 valleys of the Missotri and its tributaries, it is very difficult to 
 obtain irrigation water from the rivers. The smaller tributaries 
 flowing in from the north are, however, favourably situated for 
 the formation of irrigation reservoirs, and in the future the 
 neighbouring land will become valuable. Two trans-continental 
 railways traversing the State from east to west provide ample 
 means of communication. 
 
 South Dakota. — South Dakota contains about 12,000,000 acres 
 of public land open for settlement, and nearly as much reserved 
 for forests and Indians. The Indian reserves occupy the whole 
 south of the state from the Missouri west almost to the Black 
 Hills, and nearly every part of the immediate neighbourhood of 
 
THE UNITED STATES. 143 
 
 the Missouri is reserved. Only small blocks of public land 
 remain in the part of the State east of the Missouri, and -well 
 served by railways. The Black Hills, a mining region containing 
 extensive forest reserves, in the south-west, is also well supplied 
 with railways entering from Nebraska. Most of the available 
 public land is in the south-west, and in the centre between the 
 Cheyenne and White Rivers. Water storage and the extension 
 of artesian wells are the only means of making agriculture 
 profitable in the greater part of the land still vacant in South 
 Dakota. 
 
 Nebraska. — Nebraska contains about 10,000,000 acres of 
 vacant public land, mainly in the north and north-west, and 
 traversed by a railway. The soil is light and sandy, and, until 
 irrigation can be practised, only useful for grazing. Irrigation 
 works have, however, already been carried out to a considerable 
 extent with much benefit to the country, while the natural 
 water supply will admit of considerable extensions in this 
 direction being made. Sugar beet has been cultivated with much 
 success on the newly-irrigated ground, the amount of alkali in. 
 the soil acting prejudicially on other crops, until the excess has 
 been removed by growing beets. 
 
 Kansas. — Kansas contains only 1,000,000 acres of available 
 public land, most of it being in the extreme west of the State, 
 and, as a rule, adapted only for pasture. The only water supply 
 available for irrigation is the subterranean flow, which has to be 
 raised by pumps. The amount available in this way is not well 
 known, the published estimates diflfering greatly. The State 
 has developed very rapidly, and is more closely covered with 
 railways than any other so far west. 
 
 Arkansas. — Arkansas contains about 3,500,000 acres of avail- 
 able public land scattered throughout all parts of the state. 
 In the east this vacant land is either timbered or swampy, 
 in the south-west it is mostly swampy, but amongst the hills 
 of the centre and north-west there is some well-watered 
 agricultural land still to be obtained. The eastern half of 
 the State is well served by railways, but in the west the means 
 of communication remain very poorly developed. 
 
 Missouri. — Missouri now contains only about 400,000 acres of 
 public lands open for settlement, and most of this is rough hilly, 
 timber land in the extreme south and south-west. 
 
 Oklahoma. — ^The portion of Indian Territory which was thrown 
 open for settlement in 1889, and incorporated with the " No 
 Man's Land " north of Texas as the Territory of Oklahoma, was 
 so rapidly taken up that within a few months of the admission 
 
144 NEW LANDS. 
 
 of settlers all the best land had been appropriated. There remain 
 about 7,000,000 acres, the vacant land being chiefly in the 
 ■western portion which, in the days before the Territory was 
 organised, acquired an undesirable white population, for whom 
 the neighbouring states were too hot. Many tribes of wild 
 Indians continue to occupy the Territory, and a considerable 
 force of United States troops is required to keep order amongst 
 them. The western part of the Territory lies in the arid 
 region, and is fit only for grazing without irrigation ; but 
 there is good farming land about the centre, and a fair 
 development of railways allows of comparatively easy access. 
 In the south and east cotton is raised, while wheat is an 
 important crop in the centre and to the north. The mineral 
 resources of the Territory have not yet been satisfactorily in- 
 vestigated. 
 
 CordiUeran and Plateau States. — Of the States of New Mexico, 
 Colorado, Arizona, Utah, and Nevada it is scarcely necessary to 
 speak. They all contain vast areas of public land, but the 
 conditions both of mining and of agriculture are such that a 
 newcomer has very little chance of success. The variations in 
 population of some of the states have been remarkable. In 
 Nevada, for instance, the working of the silver mines, on which 
 the prosperity of the greater part of the population depended, 
 may be rendered unprofitable and stopped altogether by a 
 comparatively small fall in the price of silver. The mineral 
 wealth of the whole chain of the Cordillera is undoubtedly still 
 very great ; it has been for the most part ascertained by geolo- 
 gical surveys, and its utilisation is a question rather of finance 
 than of discovery. 
 
 Wyoming. — The more northern State of Wyoming is rich, 
 like the rest in mineral resources, but the coal, iron, and 
 petroleum here found promise steady and permanent prosperity 
 when they are fully exploited. The agricultural land lies at a 
 higher elevation than in any other State — from 3500 to 7000 
 feet above the sea, and irrigation is almost everywhere necessary. 
 Public works on an immense scale exist already for this purpose, 
 and the natural water supply is su£Glcient to provide for a great 
 extension in the future. The climate is very severe in winter 
 on account of the great altitude. As a State, Wyoming is 
 peculiar in having introduced and retained universal suffrage, 
 women being on exact political equality with men. 
 
 Idaho. — Only 16 per cent, of the surface of the State of Idaho 
 is in private hands. The greater part consists, however, of 
 rugged mountains, largely forest clad, and of lava plains, on. 
 
THE UNITED STATES. 145 
 
 which only the sage bush grows. There is a good deal of 
 grazing land, but agriculture depends practically everywhere on 
 irrigation. Farming without an artificial water supply is, 
 nevertheless, possible in the extreme north, near the Canadian 
 frontier. In this region, also, there is probably a great future 
 to be looked for in the development of mineral resources. 
 
 Montarwii. — Montana still has three-quarters of its surface 
 ■available in the form of vacant public lands, but most of this 
 area is forest-covered mountains and arid plains, which are still 
 unsurveyed. The resources of the land are only beginning to be 
 developed, but enough is known of them to ensure a prosperous 
 future for the State as a whole. Mining and cattle raising are 
 the most profitable pursuits at present, the small rainfall render- 
 ing agriculture unsatisfactory over most of the state. There are 
 great possibilities for irrigation, but much capital must be 
 invested before any return can be expected from this direction. 
 The valleys of the Missouri and Yellowstone cross the state 
 from west to east, and along them two trans-continental railways 
 supply an excellent basis for opening up the country. 
 
 The Pacific States. — The three States on the Pacific slope are 
 thinly peopled, and all contain wide areas of vacant land, the 
 greater part of which is never likely to be occupied. 
 
 California. — California exhibits many varieties of climate and 
 soil. The immensely fertile valley between the Sierra Nevada 
 and the Coast Ranges may be said to be now as fully occupied as 
 economic conditions permit. The alluvial gold deposits which 
 attracted people to the country are exhausted, and the precious 
 metals can now be worked only by expensive machinery, and on 
 a large scale. The arid region is mostly a hopeless desert, and 
 only a fraction of it can ever be reclaimed to agriculture by 
 costly irrigation works. In fact, while a living can be made in 
 California as in most other States, it is no longer a region to 
 attract the foreign immigrant who looks forward to more than 
 bare sustenance. 
 
 Oregon. — Oregon, to the north, is in a far less developed 
 condition. The coast strip, and the wide valley between the 
 Coast Range and the Cascade Mountains, through which the 
 Willamette River runs northward, are well watered by a 
 copious rainfall, and, although these are the best settled regions, 
 some vacant public land can still be found in them. The 
 counties of Clackamas and Marion in the north, and of Douglas 
 and Coos in the south, contain most of the vacant land, and lie 
 in the central valley, which contains the main north and south 
 railway lines from California to the Columbia River. Outside 
 ^ 10 
 
146 NEW LANDS. 
 
 this valley the railway system is still undeveloped. The 
 moderately elevated plateau east of the Cascade Range contains 
 much vacant farming land, which can be cultivated without 
 irrigation, although with some risk of failure through deficient 
 rainfall. The north-eastern part of Oregon is very fertile 
 wheat land, and there has been a great development of wheat 
 growing, leading to the cultivation of great areas of land 
 formerly devoted to grazing. There are extensive fisheries on 
 the coast, although it is exposed and dangerous. Mining is 
 being greatly developed both for coal and iron and for the 
 precious metals. 
 
 Washington. — Washington shares the mild climate of Oregon 
 and British Columbia, between which it lies, and although the 
 area of available public land is less than in Oregon, the resources 
 of the two States are very similar. Washington grows large 
 quantities of wheat on the eastern plateau without irrigation ; 
 but irrigation is necessary for the successful growth of fruit and 
 succulent crops, except, of course, on the coast belt. There is a 
 practically inexhaustible supply of timber on the mountains, 
 and the mineral wealth of the State, which is being actively 
 developed, promises to support a very large population. The 
 coal mines are the most productive in the west of the United 
 States, and iron is also mined and manufactured. There has 
 recently been a great increase in gold mining and smelting, and 
 the railway facilities have brought nearly all parts of the state 
 within easy reach of the centres of population. The fisheries on 
 the quiet waters of Puget Sound are of great value. Washington 
 State is perhaps, at the present time, the part of the United 
 States best worth the attention of an intending settler. 
 
 Alaska. 
 
 Position and Area. — The outlying Territory of Alaska must 
 be treated separately from the rest of the United States, on 
 account of its distance and isolation, its nearly unexplored 
 character, and the opportunities it affords for adventurous and 
 tough pioneers. Although at present outshone by the gold- 
 bearing lands of the Upper Yukon, the lower valley of that river 
 Undoubtedly contains gold in large amount, and as attention is 
 fully turned towards it, important discoveries are likely to be 
 made in the Territory for many years to come. 
 
 Alaska has an area estimated at 580,000 square miles. It 
 comprises a narrow strip of the west coast of North America 
 from Dixon Entrance in 54° 30' N. (the boundary of which is. 
 
THE UNITED STATES — ALASKA. 
 
 U7 
 
 still unsettled, see p. 30), the whole north-western peninsula 
 west of the meridian of 141° "W., and the long chain of the 
 Aleutian Islands. About one-third of the area lies north of the 
 Arctic circle. The coast is very mountainous in the south-east, 
 and the lofty snow-covered ranges send down enormous glaciers 
 to the sea. Mountainous islands rising abruptly from the water 
 form an archipelago along the shore, and the channels separat- 
 ing them provide a great length of smooth- water navigation, 
 although traversed by powerful tidal currents. 
 
 Pig. 4. — Alaska and Western Yukon. 
 
 Administration and Laws. — The whole Territory is adminis- 
 tered by officials appointed by the United States Government, 
 but as parts of the country are becoming filled by gold-seekers, 
 temporary centres of administration are occasionally established, 
 and the regulations imposed by the central authority undergo 
 
148 NEW LANDS. 
 
 considerable changes. It would thus be well for anyone 
 entering the territory to ascertain beforehand the actual con- 
 ditions prevailing at the time. The laws in force in Alaska are 
 those which prevailed in the State of Oregon in 1894, the 
 mining laws being those of the United States as a whole. 
 Citizens of the Dominion of Canada are accorded the same rights 
 in Alaska, as citizens of the United States receive in British 
 Columbia and the North- West Territories. Homesteads of 40 
 acres, or in exceptional cases of 160 acres, are granted to citizens 
 or intending citizens of the United States, but there are few 
 parts of the territory where the natural conditions offer attrac- 
 tions to settlers. The importation of spirituous liquors into the 
 territory is formally prohibited, but this law is absolutely 
 ignored by the miners and prospectors who have been crowding 
 into the country during the last few years. Post offices were 
 established by the United States Government in 1898 at Eagle, 
 at the mouth of Missouri Creek ; Star, at the mouth of Seventy- 
 mile Creek ; Yukon, at Fort Yukon ; Bampart, at the mouth of 
 the Minook Creek ; Tanana, opposite the mouth of the Tanana 
 River ; Koyukuk and Anvik, at the mouths of the rivers of the 
 same name. A fortnightly mail has been established along the 
 whole Yukon Valley, but for a month in spring, when the river 
 is thawing, and for another in autumn, when it is freezing, all 
 travelling becomes impossible. 
 
 Ports and Communications. — The Territory may be divided 
 into three distinct parts : — (1) The Unalaska Peninsula, the 
 Aleutian Islands, and islands in Bering Sea ; (2) the south- 
 eastern coast strip, or " pan handle," as it is familiarly called, 
 and its off-lying islands ; and (3) the main body of the Territory 
 through which the Yukon River flows. The whole region is in 
 communication with San Francisco, and with Seattle and other 
 Puget Sound ports by monthly mail steamers, and during the 
 present gold excitement by a great fleet of coasting steamers of 
 all sizes and qualities, for the entrance to the Klondike region 
 of Canada lies through Alaska. 
 
 The administrative capital of the Territory is Sitka, on one of 
 the islands lying off the "pan-handle," but it is far surpassed in 
 population by the mushroom towns which have arisen in con- 
 sequence of the rush to the goldfields. Of these Skagway, at the 
 head of one of the arms of the Lynn Canal and the terminus of 
 the White Pass Railway, is the chief, its possession is conceded 
 to the United States by the modus vivendi on the Alaskan 
 boundary question arrived at in October, 1899. The next 
 terminal town of importance is Fort St. Michael, on Bering 
 
THE UNITED STATES — ALASKA. 149 
 
 Sea, the point for the transfer of cargo and passengers from 
 ocean steamers to river steamers of sufficiently light draught to 
 enter the shallow channels of the Yukon Delta. It has been 
 made the centre of a military reservation, which extends for a 
 radius of 100 miles. The river steamers run, while the river is 
 open, for 1380 miles to Circle City, not far from the frontier, and 
 on for nearly 200 miles farther to Dawson, in the Canadian 
 Yukon. New ports have naturally arisen wherever there is 
 a convenient place for prospectors to enter on a promising 
 route. 
 
 Climate. — The climate of Alaska has a worse name than it 
 deserves, but it is on the whole very severe. On the south and 
 west coasts and in the islands it is favourably modified by the 
 influence of the sea i but in the Yukon Valley and the interior 
 generally the winters are of Arctic severity, and night frosts 
 occur in every month of the year. The soil is frozen to a 
 depth of about 100 feet in the valley, and only the superficial 
 layers thaw in summer. The actual temperatures may be 
 quoted as follows : — * At Sitka the average temperature of the 
 warmest month, August, is 54-9°, and that of the coldest, 
 January, only 31-4°, while the extreme temperatures recorded 
 during 45 years have been a maximum of 88° and a minimum 
 of - 4°. This is a climate scarcely colder on the average than 
 that of Shetland or Orkney, although the extreme range is 
 far greater. At Point Barrow, on the Arctic Sea, the average 
 temperature of July, the warmest month, appears to be about 
 38°, and that of February, the coldest month - 18-6° ; while 
 the extremes observed have been -52° and +65 '5°. Snow lies 
 from September to June. At St. Michael the climate is much 
 less severe than at Point Barrow, but minima have been 
 recorded as low as — 55°, and the harbour is usually closed by 
 ice in the middle of October, and does not open again until 
 about the middle of the second week of June. Light rain or 
 snow is very frequent, although the total amount is small. The 
 following data are calculated as the average temperatures for the 
 three coldest winter months — December, January, and February 
 — at different points in the Yukon Valley : — 
 
 * From " Climatic Conditions of Alaska," by General Greely, in National 
 Geographic Magazine, vol. ix. (1898), p. 132. 
 
l50 
 
 NEW LANDS. 
 
 Place. 
 
 Latitude. 
 
 Longitude. 
 
 Temperature. 
 
 St. Michael, .... 
 Anvik, . . . . 
 Circle, . . . . 
 Dawson, 
 
 63° 28' N. 
 62° 37' 
 65° 30' 
 64° 5' 
 
 162° W. 
 160° 
 143° 
 138° 
 
 3-3° F. 
 -1-2° 
 - 10-2° 
 
 -24° 
 
 Possibility of Agriculture. — The Yukon Valley is well 
 wooded with spruce and other trees, though, as a rule, of 
 rather stunted growth, and the land, where not covered with 
 trees, bears moss and berries of various kinds. The soil is in 
 many places a vegetable mould, but often it takes the form of 
 peat. The growth of grain is possible only in a few favoured 
 spots; but vegetables can, with great care, be grown almost 
 anywhere in the Yukon Valley. The quality is, of course, not 
 to be compared with that of plants reared in a genial climate, 
 and the whole crop will be lost occasionally, despite all pre- 
 cautions ; yet, during the mining " boom," it is probable that 
 a well-cultivated vegetable garden, with some glass for protection 
 from frost, would prove a more certain source of income than 
 gold mining. Vegetable gardening has been found to be successful 
 at Dawson.* 
 
 Besources. — The old industry of the country was hunting 
 and trapping, and the Hudson Bay Company carried on a 
 remunerative trade in furs for many years. The fur-seal trade 
 still proves profitable to one company on Pribyloff Islands, but 
 this does not admit of expansion, and is a monopoly with which 
 there can be no competition. Fishing and the canning of salmon 
 already flourish at several points on the coast, and ■ they are 
 capable of great development. However, all the resources of the 
 territory sink into insignificance when compared with mining, 
 and especially gold mining. When the present excitement dies 
 away there will be steady work for a large number of people in 
 the gold mines for many years to come, although during the "rush" 
 much suffering and privation are inevitable. Thousands have 
 pushed their way into parts of the country where only hundreds 
 can make a living, and the life of prospectors in that Arctic 
 climate is a very hard one, and, even when the men are skilful 
 in noting the signs of the presence of the precious m.etal, pre- 
 carious. 
 
 The following outline of the mineral resources is based on a 
 
 * Bulletin of the Depa/rtm&nt of Labour, Washington, 1898 (No. 19), 
 p. 799. 
 
THE UNITED STATES — ALASKA. 151 
 
 report by S. F. Emmons, of the United States Geological Survey,* 
 with the addition of more recent information : — 
 
 Gold in Alaska. — Vein deposits of gold are mined in many 
 parts of south-eastern Alaska. The principal quartz deposits 
 occur in a belt of country about 100 miles wide on the seaward 
 slope of the mainland, reaching from Sumdum on the south- 
 east, past Juneau to Berner's Bay, near Seward on the north- 
 west. Deposits also occur in several of the islands — e.g., Kadiak, 
 Baranof, and Unga Islands. They are found in metamorphic 
 slates, diabases, and granites similar to those of the auriferous 
 belt of California. The land is, however, so densely wooded 
 that prospecting in the coast region is extremely difficult. In 
 many places auriferous sand occurs on the sea shore, probably 
 obtained from the weathering of the gold-bearing rock of the 
 country. The mines of Unga Island are worked, and worked 
 very profitably, in eruptive andesites of Tertiary age, a fact 
 which points to the possible discovery of payable quantities in 
 the recent eruptive rocks which make up the Unalaska 
 Peninsula and the Aleutian Islands. 
 
 In the Yukon Basin the gold appears to be derived from 
 much more ancient rocks, possibly as old as the Archsean. These 
 older auriferous rocks have been found by the U.S. geological 
 surveyors to extend over a belt of country running for 500 miles 
 in a north-west and south-east direction, but it is probably much 
 more extensive to the north. The Gold Belt of the Yukon 
 Valley is known to extend from about the point where the 
 meridian of 155° W. crosses the river Yukon east-south-east- 
 ward up the Tanana River, and over the frontier (141° W.) into 
 Canadian territory. It may extend southward to the high 
 region, where Mount MacKinlay stands, near the sources 
 of the scarcely explored rivers, Kuskokwim and Sushitna. 
 Along the Yukon itself, from Fort Hamlin to near Circle City 
 ^200 miles, disregarding windings), the river flows through a 
 flat alluvial valley, in which no outcrops of solid rock occur ; but 
 nearer the international boundary the two tributaries from the 
 south (Forty-mile and Sixty-mile Creeks), which enter in 
 Canadian territory, have a long course through the gold-bearing 
 rocks in Alaska. 
 
 Naturally in a new region gold is mainly worked by placer- 
 mining in the alluvium of the rivers. The richest placers of 
 of the Yukon Valley have been found on the Forty-mile Creek 
 
 * " Alaska and its Mineral Resources," by Samuel Franklin Emmons. 
 Published as a pamphlet by the United States Geological Survey and in 
 abstract in National Geographic Magazine, vol. ix. (1898), p. 139. 
 
152 NEW LANDS. 
 
 near the boundary, and on Birch Creek, which flows parallel to 
 the Yukon from south of Circle City, and enters that river in its 
 great curve midway between Circle City and Fort Hamlin. 
 The pay gravels lie either on clay or on the decomposed bed- 
 rock, under from 8 to 25 feet of barren gravel, and the character 
 of the deposit indicates that the gold-bearing rocks are not far 
 off. Gold is found, but too finely divided to be profitably ex- 
 tracted, in the fine silts deposited on the margins of the Yukon 
 and its tributaries during floods, and also in paying quantities 
 in the sand or gravel bars laid down on the concave side of river 
 windings. The river beds themselves, doubtless, also contain 
 much gold. The terrace gravels deposited at various elevations 
 high above the present river levels have not hitherto proved 
 very productive in this region. 
 
 The diligent prospecting of recent years in all parts of 
 Alaska has resulted in the discovery of the existence of gold 
 in almost every river of the Territory, from the Arctic Sea to the 
 Pacific Ocean ; but the only place where anything promising 
 an approach to the richness of the Klondike region has been 
 discovered is at Cape Nome. 
 
 Cape Nome Goldfields.* — Late in 1898 a goldfield was 
 discovered near Cape Nome on Bering Sea, and the workings 
 in the summer of 1899 caused a very large camp to collect, and 
 Nome City arose at the mouth of Snake River, 100 miles north- 
 west of St. Michael, and outside the military reservation. The 
 neighbouring country is barren tundra, with no trees and only 
 a little grass. The nearest harbours which ocean-going vessels 
 can enter are Port Clarence, 60 miles to the north-west, and 
 Golofnin Bay, 60 miles south-east. The tundra is covered with 
 marine gravels derived from the mountains, which consist of 
 mica-schist and limestones, traversed by quartz veins, the 
 probable source of the gold. The margins of the creeks, falling 
 into the rivers of the district, yield a good return of gold ; 
 but the special feature of the new field, which will probably 
 make it a serious rival to Dawson, consists of the beach diggings, 
 which extend already for 30 miles along the shore. Some of 
 them can only be worked at low tide, and as it is practically im- 
 possible (if not illegal) to stake out claims between tide marks, 
 the liveliest competition is assured at each ebb. The gold on 
 the beach is found lying on a "bed rock" of clay or argillaceous 
 sand, covered by from 2 to 3 feet of gravel. Gold dredging at 
 sea has been introduced with some probability of success. 
 
 * F. C. Schraderon "Cape Nome Goldfields," in N'ationcU Geographic 
 Magazine, vol. xi. (1900), p. 15. 
 
THE UNITES STATES — ALASKA. 153 
 
 Coal. — Scarcely less important than gold in such a region 
 as Alaska is the supply of mineral fuel, and both coal and lignite 
 are widely distributed, promising abundant supplies for the 
 steamers, and for running machinery when quartz mining is- 
 established in the interior. 
 
 Strata of lignite and glance coal have been reported, and 
 occasionally worked in many parts of the territory. They occur 
 in most of the islands of the Alexander Archipelago, and on the 
 coast of the mainland. The largest lignite field yet known is 
 on the eastern shore of Cook Inlet, in the Kenai Peninsula. It 
 extends over an area of 70 miles by 30; and one good harbour, 
 Kachemak Bay, affords a possibility of shipping fuel. At this 
 bay six or seven seams are exposed, the thickest measuring 4 
 feet. The TJnalaska Peninsula, and the nearer Aleutian Islands, 
 contain coal which has been tested at the harbours of Amalik, in 
 Unga Island, Ohignik Bay, on the southern, and Herendeen 
 Bay, on the northern shore of the peninsula. Deposits occur at 
 intervals along the west coast north of the Yukon, in Norton 
 Bay, on the Kowak River, and particularly along the 25 miles 
 of coast between Cape Lisburne and Cape Beaufort, where the 
 whalers commonly fill their bunkers. Along the course of the 
 Yukon River, coal has been seen at Andreafski, Kaltag, Nulato, 
 and Melozikakat, and at Coal Creek, near the Lower Ramparts, 
 it has been mined for the use of steamers. There seems to be a. 
 considerable development of coal along the north slope of the 
 Yukon Valley, although but little attention has as yet been 
 paid to it. _ The usual fuel on the river steamers has hitherto 
 been wood, but every year the supply of firewood is becoming 
 more difficult and costly to procure, and the opening of the 
 coal mines on a commercial scale is now practically necessary. 
 
154 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 LATIN AMBBICA— MEXICO. 
 
 Xatin American Republics — Bureau of American Republics — Religion — 
 Immigration — Communications — Why South America is Neglected. 
 Mexico — Surface and Climate — Resources — Railways — People — 
 Government — Prospects for Development. 
 
 Xiatin American Republics. — The continent of South 
 America and the southern part of North America may be con- 
 veniently grouped together as Latin America, for they have been 
 occupied and, to a certain extent, developed by Latin races, 
 speaking the Spanish or Portuguese language. Except for the 
 colonies of British Honduras, and of British, Dutch, and French 
 ■Guiana, the whole region is occupied by republics, the constitu- 
 tions of v^hich are, as a rule, modelled on that of the United 
 States. The written constitutions do not, however, convey any 
 idea of the actual conditions of government or administration. 
 Most of the republics are prosperous only when the presidency 
 is held by a Dictator who rules rather as an autocratic monarch 
 than the head of a constitutional state. Revolutions of a san- 
 guinary kind have been frequent in all the republics situated 
 in the tropical zone, and severe political crises, disquieting 
 alike to commerce and peaceful industry, are common through- 
 out the ■whole of Latin America. Most of the republics have 
 contracted heavy debts, frequently raising money for important 
 public works, and spending it in carrying on useless and 
 indecisive wars,' so that the national credit has been shaken. 
 The better classes of the inhabitants are of Spanish or 
 Portuguese descent, but the majority of the population is made 
 up of Mestizos, or half-breeds between Europeans and the 
 native Indians ; while in many of the republics there are large 
 numbers of pure bred aborigines, and negroes descended from 
 imported slaves. 
 
 Bureau of American Republics. — Commercially, Latin 
 America has hitherto had more intimate relations with the 
 trading nations of Europe than with the United States; but 
 North American influence is steadily growing. This is fostered by 
 
LATIN AMERICA. 155 
 
 a quasi-political organisation termed the Bureau of American 
 Republics, the headquarters of which are in Washington under 
 the direction of an American statesman appointed by the United 
 States Government. This Bureau is concerned with the collec- 
 tion and publication of data bearing on the individual republics, 
 and it is to be hoped that by means of its influence the less 
 responsible Central and South American States will become 
 more systematic and trustworthy in their administration, and in 
 their statistics, than has been the case hitherto. Application 
 for information may be made to the Bureau of American 
 Republics, Washington, D.C., United States, and lists of the 
 publications of the Bureau will be sent on application. The 
 largest of these works is an immense Directory giving the 
 names of the chief merchants and business men in every one 
 of the states of Latin America. 
 
 Beligion. — Throughout Latin America the Roman Catholic 
 Church is almost the only representative of Christianity, but, 
 while in most, although not yet in all the republics, other 
 beliefs are tolerated, the power of an ignorant priesthood over 
 a more ignorant people is everywhere a barrier to development. 
 
 Immigration. — The temperate portions of these republics 
 attract a considerable amount of immigration, but the people 
 come mainly from southern Europe, especially Italy. The best 
 of the colonists from the south of Europe are the Basques, who 
 come from the western borders of the Pyrenees in France and 
 Spain. Recently, however, German emigration has been directed 
 to South America, and the influence of a strong, well educated, 
 and energetic northern people is making itself felt in the growth 
 of industries in the regions where they have settled. 
 
 For purposes of foreign trade the metric system of weights and 
 measures is used in all the republics, but in several there are 
 older units in use for domestic purposes. The coinage is, as a 
 rule, silver, but paper is the common currency in most of the 
 countries, and is always very much depreciated. 
 
 Cornmumeations. — All towns of importance in South 
 America are included in the telegraph system which festoons 
 the coast with submarine cables as far south as the River Plate 
 and Valparaiso, and is connected with the United States, the 
 United Kingdom direct, Spain and France. 
 
 There are only three first-class seaports — Rio de Janeiro, 
 doing most of the oversea trade of Brazil; Buenos Aires, 
 receiving the trade not only of the Argentine, but of all the 
 other republics reached through the River Plate; and Valparaiso 
 in Chile, the one large seaport on the west coast. The West 
 
156 NEW LANDS, 
 
 Indies are reached by several lines of steamers from United 
 States and British ports, which touch at a great number of ports 
 in the islands and on the Caribbean Sea. Communication with 
 South America is kept up by a number of European lines of first- 
 class passenger steamers, British, French, and Italian. These 
 call, as a rule, at ports in Brazil, in the River Plate, and then 
 go through Magellan Strait, or Strait le Maire to Valparaiso. 
 
 Why South America is neglected. — The natural resources 
 of all the republics are vast and but little exploited. Physical 
 conditions are not unfavourable on the whole ; the great rivers 
 afford water communication throughout the interior of the en- 
 tire continent of South America ; the lofty plateaux carry a 
 temperate climate into the Torrid Zone, and the soil is remark- 
 ably productive, except in the shingle deserts of Patagonia and 
 the nitrate deserts of the west coast. Yet the social and political 
 state of many of the republics is an absolute bar to any economic 
 development ; there is no guarantee for security of property, or 
 even of life, in some of the countries. A corrupt administration 
 and a dilatory officialdom are sufficient to wear out the patience 
 of the most enterprising, and there are good grounds for the 
 warnings of the British and United States consuls to their 
 fellow-countrymen proceeding to South America with a view to 
 settlement. Next to a reformed political system, what most 
 of the republics of Latin America most need is a population 
 of energetic workers, and the partial recognition of this require- 
 ment has led to effi)rts being made to induce immigration, while 
 the ignorance of the first and greater need prevents the possi- 
 bility of success in this direction. 
 
 Here we consider it advisable to refer only to the republics of 
 Mexico, Argentina, Chile, and the southern states of Brazil, as 
 in these alone are the conditions of climate and the stability of 
 government such as to justify the development of the country 
 by the individual efibrts of people of English speech. 
 
 The Republic of Mexico. 
 
 Surface and Climate. — Mexico occupies the lofty triangular 
 tableland south of the United States, and part of the lower 
 lands of Central America. The whole area of the country is 
 about 767,000 square miles, and from its position, between 
 latitudes 32° and 15° N., the climate is fairly uniform from 
 north to south ; but changes completely from sea level to higher 
 altitudes. Along the sea shore, and up to the elevation of 
 about 3000 feet, the climate is very hot, and this zone, called 
 
MEXICO. 157 
 
 the Tierra Caliente, or hot land, is unhealthy, especially on the 
 coast of the Gulf of Mexico. The much larger area between 
 3000 and 5000 feet above sea level, forming part of the top 
 of the plateau, is known as the Tierra Templada, or temperate 
 land, and enjoys a very pleasant climate. Above 7000 feet 
 comes the smaller area of the Tierra Fria, or cold land, unfit for 
 habitation. There is no winter in the ordinary sense of the 
 word, but the year is divided into a rainy season (from about 
 May to October) and a dry season, which is very dry indeed. 
 
 Resources. — The hot zone produces all tropical vegetation 
 in luxuriance, the coffee plantations forming one of the chief 
 resources of the country. The temperate land yields all the 
 farm crops of temperate countries, although the methods of 
 farming in use are extremely primitive, and the roads very bad, 
 so that transport to the towns is both difficult and costly. The 
 main wealth of the country has always been the silver mines, 
 the output of which, although enormous, is still capable of being 
 increased. Vast and scarcely touched deposits of gold and 
 other valuable minerals await development. 
 
 Railways. — The main outlines of a railway system have been 
 constructed. Lines converge on Mexico City in the south of 
 the plateau from several points on the United States frontier, 
 so that the capital may be reached by through lines from San 
 Francisco on the west, Denver and other towns on the north, 
 and, through New Orleans, from all parts of the south and east 
 of the States. The chief port on the Gulf of Mexico, the fever 
 haunted town of "Vera Cruz, has two railways of about 220 miles, 
 leading up the steep slopes of the Tierra Caliente to Mexico 
 City. Tampico, farther north on the Gulf coast, 450 miles by 
 rail from Mexico City, has a better harbour, and appears likely 
 before long to absorb most of the maritime trade. Lines from 
 the capital are intended ultimately to lead to several of the Pacific 
 ports, including the fine harbour of Acapulco; but none is yet 
 completed, on account of the great engineering difficulties pre- 
 sented by the steep western slope of the plateau. The only railway 
 in the republic which connects the two oceans is that across the 
 isthmus of Tehuantepec. The most isolated parts of non- 
 tropical Mexico are the long peninsula of Lower California and 
 the marvellously rich mineral districts skirting the Pacific 
 coast. 
 
 People.— The population of Mexico in 1895 was 12,500,000, 
 or about 16 per square mile. Its composition is important 
 from the point of view of the economic development of the 
 country. Only 19 per cent are of pure European descent 
 
1&8 NEW LANDS. 
 
 (mainly Spanish), and 38 per cent, are of pure aboriginal 
 " Indian" race, the remaining 43 per cent, being of mixed race. 
 It is noticeable, however, that the educated Mexican Indian is 
 the equal of the white man in ability, even as a statesman or 
 soldier, and there is little or no race-prejudice. The prepon- 
 derance of the uneducated aboriginal and mixed elements largely 
 accounts for the backwardness of the country in regard to sani- 
 tation, agriculture, and means of transport. 
 
 Practically the whole population is Roman Catholic, but the 
 Church is entirely separate from the State, which has appro- 
 priated a great-deal of the old endowments, and there is complete 
 toleration for all religions. Still, the frequent feasts and fasts 
 combine with the leisurely manners of a Southern people to 
 make business of every kind move very slowly. Spanish is the 
 language of commerce and of daily life, and it is necessary for 
 any one who has to do business in the country to understand 
 it. Formerly much more of the trade was in English hands 
 than is now the case. The Germans and the southern French 
 (usually termed Barcelonnettes from their Spanish port of ship- 
 ment) now share most of the import trade from Europe; while 
 Americans from the United States, on account of their proxi- 
 mity, have taken a lead in mining and railway work. 
 
 The currency of Mexico is silver, and the value of the dollar 
 fluctuates about two shillings, being less than half its nominal 
 value. Banking is but little developed, and the exchange of 
 money between the capital and outlying towns is trouble- 
 some and expensive. The Custom-house at Mexican ports has 
 a bad name for exactions and delays, aggravating a tariff which 
 of itself is discouraging to trade. 
 
 Crovernment. — The government of Mexico is that of a 
 federal republic on the model of the United States. There are 
 twenty-seven States, each possessing complete local self-govern- 
 ment, two Territories (Lower California and Tepic on the west 
 coast) and the Federal District, which includes the capital. 
 There is a Congress and Senate for national legislation, as in 
 the United States, and a President elected by the people for 
 four years. Unlike the United States, however, Mexican law 
 allows of repeated re-election, and, as a matter of fact, one 
 president — General Porfirio Diaz — has been continually in 
 power for over twenty years. His reign — for it fully deserves 
 such a designation — has led to the relative state of advancement 
 in which Mexico stands ; but, as in all Latin republics, it is^ 
 impossible to predict what may happen when he can no longer 
 fill the office. 
 
MEXICO. 15^ 
 
 Prospects for Development. — The Mexican government has 
 at various times offered great inducements to immigration, such 
 as freedom from taxes and from military service, facilities in 
 obtaining land, and even assisted passages, but the result has 
 not been very satisfactory. The prospects of English-speaking 
 people in Mexico are ■well summarised by Sefior Komero, the 
 Mexican Minister at Washington.* He points out that the 
 low wages consequent on the existence of a large aboriginal 
 population renders it impossible for white labourers to make a 
 living. There is, in fact, more labour than the present state of 
 development of the country requires. Capital, and the intelli- 
 gence to utilise it advantageously, are wanted now. Seflor 
 Romero says : — 
 
 " What Mexico needs is capital to develop her resources and 
 give employment to labour, and then immigration will flow in 
 as naturally as water seeks its level. Mexican credit will be 
 established, so far as immigration is concerned, when her natural 
 resources are developed, this being the only safe and reliable 
 basis of such credit; and this will never be developed until 
 those who have capital to invest are acquainted with the un- 
 paralleled opportunities for safe and profitable investment 
 in Mexico. This will only be accomplished by plain, blunt, 
 matter-of-fact, and well-informed press agents, who lay before 
 people who have money to invest the plain facts of the 
 case." 
 
 Frankly pointing out the great diflBculties which the Ameri- 
 can (and still more the European) settler would experience in 
 Mexico on account of the different language and habits of the 
 people, the unhealthiness of the hot lands, and the difficulty of 
 obtaining public lands (which are still unsurveyed for the most 
 part), or in purchasing land from the present proprietors, Seflor 
 Romero comes to the conclusion that for the man who looks to 
 his day's pay for his living, Mexico is not the place in whiqh to 
 settle. But he considers that for a farmer of the New England 
 or Middle States type, who will raise a little of everything, com- 
 bining market-gardening with farming, there is an opening in 
 temperate Mexico, provided that he has a capital of a few hun- 
 dred pounds (which is worth double its sterling value in Mexico), 
 and can afford to visit the country and look round a little before 
 deciding where to settle. He warns the settler, however, that it 
 is not likely that his northern energy will stimulate his native 
 neighbours to more active ways, but extremely probable that the 
 
 ' Geographical and Statistical Notes on Mexico (New York and London : 
 Putman'B Sons. 1898). 
 
160 NEW LANDS. 
 
 easy Mexican manner of life will grow iipon the newcomer, 
 and reduce his aptitude and inclination for work. 
 
 It is to the mineral resources of the country that the energies 
 of foreign immigrants with capital can be most profitably directed, 
 and concerning these the views ot the Mexican Minister are 
 much more encouraging. He says:— 
 
 " In mining Mexico offers inducements superior to any other 
 country ; and whether a man has a thousand dollars or a million 
 he can go there and make more, if he exercises ordinary pre- 
 caution and judgment, and if he makes up his mind to stand the 
 discomforts of the country. It is a good country for the 
 prospector, too, because there are no seasons against him, and 
 there are many new fields entirely untouched ; but he needs 
 money enough to get there with, and enable him to obtain the 
 proper kind of outfit, and time to familiarise himself with the 
 requirements of the law, and select some district in which he 
 wants to operate. 
 
 "For the small capitalist, or for a small syndicate, there is no 
 finer field for the organising of small companies for the 
 purposes of opening and working old abandoned mines, 
 which are filled with debris or water, and which it will 
 pay to clean out and work, and of which there are still many to 
 be had. In times gone by they were abandoned, because of the 
 refractory condition of the ores, or lack of machinery, or want of 
 transportation, all of which conditions have been removed. 
 There is also a fine opening for capital for the exploration of the 
 new goldfields in the vicinity of G-uadalupe y Calvo, in the range 
 between Sonora and Chihuahua, in the State of Guerrero, and in 
 many other localities." 
 
 A British subject wishing information regarding the com- 
 mercial condition of any part of Mexico should apply to the 
 British consular officer, situated in the nearest town to the 
 district in question ; or if on Mexico, as a whole, to the Consul 
 in the capital. It would be wise, in any case, before entering 
 into engagements with strangers as to properties or enterprises 
 in Mexico, to ask the opinion of the Consul. A British Consul 
 resides in Mexico and in Vera Cruz, and there is a British vice- 
 consul at each of the following towns : — Acapulco, Chihuahua, 
 Oiudad Porfirio Diaz, Guaymas and Sta. Rosalia, Mazatlan, 
 Monterey, San Bias and Tepic, Soconusco, Tampico, Coatzacoalcos, 
 Frontera, Laguna de Terminos, Progresso and Campeche, and 
 Taxpam. 
 
161 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 LATIN AMERICA— TEMPERATE BRAZIL AND 
 CHILE. 
 
 Brazil — United States of Brazil — People and Resources^Southem States 
 of Brazil — Commiinioationa— Colonies in South Brazil —Hints to Farmers 
 — Southern Chile — The Republic of Chile — Population and Immigra- 
 tion — Openings for Capital — Southern Provinces of Chile. 
 
 Temperate Brazil. 
 
 The United States of Brazil. — The largest of the Latin 
 American republics is Brazil, its area being 3,200,000 square 
 miles, or nearly that of Europe, and its population in 1890 
 over 14,000,000. The census was, however, very imperfectly 
 carried out, and the population is believed at the present time 
 to exceed 16,000,000. Brazil was originally colonised from 
 Portugal, and until 1889 was under the rule of an emperor of 
 the Portuguese Royal house, hence the Portuguese and not the 
 Spanish language is employed officially, and by the great bulk of 
 the inhabitants. The constitution of the republic ultimately 
 formed was framed in accordance with that of the United States, 
 each of the twenty States having complete self-government, 
 while a Federal Government and President at Rio de Janeiro are 
 charged with foreign relations, with defence, tariflfs for imports, 
 &c. There is limited manhood suffrage, every male citizen over 
 twenty-one, who is not illiterate, a beggar, a soldier, or a monk 
 having a vote. There is no State religion, and, although an 
 overwhelming majority of the people are Roman Catholics, there 
 is complete toleration. 
 
 People and Resources. — Brazil is mainly a tropical country, 
 and a large proportion of the natives are of " Indian " or negro 
 descent, or belong to mixed races. These, with Italians and 
 Chinese immigrants, are the only people fit for field labour in 
 the tropical plantations which produce the staple crops, coffee 
 and sugar, or for collecting the products of the tropical forests, 
 such as india-rubber and dyewoods. People of North European 
 race find occupation as overseers and merchants in all parts of 
 
 11 
 
162 
 
 NEW LANDS. 
 
 the country, and as miners in the eastern plateau of Brazil, the 
 height of which neutralises its tropical situation. But the work 
 of North Europeans is only to be fully exercised in the higher 
 parts of the three southern states — Parana, Santa Catherina, 
 and Rio Grande do Sul. 
 
 The Brazilian naturalisation laws require two years' residence, 
 and naturalisation is not compulsory. The people of the 
 numerous German and Italian agricultural colonies in the 
 south retain their own languages; and for business purposes 
 English is understood in every port. The greater part of 
 the imports comes from the United Kingdom, and most of the 
 carrying trade is in British ships. The exports go mainly to 
 Germany, France, and southern Europe. 
 
 Immigration is encouraged by the Federal government, and 
 in 1896 there were 156,000 immigrants, whose nationalities 
 were as follows*: — Italian, 96,300 ; Portuguese, 24,100; Austro- 
 Hungarian, 11,400; German, 1100; other nationalities, 23,100. 
 The majority of the first three nationalities belong to the poorest 
 and most ignorant labouring classes. 
 
 The import duties in Brazil are enormously high, amounting 
 to 80, 100, and 120 per cent, of the value of such goods as spirits, 
 tobacco, matches, medicines, cottons, &c. ; but agricultural 
 implements, machinery, and tools are comparatively lightly 
 taxed. 
 
 The tropical coast towns are unhealthy, and especially subject 
 to yellow fever, the occurrence of which frequently leads to the 
 imposition of quarantine on vessels arriving at other South 
 American ports, after touching at Rio de Janeiro. 
 
 Southern States of Brazil. — The areas of the three southern 
 states and their population in 1890 were : — 
 
 state. 
 
 Area Square Miles. 
 
 Population, 1890. 
 
 Density of 
 Population. 
 
 Parana, 
 
 Santa Catherina, 
 
 Rio Grande do Sul, . 
 
 85,400 
 27,400 
 91,300 
 
 249,500 
 283,500 
 897,500 
 
 3 
 10 
 10 
 
 The northern part of Parana is crossed by the tropic of 
 Capricorn, but the other two states lie entirely in the south 
 temperate zone. The climate on the Atlantic seaboard of all 
 
 * Statesman's Year Book, 1899, art. "Brazil." In 1898, however, the 
 immigrants numbered only 53,800. 
 
TEMPERATE BRAZIL. 163 
 
 three is very hot, but on the plateaii and mountainous country 
 of the interior it is agreeable, closely resembling that of southern 
 Europe. Snow is practically unknown, but in winter it is not 
 exactly a rarity to see a coating of hoar frost on the fields or a 
 very thin crust of ice on the water in the early morning. The 
 rainfall is ample for agricultural purposes, varying from over 60 
 inches a year in the north of Parana to about 40 inches in the 
 south of Eio Grande do Sul. Rain falls in every month of the 
 year, but summer (November to February) is the wettest season 
 and winter (May to August) the driest. The prevailing wind in 
 summer is from the north, and in winter from the south. 
 
 The land in the north slopes steeply to the Atlantic from the 
 Serra Geral mountain range, and there is a long slope westward 
 from the base of the mountains to the Parana and Uruguay 
 rivers. In Rio Grande do Sul the watershed lies nearly in 
 the centre of the province, giving equal slopes to east and 
 west. The whole district is intersected by numerous rivers. 
 Much of the land is occupied by forest, and the soil under 
 the trees is rich and deep ; but a large part, especially in the 
 south, is open prairie or Gampo, covered with natural grass, 
 and soil that does not repay cultivation. Geologically, the 
 ancient sedimentary and Archsean rocks predominate, and these 
 contain great supplies of mineral wealth, including gold, silver, 
 copper, and iron ores. As yet these are only beginning to be 
 utilised. Goal occurs in the Carboniferous strata of all three 
 provinces, and is being worked more and more every year, 
 especially at Tubarao, in Rio Grande do Sul, by an English 
 company. There are also quarries of fine granite and marble, 
 deposits of kaolin, salt, and other minerals. 
 
 Communications. — Communication with the southern states 
 has hitherto been only possible by sea, as there was no trunk 
 line of railway in Brazil, but only separate systems radiating 
 from different seaports. Now, however, a railway, begun at 
 three points simultaneously, is nearly completed between Sao 
 Paulo and Rio Grande do Sul. When it is opened there will 
 be unbroken railway transport from Rio de Janeiro to the 
 extreme south of the country. Paranagua, in the State of 
 Parana, is a small town, with an open roadstead, but is the 
 ocean terminus of a railway which runs west for about 450 
 miles to the Parana river, and sends branches north and south 
 through the province and into Santa Catharina. A great 
 lagoon, the Lagoa dos Patos, lies along the coast of Rio Grande 
 do Sul for 160 miles, separated from the ocean by a broad 
 strip of flat land. At its southern end it communicates with 
 
164 NEW LANDS. 
 
 the sea over a bar which prevents the entrance of vessels 
 drawing more than 11| feet. At the mouth of the lagoon,, 
 but inside the bar, is the seaport of Rio Grande do Sul, from 
 which a railway runs for 150 miles into the interior. At the 
 head of the lagoon, Porto Alegre is rising into importance 
 on account of its harbour and its railway, which runs inland 
 for 250 miles up the valley of the Jacuni, and across to that 
 of the Ibicui, which flows to the Uruguay. The completion 
 of the new through line will link together all the railways of 
 southern Brazil in one system. 
 
 Colonies in South. Brazil. — The southern states are being 
 exploited mainly by Germans and Italians, British influence 
 being represented chiefly by the capital invested in mines and 
 railways. The composition of the European population now 
 growing up in these regions may be judged from the following 
 analysis of the nationalities of the immigrants who entered Rio 
 Grande do Sul in 1896 — 
 
 Italians, 
 
 . 917 
 
 Spaniards, . 
 
 . 326 
 
 Russians, 
 
 . 606 
 
 Austrians, . 
 
 . 274 
 
 Germans, 
 
 . 441 
 
 Hungarians, 
 
 . 103 
 
 Portuguese, 
 
 . 335 
 
 Poles, . 
 
 . 41 
 
 Immigrants of seven other nationalities were returned at 52, 
 and, out of a total of 3095, only one was British. 
 
 These immigrants are under the charge of a department of the 
 Federal government, and are grouped in " colonies " practising 
 cattle-rearing or agriculture, according to the nature of the 
 district. There is still abundant room for newcomers, and there 
 seems to be no reason why English-speaking " colonies " might 
 not be established by those who prefer a warm and well- 
 watered country to the extreme climate of Canada, or the 
 aridity of South Africa or Australia. But it cannot be 
 too strongly impressed on all people of North European races 
 that no part of Brazil, except the three southern provinces, i» 
 fit for settlement. Efibrts have very frequently been made, too 
 often with success, by unscrupulous agents, to induce immi- 
 grants, to come to Rio de Janeiro, or other tropical port, and 
 hire themselves out as labourers in the coffee plantations, work 
 totally unsuited for any European or North American. Immi- 
 grants for the southern states usually land at Rio de Janeiro 
 and tranship into Brazilian coasting steamers ; but during their 
 stay they should remain under the charge of the Federal officials, 
 whose duty it is to see them safely to their destination. 
 
 Hints to Farmers. — Prom the valuable practical hints of" 
 a German settler in Curityba, Parana, to his compatriots at 
 
TEMPERATE BRAZIL. 
 
 165 
 
 iiome,* we quote the following observations as to the life and 
 work in temperate Brazil : — 
 
 " In establishing a farm on the plateau, the land must be 
 cleared of wood, for only the woodland is fertile enough for 
 raising crops ; the open campo serves merely as grazing for 
 cattle. Maize is the most productive crop, and is a staple 
 
 Fig. 5. — South America. 
 
 article of food for man and beast. Wheat and barley are also 
 most valuable crops, and potatoes yield a great return twice in 
 the year. The typical Brazilian manioc root, and the vine, are 
 both cultivated in the southern provinces." 
 
 * Fiihrer filr den Auswanderer nach Brasilien. Von A. Papstein. 
 Berlin, Deutsoher Kolonialverlag, G. Meinicke. [1898.] 
 
166 NEW LANDS. 
 
 The great advantage of the system of " colonies '' in develop- 
 ing the land is that the united strength and resources of a party 
 of friends speaking the same language and living in the same 
 way are able to clear the land, and stock it much more econo- 
 mically than if the individuals were scattered over a wide stretch 
 of country in single families, as is done in North America. Road 
 making in a new colony is carried out under the supervision 
 of a Brazilian official appointed by the Federal government, and 
 the colonists are required to, give a certain amount of time to 
 road making until their own needs in that respect are supplied. 
 
 The Emigrants' Information Office in London strongly dis- 
 suades British subjects from going to any part of Brazil. 
 
 Southern Chile. 
 
 The Republic of Chile. — The republic of Chile runs through 
 nearly tlie same range of latitude as Argentina, but occupies 
 only a narrow strip of land, forming a long valley between the 
 Cordillera of the Andes on the east, and a low range of hills 
 bordering the west coast of South America. It may be divided 
 into three regions: — (1) The arid deserts in the north, which 
 are only rendered habitable at a few points by the mineral 
 wealth making it worth while to import every necessary of 
 life; these pass through a zone of dry land cultivatable by 
 irrigation to (2) the fertile land of the Central Valley, one of 
 the richest agricultural regions in the world ; and (3) the 
 well-watered, cool southern provinces and islands. Mineral 
 wealth, especially copper ore, is widespread, and, when the 
 price of copper is high, mining is actively pursued. In the 
 south there is a good deal of coal, and silver, gold, lead, and 
 manganese occur in considerable abundance. 
 
 The area of Chile is about 293,000 square miles, but only 
 about one-half of the land has any inhabitants, and since the 
 population in 1895 was almost 3,000,000, the average density 
 is about 10 per square mile, or, taking account of the inhabited 
 area only, 20 per square mile. The capital, Santiago, is situated 
 in the central valley, and is the largest town ; but the chief 
 seaport, Valparaiso, concentrates the import trade of the 
 country. The chief port for exports is Iquique in the north, 
 on account of the nitrate and other mineral products shipped 
 there. Concepcion, in the south, is an important and growing 
 trading town. 
 
 Chile is a republic of a centralised type, the provinces not 
 having separate legislatures. There have been fewer revolutions 
 
TEMPERATE CHILE. 
 
 167 
 
 than in other parts of Latin America, and, although the adminis- 
 tration has been very defective, especially in the remote 
 provinces, it has usually been on account of want of strength 
 rather than want of honesty at headquarters. There are high 
 import duties on manufactures, and also export duties, especially 
 on nitrates. The currency is largely paper, the redemption of 
 which was fixed in 1898 at the rate of Is. 6d. per peso, the 
 nominal value of which is 4s. 
 
 Population and Immigration. — The population differs con- 
 siderably from that of the other republics. The educated 
 classes are proud of their pure Spanish descent, but the working 
 population is very largely mixed with the native Araucanian 
 Indian blood. In the north of southern Chile, between the 
 rivers Biobio and Valdivia, there is still a considerable number 
 of pure and half-breed Araucanians, probably about 50,000, and 
 these have formerly been a menace to settlers in their country, 
 although they are now fairly under control. The foreign 
 European element is small, and no nationality predominates 
 very largely over the others. 
 
 Recognising the importance of developing the resources of 
 the country, and of setting an example to the natives who 
 share, but not in the highest degree, the indolence of South 
 European races in America, the Chilean government has made 
 strenuous efforts during the last twenty years to secure the 
 immigration of North Europeans. At the census of 1885 there 
 were in the country the following : — 
 
 Germans, . 
 
 . 6800 
 
 Swiss, 
 
 1270 
 
 British, 
 
 . 5300 
 
 Chinese, . 
 
 1160 
 
 French, . 
 
 . 4200 
 
 North Americans, 
 
 920 
 
 Italian, 
 
 . 4100 
 
 Austro-Huugarians, 
 
 670 
 
 Spanish, . 
 
 . 2500 
 
 Scandinavians, . 
 
 430 
 
 The annual immigration amounted to 1400 in 1895, over 
 2000 in 1896, and under 1000 in 1897. The European immi- 
 grants of 1896 were composed as follows ; — 
 
 French, 
 
 . 402 
 
 British, 
 
 . 361 
 
 German, 
 
 . 400 
 
 Dutch, 
 
 . 179 
 
 Spanish, 
 Italian, 
 
 . 365 
 
 . 274 
 
 Belgian, 
 
 . 106 
 
 The object of the Chilean government is to introduce a great 
 variety of foreign elements, so as to secure an ultimate blending 
 with the Chilean race, and the general acceptance of the Spanish 
 language; but no attempt is made to discourage the use of their 
 own language, or the retention of their existing nationality by 
 
168 NEW LANDS. 
 
 immigrants. This experiment succeeds fairly well in the towns, 
 but it is doubtful -whether it can be fully successful in the case 
 of agricultural settlements in the unoccupied country. To 
 northern Europeans of the agricultural class, the difficulty of 
 settling down in entirely new conditions under the supervision 
 of Spanish-speaking officials is greatly aggravated when they 
 are strangers to each other, speaking different languages, 
 following different religious creeds, and, likely enough, nourish- 
 ing hereditary antagonisms. No doubt the common hardships 
 of beginning a new life in a new land do much to obliterate the 
 old prejudices, but those "colonies" seem to have been the 
 most prosperous which were composed originally of people from 
 one country, with their own pastors and teachers to preserve 
 the continuity of their former life. There is religious toleration, 
 but churches with spires and bells are only allowed for Koman 
 Catholic worship, and the power of the priests is great. 
 
 Openings for Capital. — Agricultural settlers are being 
 placed on lands in the south only, where the climate is quite 
 similar to that of north-western Europe, and where the native 
 Chilean population is small or entirely absent. But throughout 
 the whole range of the country there is scope for the develop- 
 ment, by foreign capital and foreign energy, of the vast mineral 
 resources. Much has already been done in this way, but the 
 difficulties are of a special kind. Many of the richest mines are 
 situated at such great elevations on the mountains that a new- 
 comer is unable to work on account of the rarity of the air, and 
 the supply of labour furnished by the native Indians is inade- 
 quate and ineffective. In those conditions it would appear that 
 successful development of the resources can only be obtained 
 by the expenditure of capital, particularly in the supply (and 
 probably also in the invention) of machinery which will reduce 
 human labour to an absolute minimum. Many railways have 
 been built which are marvels of engineering skill, and a credit 
 to the foreign capitalists, mainly British, who carried them out. 
 As yet there is no railway running north from Santiago connect- 
 ing the lines which run from the seaports to the mountains. 
 
 There is' no -country in South America so well adapted by 
 nature as Chile to" become a great self-supporting industrial 
 state. The agricultural produce from the middle belt of the 
 central valley alone, where wheat, maize, and the vine flourish 
 greatly, could produce food for a great mining and manufacturing 
 population, and the mineral resources supply every raw product 
 which is required. The staple mineral export (after nitrate of 
 soda) has always been copper, formerly as ore or regulus, but 
 
TEMPERATE CHILE. 169 
 
 recently as bars of pure metal. It is particularly important 
 that the situation of any mines in Chile should be definitely 
 ascertained before undertaking any responsibility regarding 
 them, as the quality of the ore gives no clue as to the cost of 
 working it, which depends more upon facility of transport and 
 the supply of food and fuel. Thus, mining operations in the 
 desert region of northern Chile involve the import of every 
 article required for consumption, in many cases even of water, 
 and the intense heat of the climate has also to be taken into 
 account. In the south of Chile, on the other hand, food, water, 
 and fuel are abundant, indeed, the difficulties to contend with 
 are the excessive rainfall, floods, and the exuberance of the 
 forest growth. 
 
 So far as foreign influence on the development of Chile goes, 
 it may be said at present to be exercised mainly by British 
 capital and German settlers. 
 
 Southern Provinces of Chile. — The southern railway 
 system of Chile, when complete, will run from Santiago, the 
 capital, with branches to the chief seaports, to Puerto Montt, a 
 distance of 600 miles. As yet, however, there are gaps in the 
 system which are being gradually reduced, and will probably be 
 filled up by 1901. Puerto Montt is situated at the southern 
 end of the central valley, the western side of which is continued 
 southward by the island of Chiloe and the Chonos archipelago, 
 while the coast of the mainland is formed by the slope of the 
 Andes. As far as Puerto Montt there are scattered German 
 agricultural colonies, with small towns containing breweries and 
 distilleries, and on the coast there are several ports, of which 
 "Valdivia (one-third of whose inhabitants are German) is the 
 most important. All ordinary European grain crops can be 
 grown, although the climate in the south is too cloudy and 
 damp to allow wheat, or even barley, to come to perfection. 
 The mineral resources are being explored and utilised. The 
 German agricultural settlers have taken firm root in the country.* 
 Although encouraged and helped by the Chilean Government 
 the advent of foreigners is unwelcome to the people of the 
 country, and much unpleasantness, and even danger to life, has 
 occurred on that account. But in the southernmost part of 
 
 * The best account of the colonisation of southern Chile, and the history 
 of the various German settlements, is to be found in Hugo Kunz's Chile 
 und die Deutschen Oolonien. The first edition was published by J. Klink- 
 hardt, Leipzig, in 1891. The English point of view is well given in W. 
 Anderson Smith's Temperate Chile. London, A. & C. Black, 1899, which is 
 based on a recent visit to the country. 
 
170 NEW LANDS. 
 
 Chile there are few Chileans, and new settlers need fear little 
 inconvenience except from the natural difficulties of land and 
 climate. The island of Ohiloe, and the other wooded islands to 
 the south, offer opportunities for developing a large timber trade, 
 although competition with Oregon, Washington, and British 
 Columbia is severe ; and cattle rearing is likely to meet with 
 success in the open or cleared ground of the whole region. As 
 yet, however, there is little cleared ground, and the continuous 
 covering of primeval forest in the southern islands, and over the 
 mountain slopes, has hitherto prevented any settlements of 
 importance from being made south of Chiloe. The cloud, which 
 rarely lets the sun appear for half the year, and the rainfall of 
 over 100 inches (most of which falls in winter, although a 
 perfectly dry day is the exception in most months of the year) 
 makes the ripening of grain impossible on the western islands 
 and coast strip. Root crops, however, flourish, especially the 
 potato, the original home of which is believed by many to be 
 southern Chile. The want of roads, even in Ohiloe, is a serious 
 bar to progress, and transport is everywhere very difficult. 
 
 The land bordering the rivers that pierce the Cordillera, and 
 the great valley of western Patagonia, is much drier, and will 
 probably prove of agricultural value when the boundary line 
 with Argentina is settled, and colonists begin to come into the 
 country. Important trade will doubtless also be established 
 across the Cordillera by railways through the valleys from 
 Chilean ports. 
 
 Meanwhile, British consular officers in Chile do not encourage 
 the immigration of their countrymen with a view to taking 
 up farms. The difficulties, of course, are no greater than in the 
 case of Germans, but there is a natural feeling that, in view of 
 the fewer hardships to be encountered in the temperate British 
 colonies or the United States, emigrants from the United 
 Kingdom would do better not to think of South America as 
 a home. 
 
 In referring to the efforts of Chilean Government Agents ta 
 induce colonists to come to Chile, the annual consular report 
 for the Valparaiso district for 1 897 gives the following warning : — 
 
 "The climate in the south of Chile is excessively damp, the 
 rainfall being abnormally great, and a strong constitution is 
 required to withstand its effects. A still greater disadvantage 
 is the lack of proper police protection. The districts thrown 
 open to the colonists are of very large extent, and in many 
 of these it has been found impossible to maintain sufficient 
 police to protect the inhabitants from outrages on the part of 
 
TEMPERATE CHILE. 171 
 
 organised bands of robbers. Indeed, in some instances, wanton 
 murder has been committed. These latter remarks apply only 
 to colonies on the mainland. In the island of Chiloe there ia 
 adequate police protection, but here, too, there are the same 
 climatic disadvantages, and an excessive amount of labour is 
 required for preparing the land for cultivation, the island being 
 very thickly wooded. Many disappointed emigrants have ap- 
 plied for relief at this Consulate, and, on the whole, British 
 subjects are not advised to emigrate to this country." 
 
172 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 ARGENTINA. 
 
 Position — Surface — Climate — Resources — Exports and Trade — Government 
 — People — Tariff and Currency — Railway Enterprise — Provinces — The 
 Argentine Railways — New Lands of Argentina — Province of Buenos 
 Aires — Entre Rios — Corrientes — Santa F^ — Central Provinces — 
 Western Provinces— Central Territories — Southern Territories — Pata- 
 gonia. 
 
 Position. — The Argentine Republic occupies the narrowing 
 southern end of South America, between the Atlantic Ocean 
 and the crest of the Cordillera of the Andes. In the north it 
 reaches to 22° (well within the tropics), and in the south to 56°, 
 in the almost Antarctic island of Cape Horn. It occupies a 
 longer stretch of the Earth's surface from north to south than 
 any other country in the world (except Chile), which does not 
 cross the Arctic circle. It has a total area of nearly 1,800,000 
 square miles. 
 
 The Argentine Republic is bounded by Chile along the crest 
 of the Andes, Bolivia in the north, Paraguay in the north-east, 
 and Brazil and Uruguay in the east; but south of the mouth of 
 the Rio de la Plata (River Plate) it has a long sea coast on the 
 Atlantic, indented by many bays. 
 
 Surface. — The west of the country is high and mountainous, 
 forming the eastward slope of the Andes ; the rest is nearly 
 level plain, or gentle slopes broken by few hills. The central 
 portion of this plain is termed the Pampa, and is covered for 
 the most part by a fine soil, not unlike that of the North- 
 American prairies ; and, like the prairies, is rich in grass but 
 poor in trees. 
 
 The basin of the River Plate includes the whole northern 
 part of the country drained by the great rivers Uruguay and 
 Parana, which flow southward almost parallel to each other to 
 unite in its eastward running estuary. The Uruguay is the 
 boundary with the small republic of the same name. The 
 Parana, with its tributaries, the Paraguay and Pilcomayo, 
 separate the territory of the republic of Paraguay. South of 
 
ARGENTINA. 173- 
 
 the Pilcomayo, the long rivers Vermejo, Salado, and Segundo 
 are the chief tributaries from the Andean slopes. 
 
 South of the River Plate the rivers Colorado, Negro, Chubut, 
 and Santa Cruz are the chief streams flowing from the Andes 
 to the Atlantic. The rivers of the Argentine do not form a 
 complete drainage system. In the whole western strip of the 
 country many of the streams from the mountains fail to reach 
 the main rivers and dry up in salt lakes or swamps amidst 
 arid steppes, which, in some places, may even be called deserts. 
 It apj)ears that this process of drying up is still in progress, so 
 that in all parts of the country irrigation will become an 
 increasing necessity. All the great rivers are navigable for 
 many hundreds of miles. In the south, where the Andes are 
 low, and passes to the Pacific numerous and easy, the boundary 
 line with Chile is not yet quite settled. Here there are some 
 fine fresh water lakes of remarkable beauty, the largest of 
 which. Lake Buenos Aires, lies in the disputed territory. The 
 most striking feature of the country to which the River Plate 
 gives entrance is its amazing flatness, allowing of the construction 
 of railways more cheaply than in any other part of the world. 
 
 A large part of the country remains practically unexplored, 
 and, although preliminary geological and railway surveys have 
 been made in most of the provinces, there is nothing as yet in 
 the nature of an exact survey of the whole republic, and 
 accurate large-scale maps cannot be constructed. 
 
 Climate. — The climate varies greatly from point to point on 
 account of the vast range in latitude. A rough classification 
 recognises four climatic areas: — (1) A mountain climate along 
 the whole of the Andean slope ; the temperature, depending on 
 the altitude (which increases towards the north), insures agree- 
 able sites for towns or settlements all along the western border, 
 although the deep valleys are always very hot. Three 
 different climatic areas divide the plain. (2) A tropical climate 
 in the north, from 22° S. to about 33° S. — i.e., in the territories 
 of Chaco, Formosa, and Misiones, and the provinces of Tucuman, 
 Santiago del Esterro, and Corrientes. Here the mean tempera- 
 ture is high, the range between the seasons comparatively slight, 
 and the rainfall, which occurs mainly in the summer, is heavy, 
 (3) A temperate climate, between 33° S. and 42° — i.e., as far as 
 Bahia Blanca and the Rio Colorado. Here the mean tem- 
 perature is lower, the range between summer and winter 
 greater, but the rainfall less, the greatest amount occurring in 
 summer. The climate in this belt is considerably warmer at 
 all seasons than in any part of Great Britain while the contrast 
 
174 NEW LANDS. 
 
 of the seasons is little felt, and people can sleep unsheltered in 
 the open air at all seasons without discomfort. (3) A cool 
 climate prevails in Patagonia, where the summers are cool and 
 the winters fairly cold, with snow and frost in the higher 
 ground ; but the climate, so far as meteorological observations 
 have been made, seems to be less severe than that of Europe in 
 the corresponding northern latitudes. The rainfall also is 
 slight. It is only in Tierra del Fuego that extremely inclement 
 winters are found. 
 
 Since the Argentine republic lies entirely in the southern 
 hemisphere, the seasons are opposite in their periods to those of 
 ■the northern hemisphere. Midsummer is towards the end of 
 December, and midwinter towards the end of June. The 
 contrast of climate at corresponding latitudes in North and 
 South America is very marked. The narrowness of the tem- 
 perate part of South America allows the influence of the sea to 
 modify the climate, preventing the great extremes of heat in 
 summer and of cold in winter, which make the northern con- 
 tinental climates so trying. 
 
 Besotirces. — The natural resources of Argentina have been 
 developed mainly in the pastures and by agriculture. There 
 are mineral deposits of some value, alluvial gold in southern 
 Patagonia and in the mountains, silver and copper ores con- 
 taining gold in the Andean region, and lignite and petroleum 
 in several of the provinces. None of these, however, suffices 
 even for the domestic supply. The tropical forests of the north 
 — particularly in the region of the Gran Chaco — yield some 
 valuable timber and other produce which is being utilised more 
 and more. Agriculture is steadily progressing, and in 1805 
 there were 15,000,000 acres under cultivation, but this forms 
 scarcely more than 6 per cent, of the area which is capable of 
 being brought under the plough. Wheat is the chief crop, and 
 usually leaves a large surplus for export. Vines are grown and 
 wine made, while maize, flax, and sugar-cane are important pro- 
 ducts in different parts of the country. Locusts inflict serious 
 loss on farmers at irregular intervals. Most of the occupied 
 land is under sheep, and Argentina contains more sheep than 
 iHiy other country, except Australia. Cattle are also kept in 
 large numbers, and the preparation of meat extract is an im- 
 portant industry. Ostrich breeding has been introduced from 
 Africa, and both silkworm and bee culture are acquiring im- 
 portance in the warmer parts of the country. 
 
 Exports and Trade. — The chief exports are wool (which is 
 not of the first quality), hides, and meat (either frozen or in 
 
ARGENTINA. 175 
 
 the form of extract), the animal products amounting to about 
 73 per cent, of the total value of the exports in 1897. Wheat 
 and other agricultural produce made up 23 per cent., and forest 
 produce nearly 2 per cent. Hence it appears that the Argentine 
 at present is a more purely pastoral and agricultural country 
 than any other that could be named. 
 
 Manufactures are but little developed, and the imports consist 
 mainly of manufactured articles. The United Kingdom stands 
 first in shipping and in total trade with Argentina. This is 
 most marked in the case of imports. In 1897 (an average year) 
 imports of British manufactures amounted to more than three 
 times the value of those sent out by either Germany, Prance, 
 the United States, or Italy, all of which were about equal as 
 regards their share of the import trade. But as a market for 
 Argentine exports, the first place is taken by France (the trade 
 with which is, however, declining), then follow Germany and 
 the United Kingdom, and, a long way behind, the United 
 States, Brazil, and Belgium. The predominance of British 
 commerce is not the only bond between Argentina and the 
 United Kingdom. The railways and banks owe much to 
 British capital, and the numerous loans which have been 
 raised from time to time by the provinces as well as by the 
 republic have most frequently been negotiated in London. 
 
 Govermnent. — The Argentine is a federal republic on the 
 model of the United States, and for a Latin republic it has 
 been exceptionally free from revolutions. There are fourteen 
 Provinces enjoying complete self-government, including the 
 election of governors, and nine Territories under the control of 
 the Federal government. The President of the Republic, who is 
 elected for six years, and cannot be re-elected, has, in consulta- 
 tion with his ministers, the sole executive power. The legisla- 
 tive power of the Federal government is exercised by a Congress 
 elected by the people (which is fixed by statute to include one 
 representative for every 33,000 of the population), and a Senate 
 elected by the provincial governments. The administration of 
 justice and the conduct of public affairs of every kind has im- 
 proved greatly in recent years, and affords a better guarantee 
 for fair treatment and adequate protection than most of the 
 Latin republics can offer. But it must be remembered that 
 Federal jurisdiction does not extend to provincial affairs, every 
 province having its own laws. 
 
 Citizenship in the republic can be acquired at will after a 
 residence of two years in the country, or even without residence, 
 if the candidate has entered the public service or introduced 
 
176 NEW LANDS. 
 
 any industrial improvement. But any immigrant may, if lie 
 desire it, retain his original nationality, a right which is not 
 accorded in some of the Latin republics. Everyone born in 
 Argentina (except the children of Ministers representing foreign 
 countries) becomes a citizen, whatever be the nationality of the 
 parents, and at the appointed age has the same liability to 
 military service as other Argentines. 
 
 The President of the Eiepublic must by law be a Roman 
 Catholic, but there is complete religious toleration in fact as 
 well as in theory. 
 
 People. — The population in 1895 was found by census to be 
 just over 4,000,000, of whom 1,000,000 were foreigners, the re- 
 mainder being Argentines of Spanish descent, or the descendants 
 of foreign immigrants, or naturalised citizens of foreign birth. 
 There is a very small proportion of native Indians, and people 
 of mixed race are also much less numerous than in the other 
 republics. Although Spanish is the oflBcial language, there is 
 probably no country where so many languages are spoken or 
 so many newspapers published in foreign tongues. The Buenos 
 Aires Standard, an English journal, is widely recognised as one 
 of the best newspapers, not only in the Argentine, but in Latin 
 America, and its columns abound in practical information re- 
 garding the country invaluable to any English-speaking person 
 interested in Argentina. There is a British Consul at Buenos 
 Aires, and British Vice-Consuls at Buenos Aires, Bahia Blanca, 
 Concordia, Cordoba, La Plata, Parana, Eosario, and Santa F^. 
 Special privileges and exemptions are afforded to those who take 
 up new land or introduce new industries to the republic. From 
 the diversity of population a new people seems likely to arise, 
 different from any European race, but combining in various 
 degree the qualities of all. The proportions in which the racial 
 elements are being mixed is illustrated in the following table 
 of nationalities represented by over 100 persons each, amongst 
 the immigrants of 1897, who numbered almost 73,000*: — 
 
 Italians, . 
 
 44,678 
 
 British, . 
 
 . 662 
 
 Spanish, . 
 
 18,316 
 
 Swiss, 
 
 . 390 
 
 French, . 
 
 2,835 
 
 Belgians, . 
 
 . 207 
 
 Austro-Hungarians, 
 
 1,768 
 
 Uruguayans, 
 
 . 203 
 
 Turkish subjects, . 
 
 1,144 
 
 Portuguese, 
 
 . 195 
 
 Germans, 
 
 987 
 
 Danish, 
 
 111 
 
 Russians, 
 
 617 
 
 Rumanians, 
 
 100 
 
 * These statistics, and many of the facts stated in this chapter, are 
 derived from Charles Wiener's La, Sipuilique Argentine, forming a report 
 to the French Ministry of Foreign Affairs, and published as a volume of 
 678 pagesby Cerf, Paris, in 1899. 
 
ARGENTINA. 177 
 
 Next on the list came 94 North Americans and 355 represen- 
 tatives of ten other nationalities. These proportions fairly repre- 
 sent the average immigration of the last forty years. Recently 
 large settlements of Jews, chiefly from Russia, have been made 
 in various provinces by the Jewish Colonisation Society. 
 
 Trade and Currency. — There are import duties on all 
 manufactured articles, the rates being sometimes as high as 
 40 per cent, of the value of the goods, and there are also export 
 duties, though on a much lower scale and applying less gener- 
 ally. In 1897 about 85 per cent, of the imports (by value) and 
 62 per cent, of the exports were subject to duty. This neces- 
 sarily embarrasses foreign trade, while encouraging to some 
 extent the creation of manufactories in the country, an object 
 which has as yet only been partially attained. 
 
 The currency of the Argentine is in a very unsatisfactory 
 state. While the nominal value of the gold peso or dollar is 
 4s., gold or even silver coin is rarely seen. Up to 1895 the 
 currency was practically all paper, notes being issued for all 
 values down to 5 centavos, which at par would be equal to 2^d. 
 But the currency is so depreciated that the peso is worth as 
 little as Is. 6d. at times, the fluctuations of its value making it 
 quite impossible to translate Argentine prices into sterling 
 value without knowing the rate of exchange at the moment. 
 Since 1895 nickel-bronze coins for small values have been 
 struck, but the supply of these is inadequate to the demand. 
 
 Railway Enterprise. — A great amount of capital, mainly 
 British, and estimated at as much as £500,000,000, is invested 
 in the railway system of the Republic, which, favoured by the 
 configuration of the country, has been greatly developed. The 
 lines are on difierent gauges ; that of the main lines is 5 feet 
 6 inches, with a great deal of metre-gauge line in the outlying 
 districts, some of a still smaller gauge in the mountains, and a 
 little on the standard European and North- American gauge of 
 4 feet 8^ inches. Although in 1897 there were 9270 miles of 
 railway open for traffic, the lines did not make a single junction 
 with those of the neighbouring republics. Those of the east 
 indeed connect by ferries on the Uruguay river with the rail- 
 ways of that State, but that is comparatively unimportant as 
 those lines do not connect with Buenos Aires, and, besides, 
 Uruguay has free access to the Atlantic. When the railways 
 are pushed across the Andes to Chile, and up the great Andean 
 plateau to Bolivia, the through traffic will be beneficial to 
 Argentina and will inaugurate a new era of prosperity to Bolivia 
 at least. 
 
 12 
 
178 NEW LANDS, 
 
 Provinces.^ — The provinces of Argentina have each a capital, 
 usually bearing the same name, and forming the political, com- 
 mercial, and social centre of that part of the country. In this 
 way the republic contains a number of important and prosperous 
 towns scattered over its area. The chief province is that of 
 Buenos Aires, on the south of the La Plata estuary. Together 
 with the city of Buenos Aires, which is politically separated from 
 it, the population amounts to three-eighths of that of the whole 
 country, while the area is only one twenty-seventh. It is well 
 served by railways radiating from Buenos Aires, now the chief 
 sea-port of South America in spite of the shallowness of the 
 estuary, which made it necessary to ponstruct a purely artificial 
 harbour. La Plata, the capital of the province of Buenos Aires, 
 and Rosario, on the Parana, are practically the only other sea- 
 ports of the country for foreign trade. With a population of 
 over 600,000, Buenos Aires is one of the most active cities in 
 the world, and quite the most cosmopolitan. It is the market 
 and gateway of the country, even more fully than New York is 
 that of the United States. 
 
 The other littoral provinces are Entre Bios and Corrientes, on 
 the fertile ground between the Rivers Uruguay and Parana, 
 and Santa F6, on the right bank of the Parana. In the extreme 
 north there are three territories — Misiones, between Paraguay 
 and Brazil, Formosa and Chaco in the tropical forest region. 
 The railways serving the provinces of Entre Rios and Oorrientes 
 are not part of the main system, but connect river-ports on the 
 great water-highways. Santa ¥6, on the other hand, is very 
 closely covered with lines radiating from Rosario on the Parana, 
 one of the chief stations on the northern and north-western 
 railways, which run from Buenos Aires. 
 
 The Central provinces are Cordoba, west of Santa Fe, with 
 San Luis to the west, and Santiago del Esterro on the north. 
 These being away from river communications are entirely 
 dependent on the railways. 
 
 The Cordilleran and Northern provinces lie on the mountain- 
 ous land of the eastern slope of the Andes, and are named, from 
 south to north, Mendoza, San Juan, Rioja, Catamarca, Tucuman, 
 Salta, and Jujuy. These are being gradually penetrated by 
 branches of the great railways of the plains, the work of con- 
 struction in the rugged mountainous country not admitting of 
 rapid extension. 
 
 In the south, the territory of the Pampa lies just west of 
 Buenos Aires, and Patagonia is divided into the four territories 
 of Neuquen, Rio N egro, Ohubut, and Santa Cruz, each stretching 
 
AEGENTINA. 179 
 
 from Andes to Atlantic, and each named after its central river. 
 The only railway as yet penetrating them is the extension of the 
 Southern Railway across the Colorado River to the upper waters 
 of the Rio Negro, on the way to Lake Nahuel-huapi. The last 
 territory is the eastern portion of Tierra del Fuego. 
 
 Argentine Railways. — The chief railway lines radiating 
 from Buenos Aires considered simply as lines of communication, 
 without regard to their ownership, are — (1) the western line 
 through San Luis (500 miles from Buenos Aires*) and Mendoza 
 (650) to Punto de las Vacas (740). This line is planned to cross 
 the Andes through a tunnel south of Aconcagua ; but owing to the 
 failure of the contractors to complete the work it has remained 
 for many years iinfinished, and its railhead is separated by 40 
 miles of mountains from the terminus of the Chilean railway 
 from Valparaiso. 
 
 (2) The northern line from Buenos Aires to Rosario (190 
 miles) in Santa 'Fi, and thence across Santiago del Esterro to 
 Tucuman (730). Tuouman is also reached by a narrower gauge 
 line from Rosairo via Santa Fe, and by another via Cordoba 
 (250 miles from Buenos Aires), which sends branches into the 
 province of Rioja and to Catamaroa (570 miles from Buenos 
 Aires). These lines are continued by a railway of the same 
 gauge to Jujuy (950 miles from Buenos Aires), with a branch to 
 Salta. This is the line which may be continued to the Bolivian 
 frontier. 
 
 (3) The southern lines radiate over the province of Buenos 
 Aires from the federal capital to Bahia Blanca (420 miles) and 
 to several other points on the coast of the province. 
 
 The existing railway system has been criticised on account of 
 the diversity of the gauge, and because the lines are not planned 
 so as to tap the districts of richest resources, but leave some 
 important regions entirely untouched, while duplicating the 
 connections in other places. It is only fair, however, to point 
 out that the railways are being worked rather with a view to 
 the ultimate development of the country than with the object of 
 making large immediate profits. 
 
 New Lands op Argentina. 
 
 Except in the capital, there is no part of the Argentine 
 Republic where room cannot be found for energetic and resolute 
 men willing to spend time and at least some capital in develop- 
 
 * Distances measured on Col. Church's railway map of the Argentine 
 Eepublio in Geographical Journal, vol. xii. (1898), p. 444. 
 
180 NEW LANDS. 
 
 ing the natural resources. Eyerywhere it must be remembered 
 that the difficulties will be found greater than in the un- 
 developed lands under the government of the English-speaking 
 peoples. The absolute minimum considered necessary for life is 
 much lower in Argentina — stories are told of settlers living for 
 years without tables or chairs, yet unconscious of any special 
 hardships — and, if wages for unskilled labour are low, the 
 capacity of the workers is lower still. The Gaucho, or half-wild 
 herdsman of the pampa, is a difficult servant for an alien to 
 manage, and the Indian of Patagonia is no easier to deal with. 
 Above all, though the government is far from bad when judged 
 from the Latin- American standpoint, it is seriously defective if 
 judged from that of Canada or the United States. There are, 
 however, many places where for generations to come small 
 colonies of any nationality can settle down and live their own 
 life untroubled by taxes and free to govern themselves, for no 
 country in the world is so generous to aliens as the Argentine, 
 the only return asked for the grant of land being the develop- 
 ment of its resources. The second generation will be Argentine 
 citizens by right of birth, but their feelings as to language and 
 occupation will be respected. 
 
 Province of Buenos Aires. — This province has the most 
 favourable position, the largest share of the coast — along the 
 estuary of the La Plata and on the Atlantic southwards to 
 Bahia Blanca — and a surface which, while low and sometimes 
 swampy in the north, rises in the south into ranges of consider- 
 able hills. The railway system from Buenos Aires as a centre 
 forms a means of readily reaching any part of the province. 
 The capital, La Plata, contains, with its harbour of Ensenada, 
 a population of 70,000, and carries on a large trade in the ex- 
 port of maize, meat, wool, and sheep. Three-quarters of the 
 shipping trade of the port is under the British flag. The next 
 town in size is Bahia Blanca with 10,000 inhabitants, a seaport 
 exporting wheat, salt, and the products of sheep-raising. 
 
 Agriculture is in an advanced state in this province. The 
 north is most thoroughly farmed, though most of the land is 
 under grass and lucerne for stock ; the east is barren with salt 
 lagoons, and offers no inducement to cultivation ; but the south 
 is very fertile, and farms are prosperous. The chief crops are 
 maize (to which more than half the cultivated land is devoted), 
 wheat, and flax, the latter grown almost exclusively for linseed, 
 which is exported. Oats and barley are grown to a much 
 smaller extent, the latter being chiefly used green as fodder. 
 The amount of live-stock is very large, and forms the chief 
 
ARGENTINA. 181 
 
 wealth of the country. In 1895 there were 52,600,000 sheep, 
 7,740,000 cattle, and 1,670,000 horses. Goats and swine are 
 relatively unimportant ; but the industry of ostrich-rearing is 
 sufficiently characteristic to be mentioned. There were in 1 895 
 nearly 60,000 of these birds kept for their feathers. 
 
 The industries of the province depending on its produce are 
 ■confined to distilleries, breweries, flour-mills, great saladeros or 
 slaughter-houses, and meat-preserving works. The only mineral 
 resources are some stone quarries in the hilly region near Tondil 
 in the south. 
 
 The northern part of the province, where stock-raising is 
 centred, is pretty fully occupied, and the south is rapidly being 
 taken up ; but there is plenty of vacant agricultural land in 
 the western districts, and labour is plentiful and cheap. 
 
 The large flax crop suggests the possibility of utilising the 
 fibre and establishing a linen industry. 
 
 The marshy islands of the Parana delta seem to be well 
 adapted for rice culture on a large scale, and experiments in 
 this direction might well be made. Willows, poplars, and other 
 trees have been introduced and are flourishing on the islands, 
 and some brick-works have been established for utilising the 
 alluvial clays. In brick and tile-making industries there should 
 be potential fortunes. 
 
 Although conveniently situated for communication with the 
 outer world, this province does not ofier to the English-speaking 
 settler the same attraction as others further afield • the neigh- 
 bourhood of the huge city of Buenos Aires being a disturbing 
 element, with an ever-present risk of commercial or political 
 •crises, which affect the whole province more or less. 
 
 Untre Rios. — This province occupies the south of the 
 " Argentine Mesopotamia," lying, as its name implies, between 
 the rivers Parana and Uruguay, and the alluvial soil of the 
 low land bordering the rivers is the most fertile and the 
 deepest in the republic, so that there is no fear of its being 
 exhausted. Communication and transport is effected by ex- 
 cellent steamers running on both rivers with their termini in 
 Buenos Aires, and also by railways. Great efforts have been 
 made by the government to develop the agricultural resources 
 of the province, especially in the way of encouraging the 
 settlement of "colonies" or groups of families. These have 
 the privilege of freedom from taxation for ten years, and the 
 proprietors of uncultivated land near the railways can be com- 
 pelled by law to sell to settlers who are prepared to farm it. 
 The price of land varies greatly, according to its position with 
 
182 NEW LANDS. 
 
 respect to railways and rivers. The climate is warm, and frost 
 is quite unknown. 
 
 The towns of the province are all small. Parana, the largest 
 (22,000), and the capital of the province, stands on the bank 
 of the Parana Eiver opposite Santa F6, and has a railway to 
 Ooncepcion, on the Uruguay, with branches to the other towns 
 of the southern part of the province. Concordia, higher up the 
 Uruguay, and the terminus of the railways from Corrientes, has 
 the largest shipping trade for the export of farm produce on 
 the river. Out of 10,000 agricultural settlers in 1895, 520Q 
 were Argentines, 1600 Italians, 680 Eussians, and the next 
 nationalities in numerical order were Spanish, French, Swiss, 
 Uruguayan, German, Austro-Hungarian, and British, the last 
 named numbering only 154. 
 
 The greatest area of the cultivated land is under wheat ; 
 lucerne, maize, and linseed come next, while pea-nuts also form 
 an important crop. The harvests, 1895-96 and 1896-97, failed 
 so seriously that the merchants of Buenos Aires and the Federal 
 Government had to subscribe for the purchase of seed for the- 
 year following; but agriculture is usually very prosperous. The 
 rearing of cattle and sheep is relatively less important, but the 
 province contained in 1895 about 2,800,000 cattle and 62,000,00a 
 sheep. The trees growing by the rivers yield some trade in 
 timber. There are no mineral resources of any kind. 
 
 Corrientes. — The province of Corrientes, lying between the 
 rivers north of Entre Rios, is too warm, and, in great part, toa 
 swampy for settlement by North Europeans. There are rela- 
 tively few sheep, but many cattle, and, although most of the 
 cultivated land is under cereals, a great deal is under tobacco, 
 sugar-cane, cotton, rice, and other sub-tropical crops. In the 
 north, the province, like the territory of Misiones north of it, is 
 thickly wooded, and almost uninhabited. 
 
 Santa F^. — The province of Santa Fe, on the right bank of 
 the Parana, which is as large as England, is entirely flat, the 
 ground being covered with a considerable depth of remarkably 
 fertile soil, which has been compared to the famous "Black 
 Earth " of southern Russia. The climate is hot, like that of Spain 
 and Italy, and, the rainfall being steady, the province has become 
 the chief agricultural area in the republic. Not much more 
 than one-tenth of this area is under cultivation. Three-quarters 
 of the cultivated land is under wheat, the province yielding half 
 the wheat crop of the republic. Linseed and maize are the only 
 other crops produced in large amount. In 1895 there were 
 more than 2,000,000 cattle, and rather less than 2,000,000 
 
ARGENTINA. 183 
 
 sheep. There are no mineral resources except clay for brick- 
 making, an industry which might be considerably developed. 
 Flour-milling is carried on on a fairly large scale, but this also 
 could be extended. It was in Santa F6 that the principle of 
 developing the land by means of agricultural colonies was 
 started, and in 1895 there were no less than 365 such colonies 
 in existence, occupying the greater part of the south of the 
 province, including several settlements of Russian Jews sent 
 out by the Jewish Colonisation Society. 
 
 The south of this province is better served by railways than 
 any other part of the country, and Rosario, on the Parana, is 
 the second town in point of trade and population (over 100,000). 
 It has direct ocean trade with Europe as well as a large river 
 trade with the interior. Santa F6 city, the capital of the 
 province, is a great railway centre, and collects large quantities 
 of agricultural produce. 
 
 The tropical territories of Chaco and Formosa are wild forest 
 country. 
 
 The Central Provinces. — The provinces of Cordoba, Santi- 
 ago del Esterro, and San Luis occupy the level plains of the 
 centre, and rise on the westward slope of the country. Cordoba 
 is the largest province of the three, and the most favourable for 
 agricultural settlement, as its produce is that of the temperate 
 region, mainly wheat, lucerne, maize, and linseed. In the north, 
 and in Santiago del Esterro, sugar-cane is the most important 
 crop. Towards the west irrigation is necessary, and great 
 efforts have been made in Cordoba to store water in dammed-up 
 valleys for use in the fields. These provinces contain some 
 mineral wealth which is not at present being worked. Mines of 
 gold, silver, and copper have been opened in Cordoba and in 
 San Luis, but abandoned. With intelligent and energetic 
 management, something may possibly be done in developing 
 mineral resources, but the want of coal will always be a serious 
 drawback. Railway communication is already good, and can be 
 greatly extended. 
 
 The Western Provinces. — All the western provinces are 
 thinly peopled, and their development is only beginning. The 
 three northern provinces of this group — Jujuy, Salta, and 
 Tucuman — are purely tropical. Sugar production is the staple 
 of Tucuman, the damp climate of which is unhealthy for Euro- 
 peans, and sugar is also extensively grown in the other pro- 
 vinces, while Salta has very important vineyards. The mineral 
 resources of the mountainous portion of Jujuy have frequently 
 attracted attention, and spasmodic efforts have been made to 
 
184 NEW LANDS. 
 
 work gold, silver, copper, and other products ; but, so far, these 
 have not proved remunerative. The capitals of the three pro- 
 vinces are accessible by railway. 
 
 The provinces of Oatamarca, La Rioja, San Juan, and Mendoza 
 are all too dry for successful agriculture without irrigation, but 
 irrigation is comparatively easy on account of the slope of the 
 ground, and the existence of numerous streams fed by the snows 
 of the Andes, Prosperity is retarded by the great cost of rail- 
 way transport to the east, and by the failure to complete the 
 Trans-Andean railway, which would give easy access to the 
 markets of Chile, with which at present intercourse is only 
 possible over high and difficult passes. Earthquakes have 
 frequently done great damage to towns; in 1861 Mendoza was 
 destroyed by a severe shock, and 10,000 people perished. The 
 vine is the staple product, and wine making is carried on in all 
 the provinces, especially Mendoza. Yine growing is a branch 
 of agriculture which can only be made profitable by experts. 
 
 The mineral wealth of the region is undoubtedly very great ; 
 but hitherto the results have been extremely poor. This is 
 said * to be due to the rough methods employed, the cost of rail- 
 way transport, the want of cheap fuel, and the absence of skilled 
 direction. While all the Andean provinces contain gold, silver, 
 lead, copper, and iron in large quantities, they have been worked 
 most in San Juan ; but almost all the efforts made have resulted 
 in failure. A blast furnace for reducing iron, for example, was 
 established at Desengano in 1893, but was destroyed by an 
 earthquake in 1894 and not rebuilt. Capital and perseverance 
 are necessary in order to achieve success. 
 
 The Central Territories. — The territory of the Central 
 Fampa, stretching from the province of Buenos Aires to Men- 
 doza, and bounded on the south by the Rio Negro, is a vast 
 stretch of level or undulating open land, covered with coarse 
 grass. The growth of trees, especially the carob tree or algo- 
 robbo, improves the land for pasture, and some planting is being 
 carried on. The pampa is essentially pastoral country, and this 
 territory contains over 5,000,000 sheep, tended by the gauchos 
 or native herdsmen. The export of wool is facilitated by rail- 
 ways to Buenos Aires city and to Bahia Blanca. 
 
 The western territory of Neuquen occupies part of the 
 eastern slope of the Andes and of the depression at its foot, 
 extending southward to the picturesque mountain-girdled lake 
 Nahuel-huapi, and the River Limay, which carries its waters 
 and those of a row of smaller mountain lakes to the Rio Negro. 
 * Wiener, La Repuhlique Argentine, p. 488. 
 
ARGENTINA. 185 
 
 The country has a fine climate and a good soil, being well 
 adapted for farming by a northern people. Dr. Francisco 
 Moreno, who has explored the whole of southern Argentina, 
 says of it :* — " The valley of Chimehuin is already the seat of a 
 prosperous township. Junin de los Andes (2560 feet) which 
 will become the emporium of the riches of those regions so soon 
 as a sufficient population arrives to exploit them, and the trans- 
 continental railway is constructed on the route indicated by 
 Captain Fitz Eoy in 1834 as being the easiest means of com- 
 munication between the Atlantic' and the Pacific, which is that 
 of Puerto San Antonio, on the Bay of St. Matias. The region 
 in the neighbourhood of Junin de los Andes, watered by the 
 rivers Chimehuin and Malleco, is one of those which has the 
 best future in the Neuquen territory, in Northern Patagonia. 
 It possesses extensive pasture lands, the Araucaria forests 
 beautify its landscapes with their fantastic foliage, and straw- 
 berries abound in the proper season, amongst the apples 
 introduced in very early times." 
 
 The railway referred to above is to be built immediately, the 
 Argentine Government having changed an order for one million 
 pounds worth of war material to the same value in steel rails 
 and rolling stock, when it decided to arbitrate on the question 
 •of the boundary with Chile instead of to fight over it. There 
 was never a more perfect application of the principle of "beat- 
 ing swords into ploughshares." Meanwhile communication is 
 maintained by railway from Bahia Blanca to Confluencia at the 
 junction of the Neuquen and Limay with the Rio Negro, and 
 thence by road more than 100 miles to Junin. The extreme 
 beauty of Lake Nahuel-huapi will open a tourist centre, and 
 afibrd an opportunity for enterprising hotel proprietors when 
 the railway comes nearer. 
 
 The Southern Territories. —Patagonia is divided into the 
 .territories of Rio Negro, Chubut, and Santa Cruz, running from 
 east to west. The eastern portion is a gently sloping arid plain 
 with salt lakes, the salt in many places being of commercial 
 value ; but this sterile region is divided transversely by deep 
 valleys through which rivers flow from the Andes to the 
 Atlantic. The bottom of these valleys is fertile with good soil, 
 and a considerable amount of land can be reclaimed by irriga- 
 tion. The west of the territories includes the richly wooded 
 Andean slopes, and the large fresh-water lakes of the region 
 through which the disputed boundary runs. This, although the 
 winters are snowy and cold, is reported to include much fertile 
 * Geographical Journal, vol. xiv. (1899), p. 366. 
 
186 NEW LANDS. 
 
 farming land which may one day prove of great value. At 
 present it is practically without inhabitants and is difficult to 
 reach. The Eio Negro is navigable for several hundred miles, 
 and there are many settlements on its banks, including large 
 and prosperous farms which were allotted as rewards to officers 
 in the Argentine army and navy. Oyster culture might be 
 attempted with some chance of success in San Matias Gulf, and 
 fisheries could easily be established at the same place. Salt is 
 abundant for curing purposes, and the Argentine population 
 would form a great market. The Chubut Valley is less thickly 
 settled, but it contains an extremely interesting Welsh colony 
 which was established in 1865, and succeeded after years of 
 the most distressing struggles in initiating a system of irrigation 
 which has made the district prosperous. The colonists, who are 
 Argentine citizens, retain the Welsh language even in the 
 second generation. A short railway runs for 43 miles from 
 Trelew, one of the centres of the Welsh colony to Porto Madryn, 
 a port on Golfo Nueva. A train runs only when a ship calls 
 at the port, which is about once in three weeks. 
 
 The west of these territories will probably be found to be 
 rich in gold and other minerals, and gold has been found in 
 paying quantities in Tierra del Fuego in the extreme south. 
 As yet, however, the country is practically unexplored and has 
 never been prospected. It offers a fine field for the enterprise 
 of hardy and adventurous men with some experience of life in 
 the open and tact enough to get on with the mixed nationalities 
 and the few native Patagonian tribes. 
 
 In addition to the works cited, trustworthy information will 
 be found in the Argentine Bepuhlic handbook published by 
 the British Emigrants' Information Office, and the descriptions 
 of recent travellers in the Patagonian territories in C. E. 
 Akers' Argentine, Patagonian, and Chilian Sketches (London, 
 Harrison & Son, 1893) and in J. R. Spears' The Gold Diggings 
 of Cape horn (New York and London, Putnam, 1895), a book 
 which describes travels throughout Patagonia. 'The country on 
 the Argentine border is very fully described by Dr. Moreno in 
 the Geographical Journal, vol. xiv. (1899), pp. 241 to 269 and 
 353 to 373. 
 
187 
 
 CHAPTER XI. 
 THE PALKLAIirD ISLANDS. 
 
 Surface — Climate — Resources — Prospects. 
 
 Surface. — The Falkland group consists of two large and many- 
 small islands lying close together off the south-east of South 
 America, between latitudes 51° and 53° S. and 480 miles north- 
 east of Cape Horn. The land is rough and rugged moorland, 
 composed in large part of peat bogs, which furnish fuel, and 
 rises in some parts into hills, only one of which reaches 2300 feet 
 in height. The soil is not infertile, and vegetable gardens are 
 successfully cultivated ; but the high winds which prevail, and 
 the entire absence of trees for shelter, make it impossible to 
 grow grain. The grass furnishes good pasture ; formerly it 
 was used mainly for cattle ; but now sheep are kept in large 
 numbers, and cattle-rearing has declined in importance. The 
 area of the colony is 6500 square miles, and the population in 
 1891 was only 1789. 
 
 Climate. — The climate is healthy, though not agreeable to 
 strangers. The mean temperature of the year is under 45° F., 
 and extreme heat is quite unknown, while in winter the tem- 
 perature rarely falls below the freezing point. The rainfall is 
 light, only about 30 inches in the year, but mist and light rain 
 occur very frequently. 
 
 Resources. — The one town is Stanley in East Falkland, 
 which has a harbour and means of refitting ships that may have 
 been damaged in the heavy seas while rounding Cape Horn. 
 The islands are not capable of great development, as the old 
 industry of seal-hunting has come to an end, and the Crown 
 lands available for sheep-farming have all been disposed of. 
 Copper and iron ores exist, but they have never been utilised, 
 and the quantity available is unknown. 
 
 The Falklands form a British Crown Colony, although almost 
 the only steamers entering Port Stanley are under the German 
 flag, as the Kosmos line, of Hamburg, trading to South America, 
 holds the mail contract, and makes monthly calls. The trade 
 however, is almost exclusively -with the United Kingdom, the 
 
188 THE FALKLAND ISLANDS. 
 
 only exports of importance being wool, tallow, and hides. 
 Frozen mutton was formerly exported. 
 
 The ship-repairing yard at Stanley is the property of the 
 Falkland Island Company, which concentrates the commercial 
 and industrial activity of the whole colony, establishing a 
 practical monopolj' with which no local competition is possible. 
 The capital of this company is small, and its dividends are large 
 and steady. 
 
 Prospects. — The Annual Report to the Colonial Office of the 
 Falkland Islands for 1897* sums up the present condition of 
 the colony thus: — "Allowing for comparative poverty of the 
 natural grass, the islands form quite an ideal sheep farm. There 
 are no troublesome forests to clear away, no deep and dangerous 
 rivers to be crossed, no dingoes to harass and destroy the stock, 
 no prolonged droughts, and, above all, no rabbits to annoy the 
 farmer and involve his yearly output in a disagreeable un- 
 certainty. The colony, despite its solvent and prosperous 
 condition, affords no inducement to capitalists desirous of open- 
 ing up new industries nor to intending immigrants. There is 
 already in the colony more than sufficient labour to meet the 
 demand, which is stationary, and is a diminishing rather than 
 an expanding quantity. No land remains at the disposal of the 
 Crown, and intending settlers' must make terms with private 
 holders. In the quality of imports there is room for improve- 
 ment, and profitable employment for small capital in the 
 importation of fruit and fresh farm produce." 
 
 But in another part of the same report it is stated, when 
 speaking of the difficulty of carrying out necessary public works, 
 that — 
 
 "Various circumstances militate against work being under- 
 taken which in a country differently circumstanced would appear 
 simple and ordinary. First and foremost is the geological 
 formation of the group. Again, the supply of labour is ex- 
 tremely limited as well as unskilled, while rates of remuneration 
 rule high, a state of affairs that is likely to obtain until the 
 colony becomes opened up and its population &dded to." 
 
 * Colonial Reports— Annual. No. 235, Falkland Islands, 1897. [C— 
 9046 — 3.] London, Eyre & Spottiswoode. 
 
189 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 AUSTRALIA— VICTORIA. 
 
 Commonwealth of Australia — Australia — People and Towns — Victoria — 
 Position — Surface — Climate — Area and Population — Communications 
 — Resources — Gold-mining — Laws — Allotment of Crown Lands — 
 Mining Laws — New Lands of Victoria — Gippsland — Murray District 
 — Wimmera District — Irrigation ' ' Colonies. " 
 
 Commonwealth of Australia. 
 
 The greater part of the continent of Australia lies in the south 
 temperate zone, although it does not extend nearer the Pole than 
 40° S. In position, and to some extent also in climate and 
 resources it corresponds with South Africa and the Argentine 
 Republic. The seasons are opposite to those of the northern 
 hemisphere, mid-winter occurring in June and mid-summer in 
 December. The Australian continent diflFers in many respects 
 from all the others. The watershed along the eastern edge is 
 formed by a line of heights rising into mountains near the coast, 
 so that the long rivers all flow towards the interior. The Darling 
 and Murray, uniting, ultimately turn south to the ocean, but 
 many tributary rivers dry up before reaching the main water- 
 courses. The greater part of the interior is without outlet for 
 its waters to the sea, and a considerable portion is an arid 
 desert. On the south coast and in the interior the rainfall is 
 very slight, and it is everywhere very uncertain, the average of 
 a great many years differing widely from the average of a few 
 consecutive years at any part of the period. In the sub-arid 
 regions the area of grassy pasture depends entirely on the 
 rainfall, so that what is mere desert in a dry spell becomes 
 •■oovered with rich grass after rain. 
 
 The peculiar Australian flora includes many varieties of 
 Eucalyptus trees and of small close-growing woody or thorny 
 plants known as scrub. The native fauna is equally distinctive, 
 although the original animals are rapidly being exterminated or 
 supplanted by animals imported from Europe ; among the latter 
 are the sheep, on which the prosperity of Australia mainly 
 
190 NEW LANDS. 
 
 depends, and the rabbit, the unparalleled increase of which 
 is a worse plague in many places than drought or uncertain 
 seasons. None of the native animals have been domesticated. 
 
 The aborigines are rapidly diminishing in number, and only 
 remain sufficiently numerous to be a possible cause of trouble 
 to settlers in the north and west. They are of a much lower 
 degree of culture than the Indians of Canada or the Kaffirs of 
 South Africa, 
 
 Australia is shared by five British Colonies, or six, if Tas- 
 mania be included. These have agreed to confederate into a 
 Commonwealth, substantially on the pattern of the Dominion of 
 Canada, including the insular colony of Tasmania, and at first 
 excluding Western Australia. Federation will throw into pro- 
 minence the initial mistake made by the various colonies in 
 adopting a different railway gauge. Before through traffic is 
 possible, much expense will be necessary in changing the gauges. 
 
 People and Towns. — Most of the population is of English 
 birth or descent, but a special type of Australian, character is in 
 oourse of development. The immigration of Polynesians and 
 Asiatics is strongly discouraged except in northern Queensland, 
 but there is a considerable sprinkling of Europeans of all nation- 
 alities and also of Americans. The colonies are self-governing 
 in the fullest sense of the term ; they have local military forces, 
 and contribute to the support of a special squadron of the 
 British Navy for coast defence. British coinage, weights, and 
 measures are in use, and the whole political and social arrange- 
 ments resemble those of the Mother Country, except that there 
 is no established church. The distribution of the population 
 over the country is quite different from that in Canada. A 
 relatively small proportion lives in the country, and the capital 
 of each colony is a large town. In the case of the two most 
 populous colonies, nearly half the population is concentrated in 
 the capitals. This gives rise to peculiar economic conditions and 
 has led more than once to serious financial crises. In the large 
 towns there is an unemployed class, as in Europe, which fre- 
 quently suffers great poverty and distress ; but in the country 
 those who are prepared to rough it and are not too particular 
 as to the nature of their occupation find plenty of room and a fair 
 chance of making a comfortable living. There is less difference 
 of classes than in Europe, and the institutions are frankly demo- 
 cratic. Much of the legislation in all the colonies is concerned 
 with the privileges of the workers, and many political and social 
 experiments are tried. An eight-hours' day is nearly universal ; 
 local option in the regulation of drink traffic prevails, and the 
 
VICTORIA. 
 
 191 
 
 marriage of a deceased wife's sister is legalised. Wages are 
 higher, while taken over all the expenses of living are the same 
 as in the Mother Country, the sliglitly greater cost of clothing 
 and books being balanced by the cheapness of food. 
 
 Fig. 6. — Map of Australian Colonies.* 
 
 The Colony op Victoria. 
 
 Position. — The colony of Victoria occupies the south-eastern 
 corner of Australia, between the Murray River and the sea, its 
 most northerly part being in latitude 34° S. and its most 
 southerly in 39° S. The coast line on Bass Strait has several 
 deep indentations, of which the largest, Port Phillip Bay, is the 
 most important. The entrance to this bay is narrow and ob- 
 structed by shoals, but inside it forms a nearly circular basin 
 about 30 miles in diameter. Melbourne, the largest town in the 
 colony, stands at the head of the bay in the north, and the port 
 of Geelong is in the south-west. 
 
 Surface. — The surface of the country is, on the whole, hilly 
 and often mountainous. The great Dividing Eange, under 
 various names, runs through the colony from west to east, the 
 highest summits slightly exceeding 4000 feet, but the average 
 elevation is low and the mountains are easily crossed by roads 
 and railways. The geological formations are mainly the older 
 Paleozoic strata, with great outbursts of volcanic rocks, which 
 
 *From The International Oeogra/phy. London, George Newnes, Ltd., 
 1899. 
 
192 NEW LANDS. 
 
 are geologically recent, although no signs of volcanic activity 
 have appeared in historical times. Numerous short rivers flow 
 from the mountains to the sea, while longer streams run north- 
 ward to the Murray. The Loddon, nearly on the meridian of 
 144° E., is the most westerly of the north-flowing tributaries 
 which actually reaches the Murray. In the Wimmera district, 
 which lies west of it, the rivers dry up as they flow northward 
 or terminate in salt lakes on account of the dryness of that 
 region. Where water abounds the soil is everywhere fertile, and 
 in some places, particularly on the volcanic rocks of the south- 
 east, the fertility is remarkable. 
 
 Climate. — The climate of Victoria is more agreeable to 
 Europeans than that of any other part of the Australian conti- 
 nent, a fact which, combined with the rich natural resources, 
 earned for the part of the country first entered upon its first 
 hope-inspiring name of Australia Felix. The extreme summer 
 temperature of 100° is experienced at Melbourne on the 
 average on about four days in the year when the hot north 
 winds blow, and on the average there are three nights in winter 
 on which minimum temperatures below 32° are recorded, but the 
 mean annual temperature is 57°. In the western district and on 
 the Murray River the extremes are greater, but on the mountains 
 much less. The rainfall at Melbourne averages 25 inches per 
 annum, much the same as in the south-east of England, and the 
 average for the whole colony is 26 inches. On the coast and in 
 the hills there are a few places where the rainfall is greater than 
 30 inches; but in the Wimmera district and on the Murray it 
 does not exceed 15. Everywhere there is the greatest irregu- 
 larity in the rainfall, and both droughts and floods of a 
 destructive character are occasionally experienced. 
 
 Area and Population. — Victoria, with an area of 88,000 
 square miles (about equal to that of Great Britain) is the 
 smallest colony on the mainland of Australia j but its population 
 of over 1,100,000 makes it by far the most densely peopled. 
 The population is mainly of English origin, and 97 per cent, in 
 1891 were British subjects by birth. There were, in that year, 
 only 565 aborigines in the colony, and 9377 Chinese. Strong 
 efibrts are now being made to keep down the number of Asiatics. 
 The population of Victoria is not increasing at present although 
 the birthrate is twice the deathrate. During the five years 
 1893-97 the average number of immigrants by sea was 83,000 
 per annum and of emigrants by sea 91,200, the latter going 
 mainly to the goldfields of Western Australia. This indicates 
 that as a region for exploitation Victoria is not in present con- 
 
VICTORIA. 193 
 
 ditions attractive enough to retain its existing population. But, 
 on the other hand, it must be remembered that to people coming 
 from old countries the relatively high degree of development and 
 the consequent comfort of life make it easier to settle in this 
 colony than in a less developed land. Of the 56,000.000 acres 
 which the colony contains, 11,000,000 acres,* or practically one- 
 fifth of the land, are still unappropriated, but naturally the best 
 land has long since passed into private hands. The population 
 is greatly concentrated in towns. Melbourne and its suburbs 
 alone contained 458,000, or two-fifths of the population in 
 1897. The only other towns exceeding 40,000 are Ballarat and 
 Bendigo. 
 
 Commumcations. — Melbourne, the great seaport of the 
 colony, is the terminus of several lines of mail steamers from 
 Europe, and a calling place for others which go on to Sydney. 
 The Peninsular and Oriental and the Orient lines have weekly 
 steamers from London via the Suez Canal and Albany, Western 
 Australia. The North German Lloyd and Messageries Mari- 
 times steamers follow nearly the same route. Other lines make 
 the longer voyage via the Cape of Good Hope. There are also 
 regular lines of steamers to all ports on the Australian coast, to 
 New Zealand, and to China. 
 
 Internal communications in the colony are good. The Murray 
 River is navigated, though with some difficulty, by river 
 steamers from its mouth to Wodonga. From Melbourne a 
 well-designed system of railways, owned by the Government, 
 radiates over the colony. The Northern line runs to Echuca, 
 passing Bendigo on the way (156 miles), and connects with the 
 system of New South Wales ; the North-Eastern connects at 
 Wodonga with the New South Wales line to Sydney ; the 
 Eastern penetrates the Gippsland district to Bairnsdale on the 
 Mitchell River (170 miles); the Great Southern goes to Port 
 Albert in south-western Gippsland, and , the Western runs 
 through Geelong and the south of the Wimmera district to 
 Serviceton, where it joins the South Australian system to 
 Adelaide. A number of branches serve the small sea-ports in 
 the west, and connect the various main railways in the north. 
 The nearly desert north-western portion of the Wimmera dis- 
 trict is the only large area of the colony which is difficult of 
 
 * Emigrants' Information Office, Victoria Handbook, 1899 (p. 31). 
 According to the Statesman's Year Book for 1900, only 23,000,000 acres 
 are alienated. 
 
 13 
 
194 NEW LANDS. 
 
 Besources of Victoria. — Gold mining is the most important 
 industry in the colony, judged from the value of the product 
 raised and exported. Sheep-rearing and the export of wool 
 come next. The value of the wool exported from Victoria 
 usually exceeds that of the gold, but a large amount of the wool, 
 sometimes one- half, is produced in the south of New South 
 Wales, and only sent to Melbourne for convenience of export. 
 Agriculture takes the third place. The chief crop is wheat, the 
 yield per acre of which is small; but over 1,500,000 acres out of 
 the 3,000,000 acres of cultivated land are under that crop. 
 Fruit-growing takes a very important place amongst the minor 
 industries, and much care has been bestowed on the culture of 
 the vine and on wine-making. The future prosperity of Victoria 
 seems likely to depend more and more on the production of 
 fruit and other vegetable products congenial to the climate. 
 Manufactures of every kind are produced in the colony, and 
 there has long been a high protective tariff for their en- 
 couragement. The trade of Victoria is mainly with the 
 United Kingdom and the other Australian colonies, very 
 little being done with foreign countries. In the five years, 
 1893-97, the exports and imports have balanced at about 
 £14,000,000. 
 
 Gold-Mining. — The day of individual miners making for- 
 tunes by gold-digging in Victoria has long gone by, and, since 
 the annual output of gold in recent years has been worth about 
 £3,000,000, and the average number of gold-miners employed is 
 about 30,000, it is difficult to see how this industry can be 
 profitable on the whole since wages alone, at £2 per week, 
 amount to more than the total value of the gold. But the fact 
 that the mines keep at work would suggest that there is some 
 error in the official statistics. 
 
 Laws. — No government aid is now given to immigrants, and 
 undesirable persons are not allowed to land, the laws against 
 the introduction of Chinese being particularly strict. Hence 
 cheap labour is not available for farms, plantations or mines. 
 There are Factory Acts limiting the hours of labour, and the 
 working day throughout the colony is usually eight hours, while 
 the minimum wages to be paid in certain industries are also 
 fixed by government authority. There is very complete local 
 self-government, and the principle of local option is applied to 
 the regulation of the drink traffic. 
 
 The Torrens system of registering land titles is in force, the 
 registration of the title being the essential feature of all transfers 
 of land. 
 
VICTORIA. 195 
 
 Allotment of Crown Lands. — The unalienated Crown lands 
 in Victoria are divided by the Land Act of 1898 into the ten 
 following classes * : — 
 
 (1) Good agricultural or grazing lands. 
 
 (2) Agricultural and grazing lands. 
 
 (3) Grazing lands. 
 
 (4) Pastoral lands (large areas). 
 
 (5) Swamp or reclaimed lands. 
 
 (6) Lands which may be sold by auction (not including 
 
 swamp or reclaimed lands). 
 
 (7) Auriferous lands. 
 
 (8) State forest reserves. 
 
 (9) Timber reserves. 
 (10) Water reserves. 
 
 Crown lands are not allotted free to settlers, but may be 
 acquired either by purchase, payable at once or by instalments, 
 or under various tenures of which an ordinary one is that 
 known as perpetual lease. Land taken up in this way must not 
 exceed 600 acres of first-class land, 960 acres of second-class 
 land, or 1920 acres of third-class land, and it is held by payment 
 of a small rent to government, on condition of residence, fencing, 
 and improvement, and the destruction of vermin, which are 
 mainly rabbits. 
 
 In the effort to relieve the unemployed in Melbourne, a system 
 of settlement on land has been adopted which admits of payment 
 by instalments for a small portion of land, and also authorises 
 the institution of labour colonies where people may obtain em- 
 ployment at small wages and be trained for agricultural work. 
 Such a labour colony has been established at Leongatha in the 
 Gippsland district, 74 miles from Melbourne. 
 
 Agricultural schools for a different class (boys from 14 up- 
 wards) have been established at Dookie, near Shepparton (about 
 100 miles north of Melbourne), and at Longeronong, in the 
 Wimmera district, where a course of two or three years is 
 carried out, every alternate day being devoted to practical work 
 on the farm. 
 
 There are land offices in all the principal towns, where appli- 
 cation for Crown lands in the locality must be made. 
 
 Mining Laws. — By the Mines Acts of 1890 and 1897, 
 " Miners' rights " are issued at the rate of 2s. 6d. per year, which 
 entitle the holder to take possession of a portion of Crown land 
 
 * See Victoria Hwndhooh, published by the Emigrants' Information 
 Office, 1899, p. 31. 
 
196 NEW LANDS. 
 
 for mining and residence, under certain restrictions imposed by 
 the local mining board. Gold-mining leases are issued for fifteen 
 years at the rate of 2s. 6d. per acre, and leases for working 
 other minerals at various rates. 
 
 The Wew Lands of Victoria. — The central parts of Victoria 
 around Melbourne, and on the central section of the mountains 
 where gold-mining has been greatly developed, are fully occupied, 
 and in many places highly prosperous ; but in the outlying 
 portions of the colony, including the forest region of eastern 
 Gippsland, the land near the upper waters of the Murray, and 
 the Wimmera region in the west, there are great areas of vacant 
 land. In some of these there are doubtless mineral deposits of 
 value, but the chief resources of the land which may now be 
 profitably developed are in most places agricultural. The 
 development of agriculture and dairy farming is encouraged by 
 the ofier of bonuses by government on the export of cheese^ 
 wine, brandy, and tobacco produced in the colony. The outlying 
 districts of Gippsland on the east, Wimmera on the west, and 
 Murray on the north are the parts of Victoria which still remain, 
 but little developed. 
 
 Gippsland. — Gippsland is a well-watered region, rough and 
 unfit for settlement in the mountains of the north-east, but 
 covered on the southern slope with very rich soil. The choco- 
 late-coloured volcanic soil is famous for the heavy crops it yields, 
 but there is an equally fertile soil composed of the decomposed 
 slates or shales which form the principal mass of the mountains. 
 There is a very dense forest growth of large trees, including 
 some of the tallest in the world, and these must be cleared at 
 great expense before the land is fit for occupation. The cost of 
 clearing varies from £4 to £10 per acre, and the best agricultural 
 land when cleared is worth as much as £20 per acre, although 
 grazing land may be sold as cheaply as £3. The south-west of 
 the district is already occupied by general farmers and stock- 
 raisers, the products having a ready sale in Melbourne. In the 
 east the heavy woods and the want of roads beyond the railway 
 terminus (at Bairnsdale) make settlement very difficult. 
 
 Sale (127 miles from Melbourne) is the centre of the best 
 agricultural land at present in use, although there is much 
 land in the neighbourhood still under scrub and requiring capital 
 to clear it. Mafira (131 miles from Melbourne) is a great cattle 
 market, and most of the land round it is used for grazing, though 
 well adapted for agriculture. There is good dairying country on. 
 the Jack and Albert Rivers near Yarram (181 miles from 
 Melbourne), but the industry has not yet been established. 
 
VICTORIA. 197 
 
 The extreme east of Gippsland has not yet been fully pro- 
 spected for mineral wealth, but gold is known to occur there. 
 In northern Gippsland, gold-mining is carried on extensively, 
 especially on Stringer's Creek and at Omeo (80 miles north of 
 Bairnsdale). Coal is also mined at some points, and government 
 encouragement is given to the enterprise, which is extending. 
 
 Murray District. — The Murray district occupies the north of 
 the eastern half of Victoria extending from the mountains to the 
 Murray River. It is mainly devoted to sheep-rearing, and the 
 summers are very hot and dry. The land is in some parts 
 suited for agriculture, but towards the west crops can only be 
 raised successfully by means of irrigation. Government irriga- 
 tion works have been established at various places, but it 
 frequently happens that the heavy taxation imposed to pay for 
 these improvements reduces the returns below the limits of 
 profit. In the west are the chief vineyards of the colony, while 
 the east is the chief tobacco-growing region. There are gold 
 mines in operation, but, taken altogether, the region does not 
 seem likely to attract population at present. 
 
 Wim/mera District. — The Wimmera district is the most 
 desolate and empty part of Victoria comprising the sub-arid 
 a;rea, with a rainfall of 15 inches and under, and occupied for over 
 11,000,000 out of its 15,000,000 acres by discouraging expanses 
 of mallee scrub. The mallee {Uucali/pius demosa) consists of 
 large roots from which spring a number of slender woody stems 
 from 8 to 12 feet high and so close together that it is sometimes 
 difficult to force a way through on horseback. The clearing of 
 mallee land has been reduced to a 'science. The stems are 
 broken down by specially designed rollers, then burnt, and the 
 ground ploughed by a curious plough so constructed that the 
 share jumps over stumps or any fixed obstacles without damage. 
 The land which can be had in any quantity, costs from 10s. to 
 12s. 6d. per acre, and the clearing and first ploughing cost from 
 19s. to 25s. per acre. After a few crops of wheat have been 
 taken off the land is fit to grow good grass. In the southern 
 and less arid part of the mallee country cereals and fruit can be 
 grown without irrigation, and the Western Railway brings that 
 part of the district into communication with Melbourne. No 
 artesian water is obtainable in the district, so that irrigation can 
 only be carried out from the rivers. Small holdings in the 
 Wimmera district have been found unprofitable, and it is 
 generally estimated that from 600 to 1000 acres are required in 
 order to pay under wheat, which is, as yet, almost the only crop 
 raised. Borung and Lowan counties are the chief centres of 
 
198 NEW LANDS. 
 
 wheat-growing. The principal town in Wimmera is Horsham, 
 a railway centre 203 miles from Melbourne. In its neighbour- 
 hood there are extensive Government irrigation works, and land 
 is being disposed of in small blocks of 5 to 10 acres, with water- 
 rights. These are well adapted for fruit-growing, an industry 
 which is capable of great development, apricot-growing being 
 particularly promising. At Dimboola (224 miles from Melbourne) 
 the land is being rapidly taken up, mainly by Germans who 
 make excellent colonists. 
 
 Irrigation " Colonies." — The irrigation works in Victoria 
 have not hitherto proved financially successful, possibly because 
 much money had to be spent in experiments with methods 
 which ultimately proved unsatisfactory. A large private enter- 
 prise was started by Messrs. Chaffey in 1887 at Mildura on the 
 Murray River, reached by steamer on the river either up stream 
 from Morgan in South Australia or down stream from Swan 
 Hill in Victoria, both of these points being railway termini. 
 The irrigated land was divided into 80-acre blocks intended for 
 fruit-growing and 160-acre blocks for other kinds of agricul- 
 ture, and these were offered for sale to settlers at £25 per acre 
 for fruit land and £15 for agricultural land. The rainfall at 
 Mildura has varied from 6 to 22 inches a year between 1892 
 and 1897. In 1896 there were about 10,000 acres under culti- 
 vation by 450 resident owners, and the total population of 
 Mildura was 4000. The Victoria Handbook of the Emigrants' 
 Information Office for 1899 gives the following additional infor- 
 mation : — "For some years the scheme appeared successful. 
 Owing, however, to the increased difficulty and cost of irriga- 
 tion, as well as to the absence of markets, the colony has 
 hitherto failed financially. The Mildura Commission, which 
 was appointed by the Government to inquire into the affairs of 
 the colony, reported in September, 1896, that the insufficiency 
 of the water supply was the principal cause of the disaster, and 
 that the Government contributed to this result by their neglect ; 
 they recommended that the Government should advance not 
 more than £30,000 on the security of the land to put the irriga- 
 tion machinery and channels in proper order, and that the 
 concession to Messrs. Chaffey should be cancelled, thus restoring 
 to the Government the 188,000 acres undisposed of 
 
 " In accordance with these recommendations a large advance 
 of public money to the colony has been made, but the result 
 is still uncertain." 
 
199 
 
 CHAPTER XIII. 
 AUSTRALIA— NEW SOUTH WALES. 
 
 Position — Geology — Surface and Climate — Coast Strip — Elevated Table 
 Lands — Western Plains — Area and Population — Communications — 
 Resources — Irrigation — Babbits — Laws — Crown Lands — New Lands 
 of New South Wales — Riverina District — Prospects for Farmers — 
 Minerals — Forests and Fisheries. 
 
 Position. — New South Wales was the name originally applied 
 to the whole of eastern Australia, but limited, after the separa- 
 tion of Victoria in the south and Queensland in the north, to 
 the central portion from the Murray Riv^r to latitude 28° S. 
 The western boundary is 141° E. There is a much-indented sea 
 coast on the Pacific, in which the magnificent harbour of Port 
 Jackson concentrates the import trade of the colony in the 
 capital, Sydney. The only other important seaport is New- 
 castle at the mouth of the Hunter River, an indifierent harbour 
 although a very busy port. 
 
 Geology. — The geological formation of the colony shows a 
 predominance of the most ancient sedimentary rocks, with 
 volcanic intrusions in the east. Large areas of the Coal 
 Measures occur, from which coal is profitably mined, and there 
 is great variety in the mineral wealth. In the west the plains 
 are mainly formed of a more recent sandstone, under which 
 large stores of underground water are accumulated, which in 
 many places can be brought to the surface by means of Artesian 
 wells. 
 
 Physically New South Wales is divided into three parts — 
 the Coast Strip, the Elevated Table Lands, and the Western 
 Plains. 
 
 The Coast Strip. — The Coast Strip slopes from the base of 
 the mountains of the Dividing Range, which runs from south 
 to north at a distance varying from 30 to 120 miles from the 
 sea. These mountains attain heights of from 4000 to 7000 feet, 
 and in some parts their seaward slopes are extremely steep, so 
 that much difficulty was experienced by the early settlers in 
 crossing them. Short rivers liable to great floods during rainy 
 
200 NEW LANDS. 
 
 weather cross the Coast Strip to the sea. The mountains are 
 known by different names in different parts of the Dividing 
 Range, and in the north of the colony they trend east and west' 
 in the New England and Liverpool ranges. The Coast Strip 
 includes about 50,000 square miles. Its climate is sub-tropical 
 in the north, but less hot and moist in the south. At Sydney 
 the mean annual temperature is about 63°, the coolest month, 
 July, is only 10° colder, and the hottest, December, about 10° 
 warmer ; but on a few very rare occasions snow has been 
 known to fall in winter, and on the average there are four or 
 five days in summer when the thermometer rises above 100° 
 and a hot, dust-laden wind blows from the interior. The driest 
 months are from September to December, and the average annual 
 rainfall is about 50 inches. In the north it exceeds 60 inches at 
 some points, but in many places in the south is as low as 36 
 inches. The many rivers have formed a belt of fertile alluvial 
 soil along the coast. 
 
 The Elevated Table Lands. — The second great natural region 
 is that of the elevated table lands stretching westward from 
 the Great Dividing Range, in some places indeed forming the 
 summit of these mountains. The breadth of this region above 
 2000 feet averages about 70 miles, and the descent westward is 
 very gradual. This region is much cooler than the coast at all 
 seasons, and snow lies in the higher parts for a considerable 
 time in winter. Even in the extreme north the temperature on 
 the table land in the New England Plains is no higher in 
 summer than that at Sydney. The rainfall is much smaller 
 than on the coast ; at Bathurst (2100 feet) it is 25 inches ; and 
 at Armidale in the north (3300 feet) it is 33 inches, but in the 
 south it is drier. 
 
 The Western Plains. — The western part of the colony, as 
 far as the boundary line of 141* E., becomes progressively lower 
 in elevation and more extreme and drier in climate. The 
 summers are much hotter than in Sydney, thermometer read- 
 ings exceeding 120° in the shade having been recorded, while 
 the winters are cooler. The rainfall over this whole region is 
 under 20 inches per annum, and at Went worth as low as 12. 
 Severe droughts are frequent, and sudden floods covering large 
 areas of the low ground along the rivers also occur, although 
 more rarely. The rivers both of the Table land and the Western 
 plain flow towards the Murray. The innumerable streams from 
 the northern half of the New South Wales Dividing Range 
 converge to the Darling River above Bourke (lat. 30°, long. 
 146°), and the river flows thence to the Murray near Wentworth 
 
NEW SOUTH WALES. 201 
 
 (lat. 34°, long. 142°), with only one additional tributary, coming 
 from the north. The southern section drains by the Lachlan, 
 Murrumbidgee, and other rivers to the Upper Murray. A 
 great area in the centre between the Lachlan and the Darling is 
 entirely devoid of running water; and west of the Darling 
 there are only fragments of rivers, torrents flowing from the 
 low Gray and Barrier mountains, and drying up in the sur- 
 rounding arid plains. 
 
 Area and Population. — The area of New South Wales is 
 310,700 square miles, with a population of about 1,300,000, the 
 density of population being, on the average, 4 to the square 
 mile ; but, of course, very large areas are entirely without 
 inhabitants. The number of Aborigines, including half castes, 
 in 1891, was about 8000, and is steadily diminishing. These 
 people do not occasion any particular trouble to settlers. The 
 general population of the colony is of British descent. In 1891 
 those born in the colony made up 65 per cent, of the population, 
 those born in other parts of Australia and in the United King- 
 dom 31 per cent., so that only 4 per cent, of the population were 
 of foreign birth. Of these the Chinese were the most numerous, 
 and Germans came next. The landing of the former has been 
 practically forbidden by the imposition of a poll-tax of £100 on 
 Chinamen, and by a law that no immigrants are admitted to the 
 country who are unable to write a European language. As a 
 result, for every Chinaman who has entered New South Wales 
 since 1892, at least nine have departed. The usual rules are in 
 force as to the prohibition of destitute or useless immigrants of 
 any nationality. The excess of immigrants of all kinds over 
 emigrants averages about 8000 per annum, and as the births 
 average 38,000, and the deaths only 15,000 per annum, the 
 population is increasing from all sources at the rate of about 
 31,000 a year, or about 4 per cent. Assisted immigration has 
 been entirely given up, and although there have been severe 
 financial crises in the cities, and frequent disasters from drought 
 or floods in the country, the general condition of New South 
 Wales is one of assured prosperity. The New South Wales 
 Handbook of the British Emigrants' Information Ofiice (1899) 
 says of life in the colony : — " Wages are high, the recognised 
 working day in skilled trades is eight hours, and in no country 
 outside the Australian colonies is the political and social status 
 of the working class on a higher level. A New South Wales 
 writer says — 'The people of New South Wales eat and drink 
 and spend more, work less for the necessaries of existence, 
 have a larger share of food luxuries, and in a general way get 
 
202 NEW LANDS. 
 
 more out of life than the masses of any other country in the 
 world.'" 
 
 As in Victoria, the population is far too much concentrated to 
 be satisfactory from the point of view of the development of the 
 country, the population of Sydney being estimated in 1897 at 
 417,000, or nearly one-third of the total inhabitants of the 
 colony. Newcastle, the second town in size, approaches 20,000, 
 and Broken Hill, in the extreme west, exceeds 15,000 (the popu- 
 lation being due in both cases to mining industries), while 
 Parramatta, Goulburn, and Maitland all have over 10,000 inhabi- 
 tants. 
 
 The total area of New South Wales is 198,800,000 acres, of 
 which, up to the end of 1898, 46,400,000 acres had been 
 permanently alienated by the State, while 127,600,000 acres 
 were occupied under leases of various kinds, so that only about 
 25,000,000 acres remain unoccupied. 
 
 Communications. — Sydney, on Port Jackson, is the heart of 
 the colony, and the centre of its lines of communication external 
 and internal. It is the terminus of the lines of ocean steamers 
 from Europe, not only those mentioned on p. 193 (under Victoria) 
 which touch at Melbourne (700 miles or 50 hours from 
 Sydney by sea, 576 miles or 18 hours by rail), but also for the 
 liners which come from Europe by Torres Strait and call at the 
 Queensland ports on the way. In addition, there is a direct line 
 of the Canadian Pacific Railway steamers between Sydney and 
 Vancouver, a line to San Francisco, and other lines to China, as 
 well as regular trade with New Zealand and the islands of the 
 Pacific. 
 
 The internal communications do not as yet form a complete 
 system, some parts of the country being more readily approached 
 from the neighbouring colonies than from Sydney. For instance, 
 the private railway from Moama on the Murray River (with rail 
 from Melbourne) to Deniliquin; and that from Cockburn on the 
 western frontier (with rail from Adelaide) to Broken Hill. The 
 other railways are all connected with Sydney and are the pro- 
 perty of the State. The Southern line runs from Sydney along 
 the base of the mountains to Goulburn (134 miles), whence it 
 crosses the Dividing Range and proceeds westwards and south- 
 wards to Albury (386 miles from Sydney) where it meets the 
 line from Melbourne. There are numerous branches, the longest 
 terminating at Hay on the Murrumbidgee River (454 miles from 
 Sydney). 
 
 The Western Railway crosses the Blue Mountains by some 
 fine examples of engineering work, and, passing Lithgow (95 
 
NEW SOUTH WALES. 203 
 
 miles from Sydney) and Bathurst (144 miles), crosses the great 
 plain north-westward to Bourke on the Darling (503 miles). It 
 also throws out several branches tapping the pastoral plains in 
 various directions. 
 
 The Northern Railway runs to Newcastle (102 miles from 
 Sydney), then turns north-west, and again northward at a 
 distance of nearly 100 miles from the coast to Jennings 
 on the Queensland boundary, 490 miles from Sydney, and 233 
 miles to Brisbane. The whole journey from Sydney to Brisbane 
 occupies about thirty-six hours. 
 
 The system of stage-coaches is remarkably complete for so 
 large and thinly-peopled a country. All the railway termini in 
 the west are connected in this way, and coach roads from Hay, 
 Bourke, and other points on the railways converge on Broken 
 Hill (830 miles from Sydney). Most of the rivers are navigable 
 during the rainy season, and river traffic on the Darling is 
 carried on for over 1700 miles from Went worth to Walgett, 
 about 200 miles (by river) above Bourke. The Murrumbidgee 
 and Lachlan are navigable for 900 miles, and the Murray for 
 1 100. But the navigation is very uncertain ; a voyage between 
 two points may take days one season and weeks or even months 
 another, while, occasionally, several years have elapsed without 
 a steamer being able to run on account of a long spell of drought. 
 
 Resources. — The main resources of New South Wales are 
 pastoral and mineral. Agriculture is developing and manu- 
 factures beginning. The great wealth of the colony is in its 
 flocks, the number of fine-wooled sheep (mainly merinos) being 
 greater than in any other colony. Although the number is 
 exceeded by Argentina, the quality is not approached. In 
 December, 1897, there were nearly 44,000,000 sheep in New 
 South Wales ; but on account of losses through exceptional 
 drought this figure i^ less by 18,000,000 than in 1891. The 
 districts containing most sheep are those in the north and along 
 the Darling River. Much of this land is so poor that ten acres 
 or more are necessary to supply food for each sheep, hence the 
 sheep-runs are of enormous extent. Comparatively few sheep- 
 owners have more than 100,000 sheep each, the great majority 
 owning less than 2000. The export of wool from the colony 
 averages about 300,000,000 pounds weight, worth £9,000,000 per 
 annum, making up more than half the value of the exports of 
 home produce. Tallow, hides, leather, and meat — other products 
 of the pastoral industry — add about £2,000,000 to the exports. 
 The rest is made up mainly of mineral products, especially gold 
 (coined at Sydney), silver or silver-lead ores, and coal. Agricul- 
 
204 NEW LANDS. 
 
 tural products do not figure largely amongst the exports ; and of 
 the land fit for agriculture only a very small portion has yet 
 been utilised. Still, the tendency is for general farming to 
 extend and encroach on the best part of the pastoral land, and 
 this will undoubtedly lead before long to a very great develop- 
 ment of the resources of the country. 
 
 Irrigation. — At present the discovery of sources of water 
 supply and the planning of storage and irrigation works are by 
 far the most important means of developing New South Wales. 
 The whole western district and most of the central district are 
 semi-arid. Irrigation (together with the cultivation of fodder 
 plants) has been found to reduce the area necessary for pasture 
 from ten acres to one-twentieth of an acre per sheep. It has 
 made it possible to raise heavy crops in places where a harvest 
 could only be obtained naturally once in several years, while 
 without artificial supplies of water it is impossible to prospect, 
 much more to work, many of the mineral fields which geological 
 evidence points out as likely to prove valuable. Hence the 
 underground waters must be looked on as one of the most 
 precious resources of the country. 
 
 With rare exceptions the development of New South Wales 
 depends more on the judicious expenditure of capital than is 
 the case in many new countries, and large land-holders have 
 many advantages, in dealing with sub-arid country, not enjoyed 
 by those in possession of small holdings. 
 
 Rabbits. — As a set-off to the readiness with which sheep, 
 horses, and cattle have become habituated to the pastures of 
 Australia, we must consider the terrible increase of rabbits, 
 which in most parts of New South Wales swarm in millons. 
 Enormous sums of money have been spent in futile efforts to 
 exterminate the pest ; but the only effective measure has been 
 found to be the erection of rabbit-proof fences, of which 17,000 
 miles had been constructed up to 1898. The rabbits are ruinous 
 to the sheep-farmers by eating down the grass and so starving 
 the sheep. 
 
 Laws.- — As in Victoria, the legislation with respect to immi- 
 gration is designed to protect the colony against undesirable 
 immigrants rather than to encourage a great influx of popula- 
 tion. Chinese and other Asiatics are severely restricted, cheap 
 labour not being looked upon as a necessary condition for 
 development. 
 
 New South Wales has always been distinguished from the 
 other Australian colonies by its very low tariff, and for the last 
 few years it has practically enjoyed free trade, duties being 
 
NEW SOUTH WALES. 205 
 
 levied only on such things as liquor and tobacco. Consequently, 
 living in the towns is, on the whole, no more expensive than in 
 England, and most food materials are considerably cheaper in 
 the colony than at home. 
 
 The area under the local government municipalities is com- 
 paratively small, though it embraces more than half of the 
 population. Over the greater part of the colony the population 
 is so widely scattered at remote sheep-stations that no form of 
 local government is possible. In some respects the restrictive 
 laws are more lenient than in the United Kingdom. Vaccina- 
 tion is not compulsory, and marriage with a deceased wife's 
 sister is legalised as in other colonies. There is a form of local 
 option in force, and public-houses are closed on Sunday. Factory 
 and mining acts limit and safeguard the employment of women 
 and children in factories, and prohibit their employment in or 
 about mines. 
 
 The miners' licence, or authority to dig for gold or other 
 minerals, costs only 5s. per annum. 
 
 Crown Iiauds. — The disposal of Crown lands is the subject 
 of much legislation, and there are several forms of tenure. The 
 three great land divisions of the colony, Eastern, Central, and 
 Western, are divided into 80 land districts under the charge of 
 89 Crown Land Agents, who give all information and receive 
 applications for the purchase or lease of public lands. The 
 following are the land regulations affecting intending occupiers 
 as summarised by the Emigrant's Information Office*: — 
 
 " The Eastern Division has an area of 60,452,000 acres, and 
 includes the coastal district of the colony, as well as the 
 northern and southern table lands. The Central Division 
 includes an area of 55,460,000 acres, and embraces the upper 
 basin of the Darling River in the northern part of the Colony, 
 and portions of those of the Lachlan, Murrumbidgee, and the 
 other affluents of the Murray. The Central Division has been 
 hitherto mainly pastoral, but much of it is suitable for agricul- 
 ture. The Western Division embraces an area of 79,970,000 
 acres, watered entirely by the Darling River, and is purely 
 pastoral. 
 
 " Conditional purchases may be obtained in the Eastern and 
 Central Divisions by any applicant who is of or over the age of 
 sixteen years. The price of the land is £1 per acre, 2s. per acre 
 being deposited on application, with a survey fee, and the rest 
 paid by instalments of Is. per acre per year (which by the Act 
 of 1896 may be reduced to 6d.), together with interest at 4 per 
 * Handbook for New South Wales, 1899, pp. 30-32. 
 
206 NEW LANDS. 
 
 cent, on the unpaid balance : the instalments to begin at the 
 end of the third year. The applicant must within three months 
 of confirmation of application by the local land board commence 
 bonA fide residence and continue it during ten years. He must 
 ■within three years of confirmation fulfil certain conditions as to 
 fencing; or substitute other improvements to be approved by 
 the local land board. Holders of conditional purchases may 
 make additional conditional purchases adjoining their holdings, 
 provided the same, with their original purchases, do not exceed 
 •640 acres in the Eastern and 2560 acres in the Central Division. 
 
 "Applicants of the age of twenty-one years and upwards may 
 apply for Crown lands in the Eastern and Central Divisions,' 
 without conditions of residence, in quantities not exceeding 320 
 acres ; the deposit and other payments are double those in the 
 case of conditional purchases proper, the fencing must be per- 
 formed within twelve months, and £1 per acre must be expended 
 in improvements within five years after the date of confirmation 
 of the application for such purchase. 
 
 " Every residential conditional purchase in the Eastern and 
 ■Central Divisions carries with it the right of taking up a con- 
 ditional lease of land adjoining the conditional purchase, not 
 exceeding three times the area thereof, if available. The area 
 of the entire holding, however (both purchased and leased), 
 must not exceed 1280 acres in the Eastern and 2560 in the 
 Central Division ; the term of the lease is twenty-eight years. 
 
 "Annual leases of unoccupied land may be obtained in any 
 land division at a rent not less than £2 per 640 acres or any 
 less area. 
 
 " Special areas may also be reserved from the operations of the 
 ordinary conditional purchase clauses of the Act, and may be 
 thrown open to selection under different terms as to payment, 
 and with or without the condition of residence. But in such 
 special areas the price of the land cannot be less than £1 10s. 
 per acre, or £3 if the purchase be non-residential, and the 
 maximum area of one such purchase is 320 acres in the Eastern, 
 and 640 acres in the Central and Western Divisions. 
 
 " In the Western Division the term of a pastoral lease extends 
 to 28 years upon an assessment made for seven years, and a re- 
 assessment made every seventh year of the lease's currency. 
 
 "Occupation licences may be obtained in any division for 
 resumed areas or vacant land. They are to be granted pre- 
 ferentially to a run-holder over the resumed area of his run. 
 They are to be granted foi* each year ending December 31, and 
 the rates, when appraised, are to be published. 
 
NEW SOUTH WALES. 207 
 
 "In the Western Division homestead leases may be granted 
 within resumed areas or of vacant land in areas not less than 
 2560 acres, nor exceeding 10,240 acres, for a term of 28 years, 
 the lands to be appraised every 7 years. The lessee must fence, 
 within two years of occupation, with a fence according to a pre- 
 scribed design, and the holder must reside upon the land for at 
 least six months- of each of the first five years of the term ; but 
 the land board may grant a postponement of the fencing and 
 residence." 
 
 In the case of scrub-lands and snow-lands (i.e., the elevated 
 regions where some snow falls in winter) there are special 
 regulations involving, in the former case, the systematic destruc- 
 tion of the scrub. 
 
 Homestead selections may be granted in any part of the 
 colony on lease, the area not exceeding 1280 acres. The condi- 
 tions exacted are the building of a house, residence, and, in 
 certain cases improvement of the land. The rent is fixed for the 
 first five years at 1 J per cent, of the notified capital value of the 
 block, for the next ten years at 2^ per cent., and after that at 2 J 
 per cent, of the re-appraised capital value. Many hundreds of 
 these homestead selections have been taken up in the Eastern 
 and Central Divisions. 
 
 The New Lands of New South Wales. — In the far west 
 pastoral leases cover most of the country, and there is probably 
 no part of the world where such extensive areas are " occupied " 
 profitably by so small a population. There is a great future in 
 this region for irrigation from artesian wells. These have to be 
 bored to a great depth, the water-bearing strata being usually 
 struck between 1000 and 2000 feet. Bourke is one of the 
 greatest centres for pastoral products, and there are copper 
 mines in the neighbourhood. Wilcannia, lower down the 
 Darling River, reached by coach from Hay, is another centre for 
 sheep-rearing ; but the whole of the country round both of these 
 places, and all to the west, are too dry for agriculture. Irriga- 
 tion farms supplied from wells would pay well even for the 
 growth of hay, as very often there is the greatest difficulty, 
 when the Darling River is too low for navigation, in procuring 
 fodder for the coach-horses. Camels are now kept in con- 
 siderable numbers for purposes of transport. Ostrich farming 
 would probably be found profitable, if the initial difficulties of 
 establishing the birds could be overcome. Opals occur in great 
 abundance at White Cliffs, about 60 miles north of Wilcannia, 
 and in 1898 there were 700 miners at work collecting them. 
 Another opal field lies about 40 miles further to the north-east 
 
208 NEW LANDS. 
 
 at Purnanga, and, although it is yet undeveloped, it is said to 
 be very promising. The drawback to opal-mining, as to alluvial 
 gold-mining, is want of water. 
 
 The most valuable mineral deposits of the Western Division 
 are the silver-lead ores of the Barrier Kanges, which are worked 
 on a very large scale at Broken Hill. Here, however, there does 
 not seem to be much chance for fresh enterprise, unless new 
 bodies of ore are discovered in the mountains further north. 
 
 Biverina District. — The Riverina District in the south of the 
 colony, between the Murrumbidgee and the Murray Rivers, is 
 being gradually converted into agricultural country, although it 
 still contains a great number of sheep. Its chief town is 
 Deniliquin, and the produce of the district finds a nearer 
 and more convenient outlet through Melbourne than through 
 Sydney. There are many places on the Lachlan River — 
 especially in the neighbourhood of Porbes, which has railway 
 communication with Sydney — where there is good Crown land 
 still available which is 'adapted for agriculture. 
 
 Prospects for Farmers. — There are few parts of the Eastern 
 Division except in the immediate vicinity of Sydney, where 
 an energetic farmer could not find room, and if provided 
 with a capital of from .£500 to £1000, make a very comfortable 
 living. The nature of the crops would, of course, have to 
 depend on the position. The ordinary grains and roots of 
 Europe thrive best on the uplands of New England in the 
 north, and along the plateau wherever the rainfall is sufiicient. 
 On the coast in the north maize and sugar-cane are staple crops, 
 although the want of cheap labour is diverting attention from 
 the latter. The want of cheap labour would probably make it 
 very difficult to introduce tea-growing, for which the well- 
 watered Coast District would seem to be adapted, and as the 
 Australians are the greatest tea drinkers in the world there 
 would be a great home market. Orange-growing is largely 
 carried on in the central part of the coast strip, and many other 
 varieties of fruit congenial to the warm temperate zone can be 
 raised. 
 
 There is an agricultural college at Richmond, 38 miles north- 
 west of Sydney, where students from 16 to 25 years of age are 
 instructed in the theory and practice of farming. No better 
 introduction to a settler's life could be obtained by a young man 
 from the old country than a course at this college before com- 
 mencing on his own account. South of Sydney the coast belt is 
 becoming very important for dairy farming, and butter has 
 already become a valuable export. The establishment of butter 
 
NEW SOUTH WALES. 209 
 
 factories on modem principles has opened up a field which is 
 sure to be very considerably developed. 
 
 Minerals. — In the Eastern Division 'the mineral resources 
 are of very great value, and there is still scope for the prospector 
 in many districts where minerals are known to exist although 
 their amount and value can only be guessed at. Gold, both 
 alluvial and in quartz, is scattered widely over the east of the 
 country, the alluvial workings are attracting less attention 
 every year, and the quartz mines more. But gold-mining, 
 judging from the statistics published, does not pay. The yield 
 of 1897 was worth £1,088,000 and the number of gold miners is 
 given as 21,286, so that the average earnings would appear to 
 be less than £1 per week, without considering any return on 
 capital expended. 
 
 The coalfields of the Eastern Division are estimated at 
 24,000 square miles in area, and at only a few points are mines 
 actively worked. Over 4,300,000 tons were raised in 1897, 
 chiefly from the Newcastle mines and at the mines of BuUi in 
 the Illiwarra district south of Sydney, and at Lithgow in the 
 west. Iron ore and limestone abound, but there is only one 
 place where iron is manufactured in the colony — at Lithgow. 
 Gold, copper, and tin (the last named mined in the north-east, 
 but in diminishing quantities) are smelted ; but the metallurgical 
 works are not in proportion to the mineral wealth. 
 
 New South Wales could be made an absolutely self-supporting 
 community requiring no imports except luxuries, and in the 
 steps towards achieving this position the most important would 
 seem to be the manufacture of iron on a sufficient scale for home 
 requirements, the construction of machinery, and the establish- 
 ment of textile factories. At present over £600,000 worth of 
 woollens are imported annually from the United Kingdom. 
 Although the free trade policy of the colony has prohibited pro- 
 tective duties, the heavy freights on all goods imported from 
 Europe or America necessarily raise prices, and give local 
 manufactures a chance to develop. This is particularly the case 
 for woollen goods, where the raw material has already paid 
 freight from Australia to England. 
 
 Forests and Fisheries. — The Eastern Division contains large 
 quantities of timber, some of it, like tulipwood and rosewood, 
 being fit for the finest decorative work, while the cedar is use- 
 ful for all purposes. A Forest Department has been established 
 and forest reserves proclaimed. There are many sawmills, yet, 
 apparently, the timber industry is not fully developed, as a great 
 deal of wood is imported. 
 
 14 
 
210 NEW LANDS. 
 
 Another industry which is in a very backward state is fishing. 
 The coast of New South Wales abounds in excellent harbours, 
 and there is a potential market in the great aggregation of 
 population in Sydney which should keep many hundred fisher- 
 men in constant employment. The neighbouring sea abounds 
 with food-fishes of high quality, such as the Australian schnapper, 
 rock-cod, whiting, mackerel, mullet, and garfish. Oysters are 
 also abundant. The retail fish trade appears to be mainly in 
 the hands of Italians ; but this is a trade which might be enor- 
 mously developed, and with a relatively small expenditure of 
 capital. 
 
211 
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 A U S T B A L I A — Q U E E N S L A M" D . 
 
 Position and General Character— Climate of Temperate Queensland — Area 
 and Population — Labour Question — Assisted Immigration — Mineral 
 Resources — Agriculture — Land Laws — Mining Claims — Railways of 
 Temperate Queensland. 
 
 Position and General Character. — Queensland extends for 
 a distance of 1300 miles from north to south, filling the north- 
 eastern corner of Australia from 11° S. to 29° S. latitude. It 
 is thus mainly a tropical country corresponding in position 
 almost exactly with India in the northern hemisphere. But 
 while the parts of India which extend into the temperate zone 
 occupy low land of very trying climate (the valleys of the 
 Ganges and Indus), the temperate portion of Queensland adjoin- 
 ing New South Wales is part of the eastern plateau of Australia, 
 and the colony as a whole is the healthiest tropical country in 
 the world. The long coast line on the Pacific Ocean is bordered 
 by the Great Barrier Reef of coral which is separated from the 
 shore by a navigable channel, but can only be crossed from the 
 sea at a few places. The seaports of the colony have sprung 
 up opposite the passes in the reef, and from each of the principal 
 ports a railway line runs straight into the interior for some 
 distance. The chief ports of the southern district are Brisbane 
 and Rockhampton (on the tropic of Capricorn), each situated 
 near the mouth of a large river. The land between these 
 consists first of a low coast strip, then the steep edge of the 
 Great Dividing Range followed towards the west by branching 
 ranges and plateaux which finally sink towards the low plain of 
 the interior. This is the only part of the colony which comes 
 within the scope of this book, and it may be further limited by 
 leaving out of account the arid plain of the interior, in which 
 intense heat and want of water make exploitation of any kind 
 exceptionally difficult. 
 
 Climate of Temperate Queensland. — The climate of the 
 southern plateau is equable, and not too hot for working out of 
 doors in comfort. Frost is scarcely known, and the rainfall. 
 
212 NEW LANDS. 
 
 though capricious as in all parts of Australia, is usually 
 sufl&cient. On the coast the heat in summer is much greater 
 than on the plateau, and the rainfall heavier. The mean tem- 
 perature of the year at Brisbane is 68° F., and the total annual 
 rainfall 51 inches. The average temperature of the month of 
 January is about 78°, and of July about 58°. Temperatures of 
 100° or over rarely occur in the south of Queensland, except on 
 the western plain. It will be seen from these figures that even 
 temperate Queensland is not cool, but on the Darling Downs it 
 may be said generally that, while the coldest month (July) is 
 similar in temperature to April or October in central England, 
 the warmest month (January) is on the average nearly ten 
 degrees warmer than the hottest month in England. Except 
 for hard field work, Europeans experience no particular difficulty 
 from the climate in any part of Queensland, other than the 
 extreme north and the margin of the Gulf of Carpentaria. 
 
 Area an<i Population. — Queensland has an area of 668,000 
 square miles, or nearly 428,000,000 acres ; while its population 
 amounted in 1891 to only 393,700, but was estimated in 1898 at 
 493,000. The population is growing by the surplus of births 
 over deaths at the rate of about 8700 a year, and by the excess 
 of immigration over emigration at the rate of about 4000 a year, 
 these figures being averages of the five years 1893-97. Although 
 fully one-quarter of the population resides within ten miles of 
 the centre of Brisbane, the people as a whole are more uniformly 
 scattered over the country than in the other colonies. The 
 labour problem is very serious in the plantations of the coast 
 belt where coloured labour of some kind is a necessity. The 
 aborigines of the country remain in considerable force in the 
 interior, their numbers being variously estimated at between 
 12,000 and 20,000. Many are employed by the squatters as 
 servants, though they rarely prove satisfactory; but the majority 
 remain as wandering tribes. The wild blacks occasionally harass 
 the flocks, and are regarded with great disfavour by the settlers. 
 Reports of systematic cruelty perpetrated by white settlers on 
 the blacks have been made by eye-witnesses whose testimony on 
 other matters is generally accepted as credible ; but official 
 reports affirm that much humanity is shown to aborigines. 
 
 Labour Question. — In 1891 there were over 8500 Chinese 
 in the colony, mainly occupied on the goldfields, and about 9000 
 kanakas or natives of the neighbouring Pacific Islands employed 
 on the plantations. At one time it was asserted that the im- 
 portation and treatment of the kanakas differed little from 
 slave trade, and after a period in which their immigration was 
 
QUEENSLAND. 213 
 
 prohibited entirely, the necessities of the case caused it to be 
 resumed, but under strict regulation. These labour questions 
 mainly affect the part of the colony north of the tropic, and have 
 led to a feeling in favour of a legislative subdivision of the 
 €olony. 
 
 Assisted Immigration. — The importance of increasing the 
 number of white inhabitants has induced the Queensland 
 Government to continue the system of free or assisted passages 
 for desirable immigrants, which formerly prevailed in all the 
 Australian colonies. Free passages are offered by the Queens- 
 land Government only to farm labourers and female domestic 
 servants between the ages of 17 and 35; while assistance towards 
 the cost of the passage may be given to "small capitalists," 
 farmers, market gardeners, dairymen, fruit growers, and their 
 families. The recipients of this assistance are selected by the 
 Agent-General for Queensland, 1 Victoria Street, Westminster, 
 S.W., from the applicants. Nominated passages are also given 
 to persons who have relatives or personal friends in the colony. 
 The friend must apply for a nominated free passage to the 
 Queensland Government, and make a small payment, varying 
 from £1 for a girl under 12 to ;£8 for a man or woman over 40 
 and under 45. These nominated passages are only given to 
 female domestic servants, ploughmen, gardeners, and farm 
 labourers, who must pledge themselves to remain in Queens- 
 land for at least one year. The fact that this encourage- 
 ment is given to immigration is in itself evidence that the 
 resources of the country are much in need of population to 
 develop them. 
 
 Mineral Resources. — The chief resources of Queensland at 
 present are gold, wool, preserved meat, and sugar. The gold- 
 fields occur in all parts of the colony, and it is probable that 
 many valuable deposits remain still undiscovered. Judged by 
 the average return per miner, the Queensland goldfields are 
 much more profitable than those of Victoria or New South 
 Wales. In 1897 there were 12,000 gold-miners, and an output 
 of over 800,000 oz., valued at about £3,000,000, which is at the 
 rate of £250 per miner. Each gold-miner has to obtain a 
 "miner's right" by paying an annual sum of 10s. The Mount 
 Morgan Mine in the Rockhampton district has been one of the 
 richest in the world, and still produces more than one-third of 
 the total gold yield of the colony, the second place being taken 
 by the goldfields of the northern districts. 
 
 Copper, tin, and silver are all mined in different places, but 
 not very energetically, the amount raised gradually declining 
 
214 NEW LANDS. 
 
 from year to year. The coal-measures cover a large area, but as 
 yet the amount of coal raised is under 400,000 tons a year. The 
 coal mines at present worked are near Ipswich, about 20 miles 
 from Brisbane, at Howard, near the seaport of Maryborough, 
 and at Clermont, about 230 miles north of Rockhampton. The 
 discovery of new deposits of workable minerals is encouraged 
 by the colonial government, which offers large premiums for 
 new goldfields. 
 
 Agriculture. — The coast-plain of all parts of Queensland is 
 favourable for sugar-cane growing, the cultivation of tropical 
 fruits, and the keeping of cattle. The pasturing of sheep is 
 confined to the table-lands, and concentrated in the south. The 
 number of sheep in recent years has averaged 19,000,000, and 
 that of cattle 6,500,000. Drought on the western plains has 
 proved very destructive to sheep ; but the country is exception- 
 ally suited for irrigation by means of bores. In 1899 there 
 were nearly 400 artesian wells in the colony sunk to depths 
 averaging 1 200 feet, and in one case exceeding 4000 feet. As a 
 rule, the pastoral industry is in the hands of wealthy squatters 
 owning very large flocks and occupying an immense area of land. 
 
 Agriculture in the temperate, plateaux is steadily extending, 
 and, as a rule, the holdings are small. The rich loam soil of the 
 Darling Downs is particularly suited to the growth of wheat ; 
 maize is the chief grain crop of the coast-plains and the north. 
 The cost of good land suitable for market gardening near towns 
 is high ; but there is plenty land available within reach of the 
 railways. The fact that considerable quantities of flour, barley 
 for malting, oats, and potatoes are imported from New South 
 Wales and Victoria shows that farming has not kept pace with 
 the demands for farm products. All of these crops can be 
 produced abundantly in the southern table-lands. As in the 
 other colonies, there is an agricultural department, and there is 
 also an agricultural college (at Gatton) where practical training 
 can be obtained. The Department of Agriculture at Brisbane 
 is always ready to advise farmers, especially new-comers, as to 
 the position of the best agricultural land available and the 
 proper crops to cultivate in the various districts. 
 
 Rabbits have appeared in some districts, but in these fencing 
 is compulsory, and hitherto they have been restrained so as not 
 to become a pest. 
 
 Land Laws. — The legislation of Queensland as regards the 
 exploitation of the land is similar to that of the other Australian 
 colonies, except that there are special laws regulating the 
 employment of coloured labour. There is a protective tariff, 
 
QUEENSLAND. 215 
 
 and great efforts are made by the Government to develop 
 manufacturing industries, which, as yet, can only be said to 
 be beginning. Although only a small part of the land has 
 been alienated from the Crown the greater part of the colony is 
 leased as sheep-runs to large pastoralists. From time to time, 
 however, large areas of these leased lands are made available 
 for settlement by a proclamation that they are open for selection. 
 The selector has to apply to the land agent of the district, and 
 selection must not exceed 1280 acres for agricultural land. It 
 is held on lease, the rent being one-fortieth of the purchase 
 price which is not less than 10s per acre, and after having 
 occupied and improved the land for a certain time, the selector 
 may make it his absolute property by paying the balance of the 
 purchase price, the rent counting as instalments paid towards the 
 total. Land may also be bought outright. Grazing leases are 
 granted at a rent commencing at -^d. per acre with or without 
 the option of purchase, and the maximum that can be secured 
 by one individual is 20,000 acres, or over 30 square miles. 
 Special arrangements are made for the supply of land to co- 
 operative and self-governing communities of not less than 30 
 persons, and subject to certain conditions the Government may 
 grant loans in aid of initial expenses of settlement. 
 
 Mining Claims. — Mineral lands are subject to special con- 
 ditions. In the case of gold, each proclaimed goldfield is placed 
 under the supervision of a warden, who is usually a police 
 magistrate, and claims are registered by him. Auriferous land 
 is leased at the rate of £1 per acre for 21 years. Claims for 
 dry alluvial diggings are 50 feet square, two persons may have 
 between them an area of 50 by 100 feet, and four an area 
 50 by 200 feet. In wet alluvial diggings two persons may have 
 100 feet square, and four an area 100 by 200 feet. A quartz 
 claim measures 50 feet on the line of stone reef with a width of 
 400 feet, and not more than six such claims can be secured by 
 any one party (of six men). 
 
 Other mineral lands can be obtained from the Crown on 
 lease for 21 years, renewable for 21 years more, and the rent 
 charged is 10s. per acre. 
 
 Railways of Temperate Queensland. — From Brisbane, the 
 capital and chief seaport of the colony, the Southern and 
 Western Railway runs westward for 485 miles to Charleville, a 
 centre of sheep-farming, and the site of one of the most pro- 
 ductive artesian wells in Australia. Just west of the Dividing 
 Range a line turns south across the Darling Downs to Wallan- 
 garra (233 miles from Brisbane), where it joins the New South 
 
216 NEW LANDS. 
 
 Wales Railway. The line north-wards along the coast does not 
 quite reach Rockhampton, with which communication is mainly 
 carried on by sea. Rockhampton is the terminus of the Central 
 Railway, which runs westward just south of the tropic for 427 
 miles to Longreach. These parallel east and west railways are 
 200 miles apart, and are not yet connected by branch lines at 
 any point. From one or other of these lines access may be had 
 to all the parts of the colony where the climate is not too hot 
 for ordinary European methods of farm work, and information 
 as to the areas where selections may be made can always be got 
 from the Agricultural Department in Brisbane. 
 
 Fuller particulars on most of the questions referred to will be 
 found in the Queetisland Handbook of the British Emigrants' 
 Information Office, and all data and statistics in the various 
 Queensland Government Reports. 
 
217 
 
 CHAPTER XV. 
 AUSTRALIA— SOTJTH AUSTRALIA. 
 
 Area — Northern Territory — The Province of South Australia — Climate — 
 Population^Pastoral Resources — Agriculture — Minerals — Conditions 
 and Prospects. 
 
 Area. — The colony of South Australia was originally formed 
 round the inlets which indent the south coast, but its limits 
 were afterwards extended to include the whole central belt of 
 Australia, as far as the north coast, the whole area being over 
 900,000 sq. miles. The portion of South Australia north of 36° S., 
 with an area of 523,000 sq. miles, is called the Northern Terri- 
 tory ; south of that, the part where the original colony was 
 formed, is known as the Province of South Australia, and has 
 now an area of 380,000 sq. miles. 
 
 Northern Territory. — Northern Territory is a tropical 
 country, a desert for the most part, but covered with jungle and 
 forest near the coast. It is inhabited by about 20,000 aborigines, 
 some of the tribes being dangerous to strangers, and of the 
 settled inhabitants, numbering about 5000, fully three-quarters 
 are Chinese. 
 
 The entrance to the region is by Palmerston, the seaport on 
 Port Darwin in the north ; but there is a project of completing 
 a railway from south to north, following the line of the overland 
 telegraph wire. 
 
 Northern Territory is a region of valuable mineral resources, 
 but is not adapted for exploitation by white men for many years 
 to come, and will not be further noticed here. 
 
 The Province of South Australia. — The original colony 
 termed the Province, adjoins Victoria and New South "Wales, 
 and stretches westward along the coast to meet Western 
 Australia at the head of the Great Australian Bight. The 
 eastern part of the coast is deeply indented by the Gulfs of 
 Spencer and St. Vincent, which are separated by a long narrow 
 peninsula, off which lies Kangaroo Island, about 90 miles long, 
 the largest island except Tasmania connected with the continent 
 of Australia. East of Spencer Gulf ranges of hills run from 
 
218 NEW LANDS. 
 
 south to north, their highest summits (Mt. Lofty and Eazorback) 
 reaching respectively 2330 and 2830 feet. Parallel with these 
 the Flinders Mountains run northward from Yorke Peninsula. 
 The valley between these ranges drains partly south to the Gulf 
 of St. Vincent, partly north to the salt lake Torrens, and partly 
 west through gaps in the range to Spencer Gulf. West of the 
 head of Spencer Gulf the Gawler Range runs westward south of 
 the salt lake Gairdner, and northward the land is low, enclosing 
 many salt lakes which collect the scanty drainage of the arid 
 northern region and have no outlet to the sea. The only river 
 of importance in the colony is the lower part of the Murray, 
 which enters the sea through a lagoon called Lake Alexandrina, 
 the entrance to which from the ocean is difficult for steamers. 
 The coast west of Spencer Gulf along the Great Australian Bight 
 is formed by a continuous line of lofty cliffs and apparently has 
 no openings fit for harbours. 
 
 Climate. — The climate of South Australia is everywhere hot 
 in summer, and only on the higher hill ranges is it cold enough 
 for snow to appear in winter. The average temperature at 
 Adelaide, the capital and largest town, is 75° for the hottest 
 month, January ; and at Port Augusta at the head of Spencer 
 Gulf it is 80°. In July, the coolest ijaonth, the average 
 temperature is about 52° in Adelaide and 53° at Port Augusta. 
 The climate as a whole thus resembles that of Italy rather than 
 that of England. Rainfall is more scant and fickle than in most 
 parts of Australia. The mean annual rainfall exceeds 20 inches 
 only in the extreme south of the peninsulas, and along the 
 mountains stretching northwards past Adelaide. At Adelaide 
 itself the annual rainfall is about 21 inches, but on the Mount 
 Lofty range it exceeds 30 and in a few places 40 inches. In 
 the north, however, in the lowlands near the salt lakes the 
 mean annual rainfall is less than 7 inches, and the question 
 of regulating the water supply is more urgent than in the 
 eastern colonies. Most rain falls in winter — i.e., from May to 
 September. 
 
 Population. — Exclusive of Northern Territory the population 
 of South Australia was 315,000 in 1891, and of this number 
 one-third lived within a ten-mile radius of the centre of 
 Adelaide. The country is thus very thinly peopled indeed, the 
 area of " the Province " being 380,000 square miles. 
 
 The population is increasing very slowly, and entirely by the 
 excess of births over deaths. In the five years, 1893-97, the 
 emigration from South Australia has exceeded the immigration 
 by an average of 1600 per annum. 
 
SOUTH AUSTRALIA. .219' 
 
 Pastoral Resources. — The products of the country are 
 mainly pastoral, the chief exports being wool and hides. In 
 1897 there were about 5,000,000 sheep and 274,000 cattle, but 
 in 1891-92 the numbers had been 7,150,000 sheep and 412,000 
 cattle. The average area of pasturage required for each sheep in 
 the best part of the colony — i.e., in the settled counties- — is 10' 
 acres. The Emigrants' Information Office's South Australia 
 HaTidbooh, 1899, says : — "The Pastoral Commission, which was 
 appointed in 1897, reported in 1898 that the pastoral industry 
 is, and has been for many years, in an extremely depressed 
 and unsatisfactory condition. Drought has destroyed large 
 numbers of sheep during the last few years, and has been the 
 main cause of the great depression of the pastoral industry. It 
 is hoped that by the sinking of artesian wells, the storing, of 
 water, and irrigation, the danger of drought may be, to some 
 extent, obviated. The rabbit plague also causes great loss, 
 especially along the Murray Plats, and wild dogs have become 
 an increasing danger. Rents, moreover, have been high, and 
 prices of wool and stock have been low." 
 
 Agrieultiire. — Agriculture is important in the counties, but 
 is not practised beyond them ; and in 1897-98 there were in all 
 2,600,000 acres under cultivation, considerably more than half 
 being under wheat, which constitutes one of the leading exports. 
 Wheat-growing is not, however, extending, and on account of 
 the low rainfall the yield is extremely small, the average for ten 
 years varying from 1*7 to 8 bushels per acre. Hay, barley, oats, 
 and potatoes are the other farm crops usually grown. It is 
 more profitable to grow fruit, especially the vine for wine- 
 making, and experiments on irrigation plantations have been 
 carried on on a large scale at Renmark on the lower Murray 
 and elsewhere. 
 
 The only promising branches of farm work at present seems 
 to be fruit-growing and dairy-farming. Vine-growing is parti- 
 cularly promising, but the price both of grapes and of wine is 
 low, and the market is uncertain. 
 
 It is not too much to say that the whole future of South 
 Australia as an agricultural colony depends on irrigation, and 
 to this fact the government appears to be fully alive. Beyond 
 the limits of the counties, many artesian wells have been sunk, 
 though the water is unfortunately often of poor quality, owing 
 to the saline matter with which the soil of the arid region is 
 impregnated. An elaborate system of storage reservoirs has 
 also been made along the great stock roads, by which cattle and 
 sheep are driven to the seaports. 
 
220 NEW LANDS. 
 
 The camel is extensively employed both as a pack and a 
 draught animal, and is bred in the colony. The ostrich has 
 also been introduced experimentally ; and where the desert of 
 the interior is irrigated by wells, date-palms have been found to 
 thrive. 
 
 Minerals. — The mineral products consist mainly of copper 
 ore. The copper mines north of Adelaide were once a great 
 source of wealth, but they are now rarely in full work, as the 
 fluctuations in the price of copper frequently reduce the value 
 of the metal below the cost of profitable production. A little 
 gold is found here and there, and small deposits of silver have 
 also been worked ; but as yet no sensational finds of the precious 
 metals have been made in South Australia. The large export 
 of silver-lead ore is simply transit trade from the Broken Hill 
 mines in New South Wales. 
 
 Conditions and Prospects. — There is a high protective 
 tariff on imports. The land-system is similar to that in the 
 other Australian colonies, but there is a tendency to encourage 
 the leasing rather than the sale of public lands. The conditions 
 of tenure vary with the nature of the land. Pastoral leases in 
 the arid region, for instance, are obtainable at a rate of not less 
 than 2s. 6d. per square mile for twenty-one years, with the obli- 
 gation to stock the land with five head of sheep or one of cattle 
 per square mile within three years. 
 
 Taken altogether, South Australia is not at present a pro- 
 mising field for enterprise, either for the settler or the capitalist ; 
 but its resources are considerable, and the effect of extending 
 irrigation, and the stimulus of the federation of Australia 
 •or the discovery of paying gold may effect a great change in 
 a short time. 
 
221 
 
 CHAPTEE XVI. 
 AUSTRALIA— TASMANIA. 
 
 Position and Surface — Communications — Climate — Mineral Resources — 
 Farm Produce — Population and Immigration — New Lands of Tas- 
 mania — Prospects. 
 
 Position and Surface. — The island of Tasmania is nearly as 
 large as Ireland, possesses many of the characteristics of the 
 scenery of Scotland, and a climate nearly approaching that of 
 England. It lies 120 miles south of the colony of Victoria, 
 from which it is separated by Bass Strait. 
 
 The island is bordered on the east coast by a range of moun- 
 tains, the highest summit of which barely exceeds 5000 feet. 
 This is followed by a depression running right through the 
 island from north to south, through which the Macquarie River 
 runs north to the Tamar estuary and the Jordan River south to 
 the estuary of the Derwent. West of this, the whole of the 
 island is occupied by a plateau ridged by mountains and fur- 
 rowed by valleys. A great part of the surface is over 3000 feet 
 above the sea, and the highest mountain exceeds 5000 feet. 
 Geologically the island is composed of Palaeozoic rocks very 
 rich in metallic ores and coal. 
 
 Comiminieations. — The three best natural harbours are fur- 
 nished by the Tamar estuary on the north, Macquarie Harbour 
 on the west, and the estuary of the Derwent on the south. 
 
 Communication is kept up by steamers at frequent intervals 
 from Melbourne to Launceston on the Tamar, and the steamers 
 from Europe to New Zealand via the Cape of Good Hope call at 
 Hobart. Internal communication is well developed, and all 
 parts of the island may be reached by train or coach. The main 
 railway runs through the great valley from Hobart to Laun- 
 ceston, a distance of 133 miles. Prom this line branches run 
 up the central plateau, and to various points on the north 
 coast and to one on the east. From Macquarie Harbour there 
 are two short lines to the mining centres, but the whole north- 
 western corner of the island is still without railways. 
 
222 NEW LANDS. 
 
 Climate. — Tasmania lies between 40° and 44° S., and is thus 
 the most temperate of the Australian colonies ; it is on this 
 account growing in favour as a summer resort amongst the 
 well-to-do citizens of Melbourne and Sydney. The average sea- 
 level temperature for the whole island is about 64° in January 
 and 45° in July ; but on the higher parts of the plateau it is 
 considerably cooler in summer and much colder in winter. The 
 extreme recorded temperatures at Hobart are a maximum of 
 100°, and a minimum of 30°. It may thus be said that the 
 summer is rarely hotter than a warm summer in the south of 
 England, while the winter is rather milder, and far less damp, 
 than that of the south of Ireland. The rainfall is everywhere 
 suiEcient for agriculture, and at a few points even excessive. 
 Tasmania lies in the zone of the westerly winds, and the west 
 coast is consequently very wet, rain falling at all times of the 
 year. The total fall over the western half of the island ex- 
 ceeds 40 inches in the year, and in the north-west approaches 
 80 inches. A rainfall under 30 inches is only met with on the 
 eastern slopes of the central plateau and in the great valley. 
 
 Some parts of the plateau are too moist to be profitable for 
 either agriculture or stock-raising ; but at the time of its disco- 
 very practically the whole island was densely wooded, and there 
 are still very extensive forests of fine timber. 
 
 Mineral Resources. — No one staple predominates in Tas- 
 mania. Judged by the exports, the most valuable products are 
 minerals — copper, gold, silver, tin; pastoral products, especially 
 wool ; and agricultural produce, particularly potatoes and fruit, 
 together with a considerable quantity of timber. 
 
 Tin, which is smelted at Launceston, is produced in large 
 quantities in the north of the island. Coal of good quality is 
 mined at Fingal in the east, in the Derwent valley, and else- 
 where. It is used throughout the colony, but the output could 
 if necessary be considerably increased. Gold is found at many 
 places in the island, the most paying mines at present being 
 those at Mount Lyell, reached by rail from Mac'quarie Harbour. 
 They have not produced great "rushes" at any time, but yield 
 a steady production. Silver and silver-lead are mainly produced 
 at Zeehan, to which a railway runs from Macquarie Harbour, 
 and the whole of the adjoining region is richly metalliferous. 
 Copper has, since 1896, been mined and smelted in the Macquarie 
 Harbour district to such an extent that in 1898 this metal was 
 in value the leading Tasmanian export. 
 
 There is a bar at the mouth of Macquarie Harbour which 
 prevents large steamers from entering, and the development of 
 
TASMANIA. 223 
 
 the district is now demanding extensive works to improve the 
 entrance. 
 
 Farm Produce. — The live-stbck of the island have not mate- 
 rially increased of recent years. Sheep to the number of about 
 1,600,000 are pastured in the drier part of the country, mainly 
 on the eastern slopes of the plateau. Though not numerous the 
 quality of the wool is fine, and the rearing of pedigree rams for 
 export to the other colonies is of importance. Only 242,000 
 acres of arable land were under crop in 1897-98, but the quantity 
 is steadily, if slowly, increasing. One-third of this area is under 
 wheat, though the yield is not yet sufficient for local consump- 
 tion. Oats, potatoes, and fruit, especially apples and pears, 
 rank next in importance. The average yield of wheat, 15 to 20 
 bushels per acre, is very good for land that is not systematically 
 manured. In addition to these crops, 226,000 acres are under 
 sown grasses for hay. 
 
 Population and Immigration. — In 1890 the population of 
 Tasmania was 146,667 ; at the beginning of 1899 it was esti- 
 mated at 177,000. The death-rate is very low, about 13 per 
 1000 ; and as the birth-rate is high, the population is increasing 
 naturally at the rate of 2700 per annum. For several years 
 there was no increase by immigration, but the average annual 
 excess of immigrants over emigrants in the four years 1894-97 
 is officially estimated at 2500. The number of people leaving 
 the country is, however, believed to be considerably under- 
 estimated, so that the increase from the arrival of newcomers 
 is less than would appear. The aborigines have been entirely 
 exterminated by war and ill-considered attempts to confine 
 them in definite districts, so that there is now no native pro- 
 blem. There are some Chinese in Tasmania, but their intro- 
 duction is now prohibited. 
 
 The only towns of more than 2000 inhabitants are the capital, 
 Hobart (with, including suburbs, 33,400 inhabitants in 1891), 
 and Launceston, with 21,300. 
 
 New Iiands of Tasmania. — The only necessaries which will 
 always have to be imported into Tasmania are the produce of 
 tropical plantations ; all varieties of European grain and fruits 
 can be grown, and all the necessary minerals occur in large 
 quantity. Of the 15^ million acres of the main island and the 
 1^ million acres of the small islands adjacent, only 5 million 
 acres have as yet been alienated, although a considerable part 
 of the remainder is leased as sheep-runs. The best parts have 
 been taken up, and practically all the good agricultural land 
 which remains is very heavily timbered and costly to clear. 
 
224 NEW LANDS. 
 
 There are Crown Laud offices in Hobart and Launceston where 
 applications for grants have to be made. The minimum price 
 charged to selectors is £1 per acre, which may be paid for at 
 once, or, the purchase price increased one-third, may be paid by 
 instalments extending over fourteen years. Grazing land is let 
 by auction at an upset rent of 5s. per 100 acres for fourteen 
 years ; but this land may be resumed by the Crown at six 
 months' notice on payment of compensation. 
 
 A miner's right costs 5s. per annum, and entitles the holder 
 to prospect and mine for gold and tin. Leases of not more than 
 10 acres of auriferous land are granted by the Crown for not 
 more than ten years at a rent of not less than £1 per acre ; but 
 land containing other minerals may be leased for longer periods 
 at prices varying from 2s. 6d. to 5s. per acre per annum. 
 
 The right to cut timber and strip wattle bark on Crown lands 
 is acquired on the payment of from 2s. 6d. to £1 per month as 
 licence, according to the nature of the timber cut, for each man 
 employed. 
 
 Prospects. — The prosperity of a colony such as Tasmania 
 depends on the continuous development of the country by a 
 steadily but not too rapidly increasing population. Capital is 
 much wanted for the development of the mines and the exten- 
 sion of the railways ; but a great deal can be done by energetic 
 men with only a little money. The excellent fisheries round 
 the coast could be enormously developed, for the supply of 
 Hobart and Launceston (and by means of ice or refrigerated 
 steamers for Melbourne and towns on the Australian mainland), 
 while curing for export might prove profitable. The colonial 
 fish markets would liave to be organised as well as the fisheries. 
 Dairy farming and jam-making on a large scale could also be 
 extended ; and there appears to be every inducement for the 
 establishment of workshops for the manufacture of block- and 
 sheet-tin utensils in the neighbourhood of the smelting works, 
 where water-power might be largely utilised. 
 
 The tourist and summer visitor traffic, to which reference has 
 already been made, might be encouraged by the organisation of 
 more good hotels in the picturesque lake district of the central 
 plateau, where the summers are delightfully cool and grateful 
 to visitors from the hot cities of Australia. 
 
 The Tasmania Handbook of the Emigrants' Information Office 
 is very optimistic as to the possibilities of the island. It says : — 
 " If fewer large fortunes have been made, if labour is not quite 
 so highly paid as in some other colonies, nowhere, probably, 
 does the mass of the population live in greater ease and comfort. 
 
TASMANIA. 225 
 
 It is seldom diflScult for anyone to find work of some kind or 
 other, though at times he may have to shift his quarters to 
 obtain it. The delightful climate of Tasmania, its beautiful 
 hills and valleys, its abundance of water, its flowers and hedge- 
 rows, would seem to offer more attractions to British settlers 
 than the hot summers, the long droughts, and endless plains of 
 many parts of Australia. There is perhaps no colony which 
 offers so many advantages to a man of small income who is in 
 search of a comfortable home, an equable and temperate climate, 
 and pleasant society. Though the manufactories are still very 
 small, capitalists will find continual opportunities for investing 
 in fresh undertakings." 
 
 Yet we know men who have gone out to Tasmania with 
 their families, resolved to settle, and after three months left 
 the island in despair of obtaining a permanent home with 
 remunerative work. A certain amount of experience in the 
 sort of work likely to present itself in a new country is always 
 necessary for a settler, and it is still more necessary to give 
 a sufficiently long trial to any change of one's surroundings in 
 order to recover from the shock inseparable from an entirely 
 new environment. 
 
 15 
 
226 
 
 CHAPTER XVII. 
 WESTERN AtrSTRALIA. 
 
 Position and Coasts — Surface — Climate — Mineral Resources — Farming — 
 Population and Immigration — Communications — Mining Laws — Land 
 Divisions — Land Laws — New Lands for Agriculture — Mineral Lands 
 — Tropical Goldfields — Murohisou Goldfields — Yilgarn and Coolgardie 
 Goldfields — Mount Margaret and Dundas Goldfields. 
 
 Position and Coasts. — Western Australia is the largest of the 
 Australian colonies, but contains the smallest population. It 
 occupies the whole of Australia west of the meridian of 129° E., 
 and is bounded by the sea on north, west, and south, the whole 
 area being 976,000 square miles. In spite of its great length 
 of coast-line, the colony has few seaports, although there are 
 probably many excellent natural harbours in the north. In the 
 south the chief ports are Fremantle, on the Indian Ocean at the 
 mouth of the Swan River, which has been artificially improved 
 so as to admit the largest vessels; and King George Sound, close 
 to the south-west corner, a most commodious natural harbour, 
 forming a convenient calling-place for vessels coming from the 
 Suez Oanal to east Australian ports. East of this the coast is 
 formed by the long line of harbourless cliffs surrounding the 
 Great Australian Bight. 
 
 Surface. — The river system of Western Australia is confined 
 to a mere fringe of land bordering the west and north coasts. 
 The south coast and the whole vast interior are without per- 
 manent rivers, and large areas are still entirely unexplored. 
 A series of hills, nowhere attaining a greater height than 1500 
 feet, and known as the Darling Range, runs from the south- 
 western corner of the continent northward for several hundred 
 miles, parallel to the coast and at a distance of about 20 mil^s 
 from it. Beyond the Swan River the land rises and the range 
 stands further back, leaving a broad coastal plain crossed by 
 numerous rivers.' North of De Gray River in 20° N". a broad 
 stretch of low trojiical desert separates the temperate part of 
 the colony from the well -watered tropical lands of the far 
 north. 
 
WESTERN AUSTRALIA. 227 
 
 The interior of Western Australia is for the most part a flat 
 or undulating plateau of Palaeozoic rocks, with an elevation 
 exceeding 1000 feet above the sea level, dotted with great lakes, 
 which are beds of salt-encrusted mud for most of the year and very 
 shallow sheets of water for a month or two. Isolated mountains 
 and lines of hills diversify this desert country, but the greater 
 part of it is made up of plains of drifting sand, heaped into 
 dunes, and bearing only scanty clumps of shrubs about the 
 water-holes, or else the peculiar desert grass known as spinifex, 
 the scattered tufts of which resemble groups of bayonets, and 
 aie even dangerous for horses to tread on. 
 
 The plains in the south, sloping to the cliffs of the Bight, are 
 grassy in summer after the rains have fallen, but they are fre- 
 quently parched with the long continued droughts to which the 
 land is liable. 
 
 The country to the south-west and along the west coast, south 
 of the tropic, is, in its natural condition, covered with wood, the 
 forests being of great extent, and the trees extremely valuable 
 as timber. 
 
 The surface as a whole is not sufficiently diversified by 
 mountain ranges or river valleys to offer serious obstacles to 
 the construction of roads and railways, or to determine the 
 directions in which the means of communication must run. 
 The one controlling natural condition, which bears on every 
 aspect of economic development, is the excessive drought of 
 the interior and the consequent precariousness of the water 
 supply. 
 
 Climate. — Western Australia enjoys a climate somewhat 
 cooler, on the whole, than that of the same latitudes in the east 
 of the continent. The climate of the south-western corner is 
 like that of southern Victoria. The temperature in summer 
 frequently rises above 90° F., but a cool sea breeze blows almost 
 every afternoon, penetrating some distance inland. The average 
 summer temperature at Perth is 75° (January and February), 
 and the average winter temperature about 55° (June to August). 
 In Albany it is a few degrees cooler. The greater part of the 
 annual rainfall takes place in winter, from May to October, the 
 rest of the year being nearly rainless. The total fall in the 
 higher ground of the south-west slightly exceeds 40 inches in 
 the year, and a belt in which the rainfall exceeds 30 inches 
 extends from some distance east of Albany to some distance 
 north of Perth. Towards the interior the rainfall diminishes so 
 rapidly that an average of 10 inches in the year is scarcely 
 anywhere found as far as 150 miles inland, and in the interior 
 
228 NEW LANDS. 
 
 there is the usual capricious variation of the scanty precipitation 
 which is characteristic of Australia as a whole. 
 
 Mineral Resources. — Until very recently the development 
 of Western Australia was so slow and the population so small 
 that the natural resources of the colony had hardly heen 
 touched, and it is yet difl&cult to say, on account of the still 
 imperfect surveys, of what the country is capable. The dis- 
 covery of great areas of gold-bearing quartz reefs in the interior 
 of the colony has led to gold-mining becoming the leading 
 industry and gold the chief export. In 1891 the amount of 
 gold exported was worth £115,000; in 1897 it had risen to 
 £2,565,000, and in 1899 to £6,247,000. In 1897 all the other 
 exports put together only amounted to half the value of the 
 gold. The number of men employed in gold-mining in that 
 year was close on 18,000, so that the yield corresponded to £143' 
 per head of those employed. Gold is found in almost all parts 
 of the interior from north to south wherever the country has 
 been prospected, the great obstacle to its economical production 
 being everywhere, except in the extreme north, the want of 
 water. The imports into Western Australia have for the past 
 few years been almost double the value of the exports. This is 
 due to the inclusion of large quantities of railway plant, mining 
 machinery, wearing apparel, and materials for food and drink. 
 Half the trade, both exports and imports, is done with the 
 eastern colonies of Australia, and almost all the rest with the 
 United Kingdom direct. 
 
 Farming. — Stock-raising comes next in importance to mining, 
 the colony containing about 2,000,000 sheep, pastured mainly 
 on the grassy country of light rainfall bordering the absolute 
 desert. The value of the wool exported averages about £250,000 
 per annum. Timber is the only other important export. It 
 consists partly of sandalwood, sent for the most part to China ; 
 but mainly of the fine hard woods of the south-western district, 
 known as karri and jarrah, which are largely used for building 
 and as wood paving. The forests are extensive, and if properly 
 managed should increase in value. 
 
 The sudden increase of population oonseqiient on the develop- 
 ment of the goldfields has made the agriculture of the colony 
 insufficient to provide enough food, so that flour, oats, butter, 
 beer, &c., are being imported in large quantities. Only 133,000 
 acres were under cultivation in 1897-98, of which 81,000 were 
 under hay, 38,700 under wheat, and the rest under oats, barley, 
 and potatoes. The average annual rainfall in the wheat-growing 
 area is about 1 8 inches, and the average yield of 'grain varied in 
 
WESTERN AUSTRALIA. 229 
 
 the ten years previous to 1898 from about 8 to 14 bushels per 
 acre. Vine-growing has been profitably introduced, and the 
 olive, and many other fruits of southern Europe flourish ex- 
 ceedingly. 
 
 Population and. Immigration. — The greater part of the 
 immense area of Western Australia can never become habitable 
 land, and over a considerable portion of the remainder only the 
 wandering aborigines can make any sort of living, and that a 
 miserable one. The tropical, pastoral, and plantation regions of 
 the north will, on the other hand, support a fairly large popu- 
 lation ; the south-western corner of the colony may ultimately 
 become very densely peopled, and the desert goldfields, as long 
 as they remain productive, will maintain a large population by 
 the importation of all the necessaries of life. 
 
 In 1891 the population of the whole colony, exclusive of 
 wandering aborigines, was only 49,782 ; but immigration, conse- 
 quent on the gold discoveries, has been so rapid that the 
 population in June, 1899, was estimated at 168,480, the bulk 
 of this increase being derived from the eastern colonies of 
 Australia. Immigration in 1897 exceeded emigration by 22,600, 
 and in 1898 by 3953. The rate of natural increase, however, 
 is smaller than in other Australian colonies, the death-rate 
 being higher and the birth-rate lower. Although the country is 
 as healthy as any in the same latitudes in any part of the world, 
 the sanitation of the towns is in many instances far from satis- 
 factory, and even in Perth the surveys for an adequate system 
 of sewerage were only completed in 1896. 
 
 There are rather more than 5000 civilised aborigines employed 
 in the colony, mainly as servants and stock-riders. The im- 
 migration of Chinese and other Asiatics is essential to the 
 success of the mining and other industrial operations in the 
 northern section, where they number about 1900; but their 
 entrance is not permitted in any part of the colony south of 
 27° S. Other prohibited immigrants are people unable to read 
 and write, paupers, and, it is written, anyone who within three 
 years has been convicted of a felony or infamous crime. 
 
 The cost of living in Western Australia is higher than in the 
 other Australian colonies. 
 
 Communications. — The port of Fremantle at the mouth of 
 the Swan River is the calling place of the North German Lloyd 
 steamers, and is connected by rail with the capital Perth (popu- 
 lation, with suburbs, in 1897, 37,900) 12 miles further up the 
 river. Perth is the centre of the railway system, the chief lines 
 radiating from it to the south, east, and north. A line runs 
 
230 NEW LANDS. 
 
 from Perth to Albany (338 miles), the calling place of the British 
 mail steamers ; another, due east from Perth, passes through the 
 goldfields surrounding Coolgardie (300 miles) and Kalgoorlie, 
 sending a branch north to Menzies. The Midland Railway runs 
 northward to Geraldton (319 miles), whence a line runs north- 
 eastward to Cue, the centre of the Murchison goldfield, a further 
 distance of 262 miles. A line also passes south from Perth 
 along the coastal plain to Busselton on Gtographe Bay (150 
 miles), traversing the great timber region. The railways are 
 being steadily extended ; beyond their termini communications 
 are kept up by mail-coaches. There is a very extensive tele- 
 graph system, while coasting steamers establish communication 
 between all parts of the seaboard. 
 
 Mining Laws. — There is a fairly high customs tariff on 
 almost all imports, and the usual regulations as to the liquor 
 trade, hours of work, employers' liability, and the employment 
 of women and children prevalent elsewhere in Australia are in 
 force. Education and vaccination are compulsory, and every 
 occupier of land is obliged to destroy all rabbits on his holding, 
 otherwise government inspectors may do so by means of poison. 
 
 Licences for cutting timber cost from 5s. to £'6 per month per 
 man, according to the nature of the timber cut, and timber 
 leases are granted for twenty-five years up to an area of 75,000 
 acres at an annual rent of X20 per square mile, one of the con- 
 ditions of such a lease being that a sawmill must be erected on 
 the land. 
 
 Miners' rights, entitling a man to prospect and mine for gold, 
 cost 10s. per annum. The minerals in any land disposed of by 
 the Crown for pastoral or agricultural purposes are always 
 reserved. Leases of auriferous land may be granted for twenty- 
 one years up to an area of 24 acres at £1 per acre annually, 
 with, usually, the condition imposed of doing a certain amount 
 of work on the holding. Gold may be worked on privately- 
 owned land by paying compensation to the proprietors, while 
 every proclaimed goldfield is placed under the jurisdiction of 
 a warden. 
 
 Mineral leases for minerals other than gold are granted at 
 very low rates, those for coal being only 6d. per acre per annum, 
 with a royalty of 3d. per ton on the coal raised, increasing after 
 ten years to 6d. per ton. 
 
 Laud Divisions. — The country is divided for land purposes 
 into six divisions, viz. : — 
 
 1. The South-western, bounded on the east by a line drawn 
 from a point on the Murchison River 90 miles from the sea to 
 
WESTERN AUSTRALIA. 231 
 
 Doubtful Island Bay in the south. It comprises practically all 
 southern Western Australia, which has an annual rainfall ex- 
 ceeding 18 inches. 
 
 2. The Western Division occupying the coast from the Murclii- 
 son River to latitude 23° S. and extending eastward to the 
 meridian of 119° E. 
 
 3 and 4. The North-western and Kirriberley Divisions occupying 
 nearly the whole of the tropical part of the colony. 
 
 5. The £Iucla Division occupying the south coast ; and 
 
 6. The Eastern Division comprising the central stretch of the 
 colony up to the South Australian boundary, including the 
 most extensive deserts of Australia. 
 
 Iiaud Iiaws. — Land may be held by various tenures, and is 
 granted by the Lands and Survey Office in Perth, which is 
 under the charge of the Minister of Lands. Altogether, at the 
 end of 1897, about 9,000,000 acres (out of the 624,600,000 acres 
 of which the colony is made up) had been or were in process of 
 being alienated. 915,000 acres were held under the tenure of 
 conditional purchase, and 87,000,000 acres were held on pastoral 
 leases. Formerly the leased area was much greater, but of late 
 the pastoral industry has not been in a progressive state. The 
 various methods of acquiring land in Western Australia are as 
 follows : — 
 
 Conditional Purchase. — In specially proclaimed agricultural 
 areas of the South-western District only, from 100 to 1000 acres 
 may be obtained by anyone over the age of eighteen, on pay- 
 ment of not less than 10s per acre, the payment extending over 
 twenty years. One-tenth of the land must be fenced within two 
 years, and the whole within five, while within ten years a sum 
 equal to the whole purchase money must have been expended 
 in improvements, and double this sum must be expended unless 
 the holder resides on the land for six months out of each of the 
 first five years. After five years, and on completion of these 
 obligations, the land belongs to the holder as soon as the whole 
 purchase price has been paid. Neglect of these conditions may 
 lead to forfeiture. 
 
 Conditional purchase may also be efiected without residence 
 at a rate of not less than 10s per acre, payable within twelve 
 mouths, and subject to the condition of fencing the land 
 within three years and spending 5s per acre on it within seven 
 years. 
 
 The planting of vineyards or orchards in the South-western 
 Division, or within ten miles of a town anywhere, is encouraged 
 by the sale of blocks of from 5 to 50 acres at not less than £1 
 
232 NEW LANDS. 
 
 per acre, payable within three years, and subject to conditions 
 of fencing and cultivation. 
 
 Free homestead farms of not more than 160 acres are granted 
 in the South-western Division or within 40 miles of a railway 
 in the Eucla or Eastern Divisions by any person not owning 
 more than 100 acres of land in the colony who is prepared to 
 pay a fee of £1, reside for at least six months in each year for 
 five years on the land, and spend not less than £30 in buildings 
 or improvements, as well as fencing the whole within seven 
 years and cropping one quarter of it. The property in the 
 homestead is secured without payment only after seven years' 
 occupation. 
 
 Working-men's blocks of 5 acres are sold at £1 per acre, 
 payable over ten years, and subject to residence, fencing, and 
 improvement. 
 
 Grazing lands can be purchased at much lower rates (6s. 3d. 
 or 3s. 9d. per acre, according to quality), but under similar con- 
 ditions. Poison lands form another category. They are lands 
 infested by plants of the genus Gastrolobiutn, poisonous to live- 
 stock, and peculiarly deadly to sheep. They are let on a thirty 
 years' lease in blocks of from 300 to 10,000 acres at a purchase 
 price of Is. per acre, payable in instalments over the thirty 
 years, and when the conditions of paying the cost of a survey, 
 fencing, and eradicating poisonous plants have been fulfilled, 
 the land becomes the property of the lessee. 
 
 Pastoral Leases are granted in all the Divisions, for large 
 areas of land, the minimum being 3000 acres in the South- 
 western Division and 20,000 in the others, at annual rents 
 varying from 2s. 6d. per 1000 acres in the Eastern Division, 5s. 
 in Eucla, 10s. in the Western, North-western, and Kimberley 
 Divisions, and 20s. per 1000 acres in the South-western. The 
 highest rent charged works out at less than ^d. per acre ; but 
 the conditions attached to a pastoral lease are the stocking of 
 the land within five years with 10 head of sheep or one of large 
 cattle per 1000 acres, or the expenditure of a certain sum in 
 improvements. All pastoral leases terminate in the year 1928. 
 
 Wew Lands for Agriculture. — The South-western District 
 alone need be considered in this respect ; but as it is well 
 watered, larger than the United Kingdom, and its population 
 equal to that of a rural market town in England, it is obvious 
 that there is scope for a large increase of population. The great 
 and growing goldfields, situated as they are in a region as 
 impracticable for agriculture as the Klondike, require to be 
 supplied, and in 1897 nearly a million pounds worth of products 
 
WESTERN AUSTRALIA. 233 
 
 which might and ought to have been grown in the colony were 
 imported. No doubt very profitable market-gardens might be 
 established near or in the goldfields if irrigation could be 
 secured, but the cost of water for primary purposes is so great 
 that there are very few places indeed where a supply could 
 be obtained for the land. In the Eucla division the harbour of 
 Esperance (237 miles by sea from Albany) is connected by a 
 coach-road with the Dundas and Norseman goldfields 126 miles 
 to the north ; and as the rainfall within 15 miles of the coast is 
 believed to be sufficient, the neighbourhood might probably be 
 profitably developed by market-gardeners. There is land open 
 for selection, and the cost of clearing is comparatively low, 
 being from £1 to £2 10s. per acre. 
 
 In the river valleys of the northern part of the South-western 
 Division there is good agricultural land, but the climate is much 
 hotter than in the south. At Mullewa on the railway from 
 Geraldton to the Murchison goldfield at Cue there is an area 
 open for selection. This area promises a good market, as in 
 addition to the comparative proximity to the goldfield there is 
 a lead- and copper-mining district at Northampton, north of 
 Geraldton. The land costs from £3 to £i per acre to clear. 
 
 The valley of the Irwin River, in the country traversed by 
 the Midland Railway from Geraldton to Perth, contains rich 
 agricultural land, in which coal-seams also promise future de- 
 velopment, but there is no land at present open for selection. 
 Nearer Perth much of the country near the railway is well 
 suited for fruit-growing, but as most of it belongs to a land 
 company which charges the high price of from £2 to £3 per 
 acre, little has been sold. 
 
 The railway which runs east from Perth opens up a consider- 
 able agricultural area about Northam, where selections may be 
 made. This is a very important district, as it is the nearest 
 farming land to the Yilgarn and Ooolgardie goldfields, where 
 the demand is large and prices high. The railway south- 
 ward to Albany runs through fine farming land, with a rainfall 
 ranging from 14 to 26 inches a year. As a rule, wells have to 
 be sunk and tanks constructed to ensure a water supply. This 
 is the chief wheat-growing region in the colony, and large 
 areas of Crown lands are still open for selection. Most of the 
 new land is wooded, and requires to be cleared at a cost of from 
 £2 to £3 per acre. As this railway runs along the watershed 
 of the country it afl5ords access to the fertile valleys running to 
 the west and the south-east. 
 
 The coastal plain south of Perth is a prosperous region 
 
234 NEW LANDS. 
 
 capable of great development. It is of very fair fertility, and 
 lies between the immense forests of the ranges and the small 
 ports whence the timber is shipped. The principal coal deposits 
 of the colony are worked in the valley of the Collie River in the 
 south, and the coal is shipped at Bunbury, where there are 
 Crown lands open for selection. In this region there are also 
 deposits of tin and other minerals which only require capital for 
 their development. 
 
 Between Bunbury and Albany there is a stretch of well- 
 watered hilly country, densely wooded with jarrah and karri 
 and possessed of a very rich soil, but the clearing for agriculture 
 is so costly as to be prohibitive at present unless the timber 
 can be sold. When the forests are once cleared by the timber 
 companies the cultivation of the soil cannot fail to be very 
 profitable. 
 
 In the South-western District it would appear to be worth 
 while to spend money in the development of fruit-growing for 
 export. Vine-culture and wine-making already pay well and 
 can be greatly extended. Experiments show that the olive 
 flourishes and that silk-worms may also be reared ; olive oil is 
 easy to manufacture and commands a high price when of guar- 
 anteed purity, and the demand for silk is never likely to slacken. 
 Hence these industries ought to be given a fair chance to develop 
 by the introduction of an Italian colony and the offering of a 
 bounty on native productions. 
 
 Mineral Lands. — The rapid prospecting of the deserts of 
 the Eastern Division has proved the existence of an immense 
 quantity of gold, chiefly in the form of quartz reefs, which occur 
 at intervals in all parts of the country from south to north, 
 frequently on the margins of the great granite intrusions which 
 form a feature of the geology of Western Australia. The chief 
 goldfields which had been proclaimed up to the end of 1898 
 were as follows : — * 
 
 Tropical Goldfields. — The Kimherhy Goldfield in the 
 extreme north contains valuable reefs which cannot be profit- 
 ably worked on accovxnt of the remoteness of the region, the cost 
 of communications, the extreme heat of the climate, and the 
 difficulty of obtaining either machinery or labour. The total 
 production in 1898 was only 228 ozs. of gold. 
 
 The Pilbarra Goldfield on the north-west coast is also a 
 tropical field. Its chief centre is Marble Bar, on a tributary of 
 
 * The information here given Is derived mainly from Gordon & Gotch'a 
 Australian Handbook, 1899, and from the Emigrants' Information Office 
 Western Australia Handbook, 1899. 
 
WESTERN AUSTRALIA. 
 
 23& 
 
 THECOLDFIELDSOF 
 
 WESTERN AUSTRALIA 
 
 Scale of Miles 
 
 I so >oo zoo 
 
 Ra.ilwa.ys ' 
 Cold Fields 
 
 Busss 
 
 so. UTaERjsr o c k a jy 
 
 Kg. 7. — The Western Australian Groldfields. 
 
236 NEW LANDS. 
 
 the De Grey River, about 80 miles by coach from Condon in 
 latitude 20° S. Condon is reached by local steamer from 
 Cossack, which is in steamer connection with Fremantle. New 
 deposits of alluvial gold are frequently discovered, and there are 
 good quartz reefs. The total production in 1898 was 13,641 ozs. 
 of gold. Water is found at depths of from 40 to 120 feet. 
 Prices of all necessaries are very high, and miners' wages run up 
 to £5 per week. 
 
 The Ashhurton Goldfidd, reached by a journey of 200 or 300 
 miles from the port of Onslow at the mouth of the Ashburton 
 River, was opened in 1890 for alluvial workings, but is now 
 unimportant. 
 
 The Gascoyne Field lies just to the south of the Ashburton, 
 and was declared open in 1897, the chief workings being at 
 Bangemall, 260 miles north-east of the port of Carnarvon. 
 It is promising, on account of its valuable reefs. 
 
 The Peah Hill Field, adjoining the two goldfields just men- 
 tioned, was also opened in 1897, and is reached, via Nannine, 
 from the railway terminus. Cue, on the Murchison Field, about 
 150 miles to the south. It has been very productive in alluvial 
 gold, forming what is called in miner's language " a poor man's 
 field." The total yield in 1898 was 13,736 ozs. 
 
 The remaining goldfields lie well south of the tropic, although 
 they are all intensely hot in summer, but with a dry heat which, 
 outside the insanitary towns, is very healthy. The towns have 
 sprung up very quickly without any attention being paid to the 
 disposal of sewage, a more than usually serious problem in a 
 waterless land. 
 
 Blurchlson Goldfields. — The great Murchison Field has 
 been worked since 1891, and is now in railway communication 
 with Perth by the line running east from Geraldton to Mount 
 Magnet, and thence north to Cue. The chief centres of gold 
 production are Mount Magnet, Day Dawn, the Island, Nannine, 
 and Cue. Both alluvial and reef gold are worked, and the 
 supply from the reefs promises to become permanent. Timber 
 for use in the mines is scarce, but water is generally abundant, 
 and there is a good deal of pastoral land on the goldfield carrying 
 sheep. The total output for 1898 amounted to 133,231 ozs., the 
 yield being second only to that of Coolgardie. 
 
 The Yalgoo Field is crossed by the Geraldton to Cue Railway. 
 It was proclaimed in 1895, and is a pastoral as well as an auri- 
 ferous country. Copper ore has also been discovered. 
 
 The East Murchison Field lies between the Murchison and the 
 Mount Margaret goldfields, and its chief centre, Lawler, in the 
 
WESTERN AUSTRALIA. 237" 
 
 south is reached from the railway terminus at Menzies, 130' 
 miles to the south. 
 
 Yilgarn and Coolgardie Goldfields. — The Yilgarn Field 
 is nearest the administrative centre of the colony, the station of 
 Southern Cross on the Coolgardie Eailway, which forms its chief 
 town, is only 237 miles east of Perth. It is a typical mining 
 town of the desert, the water supply being obtained by distilla- 
 tion from the brine wells. In some parts of the goldfields 
 around this centre there is a fair supply of natural water, and 
 the field as a whole is promising mainly for quartz-mining. The 
 total output in 1898 was 11,696 ozs. 
 
 The richest of the goldfields is that of Coolgardie, which 
 produces fully three-quarters of the West Australian gold, and 
 enjoys the same position in Australia as Klondike does in Canada 
 or Johannesburg in South Africa. Gold was discovered in 1891, 
 and the goldfield proclaimed in 1894. The town of Coolgardie 
 contained 13,000 inhabitants in 1898. It lies in the centre of 
 the richest quartz mines, and in 1898 deep alluvial gold was 
 discovered within the boundaries of the town itself Not only 
 gold, but almost all other minerals (including lignite) occur, 
 though they are not yet worked. The town is 310 miles by rail 
 from Premantle and 528 miles from Albany, but the single line 
 of railway has often proved insufficient to carry in the necessary 
 supplies and machinery, and the construction of another line to 
 the harbour of Esperance on the south coast, a distance of only 
 200 miles in a straight line, is in contemplation. Thfe sanitary 
 condition of this and the other towns of the desert require 
 improvement, and all prices are very high. Water is sold on 
 the desert goldfields like any other commodity, and its supply is- 
 a serious problem. Coolgardie town is served partly by means 
 of condensed water obtained from brine wells, the deepest 
 Artesian borings (3000 feet) having failed to strike fresh water, 
 and partly from tanks in which the scanty rainfall is preserved. 
 The latter in 1897 was only 5|- inches. A great water scheme 
 has been projected, with the object of bringing a supply in pipes 
 from the hills near Fremantle. Rapid as the progress of the 
 mines has been, the arrival of miners has been more rapid still, 
 and the supply of labour often exceeds the demand. Kalgoorlie 
 (25 miles from Coolgardie by rail), in the East Coolgardie Field, 
 is rapidly approaching Coolgardie in size, and is in the midst 
 of even richer mines. It is probably the richest goldfield in 
 Australia. Kanowna, or White Feathers, 12 miles north-east 
 of Kalgoorlie by coach, is the centre of the North-east Coolgardie 
 Field, and has the advantage of timber in the surrounding 
 
238 NEW LANDS. 
 
 country and possesses characteristic desert lakes. It is in the 
 neighbourhood of extensive deposits of alluvial gold. Menzies, 
 80 miles by rail from Kalgoorlie, is the chief town of the North 
 €oolgardie Field, and has the advantage of drawing its water 
 supply from wells. There will probably be many more towns of 
 importance established upon these tields, where, undoubtedly, 
 much gold has yet to be discovered. Altogether, the Coolgardie 
 goldiields produced in 1898 no less than 773,473 ozs. 
 
 Mount Margaret and Dundas Goldfields. — The Mount 
 Margaret Field lies north of the North Coolgardie, and east of 
 the East Murchison Fields. It was proclaimed in 1897, and 
 contains good reef gold worked at the centres, Mount Margaret 
 a,nd Mount Malcolm. Mount Malcolm is 64 miles north of 
 Menzies, and Mount Margaret is a few miles further east on the 
 shore of the salt Lake Carey. The total yield from this field in 
 1898 was 43,264 ozs. 
 
 The Dundas Field lies south of Coolgardie, and its chief 
 centre, Norseman, is reached either from that town (111 miles) 
 or by coach from Esperance (126 miles). There is abundant 
 reef, though little alluvial, gold, and if water could be secured 
 for irrigation the country might become important agriculturally. 
 The production of gold in 1898 was 32,032 ozs. 
 
 Prospecting in the desert regions is very trying, and even 
 dangerous, work. Camels have to be employed for transport, 
 unless the routes across the desert are chosen so as to follow the 
 ■ water-holes known only to the scattered tribes of aborigines. 
 The extreme heat of the day is often followed by sharp cold at 
 night, and the rock is in many places concealed under a great 
 depth of drifting sand. 
 
239 
 
 CHAPTER XVIII. 
 JS"EW ZEALAND. 
 
 Position — Configuration and Geology — Climate — Population and Immigra- 
 tion — Legislation —Land laws — Mining laws — Resources of New 
 Zealand — Pastoral Products — Agricultiu-e — Minerals — Forests and 
 Fisheries — Manufactures — Towns and Communications — Possibilities 
 of New Zealand. 
 
 Position. — New Zealand consists of two large and several small 
 islands lyinj; in the Pacific Ocean about 1300 miles south-east of 
 the east coast of Australia. The group lies within the parallels 
 of 34° S. and 47° S., projecting further into the temperate zone 
 in the southern hemisphere than any other land except the 
 extremity of South America. It is included between the 
 meridians of 166° E. and 179° B., the island being almost exactly 
 on the opposite side of the Earth to Great Britain, and the time 
 consequently differing by nearly twelve hours. Thus noon in 
 England corresponds nearly to midnight in New Zealand. 
 From the positions of the islands in the southern hemisphere it 
 is summer in Europe when it is winter in New Zealand. 
 
 Conflguration and Geology. — -The group consists of two large 
 islands named North Island and South (or Middle) Island, while 
 the much smaller Stewart (formerly called South) Island lies at 
 the extreme south. North Island, with an area of nearly 44,500 
 square miles, has a straight and nearly unindented coast on the 
 west towards Australia, the few openings which occur being ill- 
 suited for harbours. The east coast is richly indented, especially 
 in Hauraki Gulf in the north, where the excellent harbour of 
 Auckland is situated. The main feature of North Island is its 
 volcanic character, there being several great volcanic mountains, 
 the highest, Ruapehu reaching 9100 feet in height ; and amongst 
 the low ranges of the interior of the island there are remarkable 
 hot lakes and thermal springs. Earthquakes frequently occur, 
 but are rarely severe. The Carboniferous formation containing 
 coal measures occurs in several parts of the island, and in the 
 more ancient rocks quartz veins yielding gold are found. 
 
 The South Island has an area of 58,500 square miles, and is 
 
240 NEW LANDS. 
 
 separated from North Island by -Cook Strait, 13 miles wide. 
 The lofty range of the Southern Alps runs along the west coast ; 
 the higher summits are permanently snow-capped, and form 
 glaciers. Koads can only be carried across the range at a few 
 points, so that the rugged west coast remains much isolated 
 trom the extensive undulating plains which stretch from the 
 .eastern base of the mountains to the Pacific coast. Grand 
 ^ords wind deeply into the land in the south-west of the island, 
 but these are valueless as harbours because the deep inlets are 
 backed by impassable mountains. The harbours in the north of 
 the west coast are poor, and on the east coast the only good 
 natural harbours are those of Lyttleton and Port Chalmers. 
 The south-west of the island contains magnificent mountain 
 scenery and fine lakes ; but the whole eastern half of South 
 Island may be looked upon as one great pastoral plain, many 
 parts of which are being broken up for agriculture. The plain 
 is well watered by rivers flowing across it from the mountains 
 to the sea ; and New Zealand differs in this respect, as in so 
 many other particulars, from the Australian colonies. 
 
 The geology of South Island displays a great development of 
 the ancient sedimentary rocks in the west, including very 
 important outcrops of the coal-measures and auriferous quartz. 
 Other mineral resources are also abundant. 
 
 Climate. — North Island has a considerably warmer climate 
 than any part of England. The average temperature in January 
 (the hottest month) is from 65° to 68°, and in July (the coldest 
 month) from 48° to 55°. Temperatures over 80° are not common 
 in summer, and frost at sea-level is very rare in winter. South 
 Island approximates in climate to England. The January tem- 
 perature averages from 58° to 65°, and that in July from 40° to 
 48°. Extremely high temperatures are rare, and frost and snow 
 are sometimes experienced even at sea-level ; a minimum tem- 
 perature of 23° has been observed at Lincoln in the Canterbury 
 district. 
 
 New Zealand is a country of high winds, especially South 
 Island, which lies entirely in the belt of prevailing westerly 
 winds. The rainfall along the west coast is consequently very 
 heavy, exceeding 75 inches per annum along the whole western 
 slope of South Island (where, at Hokitika, it averages 118 
 inches), and exceeding 50 inches for the west of North Island. 
 The shelter afforded by the Southern Alps provides the eastern 
 slopes of South Island with a rainfall which, while everywhere 
 sufficient, in a normal year does not exceed 30 inches. In North 
 Island the lower and less regularly scattered highlands permit 
 
NEW ZEALAND. 241 
 
 of a more uniform distribution of rainfall, few parts of the island 
 having less than 40 inches of rain annually. 
 
 The climate is pleasant and exhilarating at all seasons, and 
 the death-rate of New Zealand is probably the lowest in the 
 world, rarely exceeding 10 per thousand of the population for 
 the whole country. 
 
 Popiilation and Immigration. — The population of New 
 Zealand at the census of 1896 was 743,214. With the exception 
 of about 40,000 aboriginal maoris (most of whom live in North 
 Island) and 3700 Chinese, the population is almost exclusively 
 of British origin. The further immigration of Chinese is subject 
 to government restrictions, and the usual restrictions are also 
 in force against the introduction of undesirable Europeans. 
 
 The population is well scattered over the country, not con- 
 centrated in large towns as in Australia. The existence of four 
 towns of approximately equal size — Auckland, Wellington, 
 Ohristchurch, and Dunedin^each with from 40,000 to 60,000 
 inhabitants, provides a number of centres of activity no one of 
 which greatly preponderates over the others, and Wellington, 
 the political capital, is the smallest of the four. 
 
 The excess of arrivals over departures averaged 3600 per 
 annum for the seven years 1892-98, and the population is 
 increasing by the natural excess of births over deaths at the 
 rate of 11,800 per annum. The government no longer offers 
 direct encouragement to immigration, but there is room and 
 there are resources in the country for the support of a very 
 mucli larger population. 
 
 The maoris, living mainly in North Island, are diminishing 
 in numbers, and a colonial estimate gives the year 1930 as that 
 by which the race will be practically extinct. They take readily 
 to work of various kinds, and have ceased to be a cause of 
 serious trouble to white colonists. They are of a race superior 
 in physique and in culture to the Australians, and are capable 
 of education. There are maori members in both Houses of the 
 colonial parliament. 
 
 Iiegislation. — New Zealand is a self-governing colony, in 
 which democratic principles probably have fuller expression 
 than in any other country in the world. There is universal 
 suffrage for all persons over the age of twenty-one; women have 
 the same right to vote as men, but may not be elected as members 
 of either House. The maori members are elected by maoris 
 alone, with a special franchise. Members of both Houses are 
 paid. There is stringent legislation as to the employment of 
 women and children, the regulation of factories and mines, 
 
 16 
 
242 NEW LANDS. 
 
 holidays, and the hours of closing of offices and shops. The 
 liquor traffic is subject to local option. Workmen have privi- 
 leges as to security for wages and compensation for injuries, and 
 there are special enactments for conciliation and arbitration in 
 the case of labour disputes. 
 
 Old age pensions have been introduced, by which every person 
 over sixty-five years of age who has resided for twenty-five 
 years in New Zealand, and has not been a serious criminal, is 
 entitled to receive £18 a year from the public funds ; but if his 
 income otherwise exceeds £34 a year, the pension is reduced so 
 as to make up the total income to £52. Thus no one possessing 
 a private income of £1 a week receive.s any pension. 
 
 Dogs can only be imported subject to six months' quarantine 
 at the importer's expense, and there are restrictions on the 
 importation of all live-stock. There is a protective tariff which is 
 high on certain products, running up to 40 per cent, of the value. 
 
 Land Laws. — The land laws of New Zealand are designed 
 to encourage the principle of State ownership, with security of 
 tenure to the occupant. There are three modes of tenure for 
 Crown lands, one of which must be chosen by the selector. 
 These are — (1) Cash payment and the acquisition of the land in 
 freehold ; (2) occupation under lease for twenty-five years with 
 a right to purchase ; and (3) a lease in perpetuity. The Crown 
 lands are divided into three classes — Urban, Suburban, and 
 Kural — each of which is sold by auction, although rural lands 
 may also be obtained by application after the land has been 
 declared open for selection, the holder, if there should be more 
 than one applicant, being chosen by ballot. The area which 
 may be acquired by any individual is limited in each case ; no 
 rural section can exceed 640 acres of first-class or 2000 acres of 
 second-class land. Larger areas of pastoral land can, however, 
 be secured on lease. There are ten land districts, corresponding 
 to the provinces, and principal land offices are situated in the 
 following towns : — Auckland for Auckland, New Plymouth for 
 Taranaki, Napier for Hawkes Bay, Wellington for Wellington, 
 Nelson for Nelson, Blenheim for Marlborough, Christchurch for 
 Canterbury, Dunedin for Otago, Invercargill for Southland, and 
 Hokitika for Westland. All negotiations for the acquisition of 
 Crown lands have to be conducted through the land office of the 
 division in which it is situated. The price of Crown land varies 
 greatly according to situation and quality. The rent of land 
 held with option of purchase is 5 per cent., and that of land 
 held on a perpetual lease is 4 per cent., of the cash price. In 
 both cases residence and improvements are required. 
 
NEW ZEALAND. 243 
 
 Special arrangements are made for the establishment of village 
 settlements, in which homesteads are granted at a very low 
 rent. 
 
 Small grazing-runs are let at a rental of 2| per cent, of the 
 capital value of the land, which must not be less than 5s. per 
 acre, and the area of such a run must not exceed 5000 acres of 
 first-class or 20,000 of second-class land. Any selector may 
 hold only one such run, and cannot hold it together with a 
 pastoral run. 
 
 Pastoral runs are let by auction on lease for not more than 
 twenty-one years, subject to resumption by the Grown at a 
 year's notice. The holders are obliged to exterminate rabbits 
 and prevent the spread of such shrubs as gorse, broom, and 
 sweet-briar. No right is acquired by a pastoral lease to the 
 soil, timber, or minerals. The maximum area of any run varies 
 in different districts, the general rule being that it should not 
 be greater than is sufficient to carry 20,000 sheep or 4000 cattle. 
 
 Mining Laws. — Miners' rights for prospecting and working 
 minerals on Crown lands cost 10s. per annum, with 10s. addi- 
 tional if the operations are carried out on native land. The 
 maximum area of land held on a lease for minerals other than 
 coal is 320 acres, the rental charged being 2s. 6d. per acre and a 
 royalty of from 1 to 4 per cent, of the value of the output at the 
 spot. The maximum length of lease is forty-two years. The 
 area of land leased for coal-mining may be as much as 2000 acres, 
 and the lease may be for as many as sixty-six years at a rental 
 of from Is. to 5s. per acre and a royalty of from 3d. to Is. per 
 ton. 
 
 Resources of New Zealand. — The total exports of the 
 colony average about £10,000,000 per annum, of which animal 
 products account for seven-tenths. The largest item is wool, 
 worth over £4,000,000 ; the next, frozen meat (chiefly mutton), 
 worth £1,600,000. Products of the mines yield rather over 
 £1,000,000 of exports, practically all gold. Products of the 
 forest and agriculture yield about £1,000,000 worth of exports 
 between them. The chief forest product is the remarkable semi- 
 fossil resin kauri gum which is dug out of the soil in some parts 
 of the North Island. 
 
 Pastoral Products. — Looked at from the point of view of 
 productions. New Zealand is mainly a sheep-rearing country, 
 but, unlike most new countries, it has acquired a reputation not 
 only for wool but for carefully-fed mutton also. In 1898 there 
 were 19,673,000 sheep in the colony, mainly in the east of 
 South Island and in the south and east of North Island. The 
 
244 NEW LANDS. 
 
 pastures of New Zealand are mainly sown with European 
 grasses. In its native state the land was covered with ferns of 
 many varieties and a coarse tussock grass, growing in tufts and 
 of inferior quality for grazing purposes. The fern having been 
 burnt off, good pasture grasses can be easily grown, and in 1898 
 there were over 10,000,000 acres of artificial pasture in use. 
 
 Cattle are kept (to the number of 1,200,000 in 1898) chiefly 
 in the provinces of Auckland and Wellington in North Island, 
 and Taranaki and Otago in South Island. Dairy farming is 
 increasing in importance, the large trade in frozen meat making 
 the transport of frozen butter easy and cheap. 
 
 Although the country is well adapted for horse-breeding, the 
 number of horses exported from New Zealand has been falling 
 off. 
 
 Agriculture. — Agriculture is annually increasing in import- 
 ance, but the area of land under crops varies greatly from year 
 to year. In 1898-9 there were 399,000 acres under wheat, a 
 total that was more than the average of recent years, but less 
 than it once was. There were 417,000 acres under oats, and 
 416,000 acres under turnips. Potatoes also form a large crop. 
 By far the greater part of all these crops are raised in the pro- 
 vinces of Canterbury and Otago in South Island. There is 
 a small export of oats and potatoes, but wheat, which was a 
 comparatively large export up to 1892, has now to be imported 
 to supplement the native supply for home consumption. 
 
 The yield per acre of all crops in New Zealand is exception- 
 ally high, and the labour of farming is claimed to be lighter 
 than in most countries on account of the favourable climate, 
 kindly soil, and the absence of disease in plants or animals. 
 
 Minerals. — The gold production of New Zealand is fairly 
 steady, and the amount obtained from quartz veins is increasing, 
 although more than half the yield is still got by alluvial work- 
 ings. The most productive goldfields are in Auckland, Otago, 
 and on the west coast. The introduction of gold-dredging 
 machinery on the rivers has proved very profitable, but the appa- 
 rent yield of gold per miner is curiously small. Divided amongst 
 the 14,200 miners engaged, the annual yield of £1,080,000 would 
 only furnish £76 per head. 
 
 The output of coal reached 900,000 tons in 1898, and is 
 steadily increasing. It does not quite suffice for the demand, 
 about 110,000 tons requiring to be imported yearly. The chief 
 coalfields now being worked are on the west coast of South 
 Island, and in Otago ; but there are other fields in Auckland 
 and Nelson. 
 
NEW ZEALAND. 245 
 
 Small quantities of silver, antimony, copper, manganese, and 
 sulphur are worked ; but there does not seem to be any large 
 supply of iron ore, although immense deposits of rich titaniferous 
 iron sand are found at Taranaki and elsewhere on the coast. 
 These were formerly worked for export, but are now somewhat 
 neglected. 
 
 Forests and Fisheries. — Of the forest products by far the 
 most important is the kauri gum, obtained by digging over the 
 sites of the once extensive forests of kauri pines. A consider- 
 able wood industry also exists in Auckland, the kauri and other 
 pines forming admirable timber. 
 
 The fisheries are not much developed, but are decidedly 
 promising. The rivers are stocked with trout and other fish 
 brought from Europe, but native species of much value for food 
 abound round the coast, and there is some trade in fish to 
 Australia. The New Zealand oysters form an increasingly 
 important export. 
 
 Manufactures. — Manufactures of all kinds are encouraged 
 by the protective tarifi". The chief industrial establishments, 
 apart from those employed in building -construction, <fec., are 
 those engaged in meat-refrigeration. There are also important 
 tanneries, butter and cheese factories, and flax mills engaged in 
 spinning phormium or native hemp. Textile manufactures 
 have not yet developed as might have been expected. The 
 damp climate of the west coast of South Island and the conve- 
 nient coal supply would seem to point to the profitable estab- 
 lishment of cotton mills. Raw cotton could be produced in 
 Fiji and other Pacific islands within easy reach of New Zealand. 
 Woollen textiles might also be manufactured on a larger scale 
 than is the case at present ; but fluctuations of price and other 
 causes frequently check growing industries. The manufacture 
 of phormium, for instance, was formerly a flourishing industry, 
 employing 3200 hands in 1891, but fell to only 647 in 1896, 
 while the exports fell from £380,000 to £30,000. 
 
 Towns and Communications. — The chief traffic between 
 the coast towns of the colony is carried on by sea. Coasting 
 steamers visit all the small ports, and larger vessels sailing 
 from Auckland southward call at the chief ports on their way 
 to Melbourne ; while vessels bound for Sydney call at the ports 
 on their way northward along the east coast. Steamers of 
 several companies from England round the Cape of Good Hope 
 have their terminus in New Zealand ports, and return to 
 Europe via Oape Horn. There is also direct communication 
 between Auckland and Vancouver or San Francisco. 
 
246 
 
 NEW LANDS. 
 
 The railway system in neither island can be looked upon as 
 complete, although it is already fairly extensive. From Auckland 
 
 Fig. 8.— New Zealand. 
 
 the railway runs only 1 20 miles to the south, the central part 
 of the island, mainly occupied by the maori lands being not yet 
 
NEW ZEALAND. 247 
 
 crossed by a line. From Wellington on Cook Strait there is 
 railway communication northward to New Plymouth in Taranaki 
 on the west coast, 220 miles ; and to Napier on Hawkes Bay on 
 the east coast, 180 miles. 
 
 In South Island the south-eastern half of the island is well 
 supplied with railways. From Dunedin a line runs 230 miles 
 northward to Ohristchurch and continues 70 miles farther north. 
 A line runs south-eastward from Dunedin for 140 miles to 
 Invercargill and Bluff Harbour at the extreme south, and 
 numerous branch lines cross the plains of the province of 
 Canterbury and ascend the valleys of southern Otago. Some 
 of these are destined eventually to unite with the short lines on 
 the west coast, where Hokitika and Greytown are already con- 
 nected, and communicate with the gold and coalfields in their 
 neighbourhood. The gaps in the railway system are filled by 
 excellent coach-roads, which form a wonderfully complete net- 
 work over the colony, and are being pushed into the outlying 
 districts in advance of colonisation. Indeed, the government of 
 New Zealand has been reproached with extravagance in spending 
 so much on roads, railways, surveys, and other public works. 
 From the point of view of the scientific geographer such a reproach 
 is the highest praise for intelligent foresight. 
 
 The Possibilities of New Zealand. — New Zealand is the 
 most favourable region in the world for the creation of a second 
 and improved Britain. The islands are, in many respects, even 
 more favourable for the development of a self-supporting nation 
 than those of the old country ; the climate is better, and the 
 soil more fertile. New Zealand is not handicapped by any stain 
 of convict colonists, but was settled by men of high character. 
 The two chief towns in South Island were, indeed, religious in 
 their origin, Dunedin having been founded in 1848 by the Free 
 Church of Scotland, and Christchurch, two years later, by the 
 Church of England. This accounts for the fact that the streets 
 of Christchurch are named after cathedral cities in England, 
 while those of Dunedin repeat the street names of its parent 
 city, Edinburgh. The bold experiments in legislation initiated 
 by the New Zealand Government have freed the country from 
 the hampering influence of tradition and insured an equality of 
 chances for all comers. 
 
 Although wages are not so high, nor the possibilities of 
 making individual fortunes so great as in other new countries, 
 the cost of living is proportionally low, and no industrious 
 worker can become destitute. The possibility of New Zealand 
 becoming a great centre of trade for the Pacific, and the certaint 
 
248 NEW LANDS. 
 
 of its becoming an important tourist resort on account of the 
 unique interest and beauty of the scenery of both islands must 
 not be forgotten. New branches of agriculture and industry 
 may be profitably introduced. Experiments with ostrich- 
 farming, olive, and wine-growing in Auckland give promising 
 results ; European flax can be grown everywhere, and the sugar- 
 beet is looked upon as a crop of the future for southern Otago. 
 The extensive forests, covering about 20,000,000 acres in 1896, 
 are in danger of being destroyed by the increase of settlement, 
 but efforts are being made to promote tree-planting so as to 
 ensure a supply of timber and to furnish a shelter from wind on 
 the open plains. 
 
 There are still large areas of Crown land available for selection 
 in all parts of both islands ; but in the Canterbury plains the 
 best has long since been taken up, and the land now available is 
 rarely so easy to clear as the plains clad with fern, which only 
 required to be burnt off to enable the plough to get to work. 
 
 Mining may be immensely developed by increasing the 
 capital of the mining companies, and by opening up mineral 
 resources other than coal and gold. The discovery of phosphates 
 ■would be welcome to farmers, who are beginning to feel the 
 want of fertilisers, the supply of which at present is practically 
 limited to slaughter-house refuse. 
 
 For particulars of the character and particular resources of the 
 various land districts the reader must be referred to the com- 
 prehensive New Zealand Official Yearbook, or to the short 
 abstract published in the Emigrants' Information Office's New 
 Zealand Handbook, both of which are published annually. 
 
249 
 
 CHAPTER XIX. 
 THE RESOURCES OP SOUTH AFRICA. 
 
 South Africa — Configuration of South Africa — South African Climate — 
 Fauna — Communications — People — Political Divisions — Prospects for 
 the Future. Cape Colony — Position and Surface — Settlement — 
 Eastern Districts — Northern Districts — Bechuanaland — Trade — 
 Resources. Natal — Surface and Climate — Trade and Resources — 
 New Lands in Natal. Transvaal — People and History — Surface and 
 Resources — The Rand — Other Goldfields. Orange River Colony — 
 General Conditions — Resources. 
 
 South Africa. — The lands of temperate South Africa present 
 certain general resemblances to those of Australia and of tem- 
 perate South America, but differ greatly from both on account 
 of the high average elevation of the country, the absence of any 
 dominant mountain range, and the large population of sturdy 
 natives, who show no tendency to die out in contact with White 
 civilisation. Another difference is due to racial difficulties 
 between the White masters of the country. In Australia the 
 British stock and the English language are supreme, and in 
 South America the Spanish, but in South Africa representatives 
 of many European nations meet without mingling. The strain 
 between the dominant races — the British, politically the masters, 
 and the Afrikanders, of Dutch descent and language, numerically 
 superior — has led at the time of writing this book to a war of 
 magnitude almost unexampled in British colonial history. The 
 restoration of peace and the re-organisation of the territories 
 immediately concerned will do much in the way of stimulating 
 the utilisation of resources and the development of the country, 
 and when these are complete, South Africa will undoubtedly 
 become more valuable in every way than it ever was before. 
 In the present circumstances a brief sketch can alone be 
 attempted, indicating the natural resources, but not attempting 
 to deal with the actual conditions. Fuller treatment will here 
 only be accorded the Northern Division of the region (Southern 
 Rhodesia), although it lies for the most part in the tropical 
 zone. 
 
250 NEW LANDS. 
 
 Configuration of South Africa. — The uniformity of the coast- 
 line of Africa south of the Zambezi is an index of the inacces- 
 sibility of the country. There is no good harbour on the west 
 coast, from the tropic southward to Table Bay ; while on the- 
 south coast there is no place where a steamer can unload in 
 quiet water, except the artificial harbour of East London, and 
 on the east coast, with the exception of the artificially improved 
 harbour of Durban, Delagoa Bay is the only sheltered place 
 where steamers can lie. 
 
 The interior of South Africa is a great plateau, rising from 
 the sea by several steps, the steep edges of which resemble 
 mountain ranges and act as such towards all approach from the- 
 seaward side. The plains between the successive mountainous 
 slopes are termed karroos in Cape Colony, and the general 
 Dutch name of veld (field) is given to all the plains, whether 
 at a high or a lower elevation. The eastern edge of the plateau 
 forms the Drakensberg mountains, between which and the sea. 
 in Natal there is much hilly and broken country. Towards the 
 north, stretching to the Zambezi, the altitude of the plateau 
 exceeds 5000 feet above the sea level. The flat surface of the 
 veld is frequently broken by abrupt isolated hills termed 
 kopjes (heads), of all sizes from 20 feet to over 1000 feet in 
 height ; but the veld, as a whole, is so flat that it ofiers no- 
 obstacle to the passage of wheeled vehicles, and thus the ox- 
 waggon has become the characteristic means of transport over 
 the length and breadth of South Africa, no roads being neces- 
 sary. 
 
 The rivers run, as a rule, in deep gorges far below the general 
 level of the country, and are of no value for navigation on 
 account of waterfalls. The chief rivers are the Orange, flowing- 
 to the west coast, with the Vaal as one of its principal tribu- 
 taries ; the Limpopo, flowing to the east coast, with a great 
 bend to the north, and entering the Indian Ocean north of 
 Delagoa Bay ; and the Pungwe, a small stream entering the 
 Indian Ocean, and valuable as an inlet to the tableland which 
 slopes northward to the great river Zambezi. 
 
 South African Climate. — The climate of South Africa is 
 remarkably similar to that of Australia within the same limits- 
 of latitude. The south-east trade winds bring a considerable 
 and steady rainfall to the eastward slopes of the plateau, but 
 inland from the Drakensberg the whole of the veld is dry, and 
 much of it arid, while in the west the dry pastures merge into 
 the pure desert of the Kalahari. As in Australia, the climate 
 is subject to great extremes. The low coast lands of the eastern 
 
THE RESOURCES OF SOUTH AFRICA. 251 
 
 seaboard are usually swampy and malarious, conditions extend- 
 ing up the valleys of the rivers north of Natal, and combining 
 ■with the prevalence of the tsetse fly to render that part of the 
 country very unhealthy both for man and beast. But on the 
 veld, and along the south coast, and even on the high plateau 
 north of the Limpopo, the climate from its dryness and the 
 exhilarating character of the air is extremely favourable to- 
 health. On account of the great elevation of the plateau the 
 nights are always cool and often very cold, even in summer, 
 while the latitude ensures intense radiation from the sun during 
 the day at all seasons. Along the east coast the rainy season is 
 the summer, the wettest months (which are also the hottest), 
 being between October and March. In the north-western inte- 
 rior there is practically no rain, and any development of that 
 part of the country must be of such a kind as to be independent 
 of atmospheric moisture. The most temperate part of South 
 Africa, along the south coast, receives most of its rain in the 
 winter months, from May to August. 
 
 From these remarks it will be seen that the extreme south is- 
 favoured with a climate scarcely excelled in any part of the 
 world, but that both the east coast and the far interior present 
 certain conditions to which a European settler would require to 
 become gradually acclimatised. 
 
 Fauna. — The whole of South Africa was at one time traversed, 
 by herds of big game, ostriches, antelopes of innumerable species, 
 zebras, giraffes, elephants, rhinoceros, buffalo, and the lion. 
 Smaller carnivora were also very abundant. The occupation 
 and settlement of the country have driven almost all these 
 animals north of the Orange River, and most of them are now 
 only to be met with in any numbers north of the Limpopo. 
 The ostrich alone has been domesticated, but the domestication 
 of the zebra may be looked upon as being in progress of realisa- 
 tion. Sheep, cattle, horses, and Angora goats have been intro- 
 duced, and flourish much as they have done in Australia and 
 South America. 
 
 Commumeations. — Over most of the interior of South Africa 
 the cumbrous ox-waggon is the most convenient means of trans- 
 port, the traveller using the waggon as a house, and, if need be, 
 as a fort. Eapid travelling is possible only on horseback, or, in 
 the more settled parts where roads have been made, by mail 
 coach. 
 
 The railway system of South Africa is still very incomplete, 
 but its main outlines have been laid down. The chief railway 
 runs from Oape Town north-eastward to Bulawayo in Rhodesia,. 
 
252 NEW LANDS. 
 
 a distance of about 800 miles, and the extension of this line to 
 and beyond the Zambezi, so as to make a central trade-route 
 through the centre of Africa from south to north, is in contem- 
 plation. Short lines running north from Port Elizabeth and 
 East London are connected with the main line by a branch on 
 the Karroo south of the Orange River, and, converging north of 
 that river, are continued through Bloemfontein and Pretoria 
 towards the Limpopo. One line runs into the Transvaal from 
 Durban, connecting with the main line at the junction for 
 Johannesburg, and another railway runs from Lourengo Marques 
 on Uelagoa Bay to Pretoria. The only other important line in 
 use also crosses Portuguese East Africa from the head of navi- 
 gation on the Pungwe to Salisbury in Rhodesia, which will in 
 time be reached from Bulawayo also. These railways from the 
 east coast are important, because they enable travellers to cross 
 the unhealthy coast belt rapidly, and so reach the healthy plateau 
 without serious inconvenience. 
 
 People. — The native people of South Africa may be distin- 
 guished into two groups; — (1) The Hottentot and Bushman 
 Tribes of the west, which are diminishing in numbers and im- 
 portance, the former being now almost extinct ; and (2) the 
 Kaffir or Bantu Tribes of the east, who have spread over the 
 greater part of the country, and are steadily increasing in 
 numbers. Of the Kaffir tribes, the Zulus are the most power- 
 ful. The elements of population in all parts of South Africa are 
 practically the same, viz. — a great number of natives forming a 
 large reserve of cheap labour, and a small number of white men, 
 for the most part of Dutch descent and speaking the dialect 
 known as Cape Dutch. For the successful conduct of business 
 in the outlying parts of the country, a knowledge of Dutch 
 and of the Kaffir language is absolutely indispensable ; but 
 English suffices for the towns, even in those in which the 
 majority of the inhabitants are of Dutch origin. 
 
 Political Divisions. — The political divisions of South Africa 
 at the beginning of 1900 included six States : — (1) The Colony 
 of the Cape of Good Hope, usually known as Cape Colony, or 
 «ven " The Cape," a British self-governing colony, in which 
 there was absolute equality for all white races, while debates in 
 the Cape Parliament might be carried on either in English or 
 Dutch. This extended north to the Orange River, and included 
 Bechuanaland. (2) Basutoland, at the source of the Orange 
 River, a small Crown colony in which the settlement of white 
 people was prohibited. (3) Natal, a self-governing British 
 colony on the east coast, including Pondoland on the south and 
 
THE KESOURCES OF SOUTH AFRICA. 
 
 253 
 
 Zululand on the north. (4) The Orange River Free State, 
 between the Orange and the Vaal, a republic of Dutch-speaking 
 farmers (in Dutch, the word for farmer is Boer), in which white 
 men could acquire citizenship and exercise full rights. (5) The 
 
 VfSST AFRICA 
 
 (aWooia^ 
 
 Fig. 9. — South African Railways. 
 
 South African Eepublic, or Transvaal, between the Vaal and 
 the Upper Limpopo, a republic of Dutch-speaking farmers with 
 a very large alien population attracted to the goldfields, to 
 whom the Boer Government denied the rights of citizens except 
 
254 NEW LANDS. 
 
 upon impracticable terms. The two Boer Republics were not 
 sovereign states, for their foreign affairs were subject to British 
 control, although the nature and extent of this control was so 
 badly defined by treaties or conventions that there were con- 
 siderable differences of opinion on the subject. (6) The territory 
 of the Imperial British South Africa Company, or Rhodesia, 
 stretching from the Limpopo to the Zambezi, and connected to 
 Cape Colony by a railway running close to the Transvaal frontier 
 through a strip of ground belonging to Rhodesia, bordering the 
 protected native territory of independent Bechuanaland under 
 the rule of Khama and other chiefs. 
 
 The result of the war has been to put an end to the republics. 
 The Orange Free State has been formally annexed to the British 
 ■Crown under the name of the Orange River Colony, while the 
 subjection of the Transvaal is also assured. For many years to 
 ■come these territories must be administered as Crown colonies, 
 the exercise of political rights by the people being limited until 
 the loyalty of the mass of the population to the British Crown 
 has been established. 
 
 "With the exception of the Transvaal and Rhodesia, all South 
 Africa formed a Customs Union within which there was free 
 trade, and the same tariff and exemptions held good in all the 
 ■constituent states of the Union. 
 
 Prospects for the Future. — The alliance between the two 
 Boer Republics, and the invasion of Natal and Cape Colony by 
 their armies in October, 1899, led to a state of affairs which has 
 produced radical changes in the political status and govern- 
 ment of South Africa, but as the problems to which they have 
 given rise have not as yet been fully solved it is impossible to 
 ■consider advantageously the conditions of settlement in any of 
 the territories, except perhaps Rhodesia. The political changes 
 will lead to administrative and economic changes which will 
 greatly alter the prospects of intending settlers in the different 
 parts of the country. The war ruined thousands of prosperous 
 farmers, miners, engineers, and traders of all kinds, while 
 thousands have lost their lives ; and until peace has been 
 not only restored but assured South Africa cannot recover its 
 ■old prosperity. It will in the most favourable case be many 
 years before the country will be again desirable for purposes 
 •of settlement, although to the adventurous and speculative a 
 certain element of attraction may exist. The bitter race feeling 
 aroused by the war — even if it does not spread to the blacks — 
 will certainly require at least a generation of exceptionally wise 
 government before it can be allayed. From the political point 
 
THE RESOURCES OF SOUTH AFRICA. 255 
 
 of view the settlertient of a large number of British farmers 
 would be a wise and prudent proceeding, and it might be a sound 
 investment of public money if encouragement were offered to 
 settlement by the promotion of irrigation works on a large scale, 
 ■and the selection of suitable settlers. 
 
 With regard to agriculture in South Africa, there is no part 
 of the region except, possibly, Natal which can produce a 
 sufficiency of food for its present inhabitants. The soil is, in 
 most places, poor, and the plague of locusts frequently destroys 
 a whole year's crops ; while rinderpest has again and again 
 swept away vast numbers, not only of domestic cattle, but of the 
 wild herds as well. Only mineral wealth of the most valuable 
 tind permits of settlements being made, the greater part of the 
 supplies for which have to be brought from abroad, hence the 
 only people likely to improve their position by going to South 
 Africa are those skilled in mining and engineering, and those 
 ■who are content to live by trade, acting as importers and 
 retailers. 
 
 Cape Colony. 
 
 Position and Siirface. — Next to Newfoundland and Canada, 
 the nearest of the large colonies to the Mother Country is the 
 Cape of Good Hope. The distance from Southampton to Cape 
 Town is 6,200 sea miles, and the length of passage by mail 
 steamer is from sixteen to eighteen days. The area of Cape 
 Colony is more than twice that of the United Kingdom, and 
 presents a great diversity of scenery, elevation, and climate. 
 The richest part of the country is the south-east, near Cape 
 Town, which is the chief harbour and the busiest seaport in 
 Africa, except those connected with the Suez Canal. 
 
 The land rises in two great terraces, flanked with mountainous 
 slopes, the first known as the Karroo, the second as the Great 
 Karroo. East of Cape Town the land leading up to the lower 
 slopes is abundantly supplied with rain and in large part covered 
 with fine forests ; but west and north-west of Cape Town and on 
 the Karroos the climate is very dry and irrigation is necessary 
 for agriculture. 
 
 Settlement. — The chief agricultural district is the Cape 
 peninsula in the immediate neighbourhood of Cape Town. 
 Here every kind of crop of the temperate zone can be raised, 
 and there are extensive vineyards producing good wine. The 
 chief wheat-growing district lies about 50 miles north of Cape 
 Town. On the Karroo the farming is almost entirely pastoral, 
 and sheep are the most important live-stock in the colony. The 
 
256 NEW LANDS. 
 
 chief forests lie along the coast between Knysna and Humans- 
 dorp, and from these a considerable quantity of timber is 
 obtained. Behind the forest region, as far as Port Elizabeth, 
 the country is well settled with farms growing grain, fruit, 
 tobacco, and raising sheep, cattle, and ostriches ; but there are 
 no railways, and transport has to be by road. 
 
 From Port Elizabeth eastward to the Kei River the country 
 is also well settled and agriculture is pursued, maize being the 
 most important crop. 
 
 Railways from Port Elizabeth, Port Alfred, and East London 
 run northward through the valleys and cross the Karroos to the 
 Orange River. In this section of the colony there are many 
 more settlers of British origin than in the west, but the farmers 
 of Dutch race are also numerous. There are important coalfields 
 in the Stormberg mountains, from which the eastern railways 
 are largely supplied. The best harbour of this section of the 
 colony is East London, 600 miles, or two days by sea, from Cape 
 Town ; but the most important towns are some miles inland. 
 These are Grahamstown, on the railway between Port Eliza- 
 beth and Port Alfred, and King Williams Town, on a branch 
 line from East London. 
 
 Eastern Districts. — Beyond the Kei River the Transkei 
 territory inhabited by the Fingoes has not as yet attracted 
 many white settlers, as it can only be reached by road, and 
 considerable capital is required to start farms. It contains, 
 however, some good farming land, and the cultivation of cotton 
 has been experimentally introduced. 
 
 Tembuland on the east is nearly fully occupied, and is similar 
 in character. 
 
 Pondoland in the extreme east is still practically unexploited, 
 but it contains a considerable native population and is very 
 inaccessible. 
 
 Between Pondoland and the Drakensberg is the small terri- 
 tory of East Griqualand, a fine pastoral country producing wool 
 and horses, and with increasing agricultural prospects. Most of 
 the land is already occupied, but the whites form only about 
 one-fortieth of the population. This district is capable of great 
 development if it had convenient transport, and a railway has 
 been planned to cross Pondoland and terminate at the port of 
 St. Johns, midway between East London and Durban. 
 
 Northern Districts. — The Karroos are, on account of their 
 very dry climate, suitable only for live-stock, especially sheep ; 
 and the conditions of farming upon them are such that no new- 
 comer could possibly compete with the Dutch farmers who have 
 
THE RESOURCES OF SOUTH AFRICA. 257 
 
 for many generations been adapting their methods of work and 
 manner of living to the peculiarities of the land. Where irri- 
 gation is possible the situation is entirely different, and any 
 farmer or market gardener who can command one of the rare 
 supplies of water ought at least to make a very comfortable 
 living. 
 
 Griqualand West is a small province north of the Orange 
 River, with railway connection to all the chief seaports. Its 
 chief town Kimberley is situated in the celebrated diamond 
 fields, the diamond mines being worked in a great vertical 
 volcanic neck of serpentine. They have been consolidated, so 
 that their control lies in a few hands. The work is very highly 
 organised, and the output regulated so as to maintain prices 
 and not outstrip the demand. Thousands of natives are 
 employed to do the heavy work of mining, and these are kept 
 close prisoners during their time of service in order to reduce 
 the loss always occurring from the illicit sale of diamonds. 
 A comparatively small number of white miners, overseers, and 
 officials direct the work. There are a few small diamond 
 diggings at various points along the Vaal River, but these do 
 not serioiisly compete with the great monopoly. Kimberley 
 forms an excellent market for agricultural produce, but the 
 dryness of the climate handicaps farmers severely. Water on 
 the farms has to be stored in tanks filled during the summer 
 rains. 
 
 Bechuanaland. — Bechuanaland is still but little settled. It 
 is pre-eminently a cattle -rearing country, agriculture being 
 entirely dependent on irrigation, which is only possible at a few 
 places. The native forests, never too extensive, are being rapidly 
 depleted for the wood supply of Kimberley. The land along 
 the railway is being taken up to a considerable extent for farms, 
 but it is hard for a newcomer to compete with the Boers and 
 Kaffirs. 
 
 The new district of Gordonia, bordering the Orange River, 
 appears to offer some inducement for the investment of capital 
 in irrigation-works, with a view to a return from agricultural 
 produce and fruit. Pumping machinery is necessary, because 
 the river runs in a steep sided valley far below the general 
 surface of the land, and there is still scope for the inventor to 
 improve the methods in use. 
 
 Trade. — The exports and imports of Cape Colony have in 
 recent years been mainly of goods in transit to the Transvaal. 
 Thus taking the year 1898 the exports amounted to £25,300,000, 
 of which over £15,000,000 consisted of Transvaal gold. The 
 
 17 
 
258 NEW LANDS. 
 
 largest item of colonial production was diamonds of the value of 
 £4,567,000 ; the next wool, worth £1,766,000. The only other 
 exports which exceeded the value of half a million pounds each 
 were ostrich feathers and Angora hair. 
 
 The imports consist to the extent of one-half of articles for 
 food and clothing, the rest being principally mining machinery, 
 explosives, timber, &c., for the Transvaal. Wheat and meat are 
 imported in large quantities from Australia and Canada, the 
 agricultural resources of Cape Colony not having been able to 
 respond to the enormously increased demand for the necessaries 
 of life in the northern state. 
 
 British coinage, weights, and measures are used in Cape Colony 
 and throughout South Africa ; but for agricultural purposes old 
 Dutch units are used, of which the chief are the morgen, equal 
 to about 2 acres; the leagiter, about 128 imperial gallons; and 
 the muid, 3 bushels. 
 
 The laws are of Roman origin, derived through the Dutch 
 and modified by statutes. The restrictions on the employment 
 of labour and on trade are, on the whole, less severe than those 
 in most British colonies. Education is not compulsory, but the 
 number of illiterate whites is comparatively small. 
 
 Besources. — The live-stock on the farms of Cape Colony 
 in 1898 included 13,000,000 sheep, 3,000,000 Angora goats, 
 1,200,000 cattle, and 268,000 ostriches. The grain crops consist 
 mainly of maize ("mealies"), wheat, oats, and barley, but large 
 quantities of millet or " kaffir corn " are raised by the natives. 
 
 The mineral resources of the country are mainly diamonds, 
 which occur only in Griqualand West. Copper, which comes 
 next in value, is mined at Ookiep in the north-west, but the 
 annual production of ore does not exceed a value of £300,000. 
 
 Coal is mined at Indwe, Cyphergat, Molteno, and at other 
 points in the Stormberg range, but the output is small and does 
 not nearly suffice for the demand in the colony. Mining is par- 
 ticularly easy, as the coal seams crop out on the hill sides and 
 can be worked by horizontal tunnels. In all the mines most of 
 the work is done by natives, such white miners as are required 
 being usually engaged in Britain and sent out under contract 
 for a term of years. 
 
 Alluvial gold has been worked on a small scale in the south 
 of the colony near Knysna and Prince Albert, and some pro- 
 specting has been done in Bechuanaland ; but so far no evidence 
 of the existence of gold in payable quantity has been found. 
 Iron and lead ores have been reported, but they are not worked. 
 Some manganese ore is raised not very far from Cape Town, 
 
THE RESOURCES OF SOUTH AFRICA. 259 
 
 and various ornamental stones adapted for jewellery have been 
 discovered in different places. A prospecting licence for pre- 
 cious metals or for diamonds costs 2s. 6d. per month. 
 
 Fishing is carried on, largely by Malays, at various points on 
 the coast. The government has at various times endeavoured 
 to improve the fisheries, as well as the other resources, and 
 a good deal of scientific study has been carried on with the 
 object of developing the country in this respect. 
 
 Apart from the effect which the war may have in embittering 
 race feeling, the development of the resources of Cape Colony 
 always appears likely to present peculiar diflaculties and to 
 entail on pioneers hardships relatively greater than those pre- 
 vailing in other temperate countries. The British Emigrants' 
 Information Office Cape Colony Handbook for 1899 gives this 
 advice to immigrants : — 
 
 " English farmers are recommended to become accustomed to 
 colonial ways before investing in land ; it is very doubtful 
 whether even then they will make the production of grain pay. 
 Local peculiarities of seasons, soil, pasture, management of stock 
 and of native labour, as well as the Cape Dutch language, which 
 is spoken by a large portion of the country population, can only 
 be learnt by experience and study." 
 
 Natal. 
 
 Surface and Climate. — The self-governing British colony of 
 Natal occupies the narrow plain along the east coast from 27° to 
 31° S., and the hilly rising ground stretching up to the Drakens- 
 berg range. The north-western part of the colony forming the 
 upper basin of the Tugela is high country, much broken up into 
 hills and valleys. North of the Tugela along the coast the 
 country is known as Zululand and Tonga or Amatongaland. 
 The total area of Natal is only 35,000 square miles, and the 
 population was in 1898 estimated at 60,000 whites (mainly 
 British, though including many Dutch), 60,000 Indians, most 
 of them coolies brought from India for plantation work, and 
 723,000 Kaffirs, or native blacks. 
 
 Natal is reached from England by sea, it being 855 miles or 
 three day's journey by mail steamer from Cape Town to Durban, 
 the chief harbour. Durban can also be reached by steamers 
 which ply along the east coast of Africa coming from Europe 
 by the Suez Canal. 
 
 The climate is hot, wet, and almost tropical on the coastal 
 plain where coloured labour is necessary in the plantations ; but 
 
260 NEW LANDS. 
 
 on the higher lands of the interior it is much cooler, and the 
 rainfall much less. Irrigation is necessary for agriculture in 
 some places in the interior, although the valley bottoms are 
 naturally fertile and the mountain slopes are well grassed. 
 Altogether Natal is the best adapted for agriculture of all 
 the political divisions of South Africa. 
 
 Trade and Resources. — The railway system is practically 
 limited to a line from Durban, the one good port, through 
 Pietermaritzburg, the capital, past Ladysmith, to the extreme 
 north of the colony, whence it continues to Johannesburg in the 
 Transvaal. Shorter lines run to north and south along the 
 coast. 
 
 The exports of Natal amounted in recent years to a value of 
 about £5,000,000 while the imports were worth about £2,000,000. 
 Most of this, however, represents transit trade for the Transvaal 
 goldfields. The chief exports from Natal itself consist of wool, 
 coal, and a little sugar. 
 
 The mineral resources of the country are considerable, but 
 they have not yet been seriously exploited except in the case 
 of coal. Gold has been prospected for in the north, and has 
 been found in small quantities, but the results do not at present 
 promise any important result, and the small deposits of silver, 
 copper, and lead ores that have been occasionally worked are of 
 little account. Coal, however, occurs in considerable quantity 
 and of fair quality in the Klip River District in the north of 
 the colony, and has been mined on a large scale near Newcastle 
 and Dundee, the export of coal having become fairly established 
 in 1898. Iron occurs near the coal, but is not as yet manu- 
 factured. If blast furnaces could be erected the resulting 
 industries would add greatly to the importance of the colony. 
 The political re-organisation of South Africa will probably much 
 increase the value of the coal-mines of Natal if the free inter- 
 change of commodities with the Transvaal is provided for. 
 
 The sub-tropical lands near the coast are laid out in sugar 
 plantations, maize fields, fruit farms, and recently tea gardens 
 have been added, but the cultivation of coffee and cotton has 
 almost ceased. A good deal of wattle bark is grown for 
 export as a tanning material. The market gardening trade is 
 practically all in the hands of the Kaffirs and Indians with 
 whom white men cannot compete. The cool, upland country is 
 mainly devoted to sheep and cattle, very little wheat or other 
 grain being grown. 
 
 Ifew Hiands in Ifatal. — A large area of land is necessarily 
 set apart for the large and rapidly increasing native population ;. 
 
THE RESOURCES OF SOUTH AFRICA. 261 
 
 but a certain amount of Crown land is reserved for occupation 
 by white men, and is sold at moderate rates on the instalment 
 system. In 1897 over 61,000 acres were disposed of at an 
 average price of Us 6d per acre. The Emigrants' Information 
 Office's Natal Handbook for 1899 gives the areas of Crown 
 land now open for disposal as : — 
 
 (1) Dronk Vlei, Ixopo, . 
 
 23,000 acres 
 
 (2) Ulufafa River, . 
 
 10,000 „ 
 
 (3) Alfred County, 
 
 11,923 „ 
 
 (4) Alexandra County, . 
 
 8,000 „ 
 
 (5) Weenen, .... 
 
 5,000 „ 
 
 (6) Ingagane, Newcastle, 
 
 10,000 „ 
 
 The position of these districts is as follows. Nos. 1 to 4 are 
 in the extreme south, out of reach of railways, Weenen is in the 
 centre of the colony just south of the Tugela, and Ingagane is in 
 the extreme north-west in the neighbourhood of the coal-mining 
 district. 
 
 As a large importation of food-materials which could quite well 
 be produced in the colony goes on, there is obviously an oppor- 
 tunity for farmers of the right stamp to make a comfortable 
 living. 
 
 The Transvaal. 
 
 People and History. — The region between the Vaal and 
 Limpopo Rivers, which up to 1900 was occupied by the South 
 African Republic, is possessed of the greatest mineral wealth in 
 South Africa. Before the mines were opened, the country was 
 inhabited almost exclusively by farmers of Dutch origin, descen- 
 dants of the first conquerors and settlers of Cape Colony, with a 
 considerable infusion of French blood, but all speaking Cape 
 Dutch. These people, being of simple habits and with few wants, 
 had not kept pace with the advance of European civilisation 
 since the seventeenth century, but by many generations of life 
 under the hard conditions presented by the South African veld, 
 they had acquired the power of making a living by agriculture 
 and stock-raising. The descendants of the British settlers at the 
 Cape, who came in in the first quarter of the nineteenth century 
 when the colony ceased to be a Dutch possession, could also 
 thrive by farming north of the Vaal ; but it was only in rare 
 cases, and after great hardships that a newcomer from Europe 
 could make both ends meet. 
 
 When the mineral wealth of the Transvaal was discovered, a 
 great influx of miners of every race in Europe took place and 
 
262 NEW LANDS. 
 
 the Boer Government, treating the situation from the point of 
 view of the advantages accruing to their own race, endeavoured 
 to raise revenue from the mines which they did not care to 
 work, and, at the same time, to prevent the foreigners (in Dutch, 
 " Uitlanders ") from obtaining a share in the government of the 
 country. The diflSculties which resulted led to war with the 
 United Kingdom in October, 1899, and on the re-establishment 
 of peace, there must be a radical change in the conditions under 
 which the exploitation of the country will be carried on. 
 
 Surface and Resources. — Speaking generally, the altitude 
 of the Transvaal (the area of which is nearly equal to that of the 
 British Islands) is between 4000 and 5000 feet. Some of the 
 ridges rise to much higher elevations, while the valleys in the 
 east, and especially in the north-east are much lower. The 
 climate on the plateau is everywhere good, and the health of 
 the dwellers in the country is remarkable. The new and 
 often overcrowded towns suffer, like similar towns in all parts 
 of the world, from outbreaks of disease due to bad sanitary 
 conditions and careless living. The population was estimated 
 in 1898 at about one million, 345,000 of whom were whites, 
 and probably less than 100,000 of these were burghers or 
 citizens of the republic. The largest town, Johannesburg, 
 contained in 1896 a population of over 102,000, half of them 
 whites. The majority of the' Uitlanders were British subjects, 
 but all European nations were represented, and over 10,000 of 
 the inhabitants of the Transvaal were Jews. 
 
 The production of gold, which was worth .£10,000 in 1884, 
 exceeded £1,000,000 in 1889, and increased rapidly from 
 £8,600,000 in 1896 to £16,000,000 in 1898; the Transvaal 
 having become the greatest gold-mining country in the world. 
 
 There are other mineral resources which will doubtless become 
 important in the future, but for the present the mining of silver, 
 copper, and lead has been practically abandoned. Diamonds 
 are found in different parts of the country, but only in small 
 numbers, and can not compete with the output of Kimberley. 
 Iron exists, but its practical utilisation lies in the future. There 
 is, however, a good deal of coal, the value of which is great as 
 fuel for the railways and for the vast amount of machinery 
 employed in the goldfields. The principal coal mines are worked 
 on the Witwatersrand, and the total output of coal in the 
 Transvaal in 1898 was 1,900,000 tons. 
 
 Gold. — Gold occurs in three different forms. Alluvial gold 
 is found in the valleys of the eastern mountains, but compara- 
 tively little attention has been paid to it, and it is believed not 
 
THE RESOURCES OF SOUTH AFRICA. 263 
 
 to be present in any great amount. The second mode of occur- 
 rence is in quartz reefs, from which the metal has to be extracted 
 by crushing and chemical processes. These reefs occur here and 
 there in almost all parts of the east of the Transvaal among the 
 mountains bordering the edge of the plateau. The third and 
 most remarkable of the gold deposits is the banket, characteristic 
 of the south of the Transvaal. This is a conglomerate containing 
 lumps of quartz and other rocks cemented together by a siliceous 
 matrix. It crops out along the most elevated part of the Trans- 
 vaal in the ridge known as Witwatersrand, to which it has given 
 such importance as to make "The Rand" signify, not any ridge, 
 but that particular line of heights alone. The chief peculiarity 
 of the banket is that it does not contain gold in rich patches 
 here and there as quartz reefs and alluvial gravels do, but in a 
 uniformly diffused form, so that every part of the mass contains 
 gold in approximately the same proportion. Being able to count 
 upon a continuance of the yield, the mining companies can 
 afford to erect the elaborate stamping batteries, chemical ex- 
 ti-action plant, and smelting furnaces which are required, with 
 far greater probability of a return than from even the best 
 quartz reef. This accounts for the phenomenal development of 
 the Rand; the solid growth of Johannesburg, and indirectly, but 
 no less certainly, for the renewal of the historic strife between 
 the Dutch and British races in South Africa. 
 
 The Rand. — Johannesburg is situated at an elevation of 5600 
 feet above the sea, and although of very recent growth (founded 
 in 1886) it has been for years, and will long continue to be, the 
 most important centre of wealth-production in all Africa. It is 
 the railway centre of the Transvaal, whence lines radiate to 
 Cape Town (1014 miles), East London (666 miles), Durban (483 
 miles), and Delagoa Bay (395 miles to Lourengo Marques). The 
 mines extend along the Rand for over 40 miles from Kriigers- 
 dorp on the west to Boksburg on the east, and coal occurs, and 
 is worked as well as gold. Prom the Rand goldfields extend 
 to the south-east at Heidelberg, and to the north-west at 
 Blaauwbank in the province of Rustenburg, which is said 
 to be the richest and pleasantest agricultural district in the 
 Transvaal. 
 
 The Rand contributed 94 per cent, of the gold raised in the 
 Transvaal in 1898, and its prosperity is in large measure the 
 cause of the comparative neglect of the other goldfields. 
 
 Other Groldflelds. — The Klerksdorp goldfield in the south- 
 west on the Vaal River has quartz of a low grade which makes 
 the profit of working small, but a good deal of work has been 
 
264 
 
 NEW LANDS. 
 
 done upon it. It is reached by rail from Johannesburg through 
 Potchefstroom. 
 
 The De Kaap goldfield in the east, along the north of which 
 the Delagoa Bay railway runs, has been worked for a good 
 many years, and its chief centre, Barberton, to which there is 
 a branch line, was an important town before Johannesburg 
 existed. Although now in a much less prosperous condition 
 than it once was, this goldfield contributed 2 per cent, of the 
 yield in 1898. 
 
 Fig. 10.— The Transvaal Goldfields. 
 
 The Lydenburg goldfield north of the De Kaap will be opened 
 up by a branch from the Delagoa Bay line running north to 
 Leydsdorp. At Pilgrims Rest it was the first goldfield in the 
 Transvaal to be seriously worked, but its development has been 
 retarded by lack of communications. As the Lydenburg country 
 contains coal, silver, lead, and other minerals in addition to 
 
THE RESOURCES OF SOUTH AFRICA. 265 
 
 gold, its future is promising, and in 1898 it ranked next to the 
 Rand for the value of its output. 
 
 More to the north, the Zoutpansberg goldfields, including 
 those of the Klein Letaba and the Murchison range, have been 
 prospected with encouraging results; and with the railway 
 extended northward to Pietersburg, they can be developed 
 with some prospect of success, although the climate is hotter 
 and less healthy than that of the southern fields. 
 
 Near Zeerust, not far from the frontier of Bechuanaland, pro- 
 mising signs of gold have been reported at Malmanie ; and 
 although at present this district is inaccessible on account of 
 its distance from the Transvaal railways, when the frontier 
 difficulty has been overcome it will find a short and easy outlet 
 to the Mafeking-Kimberley line. 
 
 Further development of gold may also be looked for to the 
 north of Pretoria, where a banket reef has been found ; and in 
 that district diamonds are also reported. 
 
 The Orange River Colony. 
 
 General Conditions. — The territory between the Orange 
 and Vaal Rivers, now known as the Orange River Colony, is a 
 high plateau similar to the Upper Karroo of Cape Colony and 
 the High Veld of the Transvaal. The climate is good, and the 
 land very healthy. Except in the neighbourhood of the Caledon 
 River in the east, where agriculture can be carried on without 
 irrigation, the country is devoted to pasturage. The Colony 
 has an area of about 48,000 square miles, and a population of 
 about 200,000, of whom, in 1890, 77,000 were whites. The 
 majority of the whites are of Dutch descent, but the Govern- 
 ment of the Orange Free State was well administered, and never 
 inflicted disabilities of the kind common in the Transvaal on 
 foreigners residing in its territory. One reason of this may 
 be that there never was a great influx of uitlanders, such as 
 occurred at Johannesburg, and the Boer administration was not 
 subjected to the same strain. Such an event might very easily 
 have happened, for the diamond mines at Kimberley were on 
 the borders of the Orange Free State, but when they were 
 discovered the district of Griqualand "West was,, by various 
 negotations, annexed to Cape Colony. 
 
 — Resources. — Several fairly productive diamond fields exist 
 within the boundaries of the Colony, the most productive being 
 at Jagersfontein, north of the Orange River. There does not 
 
266 NEW LANDS. 
 
 appear to be much gold, although there are alluvial workings in 
 the mountainous region of the south-east bordering on Basuto- 
 land. The coal mines of the north are valuable, and promise to 
 increase in importance. They occur south of the Vaal River at 
 Viljoen's Drift, Heilbron, and Kroonstad, all on the main line 
 of railway which crosses the State from Cape Colony to the 
 Transvaal. The development of the country by completing the 
 railway system by an east to west line from Natal to Kimberley 
 will greatly improve the commercial outlook in the Orange 
 River Colony, and agriculturally it may become an important 
 adjunct to the mineral wealth of the Transvaal. 
 
267 
 
 CHAPTEK XX. 
 SOUTHERN RHODESIA. 
 
 British South Africa Company — Development of Rhodesia — Railways — 
 Surface and Resources — Climate — Gold. 
 
 British. South Africa Company. — From Bechuanaland and 
 the Limpopo River northward to the Zambezi, the whole vast 
 area between German South- West Africa and Portuguese East 
 Africa is known as Southern Rhodesia, and, with Northern 
 Rhodesia, which lies beyond the Zambezi, was pacified and 
 opened up for settlement by the British South Africa Company. 
 The government and administration of the territory is carried 
 on by the Company under the control of the High Commissioner 
 for South Africa, assisted by a Council, some members of 
 which are elected by the white inhabitants. Appeals from the 
 decisions of the law courts of Rhodesia may be made to the 
 courts of Cape Town, and finally to the Privy Council in 
 London. 
 
 The British South Africa Company, with a capital of 
 £5,000,000, has pursued the policy of Mr. Cecil Rhodes, its 
 founder, in pacifying, controlling, prospecting, and opening up 
 the country by means of roads, railways, and telegraphs. Since 
 1888 this policy has been pursued against great difiiculties ; 
 agriculture has been retarded by the devastations of locusts, 
 and stock-raising by the rinderpest, while, largely as a result 
 of those visitations, the natives have risen in rebellion and have 
 been reduced to order, efiectually indeed, but not without much 
 difficulty. 
 
 Development of Rhodesia. — It has not yet been proved 
 that the land will repay the immense outlay of capital that 
 has been necessary ; but the gold mines from which much is 
 expected only commenced to work in 1898, and it will be some 
 years before their value can be determined. It appears doubt- 
 ful whether agriculture and stock-raising would pay a British 
 or American farmer. Many Boers from the Transvaal and 
 some English Cape Colonists have established themselves on 
 
268 NEW LANDS. 
 
 farms in the southern part of the territory and succeeded in 
 making a living from them. These successful farmers had, 
 however, been accustomed all their lives to conditions of a 
 similar kind, and were thus aided by accumulated experience. 
 At present Rhodesia is a country only to be developed by the 
 wealthy company whose object it is to undertake the work, and 
 by subsidiary companies to which special concessions have 
 been made. For private efforts it can only be recommended 
 to men who are pioneers by nature, to whom the hardships and 
 adventures of a country only now being won from barbarism 
 are an attraction, who can afford to spend some years before 
 reaping any return from their labours, and who can resist the 
 temptations to drink and riotous living which have proved the 
 destruction of so many white men in Africa. 
 
 Railways. — The Oape Government Railway reaches Bula- 
 wayo, the largest town and the capital of Matabeleland, the 
 southern division of Rhodesia, 1600 miles from Cape Town. 
 It is to be extended along the watershed of the country, 280 
 miles north-eastward to Salisbury, the second town in size, and 
 the capital' of Mashonaland and of the whole of Rhodesia. 
 Salisbury is already connected by rail with Beira in Portuguese 
 East Africa, a port 380 miles distant. When completed, the 
 railway system will extend to, and beyond, the Zambezi, and a 
 line will also be built through German Soutli-West Africa to a 
 port on the Atlantic. Such a complete opening up of a new 
 country has never previously been attempted, and the prelimin- 
 ary surveys have convinced the directors of the South Africa 
 Company that the land is worth the tremendous effort. 
 
 Surface and Besources. — The area of Southern Rhodesia 
 (not including the Bechuanaland Protectorate) is between 
 140,000 and 170,000 square miles, and the population is esti- 
 mated at about half a million. Of these, perhaps, 12,000 are 
 whites, the rest being natives of the country. 
 
 The character of Southern Rhodesia is thus described by Mr. 
 F. C. Selous :* — " The surface of the elevated belt consists of 
 open undulating grassy downs. To the north and west they 
 slope gradually towards the Zambezi and the northern Kalahari 
 Desert, little or no open country being met with near the water- 
 shed, but the open grass-land gradually gives place to continuous 
 forest on the lower slopes. On all other sides the high plateaux 
 are bounded by a belt of broken country, which varies in breadth 
 from 20 to 50 miles. In the south-west (Matabeleland) this 
 belt may be described as hilly, and there is a fall of some 700 or 
 * Inter-national Geography (Newnes), p. 998. 
 
SOUTHERN RHODESIA. 269 
 
 800 feet in a distance of from 20 to 30 miles ; but in the east 
 (Mashunaland) the descent to the low plains which border the 
 east coast and extend up the valley of the Zambezi becomes 
 abrupt and of a mountainous appearance. From the Inyanga 
 Plateau to the lower valley of the Pungwe there is a fall of over 
 5000 feet in less than 100 miles. 
 
 "The highest portions of the plateau are granite, but on the 
 slopes to the north, north-west, south, and south-west ranges of 
 hills of different formation run through the granite, and amongst 
 them numerous gold-bearing quartz-reefs occur. On the value 
 of these reefs the speedy development of the country must 
 largely depend. The whole of the high plateau is well watered, 
 the more easterly portions being intersected in every direction 
 by innumerable small streams, which are fed from springs 
 welling out from the head of almost every valley on the open 
 downs. Most of these never run dry even in the driest seasons, 
 being probably supplied from underground reservoirs in the 
 granite, in which great quantities of water are yearly stored 
 during the rains. Anomalous as it may seem, the highest por- 
 tions of the plateau of Southern Rhodesia are thus the best 
 watered, though they are not dominated by mountain ranges. 
 The innumerable small streams of the highest part of the downs- 
 gradually collect into brooks, and these converge to the main 
 rivers which drain the country, and finally reach the Zambesi, 
 the Limpopo, or the Sabi." 
 
 Climate. — The climate on the low ground is tropical, and 
 malaria is common in the low river valleys. On the plateau,, 
 above 4000 feet, the climate is excellent, the temperature in 
 summer rarely exceeds 100° F., and the heat is not trying. In 
 winter the nights are cold, and in the highest parts of the 
 plateau quite frosty. Both Bulawayo and Salisbury stand well 
 above the 4000 feet level, and the country is perfectly suited 
 for Europeans. The winter is dry, or with light rain, but heavy 
 rains occur in the southern summer, from November to March. 
 The rainfall is capricious, and varies greatly from year to year ; 
 observations have not yet been carried on long enough to allow 
 the average to be calculated. 
 
 The whole of the plateau is admirably adapted for cattle and. 
 sheep rearing, if only the epidemic diseases could be checked. 
 The South Africa Company are doing a great deal by means of 
 inoculation to introduce a breed of immune cattle into the 
 country, and to establish ranching on a large scale. 
 
 During the dry season, all European crops and vegetables can 
 be grown by the aid of irrigation ; but grain crops cannot be 
 
270 NEW LANDS. 
 
 depended on during the rainy season, as they are apt to suffer 
 from disease. 
 
 Lions sometimes constitute a danger, as the reduction in 
 number of the big game on which they used to prey drives 
 them to the cattle yards. An effort is being made to preserve 
 the elephant and the other large animals, which have been 
 hunted nearly to extinction. 
 
 Gold. — The mineral resources, on the exploitation of which 
 the success of the country, from the white man's point of view, 
 depends, include gold, silver, copper, iron, coal, tin, plumbago, 
 and siliceous earth. In present conditions, only the gold need 
 be considered. The. ancient richness of Mashonaland in this 
 metal is attested by large remains of old workings, and the 
 country is thought by many to be the Scriptural Ophir. 
 Hitherto these old workings have been the chief guide to 
 prospectors, but as detailed surveys are being carried out it will 
 probably be found that gold-bearing strata are much more ex- 
 tensive. In the year ending August, 1899, the crushing of 
 116,000 tons of quartz yielded 63,000 oz. of gold, worth 
 £225,000. This was the first year of serious working. The 
 yield was from the mines at Gwanda, Selukwe, and Biilawayo 
 only ; but the reefs in other parts of the country are being 
 opened up, and machinery is being erected to deal with the ores. 
 
 The annual reports of the British South Africa Company 
 contain a great deal of information regarding Rhodesia, and 
 anyone contemplating proceeding to that territory would do 
 well to apply for information to the company at 15 St. Swithin's 
 Lane, London, E.G. 
 
271 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Subjects arranged chiefly under their respective Countries. 
 
 Aborigines of Australia, 201, 212, 
 217. 
 
 Canada, 38 
 
 See also Native races. 
 Apbica, see South Africa. 
 Agricultural colleges in Canada, 46. 
 
 New South Wales, 208. 
 
 Victoria, 195. 
 Agriculture in Canada, 45. 
 
 United States in 1897, 125. 
 
 See also under separate countries. 
 Agriculture, Central experimental 
 
 farm, Ottawa, 47. 
 Alaska Territory, 30, 146. 
 
 Administration, 133, 147. 
 
 Agriculture, 150. 
 
 Climate, 149. 
 
 Disputed boundary, 30, 146. 
 
 Laws, 147. 
 
 Map, 147. 
 
 Means of communication in, 148. 
 Alaska, Minerals, 150. 
 
 Coal, 150. 
 
 Gold, 151. 
 Alaska, Resources, 150. 
 
 See also KlondiJce, Yukon. 
 Alberta, 83. 
 
 Alluvial gold in Australia, 209, 215, 
 236. 
 
 Klondike, 93. 
 
 South Africa, 258. 
 Amatongaland, 259. 
 America, South, see under Argen- 
 tina, Brazil, Chile. 
 
 America, North, see under Canada, 
 
 Mexico, Newfoundland, United 
 
 States. 
 Apple culture in Canada, 46. 
 Argentina (Argentine Republic), 
 172. 
 
 Central provinces, 183. 
 
 Central territories, 184. 
 
 Climate, 173. 
 
 Currency, 177. 
 
 Exports, 174. 
 
 Fertility of soil, 181. 
 
 Government, 175. 
 
 Immigration, 176. 
 
 Import duties, 177. 
 
 Jewish colonies, 177. 
 
 New lands, 179. 
 
 Ostrich farming, 174, 181. 
 
 People, 176. 
 
 Railways, 175, 177-179, 185. 
 
 Southern territories, 185. 
 
 Sugar growing, 183. 
 
 Surface, 172. 
 
 Tobacco, 183. 
 
 Trade, 175, 177. 
 
 Welsh colony, 186. 
 
 Western provinces, 183. 
 Argentine, Minerals, 181-184. 
 
 Gold, 186. 
 
 Iron, 184. 
 Argentine, Resources, 174. 
 
 Agriculture, 180. 
 
 Cattle rearing, 181, 182. 
 
 Mining, 181, 183, 184. 
 Assisted emigration to Queensland, 
 
 213. 
 
272 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Assiniboia, Organised district, 83. 
 
 Athabasca, 91. 
 
 Australia, Commonwealth of, 189. 
 
 Aborigines of, 190. 
 
 Climate, 189. 
 
 Conditions of life, 190. 
 
 Fauna, 189. 
 
 Flora, 189. 
 
 Map, 191. 
 
 People, 170. 
 
 Wages in, 191. 
 
 See also under separate colonies. 
 Australia Felix, see Victoria. 
 
 B 
 
 "Banket" Rock, 263, 265, 
 Barley growing in Canada, 45. 
 Bechuanaland, 257. 
 Biological surveys, 21. 
 Boer war of 1899, 249, 254. 
 Boundaries of Canada, 31. 
 
 Disputed Alaskan, 30, 146. 
 
 Disputed Argentine-Chilean, 170, 
 173, 185. 
 
 Geographical, 17. 
 
 Natural, 17. 
 Bbazil, Republic of, 161. 
 
 Agriculture, 164, 165. 
 
 Climate, 163. 
 
 " Colonies " in, 164, 166. 
 
 Geology, 163. 
 
 Government, 161. 
 
 Immigration into, 164. 
 
 Means of communication, 163. 
 
 Naturalisation laws, 162. 
 
 Southern States, 162. 
 
 Warnings against immigration 
 into, 166. 
 Brazil, Minerals, 163. 
 Brazil, Resources, 161. 
 British Columbia, Province of, 100. 
 
 Climate, 102. 
 
 Geology, 102. 
 
 Meails of communication, 102. 
 
 Mining laws, 110. 
 
 People, 103. 
 
 Position, 100. 
 
 River systems, 101. 
 
 Surface of, 100. 
 British Columbia, Minerals, 107. 
 
 Coal, 109. 
 
 Gold, 107. 
 
 British Columbia, Minerals, Iron, 109'. 
 
 Mica, 109. 
 
 Silver, 107. 
 British Columbia, Resources, 103. 
 
 Agriculture, 105. 
 
 Fisheries, 106. 
 
 Forests, 104. 
 
 Mining, 107. 
 British Consular Offices, see Consvla/r. 
 British South African Company, 267. 
 Buenos Aires, 178, 180. 
 Bureau of American Republics, 154. 
 
 California^ Goldfiblds, 129, 145. 
 Canada, Dominion of, 30. 
 
 Agricultural Schools, 46. 
 
 Apple growing, 46. 
 
 Area, 31. 
 
 Barley growing, 45. 
 
 Boundaries, 30. 
 
 Central experimental farm, 47. 
 
 Climate, 34. 
 
 Geological Survey, 43. 
 
 Geology, 32. 
 
 Ginseng cultivation, 48. 
 
 Government, 35. 
 
 Grazing leases, 50. 
 
 Homestead grants, 50. 
 
 Inland navigation, 51. 
 
 Land survey, 49, 50. 
 
 Laws, 36. 
 
 Lumber trade, 42. 
 
 Map, 33. 
 
 Mineral wealth of remote districts, 
 92. 
 
 Ministry of Agriculture, 46. 
 
 Oat crops, 45. 
 
 Organised Districts, see below. 
 
 Population, 31, 37. 
 
 Position, 30. 
 
 Production of minerals (1897), 44. 
 
 Public lands, 48. 
 
 Quarantine system, 48. 
 
 Railways, 51. 
 
 Regulation of time, 37. 
 
 Steam services, 52. 
 
 Surface, 32. 
 
 Timber cutting, 42. 
 
 Town section, 50. 
 
 Township plan, 18. 
 
 Waterways, 51. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 273 
 
 Canada, Eastern provinces, 53. 
 Canada, Organised districts, 83. 
 
 Athabasca, 91. 
 
 Keewatin, 92. 
 
 Mackenzie, 92. 
 
 Ungava, 92. 
 Canada, Western provinces, 75. 
 Canada, Minerals, 43. 
 
 Coal, 54. 
 
 Copper, 44. 
 
 Gold, 44. 
 
 Iron, 45. 
 
 Natural gas, 45. 
 
 Nickel, 
 
 Petroleum, 45. 
 
 Silver, 44. 
 See also under separate provinces. 
 Canada, Resources, 39. 
 
 Agriculture, 45. 
 
 Fisheries, 40. 
 
 Forests, 41. 
 
 Fur trade, 39. 
 Cape Breton Island, 113. 
 Cape Colony, 255. 
 
 Advice to Emigrants, 257. 
 
 Diamond mines, 257. 
 
 Eastern Districts, 256. 
 
 Laws, 258. 
 
 Northern Districts, 256. 
 
 Position, 255. 
 
 Railways, 256. 
 
 Settlement, 255. 
 
 Surface, 255. 
 
 Trade, 257. 
 Cape Colony, Minerals, 258. 
 Cape Colony, Resources, 258. 
 
 Fishing, 259. 
 
 Ostrich farming, 258. 
 
 Stock raising, 258. 
 Cape Dutch, 252. 
 Cape Nome Goldfields, 152. 
 Cariboo Goldfields, 107. 
 Caviare Industry, Canada, 69. 
 Chile, Republic of, 166. 
 
 Climate, 170. 
 
 Conditions of life in, 168. 
 
 Dislike shown to foreigners, 169. 
 
 Government, 166. 
 
 Immigration into, 167. 
 
 Lawlessness, 170. 
 
 Population, 167. 
 
 Warnings to emigrants, 170. 
 Chile, Minerals, 166, 168, 169. 
 
 Copper, 168. 
 
 Chile, Minerals, Nitrate of soda, 
 
 168. 
 Chile, Resources, 168. 
 
 Agriculture, 168, 169. 
 
 Mining, 168, 169. 
 
 Timber, 170. 
 Chinese in — 
 
 Canada, 38. 
 
 Queensland, 212. 
 
 New South Wales, 201. 
 
 Northern territory of South Aus- 
 tralia, 217. 
 
 Tasmania, 223. 
 
 Victoria, 192. 
 
 Western Australia, 229. 
 Chinook wind, 84. 
 Classification of Resources, 7. 
 Climatic conditions, see under separ- 
 ate countries. 
 Climatological surveys, 21. 
 Coal in Canada, 45. 
 
 Chile, 166. 
 
 New South Wales, 209. 
 
 New Zealand, 244. 
 
 United States, 128. 
 Colorado Goldfields, 129. 
 Communications, Planning, 23. 
 Consular offices in the Argentine, 
 176. 
 
 Mexico, 160. 
 Coolgardie Goldfields, 237. 
 Copper ores of Canada, 44. 
 
 Chile, 168. 
 
 South Australia, 220. 
 
 United States, 129. 
 Cost of living, see under countries 
 
 (Conditions of life). 
 Cotton in the United States, 129. 
 
 D 
 
 DetJeriobation of native races in 
 
 contact with whites, 27. 
 Development of land, 6. 
 Diamond mines in Orange River 
 Colony, 265. 
 
 Kimberley, 257. 
 Dividing range, Australia, 191. 
 Dominion of Canada, see Camada. 
 Dukhobor settlements in Manitoba, 
 
 82. 
 Dundas Goldfields. 238. 
 
 18 
 
274 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Environment, Eflfeets of, 3. 
 
 Euola Division, Western Australia, 
 
 231. 
 Experience necessary in New Lands, 
 
 5. 
 
 Falkland Islands, 187. 
 
 Climate, 187. 
 
 Prospects and resources, 188. 
 Falkland Island Company, 188. 
 Fertilisers, Need of, 9. 
 Fisheries of Canada, 40. 
 
 See also under separate countries. 
 Flax cultivation in Argentina, 181. 
 
 Canada, suggested, 58, 105. 
 
 New Zealand, 248. 
 Foreign trade, 11. 
 Forests of Canada, 41. 
 
 See also under separate countries. 
 French Canadians, 38. 
 French Shore, 111. 
 Frozen meat trade of New Zealand, 
 
 245. 
 Fur trade of Canada, 39. 
 
 G 
 
 Gas, Natural, in Canada, 45. 
 Geographical conditions. Influence, 
 
 13. 
 Geological surveys, 19. 
 
 Survey of Canada, 43. 
 Geology, see under separate coun- 
 tries. 
 Ginseng cultivation in Canada, 48. 
 Gippsland, Victoria, 196. 
 Gold, alluvial. Physical tpil of 
 getting, 10. 
 
 Attractive power, 10. 
 
 Cost of extraction, 11. 
 
 World's output of, 10. 
 Gold mining in Alaska, 151. 
 
 Canada, 44. 
 
 Klondike, 100. 
 
 Mexico, 160. 
 
 New Zealand, 244, 248. 
 
 Queensland, 213, 215. 
 
 Rhodesia, 270. 
 
 Gold mining in Transvaal, 262, 264. 
 
 Victoria, 194. 
 
 Western Australia, 234-238. 
 See also under separate countries. 
 Gold mining, Unprofitableness of, 
 
 12. 
 Goldfields (new) — 
 
 Unhealthiness, 25. 
 
 Wages, 10. 
 Government of Canada, 35. 
 
 New lands, 17. 
 See also under separate countries. 
 Grazing Leases, see under countriea 
 
 {Land laws). 
 Great Plains of America, 125. 
 Griqualand, 257. 
 
 H 
 
 Height of land, 32, 59. 
 Homesteads in Canada, 50. 
 
 See also under separate countries. 
 Hops in British Columbia, 105. 
 Hudson Bay Company, 39. 
 Hydrographic surveys, 20. 
 
 I 
 
 Idiosyncrasies, Influence of per- 
 sonal, 3. 
 
 Indian Territory, U.S., 131, 142. 
 
 Inhabitants, Type of, suited to new 
 lands, 25. 
 
 Investments, Need for caution 
 respecting, 5. 
 
 Iron ores of Canada, 45. 
 New South Wales, 209. 
 
 Iron sands of New Zealand, 245. 
 
 Irrigation, Necessity of, 22. 
 
 Jewish settlements in the Argentine, 
 177. 
 
 K 
 
 Kalgoorlie Goldfields, 237. 
 Karroos, The, 255, 256. 
 Keewatin District, 92. 
 Klerksdorp Goldfield, 263. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 275 
 
 Klondike, Conditions of life, 99. 
 
 Mining regulations, 100. 
 
 Routes to, 97. 
 
 Wages, 99. 
 
 See also Alaska, Yukon. 
 Kootenay Goldfields, 108. 
 Kimberley Diamond Fields, 257. 
 Kimberley Goldfields (W.A.), 231. 
 
 Labodk questions in Queensland, 
 
 212. 
 Labrador, coast, 113. 
 Land, development, 6. 
 Land laws, see under separate 
 
 countries. 
 Latin America, see Argentiiie, Brazil, 
 
 Chile, Mexico. 
 Laurentian plateau, 57, 60, 64, 75. 
 Locusts in the Argentine, 174. 
 
 South Africa, 255. 
 Lumbering in Canada, 42. 
 
 See also under separate countries. 
 Lydenberg goldfields, 264. 
 
 M 
 
 Mackenzie District, 92. 
 Manitoba, Province of, 75. 
 
 Crops in 1898, 81. 
 
 Dukhobor Settlements in, 82. 
 
 L/aw3, General, 79. 
 
 Laws, Mining, 88. 
 
 Railways, 78. 
 
 Settlements and farms in, 81. 
 
 Waterways, 78. 
 
 Wheat growing, 81, 82. 
 Manitoba, Minerals, 79. 
 Manitoba, Resources, 79. 
 
 Agriculture, 80. 
 
 Fisheries, 80. 
 
 Forests, 80. 
 Maoris, 241. 
 Map of Alaska, 147. 
 
 Australia, 191. 
 
 Canada, Dominion of, 33. 
 
 New Zealand, 264. 
 
 South African Railways, 253. 
 
 South America, 165. 
 
 Transvaal Goldfields, 264. 
 
 West Australian Goldfields, 236. 
 
 Map of Alaska, Western Canada, 76. 
 Mashonaland, 268, 270. 
 Mexico, Republic of, 154, 156. 
 
 Climate, 156. 
 
 Currency, 158. 
 
 Government, 158. 
 
 Mining in, 160. 
 
 Needs, 159. 
 
 People, 157. 
 
 Prospects of development, 159. 
 
 Railways, 157. 
 
 Surface, 156. 
 Mexico, Resources, 157. 
 Minerals of Canada, 42. 
 
 See also under separate Countries. 
 Montana Goldfields, 129, 145. 
 Mount Margaret Goldfields, 238. 
 Mount Morgan Mine, Rookhampton, 
 
 213, 
 Murciiison Goldfields, 233, 236. 
 Murray District, Victoria, 197. 
 
 N 
 
 Natal, Colony of, 259. 
 
 Climate, 259. 
 
 New Lands, 260. 
 
 Population, 259. 
 
 Surface, 259. 
 
 Trade, 260. 
 Natal, Minerals, 260. 
 l^atal. Resources, 260. 
 Native races of South Africa, 252. 
 
 New Zealand, 241. 
 See also Aborigines, 
 Native races. Ill-treatment of, 28. 
 
 Problems of, 26. 
 Natural gas in Canada, 47, 87. 
 New Brunswick, 55. 
 
 Climate, 55. 
 
 Crown lands of, 55. 
 
 Railways, 56. 
 New Brunswick, Minerals, 55. 
 New Lands, Definition of, 1. 
 
 Government, 17. 
 Newfoundland, 111. 
 
 CUmate, 113. 
 
 French Shore, 111. 
 
 Geology, 112. 
 
 Means of communication, 113. 
 
 Mining laws, 117. 
 
 People, 112. 
 
 Position and, Government, 111. 
 
276 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Newfoundland, Surface, 112. 
 Newfoundland, Minerals, 115. 
 
 Asbestos, 115. 
 
 Building stone, 116. 
 
 Chrome iron ore, 116. 
 
 Coal, 116. 
 
 Copper, 115. 
 
 Gold, 115. 
 
 Gypsum, 116. 
 
 Iron ore, 115. 
 
 Lead ore, 116. 
 
 Nickel, 115. 
 
 Petroleum, 117. 
 
 Silver ore, 116. 
 Newfoundland, Resources, 114. 
 
 Fisheries, 114. 
 
 Mining, 115. 
 Nbw South Wales, 199. 
 
 Area, 201, 202. 
 
 Camels used in, 207. 
 
 Chinese immigration into, 201 j 204. 
 
 Climate, 200. 
 
 Crown lands, 205. 
 
 Dairy farming, 208. 
 
 Farming, 208. 
 
 Geology, 199. 
 
 Irrigation, 204. 
 
 Laws, 204. 
 
 Means of communication, 202, 203. 
 
 New lands, 207. 
 
 Population, 202. 
 
 Position, 199. 
 
 Rabbit plague, 204. 
 
 Stage coach system, 203. 
 
 Table lands, 200. 
 
 Tariff, 204. 
 
 Terms of land tenure, 206. 
 
 Wages, 201. 
 
 Waterways, 203. 
 
 Western plains, 201. 
 New South Wales, Minerals, 209. 
 
 Coal, 209. 
 
 Gold, 209. 
 
 Iron, 209. 
 
 Opals, 207. 
 
 Silver, 208. 
 
 Tin, 209. 
 New South Wales, Resources, 203. 
 
 Fisheries, 209, 210. 
 
 Forests, 209. 
 
 Ostrich farming, 207. 
 
 Sheep farming, 203. 
 New Zealand, 239. 
 
 Climate, 240. 
 
 New Zealand, Farming, 243. 
 
 Frozen meat trade, 245. 
 
 Geology, 239. 
 
 Immigration, 241. 
 
 Importation of dogs, 241. 
 
 Land laws, 242. 
 
 Legislation, 241. 
 
 Maoris, 241. 
 
 Map, 246. 
 
 Means of communication, 245. 
 
 Mining, 248. 
 
 Mining laws, 243. 
 
 Old-age pensions, 242. 
 
 Ostrich farming, 248. 
 
 Population, 241. 
 
 Prospects, 247. 
 
 Surface, 240. 
 
 Towns, 245. 
 
 Wages, 247. 
 New Zealand, Minerals, 244. 
 New Zealand, Resources, 24.3. 
 
 Fisheries, 245. 
 
 Forests, 245. 
 
 Manufactures, 245. 
 
 Sheep farming, 244. 
 Nickel deposits at Sudbury, 44. 
 Nitrate deposits in Chile, 168. 
 Northern Territory, South Australia, 
 
 217. 
 North Island, New Zealand, 240. 
 Nobth-Wbst Terkitoeibs, 83. 
 
 Area, 91. 
 
 Future, 90. 
 
 Farming, 88. 
 
 Irrigation, 90. 
 
 Mining laws, 88. 
 
 Ranching, 88. 
 Nova Scotia, 53. 
 
 Climate, 53. 
 
 Farm lands, 53. 
 
 Iron mining, 54. 
 
 Gold mining, 54. 
 
 Mining licenses, 55. 
 
 Oat chltivatign in Canada, 45. 
 
 United States, 124. 
 Occupation, Choice of an, 4. 
 
 Influence of. Previous, 4. 
 Old-age pensions. New Zealand, 242. 
 Ontario, Province of, 63. 
 
 Access to, 63. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 277 
 
 Ontario, Boundaries, 63. 
 
 Climate, 64. 
 
 Gold production, 73. 
 
 Laws, 65. 
 
 Means of communication, 65, 
 
 Mining laws, 74. 
 
 People, 63. 
 
 Surface, 63. 
 Ontario, Minerals, 69. 
 
 Copper, 69. 
 
 Corundum, 70. 
 
 Gold, 71. 
 
 Nickel, 70. 
 
 Platinum, 71. 
 
 Silver, 71. 
 Ontario, Resources, 65. 
 
 Agriculture, 65. 
 
 Cattle rearing, 66. 
 
 Fisheries, 69. 
 
 Timber, 68. 
 Orange River Colony, 265. 
 
 Conditions of Ufe, 265. 
 
 Diamond mining in, 265. 
 Orange River Colony, Minerals, 265, 
 
 266. 
 Orange River Colony, Resources, 265. 
 Ostrich farming in the Argentine, 
 174, 181. 
 
 New South Wales, 207. 
 
 New Zealand, 249. 
 
 South Africa, 256. 
 
 South Australia, 220, 
 
 Patagonia, see Argentina, Southern 
 
 territories, Chile. 
 Patriotism and the land, 29. 
 Pensions, Old-age, in New Zealand, 
 
 242. 
 People of new lauds, 25. 
 Personal idiosyncrasies. Influence of, 
 
 3. 
 Petroleum in Canada, 45. 
 
 Trial borings in Alberta, 87. 
 Pilbarra Goldfield, 234. 
 Pioneer, Qualifications of a, 4, 26. 
 Placer mining on the Yukon, 93. 
 Plan of Canadian township, 18. 
 Pondoland, 256. 
 Population, see under separate 
 
 countries. 
 Power of doing work, 8. 
 
 Prairie Steppes, 77. 
 
 Precautions to be observed by 
 
 pioneers, 5. 
 Prince Edward Island, 56. 
 Problems of native races, 27. 
 Professional training. Effect of, 4. 
 Public lands of Canada, 38. 
 
 See also under separate countries. 
 
 Q 
 
 Quarantine system for animals in 
 Canada, 48. 
 
 Por dogs in New Zealand, 241. 
 Quebec, Province of, 56. 
 
 Boundaries, 57. 
 
 Climate, 56. 
 
 Lumbering, 59. 
 
 Means of communication, 58. 
 
 Mining laws, 62. 
 
 Population, 56. 
 Quebec, Minerals, 60. 
 
 Asbestos, 61. 
 
 Coal, 61. 
 
 Gold, 60. 
 
 Iron, 6l. 
 
 Mica, 61. 
 
 Peat, 61. 
 
 Silver, 61. 
 Quebec, Resources, 58. 
 Queensland, 211. 
 
 Area, 212. 
 
 Assisted passages to, 213. 
 
 Climate, 211. 
 
 Goldfields, 213. 
 
 Immigration into, 213. 
 
 Labour questions, 212. 
 
 Land laws, 214. 
 
 Mining claims, 215. 
 
 Population, 213. 
 
 Position, 211. 
 
 Railways, 215. 
 Queensland, Minerals, 213. 
 
 Coal, 214. 
 Queensland, Resources, 213. 
 
 Agriculture, 214. 
 
 R 
 
 Rabbit plague in Australia, 190. 
 New South Wales, 204. 
 South Australia, 219. 
 
278 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Racial problems in South Africa, 249. 
 
 Railways, see under separate coun- 
 tries. 
 
 Rand, The, 263. 
 
 ReUgiou of Latin-America, 155. 
 
 Resources, Classification of, 7. 
 Maintenance of, 9. 
 Over-dependence upon natural, 12. 
 
 Rhodesia, see Southern Rhodesia. 
 
 Riverina District, N.S.W., 208. 
 
 Roads and railways. Origin of, 15. 
 
 Saskatchewan, S3. 
 Sections, Township, in Canada, 50. 
 Self-sufficing countries, 11. 
 Sewage disposal in new lands, 25. 
 Silver ores of Canada, 44. 
 
 Mexico, 157. 
 
 New South Wales, 208. 
 Sites and plans of towns, 24. 
 Solar radiation as a source of power, 
 
 9. 
 South Africa, 249. 
 
 Climate, 250. 
 
 Configuration, 250. 
 
 Fauna, 251. 
 
 Map of, 253. 
 
 Means of communication, 251. 
 
 Mineral wealth, 255. 
 
 Political divisions, 252. 
 
 Population, 252. 
 
 Prospects, 254. 
 
 Railway systems, 251. 
 
 War (Transvaal), 249, 254. 
 South Africa, Resources, 249. 
 
 Agriculture, 255. 
 
 Ostrich farming, 256. 
 
 Stock raising, 258. 
 South America, Map of, 165. 
 South Australia, Province of, 217. 
 
 Area, 217. 
 
 Camels employed in, 220. 
 
 Climate, 218. 
 
 Conditions of life, 220. 
 
 Dairy farming, 219. 
 
 Northern Territory, 217. 
 
 Population, 218. 
 
 Prospects, 120. 
 
 Rabbit plague, 219. 
 
 Sheep farming, 219. 
 South Australia, Minerals, 220. 
 
 South Australia, Resources, 219. 
 South Island, N.Z., 240, 247. 
 Southern Rhodesia, 267. 
 
 Climate, 269. 
 
 Development, 267. 
 
 Railways, 268. 
 Southern Rhodesia, Minerals, 270. 
 Southern Rhodesia, Resources, 268. 
 South America, Insecurity of condi- 
 tions in, 156. 
 
 Neglect of, 156. 
 
 See also under separate countries. 
 " Specialising" in new lands, 4. 
 St. Lawrence Plain, 57, 64. 
 State control of trade, 12. 
 Statistics, Uncertainty of, 2, 3. 
 Stock raising in U. S. , 125. 
 Sudbury nickel deposits, 44. 
 Sugar growing in the Argentine, 183. 
 
 Natal, 260. 
 
 Queensland, 214. 
 Surveys, Biological, 21. 
 
 Climatological, 21. 
 
 Geological, 19. 
 
 Hydrographic, 20. 
 
 Irrigation, 22. 
 
 Topographical, 18, 19. 
 
 Tasmania, Colony of, 221. 
 
 Climate, 222. 
 
 Conditions of life, 224. 
 
 Dairy farming, 224. 
 
 Immigration, 223. 
 
 Means of communication, 224. 
 
 Land laws, 223. 
 
 New lands, 223. 
 
 Population, 223. 
 
 Position, 221. 
 
 Prospects, 225. 
 
 Tourist traffic, 224. 
 Tasmania, Minerals, 222. 
 Tasmania, Resources, 222, 223. 
 
 Fisheries, 224. 
 Time, Regulation of, in Canada, 37. 
 Tobacco culture in the Argentine, 
 182. 
 
 Canada, 58. 
 Tonga, see Amatongaland. 
 Topographical surveys, 18j 19. 
 Towns and villages. Origin of, 24. 
 Town plans, 18, 24. 
 
INDEX.;, 
 
 279 
 
 Town sites. Choice of, 24. 
 Township plan, Canadian, 18. 
 
 System, Canadian, 49. 
 
 United States, 138. 
 Trade, Foreign, II. 
 
 State control of, 12. 
 Transkei district. Cape Colony, 256. 
 Transvaal, 261. 
 
 Discovery of minerals, 261. 
 
 Goldfields, Map of, 264. 
 
 History, 261. 
 
 People, 261. 
 
 Surface, 262. 
 
 War (1899), 249, 254. 
 Transvaal, Minerals, 261, 262. 
 
 Gold, 262. 
 Transvaal, Resources, 262. 
 
 U 
 
 United States or America, 118. 
 
 Acquisition of land in, 139. 
 
 Alien laws, 135. 
 
 Boundaries, 119. 
 
 Climate, 121. 
 
 Coalfields, 128. 
 
 Configuration, 120. 
 
 Cotton crop, 129. 
 
 Government, 133. 
 
 Immigration into, 132. 
 
 Laws, 133. 
 
 Manufactures, 129. 
 
 Means of communication, 122. 
 
 Metals produced (1897), 127. 
 
 Native reservations, 131. 
 
 Naturalisation laws, 135. 
 
 Non-metals produced (1897), 127. 
 
 Oats crops, 124. 
 
 People, 130. 
 
 Population (1890), 131. 
 
 Public domain, 136. 
 
 Position, 119. 
 
 Rapid development, 118. 
 
 Scope for settlement in, 118. 
 
 Settlement of, 132. 
 
 Unappropriated lands, 136. 
 
 Weather Bureau, 121. 
 
 Wheat growing, 123. 
 United States of America, Minerals, 
 122. 
 
 Coal, 128. 
 
 Copper, 129. 
 
 Gold, 129. 
 
 United States of America, Petroleum, 
 
 128. 
 United States of America, Public 
 lands of, 137, 140-145. 
 
 Alabama, 137, 140. 
 
 Alaska, 100, 137, 146. 
 
 Arizona, 137, 144. 
 
 Arkansas, 137, 143. 
 
 California, 137, 145. 
 
 Colorado, 137, 144. 
 
 Florida, 137, 140. 
 
 Idaho, 137, 145. 
 
 Indian Territory, 137, 142. 
 
 Kansas, 137, 143. 
 
 Louisiana, 137. 
 
 Michigan, 137, 141. 
 
 Minnesota, 137, 141. 
 
 Mississippi, 137, 140. 
 
 Missouri, 137, 143. 
 
 Montana, 137, 145. 
 
 Nebraska, 137, 143. 
 
 Nevada, 137, 144. 
 
 New Mexico, 137, 144. 
 
 North Dakota, 137, 142. 
 
 Oklahoma, 137, 143. 
 
 Oregon, 137, 145. 
 
 South Dakota, 137, 142. 
 
 Texas, 137, 140. 
 
 Utah, 137, 144. 
 
 Washington, 137, 146. 
 
 Wisconsin, 137, 141. 
 
 Wyoming, 137, 144. 
 United States of America, Resources, 
 122. 
 
 Agriculture, 123. 
 
 Mining, 126. 
 
 Stock raising, 125. 
 United States of Brazil, see Brazil. 
 Utah, Goldfields of, 129. 
 Utilisation of resources, 8. 
 
 Vancouver Island, see British 
 
 Columbia. 
 Victoria, Colony of, 191. 
 
 Agricultural schools, 195. 
 
 Area, 192. 
 
 Climate, 191. 
 
 Crown lands, 195. 
 
 Gold mining, 194. 
 
 Irrigation colonies, 198. 
 
 Means of communication, 193. 
 
280 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Victoria, Mining laws, 175. 
 
 Population, 192. 
 
 Rainfall, 192. 
 
 Surface, 191. 
 Victoria, Minerals, 194. 
 Victoria, New- lands, 196. 
 
 Gippsland District, 196. 
 
 Murray District, 197. 
 
 Wimmera, 197. 
 Victoria, Resources, 194. 
 
 Agriculture, 194, 196. 
 
 Dairying, 196. 
 
 W 
 
 Wages in Klondike, 99. 
 
 In New South Wales, 201. 
 
 In New Zealand, 247. 
 
 On goldfields, 10. 
 Waterways in Canada, 51. 
 Welsh colony in Patagonia, 186. 
 Western Australia, 226. 
 
 Aboriginal inhabitants, 229. 
 
 Agricultural lands, 232. 
 
 Camels for prospecting, 238. 
 
 Climate, 227. 
 
 Cost of living, 229. 
 
 Goldfields, 234. 
 
 Homestead grants, 232. 
 
 Immigration, 229. 
 
 Land divisions, 230. 
 
 Means of communication, 229. 
 
 Mineral lands, 233. 
 
 Mining laws, 230. 
 
 Pastoral leases, 232. 
 
 Plains, 227. 
 
 Position, 226. 
 
 Western Australia, Population, 229, 
 
 Surface, 226, 227. 
 Western Australia, Minerals, 228. 
 
 Gold, 234-238. 
 Western Australia, Resources, 228. 
 
 Farming, 228. 
 
 Timber, 228. 
 Western Canada, Map of, 76. 
 Wheat crop in the Argentine, 1 74. 
 Wheat growing in Argentine, 174. 
 
 Canada, 45. 
 
 South Australia, 219. 
 
 United States, 123. 
 
 Victoria, 194. 
 Wimmera district, Victoria, 197. 
 Women, Influence of, on pioneer 
 life, 5. 
 
 Place of, in new lands, 5. 
 
 Yukon Territokt, 93, 146 ; see also 
 Alaska, Klondike. 
 Climate, 95. 
 Conditions of life, 99. 
 Discovery of gold at Klondike, 93. 
 Mining regulations, 100. 
 Resources, 96. 
 River system, 94. 
 Routes to, 97. 
 Temperature recorded in, 96. 
 
 Zoutpansebrg goldfields, 265. 
 Zululand, 259. 
 
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