LIBRARY ANNEX M2 ill Illllif, uy^ Ml 1 f\\ it C vuy. V y /^jtjtjTitj^ Hill \ BOUGHT WITH THE INCOME FROM THE SAGE ENDOWMENT FUND THE GIFT OF mtnvu 19* Sage 1891 A. ^IQJJ. ^i/yli Cornell University Library The original of this book is in the Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924051991929 THE BOOK OF THE GARDEN f;binted by william blacjcwood and sons, EpraBUEQH. THE BOOK OF THE GARDEN CHARLES M'INTOSH F, R. P. S. F. R. S. S. A. COBBKSPONDING Mr.MHUIl HK TIIK lOSDON IIOETICULTDHAI. 80C1BTY, TUB MABSACHOSFTT! nOJITlCUl.TtlllAI. SOCIETy, AND THE ItOVAI' CALEDONIAN HORTICUI.TUBAI. SOCIBTV, ETC. J.ATE CURATOR OF THE ROYAL OARDENB OF TUB MAJPRTYTHB KINO OF THR UBfXJlANS AT CI.ARBMONT AND BRllSSHI.8, AND NOW OF THOSE OF HIS URACE THR DUKE OF IIUCCLBUCH, AT DAI.TCrdTH PALACB. IN TWO VOLUMES VOL. II.— CULT UK A L WITH 279 ILLUSTRATIONS WILLIAM BLACKWOOD AND SONS EDINBURGH AND LONDON MDCCCLV CONTENTS. THE CULINARY OR KITCHEN GARDEN. INTRODUCTORY REMARKS, § 1. Sketch of the Histobt of Culinary Vegetables, 2. Disposition of the Chops in the Kitchen Garden, 3. The Quantities of Seeds and Roots necessary to Crop a Garden, 4. Rotation of Crops, ...... 5. Transplanting Culinary Esculents, .... 6. Proposed Arrangement, . . . . PARK 3 CHAPTER.!.— Alliaceous Plants, § 1. The Shallot, 2. Garlic, 3. Rocambole, 4. The Onion, 5. The Leek, . 6. The Chive, CHAPTER II. — Leguminous Plants, or the Pulse Tribe, § 1. The Pea, ....... 2. The Bean, ...... 3. The Kidney or French Bean, 4. The Scarlet Runner, ..... CHAPTER III. — Brassicageous Plants, or the Cabbage Tribe, § 1. The Cabbage, 2. The Portugal Cabbage, 3. Red Cabbage, 4. Brussels Sprouts, 5. The Broccoli, 6. The Savoy, 7. The Cauliflower, 8. The Sea-Kale, 9. The Borecole, CHAPTER IV.— Asparaginous Plants, § 1. Asparagus, 2. The Alisander, 3. The Cardoon, 4. The Artichoke, 5. The Hop, &c.. 3 7 8 12 24 26 27 29 30 ih. 44 47 48 62 71 78 81 90 ib. 91 92 103 108 117 129 ib. 130 134 27 48 81 117 CONTENTS. CHAPTER v.— Spinacbous Plants, . . . . § 1. Spinach, ... . . 135 2. Wild Spinach, . . 137 3. French or Mountain Spinach, . . 138 4. New Zealand Spinach, ib. 5. Garden Patience, &o., . . . ib. 6. The White ok Sicilian Beet, . . 139 CHAPTER VI. — AcETABiACEous OR Salad Plant, § 1. Celery, . . ... 141 2. Celeriac, ok Turnip-rooted Celery, . . . ISO 3. The Lettuce, . . 151 4. Endive, . . .158 5. Succory, ..... 164 6. Dandelion, Taehagon, &c., . . . 166 7. White and Black Mustard, . . 167 8. Cresses, . . . .168 9. Purslane, Chervil, &c. . 171 10. Rape, Corn-Salad, &c., . ib. 11. The Radish, ... 172 CHAPTER VII. — Esculent-rooted Plants, .... § !. The Carrot, . . . . 176 2. The Turnip, ..... 183 3. The Potato, . .... 199 4. The Jerusalem Artichoke, . . 223 5. Red Beet, ... . . 226 6. Salsify, Skirret, &c,, . . 228 7. The Parsnip, . ... 229 CHAPTER VIII. — Olekaceous Plants, or Pot-Hebbs, comprising such AS ARE used fob GaBNISHING AND SEASONING, § 1. Parsley, . . . 232 2. Dill, Borage, &o., . . 234 3. Sage, Balm, Mint, &c., . 235 4. Basil, Savory, &c., . . . . 237 CHAPTER IX.— Medicinal Plants, .... CHAPTER X.— Edible Fungi, § 1. The Mushroom, . 243 2. The Morel, . . . 252 3. The Trueele, . 253 CHAPTER XI. — Miscellaneous Vegetables, "... § 1. Rhuearb, ..... . 266 2. The Tomato and Eqo-Plant, . 258 3. The Gourd and Pumpkin, . . . 259 4. Capsicum, .... . 260 5. Rosemary and Lavender, . . ib. 6. The Horse-Radish, . . . 261 CHAPTER XII.— Soils, ... §1. Their Origin AND Nomenclature, . . 263 2. Determination op their Nature, &c., . 270 3. Their Improvement, . . 277 4. Watering, . . . 284 135 141 17( 232 241 243 256 263 CONTENTS. CHAPTER XIII.— Manures, .... § I. lUNDS OF THEM, &C., .... 2. Oesanic Manhees, 3. Inoeganic Manubes, THE HARDY FRUIT GARDEN. INTRODUCTION, § 1. Selection of Kinds, kc, 2. The Oeigin of New Fruits, 3. On the DnEATiON, in a healthy state, of Fkuit Teees, (CHAPTER I.— Propagation, § 1. Propagation by Seed, 2. Crossing oe Hybeidising, 3. Peopagation by Geafting, i. Peopagation by Budding, 5. Propagation by Cuttings, 6. Peopagation by Layees, . CHAPTER II.— Planting, ... . . CHAPTER III.— Pruning and Tbaining, CHAPTER IV.— The Apple, CHAPTER V.-The Peak, CHAPTER VI.— The Peach and Nectaiune, § 2. FoEoiNG the Peach and Nectarine, CHAPTER VII.-The Apricot, CHAPTER VIII.— The Plum, CHAPTER IX.— The Cherry, CHAPTER X.— Forcing the Apricot, Plum, and Cherry, CHAPTER XI.-The Fig, CHAPTER XII.— The Almond, Quince, Medlar, &o., § 1. The Almond, ... 2. The Quince, 3. The Medlae, 4. The Walnut, 5. The Chestnut, ok Spanish or Sweet Chestnut, 6. The Filbert, CHAPTER XIII. — The Cukrant, Raspberry, Gooseberry, BERRY, &C., § 1. The Red, White, and Black Currant, , 2. The Raspbeery, 3. The Gooseberry, ... 4. The Stbawbbrry, 5. The Mulbeeey, 6. The Ceanbeery, 288 290 296 299 303 306 501 Straw- 299 309 309 313 322 338 346 351 356 389 411 447 485 517 524 537 546 551 559 559 560 ib. 561 562 563 566 566 570 575 581 592 593 CONTENTS. CHAPTER XIV.— The Grape Vine, . CHAPTER XV.— The Pine Apple, CHAPTER XVI.— The Cucumber and Melon, § 1. ThB CnOUMBEU, ..... 2. The Melon, . ... CHAPTER XVII.— Management of the Fruit-Room, PAGE 595 641 663 663 673 THE FLOWER GARDEN. CHAPTER I.— Plant-Houses, § 1. Camellia-House, 2. ORCHID-HonSE, 3. BnLB-HoDSE, 4. Okanqebt, . 5. Heath-House, 6. Aquabium, 7. The Stove or Tropical Plant House, 8. Succulent-House, 9. The Conservatory, 10. The Greenhouse, . 11. Flowbe-Forcing House or Pits, . 12. Cold or Conservative Pits, 13. Conservative Wall and Border, Protection of half- Trees AND Plants, 14. Miscellaneous Observations, CHAPTER II.— The Open Flower-Garden, § 1. American Garden, 2. ROSAEY, 3. The Lawn, .... 4. The Shrubbery, 5. The Flobists' Flower Garden, 6. The Alpine Garden and Eockery, 7. The Perennial-Plant Flower Garden, 8. The Parterre Garden, 9. The Eebbrve Garden, 10. Insects injurious in the Plant-Houses and Flowbr-Garden, 677 678 685 696 700 703 710 712 719 721 724 729 733 734 736 742 742 750 772 780 796 814 816 816 822 823 GLOSSARY op some op the most important Technical Terms employed IN THIS Work, ... .... 837 INDEX TO Select Lists of Vegetables and Fruits, INDEX TO Select Lists op Plants, GENERAL INDEX, 838 850 853 ADVEKTISEMENT. In presenting to the public the first part of the Practical or Cultural volume of The Book of the Garden, we have only a few remarks to premise as to the general plan of arrangement we have employed, and the reasons which have induced us to adopt an arrangement which is, to a great extent, a departure from that hitherto followed in similar books. Works on Practical Gardening have, for the most part, been arranged in the calender form, no doubt with a view to render them, in the estimation of their authors, more convenient for reference. There are, however, objections to this mode of arrangement, which we think may be avoided by adopting the sectional or separate garden division, as the operations in any of these departments may be carried on irrespective of the others — a mode of culture which is, in fact, practised in our largest and best-managed establishments, in all of which the subdivision of labour is found to be admirably adapted for facilitating the multifarious operations of the whole. Besides, some people have a predilection for one of these departments more than for another, and many are content with one of them only. "We had hoped that a seasonal arrangement might have been adopted, and that it would have combined all the advantages of the calender form, and have avoided its principal defects. The attempt to carry out this scheme has, however, shown us that it inevitably involved a want of connection and a degree of confusion, which could not be otherwise than most embarrassing to the reader, while it necessitated an amount of repetition which would have made it impossible to comprise the cultural department of the garden in a single volume, without sacrificing that minuteness of detail which is essential to the highest value of such a work. By the mode of arrangement we have finally resolved on, the reader will more readily find the information he seeks ; each subject assumes a more connected form when treated on as a whole, than if it were referred VOL II. A ii ADVERTISEMENT. to in diflferent places; and the necessity for frequent reference and much repetition is wholly done away. On these grounds we think the advantage will be sufficiently apparent of treating on the operations of the Kitchen OR Culinary Garden, the Hardy Fruit Garden, the Forcing Garden, and the Flower Garden, including Plant-Houses and Pleasure Grounds, &c., as distinct in themselves. In discussing the various subjects which collectively constitute any of these general divisions, we have adopted a mode of arrangement which we believe to be as complete as is attainable; — our great object being to systematise the whole, by bringing together, in our accounts of their culture, such productions as have a natural affinity to each other. As regards the descriptive lists of the most approved Fruits, Vegetables, Flowering Plants, and Ornamental Trees, Shrubs, &c., we avail ourselves of the present as a fit opportunity for correcting former lists, and adding those of recent introduction or origin, when of sufficient merit, to the lists of a similar nature which have appeared in practical works such as " The Book of the Garden" professes to be. This is the more important, because, with the exception of Mr Hogg's excellent work, " British Pomo- logy," which treats on the apple exclusively, there has been no book of a similar description to the present published in Britain since our " Practical Gardener " and " The Orchard," both of which, in this respect, are now very far behind the requirements of the present age. The excellent descriptive " Fruit Catalogue of the London Horticultural Society," and the no less valu- able " Orchard," by the late Mr G. Lindley, and " The Fruit Cultivator," by the late Mr Eogers, stand in a similar position to the works already named. The only channels through which the new and improved varieties of Fruits, Vegetables, and Plants of general interest have reached the public, (since the " Practical Gardener " was last revised by us, more than twelve years ago,) have been the horticultural periodicals, and the nurserymen's and seedsmen's trade catalogues ; although, during this period, more important additions have been made to all of these classes than during any former period of the same extent. These lists, valuable as they certainly have been in making us acquainted with every novelty as it appeared, have, from their nature, scattered the information sought for over a wide extent of volumes and tracts, which renders the task of referring to them expensive and often exceedingly difficult. To these additions we may add the many fine fruits of American origin, and the vast number of new ornamental plants which, at the date of the works referred to, were wholly unknown in this country. ADVERTISEMENT. iii From them, selected lists of such varieties as are suitable to our climate, &c., will be made. The arrangement of these lists will be as follows : — The most approved and recently introduced Esculent Seeds and Roots will accompany the articles to which they respectively belong in the Culinary Garden. The most approved and recently obtained Hardy Fruits will in like manner be found in the Hardy Fruit Garden. The Tropical Fruits in the Forcing Garden. And The more rare, choice, and interesting Trees of Ornament, &c.. Flower- ing Plants, &c., will accompany the Flower Garden. We have given some brief details of the practices of the London market- gardeners, who, it must be admitted, are the best culinary gardeners in the world. This is a subject scarcely hinted at by authors on gardening since the days of Abercrombie, the merits of whose excellent works (we mean the original editions) are mainly owing to the copious details he gave of the market-gardening of his day. As nearly a century has now elapsed since he wrote his first work, and as during that period a corresponding improvement has taken place in that department, as well as in that of private gardening, a work of this kind would be incomplete without a notice of these excellent modes of culture. Little or nothing has been published concerning the London practice since that time, and private gardeners, in general, know little how things are there managed. There has been a reserve on the part of the former in affording information, and an unwillingness on the side of the latter to undergo the hard work to which they would be subjected, were they to spend a year in a mariset-garden, rather than two or three loitering about a nursery — ^too often a tax upon the proprietor, and losing much of their own valuable time. We here allude to young gardeners only, who would acquire a much greater amount of useful information in the general routine of their profession were they to spend a year in a first-rate London market-garden, than they could do in a dozen years, toiling nearly as hard, in very inferior places in the country. We are far from insinuating that a nursery is a bad school f6r a young gar- dener ; on the contrary, no man can have much pretension to a thorough knowledge of his business, unless he has spent a part of his career in a first- rate establishment of that kind. In it he learns what he could not do in a private garden ; he learns the most approved methods of propagation, has many iv ADVERTISEMENT. opportunities of studying the nomenclature of Fruits, of attaining a general knowledge of Plants, and the best modes of taking up and packing Trees, and of becoming acquainted with the new and rarer ornamental and useful Trees and Shrubs, upon which decorative gardening is destined in future so much to depend. In many of these establishments he may obtain some practice in laying out grounds, as nurserymen of high repute are often employed as landscape-gardeners. In fact, every gardener wishing to excel in his pro- fession, should spend a couple of years in such establishments, and one at least in a London market-garden. To one department of great importance, both to the practical gardener and the amateur, and which has hitherto hardly received the attention it merits in practical works — that of the diseases, insects, and other enemies, to the attacks of which the various products of the garden are liable — especial attention has been paid. Full descriptions have been given of these from the best authorities, supplemented by actual observation, and also full details of the most approved methods of prevention and cure ; while the insects in particular have been much more extensively figured than has, it is believed, ever before been done in any single work, and this on a scale and with a minuteness which will make the identification of them easy even to a com- paratively superficial observer. We have thought it expedient to give the European names of culinary vegetables and fruits, more especially the former, on account of our increas- ing intercourse with the Continent, and the quantities of seeds which are yearly brought or sent into this country, and often put into the hands of those unacquainted with the language in which the names are given. Eeaders of such popular Continental works as the "Bon Jardinier," the " Utrechtsche Hovinier," " Garten Zietung," " Verstandige Gartner," and similar books on gardening, may be assisted by a reference to the paragraph General Remarhs at the end of each section. Throughout the whole of this department of our subject, it will be our special aim to enter into all necessary minuteness of detail; to avoid all techni- calities of term, or, wherever we are compelled to employ these, to append full explanations of them ; and, in short, to make the " Book of the Gaeden " as to its cultural department, so precise and complete in all its directions, that it may suffice to the tyro as his guide, from the most rudimental opera- tions of gardening onward, and render the amateur in a great degree inde- pendent of other assistance ; while, to the experienced gardener, we trust it will be found the best and most practical work of reference extant. THE BOOK OF THE GARDEN CULTUEAL THE CULINARY OR KITCHEN GARDEN. INTEODUCTOEY EEMAEES. § 1. — SKETCH OF THE HISTORY OF CULINARY VEGETABLES. The culinary or kitchen garden, {jardin potager of the French,) with all its varied productions, if not the most ornamental, will be admitted to be the most useful of all the departments of gardening. Many of the crops cultivated in those of the present day were raised, and we have no great right to suppose otherwise than that they were so to a very creditable extent, although upon much less scienti- fic principles, soon after the Deluge, if not prior to that epoch. They are early mentioned in the histories of the nations of the greatest antiquity. The onion, the leek, the cucumber, and the garlic, were in extensive cultivation in Egypt long before the exodus of the children of Israel ; and herbs for seasoning cooked dishes were also well known at an equally early period. Of the means employed in their production we have no records left earlier than the date of the foundation of Eome. Soon after that period we find the envi- rons of that city in a state of cultivation much like what exists around large towns and cities of our own time — namely, as market-gardens, in which were cultivated many of the culinary vegetables such gar- dens at present produce. One important difference, however, may be remarked — the culinary gardens around ancient Eome were cultivated by the chief men, who were also the proprietors, and they them- selves, wrought the ground with their own hands; and hence several of the most celebrated families — the Pisones, the Cicerones, the Fabii, the Lentuh, &c. — derived their patronymics from ancestors who had distinguished themselves in the cultivation of culinary vegetables. Thus, Pisum, a Pea ; Cicer, a Chick-pea ; Faha, a Bean ; Lentulus, a Lentil, (fee. Nor did some of their greatest histo- rians consider it beneath their literary dignity to record many interesting hints regarding the modes of culture employed. Cato, Varro, Columella, Palladius, Pliny, Virgil, Martial, ifec, have left us quite enough, in those portions of their writings which have been handed down to us, to satisfy us that the culture of culinary vegetables was well understood and fully appreciated in their days. The former of these has left us in detail the Eoman mode of cultivating asparagus, which was the last vegetable written upon by him, and may serve as a pretty good example of ancient Eoman gardening. " You must work a spot that is moist, or which has richness and depth of soil. Make the beds so that you may be able to clean and weed them on each sidej let there be a distance of half a foot between the plants. Set in the seed, two or three in a place, in a straight line, cover with mould, then scatter some compost over the beds. At the vernal equinox, when the plants come up, weed often, and take care that the asparagus is not plucked up with the weeds. The year you plant them, cover them with straw during the winter, that CULINARY OR KITCHEN GARDEN. they may not be killed. In the begin- ning of the spring after, dress and weed them. The third year after you have sown them, burn the haulm in the begin- ning of the spring. Do not weed them before the plants come up, that you may not hurt the stools. The third or fourth year you may pluck them close by the root ; if you break them off, they yield side-shoots, and some will die. You may take them until they run to seed. The seed is ripe in autumn. When you have gathered the seed, burn the haulm, and, when the plants begin to shoot, weed and manure. After eight or nine years, when the beds are old, lay out a spot, work and manure it well, then make drills where you may plant some roots ; set them well apart that you may dig between them. Take care that they are not injured. Carry as much sheep's dung as you can on the beds : it is best for this purpose ; other manures produce weeds." The globe artichoke is said by Pliny, book xix. chap, viii., to have been more esteemed, and to have obtained a higher price, than any other garden herb. He also informs us that the commoners of Rome were prohibited by an arbitrary law from eating this vegetable. He, at the same time, censures his countrymen for their vanity and prodigality as re- gards the serving up such things to their tables £is the very asses and other beasts refuse to eat, for fear of pricking their lips. The same writer, book xii. chap, iv., tells us that asparagus, which for- merly grew wild, was, in his time, care- fully cultivated in gardens, particularly at Ravenna, where the heads were so large that three of them would weigh a pound. Basil, which stands now so high in the gastronomic art, that a new-made alder- man would spurn a basin of turtle if not seasoned with it, was condemned by Chrysippus, more than two hundred years before Christ, as an enemy to the sight and a robber of the wits. Diodorus and Hollerus entertained equally superstitious notions regarding it. Philistis, Plisto- nicus, and others, extolled its vitrues, and recommended it as strongly as it had been formerly condemned. Pliny says, the Romans sowed the seeds of this plant with maledictions and ill words, believing that the more it was cursed the better it would prosper; and when they wished for a crop, they trod it down with their feet, and prayed to the gods that it might not vegetate ! The bean was cultivated both by the earlier Greeks and by the Athenians, who offered them as oblations to the gods — a practice, according to Pliny, after- wards followed by the Romans ; and Lempriere states that bacon was added to the beans in the offerings to Carna — not, as he says, so much to gratify the palate of the goddess, as to represent the simplicity of their ancestors. The beet was highly prized by the Greeks, who used to offer it on silver to Apollo at Delphos. They used also to eat the leaves in preference to lettuce, and, by laying a small weight on the plant, they blanched it, much as gardeners of the present day lay a tile over endive plants for a like purpose. Pliny says, beets are, of all garden herbs, the lightest roots ; that they are eaten, as well as the leaves, with lentils and beans; and that the best way to eat them is with mustard, to give a taste to their dull flatness. So highly was the cabbage esteemed by the an- cients, that two of their leading physi- cians each wrote a book on the properties of the plant. Phillips tells us that the ancient Romans, having banished physi- cians out of their territories, preserved their health for six hundred years, and soothed their infirmities, by the use of this vegetable alone. Pliny goes to great length on the use and culture of the cab- bage, which, he says, may be cut as cole- worts at all times of the year; so may they be sown and set all the year through ; but he adds that the most appropriate season is after the autumnal equinox ; and also remarks that, after the first cutting, they yield abundance of excellent tops. Powdered nitre, sea-weed, and asses' dung, were used as a fitting manure for them. " There are," Pliny remarks, "many kinds of cole worts at Rome," and amongst them, one received in his time " from the vale of Aricia, with an exceedingly great head and an infinite number of leaves, which gather round and close together" — probably the first type of our hearting cabbage, for those previously described by him appear to have been open-hearted or true coleworts. He afterwards, how- ever, says, "there are some coles which SKETCH OF THE HISTORY OF CULINARY VEGETABLES. stretch out into a round shape, others extend in breadth, and are very full of fleshy brawns, and some possess heads twelve inches thick." He also remarks, that all the varieties eat sweeter from being touched with the frost, an o^pinion prevalent at the present day. In the Roman culture we find that the sprouts were plailted as well as the young plants — a disemery made a few years since, arid recorded in one of our most costly horti- cultural works, and described nearly as Columella did many hundred years ago. Fennel was cultivated largely by the Romans as a garden herb, and so much used in the kitchen that there were few meats seasoned or vinegar sauces served up without it. "A good housewife," says Pliny, " will go into her herb -garden instead of a spice-shop for her season- ings, and thus preserve the health of her family by saving her purse." From an anecdote related by Herodo- tus, in connection with the murder of Smerdis by his brother Carnbyses, it is quite evident that lettuces were served at the royal tables of the Persian kings five hundred and fifty years before Christ. The ancient Romans, however, appear to have known only one sort, which Pliny describes as a black variety. Suspicion prevailed of their having a deleterious effect; but, after Antonius Musa cured the Emperor Augustus Csesar by means of this plant, that suspicion vanished, and, as Pliny says, men began to devise means of growing them at all seasons of the year. The variety of lettuce cultivated by the Greeks is stated to have grown " high and large." Those employed by the Romans in the days of Pliny were the purple sort, with a large root, the Egyptian, Cilician, Cappadocian, &c. Great pains, he says, were taken t6 make them cabbage, and they were earthed up with sea-sand to blanch them and give them heart. The white lettuce was no- ticed as being the least hardy even in that mild climate. Salads were much esteemed amongst the ancients, and even poets sang their praises. Ovid, in his " Philemon and Baucis," says— " A garden salad was the third supply, Gf endive, radishes, and succory." VOL. II. And Columella also thus notices the endive — "And endives, which the blunted palate please." The endive is said by modern botanists to be a native of the East Indies. This Would lead us to believe them little ac- quainted with European historical authors; for, besides Ovid and Columella, Pliiiy also mentions endive in the eighth chapter of his twentieth book. Horace alludes to the plant under the name of cicorea, in lib. i. ode 31; Virgil makes special men- tion of the marigold in the second eclogue of his " Bucolics;" and Catullus thus no- tices the marjoram, in the " Epithala- mium of Julia and Manlius " — " Bind your brows with the sweet-smelling mar- joram." Mint is equally honoured by Ovid's notice of it, from which we learn that the humbler classes used to perfume their tables by rubbing the plant upon them before serving their supper ; and so highly was mint thought of at Rome, that Pliny says, " you will not see a hus- bandman's board in the country, but all the meats, from one end to the other, are seasoned with mint." The humble creep- ing Penny Royal formed the subject of a consultation of physicians held in Pliny's chamber, the result of which was, that they agreed that a chaplet of this plant was, without comparison, far better for giddiness and swimming of the head than one of roses. We have met with no ac- count of the cultivation of the mushroom in the authors of antiquity, but that they were in extensive use is quite evident, had we no better authority than the circum- stance of one of them, the Agaricus Cassar- eus having been made the vehicle of poison by Agrippina for her husband, Tiberius Claudius. That they were as highly prized amongst the epicures of ancient Rome as they are by those of modern London, is evident from what Pliny says of them, in his 6th book, chap. 8, " the last device of our epicures to sharpen their appetites, and tempt them to eat inordinately, is the cooking of mushrooms ;" and, in the 23d chap, of his 22d book, he adds, " there are some dainty wantons of such fine taste, and who study their appetite to such ex- cess, that they dress mushrooms with their own hands, that they may feed on the B 6 CULINARY OR KITCHEN GARDEN. odour during the time they are handling and preparing their food." Mustard must have been cultivated in Syiia while our Saviour was upon earth, as it is mentioned in one of His beautiful parables as being the least seed that was sown in the field. The mustard here referred to does not appear, from the circumstance of the size of its seed, to be the mustard of our times. This has led to various conjectures, none of which have much plausibility. The mustard of the present time was cultivated in Rome, in Pliny'stime, to the extentof threevarieties. The origin or native country of the well-known onion is unknown. Pliny, in book 20, chap. 5, enumerates all the countries from whence the Greeks as well as the Romans procured different varieties of this root, but declares he could never discover where they ever grew wild. Pal- ladius, a Greek physician, recommends the onion ,to be sown with savory, in which curious opinion Pliny agrees, ob- serving that onions prosper better when savory is sown with them. It was a cur- rent opinion, we should state, in those days, that certain plants had an antipathy to, or a sympathy with, each other. How- ever absurd such an idea may appear to us, we should take into consideration that the opinions of the ancients may not have been faithfully handed down to us, or that their works may admit of a somewhat i different construction. " We find," Phil- lips observes, " that all the plants which they recommend to be sown or planted together are of very opposite natures ; and there may be more reason in the system pursued by the ancients than is generally allowed ; for plants drawing the same juice from the earth must naturally weaken each other; whereas those requiring dif- ferent nutriment may, in some degree, assist each other, each feeding on juices that are prejudicial to plants of the other species." In this there is great truth. The garlic was in use at as early a time as the onion ; the want of both was lamented by the Israelites in the wilderness. The Egyptians worshipped it, and are said to wish that they may enjoy it in paradise. The Greeks held it in such abhorrence, that those who ate it were regarded as profane. The Romans gave it to their labourers to strengthen them, to their soldiers to excite courage, and fed their game-cocks on it previous to fighting them. The eschalot (or shallot, as it is often written) is a species of onion, and was well known to both the Greeks and Romans. Pliny states, book 19, chap. 6, that the best leeks were brought from Egypt, and names Aricia, now called Ricoia, in Italy, as celebrated for them in his time, and says, " it is not long since leeks were brought into great notice and esteem by the Emperor Nero, who used to eat them for several days in every month to clear his voice, eating them with oil only, and abstaining from bread on those leek-eating days," which ab- surdity led his people to give him the cognomen of Porrophacfus. Pliny, book 20, chap. 11, informs us that parsley was in great repute in his time, all classes partaking of it largely in their pottage, and that there was not a salad or sauce presented at the table without it. The Emperor Tiberius held parsnips in high repute, and had them annually brought to Rome from Germany, from the neigh- bourhood of Gelduba on the Rhine, where they were said to have been grown in great perfection. The Greeks sowed their pease in November ; the Romans did not plant theirs tiU the spring. So highly did the ancient Greeks esteem the radish, that, in offering their oblations to Apollo, they presented turnips in lead, and beet in silver, whereas radishes were presented in beaten gold. The Greeks appear to have been acquainted with three varieties of this plant; andMoschian, one of their chief physicians, wrote a whole book on the radish alone, so highly did he think of it. Pliny obsei-ves, that radishes grow best in saline soils, or when they are watered with salt-water; and hence, he says, the radishes of Egypt are better than any in the world, on account of their being there supplied with nitre. He gives some account of the kinds grown at Rome in his day, one of which he describes as being so clear and trans- parent that one may see through them. The transparent variety of our day has not this property to the same extent. The size also to which the radishes of those days are said to have attained far exceeded those of the present, nor do we think such would be appreciated by our modern radish-eaters. Tragus mentions radishes that weighed 40 lb.; DISPOSITION OF THE CEOPS. and Amatus states, he has seen some of 60 lb. ; while Matthiole declares having met with them 100 lb. each. Some- what in accordance to views recently pro- mulgated in regard to increasing the size of roots, these monster radishes are said to have been produced by carefully taking off the leaves. The ancients used them boiled; the Eoman physicians, however, directed them to be eaten raw with salt, as in our modern practice, and that they should be taken in the morning before any other food. Savory and lavender are recommended by Virgil as fitting plants to be set near bee-hives — " The verdant lavender must there abound, There savory shed its pleasant sweets around." They were used by the Eomans to mix with cool salads, such as lettuce and radishes. Vinegar flavoured with savory and other aromatic herbs was much used by the ancients to dip their animal food in previous to eating, or as we now do mint-sauce, with lamb. Sorrel was cultivated in Pliny's time, as he makes mention of " garden sorrel, or sour dock." Thyme was imported to Eome from Attica, and cultivated for the sake of bees. Water- cress was eaten by the ancients along with lettuce, to counteract the cold nature of that vegetable. We have above given a cursory view of the ancient history of culinary vegetables. That we have improved in culture, and in the production of superior varieties, is undeniable ; but that we have not added very greatly to the number of species is equally apparent. The periods when in- digenous vegetables became reclaimed, or brought into a cultivated state, as well as the dates of the introduction of exotic ones, will be found under their respective heads. § 2. — DISPOSITION OF THE CEOPS IN THE KITCHEN- GARDEN. A sj/stematic mode of arranging the con- tents of the kitchen-garden, although no one can doubt the propriety of such a course, has, in the majority of cases (not even excepting some of our very best gar- dens), been next to disregarded. The plants cultivated rank as either peren- nials of several' years' standing, or as annuals, and some few biennials occupying the same ground only one, or at most two years. We see, therefore, no good reason why two distinct classes of arrangement should not be formed ; but as it occurs in practice, as will be hereafter shown, that the annuals and perennials com- prising our olitory or sweet herbs are more conveniently cultivated when set apart by themselves, we shall exclude them from our present arrangement, adding, however, the strawberry, goose- berry, currant, and raspberry, which be- long properly to the fruit-garden, but are in general cultivated in the quarters of the kitchen-garden. By such an arrange- ment, a better rotation of crops may be followed out, and the garden made to assume a more methodical appearance. Where, however, sufficient slips of ground surround the main garden, these pei-en- nial crops may be therein planted, and, having stood their allotted time, succes- sional plantations of them may be made to occupy one or more of the quarters within the main garden, in extent according to the quantity required to meet the demand. When these are thus removed (which removal, in the case of the gooseberry, currant, and raspberry, should take place at periods of from seven to twelve years), the ground they occupied will be in a very fit state to afibrd a change of soil to some of the annual crops cultivated during that time on the ground now to be occupied by the others. The perennial crops to which we refer (exclusive of the fruits above) are, asparagus, sea-kale, rhubarb, and globe artichokes. Where the three former are forced upon the taking -up plan, an annual change of soil is attained; and as artichokes and strawberries should be replanted yearly, or in most cases once in two years, this increases the opportunity of carrying out rotation. No doubt the three first, in good soils, and where they are allowed to come into use at their natural seasons, will last for from seven to twelve years, or even much longer, but we see no advantage in con- tinuing them beyond the last-named period. For these reasons, we would group the gooseberry, currant, and rasp- berry in a plot by themselves, and not dispose them in the scattered manner CULINARY OR KITCHEN GARDEN. they usually are met -with, occupying more room, less conveniently protected, exposed, to having their roota mutilated by, digging about them, and, last of all, affording by their removal no useful rotar tion, The pther perennial crops may be planted next to them, and, if allowed to remain, either to be forced on the ground, (as is usually done in the case of the sea- kale and rhubarb in particular, and in that of the asparagus occasionally), or to be. allowed to come in at their natural sea- son, then the whole quarter may be de- stroyed at once (presuming a succession is established in that adjoining), and the ground they occupied cropped with, annual crops, for which the manurial applications hitherto given wiU render it exceedingly fit, particularly foj" carrots, onions, &c., which seldom succeed on newly-manured ground. That, however, occupied with the gooseberries, currants, and raspberries, being less enriched, must now have manure applied to it. The strawberry crop will now, by about the. seventh year, have travelled, by yearly changes, to the further side of the adjoin- ing quarter, followed up by the succes- sional crops of sea-kale, asparagus, and rhubarb, and, last of all, by currants, gooseberries, and raspberries. In this way, these crops may be made to circulate round the quarters or divisions of the main garden ; and if the changes appear , to be too rapid, an occasional shift to the sHps may be had recourse to. No doubt an excellent rotation is afforded^ when a portion of these crops is . taken up annually for forcing, the ground vacated being next occupied with .annual crops ; but this rotation, although equally good in principle, is less systematic in appearance. The extent of ground occupied by any one species of esculent must ever depend on the quantity of the particular sort re- quired to meet the demand. The follow- ing is about the proportions : Pease occupy, in general, the largest breadth in most gardens ; always so, when the family are resident in the country ; somewhat less, when they only arrive about the 1st of August (a very usual period), as crops before that are not required. The cab- bage tribe comes next in order, and would occupy the larger space, were it not that the crops for the latter end of winter and early spring are planted on the ground from which the first crops of pease have been gathered. Turnips would stand next, were it not that asparagus, sea-kale^ and rhubarb, to be forced during winter on the taking-up principle, require to be extensively grown, on account of the roots being destroyed when the crop is gathered; and this is more especially the case when a femily requires them throughout the winter and in . spring from the open ground also. Potatoes would rank next, were it expedient to grow them in gar- dens (beyond the early crops), which it is not; for, from, some hitherto unex- plained cause, they never are of so good a quality in richly-manured gardens, as in the less highly manured , fields. Car- rots, leeks, and onions follow — the former, however, being a precarious crop. Celery and spinach would occupy as large a space as the last, were it not that the. latter, particularly for winter crops, which are the principal, is not sown till the latter end of July or beginning of August, on ground from which probably the early crop of pease has been removed. Garden and kidney beans, and scarlet runners, follow — the two latter having a preference, in most gardens, to the former. Parsnips, , globe artichoke, and beet are the next in . order, followed by parsley, endive, salsify,, skirret, scorzonera, and Jerusalem arti- chokes; garlic, shallot, rocambole, succory, chervil, and all manner of pot and sweet herbs, find a place in the oUtory or herb- garden; and lastly, lettuce, of which there is a perpetual sowing and planting, being usually, unless grown upon a very large scale, accommodated with room amongst other crops, as its duration in sum- mer is short — and during winter it is placed in sheltered places, by the bottoms of walls, &c. § 3.— THE QUANTITIES OF SEEDS AND EOOTS NECESSARY TO CROP A GAR- DEN. The young gardener will find himself, upon taking, charge of a garden for the first time, in a much greater dilemma, when abont to make up his seed order; for the ensuing year, than in any other part of his charge. To order without some certain knowledge of the quantities THE NECESSARY QUANTITIES OF SEEDS AND ROOTS. required, entails not only an unnecessary expense on the owner, but if the quantities be not properly proportioned to each other, and each in as near a proportion as possible to the quantity of produce required, he will be in a second dilemma, when he finds he has more of one sort than he requires, and too little of some others. Various estimates have been formed, and scales of quantities drawn out, ever since the days of Gordon of Fountain Bridge, who published his " Pocket Dic- tionary" in 1774. That great difificulty attends even an approximation to the truth, so as to be of universal application, will be suflSciently evident, when we take into consideration that some families use a greater quantity of vegetables than others j some requiring them all the year over, while others are content to have them at such times as they are pro- duced naturally in the open air. Some prefer more of one sort than of others, and there are many esculents which some reject altogether. Much also depends on whether an English or French cook steers the helm of affairs in the kitchen : the former, we have invariably found, uses the greater quantity ; while the latter, while he uses them in less bulk, is far more particular in having them young, and in proper season. Again, there is the nature of the soil and the situation to be taken into con- sideration, as well as whether the garden is protected from game, or open to their attacks. With these data all to be taken into account, it is quite clear that only an approximation to the exact quantities can be arrived at, even by the most' conversant in those matters ; but that approximation is better than none at all. Before, however, stating what we conceive to be the necessary quantities under these, circumstances, we must premise a few words of warning to those gentlemen who make up their own seed-lists, and who are always on the look-out for cheap, houses, and advertised seed sales by auc- tion — in too many cases got up by a set of swindlers, whose chief personal cha- racteristics are a pair of huge mustaches, and an affectation of being totally ignorant of the English language. To such we say, Take the responsibility upon your- selves ; and when you find no crop forth- coming, blame neither your gardener nor your soil. The more respectable the firm you purchase from is, the more certain you may be of avoiding disap- pointment. Besides, you have a remedy against the one ; none whatever against the other. Th« law will afford you pro- tection, and award you full and fair com- pensation for loss in the one case, but you may whistle for it in the other. Be- sides, firms of respectability have a character to maintain, of far more impor- tance to them than any gain that could arise out of any fraudulent transaction. We greatly object to most of the former seed estimates published, because they are in general below the mark; and much as we deprecate thick sowing, still, seeds are now so cheap that it were false economy to have such a deficient supply at first, as to be compelled to re-sow a. crop cut off by insects, frost, or other: accidents, to which all such crops are liable; or to be without a supply at hand, in the event of the crop being entirely destroyed. We give below the seed estimate of Gordon, of 1774, to show the quantities he allows, but more particularly to show that many of the vegetables still popular with us were so nearly a century ago. " A seed bill for a private family, calcu- lated to crop a garden consisting of an acre of ground. — 4 lb. early Charlton pease ; 4 lb. Nicol's early Hotspur do. ; 4 lb. golden early do.; 4 lb. common Hasting, or Essex Reading do. ; 4 lb. Turkey Hot- spur, or long marrow- fat do. ; 4 lb. dwarf marrow-fat do. ; 4 lb. Leadman's long, dwarf do. ; 1 lb. early Mazagan beans ; 1 Ib^ early Lisbon do. ; 2 lb. long-podded do.; 4 lb. Tokar do.; 4 lb. Windsor or Turkey do.; ^ lb. Barbary kidney do.; \ lb. Battersea do.; ^ lb. Strasburg onion ; 3 oz. red Spanish do. ; 1 oz. silver- skinned do.; 4 oz. London leek; 4 oz. orange carrot; 1 oz. early horn do.; 2 oz. Dutch parsnip ; \ lb. early Dutch tur- nip; 2 oz. yellow do.; 2 oz. red- topped do. ; ^ lb. shallot ; \ lb. garlic ; 4 oz. early London short-topped radish ; 2 oz. salmon do.; \ oz. turnip-rooted do.; 1 oz, black Spanish do.; 6 dr. cabbage, lettuce ; 4 dr. ice or white Cos do. ; 2 dr. Silesia do.; 2 dr. tennis-ball do.; 2 dr. brown Dutch do. ; 4 oz. curled cress ; 2, oz. broad-leaved do.; 4 oz. common do.; 10 CULINARY OR KITCHEN GARDEN. 4 oz. Indian do. ; 2 oz. curled parsley ; 2 oz. common do. ; ^ lb. white mustard ; ^ oz. curled endive ; 4 dr. Italian celery ; 4 dr. long green cucumber ; 4 dr. short ' prickly do,; 2 dr. best melons; 1 lb. round spinach ; | lb. prickly do. ; 1 oz. French or Mountain do. ; 1 oz. white beet ; 1 oz, green do. ; 2 oz. red beet, or beet-rave ; ^ oz. cauliflower ; ^ oz. white broccoli ; ^ oz. purple do. ; 1 oz. early Yorkshire cabbage ; 1 oz. sugar-loaf early do. ; ^ oz. red Dutch do. ; 4 oz. late Aln- wick do. ; I lb. green savoy ; 2 oz. yellow do. ; 2 oz. Kilmaurs kale ; 4 oz. scarlet beans." Our own estimate, in a similar case, is tliis ; but as the varieties of cultivated vegetables are now so numerous, we shall omit specifying them, referring the reader to our select lists, which will be found appended to each subject, as well as leav- ing unnoticed some few kinds not gene- rally expected to be found in a garden of the limited extent of one acre : Pease, 36 qts. ; garden beans, 10 qts. ; French or kidney beans, 4 qts. — provided none are forced. Scarlet runners, 2 qts. ; cabbage of early sorts, 8 oz, ; savoys, 4 oz, ; Brus- sels sprouts, 3 oz. ; cauliflower, 4 oz. broccoli of sorts, 8 oz. ; borecoles, 4 oz. red cabbage, 2 oz. ; late or drumhead do., 2 oz. ; kohl-rabi, 2 oz. ; onions, 12 oz. carrots, 8 oz. — if none are forced. Turnip, white sorts, 16 oz, ; yellow do., 6 oz. celery, 2 oz. ; spinach, 8 qts. ; red beet. 4 oz. ; yellow do., 2 oz. ; leeks, 4 oz. parsnips, 4 oz. ; salsify, 2 oz. ; skirret, 2 oz. ; scorzonera, 2 oz. ; endive, 4 oz lettuce, 4 oz. ; radish, 3 pts, — if none are forced. Mustard, li qts., and cress the same — if neither are forced. Parsley, 4 oz. — 2 oz. curled, and 2 oz. plain. Of roots, early potatoes, 1^ bush. ; of late do., 3 bush. ; Jerusalem artichokes, 1 pck. ; garlic, \ lb. ; shallots, 2 lb. It does not, however, exactly follow that a garden of 20 acres extent requires twenty times the quantities shown above ; this, however paradoxical it may appear to the uninitiated, is well known to the practical cultivator. An example may be given in the case of a seed-bed of cabbage, cauli- flower, leeks, &c. A first planting is taken from the most forward plants, which, in general, are those arising from seed of the preceding year, or of those of that year most fully matured, compared with less perfectly ripened seeds, even of the same year's growth. They also arise from seed of the previous year's production being stronger than seeds of one or two year's standing, thus producing a very necessary succession in the hands of those who know how to manage matters rightly ; and, con- sequently, the experienced gardener, avail- ing himself of the knowledge of which he has long been possessed, will and does take such plants in succession, as he well knows, under favourable circum- stances, the stronger plants will come first to maturity, or else they will run to seed, and be useless. This misfortune is, however, made up for in the second plant- ing, and this is succeeded by the third. In the meanwhile, let us endeavour to set aside the too prevalent opinion that seed of the previous year's growth alotie should be sown, with some few exceptions. Than this a more erroneous notion could not, we think, have been driven into the craniums of those of our wiseacres, " the advocates for new seed." The honest seedsman does an act of great kindness, and confers an important benefit on his customers, when he mixes seeds of 1851, 1852, and 1853 together; for, provided they have been well kept, the advantage in the case of many seeds (take the whole of the Brassicse as an example) is very much in favour of the purchaser. For our- selves, we would not thank any man for seeds of cauliflower, broccoli, turnip, &c., of last year's production; and to avoid the chance of disappointment from this, we invariably keep by us in stock seeds of this natural order, of from two to five or six years. Our older gardeners, while they have handed down to us volumes of rules, have been very sparing in paying us the same compliment in regard to reasons. We have hardly had one assigned for the invariable rule of their carrying their cucumber and melon seeds in their pockets for months before they com- mitted them to the soil. An ancient sage says, "there is reason in the boiling of an egg ; " so is there in carrying the seeds referred to in the warm dry atmos- phere of a pocket. It is in consequence of the genial heat bringing about a state of maturity in the seed, which our cold climate, compared with Persia, the country of the melon, is incapable of doing; and hence the practice of THE NECESSAKY QUANTITIES OF SEEDS AND EOOTS. 11 keeping such seeds for years, until they, as it were, arrive at maturity in conse- quence of age, or are brought artificially to that state by the means (or other means similar) above stated, which is correct in principle. In the case of the natural order above referred to (the Brassica)), seeds of three ages have been found of vast advantage — a circumstance, if we recollect rightly, brought before the public some years ago by Mr Archibald Gorrie, who, in reference to the turnip (and all the Brassicte may be taken in the same category), says the plants from seeds of the previous year, being stronger, vegetate first, and afford food for the fly, while those from the seed of the year previous to that follow in succession ; and if vegetation be going on rapidly, these may escape wholly the attacks of insects ; if not, the older seed of all, which vegetates last, is certain to escape, because the fly has had wherewithal to satiate its voracious appetite ; and by the time the third in succession comes into leaf, the insects have undergone their transfor- mation. This is also a reason for thick- sowing under peculiar circumstances. Nor is the preservation from the fly all that arises from fully matured seed. If we only take a crop of early Dutch turnip as an example, it will be found that the plants raised from seed of the previous year will be exceedingly prone to run to seed without bulbing ; and should they even do so, the bulbs will be neither so firm nor so well shaped as those from seed of two, three, or more years' saving. The tops, in the former case, will be large, and consequently monopolise for themselves much of the material which ought naturally to have gone to the bulb ; in the latter case the tops will be small, the bulbs large and well formed ; — indeed, the proper prepon- derance will be, in this case, maintained between bulb and leaves. Cauliflower coming prematurely into flower — or what is technically called buttoning, because the abortive flower produced is not much larger than a good-sized biitton, and seldom worth half as much — may be offered as another example. Many other cases might be given ; these, however, may sufiice. Eeturning, however, to how an expert gardener manages with less seed, in pro- portion to his wants, than one of less experience, and in a more humble way of business : tiie former has a gradual succession to maintain, which scarcely admits of separate sowings to supply the niceness of his calculations ; he therefore trusts to the three gradations, in which his seed-bed seldom disappoints him. He acts accordingly, and instead of taking the largest and strongest plants only, he takes part of all the three, and thus fills a much greater space of ground than he who calculates only on one crop, and con- tents himself with the first and strongest plants his bed produces, and, regardless of the others, digs them down, and trusts to another sowing, perhaps a month or more hence ; which sowing, by the way, may suit his looser way of doing business. The gardener who has the superintendence of first-rate gardens is supposed to have a much greater knowledge of the principles of his profession — at least he should have so — than one whose field of operations is limited to a quarter of an acre, and who is often from circumstances ignorant of the rudimentary principles upon which ho should act. These and amateurs are the class to which the sin of extravagance and too thick sowing is chargeable, and they in general consume far more seed, from misapplication, than is necessary. Fearful at sowing, either from want of confidence in the seed itself, or from being ignoi'ant of the mode of proving its quality pre- vious to sowing, they console themselves in either case with the certainty of being safe, and therefore sow unreasonably thick. There are, no doubt, on the other hand, some who, from penuriousness, err in sowing too thin, and not taking into calculation the losses by insects, frosts, and the doubtful quality of the seed, which such a class is of all the most like- ly to experience, having purchased cheap; and, in consequence, they find that their crop is a total failure. There is, how- ever, no doubt that thin-sowing is pre- ferable to thick-sowing, so far as the plant is concerned ; and if seeds are to be de- pended upon, and were they of sufficient value to make it a measure of economy to plant them singly, instead of sowing them in the usual manner, there is no doubt, barring accidents, that the former mode would be preferable to the latter, and therefore one quarter of the seed usually ordered would suffice. 12 CULINIRY OR KITCHEN iSARDEN. § 4. — ROTATION OF CROPS. , The necessity of a rotation of crops — that is, not sowing or planting the same ground with the same species of seed or plants from which it has been cleared, but introducing a succeeding crop of as dissimilar a kind as possible — is founded upon two facts, namely, the excrementi- tions of the plants, and the exhausting of the soil by them. Brugmanns supposed he had discovered that some plants exude an acid fluid from their spongioles, which may be regarded as a peculiar kind of excretion, which becomes obnoxious to roots of the same kind, but not so to those of another species; and Macaire asserts that this property is almost general throughout the vegetable kingdom. De Candolle was of this opinion, and conjectured that the soil was not only rendered unfit for the growth of the same species in consequence of these excretions, but believed that, acting as a manure, they improved the soil for other species. This, coupled with the supposition that plants cannot digest their own excretions, seemingly ex- plains to us why the soil becomes dete- riorated by one kind of plant having long grown in it, and its unfitness to support a crop of the same kind until the fecal matter in it shall have become decom- posed. Daubeny and Gyde deny this, and say that these excretions are not in- jurious. Gyde's opinion was, that though plants have no power of selection, " but take into their texture any solution offered to theuf roots, they have little or no power of again excreting it; that any excretions are only of the true sap ; and that plants watered with excretions receive no injury by it." This opinion has occupied, to some extent, the attention of physiologists within these two or three years, but, as it appears, as yet without any conclusive result having been arrived at. In connection with this, Dr Lindley remarks ("Theory of Horticulture," p. 21), "In addition to their feeding proper- ties, roots are the organs by which plants rid themselves of the secreted matter, which is either superfluous or deleterious to them. If you place a plant of succory in water, it will be found that the roots will, by degrees, render the water bitter, as if opium had been mixed with it ; a spurge {Euphorbia) will render it acrid, and a leguminous plant mucilaginous; and if you poison one half of the roots of any plant, the other half will throw the poison off again from the system. Hence it follows, that if roots are so cir- cumstanced that they cannot constantly advance into fresh soil, they will, by de- grees, be surrounded by their own excre- mentitious secretions. It would also seem to follow that, under the circumstances just named, they would be poisoned, be- cause they have little power of refusing to take up whatever matter is presented to them in a fitting state. But it is by no means certain that the excrementitious matter of all plants is poisonous either to themselves or to others ; and there- fore the consequences of roots growing in soil from which they cannot advance are uncertain, and only to be judged of by actual inquiry into the nature of the se- cretions." On the power of selection of food, the same high authority observes (p. 18), "Powerful as the absorbing action of roots is found to be, those organs have little or no power of selecting their food; but they appear in most cases to take up whatever is presented to them in a suffi- ciently attenuated form. Their feeding properties depend upon the mere hygro- metrical forCe of their tissue, set in action in a peculiar manner by the vital prin- ciple. This force must be supposed to depend upon the action of the capillary tubes; of which every part of a vegetable membrane must of necessity consist, al- though they are in all cases invisible to the eye, even when aided by the most powerful microscopes. Whatever matter is presented to such a set of tubes will, we must suppose, be attracted through them, provided its molecules are suffi- ciently minute ; and as we have no reason to believe that there is, in general, any difference in the size of the molecules of either gaseous matter, or fluids consisting principally of water, it will follow that one form of such matters will be absorbed by the roots of plants as readily as an- other. For this reason plants are pecu- liarly liable to injury from the presence of deleterious matter in the earth ; and it is probable that, if in many cases they reject it, it is because it does not acquire a sufficient state of tenuity, as iu the case of certain coloured infusions. EOTATION OF CKOPS. 13 This, aldiough apparently a general rule, is not without its exceptions. If a pea and a grain of wheat are planted in the same soil, and placed in the same circumstances, it wlU be found that the latter will absorb silex from the soil, the former none; and this shows pretty clearly the power of selection. Dr Dau- beny has shown that certain plants will not absorb strontian; and Saussure that the spiral-rooted polygonum, while it took up common salt (muriate of soda) freely, refused to absorb a solution of acetate of lime. " It is a curious fact," Dr Lindley remarks, "that the poisonous substances which are fatal to man are equally so to plants, and in nearly the same way; so that by presenting opium or arsenic, or any metallic or alkaline poison, to its roots, a tree may be destroyed as readily as a human being." Cropping the same ground year after year with the same species of plant, or replanting a forest with the same spe- cies of trees, or indeed planting a young fruit-tree in the same situation and soil from which another had been removed, is attended with failure, for, in addi- tion to the cause assigned above, the soil becomes exhausted of those parts it ori- ginally contained and has given out for the support of the previous crop, though it may still retain material of a different character, sufficient to enter into the constitution of a crop of a dis- similar kind. "As the inorganic mate- rials which enter into the composition of plants vary much in their nature and relative proportions, it is evident that a soil may contain those necessary for the growth of certain species, while it may be deficient in those required by others. It is on this principle," says Professor Balfour, "that the rotation of crops proceeds — those plants succeeding each other in rotation which require dif- ferent inorganic compounds for their growth. In ordinary cases, except in the case of very fertile virgin soil, a crop, by being constantly grown in successive years in the same field, will deteriorate in a marked degree. Dr Daubeny has put this to the test of experiment, by causing plants to grow on the same and on different plots in successive years, and noting the results : — VOL. II. Potatoes, Flax, Beans, Barley, Turnips, Oats, Average of 5 years. ; in the same plot, 72.9 lb. tubers, in different plots, 92.8 „ ,, same, . . 15.0 „ different, . 19.9 „ same, . . 32.8 „ different, . 34.8 „ same, . . 30.0 „ different, . 46.S „ same, . . 104.0 „ different, . 17B.0 „ same, . . 28.0 „ different, . 32.4 „ "This shows a manifest advantage in shifting crops, varying from 1 to 75 per cent, the deficiency of inorganic matter being the chief cause of difference." — Manual of Botany. " The prevaiUng opinion," Loudon re- marks, " has long been that plants exhaust the soil generally of vegetable food, parti- cularly of that kind of food which is pe- culiar to the crops growing on it for the time being. For example, both potatoes and onions exhaust the soil generally ; while the potato deprives it of something that is necessary to insure the reproduction of a good crop of potatoes, and the onion of something which is necessary for the reproduction of a large crop of onions. According to the theory of De CandoUe, both crops exhaust the soil generally, and both render it unfit for the particular kind of crop ; but this injury, according to his hypothesis, is not effected by depriving the soil of the particular kind of nutriment necessary for the particular kind of spe- cies, but by excreting into it substances peculiar to the species with which it has been cropped; which substances render it unfit for having these crops repeated." — Siib. Hort., p. 436. Both these theories have been disputed, and this by practical reasoners, who naturally enough ask, How do they apply to plants long confined to the same soil — an orange tree, for example — which has luxuriated, without being either poisoned or starved, within the hmits of a three-feet square box for a score of years? and how do perennial plants exist in the same soil for as gi-eat a length of time 1 The advocates of the one theory say the annual dropping and decay of the foliage supply at once general and particular nourishment. This does not, we suspect, apply to the orange tree we have taken as an example, because the leaves, if they even fell on the surface of the soil in the 14 CULINAEY OR KITCHEN GARDEN. box, would be daily removed. The others say the same droppings of the leaves, by the general nourishment which they supply, Tieutralise the particular excre- tions. Liebig advocated the exhausting principle, and showed, chemically, that the roots of trees and plants in time ex- haust those principles contained in the soil which are most conducive to their respective wants. This appears to be both a conclusive and simple way of settling the question. He afterwards modified these views, and remarks, p. 33, edit. 1843, "Transformations of existing compounds are constantly taking place during the whole life of a plant, in conse- quence of which, and as the results of these transformations, there are produced gaseous matters which are excreted by the leaves and blossoms, solid excrements de- posited in the bark, and fluid soluble sub- stances which are eliminated by the roots. Such excretions are most abundant imme- diately before the formation and during the continuance of the blossoms; they diminish after the development of the fruit. Substances containing a large pro- portion of carbon are excreted by the roots and absorbed by the soil. Through the expulsion of these matters, unfitted for nutrition, the soil receives again, with usury, the carbon which it had at first yielded to the young plants as food, in the form of carbonic acid. The soluble matter thus acquired by the soil is still capable of decay and putrefaction, and, by undergoing these processes, furnishes renewed sources of nutrition to another generation of plants, and becomes humus." We have many instances in practice, where the same crop has been grown on the same soil for many successive years, vide article Onion; and many others of a like kind could be adduced. Mr Stephens, in his excellent "Book of the Farm," vol. ii. p. 455, reasons on this subject practically, and we think judi- ciously. He says, " Experience has de- monstrated that one crop after another of the same kind greatly reduces the fertility of all classes of soils. This conclusion might be drawn from reason as well as experience, since it is reasonable to sup- pose that crops of the same kind take the same sort of food out of the same kind of soil. Experience has also demon- strated that one crop after another, of a different kind, does not materially reduce the condition of soils. This deduction, then, seems fair, that the condition of the soil is best maintained by taking different crops after one another; and as every crop, though of different kind, and deriv- ing support from the soil, assists in ex- hausting it, a limit must be put to the number of crops that should follow one another. Though all crops derive food from the soil, one kind appropriates food in a different degree from another; and even the same crop takes food in different quantities, according to the state its pro- duct is allowed to proceed." Plants which ripen their seed, as cabbages, turnips, &c., when the ostensible object is to produce seed, draw more strongly on the soil than those which are grown for their leaves and bulbs only, as spinach and beet, (fee. Hence the practice, in gardens, of uselessly allowing plants to shoot up into flower, much less seed, in spring, cannot be too severely reprobated. The excrementitious theory is ingenious, if not even correct, and has occupied the attention of the chemist for many years. At the request of De Candolle, M. Macaire of Geneva instituted a series of experiments, which led him to conclude that, in the formation of the seed, or other nutritious parts of plants, the sap is di- gested; that it takes up certain elements, and deposits others, which are the residue of the process ; and these, being no longer necessary for the formation of the seed, are rejected by the vital action of the plant, and exude by the roots. " Our ignorance of the functions of vegetable life prevents us from seeing the effects produced on the sap by the expansion of the blossoms, or the ripening of the seed; but experience leads us to perceive that certain plants thrive best after certain others, and that in this case they are always of distinct and different natures, and of different natural botanical families. Macaire and other scientific men observed the change that took place in the water in which wheat had been made to grow. They found a deposit in the water of the nature of bitter extract, and this they concluded to be excrementitious. Beans grew well in this water; and, on the other hand, wheat throve in the water in which beans had grown." — Donaldson on Soils and Manures, p. 30. The effects of fal- EOTATION OF CROPS. 15 lowing land, or deep-digging, ridging, and trenching, are said to be the sweet- ening the soil, because the excrementitious matter becomes washed out by the rains, decomposed by the action of light and air, or buried beyond the reach of the roots, and may remain so until decomposed or completely changed by some unseen and as yet imperfectly understood cause. The alternation of crops becomes also necessary, as a safeguard against the at- tacks of insect enemies. Thus, some of the insects which are most injurious to the Brassica tribe, for example, by de- positing their eggs in the soil, when the period of their own brief existence ter- minates, secure by this means a numerous progeny to commit their baneful depre- dations on the succeeding crop; whereas, if a different kind of plant were substi- tuted, it is, in many cases, certain that they would die of starvation, rather than feed on food of a character different from that destined for them by nature. Take, for example, a plant of their own natural order, the black mustard, (Sinapis nigra,) which has been recommended to be sown on ground infected with the larvse of in- sects feeding on the cabbage tribe : the roots of the mustard being too acrid for them, they have actually died of starva- tion. As a restorative or compensation to the soil for a continued cropping with the same species of crops, certain materials, forming in themselves the inorganic con- stituents of plants, have been recommend- ed. Indeed, chemically speaking, one piece of ground may possibly/ be made to pro- duce the same species of crop ad infini- tum. To carry out, however, these ideas, it will be necessary to ascertain the mat- ter abstracted from the soil by such crops, and then to add to them, at each sowing or planting, an equivalent, and something more, of the ingredients of the same na- ture as that of which the ground has been robbed by the preceding crop. This is, however, only meeting the subject mid- way, if even so much. To ascertain correctly what is the food of plants, we must first ascertain what they themselves are composed of; for whatever elements constitute their struc- ture, these elements are their true food ; therefore it is the plant more than the" soil whose component parts should be determined. Chemists have laboured for years in determining the qualities of soils and manures, while they have by far too much neglected the analysis of the plants themselves, which is the first and most important consideration. It is a pretty generally received opinion amongst many cultivators that each species of plant requires a distinct species of food to be presented to it from the soil ; but vegetable physiologists have shown that the organs of one plant derive their food from substances which concur in the true nutrition of plants generally; or, that is to say, plants of the most opposite characters and properties, as articles of food or vehicles of poison, will not only exist, but flourish in the same flower-pot of earth or of manure — a cir- cumstance opposed to the theory that each species requires a different element of food. M. Boussingault favoured the opinion that there was no absolute necessity for a rotation of crops " when dung and labour can be readily procured. Never- theless," he says, "there are certain plants which cannot be reproduced upon the same soil advantageously, except at intervals more or less remote. The cause of this exigence on the part of certain plants is still obscure, and the hypo- theses propounded for clearing it up are far from satisfactory. One of the marked advantages of alternate culture is the periodic cultivation of plants which im- prove the soil. In this way a sort of compensation is made for exhaustion. The main thing to be secured, in the rota- tion of crops, is such a system as shall enable the husbandman to attain the greatest amount of vegetable production with the least manure, and in the shortest possible time. This system can alone be realised by employing, in the course of rotation, those plants which draw largely from the atmosphere. The best plan. of rotation in theory is that in which the quantity of organic matter obtained most exceeds the quantity of organic matter introduced into the soil in the shape of manure. This does not hold in practice. It is less the surplus amount of organic matter over that contained in the manure, than the value of the same matter, which concerns the cultivator. The excess re- quired, and the form in which it should 16 CULINARY OR KITCHEN GARDEN. be produced, must vary widely according to locality, commercial demand, and the habits of the people, considered wholly apart from theoretical provisions. One point in theory which should agree with practice is this, that in no case is it pos- sible to expect more organic matter, and particularly more azotised organic mat- ter, than the excess of the same matter contained in the manure which is con- sumed in course of the rotation. By acting upon another presumption, the productiveness of the soil would be in- fallibly lessened. Hence it may be in- ferred how closely the study of rotations is connected with that of the exhaustion of the soil." Such is a brief epitome of the two lead- ing theories — hypotheses, perhaps, more properly they should be caUed. The practical deductions to be drawn from them differ little, and add as little to what observing cultivators have long been taught by experience — namely, that crops, the plants of which have a close affinity to each other, belong to the same natural order, or resemble each other in structure or habit, should not follow each other in cultivation. Cruciferous plants — that is, the cabbage, kale, or turnip tribe — should be followed by those of the leguminous order, or the pea and bean tribe, and mce versa. Deep-rooting plants, like the beet, carrot, parsnip, (fee, should be followed by such as spinach, lettuce, &o., and vice versa. Again, plants which have been grown for their fruit, such as seed- cabbage, and even pease, beans, scar- let runners, although the three latter do not remain to ripen their seeds, take more from the soil than cabbage, celery, or spinach, which are grown for their leaves alone. Perennial plants, such as sea-kale, asparagus, globe artichoke, &o., should never succeed each other, but should be succeeded by onions, leeks, or other annual crops of short duration, of essentially different characters. Indeed, no two exhausting crops should siicceed each other, but rather the least exhaust- ing, such as lettuce, endive, &c., should be succeeded by cabbage or the like. The following excellent article on rota- tion cropping appeared in "The Gar- deners' Chronicle," and deserves the special attention of every cultivator, whether the field of his operations be large or small. " Rotation crops consist of those most required for culinary pur- poses, such as pease, beans, French beans, broccoli, cabbage, turnip, carrots, parsnip, beet, onions, savoys, spinach (winter), and winter greens, celery, cauliflower, leeks. Pease and beans should be sown from February to June." In Scotland we sow on till the beginning of August, as our moist mild climate is more favour- able for producing crops during Septem- ber, October, November, and we have had them occasionally up to nearly Christ- mas, seasons when pease have hitherto been almost unknown in the neighbour- hood of London, where the drought and heat prevent their natural development. The London Horticultural Society have this season taken up this matter, and we believe that, by counteracting the effects of heat and drought, both of which are pretty much under the control of the cultivator, green pease will soon be seen in Covent Garden market on Lord Mayor's Day, as they are now on the 1st of June. " The first crop of pease wiU be clear for early broccoli in the end of June, and for the other seasons until September, for later broccoli, savoys, borecole, Brussels sprouts, collards or coleworts, and spring cabbage. This crop should have a slight crop of manure. Broccoli ground will be cleared of early sorts by winter" — in Scotland, say the end of November — " and should be ridged up all winter for a crop of carrots, which should be sown as early as possible. The later broccoli, colewort, sprouts, &c., will make way by April or the beginning of May for beet, parsnip, scorzonera, and salsify. Carrots, beet, and parsnips will be clear in the beginning of Novem- ber, when the ground must be again ridged up for winter, and have a good coat of dung ready for cauliflowers, onions, garlic, and shallots, the two latter being planted in November, and also the prin- cipal crop of turnips sown in the end of March and April. Cauliflower, onions, and turnips will be clear from July to September ; the cauliflower, shallots, &c., in July, for autumn spinach and endive; the onions for winter spinach, and the turnips for spring onions, winter lettuce, and other secondary crops. Spinach, endive, and spring onions will be clear by the end of May for savoys, winter ROTATION OF CEOPS. 17 greens, red cabbage, cauliflower, and leeks, all of whicli require a moderate coat of manure. Savoys, winter greens, red cabbage, &c., will be ready for early potatoes in April and May. Potatoes will make way in July and August for tiu-nips, spring cabbage, late broccoli, and suet crops, if wanted. Turnips, cab- bage, and broccoli may be cleared in May for celery and cardoon trenches, if all the ground is wanted ; but if not, the cabbage may be allowed to remain for sprouts during all the summer. The intermediate spaces between the trenches may be planted with lettuce or any other secondary crops : dung must be given for celery, of course. Celery and similar crops will, in p^t, make way in autumn, when the ground should be ridged up for the winter, and the remainder as soon as the entire crop is clear ; the ground will then be ready for French beans, scarlet runners, cauliflower, cucumber, and toma- tos, in the end of April or beginning of May. French beans will be clear by November, when the ground should be again ridged up all winter, to be ready for pease and beans as at first begun. This will make eight or ten years be- tween the return of the principal crops to the same place, and, by judicious manage- ment of the secondary division " (such as salads and short-lived crops) "among the rotation crops, every space of ground between one crop and the other may be occupied to advantage during the inter- vals of cropping." The following shows the order of rota- tion : — 1, pease and beans ; 2, broccoli, savoys, winter greens, collards — i. e., spring cabbage ; 3, carrots, parsnips, beet, scorzonera, salsify, "skirrets, Hamburg parsley;" 4, onions, cauliflower, turnips; 5, spinach, spring onions, and other secondary crops ; 6, savoy, broccoli, win- ter greens, red cabbage, leeks; 7, pota- toes ; 8, turnip, cabbage, broccoli ; 9, celery, cardoons; 10, French beans, &o. " Secondary crops are those of the shortest duration, such as lettuces, ra- dishes, small salads, annual herbs, and very early pease and beans, (sown in No- vember,) very early cauliflowers, very early turnips, and early potatoes, all of which will require a warm south border." This is a specimen of the rotation prac- tised by the best cultivators around Lon- don, and, taking the difference of latitude into consideration, it is calculated for a great part of Scotland and Ireland. It will be remarked that this system of rotation comprises only the annual or biennial crops, and therefore we propose it as the precursor course to the systematic arrange- ment of the contents of the kitchen-garden sketched out, (vide p. 7,) and we know of no better rotation that can be fol- lowed. This rotation embraces eight years, but, by following ours as an addi- tion course, the change may be extended to the eleventh or twelfth year. The author of the above rotation is one of the best cultivators around London, and cal- culates, of course, that each crop is to be removed as soon after it is fit for imme- diate use as the consumption calls for, and hence the rapidity of his movements. The private gardener can do the same thing by keeping up a very close succession (as elsewhere noticed) ; but, unfortunately, in many private gardens, from causes the cultivator has no control over, crops are allowed to come to too full a state of maturity before they are commenced upon, and kept lingering on the ground long after they should be consigned to the rot heap, or, much better, trenched into the ground, restoring to it much of those elements they had abstracted from it. According to Mr Prideaux, in "The Gardeners' Chronicle," 1848, quoted by Mr Stephens in " The Book of the Farm," vol. ii. p. 453, the following quantities of mineral ingredients are removed from an acre of soil by a single crop of beans. " Beans, of a crop of 25 bushels of grain and 2800 lb. = 1 ton 5 cwt. of straw, carry ofi' from an acre of soil these quan- tities : — By the By the Total. grain. straw. lb. lb. lb. Potash, . 13.60 90.21 103.81 Soda, . 4.30 2.72 7.02 Magnesia, . 3.15 11.38 14.53 Phosphoric acid, 15.20 12.32 27.52 Sulphuric acid, 0.40 1.85 2.25 Chlorine, • 0.30 4.35 4.65 36..95 122.83 159.78 — or gross weight to be returned to the acre." If the soil is to be' maintained in posses- sion of all its natural mineral ingredients, it follows, after such abstractions as this, 18 CULINARY OR KITCHEN GARDEN. that means must be employed for their restoration. This is to be effected by what are usually called mineral manures, or by the aid of such vegetable ones as may contain them all or in part. Should, however, the recent discovery made by M. Barral, a French chemist of great respectability, prove to be correct — and of that there appears to be little doubt — these ingredients, annually ab- stracted from the soil, are given back or provided again in a way and to an ex- tent hitherto unsuspected. Chemists long ago had determined that the air we breathe consisted only of two distinct gases, oxy- gen and nitrogen, with a minute propor- tion of carbonic acid dispersed through a variable quantity of aqueous vapour. To these Liebig added carbonate of ammonia as constituting the essential parts of the whole, considering the minute traces of lime, potash, and common salt, as too insignificant to deserve notice. This cele- brated chemist still further held as quite secondary and insignificant the presence of nitric acid, the action of which is so important in conveying nitrogen to the vegetable system, and declared the quan- tity as being too small to be even esti- mated in the rain of thunder-storms. M. Barral has, however, shown this in a dif- ferent light. The following explanation of his experiments, with remarks by the editor, appears in a very recent number of "The Gardeners' Chronicle," 1853 : " This eminent chemist was led, during the last six months of 1851, to examine minutely the water collected in the rain-gauges of the Observatory at Paris. His mode of investigation is declared by Messrs Dumas, Boussingault, Gasparin, Begnault, and Arago, names foremost in French science, to be free from all objection, and to bear the most severe counter-trials to which they could expose it. M. Barral states, that although the quantities of the fol- lowing substances varied' in different months, yet the monthly average, from July to December inclusive, was as fol- lows : — Suistances in, a cubic metre of Rain Water. Nitrogen, 8.36 grammes — 129. grains. Nitric acid, 19.09 „ — 294. „ Ammonia, 3.61 „ — 55.7 „ Chlorine, 2.27 „ — 35. „ Lime, 6.48 „ — 100. Magnesia, 2.12 „ — 32.7 „ " He did not ascertain whether all these substances are contained in rain-water collected at a distance from towns. But Mr Bence Jones found at least nitric acid in rain-water collected in London; at Kingston, Surrey; at Melbury, Dorset- shire; and, far from any town, at Clona- kelly, in Ireland. If we assume that M. Barral's averages represent what occurs on an English acre, the quantity of such substances deposited on that extent of ground may be safely estimated as fol- lows. The average depth of rain which falls in the neighbourhood of London is well ascertained to be about 24 inches per annum. This is at the rate of 87.120 cubic feet, or 2466 cubic metres of rain- water per acre ; and this,^ccording to the proportions per cubic metre in the pre- ceding table, would afford annually of — Nitrogen, 4S^ lb Nitric acid, . 103 „ Ammonia, • 194 „ Chlorine, ■ 124 „ Lime, 35 „ Magnesia, 11 „ Annual total per acre of these " ingredients returned to the ( soil by the agency of rain j alone. 227 " Of these substances, the three first are of the utmost importance, on account of their entering so largely into the indis- pensable constitution of the food by which vegetable life is sustained. The quantity of ammonia thus ascertained to exist is about what is expected in 2 cwt. of Peru- vian guano ; and bountiful nature gives us, moreover, nearly 150 lb. of nitro- genous matter, also suited to the nutrition of our crops. Nature gives us food, and we improvidently waste it. What with shallow cultivation on the one hand, hard ill-tilled land, puddled furrow-trenches, and pohshed furrow-slices, rain-water, thus highly charged with the most nutritious ingredients, either runs oflf to ditches, or is so ill directed that it very imper- fectly reaches the roots. On the other hand, by means of close cropping, that which is intended to bathe every part of a plant, and to be instantly absorbed by its verdant surface, is as completely turned aside as if two-thirds of the crop grew beneath a penthouse."- From this it will be seen that nature is EOTATION OF CROPS. 19 constantly restoring to the soil a vast amount of those ingredients taken up by the crops, without the aid of man ; but, that these valuable supplies be not wasted, it behoves man to keep the soil in a proper state to receive them. This can only be done by what we have so strongly urged elsewhere — deep cultiva- tion and thin cropping — two important essentials in culture sadly neglected in most gardens, trenching for almost every crop being a thing scarcely tliought of, notwithstanding we are well assured that very much of the success of the London market-gardener, in producing such enor- mous crops, depends on this operation alone. Were half the amount of the value of the manure which is yearly crammed into garden soils expended on trenching, and keeping the surface after- wards open, the advantages would be soon made apparent ; and without that, all the manure, whether special or common, whether mineral or vegetable, and how- ever applied, may be regarded as so much capital thrown away. Again, besides the amount of matter restored to the soil, as shown above by M. Barral, an additional supply is returned by the plants themselves, whose leaves are constantly decomposing carbonic acid, which they absorb from the atmosphere, liberating the oxygen, and appropriating the carbon to their own use ; they derive supplies of nitrogen for the formation of their albuminous constituents from the volatile carbonate and nitrate of ammonia, and these they restore to the soil when they are buried in it. From the earliest ages certain crops have been grown for the express purpose of being returned to the soil for its enrichment, a practice pro- bably of more ancient date than that of alchemy, and 3000 years earlier than modern chemistry. The exhaustion of the soil by crops is not so very alarm- ingly great, under good management, as some would have us to believe, and would be much less so if those parts of vegetables that are not to be directly consumed by man were returned to it at the time. Out of a crop of cauliflower, not one-fourth of the bulk of the crop is useable ; hence, if the other three-fourths were immediately dug into the ground on which they were produced, they would return to it veiy nearly as much as they had taken from it during their growth, if not more. It is bad management that exhausts a soil ; and one of the worst parts of bad management is taking the whole vegetable produce off the ground, and either not returning it at all, or doing so after it has become so much decomposed and exposed to atmospheric action as to have nearly lost all its fertilising pro- perties. In gai'dens much of this is daily carried on, too many believing that plants derive all their food from the soil. But such is not the case ; the greater part of vegetation is derived from atmospheric sources, and when that is returned to the soil by digging it in, it in this way sup- plies it with more of the organic elements essential to future vegetable growth than the soil contained before the crop was sown or planted ; in other words, it is enriched by the carbon, hydrogen, and nitrogen which the vegetable had ob- tained from sources entirely independent of the soil. Plants have the power of converting the materials which constitute both com- mon and special manures by a species of elaboration going on within them, so as to fit and appropriate the necessary quan- tity of each, and to dispose of them throughout the various parts of their structure, leaves, stems, seed, roots, &.C. ; and not only that, but they are capable of supplying themselves at different times, and even in different parts of the same plant, according to their respective natures. " They all form," says Professor John- ston (in " Experimental Agriculture," p. 9), "more or less constantly and abun- dantly, a portion of the fixed and solid matter of the plant taken as a whole. They may not be found in any one part of the plant, when separated carefully from the rest, but, in the solid parts of the plant, taken as a whole, they are all, and always to be met with. When thus deposited, they become for the most part dormant, as it were, and for the time cease to perform active chemical func- tions in the general growth, though, as vessels or cells, they may still perform a mechanical function. They undergo various chemical changes in the inter- course, chiefly while circulating or con- tained in the sap, by which changes they are prepared and fitted for entering, when and where it is necessary, into the solid 20 CULINAEY OE KITCHEN GAEDEN. or fixed parts of plants. Thus the starch of the seed is changed into the soluble dextrin and sugar of the sap of the young plant, and then again into the insoluble cellular fibre of the stem or wood as the plant grows j and, finally, into the in- soluble starch of the grain, as its seed fills and ripens. They each exercise a chemi- cal action more or less distinct, decided, and intelligible, upon the other elemen- tary bodies, and the compounds of them which they meet with in the sap of the plant. In regard to some substances, such as potash and soda, the sulphuric and phosphoric acids, this last function ap- pears to be especially important. These substances influence all the chemical changes which go on in the interior of the plant, and which modify and cause its growth. The same is true of the nitrogen which the plant contains. This elementary body, in the form of albumen or some other of the numerous protein compounds which occur in the sap, pre- sides over, or takes part in, almost every important transformation which the or- ganic matter of the living plant undergoes. Thus it is always abundantly present where the starch of the seed or of the tuber is dissolved, and sent up to feed the young shoots; and again, when the soluble sub- stances of the sap are converted into the starch of the grain of the tuber, or of the body or pith of the tree, one or other of the protein combinations is always found to be present on the spot where the che- mical change in the transformation is going on. Besides these general func- tions, the several substances found in plants exercise also special functions in reference to vegetable life and growth. Thus— " Nitrogen is most abundant in the sap of young plants, takes part in most of the changes of organic compounds which go on in the sap, and fixes itself, as the plant approaches maturity, in greatest abundance in the seeds and in the green leaves. " Potash and soda circulate in the sap, influence chemical changes very much, and reside or fix themselves most abun- dantly in green and fleshy leaves, and in bulbous roots. "■Sulphuric acid is very influential in all chemical changes ; is found, in most cases, in those parts of the plants in which potash and soda abound, and deposits a portion of its sulphur wherever the com- pounds of nitrogen form a notable part of the substance of the plant. "Phosphoric acid exercises also much influence over the chemical changes of the sap, and finally fixes itself in greatest abundance in the seeds and other repro- ductive parts of the plant. "Lime is very important to healthy vegetable growth, as practical experience has long testified. Among other duties, it appears to accompany the phosphoric acid in the sap of plants, and to deposit itself, in combination with organic acids, in the leaves and bark, and with phos- phoric acid in some seeds and roots. " Magnesia appears also to attach itself very much to phosphoric acid in the sap, and fixes itself, in combination with the acid, principally in the seed. " Chlorine. — The chemical functions of this substance in the sap are less under- stood even than that of the other sub- stances above mentioned. It exists chiefly in combination with soda, and is much more abundantly present in some plants, and in some parts of plants, than in others. Though, as I have said, its immediate chemical functions in the plant are not understood, it, forms a most important constituent of the plant, in so far as the after uses of vegetables as 'articles of food' are concerned. "Silica exists in the sap in a soluble form, and deposits itself chiefly in the exterior portions of the stems and leaves of plants. It is supposed there to serve as a defence to the plant against external injury, and to give strength to the stem, in the case of the grasses and corn-yield- ing plants ; but what chemical functions it performs, if any, in directly promoting vegetable growth, we can scarcely as yet even venture to guess." However extraordinary it may appear to the young cultivator, (and we know many of riper years who scout the idea that plants take up and are in part con- stituted of FLiNT^ yet such is the case; and, moreover, all plants contain mineral matters, such as iron, copper, flint, sul- phur, (fee. : if we may venture to hazard a supposition, their presence even in the leaves of the most delicate grass is necessary in the formation of what may be called the bone of the plant ; and no EOTATION OF CROPS. 21 doubt they answer a purpose analogous to the bones in animals, formed of lime, which is a mineral substance also. Although, however, the presence of mineral substances in plants is neces- sary, yet they do not in general abound.in large quantities. Their presence is not the result of accident, but of wise design, as beautifully shown by Professor Lin- dley in "Theory of Horticulture," p. 356 — " For although it may be asserted that the presence of iron, copper, or other sub- stances, in plants, in minute quantities, is accidental and unimportant, yet such a supposition is gratuitous, if not altogether unfounded ; for I do not know what war- rant we have for saying that any of the constant phenomena of nature, however minute they may seem to be, are acci- dental. This at least is certain, that where mineral substances occur abun- dantly in plants, they are part and parcel of their nature, just as much as iron and phosphate of hme are of our own bodies ; and we must no more suppose that grasses can dispense with silica in their food, or marine plants with common salt, than that we ourselves could dispense with vegetable and animal food. " Flint is found on the exterior of the whole graminaceous order without excep- tion. It forms the polished surface of the cane palm, the grittiness of many kinds of timber. Sulphur abounds in cruciferous plants, especially mustard ; copper in coffee, wheat, and many other plants, (it is believed in the state of phos- phate ;) iron as a peroxide in tobacco, &c." In the fruit of the strawberry it has been found ; and the medicinal pro- perties of that fruit are accounted for by many physicians by its presence. De Candolle, in " Physiologic Vegetale," p. 389, asserts that 3650 kilogrammes of copper are consumed annually in France in the article of bread ; and M. Sarzeau says that 560 kilogrammes of the same mineral are swallowed annually in France in the article coffee alone. How these mineral substances are taken up by vegetables is no less curious than their presence in them. Most che- mists believe they are in some way or other taken up by the roots. The experi- ments of John upon this matter, as quoted by Dr Lindley (" Theory of Horticulture," p. 357), would lead us to believe that VOL. II. they are supplied from the atmosphere as well ; for John "found that the Ramalina frascinea and Borrera ciliaris, two lichens, contained a large quantity of the last metal, although he could not find a trace of it in the fir-tree, on the topmost branches of which the lichens grew. We cannot, therefore, suppose that such things are the result of accident, and that it is unimportant to the plants containing minerals thus constantly, whether such substances are present in their soil or not." We are afraid that some of our agricultural chemists have jumped at conclusions hurriedly, and drawn deduc- tions which will not bear the test of close investigation. When they give us to understand, that because a crop of wheat, for example, abstracts 76.22 lb. of mine- ral substances from the soil per acre, per annum, consisting of potash, soda, magnesia, phosphoric acid, sulphiu-ic acid, and chlorine, that the same weight (viz. 76.22 lb.) of these ingredients, con- tained in special manures, is the exact and proper return to be made for that abstracted by the crop, so as to leave the soil in the condition in which it was previous to the seed of the crops being sown. Such calculations as these appear to have been made without duly considering atmospheric effects, because it appears there has been no allowance made for them. " Plants feed more by their leaves than by their roots." — Lindlbt. " It is commonly supposed that plants derive the whole of their food from the soil, but this is a great error. It is a fact well ascertained by chemical experiments, that plants derive the greater part of their nourishment from the air, although the soil is equally essential to their growth." — SoLLr, in Rural Ghemistry, p. 96. "Plants possibly draw from the atmosphere more than agriculturists conimonly suppose; and the soil furnishes, ihdependently of sahne and earthy substances, a proportion of organic matter larger than certain phy- siologists admit." — Boussingault. "The leaves spread out their broad surfaces into the air for the same purpose, precisely, as that for which the roots diffuse their fibres through the soil ; the only difference being, that, while the roots suck in chiefly liquid, the leaves inhale almost wholly gaseous food. In the daytime, whether in the sunshine or in the shade, the green D 22 CULINARY OR KITCHEN GARDEN. leaves are constantly absorbing carbonic acid from the air, and giving off oxygen gas ; that is to say, they are continually appropriating carbon from the air. When night comes this process is reversed, and they begin to absorb oxygen, and give off carbonic acid. But the latter process does not go on so rapidly as the former j so that, on the whole, plants when grow- ing gain a large portion of carbon from the air. The actual quantity, however, varies with the season, with the chmate, and with the kind of plant. The propor- tion of its carbon which has been derived from the air is greatly modified, also, by the quality of the soil in which the plant grows, and by the comparative abundance of liquid food which happens to be within reach of its roots. It has been ascertained, however, that in our climate, on an ave- rage, not less than from one-third to four- fifths of the entire quantity of carbon contained in the crops we reap from land of average fertility is really obtained from the air." — J. F. W. Johnston, in Agricul- tural Chemistry and Geology, p. 40. And without quoting other authorities — of which there are many — we refer to the recent experiments made by M. Barral, given above, in which he shows that 227 lb. of the six elements of fertilisation are returned to the soil, per acre, per annum, by the rains which fall alone ; while ac- cording to data, given above, by agricul- tural chemists, 76.22 lb. are all that is required per acre to re-establish the soil to its former condition, after a crop of wheat has been taken from it, so far as these mineral ingredients are concerned. Nitrogen is required in great abundance in most plants, in some more than in others ; and to obtain this from the atmosphere, the agency of saline sub- stances may be necessary; for of such importance is their influence in this re- spect, that crops have been grown on soils destitute of organic matter, but contain- ing saline substances, which procured sufficient nitrogen from the atmosphere to cause the plants to flower, fruit, and yield ripe seed, notwithstanding they were only supplied with distilled water, which, of course, could convey to the plants none of those fertilising elements discovered by M. Barral in rain-water. Mr Stephens, in summing up the evidence he has so carefully collected, concludes by observing, in " Book of the Farm," vol. ii. p. 456 — " Upon the whole subject of special manures, the rationale of their application may be based upon the cer- tainty of the fact, that a large produce will be obtained, if we only return to the soil the mineral constituents of the crops we cultivate, in combination with nitro- genous substances, and the materials should be in a state to become fit for assimilation by plants." We are far from despising the use of special manures, but we would employ them as auxiliaries only, and advise the cultivator to con- sider as his sheet-anchor the contents of a well-managed dung-yard, which contain nitrogen in great abundance, which is known to excite the growth of vegetables, and also to render their pro- ducts more valuable as food for man. It also contains much carbon, which, enter- ing into their structure, imparts to them firmness of texture, and strength to maintain themselves in an upright position — the only position in which they could be placed, to derive the necessary advantages of atmospheric influence. We look upon mineral or special manures, applied as restoratives in the routine of rotation, in the light of make- shifts ; and whilst we admit their great value in agriculture, where, as things are managed, a sufficient quantity of stable- yard manure cannot or is not to be had — and also their importance in elevated situations, to which it would be too ex- pensive to transport it — still we would not have cultivators to place their depen- dence on them alone. Besides, there is more than mere mauurial applications required. The soil must be prepared for their reception, so that the process of free and copious evaporation may go on ; and this cannot be expected to be com- pletely realised, unless that soil be wrought to a considerable depth, and thoroughly amalgamated with those additions, what- ever they may be, to insure a gaseous supply of food through the leaves, in addition to what is absorbed by the roots. Notwithstanding all this, and admitting that one species of crop may be grown for several continuous years on the same ground, it is, nevertheless (whether the cause rests in the exhaustion or excre- mentitious theory), wrong to crop the same ground, unless under peculiar cir- EOTATION OF CROPS., 23 cumstances, two successive years with the same species of crop. Pulverising and trenching may be re- garded as a species of rotation, because by them the surface of the soil may be transposed, or the whole mass thoroughly incorporated together ; thus presenting to a great extent new food to plants, both for facihtating the necessary chemical changes, and the admission of rain and air — the latter so important to the roots of plants. Deeply pulverised soils are increased in temperature, as well as ren- dered more uniform in that respect. The air admitted carries with it, during sum- mer, heat from the sun, which is daily accumulating, and retained for a length of time, the earth being a bad conductor of caloric. "The free admission of atmospheric air to soil is also necessary for the decomposition of humus, or orga- nic matter, by which carbonic acid is formed; and atmospheric air is also a great source of nitrogen, which has been lately found in all plants, and more espe- cially in the spongioles of the roots. — Suburban Hort. p. 35. "And hence," says LiBBEG, p. 1 90, " the great value of animal manures to plants, all of which contain nitrogen, but especially those of carnivorous animals." From the comparative uncertainty, as regards a correct analysis of plants, in which chemists have left us, we cannot see, not knowing the exact amount of the ingredients of the soil which plants are supposed to carry off with them (both in their growing state, and more especially when they have arrived at their fullest maturity), what amount of those ingre- dients should be added to the soil, to make up for its supposed loss, or even what these are. Professor Johnston, in "Lectures on Agricultural Chemistry," &c., p. 528, admits "that we scarcely know as yet what any one entire plant, when fully ripe, carries off from the soil ;" and in another part of these " Lectures," he says " that our knowledge of the in- organic constituents of plants is yet in its infancy, and that our present opinion upon the subject ought, therefore, to be permitted to hang very loosely about us." It appears, in connection with the rota- tion of crops, as well as with the applica- tion of manures, that too much stress has been laid upon vegetable chemistry, and by far too little regard paid to vegetable physiology ; the connection between both is so intimate and important as to render them, in the pm'suit of true conclusions, inseparable. " Intimately connected with vegetable chemistiy," says Mr Edward Solly (in Rural Ghemistry, p. 121), "is the study of vegetable physiology : a know- ledge of the one is essential to the perfect comprehension of the other, for it is im- possible well to understand the chemical changes going on in the organs of plants, if we are wholly ignorant of the forms and structures of these organs ; and, on the other hand, the most complete knowledge of the anatomy of vegetables could never lead any one to sound and correct con- clusions respecting the nutrition of plants. It is rather to be regretted that both chemists and physiologists have appeared to avoid availing themselves of the advan- tages which both might have derived, by studying the results which the others had obtained. It is only by comparing together the observations of both that correct conclusions can be formed." The researches of Grew, Malpighi, and Du- hamel, did much in elucidating the struc- ture of plants, and the modes by which they derived sustenance ; indeed, they may be said to have laid the foundation of vegetable physiology. In more recent times, Decaisne, De Candolle, Mirbel, Dutrochet, and Brongniart, in France ; Meyen, Mohl, Link, and Schleiden, in Germany ; Amioi in Italy ; and Knight, Hooker, Henslow, Brown, Griffiths, and Lindley, in England, by careful observa- tions, and the advantages of improved instruments, have reduced vegetable phy- siology from a seriesof vague anduncertain dog-mas to a comparatively perfect system. Little had been done since the days of Priestley and Ingenhousz in the improve- ment of agricultural chemistry, save the labours of Sir Humphry Davy: these, how- ever, an early death prevented him from prosecuting, for we dare scarcely say completing. It remained, therefore, for Liebig to do almost single-handed for vegetable chemistry what those we have named above, with many others, had been zealously engaged in doing for vegetable physiology. In his "Organic Chemistry," in tracing the sources by and from which plants derive their food, he has strongly 24 CULINAEY OR KITCHEN GARDEN. drawn attention to the importance of physiology combined with chemistry. " He has exposed the fallacy of many of the theories which had been formed to explain them, and has established " (as Mr Solly remarks) "on good evidence the simple chemical rules which regulate the growth of plants. Although much has been done, and although chemists have laboured to remove the perplexities which encompassed the subject, there is still a very great deal that requires investiga- tion ; many important points are as yet imperfectly, or even not at all, explained ; and many questions must be satisfac- torily settled before a complete system of agricultural chemistry can be established. TiU these difficulties are removed, it is prematm-e to expect that chemistry can be of more than partial assistance to agriculture ; for whilst many of the funda- mental laws of this section of chemistry are still scarcely understood, all attempts to apply them to practice must be incom- plete and liable to error." The rotation of crops. in gardens is an important element in good management. They are, or ought to be, carried out upon two different systems — namely, the succes- sional and simultaneous modes of crop- ping. The first has its chief feature in covering each piece of ground with only one species of crop at the same time, while simultaneous cropping is founded upon the practice of having several. The first presents the greatest appearance of order and system, and hence is that most gene- rally followed in private gardens ; while the latter, although less apparently syste- matic, is, to a certain extent, so in reality, and affords the largest return of produce, and is therefore often followed by com- mercial growers, who will, for example, sow with a crop of onions a thin crop of radish, lettuce, and sometimes a few car- rots. The two former are removed early for use, leaving the onions to ripen off afterwards, and thus affording them more room as they increase in size. In the latter case, the carrots, sending down their roots to a greater depth, appropriate to themselves their own peculiar species of food, leaving the onions to extract theirs from nearer the surface ; and, in some cases, carrots so grown are found to escape the grub. Simultaneous crop- ping is also carried on where the drill system is followed ; and hence a piece of ground may be thus stocked : — tall grow- ing pease, Jerusalem artichokes, scarlet runners, &c., which attain a height of from 6 to 10 feet, may be planted at distances of 20 or 30 feet apart ; garden beans, or low-growing pease, may be sown between these at a proper distance ; and between these, cabbage, spinach, &c., may be planted or sown, thus affording to all a full share of light and air. Another ad- vantage arising from simultaneous crop- ping is, that crops will be progressing in different stages of growth, so that, as the most advanced is cleared off, the next in order will supply its place ; or, when one crop is removed, another of a dissimilar kind may be immediately planted. Success] onal cropping is best calculated for poor soils, and for gardens where the supply of manure is limited, as well as where the garden is small. The other cannot be so well carried out, unless the soil is in the highest possible state of cul- tivation ; and also in that order of things where the whole crop is removed almost at once, as in the case of sending it direct to the market ; whereas in a smaller pri- vate garden it is only removed in small quantities at a time, according to the consumption, and therefore hangs longer upon the soil than is in accordance with this mode of cropping. § 5. TRANSPLANTING CULINARY ESCU- LENTS. There are, for the most part, only three objects in transplanting these (some of which, however, do not admit of the opera- tion at all), as the common turnip, whether for crop or seed; while the Swedish turnip, radish, parsnip, beet, scorzonera, salsify, skirret, &o., if not improved by the operation, suffer no injury by it if pro- perly performed. Advantage is taken of this, and failures in portions of such crops are made up by thinning where they are too thick, and thus filling up defi- ciencies. In sowing for seed, transplant- ing has its advantages in this,— the roots can be selected, and misshapen ones re- jected. All the Brassicse — comprising the cabbage, sprouts, savoys, greens, cauli- flower—are amazingly improved by trans- planting from the seed-bed once or twice TRANSPLANTING CULINARY ESCULENTS. 25 before their final planting out. It in- creases the formation of extra roots, enables the cultivator often to detect the symptoms of club, as well as gives opportunity for the rejection of mal- formed plants. The pea and all the beans are improved in precocity. The pro- cess, however, would be unprofitable in the case of very large crops, and in the saving of seed. In the latter case, a re- moval of all weak and inferior varieties should be scrupulously attended to. Spinach does not admit, unless upon extraordinary occasions, transplantation ; nor do the whole tribe of small salads, such as cress, mustard, The process of transplanting autumn-sown onions is precisely the same as above, except in so far as they, at tha period of ALLIACEOUS PLANTS.— THE ONION. 35 teansplanting, are much larger-^say from the size of a crow-quill to that of an ordi- nary writing one : the roots are propor- tionably larger also. The ground being prepared as above, and the line stretched out, a shallow notch in the back part-^— that is, that next the line — should be cut somewhat oblique, and no deeper than the exact length of the roots. The young plants should be carefully taken up, with their fibres quite entire (on this much of the success depends) ; and to facilitate the operations, the ground in which they are growing should be loosened deeply with a three-pronged fork. They should also be placed in shallow boxes (trays), and pro- tected from the sun and air while out of the ground. The whole thus far being in readiness, the planter arranges the plants in a slightly slanting direction against the oblique bank, taking care that no part of the plant is covered with soil save the roots ; and while the arrangement of the plants is going on, the roots are covered as they are placed by pushing a little of the finest soil against them with the hand. The plants should be allowed the same distance as those above. When they are all arranged in the first line, some more soil is placed over the roots by the spade, the line removed, and a fresh row marked out. We often, in our own practice, and operating on a very light soil, prepare the ground as we have described above ; but instead of cutting out a slight notch, we lay the plants flat down on the smooth- beaten surface, and place over the roots a little well-pulverised soil. This is a good plan at an advanced period of spring, for should a warm shower or two fall soon after planting, the plants will rise them- selves to a perpendicular position, having no part under the surface except the roots. And this is desirable, for if they were deep planted, their bulbing would be pre- vented, at least to a great extent. The third mode of raising onions re- ferred to above, is by small bulbs selected from the previous crop, and which may be about the size of a hazel-nut. Some sow expressly to secure such (vide infra). This practice is not noticed as a novelty, for it has been more or less adopted from time immemorial. Its true object is to obtain larger onions than the coldness of our climate enables us to do with spring- sown ones, and it, therefore, may be worth the attention of those who live in high and cold situations, even should they pur- chase the small ones to plant, which may readily be obtained from any respect- able nursery or seedsman. The earliest written mention deserving much credit we have met with of this practice is recorded in " Systema Horticulturse," by Worlidge, who practised towards the beginning of the seventeenth century. The late Mr Knight revived the practice, and his papers in "The Horticultural Transactions" led others to speculate in the same way. A quotation from that high authority will be quite sufiicient for our present purpose. After some preli- minary remarks on bulbous and other perennial plants having the property of accumulating in one season the material that composes the leaves and roots of the succeeding season, he proceeds : " This re- served sap is deposited in, and composes in a great measure the bulb ; and the quan- tity accumulated, as well as the period required for its accumulation, varies greatly in the same species of plant, under more or less favourable circumstances. Thus the onion in the south of Europe acquires a much larger size during the long and warm summers of Spain and: Portugal, in a single season, than in the colder climate of England ; but, under the following mode of culture, which I have long practised, two summers in England produces nearly the efiect of one in Spain and Portugal, and the onion assumes nearly the form and size of those^ thence imported. Seeds of the Spanish or Portugal onion are sown at the usual period in the spring, very thickly, and in poor soil, generally under the shade of a fruit tree; and in such situations the bulbs in the autumn are rarely found much to exceed the size of a large pea. These are then taken from the ground and pre- served till the succeeding spring, when, they are planted at equal distances from each other, and they aiford plants which differ from those raised immediately from seed only in possessing much greater strength and vigour, owing to the quan- tity of previously generated sap being much greater in the bulb than in the seed. The bulbs thus raised often exceed considerably five inches in diameter; and, being more mature, they are with more certainty, preserved in a state of perfect 36 CULINARY OR KITCHEN GARDEN. soundness through the winter than those raised from seed in a single season." Knight's mode of planting these was the same as our own — namely, to set them at ten inches from each other, or when in lines, twelve inches apart and eight inches in the line, the ground being prepared as above recommended for spring and autumn sown crops — setting the bulbs, however, on the surface, and drawing as much soil over them as will maintain them in their places until they attach themselves by their roots to the ground ; after which, as in the case of shallots, &c., already noticed, the earth is removed from them, and the bulbs are exposed to air and light. This practice, or that of saving all the very smallest from the previous crop, has been followed by some of the market-gardeners round London for ages. It is rarely practised in pri- vate gardens — why, we know not. The fine large Portugal onions which we see in the shops are imported from that country annually. They are indis- pensable in the kitchens of the great, being much milder, as well as being of a much larger size, than can be produced in any quantity in this country. They are grown upon a somewhat similar prin- ciple to that noticed above ; the method is sufficiently interesting to warrant our making the following quotation from "The Transactions of the Horticultural Society," vol. iii. p. 68 : " Sow the seed very thinly in November or December on a moderate hotbed in a warm situation, with a few inches of rich light loam upon it, and the plants protected from frost by mats and hoops. In April or May, when they are about the size of a large swan's quill, they are transplanted on a rich light loam well manured with well-rotten dung. The mode of transplanting is particular. The plants are laid flat, about nine inches asunder each way, in quincunx, the beard (fibres) of the root and part only of the plant covered with very rich mould, well mixed with two- thirds of good old rotten dung. This compost is slightly pressed down on the plant; water is given, when the weather is dry, until the plants have taken root. Subsequently, the earth is' occasionally broken around them by slight hoeing,- in which operation care is taken not to wound the bulb. Weeding is diligently attended to, and the watering continued according to the state of the weather. In Portugal the means of irrigation are easy, the efi'ects of which are particularly beneficial to the onion ; for, by letting the water filter or pass through small heaps of dung placed in the alleys of the beds, a very rich liquid flows in upon the plants. The dung, as it is exhausted or washed away, should be renewed, and the water must be checked in its current, so that it may gently spread over the sur- face." This mode has been successfully tried in some parts of England upon very warm borders. In our present state of advancement we would apply liquid ma- nure in a much more convenient manner, and there is no means of enrichment so beneficial to the alliaceous tribe as ad- ministering it in a liquid state. We have already observed that the drill system is preferable to the broadcast order of sowing. This, however, applies more to private gardens than to commer- cial ones, or even to those whose onion-bed does not exceed two or three square yards. Although, in many of our first-rate mar- ket-gardens, the drill system is pursued, still by far the most adhere to the old plan of dividin^he ground into three-feet-and- a-half or four-feet beds, and sow promis- cuously over them, and trust to hand- weeding for the suppression of weeds. In this they do not err, because, from the time the young plants are three or four inches in height (up to which tirne they do not injure each other), a constant sys- tem of thinning is going on — the thin- nings meeting with a ready sale in the market; so that the crop is in due time sufiEciently thinned to enable those left to attain their full size ; — sowing in drills is therefore to them of less importance. We hold it essential in all well-kept private gardens. Treading the ground after the seed is sown is advisable in very light soils ; if dry at the time, it tends to consolidate it to a proper consistency. To do so, however, in strong soUs, parti- cularly when wet, is injurious. It cakes the surface, and renders it more difficult for the young plant to push its way through. To those who prefer the broad- cast mode of sowing in beds, a better plan cannot be recommended them than that practised by Mr Smith of Pitfour. The ground being dug, the manure is laid ALLIACEOUS PLANTS.— THE ONION. 37 on the surface in a very decomposed state. When levelled, the seeds are sown, and pressed down by the back of a rake ; a little fine soil is thrown over from the alleys. When the plants are about an inch above ground, they are dressed every three or four weeks with a mixture of guano and charcoal-dust, to the extent of a handful to each square yard, one-third being guano, choosing moist days for applying it. Before quitting the subject of sowing and planting onions, we may remark that, however sanctioned by the practice of ages, the custom of sowing other crops along with the onion, considered as a general one, is erroneous. The ancients believed that some plants had a sympathy with, or antipathy to each other. They also set great importance on sowing, plant- ing, gathering the crops, &c., at certain stages of the moon. Both these doctrines we have been taught from childhood to regard as absurdities ; but, strange to say, something about the latter has been very recently revived, and the greatest horti- cultural oracle of the age has thrown out a hint that we should henceforth desist from covering our cucumber beds at night, that the plants may receive the full influ- ence of Luna's silvery beams. As regards the former also, while we must continue to consider the explanation utterly un- founded, the chemistry of plants has shown us that, in some cases at least, the prac- tice might be less absurd than at first sight appears; for it is conceivable that two species of plants might draw essen- tially difierent nourishment from the soil, and that each might be withdrawing from it something, the excess of which was hurtful to the other — each thus indirectly aiding the healthy growth and full de- velopment of the other. Eetuming, however, to the sowing of onions in conjunction with other plants — a little lettuce- seed may be thinly scat- tered over the ground after the onions are sown, as the plants wiU come ofi' soon, and many of them may be transplanted ; but the old practice of sowing leeks, par- slay, or carrots along with onions, is doing justice to neither. It is, however, worth remarking that, in soils where carrots are destroyed by grub, they often, when sown along with onions or leeks, escape their attacks. VOL. II. The London market-gardeners sow in beds five feet wide, and in the broadcast manner. They cover with soil from the alleys, by throwing it over the seed. The beds are raked over with a wooden rake, and a light wooden roller is drawn over the surface, being more expeditious and proper than foot-treading, for which they have no time. Such ground as theirs is much benefited by rolling, as it is so soft, spongy, and full of humus, from the enormous quantity of manure which is at almost every change of crop trenched into it. The number of roots required to plant any given space will be readily ascer- tained by referring to the distances given above. The quantity of seed required to sow in the broadcast manner a bed 4 feet by 24, when all or part of the crop is to be drawn young, is two ounces ; but for the same space, if the crop is intended to come to maturity, half that quantity wiU be sufficient. According to the drill sys- tem of sowing, a third less in both cases will be ample. There is a great mistake in thick-sowing : the plants become weak and drawn up at first starting; and thin- ning, either in time or to a sufficient ex- tent, is too seldom attended to. This should have been placed as one of the first items in the very sensible, but sa- tirical, directions given by the author of a series of papers in "The Gardeners' Chronicle," entitled, " How to mismanage a garden." In stating, however, the quan- tities of seed necessary for sowing a given space, we may state, once for all, that our quantities are given on the presumption that the seed is good. For means of as- certaining this, vide article Propagation BY Seed. Subsequent cultivation. — The subsequent culture of this crop consists in keeping the ground between the drills perfectly clear of weeds by repeated hoeing — not waiting, however, as some do, till the weeds become the principal crop, requir- ing no small skill, and a vast amount of labour, to remove them, leaving the young tender onions exposed to the full rays of the sun, or perhaps to a frosty May morning, either of which they are in a very unfit state to withstand, having been hitherto snugly sheltered under the pro- tecting shade of groundsel and chick'- 38 CULINARY OR KITCHEN GARDEN. weed. The purpose of hoeing is twofold, in all cases save that of a gravel walk, whereon such an operation should, if pos- sible, never be allowed. Hoeing keeps down weeds while in their cotyledon state, that being the most proper time to attack them ; it keeps the surface of the ground open, and renders it pervious to the rays of heat and to air. Weeding only removes the evil after it has too long existed; in the process the ground is trodden to a hard surface, and unless im- mediately loosened by the hoe, it is ren- dered next to impervious to heat and air. The hoe, therefore, should be used at once, and one operation thus be made to do, instead of two. The best hoe, when deep - stirring the soil between drilled crops is performed, is the Spanish hoe, fig. 2, or the Vernon hoe, fig. 3; the former Fig. 2. Fig. 3. SPANISH HOE. VERNON HOE. an implement much employed in the West Indies for deep-stirring the sugar crops. The flat or common hoe is only useful for cutting down weeds ; and as it is in general used, it does do little more ; whereas the deep-stirring of the soil is of the greatest importance, and can only be efficiently performed by such an imple- ment as the hoe referred to. Here we see the great advantage of the drill sys- tem over the broadcast method of sowing. Thinning the crop should be attended to as a principle, and, unless in petty gar- dens, dependence should not be placed on the removal of superfluous plants for daily consumption ; it is better to thin the general crop, and leave a row or two for daily use. The London market-gar- deners thin their broadcast sown crops as soon as they appear above ground, by using small 2-inch hoes, kept exceedingly sharp and clean. Soil and manures. — Onions require a deep, rich, mfeUow soil, always kept in a high state of enrichment by the appli- cation of such stimulants as guano. blood, salt, soot, the ofial of a slaughter- house, superphosphate of lime, at the time of sowing. But where the ground has been highly manured for the previous crop, such as celery, it is better to depend on that, with the addition of liquid manure where it can be applied, than on the re- cent application of stable-yard manure, unless in a state of great decomposition. The London growers, however, seem to put all danger from insects at defiance, and manure heavily with the strongest dungs, such as cow manure, nightsoil, &c. They are seldom troubled with onion grubs, or, indeed, with any other; and this, they assert, is entirely owing to their ground being turned so frequently and so deeply over — thus, probably, preventing the insects from undergoing the various transformations which most of them have to pass through. Neither are they very particular as to the change of soil, or what is called the rotation of crops, for we have seen abundant crops of onions on ground from which three and four successive ones of that vegetable have been taken. To ordinary cultivators this may appear ano- malous, as it is also contrary to the prin- ciples of vegetable physiology: it does, nevertheless, occur in their practice, and they ascribe it simply to their ground be- ing in the highest state of fertility, and in the highest state of cultivation ; and they maintain that private gardens are neither the one nor the other. Forcing. — The onion is forced during winter in many large gardens, being used in a very young state as an ingredient in salads. The seed is sown thickly in shallow boxes in light sandy soil: rich soil is not necessary, as the crop is gathered when the plants are little larger than an ordinary-sized needle. A very small quantity only is daily required, to give some idea of which we may mention that, when gathered and washed (for all salads should be prepared before leaving the garden — but of this more anon), with the leaves and fibres entire, the supply for the day will be a small bundle about the size of a man's finger. Boxes, therefore, or square earthenware pans (the latter of which we use), about 1 8 inches square and 4 inches deep, if sown every third or fourth day, and placed in a pit, or on a suspended shelf in a vinery where the temperature ranges from 45° to 60° will be a very fitting ALLIACEOUS PLANTS.— THE ONION. 39 place for them. There are several modes of forcing onions, so as to have bulbs for use between the time those wintered in the store-room are finished, and that at which they ripen in the open air ; but the trou- ble and expense attending these methods might, we think, easily be spared by adopt- ing the best modes of keeping the previous crop, and cultivating more largely that excellent sort known as the potato or underground onion (which see). Taking the crop, and subsequent preserva- tion. — The season of ripening, like that of all other crops, depends greatly on cir- cumstances. This is first indicated by the leaves turning yellow and beginning to fade ; and in the smaller bulbs, by the leaves dropping off altogether, which shows them to be perfectly ripe. The larger specimens, on account of their containing a much greater amount of elaborated sap thrown into them by their larger and more numerous leaves, do not indicate ripeness so soon, and a certain class, from over excitement, and grossness of stem, called thick necks, do not incline to ripen at all. These latter should be marked for immediate use, and left on the ground till required ; or, if the ground is wanted for another crop, they may be taken up and laid in by the heels in some out-of-the-way place, till used up. The process of laying by the heels is thus performed : a trench is opened, and the plants, as they are taken up, are set in it pretty thickly, to econo- mise space, but not so thickly as to cause them to rot or sustain injury from want of air. They are placed in a slanting di- rection against the back of the trench, and covered over as deep as they formerly were in the ground, the earth being laid over their roots and stems in the course of digging the ground to prepare it for another trench, which should be so far apart from the last that the leaves of the plants may not lie over those of the pre- ceding row. The principal object, how- ever, is to check vegetation and prevent the plants running to seed, hence the coldest situations should be chosen. The others should be gone over, and their stems bent gently over, or the strongest of them may have their necks twisted ; this will check growth, and tend to their ripening. The sooner theyare taken out of the ground after their growth has nearly , ceased, the better ; for, if left in, they are often attacked by maggots. As they are taken up, they should be placed in a dry airy place, but not in the full sun, to dry; and it will greatly facilitate that pro- cess if, instead of being left lying on the ground, they are spread thinly on board- ing laid' upon a gravel or paved walk or yard. As they dry, the roughest of the decaying leaves should be removed ; and they should then be carried to the root- room or onion-loft, and spread thinly upon the shelves, floor, &c., to dry more com- j)letely. From this time until there is danger of frost entering the onion-room, the doors and windows should be kept con- stantly open, to afford them all the venti- lation possible. The remainder may be removed into the house as fast as they dry sufficiently, and all should be at once taken up in the event of frost. After hous- ing, they should be repeatedly examined, all decaying bulbs removed, and the whole frequently turned over. The future management of the bulbs depends on the exclusion of frost ; yet a low temperature must be preserved and ample ventilation given. When time per- mits, and wet days offer a good opportu- nity, a general dressing should take place. The smaller bulbs ought to be selected, and kept by themselves, for pickling, and many other uses which no being on earth could think of but a French or Italian cook. The next in size, which will also be the next best maturely ripened, should also be picked out : these are likely to keep longest, and should there- fore be kept by themselves on the higher shelves, so as to be better out of the way. Those having a portion of the dried leaves still attached to them had better be strung up, and suspended from the roof part of the room. The process of stringing is thus performed : Three or four onions, having a portion of their tails still at- tached to them, are taken in one hand, while with the other a strand of matting or twine is to be tied round them. After placing three or four more bulbs, the twine or matting is wound round them pretty tightly — and so on, till the rope or bundle has attained a yard or so in length, when it is suspended by one end to the roof or other convenient part of the root-room. This is a good way of wintering onions, and takes up little space. The imported Portugal onions are secured in nearly the 40 CULINAEY OE KITCHEN GARDEN. same maimer, only a heated iron is ap- plied to the base of the bulb where the fragments of the roots still exist ; burn- ing them oiF, and very slightly searing the base, tends to destroy vegetable life, and hence prevents the bulbs from sprouting during winter. And as we take some delight in showing that all things are not new under the sun, we may here just by the way mention that Pliny, to secure a similar end, adopted a some- what similar means, as he recommends those who wish to keep their onions from sprouting to dip their heads in warm salt water. Approved sorts, and their qualities. — The va- rieties of oultiyated onions hare long been, and still are numerous. Of those that are annually produced from seed, the following may be con- sidered the best : — 1. Brown globe. — Large, globular, palish brown, slightly tinged with red; a very useful and hardy kind, of mUd flavour, and keeps well. 2. New white globe. — Rather flatter in form than the last; of mild flavour; altogether a very handsome bulb ; comparatively a new variety. 3. Blood red. — Known also as the Dutch and St Thomas's onion, of which there are also two sub-varieties, — viz., pale and very deep blood : a very old variety, esteemed by somefor its extreme pungency, and also for its diuretic quality. Of middle size, flattish, and very hardy ; deep red, or blood-coloured, keeps remarkably well; much grown amongst the Scottish and Welsh pea- santry. Not greatly appreciated in genteel families. Perhaps one of the oldest cultivated sorts, as we find them noticed for theu* strong flavour so early as the days of PUny. 4. iJeadinjr.— Supposed to be synonymous with (or so closely allied as to be scarce worth grow- ing as distinct varieties) the Cambridge, white Spanish, Eversham,, and white Portugal. It is much cultivated about Eversham, and also about Reading, and hence the origin of two of the names. An excellent sort for a general crop, but does not keep well ; mild, large, flat, of a whitish colour tinged with green. Strasbv/rg. — Known also as the Dutch, Essex, Deptford, and Flwnders onion. This is the most generally cultivated variety in Britain. A large oval bulb, reddish, tinged with green ; ex- tremely hardy, and hence generally sown for autumnal crops, and should be preferred in all cold and elevated localities : flavour rather pun- gent, no disqualification to palates vulgar, and has also the merit of keeping well. 6. Tripoli. — In seed-lists we find a round and a flat variety, both of which may be picked out of the same seed-bed ; reddish, tinged with green and brown, soft and mild, does not keep well, but an excellent autumn sort The largest onion grown. 7. Silner-skinned. — Of which there are the fol- lowing sub-varieties, scarcely distinguishable ex- cept in name — viz., ewrly silver-shinned, small silver-shinned, Nocera; flat, middle-sized, and shining vfhen grown in rich ground. It is chiefly cultivated for pickling and dressed dishes, for which purposes it should not much exceed in size a large hazel-nut. It is usually sown in poor soil to prevent it becoming large. 8. Madeira large. — Known also as new giant: a new variety, the seed of which is annually imported from Madeira ; a bulb of extraordinary size, but does not keep well. 9. Trm Portugal. — Large, flattish, globe- shaped, exceedingly mild in flavour, but does not keep well, particularly if grown in Britain, as we have not climate to ripen it thoroughly. Genuine seed should be imported from Portu- gal. We have some doubts, however, as to this being different from the brown Portugal of the 10. James's heeping. — Evidently an English hybrid, and said to have originated with a Mr James, a commercial grower of Lambeth Marsh : of large pyramidal shape, brownish coloured, strong in flavour, and one of ovir best keepers, probably on account of its Enghsh origin, and consequent increased hardiness. 11. Lisbon, known also as Lisbon white. — Genuine seed of this excellent variety is in general imported from the south of France. It is by no means hardy with us, and is slow in ripening; not to be recommended for a cold climate; of large size and globular form, skin whitish and very thin. Opinions difier as to the hardiness of this variety; it is described as hardy, and adapted for autumnal sowing by several good authorities : we have found it one of the tenderest. 12. Two-bladed, known also as the Welsh onion, from being much grown in that part of the kingdom. — This has a small, flat, brownish-green bulb, which ripens early, and keeps well. It is grown chiefly for its leaves, which are used in salads, and its small bulbs for pickling. The two-bladed early of some seed-catalogues is the same as this, which, by the way, ranks as a dis- tinct species (Alliv/m fistulosum, L.), and is a native of Siberia. Introduced in 1629. Some nursery catalogues enumerate a greaier number of names, but their difierence consists in the name only. 13. Tree, or bulb-producing onion. — This is a viviparous variety of the common onion; a native of Canada, the climate of which being too cold to enable the plant to produce seeds, nature employs one of those beautiful provisions she has in store for the fulfilment of the sacred command, " multiply and replenish," by the production of viviparous bulbs at the top of the stalk, which otherwise would have been, graced with its head of flowers and umbel of seeds : they are sometimes produced on the sides of the flower-stem also. This occurrence is not uncommon in sub-alpine situations, where the temperature is too low for the ripening of seeds, and is well illustrated in many of the pasture- grasses ; the Festuca vivipara offering one ex- ample, and one of the sub- varieties of the com- mon rye-grass (Lolium perenne, var. vivipara) another. Why botanists have elevated the for- mer into a specieSj and the latter not, appears ALLIACEOUS PLANTS.— THE ONION. 41 anomalous. These cauline biilbs are planted in spiing, and produce ground-onions of a very useful size; and, although smaller than the ordinary sorts, they make up for size in greater pungency of quality. 14. Potato, or underground onion. — For a somewhat similar purpose, this sort, which sel- dom ripens its seeds, increases itself by the formation of bulbs under the ground, as if de- termined to be the very antipodes of the last. This variety has been in cultivation just about half a century in the southern parts of England, where, on account of the crop ripening much sooner than that of the seed-produced sorts, a ready market has long been found for them in supplying ships leaving our ports in June and July, at which season they could not procure others fit for keeping. It has been stated to have been brought to this country from Egypt by our troops, on their return, after driving the French out of that country, about the beginning of the present century; and of this we entertain not a shadow of doubt, the land of Egypt being the land of onions since the days of the Pha- raohs at least. This variety is cultivated to a very great extent in that country, and its singu- lar mode of growth, apart from its excellent qualities, would no doubt attract the attention of our soldiers, who could hardly be supposed to be aware of the fact that it had been grown to a limited extent a few years only prior to the time to which we allude, in a London nursery. This onion is well adapted for cottage gardens, even in climates where the ordinary sorts do not ripen. It is cultivated to very great perfection in the parish of Currie, west of Edinburgh, where we have seen them as large and fine as in Devonshire. The mode of cultivation difiers not from that of the shallot and garlic already disposed of, except that the individual bulbs do not admit of division ; but in taking up the crop, numerous small bulbs will be found clus- tered among the larger ones, which are all attached to the main root after the manner of potatoes, and hence its trivial name of potato- onion. The plants growing stronger than either shallots or garlic, require more space both be- tween the rows and also between each other in the Une. Fifteen inches by ten may be given as an average distance. In one particular more they essentially differ; their bulbs are formed under ground : therefore, although the planted bulbs are best set on the surface, the earth should be gathered up around them in the way recommended (but with doubtful advantage) in the case of the potato. Their subsequent cul- ture consists in keeping them clear of weeds, and a liberal supply of liquid manure during warm weather only. Planting should be at- tended to in November, although, in cold places, March may be with some advantage chosen. By the end of June, or beginning of July, they are fit, in most places, for taking up. Their cunng and keeping are the same as we have already described for the others of the tribe. Much of the success, however, depends on the state of the ground. This is a root which we hold to be of importance in every garden, though it is too seldom found. In Devonshire, where they are much grown, there is a familiar saying, " Plant on the shortest day, and take up on the longest." This onion, like all the tribe of cultivated allia- ceous plants, requires a rich deep soil, well manured, and dry at bottom. For this pur- pose the ground should be deeply trenched, and the manure (pigeons' dung, or the offal of a slaughter-house, if they can be obtained), wrought in during the process ; for, although it is perhaps not generally known, the roots of this variety have been found extending to the depth of six feet under the surface. When the soil is naturally shallow, it should be gathered up in ridges, and upon these the sets should be planted. For cold situations, this has another advantage, as the solar rays wiU penetrate such ridges, and impart a greater degree of warmth to the soil around the roots than if they were planted on a flat surface. In establishments where fully ripened onions are required through- out the year, these may be brought forward at even a sufiiciently early period to succeed the ordinary kinds that have been preserved during the winter. To effect this, the bulbs should be planted in pots in October or November, and kept in a cool pit through the winter, and turned carefully out into a well-prepared border at the bottom of a south wall (or equally warm place) early in March. The autumn-planted crop will require to be looked at during vrinter, and any bulbs that may have been thrown out, or displaced by the frost, reset; and in the coldest of all localities, a little mulching or rotten dung or leaves may, with advantage, be placed on the surface between the rows. This will exclude frost and the drought of spring at the same time. The Welsh onion, or Cihoule, is seldom grown. It . is an extremely hardy perennial of strong flavour, but does not produce bulbs. It is sown in August, to be drawn green in spring, for use in the manner of leeks, and in that state is not unfrequently termed scallion — an epithet ap- plied by country people to all sorts of onions when they do not produce bulbs. Onions for pickling are in demand in every family. For this purpose the sUver-skinned varieties should be chosen, on account of their deUcate white colour, slightly intermixed with greenish lines between the coatings. As they are usually preferred when small — about the size of a filbert— it is necessary they be sown on very poor soil. We have a border, the soil of which is soft alluvial sand : on this we have grown silver-skinned onions annually during the last thirteen years ; trenching it as soon as the crop is gathered, two feet in depth, giving it no manure whatever ; sowing thickly in the broad- cast manner, in three feet beds — which are formed after the crop has come above ground, by running a hoe from side to side, and thus forming alleys fifteen inches broad, the seed having, to save time, been sown all over the piece. The situation is warm, which insures the ripening of the bulbs ; the soil being very poor, and the crop thick, produces them of a small uniform size. In small gardens, and in those wherein the soil is of a very rich nature, such onions are difficult to procure. Sowing 42 CULINARY OE KITCHEN GARDEN. under the shade of trees has been recommended, but not judiciously. As a bed ten feet by four would produce a sufficient quantity for a small family, it were better to prepare such a space artificially, by removing the rich soil to the depth of eighteen inches, and replacing it with poor sandy or gravelly soiL We have grown pickling onions upon a bed of loamy gravel laid on the surface of the ordinary soil, to the thick- ness of twelve inches. Diseases and insects. — The diseases and insects to which the cultivated alliaceous plants are liable, if not numerous, are sufficiently destruc- tive. One of our greatest pests is The common onion-fly {Anthomyia ceparum, Bouche). It is thus described by Mr Curtis, one of our highest entomological authorities, in the " Gardeners' Chronicle," 1841 :— "The male is of an ashy colour, roughish, with black bristles and hairs ; the eyes are contiguous and reddish; the face silvery white; horns black; there are three obscure lines down the trunk, and a line of long blackish spots down the centre of the body, more or less visible in diiferent lights; the wings are transparent, slightly irridesoent, tinged with ochre at the base ; the nervurespalebrown; poisersoohreous; legs ashy brown. The female is oohreous, or ashy grey, clothed with black bristles and hairs ; the eyes are reddish and remote, with a light chestnut stripe between them, bifid and darkest at the base ; face yellowish white." This insect attacks the plants in their young state, and continues feeding on them during the whole summer. Sometimes they attack the crop generally, and cause a total failure; at other times attacking them in patches only, the effects being most observable in dry weather — the leaves turning yellowish, becoming flaccid, and the plant at last falling over and decaying. On removing the outer coating or skin of the plants destroyed, the cause will be discovered in the presence of a small grub, which eats its way into the very heart of the onion. This grub is white, smooth, and shining, and of a conical form, and nearly half an inch long. The eggs are deposited on the leaves when in a very young state, and close to the earth ; as soon as the maggots are hatched, which takes place about the time the plants are about the size of a small quill, they bore their way through the outer leaf, and penetrate the onion at its base. Fig. 5. Fig. 6. Fig. 4. TUB ONION-FLV, OROB, AND- PUPA. feeding chiefly on the bottom part of the bulb, causing it to separate from the roots, and occa- sioning a mass of mouldiness, familiar to every cultivator. These grubs, in general, attain their full size in about fourteen days, sooner in dry weather than in wet, and at that period descend into the earth, to undergo their transformations, when they become a reddish brown, indurated pupa, of an oval form. Fig. 4 shows the grub; fig. 5, the pupa; and fig. 6, the perfect insect. Another enemy has recently appeared in the brassy onion-fly (Evmerus emeus). This fly was discovered by Mr Curtis in 1842, and figured and described by him in the " Gardeners' Chronicle " for that year, (p. 2S2.) He detected the maggots in a box containing some rotten onions, which he found to be distinct from Anthomyia ceparum, the common onion-fly. " It is densely clothed with short hairs, thickly and distinctly punctured, and of an olive green, with brassy tinge ; the antennae are entirely black, the seta naked ; the face is very hairy, simply convex, and silvery white; eyes dark- brown and slightly pubescent; rostrum very short ; thorax with two whitish lines down the back; scutel semiorbicular, the margin thin, and somewhat denticulated and ciUated ; abdo- men linear in the males, the segments coarctate or constricted at the base — attenuated to the apex in the female, with six grey lunulate marks, three on each side, and nearly meeting on the back; vrings transparent; the nervures piceous, the apical transverse, one somewhat bilobed ; poisers yellowish white ; legs rather short and stout, especially the hinder, the thighs being incrussated and serrated beneath with a double row of minute teeth ; tibise bright rust colour at the base, the hinder curved; tarsi five-jointed and black, the hinder orange colour on the inside; the claws are small, and the suckers bilobed." Specimens of this fly have been taken in the neighbourhood of London, flying about in June and July. The female has not as yet been observed depositing her eggs. The maggots do not confine themselves to the onion alone, but have been observed on cabbage-roots. These may be considered the chief enemies to the onion tribe, attacking them all indiscri- minately — the garlic, however, less than the others. The latter does not as yet appear to have spread, so as to be of the same importance as the former. The means hitherto employed for subduing these insects are these : Laying soot over the beds, or incorporating it vrith the soil ; applying salt in the same manner; water- ing with lime-water, gas-tar, stale soap-suds, soot-water, stale urine, old tobacco-water, &c. It is evident, however, that it is not the smeU which affects them — for few things can be more offensive than rotten onions, on which both these insects appear to luxuriate. Their power of reproduction is so great, that unless they are destroyed the moment they are discovered to have attacked the crop (which wiU readily be known by the leaves drooping and turning yellow), their total eradication be- comes next to impossible. All other means (except carefully pulling up every diseased ALLIACEOUS PLANTS.— THE ONION. 43 plant, and comtnitting them to the fire, collecting the soil around where they have been growing, and burning it also) can only be regarded as exceedingly superfioial in their effects. Deep trenching and frequently turning over the soil are of great advantage : in the one case burying the pupa too deep for its again reaching the surface; and in the other, disturbing it during its transformation, and probably preventing that change from taking place. From what has been shown above of the economy of the onion- fly, it is clear that the most rational method of eradicating it is to capture the insects whUe in the grub state, and while they are entrapped within the onion. By doing so, their increase is greatly diminished; as it is probable that, for every grub so destroyed, hundreds of flies are prevented from appearing in spring, each of which may be the parent of hundreds of grubs during the foUovring season. All other pro- posed remedies may be set down as compara- tively worthless. Sowing onions year after year on the same ground is a very certain way of multiplying these insects, and might be carried to the extent of literally stocking the ground vrith them. Insects peculiar to any plant seldom attack the crop during the first year, and probably the second, after being planted in land not previously occupied with the same kind of crop, because the soil has not as yet become furnished with the pupae of the insect peculiar to the plant. Hence some ad- vantage arises from sowing onions after celery, and vice versd, cabbage after potatoes, &c. Spirits of tar is of great use, if applied in suf- ficient quantity to the soil immediately after the crop is removed ; and it is a good plan to run it Jdong (from the spout of a watering-pot) the lines of the rows where the onions had grovpn, because in that way, and at that exact time, it reaches the pupa in its most tender state ; not, however, that it acts as an ordinary poison (the pupa not being in a feeding state), but it penetrates through the skin whenever it comes in contact with it; and no insect, in any of its stages, out of hundreds we have submitted to the ordeal, will exist after being brought into contact with this liquid. It is probable, also, that many other applications (turpentine, for example), if applied at this time, and in this way, might be found exceed- ingly efficacious. Soot is not only an excellent manure for onions, but is also a safe precaution against the attacks of the grub. It may be sown broadcast all over the ground, previous to drilling, if in abundance ; if scarce, sow it in the drills when formed. The following has been often applied to onion crops, even after the attack has com- menced : Water the ground well (that is, give it a good soaking of water) in the following proportions,— add to 20 gallons of rain-water 1 peck of unslaked lime, 4 peck of soot that has not been exposed to wet, 2 gallons of urine, 1 lb. of soft soap, and 2 lb. of flowers of sulphur; when the mixture is sufiiciently settled to pass through the rose of a watering-pot, it may be applied. As a preventive of the grub in onions, it has been recommended to sow them on ground previously cropped with turnip. If advantage arise from this, it is founded on the rotation system. The chemical action of soot, in this and in similar cases, as a fertiliser and preventive of grub, may depend on the elements of which it is constituted, which are carbonaceous matter, mixed with carbonated ammonia, giving out a strong pungent smell by the action of quick- lime. It affords a brown extractive matter of a bitter taste, some ammoniacal salts, and an empyreumatic oU, either or all of which are disagreeable, if not really fatal, to insect life. Its chief basis, however, is charcoal in a state capable of being rendered soluble by the action of oxygen and water. Powdered charcoal has been found exceedingly efficacious in preserving the onion crop, but not to the same extent as soot, containing in itself few of the elements of which soot is composed. We were led to apply soot in a liquid form, as M. Branconnet has shown that " a watery infusion of soot is eminently antiseptic, and may be used for pre- serving animal matter from decomposition;" and antiseptics we find in practice greatly to preserve the parts of plants, to which they are appUed, from rottenness, to which the onion is extremely liable when attacked by the grub. The variety of silver-skinned onion known as Oignon de Nocera is sometimes attacked by a minute parasitic fungus (Verwdcularia cir- cincms). It appears in form of small round black spots, which, although not penetrating the sub- stance of the bulb, greatly disfigure it, and render it unfit for use. This disease appears to be quite new, and was first detected in the gardens of the Horticultural Society of London in 1851. Sming of seed, S;c. — The saving of onion seed is carried on to a very great extent in the neighbourhood of Beading, in various parts of Kent, to some extent in Cambridgeshire, Bedfordshire, and about Evesham. The great supply, however, is imported from France and Holland. The saving of any esculent vegetable seed, while it can be purchased genuine from the regular seedsmen, is the reverse of economy. Amateurs, however, often save various sorts of seed, as much for the satisfaction of presenting them to their friends, as on the mere score of economy to themselves. Gardeners are not unfre- quently driven to this, as au expedient to preserve any particularly fine variety they may become possessed of, as well as to guard themselves against fraudulent dealers, who, it is to be regretted, are on the increase. There is no economy, how- ever, in saving seeds with a view to evade paying a yearly seed-bill. Seeds so pro- duced cost 100 per cent more than they can be piurchased for. They are 44 CULINARY OR KITCHEN GARDEN. seldom so good, can never be calculated upon as pure, if more than one species be grown in the same garden, or indeed within a very considerable distance around. — For reasons, vide art. Peopaga- TioN BY Seed. To save onion seed, select some of the largest, best formed, and best ripened bulbs ; prepare the ground as already directed, only choosing the warmest and most sheltered spot the garden aiFords — for climate is the principal reason why we are compelled to import seed, which, until these few years, was subjected to an import duty almost equal to the prime cost. In November plant them, as we have advised for garlic and shallots. As the shoots advance in height, a line of stakes, three feet in height above the surface, should be driven in along each line of plants, and to these a double course of packthread or tarred cord should be fastened, by taking a turn of the cord around each stake, thus leaving the stems of the plants to grow up between the cords for their support ; and, for greater security, these cords should be tied together at every twelve or fifteen inches in length. As the flower stems extend in height, add other courses of cord, till the height of nearly three feet is attained, at which height the heads of flowers will appear, and, if not broken by the wind, will become large heads of seed, which will ripen in August or September. The stems should be cut over then, and laid down for a day or two to dry ; afterwards they may be tied up in bundles, further dried in the sun, and ultimately, if the crop is large, stacked by till thrashed out, or suspended in bundles from the roof, in a dry airy apartment, and rubbed out and winnowed at convenience. One ounce of seed con- tains 7636 seeds. The European names of the onion are, Oignon in French ; Zwiebel ia German ; Uijon in Dutch; CipoUa in Italian; Ce- bolla in Spanish. § 5. — THE LEEK. Nattiral history. — The Leek, Allium porrum, L. (from Celtic, Fori, to eat), belonga to the same natural order, and ranks in the same class and order in the Lrnnsean arrangement as the four last. It is said to be a native of Switzer- land ; of this there are as great doubts as that the onion is a native of Spain. It is undoubt- edly a native of the East, and was cultivated largely in Egypt in the days of the Pharaohs. Phi- lips, in " History of Culinary Vegetables," vol. ii. p. 30, has thrown more light upon this dark sub- ject than any other author we have read. He says, in speaking of this plant being adopted by the ancient Welsh as their badge, " The Welshmen still continue to wear leeks on St David's Day, in commemoration of a victory which they ob- tained over the Saxons in the sixth century, and which they attributed to the leeks they wore, by the order of St David, to distinguish them in the battle. The Welsh patron died about the year 5ii." Now, they must have been not only introduced, but much cultivated at this early period. That the leek is a native of Egypt is evident ; for, besides the notice taken of it in the Bible, Pliny, in book xix. chap. 6, states " that the best leeks were brought from Egypt, and the next to them from Orthes, a town of Asia Minor," now called Guzelhizar. Aricia in Italy was celebrated for leeks in Pliny's time ; for he says, " It is not long since leeks were brought into great notice through the Emperor Nero." Tusser sings their praise in verse, and says they were in common use in farm-houses long before his time. And Gerard, writing soon after Tusser's time, speaks of leeks in such a manner as to induce us to think them indi- genous to our soU. Its date of introduction is given in " Hortus Britannicus " as 1562. In this case, as in several others in that work, when the date of a plant is not exactly known, the first year in which it is known to have existed in Britain, upon pub- lished authority, is given. That it was to some extent cultivated prior to that year is evident from the familiar way in which all our oldest gardening authors speak of it, and it is noticed by most of them. Uses. — This plant has been more generally used as an esculent in Wales and Scotland than in England. It is now, however, cultivated much more generally in the gardens of the latter, and brought in greater quantities to their markets than formerly. The whole plant, except the roots, is used in soups and stews. The white stems, which are blanched by being planted deep for the purpose, are now largely used, boiled and served up with toasted bread and white sauce, and eaten like asparagus. They are much used in French cookery, and form an important ingredient in Scotch winter broth, particularly that national dish cocha-leekie. But the most extraordinary use to which we have heard of their being applied is thus stated on the authority of no less a person than Lord Bacon, who says (in "Essay on Gardens," century ten), "I knew a gentleman that would fast (sometimes) three or four, yea, five days, without meat, bread, or drink ; but the same man used to have con- tinually a wisp of herbs that he smelt on, and amongst these herbs some of strong scent, as onions, garlic, leeks, and the like." The leek is a valuable vegetable for the cottager, a small piece of ground affording him a large and useful supply during winter and spring, when green ALLIACEOUS PLANTS.-THE LEEK. 45 fodd ia scarce. It is easily cultivated and ex- tremely hardy. The medicinal and dietary pro- perties of the leek are similar to those of the onion, only in a milder degree. Mode of propagation. — Leeks are pro- pagated by seed sown for ordinary pur- poses at the same time as onions. Bulk of plant, in the case of the leek, being a primary object — and transplanting tends greatly to insure this — ^the seed is sown pretty thickly on a bed, and when of suf- ficient size, the plants are removed to where they are to come to perfection. Those who have not the convenience of a hotbed should sow the seed early in Feb- ruary, in as warm a spot as is at their disposal. Where, however, it is wished to have the leek in its fullest perfection, the seed should be sown thinly on a mild hotbed, such as of leaves in a state of fer- mentation, a material within the reach of most ; while those near a tanyard may employ bark, or those in the vicinity of flax-mills the refuse flax — either of which, put up in the form of a cucumber-bed, will afford a mild and lasting heat. With- out a glass frame, the purpose may be served by an occasional covering of tar- pauling during frosty nights or heavy rains. Slight excitement only is required. The seed should be sown of a imiform thickness on rich compost, and covered to about the depth of a quarter of an inch, half an ounce being suf&cient for a bed 2 feet by 4, and so in like proportion for beds of larger size. Keep them clear of weeds, and water with tepid water occa- sionally until fit for transplanting. One ounce of seed contains 2924. Sowing and planting. — Sowing in the open ground may be performed from the beginning of February till the middle of April, the exact time depending entirely on the state of the weather and the con- dition of the soil. The earlier, however, the seed is sown the better, that the plants may attain a good size before final transplanting. If sown in beds of 4 feet in breadth, and in the broadcast manner, the same process should be followed as recommended for onions grown in that way. If sown as advised above, and which is much the best way, as soon as the young plants are of the height of 3 inches they should be carefully taken up, loosen- ing the soil in the bed so that none of the fibres may be in the least injured. They VOL. II. should then be transplanted into another preparatory bed, having the same advan- tages of heat, &c., as the first; but on this the heating material should be covered with completely rotten manure to the depth of 4 inches, and the plants set in it at the distance of 3 inches apart each way. This is to encourage their growth. When they have attained the height of 6 inches, another bed of equally rotten manure should be prepared for them, placed on the surface of the ground in a warm sheltered spot, but without bottom heat, and the plants a second time removed, with all their fibres entire, and planted in it at the distance of 6 inches apart each way; for here they are to remain till the season of final trans- planting arrives, which will be from the beginning to the middle or end of May. The plants, having thus plenty of room, will attain the size of 9 inches or a foot, and be of goodly size of stem, which will be promoted by frequently watering them with liquid manure. Few people pay this attention to them, but transplant them at once from the seed-bed to where they are to grow to full size. In this they lose much, both in the size and delicacy of the produce, as the more ra- pidly all esculent plants are grown, the more tender they are. The ground being prepared for them, they are to be set in lines 18 inches apart, and the plants 10 inches from each other in the line — that is, if the largest size be wished for; other- wise, 12 inches by 7 will be sufficient. In planting, the dibber used should be 3^ inches in diameter, obtuse at the point ; but, if nearly cylindrical in form, so much the better, that the roots may have room in the bottom of the hole. The plants being taken carefully up, with as much of the rotten manure at- tached to them as possible, and carried to the spot on a shallow wooden tray, they are to be dropped carefully into each hole as it is made, and no soil what- ever placed over them, as the rains and occasional waterings — probably one at the time of planting — will wash down sufficient to cover the roots to the extent required. The object of this large hole is, to allow the stem to swell out in size, without being compressed by the sur- rounding soil. The dibber should have a cross piece of wood fastened to it, form- G 46 CULINARY OR KITCHEN GARDEN. ing a gauge as to the equality of the depth of each hole. The old and barbarous system long recorded in books, and prac- tised by even the best gardeners, of cut- ting off a portion of the tops of the leaves, should be disregarded; and the curtail- ments of the roots, long held as a benefi- cial process, should be looked upon as an act of wanton madness. This is the usual mode of planting. A much better way is to stretch the line from end to end of the field, and, with a spade, to take out a trench a foot at least in depth, leaving the back of the trench immediately under the line as nearly perpendicular as pos- sible. Along this trench set the plants, resting against the solid ground, placing their roots with the ball of manure around them in the bottom, and fiUing in the earth taken out of the trench carefully around them — taking care, however, not to let it reach so high as to cover the hearts of the plants. Water at the time of planting, if the soil be not already too damp, in which state it would be better to delay planting till it dry. However, by this drill mode of planting this crop, as well as most others, the ground is left quite open and loose, as the operator is always standing on the ground that is to be loosened up in the formation of the next drill. One sowing is, in general, sufficient for private families in Scotland j but in the south, where vegetation is so much more rapid, a second, or even a third sowing, may be found of advantage for continuing the crop till late in spring. Our own practice is to sow once, and, in the beginning of March, to dig up the crop, and lay it over in a cool shady place, covering the stems as high as they are blanched — a plan we have found much more suitable than that of sowing on heat for the early and main crop, and after- wards in April or May for late crops. Indeed, we have frequently found those sown in May run to seed at the very time those sown in February did. The only inducement for making suocessional sow- ings is, that some French cooks require them of a small size ; and, to meet such demands, successional sowings should be made from February till July. Some plant in open trenches, after the manner of celery, and earth the plants as they proceed. Subsequent cultivation. — The subsequent management consists in drawing a little earth to the stems as they elongate, keep- ing the ground clear of weeds, repeatedly stirring the surface between the rows, and of all things avoiding the practice of cropping the leaves — an old and nearly obsolete mode — which, however, has been recently recommended, with a view, it is asserted, of increasing the size of the stems. Soil and Manures. — The soil, from what we have already stated, cannot be over rich, nor, indeed, need the manure be at all so decomposed as for onions. We believe the leek would luxuriate well on the top of a dunghiU. It is important, however, that the ground be deeply trenched, and also that the manure be nearly as deeply buried ; for as the roots are from one to two feet or more under the surface, so also should the manure be. Deep alluvial soils, if dry at bottom, are excellent for the leek ; and next, those that are of a deep rich loamy nature : light shallow ones are the worst of all. In these latter, the plants should be set on the surface upon a bed of rich manure, and earthed up as they proceed, as is practised with celery. Forcing. — The leek is never forced be- yond the slight extent noticed above, to forward them for final planting. Taking the crop, and subsequent preserva- tion. — The crop is left in the ground till wanted for use. It is expedient, how- ever, upon the appearance of frost, to take up a quantity to be laid in soil or sand in the root cellar, or other place of shelter, so as to be conveniently got at when wanted for use. Approved sorts and their qualities. — The seed- lists contain several names of sorts : of these, the Large Flag, London Flag, English Flag may- be considered as identical. The Musselburgh is an early improvement on the Scotch Flag; and what is now called the Edinburgh Improved, ap- pears to be only selected from the Musselburgh stock. The Dutch Flag, Erfurt, and Rouen, seem, as they are at present growing in alter- nate rows in the Dalkeith gardens, to be in no- wise different from each other. They appear, however, to be disposed to attain a greater growth than any of the others. There is a sort of Allium grown in Pembrokeshire, and along the Welsh borders, called the hollow leek, pro- ducing roots in clusters like shallots. It is, however, scarcely worth the notice of the modern horticulturist, in the presence of so many sorts that are superior. Saving of seed. — In saving seed, some of ALLIACEOUS PLANTS.— THE CHIVE. 47 the largest and finest specimens should be selected ; and as we in the North have scarcely climate for saving this or the onion, it has been found expedient to plant them at the bottom of a south wall, and to support the flower stems by it. In such a way, considerable quantities of good seed are annually produced about Musselburgh, and in other warm locali- ties. In better climates, the same mode is followed as recommended for onions, (which see.) The European names are — Porreau, or Ail i, tuniques, in French ; zahme Lauoh, gemeiner Laiich, Porro-Zwiebel, or Spanisohe Lauoh, in German ; Porro, or Porreta, in Italian ; Puerro in Spanish ; Alho Porro in Portuguese ; Purio in Swedish ; Pras in Russian ; Prei, Look, or Porreye, in Dutoh. § 6. — THE CHIVE. Natural history. — The chive (Allmm Sckoe- noprasum, L.) belongs to the same natural order, and ranks in the same class and order in the Linnseau arrangement as the five last. It is indigenous to various parts of Britain, occa- sionally found in meadows and pastures, but at no great elevation. tfses. — The young leaves are the parts used ; the roots, although bulbs, are very small, and although partaking of the taste and pro- perties of the rest of the family, have never, so far as we are aware of, been used as an article of food. The young leaves are used in mixed salads as a substitute for young onions, and by many are preferred, being milder in flavour. They are used in a young tender state ; and, to keep up a succession during spring, summer, and autumn, the plants are repeatedly cut over, whether the leaves are required or not, the in- tention being to have them always young. During winter they are obtained from plants taken up in autumn, and potted and kept in a mild temperature, say from 45 to S5. They are very much used in soups, particularly in Scotch famOies, for seasoning various dishes. shred in small pieces, and served up with beef- steaks, being sprinkled over them just as they are taken from the fire. They are next to indis- pensable in omelets, and hence are much more used on the Continent, particularly in Roman Catholic countries, than in Britain. The process of gathering them is to cut them over near the ground, but so as to carry no earthy matter vrith them, for much of their flavour would be lost by washing. They are then tied up in small bunches, ready for the kitchen. The cir- cumstance of their being gathered in this way, Loudon remarks, has caused them to be spoken of in the plural. Chives. Mode of propagation, cultivation, ^c. — They are propagated by division of the roots either in the spring or autumn. Their roots, growing in bundles, admit of this mode with great facility. They may also be singled out and planted indivi- dually, but this is seldom done. They grow in bunches often 6 or 8 inches in diameter. One of these may be divided into a dozen or more pieces, each of which will, in a few weeks, if planted in spring, form a compact patch. Each patch should stand clear of the other, so that in forming a new bed of them, they should be set a foot or 15 inches asunder. A plantation will last for many years, but it is well to renew them every third or fourth year. All the cultivation they require is to be kept clear of weeds, and the leaves frequently cut over. They will prosper in any ordinary garden ground, and there is only one variety in cultiva- tion. The European names arc— Ciboulette, or Ci- vette, in French ; der Binsenlauch, or Schnitt- lauch,in German; BiesIook,orSuyprei,in Dutch; Cipoletta maligia in Italian ; Cibollino de Ingla- terra in Spanish ; Cebolinha de Ingalaterra in Portuguese; Graslog in Danish; Luczer-lupny in Polish. CHAPTEK IT. LEGUMINOUS PLANTS, OR THE PULSE TRIBE. As has been elsewhere stated, plants of this natural order are recorded to have been amongst the first vegetables employed by man as articles of food. The legumes or pods, either in their ear- lier stages of growth, as in the case of the kidney bean, or in their more advanced growth, as the pea and bean, the seeds of which are eaten both in a green and ripened form, are the parts of the plant employed in culinary matters. This very extensive order contains no less than 244 genera, and upwards of 2630 species. Of these, the following, with their sub-varie- ties, hold a prominent position in garden culture, viz. : — The Pea, Garden Bean, Kidney, French or Haricot Bean. § 1. — THE PEA. Natwral history. — -The pea {Pisum sativum, L.) belongs to the natural order Leguminosas, subdivision SaroolobEe ; tribe Viciese ; and to the class Diadelphia, and order Decandria, in the Linnsean arrangement. The genus Pisura contains seven species ; three of which are cul- tivated for culinary purposes, besides the varie- ties and sub-varieties of Pisum sativum, whose name is legion — if faith is to be placed in the list of names found in seedsmen's catalogues. Pisum maritimum, a species which is indigenous to some parts of the east coast of England, has in former times been used as an article of food in times of scarcity. The name Pisum is de- rived from the Celtic pis, a pea ; or, according to Philips, from Pisa (a town of Elis), where pease anciently grew in great plenty. The Eng- lish name appears to be a corruption of the Latin. Tusser, who wrote in the time of Queen Mary, and Gerard, soon after him, both wrote if'Peason;" Dr Holland, writing in the time of Charles I., spells it Pease, since abbreviated into Pea. The native country of the pea, like that of most of our cultivated esculents, is not now known. Modern catalogues refer it to the south of France, and Valmont Bomare distinctly says, " the garden pea was originally from France ;" and Mr Coles, in his History of Plants, says the Fulham pease, which came first out of France, is so called because the gi'ounds about Fulham, "neere London, doe bring them forward soonest." Pease undoubtedly came originally into France, Italy, and Spain, from the East; and although we cannot identify the lentils used in the days of Jacob and Esau with the pea of later times, still, we know they were cultivated by both the Greeks and Eomans in the time of PHny, who informs us that the former sowed their pease in November, but the latter did not plant theirs till spring — and then only in warm places lying well to the sun. " For," says he, " of all things, pease cannot endure cold." The time of their introduction into Britain is as uncertain as their native place. That they were cultivated to some extent in the time of Henry VIII. is more than probable, as one variety, the Rouncival — a name continued down to the present day — is mentioned by Tvisser, in his " Five Hundred Points of Good Husbandry," who says, — " Dig garden, 'stroy mallow, now may you at ease, And eet (as a daintie) thy runcival pease I*' And that they were then grown much as at pre- sent, would appear from the following line : — '* Stike plentie of bowes among runcival pease, To clamber thereon, and branch at their ease." In the early part of Good Queen Bess's reigii, they were, however, less abundant than the above quotation would lead us to suppose. For, as FuUer remarks, they were seldom seen, ex- cept those brought from Holland, and " these were dainties for ladies — they came so far, and cost so dear." Green pease appear to have been unknown to our Saxon ancestors ; nor was it imtil after the Norman Conquest, and the establishment of mo- nastic communities, that we read of such being used. Fosbrooke, in « Brit. Monasticon," says that, amongst other rarities, green pease were provided against midsummer, for the nunnery at Barking in Essex. And in " Archeeologia," 13, 373, early pease are thus directed to be treated : " If one will have pease soone in the year following, such pease are to be sowen in the wane of the moonc, at St Andrew's tide LEGUMINOUS PLANTS.— THE PEA. 49 before Christmas." Bonnefonds, in his " Jardi- nier Franpaia," (1651), describes the skinless pea as the Dutch pea, and remarks, that until lately they were exceedingly rare. They appear to have been introduced into France from Holland about 1600. Green pease became a popular delicacy in England soon after the Restoration of Charles II.; and, strange enough, even for late ones so early as 1769, as it is a matter of history that on the 28th October of that year, a guinea a pottle— not quite half a dish— was given in Covent-Garden market; and as much as ten times that sum has been paid since in the same market, for a quart of green pease shelled. Use. — Pease in their dried state are used in soups, either whole or split ; in the latter form they are generally preferred. They are also made into puddings, and occasionally ground into meal ; in either way they form an agreeable and nourishing food — not, however, well-suited to those of weak digestion. Old pease are often diflScult to boil ; indeed, sometimes no boiling vrill render them soft. This has been said to ensue when they have been kept more than one year; and also that those grown on land which has been manured with lime, marl, or gypsum, will even not boil at all, whatever their age may be. That such a circumstance sometimes oc- curs as their not boiling, is pretty well known to dealers; but that either of the causes assigned is the true one, seems to us to be doubtful. AU t\e varieties of garden pea are esteemed for their seed whUe in a young state ; indeed, for the tables of the great, they can hardly be either too small or too young. In their second state or size, they are used for green-pea soup ; and, in their third state, when fully grown, but still quite green and soft, they form an ingredient in hodge-podge. In gathering, the young gardener should be informed for which of these purposes they are intended ; for whether for the one or the other, the pease should be of a uniform size and age. We may here also observe, that several of our largest-growing varieties are ob- jected to merely on account of size, and there- fore it is unwise to indulge exclusively in such sorts ; for although excellent, and most profit- able to those who wish a good comfortable family dish of duck and green pease, they would be considered unfit for a first-rate table. The marrow-fats, although much prized by some on account of their peculiar fine flavour and deli- cacy, must give way, in this respect, to Sutton's early champion, Beck's morning star, early Frame, Prince Albert, Auvergne, and such like smaller sorts ; while Bishop's new long-podded, Thurstone's reliance, Hair's dwarf mammoth — aU first-class pease for profitable culture — must not be calculated upon to afford a supply for mouths genteeL In a sanitary point of view, pease cannot be eaten too young, nor too soon after they are gathered ; and hence people who have to depend on the public markets for their supply, seldom taste this very popular vegetable in perfection, and too often have it only when it is almost unfit for use. This is a formidable objection to imported pease. It is, of course, for the interest of the producer to keep back his pease till they are fully grown, because they mea sure better, and we believe with many take bet- ter, as they get greater bulk for their money. This may be so far excusable on the part of such ; but it is inexcusable that a gentleman, having a private garden of his own, should be served with pease otherwise than in the very highest state of perfection — which they arenot, if allowed to become too old, or even too large. Mint is usually boiled with pease. It improves the flavour of them while young, and very much enhances the flavour of pea-soup ; it also cor- rects flatulency. A few sprigs of mint should accompany the pease to the kitchen. There is one section, of garden pease called sugar-pease, the pods of which have the inner film wanting, or much less tough than usual. The pods in this section are used with the young seed within them, and are cooked and eaten the same as French or kidney beans. This is a mode of using pease we would like to see much more generally in use : dressed in this way, they afford a delicious and economical dish. Regarding the nutritive properties of the pea in a green state, we have never met with a satis- factory analysis. In a ripened state, the flour of pease is as three to two of bulk in grain ; and when dressed and split for soups, as four to two. According to Sir H. Davy, 1000 parts of pea- flour afforded 574 parts of nutritive or soluble matter ; viz., 501 of mucilage, 22 of sugar, 35 of gluten, and 16 of extract, or matter rendered insoluble during the operation. The sugar-pease are much more used on the Continent than with us. The dwarf crooked sugar-pea (pois sans par- chemin ou mange tout — zwerg zuckerchoutte), and the tall crooked sugar-pea (pois sans parche- min k grandes cosses — grosse schottige zucker- erbse), are met with at every table d'hdte. Yet how seldom do we see such a dish in our own country. This may be looked upon as the more singular, as Gerard, writing in 1S97, in speaking of the different sorts of pease, or " pea- sou," as he has it, says there are " some with tough skins, or membrances in the cods; and others have not at all, whose cods are to be eaten with the pease when they be yoong, as those of the yoong kidney-beane : " than this nothing can be clearer. Hoffman and Simon Paull treat largely on their medical proper- ties ; and Lemery, " On Foods," remarks that " pease contain a viscous and thick juice, which causes flatulency, and produces gross humours ; and therefore they are not good for those that are troubled with gravel." Green pease may be preserved for winter use if dried in a cool oven, and afterwards placed in paper bags suspended from the roof in a dry room. Propagation. — All the cultivated pease, being annuals, are propagated by seed. Sowing. — The earliest crops to be pro- duced in the open garden, -without artifi- cial aid, are obtained by a judicious selec- tion of the most approved early varieties, choosing a favourable soil and situation, and committing the seed to the ground in 50 CULINARY OR KITCHEN GARDEN. the end of October, and throughout No- vember, December, and January. It is of importance, also, in making this selec- tion, that the hardier varieties should be chosen. Hamilton's November prolific is one of these. We have seen it, during the two last winters, standing in an ele- vated part of Dumfriesshire, when other early sorts alongside of it were much injured by the cold. In practice, we find it is not always the crop first sown, how- ever, that is first fit for gathering, even within a few feet of the same altitude, and a quarter of a mile of the same line of latitude. Local circumstances, to a very great extent, set aside in such mat- ters the dicta laid down by those who found the ripening of fruits or of garden crops upon what has been called the geographical distribution of plants. The London market-gardeners, to whom early pease are a remunerating crop, sow in De- cember in rows, in borders under walls, or by the sides of hedges three feet and a half apart. The pease are never staked, and the sorts preferred are, early Frame, Bishop's new long-podded. Groom's superb dwarf blue. Mr Baker, in " Gardeners' Chronicle," 1848, p. 365, on this matter observes : — " I generally sow in Novem- ber, by a wall in the garden, and the pease are trained to sticks in the usual way ; but I have almost invariably picked first from the field crop, although not sown until February. It is very true that, having a large space to collect the first picking from, I gather a pod only here and there ; but having found the earliest and best-filled pods nearest the ground, leads me to suppose that, by training on sticks, the exposure to the atmospheric air during night retards the growth, inas- much as the heat given out by the earth during that period is prevented from assisting the growth of the pea by train- ing them above the ground ; and, from the habit of the pea entirely covering the surface, but little circulation of the air takes place among them in the field. My land is a dry, siliceous, and strong soil, and radiates a considerable degree of heat during the day, which also tends to the early production of the crop." Pease, like all other crops grown in rows or drills, wherever natural obstruc- tions do not occur to prevent it, should be sown in a direction from south to north, unless in the case of very early crops transplanted at the bottom of a south wall, when, for obvious reasons, the direction should be reversed. The main intention of placing crops in the former direction is, that the sun may have free access to every part of the ground between the lines, and the plants themselves be placed in the most favourable position in this respect also. If placed in a counter direction — namely, from east to west — one side only would have the full advantage of the sun, while the other would derive little advantage whatever. Some draw their lines obliquely, fancying thereby to secure the early morning and late after- noon sun in its greatest vigour, and cal- culating, also, that its influence is thus more equally diffused. In this, to a certain extent, they are right ; but do they who follow this practice truly calculate the angle at which they place their rows, or do they reconcile the angle to the latitude of the place ? or do they take into con- sideration that the sun is either constantly rising or falling in 'the horizon, so that whatever angle they may adopt is difie- rently circumstanced as regards the sun's rays every day ? As to distance between the rows, when pease are sown in the usual manner — that is, row after row throughout the whole quarter — it may be taken as a general rule that as much space should be allowed between them as the sorts attain in height ;— thus, a pea of two feet in height should have two feet from row to row, and so on, up to Knight's tall marrow, which attains a height of from eight to ten feet — which latter should be placed at least ten feet asunder. A much better plan was, we believe, first recommended by the late Mr Cobbett, who is said, by those who seem to know, to have published the best Enghsh Grammar of the day; and we can safely say he wrote the best book on cottage gardens which has ap- peared before or since. His plan with pease was to sow in single rows, twenty, thirty, or fifty feet apart, by which every portion of the crop was fully exposed to the sun and air — the crop hanging, in consequence, profusely from bottom to top. By this means, also, he secured shelter to his other crops, as his pea crop served the purpose of so many temporary screens during the whole summer, at the LEGUMINOUS PLANTS.— THE PEA. 51 very time they were of most importance. There is no loss of ground by this method, for other crops can be planted to within 1^ or 2 feet of the rows — which space is necessary for the purpose of gathering them. Any person of the least obser- vation must have seen that the out- side of the first or last row in a contin- uous piece always produces the earliest, finest, and most abundant crop. There is a great economy of space by sowing pease in the following manner, noticed iu the "Gardeners' Magazine," vol. iv., p. 225 : — " If only two rows in one place, and two more in another, 15 or 20 feet distant, were sown, there would be four outsides ; whereas, if they were all sown together, there would only be two out- sides. Two rows in one place occupy 3 feet 6 inches in width, and two rows in another the same, making together 7 feet; but if four rows were sown together, they would take up between 1 1 and 1 2 feet of ground. Here there is a saving of nearly one half." Again, let us observe that, without infringing on the rules of rota- tion, -the leguminous plants may never- theless be grown on the same quarter or division, by sowing the tallest-growing sorts at great distances apart, placing the dwarf-growing ones between, interlining with kidney beans, which attain the height of 18 inches, and with the new dwarf cluster garden - bean of similar height : thus the object of full exposure would be attained, while the rotation would not be interfered with. Sowing for principal crops should be attended to from the middle of March to the end of July, making a sowing every fortnight or tkree weeks at latest, where a constant supply is required daily. Some sow one crop just as the last appears above the ground. All this, so far as regards a constant and uninterrupted succession, depends far more upon the sorts sown than on the exact period, because some kinds come to perfection much sooner than others. (Vide List of sorts, Sfc.) For the latest crops of all, sow on the 1st, 10th, and 15th of August, and 1st of September, choosing dwarf early sorts, for the greater convenience of protecting them, should need be, during November and December, by spreading thin can- vass over them on frosty nights. There are few esculent crops that suffer so much from the malpractice of too thick sowing as the pea. The autumn-sown crops, of course, reqiiire more seed, as the chances they run of being inj\ired by frost or devoured by mice are very great, and therefore that should be taken into account : if they escape these dangers, they can be thinned out, and the thin- nings transplanted in spring. We would also remind amateurs, particularly those near towns, that the sparrows will take their tithe of them just as they come above ground, and that provision must be made for this in sowing. Fifty peas to the foot of line in such cases, and of such sorts as Warner's early emperor, Sutton's early champion, Fairbaird'scham- pion of England, and Bishop's new long-podded, will be ample. For very small gardens, Bishop's early dwarf is well adapted, growing only 1 foot in height, and hence requiring no stakes. They should all be sown 3| inches in depth. The fourth in the above list may be sown at half the above distance, as it sends out lateral branches, and hence requires space for them to spread. Pease are always, in England, sold by the pint or quart, peck, bushel, kc; in Scotland, often by the pound, when in small quantities. One quart is equal to about 2 lb., and contains of the largest sized peas 1298, and of the smaller 2150. One pint of the small-seeded sorts, as the Frames, Charltons, &c., will sow a row 20 yards in length ; and the same quantity of larger-growing sorts will sow a row 33 yards long, on account of their being sown so much thinner. The old practice of treading down the pease, when sown in autumn, should be discontinued, and this the more especially if the ground be wet or the soil strong. The old Scotch prac- tice of sowing in double rows is now seldom seen, at least where anything like good culture is exhibited. Many cultivators, and ourselves amongst the number, set their pease for general crops singly, as is practised with beans, the larger-growing sorts from 3 to 4 inches apart ; and we also, in some cases, plant them in patches of five or sis in each, allowing as much space from patch to patch as the pease attain feet in height, each patch assuming, when staked, a pyramidal form : by this means the whole surface is exposed to the sun and air. The 82 CULINARY OE KITCHEN GARDEN. usual allowance for seed is — for the frame section, which includes most of the early sorts, 36 peas per foot of line ; marrow- fats, dwarf variety, 24 ; do. tall, and all of similar habit, 12 ; blue Prussian, and those of the same size, 18, i&o. The depth for main crops should be, for the smaller- sized pease, 2^ inches j for the larger kind, 3^ inches. To obtain pease early, various methods have been tried : some sow in flat pots or boxes in January, placing them in a cool pit near to the glass, and transplant about the middle of March; others in small 60-sized pots, so as to tTu:n out the balls entire at planting ; some follow Bishop's recommendation, and sow on thin nar- row strips of turf, burying the turf under them at planting; while many sow in open drain-tiles fiUed with soil, some on narrow pieces of board, and many nail two boards together in form of a triangular trough about 3 inches deep, fill the same with mould, and sow thereon. At planting, drills are drawn; these troughs are set in them, the sides removed, and the row of pease left undisturbed. The following very excellent mode has been long practised by Mr Drummond, gar- dener at Blair-Drummond : — About the beginning of February, when he com- mences forcing peaches, "the border in- side the house, on each side of the path- way, is covered to the depth of 3 or 4 inches with cow-dung, gathered from the park ; over this is laid 2 inches of decom- posed tree-leaves, passed through a very wide sieve, raking level, and beating slightly with the back of a spade : upon this the peas are sprinkled as thick as they will lie together, and covered with sifted leaf-mould 2 inches thick. In the course of three weeks or so the pease are fit for planting out, being from 4 to 6 inches long. A border on the south aspect of a wall is chosen for the first planting, the ground being dunged, and dug deep and fine ; furrows are taken out with the spade diagonally across the border ; " the pease are then raised from the border of the peach-house with a three- pronged hand-fork," in large pieces, and carried to the prepared drill ; " they are then divided by the hand into small patches, drawing pach patch longitudi- nally, then placing it in the cut furrow in the manner of planting box-edgings, let- ting the roots hang as perpendicular as may be. By this operation very little of the dung and leaf-mould falls from the roots. The earth is then laid over and pressed firmly to the roots, and another furrow made, and drill-planted in the same manner, 9 inches from and parallel to the other, thus forming a double row. A little earth is drawn up about them with the draw-hoe, and they are staked pretty closely, and a few fir-twigs are stuck among the stakes to ward oiF sharp frosts; these are removed when the weather gets mild. Pease sown on the 1st of February, and transplanted as described above, are fit for gathering about the same time as, or even sooner than, those of the same sort sown on the 11th of November preceding, in the open air, along the bot- tom of a wall with a south aspect. Pease, by this process, have been gathered on the 26th of May^ — certainly very early for such a locality; indeed, unusually early for any part of Scotland. Pease are readily transplanted while under 4 inches in height ; they may therefore be sown on a warm border, or in a pit or frame covered with glass lights in severe weather, and transplanted in March. This, although not a very general practice, has been in use for above a century. Justice, in his " British Garden Calendar," published in 1759, recommends the practice, and reasons on the advantage of it. Bishop, in his excellent "Casual Botany," sug- gested sowing them in November on nar- row strips of turf,' and transplanting them undisturbed at a more advanced period of the season. Pease do not re- quire this trouble ; indeed, it is question- able whether the operation of transplant- ing in the ordinary manner may not be an advantage, as the greater or less degree of injury to the long tap-roots causes them to put out lateral ones, which, taking a more horizontal direction, are nearer the surface, and consequently influenced somewhat by the sun-heat, besides having the effect of causing the plants to send out a greater abundance of roots, and hence enabling them to secure a greater amount of food. The London' market- gardeners' practice is good, when they throw up triangular ridges in autumn, and sow a line of pease along the south side, and another along the opposite side, with a view to obtain an early crop LEGUMINOUS PLANTS.— THE PEA. 53 on the south side, should they survive the frosts of winter and spring, on the side next the sun, the crop being accelerated by the radiated heat from the surface : should these faO, those on the northern side seldom do, and give a good crop, though somewhat later. In sowing the general crops during summer, if the ground be very dry, the drills should be well soaked with water previous to setting the pease : this moisture, being covered up, retains the seeds in good condition for a long time, and hastens their germination, which otherwise might as well be in the bag. Si^sequent cultivation. — When the crop has attained the height of about five inches, a little earth should be drawn around the stems, but not so close as to press upon them ; it should form a sort of ridge, with a slight channel in the middle. The intention here is not, as in many other cases, to encourage the roots to diverge in a horizontal direction, for they have no disposition to do so; but rather to give a slight support to the plants, until they take hold of the stakes which are to support them. Those crops which are not to be staked require this sup- port the most, and they should have the earth drawn up upon one side only, that the haulm may be thrown to one side, which will both facilitate the operation of gathering, and will keep the ground clean between them at the same time, while it supports the neck of the plants better than if the earth were drawn up on both sides. The advantage of stopping pease is much greater than is generally admitted, as is also that of thin-planting the seed. If the seed of most kinds be planted 6 inches apart, instead of being sown, as they gene- rally are, a saving of seed to the extent of five-sixths will be the consequence ; and if the plants, even of the tall-growing kinds, are stopped when they have attained the height of 2 feet, and when they have made three joints after this stopping — if stopped again and again, after every three joints are formed, until the period when they are wished to produce their pods, an in- crease of crop, at least fourfold, will repay the trouble; and if several kinds were sown on the same day, this stopping will bring them into bearing in succession, and just at the periods when the crop is desired. Whenever stopping ceases, the pease will flower and set their pods. It VOL. II. will, however, be necessary to look over the crop occasionally, and remove . any stray blossoms that may appear; for none should be allowed to set until the general crop is wished for. From this a good prac- tical lesson may be learned : the stopping gives strength to the plants and encourage- ment to the roots, so that, when the crop is really wanted, both are in a much better condition to throw strength into the crop than if they were allowed to rush up into blossom at once. In the event, also, of a wish to retard the ripening of a crop to any particular period, timeous stopping- will efiect this with greater certainty than repeated sowings made in the usual way. Staking is ibe next operation in cul- ture, and it is of great importance it should be done early, before the stems fall over. Such an untoward circum- stance often ruins an otherwise good crop. Newly transplanted pease, brought for- ward in a slight heat, require this atten- tion at the time they are planted, on ac- count of the shelter afforded them ; and pease sown in autumn, as soon as they begin to break through the surface, or even before, demand the same attention. It is of consequence that the supports, whatever they may be, be equal in height to the height the variety attains. Many contrivances have been thought of for supporting this crop, with a view to do away with the not very elegant appear- ance of the stakes. Posts driven in the lines, having wide-meshed netting sus- pended from them, and hanging down both sides of the line, is one of the most feasible plans. Hexagon wire-netting, attached to iron props, has been suggested, and no doubt would do well were expense no consideration. Lines of cord stretched along the rows, and fixed to upright rods, are sometimes used ; but by far the most general is branches of hazel, beech, or other deciduous trees. These, however, are very perishable. Branches of yew, lilac, or privet are the most durable, al- ways excepting the larch, which makes the best of all. Whenever, therefore, the prevailing disease attacks young larches, of from 6 to 10 feet in height, to the ex- tent of rendering their cutting down ex- pedient, lose not the chance of securing them. They require little preparation farther than pointing the root end, top- ping them all to the required heights, and 54 CULINAEY OE KITCHEN GAEDEN. switching the side branches off on both sides, as if switching a hedge. We have had such in use for six years. Whichever of these be employed, they should be stuck firmly in along both sides of the crop; and if placed in a slanting direction, so much the better for the ten- drilled branches attaching themselves to them. They should be of equal height, and all straggling side twigs should be cut off for appearance sake. Considerable advantage arises from top- ping the plan ts when they have shown a suf- ficient number of blossoms. This stops the growth of the haulm, and diverts the whole energy of the plants to the formation and development of the pods. In dry weather, pease often require water ; indeed, a good soaking to all crops in warm dry weather, whether they appear to require it or not, will be found of great advantage in pre- venting mildew and swelling out the crop. A humid climate suits the pea, and hence the longer continuance of our crops in Scot- land than in the southern parts of England. Soil and manure.— Tlhe pea comes earliest to maturity in light rich soils abounding in humus; hence the practice of adding decomposed leaves or vegetable mould to the roots at transplanting has the bene- ficial effects stated above. For general crops, a rich hazel loam, or deep rich allu- vial soil, is next best; but for the most abundant of all, a strong loam, inclining to clay. For early crops, mild manure, such as leaf-mould, should be used, unless the soil is not exceedingly poor. If the soil is very poor, stronger manure should be employed. For general crops a good dressing may be given ; and for the dwarf kinds, such as Hair's mammoth, Bishop's new long pod, the soil can hardly be too rich. If poor, they do little good, parti- cularly if, in addition to this, they be thickly planted. The crop should be gathered as it be- comes fit for use, for if even a few of them begin to ripen, young pods will not only cease to form, but those partly advanced will cease to enlarge. Gypsum has been applied to pease as an auxiliary to farmyard manure, and the ad- vantage is marked; and we have no doubt that, if it were applied as a top-dressing to the rows, at the rate of one cwt, and at a cost of about 3s., to a quarter of an acre, during the early stages of their growth, much benefit would result from its application in that way and at that period. It has much improved crops suf- fering from mildew, and those which have come up ill, or which have been injured by late spring frosts. It is more imme- diate in its effects when, applied either before or during rain. Top-dressing with nitrate of soda has also been found of ad- vantage under similar circumstances. The best manure, however, to be applied to pease, provided the ground stands in need of enrichment, is guano ; and we may once for all remark here, that, of all special manures, it is the best for almost all garden crops. It contains the ingre- dients required by most plants, and just in the proper state. We have used it with great advantage by following the practice of the Peruvians, who apply it to crops at three different times — viz., at the time of sowing, again when the plant is nearly half-grown, and a third time just previous to the ripening of the seed. With pease we have strewn a small quantity along the bottoms of the drills, which were drawn about 2 inches deeper than usual. This was mixed with soil, and about 2 inches of the common soil placed over it, upon which the pease were sown, and covered up in the usual man- ner. The quantity used was three pints of guano to a row 50 feet in length. The soil was dry at the time of sowing, and for a week afterwards, when genial show- ers fell, which we calculated would begin to render the guano soluble about the time the young rootlets had penetrated to its whereahmcts. The plants grew stronger than those in the adjoining rows, which were not thus treated, and con- tinued to keep the lead of them. When about a foot in height (the sort was Bishop's new long pod), \\ pints of guano were dissolved in a tub of water containing 100 quarts : the row was wa- tered with it. Just as we had gathered the first dish of pease, a similar quantity was applied. The pease continued to pro - duce pods three weeks longer than the neighbouring rows, and the pods were much better filled and the pease larger, the joints of the straw much closer toge- ther, and the stems of the straw itself nearly half as thick again as under ordi- nary circumstances. Applying the guano dry under ground prevents the escape of LEGUMINOUS PLANTS.— THE PEA. 55 its ammonia : the moisture in the soil renders it soluble ; but in dry weather ■water should be applied to effect this the more speedily. The other rows had the same quantity of pure rain-water applied to them, and the soil was the same. A simi- lar result followed the same experiment on beans, and on various other culinary crops. Our opinion is, that with guano, if the soil be in a proper state, and in the absence of stable manure, we are quite indepen- dent of all other so-called manures what- ever ; for although, for some purposes, they do some good, yet they can never be, like guano, of universal application. Fordng. — Even in our present state of horticultural advancement, the pea is not very generally forced : it is, however, in some large establishments, grown in pots, boxes, and heated pits. Being a native of the more temperate regions, it does not prosper in much heat ; that of a glass- case or late peach-house seems a proper medium. No doubt, ere long, pits will be constructed for the express purpose; and such structures as Mr Rivers' orchard- houses would be almost aU that would be required. The very earliest and most dwarf varieties (videZJs'Auvergne.—i feet; seeds white ; remark- able for its long crooked pods, and the great number of moderate-sized peas each pod con- tains; one of our best for second or general crops. This is identical with Richardson's eclipse and Torwoodlea,two Scotch synonymes. 3. Dancer's monastery. — 44feet; seedswhite; a good profitable sort for a second or general crop ; peas of moderate size, rather above medium. 4. Bishop's new long. pod. — 2 feet; seeds white. A most abundant bearer, producing a succession of pods during most of the pea season. Like all dwarf peas of its class, it re- quires a rich soil, and from 4 to 6 inches between the seed in the line. We have had this pea producing a good supply for three months in succession. It is one of the most valuable sorts for small gardens, and for domestic use : its only 56 CULINARY OE KITCHEN GARDEN. fault in large estabUsliments is the large size of the peas, but, although disliked by cooks on that account, it is much prized by them for many purposes. It originated with the late Mr David Bishop, author of " Casual Botany," and is a hybrid between Bishop's early dwarf, a pea of only 1 foot in height, and one of the marrow- fats, carrying in itself the characters of both its parents. 5. Fairbeard's surprise. — S^ feet; seed bluish; a proiitable sort for a second or general crop. Pods thick, roundish, containing from seven to nine peas of excellent quality ; the same as Fair- beard's early surprise. 6. Victoria marrow. — 54 to 6 feet; seed bluish; an excellent sort for a general crop. Pods nearly 4 inches long, generally in pairs, contain- ing from seven to eight large peas each; one of our very best peas. 7. Sedman's iTnperial. — 3 feet; seed large; bluish green; called also Bedman's dwarf im- perial ; very similar to Flack's dwarf victory ; perhaps scarcely worth growing as distinct sorts. Very prolific ; peas large ; excellent for green- pea soup. 8. Flack's new large victory. — Seed large; bluish green; 3 feet. Mr Thompson makes this distinct from the last. It seems to us to be a distinction without a difference. There would be, however, no loss in growing both these ex- cellent peas under different names — much less, at, least, than scores of others. Pease generally six in a pod, and of excellent quality. 9. Knight's tall marrow. — 6 to 7feet ; seed large ; wrinkled or indented when dry; white. Often called Knight's tall white marrow, to distingviish it from Knight's tall green marrow. Originated with the late Mr T. A. Knight {vide sect. Peopa- GATION BY Seed). Very much esteemed for its productiveness and fine flavour. Like all the tall riiarrows, only fit for a large garden, and then to be grown in single rows, at a great distance apart. Adapted for general crops. Pods large — from seven to nine peas in each ; known also as Knight's late, Knight's tail green marrow. Knight's tall blue marrow. 10. Fairbeard's champion of England. — 5 to 6 feet ; seed large ; wrinkled when dry ; bluish green. One of the best of the wrinkled marrows, and well adapted for general crops, as well as early ones, being about as early as the Charlton. From seven to eight large peas in a pod. 11. Knight's dwarf marrow. — 3 to 4 feet. There are two varieties of Knight's dwarf mar- row, differing, we think, only in the colour of the dried seed, the one being white, the other greenish. However, either is valuable for a general crop. The bluish green variety appears to be preferred by Mr Thompson. Like all the marrows, the seeds are large. Pods large, con- taining six peas in each, and of excellent flavour; quite sugary. . To these we shall add from our own memo- randa, resulting from our trial above referred to— 1. Hair's dwarf mammotli. — 2 feet; seed large; wrinkly; bluish green when ripe. Equal in flavour to any of Knight's marrows, hitherto considered the best in this respect. A most productive pea, continuing, like Bishop's new long pod, in bearing for a long time, but some- what later. Indeed, it is a truly second or gene- ral crop variety. It is larger in pod than Knight's dvrarf marrow, and about seven days earlier. It requires highly enriched soil, and the peas to be planted from 4 to 6 inches apart in the line, as they branch out in the manner of Bishop's. One of the most valuable for small gardens and private families, and, like the latter, although large when sent to the table, if not too old, eats dehciously, having a great deal of the marrow property about it. 2. Lynn'sprolific.—i feet; seeds undermedium size; wrinkled, and having a dark eye when ripe; seemingly a distinct variety of marrow; very productive, and stands drought well. Suited for a general crop. 3. Sutton's early Goliah.—i feet; seed and pod large ; in flavoiir resembling Knight's marrow-fats. Suited for a general crop, as it is an abundant 4. Early Charlton. — Too well known to re- quire description, having been in cultivation for upwards of a century. We notice it here on account of its great hardiness and fitness for autumn sowing, to stand over the winter. How will those opposed to the doctrine of accliraa- tation account for this 1 Originally it must have been as tender as the early frame, its constant attendant, which, like it, is also hardy; and both, with the exception of Hamilton's Novem- ber proKfic (which is no other than seed selected from the Charlton), stand the winter better than those of more recent origin. 5. Tlie true early frame. — The type of the early Kent, of all the really early sorts, and probably of the next two. 6. Beck's morning star. — 3 feet ; seeds small ; podding early and largely; pease a proper size for a first-rate table. 7. Sutton's early champion. — 3 feet; resembling the last, only somewhat earlier. 8. Burbage's eclipse. — From 18 inches to 2 feet; seed large — from five to six in a pod; blue when ripe. An excellent bearer, having, the young pease of a very proper size. Known also as Stubb's dwarf. Not so early as Bishop's new long pod; it is, however, a good dwarf pea for summer crops. 9. Groom's superb dwarf blue. — Under 2 feet; the most productive of its height; well adapted for small gardens, as a second cropper. 10. Woodford's dwarf. — 24 feet; seed medium size ; very dark green when ripe; a most abun- dant bearer, and well suited for small gardens as a principal crop. The dwarfest of all peas are, the Spanish dwarf. Bishop's early dwarf, Thompson's early dwarf. These seldom exceed 1 foot in height, and in rich ground give fair returns. 11. Bellamy's early green marrow. — 4 to 5 feet high; pods cyhndrical, straight, con- taining generally six to seven peas; a good bearer and excellent pea. 12. Adamson's matchless marrow. — About 5 feet in height ; pods curved, flattish, containing from six to seven peas. As early as the Charl- ton, and an excellent bearer. The following are LEGUMINOUS PLANTS.— THE PEA. 57 BO nearly related to it that it would be useless to grow them in the same garden — viz., tall Pi-ussian, blue union, green nonpareil, tall impe- rial, tall blue imperial, tall green imperial, new tall imperial, Spauish patriot. 13. Bltie Prussian. — A well-known excellent pea. We notice it here merely to give the synonymes — early Dutch green, fine long- podded dwarf, dwarf blue Prussian, royal Prus- sian blue, Prussian prolific, and green Prussian. 14. Woodford's green marrow. — 3 feet in height; pods large, flat, containing six large well-flavoured peas, and an excellent bearer. 15. Dwarf imperial. — 4 feet in height; pods large, containing from eight to ten peas ; a good bearer, and excellent for a late crop. Like all good sorts, has a host of names ; viz., sabre, blue sabre, new sabre, dwarf sabre, imperial, blue imperial, dwarf green imperial, new improved imperial, new improved dwarf imperial, new dwarf imperial, new long-podded imperial, dwarf blue prolific, green nonpareil, blue scimitar, Sumatra. 16. Dwarf green marrow. — A good pea, but rather inferior to Knight's dwarf marrow. It is to be found in the seed-shops under the fol- lowing names — New green nonpareil. Prince's superfine summer, Wellington, extra green marrow, new green, early dwarf green, early green, new early green, royal dwarf marrow, HoUoway marrow-fat, green rouncival. 17. British queen. — Height from 4 to 5 feet; pods large, containing seven very large peas in each ; sometimes a single pea measuring 1 \ inches in circumference. Hence too large for a first- rate table, but excellent for private family use. 18. Hair's defiance Knight's marrow. — 4 feet high, remarkable for its strong habit, should be planted from 4 to 6 inches apart in the rows, and each row 4 feet distant. A remarkably profitable pea, of large size, and continuing long in a bearing state. 19. Tall croohed sugar. — Pois sans parchemin S, grandes cosses— grosse schottige zuckererbse; a late rambling sort. 20. Dwarf crooked sugwr. — Pois sans par- chemin ou mange tout — zwerg zuckerschotte. To those who intend growing this section of pease, we would specially recommend — 21. Dwarf sugar, or Ledman's dwarf. — Grow- ing about 3 feet high; pods long, cylindrical, and slightly curved ; rather late, but a good bearer. 22. En etientail. — About 1 foot in height; assuming the habit of Bishop's long pod, and, like it, branching close to the ground; a mode- rate bearer. 23. Tamarind or late sugar-pea. — The best bearer, although the latest, in the section ; nearly 4 feet high; pods from 4 to 6 inches long, proportionably broad, and slightly curved. The French grow many varieties of edible podded peas; and although suitable to their taste and climate, they are not so with us. The Dutch grow two sorts, and even these, for the most part, are found so tender, even in Hol- land, that they are generally produced under glass. Should, however, Messrs Weekes &. Co.'s new pea, recently brought into notice, turn out as represented, it will, as an edible podded sort, supersede these and all others of a like pro- perty, in bulk of produce at least, and may be found far more economical to cultivate, as an article of food, particularly for cottages, than any at present known. It is described as a new hybrid (the parents, however, are not stated), attaining the height of 4 feet ; stem slender ; great bearer, and exceedingly ornamental for its fiowers and singular pods, which measure 54 inches in length, and 1\ inches in breadth; of a glaucous green colour, each containing seven seeds. It can either be cooked in the ordinary way (boiled, when young, whole, pod and all), or left to attain a more advanced growth, and then cut up and eaten like a French or kidney bean. Being so much hardier than either the kidney bean or scarlet runner, and yielding a produce even exceeding the latter (which at present is, we think, were it not for the short period of its existence, the most profitable vegetable that the cottager or small gardener can grow), this would even excel it for such a purpose. Should this new pea, upon further trial, equal the specimens grown last year, it will no doubt be considered the greatest novelty of the pea tribe that has yet appeared. The following sorts stand in good estimation amongst growers : — Early Warwick, 3 4 feet— a sub-variety of early frame ; Thurstone's reliance, 6 feet — one of the largest peas in cultivation; scimitar, 3 feet — an old variety, long podded, and fills well ; ne plus ultra, 6 feet— a green wrinkled marrow; old dwarf marrow, 34 feet ; tall green mammoth, 6 feet — similar to Hair's dwarf mammoth in pod; matchless marrow, 5 feet; Melford marrow, 44 feet. "Warner's early emperor, Warner's early conqueror, early Bedalean, Essex champion, early railway (or Stevenson's railway), and early wonder, have been proved in the gardens of the London Horticultural Society to be all varieties of the old early frame, and possessing no one merit over the original. Danecroft rival, Dane- croft early green. Fames' conservative, green marrow, and the transparent pea, are by Mr Thompson considered to be all one variety. Clark's Lincoln green podded new early marrow — no marrow at all, but one in the way of the early frame. American dwarf, a good bearer, ripening about a week or ten days later than Bishop's new long pod— a very good dwarf variety. Early surprise, from a foot and a half to 2 feet in height; pods large, thick, containing generally six large blue peas, the plants having the strong stems and vigorous habits of the marrows. Early blue surprise identical with Fairbeard's early sm-prise. Queen of England, a sort of white marrow, inferior to the British queen. Waite's king of the marrows resembles the ne plus ultra. Great Britain similar in every respect to Knight's tall white marrow. Hun- ter's new marrow, about the same height as Knight's dwarf marrow; pods roundish or a little flattened, containing about six large peas ; larger than Knight's; of very sugary quality; when dry, indented ; yellowish white ; a good bearer." — Ex Jour. Ilort. Soc, vol. v. p. 283. 58 CULINARY OR KITCHEN GARDEN. From experiments made in the London Hor- ticultural Society's garden on the following peas, their period of coming to perfection wag ascertained as follows : — Cormick'3 Prince Albert, Warwick, . , . . Sown January 4, ^^^ January 4, Came into flower April 1. AprU 13. Pods gathered from May 14. May 28. — These are sub-varieties of the early frame, differing only in time of coming to bear. Prince Albert, , Bishop's early dwarf. Early race-horse. Shilling's grotto, Dwarf green marrow, . Blue Prussian, . Matchless marrow, Lynn's wrinkled marrow, American marrow. Blue scimitar, Bedman's blue imperial. Flack's Victoria, Victoria marrow, . Auvergne, . Groom's superb blue, . Sown March 28, 3 feet in height. Pit for use June 19. One of the earliest of peas. 9 inches . 3 feet 3 feet 3. feet 2 feet 3^ feet 4 feet 2 feet 3 feet 3 feet 2^ feet fifeet 4 feet 2 feet June 26. Very inferior sort. June 29. An inferior var. of early frame, June 29. An excellent pea. July 10. A good cropper. .luly 10. A good bearer. July 17. An excellent large pea, and productive. Aug. 1. Good late sort. July 17. Good pea, and abundant bearer. July 25. A good bearer. July 20. A good pea, and excellent bearer. July 17. Large pea, and good bearer. July 25. Large pods. July- 17. An excellent bearer. July 17. A fine pea, and abundant bearer. — The heights given above are those to which they attained in the Society's garden. The following experiment regarding the pre- cocity of the following peas was made in the garden of the Horticultural Society by Mr Thompson. Three varieties of early frame, amongst which was the true early frame from Paris, were sown in continuous rows on March 13. They proved to be the same, and were fit to gather June 9. Early Kent, fit June 2. Warner's early emperor, fit June 4. The two last are varieties allied to the early frame, the early Kent differing from it in being a week earlier, and not so strong-growing. "War- ner's early emperor is not quite so early as the early Kent, and its growth is intermediate be- tween the early Kent and the early frame. Fairbeard's early surprise was sown April 23, and was fit to gather June 27 ; but the early frame, sown at the same time, was fit June 19. Fairbeard's is therefore eight days later than the early frame, and consequently, according to the foregoing statement, it would be a fortnight later than the early Kent." This pea, therefore, cannot rank amongst the earliest, but wiU hold a good place in the second early section along with the old Charlton, to which it seems re- lated. The following six varieties of dwarf pease will form a good succession, and will be found suitable for a small garden, or where ground is scarce : — The true early frame, Fairbeard's early surprise, Groom's superb dwarf blue, blue Prus- sian, Milford marrow, and Knight's dwarf marrow — sown in the order in which they stand. Insects emd diseases. — The greatest enemy to the pea tribe is the pea weevil. This destruc- tive family of insects, the weevils, are enough of themselves to eat up the whole vegetation of the globe. M. Sohouherr, a celebrated Swedish entomologist, spent thirty years in investigating their economy ; the results of his investigations have been published, and occupy no less than 7000 pages, octavo, in print. Of this formidable host we have between four and five hundred species existing in Britain. Two of these, Sitona lineata, the striped pea weevil, fig. 7 ; and Sitona crinita, the spotted pea weevil, may often be detected eating the young leaves and stems as STRIPED PEA WEBViL. soon as they appear above the ground, parti- cularly in dry hot weather. These pests will, in general, be found in full operation in June. The remedies suggested by the writer of a series of articles on en- tomology in " The Gar- deners' Chronicle " are worthy of notice. "Any remedies, therefore," he says, "which we can sug- gest, must have for their ob- ject either the destruction of the perfect beetle, or the protection of the plants — neither of which is easy. As to the former, we scarcely think that any trap could be employed into which the insects would creep at night (like damp grass, into which the wire-worm creeps; orbits of potatoes put into the ground, to which, as food, the same insect is enticed) ; possibly, however, dry hay laid along the rows might entice them into it as a retreat. Another means of destruction suggests itself, in connection with the habit of the insect of falling to the ground on being surprised. A bag-net about 2 feet long, and with one side flat, so as to allow of its being placed on the ground, close to the sides of the rows of the pease, would, we think, be serviceable. This might be run along the rows, the plants being slightly swept over by a switch held in the right hand, the handles of the bag-net being held in the left hand; or, perhaps, by merely running the net along or across the rows, they might be jerked into it. As to the protection of the plants, soot and pounded lime have been suggested to be sprinkled over them, previously wetting them by a, watering machine. In this respect the same kind of remedies jnust be used as have been proposed against the turnip flea-beetle, having for their object the rendering of the plant disagreeabUe to the insect by a coating of matter offensive to its taste ; or by forcing forward the gi-owth of the plant as quickly as possible. We may also suggest the possibility of advantage resulting from drawing a cloth covered with pitch or tar LEGUMINOUS PLANTS.— THE PEA. 59 Fig. 8. PEA BEETLE. over the rows of the pease : the insects might become fixed to the cloth, and might be easily destroyed." Besides these there is a small beetle, Bruchus pin, L., fig. 8, which deposits its egg within the pea, which serves the grub for food, and is thus destroyed. It abounds most in dry seasons, and for it there seems no great chance of a remedy. It is, how- ever, not very injurious to us in its attacks. The description given by Mr Curtis, in the " Journal of the English Agricultural Society," vol. vii. p. 408, of this insect is good :— " They pair in summer, whilst the pease are in flower, and producing pods ; the females then deposit an egg in almost every pea that has almost just formed. From the outside of these peas, when arrived at maturity, thoy do not appear damaged ; but, on opening them, one generally finds a very small larva, which, if left to repose, remains there aU the winter and part of the following slimmer, consuming by degrees all the internal substance of the pea, so that in the spring the skin only remains ; after which it is transformed into an insect, with scaly wing-cases, which pierces a hole in the skin of the pea, from whence it comes forth and re- sorts to the fields sowed with that pulse, in order to deposit its eggs in the new pods." The American mode of destroying the pea bug, Bruchus pin, is thus stated in "Hovey's Magazine of Horticulture ;" — " Immediately after gathering the seed, it is subjected to the action ^j^ Q of boiling water for ^' ■ one minute ; by this means the grubs, or larvse, which at this time are just below the integuments of the pea, are de- stroyed without in- jury to the vitality of the seed." Another species, Bruchus granwrius, fig. 9, is often found in seed-rooms, in seed-peas ; and the holes in the pea and hean from which GRAIN BEETLE. Fig. 10. WHITH-BHOULDKRED WOOL-MOTH. it issues after its transfor- mation, are frequently occupied by the caterpil- lar of the white -shoul- dered wool- moth, Tinea aarcitella, fig. 10, the well- known domestic pest, which lays its eggs on all manner of woollen stuffs, to the great annoyance of every thrifty housewife. They are often found in the seeds of pease and beans, and, in company with the Bruchus granwrius, and the larvse of a species of saw-fly, work sad destruction in the stock. The Bruchus granarius is thus described in the " Cottage Gardener," vol. iii. p. 13 :— " These holes in the peas and beans are made by this beetle, which is produced from a grub or cater- pillar, which has eaten away the vital parts of the seed; and when it has passed through the chrysalis state, and given birth to this beetle, the latter makes the hole in order to escape into the open air, there to perpetrate more mis- chief upon the growing crops. The body of the beetle is a dull brown, but the elytrse, or wing- covers, are black, dotted with white, but scarcely perceptibly so, unless magnified, as in our draw- ing. Naturally it is the size of the smaller figure, and is scarcely two lines long. The anteunaj are eleven — jointed, black, and thinnest near the head, where they are also tinged with red. The head droops, the eyes are prominent, the fore-legs are rusty coloured. The female pierces through the pod of the pea or bean whilst very young, and often deposits an egg in each seed." This insect may be destroyed by the American mode of dipping the seed in boiling water, as noticed above. The pupae of the fly Phytomyza nigricomis, the black-horned leaf-miner, fig. 11, feed on the Fig. 11. BLACK-HORNED LEAF-MINER. parenchyma of the leaf, causing minute brown spots in it. The only mode of riddance ap- pears to us to be picking off the infected leaves and burning them, to prevent the further breed- ing of the insect. The cross lines show the natural size of the insect. The next serious enemies to the pea are mice and rats. As preventives, rubbing the pease with powdered resin, placing over them in the drills chopped furze, dusting them with lime, sowing charcoal dust along with them, have all been tried with more or less benefit. No plan is, however, so effective as catching the vermin in traps. Poison is dangerous, and seldom so carefully concealed but that some poor bird or other falls a victim to it. The best traps are the cage trap, baited with toasted cheese or broiled bacon ; the next best, the old figure four trap, which has been used for this purpose above two centuries); or the suspension trap, the most simple of any. It is constructed by soaking a few peas in warm water, and when they have 60 CULINARY OR KITCHEN GARDEN. begun to grow, a pretty strong thread is passed by a needle through the peas, leaving two of them on every 9 inches of thread, at which lengtjis the thread is cut off. Tie a knot at the end of each length ; take two pieces of straight wood, cut them into 1-foot lengths, make a slit about an inch deep in the top end of each, and stick them in the ground near the line of pease. The thread is then drawn through the slit ends of the sticks, and a brick is placed with one end resting on the ground, and the other resting on the thread about 3 inches from its end, the two peas on the thread being near the middle of the brick, and 2 inches apart. The mouse, in attempting to eat or take away the peas, cuts the thread, and lets the brick down upon itself. It has been stated that mice will not take peas until they have begun to vege- tate, and this is given as a reason for sprouting the bait : we do not think them so very fastidi- ous ; but if it is really so, they may be set the one way as well as the other. If people would only persevere with any of these traps, they would soon rid their garden of such pests, vrith- out the dangerous expedient of using poison. Phosphorus paste may be safely used in gardens for the destruction of both rats and mice. It is thus prepared : To 8 parts of phosphorus, liquified in 180 parts of lukewarm water, placed in a mortar, add immediately 180 parts of rye- meal (any other meal will do as well); when cold, mix them up with 180 parts of butter and 125 parts of sugar. These animals will greedily de- vour this mixture, after which they will swell out and die. It may be kept for many years without losing its efficacy, and can never injure human beings on account of the smell. This receipt was published some years ago by order of the Prussian government. Meal, butter, and sugar, mixed dry with plaster of Paris, and laid down where damp cannot affect it, will have a similar effect. The animals eat it readily. It soon afterwards causes in them a great thirst ; as soon as they take water, the plaster of Paris powder swells out and bursts them. Pease, beans, or any other grain, steeped for several hours in water in which nux vomica has been boiled, and placed in the way of mice, destroys them with- out even endangering the life of the cat that may afterwards eat them. Amongst the feathered tribe, the sparrow, tomtit, chaf&nch, and jackdaw are very destruc- tive to pease at most seasons, but particularly so in spring, when their other kinds of food are less pleutiftil. The three first of these we can ill dispense with, because of the valuable services they render us in the destruction of myriads of even more formidable enemies during summer; as for the latter, we can hardly say a word in his favour, further than that we know God made nothing in vain ; and even this " gentleman in black " may be of far greater service to us, in some less direct way, than we may be aware of at present. We never destroy birds, believing them far more useful than hurtful, which we hope to show more clearly when we come to speak of fruit and fruit-tree buds. To protect young pease in spring, we dust the rows over every morning, or every second one at furthest, with a little hot lime in powder, so as to render them quite white. Our mode of application is to have a stock of lime in a dry place, and to send a boy with a thin canvass bag in each hand, containing the lime in powder, and as he passes along between the rows, he shakes the bags over the pease, when the finer particles, passing through the canvass, powder the pease quite white, in which state these creatures will seldom touch them. This process answers another end — it greatly saves the crop from the pea weevil. The operation is best performed when the plants are dry, else the caustic property is soon destroyed. As the attacks of birds take place generally soon after daybreak, the dusting is in general done in the evening previous ; but, no doubt, it would be more effectual if done soon after daylight in the morning. The jackdaw not only crops off the tops of the young plants, but, preferring the seed, it with great sagacity often begins at the end of a row, and abstracts every pea in the line. Liming the surface pretty thickly tends to keep them away, but no means are so thoroughly effectual as having wire cages, of a semicircular shape, and in lengths of from 6 to 8 feet, or more, to place over the drills, and these can most readily be thus constructed : Take a web of octagon wire-netting, 18 inches in breadth, cut it into convenient lengths, lay them flat over the gar- den roller or any other cylindrical body, bend them down at the edges, and by this mode a dozen of cages may be made in half an hour. Such cages are of vast importance in a garden ; they not only protect pease from the attacks of birds, but they protect all other crops in like manner, and are valuable for laying over parsley, endive, young cauliflower plants, lettuce, &c., during winter, when a little litter is laid over them, and frost thus repelled. The litter can be removed on fine days, and put on again when required, without injury to the crop. Such netting, 18 inches wide, costs 9d. per lineal yard ; and cages so formed will last for years, if not wantonly injured when out of use. In forming these cages, it will be of advan- tage, for giving them greater strength for moving about, as well as for keeping them in proper shape, if a bar of round ^inoh iron be secured along their bottom sides — which can readily be done by a handy labourer, by splicing the edges of the netting to the bars along their whole length, and welding on a cross-bar at each end of the same sized bar, and one or two, according to the length of the cage, across from side to side. Such cages are next to invaluable, as means of protecting from cold and cutting winds all newly-planted crops in lines, as a few ever- green branches may be tied tightly to them, so as to prevent their being blown away; or water- proof canvass, or asphalt felt, may be employed when keeping the crop dry is an object. Two laths of wood may be used instead of the rods of iron; but they, of course, would be Idls durable. We were driven to this expedient some years ago, when grievously persecuted by pheasants, and where to have killed one would have been accounted little less than a high misdemeanour. LEGUMINOUS PLANTS.— THE PEA. 61 The jay is a sad plunderer of early pease, and where they abound, will have the first fruits of the crop in spite of fate. They are, however, becoming scarce in the country, and in some localities are rarely seen. The same may be said of the wood-pigeon, the most voracious of all birds. We hesitate not to shoot them. They were designed for food, and in no way are they better prepared than stewed with green Another enemy of the pea is The mildew Erysiphe communis var. Legum- inosarum,, a parasitic fungus. The cause of its appearance was correctly enough determined by T. A. Knight forty years ago. He says — " The secondary and immediate cause of this disease has long appeared to me to be the want of a sufficient supply of moisture from the soil, with excess of humidity in the air, particularly if plants be exposed to a temperature below that to which they have been accustomed. If damp and cloudy weather, in July, succeed that which has been warm and bright, without the intervention of sufficient rain to moisten the ground to some depth, the crop is generally much injured by mildew." — Knight's fforticul- twal Papers, p. 206. While engaged in the production of those excellent peas which bear his name, he proved this theory by warding off mildew by copious waterings of the roots. The fashionable remedy at present is the use of one of the rival sulphurators. This no doubt subdues the disease, but it does not remove the cause. General remajrlcs. — Early crops of peas de- rive great benefit from reflected heat when planted at the bottom of a south wall. It is necessary, however, when warm sunshine fol- lows cold frosty nights, to shade the pease fi'om its influence an hour or two in the morning, or to sprinkle them with cold water if they have become at all frozen. Such precautions are also necessary when they are sown on ridges or sloping banks facing the south, which is often done, and with evident benefit in forwarding the crop. Now that glass is so cheap, we see little reason for those matter-of-chance practices, when a better end would be attained by covering the rows of pease with a narrow glass frame, made of a triangular form, and glazed on both sides, or on one only, according as they may be used, on rows running from north to south, or from east to west : in the latter case, such frames may have glass in the south side only. The saving of seed is an important matter, and is confided to a class of cultivators known as seed-growers, many of whom will have from 10 to 40 or 50 acres under this crop. Some of the London trade have groimd of their own, others rent ground ; but by far the greater number contract with seed-growers, supplying them with the genuine varieties, visiting the crop from time to time, sending proper persons to rogue or puU up all spurious plants, and generally to report progress. The expense incurred for labour and rent, taxes, &o., is great; so much so, indeed, that one wonders how a ' pint of pease could be purchased for such a trifle. Private growers do not economise by saving their own pease for seed, unless they have, by VOL. II. keen observation, detected one or more plants possessing more than ordinary merits; then they are right in carefully saving those, for in this way, for the most part, have aU our finest peas been produced. Their being ripe will be readily discovered by the straw beginning to dry up, and the pods and peas showing evi- dent symptoms that they are ready for housing. If the quantity be small, put the pods, with the peas in them, into canvass or paper bags, and suspend them to the roof of a dry and airy seed- room. If, however, the quantity be large, leave the pods attached to the haulm, and stack them by till the time of sowing or selling, when they may be thrashed out like other grain. Peas kept in the pod will retain their vegetative action for two or three years, and hence those sent to the colonies should be retained in the pods for greater preservation. When taken out of the pod, even when perfectly ripened, they rarely vegetate after eighteen months, and many not at the expiry of one year. Pease in a green state are with difficulty sent to a distance, as, when packed closely together, fermentation speedily takes place. This is one of the causes why imported pease, and many of those brought from a distance to our markets, are discoloured, devoid of flavour, and, worst of all, very unwholesome to eat. Pease sent to a distance should be packed in open baskets, not in boxes, and laid in layers not more than 2 inches thick each, and, between such layers, a thin stratum of dry fern or straw should be placed. The European names are, Pois, in French; Piselli,in Italian; ErvUhas, Portuguese ; Erbse, German ; Pesoles, Spanish ; and Erwt, Dutch. The quahty of the garden-pea as a nourishing article of human food, compared vfith bread, butcher's meat, and some other vegetables, has been well ascertained to be in the following proportions : — 100 lb. of pease contains of nourishing matter, 93 lb. ,, seed of Haricot kidney-beans, . 92 ,, ,, seed of garden-beans, . . 89 „ ,, wheaten bread, . . .80 average of butcher's meat, . 35 25 14 carrots, . cabbages and turnips, The composition of the field-pea is thus given by Mr Stephens, in " Book of the Farm," and as little difference, if any, can exist between these and the garden varieties, it may be taken as a close approximation to the truth — Pea-Ash. — Mean offoar aimlysei. Potash, 36.05 Soda, . 7.42 Lime, . 6.29 Magnesia, 8.46 Oxide of iron, . 0.99 Phosphoric acid, 33.29 Sulphuric acid, 4.36 Chlorine, — Silica 0.61 Chloride of sodium — common salt. 3.13 The chemical composition of pease, Mr Ste- phens observes, has not yet been carefully inves- tigated. Let this statement suffice — 62 CULINAEY OK KITCHEN GAEDEK Composition of the Grain. Water. Husk, Meal. 14.0 10.5 76.6 Composition of the Meal. Starch. Leguroin. Gum, Aec 66.0 23 12 37ie inorganic constituents im the pea — 100,000 parts of seed contain 2464,and 100,000 parts of the straw contain 4971 parts of inor- ganic matter, consisting of- Seed. Straw Potash, . 810 235 Soda, 739 Lime, 68 2730 Magnesia, 136 342 Alumina, . 20 60 Oxide of iron. 10 20 Oxide of manganese, — 7 Silica, 410 996 Sulphuric acid. 63 3.37 Phosphoric acid, . 190 240 Chlorine, 38 4 SPRENGBli. 2464 4971 The per-centage of mineral ingredients taken from the soil is computed to be— pod, from 2.5 to 3; 7.1 husk; 4.3 to 6.2 straw. § 2. — THE BEAN. Natural history. — The garden or broad bean {Vicia Paha L., Paha Tou., vulgaris Moen.) be- longs to the natural order Leguminosas, subdi- vision Sarcolobse, tribe Vicieae, and to the class Diadelphea,and order Decandria, in the Linnsean arrangement. The genus Faba contains only two species — the common garden-bean and the horse-bean, F. equina. The name Faba is de-' rived, according to Isidorus, from phago, to eat ; according to Martinius, from paiba, to feed; while others will have it from haba — all of which are modifications' of each other. The origin, however, is evidently Greek. That the East, and probably Egypt, is the native country of the bean, is pretty generally admitted. This appears to be the most ancient of aU our now cultivated esculents. The earli- est notice we have of the bean is of those brought by the three loyal Israelites who fol- lowed King David, and presented him with beans when he fled across the Jordan from his rebellious son Absalom. One of the noblest families of Rome, the Fabii, derived its name from a circumstance connected with this plant. The Athenians used sodden beans in their feasts to Apollo. The Eomans had a solemn feast called Fabaria, at which they offered beans in honour of Carna, the wife of Janus, whose palate, according to Lempriere, was gratified by the addition of bacon ; hence the origin of bacon and beans is of far older standing than modem chawbacons suppose. Pythagoras enjoined his followers to abstain from beans, professing to believe that at the creation man was formed of them. The Romany believed at one time that the souls of such as had died resided in beans. C3emens Alexandrinus, Theophrastus, and even Cicero, entertained equally extravagant notions of them. The Egyptian priests held it a crime even to look at beans. The Flamen Dialis was not permitted' to mention the name ; and Lucian introduces a philosopher in hell saying, that to eat beans and to eat our father's head were equal crimes. A more rational use is stated by Philips to have been made of them by the an- cients, namely, " in gathering the votes of the people, and for electing the magistrates: a white bean signifying absolution, and a black one condemnation ; " and hence he supposes the practice was derived of black-balhng obnoxi- ous persons. Beans grew wild in Morocco in Pliny's time ; and he says some were so tough and hard that they could not be boiled tender. This is confirmed by the circumstance of one of our now most popular sorts, the Mazagan, hav- ing been introduced to us from a place of that name on the coast of Morocco. At what period the first beans were intro- duced to Britain is not now known. It must, however, have been at a very early period. Some suppose they were introduced by the Romans : we can hardly suppose this, as they could not have been in any variety, which is tan- tamount to their not having been extensively grown, in Gerard's time, who says the garden- bean is the same as the field one, only improved by cultivation. One peculiarity in the bean is worth noting : the ancient authors mention only one beau, and Gerard appears only to have known two ; and even at this day, they have not multiplied in varieties to any extent like the pea. Use. — The garden-bean is much less in esti- mation amongst the higher classes than the pea ; and hence a much less proportionate breadth of it is required in first-class gardens than in those of less pretensions. It is, and always has been, the vegetable of the lower and middle classes, more used in England amongst them than in Scotland and Ireland, and by no means at all common on the Continent, even in vegetarian communities. It is used in its young state, in which state only it should be employed, as an article of luxury : the want of attention to this is one of the chief causes why it so seldom appears upon tables polite. Amongst the pea- santry it is used in its full grown state, as an accompaniment to bacon. The white-blossomed bean, if gathered while quite yovmg, makes an excellent dish, particularly if served with bacon or ham. The lower classes use them when full grown, at which time, although nutritious for strong constitutions, they are very unfit for per- sons of delicate digestion — for they are, particu- larly the inner skin, exceedingly indigestible. Columella notices them, in his day, as food for the peasants only : — '* And herbs they mix with beans, for vulgar fare." An English poet somewhere says, in allusion to the same, — " And give them beans and bacon, till they burst." It was a prevailing opinion among the an- cients that beans were flatulent ; and Hoffman and others among modern physicians assert the same ; and not only that, but that the greener they are, the more they are so. Dr James says young beans are both a wholesome and nutri- tious food ; but the now prevailing opinion is, that they are a flatulent and coarse food, better suited to the hard-working husbandman than to those of sedentary habits. Boyle, to ascer- tain the amount of air they afford — for on this their flatulency depends— treated them pneu- LEGUMINOUS PLANTS.— THE BEAN. 63 matioally, and found that the expansion of a single bean while growing is capable of raising a plug loaded with one hundred pounds' weight. The beans are the usual part of the plant used as food ; but Philips informs us that the green pods, boiled after the beans are removed, is a dish that many people prefer to the beans themselves, and that the pods should be served with parsley and butter, as boiled beans usually are. He adds also, that the young beans, boiled in broth, are esteemed highly emollient. Par- boiled beans, boiled in a weak syrup of honey and musk, make an excellent bait for fish. Propagation. — AH the bean tribe, being annuals, are propagated by seed, Planting. — Crops to come in earliest in the succeeding season are sown or planted (for beans are said to be planted, and not sown, as they are set at a greater distance from each other than pease and similar crops that are set thicker or sown) in the latter end of October, in November, De- cember, January, and so on till May, sown after which they would scarcely come to perfection. Once a month for the early crops, and once a fortnight for the two general crops, is sufficiently frequent, few even sowing above three or four crops at most during the season. These periods apply to the open borders. They are also sown after the manner of pease {which see), under cover, and transplanted, as wiU be noticed below. Beans planted in March are fit for gathering in June, and ripen their seed in July. The ground having been prepared by trenching or deep-digging, and well ma- nured, drills are opened with the hoe (as has been described for pease) 3 inches deep; the drills for the Mazagan bean, which, on account of its hardiness, is pre- ferred for autumnal planting, should be 2| feet apart, the beans being set in the lines 3 inches distant from each other ; the soil is drawn over them with the hoe or a coarse rake, and left quite rough on the surface. Finely raking the ground over such crops is an absurdity, but old habits are difficult to set aside. The opener the soil is left, the better it ex- cludes frost; the smoother it is made, the more likely is it to cake, and become, in some soils, so hard that, were the beans not possessed of the extraordinary expan- sive power stated by Boyle, and noticed above, they could hardly force their way through it. True it is that the crust might be broken by drawing the rake over it, but in this operation there would be a great chance of breaking the necks of the beans at the same time. A crop of lettuce or early cabbage may be planted between the rows, either of which would come off while young, for use, before the beans arrive at a height to injure them. This is the practice of the London market- gardeners. We should here, however, state, for the information of that class of gardeners who think a cabbage is unfit for use until it be as hard as a cannon- ball, and almost as large as a drum, that early cabbage is in most estima- tion when quite young and tender, and just before they begin to turn in their leaves, or form a solid heart. This is an eligible situation for such a secondary crop, as the first planting of beans should be made on a warm well-exposed border. The same precautions will be required to save the crop from mice and other enemies as are recommended for pease. In cold damp soils and late situations, the rows of beans at planting may be covered with 2 inches of finely-sifted coal-ashes, rotten tan, or the like ; either will exclude frost and counteract damp. Not, how- ever, that frost is to be dreaded, for the bean will bear a considerable amount of it; but the principal intention is to keep the soil dry and prevent the escape of heat which it has absorbed during sum- mer, and with which it has not by the end of October altogether parted. In planting the secondary and princi- pal crops, more open situations should be chosen ; and for them it is important that the ground be moderately enriched, and trenched at least 2 feet in depth. Trench- ing is an assistant to manure ; in some cases it is even more than a substitute. In regard to distance, that depends, as has been shown in the case of pease, mainly on the sort of bean to be planted, and the height it is to attain. The new royal dwarf cluster is 1 foot in height ; a distance of 18 or 20 inches should be given, as it branches out close to the ground — and even at that distance, in good ground, will nearly cover the whole surface. For the white blossomed, which attains the height of from 3 to 4 feet, that space, or rather more, should be allowed. Marshall's early prolific is about 18 or 20 inches high ; give it, therefore, a proportionate distance. Almost all the 64 CULINARY OR KITCHEN GARDEN. rest, with the exception of the dwarf tan or bog bean, which is not worth notice, grow about 3 feet or more in height : they require, therefore, the largest space ; and as has been, we hope, clearly enough stated in the case of pease, that there is great loss in crowding such crops, we would advise 4 feet apart for each of these. Regarding distance plant from plant, the new royal cluster branches out, forming a dense bush crowded with pods ; it should be planted a foot apart in the line, and the seed placed 2^ inches deep ; the white blossomed should be placed 3 inches apart in the line ; Mar- shall's prolific as much, as it is a branch- ing one to some extent, and the same depth as the last : the rest should not be nearer than 4 inches in the line, and all of them 3^ inches deep. Beans forwarded for transplanting, as has been recommended for pease, should, as soon as they are 4 inches high, if the weather be favourable, be brought out and set in their permanent place. For this the best way is to stretch a line from end to end of the ground in a south and north direction (for reason, vide Pea). The surface is then smoothed down along the line, and a trench taken out with a spade, as in planting box-edgings, and to the depth of 5 inches, so that the roots may be the better arranged. Along the line set the plants at distances apart accord- ing to their kinds as specified above, taking them carefully out of the pots or boxes they have been growing in, separat- ing them so that their roots receive no injury; cover the roots carefally, and pro- ceed with the next row in like manner, pointing over the ground as the operation proceeds, and leaving it as rough as pos- sible. A few branches of any deciduous tree should be stuck along each row, on the side the prevailing winds of the sea- son blow from, avoiding evergreens, as, while they no doubt shelter the plants best, they are apt to become blown about by the wind themselves, and may do more harm than good. The wire cages we have spoken of in the article Pea will be found exceedingly useful for setting over the newly-planted beans, and to them a few branches of evergreens might be firmly tied. This would prevent their being blown about, and afford a much more efficient protection at the same time. Of aU modes of protecting such crops, short of glass-cases, we believe there is none better than this. From the distances we have given, there will be no difficulty in calculating the quantity of seed required. The following is Aber- cromby's allowance, and his, as he was so minute in such matters, may be taken as the greater quantity — we, since his day, planting much thinner : For early crops, one pint of seed for every 80 feet of row ; for general crops, two quarts for every 240 feet ; and for late crops, nearly the same as for the early ones. This is pre- suming the smaller kinds to be employed. In summer, it often happens that the ground is too dry to promote speedy germination in seeds so dry and hard as the bean. Some have recommended, in this case, steeping the beans for an hour or two in rain-water previous to planting. A much better way is to soak the ground with water as soon as the drills are formed, to plant the seed, and cover up immediately. Virgil says that soaking beans in lees, or dregs of oil and nitre, has the effect of causing a more rapid vegetation, and the production of a larger crop; and other ancient authors recom- mend their being steeped for three days in water mixed with urine. It is a common practice in cottage- gardening economy to plant beans along with crops of potatoes, and also with cab- bage, setting a bean between every two plants in the line. Speechley, in " Prac- tical Hints," p. 17, recommended this, and brought forward his beans first in a bed thickly sown, and in a warm place — when of a fit size transplanting them, setting a bean alternately with a potato or cab- bage in the same row ; but in such cases he had his rows 3 feet apart, and his pota- toes 18 inches apart, so that the bean is 9 inches from the potato on each side. Being advanced somewhat before planting, the beans have the start of the potatoes, and are matured and removed before they injure the potato crop. The propriety of this mode has been questioned ; but we have seen excellent crops of both veget- ables BO produced. In garden-culture the process of transplanting beans is very ad- vantageous: it moderates their growth, so that they do not inclineto increase in height after their flowers are set, and induces precocity in the maturing of the crop. LEGUMINOUS PLANTS.— THE BEAN. 65 Instead of planting in continuous lines, a good way is to plant in detached patches of four or five seeds each, at distances agreeable to those given above. Subsequent cultivation. — Beans, like all other crops, require to be kept clear of weeds, and to have the soil well stirred up between the rows during their growing season. When they have attained the height of 6 inches, it is proper to draw a little earth to the stems, merely to keep them steady, as the bean is not disposed to send out horizontal roots so near the surface as to derive any advantage from the soil thus gathered round them. Nor is it a usual practice to afford them any support, as in the case of the pea, although no valid reason can be given to the con- trary. True, the bean is not a tendrilled climbing-plant like the pea, and hence could not attach itself to the supports presented to it ; but we have seen the tall-growing sorts so often beaten down by strong winds, even in not very exposed places, that we often do, in defiance of usual practice, support them when in Unes, by driving in, along the rows, stout stakes, 6 or 8 feet asunder, and running a line of tarred cord along both sides of the plants, at the distance of about 15 inches apart, the first one being that dis- tance from the ground. Those grown in patches, as above, have three stakes to each, with two tiers of cord as above. When the plants are fully in bloom, or rather when they have set their flowers, and the first series of beans have made two inches in growth, three inches of the tops of the plants should be pinched off, to throw that nourishment which would be expended in uselessly increasing the height of the plant into its general system, and consequently increase the bulk of crop, as well as advance its early matu- rity. This often-recommended opera- tion, although disregarded by many, is of very signal importance. Some, to secure a very late crop, cut over a few rows of a progressing one just when the plants are in full flower. New shoots are formed at the bottom of the stem, which shoot up and produce a crop late in autumn. Did it not occur to him who first recommended this, that, by sowing a crop later in the season than general crops usually are, the same end would be arrived at, and in a far more business-like manner 1 In gathering the crop, the first attack should be made on them when the beans are about the size of a marrow-fat pea. In such state only are they fit for a table where elegance in display and gastronomic taste are cared for. A disregard of this on the part of the purveyor has probably tended more than anything else to banish this excellent esculent from the tables of the great. The young gardener should attend to this; and, indeed, the same rule is applicable to every other article of gar- den produce. He may rest assured that his success in hfe depends to a great de- gree on the quality of his productions, not altogether on the quantity ; and he may set it down as a pretty general rule, that all vegetables are most appreciated when young and delicate: and to none does this more strongly apply than to the Order of which we are now treating. Soil and manures. — In a strong alumi- nous soU the bean luxuriates most ; that soil must, however, be rich, and highly cultivated. In light soils they are earlier, but their produce is less, nor do they con- tinue so long in bearing. It is the force of manure and high cultivation that enables the gardener to produce good crops of this plant when he has to con- tend with a light and gravelly soil. In soils of the latter description, it is scarcely possible to manure too highly ; and of all fertilisers, that of the stable or cow yard is the best in such a case. Mr Stephens, in the "Book of the Farm" (vol. ii. p. 423), gives an excellent instance of the benefi- cial effects of gypsum being used as a top- dressing to an acre of beans, and that at the very moderate cost of 6s., the quan- tity applied being 4 cwt. The balance in produce in favour of one acre so treated over another that received no top-dress- ing, was 11^ bushels of beans and 127 stones of straw, the cash profit in the one case over the other being £3, 4s. 4d. No other manure was used ; the ground was, however, dressed with 2f chaldrons of quicklime slaked in water, that held common salt in solution in the propor- tion of 1 cwt. to the chaldron of lime, before the beans were sown on the 6th of March. The top-dressing was applied on the 6th of May, and the crop reaped on the 1st of September. The soil was partly moss, partly sand or gravelly loam, and had been trenched 16 inches deep, and 66 CULINAEY OR KITCHEN GARDEN. well incorporated together. This is an interesting case to the gardener, suppos- ing him to have the eighth of an acre under beans, which would be in his case a considerable breadth. He could, at the above rate, produce his crop at a cost of Is. 6d. for manure ; for we hold the pre- vious lime- dressing, stated above, to have had immeasurably less effect on the crop than the already fertile state of ordinary garden-ground would. Another instance of the effect of a combination of special manures is given by the same accurate authority in the paragraph following that from which the above statement is taken : — 2 cwt. animal charcoal (1 cwt. dissolved in sulphuric acid), 56 lb. sulphate of mag- nesia, 2 cwt. common salt, 1 cwt. nitrate of soda, at a cost of ^1, 7s. lOd., used as a top-dressing to an acre of beans, pro- duced 11^ bushels of beans, and 146 stones of straw, beyond that of an acre of the same kind of crop which was not top- dressed at all, leaving a cash profit of £1, 7s. Id. in favour of the top-dressed acre. In this latter case the soil was a stiff loam resting on red sandstone. The top-dressing was applied on the 21st of May, and the crop reaped on the 8th of October. " Soluble manures, such as the nitrate and sulphate of soda and potash, and dis- solved bones, are most commonly applied to the bean crop, in the form of top- dressings, after the plants have made con- siderable progress above ground; and they can readily be brought within reach of the roots, and mixed with the soil, during the operations of hoeing. Gypsum and lime, as both of them require a long time for solution, should undoubtedly be applied to the land before sowing the seed. Gyp- sum may be very advantageously applied when sowing the seed, either in contact with it, or so near as to be within imme- diate reach of the roots. Common lime, in the caustic state, when laid on as manure for beans, does best when this operation is performed when preparing the land for the winter furrow. The organic composition of the straw and grain of beans, as determined by analysis, exhibits a larger amount of nitrogen than is to be found 'in any of the cultivated cerealia.' This fact proves the necessity for a soil being rich in decayed animal and vegetable matter, as well as in those mineral substances already spoken of. Organic manures must, however, be viewed only as subsidiary, in the cultiva- tion of beans, to the more important mineral substances already referred to. Fortunately the two most important organic manures (farmyard dung and guano) also contain important mineral matters. Farmyard manure is un- doubtedly our best manure for beans, as it is for most other crops ; yet its action can be gTeatly enhanced by the addition of purely mineral substances, because by the combination we supply all that is necessary for perfecting every part of the plant. Guano is rich in nitrogen (amm onia), but greatly deficient in alkaline mineral matter. Hence, when applied as a manure for beans, on soils different in potash and soda, its action is frequently feeble and unsatisfactory. On soils rich in vegetable matter," as almost all garden soils are, " it is advisable to use mineral manures, such as lime, magnesia, potash, and soda, either in one form or another j while on those that are deficient in decaying vege- table and animal matter, but abundantly supplied with mineral substances, an application of farmyard manure or guano would be preferable. While pointing out certain special manures as peculiarly adapted, by their composition, to the growth of beans, it should ever be kept in view, that the true art of cultivation con- sists in making the land support itself as much as possible ; and this, on aU soils of a medium character, or above it, can in a great measure be effected, irrespective of extraneous manures, by improving their physical condition, and eliminating, by deep and thorough cultivation, those stores of nutritious matters, which other- wise would remain locked up and unavail- able. A thorough stirring, pulverisation, and clearing of the soil, during the growth of the bean crop, or indeed of any other crop whatsoever, is equivalent, and fre- quently superior, to adding a certain amount of manure where these operations are neglected, or performed in an ineffi^ cient manner ; because, by the admission of air, oxygen, carbonic acid, and water, the great solvents of all mineral and vegetable matter contained in the soil are thus allowed to exert their peculiar action upon what would otherwise remain inert." — Morton's Cyclopedia of Agriculture. LEGUMINOUS PLANTS.— THE BEAN. 67 Sulphate of soda, and most other mine- ral manures, can only be beneficially ap- plied to land in good condition and in careful hands, because if the land is poor, they ■will have no effect whatever. The stableyard manure-heap must ever be regarded as furnishing the principal part of the food of plants. What are called special manures are only the condiments, like pepper, salt, mustard, and the other contents of the cruet-stand. Forcing. — The garden bean is not con- sidered of sufficient importance to be ever forced in this country ; if it were so, what has been said of pease under this head would be quite applicable to it. Taking the crop. — Beans, to be eaten in proper condition, should be gathered young — indeed, when of the size of a large marrow-fat pea. They are gathered in succession, until the eye begins to turn black at the hilum or point of attachment to the pod, at which period they become exceedingly coarse food, flatulent, and indigestible. Approved sorts and their qualities. — 1. Early Mazagan. — From 2 to 3 feet in height ; the hardest sort in cultivation, although originally a native of Mazagan on the African coast; stems slender; by no means productive, the pods containing seldom more than four beans. Its hardiness and precocity have secured it a place in our gardens for upwards of one hun- dred years. It is known as early Malta, early Aldridge, Stidolph's new early, and early Brom- ley. It is the Feve de Mazagan of the French. The weight of an average seed is about 15 grains, one pound containing 481 seeds. 2. Marshall's early dwarf prolific. — From 18 inches to 2 feet in height. This excellent bean originated about twenty years ago with Mr Mar- shall, a gardener, near Kingston, Surrey. It is fully a fortnight earlier than the Mazagan, much more productive, producing its pods in dense clusters near the ground ; plant very much branched; beans larger than in the last, and producing from four to five in each pod. It is known as Marshall's prolific. 3. Royal dwarf cluster. — From 10 to 14 inches in height. Comparatively a new variety, the history of which is not very clearly known. We suspect, from its habit, that it is an acci- dental variety of dwarf habit of the last, or one of taUer growth than the next. It produces its pods in clusters, three or four beans in each pod, which are smaller than the last. It branches considerably, and therefore should have not less than 10 or 12 inches in the line, which is nearly its proper distance between the rows. With Marshall's prolific it should have a place in every small garden. We grow it extensively on ac- count of the delicacy and smallness of the beans while young. 4. Dwarf fan. — The smallest of all garden beans, seldom so tall as the last ; pods small, round, containing in general three small oblong beans ; pods produced in clusters close to the ground. Known also as the fan or bog, dwarf cluster, or bog bean. The Feve naine hative of the French. It is not in general cultiva- tion, but is well suited for small gardens, yield- ing a moderate crop of well-flavoured beans. Seeds weighing from 19 to 20 grains. 5. Whiteblossomed. — From 3 to 4 feet high; the most delicate flavoured of all beans, but by no means productive ; pods long, nearly cylindrical, containing seldom more than four beans, which, when ripe, are of a blackish colour. Flowers white, unlike any of the family. It is known also as the white-blossomed long pod. An average-sized seed weighs 124 grains; the small- est seeded of all the garden sorts. 6. Long pod. — From 3 to 4 feet in height ; pods long and narrow, containing in general four beans of excellent quality. A most pro- ductive variety, and generally employed for the summer crops. One of the most popular of all the family, and has been long in cultivation, which accounts for the following synonymes. Lisbon, early Lisbon, Sandwich, Windsor long pod, Turkey long pod, common long pod, early long pod, large long pod, hang-down long pod, sword long pod, moon. Wrench e's early moon. To which Johnston's wonderful may, for all useful purposes, be added, as it differs only in the gi-eater length of the pods, and shghtly flatter form of the bean. 7. Dutch long pod. — From 3 to 4 feet high. An abundant bearer; will succeed the long pod even if sown on the same day. Pods long and broad, containing, on an average, from four to six large flat white beans. 8. Green long pod. — From 3 to 4 feet in height. Pods long, somewhat flattened, containing in general four rather small oblong beans, an excel- lent bearer, and only a few days later than the long pod. Esteemed on account of the fine green colour of the beans, which, if gathered at a proper time, retain their green colour when dressed. Known also as the green Genoa and green nonpareil. It is the Feve verte, Feve toujours verte, of the French. The long pods weigh from 23i to 354 grains, the lightest being Child's new early long pod, and the heaviest Sangster's imperial long pod. 9. Windsor. — 3 to 4 feet high, pods short but very broad, containing seldom more than two beans, which are very large, flat, roundish ; esteemed excellent for a summer crop on account of their remaining longer fit for use than any other, excepting the green Windsor. Known also as Wrenche's improved Windsor, new Windsor, Kentish Windsor, broad Windsor, Taylor's Windsor, Taylor's large Windsor, Tay- lor's improved new Windsor, Mumford, and small Spanish. It is the Fdve de Windsor of the French. Weight of seed, 47 grains (or J of an ounce nearly), being the heaviest seeded of all beans. 10 Green Windsor. — Very much resembling the last, only the beans remain green after they are ripe, and hence are thrust into the market 68 CULINAEY OR KITCHEN GARDEN. when most other beans are done. It is known as the Toker, and is the Feve de Windsor verte of the French. Weight of seed, 36 to 37 grains. 11. Sed Windsor. — In character similar to the last two, differing, however, in the beans being of a light red colour while young, and dark red when ripe, which renders it seldom sought after. The French have a bean very similar, under the name of Feve violette. Weight of seed, 31^ grains. 12. Oreen China. — From 2 to 2^ feet in height. Not much cultivated, but is deserving of greater notice on account of its productive- ness and coming in late ; pods long, cylindrical, containing three or four beans, which remain green when dry. Much cultivated on the Con- tinent, and known as the Feve verte de la Chine. — Bon. Jard., edit. 1835. 1 3. Dwarf crimson seeded. — Esteemed only on account of its earliness and dwarf habit, in both of which it exceeds all the other beans, seldom attaining a foot in height. Pods produced in great abundance, about 2 inches long, well fiUed with beans of a crimson colour, and nearly as large as the long pod. Known as Vilmorin's dwarf red seeded. This is the Feve trds naine rouge, nain rouge, of the French. The varieties of beans have not increased by any means in the same ratio as pease, for which both cultivators and seedsmen ought to be thankful As a selection from the above, we would recommend Nos. 2, 3, 6, 8, and 9 ; and No. S, where delicacy of flavour, at the expense of a moderate return, is no object. Gregory's early hang-down is merely seed selected from No. 6. The thick-seeded Windsor, Child's long pod, green long pod, gangster's imperial long pod, green fan or cluster, and other names found in catalogues, are scarcely worth the attention of the cultivator. and Diseases. — The bean is liable, particularly in dry sea- sons, to the attacks of the Aphis fabce, the black-fly collier, or, as it is in many places called, the dolphin. It is a species of plant- louse. It attacks the young stalks towards their tops, and the leaves also ; and in a few days after their appearance, like all the Aphis family, it multiplies in prodigious numbers, rendering the top of the plants a mass of sooty blackness. Fig. 12 shows Fig. 13. Fig. 12. WINGLESS FGMALB OP THE BEAN APHIS. the female wingless insect; while fig. 13 ex- hibits the male. The ladybirds — of which there are two, the constant inhabitants of gar- dens, Coccinella Upunctata, fig. 14, a, the two- spotted ladybird, and Coccinella septem^owactata, b, seven-spotted lady- Fig- 14- bird — are their great- est natural enemies, as they are to all the Aphis tribe. The grub of the ladybird is shown, fig. IS, a, and the chrysalis b. They devour them in astonishing numbers ; and therefore, for this service, and from being harmless themselves, they rank amongst those insects which should be protected with the care. The GRUB AND CHRVSALTS OF THE LADYBIRD. LADYBIRDS, most ready means, and that generally follow- ed, in ridding our- selves of the Aphis fabce, is to cut off the affected tops, put them in a bag, and consign them to the nearest fire. It is useless to cut off the tops and leave them on the ground; for even the vringless females will soon reascend the plants, and the winged males speedily regain their former station. The operation of topping beans lessens greatly the multiplication of these insects, as it is the young and most tender leaves and tops that they Fig. 16. prefer to attack. Dust- ing the plants with caustic lime in powder, tobacco juice and fumigation, Scotch snuff, sulphur, helle- bore dusted over them in a state of powder, and a variety of other means, have been adopted, all having more or less effect; but topping is the radical cure after all. The humble-bee {Bombm terreatris L., and B. loco- rumi), works considerable damage to the bean crop, by perforating the flowers on the upper side of the calyx Fig. 17. with its mandibles, and inserting its proboscis into the nectary to secure the honey contained therein. This ope- fV /~2BISI^\. ''^tioii is necessarily ' ■' """Bl X«. of great injury to the crop, as the ma- OTIORHYNCHUS PICIPE3, SITONA CANINA. WINGED MALE OF THE BEAN APHIS. jority of the flowers so probed are not able to perfect their seed. Several species of the extensive genus Sitona (weevils) are often very destructive, not only to LEGUMINOUS PLANTS.— THE BEAN. 69 the bean, but to most of the order Leguminosse. These are, Sitona canina, fig. \S; S. lineata, fig. 7, and Otiorhynchm pkipes, fig. 17. These attack the bean shortly after its appearance above ground, and continue to feed upon it during the whole progress of its growth. The same means must be applied as no- Fig. 18. ticed above. The little beetles, Brij- chus granarius, fig. 9, andB.flavi- manus, fig. 1 8, de- posit their eggs in the blossom, to prey afterwards on the ripe seeds. A parasitic fun- gus {Uredo fabce) abounds on the leaves of the bean towards the latter end of summer. Its effects do not seem to be of great consequence ; were it even so, sulphur applied as has been recently recommended for the destruction of mildew, wUl lessen, if not totally destroy, this parasite. The wire-worm (Cataphagas lineatus, Linn.), fig. 19, belongs to the order Coleoptera, family Elateridae. The perfect insect is about one- Fig. 19. YELLOW-BOOTED B£AN BEETLE. O, WIRE-WORM; &, CAUDAL JOINT MAGNIFIED ; C, PERFECT BEETLE ; d, ANTENNA. third of an inch in length, and is described by Stephens as being " foscous, with a griseoua pubescence. Head and thorax blackish, the latter with the lateral branches nearly straight, and the posterior angles very acute ; the disc very convex, and thickly punctate ; scutellum fuscous ; elytra broad, a little attenuated, round- ed at the apex, very convex; punctate striated; the striae disposed in pairs, and united at the apex, griseous yellow, with the alternate nar- rowed interstices fuscous or dusky ; margins and apex of the abdomen ferrugineous ; anten- nse and legs rufo-testaceous ; the femora some- times dusky, rather variable in colour, being more or less pubescent or testaceous." The true wii'e-worms are the produce of vari- ous species of click or skipping beetles, known as skipjacks and spring-beetles in parts of the country, or elaters, as — Elater (Adraatm) acuminatns, the acuminated click beetle. £. (Athous) longicoUis, the long-necked click- beetle. ; VOL. II. E. {Athous) niger, the black click-beetle. E. (Agriotea) obscurm, the obscure click-beetle. S. (Melanotus) fulvipes, the tawny-legged click- beetle. E. (Lepidotiis) holosericeus, the satin-coated click-beetle. E. (Agriotes) sputatoVithe spitting click-beetle. E. (Athous) rufica/ndis, the red-tailed click- beetle. E. (Agrypnus) murinus, the mouse-coloured click-beetle. E. (Dolopim) marginatus, the margined click- beetle. One of the natural enemies to these is the genera Fileria — slender worms, which live in wire-worms. Another is Steropus madidus, a ground-beetle or carabua, which feeds on them. The millipedes and maggots of gnats are er- roneously called wire- worms ; they are, however, destructive in t,heir way. They belong to the genus lulus. I. Londonensis, the London snake millipede. /. pilosus, the hairy snake millipede. /. pulchellus, the beautiful snake millipede. /. punctatus, the dotted snake millipede. /. terrestris, the earth snake millipede, /. latestnatus, the broad-lined snake millipede. The larvae of the Elater are of a yellowish-brown colour, slender, fiat, smooth, and shining, sHghtly pubescent, resembling the meal-worm ; the body, exclusive of the head, is composed of twelve scaly rings, the last of which is not notched at the tip, as is the case with some of the species ; it has six very short legs, they have a series of spirals on either side ; the under side of the end segment has a fleshy tubercle, employed as a leg, and, when not in use, concealed at the base of the segment. It remains five years in the grub state, in which it is most injurious, and com- mits great devastation among florists' flowers. These grubs are exceedingly destructive to car- rots, potatoes, turnips, cabbages, &c.; we have not unfrequently lost crops of beans also by them. Various have been the means employed to effect their destruction ; the most simple, and probably the most effectual, is to place slices of potatoes on the point of a stick, and bury them about two or three inches under the sur- face, which should be examined every day, and the wire-worms collected and burned. By these means we succeeded in capturing in a border of carnations no less than 6360 at three takings. The number of traps set was 106, and the ave- rage number of wire-worms per trap was 20 : at one taking we captured 2120. By persevering in this manner for about a fortnight, examining the traps every third day, we so completely cleared the border, that it has been kept stocked with carnations for the last four years, and now we do no lose a plant. Some prefer laying the slices of potatoes on the surface of the ground, as also sUces of turnip, and portions of lettuce- stalks, to which the worms are attracted, and may be collected in great numbers. Some re- commend turning up the soil frequently, to ex- pose them to the attacks of birds. Pheasants destroy them in vast numbers, but we are not Certain but they do more harm in other ways K 70 CULINAEY OR KITCHEN GARDEN. than good io this. Rooks and moles are also very serviceable in keeping down this pest of the garden and the field. Spirit of tar, dug into the ground, at the rate of 1 gallon to SO square yards, has been with us a satisfactory remedy ; and to render the Uqmd more divisible, we ab- sorb it in dry sand, or dry finely-sifted coal- ashes, and then sow the groimd with it. The refuse lime of gas-works, which contains in gene- ral a considerable amount of impure sulphuret of lime, or lime combined loosely with sul- phuretted hydrogen— a gas the most deleterious of all others to animal life — has been employed with singular effect also. The mole lives chiefly on the wire-worm for a great portion of the year. In cold wet seasons the wire-worm is most destructive. And, in fact, where groimd is overrun with wire-worm, it is not a bad way of clearing it, to sow old seed of beans in drills, and to take them up after the first week once every two or three days, when the beans will be found thickly perforated by the insects, which may be destroyed and the beans re-sown again. The gamma moth (Plusia gamma of some naturalists, Noctua gamma of others), fig, 20. Fig. 20. THE GAMMA MOTH. This very pretty moth may be described as having beautiful glossy greyish-coloured upper wings, marbled with brown, having a slight metallic shade ; about the middle of each is a gold shining mark, resembling the Greek letter y, from which circumstance it derives its name ; the under wings are of a pale ash-colour with a brown edge ; the head and collar purplish- brown, margined with grey lines; abdomen yellowish-grey, having elevated tufts of hairs. The caterpillar is green, with several short single hairs interspersed over it ; four small whitish-yellow lines down its back, and a broad yellow stripe along each side; head brownish green ; furnished with twelve feet — two behind, four abdominal, and six fore-feet. The female deposits her eggs, which are hemispherical, on the under sides of the leaves, in a somewhat regular manner ; they are said to lay four hun- dred of these eggs at a time. These caterpillars are found pretty abundant during the summer, feeding on lettuce, beans, pease, and even wormwood, thistles, and sage. They made considerable ravages in France in the year 1736, according to Reaumur, during the month of July, eating up all the leguminous vegetables, leaving nothing but the stalks. They are found all over Europe, in Siberia, China, and .North America. They first make their appear- ance about April, and continue in fuU vigour till October, when they deposit their eggs, which are hatched at various times from May to Sep- tember, but chiefly during July. These cater- pillars commit sad havoc in the south of Eng- land ; rarely, however, in Scotland, where they are only found troublesome in dry warm sum- mers. There are four generations of moths during the season, and when we consider that a single pair can produce 80,000 eggs, which, barring accident, might become the progenitors of 16,000,000 of caterpillars in little more than twelve months, it is wonderful that they do not injure our gardens more than they usually do. Their attacks are pretty general, but, with the exception of lentils, they seem to prefer legu- minous plants. The only means of subduing them appears to be capturing the insect in its moth state, hand-picking the caterpillars, or, as recommended for other insects which drop either from fear or from concussion, shaking the crop smartly, and receiving the caterpillars in a cloth spread along both sides of the rows. If merely shaken off, they would soon reasoend the plant and renew their attacks upon it. General remarks. — The European names of the garden-bean are — boon, Dutch ifava, Itahan; five de murais, French; alver janas, Spanish; and grosse bohne, German. Where saving seed is an object, a row or two, according to their length, and the quantity of seed required, should be left ungathered; for it is a bad way to gather the best of the crop, and to save the last formed, and consequently the weakest and worst, for seed ; a sure way to deteriorate the quality of the sort, and render a variety that a long succession of years' careful cultivating and selecting has been spent in pro- ducing, worthless, by the mismanagement of one season. Even then only the finest poda should be saved ; and to prevent accident, the crop should be gone over just as the pods are fnlly swelled, and all the smallest removed. This will throw additional strength into the pods left for seed, and insure a pure stock. Beans, like pease, keep best in the straw, therefore they should, when properly winnowed, be laid up in bundles, and placed in a dry airy loft. The seeds will retain their vitality longer than the pea, and if well kept, wiU grow after four or five years. The morganio constituents of the beam, are — 100,000 parts of seed contain 2136, and 100,000 parts of the straw contain 3121 parts of inorganic matter, consisting of: — Potash . Soda Lime Magnesia Alumina . Oxide of iron Oxide of manganese Silica Sulfuric acid . Phohphoric acid . Clilorine . -Sprbngal. The composition of the bean is thus riven in « The Book of the Farm," vol. i. p. 1300 :— Seed. Straw. 415 1666 816 60 165 624 168 209 Si 10 — 7 — S 126 220 89 34 2»2 226 41 80 2136 3121 LEGUMINOUS PLANTS.— THE KIDNEY BEAN. 71 Bean-aah. „ , Mean of three analyses Potash . 33.56 Soda . 10.80 Lime . 6.77 Magnesia 7.99 Oxide of iron . 0.66 Phosphoric acid 37.57 Sulphuric acid 1.00 Chlorine 0.73 Silica . 1.15 98.93 One quart of Mazagan beana (one of the smallest sized) contains 434 beans, and one quart of Windsor (one of the largest) contains 179 beans. § 3. — THE KIDNEY OR FRENCH BEAN. Natural history. — The kidney or French bean {Phaseolm vulgaris, L.) belongs to the natural order Leguminosae, subdivision Sarcolobae, tribe Phaseolese ; and to the class Diadelphia, and order Decandria, in the Linnsean arrangement. The genus Phaseolus contains 14 species of plants cidtivated for the food of man, exclusive of the species multiflorus, which forms the next section. Of P. vulgaris there are many varie- ties in cultivation, but, like those of pease, they are at present in considerable confusion as to identity. The name Phaseolus is derived from Phaselus, a little boat, from the resem- blance in its seed-pods. The kidney bean is a native of India, intro- duced to Britain before 1597 — some say so early as 1509, and that it was imported from the Netherlands, about which period gardening be- gan to be attended to in England, the white kid- ney bean being the first variety known in this country. Phillips, in "History of Cultivated Vegetables," vol. i. p. 74, says, " this pulse is generally but improperly called French bean, for its old French name, Five de Rome, evidently proves it not to have been a native of France. We also find that it was called the Eomau bean in our language about the time of Queen Eliza- beth. Gerard also gives it the name of Sperage- bean, and says it is called FaseUes, or long peason. The Dutch at that time (1596) called them Turck's-hoone — that is, Turk's-bean. From these facts, but more particularly from the ac- count of the great Eoman naturalist, we may conclude that this wholesome and excellent vegetable is a native of the eastern extremity of Europe, or that part of Asia nowbelonging to the Turks; for PHny, in the 7th chap, of his 18th book, mentions these beans, and says those of Sesame and Iris are red, resembling blood. He also, in his 12th chap, of the same book, calls them Phaseoli, and says the pod is to be eaten with the seed. From this laconic notice we may assume they were but little esteemed at that time in Italy, where lupins were then so much admired for food. The French" name of Haricot originated from their being much used by cooks in the composition of a dish so call- ed. The EngHah name of Kidney bean was given on account of the seed being somewhat of a kidney shape. Gerard mentions a consider- able variety that was cultivated in England in his time, and says, " The fruit and pods of kid- ney beans, boyled together before they be ripe, and buttered, and so eaten with their pods, are exceedingly delicate meate, and do not engender winde as the other pulse doe." Kidney beans ai'e amongst the most valu- able of culinary vegetables, yielding a large re- turn of crop, and continuing in use during the whole summer. The variety known as the scarlet-runner is a most productive sort, and although requiring the support of stakes in the manner of pease, yet it well repays the expense and the space it occupies. In Scot- land this excellent vegetable is much less culti- vated than in England; indeed, the cottager, and even many of a higher grade, do not ap- pear to be aware of their merits. It is found in most cottage-gardens in the south, and made to add to the ornament of the garden, as well as used for culinary purposea. Philip Miller ap- pears to have brought it into use as an article of food, for, prior to his time, we find it do- scribed as an ornamental annual, and placed in the flower border, and its flowers greatly sought after by ladies, to be put in their noaegays and cut-flower pota. The dried seeds of all the tribe are exceedingly nutritious as an article of food, constituting the haricot so much used on the Continent ; indeed, the quantity of gluten contained in them nearly approaches that in wheat. Uses. — Kidney beans, in their young state, are preserved in salt for winter use ; they are also preserved as a pickle by themselves, and form an ingredient in mixed pickles. They are alao used throughout the whole year as a legumen, and, being impatient of frost, a supply is kept up during winter and spring by growing them in hothouses. As an article of vegetable food, they are conaidered exceedingly wholeaome, and much lesa flatulent than vegetablea uauaUy are. The ripe seeda are much uaed on the Continent in cooking under the name of haricots, which, as dishes, are as numerous as curries in Calcutta. For this purpose, the ripe seeds are steeped a few hoiira in water, which swells them out, and causes the outer akin to separate freely from the seed. In this state they are nutritious, when simply boiled, and served up to be eaten with other meats, but much less palatable than when they have passed through the hands of a skilful cook. Haricots are much in use in Roman Catholic countries, forming the greater part of the food of the people during Lent. The ripened aeeds alao enter into a variety of soups and stewa. As an article of domestic economy, they are by far too little attended to ; their pro- duce is large ; their cultivation during summer simple, and, in their green state, few vegetables are easier cooked. According to the analysis of Einhoff, 3840 parts of kidney bean afforded 1805 parts of matter analogous to starch, 8 57 of vegeto- animal matter, and 779 parts of mucilage— clearly showing that it is the most nutritious of all legumens. Propagation. — The whole of the dwarf varieties — that is, of Phaseolus vulgaris — TJ, CULINARY OR KITCHEN GARDEN. are to be regarded as annuals in this country, and consequently originated from seed. Sowing. — The kidney bean, being a native of India, is consequently a ten- der plant in Britain ; therefore sowing in the open air, even under the most favourable circumstances, cannot be safely recommended before the beginning of April for England, and even then in dry light soils and warm places. The latter end of that month is sufilciently early for Scotland. After the first sowing, to keep up a proper succession during summer and autumn, other sowings should be made in May, June, and July. In cold situations, and in strong cold soils, it will be advisable to sow the seed in a prepared bed, in boxes or in pots, in light rich soil, and when the plants are about 4 inches high, to transplant them into their final spot. They bear transplanting well ; and the process recommended in the case of pease is applicable to them also. To keep up a supply during winter, the pro- cess of sowing should commence about the middle of October, and be followed up every fortnight till the middle of March. For early crops in the open air, a well-sheltered border with a southern exposure should be chosen, the ground thoroughly pulverised, and if not in high manurial condition, it should be made so by additions of semi-decom- posed stable-yard manure dug in previous to sowing. (For special manures, vide Garden Bean, those recommended for it being apphcable here also). The drills should be drawn across the border 2 feet apart, and about 1| inch in depth; the seed should be set by the hand singly from 2 to 3 inches apart, according to the size of the variety, which distances apply to all the dwarf sorts, or kidney beans proper. The seed is sold by the pint, half a pint being sufficient to plant a drill 80 feet in length. It is very im- portant that the drill be dry at the time of planting thus early, for, what with cold and excess of damp, the beans are very liable to rot as soon as they are buried in the ground. In sowing for transplanting, the seeds may be set as close to each other as nearly to touch ; and, indeed, it is a good plan to sow one seed in a small 60-sized pot, and when 3 inches high, if the weather be favourable, to plant them out with the ball entire. Even for secon- dary crops a warm spot is required ; the distance as given above will be quite sufficient. We have, in general, found transplanting the first and second crops the most certain way of securing them early ; and, indeed, for the former, have found much advantage by setting the lines from east to west, and placing along the northern side of each line a boarding 18 inches in height, which places the crop almost in the same condition as if it were planted at the bottom of a south wall, which seldom can be done with safety to the roots of the fruit-trees growing against it. The wire protecting-oages, alluded to in article Garden Bean, will be valuable in the case of the first and second crops of kidney beans ; andindeedthe triangular case with 'glass on one or both sides, de- scribed in article Pea, might be used with the greatest advantage in this case also. Subsequentculture. — Top-dressing, should the plants appear weakly, with any of the special manures noticed in article Garden Bean, in either a dry or dissolved state — the latter being much more instantaneous in its efiects — keeping the ground clear of weeds, and frequently and deeply stirring the soil between the rows, constitute the essentials of good cultivation. Some of the taller-growing sorts, if the soil be rich, and the season mild and humid, will require topping— that is, merely cutting off those straggling top-shoots that, under such circumstances, often spindle up and rob the crop of much of its food, as well as causing an undue shade upon it. Soil and manure. — A much lighter and more thoroughly pulverised soil is re- quired for the kidney bean than for the garden bean, and where it is naturally strong the crop will be much improved, if sown or planted in light vegetable mould, placed in drills drawn 6 inches deep for its reception : this will give the crop a fair start ; and deep hoeing through the summer, leaving the surface rough, will admit the heat of the sun, of which this crop, being of tropical origin, stands in need in our climate. The manures recommended, and the method of apply- ing them, are similar to those described in article Garden Bean ; but as the manu- rial effects should take place as soon after they are applied as possible, it is better that these should be in a liquid state. LEGUMINOUS PLANTS.— THE KIDNEY BEAN. 73 Forcing. — This esteemed legumen can be had in great perfection throughout the whole year. To afford a supply during winter, seeds of the most approved sorts, such as early six-weeks, Fulmer's early dwarf, Wilmot's forcing, &c. should be sown about the latter end of September or 1 st of October, presuming two distinct crops are already progressing in pits capable of being so heated as to not only repel frost, of which this plant is impatient, but also to afford a minimum temperature of 60°. Sow in small 60-sized pots, one bean in each, in rather light, dry, rich soil. Place them in a glazed pit or frame, in a tempera- ture maintained at not less than 60° or 65°, keeping the pots near to the glass. When they have attained the height of 3 or 4 inches, transplant them into 7-inch pots, placing 3 plants in each, having their roots and ball entire, so that they may sustain no check in their growth. At potting, place in the bottom of each pot, over the drainage, 2 inches of very rich but much decayed manure, and use a rich, light, rather turfy fresh soil for the roots to work in. Some, at potting, set the plants deep in the pots, with a view to add fresh soil around the stems after- wards. This is an absurd practice, as the roots of leguminous plants very rarely are emitted from the stem, and the conse- quence of this deep potting is to limit greatly the space for the roots to seek food in. As the natural temperature of the season declines, raise that in the pit or frame in which they are placed to 65° as a night temperature, and 75° as that of the day, allowing a rise of a few degrees in bright sunny days. In a pit heated by hot water, they will succeed better than elsewhere ; and, in default of such accom- modation, set them on suspended shelves over the footpaths of the pine-stoves, but as close to the glass as will admit of their attaining the height of 10 or 12 inches. To lessen the labour of watering, place pans or feeders under the pots, and syringe the plants frequently, to keep down the thrip and red-spider, which are their greatest enemies. As the plants advance in growth, support them with small twigs to prevent their being bro- ken by the force of syringing. Place a little liquid manure in the feeding-pans, to give additional food to their roots as soon as they appear to wish to escape through the holes in the bottom of the pots. For this purpose we use cow or horse urine, or liquid guano, as affording ammoniacal fumes, at least to such an extent as experience has led us to believe is very effective in keeping down both thrip and red-spider. Ventilate upon all fitting occasions, but avoid allowing cold draughts of air to blow on the plants at all times ; and, as a security against this, cause the air admitted to pass through a thin canvass screen, which will break its force, and so sift it into minute divisions that little injury need be apprehended. To maintain a regular succession, sow every ten days throughout the winter. So valuable a vegetable deserves a heated pit for its special accommodation ; and by having one heated by hot water of 60 feet in length, divided into three compart- ments, a good supply may be kept up. For spring use, should they not be re- quired throughout the winter, the 1st of January may be considered a very proper season to sow. Should the pit into which they are set have been occupied with melons, cucumbers, tomatos, or such plants as are subject to thrip and red- spider, as a wise precaution, previous to arranging it for French beans, let it be cleared of all its internal contents, well brushed out with a birch broom, the lights put in, and every crevice and hole carefully stopped up, and bum within it half a pound of brimstone, keeping the fumes in from night till morning : re- move the lights, and whitewash the walls with hot lime-water, and wash the whole of the wood- work with hot water, if paint- ing be at the time considered unnecessary. This is a very necessary precaution to be taken against the insidious attacks of two of the greatest, although minutest, enemies the cultivator has to contend with. French beans cannot be grown during winter in a temperature of less than 60° — if ranging from that to 65° and 70°, and 80° during the day, so much the better ; and where a bottom temperature a few degrees higher can be afforded, so much the more certain will be the success of the crop. They also, in common with all thin-leaved plants of tropical origin, re- quire the fullest amount of light our gloomy atmosphere is capable of affording themj and hence they succeed best in 7i CULINARY OR KITCHEN GARDEN. low pits, or on shelves suspended near the glass. Moisture, accompanied with heat, is also essential ; without this, they would become the prey of thrip and red-spider. In addition to the sorts we have already named, may be mentioned the recently- described variety, Newington wonder, which from its dwarf habit is well calcu- lated for suspended shelves in hothouses, occupying less room than any of the other popular sorts. It does not appear to stand the process of transplanting, and should therefore be sown at once in the pots it is to be grown in, putting four or five beans in pots of 6 or 7 inches across. It does not require topping, as most others do ; nor, indeed, does it bear such a process with impunity. Give little water to the roots of any transplanted French beans, until the roots have pretty well filled the pots, — after which they will require it more or less, according to the size of the pots they are grown in ; those in small pots, of course, requiring the most. Water sparingly, if at all, after planting the seeds : it is time enough when they have begun to sprout, and when their roots are far enough advanced to be able to avail themselves of it. Top- ping the plants is practised by many, and no doubt those of rambling habits require it, to cause them to become more bushy, and hence to produce a greater number of pods. The time and manner of doing this is as soon as the cotyledons, or two first embryo leaves, are fully developed ; and then the central shoot, which will also be making its appearance, should be carefully pinched or cut out. This pro- cess, however, somewhat retards the growth of the plant at first ; but if time is not an object, the advantage will be apparent in a more abundant crop. Approted sorts, and their qualities. — The varieties of kidney beans cultivated in Britain are in reality not nearly so numerous as the long list of names in some seed-lists would lead us to believe. In France, Spain, and other countries, where they are much more used as an article of food, and where the climate is favourable for their production in the open air, with as little trouble, and for as long a continu- ance, as our common broad bean, the varieties are endless, and, as is the case with peas with ourselves, continually increasing in number. 1. The early Dutch dwarf. — One of the oldest, if not the very oldest, cultivated variety. Pods long and narrow ; beans small, compressed, and, when ripe, of a white colour. A good early variety. and often employed for forcing, being of a dwarf habit. It is known as white long pod Dutch, early dwarf white, large white dwarf Dutch, dwarf Dutch, dwarf white Dutch. It is the nain hatif de HoUande, nain de HoUande trfis hatif of the French. 2. Early white. — Both pods and beans of moderate size; plant very dwarf, from 9 to 11 inches ; very early, and on this account, and its small size, well adapted for forcing. The pods are eaten both while green and when the seeds are ripe. It is known as early Laon and dwarf white. It is the nain h^tif de Laon, or flageolet, of the French. The seeds when ripe are white. 3. Dwarf Canterbury. — This is a very old and esteemed variety, hardy and useful. Pods medium length, narrow; beans small, oblong, white when ripe, branching much near the ground; early and productive. It is so near akin to the dwarf Battersea, early white, and earliest white Battersea, as not to be worth cul- tivating as a separate sort; and its relations with what is called dwarf sabre, sabre nain, dwarf French white, are nearly, if not altogether, as close. It is probable two crops of dwarf Canterbury would afford all these supposed varieties. We think that dwarf Battersea ought to be the established name, in preference to dwarf Canterbury, as we find it has been culti- vated above a century under the former name. 4. Fulmer's early dwarf. — An excellent forcing variety ; pods long, narrow ; beans small, dun when ripe. Known also as Ful- mer's new dwarf, Fulmer's early, Fulmer's dwarf red, early dun, dwarf dun coloured, dwarf forcing dun coloured, earliest forcing, early frame. Mr R. Thompson, in his excellent papers in the "Gardeners' Chronicle," on the varieties of vegetables, remarks — " Close allied to the preceding is Fulmer's speckled dwarf, alias dwarf red speckled, dwarf light -red speckled, early dwarf-forcing speckled, large forcing dark-red speckled, Suisse rouge; and with beans a shade darker, we have also, very similar to the above, the early dwarf purple speckled, alias early purple, dwarf purple speckled, dwarf speckled. AEowing for another shade darker, and we may include with those the dwarf black speckled, alias dwarf black mottled." 5. Wilmot's forcing cream specJded. — An ex- cellent forcing variety. Pods long, of uniform breadth; remarkable for crispness while green, and an excellent bearer. Not a great way, however, removed from the last, but sufficiently distant. Beans, when ripe, oblong, pale dun, speckled with dark chestnut. 6. Black Belgian. — Pods long, of uniform breadth; crisp, very productive, and a good forcer. Dwarfer and earlier than the dwarf negro, which it somewhat resembles. This is much cultivated in Belgium, and there known as haricot noir de Belgique. Mr Thompson thus notices the bean, in the " Journal of the Horticultural Society of Lon- don," vol. v. : — " Although the variety has been previously noticed " (in the Journal), " yet the present mention of it vriU doubtless be excused, LEGUMINOUS PLANTS.— THE KIDNEY BEAN. 75 for it may be usefully stated that it is the best both for early and late sowing. It is dwarf, and may be sown in pots before the open ground has acquired sufficient warmth ; and if planted out when this is the case, it soon comes into bearing. Again, late in summer, when later sorts would not even blossom, if then sown, the sort in question would produce a good crop, that will keep in gathering condition till cut off by frost. This and the Newington wonder are considered the best varieties of dwarf kidney beans." 7. Dwarf speckled China. — ^An early dwarf variety, and abundant bearer, well suited for forcing. Pods smalhsh, uniform in size. Beans, when ripe, of a clear sulphur colour. Known also as early dwarf pink-spotted : why called pink-spotted, it is difficult to comprehend. Robin's egg, dwarf robin's egg (from the small size of the beau), dwarf China, early China. It is the haricot de la Chine of the French. 8. Dwarf negro. — A popular variety ; pods of moderate size, uniform in size and breadth; exceedingly productive ; dwarf and hardy ; well suited for forcing. Beans, when ripe, quite black. Known as early negro, early black. It is the nain noir or negro of the French. The dwarf negro is the favourite in the London market, on account of their being all green, and not marked or blotched, Hke some others. They are also all one breadth, very narrow and handsome ; and they are very dwarf, and first- rate bearers. 9. Long-podded negro. — A new variety of the last, vastly superior to it ; the pods being often nearly seven inches in length, and of very uni- form breadth: rather a strong grower, and admirably suited for a general crop. "These are often sown amongst lettuce, 6 feet apart, about the 1st of April; but by far the best plan is to sow in beds thickly, and transplant by means of the dibber. No plant lifts better, and the moving makes them show flower much sooner. The usual practice is to take the heads off the plants, leaving them a foot high, and to keep topping all the summer, which induces them to bear heavy crops. But the way to get them to bear earliest, is to save the roots in autumn, pack them away hke dahlia roots, and to transplant them again in March, 6 inches root from root, in rows .5 feet apart. It should be borne in mind, that if beans are left to ripen, the roots will not be near so strong as they otherwise would be."— CuTHiLL in MarJcet-Oardenmg arownd London, p. 24. 10. Long-podded China, an improvement on No. 7, having pods from 6 to 7 inches long; exceedingly crisp ; of uniform size and breadth ; very productive ; and, like the last, good for a general crop. 11. Nevnngton wonder. — Another recently- produced variety, of great excellence as a forcer, being of dwarf habit ; large pods of good shape ; does not bear transplanting well. The following description of this excellent bean is extracted from the "Journal of the Horticultural Society" (vol. v.) :— " Very dwarf; about a foot high ; early and productive. Tlie pods are moderately long, not very broad ; but having thick fleshy sides, within which the seeds form but slowly ; and the pods remain long crisp ; their colour is dark green. It may be planted in rows 18 inches apart." 12. Early six-weehs.—K small early beau well suited for forcing. The Mohawk and Victoria speckled are early sorts, and well worth culti- vation. 13. Sabre. — One of the largest, in point of size of pod, which is used for ordinary purposes, until it attains its full size continuing crisp and tender. In this state it is often cut into slices, and preserved by salting, in which state it will keep for a long time. The beans, in a dried state, are esteemed in haricots. It attains a height of from 2 to 3 feet, and therefore is benefited by being supported by short stakes like dwarf pease. It is a profitable sort where there is plenty of room. 14. Large running white. — Another tallish- growing sort, cultivated extensively on the Con- tinent for its seeds, which form the large white bean or haricot, so very generally used in dishes of that name. It is seldom cultivated in Bri- tain, nor could it be profitably cultivated for that purpose. It is known in our seed-lists as tender-podded bean, runner, long white, large white sugar, white long pod. It is the sabre ^ trds grande cosse de Soissons — from Sois- sons, where it is cultivated to great perfection. 15. Bush haricot, — About 15 inches in height, branching close to the ground, and branching out in succession ; not only continues to produce a long continuation of crop, but, by shading the ground, keeps it moist in dry seasons. Pods S inches long, and produced in great abundance ; being crisp, transparent, and excel- lent, comes early into use, and continues long in bearing. The dry seed is speckled red and white. It is the haricot solitaire of the French and Belgians : in both countries it is grown extensively. There are many other names met with in seed- lists, such as dwarf Canadian, liver-coloured, early yellow, large pearl, small do., magpie, grey, marbled Prague, round dwarf, &c., which, if not identical with some of the above, are inferior to them in quality. Amongst the newer sorts of kidney beans the following deserve notice— not, however, that they will ever supersede the dwarfer kinds already noticed for general crops, yet some of them may be found acceptable, under peculiar circumstances, in private gardens. Jiaritotd'Algerisstated, in the "Bon Jardinier" for 1 850, as being excellent and long cultivated in Lorraine. Pods of a palish-green colour, destitute of any tough lining, and exceedingly tender and excellent when cooked. The plants rise to the height of 2 or 3 feet, and therefore require support, but may be dwarfed by early topping. TurJcische bhone. — It is thus described in the " Bon Jardinier " : — " This variety is perhaps the best of all; it bears tolerably well; its pods are of an extraordinary length and breadth" (from 12 to 14 inches in length and upwards of an inch in breadth) ; " in a young state they make 76 CULmAEY OE KITCHEN GAEDEN. excellent haricot verts ; when nearly full-sized, they are still tender and fleshy, and may be used in this state, either fresh, being broken in small pieces ; or, in winter, after being out into narrow strips and preserved with salt." These were tried in the gardens of the London Horti- cultural Society, and, notwithstanding the cold state of the ground and unfavourable season, some of the pods attained the length of 10 inches, and nearly 1 inch in breadth. The expectation was that they would attain their full size in a good season. Mr K. Thompson thinks them, however, the same as the haricot sabre d'AUemagne of Noisette's " Manual du Jardinier," and the sabre of the " Bon Jardinier." They attain a consi- derable height, requiring stakes. The pods are large and crooked, and tender while the seeds are imder half their growth ; it is not so abun- dant a bearer, nor does it continue so long in use, as the haricot solitaire. It is, however, on account of the size of its pods, worth cultivation. There are a number of French varieties now in the seed-shops, many of which, although very excellent in a better climate, would be unprofitable in such a climate as ours. The following selection from the above may be considered sufficient for an ordinary garden : No. 1, 3, 4, S, 9, 11, and 13 for particular purposes. Shilhng's new French bean, a very prolific sort ; pods large, and remaining long tender. Wihuot's true forcing, excellent for that pur- pose. Black Belgian, negro, cream-coloured, and early Dutch. The last five are the sorts we usually grow. Insects and diseases. — The most destructive of these, always in the forcing-houses, and often during dry warm weather in the open air, are the thrip and red-spider, both pretty nume- rous in species, and, as individuals, as incalcul- able as the sand on the sea-shore, while their minuteness renders them almost invisible to the naked eye. Indeed, they may be set down as among the worst enemies the cultivator has to contend with. Fortunately, however, our hot- houses are infested with only two species of the former, both of which are considered of exotic origin. In the open air many of the species attack plants. The same means employed to destroy one species are fatal to the others also. The genus is thus described by the writer of the excellent articles on entomology in " The Gar- deners' Chronicle," 1841 (p. 228) :— " They vary very considerably in colour, some species being black, others have the wings branded with white, but the general tint of the larvae and pupae is yellow-ochre. Their bodies are much depressed, and much broader than any other part in the female ; the mouth is placed under, and at the hinder part of the face, and forms a short conical rostrum, lying when at rest close to the base of the fore-legs. The eyes are rather large and coarsely granulated, and there are generally three ocelU or simple eyes on the crown of the head ; the horns are eight or nine jointed, but the three last joints often appear to be united, when they look as if only six or seven jointed, especially in the larvae state; they are either wingless, or they have four wings, which are narrow, and lie down the centre of the back, the edges being ciUated with long hairs ; the legs are short, the feet being formed of two joints with a vesicle or little bladder at the apex, but not any claws. The larvse re- semble the perfect insect in form, but are often of a totally different colour; their bodies are soft, and they have no ocelli. The pupa is also similar, but the wings are sheathed, and the horns are generally thrown over the head. Some of the species are very active when they have arrived at their perfect state, running fast, skipping and flying well; and they are able to walk about in their previous stages. The two sorts most injurious to the gardener are a little ochreous species, which does not appear to be described, and the Thrips adonidwm, fig. 21. The first I shall name T. ochraceus; Fig. 21. THB THRIP. it is narrow and linear ; of a bright and deep ochreous colour ; the eyes are black ; the horns appear to be only six-jointed, and brownish at the tips ; it has three oceUi on the crown ; the body is hairy ; the tip pointed and bristly ; the wings are shorter than the body in the male, lying parallel on the back when at rest ; nar- row, especially the under ones, and fringed; the hairs longest beneath and at the points ; tips of feet dusky. There is so great variety in the form and structure of this family that it has been divided into several genera, to one of which belongs the other species called by Mr Halliday Beliothrips adonidum. The larvse and pupce are yellowish white, and the perfect insect is of a dull deep black, with the point and sometimes the whole abdomen of a rust colour; the wings are dirty white, the horns and legs yellowish, the extremity of the former black ; it is a little larger than T. ochraceus, and is very troublesome in hothouses, attacking tropi- cal plants by piercing the under side of the leaves; and one often sees at the top of the tail a globule of blackish fiuid, which it soon depo- sits, and by innumerable spots of this glutinous matter the pores of the leaves are stopped up, and large portions of the surface become blotched. I have found specimens m October, but during March the full-grown larva; and pupae, which are as large as the perfect insect, are found in groups feeding on the under side LEGUMINOUS PLANTS.— THE KIDNEY BEAN. 77 Fig. 22. of the leaves^ and at this time the recently- hatched and perfect insect either lies close under the ribs, or roves about in search of a mate. As this species is imported from some tropical region, it can endure great vapour-heat, and is consequently most difficult to extirpate." The same means for their destruction have been employed that have been used against its equally tenacious neighbour the red spider, for they are generally found together. A dry high atmosphere is favourable for the production of both : their destruction may be completely effected by the means stated above — viz., the powerful fumes of sulphur ; but this can only be employed to destroy such as lurk about the vrood-work or building ; or, in the case of deci- duous plants like the vine and peach, while these are in a dormant state. With plants which retain their leaves, and with plants in a growing state, this application cannot be employed ; for far less of suOh fumes that would destroy the insects would utterly kill the plants which the remedy was intended to cure. — (Vide Red Spider for other remedies.) The Red Spider, fig. 22, is really no spider at all, but one of the mites, a very numerous and destructive race. It is doubtful if what is gene- rally called the red spider is really only one species of insect, from the dif- ferent appearances it as- sumes, the different posi- tions it occupies, and the variety of plants which it attacks. It is in gene- ral considered to be the Acarus telarius of Lin- naeus, and has been a scourge to cultivators since his days. Like the thrip, It is of exotic origin, present always in hothouses where a sufficient temperature is maintained, and in greatest activity when that temperature is accompanied with an unusual degree of dry- ness — a fact pretty well established, as it never makes its appearance in a low temperature accompanied with moisture. In warm and dry summers it does great injury to vegetation, few plants escaping its attacks : to French or kidney beans it is most destructive, both in houses and in the open air. When very abundant, it has the faculty of spinning a web, and forming foi- itself a pretty secure retreat : from this circum- stance it has obtained the name of spider, as well as the specific one telarius. Its mode of operation is to pierce the under side of the leaves, and to imbibe the juice, causing little yellow spots on the upper surface of the leaf at first, which soon spread, and give to the whole leaf an autumnal tint : as their attacks increase, discolouration goes on, until the tree or plant becomes so exhatisted that it sheds its leaves, and smaller plants often actually die in conse- quence. The kidney bean is a familiar example of this. " The red spider, if magnified, looks like a crab of an oval form, with the legs so arranged VOL. II. THB RBD SPIDER. that two pair are directed forward, and two pair incline backward : it has a few long scattered hairs, and is of a somewhat transparent yellow- ish white, more or less inclining to orange, with a blood-coloured dot or spot on either side of the thorax ; the larger specimens, which appear to be females, have a bright chestnut-coloured body, the fore part of the thorax being oohre- ous, while the smaller ones have a lead-coloured patch on each side : unlike spiders, the thorax and body are so united that they form one mass ; the head is narrowed and rounded, and from under the nose projects a short rostrum, composed, I believe, of two lateral valves, en- closing two fine bristles, which can be thrust out at the pleasure of the animal. Many of the acari have two feelers, like an additional pair of short legs, projecting from the head, but in this species they are very short and only two-jointed, and I cannot discover any eyes : the legs, which are nearly of equal size, are clothed with mov- able bristles, and seem to be composed of five joints, besides a minute vessel at the tip, from which proceeds a pair of bristly claws. The female is oviparous, and exceedingly prolific ; the eggs hatch in eight days, and it is very re- markable that, when first excluded, the young red spider has only six legs, the third pair being wanting; but this pair is attained when the insect changes its skin. A variety of sizes is apparent amongst them, independently of difie- reuces in the sexes, the females being the largest, with the oviduct slightly projecting ; and quan- tities of their cast-off skins are scattered about the under side of the leaves which they inhabit." — RuEiooLA in Gardeners' Chronicle 1841, p. 164. Syringing with considerable force has been of advantage in disturbing the insect, and no doubt driving many of them off the leaves : water at 160° has been employed with beneficial effect. The means we have stated above are completely efficacious in ridding empty structures of them, but cannot be applied to living plants. A modi- fication of this is to paint the flues or hot-water pipes slightly with a paint of sulphur and water, but the heated body must not exceed the tem- perature of 212°. Applying sulphur, either by burning it at a low temperature, syringing the trees with it mixed in water, or applying it in a dry powdered state, by means of the new in- vented sulphurators, and painting the branches with it, as well as, in the case of trees on the walls, the walls themselves — adding to it in any of these cases, except upon heated bodies, a small portion of soap, to make it adhere longer to the branches or leaves — are aU efficacious. In any of these ways the insect may be sub- dued, if not completely destroyed, if taken in time and applied with vigour ; but, like medi- cine, if put off too long, or taken in insuffi- cient doses, and even in full doses not followed up according to prescription, all will be labour in vain. To crops in the open air, such as kid- ney beans, it may be readily applied by the sulphurators, or mixed with water poured over the leaves from the rose of a watering-pot. Euri- cola, in "Gardeners' Chronicle," 1841 (p. 166), says, " A quarter of a pound of flour of sulphur — put into a watering-pot of water, and, when L 78 CULINARY OR KITCHEN GARDEN. ■well stirred, poured through a rose along the flues when they are warm, or brushed over the steam pipes, but not after the foliage has ex- panded — produces the necessary effect, and in course of a. week the plants should be well syringed." The same weight may be put to the same quantity of water when applied to kidney beans or other crops in the open air. The warmer the weather when the sulphur is ap- plied, for obvious reasons, the better. § 4. — THE SCAKLET RUNNER. Natural history. — Scarlet runner (Phaseolus multiflorm, Wild.) belongs to the same natural order, and class and order in the Linnsean ar- rangement as the last. Although the scarlet runner is not so early as the kidney bean, it nevertheless produces a much larger crop of pods as excellent, and to some tasting better than the other. In Britain the green pods only are used; on the Continent, the ripened seeds are as much an object of culture. " In Holland the runners are grown in every cottage-garden for both purposes; and in France and Switzer- land it is grown chiefly for the ripened seeds : in the latter countries it is grown on very poor SOU." — Encyclopcedia of Plcmts, p. 616. The seeds are preserved in the pods attached to the straw, and are in winter thrashed out and boiled, and eaten with cream or butter, stewed in haricots or put into soups. The scarlet runner, although in general cultivated as, and considered to be, an annual like the kidney bean, is truly perennial. It is stated to be a native of South America, and was introduced into Britain in or before 1633. The French, now enthusiastically partial to this legume, at one time held it in utter detestation. PhUHps relates an anecdote of a lady friend of his, who took some of the " seed of the scarlet runner to Jamaica, and by planting them in her garden they were brought to tolerable perfection ; but her gardener, who was an old Frenchman, would not by any per- suasion allow them to be eaten, on account of the scarlet or blood colour of the blossom." They occupy a place in most cottage-gardens in England, and are made both ornamental and useful. They cover arbours, are trained over pales and up the walls of cottages, which they enhven by the brightness of their blossom, while every day produces a supply of whole- some and nutritious food to the owner. Uses. — The same as those of the kidney bean. The mode of propagation is by sowing the seeds, or by planting the small tu- berous roots saved from the last crop. These should be dug up in autumn, be- fore the frost has killed the haulm, and be kept in boxes of sand in a cellar tiU the end of April, when they may be planted. Sowing and planting. — Being rather more tender than the dwarf sorts of kid- ney bean, they do not admit of being planted earlier, nor should the tubers be planted sooner, as both may become rotten in the cold damp soil before vege- tation can take place. In Scotland, one sowing or planting will be sufficient, as the plants will continue to bear as long as the season lasts. In England, where vegetation is more rapid, and the season longer, later sowing or planting will be necessary, making the difference in the times of sowing about ten or fifteen days. They should be sown in lines not nearer than 1 2 feet from each other, that being the height to which they will grow if in good soil, and supported with stakes so high. 9 feet may, however, be taken as an average height ; and as that is more than can be conveniently reached from the ground, a greater height would be next to useless. The seed being larger than those of the kidney bean, the driUs, whether for planting the seed or the tu- bers, should be not less than 3 inches deep, and the seed or roots placed 9 inches distant in the Hne. Subsequent culture. — What has been said regarding the pea is quite applicable to this crop also : when the haulm has reached the height of 8 or 9 feet, it should be topped, for reasons given \pide Kid- ney Bean, Pea, &c.) If the production of pods be greater than the consumption, the oldest should be picked off before the seed is much more than formed in them, as, if left on, the plants would be unne- cessarily weakened, and the continuance of the crop much diminished. Where stakes are difficult to procure, the run- ners may be topped when 2 or 2^ feet high. This dwarfing, although it lessens the produce, nevertheless admits of good crops being obtained. In staking runners, long slender rods are preferable to the branching sticks used for pease. These should be stuck along both sides of the row, as soon as the plants are 6 inches in height, and placed in a diagonal direction, reversed on each side, so that, when the row is finished, the supports will have the appearance of diamonded trellis-work. The intention of setting the stakes in this manner is to afford a more ready means to the stems of the plants to ascend by and twine round. These rods should meet at top, for, unlike the pea, which branches LEGUMINOUS PLANTS.— THE SCARLET RUNNER. 79 out as it ascends, and therefore requires to be kept more open at top, the runners branch most near the bottom, and are thinly furnished with side branches to- wards the top. As noticed for pease, strong wide-meshed netting, attached to poles driven in along the rows, may be very advantageously used where rods are scarce ; and poles, furnished with cross pieces of lath, about a foot in length, nailed to them, will serve well for attach- ing tarred cord or common twine to their ends, and thus enclose the plants between three, four, or five lines of cord, according to their heigh t. A very goodwayof train- ing is to plant two rows 4 feet ajjart, to procure rods of sufficient length to admit of their thicker ends being thrust into the line of each row. The smaller ends may be brought together at the top, thus forming an arch or curvilinear trellis. These rods, if sufficiently strong, need not be nearer each other than 3 or 4 feet; and lines of cord should be stretched from one to the other, taking a turn round each in passing, and extending the length of the rows. Four or five lines of cord thus fastened will form a very excel- lent trellis for the runners to grow over, and form at the same time a nice shady arbour. Three larch poles, set in a trian- gular form, and fixed together at the summit, form a good pyramidal conduc- tor for such plants. The London market- gardeners' practice is to top the plants when they begin to form pods; and when the object is to gather the crop in a green state, immense quantities are thus pro- duced. Where, however, seed is to be ripened, in this country at least, stakes are found to be indispensable. Cottagers may attach cords to the wall under the eaves of their house, fastening the lower end to stumps of stick driven into the ground. If a prepared border is made along the bottom of the wall, and the beans set in it, they will entwine them- selves around the cords, and thus improve the appearance of the cottage, and afford an excellent supply of a nutritious veget- able food. Soil and manure. — A soil richer, and even deeper, than that suited to the pea is in this case required. In newly-broke-up soils, all the leguminosse prosper well; and in older ones, if rich in humus, they produce wonderful crops. Light, poor, or gravelly land, although it hastens the maturity of the crop, is incapable of yielding such returns as those we have stated. Forcing. — The scarlet runner, on ac- count of its rambling growth, is unsuited for the forcing-house, and hence is never obtained earlier than the period of its na- tural growth. Taking the crop, and subsequent preserva- tion. — The young pods are gathered when from 2| to 3| inches in length, and be- fore the seed begins to form within thera. When rapidly grown, they may be used of a larger size, and in that case they are cut into long narrow slices when about to be dressed. When the seeds have fully formed in them, they are unfit for use in their green state. When grown for their seed, whether for future sowing or for haricots, they are pulled up when fully ripe, dried in the sun and stacked by, and afterwards separated from the pods for use, either by being thrashed out or by hand-picking, and the seed bagged or otherwise stored by till wanted. Approved sorts, and their qualities. I . Scarlet runner. — Attains the height of from 9 to 12 feet; flowers beautiful red, and abundant ; pods rough on the outside; neTertheless they are, whUe young, as crisp and as well flavoured as any of the dwarf sorts ; beans, when dry, dark red and spotted. Kjnown also as the tall scarlet runner, a mere seed-list name. It is the Haricot d'Es- pagne, or ficarlate, of the French. = 2. White Dutch runner. — Pods rather longer and smoother than in the last ; flowers and beans white ; does not continue so long in a bearing state as the last; is known as the case-knife runner ; scarcely attaining so great a height as the last. 3. Painted lady. — Resembling the last two in habit; the flowers, however, are variegated, being of a bright scarlet colour, intermingled with pure white, and hence very ornamental; not so productive as the last two, nor quite so delicate to eat. We believe this to be the same as the York and Lancaster runner of some seed- catalogues. It is the Haricot d'Espagne, jl fleur bicolore, or panache, of the French. These are the principal sorts in cultivation in Britain. The Americans possess many varieties of haricots, such as the Lima pole bean, but, like the Sieva and other sorts, they are by far too tender for our climate ; and the same may be said of several European sorts, which, upon trial, are either too tender, or inferior to those named above. Of these we may name the Prague runner, or red pea, which, although related more to the true kidney bean than to the section in which the three above runners stand, has some merits also, the pods being tender, while the seed is round, and, when ripe, rather thick- 80 CULINAEY OR KITCHEN GARDEN. skinned, mealy, and in flavour resembling the Bweet chestnut. The Haricot d' Alger, Prague bicolor, Prague jasp^, are varieties of the Prague runner, the beans of all of which become soon unfit for use. Insects and diseases. — These are the same as those attacking the order leguminosse generally, and the kidney bean in particular {which see). The seed of all the runners cannot be depended upon to vegetate above a year. Besides the in- sects noticed in article Kidney Bean, all the leguminosse are liable to the attacks of slugs and snails, from the time they appear above ground until they attain the height of a foot or so, after which they seldom trouble them. Their de- struction is simple : dusting the plants morning and evening with caustic lime in powder, as re- commended for pease, will soon rid the plants of these pests. General remarks. — There have been few sub- stitutes found for any of the leguminous plants which are cultivated as articles of food. The white lupin, Lupirms alhus, has from the earliest ages been extensively grown in Spain, Portugal, and Italy for the ripe seed, which is used in the same manner that haricots are by the French. Several species of lentil are cultivated on the Continent also for soups and haricots: these are chiefly Ervum lens, the common lentil ; E. ErvUia, the winter lentil ; Lathyrus sativus, the Spanish lentil ; Cicer arietinv/m, the chick pea, &c. Both lentils and lupins are cultivated in Italy now, as they were in the days of Pliny, as green manure, being ploughed or dug in when they had attained their greatest size, but be- fore they had formed their seed, in which case it was supposed they would rob the ground of more than they restored to it. This remains a question for modem chemists to solve. Pliny states that beans also were culti- vated in the vicinity of Macedonia and Thessaly for the avowed purpose of being dug into the ground, and that this was done just as they began to bloom. One lb. of liver-coloured kidney beans (which sort is of medium size and weight) contains 792 beans. One lb. of scarlet runners contains 428 beans. CHAPTER III. BRASSICACBOUS PLANTS, OR THE CABBAGE TRIBE. The natural order to whicli the Brassica- ceoiis plants belongs, contains plants of the greatest importance to man. The whole order is pre-eminently European : 166 species are found in the north and middle of Europe, and 178 on the shores of the Mediterranean. Dividing them into the two hemispherical divisions of the globe, it appears that while only about 100 species are natives of the southern, there are about 800 natives of the northern. "The useful qualities of the turnip, radish, the rape, and the cab- bage, and all its multiform varieties, are all well known. The greater part of the order consists of plants possessing high anti-scorbutic powers. These appear to depend upon a certain acrid, volatile, oily principle, the chemical nature of which is imperfectly known. It is to be remarked that plants of this order are always eat- able when their texture is succulent and watery, as in the roots of the radish and the turnip, and the leaves of the cabbage tribe. Cruciferse are said to possess a greater share of azote than any other tribe of plants, as is apparent in their fetid smell when fermented."-— ^or^M jBritannicus. § 1. — THE CABBAGE. Natural history. — Brassioa oleraoea is the type of a numerous family, consisting of the white and red cabbage, cauliflower, broccoli, savoy, Brussels sprouts, and the borecoles, all of which are believed to have sprung from the wild cabbage (Brassica oleracea), specimens of ■which are to be foimd on the sea-shore at Dover, and at various other places in our own country, as well as in some other parts of Europe, but always in chalky or calcareous soil. Botani- cally, it ranks in the natural order Cruciferaj, sub-order Orthoplocess (from orihos, upright; 'plohe, fold — cotyledons), and tribe Brassicse {Orthoplocece siliquosce); and stands in class Tetra- dynamia and order Siliquosse in the Linnsean arrangement. The name is derived from Bresic, the Celtic name of the cabbage. Brassica was the name by which it was recognised by the ancient Romans, proceeding from prceeeco, because it was cut off from the stalk. The Latins gave it the name of caidis, from which our modern names cole, colewort, are derived. The term cabbage is in general understood to mean those varieties which form a firm head, by reason of the leaves turning close over each other, in contradistinction to those open kinds, like the borecoles, &c., which are called kales. Three varieties of cole are mentioned by the eldest Greek historians — the crisped, or ruffled, which they called Seliuas or SeUnoides, from its re- semblance to parsley ; the other. Lea ; and the third, Corambe. Chrysippus and Dieuches, two learned Greek physicians, each wrote a book on the properties of this plant, and Cato and Pythagoras wrote in its praise. Apicius loathed them, and Drusus Csesar held them in no es- teem, while his father, the Emperor Tiberius, thought highly of them. The discovery of the art of distillation is attributed to the simple circumstance of an ancient physician having been called suddenly away from a mess of cab- bage he was eating; he placed another plate over that in which his cabbage was, to keep them warm, and finding, on his return, the in- terior of the uppermost plate covered with moisture, he reasoned on the cause, and ulti- mately discovered the art of distUlatiou. The introduction of the cultivated cabbage into Britain was no doubt the work of the Romans ; and its dissemination afterwards may be attributed to the earliest ecclesiastic com- munities, who ever had an eye to the good things of this life. In all probability it would reach Scotland and Ireland by the same means, although it has been asserted that it was scarcely known in the former country till the time of Cromwell, whose soldiers are said to have brought it with them from England. Gerard is the oldest English author who has written fully on this useftd vegetable ; he mentions the white-cab- bage cole, the red-cabbage cole, the curled gar- 82 CULINARY OR KITCHEN GARDEN. den cole : " the Savoie cole is," he says, " num- bered amongst the headed coleworts or cab- bages." He, notices the curled Savoy, but says, "the swollen colewort of all others is the strongest," and which he received from Master Nicholas Lete, who brought the seed out of France. The same author says, " Rape cole is another variety ; they were called in Latin caulo-rapum and rapo-catdis — participating of two plants, the coleworts and turnips, from whence they derive their name. They grow in Italy and Spain, and some places in Germanie, from whence I have received seeds for my garden. ' They must,' he says, ' be carefully set and sown, as musk melons and cucumbers.' This variety has now become one of our hardiest field plants." — Phillips. There is scarcely an instance in the whole vegetable kingdom of a plant that has produced so great a number of varieties, differing so much in appearance and qualities, as the Brassica oleracea : few would suppose that the wild cab- bage found on our sea-shore is the parent of such a progeny. In its natural state, with its green wavy leaves, without the appearance of a head, and, to superficial observers, scarcely dis- tinguished from the wild mustard or charlock, it is as dissimilar to one of its own offspring, the drumhead cabbage, as it is to a Tarragonian grown cauliflower, which is said often to attain the weight of 40 lb. Use. — In a variety of forms this esculent is in almost universal use throughout the whole civilised world. The Greeks and Romans used it in a raw state, to counteract the intoxicating efieots of wine. One modem physician, at least, has recommended it for a like purpose. The Romans threw trefoil and nitre into the pot along with the cabbage, believing that such would cause them to boU green — a department in cookery in which many good housewives plume themselves not a little at this day. All vegetables, if fresh gathered, may be boiled without the least change in colour, if put into hoiling water with a handful of salt, and allowed to boil in plenty of water, leaving the vessel un- covered. The uses to which it was applied by the ancients are given by PhilUps, in his " His- tory of Cultivated Vegetables," vol. iL p. 99, summing up the whole with the observation that they believed it " light of digestion, and that it clarified the senses when moderately eaten." The large drumhead cabbage is used exten- sively in Germany, and throughout the north of Europe, for making saur-kraut. The heads are cut into small shreds with a knife or plane made for the purpose, are packed in barrels or tubs along with vinegar, to which salt and cloves are sometimes added, and in this state they are preserved in excellent condition till late in spring : when used, it is stewed over a slow fire, and served up with most kinds of meat. In England they are pickled, and used for the same purposes as the red cabbage, which latter is grown principally in Britain for pickling. On the Continent it is mucb esteemed when slowly stewed in an earthen pan, along with a few slices of onion, and a larger propor- tion of apples, in which state it appears at most tables during winter, and is both excellent and wholesome. In all cases the cabbage is most wholesome when eaten young ; and hence the EngHsh, and the Scotch now following their ex- ample, prefer them in the form of collards, cab- bage-plants, or cabbage-sprouts, and like to see them brought to the table quite green and tender. In country places in England, and in most of our Scotch green-markets, they are only to be found when of a large size, thoroughly hearted, blanched white within ; in which case they are, particularly when long cut, exceedingly un- wholesome, often tough, and in general flatu- lent and indigestible. Propagation. — All the varieties of Bras- sicee are raised from seed annually, but they may all be also propagated by cut- tings—a method employed to preserve any particular variety from changing its character, which all are exceedingly liable to do when propagated by seed, on ac- count of the natural disposition of the plants to shoot into hybrids. Hence our seed-lists are so crowded with names, and hence also the difficulty we often experience in getting seed which will produce plants identical with their pa- rent. Almost all the Brassicse produce sprouts — the cauliflower and broccoli less freely than the others. By means of these, any choice kind can be increased by cuttings, and thus perpetuate the identical variety without the chances of its becoming de- teriorated by rearing them from seed. However carefully seed of this family is saved, we are never certain in the results, and what we may have genuine and pure one year may become, by intercourse be- tween neighbouring plants of the same family, next to useless another. The idea of propagating them by extension — that is, by cuttings — did not, however, arise from this alone. It was introduced into England about thirty years ago from, the Brazils, where the climate is too hot for the cabbage to perfect its seeds. The manner of proceeding is this : — The sprouts, when from 4 to 5 inches long, are taken from the stem of the plant, and, according to their state of succulency, are exposed to the atmosphere to cauterise the wounded part. In summer, a day and a night is in general sufficient ; while in winter two or three days may be re- quisite. The cut end of the sprout is dipped in caustic lime or dry wood-ashes, to dry up the moisture. They are then BRASSICACEOUS PLANTS.— THE CABBAGE. 83 planted like any other cutting — produ- cing, in due time, plants fit for use, and cuttings for further propagating supplies. Amateurs might in this way keep up a succession of stock without the trouble of sowing seed. The great advantage, how- ever, is in keeping the stock uncontami- nated. Sowing and planting. — The time of sow- ing for a principal crop, to come into use the May following, is by long experience fixed by the London market-gardeners to be from the 25th of August to the 1st of September. A fortnight earlier is expe- dient north of Newcastle, unless in very favourable situations, when the 25th of August may be taken. Much of the dan- ger attending too early sowing is in the plants running to seed in spring without hearting. No doubt there is something in this; but seed of a good variety, and at least a year old, is not hable, under proper management, to do this. It is, however, well to make two sowings in all suspi- cious cases — the one during the first week, and the second during the last week in the month. Plants from this sowing should be planted out for good by the middle or latter end of October, the plants having been previously re- moved from the seed-bed as soon as they are fit to handle, and being transplanted into a nursery-bed in what is called the pricking-out manner. The largest of these should be planted first, and the smaller afterwards, which may extend the season of their final planting to the first or second week in November. This is to be considered as affording a general spring or early summer full crop. Towards the end of February or beginning of March, sow, to secure plants fit for planting out in May, June, and July, generally as the ground is cleared of early crops of pease ; this will give a supply fit for use during the latter part of summer and autumn. These are the two general sowings. For particular purposes, and in peculiar situa- tions, a sowing will sometimes be required to be made by the beginning of February, to secure an early summer supply, should accidents have come over the crops of the August sowing, and also if it be appre- hended that that crop should be insuffi- cient for the supply. In sowing seed of all the Brassicse, and at whatever season, there are certain helpmates sent us in the feathered part of the creation, who thin our sowings. In so far they do good, but sometimes they over- do this act of kindness by thinning too much. Now as these are, according to our notions, friends we cannot dispense with, seeing the good services they render us, in a way and by means we could not do for ourselves, we must not, like bar- barians, talk of their destruction. We must protect ourselves from their over- officiousness in this matter, by covering our seed-beds with netting closely secured at the edges, but elevated from 9 inches to a foot over the general surface, which is easily done by setting in a few slight branches to support the netting. It is a poor crop that will not repay the trifling trouble and expense of this ; and he who thinks the matter of so little consequence to himself as to disregard this precaution, is rightly served to find his seed entirely abstracted. Many other means have been proposed ; we know of none so simple and so efBcacious. Strewing the surface with lime, wood-ashes, soot, &c., are all very well in their way ; suspending half a score of egg-shells from lines run in all directions, stuffed cats, owls, hawks, &c., are the vestiges of the dark ages of horti- culture; and even our first published T^oisXo- danglers, fig. 23, stuck full of feathers, are but sorry preventives. Fig. 23. SCARECROW. Seed for what is called cabbage cole- worts — that is, young cabbage-plants, to be used while quite young, and, before they indicate hearting, a sort of produce much in use about London, and now be- coming generalinprivate gardens — should be sown between the middle of June and the end of July, so as to be fit for final transplanting during August, September, 84 CULINARY OR KITCHEN GARDEN. and October, as ground becomes vacant for this purpose in particular. Chappel's colewort, not much known beyond the London market, should be sown during July, August, and Septem- ber, transplanted very close together, and upon all spare pieces of ground, under fruit-trees, &c. They come into use early in winter or spring, and are much esteemed. Late or drumhead cabbage is sown for general crops either in August, and kept over winter, being planted out in October or November, or early in spring, say February or beginning of March, and planted out in May or June. The for- mer is the Scotch practice, the latter the English. A great deal depends as to the period of sowing, particularly for main spring crops, upon situation and circumstances. The rule laid down by the London growers in this respect may be taken as the latest period, as every circumstance is in their favour. Not so in cold climates and cold soils ; and to meet the requirements of these, the seed should be sown earUer, from a week to a month, according to the unfavourableness of the place and circum- stances. To sow too early would make the plants too strong, and certainly en- danger their running to seed : to sow too late would be to have plants too weak to stand the winter ; and should they even do so, they will be late in coming to perfection. At the July sowing, it oftentimes appears that the ground is dry, in which case it will be of great ad- vantage in securing a strong and rapid germination, to soak the ground with water some hours before putting in the seed; but, to prevent the soil from caking, it will be well to fork it over before sow- ing. The seed may with advantage, under such circumstances, be also soaked a few hours in tepid water. After sowing, if the weather continue hot and dry, shade the beds with branches or otherwise till the plants appear above ground, when the shading should be gradually removed. As soon as the plants are above ground, dust them over morning and evening with finely-pounded caustic lime, as a precau- tion against insects. All the varieties of the Brassicse, with the exception of the cauliflower and the CouveTronchuda, or Portugal cabbage, are exceedingly hardy, and therefore, in all ordinary cases, the most open and exposed situation should be fixed upon for the seed-beds. The exception to this is in cold places, where the early spring sowing will require the shelter of a warm south border, and in many cases the assistance of a slight dung-bed heat. Wherever the seed is sown, it should be freely exposed to the sun and air, and of all things shaded spots should be avoided. The seed should be sown thin. A bed 4 feet wide and 20 feet in length will require 2 ounces for the smallest-growing varieties of early cabbage, such as Aitken's match- less, &c. For those of larger size, such as the vanack, the same quantity of seed will sow a bed 4 feet broad and 36 feet long. One ounce of seed will give from 2000 to 2500 plants. Cover to the depth of I inch from the alleys, if the soil be light and well pulverised ; if not, make the surface smooth with the back of a spade, and when the seed is sown, cover with a light compost to the above depth. All the Brassicaceous tribe are very much improved by transplanting assoonas the young seedling plants are fit to handle, which will be when the young leaves have attained the size of about 2 inches in length. At this time they shotdd be care- fully removed from the seed-bed, and, if the weather be dry, the bed should re- ceive a good watering, which will facili- tate the operation of lifting without injury to the tender roots of the plants : the nursery-bed should be prepared by pre- vious manuring and digging, and its sur- face, if dry, well watered previous to planting; and when the young plants are set therein, it should receive a gentle watering, to settle the soil about the roots. If the sun is powerful, a slight shading will be beneficial during the day until the roots have taken hold of the ground. This is more especially necessary for sum- mer transplanted crops. In such nursery- beds, they should remain until well rooted, and, at planting, be set from 3 to 4 inches apart, according to the size of the variety. A second transplanting is often found beneficial to give greater strength to the plants, to encourage the multiplication of roots, &c., but in this second removal they should have a third more space ac- corded them. By such means plants will attain a good size, and be fit for final BRASSICACEOUS PLANTS.— THE CABBAGE. 85 transplanting the moment ground is cleared for them, thus economising hoth space and time. Those intended to be set in nursery-beds during winter should be planted from 4 to 5 inches apai-t each way, for too thick planting is injurious in two ways— it draws the plants up slender, and prevents the circulation of air amongst them, by which many damp off during winter. Great care ought to be taken that each sort is kept separate, and that all be correctly labelled to pre- vent mistakes in spring. The same at- tention should be paid to Brussels sprouts, savoys, and such kinds of borecoles or ■greens as may be required early in the summer. Transplanting all the cabbage tribe into nursery-beds is of great advan- tage to them ; it renders them stocky and well rooted ; and as this operation has for its object only the preservation of the plants during winter, it follows that a rather poor soil and open situation should be afforded them. It is of no iise, how- ever, to treat the Portugal cabbage in the above way; it is too tender to stand our climate, and therefore is better sown in spring in a moderate temperature, so as to be fit for final planting by the end of May. In cold, damp soils, we have found it of advantage to cover the surface between the rows of aU newly-planted-out things, when the operation is delayed till too late a period, with finely-sifted coal-ashes to about an inch in thickness; they tend greatly to exclude the frost, and absorb a considerable quantity of humidity; be- sides, they render the ground comfortable and clean to walk upon. In many places where the crops are liable to be thrown out by winter frosts, tanners' bark is laid on the surface with beneficial effects. A good breadth should be planted by the first week in November, as little advan- tage would arise from planting again till the latter end of January. A supply of young plants for spring planting out should also, early in November, be re- moved from the seed-beds, and planted out in nursery-beds to stand the winter. In moist situations, the most open and exposed piece of ground should be chosen for this purpose, and, of all others, shaded and confined places should be avoided. Under ordinary circumstances, the plants are set in their new loccde by the dibber, of which figs 24, 25, and 26 are examples ; but when the VOL. II. 1 Figs. 27. planting-thowb ls. plants are large, as it is the object to remove them with as little Figs. 24. 25. 26. check to their growth as pos- sible, the plant- ing - trowels, figs. 27 and 28, should be used. The dibber is too well known DiBBEBs. to require any description; the broken handle of an old spade forms one of the best kinds, which only requires to be cut to the length of 10 or 12 inches, and to have its perforating end bluntly pointed. The trowel is a more perfect implement, and is employed in the removal of plants of a larger size than can be safely planted by the dibber. In using either the pointed or semicircu- lar trowel, figs. 28 and 29, the young plants may be taken up with a consi- derable ball of earth at- tached to the roots, while they suffer no in- jury by the process. A more perfect mode of transplanting by the use of the trowel is that by taking two of these, one in each hand, thrust- ing them down on opposite sides of the plant, at the same time drawing the handles slightly outwards ; the faces of the trowels are thus made to collapse so much as to press the soil about the roots, and hence enable the operator to take the plant, with ball entire, from the seed-bed to its ultimate destination, and to place it in its new abode without the least check to its growth. As we shall have to refer frequently to transplanting, we may as well here show the construction of transplants, which have been long in use, for transplanting such crops as the Brassicse, at present under our consideration. Fig. 29 is called Saul's Trans- planter, because that intelligent horticulturist brought it into public notice many years ago in the pages of the " Gardeners' Magazine." It appears, however, to be an improvement on a similar implement invented by the Rev. Mr Thornhill, about 1820, and used by him for trans- planting turnips. It may be thus described : The blades are opened by pressing the lever a towards the handle, when they SAUL'S open outwards, and in this TBANspLANTEK. gtatc arc thrust in the ground, having the plant within them ; a counter pressure causes them to collapse, and to embrace the ball firmly, and in this state, the transplanter being drawn upwards brings with Fig. 29. CULINARY OR KITCHEN GARDEN. it the plant and ball entire. It is then taken to its new site, set in its place, when the handle a is again pressed inwards, and the blades open and are withdrawn, leaving the plant and its ball entire, to be filled around with earth, and the Fig. 30. Fig. 31. TRANSPLANTER. M'GLASHAN S TRANSPLANTER. Fig. 32. operation is repeated on another subject. Fig. 30 shows a modification of this implement, wherein the blades are opened by moving the slider a upwards, and, when thrust down around the plant, the blades collapse by pressing the slider downwards. The operation afterwards is the same as the last. Upon exactly the same prin- ciple, but with much more mechanical ingenuity, is the transplanter of Mr M'Glashan constructed, which is admirably adapted to such operations. Fig. 31 will explain its form; its mode of opera- tion will be at once under- stood. Fig. 32 represents another modification of trans- planters ; it is constructed of two semicircular pieces of iron polished to a bright sur- face, which all transplanters should be, because we know practically they enter the ground better, and deliver the ball more entire than they would do if used in a rusty condition. These semi- circular pieces are furnished with handles a a, riveted to them, and are inserted into the ground so as to enclose the plant between them. In this state they are attached to each other by two iron pins, passing through the eyelet-holes welded on their edges, b b b; on their being pulled up, the plant is ele- vated with its ball attached. Our objection to this implement is, that the radius of the blades, if we may so call them, is the same at bottom as at top, which renders it possible that they may FLOWER TRANSPLANTER. be puUed up without bringing the ball with them; or if so, that it may drop out during its transportation to its new site. The others we have shown are different; they coUapse the ball firmly — and not only that, but by their construc- tion they embrace it tighter Fig. 33. at bottom than at top,render- ing it next to impossible that the ball shall be extracted, and also that it cannot slip out afterwards until relieved by the removal of the pres- sure upon it. Were the blades made in a tapering manner, then all the condi- tions of other similar trans- planters would be fulfilled. All these transplanters are merely modifications of fig. S3, long used in France for simi- lar purposes. Its principle will be readUy seen by our figure : the handles a a are pulled outwards when the blades are thrust into the ground. They are pressed TRANSPLANTER, iuwards whcu the operation of lifting upwards is desired. In planting all the brassicaceous plants, drills should be drawn, 3 inches deep, at the distances apart which are to be allowed each variety ; for amongst the tribe of early cabbage, to which most of our pre- vious remarks apply, there are compara- tively large-growing and small-growing sorts. The type of the former may be instanced in the vanack, and of the latter in Atkin's matchless. The ground should be prepared by heavy dunging and deep digging; but in this, as in all similar cases, trenching 2 or 2i feet deep is better. The early sorts are set in lines from 15 to 18 inches apart, but Atkin's matchless, and one or two others, may safely be set at 12 inches only. The former should be from 1 foot to 15 inches distant in the line, while the latter may be set at from 10 to 12 inches. Plant, if possible, on moist days; if the soil is dry, run a good soaking of water into the drills pre- vious to planting. Preserve the roots entire of those that have been trans- planted into a nursery-bed, as every root is to them of importance. Those that have been drawn direct from the seed- bed should have the tips of the tap- root shortened, but none of the others. The Scotch, late, or drumhead cabbage — for it is known by all these names — is seldom grown in gardens, unless where the bounty of the proprietor is, as it BRASSICACEOUS PLANTS.— THE CABBAGE. 87 sliould be, directed to the wants of tlie poor, by providing them during winter with soup made from the scraps which fall from his own table — then the drum- head cabbage comes in well ; and also when saur-kraut is made for winter use, this vegetable is indispensable. It attains a very large size, and therefore requires room. At planting, they should be set in rows 3 feet apart, and the plants 2 feet distant in the line. This also depends on circumstances, for there are larger, taller, smaller, and dwarfer varieties of this kind. The above is the maximum distance. Sttbsequeni culture. — After planting, all that is required till they attain perfection is keeping the ground clear of weeds, stirring it frequently and deeply during summer, and drawing a little earth about the necks of the plants when about 9 or 10 inches high, which not only supports them in an upright direction, but offers opportunity for the roots to form near the surface, thereby increasing their means of collecting food, and greatly tending to encourage the more rapid growth of the plants. Some disapprove of the earthing- up plan, and as a substitute draw the drills deeper at planting, which seems to amount to the same thing. White cab- bage is grown for three purposes, the first of which is to procure heads fully formed and hard, the second is to draw for use before hearting, and the third to furnish sprouts from the old stems for a long time after the head has been cut off for use. The first of these are called full- hearted cabbages ; the second, cabbage plants or collards ; the third, cabbage sprouts. To have them in the former state, they must be sown four or five times a-year. To have them in the se- cond state, oftener ; and in the third case, such as the vanack, an English variety, or M'Ewan's, a Scotch variety (the latter little known), should be selected. These, if planted in autumn or spring in good rich soil, will, after the first heads have been used, continue often for a couple of years sending up a fine and abundant supply of sprouts. When sprouts are not re- quired, the old stems should be pulled up as soon as the heads are cut, and con- signed to the rot heap. If left in, they greatly exhaust the soil for no end or purpose. Should any of the plants run to seed soon after planting, remove them without loss of time, and replace them with strong plants from the nursery-bed, using one or other of the transplanters noticed above. Early in spring, when it may be wished to have close-hearted cab- bages, as soon as the leaves give indication of turning inwards, tie the whole of them loosely together with strings of matting or slender twigs of willow. During long- continued droughts, water abundantly; and as all watering with pure water does little other than assist to render soluble the fertihsing matter that may happen to be in the soil, and watering with spring- water does little more than chill the ground, and merely sustains the existence of the plants, it is better, seeing that there is the same labour in both cases, to water all growing crops with liquid manure. Water, however applied, is thought to injure the flavour of culinary crops. With the cabbage tribe it is the reverse, as they seem to be improved in flavour by it. It also prevents the plants from becoming stunted in growth, which induces a disposition in them to favour the production of aphides on the leaves, and other insects on the roots. The roots left in the ground after the heads are cut off, when the intention is to have a suc- cession of sprouts from them, should have the remaining leaves cut off, the ground between the rows forked up, and if a good manuring be applied at the same time, the benefit will be evident in the greater supply, and its longer continuance fit for use. To make the most of the ground when the breadth is planted at the dis- tances directed above for the larger-grow- ing sorts, strong early-sown coleworts may be planted, either one or two between each two permanent plants, according to the space accorded them. These cole- worts or coUards will be useful to pull up for early spring use, before the principal crop arrives at its full size. When cab- bages are out, the leaves should be all removed from the stem, and all the em- bryo sprouts, excepting five or six of the best placed and most promising, to pro- duce sprouts for table use. If all but one be displaced, it will grow rapidly, and soon become as large and fine as the original head. Such cabbages as have been cut during May and June will, by this treat- ment, yield another crop in July. Soil and manure. — The first cannot be CULINARY OR KITCHEN GARDEN. too rich or too deeply wrought, and the latter can hardly be applied in too large a quantity. The whole tribe are gross feeders. The plant in its original state, as we have already shown, is a native of the sea-shore and of calcareous soils ; it is consistent, therefore, with reason that hme and salt should be added to the natural constituents of the soil they are planted in. We have applied gypsum as a top-dressing to the surface between the rows, with the most beneficial effects, to aU crops of the Brassica tribe, to which it seems admirably adapted. Its action appears to be directly and indirectly use- ful to such crops — directly as the food of plants, because, being soluble in water, it supplies sulphur and lime; and indirectly, because of its action on the volatile car- bonate of ammonia, which becomes fixed when these substances meet. In the latter case, gypsum acts in the soil on the am- monia contained in rain water, in the same way as it does when applied to dunghills. A double action takes place between gyp- sum and carbonate of ammonia, when they meet in solution. Each of these salts being decomposed, their elements unite in the form of carbonate of lime and sulphate of ammonia, and the advan- tages from the change arise from the sul- phate of ammonia not being volatile, as the carbonate of ammonia is. Stable- yard dung, if applied with gypsum to fix or retain the ammonia evolved from the former during the process of turning it over, and during the fermentation of the mass, will, in the case of rich manure, require to be used in the proportion of one cwt. of the latter to a ton of the for- mer. Superphosphate of lime has been found a useful assistant to cabbage crops, and where manure is scarce it may be sown in drills prepared for them at plant- ing, or a little (say a dessert spoonful) put in each hole before the root is introduced. TaUngthe crop, and mhsequent preserva- tion. — When the plants have hearted, the heads are cut off for use, just as they be- gin to show the first indication of blanch- ing towards the centre, which is undoubt- edly the proper time; some, however, cut them in a more advanced state, prefer- ring quantity to quality. Cabbage plants, coUards, or coleworts — that is, young plants which are not intended to heart — are pulled up by the roots and tied up into bundles, the roots being either wash- ed or cut off to keep the leaves cleaner. Sprouts are gathered by being cut off the stems at various sizes and ages, from the time when they have only five or six leaves in size, until they form into little cabbages of the size of a swan's egg. It is in the intermediate stages, however, that they are most esteemed. It is sel- dom in Britain that artificial shelter is required for any of the white or red cab- bage tribe. In cold places, however, they may be laid over on their sides, and their whole stems buried under ground. (Vide Broccoli, section 5.) The full-hearted cabbage is often cut from the stems on the approach of severe frosts, but it is better to retain the stems attached, and these are buried entirely in dry soil, and so deeply covered that the frost cannot reach them. They should, however, be placed so far apart that the one may not touch the other. In peaty soils, cabbages thus buried will keep for months, that soil containing so great an amount of antiseptic properties. Approved sorts of white cabbages (Brassica ole- racea, var. Ca/pitata) and their properties.— the improvement tbat has taken place of late years in the whole of the Brassica tribe is perhaps greater than in any other division of cuKnary ve- getables. Such sorts as Atkin's matchless, Sut- ton's imperial, Sutton's dwarf comb, Enfield market, Shilling's queen, &c., have taken the place in most of our best gardens of the sugar- loaf, early York, &c. of bygone days. These sorts are more esteemed for their delicate fla- vour and tenderness, when cooked at a proper age, than for their largeness of size — a merit only fitting for the lowest grade of market pur- poses. These require, in consequence of their small size, less space to gi-ow in than the larger and coarser kinds, and will, nevertheless, yield as good a return, of the same extent of surface, as their larger allies. 1. Sutton's dwaif comh. — When grown along with other sorts, we found it last year the ear- liest of any. It is small, hearts well in spring, andaffords a good supply of very delicate sprouts throughout most of the summer. It was planted 12 inches apart. 2. Sutton's imperial. — Another excellent early spring variety from the stock of Messrs Sutton and Sons, Reading ; rather larger than the last, but equally early, tender, and useful, producing sprouts during the summer ; planted 1 3 inches apart. 3. Athin's matchless. — A small early cabbage of great excellence ; conical when full grown ; the leaves remarkably wrinkly, somewhat like a savoy; planted 12 inches asunder; stands the winter well ; a variety of the early York, but much superior, if large cabbages are not required. BRASSICACEOUS PLANTS.— THE CABBAGE. 89 4. Knight's early chuarf. — A nice little hardy sort, whioli may also be set at a foot apart each, way. 5. Early Dutch twist. — An excellent cabbage of the smallest size, very delicate, and may be planted almost as close together as a crop of cabbage-lettuce. 6. Cattel's dwarf Barnes. — A small early sort of great merit. The above are the smallest and earliest of cabbages, and exceedingly weU suited for small gardens and private family use. They should be sown more frequently than the larger-grow- ing sorts, so as to keep up a succession of young and delicate heads, much after the manner of sowing lettuce. 7. Early nonpareil, Shilling's qmeen, Shillings superb dwarf, , Tiley's early marrow, early em- peror, early imperial, are all equally excellent for second earlies and second-sized cabbages. 8. Pomeranian cabbage is thus described by Mr Thompson in " Journal of Horticultural So- ciety," vol. V. p. 280 :— " It is remarkable for its conical tapering form, very compact, and firm to the apex. It is very hardy, and may be cul- tivated like other hearting cabbages ; but it may be interesting and useful to know that, at Macon, in France, the market-gardeners take it up out of the quarters when fiilly grown before winter, and lay it in the soil, to the neck, in a sloping direction. Thus treated, it withstood the severe winter of 1847. The quarter thus cleared can be trenched and prepared for other crops — an important advantage in small gardens. It is likely to prove valuable in colder situations than is suitable for the Battersea and other cabbages grown in the neighbourhood of London." King of the cabbages, London market, Wheeler's imperial, VanacTc, Sprotboro, Paignton or Penton, M'Ewan's, are all admirably adapted for general crops, where large returns are required. The vanack has been cultivated above a century in the gardens of Colonel Wyndham at Petworth, Sussex, but it was only brought into general no- tice about thirty years ago. It has the merit of throwing out fine sprouts, which attain a large size for eighteen months or two years after hav- ing been first cut. M'Ewan's is of similar cha- racter, but of Scotch origin ; it is difficult to . seed, as it goes on sprouting and growing for almost any length of time. The Paignton is of Devonshire origin, named from a village of that name, where it has been cultivated for ages. Its properties are much the same as those of the two last. The Sprotboro is a Yorkshire cabbage, also of great excellence, in habit and properties much resembling the last four. The Paignton is also known in seed-shops as the Cornish, Penton- ville, and curled. To this section we may usefiilly add Chap- pell's colewort, which is little known out of the London market, where it is brought in immense quantities as an open green cabbage, being pulled before it hearts, and is sold as a colewort, and much esteemed. Colewort, cabbage-plants, and collet are synonymous terms, used for cabbages cut for use before hearting, and to be eaten in a young state. The early York is probably the type of all our best early cabbages, many of which, however, excel it in delicacy ; no other sort is known to have the ribs and veins less prominent, which are its principal points. The vanack is again the type of the imperial, Fulham, and Battersea. Of the Portugal cabbage there are two varieties, a taller and a dwarfer sort. The Pomeranian is very distinct from all others, is a good late sort, of conical form, almost terminating in a point. Approved sorts of Prasdca oleraoea capitata, Y&v.l)epressa,De C. — Large Drumhead. — Known also as the Scotch, cattle cabbage, flat pole, and Strasburg. Of this there are several sub- varieties, differing chiefly in shortness of stem, concavity or flatness of head, &c. Of these De CandoUe has recognised two distinct forms; viz., Srassica oleracea depressa (depressed or flattened drumhead), and B. oleracea sphcerica alha (spherical or great round Scotch cabbage). Those of dwarf habit are the best, as, being for winter use, they stand the frost better when close to the ground than when high above it. Unless, as we have already stated, a soup- kitchen is to be supplied, or saur-lcraut is to be made, a small plantation of either of these varieties will be sufficient even for a large gar- den. In small ones, unless a head or two be required for pickUng (and even for this purpose the red cabbage is preferred), we consider it the least profitable of the family to grow, as it is of little use after the head is cut off. It still occupies a place in most farmhouse gardens and cottages in Scotland, and frequently appears m our markets— an evident symptom how far we are behind our southern neighbours in the art of vegetable cookery. The seed should be sown, in most parts of Scotland, from the middle to the end of August, and a strong rich soil should be chosen. In the warmer parts, and generally throughout England, it is better to sow in March, to prevent the crop coming into use too early in the following autumn, for this is to be regarded as a winter esculent. The autumn-sown crop is sometimes, if the plants are forward, planted out in the early part of November, but in general about the beginning of April following. Those sown in February or March should be transplanted in May, June, or July. Their whole routine afterwards is the same as for savoys or other cabbage. To have heads of a large size, plant at the distance of 3 feet by 2|; give abundance of liquid manure during their growing season, or, in default of that, fork in a good dressing of half-decayed rich stable-manure, using a fork for the purpose, of which Dr Yellowlee's, fig. 34, is a good example. Fig. 34. YELLOWLEE'S FORK. Dr Yellowlee's forJc. — Forks are preferable to spades for digging the ground, because, from their construction, the soil is much better 90 CULINARY OR KITCHEN GARDEN. broken and pulverised, and the operation as speedily performed. They are much better when the ground to be loosened is occupied with the roots of trees or other plants, because less injury is likely to befall them. The entire length of this fork is 3 feet 3^ inches, the length of the handle being 2 feet 2 inches ; the prongs are 7 inches apart at top, and 6 inches at the point; the length of the prongs, which are three in number, is 1 SJ inches, and at the top | of an inch square, tapering to a point. The straps fixing the head to the handle are 11 inches long and 2 inches broad, and 4 an inch thick at the centre, tapering off at both sides. § 2. — THE POETUGAL CABBAGE. The Portugal cabbage (Brassicm oleracea, var. Oblonga — Couve tronchuda, large-ribbed or Por- tugal cabbage, or Braganza) was introduced into England about 1821, from Trauxuda in Portugal, and is sometimes called Trauxuda kale. Of this there is a dwarf variety, much cultivated in Por- tugal, and known by the name of MiU'ciana. This excellent vegetable, too little grown in Britain, is not exactly of the hearting kind. The centre leaves are deprived of their green or leafy part, leaving the ribs, which are boiled, and used much in the manner of sea-kale. It is exceed- ingly delicate, and in this respect different from the rest of the cabbage tribe. The dwarf variety Murciana {Brassica oleracea, var. costata, chou de Beauvais) is somewhat earlier, and throws out numerous suckers from the lower part of the stem, which the tall variety does not. It is much more tender than any of the others, and rarely stands our northern winters. For early crops, the plants should be sown in August, and kept under frames all winter, like cauliflower; or better, they should be, like it, sown on a slight bottom heat in February, and hardened off for transplanting in April or beginning of May. Its subsequent culture, &c., resembles that of cauliflower [which see). [The most extraordinary production in the cabbage tribe is Kerguelen's Land cabbage, the JPringea antiscorbutica of botanists, first dis- covered by Captain Cook, the circumnavigator, and subsequently observed by Dr Joseph Hooker as a native of Kerguelen's Land, or Island of Desolation, situated in the centre of the Southern Ocean— a cold, humid, barren, volcanic rock, on which that distinguished naturalist recognised only eighteen species of vegetation, but amongst them this brassioaceous production. It is described by him in the " Flora Antartica " as very abundant, particu- larly close to the sea. Its root-stocks are from 3 to 4 feet long, and lying close to the ground, bearing at their extremities large heads of leaves, sometimes 18 inches across, and so like those of the common cabbage, that if growing in a gar- den they would scarcely excite attention. They form a dense white heart, that tastes like mus- tard and cress, but much coarser. It abounds in an essential oil, which renders it more whole- some than the common cabbage. It may never be worth the attention of the British cultivator, but its existence in that desolate island, so far removed from civilisation as to be considered the most remote of all islajads from any conti- nent, suggests two important, although somewhat different, considerations. The first and most important is, that the Disposer of all that is good should have placed there a plant so valu- able to those who traverse those little-visited seas, subject to one of the most fearful of aU human diseases, scurvy, and that also presented to them the moment they put their foot on shore, where, from its luxuriance and abun- dance, it is likely, as Dr Hooker observes, to prove for ages to come an inestimable blessing to ships touching at this far distant isle. The next consideration is, how came it there ? "The contemplation of a vegetable," he says, " very unlike any other in botanical affinity, so emi- nently fitted for the food of man, and yet inha- biting the most desolate and inhospitable spot on the surface of the globe, must equally fill the mind of the scientific inquirer and the common observer with wonder." A plant no- where else recognised leads to the belief " that it was created, in all probability, near where it now grows — leads the mind back to an epoch far anterior to the present, when the Island of De- solation may have presented a fertility of which this is, perhaps, the only remaining trace." We know there is a theory recently promulgated, the adherents of which will account for the existence of this plant, in its unique form and isolated position, on the supposition that numerous centres of dispersion and new creations of developments exist, and that these do not in the slightest degree disturb the harmony of the general design of creation. " One of the most mysterious of such pheno- mena is the change by which certain hving entities seem to pass from the animal to the vegetable state, or vice versa, without decom- position, or apparent disorganisation of fabric. Professor Von Esenbeck was the first to publish his opinions on the subject in 1814. His obser- vations were made chiefly upon the filamentous algas, particularly the Osoillatorise. The animal state is inferred from the spontaneous move- ments of the individual, the vegetable state from its immobility. A monad or active mole- cule issues from the summit of the filament, and frolics in the fluid in which the plant vegetates. Ultimately a period arrives in which a complete metamorphosis ensues, the moving monad being gradually converted into a motionless vegetable." — The Eev. Patrick Keith Clark's Botanical Lexicon, p. 264.] § 3. — RED CABBAGE. Eed cabbage {Brassicce oleracea:, var. Capitata rubra, De C. ) Of this there are several varieties, differing only in their size, height, and colour. Medium-sized varieties are to be prefeiTed, as also are low-growing ones, on account of their being less liable to sustain injury from frost dur- ing winter; but colour is of all the most impor- tant, as its chief use is for stewing or pickling, when a fine red colour adds much to its appear- ance. The sorts, or rather names, in the seed- shops, are, dwarf red, tall red, red pickling, early BRASSICACEOUS PLANTS.— BRUSSELS SPROUTS. 91 blood-i'ed, large ted, drumhead, Dutch, and the Aberdeen red — a coarse, open-hearted half cab- bage, half borecole, much grown in the North of Scotland, in cottage and farm gardens, on account of its extreme hardiness. The first and fourth are the best, if they can be procured genuine. They are sown, planted, and managed in the same way as the drumhead cabbage, noticed above, only, being of much smaller growth, they may at final planting be set at the distance of 2^ feet apart row from row, and IJ feet in the line. On the approach of severe frost they should be taken up, and either buried in dry soil, or' hung up by the roots in a dry airy shed, where they will keep for a long time. When the heads are cut, the roots should be immediately removed, as no longer of use, and to prevent exhausting the soU. § 4. — BRUSSELS SPROUTS. Natural history, — Brussels sprouts {Brassica oUracea bullata, gemmifera, De C, bud-bearing cabbage). Of this much-esteemed vegetable, in- troduced into this country from the Continent only of late years, there are only two varieties, a taller and a dwarfer grower, varying in height from 1 to 4 feet. The former is the most pro- ductive, on account of its greater length of stem, along the whole length of which the sprouts, like little cabbages, are thickly set. The latter stands the winter best. It derives its name of chou de Bruxelles from having been extensively cul- tivated around Brussels from time immemorial. Uses. — It is used much in the way other cabbages are, being sent to table stewed, and as a garnish for butcher-meat, and at the best tables is presented, from the size of a large marrow-fat pea, which they indeed somewhat resemble, to that of their natural full size, somewhat under that of a pigeon's egg. The outer leaves being carefully removed, the hard, compact, little sprout is presented whole. Sometimes they are boiled, which is done with great care, using plenty of water, and that at the boiling point, when they are thrown in, adding a handful of salt, and leaving off the lid of the vessel. With the view of preserving their delicate green colour, they are covered with a rich stock sauce, in which vinegar and nutmeg form a part. They are also served boiled with white sauce, and in private families with melted butter. The quantity grown throughout the north of France, Belgium, and Holland is truly astonishing, whole fields of them being seen all over the country. Sowing andplanting. — Regarding their cultivation, they are sown early in April, and transplanted in June, into rows 2 feet apart, and the plants set 18 inches distant in the line. Their sowing, trans- planting, &c., differ not from that of early cabbage : the same proportion of seed is also used. The soil, however, is in a dif- ferent condition. If planted in soil as highly manured as that for other cabbage, the sprouts would be produced coarse, large, and open, whereas the smaller and more compact they are the better. In Belgium, where an almost constant suc- cession of sprouts is kept up, they sow on a slight hotbed in February, prick out on a warm border, and transplant towards the end of April. They afterwards make two or three separate sowings, at the distance of three weeks from each. In England, for private families, two sowings are necessary — one in February, on slight bottom-heat, and the other in April. In Scotland, they often sow in August, and keep the plants over winter for spring planting, and again in March for a secondary crop. In the former, the first-sown crop comes into use in Sep- tember, in the latter in November, at which time vegetation is moderated in growth, and the crop lasts till March; the second following in April and part of May, if the crop be taken up in February, and replanted to give it a check. By early and late sowing, and the superior advantage of climate, the Brussels mar- ket is supplied from the end of July to the beginning of May following. "The London practice," says Mr Cuthill, a high authority in such matters, " is to sow in May ; but it should," he remarks, " be March. The Scotch sow them in August. Sown in May, it is impossible for the plants to get so tall, stout, and cover the stems so well with fine large sprouts, as when sown in March. I have had them," he says, " 3 feet high, covered from top to bottom, each stem producing one peck of large close sprouts." Subsequent culture. — The ground should be kept well stirred by frequent hoeing, not mere surface -scratching with a Dutch hoe, which, were it not for gravel walks, and that as seldom as possible, should be banished from gardens. The draw-hoe is better; and even that, beyond the mere cutting down of small weeds, which should not be allowed to appear, will be much better substituted by the Vernon hoe, fig. 3, or any of the modi- fications of it. When the plants are about a foot high, draw a little soil around their roots ; and when about three parts grown, and while the sprouts are forming, the side leaves should be broken oiF, a few at a time, to give room to the sprouts to swell, and also that, by their removal, 92 CULINARY OR KITCHEN GARDEN. more of the energies of the plant may be thrown into them. It has been recom- mended to cut off the tops when the sprouts are fully formed, and this is a part of the Belgian practice. We prefer their retention, as from their form and position they protect the sprouts during winter from wet, frost, and snow. The top itself forms a useful vegetable after the sprouts are gathered, and, singular enough, possesses quite a different flavour from them. Many are deterred from cultivating this excellent vegetable, sup- posing it either too tender or less produc- tive than a crop of cabbage, neither of which is the case. It is a plant calculated for simultaneous cropping, and may, there- fore, be planted along with potatoes, placing the plants alternately in the rows. " Select, if possible, a rich stiff loam for them ; plant 18 inches plant from plant, and 2 feet row from row ; keep the ground well loosened by the hoe. Moulding up the stems is never practised, and as soon as the plants reach their height, which is known by the top beginning to cabbage, the loiter ought to be cut out. This throws all the strength into the sprouts down the stem, making the bottom ones as good as those on the top." — Cuthill, in Market- Gardening around London, p. 24. We have given reasons above for not cutting the tops off where danger is expected from frost. Taking the crop. — When the sprouts have nearly attained their full size, they should be gathered for use, taking the largest first, and so on in succession, cutting them off with a sharp knife. When taken to the vegetable house (an apartment in all good gardens, where the vegetables are carried to be washed and dressed _^< /or the cook), the outer leaves should be neatly cut off; and if moderate care has been taken they need not be washed, as that would spoil their flavour, particularly if to be sent to a distance. When dressed, they should be put into a small punnet basket, fig. 35, which is made of thin split laths, and of various dimensions — from 3 to 6 inches deep, and from 6 to 9 inches in diameter, according to the sort of vege- table or fruit to be placed in them, and with or without handles, to suit various purposes. In such baskets all the most choice vegetables are carried, such as forced potatoes, kidney beans, Brussels sprouts, mushrooms, &c. This is a branch in garden refinement that has, nothwith- Fig. 35. PUNNBT BASKET. standing steam communication, not as yet reached Scotland. They can be pur- chased in Covent Garden for a mere trifle, and no garden should be without half a hundred of them at the least. General remarhs. — An unfounded prejudice exists against tome-saved seed. Carelessly as much of this branch of horticulture in Britain is conducted, it is not much better on the Conti- nent, at least where seed is saved /or exportation. The case is different as regards that for home consumption. ( Tide Saving Beassica Seed, at the end of this chapter.) The safe way to save a pure stock, once obtained, is to propagate by planting the sprouts in spring after the manner of cuttings. § 5. — THE BROCCOLI. Natural history. — The broccoli {Brassica ole- racea, Botrytis asparagoides, De C.) The broc- coli is of more recent introduction to Britain than the cauliflower, from which they are sup- posed to have originated. In Miller's time, only two varieties were known, the white and purple, and from these it is more than probable that all our present varieties have emanated. The white varieties of broccoli resemble the cauliflower much, only they are much hardier and constitute a winter vegetable, whUe the former is adapted only for summer and early autumn. The white varieties are in all respects preferable to the pur- ple or other coloured sorts. ?7ses.— These are as a substitute for cauli- flower during winter and spring, when the other cannot be had in perfection. Mode of propagation. — The same as the cauliflower, &c. Sowing and planting. — The early varieties, such as the purple Cape, improved purple Cape, Walcheren, early white Cape,Grange's early cauliflower broccoli, and Gillespie's early, should be sown the first and second week in May for English practice, and a fortnight earlier for the Scotch climate, so as to have them in to succeed cauli- flower, from the beginning of September BRASSICACEOUS PLANTS.— THE BROCCOLI. 93 and onward till Christmas. Another sowing of the same kind should be made during the second week of June for the south, and not later than the first week for the north. These will stand over winter, and come in early in spring. Plants from the first of these sowings should be transplanted for good about the first of June, having been previously pricked into a nursery-bed, to give them strength and abundance of roots. Other varieties, of which there is a great num- ber, should be sown about the second and third week in May for the south, and ten days earlier in the north ; and, if trans- planted about the middle of June, will, from their difference in growth, produce their heads during March, April, and May. As a general rule, calculating upon the kinds, for an autumn supply sow in April, for a spring supply in May, making an allowance of a fortnight between sow- ing at London and at Edinburgh, unless slight artificial heat in the latter case is had recourse to. The mode of sowing, the quantity of seed, and the earliest man- agement are the same as for early cabbage (which see). Transplanting has been ob- jected to by some as having a tendency to cause such early sorts as the white and pur- ple Cape to button, as it is technically called — that is, to run up prematurely to flower, before the plant is suf&ciently strong to bring the flower to perfection. And the means employed is to trench and manure the ground in May, to tread it firmly down, and to sow the seeds in lines 2 feet apart, dropping three or four seeds into each hole, made at the distance of 2 feet apart from each other. When the plants come up, they are all destroyed except the strongest, leaving one in each hole. The ground is kept deeply stirred during summer, and the plants are earthed up in the usual manner. The same mode has been re- commended for early-sown cauliflower, lettuce, (fee. We think careful trans- planting preferable. Subsequent culture. — This is the same as for early cabbage. The distance apart must ever be governed by the size of the variety — thus, for example, Knight's dwarf protecting wiU require only 18 inches plant from plant; while the larger- growing kinds, such as Elletson's gigantic k,te white, should be set 3 feet distant row from row, and the plants 2 feet apart in the VOL. II. line. Much, however, in this depends on the soil and its state of cultivation. Deep stirring of the ground between the rows is all they require during the rest of the summer. It is only in very cold and damp localities, and in very inclement winters, that broccoli requires protection during winter ; but it is advisable, with all the kinds intended to stand over till spring, to lay them over in November, which operation is performed by opening a trench at one end of the field, forming the back in a slanting direction, taking up the plants with as much earth about their roots as possible, removing two or three of the lower leaves, and setting them in the trench inclining towards the sloping bank, and covering up the roots and stems close to where the first pair of leaves issue. If the ground is much on the incline, begin at the lower part, so that the leaves of the plants may point downwards, to prevent the snow and rain settling in their hearts. This process not only prevents the weight of snow break- ing down the leaves, but, by the check the plant sustains, causes the fibre of the leaves to assume a more tough and less succulent form by lessening the supply of food by the roots, and thus renders them less hable to injury from frost. In very unfavourable situations, the plants, when fully grown, may be carefully taken from the exposed part of the garden and re- planted in the above manner in a more dry, warm, and sheltered place. It is, however, imprudent to set them in a damp or shaded situation. When broccoli has attained its full size, which it will have done in most situations by the middle of November, the plants might be taken up carefuUy and disposed of as we have suggested (see post) for full-grown celery. This, in moderate climates, may be uncalled for, but in less favoured places it would secure their preservation, and at the same time clear the ground either for other crops, or for improvement by trenching, &c. In such cases the ridges should run in an east and west direction, the earliest kinds being placed with their heads towards the south, while the later sorts should have theirs in the opposite direction. This position would tend to accelerate the one and retard the other. A bank of broccoli thus arranged could easily be 94 CULINARY OR KITCHEN GARDEN. protected on the top by a roofing of boarding, straw-thatobed hurdles, or a tarpauling covering, which would ward off at once both wet and frost. Great care, however, must be taken in such a mode of protection that the plants be not crowded too closely together, else the want of a free circulation of air amongst them would be as disastrous to their safe keeping as if they had been left to take their chance where they were grown. As soon also as the heads are cut for use, the foliage should be instantly removed for the preservation of those that remain. Laying in dry farm or stable litter between the rows, as high as the length of the stems, would protect the roots, but would afford no shelter to the leaves and hearts. Nor do we approve of Mr Knight's recommendation of transplanting in Sep- tember, setting them deep in the ground with a view to encourage young roots from the stem to assist in swelling out the flower in spring. The late-flowering sorts will make roots when laid down as we have proposed, which will be in action during April and May, and no doubt will produce this effect. Those that flower be- fore that period will have no such means of support, but must depend upon the sap already elaborated in the plant during the previous summer and autumn. Soil and manure. — As we have said of cabbage, the soil can neither be too rich nor too deeply dug or trenched, the object in both cases being bulk of pro- duce — unless, indeed, a very early supply is required, when a less luxuriant state in the plants may induce earlier maturity. All the Brassicse are improved by lime, and to this may very safely be added a slight top-dressing of salt once or twice during their growth, the whole tribe being indige- nous to calcareous soils, and in close proxi- mity with the sea. Copious manuring with sea-weed, where it is readily procured, has produced excellent crops : a slight in- quiry into the cause will lead us to view common salt as the stimulating ingre- dient. From experiments now in course of trial, we believe that flower of sulphur would be ultimately considered an excel- lent ingredient, not only as entering into the constitution of the plant, but as a preventive to the attacks of insects. Taking the crop.— For the highest class tables broccoli should be cut when about the size of a goose's egg, three heads forming a genteel dish. When for ordi- nary purposes, it should be taken when nearly full-grown, and before what is technically termed the curd is broken — that is, the flower opening — for on its firm and compact appearance much of its merit depends. Approved sorts and their qualities. — 1. Granges early cauliflower broccoli is an old variety that, if procured true, still stands high in estimation, having a head nearly as large and as white as a cauliflower. The foot-stalks of the leaves are long and naked; the leaves somewhat ovate, slightly lobbed at the base, very slightly waved, and incurving a little over the flower, defending it from frost and wet. Not a large grower, and, being upright in habit, may stand at 2 feet distance apart. If sown in April or May, it will flower from the end of September till the end of December. Successional sowings of it should be made from April till the end of June. The London market-gardeners sow only four sorts, of which this is the principal, the others being the Waloheren, late London white, and the early purple or sprouting broccoli. 2. Waloheren. — Comparatively new; first pro- duced by Mr Legg of Bishopsthorpe ; so closely resembles cauliflower as to be scarcely distin- gvdshable from it. The leaves are more curled than in the cauliflower, and its constitution is of a hardier nature, standing our ordinary winter in the open garden, and withstanding better the extreme droughts of summer. Mr Legg's prac- tice in keeping up a constant succession is to sow the third week of April, middle and end of May, the middle and end of June, and the middle and end of July. For early spring use he sows about the 25th or 27th of August, keeping the plants through the winter under hand-glasses in the usual manner, leaving, how- ever, only three or four plants under each glass. Of itself, by the above timeous sowings, it will become a complete substitute for all the others,- and be at any time scarcely distinguishable from cauliflower. 3. Gillespie's. — A fine white early autumn sort much grown about Edinburgh ; does not appear to be as yet much known about London. Treat- ment the same as for Grange's early. The same distance also. 4. Early purple or sprouting, attaining the height of from 2 to 3 feet ; somewhat spread- ing; requires to be set 3 feet apart. Much grown by the London market-gardeners, and is much prized by French cooks, who dress the little sprouts in a variety of ways. The flower is close-headed, and of a fine purple at first, if the seed is genuine. It branches into sprouts afterwards, but is apt to lose its colour and become greenish, as well as to produce nume- rous small green leaves intermixed with the flower, if set in too rich ground. The London growers sow it along with all their other broo- colis in May, when it comes into use in Novem- ber, and continues all the winter, as fresh sprouts of flowers are produced from the alee of BEASSICACEOUS PLANTS.— THE BEOCCOLI. 95 the leaves after the head is cut. We sow in April to secure flowers in November. Some- times a second sowing is made in June, which' produces flowers the following April. 5. Purple cape. — A very early variety, the culture, &o. of which we have already noticed. The last two are almost the only purple sorts worth growing, and the five described the best of the very early varieties. 6. EUetson's gigantic late white. — One of the largest as well as latest white broccolis; dwarf on the stem; but, as the leaves spread considerably, it should be accorded 3 feet dis- tance each way. 7. Willcow late white. — As large as the last, but hardly so late ; grows taller, and requires the same space. 8. Hammond's white cape. — An excellent pure- white broccoli, flowering about December. 9. Knights protecting. — If not so pure a white as the others, it possesses the great merit of being exceedingly hardy ; and, being of M&ry dwarf growth and small size, it may be planted 15 inches asunder, thus yielding a great return of produce off a small space, and therefore excel- lent for small gardens. Its heads are larger than might be expected from so small a plant. It is known from all others by a bracteal leaf, which is produced on one side of the flower as if it were designed for protection from frost and wet. It appears to be an improvement on the small green Danish, from which it may possibly have originated. 10. Chappie's large cream. — A very large and excellent variety, to which may be added Dilston's bride and Snow's superb white, two first-rate sorts. The latter is a dwarf variety, with broad leaves and short petioles, in size and colour resembling a fine cauliflower. If sown in the neighbourhood of London in May, it will come into use in November. If sown in Scot- land in April, it will come in at the same time. To those who require the hardier varieties, we would recommend the Siberian, late green, or Danish, which are all the same. It has been proved to be the hardiest of any, coming in late in spring, when the slow increasing heat of the sun tends to swell it out to a fair size. The leaves are somewhat purplish, very much waved and indented; 2 feet apart is sufficient for it. The Eussian dwarf is also equally hardy and small. Besides, there are about thirty other varieties possessing less or more merit, and perhaps nearly half as many more names to be found in seed-lists, which are either worthless or pos- sess similar or inferior merits to those in the above selection. They have been selected from about forty named sorts, which were grown within two years in the Dalkeith gardens. The following broccolis are popular; their names, however, will suffice. Late dwarf purple Syrian, winter imperial. Dancer's pink cape, Adam's superb early white. Snow's winter white, impregnated white, Portsmouth cream-coloured, Sumner's late white, early Malta, Howden'a purple, hardy green cape, American white, Tam- worth white. Miller's dwarf, Stewart's early white, Addison's — the two latter much esteemed about Edinburgh. Indeed, Stewart's early white and Gillespie's white are more grown by the market-gardeners than any others, coming in early in winter of a good white colour, and lasting till spring. The true Walcheren, by successful sowings, may.be had the whole year through, and, with Snow's superb white. Grange's early cauliflower. Knight's protecting, and Hammond's fine white cape, may be considered quite sufficient to afford a supply the whole season. General remarks. — The difference between the broccoli and cauliflower is very slight The co- lour in some sorts of the former is no doubt sufficient to mark the distinction; but amongst the finer varieties of the white-flowering kinds of broccolis, this distinction almost vanishes. Pro- fessor de CandoUe, who has taken more pains to describe and systematise the order Cructferse than any other botanist, has not forgotten to mark the differences which exist between them. He states, first, that both are varieties of each other, or rather varieties of the same race — Bras- sica oleracea botrytis, or cabbages producing heads or flowers of an eatable description, but of a very different organisation from the cab- bage. From a very interesting paper upon this subject by that eminent botanist, published in the " Transactions of the London Horticultural Society," vol. v., the following brief extract is taken : — " The bunches of flowers, instead of being loosely spread into a pyramidal form, like those of a panicle, are close from their basis, and form a kind of a regular corymb ; to which is added a second character, that may be consi- dered as a natural consequence of the first : the pedicles, from being tightly kept together before their time of blossom, lose their shape, grow fleshy from adhering to each other, and in ge- neral produce nothing but the rudiments of abortive flowers ; so that, contrary to all other varieties, where the leaves and stalks are alone taken for culinary purposes, in this the floral foot-stalk is the only part eaten. This race com- prehends two varieties, viz., the cauliflower and the broccolis." Their difference is thus shown : — " The Bras- sica cauliflora (cauliflower) has generally a short stem, white-ribbed oblong leaves, the pedicle uniting at the head of the primary branches into thick, short, irregular bundles, in the shape of a corymb ; it appears to be a degeneration of the Brassica oleracea costata, or Portugal cabbage. " The Brassica cymosa (broccoli) ; its stem is more elevated, the leaf-nerves less prominent, the pedicles altogether less thick and close ; they are also longer, so that, on becoming fleshy, they resemble in shape the young shoots of aspara- gus : hence the name Asparagoides given by an- cient botanists to broccoli. The broccoli seems to be a degeneration of some variety of the chou cavalier, tall or open cabbage. It is divided into two sub-varieties, the common or white broccoli, and the purple or Maltese broccoli ; and each of these is again divided into several kinds by the practical gardener." Cultivation, by improving the finer kinds of white broccolis, is narrowing the distinctive marks ; but although so nearly alike, they must 96 CULINARY OE KITCHEN GARDEN. ever remain distinct, inasmuch as they derive their origin from two very distinct types, namely, the Portugal cabbage, and the tall curled kale. The oauHflower originated also in the south of Europe — some say the island of Cyprus — while the other originated in the north of Europe, but whether in Germany or Britain we have no cer- tain means of knowing. Others think the broccoli of ItaUau origin ; and hence the older authors, in describing the then two only known varieties, call them Brassica Italica alba, the white broc- coli; and Brassica Italica pwpurea, the purple broccoli To obtain seed: — "Such plants of each variety must be selected in March or April as most per- fectly agree with their pecuUar characteristics, and are not particularly forward in advancing for seed. As the stems run up, some growers recommend the leaves to be taken away ; but this must be injurious. Mr Wood of Queens- ferry is particularly careful that no leaves appear on the surface of the head. He always lifts his plants, and plants them in another bed, water- ing them abundantly, as this, he finds, prevents their degenerating or producing proud seed ; and when the head begins to open, he outs out its centre, and leaves only four or five of the outside shoots for bearing. The sulphur-coloured he always finds the most difficult to obtain seed from. As the branches spread, four or six stakes should be placed at equal distances round each plant, and hooped round with string to support them, and prevent their breaking. When the pods begin to form, water should be given re- peatedly, and occasionally some thrown over the whole plant, which tends to prevent mildew. Before the pods begin to change colour, those from the extremity of every shoot must be taken away, as these yield seed which produce plants very apt to run to seed without heading, and by an early removal the others are benefited. The branches ought to be gathered as soon as the pods upon them ripen. Different kinds must never be planted near each other, or they will reciprocally be crossed. The seed ripens in August or September; and it is often recom- mended to preserve it in the pod until wanted, but the general practice is to beat it out as soon as it is perfectly dry." — Cottage Gardeners'' Dic- tionary. § 6. — THE SAVOY. Natv/ral History. — The savoy {Brassica ale- racea buUata major, De C.) has been known in Britain as a cultivated plant since the time of Gerard, who specially notices them, and ranks them amongst hearting or heading cabbages. It is sufficiently distinct from all these in the wrinkled leaves, which form its chief charac teristic. The Brussels sprout is considered a sub-variety of this, but it is much more removed from it, in appearance, than the savoy is from the cabbage. It forms an excellent, hardy, and pro- ductive winter esculent, and is divided into two pretty distinct classes, the green coloured and the yellow. Its use is the same as the cabbage, being used, when fully headed, during winter, and as sprouts or coUards, in some families, during most of the year. Propagation. — It is propagated by seed sown annually, or by cuttings of the young sprouts in spring, after the head has been cut off. Sowing and planting. — In many parts of Scotland these are sown in autumn, at the same time as cabbages, &o. are, for next summer's consumption. This, how- ever, can only hold good in very cold and late localities. In others, the crop would be too forward, for they are not required in a full-hearted state before November. There are circumstances, however, when this is different; namely, where green savoys are required during most of the year, in the form of collards, like young cabbages. Sowing, therefore, to meet these demands, must be made frequently. (Vide Early cabbage.) For a general au- tumn and winter crop, a sowing towards the end of February, and another towards the beginning of April, will be sufiScient, so that the plants may be set in their per- manent position in May, June, or July. Half an oz. of seed will be sufficient for a seed-bed of 36 square feet. The distances, &c. of the plants are in all respects the same as for cabbage, allowing those that are to be drawn as collards the same distance as cabbage, collards, and those which are to remain to form perfect heads, from 24 to 26 inches between row and row, and 20 inches between plant and plant. Subsequent culture. — An open and ex- posed situation is the best, beginning- planting out as the young plants are ready in the nursery-beds ; for it is im- portant that they be removed from the seed-bed as soon as their leaves are about 2 inches in breadth. Choose the strongest plants for first planting, following up with the weaker in the course of a week or two, or as ground falls vacant from other crops. May and June is a good time for transplanting, when the crop is wanted during August and September, for south- ern practice ; and the same time, or even towards the middle of July, for northern climates. The first, unless for market purposes, is perhaps too soon for English family use, as, during August and September, more desirable vegetables are in use. July and August are there- fore a preferable transplanting season for BRASSICACEOUS PLANTS.— THE SAVOY. 97 English consumption. In planting sa- voys, as well as any other of the Brassica tribe, observe if any of the young plants are clubbed or have knotty protuber- ances on their roots ; if so, cut them closely off; but it is better to throw away such plants entirely, as they never make good plants afterwards. Soil has much to do with this clubbing, and it is found to be far more prevalent in poor gravelly soils than in those that are deep and rich. Savoys may be planted in the simultaneous mode of cropping ; as, for example, between rows of previous stand- ing crops, Uke pease, beans, early cauli- flower, or the like, that are sufficiently advanced to be cleared off before the savoys will require the entire ground. The general crop will last in use from the beginning of November tiU the beginning of March, after which they will begin to run to seed, and should then be removed either to the rot-heap or the pigs, or be dug in as green manure for the succeed- ing crop. Soil and manure. — These can hardly be too rich, and in a highly cultivated state. The same manures as for cabbage should be appUed. Taking the crop, and subsequent preserva- tion. — In autumn, when the plants have attained their full size, and before they have become quite hard, they are fit for use, and in that state are more wholesome than when older ; as all vegetable matter blanched white from deficiency of light is in a less fitting state as articles of food than when of their natm-al colour. In severe winters, the full-grown crops may be taken up and preserved as recom- mended for drumhead cabbage ; and for prolonging them in a useful state till late in spring, the same means may be em- ployed as stated for broccoli. Approved sorts and their qualities. — 1. Dwarf green curled. — A useful, hardy, smallish sort, fit for small gardens, requiring only 18 or 20 inches space each way. Excellent for use before it becomes fully cabbaged. Known also as small dwarf green curled, pancalier de Touraine. 2. OatteTs green cmled. — An improvement on the last. 3. Marcellin. — A new variety of excellent quality, growing much larger than either of the above, and hence requiring more room on the ground. 4. Gape, or drumhead.— Hhe largest variety grown. 6. Globe. — Very finely curled, grows taller than most others, yet not spreading in propor- tion. Known also as large green curled, large green, large late green. 6. Dwarf yellow, — Curled ; differing from the dwarf green only in colour, which we think no recommendation. 7. Feather-stemmed savoy. — This curious and useful variety has been in existence for several years, being raised by Mr Barnes of Bicton, and is a cross between the savoy and Brussels sprout. Notwithstanding, we do not remember having seen it noticed in any seed-catalogue. It is what may be called a sprouting savoy, produc- ing numerous sprouts along the stem. A sow- ing of it should be made about the middle of April, and another about the 10th of May, planting out as the plants are of fit size, in the usual manner of savoys and other winter greens. From an excellent article upon the Varieties of Savoy, by Mr E. Thompson, in " The Gar- deners' Chronicle," 1850, p. 244, being the results of experiments made in the gardens of the London Horticultural Society, we make the following additions : — 8. Early green curled, or new early. — Small outer leaves, rather plain, deep green ; hearts readily, and is of excellent quality. It is con- sidered the best for early use. 9. Early flat green curled. — Middle sized, veiy dwarf and fiat headed, deep green, tender, and very good. 10. Early dwarf green curled. — Dwarf green, similar to the early green curled. 11. Large green German, or large late green. — " This," Mr Thompson says, " is the largest kind of savoy, and the best amongst the large. The leaves are plainer than in the other varie- ties ; the head roundish, a little flattened, like a drumhead cabbage, which it also approaches in size. It is hardy, withstanding the frosts of ordinary winters well." This we apprehend to be the same as our cape or drumhead. 12. Conical savoy. — Bather small, pointed green, hardy, of very good quality, but affords much less weight of produce than several of the preceding sorts. 13. Early yellow savoy. — Middle-sized, round- ish, yellow ; hearts easUy, of tender substance when cooked, and very good, but some object to the colour. 14. Early long yellow. — This, like the preced- ing, is an early variety, but it does not heart firmly. 16. Earliest JJlm savoy. — Described by M. Vilmorin, of Paris, in " Bon Jardinier," as being very dwarf, quickly forming a heart, which, though not large, is excellent. "It has been proved in the London Horticultural Society's garden, and stated by Mr Thompson as being the earliest in cultivation. It may be planted, in proportion to its size, considerably closer than the larger kinds." It is too small for market purposes, but in private gardens would no doubt be an acquisition. It is somewhat singular that a long cultivated and popular vegetable like the savoy should have remained so long so true to its original character. Indeed, with the exception of the 98 CULINARY OR KITCHEN GARDEN. feather-stemmed, scarcely any change has taken place for years. § 7. — THE CAULIFLOWEE. Natural history. — The origin of the name cauliflower (Brassioa oleracea Botrytis cauli- Jlora, De C.) ia from the Latin cauUs, a stalk, and fero, to bear ; its original name being coleflorie, or colieflorie. It is first mentioned by Gerard, who says, " The white cabbage is next best to the cole flourey ; yet Cato doth chiefly com- mend the russed cole ; but he knew neither the whites nor the cole flourey, for if he had, his censure would have been otherways." PVom this it appears not to have been known in his day ; subsequent Eoman authors, however, men- tion it in such terms as to leave little doubt of its great antiquity, but of its origin we know nothing. Pierre Pompes, an old French author, says, " It comes to us in Paris, by way of Mar- seilles, from the isle of Cyprus, which is the only place I know of where it seeds." From this account Philips remarks, " It would appear that cauliflowers were not much cultivated in France in 1694, when his work was published ; and the French have at present no distinct name for this vegetable, but call it choujkur, or cabbage-flower." Uses. — The heads or flowers are considered one of the greatest of vegetable delicacies when served up at the table, either plain boiled, to be eaten with meat, like other Brassicse, or dressed with white sauce, after the French manner. It is much used as a pickle, either by itself or forming an ingredient in what is called mixed pickles. It may also be preserved a con- siderable time when pickled in the manner of saur kraut. It also forms an excellent addition in vegetable soups. Propagation. — This is by seed sown at various times, for the purpose of keeping up a succession. It is scarcely capable of propagation by cuttings, and in our cold climate must ever be regarded as an annual plant ; for keeping autumn-sown plants under glass, or otherwise protected during winter, does not constitute a biennial. Sowing and planting. — Three or four sowings annually is the usual practice ; but the seasons of sowing depend some- what on circumstances, of which climate is the principal. The most prevalent practice, however, is to sow between the 18th and 24th of August ; the plants of which sowing, when about 3 inches high, are transferred to a nursery-bed, and set about 4 inches apart. When sufficiently strong — which they will be by the middle of October — they are planted out in shel- tered places, at the bottoms of walls, under hand-glasses, in cold pits or frames, in beds to be hooped over and covered with canvass, and sometimes they are potted and kept under glass till spring, when they are planted out for good in the warmest situation the garden offers. These plants flower during May and June following. The second sowing is made about the end of February or beginning of March, on a moderate hotbed, the plants being finally planted out in Aprilj but they should have the advantage of a nursery-bed, if only for a few weeks, to strengthen them. These produce flowers during July and August. The third sow- ing is made about the beginning of April, in the open ground ; and the plants, after being pricked out in a nursery-bed, are finally transplanted in June, and will pro- duce flowers from September until de- stroyed by frost. These are all import- ant matters to attend to. Autumn-sown plants, if destroyed by frost during winter, may be replaced by others, forced upon hotbeds in spring, in time for the first planting ; but a week's delay or advance in the third sowing may lead to the dis- appointment of either having the crop too early to supply the demand during October, November, and December, or it may be too late to flower at all. The above is the English practice, so far as dates are concerned. In most parts of Scotland, from the 1st to the 12th of August is the proper time for sowing the first crop, and a week in advance will be wise as regards the third. As for the second, as artificial means are employed, the exact date must ever be left to the discretion of the cultivator. The London practice is to sow "the seed of spring cauliflower about the 20th of September, in open beds. Towards November, when the weather is begin- ning to get cold, frames and hooped beds are got ready in light rich land. The plants are pricked out not more than 4 inches apart each way : during the winter they are kept dry ; no rain is allowed to fall upon them, but, whenever practi- cable, plenty of air is given to them. Frost has little effect on them under hoops j but when excluded long from air, and kept in darkness, they sometimes suffer from damp to a considerable ex- tent. They are planted out in the richest and earliest ground, in February or the beginning of March." — Market-Gardening round London, p. 22. Some of our best English gardeners BRASSICACEOUS PLANTS.— THE CAULIFLOWER. 99 sow a fourth sowing about the middle of July, choosing a warm border, or throw- ing up ridges of soil and sowing the seed on the south side of the ridge, which ridges, of course, should run in an east and west direction. When the plants come up, they are thinned out to the dis- tance of 9 inches or a foot apart, and allowed to remain without transplanting. In November nice little heads will be produced ; and if not convenient to cover over the ridges with a roofing of boarding or thatched hurdles, as a protection from frost, the plants may be taken up and treated as noticed below. This late sow- ing seldom succeeds in Scotland, unless in warm, dry localities, such as along the shores of the Forth, where little rain or snow falls, and, from proximity to the sea, frost is seldom severe. Half an ounce of seed is sufficient to sow a seed-bed of 36 square feet. Thick sowing should be avoided. The method of sowing and planting is in all respects the same as for early cabbages {which see.) The following ingenious method of keeping up a supply of cauliflower is communicated by Mr Henry Baily, of Nuneham Park, Oxfordshire, to " The Journal of the London Horticultural So- ciety," vol. V. p, 103. Mr Baily is one of our most enlightened horticulturists ; his method has both novelty and excellence to recommend it, and as his situation is not one of the warmest in England, similar success may attend those who follow his example. The true Walcheren sort only -is used. " The first sowing for the spring crop is made about the 25th of August, and another, for smaller successional plants, a week later, upon an open bor- der. As soon as the plants are large enough they are transplanted," that is, pricked out ; " and as soon after that as they have made a few roots, they are again transplanted into small pots, called sixties : they are then placed in an open airy situation (either a frame, vinery, or peach-house, which is dormant), simply requiring protection from severe frosts; as they fill the pots with roots, larger ones are provided, and early in February the first crop, or handlight division, is planted out in a south border ; the holes for their reception having received a barrowful of rotten dung, the mould is re-turned, form- ing a little hillock, on which these plants are placed, and covered with the glass till they begin to be established. The smaller plants are reserved for a successional crop, potted into larger-sized pots, and placed in temporary frames, covered with mats in severe nights, but fully exposed in fine genial weather. This crop is gene- rally planted out in the alleys of the as- paragus beds, completes its growth before the tops of the asparagus become too high, and then has its duration prolonged by the shade of its branches. " For the next crop in succession I sow in pots, about the middle of February, subjecting the plants to the same routine of potting, &c. Other sowings are made at intervals between this and the 20th of May, when the last crop is sown, which should be planted on a south border, for autumn use — extending up to Christmas, with protection. "For the February supply, an early white broccoli, grown by Mr Wilmot, of Isleworth, is invaluable. It is sown the end of May, and should be taken up and protected in a cool vinery, as our winters will not admit of the production of cauli- flower at that season, as the fine climate of Naples does. " The roots should never be allowed to get matted in the pots, or the plants to suffer any check. It will readily be con- ceded that our object in the cultivation of those culinary vegetables, whose stems, leaves, or flowers are eaten, is to grow them in the most rapid and luxuriant manner, avoiding any check at any period of their growth : any curtailment of those resources of plants which have a tendency to increase their luxuriance, and conse- quently render them more tender, must therefore, be detrimental, and it is to avoid checking the growth of the plant that the practice of potting is adopted. In dry weather, when the plants are drawn out of the seed-bed, and planted with a common dibber, receiving daily dribblings of water, many will perish, and all will be materially injured. By the mode I have described this is avoided, and labour saved in the end. After planting out, a copious watering is given, either in the evenings of bright days or in dull and cloudy wea- ther, when it is not rapidly evaporated." Such a mode as this is well adapted to our northern climate. 100 CULINAEY OR KITCHEN GARDEN. Subsequent cultivation. — The safe preser- vation of the plants during winter de- serves attention. They should be reared in an open, airy situation, and, when the leaves are about 2 inches in breadth, as we have stated above, should be invariably transferred to a nursery-bed, in an equally airy place, kept free from weeds and dead leaves, encouraged to make numerous roots, which transplanting considerably assists ; for the stockier and stouter they are got to be, without being drawn up tall and slender, or of too gross and suc- culent habit, the better they will stand the winter. It is not, therefore, expe- dient to have the nursery-bed too rich, as this would induce them to send down naked tap-roots, and assume a degree of grossness that would ill enable them to withstand the frost. Hand-glass protection. — In October the hand-glasses should be filled, and those best fitted for the purpose are such as are constructed in pieces, so that the top may be removed entirely, or in part, on all favourable occasions, for the sake of ven- tilation, but more so to prevent the plants being drawn up or advanced farther than necessary. The glasses used for this purpose by the London market-gardeners are usually large bell-glasses, fig. 36, blown of green coarse glass, 18 inches in dia- meter and 20 in height, with a glass nob at top, answering the purpose of a han- dle. The better sort, however, is as shown fig. 37, and is made of cast-iron. The four sides are in separate pieces, and put toge- ther by projections at the corners, fitting into each other, and Fig. 37. Fig. 36. CAULIFLOWER BELL-OLASS. CAULIFLOWER HAND-GLASS. fastened by a wedge, and are each 20 inches square. Lead, zinc, wrought-iron, copper, &c., are the worst possible mate- rials to construct such utensils with. Some substitutes for these have been proposed, but their utility verifies the old saying — " Saving at the spigot, and losing at the bung-hole." The cast-iron hand- glasses will last for fifty years, the others not as many months. They are glazed with the fragments of glass which abound in all gardens where hothouses exist. The manner of planting under hand- glasses is this : — In the best exposed place of the garden, dig out holes in number agreeing with the number of bell or hand glasses at disposal. These holes should be 2^, feet square, filled with one-half rotted stable-manure, and rather more than the other half the soil taken fi-om the hole, so that the place, when finished, may be 4 inches higher than the sur- rounding soil. The hand-glass should be set upon this preparation to mark its dimensions, and five plants placed in each space — one in the centre, and one within 4 inches of each corner of the space. These are to be regarded as the per- manent plants, but, to secure as many more as can be, with a view to their being taken up in spring and planted elsewhere, six or seven more plants may be pricked in between them. The glasses are to be set at first over them, supported on four bricks, one at each comer, and, as the winter draws on, these are to be removed, and the glasses set on the surface of the ground, or rather pressed about an inch under it, the better to exclude the cold. Ventilation must now be attended to by lifting the top off entirely, or par- tiallyas shown in our fig., and only closing it entirely doM^n when severe frosts exist. The bell-glasses are to be managed in a similar manner, only on good days they may be elevated on one side an inch or two, or entirely removed. Here the ad- vantage of the hand-glass in pieces will be apparent. These glasses may be placed at 3 feet apart, which will afibrd sufficient room for each patch of plants to develop themselves fully when the glasses are removed in April. Wall protection.— Those transferred to the bottoms of walls will, in general seasons, stand well, and, if thinned out in spring, the superfluous plants being transplanted BEASSICACEOUS PLANTS.— THE CAULIFLOWER. 101 to an open part of the ground, will come in a fortnight or three weeks after those left to enjoy the reflected heat of the wall. In preparing the space for them at the bottoms of walls, which need not be more than 9 or 12 inches in breadth, no great fear need be apprehended of injuring the roots of the wall-trees, as these are, for the most part, progressing outwards. The soil may, therefore, be loosened up with a fork, and a good supply of stable- yard manure added, the plants set about 6 inches apart, to be afterwards thinned in spring to a foot distant. All the care required is to remove the leaves fallen from the trees, to dust the plants fre- quently for the suppression of slugs, and, in cold and damp localities, to cover the surface between them with finely-sifted coal-ashes to counteract damp. Frame protection,. — Plants for this pur- pose should be taken up from the nur- sery-beds : the taking up we consider essential, and much more than adequate to the saving of time which would result from placing the frames at once over the plants still growing in the beds. About the end of October or beginning of No- vember transplant these into a bed of moderately conditioned soil, setting them 6 inches apart, so that the air may circu- late freely through them. One precau- tion necessary in cold, damp, strong soils, is to elevate this bed 6 or 7 inches above the ground-level, to insure freedom from damp ; cover with glass-lights at first till the plants take root, and afterwards, upon all occasions when frost or snow is apprehended, giving abundance of air at all other times. Cover the glass with canvass during severe frosts, keep the soil dry, and introduce between the plants, stiU further to insure this, an inch in thickness of finely-sifted coal-ashes ; re- move decaying leaves, pull up weeds, and leave till spring arrives, when more copious supplies of air must be given, and the plants gradually inured to stand the common atmosphere, when they may be transplanted out for good, which, accord- ing to climate, will be about the end of March or beginning of April, setting the plants in a warm place and in a highly- enriched soil, in rows 2| feet asunder, and 18 inches plant from plant. In trans- planting, remove with as much soil as possible about the roots, for which the VOL. II. transplanters, figs. 29, 30, and 31, will be found useful. Winterinci in pots. — Where very early crops are wanted, and where there is fit accommodation, a set may be planted in 48-sized pots in October, and kept under a glass frame, cool peach-house, or the like, till February, when they may be turned out of the pots with their balls entire, and planted in a pit covered with glass in a richly-prepared bed, and there allowed to produce their heads or flowers. Cauliflowers, at so early a period of the season, will only be regarded by those who profess to distinguish a superior quality in the cauliflower over a fine well-grown broccoli, which, at the same season, will be in high perfection in the open garden. This we, however, know to be the case with some persons, and therefore, to provide for such a taste, it will be advisable to adopt the potting system. Spring-sown crop. — Plants originated from seeds sown in February or March should be also transferred to nursery-beds to harden and gain strength; in these they should be allowed 6 inches apart plant from plant, to facilitate the opera- tion of lifting with balls by the trans- planter. About the end of April or beginning of May (all, however, depend- ing on the weather, which, of late years, seems to put all nice calculations of this kind completely out of the question) they may be transplanted into the open quar- ter, setting them in lines 3 feet apart, and the plants 2^ feet apart in the rows. The summer-sown crop is to be treated in a similar way to the last, and transplanted about the middle of July at the same dis- tance as the last. Throughout their season of growth the same management is required as already detailed for other Brassicee, taking care that every one that begins to flag or droop its leaves, showing very evident symptoms of being attacked at the root, be taken up, and without further cere- mony consigned to the nearest hothouse furnace, and, in default of that, to the nearest fire ; for by this means such insects as are the cause of these disasters may be greatly limited in their future operations. Some excellent cultivators contend that the middle of August is not the proper season for sowing, and that the whole o 102 CULINARY OR KITCHEN GARDEN. routine of wintering them, as usually is done, has a tendency to give unnecessary checks to the plants, and that it would be better to sow for early spring planting in the first week of October, on a very gentle bottom-heat, close to the glass, and to prick out the plants, as soon as they can be handled, into another bed, keeping them still close to the glass. This is the practice of Mr Barnes of Bicton, who says, in "Cottage Gardener," vol. vi. p. 309, " The last week in October and the first week in November they are potted into small 60's, and plunged under frame or pit lights, still close to the glass, and in due season they are again shifted as required into larger pots. At the beginning of Ja- nuary they get their last shift into 7-inch pots — that is, those intended to be turned out under hand-glasses the first week in February — ^but those plants intended to be grown on and forced in pots in some hot- house, are, of course, shifted into 10-inch or 12-inch pots ; and those intended to be planted out into the borders and quarters are pricked into temporary shallow frames and turf-pits, in order to apply temporary shelter during the severe winter weather, by placing over them spare-lights, thatched hurdles, (fee." Soil and manure. — Much of the delicacy and excellency of the cauliflower depends on the quickness of its growth ; therefore, to promote this, the soil cannot be too highly enriched, nor too deeply culti- vated ; and, as all the tribe thrive best in new soil, the deeper the ground is dug, and the more new or rested matter that is turned up for the roots, the better. Almost all highly-manured garden soils, if deeply trenched, will produce the cauli- flower in great perfection ; yet, in newly- broke-up soils, all the Brassioae will luxu- riate equally well even with a much more limited dependence on manurial applica- tions. Taking the crop and subsequent preserva- tion. — The young heads or flowers are used when of the size of about 2 inches in diameter, and from that until they attain their greatest size, which may be taken as a maximum at 8 or 9 inches in diameter. It is not, however, size that constitutes the properties of a fine cauliflower, but its fine white or creamy colour, its com- pactness, and what is technically called its curdy appearance, from its resemblance to the curd of milk in its preparation for cheese. When the flower begins to open, or when it is of a warty or frosty-like appearance, it is less esteemed; and indeed, when exceeding the size of about 3 inches in diameter, it is only fit for secondary market purposes. Nor should it, during summer, be cut above a day before it is to be used. Towards the middle of November, should the weather prove severe, both late caiiliflower and early white cape broccoli, then coming into flower, should be care- fully protected. To this end the plants may be taken carefully up by the roots, and three or four tied together, and sus- pended with their heads downwards from the roof of some cool shed or outhouse, where there is not too much air, yet which is free from damp : strong currents of air would exhaust the sap from the plants too rapidly, and the flowers would become tough and uneatable, because the roots cannot now make up the deficiency. The leaves, after they have been hung up for a few days, and have become some- what dry, should be folded round the flowers and secured by a string. The best way, however, to preserve them during winter, is to take them up with as much soil about their roots as possible, and to replant them in light, dry, sandy soil in an open shed, where the accommodation of a regular structure does not exist. Figs. 676, 677, vol. i. p. 437, may be referred to as examples of such. In cool pits, frames, &c., they may be kept in a good state for many weeks ; and even divesting the flowers of their leaves and burying them in masses of peat-earth has, from the antiseptic nature of such a soil, a very beneficial eifect on their keeping. In mild localities, the mere breaking down of a leaf or two over the flower is found suflioient protection, as it wards ofi' both wet and frost so long as the temperature does not fall above 4° or 5° below freezing : but in colder places it is necessary to protect them as we have stated, or by taking up the plants and laying them in by the heels — that is, replanting them in a slanting direction, and covering the roots and stems fully up to the middle of the leaves, in a shel- tered and northern border, and covering them with branches and straw laid over them to throw off the wet, yet admit air, BEASSICACEOUS PLANTS.— THE SEA-KALE. 103 or by any other means most convenient at hand. The drier, however, they are kept, under such circumstances, the bet- ter. They have also been kept for seve- ral weeks by being taken up when quite dry, the leaves folded over the flowers, and the whole bxiried in a trench in a dry soil. It is well in doing so to place them tops undermost, leaving a small portion of the roots above ground, which serves to draw them up by when wanted. When' the heads are cut and dressed for the kitchen, the stems should be cut off close under the flower, all the leaves removed, excepting two or three of the very young embryo leaves which are next to the head ; these are dressed along with the flower, and make a better appearance on the table. If caterpillars are trouble- some, place the flowers in a pail of clean water with a handful of salt for a couple of hours in the vegetable-house, before sending them to the kitchen. This will dislodge any insects that may have taken shelter within the flower. It often happens that one or other of these expedients may be useful even for prolonging summer crops, when the one crop does not follow immediately that preceding it, or during dry summers, when the principal crops become likely to be exhausted before the next comes in. Approved sorts and their qualities. — The cauli- flower, unlike its ally the broccoli, has, by some not easily understood cause, remained pretty constant to what we may suppose was its ori- ginal state. For long we had only presented to us in seed-lists the early and late cauliflowers. These, however, have had some additions made to them — if even only nominal ones, we may be thankful, seeing how we cultivators are beset with such long lists of names, as a reference to the articles Pea, Bean, and Bboccoli will abun- dantly show. 1. Early London white; 2. Early Dutch; 3. London particular; i. Fine late; 6. Large Asia- tic; 6. Large late German; 7. Walcheren; 8. Mer- cer's new pearly; 9. New dwarf late Cyprian; 10. Epps's superb; 11. Early cauliflower; 12. Early Leyden— are all names to be found in seed- lists. Concerning the merits of Nos. 3, S, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, and 12, Mr Thomson says Nos. 3, 8, 9, 10, and 11 appear to be all the same, and to these we have little fear in adding Nos. 1 and 2. He believes 1 and 12 to be identical vrith Legg's "Walcheren broccoli. His conclusion is, that two varieties — namely, the large Asiatic and "Walcheren— are found to be those most deserv- ing of cultivation. The true "Walcheren is dis- tinguished from all others by its bluntly-rounded and broad leaves, and the closeness and almost snowy whiteness of its heads, even when grown to a large size. It is most difficult to procure genuine seed of this variety. Those who are fortunate enough to procure it once should, if possible, save the seed themselves. For man- ner of doing so, vide end of this chapter. § 8. — THE SEA-KALE. Natural history.— Searkale {Crambe maritima) belongs to the natural order CruciferEe, and Lin- neaen class Tetradynia, and order SUiquosae. The name Crambe is derived from the Greek name for sea-cabbage. Although of comparatively modern cultiva- tion in Britain, the date of the introduction of this vegetable into our gardens is not correctly known. Mr Curtis states, upon the authority of Jones of Chelsea, that he (Jones) saw bundles of it in a cultivated state exposed in 1753 in the Chichester market in Sussex. Mr Maher, in a communication in the "London Horticultural Society's Transactions," vol. i., asserts that sea- kale was known in this country above 240 years ago ; and that it was used by the inhabitants of the sea-coast as a common dish, is stated by both Parkinson and Bryant. The former flou- rished about 1629, which is the date of the pub- lication of his " Paradisi in Sole Paradisus Ter- restris ;" the latter somewhere about 1783, when he published " Flora Dijetetica." Strange as it may appear, sea-kale plants were sent from this country by Lobel and Turner, 250 years ago, to the Continent, where, at this day, in many parts, gardeners scarcely know it by name. It is now pretty common in the Paris markets, but we have scarcely seen it in any other ; nor have we met with it in a cultivated state in any way ap- proaching to what is seen even in the neighbour- hood of Edinburgh, where its cultivation was attended to as early as it was in the neighbour- hood of London. Mr Gordon of Fountain Bridge gives sensible directions for its culture in his " Gardeners' Dictionary," published in 1774 ; and Dr Lettsom, it is well known, only brought it into notice around London in 1767. In 1853, a comparatively small breadth of it is cultivated around our northern metropolis, while around our southern one some hundreds of acres are covered with it. Professor Martyn and Mr Cur- tis, by their publications, brought it into notice in England. In the south of Europe it is scarcely known ; in the north it is only beginning to be attended to. Several young German and Danish gardeners we have had in the gardens at Dalkeith only recognised it as a botanical plant, never having seen it in a cultivated state. The same taste prevails in America. Our oldest English authority for any knowledge of this plant is Gerard, who gives its native habitats, but says nothing regarding its cultivation. It was known in the time of Pliny to the Romans, who called it Halmyridia ; and although they do not appear to have taken it into cultivation, they used it as a sea provision during long voyages ; gathering it where it grew wild, and cutting it up, they put it in barrels where oil had recently been kept, and these they stopped closely up, so that no air could reach the contents. 104 CULINARY OR KITCHEN GARDEN. The sea-kale is a native of the sea-coast of Britain, as noticed by Gei-ard, who observes, in his " Herbal," that " the sea-oolewort groweth naturally upon the beach and brim of the sea, where there is no earth to be seen, but sand and rolling pebble-stones." It is often found grow- ing out of the crevices of the rocks even of our highest cliffs. When it grows lower down, it sometimes gets covered with sand, and thus be- comes naturally blanched, which circumstance, no doubt, led to our blanching it artificially. Use. — The young shoots and stalks, when from the length of 3 to 9 inches, are the parts used. These, however, unless blanched (etiolated), are no better than the coarser kinds of borecole, but when blanched they become exceedingly deli- cate, and much prized. The ribs of the leaves, even after they are nearly fully developed, are sometimes used, being peeled and eaten as as- paragus. In either state they are tied up in small bundles and boiled, and served up with meat like cauliflower, covered with white sauce,melted butter, or on toasted bread. This kale cannot be too much boiled, so long as its form is not broken down ; it should then be thoroughly drained, and set a few minutes before the fire, to allow more of the moisture to escape by eva- poration, which renders it more crisp and better flavoured. Propagation. — Being, unlike the ma- jority of the Brassioae, a hardy perennial, it is propagated by seed, and also by cuttings of the roots, which are replete with buds or eyes around the bottom of the crown, which are sufiSciently -visible ; and also with dormant buds all over the surface of the roots, which are invisible, but will develop themselves if the roots are cut up into small pieces and planted. It is, however, in the estimation of some, best raised from seed, as such plants, at least for the first and second year, de- velop only one principal bud or eye on the top of the crown, throwing up a much stronger and better formed head than they do afterwards when several buds are allowed to expand. This, however, may be corrected by rubbing oiF the eyes when they have attained the size of large peas. The London market-garden practice is to propagate by the root in preference to the seed, and in the following manner : — " To- wards spring, after the produce has been all cut, the roots are' taken up ; all the thongs," the long naked roots, "are cut off, and laid in large heaps ; and as soon as the cut part or upper portion becomes hardened, ground is prepared for its re- ception by manuring and trenching. The roots are then planted out a foot apart, in rows 18 inches asunder, and a crop of lettuces are planted between them : as soon as the buds become visible, all are cut out except the strongest one, the ground is kept clean, and nothing more is done till November, when they are ready again for forcing." Sowing or planting.— Seed is sown in March ; the roots planted at the same time. In cold damp soils, the beginning of April is better for the latter purpose ; but much in this respect depends on the wounded parts of the roots being well healed over, else there is danger of their rotting. The seed is best sown in drills 2 inches deep and 6 or 8 inches wide, scattering the seed equally over the bot- tom to give the young plants more room when vegetation takes place. Some sow in beds in the broadcast manner, either of which will do equally well, as the plants are only to remain there for one season, when they are to be taken up and transplanted for good. Two ounces of seed will sow a bed of 36 square feet, or if in drills a foot apart and 8 inches in breadth, the same quantity will suflSce. The seed is large and light, very often either too old or imperfectly formed ; but this is easily ascertained by cutting them through the middle : if sound, the seed will be found plump and solid. They should be covered to the depth of 2 inches. Sometimes they are sown where they are to remain, in which case the same quantity of seed will sow a piece of 75 square feet in drills 2 feet apart, as it must in this case be sown thin. Care must be taken, when the plants come up, that they be thinned to the distance of 15 inches. Some divide the ground into beds, and set the cuttings or young plants in rows in them 2 feet apart, and the plants 18 inches in the line : when three rows are thus planted, a space of 3 feet is left as an alley, and another bed of simi- lar dimensions formed. Others, instead of thin-planting the beds, make shallow holes along the line, and drop three or four seeds in each, leaving one plant only to come to maturity. Some people think that in this way the plants are stronger than when subjected to transplantation. For ourselves, having practised all the ways, we could -never see much difference in the results. The seed usually vegetates in four weeks. Mr Martin's plan of increasing sea-kale is BRASSICACEOUS PLANTS.-THE SEA-KALE. 105 thus given by Mr Cuthill, in " Market- Gardening round London," p. 20. " At taking-up time " — that is, when the esta- blished roots are taken up for forcing, beginning in November, and continuing till the middle or end of February — " all the thongs are cut off from the plants. The small prongs or end roots are at once cut into 4-inch pieces, and laid together in a heap for the winter. In February they are deposited thickly in beds, and covered with mould an inch deep ; when sprouted, it is seen by the buds which is the top, and by the roots which is the bottom. The ground being prepared, they are planted" as described above. " This last plan makes finer plants, as the whole of the strength is in the roots when cut off in winter, which is not the case after they have produced a crop. After forcing, the pores of the thongs must be empty, and they take a long time in recruiting." When seed has been sown the previous season, the young plants should be carefully taken up the . March following, preserving their roots with the utmost care ; they are then to be planted in richly-manured and deeply-trenched groimd, in rows 2A feet apart and 15 in- ches in the line, if the intention is to take them up the following winter for forcing. If, however, the crop is planted with a view to its remaining several years, either to be blanched where it grows, by cover- ing with the sea-kale pot and the influ- ence of the sun, or to be covered with leaves, dung, &c., and excited into growth during winter, then the rows should be 3 feet apart, and the plants set 2 feet apart in the row, to allow a full develop- ment of the large foliage during summer, for on this much of the success of the future crops will depend. In planting seedlings, as the roots have very few fibres, they may be set with the planter, fig. 38, which is a wooden dibber 3| feet in length, with a cross- handle at top, and another cross-piece as a gauge with- in from 9 to 12 inches of its point, made so as to shift to suit the length of the roots to be planted, which will in general aver- sEAKALE DiBBBK. agc ffom 9 luches to a foot. Fig. 38. The lower part, which is to perforate the soil, should be 3| inches in diameter, and tapering to 2 inches at the point, which should be left obtuse. The holes being made by one man using the perforator, and being guided by a line, another should follow, having, the roots arranged with their tops all in one direction ; and as the holes are made, he drops a plant into each, slightly filling in the soil about them with his foot as he progresses. From this it will be seen that propaga- tion by the root is the most expeditious way, giving a saving of time equal to one season. Subsequent cultivation. — Whether the plants are originated from seed, cuttings of the roots, or division of these, retaining the crowns entire, it is necessary that the ground around them should be kept clear of weeds, and also that it be repeatedly stirred up between the rows, and that not in the scufiling manner performed by the Dutch hoe, but well roused up by means of the Vernon hoe (fig. 3, page 38), care being taken that the extending roots be not mutilated. In spring, when the buds are beginning to break through the ground, and also once or twice during the growing season, a top-dressing of salt should be applied in quantity about 1 lb. to the square yard. The crop should be gone over in November in Scotland, and October in England, at which time the offices of most of the leaves will have ceased. Those that have changed to a yellowish hue may safely be removed as no longer useful, and this will admit light and air to assist the ripening of the buds. Where the beds are not intended to be destroyed, and the plants taken up for forcing, the ground between them should be forked up, and a good dressing of rich manure applied in which salt has been liberally incorporated. In this state the young crop, as well as those intended to be blanched without artificial heat, should remain till spring. Many recom- mend covering this crop with leaves or litter as a protection from frost — a recom- mendation wholly unnecessary, unless in some of the highest and coldest parts of Scotland, where such a precaution may be worth the trouble : for although the plant is a native of our own country, still its natural habitat is close to the sea, and never inland. What degree of frost 106 CULINARY OR KITCHEN GARDEN. it may stand without injury has never been accurately ascertained. A portion, however, of the crops should be covered early in November, so that it may be got readily at during winter, to take up for forcing. Some of the London market-gardeners grow their sea-kale for permanent crops in rows from 4 to 6 feet apart, and in autumn, after the foliage has fallen off, they cover the crowns with soil dug from the alleys to the depth of a foot or 15 inches, by which means they procure it finely blanched in spring, and at little expense. As soon as this crop is cut, they level down the ridges, and crop with other things between the rows. Remove every flower-spike as it appears, for the production of seed is much harder upon the energies of the plant than taking a crop/rom it. Soil and manure. — In a cultivated state, sea-kale does not appear to be very par- ticular about either, succeeding in most, provided the former be sufficiently deep and dry at the bottom, and that the latter be rich and incorporated with saline mat- ter. Deep trenching where the land will admit of it is important, and where that is not naturally the case it may be ren- dered so by excavating broad alleys be- tween the beds, and elevating them with the material taken out. Forcing. — From the middle of Novem- ber till it comes into use in the open air, this vegetable may be had in great per- fection, at a season when other choice vegetables are scarce, and this at little trouble or expense. In former practice it was recommended to force the crop in the ground on which it grows ; than this there can scarcely be a more unsatisfac- tory, uncertain, and expensive process recommended. The objections we should state are, the waste of manure in pro- ducing the necessary heat by fermenta- tion, the waste of time in carrying in and out, turning over and adding to the material, the uncertainty of the heat produced, the expense of blanching- pots, open wooden cages, or whatever other means may be used to separate the fer- menting material from the crowns of the plants ; the deterioration in flavour, the trouble in examining the state of the crop and of gathering it, and lastly, the injury inflicted on the plants by keeping them so long in a state of excitement. To avoid much of all this, and at the same time to insure a certain return within a given time, the best method is to adopt the lifting or taking-up process. To pre- pare the plants for this, forms, as in the case of taking up asparagus, an important element in the rotation of crops. Plants should be grown for the special purpose : a seed-bed should be sown annually, from which to transplant the young plants in March into lines, in ground deeply trenched and abundantly enriched, setting them 3 feet apart row from row, and 15 inches in the line. If these are stimu- lated abundantly during the season after planting, care being taken that they do not form flower-stalks, and that all lateral buds are displaced as they appear on the sides of the main stems, throwing the whole energy of the plant into the centre bud or crown, the roots will be in excellent condition for taking up for forcing as soon as their buds are fully matured, and the foliage has died away, which with us, in general, is about the beginning of Novem- ber. The roots should then be carefully taken up, carrying with them as many of the small fibres as possible : soil is of little consequence, except in so far as it may be conducive to the preservation of the roots. For although these are not much required for the natural purpose of collecting food for the plant, under the treatment to which they ai-e to be sub- jected, they are valuable, inasmuch as they, along with the bud and stem, con- tain the elaborated matter formed during the past summer, and hold it in store for the formation of the shoots and leaves, which the excitement of a moderate tem- perature and slight humidity will call into action. The best situation in which to place the roots is on the floor of a regular mushroom-house, or, in the absence of it, the floor of a cellar, outhouse, or enclosed shed, into either of which a sHght tem- perature can be thrown by means of a hot-water pipe or otherwise. The advan- tage of such places is, that while the necessary heat can be applied, light may be sufficiently excluded to insure blanch- ing, while air to a certain extent is ad- mitted, which is of no small consequence to the crop. In such places also the pro- gress of the crop can readily be ascer- tained, and the gathering effected with facility. It matters little what the soil is BEASSICACEOUS PLANTS.— THE SEA-KALE. 107 in which the roots are set ; they derive no benefit from it further than exclusion from light and air, and being kept in a state of uniformity as regards moisture. This we apply pretty copiously by water- ing the roots and soil with tepid water, though others object to watering after the roots are arranged. In placing the roots, they are set closely together, and the soil is wrought regularly in amongst them, and up to within 2 inches of the tops of the crowns. Some, where the demand is not very great, place the roots in boxes or large flower-pots, which they place in any dark and out-of-the-way place ; and in this way we have seen as fine blanched sea-kale at Christmas, in a wine-cellar in the city of London, as we ever saw in any quarter. Under the stages in plant-houses, behind the flues in early vineries or peach-houses, or, indeed, wherever there is a vacant square yard of space, this vegetable may be pro- duced in perfection. We state these simple means, because they are within the reach of most or of all, and also with a view to get rid of the waste of time and material by at- tempting to produce it in the open ground. From five to six weeks will be required between the time of setting in the roots and gathering a dish, in places without any artificial heat ; in such as have a uniform temperature of from 50° to 60°, the time will range from two, three, to four weeks, sometimes less. It is, how- ever, best to allow excitement to go on very slowly, as the shoots will be much finer and stronger. When the crops are gathered, the old roots are thrown away. Those, however, which have been forced latest may be out up into pieces of 3 to 4 inches in length, and planted in lines to produce a succeeding supply. Young seedling plants are, however, much pre- ferable. The practice of the London market-gar- deners is thus described by Mr Cuthill : "When all the frames are removed, the dung and mould where cucumbers grew during summer are taken away, the trenches, which are 2 feet deep, are again filled with hot dung, and mould to the depth of 8 inches is put on the dung. The sea-kale roots are dug up, all the small buds round the main eye are pared off, leaving that by itself, which induces it to push stronger and finer. And now- planting is commenced : a furrow is cut out by the spade across the bed, and they (the roots) are put in as thickly as possi- ble. 5 feet across will hold from twenty- five to thirty roots ; the next furrow is cut out at 4 inches from the last, and so on till the whole is finished ; from 4 to 6 inches of straw is placed immediately on the crowns. The beds are hooped over, and straw is put over the hoops ; and in this way I have seen 50,000 plants forced during the winter and spring, and that by one man alone." If we calculate that five heads are quite ample for an ordinary dish suitable to a large family, this grower must have himself provided no less than 10,000 dishes of this excellent vegetable by artificial means, and pro'bably double that number from the open air. Such data will give some idea of the produc- tion and consumption of a London mar- ket-gardener. Forcing the plants where they grow requires from six to seven weeks from the time they are covered up until the crop is fit for gathering. This, however, to some extent depends on the season and the quality of the fermenting material ; and to effect this in the best manner, trim off all the decaying leaves from the plants, stir the surface up slightly around them, sprinkle about a teacupful of salt or caustic lime around the crowns, or water with lime-water to banish the earth- worms, Lumbricus terrestris, L., which are apt, upon the application of heat, to throw up their casts about the young kale, and thus render it very dirty. The same means secure the buds from the attacks of snails. Helix aspersa, and slugs, Limax agrestis, L., the milky-slug, L. ater, L., the black slug ; L. Maximus, the black striped slug ; and Testacellus scutulum, the shield slug, which are all apt to feed upon the young buds, and certain to gather round them in consequence of the genial heat. Over either of these a spadeful of clean river or sea sand should be placed, or, in default of these, a spadeful of finely- sifted coal-ashes, either of which keeps the young kale quite clean and fit for use. The sea-kale pots should then be placed over them, one pot to a plant, and over these the fermenting material, to a depth sufiicient to raise a fine genial temperature, not, however, exceeding around the pots 60°; less will do. 108 CULINAEY OR KITCHEN GARDEN. SEA-KALE POT, The best kind of sea-kale pot is that represented by our fig. 39 ; it consists of two parts — a body, a, and a top, b — which latter is necessary, as it can be taken off to examine the state of the crop, and also to gather it without hav- ing to remove the whole of the material. They are of various sizes — from 10 to 14 inches in dia- meter, and from a foot to 20 inches in height. There are other contri- vances to effect a similar end, such as boxes per- forated with holes, others made of 2-inth laths nailed together, and about as far apart from each other, the top ones being left loose for lifting when the crop is to be gathered. Reason points out the defects of these, as they do not exclude the moisture, accompanied with various gases, which are evolved during fer- mentation of rank stable-yard litter, and which, in many cases, communicate a dis- agreeable flavour to the kale. Amateurs may readily force sea-kale, if they have any dark warm cellar or out- house, or one that can be heated to some- thing like 55°, in the following manner : — Procure an old cask or a large packing- box ; perforate the sides of either with holes 2| inches in diameter, and about a foot apart, making the first row of holes a foot from the bottom. Procure the roots; divest them, if large, of a few of their most extending roots; place them in the bottom of the cask or box, with their crowns exactly opposite the holes : when the first row is thus arranged, pack the roots around with sand or soil of any de- scription, and work it well amongst them ; over this arrange another set of roots in like manner; proceed till the box or cask is full. Give a gentle watering with tepid water as the process of packing proceeds. In the course of a fortnight, three weeks, or a month, according to the heat in the apartment, the young buds will begin to protrude through the holes, and in another week or so many of them will be fit to cut for use. As a general rule, avoid a high tem- perature, whatever method is followed ; from 55° to 60° is the proper heat to secure a certain return. Taking the crop.- — When the kale is from 3 to 6 inches in length, it is then in the most proper state for use. Each bud should be cut off with a sharp knife, taking about a quarter of an inch of the crown attached to its base to keep it together in compact form. This portion of the old crown is to be neatly pared down close to the part where the young sprout springs from, the kale dipped in clear water to remove any dust that may have attached itself to it in the process of gathering, and then be placed in a pun- net-basket, of which fig. 35 is an example. If to be sent to a distance, it is best tied up in small bundles, which prevents the tops from being broken. From four to six buds make a dish. Three stout plants will produce about five dishes in a season when forced, and an ordinary managed plantation in the open air will continue in bearing about six weeks. There is only one variety known. § 9. — THE BORECOLE. Natural history. — Borecole {Brassicm oleracea sabellica, De C), a family of the Brassicae tribe both useful and numerous. The chief charac- teristic of the borecoles is that they are open- headed, not hearting like the cabbages, nor pro- ducing eatable flowers, like the cauliflower and broccoli. They are for the most part extremely hardy, and we entertain a strong notion that some of them are very early removes from the Brassicce oleracea in its wild state. Some of the sorts are much cultivated in the north of Scot- land, a circumstance arising from their hardy constitution, for, deprive them of that, and those varieties to which we allude have not a redeem- ing quality — ill-coloured, coarse, rambling-grow- ing subjects, requiring long boiling and a strong digestion. Prejudice, we believe, continues the cultivation of those over that of one of the very best of the family, the German greens or Scotch curlies, which we believe to be equally hardy. They all belong to the same natural order, to the same class and order in the Linnjean ar- rangement as the rest of the esculents comprised in this chapter. Borecoles, in one shape or other, are cultivated in every country where attention has been paid to the rest of the Brassioaceous esculents. Uses. — The crown or centre of the plant is cut out towards the middle of November, and continues to be used throughout the whole winter, while in spring numerous small delicate sprouts are formed, which are acceptable at that season. When properly cooked, they are tender, sweet, and delicate, and are by some supposed to become intenerated after being exposed to the frost. The coarser sorts may be thus improved, the better sorts do not require BRASSIGACEOUS PLANTS.— THE BORECOLE. 109 it. The young tops of the Buda kale are some- times, in spring, blanched by turning a flower-pot over it ; or better, by placing a sea-kale pot on it ; or the roots may be taken up any time dur- ing winter, and planted in a bed of soil in a dark cellar, and treated as has been recom- mended for sea-kale. The bulbs, like turnips, found on the surface of the Egyptian kale or kohl-rabi, are stewed, boiled, and mashed like turnips, and sometimes sliced in some German salads. The tender tops of the others are served to table plain boiled, as a garnish for meat, and should assuredly accompany it in the popular Scotch winter dish "beef and greens." They enter largely into soups, and form an ingredient as essential in the national dish, " the kail-brose of old Scotland," as horse-radish does in that of " the roast-beef of old England." Scotch greens are often mashed with butter and pepper, and served in imitation of spinach, and, like it, garnished with hard-boiled eggs. Propagation. — Most of the varieties, being annuals or biennials, are propagated by seed ; those that are perennial or half shrubby, like the Woburn kale, are increased by cuttings, and some may be grafted on other sorts, {vide art. Propaga- tion BT Grafting). One ounce of seed is sufficient to sow a bed of 40 square feet. Sowing. — The latter end of March, in April, the first week in May, and lastly, about the 12th of August, are the sea- sons adapted to England ; for Scotland, generally ten days earlier in each case. For the most part, however, those sown about the beginning of August, in the North, stand over winter, and are trans- planted in spring. The English sow Ger- man greens, or, as they call them, Scotch kale, during the first week in April. In the last week in August a sowing is made of Buda kale, to be transplanted before the 1st of October, to furnish a late crop of greens in spring. The method of sowing, &c., is the same as for savoys (which see). Subsequent culture. — The same as for sa- voys. In all cold exposed places, and where much snow is expected, it is expedient to lay them over in November, as recom- mended for broccoli, as their leaves are very liable to become broken by the weight of snow, particularly the taUer- growing kinds. Soil and manure. — The borecoles being of less luxuriant habits, and it being also desirable that they should stand the winter, the soil need not be so highly manured as for the other varieties of Brassicse. Where the ground is not re- VOL. II. quired for other crops or purposes, they may be made to succeed the summer pea crops, and, indeed, if ground be scarce, may be planted between the rows of late pease, or interlined with potatoes. Approved sorts a/nd their qualities. — Great confusion exists in this section of the Brassicae, probably arising from the circumstance that the cultivation of them is for the most part local, those that are grown in one part of the kingdom being almost unknown in other parts. Although we have been engaged for some years proving various sections of culinary vegetables, we have not as yet had time to bestow the same attention on the present section; and rather than mislead, we shall quote the substance of an excellent paper by Mr Thompson, being the results of his experiments carried on in the garden of the Horticultural Society of London, where an immense number of sorts by name were grown together, to enable him to draw the conclusions regarding their nomenclature and merits ; and certainly to no one better qualified could such an' experiment have been intrusted. Mr Thompson begins by observing that " the varieties of these are endless : they differ in having stems dwarf or tall, leaves more or less cut or curled; in colour, green, purple, or variegated with purple, red, green, and yellow. The transformations of all these render any attempt to give minute descriptions quite useless. It will be sufficient to point out the general characters of varieties that may be usefidly dis- tinguished as such. " Dwarf green curled, or dwarf curled kale, dwarf German greens, very dwarf green curled, dwarf winter curled, Scotch kale, green Scotch kale, dwarf curlies, French dwarf curled, Canada dwarf curled, Labrador kale, green borecole, and dwarf green borecole. By one or other of the above names this is certainly known to every one. The Canada dwarf curled was found to represent exactly the finest dwarf ourhes grown many years ago in many parts of Scotland, the plants being very dwarf and closely curled. " Tall green curled, or tall German greens, tall Scotch kale, tall green borecole, and tall greens," with a host of French and German synonymes, for in both countries they are ex- tensively cultivated. " Height usually from 2 to 3 feet, but 2 feet is the preferable growth. The plants are capable of bearing severe frost, and, like the preceding, it affords the best greens from the time when the first frost has mellowed its flavour, until the middle of Feb- ruary. " Purple borecole, or purple or red borecole, tall purple kale, purple winter greens, brown kale, purple kale, curled brown kale, curled red kale. This in its formation and habits differs little from the tall green curled, but the colour is deep purple. As the leaves enlarge, they have an inclination to become green, but the veins still retain the purple hue. " Variegated borecole, or variegated kale, varie- gated plumage kale," with various French and German synonymes. " A sub-variety of the purple borecole, having the leaves beautifully P 110 CULINARY OR KITCHEN GARDEN. variegatedjSometimesgreeu and yellowisli white, green and purple, bright red, purple and green. It is occasionally employed for garnishing, but it is very good cooked after frost. It is not quite so hardy as the purple borecole. " Dwarf purple borecole and the dwarf varie- gated we merely sub-varieties of the two pre- ceding, distinguished by their dwarfer habit of growth. " Buda hale, or Prussian kale, Prussian or Buda kale, Buda greens, Eussian kale, Ham- burg kale, Anjou kale, Manchester kale, aspara- gus kale, Duke of York's kale, Camberwell kale ; and so closely alUed as not to be worth dis- tinguishing from it are, the Jerusalem kale, Delaware greens, Delaware kale, ragged Jack, jagged kale, and the dwarf feathered kale. The Buda kale is not so tall as the purple borecole ; very hardy; leaves purpUsh, somewhat glaucous; cut and fringed. " Wohurn perennial kale. — This is a tall va- riety of the purple borecole, with foliage very finely divided and fringed. The plant lasts many years, and may be propagated by cuttings, as it neither flowers readily nor perfects well its seeds. Its produce at Woburu is stated to have been more than four times greater than either that of the green or purple borecoles, on the same extent of ground. The weight of pro- duce from 10 square yards was 144 lb. 10 oz., but some of the largo kinds of cabbages and savoys will exceed this considerably, and prove of better quality. The Wobum perennial kale can, therefore, only be recommended where the climate is too severe for the more tender kinds of the cabbage tribe. " Tree cabbage, or great cow cabbage. Cesarean borecole," with many French and German syno- nymes. " This grows to the height of 6 feet, and in La Vendee and Jersey it is reported that it attains the height of 12 feet and upwards. The leaves are large, smooth, or but slightly curled ; its sprouts are said to be good when cooked. Its merits have, however, been greatly over- rated, for when tried [in England] against" other cabbages, its produce was nothing extraordinary. " The thousand-headed cabbage is allied to the preceding, but does not grow so tall, and sends out numerous side-shoots. On the whole, it is preferable to the tree cabbage. " Flanders hale is a tall-growing kind, distin- guished from the tree cabbage by its purplish foliage. "Cockscomb kale produces sprouts along the ribs on the surface of the leaves, but it is of little value." To these kales we may add the imperial heart- ing or cabbaging kale ; and we believe the Ger- man cabbaging borecole of some seed-Usts to be the same. It appears to be a sub- variety of the dwarf green curled, dwarf in growth, the leaves standing nearly upright, turning in slightly to- wards the centre, finely curled, and of great ex- cellence as a small delicate variety. The palm borecole is a tall rambling kale of no estimation in Britain. It is cultivated in many gardens in France under the name of Chou Pal- mier. The Chinese cabbage (Brassica chinenm L.), although recognised as a species by botanists, has much the appearance of being connected with both the cabbage and the turnip. It is an annual of rapid growth, for, if sown at midsummer, it wiU ripen seed the same season. It is cultivated insomeofthe gardens around Paris, and has been tried in the Horticultural Society's garden at Chiswick ; the results, however, lead to a behef that it is not suited to the cUmate of Britain. The khol-rabi, or turnip-rooted cabbage {Brassi- ca oleracea Caulo-rafa commwnis De C.)^ — Of this there are two varieties, the one having the tur- nip-shaped bulb, of a pale-greenish colour ; the other of a purplish-plum colour. The plant is of low growth. The part chiefly used is a tur- nip-looking bulb, formed by the swelling of the stem, which is short. It is extremely hardy, and much grown in the north of Europe, where the bulb is dressed whole, and eaten with sauce or with meat, as turnips usually are. The seed should be sown on a warm border in February or March, and planted out when the plants have attaiaed the height of 6 or 7 inches. For suc- cessional crops, sow again in April and May ; the latter will produce plants for winter use. It should be eaten while young, as it becomes hard and stringy, and does not boU soft if left to be- come old. Diseases and insects. — Amongst the diseases that affect the brassioaceous tribe is the white rust, called by many the mildew, perhaps on account of its white appearance. The white rust is even more formidable than the mildew. Both are fangi, and although deriving their origin from nearly the same causes, are different in their botanical as well as their injurious dis- tinctions. The common white rust (Cyspopus candidus of Greville, Uredo Candida of Persoon) produces a white leprous appearance on the leaves of the plants. These white patches of parasitic fungi not only disfigure but materially injure the plants, as all parasites must do, whether of vegetable or animal origin, because they derive their very , existence by exhausting the energies of the plant. Again, there is the Botrytis parasitica, which, in mild winters, sadly destroys the foliage of brassicaceous plants, and often attacks them while quite young. A third production of this kind, but happily of much rarer occurrence, has recently been discovered travelling, as it were, southward. This is Cylinr drosporium concentricum, figured nearly thirty years ago by Dr Greville, and at that time abounding in the vicinity of Edinburgh, and de- tected by several botanists. Its first detection in England was only in 1850, and that no farther south than Northamptonshire. It spreads rapidly over the surface of the upper and under side of the leaves of most of the BrassicsB,the cauliflower in particular. These parasitics have been mi- nutely examined by the Eev. M. J. Berkeley, A.M., F.L.S., an acute observer in these mat- ters, and are pronounced by him to have no affinity with the genus Uredo, and still less with the parasitic moulds to which mildew properly belongs. These humble means at the disposal of a supreme Being, insignificant as they may appear even when viewed under the power of the best BRASSICACEOUS PLANTS.— THE BORECOLE. in microscopes, are often a scourge to man. Whole crops of Brassicae have often been completely destroyed by their united force. The only re- medy at present known is caustic lime in fine powder, or clarified lime-water, administered to the plants upon the first appearance of the fungi, and continued vigorously until its disap- pearance. An interesting account of these pa- rasites -will be found in the third volume and also in the sixth volume of the " Journal of the London Horticultural Society," to which the cryptogamic reader is respectfully referred. The EryHphe comimmis (Link, common mildew) is often found on the leaves, more especially in dry weather, for which an efficient remedy has been discovered in flowers of sulphur, thrown over the plants by one of the newly-invented Bulphurators. The most fatal disease, however, the Brassioa family is liable to, is what is called the club in the root, from the many swellings or tubercles formed upon it, varying in size from half an inch in diameter to two or three. This is the pro- duction of the larvse of Ov/rcidio contractus of Marsham, which, piercing the skin of the root, deposits its eggs in the hole, lives during a time on the sap of the plant, and then escapes and buries itself for a time in the soil. Frequent transplanting seems to be the first remedy, be- cause by it the plants acquire numerous roots to throw strength into the plant ; the next is to draw up every plant affected, and consign it to the flames ; the third is next to useless, namely, cutting off the protuberances and retaining the plants. The first has this advantage, that whUe it greatly encourages lateral roots, the grub pre- ferring those that are ramose, parts of these may be removed, while, at the same time, the others are throwing in support to the plant, enabling it to outgrow the disease. Renewal of soil is im- portant, while the application of the whole list of mineral manures has not had the desired effect. Guano, placed in the holes at planting, has been found beneficial In new soil this disease seldom appears. — {Vide section Turnip.) Snails and slugs are destructive to all the Brassica in a young state ; but as a good dust- ing of caustic lime so completely annihilates them, and a man can go over several acres per day sovring it broadcast, we do not see why we should occupy space with, or impose upon our readers the expense of any other remedy. Slug- picking and snaU-hunting has been a stereot^ed recommendation since the days of Mascall ; it is not in accordance with the intelligence of the present day. Tipiila okracew, crane-fly, known in England as gaffer long-legs, and in Scotland as daddy long- legs, is very destructive to most of the Brassicas in its larva state. The larva is easily known by its long cylindrical body being destitute of feet. The cognomen of long-legs is taken from the in- sect in its more perfect state. It appears that the best way of capturing it is by setting traps of slices of turnip, potatoes, &c., fixed to a wooden skewer, and sunk a few inches under the surface of the ground. The larvae wiU be attracted by them, and if they are pulled up every other day, thousands of them may be found attached to the baits, and can be readily scraped off and burnt, while the same baits may be reset. Fig. 40. CRANE-FLY. Against the attacks of such multitudes of obscure enemies — and those we have noticed as chiefiy feeding upon the cabbage tribe are as nothing compared with the millions of millions that prey upon other productions of his care — all the boasted intelligence of man would not enable him to contend, were it not that nature has so beautifully arranged it that one species of insect is made to feed on another, and thus keep up the balance in regard to their numbers and effects. Birds are great destroyers of in- sects at all times, but more especially in those stages of their existence when they are most destructive to vegetation ; these, therefore, should rather be encouraged than destroyed. All crops can be easily protected from them during the time the seed is coming to maturity, or fruit ripening. Late frosts, hurtful in them- selves to vegetation, are equally so to newly- hatched insects ; and much of the damage laid to easterly winds and spring frosts may, upon strict inquiry, be found rather to arise from these minute enemies. To this we will have occasion to refer at some length in the fruit- garden department. Inundations during winter do much to thin insects in their subterranean retreats ; and this points out to us the utility, where it can be applied, of irrigation, or indeed, laying the ground for a week during winter under water. Some of the most despised mam- malia — the mole for example — are insectivorous, and destroy many of our enemies, the larvae of wireworms being to that animal a savoury meal. So much satisfied are we of their assistance in this respect, that we rather encourage than destroy them. Amongst insects themselves, the genus Carabidse, or ground beetles, destroy the pupae of moths and butterflies while buried in the ground. Many of the winged insects actually 112 CULINARY OR KITCHEN GARDEN. lay fheir own eggs in the bodies of living cater- pillars, and hence cause their destruction. But of all others, the very numerous family of Ichneumonidse ars the greatest destroyers, amounting in species to above 1300, the females of all of which deposit their eggs in the bodies of other insects. Ants, not very troublesome in themselves, destroy aphides in vast numbers, and could we induce them to take up their abode iu a border of cauliflower or early cab- bage, the Aphis brasdae would sustain a severe persecution. Catching moths and butterflies is a wholesale mode of lessening the number of forthcoming caterpillars. Searching for chrysalides during winter, and dusting the crops infested vrith caterpillars, are the most rational means of rid- ding our kitchen-gardens of such pests ; and to those means we may add cutting off the infested leaves, pulling up the roots whiclr they have perforated, and consigning them to the flames, which is of vast importance, and, if persevered in, would almost clear the ground in a season or two. Trapping by placing slices of turnip, carrot, or potato attached to a skewer, and taking them up every other day and destroying the insects attached, is a most eflectual method. But these or any other means, if not persevered in, will be as completely useless as all the nos- trums recommended either in past or present times. Stimulants such as guano assist in msh- ing the plants forward, and hence enable them better to withstand the attacks of insects. Spirit of tar mixed with the soil destroys them by insinuating its penetrating poison through their hardest covering ; and rape-cake has been found efficacious in a more extraordinary man- ner, the pupa feeding kinds devouring it until they die of repletion. Any or all of these may be tried with efiect in the preservation of brassi- caoeous crops, but, we repeat, they must be ap- plied in sufficient quantity and persevered in. The cabbage moth (^Mamestra brassiece, or Noc- tua brassiccB of some entomologists.) — During the evenings about the latter part of May, the moth in its perfect state may be seen flying about in the neighbourhood of cabbage-beds, and in July, August, and September, in its caterpillar state, will be found committing sad havoc in the heart of the fall-growing cabbages, as well as on the leaves of those less farther advanced. "The moth measures about IJ-inch from tip to tip of the fore-wings, which are dusky brown, clouded with darker shades, and marked with pairs of dark spots on their front edge ; from these spots proceed the streaks which mark the wings across; there are various spots on the wings, some yellowish, and those in the middle sur- rounded with white, the kidney-shaped one with a whitish grey crescent around it, and blackish beyond ; the wings have a grey yellow- ish-striped fringe, and near this, at the point farthest from the body, they have a row of black triangular marks; the hind wings are light-brownish grey, with dark veins ; the body and head are of various shades of blackish grey, with a darker stripe of the same colour down the centre of the back. The caterpillar is green, variously marked with grey or black, with a dark stripe down the back, and a dirty-yellow one down each side. The (spiracles) breath- ing-holes are white, surrounded with black, and Fig. 41. CABSAOE MOTH AND CATERPILLAR. close above the yellow stripe. They bury them- selves underground, and remain in the pupa or chrysalis state all winter." — Cottage Gardener, vol, ii. p. 83. Fig. 41 shows the perfect moth and the grub. The white line brown-eyed moth, Mamestra or Noctua oleracea, is another enemy of the cabbage tribe. For figure and description, see section Tuenip. Aphis brassiocB (common cabbage-louse), fig. 42, the winged male, and 43, wingless female, is Fig. 42. CABBAGE APUIS, WINGED MALE. injurious in dry seasons. Dusting the plants ■with black hellebore, Scotch snuff, caustic hme in powder, are the usual remedies. They usually Fig. 43. appear in greatest num- bers from the middle of July to the end of No- vember, and are found generally on the under sides of the leaves, the females being surround- ed with their young broods, while the males are to be seen wander- ing about, no doubt in search of mates. The male is pea-green ; the ^^^„^^^ ^,^,^_ head, collar, and back of wingless female. BRASSICACEOUS PLANTS.— THE BORECOLE. 113 the body black; horns seven -jointed; trunk irregularly spotted with palish black ; nervures of wings dark brownish-black; legs black; base of thighs greenish. The female is of a yellowish- green and mealy white, spotted with black ; body large and heavy; legs black; base of thighs green ; horns shorter than in the male; the two first joints are green, while the third is ochreous ; eyes, four in number, two large ones in the head, and two smaller on the collar. The Powtia brassicm. — Well known as the large white garden butterfly, fig. 44, vfith black tips Fig. 44. of the second, green, with small yellow rings on the sides of the body ; and of the third, green, but striped down the back and sides with orange. Fig. 46. X.AKGE WHITE CABBAGE BUTTERFLY. a caterpillar ; b chrysalis ; c butterfly. to its wings ; produces the equally well known green caterpUlar, so often found upon the cab- bage tribe in all stages of their growth. The caterpillars may readily be destroyed, and by doing so the increase of following years is greatly diminished, by dusting the plants over, twice a-day, as long as the insects appear, with finely-powdered caustic lime, shaken from a thin canvass bag, or by watering them over head with clarified lime-water. And associated with it are Pontia napi, fig. 45, and Pontia rapes, fig. 46, the small white-and- Fig. 45. SMALL WHITE CABBAGE BUTTERFLY. a caterpillar ; b chrysalis ; c butterfly. green veined garden butterfly. The caterpillar of the first is greenish-yellow, with black spots ; GREBN-VEINKD CABBAGE BUTTERFLY. a caterpUlar ; b clirysalis ; e butterfly. When fully grown, they retire to some sheltered dry place, and change into the chrysalis state, ready again in spring to change into their but- terfly state, to lay their eggs, and produce a fresh breed of caterpillars. The cabbage powder-wmged moth (Aleyrodes proletella L. — the Aleyrodes elielidonii of Lat- reille) often commits sad havoc amongst the cabbage and broccoli crops in its fly state during the month of November. They begin to make their appearance in May, and live under the leaves where they are hatched, abounding during the months of June, July, and August. They are thus described in " Gardeners' Chro- nicle " for 1851, p. 837 : " The aleyrodes is a minute fly, covered with white powder. The females have been observed about midsummer to remain quite quiet on a leaf for several days when about to lay their eggs ; and when they had left the spot where they had rested, a small circular space covered with white powder was observable, around which were irregularly de- posited from 9 to 14 eggs. These eggs are transparent, but afterwards turning to a yellow- ish tint. They hatch in about 12 days, and the young larvse immediately run a short distance to spread themselves more about the leaf, but in a few hours a scale is formed over them, so that they look like little tortoises or cocci, and exhibit no signs of life. The colour is almost white, with two yellow spots behind. They are not absolutely stationary, but only move very short distances as they increase in size, being furnished with six pectoral legs. The perfect insect is covered with white powder, the head and thorax black, variegated with yellow ; the eyes divided and black ; the antennse nearly as long as the thorax, slender, and five-jointed ; first basal joint stout, second very long, third and fourth shorter, the remainder slender ; the ros- trum bent under the breast in repose; stout, biarticulate, with two very fine bristles passing through ; the thorax sub-globose, the collar short, with three black spots; abdonien short, yellow or rosy ; the apex obtuse and dark ; wings forming a triangle in repose, and more or less deflexed, pure white, mealy ; superior wings 114 CULINARY OR KITCHEN GARDEN. largest, with a single nervure curved at the centre, where there is an obscure black fascid, with a black spot at the extremity; inferior wings smaller, with a central longitudinal nerv- ure ; six legs, rather long, black, and powdered with white; feet long, and composed of two equal joints, terminated with two very fine curved claws, with a hook between them. These little creatures seem not only to withstand the cold, but even to multiply during the winter ; for Eeaumur says he found them in every state . in December and January, as he had done in summer ; and this wUl account for their extra- ordinary increase, which, from the small num- ber of eggs laid by each female, appears at first to be inexplicable. Moreover, in less than a month the insects undergo all their changes — from the deposition of the egg to the pairing of the perfect progeny ; it is therefore possible to have twelve generations in a, year. Reaumur calculated that a single female might, in the course of a year, give origin to 200,000 descen- dants." The best mode of lessening their numbers is to gather the infected leaves during winter and spring and burn them. Any choice plant at- tacked by them might be fumigated with tobacco smoke ; and, indeed, small crops might be covered with canvass, and undergo the same operation ; but such and all other means hitherto tried would be impossible with crops upon a large scale, as the brassioaceous tribe in general are. In some seasons they are more destructive than in others, and would become a frightful scourge to man, were it not that they have their natural enemies in a species of Cynips, and one also of Acarus, which feed upon them. Anthomyia irassicce of Bouche (the cabbage- fly).— The larvse of this insect live underground, in the roots and stems of most of the Brassica tribe, eating passages through them, and causing them to rot. It is one of the most destructive of insects, and is thus described in " Gardeners' Chronicle," 1841, by the authority above cited : "The male is darker, but of a brighter grey, with black bristles ; there is a black stripe half-way down the middle of the thorax, and a curved one on each side ; the body has a more decided black stripe down the centre, and the segments are marked by a line of the same colour ; legs and antennae blackish ; wings a little smoky. The female is pale ashy grey ; the eyes remote, with a dark chestnut-coloured stripe on the crown ; the wings are similar in tint to those of the foregoing species, but Fig. 47. the insect is considerar bly smaller, and this is the only striking difie- rence between the fe- CURCIJLIO PLEUROSTIOMA, Ceutorhynchus sulci- collis of Gyllenhal, fig. 47, the Curculio pleuro- stigma of Marsham, de- posits its eggs beneath the outer covering of the stems of cabbages, as may be discovered during winter and spring by the appearance of numerous galls or small excrescences covering the stems close to the ground. Those are produced by the deposition of the eggs of this insect. On opening these galls, a small white maggot wiU be found within, without legs, the body bemg curved and fieshy, the head is palish orange, with chestnut-coloured jaws, the tips of which are black, as are also the two small eyelets, one on each side of the head. These larvje, when fully grown, quit the galls and secret themselves in the soil, and remain there to undergo their transformation, first to the pupa state, and next to the perfect weevil, being about one-eighth of an inch long, of a black shining colour, slightly covered with grey- ish hair, the head and pro-thorax coarsely punc- tured ; the cases of the wings have ten lines impressed on each, the interstices rough, the under side of the body covered with scales of a buff colour. The best remedy in the case of young plants is, as soon as the galls appear, to puU them up and bum them, by which means a riddance is made of the brood. To cut off these galls weakens the plants greatly. It is much the safest way to bum the plants at once. Amongst other insect enemies that attack the cabbage tribe, we have reason to suspect one or two species of Fig. 48. lulus (snake mO- lipedes), fig. 48, as they are often found in great numbers buried in and feeding upon the roots in a putrescent state. They may be detected in spring, in the roots of such cabbages as have sud- denly died when about half-grown. When in that state, if the plants are pulled up, the roots will be foimd in a state of decay just under the surface of the soil, and in the decayed part multitudes of millipedes will be found. The editor of the "Cottage Gardener" queries their beingthe cause, and remarks, vol. ii. p. 139, "The question arises, Is this insect the cause of the disease by wounding and eating the bark of the plant ? or does the parent wound the bark, depositing her eggs in the wound, and when wet, and the irri- tation produced by the larva;, complete the fatal wounding? or does the decay first arise, and then this millipede comes to it to feed upon the putrid part, and the mites (Acari), which fre- quent the places where decaying vegetable matter occurs?" This question appears as yet undecided. Mr Johnston's opinion is quite in accordance with our own, namely, that this " lulus does not attack the cabbage whilst this is healthy, but that the wound may be occa- sioned by the parent millipede, and that the young ones feed on the mites which frequent the decaying wound. The millipede, IuIvls pul- chellus," represented in our figure, " which is oftenest met with in these circumstances, is of a sandy-grey colour, having on each side a row of small crimson spots. The number of legs varies with the age of the insect, but the great- est number observed in lulus pulchellus has SNAKB MILT-rPEDB, Natural size and magnified. BEASSICACEOUS PLANTS.— THE BOEECOLE. 115 been about 170. When disturbed, it coils itself round in the way represented in fig. 48. It haa been found in decayed onions and pansy roots, as well as in cabbage stems. Quick-lime and gas-lime, incorporated with the BoU, destroy or drive away these creatui-es." The cabbage is also infested by the Altica consobrina, or blue cabbage-fly, or flea-beetle, attacking the leaves; Anthomyia trimaculata, destroying the roots ; Altica concinna, the brassy cabbage-flea; Ya7iessa fluctuata, the caterpillars of which feed on cabbage-leaves. Saving seed. — The whole of the Brassicse are liable to change when grown from seed. They cross with each other so freely that it is scarcely possible to save the seed of any one variety with a certainty that seedlings from it will invariably come the same as the parent. Certain winged insects, such as bees, engaged in sucking the honey-like matter contained in the nectary, am appendage to the flower known to secret honey, and which is strongly exemplified in many cruciform flowers, to which tribe the Bras- sicse belong, carry the pollen or fertilising dust from one flower to another, and thus become the agents of nature in the creation of cross breeds, for hybrids or mules we cannot call them. Nor is it only in the same garden that these causes of intermixture take place; they extend over much greater surfaces — often to the extent of a mile or more ; and although we know that such do exist, we do not always know when and where they take place. It is impossible to save several kinds of brassicaceous seeds pure in the same garden, although Knight and others attempted this by covering over the flowers with fine gauze netting, and even by castrating the flowers when artificial impregnations of opposite plants were in course of experiment. It is, therefore, folly in people to save their own seed, unless their garden is far isolated from all others, as well as from fields where brassicaceous plants are cultivated. It would be, in a sense, foreign to our present purpose to follow this very interesting question further ; we will direct our attention now to the best means of saving seed, presuming only one sort is saved in the same garden within the same year. Cabbage-seed. — Select some of the best-formed specimens of the sort to be saved. They may either remain in the place where they have been growing, provided the climate is good, or the roots may be taken up and planted in the best situation the garden affords. In very cold and wet localities they should be planted at the bottom of a south wall, and when replanted should be set so deep in the ground that only a few inches of the stem may appear above ground. In spring they shoot up, and during summer the flower-stem is formed, and the flowers produced. The side branches of the stem should be cut away, as it has been proved by Bastion that the middle flower-stem pro- duces the best seeds, and that plants produced from them are much earlier, and more perfect in character, than are those produced from the side or lateral branches of the flower-stem. No doubt it would be of use as a precaution to cover the flower-stem, as soon as the flowers began to open, with fine gauze netting, were it only to protect them from the operations of the bees and other winged insects. Flower-stems from the sprouts should not be allowed to exist. In a few days after the flowers begin to open, im- pregnation takes place ; after that the covering may be removed, for no spurious impregnation can take place afterwards. Great cai;e should be taken that the flower-stems are supported so as to prevent their being broken by wind or otherwise, and also that the seed is allowed to ripen thoroughly. To secure such, it will be necessary, as soon as the seed pods are formed, to cover them with netting, so as to exclude birds from them, and also that the stalks should be out before the pods begin to open and shed their seed. All this may be considered trouble, but without such precautions no dependence can be placed on the purity of the stock. Com- mon seed-growers do not bestow this attention, because, at the miserably low price at which all kinds of seeds are now sold, it would not re- munerate them. They do their best, at least such of them as have a character to maintain. They visit their stock-farms frequently, and weed out all inferior plants, and do their best to secure a fair sample. They also avoid grow- ing plants of the same natural order near to each other, unless it be such as do not flower at ex- actly the same time. The critical period may, in a general way, be embraced within the space of a week, and there are several of the Brassicse that do not perfect their flowers within that period, and hence such may be grown side by side. Such, however, as experience has taught the seed-growers flower at the same time are grown on separate farms, or else they confine themselves to a less extended number of sorts, and occupythe ground with pease, beans, carrots, &o., from which there is no fear of contamination. Some, upon a small scale, plant their varieties of Brassicse on spots in the centre of com or other grain fields, and this greatly lessens the chances of intermixture. Seed-saving in private gardens is by no means a profitable speculation ; yet from the frequent disappointments we meet with, we are often driven to it as a measure of necessity. A superior stock of Brussel sprouts, or of Walcheren broccoli, or of a favourite cab- bage, is of too much importance to lose wan- tonly. Here, however, there is the consolation that as the seeds of most of the Brassicse will keep good for six or eight years, and even longer, we can save Brussels sprouts one year, Wal- cheren broccoli the next, and so on, including those other sorts that do not flower at the same time. The seed, when ripened, keeps best in the straw (using the phraseology of the trade), and where there is accommodation this may be done ; otherwise, the seed may be thrashed out when ripe, and kept in paper or canvass bags in a dry airy seed-room. It is of advantage to the seed, and a precaution against weevils, to examine the seed three or four times during the year, and to turn it out into a seed-sieve which has been already rubbed over with salad oil, and to toss the seed about in it until the skin receive a slight coating of th? oily matter, which will pre- 116 CULINARY OR KITCHEN GARDEN. vent the weevils from attacking it, and, by ex- cluding the air, tend to prolong the vegetative properties of the seed. All the BrassiciB seed is better of being kept for a time, for reasons elsewhere given. Brussels sprouts. — It is usual to save the seed indiscriminately from the flowers which proceed from the crown of the plant, as well as those which issue from the side sprouts. In both there is a difference. The experiments, in this respect, which we have been engaged in for some time, are not yet sufficiently matured to warrant us in oflering an opinion, which may some day be considered rather novel. Dr Van Mons of Brussels held the opinion that seed saved from the crowns or tops was preferable to such as originated from the side sprouts. CavXiflower and broccoli. — Both require a warm sheltered situation, yet one fully exposed to the sun — the former in particular ; and hence its seed is seldom well ripened in Scotland ; indeed, our best seed comes from Holland. The very finest and most perfectly formed heads should be selected, carefully taken up, and replanted. In spring, when the broccoli flowers begin to expand, the centre part should be cut out, leav- ing only five or six of the outside flower-shoots to come to seed. Transplanting the old stems from where they grew to where they are to pro- duce their seed, is thought greatly to improve its quality. By the check the plant gets during the operation, it is so far weakened that it is not so apt to button, or even prematurely to flower ; nor so likely otherwise to degenerate as it would be, if continued in its original place. The best remedy for either is seed well kept for several years. It was long thought that these seeds should be imported annually from Italy ; but this, so far as the broccoli is concerned, is quite uncalled for, as we have finer varieties of English origin than are to be found in Italy or anywhere else. The only difference in saving cauliflower seed is, that the plants require a warmer situation to be placed in, and instead of planting the stems in spring, as with broccoli, the plants of the last August sowing, preserved during winter, should be chosen : and as they produce their flowers or heads during May and June, the best specimens should be selected, and left where they are growing, that they may . experience no check to delay the season of ripening their seed. The same precaution should be employed as noticed for cabbage, and every encouragement given to accelerate their period of ripening. Our best cauliflower seed is imported from Holland, and for its quality we have much greater reason to thank the bet- ter climate than the growers, who are not over particular in the matter, as Dutch cauliflower seed is sure to sell. • The European names of the common mhUe cabbage are — Chou pomme, or Cabus blanc in French ; Cavolo in Italian ; Verca in Portu- guese ; Wiss kopf kohl in German ; Berza in Spanish ; and Witte kool in Dutch. The Por- tugal cabbage, or Couve tronchuda, is the Chou vert a larges cotgs of the French. Bed cabbage — Rood kool in Dutch ; Berza colorada in Spanish ; Chou pomme-rouge in French ; Cavolo rosso in Italian ; Koth kopfkohl in German. Samy — Herzkohl, or Wirsing, in German ; Cappucio in Italian ; Chou de MUan, ou Pomme frise in French ; Savooij kool in Dutch ; Berza de saboya in Spanish. Brussels sprouts — Chou de BruxeUes, or ijets, in French ; Sprossen kohl in German ; Spruit kool in Dutch : so little cultivated in the south of Europe as to have no other name than the French, Chou de BruxeUes. Borecole— Gho\x verte, or non pomme, in French ; Cavolo aperto in Italian ; Col in Spanish ; Grune kohl in German ; Groen kool, Dutch ; Kale, Saxon ; Open kale, Scotch. The palm borecole is the Chou palmier, and turnip-cabbage Chou navet of the French. Cauliflower— C)ion-&eur in French ; Bloem kool in Dutch ; Berza florida in Spanish ; Blu- men kohl in German ; Cavoli flori in ItaUan. Broccoli — Broccoli in French ; Broccoli in Italian ; Broculi in Spanish ; Scotsche kool in Dutch ; Italianische kohl in German. Sea-Jeale — Chou marin in French ; Col ma- rina in Spanish; Meerkohl in German; Zeekool in Dutch ; Crambe marina in Italian. CHAPTEE IV. ASPARAGINOUS PLANTS. This division comprises five sections of esculents, cultivated more as articles of luxury than of general utility ; they nevertheless form a most important divi- sion in garden arrangement, often occu- pying an eighth part of the whole extent. § 1. — ASPAHAGUS. Natwal history. — Asparagus {Asparagus offici- nalis L.) belongs to the natural order Asphode- lese, and to the class Hexandria, and order Mono- gynia, in the Linntean arrangement. The name is derived from (A . inteTis) sparasso, to tear, on account of the strong prickles with which some of the species are armed. It is by no means a genus having much floral attraction, most of the species being rude climbers, with insignifi- cant flowers ; in general natives of warm countries, and of little value either in the arts or in domestic economy. One is a native of Siberia ; and the common cultivated sort is a native of light sandy soils on some parts of our sea-shores, as well as of the salt-water steppes of Russia — where it becomes covered with sand and salt water during high tides — and other parts of the north of Europe. It is said to attain an extraordinary size in a wild state on the banks of the Euphrates, and it has been suggested that roots of it should be imported to this country ; we believe, however, that it owes its great size there to local circum- stances, and that roots from these would with us become no larger than our own. The first notice taken of it as a cultivated plant is about 200 years B.C., in the time of Cato the elder, who lays down very sensible rules for its culti- vation — much, in fact, as at present practised . — and very wisely recommends that the beds should only be allowed to remain in a bearing state for nine years. Suetonius, in his Life of Augustus, informs us how partial that emperor was to asparagus; and Erasmus confirms this. Pliny, in book xix. chap. 4, tells us that it was cultivated in the gardens at Ravenna in his time, of an enormous size, so that three heads would weigh a pound. Mr Grayson, of Mortlake, near London, has produced 100 VOL. II. heads that weighed 42 lb., perhaps the largest ever grown in Britain. Gerard is the first Eng- lish author who notices it, and calls it sperage, a name, within our own recollection, used by some old gardeners. He derives the name as- paragus from the Latin asparagi, which he translates to signify " the first sprig or sprout of every plant, especially when it be tender." Gerard wrote in 1S97. It is most extensively cultivated around London, many hundred acres being occupied with it — some individuals, such as Mr Grayson, having from 30 to 40 acres under this crop alone. Around Paris and Vienna it is extensively grown, and that to great perfec- tion. Meager, in his " English Gardener," p. 188, informs us that ip his time (1670) the Lon- don market was well supplied with forced as- paragus ; and the means employed then were much the same as those at present in use, namely, placing the roots on warm dung-beds. Uses. — Its delicate flavour is rather deterio- rated than improved by those additions which a skilful chef de cuisine deems necessary in the preparation of most other vegetables. It is usually boiled and served alone, to be eaten with melted butter and salt. It is also served on toasted bread, with a plain white sauce. The small heads are cut into pieces of | of an inch each, and served plain boiled as a substitute for green pease. In this latter way much of what is called the sprue, or small heads — or grass, as all asparagus is called — which reaches Covent-Gar- den Market is disposed of. Medically it is con- sidered diuretic, and in Paris is much used by people of sedentary occupations, like tailors, weavers, authors, &c., when they are troubled with symptoms of stone or gravel. It is said to promote appetite, and hence is served at an early period of the dinner. It is considered anti-scorbutic, and very good in dropsical cases, but is to be avoided by those troubled with gout. The roots possess those healing proper- ties more than the sprouts or buds ; and, if we are to believe Galen, Hoffman, Dr James, &c., it is because the roots contain more of the salt, from whence they derive that quality, than any of the parts grown above ground, which cannot imbibe it so copiously as the root itself receives it from the ground. It operates with much effect on the urinary organs, as all who eat it copiously know full well. But the most extra- 118 CULINARY OR KITCHEN GARDEN. ordinary virtue attributed to thia plant is given by Antoine Mizold, " Cent. 7, Memorab. Aph.," 34, and Solienck, "Obs. Med. L.," i.— " If the root is put upon a tooth that aches violently, it causes it to come out without pain." Modern dentists do not believe in this — nor do we. In Queen Elizabcith's time, asparagus was eaten " sodden in flesh-broth, or boiled in fair water, and seasoned with oil, vinegar, salt, and pepper, then served at table as a salad." It makes ex- cellent soup, and is also used when ragoued. The part used is 3 or 4 inches of the young shoots or buds, taken just as they appear above the ground, which is generally in May and June. It is most esteemed when of a nice fresh green colour. The French blanch it, but they destroy the flavour peculiar to it by such means. Propagation. — In the first instance, all asparagus is originated by seed. It is then replanted when of one or two years' growth : the first, if the roots are strong, is preferable. Sowing and planting. — March is the best season for sowing. Some recommend sow- ing broadcast in beds; we have a penchant for the drill system, and in this case would recommend it. Prepare the ground by copious manuring, and deep-digging or trenching. Draw the drills a foot apart, and 2 inches deep. Sow thin : the seed is in general good, so there need be small allowance made on that account. One quart of seed will be quite suflicient to sow a bed in the broadcast manner of from 36 to 40 square feet. If sown to remain on the same ground (a practice seldom thought of in first-rate gardens), then a pint of seed will sow a bed 4^ feet broad by 30 feet in length. If the plan- tation is to be formed of roots from last spring's sowing, then 160 plants will be required for a bed 4^ feet wide and 10 yards in length. This is the age at which they should be planted. The above cal- culation is made presuming that the usual practice is followed of setting four rows in a 4|-feet bed, and the roots 9 inches apart. We would rather plant three rows in such beds, and give the plants 12 inches from plant to plant, which will reduce the number of roots required, and tend greatly to the future welfare of the crop. Plants of one year's growth we prefer; but much depends on the way they have been grown, for sometimes one-year-old plants are stronger and better than three-year- old ones, where little attention has been paid to them. In this case, as in most others, plants sustaining a check in their early growth from starvation are seldom so luxuriant or so long-lived as those which have been carefully nursed. In sowing for permanent crops, it is best to sow in 4i- feet beds (three rows say, 18 inches apart), and when they have advanced to the height of 6 or 7 inches, to thin them out to 12 inches in the line ; or, as we have often practised, sow in single rows 3 feet apart all over the piece, and thin out the plants to a foot apart in the line. It is usual — and we find no fault with the practice — to sow a crop of onions along with the seed the first year : the onions, being sown broadcast, will not much in- jure the asparagus, while they will repay for the culture of the whole. For per- manent crops we prefer the single-drill system; but for growing for two, three, or four years, for the purpose of taking up the roots for forcing, it is possible that the 4^-feet bed, with three rows in each, may be preferable. This is certainly the case in petty gardens, where a bed of the above breadth, and 10 yards in length, may be the extent to which the owner's means permit him to extend. This is, however, scarcely a crop for manse gar- dens; the small return only sets the mouth watering, and may lead to a breach of what is forbidden by the tenth commandment. Whether the seed is sown broadcast or in driUs, with a view to be transplanted afterwards, it will be requisite the spring following sowing to prepare the ground and beds for transplantation ; and in this it matters little whether the roots are to be set in single lines, or two or three rows, in beds of the above breadth. The whole ground should be prepared alike, and the plants carefully removed to it. In preparing the ground, we need hardly say it cannot be too highly en- riched or too deeply trenched, the roots often extending 3 feet under the surface. It should be trenched to that depth, and a supply of manure placed in the bottom of each trench after it has been broken up with a pick — a foot more in depth, if the soil admits of it. As the process of trenching goes on, other layers of manures should be laid on each respectively, as it is from a foot to 3 feet in depth that the roots will be in search of food. The more lasting and permanent the manure applied the better, so that its decomposition may go on slowly as the roots require it. Some, and ASPARAGINOUS PLANTS.— ASPAEAGUS. 119 with great advantage, retrench the ground again in an opposite direction, to insure a more thorough amalgamation of the soil and manure together. The opera- tion should be, if possible, carried on during winter, but not when the ground is either wet, frozen, or covered with snow, having it ready for planting in March or April for Scotland. The Lon- don market-garden practice is as follows : — " The beds are prepared by putting on an immense quantity of manure, and trenching the ground 3 or 4 feet deep, mixing the manure as the work proceeds. In March the ground is measured out after the following manner: Suppose a fence runs north and south, or otherwise, 3 feet is allowed between it and the first row ; a drill is drawn about 2 inches deep, and the seed is sown thinly, say 6 inches or a foot apart, which gives choice of drawing out the weakest, in order that the permanent crop may stand 1 foot apart. The next row is sown 18 inches from the one just mentioned; then for the alley and two sides of the bed 5 feet are allowed ; then another row of seeds, and so on, which gives two rows to each bed. The first year, onions are generally sown all over the ground ; the second season, lettuce, or any dwarf-growing vegetable that will not choke the asparagus; and so on, until the third year, when the beds are formed out, and a few inches of mould dug out of the alleys, and put on the crowns. Only a few, however, of the finest heads are cut this year." — Cuthill in Market-Gardening round London, p. 1 8. We adopt another plan : — The ground is first thoroughly enriched, by laying with the stableyard manure a considerable por- tion of ground bones, say 2 inches in thickness, not very small, and about half an inch in thickness of rock-salt in the bottoms of the trenches, adding alternate layers of dung, with which salt is incorpo- rated, and soil as the trench nears the top ; and when the whole piece is thus trenched, we proceed to plant in the following manner: For single lines, trenches are taken out 1 foot in depth and 3 feet apart; in these the roots are placed, having been carefully taken from the seed-bed, with their most minute rootlets preserved, and carried to the spot in a shallow basket or planting-tray, and covered over with a little soil — for few plants suifer more than this by having their roots exposed to the air. The plants are examined to see that their buds are perfect, and are placed in the trench 14 inches apart, and the roots carefully spread out and covered with the soil, keeping the crowns about half an inch under the finished surface of the bed. When the bed system is followed, the ground is measiired ofif in breadths of 5 feet and 2i feet alternately: the former are the beds, the latter the alleys. Begin- ning at one end of a bed, a trench is taken out across the bed, 12 inches deep, or more if the roots exceed that length, for they should be laid in at their full length. One root is placed in the centre of the trench, and one on each side of it, 15 inches from each other. When these are planted, another trench is taken out, of the same dimensions, and 18 inches from the first, and planted in like manner. If the ground is dry, the whole gets a good watering of liquid manure— either diluted cow-urine, or water in which guano has been dissolved at the rate of 6 lb. to 50 gallons. The beds are left uncropped, and kept clear of weeds during their growth. Some have planted successfully in May, and even in Juue, after the plants have attained a considerable size. We mention this, more that advantage may be taken of it to make up any deficiencies that may arise from any of the plants having failed, than with a view of recom- mending it as a general principle. The seeds require about three weeks to germi- nate. The smallest asparagus bed that should be made should contain a rod (272 square feet, a little more than 30 square yards) of ground, as upon less than this a dish cotdd scarcely be at any one time gathered. The extent of ground for an or- dinary private family should not be less than 5 poles, which should yield about 125 heads daily for four weeks; but for large gardens, from one-eighth to a quar- ter of an acre will be required, exclusive of that which may be taken up yearly for forcing, which in many cases wiU require as much more. In preparing ground for this crop, we have remarked that it cannot be too highly enriched, and that the manurial application should be kept near the bot- tom. This is because the crop may have to remain on the same ground for from seven to ten years, and therefore it 120 CULINARY OR KITCHEN GARDEN. would be difficult to apply manure to it afterwards ; besides, it is at the bottom of the soil that the spongiolets of the roots are chiefly placed, few being near, to the surface. And although the asparagus is a native of poor drifting sand, still, as its chief merits rest on the size and tender- ness of its shoots, it follows that, to insure this condition, they should be stimulated to the greatest extent possible, both by manure, and by being placed in the warmest part the garden affords. In sowing for the formation of a permanent plantation, some excellent cultivators sow in rows 2 feet apart in April, thinning out the plants to the distance of 1 foot from each other. Every alternate row is taken up the second year for forcing, thus leaving those that are to form the crop at the distance of 4 feet row from row, cropping the ground between them with summer cauliflower, which enjoys a par- tial shade from the asparagus. They also recommend, if the transplanting system is to be followed, that the operation be performed iu April, when the young shoots are 3 or 4 inches long. The crowns are kept near the surface at planting ; and in October, 2 or 3 inches of rich maniire is laid over them, and is slightly forked in amongst the roots in the spring following ; but no soil is ever laid over them, and all the future care is an annual top-dress- ing as above, with liberal supplies of liquid manure, in which salt is mixed at the rate of 2 ounces to a gallon. The Vienna mode of planting asparagus is to trench the ground 5 feet in depth, and to place a layer of bone, horn, chips of wood, or branches of trees, a foot in thickness, at the bottom of each trench ; while the French practice is to excavate a trench 5 feet wide, and of the length the bed is intended to be. The best of the soil removed is reserved to be mixed in the following manner, viz. : — 6 inches of best dunghill manure is laid along the bottom j over that, 8 inches of turf, 6 inches of dung, 6 inches of the best of the soil that had been removed and well sifted, 8 inches of turf, 6 inches of very rotten dung, and then 8 inches of the good earth removed at the excavation. The last two layers are then to be well incorporatedtogether,and the beds formed 5 feet in breadth, with alleys 2 feet broad between them. The roots are then planted 18 inches asunder, placing a handful or two of mould under the centre of each, so that the roots may be spread out in regular order, and in form of an expanded umbrella, their crowns being kept I5 inches under the surface. A small peg is then placed at each plant, and a spadeful of fine sand is placed over the crown, which finishes the operation. The plants should not be transplanted too early in spring, as there might be a possi- bility of some of the roots being over- looked, which might be deficient in healthy buds. To guard against that, defer planting until they have sprung an inch or two inches in length. Some defer it longer, and thus reason : Early in spring is the period in general recommended for making new plantations of this plant. Custom only sanctions the practice, while experience says custom is in this case a fallacy, and recommends the operation to be performed late in May, or even early in June, and that when the plants have attained the height of 10 or 12 inches. In cold situations, this late planting is of the utmost consequence, and if attended to, would in a great degree remedy the defects, so often seen, of blanks in the beds, and not unfrequently the dwindling appearance of the whole crop during the first year. Many will no doubt object to this late spring planting, from a dread that the plants will suffer from removal while in a state of growth ; and others will argue that, by following the " good old rule " of planting in March, the plants will have a longer season to grow in, and also that the roots will sustain less injury, because they have not then become ex- cited into growth. All these fears are groundless : the young shoots, should they even perish, will be succeeded by much stronger ones from the latent buds, with which the crown of the plant is always furnished ; and others may be consoled by the fact, that, the ground being much warmer in May or June than in March, and the juices of the plant being in motion at the time, it is prepared to encourage immediate growth; whereas the roots transplanted in March lie, till excited by the natural warmth of the soil, in a dor- mant state — the elaborated sap in them escaping at the injured parts, weakens them amazingly, as well as brings on a disposition to rot and decay. Keeping ASPAEAGINOUS PLANTS.— ASPAEAGUS. 121 the beds well elevated, in cold soils and situations, enables the solar rays to reach the -roots better than when planted on a level surface. Subsequent cultivation. — We need hardly say that the beds should be kept free of weeds, as well as the alleys between them. The plants on seed-sown beds should be allowed three years to establish themselves, before any buds are gathered. Those on transplanted beds, if the roots were strong at planting, and have made good progress since, may have a few of the strongest buds gathered the second- year ; the third, if all has gone on well, will admit of regular cutting. The prac- tice of cropping the transplanted beds is injudicious, and that of cropping the alleys between the beds, although con- stantly done, is of questionable utility, because whatever crop is planted has a tendency to rob the beds; and the roots, which often extend towards them, run great risk of being either cut off or very materially injured. Mr Judd, in the " Transactions of the London Horticul- tural Society," vol. ii., thus very properly speaks on this point. Having dug out the alleys the first season, instead of re- peating the operation the next, he lays on a coating of rich dung 3 inches thick, and carefully forks it into the beds and alleys — a process he continues in winter annually, " never digging out the alleys any more, as it is known the asparagus plant forms a fresh crown every season ; and sometimes it happens that in a few years the crown will increase almost into the alley, so that in digging out this you must inevitably spoil that plant. If this is not the case when the beds are in a good condition, the roots will be sure to work out at the sides into the alleys ; and by digging out the latter, these roots must be cut off, as you will often see them exposed all the winter, before dung can be got to fill the alleys up. Eather than be treated in this way, they had better be without anything all the winter, as aspa- ragus does not suffer generally by frost." The practice of covering the beds in autumn with leaves or litter is sufliciently absurd, yet top-dressing them with rich manure is of great advantage ; but this dressing, whatever it may be, should be covered with a couple of inches at least of soil, to prevent the escape of its gaseous matter into the air. The rains of winter will wash down to the roots much of its fertilising properties ; and in spring, part of it may be carefully raked oiF, and left to rot in the alleys. That which remains on the beds will prevent the crowns from rising above the surface, and tend to ex- clude the drought. It has been recom- mended to uncover the crowns during winter, and to cover them over again in spring— a very useless, if not an inju- dicious practice. The surface of the beds should be slightly stirred up with a fork in spring, and before the buds show above ground ; and three times during the growing season of the plants, a thin sprinkling of salt should be applied to the surface, and, if possible, before rain. Upon the whole, disturbing the ground in the alleys, further than loosening it to the depth of 4 or 5 inches with a three- pronged fork every spring, is reprehen- sible ; and still more so, digging them out in deep trenches, and piling the soil over the beds, as practised by many of the London market-gardeners, who do so to obtain stalks, or grass, as they term it, nearly a yard in length — all of which, excepting about 3 inches at the top, is perfectly useless, and well defined " drum- sticks " in " The Gardeners' Chronicle " — an immense expenditure of the energies of the plant, for no other purpose, that we could ever divine, than to encumber the dust-holes in London. The practice is still persisted in, notwithstanding the merited castigation the advocates of such an absurd practice received a year or two ago from Mr Cuthill and the editor of that journal. Top-dressings, however, can be of far less advantage to the plants than laying a good foundation for them at the first making of the beds, because the spongi- olets, or food-absorbing parts of the roots, are in all cases at their very extremities, however deep they may be ; and hence it would be excellent, had we the means of applying food to them by means of a sort of subterranean system of irrigation, so that the food might be presented to those parts of the roots which are designed expressly for its absorption. No doubt, much of the success of the noted asparagus grown along the banks of the Thames is owing to the food conveyed to the roots by the rise of the tide, supplying it at a 122 CULINAEY OR KITCHEN GARDEN. depth of 3 or 4 feet at every flow — a depth that scarcely any manurial applica- tion, applied to the surface, could reach, or at least to the extent of being very beneficial. The London market-garden practice is thus described by Mr Cuthill : " Au- tumn arrives, and when the haulm is cut, the whole of the ground is forked over, and planted with cabbages, 'cole- worts, or winter greens ; then in spring the beds are largely supplied with mould out of the alleys, covering the crowns from 8 to 10 inches deep. The finishing of the cutting must be left to the grower. A fair crop of heads must be left, after four or five weeks' cutting, in order to grow the buds for the next year's gi-owth, and to restore to the roots what has been taken from them intheshapeof acrop; but not one head must be allowed to grow until you leave off cutting entirely, at the end of the fourth year. When the haulm gets ripe, it is to be cut down, and the mould thrown into the alleys, and there enriched; and the whole of the beds and alleys are planted again with cabbages, greens, &c." The exact season for cutting down the haulm must ever be governed by circum- stances. In early soils and situations, the haulm will be ripe about the middle of October, and this is known by its becoming of a yellowish colour, and by other evident signs that vegetation has ceased for the season, at which time it may be safely cut down. In Scotland generally, in consequence of our late springs, and consequent late autumns, the plants drag out a weary existence to the middle of November, unless some early autumnal frost intervenes to put a stop to growth, which of itself is tanta- mount to cutting too early, because in both cases the supply of elaborated sap is cut off from the roots. Cut the haulm off in a dry day, and tie it up in bundles, to be kept dry till spring, when it will be found one of the best protections to dwarf standard and other fruit-trees, for which see Fruit-garden. In Holland, all the asparagus is blanched, which is effected by covering the beds early in spring with fine sand, which no doubt produces the shoots of a milky whiteness, and of a considerable size and tenderness, but totally devoid of its natural flavour. Not a single bud is to be seen above ground, the surface of which is kept as smooth as possible; and the state of the crop is ascertained by the buds pushing up little hillocks of the fine sand, when the owner, constantly on the watch, slips down his knife, and outs ofi" the shoot near its bottom, being guided as to its position by the upheaving of the sand. In defence of their practice, the Dutch say they have the whole shoot in a state fit for the table, while we have only a couple of inches. Asparagus roots may be removed, with very good success, if carefully done, even at the age of eight or ten years, but it would be unadvisable to cut any of the buds during the following year. Soil and Manure. — The asparagus is a native of sandy beaches often overflowed by the sea, having its roots watered by the spring-tides, yet not kept in a state of continual wetness, on account of the ready means the water has of escaping by filtration. This seems to point out certain principles in its cultivation — namely, a deep, pervious, light soil, perfectly dry at bottom, but capable of being subter- raneously irrigated at times — the depth and lightness of the soil being favourable for the long delicate roots penetrating it in search of food. Such are the natural conditions of its growth. The artificial ones should in some degree assimilate to them, with the addition of abundance of manure to increase its size and expedite its growth ; for on its large size and ra- pidity of growth much of its delicacy and flavour depend. A deep light soil can in many cases be formed for it, and sub- terranean irrigation would even be a more simple affair. On these conditions much of the extraordinary success of the growers along the banks of the Thames depends; and were there even doubts of that, other evidence could be adduced— as that of the well-known fact that the finest aspa- ragus grown in France is produced in a small sandy island in the Oise, where the surface of the beds is not more than 2 feet above the level of the river, the soil being a coarse gravelly sand, saturated with water at the depth of 3 feet from the surface. The banks of the Danube and Euphrates, as we have already stated, are celebrated for the size and quahty of their asparagus. Many years ago we saw, for several consecutive seasons, very fine crops ASPARAGINOUS PLANTS.— ASPARAGUS. 123 produced by Mr Foster, a market-gar- dener at Winchester, whose ground was liable to be overflowed by the river Itchen through the winter and spring ; and so much did this affect the crop, that he used to cut heads of good size four weeks before it was produced in the neighbour- hood of London, and five weeks earlier than we cut at Stratton Park, at a distance of only eight miles. The soil should not be less than 3 feet in depth ; and where it is not naturally so, it were better to elevate the beds to that extent by adding to their surface, even by leaving the alleys wider, and taking a portion of the soil out of them for the purpose. A deep alluvial soil is excellent ; a strong reten- tive clayey one the worst possible, and quite unsuitable if not rendered dry at bottom. As to manures, whatever they may be, salt should be incorporated with them, and they should be of the most lasting description, such as ground bones ; and the proper mode of employ- ing them so as to be of the most advan- tage, is by placing them as deep as the roots wiU penetrate ; and as refreshers, copious applications of the strongest manures, in a liquid form, should be applied during the whole growing season. When salt is applied as a top-dressing during the growing season, it may be laid on until the ground is perceptibly white with it; or if by rule, apply 16 lb. to 60 square yards of surface, which wiU be quite sufficient for one dressing. Forcing. — By means of slight excite- ment, this excellent vegetable may be kept in successional fitness for the table from the middle of November until it comes in in the open ground The con- ditions necessary to secure success are, strong healthy roots, from three years growth and upwards — carefully preserving the roots on taking them up — and a tem- perature not exceeding 50° to 60°, with abundance of light and air, after the buds appear above ground. The means em- ployed to efiect these conditions are various. First, as to roots : these must be strong and healthy, and hence the sup- ply ought to be grown in the same gar- den ; and to secure them strong, they must be grown in highly-enriched soil. Some cultivators keep up a succession of roots by growing them for the express purpose, and in this case the buds are never cut, the plants being allowed to develop themselves fully for two, three, or more years, by which means the roots and buds become earlier ripened in autumn, and also have stored up a much greater amount of properly elaborated matter within themselves, upon which depends so much of the succeeding crop. Plants taken out of the ground in Octo- ber or November, and placed in a state even of very moderate excitement, have not time to furnish themselves with fresh fibres, whereby to supply the roots with a sufficiency of food. The crop, therefore, depends on the amount of properly elabo- rated organisable matter provided for them during the previous season. This is the reason why a rich-manured soil is dispensed with, and a light sandy one preferred, in which to imbed the roots during the process of forcing, and also why the roots are afterwards thrown away. From this it follows that the greatest possible care should be taken to preserve every portion of the roots at lifting, as each, however small it may be, contains a certain amount of the material so essential in the development of the buds ; and as they are prized according to their size, every curtailment of the roots is a certain loss to the crop. By far the most usual mode of forcing asparagus is to place the roots on a mode- rate heat, either produced by fermenting material, such as dung, leaves, tan, &c., or on beds heated by hot-water pipes, steam, smoke-flues, tanks, &o. Of these the latter is decidedly the best mode, as affording a steady yet sufficient heat, com- bined with a greater share of humidity at the roots, as steam will find its way more readily through the joints of a stone or slate-covered tank, than through the closer joints of a hot- water or steam apparatus. It is true, any quantity of water can be supplied to the roots in the other cases, as described p, 447, vol. i., in the case of the roots of cucumbers ; still there is something so genial in the heat of a tank, when the roots are in proximity to it, that it seems to approach nearer to that of heat produced by fermenting material than any other. Whichever of these ways may be adopted for securing heat, the surface on which 'the roots are to be placed should be prepared of light sandy soil, and on 124 CULINARY OR KITCHEN GARDEN. this the roots, as they are taken up, should be placed close together, and regularly spread out in a perpendicular direction, but not so crowded as that they shall touch each other ; and as the process goes on, the soil should be carefully wrought in amongst them while dry; and ■when the bed is finished, it should be well watered with tepid water, to wash the soil more closely about them. When the roots are old and very large, it may be found more expedient to place them in a horizontal direction; but, when yoimg, there will be no difficulty in set- ting them upright, by which a greater number of crowns will be got into the same space. In regard to produce, it may be stated in a general way, that a three-light frame, or the same extent of pit, will produce, under good manage- ment, a dish of heads every other day for nearly three weeks. To maintain such a supply from the middle of November till the grass is fit to cut in the open ground, it will be requisite that a three-light frame or pit be planted every ten or twelve days from the last week in Octo- ber till the second week in April, calcu- lating for the climate of Scotland, and tiU the beginning of March for that of England. In large establishments, where this vegetable is required daily and in large quantities, double that extent at least should be planted. All that is required in the way of culture is frequent supplies of tepid water and abundance of light and ventilation, even to the extent of removing the glasses for an hour or two on all favourable occasions, and guarding against an excess of bottom-heat. On the Continent, the buds are often blanched with a view to render them more deli- cate; with us, a fine healthy green colour is a chief recommendation, and to secure this, as well as flavour, light and air are absolutely necessary. As a general rule as to temperature, the atmosphere of the bed or pit should range from 50° to 60°, the former during night and the latter during the day, while the bottom-heat should approximate nearly, nor should it at any time fall below 48°. In severe weather it will be more expedient to re- tain the heat within by external cover- ings (for which vide fig. 789, vol. i.), than to increase it by an extra consumption of fuel. The Dutch and German mode of forcing asparagus. — About the end of October deep trenches are dug between the beds in the open ground, which, for this pur- pose, seldom exceed 2| feet in breadth, having one row of plants in the centre of each. These trenches are filled with leaves, rank stable-manure, or any other fermenting material capable of producing a strong heat. The surface of the beds is forked up and slightly covered with litter. The heat in the trenches stimulates the roots, and considerable success attends the operation, so far as quantity of heads goes, but they are without either colour or flavour. Some, however, have narrow frames covered with glass which they place over the beds, which is, no doubt, an improvement on the former practice. Both are modes attended with much la- bour and uncertainty as to time, and occasion an enormous waste of manure. Many Continental gardeners, however, adopt the taking-up system described above, and some also follow the methods to be noticed below. Forcing in permanent beds. — " Forcing in permanent beds has not been much practised in this country till of late years. There are now, however, many instances of this mode," under different modifica- tions, " in many of our first-rate gardens. Beds to be so treated are built with pigeon-hole walls all round ; they are of the breadth of an ordinary-sized garden frame, and of any required length ; the depth of the linings or spaces between the beds is 3 feet, and their breadth 2i feet. In these spaces dung, leaves, tan, or any other fermentable matter is placed, which heats moderately the body of the beds. Frames are placed over the beds, covered with glass-lights;" all other coverings now should be looked upon as obsolete things. In such beds asparagus is forced year after year without renewal. " For later crops there is no objection to this plan, because, by the time the crop is gathered, the weather will be mild enough to allow the last set of stalks shooting up to their full size and develop- ment, and hence the roots will be supplied with proper nourishment to enable them to produce a crop of shoots the following season. But such roots as are forced early by this method, not having the same opportunity of acquiring their natu- ASPARAGINOUS PLANTS.— ASPARAGUS. 125 ral supply of food, must reasonably be oousidered as placed in a very different position as regards their capability of production." — Practical Gardener. Forcing in permanent pits, as practised in the Royal Gardens at Frogmore. — The plants while young are planted in brick pits 4 feet in depth, and in a rich loamy soil peculiar to the locality, and highly en- riched with rotten stable-yard manure. These pits are 7 feet in breadth, and separated by trenches walled up on the sides in the pigeon-hole manner, and 20 inches across. In these spaces hot- water pipes are made to traverse (vide fig. 639, vol. i.), the bottom parts of the spaces being fiUed up with soil similar to the beds; and the upper part, also 2 feet in depth, is left open that the heat from the pipes may radiate freely and find its way into the pits, which are span-roofed and covered with boarding. The spaces be- tween the pits in which the pipes are laid are covered with Yorkshire pavement to prevent the escape of the heat, as well as from its being comfortable to walk upon. The plants are excited early in Decem- ber, that a supply may be obtained by the end of that month, the temperature ranging between 50° and 60°. During the forcing period, the plants are assisted by occasional supplies of rich manure in a liquid form. For early forcing this plan is liable, to a certain extent, to the objections stated above — modified to some degree, however, inasmuch as the heat can be maintained at the roots till a late period of the season ; and the latent or weak buds may thus be induced to spring and throw up stems, by which sufficient excitement is thrown into the roots to cause them to form a fresh series of buds for succeeding crop. The advantages of the system of permanent beds are held by many as important. It prevents, as they say, the great sacrifice of ground in the production of roots, which require at least two or more years' expensive culture to prepare them for a single return. We should, however, take into consideration the importance of what is called rotation in cropping; and for this the destruction of a few beds of asparagus yearly offers an excellent opportunity. In our own case, we have about an acre of ground under this crop for the purpose of forcing alone. This space we have in three sections, one vol;. II. of which is taken up every winter, and a corresponding quantity planted every spring from the seed-beds of the previous season. The great supplies sent to the London markets are produced during winter by the taking-up mode, and are for the most part forced upon beds of fermenting ma- terial. Our own opinion is in favour of this plan, and next to it that of growing in pits heated upon the principle shown in our improved asparagus-pit, described p. 455, vol. i., and covered with a glass roofing, to be kept on until the reserved stems become fully matured and the buds ripened, when it may be removed until required again the ensuing season. The London market-gardeners' mode of forcing asparagus is by placing the fuUy matured roots on beds of fermenting dung, placed in trenches 2 feet deep, having 6 inches of mould to plant in. These are then hooped over, and covered with mats or otherwise to blanch them, and make them look fine and white, to suit the taste of the market. lu private families, however, this white colour is no recom- mendation, a fine healthy green being pre- ferred, and this can only be attained by growing it in the light; therefore the pri- vate gardener's practice is the best, and to attain it so, he has to employ glass sashes for protection, and to admit abun- dance of air during its growth. Mr Cuth- ill was the first, we believe, who attacked the old and absurd practice of blanching, and his views were aided by several sen- sible writers in " The Gardeners' Chron- icle," and amongst them the talented editor of that paper. Amateur forcing. — Forced asparagus is not, as is supposed, confined to the tables of the rich, and those only who have extensive forcing accommodation. Any amateur who has the command of a cart- load or two of tree-leaves or stable- litter, or who is in the neighbourhood of a tan- yard, where he may often get tan for taking away, may have as good asparagus in March, or even earlier, as his richer neighbour ; and with the aid of a one or two light frame, he may have it at his Christmas dinner. The way to proceed is, First get your roots, which can often, for so small a supply, be obtained from a neighbour, or bought from a nursery or market-garden. Many amateurs, how- 126 CULINARY OR KITCHEN GARDEN. ever, have their own asparagus-bed in their garden. To those, therefore, we say. Make up a bed in some warm shel- tered corner of either of the above mate- rials, and to the thickness of 3 feet or 3^, if leaves only be used ; set the roots on the surface after the strong heat has de- clined, imbedded in the soil as stated above, or in leaf-mould or rotten tan ; cover them at first only as high as the tops of the crowns, and after ten days lay on 3 or 4 inches more, keeping the sur- face within 9 or 10 inches of the glass : for, to secure a crop by Christmas, glass will be required for its protection. If for March use, the bed may be hooped over, and covered, first with semi-transparent canvass, which will admit light enough, and therefore may be kept on perma- nently ; while during night and in cold wet days, and during frosts, a waterproof tarpaulin should be put over all, to throw off the wet and retain the internal heat. A very slight heat is all that is necessary. In regard to taking up the roots, ama- teurs will do well to commence on one side of the outer rows of the bed by digging out a trench, forking the earth as much as possible from underneath the plants, so that they may easily, and with- out straining or injuring their roots, move them out entirely by thrusting down the fork behind them. Be very careful, at the same time, that the buds about the crowns of the plants are not injured by the fork, or bruised in any way during their removal. Asparagus roots may be planted in boxes, and placed in a warm stable or cow-house, and when the buds have attained the height of 3 or 4 inches, they may be brought out daily into the open air when the weather is at all mild : this is with a view to give a greenish colour to the buds; but where coloijr is not a consideration, this removal will be unnecessary. Asparagus is sometimes forced in the beds where it grows by covering the sur- face early in November with hot stable- manure to the depth of a foot, which starts the buds in about twelve or fourteen days ; the beds are divided by 3-feet alleys, which are dug out, at the time of cover- ing, to the depth of 2 feet, and filled with heated dung at the same time. In breadth the beds correspond with that of an ordi- nary garden-frame, which is placed over them as soon as the shoots have attained the height of from 2 to 3 inches, at which time the covering over the beds is care- fully removed and added to the linings placed in the alleys, which raises them as high as the top of the frames aU round. This heat, with a sufficient covering of mats or straw over the glass during the night, is found sufficient for the purpose ; and as the glasses are uncovered every day, the shoots become of a fine green colour, and are in a fit state for use by the latter end of the month, or beginning of December. The beds are covered in this way in succession, a three-light frame being placed to the end of the first, and so on every ten days during the season of forcing. When the crop in the first frame is cut, the frame is carried forward, and the surface of the bed covered with dry litter or leaves to keep out the frost, but not to the extent to keep the roots in a state of excitement, as it is desirable they should remain at rest until spring, when the covering is removed, and they are allowed to grow in the open air. The portions of the beds earliest forced in this way are allowed a year to recover their strength, when they are again forced. Those that come in later in the season are forced the following year, and there are instances of this mode where the beds have been so treated for thirty years. Asparagus may also be forwarded a fortnight or three weeks earlier than it will come into use in the open air, by merely covering the beds, about the end of February, with, a frame and sashes, without any other artificial heat what- ever; or the cloches, or small bell-glasses so much used by the French, may be advan- tageously employed : they are now being made at most of the large glass-works, and may be purchased at Is. a piece, if taken in quantities of not less than 200. Taking the crop. — The buds are fit for cutting when from 3 or 4 inches above the surface, when of a fine green colour, and while they are firm and compact, terminating in a close obtuse point. They should never be blanched, although this has been strongly recommended by one who ought to have known better. The French, Dutch, and Germans a,lmost in- variably did so, and even put themselves to the trouble of placing an opaque tube over each bud, for the evident purpose of ASPARAGINOUS PLANTS.— ASP AEAGUS. 127 spoiling it. Were glass tubes used, the crop would be hastened forward, and probably increased in size, without doing injury to the colour or lessening its flavour. No shoots ought to be allowed to exceed 6 inches in length. In proceeding to cut the buds, remove with the side of the aspar- agus knife a little of the soil from around their base, push the knife gently down- wards, keeping it quite parallel and close to the shoot to be cut, taking great care in doing so that none of the buds yet under ground are cut or injured : when the knife is as deep as the base of the shoot, give it a slight twist, pressing it at the same time close to the shoot, and draw it gently upwards, by which process the bud will be separated from the crown. The wound, being ragged, in consequence of being cut with a serrated edge rather than a smooth one like a knife, wiU not bleed so much, and hence be less weaken- ing to the plant. Fig. 49 shows such an instrument : there are other forms in use, Fig. 49. ASPARAGUS CUTTBR. but in no way superior to this. The blade should be thin, about 9 inches in length, with a wooden handle : by being slightly hooked at the point, it is less liable to cut the underground buds, while the serratures on the concave side more readily catch the dioot intended to be cut. Many use only a common pruning- knife, especially when the shoots are to be cut about an inch under the surface ; but the cleanness of the wound leaves the sap-vessels open, and a considerable waste of sap is the consequence. A shallow basket should be carried in the one hand to receive the shoots as they are severed by the other, and they should be laid with their buds pointing in one direction, and afterwards carried to the vegetable- house to be washed, dressed, and tied up in bundles of about 3 inches in diameter each, the ends of the shoots cut all to an equal length and neatly placed together, so that no one bud projects beyond an- other. In this way they are ready for the cook, who, depending on the man who serves the kitchen having properly cleaned them, commits them at once to the sauce- pan of boihng water in bundles as they are. In cutting from established beds, every bud, large and small, is cut, and they are afterwards sorted into sizes, one, two, and three, the first being the largest and finest formed, the second of a less size, while all the smaU, or any that may have the points of the buds damaged or broken oiF, are placed in the third, to be used for soups, imitation green pease, or the like. This general gathering will often continue for from four to five weeks, after which only a few of the larger should be taken, the rest being allowed to grow for the support of the roots and encouragement of buds for another season. The reason why the whole buds are cut away is, that if a portion of them were left and allowed to grow, they would draw too much upon the roots, and render them unable to continue sending up more ; or if they do so, such shoots would be small and worth- less. With young buds the case is differ- ent ; they must not be so closely cut ; only a few of the stronger buds shovdd be taken, and even that not continued longer than about a fortnight. By the middle of June in England, and the latter end of it in Scotland, cutting should entirely cease if the future crop is to be regarded ; or a bed or two may be gone on with ten days longer, and such beds have a respite the following season. Beds intended to be forced should have very few of the buds cut, if any at all. It often happens, in cold seasons, or in late situations, that the buds come slowly through the ground, and in such cases there is often a number of hard, dry, scaly appendages found at- tached to the shoots near their base. These should be carefully scraped off with a sharp knife in the vegetable-house before tying up, but on no account should the skin be peeled off. Some, however, pre- fer allowing the shoots to attain the height of 6 or 8 inches above ground, and then to cut over close to the surface. This is no doubt a very good way when it is growing rapidly, and in that way its full flavour will be attained. Asparagus may be kept several days after cutting, if their ends be set into a shallow vessel of water, and placed in a dark cool cellar to prevent the buds opening. Approved sorts and their qualities. — There is only one kind of asparagus, although seed-lists present us with a goodly number of names. 128 CULINARY OR KITCHEN GARDEN. such as Qravesend, Battereea, giant or Gray- son's, true Reading giant, &o. No doubt much depends on saving seed from the best plants, as is the case with everything else, instead of gathering it promiscuously, as is too frequently done ; and while the prices of seeds are so low as they now are, there is Uttle inducement for the seed-grower to do otherwise. Insects and diseases. — SnaUs and slugs are often troublesome in mild springs, attacking the buds as they push through the soil : they often attack the stems of the plants when well grown, near to the ground ; but they can be readily got rid of by dusting lime over the ground in the evenings. From its caustic property, on touching their bodies it speedily kills them. The wireworm is a much more to be dreaded enemy ; it per- forates the centre of the buds under ground, and totally destroys them. Piercing the ground amongst the roots with an obtuse-pointed dib- ber, and pouring about a table-spoonful of spirits of tar into each hole, will kill numbers of them; setting traps of slices of carrots, potatoes, or turnips, attached to a skewer, and burying them close to the tops of the crown, will attract them by thousands, and on drawing them up every other day they will be found attached to them, and may easily be destroyed. This may be con- sidered a tedious process ; it is nevertheless a most effectual one. The asparagus beetle, Onoceris aspa/ragi, fig. SO, is often found during the early part of sum- mer depositing its eggs on the stalks. It ap- pears to abound much more in some seasons than in others ; and while it is a grievous pest Fig. 50. ASPARAGUS BEETLE AND GKUB. in one locality, it is next to unknown in others. In the year 1836 it abounded in the gardeiis round Loudon, the larvae, beetles, and eggs being often detected on the same plant and at the same time. The larvae feed on the leaves and stems, and are much more destructive to young plants than to older ones. The larvaa are folly grown about the end of June, and may readily be detected, appearing of a dirty olive- green colour, fleshy and shining; in form some- what cylindrical, narrower towards the head ; tail recurved, holding fast to the plant by a fleshy foot ; head small, black and shining; pec- toral feet small, and six in number, and set at a considerable distance apart; sides plaited ; belly covered with fleshy protuberances. Their larva state is of short duration, continuing only about ten days : as it is only in this state they seem to feed, their numbers and activity must be great to commit much mischief, and hence, per- haps, so Uttle is known of this insect or its habits. It then descends into the earth to un- dergo its changes. In its pupa state it assumes a curved position, and in the course of three weeks the perfect beetle is formed, when it ascends the plants to deposit its eggs. No very reason- able means has been as yet discovered for its destruction. Asparagus eopper-vieb, or fungus. — This de- structive fungus has recently been detected in Cambridgeshire, where vast quantities of aspa- ragus are grown for the London market. It at first appears as a mould, spreading vridely and rapidly amongst the plants, killing every one it attacks. It is also found to be destructive to carrots and potatoes. As yet this fungus is only known as a mycelium. It has not as yet been found in a perfect state of fructification, to en- able botanists to determine its species. Saffron and lucerne crops have been long ago attacked by a similar, if not the same disease. The origin of this fungus is not known ; its effects show themselves as a pale madder-coloured web, and although not visibly penetrating into the sub- stance of the roots of the plants, yet it so com- pletely impedes all communication of the tissues with the external air as completely to impair their vital powers. The only remedy hitherto found effective is to out a trench round the in- fected plants, so as to stop the progress of its spreading, as, like most other fimgi, it radiates from a centre ; and it might be quicklime, if repeatedly applied, would arrest its progress, if not destroy it altogether — few of the fungi re- sisting its caustic effects. General remarks. — The only certain way of improving this useful plant, is by carefully se- lecting seed from the finest specimens, growing them from their first stage to their last in highly enriched soil, preserving the roots from injury, and, above ajl, not cutting too severely. Sup- port the seed-bearing stems during summer, and when the seed is ripe in autumn, cut over the stems and hang them up in a dry airy place till spring, when they may be rubbed or thrashed out of the berries and immediately sown. If for sale, pick off the berries and wash out the seed, allowing them to steep an hour or two in a tub of water, to soften the outer covering. When the seed is extracted, dry them thoroughly m the sun, and bag them till wanted. It is proper to remove the seed-bearing branches before any of the seeds fall to the ground, to prevent them taking possession of the beds and forming young plants amongst the old ones, which causes con- fusion and overcrowding. Asparagus seed will, if kept properly, retain its vegetative properties for fifteen or twenty years : it has been known to have been kept longer, but as no advantage can arise from this, seed of the precedmg year's ASPARAGINOUS PLANTS.— THE CARDOON. 129 growth is greatly to be preferred. Under fa- vourable circumstances, the seeds vegetate in ten or fourteen days. Its European names are — Asperge in French; Aspergie in Dutch ; Sparagio in Italian ; Spargel in German ; Esparrago in Spanish. § 2. — THE ALISANDEK. Natural history. — Alisander, or Alexanders (Smymium olusatrum L.), belongs to the natural order UmbeUiferse, and ranks in the class Pent- andria, and order Digynia, in the Linnsean ar- rangement. The name of the genus is derived from Smyrna — myrrh ; being of similar qualities to that plant. It is a native of Britain, growing near the sea; and from its being often found near the sites of old buildings, it has been sup- posed that it was more generally cultivated formerly than at present. Smymium perfolia- tum, a native of Spain and Italy, is thought by many superior to this sort. Uses. — The leaf-stalks, when blanched, like celery or cardoons, are the parts used, and were, before the cultivation of the former, used for similar purposes. It is now rarely met with in British gardens, and has been introduced to those of the Continent only to a limited extent. Propagation. — Annually from seed, and its wliole treatment is so similar to that of the cardoon as not to demand any- general notice. General renuwJcs. — Its European names are — Macerpn in French ; Macerone in Italian ; Smyr- ner-kraut in German ; and Cardo do coalho in Portuguese. § 3. — THE CAEDOON. Natural history. — The cardoon, or chardoon {Cynara cardimculus L.), belongs to the natural order Compositse, sub-order Carduacese, and to the class Syngenesia, and order ^qualis, in the Linnsean arrangement. The generic name is derived from Jcyon, dog ; the spines of the involu- crum resembling dogs' teeth. It is a native of Candia and the south of Europe, and was intro- duced into England in 1656. It does not ap- pear to have been early or extensively culti- vated, many of our older authors taking no notice of it. It is even still only in our best gardens that it is found to have a place. On the Continent it is different ; and there not only are the midribs of the foliage used in culinary matters, but the corollas of several parts of the same natural order are employed in various de- partments of domestic economy. Uses. — The foot-stalks as well as the midribs of the leaves are used for stewing, soups, and even salads in autumn and winter ; but to pre- pare them for these purposes they require to be blanched, and the longer these parts are, and the more rapidly they are grown, the more are they esteemed on account of their greater crisp- ness, tenderness, and colour. The process of dressing them is thus given in " The Gardeners' Chronicle," vol. i. p. 143: — "When a cardoon is to be cooked, the solid " not piped or hollow " stalks of the leaves are to be cut in pieces, about 6 inches long, and boUed like any other vegetable in pure water (not salt and water) till they are tender. They are then to be carefully deprived of the slime and strings which will be found to cover them ; and having been thus thoroughly cleansed, are to be plunged in cold water, where they must remain until they are wanted for the table : they are then taken out and heated with white sauce, marrow, or any other of the adjuncts recommended in cookery-books. The process just described is for the pui'pose of rendering them white, and depriving them of a bitterness which is peculiar to them : if neglected, the cardoons will be black, not white, as well as disagreeable." They form, in the hands of a skilful cook, an excellent and wholesome dish, deserving far more general notice. One good plant will be sufficient for two or three dishes. Sowing and planting. — Although a pe- rennial in its native country, it is little better than an annual in Britain, and is therefore raised from seed annually, the first sowing being made about the begin- ning of March, on a very slight hotbed. The principal crop is sown about the middle of April. This is for an English climate ; for a Scotch one they should be for both crops reared on a slight hotbed; and, to render their transplantation more certain and convenient, the seeds should be sown in 48-sized pots, one seed in each, and when 6 inches high transplanted at once to where they are to arrive at ma- turity. This rule is always necessary in Scotland, so as to get them ready for transplanting as soon as the danger of spring frost is over. The seed is pretty large, much after the form of that of sun- flower or artichokes. In England it is expedient to sow again towards the end of June, for a late crop to come in during the following spring. Two ounces of seed will sow a seed-bed of 32 square feet. In Scotland it is best to sow always on a slight hotbed; in England, except for the first crop, they may be sown in the trenches where they are to come to per- fection, making the ridges 5 feet apart, a foot deep, and the plants 14 inches apart in the line. Method of sowing.— 'Yrenc^iea are dug as for celery ; a moderate manuring only is necessary, and that manure should be in a decomposed state, as during the heat of summer copious supplies of water should 130 CULINARY OR KITCHEN GARDEN. be given, to prevent them running into flower, in which case the crop would be rendered useless. As we have before re- marked, when water is to be used for such crops, it is no additional labour, and very- little more expense, to have it enriched by a little guano. If the seeds are sown, two may be placed together, at the distance of 14 inches apart, one of the plants from which, should both vegetate, is to be re- moved when about 6 inches high. If transplanted from pots, or from a seed- bed, set each plant at the above distance. Subsequent cultivation. — Water during dry weather. When the plants have attained the height of 18 inches, place a stake 3 feet high to each, and tie the leaves loosely to them, the intention be- ing to prevent their being broken by high winds. Earthing-up the stems should take place at the same time, putting a little often to them. Some do not earth up until the plants have nearly attained their full height, and earth up all at once ; others do so progressively, believing that the stalks are, by this means, rendered more crisp, firm, and delicate ; whereas, by the other method, they say the stalks are liable to become hard and stringy from exposure to the air; and there is, no doubt, some reason for thinking so. Talcing the crop, and subsequent preserva- tion. — By September in England, October in Scotland, the early crop will be fit for use, and the successional crops will con- tinue on till the end of March. The earth is carefully removed, the plant taken up by the roots, and carried to the vegetable-room. The roots are then cut off clean, as well as the points of the leaves as far down as to where they are found solid and well blanched. They are carefully washed, and the parts of the leaf-stalks left are carefully tied to the stem with a broad piece of clean fresh matting, in which state it is ready for the cook. When severe frosts are appre- hended, a portion of the crop should be taken up, roots and leaves entire, and carried to the root-cellar and packed amongst sand, laying the plants down in rows and packing the sand around them, one course over another till the bin is full. In this way they keep well, and become more perfectly blanched. The remainder of the crops should also be taken up and placed on ridges, as will be found recommended for celery. The intention of taking up the plants and laying them on their sides with the points of their leaves inclining down- wards, is to prevent the wet and snow getting into their hearts, which would soon rot them ; for although naturally pretty hardy, from the luxuriant state in which they have been grown they are very susceptible of injury from frost, and equally so from wet. Approved sorts and their qualities. — 1. The common or plain cardoon without spines — the Cardon pleiu inerme of the French — is that most generally grown. 2. Cardon de Tows. — Cardon piquant; C. spinocissima of Prest. 3. Spanish cardoon. — Of large size, the mid- ribs being very succulent and solid. The C. integrifolia of Vahl. 4. Bed cardoon. — Cardon h, ootgs rouges of the French. General remarles. — A plant saved over winter, and left unblanched, will afford a sufficient sup- ply of seed for a moderate-sized garden. They ripen their seed in August ; and seed well ripened and kept will retain its vegetative properties six or seven years. The cardoon of Tours is so formidable on account of its strong and nume- rous spines, that the workmen, in earthing it up, &c.,are said to beprotected by wearing a leathern frock over their clothes. Some people, instead of earthing up the plants, envelop them by twisting hay -bands round them, and cover them up with earth only on the approach of winter. Its European names are — Cardon in French and Italian; Kardonen in German. § 4. — THE ARTICHOKE. Natural history.— The artichoke (Cynara sco- lymus Wild.) belongs to the natural order Com- positae, sub-order Carduacese, and the class Synge- nesia, and order Squalls, in the Linnsean arrange- ment. The origin of the generic name is given in last section. The English name, artichoke, is derived from the Celtic art, a spine, and cliavlx, a cabbage. Loudon thought it more likely to come from carcioffo or Icharchiof, its name in Arabic. The generic name is also supposed to be derived from Oinis, because Columella asserts the land in which it should be grown ought to be ma- nured with ashes. Parkinson says it is so called from the ash colour of its leaves, a far more probable surmise. It is somewhat singu- lar that this vegetable should bear the same name in English, French, German, and Dutch, with very little variation. — Vide General re- marhs. It was held in high estimation by the ancient Eoraans. — Vide Introduction. The Greeks and Romans appear to have procured it from the coast of Africa, as also from ASPAEAGINOUS PLANTS.— THE ARTICHOKE. 131 Sicily. It was brought to England in 1S48 from Italy, as Phillips remarks, not Gerard, as erroneously stated in the " Encyclopaedia of Plants;" for although he has left us correct representations of both the French and the globe varieties, he makes no mention of their country or their introduction : we may there- fore conclude that they were become common in 1696. The same excellent authority re- marks, " By reason of the great moisture of our climate " compared with that of Italy, " and the attention which was paid to its cultivation, it soon became so much improved in size and fla- vour that the Italians sent for plants to Eng- land, deeming them to be of another kind, but they soon returned to their natural size when restored to that country." It grows wdld in the open fields in Italy, and attains the height of S or 6 feet. On account of the great size of the roots, and their penetrating the soil so deep, they withstand the dry hot summers about Paris, where they are most extensively culti- vated and most abundantly used. Uses. — ^The parts used are the lower parts of the leaves or scales of the calyx, the fleshy re- ceptacles of the flower freed from the bristles and seed-down, commonly called the choke, as they are very disagreeable when swallowed. Some- times, particularly in France, the tender central leaf-stalk is blanched and eaten like oardoons. The bottom, which is the top of the receptacles, is fried in paste, and enters largely into fricas- sees and ragouts ; they are sometimes pickled, and often used in a raw state as a salad. The French also cut them into thin slices, leaving one of the scales or calyx leaves attached, by which the slice is lifted and dipped in oil and vinegar before using. The English present the head whole, or cut into quarters upon a dry plate, the guest picking off the scales one by one, which have a fleshy substance at their base ; these are dipped in oil and vinegar and eaten first, the bottom part afterwards with a knife and fork. What is called artichoke chard is the tender leaf-stalks blanched and cooked like cardoons. The Italians and French often eat the heads raw with vinegar, salt, oil, and pepper ; but they are generally preferred when boiled, and in this state are sold in the streets of Paris as commonly as baked potatoes are in those of London. They are a favourite dish at a French breakfast, while in Britain we use them at supper. The young heads are pickled whole when about 2 inches in diameter. Medi- cinally, the stalks are considered aperient and diuretic; the leaves, in their natural state, boiled in white wine whey, are thought beneficial in cases of jaimdiee, and, when cut into pieces and steeped in sherry wine, an excellent anti- bilious medicine. The roots were eaten by the ancient Romans sodden in water to enable them to drink to excess, as it excited a desire for liquor; and Athenian mothers desirous of having male children were recommended to eat of artichokes freely. Propagation. — The plant may be pro- pagated by seed, which in France ripens freely in September and October. It sel- dom comes to maturity in Britain. But this mode is seldom had recourse to ; it is, therefore, multiplied by suckers, slips, or by division of the roots. It is probably on account of our mode of propagation being on the extension principle, and the seed not ripening freely with us, that we have few or no new improved varieties of the plant. Planting. — The suckers or slips are taken from the old roots in March or April, this depending on the season and situation ; for it is better to delay a week or two, so that the young roots may be formed on the suckers before they are detached. In taking them off, a little of the earth is removed from the side of the plant, so that the position of the sucker may be seen ; it is then cut from the old root with a knife, preserving as many of its young roots as possible. The slips or suckers should, however, not be taken off till they have attained the height of a foot or 15 inches, and be planted as soon after removal as possible. No curtailment of the leaves should be allowed, although a very general practice. They should be planted in rows 4 feet apart, and the plants set 2 feet distant in the line. It is usual to put them in patches of three plants each, but it is better to have one plant only. When the old roots are to be divided, the operation may take place earlier in the season, and when the young plant is only 5 or 6 inches sprung. This is, however, not so good a way as using the suckers without any portion of the old root being retained. Give water at planting, and continue it until they have taken root. The heads will be pro- duced the first season, but later than those from established plants ; which cir- cumstance justifies the practice of making a new plantation every year, as it extends the season of the crop. Although arti- chokes will continue producing abun- dance of heads for a number of years, if in a good soil, and well attended to with manure, we think it better to plant an- nually, and so destroy half of the previous stock yearly, thus having strong young plants, and offering an opportunity for changing the soil. Suhseqiient cultivation. — Keep the ground well stirred up between the plants, thin out all the suckers that arise in spring, 132 CULINARY OR KITCHEN GARDEN. except from three to four of the strongest and best placed. Cut the crop as it is fit for use, whether wanted or not, as allowing them to flower greatly weakens the plants, as does also allowing the stems that produced the heads to remain after the heads are cut off. No planta- tion should be allowed to continue on the same ground more than four or five years, and the biennial system is the best. When the crop is finished, which will sometimes occur about the end of Octo- ber or beginning of November, the ground should be heavily manured, and the plants protected from frost by covering the ground around the roots with stable litter, leaves, fern, rotten tan, or finely- sifted coal-ashes. The latter we prefer, as it excludes both the wet and frost better than either. Many dig out the soil from between the rows and bank it up over the roots, which is both a labori- ous and useless practice. Whichever of these modes is followed, it is essential that the leaves of the plants be not buried. In spring the covering is removed when all danger of frost is past, and before the plants begin to shoot. Some recommend potting some of the small suckers in autumn, preserving them during winter in a pit, and planting them out in May. This is quite uncalled for, as abundance of small suckers may be obtained from the old plants in May na- turally, if they have not been destroyed as they arise from the stools; or a few plants may be left only, moderately thin- ned for the purpose. Our May-planted crop, by such means, continues to bear till the middle of November. Protection is necessary, as, although it does not often happen in moderate climates that they are killed during winter, yet such accidents have occurred. It is recorded that once, during the seventeenth century, and again in 1739, almost all the arti- chokes in England were destroyed by the frost, and that they were again intro- duced from France. In 1814, in Scot- land, they were much injured; and again in 1837-8, both in England and Scotland, unless where very carefully covered, they suffered very much. In all cold exposed situations covering is positively necessary, and in most others expedient. Soil and manure. — The roots penetrate to a great depth, therefore the soil should be deep, well drained, and of a light loamy texture, highly enriched with good manure, and that deposited at the bottom of the trenches, as well as incorporated through the soil during the process of trenching. Few culinary plants, if we except the asparagus and sea-kale, like salt more than this; it should be supplied liberally, and repeated as a top-dressing twice during each growing season. Heads of very large size are produced in the Orkney islands, resulting, it is said, from the quantity of sea-weed employed in the culture. We incline to more than mere supposition, that the cause really is the saline matter carried up from the sea into the atmosphere, and in this way ren- dered beneficial to the plants. The larger the heads are, the more eatable matter will be formed ; and not only that, but it will be more delicate and high-flavoured; therefore, to obtain large heads, strong plants must be produced, and this is only to be attained by allowing them plenty of room for their large foliage to develop itself fully, presenting the largest possible extent of their surface to the atmosphere, from which so very much of their actual food is derived. Young plants of two years' growth, and as rich a soil as can be afforded them for the roots to play their part in, are the conditions necessary to attain this end ; and also, when the stalks show many heads, these should be reduced in number to two or three ; and when the largest size of all is desired, only one head should be allowed to a stem, and all the small ones forming, on lateral branches, should be removed. A very dangerous recommendation has been given in " The Edinburgh Encyclopsedia " — namely, to insure large heads, "the ends of the leaves should be shortened." Than this no worse counsel could be given, inasmuch as the leaves perform so important a part in the collecting and elaborating the food of the plant. Aber- crombie, the very best of our old garden- ing authors, but evidently no physiologist, errs much when he recommends cutting off all the large leaves previous to cover- ing the plants in autumn. We say, let the leaves, large and small, remain and die off of their own accord ; for as long as a leaf remains green, or continues to be a living thing, it goes on supplying the plant with food until it becomes para- ASPAKAGINOUS PLANTS.— THE AETICHOKE. 133 lysed by the frost, or dies off when its natural functions are completed. When we look back to the practice of the olden times, it is quite enough to make one shudder to think of the mutilations to which most plants were subjected. Celery and leeks were deprived of the half, and that half the best, of their leaves at plant- ing : artichokes, cardoons, &c., shared a similar fate. Ask the physiologist what is the use of leaves, and whether they should be wantonly destroyed ? In deep peaty soils, when well limed and manured, artichokes have been grown to a very large size ; and even the recom- mendation of Columella has, of late years, been revived — namely, to manure them with wood-ashes and salt. Taking the crop, and subsequent preserva- tion. — For pickling whole, and some other purposes, the heads should be cut when about 2 inches in diameter ; for the other purposes, when they have attained nearly their full size, but before the scales of the calyx begin to open ; for what is called bottoms, when they are at their largest size, and just as the scales begin to show symptoms of opening, which is an indica- tion that the flowers are about to be formed, after which the heads are useless, unless it be for those who use the flowers to coagulate milk, which they have the property of doing; but very few, we be- lieve, make use of them for this purpose. The heads should be cut close from the stalk, in which state they are fit for use. Three to five heads make a dish. If to be preserved for any time after cutting, they should be cut with 6 or 8 inches of the stalks attached to each head, carried to the dark root-cellar, and stuck into a bed of damp sand. They should be taken up from thence every third or fourth day, and a section about as thick as a penny- piece cut ofi' the ends of each, and again replaced. This is to allow a free ascent of the moisture from the sand being carried up through the stalk for the nou- rishment of the head. Approved sorts, and their qualities. — The EngUsh only recognise three sorts, viz., the oval, conical, or French, the large globe, and the dwarf globe. The French, however, possess other varieties; but these are not of sufEcient merit to lay great claim on our attention. M. Jacques, formerly one of the royal gardeners at Neuilly, produced plants from seed a year or two ago, the heads of which weighed 2 lb., and VOL. II. Fig. 51. measured 2 feet in circumference, while the whole plant' did not exceed 2 feet in height. We believe these varieties have not been re- ceived into this country. If this variety remains permanent, it would be a vast acquisition for certain purposes, but evidently too large for the way in which they are usually served up to our tables. The first has its heads oval and green, with the scales open ; the second is somewhat larger, globular, and tinged with a purplish colour — the scales are also turned in, or inflexed, at the top ; the third is in all respects smaller, but very prolific. Insects and diseases. — The artichoke appears to have no diseases and few insect enemies; and in consequence of this, is considered, in rotation, to be an excellent crop preparatory for onions, carrots, &c., which are so liable to their attacks. Sometimes, however, the leaves are attacked by the larvse of a very curious small beetle, Cassida viridis, fig. 51, which, on account of its being found on this plant, is called the artichoke tortoise beetle. It is found in May and June — is not more than jV of an inch in length ; the " antennas are black, the ARTICHOKE TORTOISE ^^^^^^ wiug-cascs aud other grub, pupa, and beetle, outer covenngs green; the body is black beneath, and the legs pale, with black thighs. The larva has a very flat body, with spines upon its edges; and it has the singular habit of covering itself with its own excrement, which it unites together in a mass, and carries on a, kind of fork, at- tached to its tail. The pupa is also very flat, having thin toothed appendages at the sides of the body, with a broad thorax, prolonged for- ward into a rounded expansion, which covers its head." — Cottage Gardener, vol. iii. p. 317. General remarks. — The European names are, Artisjok in Dutch, Artischoke in German, Arti- chaut in French, Cinauco in Spanish and Por- tuguese, and Caroiofo in Italian. The flower of the artichoke, when its florets, which form a noble purple crown, are expanded, have a fine appearance ; at which time, if seed be desired, they should be partially broken over, and allowed to hang ten or twelve days with their crowns undermost, to prevent rain from enter- ing, which, in such a mass, is liable to cause rottenness. After that period they may be cut ofi' entirely, and hung upon a dry place, till the seed begins to drop out. It is rarely they ripen seed with us. When artichokes are to be cultivated for chard, all the leaves are to be out over in June to within 6 inches of the ground, and the stalks close to it — indeed, if broken over quite low down, the better. Young leaves will be produced in September and October; and when of the height of 2 feet, they should be tied together, but not very closely, and wound round vrith hay-bands to blanch them ; and still farther to encourage etiolation, a little littering matter may be packed round them, secured from blowing away. Some, however, earth them up like S 134 CULINARY OR KITCHEN GARDEN. celery or cardoons ; and in wet seasons this is the better way, as the crop is less liable to suffer from damp. In six weeks the leaves and their stalks will become completely blanched: they are then fit for use, and should be gathered, and treated as has been recommended for cardoons. This is a process seldom attended to, because in its production the artichoke plants are destroyed, and therefore it should only be practised upon an old plantation, which may be intended to be de- stroyed at all events. It is, however, a good substitute, should any accident befall the car- doon crop, or in the event of their being neglected to be sown in time. § 5. — THE HOP, ETC. As substitutes for the asparaginous plants already noticed, we may enume- rate tlie following, which, although now not in general demand, have occasionally been used in times past, and may, under certain circumstances, be so again. The Hop (Humulus lupulus Wild.) belongs to the natural order Urticeae, and to the class Dicecia, and order Pentandria, in the Linnseau arrangement. The introduction of this va- luable plant as an article of culture into Bri- tain took place during the reign of Henry VIII.; it was brought from Flanders, where, and also in many parts of Europe, it has been cultivated from time immemorial. It is never- theless indigenous to Britain : we have found it in the heart of the Grampians. The generic name is derived from humus, fresh earth, it preferring such soils. According to the " En- cyclopedia of Plants," p. 835, "Lupulus is a contraction of Lupus salictarius, the name by which, according to Pliny, it was known because it grew among the vnllows, to which, by twining round them, and choking them up, it proved as destructive as the wolf to the flock." It seems to have been unknown to the ancient Greeks, as it is unnoticed by their authors ; and Pliny is the first of the Roman authors who makes mention of this plant. A very interest- ing account of the introduction and early cul- ture of the hop into England is given in PhilKps' " History of Cultivated Vegetables," vol. ii. p. 233. As an article in the manufacture of malt liquors, it is well known. It is with its rela- tion to culinary purposes we have at present to do. D. Rembert Dodoens is the first who has alluded to this plant as a kitchen herb. He says, " Before its tender shoots produce leaves they are eaten in salads, and are a good and wholesome meat." The young shoots, gathered in spring when about 3 or 4 inches above ground, were formerly used by country people as a substitute for asparagus, which in flavour at least they very much resemble. These sprouts are still to be found in Covent Garden Market, and in the green markets on the Continent are by no means unfrequent. It is propagated by division of the root early in spring. It succeeds best in a deep soil, well enriched. The plants are set in what is called hills, or prepared mounds, at 7 or 8 feet apart, and three or four plants are set in each ; but for garden culture, to procure the tops whUe young, the plants are set in lines 3 feet apart, and the plants 1 foot asunder in the row. They are very liable to the attacks of various species of aphis ; hot lime, and, more recently, flowers of sulphur, are apphed for their destruction. T!ie Milk Thistle (Oarduus Marianus L., Sily- bwm Marianus Gal. — the Virgin Mary's milk or blessed thistle) belongs to the natural order Compositse, sub-order Carduacese, and the class Syngenesia sequalis in the Linnsean arrange- ment. The generic name is derived from the name of a plant used by the old Greek writers, not now known ; that of milk thistle, &c., from an old dogma that the leaves of the plant, which are sprinkled with white blotches, were so marked by the milk of the Virgin Mary having accidentally fallen upon it. A native of Britain. Uses. — It is not now cultivated, but rises up in most old gardens spontaneously, where no doubt it had formerly been grown, as the young leaves were once used in spring salads, or boiled as a substitute for spring greens. The young stalks, when peeled and soaked in water to ex- tract the bitter taste from them, were cooked and eaten much in the way of sea-kale. The roots, when two years old, are used much in the way of salsify, which they very much resemble, and the receptacle of the flower is cooked and eaten like artichokes. There is little culture required beyond a good soil, in which it luxuri- ates very much. The Cotton Thistle (Onopordum Acanthium) ranks in the same natural order as the last, and also in the same class and order in the Linnsean arrangement. The name is derived from ones, an ass, and perdo, to consume — be- cause this plant is eaten by that animal: the specific name from its leaves, resembling those of the acanthus. It is erroneously called the Scottish thistle. It attains the height of from 6 to 10 feet, and is densely covered with a white cottony down. Indigenous to chalk pits and fertile lanes. The receptacle was formerly used as a substi- tute for the artichoke, and its leaves and their foot-stalks as one for cardoons. It may be cul- tivated in the same way as cardoons. The other substitutes for the plants in this chapter are — Silene inflate H. K., the bladder campion, indigenous to Britain ; Phytolacea de- candria L., the Virginian poke, a native of Vir- ginia, the tops of whose shoots are eaten as a substitute for asparagus ; Ornithogalum pyrenai- cum, or Bath asparagus — the flower-stems used for a like purpose ; Tamus communis, or black bryony — also a substitute for the same; Arctium lappa, or the burdock — the young shoots also used for the same. The two last may be found abounding in moist rich soils, by the edges of woods, lanes, &o. CHAPTER V. SPINACEOUS PLANTS. The principal of this class of plants are the varieties of the common spinach, and those of the sorrel. There are, how- ever, several others of considerable im- portance in domestic economy, and to be found in gardens of the highest order, although rarely cultivated in' those of minor note. They are less flatulent than many other vegetables, and there- fore may, like the common spinach, bo indulged in by those "who are deterred from using brassicaceous plants, which are exceedingly so. As the chief merits of the tribe consist in the tenderness and succulency of the leaves, the richer the ground is, and the quicker the growth is promoted, the more hkely are we to attain this in perfection. § 1. — SPINACH. Natural history. — The spinacli {Spinacea olera- cea L.) belongs to the natural order Chenopodeje, and ranks in the class Diceoia, and order Hexand- ria, in the Linnsean arrangement. The generic name is derived from spina, a prickle, from the prickly integument of the fruit, or seed, in some varieties. Spinach does not appear to have been known to the ancients, nor is its cultivation traced in Britain beyond 1568, when it is men- tioned for the first time by Turner, in his " Herbal," who says, " Spinage, or spinech, is an herb lately found, and not long in use." Its native country is not known ; many, however, consider it a irative of northern Asia. In spinach we have almost the only instance, among oiilti- vated esculents, in which the male flowers are produced on one plant, and the female flowers on a distinct one. Uses. — The leaves, which are the only part of the plant employed as food, are either boiled by themselves and served alone, or garnished with hard-boiled eggs : in either case it is mashed quite small. It is often used in soups. It is eaten with all sorts of meat ; and is, when mashed with butter or rich gravy, much im- proved by the addition of a few sorrel leaves mashed with it. The expressed juice is often employed by cooks and confectioners for giving a green colour to some of their made dishes. When eaten freely it is mildly laxative, diuretic, and cooling. It of itself affords little nourish- ment. It should be boiled without the addition of water beyond what hangs to the leaves in rinsing them ; and when cooked, the moisture which naturally comes from the leaves should be squeezed out before being sent to the table. The young leaves were used as a salad not only in the time of Queen Elizabeth, but even so late as the days of Charles I. Propagation. — The varieties of spinach, being annuals, must be grown from seed. Sowing. — The leaves are required dur- ing the whole year, therefore sucoessional sowings become necessary. In England, a small sowing may be made in January if the weather is mild, a larger sowing in February, and a still larger one about the middle of March. In Scotland it is seldom necessary to sow sooner than the latter date, as the winter crop lasts longer with us before running to seed in spring than it does in the south. March may therefore be considered the best time for our earliest crop. Sow afterwards once in three weeks, tiU the beginning of May, then every week till the end of July. Three sowings should be made in August for winter and spring use, say during the first, second, and third week, each of which should cover a large space, as few winter vegetables are more useful. We always sow two crops during September, as at that period there is ground to spare ; and if the crops be not required for other use, they will constitute an excellent green vegetable manure, if dug into the ground in spring. It will be found useful for pigs. The London market-gardeners sow 136 CULINAEY OR KITCHEN GARDEN. from the 12th of August to the Ist of September, for ■winter and spring use. The seed vegetates in from 10 to 15 days, according to the season ; therefore it may be advantageously sown between rows of newly planted pease, beans, cab- bage, or the like, as it will be fit to cut off for use before they either injure it, or it prove an impediment to their growth. And when so sown, the drills should be made nine inches wide and the seed thinly sprinkled in them, to give the plants greater room than if sown in the ordinary manner. The germination of the seed may be hastened by its being steeped in water three or four hours previous to sow- ing; and in sowing during the heat of summer, when the ground is dry, the drills should be soaked with water before the seed is sown. It should always be sown in drills, 2 inches deep and 18 inches or 2 feet apart for principal winter crops, the plants being, after they come up, thinned to a foot apart in the line. As the object is to have large succulent leaves, the grotmd cannot be too highly manured. The full- sized leaves should be 8 inches long and 4 broad. For summer crops it may ad- vantageously be sown between rows of pease or similar crops, the slight shade afforded them preventing their running so soon to seed ; but during summer the leaves wiU not attain the size stated above. If sown broadcast, 2 ounces of seed will sow a bed of 120 square feet. If sown in continuous rows, a foot between the sum- mer crops will be suificient. One ounce will sow 150 feet of a single drill. Subsequent cultivation. — The summer crops should be abundantly supplied with water during dry weather, the plants only moderately thinned, as their dura- tion is short. In November it will be well to thin the plants intended for a winter and spring crop to the above dis- tance in the lines, to clear the ground completely of weeds, and to cover the spaces between the rows with finely-sifted coal-ashes, to counteract damp and to render the ground more comfortable to tread upon during the process of gather- ing the crop. This also saves the large lower leaves from being splashed with mud during heavy rains. It is seldom the spinach crop is injured by frosts in Britain, particularly in mo- derately good situations. There are many places, however, in upland and cold dis- tricts, where it suffers much. In such the soil should be less enriched, as the less succulent the leaves are the better they will resist the frost. A more shel- tered and warmer place should also be chosen for the winter crop. In some parts protection is necessary, and this, if even of a very temporary nature, will be found sufficient. Sticking the plan- tation pretty thickly with branches of broom, old pea-sticks, or indeed branches of any kind, so as to break the force of the wind and arrest perpendicular frosts, will, in most situations, be found suffi- cient; and in such situations, covering the ground between the rows with coal- ashes should be carefully attended to. Still such coverings should not be had recourse to unless in extreme cases, neither should they be applied too early or con- tinued too late in the season. The ground should also be kept clear of weeds, and in gathering the crop the leaves should be pinched or cut off by the foot-stalk, and not plucked or lacerated as is so frequently done, as every leaf so torn and mutilated will almost certainly rot off. Soil and manure. — In light sandy soils spring crops come into use soonest, but they equally soon shoot up to seed and become useless. In strong retentive soils they are later, and continue longer. In medium good garden soils, abundantly manured, the crops succeed best ; and it is of importance, particularly for crops to come in during winter and to continue on till spring, that the situation chosen be open and well exposed. The ground cannot be too highly enriched for this crop, and much benefit has arisen from watering the plants with ammoniacal liquor from the gas-works. Pigeons' dung has been used with much advantage, and so also has guano in a liquid form. Taking the crop. — The larger and lower leaves should be gathered first, and these should either be cut off with a knife or pinched off between the finger and thumb close to the bottom of their foot-stalks. It is wasteful and untidy to pluck the leaves off by the middle, and it is equally so to take the heart ones out. The sum- mer crops, as they grow so rapidly, may be cut close to the ground with a knife. When the former is carried to the vege- SPINACEOUS PLANTS.— WILD SPINACH. 137 table-house the foot-stalks of the leaves should be cut off and the leaves sorted, removing all the flower-stalks should any exist, and rinsing the whole in clean water, placing them afterwards in a clean basket to allow the water to drain from them. Approved sorts and their gualities. — Not- withstanding the length of time spinach has been a very generally cultivated plant, but few varieties have appeared. Indeed, for long only two, the prickly and the round-seeded, were known, and it is only lately that a third has been added. Like the lettuce and endive, this vegetable is divided into two natural divisions — namely, the prickly and the round-seeded sorts. Prichly spinach. — ^The leaves are much smaller, more round, and less succulent than any of the round-seeded varieties. It stands the winter rather better than they do, and is less liable to run to seed. Readily distinguished by the seeds being prickly, known as winter spinach, being chiefly sown in autumn to stand over winter. Bordeaux, the Epinard commun, of the French. Lettuce-leaved spinach. — Of this variety Mr Thompson says : " This is an excellent new variety ; the leaves are somewhat rounder than those of the Flanders spinach, of thick sub- stance, and dark green colour. It is, perhaps, not quite so hardy as the Flanders, but it usually stands the winter well, and, from its superior quality, it deserves to occupy at least half the ground allotted to the winter crop of spinach. A variety called Epinard Gaudry, if not identical, is very similar to it." It is the Epinard d'Esquermes, ou ^ feuiUe de laitue, of the French. Seeds round. Flanders spinach. — This is an improved va- riety of the next, with much larger and more succulent leaves often 8 inches in breadth. It is the Epinard de Flandre, Epinard de Flandre a tres larges feuilles, of the French. It is also the principal sort grown in the Netherlands. Seeds round. Bound spinach. — This and the prickly-seeded were long the only two sorts grown. Leaves large, roundish, and thick. It is known also as summer spinach, thick-leaved round spinach, spring spinach, round spinach. It is the Epinard d'HoUande ou Epinard rond, of the French. Seeds round. General remarlcs. — The European names are Epiuard in French ; Espinaoa in Spanish ; Spi- nagie in Dutch; Spinaci in Italian; Spinat in German. In Arabia it is called Hispane. From this latter name, and as it was formerly often called Olus hispanicum, it has been thought to be a native of Spain. Spinach contains a consider- able amount of nitre — so much so that the water which is drained from it, after being boiled, makes as good match-paper as that made by a solution of nitre. In saving seed, as soon as the flowering is past, the male plants, which will have then performed their office, should be all removed to admit air and light to the female plants to enable them to perfect their seeds. The seed ripens in August and September, and, after being dried for a week or so in the straw, should be thrashed out. Birds are ex- tremely fond of spinach seed, so much so as to render it expedient to cover the seed crop, if upon a limited scale, with netting, from the time the plants come into flower until the seed is ripened. Upon a large scale, boys should be stationed to scare them away. The seed retains its vegetative properties about four years. § 2. — "WILD SPINACH. Natural history. — Wild or perennial spinach, (Chenopodium bonus Senricus L.) or, as it is called by country people, good king Henry, tota bona, and fat hen, names seemingly preva- lent over a great part of Europe^the French peasantry, who use it much, calling it bon Henri, the Germans, guter Heinrich — belongs to the natural order Chenopodeae, and to the class Pentandria and order Digynia in the Lin- nsean arrangement. It is indigenous to many parts of Britain, particularly in loamy soils in waste places. It was formerly grown in gardens for its leaves, which make an excellent substi- tute for spinach, and is so still in several parts of Lincolnshire. It would make an excellent spinaceous plant for cottagers, and is easily cultivated. The generic name is derived from Chen a goose, and Pous a foot, the leaves re- sembling the foot of that animal. Uses. — The same as spinach. Propac/ation. — Being a hardy perennial, it is increased by dividing the plant into pieces, each having a portion of the root, and a small bit of the crown which is thickly set with buds, which spring freely on being replanted. It may also be pro- pagated by seed sown in March, and transplanted, when the plants are fit to handle, into a nursery-bed. In Septem- ber following, they should be transplanted into lines a foot apart, and 10 inches in the line, in ground of a loamy nature, and trenched to the depth of 18 inches, as their roots penetrate to a considerable depth. The following spring the leaves are fit to gather for use, and should be picked as they advance, taking the largest first. In this way a bed will continue productive for several years. Most of the species of this genus, both indigenous and exotic, may be safely used as articles of food. It comes into use about the be- ginning of May, and continues all the summer. Its European names are, Gan- zevoet in Dutch, Anserine in French, Meldenatrige in German, Anserine in Italian. 138 CULINARY OR KITCHEN GARDEN. § 3. — FEENCH OE MOUNTAIN SPINACH. Natural history. — French spinach or Orache (Atriplex horiensis) belongs to the natural order Cheuopodese, and to the class Polygamia, and order Monoecia in the Linnsean arrangement. It is a native of Tartary, and was introduced into EngUsh gardens in 1S48, and long used, as it still is in many countries abroad. It is now seldom seen in our gardens or markets; yet there are some people who prefer it to spinach, and in France it is greatly esteemed. Use. — Daring the early part of summer, the stems are used ; but after that the leaves, which are gathered in succession, and continue produc- ing throughout the season. It is used as a sub- stitute for spinach, having a pleasant slightly acid taste. Propagation. — The seed is sown in drills in February or March, 2 feet apart, the plants being afterwards thinned out to 2 feet in the lines. Sow again for a succes- sion for autumn use in June, choosing a rich, deep, and rather moist soil. There are several varieties, two of which only, the green and purple leaved, are usually cultivated. A plant or two left to pro- duce seed will be sufficient for a large garden. The seed ripens in August. The European names are, Arroohe in French, Melde in Dutch, Armuelles in Spanish, Meldekraut in German, Atrepice in Italian. § 4. — NEW ZEALAND SPINACH. Nahiral history. — New Zealand spinach (Te- tragonia expansa, Hort. Kew) belongs to the natural order Ficoidese, and to the class loosan- dria Di-Pentagynia in the Liunsean arrangement. The name is derived from Tetra, four, gonia, an angle — from the angular form of the fruit or seed-vessel. It is a native of New Zealand, from whence it was introduced by Sir Joseph Banks in 1772. It does not appear to be at all used by the natives. It was, for some years after its introduction, cultivated only as a greenhouse plant ; but afterwards, through the recommen- dation of Sir J. Banks and the Horticultural So- ciety, it began to be grown in private gar- dens as a substitute for spinach, and may be considered about as hardy as the kidney- bean. It yields a large produce, but by no means equal to spinach; yet during dry warm weather in summer, it will be found in warm localities a useful substitute, as one sowing will keep up a supply, while several of the common spinach have to be made. Indeed, the warmer the wea/- ther, the better it succeeds. Use, and its mode of cooking, are the same as the common spinach. Propagation. — Being an annual, it is grown from seed annually. Sowing. — Sow the seed thinly in a pot or pan early in March, which place in a moderate hot-bed till the plants are fit for pricking out ; or, to save the latter process, sow in 60-sized pots, three seeds in each, and thin out to one, which, when of sufficient size, and the weather sufficiently warm, plant out on a warm border, or, better, on a bed of soil placed over a slight hot-bed, where they may remain. About the 20th of May in England, or begin- ning of June in Scotland, will be a good time to plant out without shelter ; but if on a mild hot-bed, they may be set out sooner, and protected during night by having the bed hooped over, and covered with tarpauling or Russian mats. Set the plants about 3 feet apart. In iive or six weeks after planting, the leaves will be of sufficient size to admit of gathering. Protection will be required in autumn, should it be wished to continue the crop. Gathering the crop. — Pick the leaves off singly, taking care not to injure the points of the leading shoots; they branch out and continue extending till killed by the frost. Half an ounce of seed will be suf- ficient for the largest garden, and from six to twelve plants enough for an ordi- nary-sized one. The seed is readily pro- duced, and will retain its vegetative powers for two or three years, if retained in the capsule. It is usually known by its bo- tanic name, and is not more subject to insects or diseases than other plants of the same order. § 5. — GAEDEN PATIENCE, ETC. Natural history. — Garden patience, or herb patience (Rumex Patientia L.), belongs to the natural order Polygonese, and to the class Hex- andria, and order Trigyuia in the Linnsean ar- rangement. The generic name is derived from Rumex, a spear — from the shape of its leaves ; others say from Rumex, a name given by the Latins to a root of thorn ; the specific name Patientia, from its slow operation in medicine. It is a native of Italy, and was introduced to England in 1573. There are several species of the genus Rumex that have been or are still cultivated ; and as their uses and culture are so nearly alike, we shall include them under one head. The French round-leaved or Roman sorrel (Ru- mex scutatus L.), a native of France and Italy. Introduced to Britain in 1 596, and Bloody-veined dock {Rumex sanguineus), a native of England, were both formerly cultivated in our gardens SPINACEOUS PLANTS.— WHITE BEET. 139 as substitutes for spinach. The former stUl is, and on the Continent it is grown very exten- sively. The common sorrel {Rumex acetosa) has been cultivated from time immemorial as a spinach plant, as well as used in salads. In Ireland the leaves are eaten with fish and other alkalescent food. The mild-leaved sorrel {Rumex montanus H.K., the Oxyria reniformis Smith). "The plant is one of those singular individuals which has the character of two distinct genera, and yet is referable to neither. Wahlenberg made it a Rheum, Linnaeus a Rumex, and Mr R. Brown what it now is." — Eney. of Plants, p. 295. It is much used in France as a salad, and the male plant of this species is recommended in the Bon Jardinier to be planted as edgings. There are several varieties of the common sorrel ; that called by the French I'oseille de Belletiille is the most esteemed, on account of the largeness and succulent state of its foliage. We cultivate it in preference to all the other sorts ; and in rich moist soil the leaves attain a large size and thickness. The sorrels are aU of great import- ance in French cookery, and are both agreeable to eat and exceedingly wholesome ; and could vulgar prejudice be got over, many an excellent dish might be gathered almost the whole year over from our roadsides. Phillips, in " Hist, of Cult. Vegetables," vol. ii. p. 214, very properly remarks : " Rarity being oftener coveted than excellence, it is not surprising that we should find this native vegetable discarded in an age in which novelty principally stimulates art to furnish our kitchens. The caprice of fashion extends even to our vegetable food; and zeal, which should emulate us to improve the vir- tues of our own plants, is often wasted in ob- taining those of distant countries whose quali- ties are uncertain. Sorrel is scarcely known as a pot-herb in this country, except at fashionable tables, the small demand having now nearly banished it from the metropoUtan markets." The use of the sorrel is of great antiquity ; Pliny observes that it renders meat more plea- sant, and lighter of digestion. It is a valuable anti-scorbutic, and is used as an ingredient in salads, and when boiled, as a sauce for roast meat, particularly veal and pork — it greatly assists their digestion. It is an excellent substitute for apple sauce for winter geese, and should, like spinach, be boiled without water. It makes a good substitute for spinach when beat up with butter, and is greatly improved by the addition of the yolk of eggs and cream. It enters into most of the soups and sauces for which French cookery is so famed, and they preserve it in quantities for winter use. It forms as promi- nent an article in the vegetable markets in Paris as green pease do in those of London. It was held in high repute in Britain about the time of Hemy VIII. and Elizabeth. Its use has, how- ever, greatly declined since that time ; and yet, amongst all our modern additions, we have not one so wholesome, and of such easy cultivation, or one that would add so much to the sanitary condition of our peasantry, particularly those who live much upon salt provisions. Propagation. — All the kinds may be propagated by seed, which should be sown in rows 18 inches apart, and the plants thinned to 12 inches distance in the line. Sow in March, in deeply-trenched soil, moderately enriched by manure, and rather inclining to damp. In autumn, the old plants may be divided and plant- ed in rows at the above distance. Even fragments of the roots will, if planted, make good strong plants during the fol- lowing spring and summer. As flower- stalks appear, cut them offi Keep the ground clear of weeds, and annually fork in some rich manure between the plants ; or, still better, apply liquid manure with- out disturbing the roots. Qeneral remarles. — The European names of the common sorrel are — OseiUe in French ; Ace- tosa in Italian ; Sauerampfer in German ; Ace- dera in Spanish ; and Veldzuuring in Dutch. Those of the garden patience are — Rhubarbe dea monies in French ; Romice in Italian; Englische or winter spinat in German. § 6. — THE WHITE OE SICILIAN BEET. Natural history. — The white or Sicilian beet {Beta cicla L.) belongs to the natural order Chenopodese, and to the class Pentandria, and order Digynia, in the Linnaean arrangement. The generic name is derived from Bett, red, in Celtic ; the specific name, according to De Theis, is a corruption of sicvXa, under which name it is spoken of by Catullus. According to Phillips, beet is a name arising from the shape of its seed- vessel, " which, when it swells with seed, has the form of the letter so called in the Greek alphabet." The white beet was introduced to England from Portugal in 1570, where, and also in Spain, it is an inhabitant of the sea-coasts. Uses. — This species of beet — for it is con- sidered botanically as a distinct species from beta vulgaris, the common, or red beet — is cul- tivated entirely for its leaves, whereas the red beet is grown for its roots. These leaves are boiled like spinach, and put into soups ; and the midribs and stalks, which are separated from the lamina of the leaf, are stewed and eaten like asparagus, under the name of chard. As a spinaceous plant, the white beet might be grown to great advantage by cottagers and farmers, as it affords leaves fit for use during the whole summer; — but we require as great a dififasion of knowledge in the art of cooking amongst those classes as we do as regards the production of the article to be cooked. The great white or Swiss chard is a large variety of this species ; the foot-stalks and ribs of its leaves are dressed like asparagus, and thought equal to that popu- lar vegetable. There are other varieties, differ- ing mainly in the colour of their midribs and stalks, each of which is, however, adapted to 140 CULINAEY OR KITCHEN GARDEN. the Game purposes. One ounce of seed is suf- ficient to sow a bed, for transplanting, of 50 square feet. Propagation. — It is best to sow the seed annually, first, in the beginning of March, and again in September — the latter to supply leaves late in autumn and early in the following spring. Sowing and planting. — Always sow in drills, a foot apart for the smaller sorts, and from 15 to 18 inches for the larger. Should failures take place in the crop, the deficiences may be made good by thinning out where the plants have come up too thick, and transplanting them into the vacancies. The beet transplants well, and therefore, should ground be scarce at sowing time, the seed may be sown in beds, and the plants transplanted after- wards when ground is clear, taking care that in planting the roots be not doubled up. Subsequent cultivation. — Thin the plants when about 6 inches in height to the dis- tance of from 9 inches to a foot apart, ac- cording as the sort is large or small. " In cultivating the Swiss chard, the plants are frequently watered during summer, to promote the succulency of the stalks ; and in winter they are pro- tected with litter, and sometimes earthed up, partly for this purpose, and partly to blanch the stalks. Fresh chards are thus obtained from August tiU May. When the garden sorts of white beet are trans- planted, the proper time is during moist weather in lilay or June. The distance from plant to plant may be from 10 to 14 inches — much of the advantage of transplanting depending on the room thus afforded the plants, together with the general disposition of transplanted an- nuals, with fusiform roots, as the turnip, carrot, &c. to throw out leaves and lateral radicles." — Enci/c. of Gard., 841. Soil and manure. — The soil requires to be deeply trenched, and of a fair staple quality ; and as the quality of the crop depends on the size and fleshiness of the midribs when chard is intended, and on the breadth and succulency of the foliage when it is grown as a substitute for spinach, it follows that the soil should be rich, or rendered so by copious manur- ing. Taking the crop. — The largest and full- est grown leaves should be gathered first; others will follow. If grown for spinach, the leaves should be rinsed in clean water, placed in a basket to drain dry, and so sent to the kitchen. If for chard, the foot-stalks should be carefully preserved, and their leaves tied up in bundles of 6 or 8 in each. Twelve stalks, with the leaves entire, will be sufficient for a dish. Sorts and ihevr giialities. — The common white has small roots; the ribs, foot- stalks, and leaves of a delicate greenish-white colour. The large white, or Swiss chard, has its leaves much larger and thicker; the foot-stalks and ribs are much larger and much whiter. In those parts of the Continent where this plant is much gr'own for chard, there are several sub-varie- ties in cultivation. The green beet, and yellow- rooted varieties of Beta rndgaris, are also often grown for a similar purpose. The large Swiss chard is, however, the best. Another variety grown is Beta maritima (sea^beet), a plant indi- genous to our sea-coast. In seed catalogues we find the following names — Golden-veined, small rooted, green-leaved, red-veined, silver or white veined, commonly called silver beet. Brazilian beet {Beta Braziliensis) has very large green leaves, and makes an excellent substitute for spinach, but is rather more tender than the green sort. Insects and diseases. — The beets are not very subject to either the one or the other. The Haltica nemorum (the turnip flea-beetle), how- ever, often attacks them, for which see section TUEKIP. General remarTcs. — The European names are — Bette or poirSe in French ; Biet in Dutch ; Acel- ga in Spanish ; Mangold - kraut in German ; Biettola in Italian. To save seed, a few of the best formed roots should be selected and kept out of the frost during winter, and planted in a warm well-exposed spot in spring. When the flower-stalks have attained the height of 2 or 3 feet, support them with stakes. The seeds will ripen in September. When dry, thrash them out; and keep them, when thoroughly dried, in paper bags till wanted. The roots of the varieties of white beet are not adapted for the table. CHAPTER VI. ACBTARIACEOUS OR SALAD PLANTS. The use of salads is of the greatest an- tiquity, and, in a sanitary point of view, of great importance, particularly in warm countries. In no country, however, are salad plants more cultivated or used than in France, where they form a very consi- derable item in the food of the people. The rich eat them as a luxury, the poor from necessity. In Britain, if we except the lettuce, endive, and celery, all of which find a ready sale in our markets — the for- mer during the heat of summer, and the latter during winter — salads, in their greatest variety, are confined mainly to the gardens of the opulent. The artisans in our large manufacturing towns are yearly becoming greater consumers of lettuce, radishes, and celery, in particu- lar, and find benefit from their use. Man- chester has long been famed for its celery, and it has been grown to a larger size there than elsewhere. The varieties grown under the name of Manchester celery have long held a place in our seed-lists. The use of salads is only beginning to be ap- preciated amongst the middle classes in Scotland, and the natural prejudice against " eating green meat " is daily subsiding — a prejudice, by the way, not altogether unfounded, from the coldness of our cli- mate and habits of the people. Salads can only be grown in perfection where vegetation is of rapid growth ; and hence, even in England, we do not meet with the same excellent salads as are to be had at eveiy table d'hote in Holland, Belgium, and France. § 1. — CELERY, Natural history. — Celery or smallage (Apium graviolens L.) belongs to the natural order Um- VOL. II. belliferse, and to the class Pentandria, and order Digynla, in the Linnseau arrangement. The generic name is derived from Apon, water (Cel- tic), from its growing in ditches and in watery- places. Cultivation has transformed it from a coarse, rank, and even more than suspicious plant, to one of the most agreeable and whole- some of all our cultivated esculents. It is a native of several parts of Britain, especially near the sea, and known in its wild state as smallage, but never used by man, and not much relished by other animals. It appears to have been first cultivated in Italy, for in our oldest seed-lists it is called " Upright Italian Celery," and of this there was a red and white variety. Ray, a writer of older date than any seed-lists, observes " that, if neglected, it degenerates into its first unpalat- able state." Phillips says, "Ache is the true English name for this vegetable." Use. — The whole plant is used either in a green or blanched state, as well as its seeds. In the former, and also in the latter form, it is used to fiavour soups. The seeds, at that season when the plant is scarce, are bruised, and put into a small bag to prevent their mixing with the soup ; and old seed, that has lost its vegetating proper- ties, is employed for the purpose. In its blanched form it is eaten raw, as a salad ; generally served whole, sometimes cut into small pieces, but usually, particularly if large, cut into four quar- ters longitudinally, for greater convenience in serving it. It is also stewed in white sauce, and is sometimes made into an agreeable conserve. In Italy and the Levant it is seldom blanched, the green leaves and stalks being used either stewed by themselves or as an ingredient in soups. Medically, it is considered diuretic, and a decoction of it has been found good in cases of gravel. Propagation. — Although a hardy bien- nial in its wild state, it must be considered as little other than an annual in cultiva- tion, unless when grown for its seeds, in which case it is treated as a biennial. It is invariably propagated from seed. Sowing and Planting. — For the earliest crop the seed should be sown by the be- ginning or middle of February, in pans, T 142 CULINARY OR KITCHEN GARDEN. placed on a moderate hot-bed. The seed will often be three weeks before it ger- minates. When the young plants of this sowing are about 2 inches high, they should be transplanted singly into small 60-sized pots (in decomposed manure only), and plunged in a very slight heat, say 45° to 50°. By the beginning of April they will require to be shifted into large 48-sized pots, and kept growing slowly till the end of that month or beginning of May, and then planted out in shallow trenches in the warmest part of the gar- den. Indeed, for those who wish the crop very early, it is well to dig the trenches 2 feet deep, and fill them to within 6 inches of the top with warm dung to sti- mulate the plants, and cover with hartd- glasses, or, better, with longitudinal tri- angular frames, a foot in breadth at the base, which is open, and a foot in height, having one of the sides glazed. Others grow the plants in pits, shifting them from time to time into larger pots, and plant them out in trenches about the beginning of June, when from a foot to 18 inches in height, earthing them up at the same time, to prevent their leaves being broken. It is only in some families that this routine is necessary. The ordinary earliest sow- ing is made about the end of February, upon a slight hotbed, either covered with a regular frame and glass hghts, or with hand-glasses. Plants from this sowing are once or twice transplanted on a slight heat, in very rotten dung, placed over the heating material about 4 or 5 inches thick, made into a state resembling thick mor- tar, and beaten firmly down, the plants being at their last removal set 4 or 5 inches apart. These will be fit for final trans- planting into shallow trenches by the be- ginning of June, and will be fit for use in August. A second sowing should be made about the end of March, and if treated as above will be fit for transplant- ing into trenches by July, and come in for a general autumn crop. And a third sowing should be made about the middle of April, in the open border, or on an exhausted dung-bed, which, when twice transplanted, will be fit to plant out for good about the 10th of August ; and as this may be considered the principal win- ter and spring crop, a much larger sow- ing should be made. We generally sow a fourth crop in May, to obtain plants for planting towards the end of September for our latest spring supply. Transplant- ing is of much importance for securing celery from shooting up to seed, and pre- venting it growing hollow in the stalks, or pipy, as it is technically termed. The check which the tap root sustains at each removal has a tendency to cause the pro- duction of lateral roots, and, as a conse- quence, the production of greater vigom- and rapidity of growth in the plant, and hence a less disposition to run to flower. The object of transplanting on solid masses of rotten dung is to invigorate the plants, and render their future removal safe, as by cutting the dung into squares and lift- ing each piece entire, the roots are thereby secured from injury, and the plants from any sudden check to their growth. As to the quantity of seed, an ounce will be sufficient for most gardens; but as it is found to be expedient to grow several sorts, the quantities of each must be regu- lated by circumstances. The London market-gardeners sow for their first crop early in February, again in March, and last of all in April, for their latest crop ; the first only of these is sown on slight heat, and hooped over with mats. Celery-seed should always be sown thin, to secure stocky plants, which never can be the case if they are crowded in their earliest stages. Their first trans- planting is effected by using a small dib- ber or pricker, about half an inch in dia- meter. Their second removal should be with a dibber at least 1^ inch in diameter, and cut square across at the point, because at that time the roots will have ramified considerably, and if carefully removed will have small balls of earth or dung attached to them. Their final transplant- ing should be performed either with the transplanting trowels, figs. 27, 28, or the media they are growing in should be cut into square pieces with a sharp instrument, and, beginning at one end, a flat trowel or small spade should be introduced under the mass in such a way as to keep the ball perfectly entire about the roots. Water must be abundantly supplied during their whole preparatory growth. Celery is grown in trenches, for the obvious purpose of enabling the cultiva- tor to earth up the plants more conve- niently, and hence insuring its more complete blanching. These trenches are ACETARIACEOUS PLANTS.— CELERY. 143 either narrow, intended for a single row of plants, or 4 or 5 feet in breadth, for the reception of several rows of plants. The first is no doubt the best for crops to stand over the winter, where protection is not to be given, and where there is ground to spare. It is the plan adopted to secure very large specimens, and hence the Manchester growers practise it to attain the latter object ; and the London mar- ket-gardeners grow it in the same way, because, as with asparagus, the larger it is the better it takes in the market. In private gardens, where large size is less a consideration than crisp, well-blanched, and high-flavoured stems, the broad trench, or Scotch mode, is greatly to be preferred, as well on account of its yield- ing a much greater number of mode- rately-sized heads upon the same extent of surface. The London market-gardeners' mode of planting " is to dig out a trench two spades deep, banking the mould up on either side ; then to fill in a foot of the strongest manure, such as cow-dung, and to cover this with 3 or 4 inches of mould for planting in. If the ground is very rich, half the quantity of manure is ap- plied. The rows are generally from 4 to 6 feet apart. The plants are then taken from, the seed-bed, and planted root and head entire — not trimmed in, a plan which ought to be discontinued in every- thing." To this we heartily say, Amen. " The plants are placed about 8 inches apart, the intermediate ground being planted with coleworts, lettuce, or any other light crops, which are likely to be off before the celery wants moulding up ; but market-gardeners do not begin blanch- ing until the plants are about 18 inches high, as it prevents rain and air acting on the roots." — Cuthill, MarJcet - gardening around London, p. 23. The Edinburgh marJcet-gardeners' mode of planting. — Trenches 6 feet wide and 1 foot deep are dug out ; a copious dunging is laid on the bottom, sometimes dug in, at other times spread over the bottom of the trench, trodden or beaten down pretty firmly, and 3 inches of soil laid over, into which the plants are set in rows across the bed, 14 inches asunder, and the plants 9 inches apart in the row. By this means space is economised, and the plants attain a fair average size and quality. The same plan is very often followed in private gar- dens ; and where the new and improved sorts, such as Cole's, are gTown, they arrive at the size most available for family use. This is decidedly the best way for amateurs to grow this crop. They should grow their plants in nursery-beds until they are 10 inches or a foot in height before final planting, giving plenty of water, and afterwards earthing up once a fortnight. The Manchester growers dig their trenches 18 inches wide and a foot in depth, and from 4 to 5 feet distant from each other, and lay in 9 inches in thickness of com- post composed of fresh strong soil and well-rotted hot-bed dung, in the propor- tion of three-fourths of the latter to one- fourth of the former. The plants are taken from the nursery-beds with all their roots entire, and as much ball as will adhere to them. The side shoots or suckers are removed from the stems, and they are set in with a planting-trowel, 10' inches apart, the row being in the centre of the trench. They are watered liber- ally until fit for earthing up, but not afterwards. Many plant on the surface — that is, marking out the size of the bed on ground that has been previously trenched, dig- ging in at least 6 or 8 inches of rich half- decayed manure, and planting either in single lines 4 feet apart, or making beds 6 feet broad, and planting across them, setting the rows 14 inches distant, and the plants in either' way 8 inches apart in the lines. They may be earthed up as they advance, or not until they have attained the height of a foot. A mode' of planting celery, which may be called the simultaneous manner, is practised in some parts, and with evident advantage where ground is scarce. The manner is as follows : Early potatoes are planted in spring (or we would recommend autumn), at about 2| feet row from row ; when they are earthed up, a hollow trench is thus of necessity formed, into which rotten dung is placed, and on that, covered to the depth of 2 inches with soil, celery plants are set. As the potatoes are taken up, a little earth is put to the celery, which goes on growing, so that when the potato crop is cleared, the celery one is well ad- vanced, and treated in the usual manner. If the supposition be correct, that tubers increase in size after the haulm has been 144 CULINAEY OR KITCHEN GARDEN. cut, this migLt be a profitable method of growing celery, by cutting off the haulm of the potatoes when it began to interfere ■with the celery plants, and thus giving them all the advantages of light and air, the potatoes to be taken up afterwards when ripe, to admit of the celery being earthed up. It has been suggested to grow celery in water-tight trenches, with a view of supplying them with abundance of mois- ture at their roots, for there is no doubt that celery cannot be grown rapidly or of large size if kept very dry at its ex- tremities ; on the other hand, there is the danger to be apprehended of restoring to the plant its deleterious, nay, poisonous pro- perties, which it, along with so many more of its near allies in the Umbelliferse, is so weU known to possess. It were better to adopt a system of subterranean irriga- tion with liquid manure, to be used only in very dry weather, and only when the plants are in their height of growth, and dispensing with it afterwards. We have adopted the following plan with advan- tage to the bulk of crop, and without any evident sign of lessening the whole- someness of the plants : Along the centre of each single trench, imbedded in the manure, and over which the plants were set, we placed a course of drain-tiles laid on soles, having at the upper end (for the ground was considerably on the incline) an upright drain - pipe communicating with the tile -drain below. Into this liquid manure was poured, and allowed to escape through the openings between the tiles, thus moistening the dung and soil in which the roots were growing without at all wetting the soil around the stalks, which should be at aU times kept as dry as possible. Subsequent cultivation. — This consists chiefly in carefully removing any side shoots that may arise from the collar of the plants before earthing up, which is of considerable advantage in securing well- grown heads. As to the time of earthing up, opinions of late years seem to difier widely; some advocate the old method of earthing up progressively, putting a little only at a time, taking care to keep the hearts of the plants clear of soil; others say that no earthing up should take place until the plants have nearly attained their full size, when the earth should be put to all at once ; while others earth up when the plants are about 1 8 inches high, for the first time, adding a little after- wards so long as the growing season con- tinues. Some, instead of using the natural soil of the garden, pack the plants around with fine sand, and others use finely-sifted coal-ashes for a like purpose. Mr Roberts, a year or two ago, recommended what he called his " celery-blanching tiles," which in principle were nothing other, except in price, than common drain-tiles, one of which he placed on each plant, with a view to blanch it, and at the same time to keep it from coming into contact with the damp soil. The idea struck us as sufiiciently feasible, believing that etiola- tion would be eifected, and that the pro- tection afforded by the tiles would tend to preserve the plants during winter. We contented ourselves, however^ with employing two common horse-shoe drain- tiles, placing one on each side of a plant, and thus forming as good a blanching- tile as the other. These were put on when the plants were about 18 inches high, and kept in their places by working earth in amongst them to keep them steady. Contrary, however, to expecta- tion, we found the beds so treated the first to suffer from rot, and have since discontinued their use for this purpose, although we use them for another, which will be noticed below. The grand secret, if we may make use of a word which is too often made use of as a cloak to imposture, is to earth up only when the plants and the soil are as dry as possible. To do so when either is damp, is entailing destruction on the crop. The London market-garden practice is thus described by Mr Cuthill : " The operation of earthing up is all performed by the spade; no hand earthing is employ- ed. Parallel lines are stretched on each side of the row 18 inches from the plants, and the mould is cut out of the alleys to form the blanching ridge. Late earthing up is effected in about three difierent times." In earthing up the broad or Scotch form of beds, the plants being disencum- bered of all side shoots or suckers, two pieces of board about 9 inches in width are placed one on one side of a row, and the ACETAEIACEOUS PLANTS.— CELEEY. 145 other on the other side of the adjoining row, or, as " the knights of the whip " would say, one on the near side and the other on the off side of the space between two rows. These boards are placed in- clining rather outwards at top j they are kept in their place by a triangular piece of board placed between them like a ■wedge at each end of the boards, while a man on each side of the bed breaks up the soil finely, which has been left be- tween the beds on purpose, and throws it in between the boards as high as the pre- sent earthing up is intended to be carried, which, upon an average, is 6 inches. The boards are then lifted gently upwards, and the pulverised soil falls in between the plants. They are removed to the next space, and so on. This is an expedi- tious mode, and with very ordinary care none of the soil falls into the hearts of the plants. Others take the leaves of a plant in one hand, holding them together, while with the other they press the soil around their stems ; but this is a time- killing process. Whichever process is followed, the soil should be kept open and loose around the plants, to prevent unnecessary pressure as well as exclusion of air. The following mode of earthing up is detailed by Mr Duncan of Basing Park, in the " Journal of the Horticultural So- ciety," vol. vi. p. 214 : — "The process is effected by three different operations. The first takes place when the plants have grown 9 or 10 inches in height. The small leaves immediately above the roots, and all embryo suckers, are carefully re- moved. After that the bed is completely saturated with liquid manure;" but sub- sequently to this period Mr Duncan " does not consider it requisite that any artificial ■watering should take place. The beds are then covered with about 4 inches of mould from the ridges, which helps to keep the plants in an erect position, and acts like a mulching on the roots, thereby prevent- ing, in some measure, the evaporation of moisture from the bed. Some three weeks before the early crop is required for use, the second earthing takes place, ■which is performed in the following manner by two operators : Two boards, some 8 or 9 inches in depth, and eq ual in length to the ■width of the bed" (for Mr D. adopts the broad trench, or Scotch form), "are placed edgeways between the rows, each board resting against the plants in either row, so as to form at once space for the recep- tion of the mould, and aprotection to the leaves whilst the operation of earthing is being performed. When the required quantity of soil has been deposited, the boards are carefully withdrawn, and placed betwixt the next two rows ; and so the work proceeds, until all has been com- pleted. When the soil is of a very wet, tenacious character, dry ashes, fine mould, or other material, can readily be intro- duced next the plants, for which purpose double boards, properly adjusted and fixed to each other, form a ready medium by ■which to introduce the material. When sufficient blanching material has been de- posited, the boards are carefully with- drawn, and placed in the opposite row; and it will be readily understood that the fine mould which has passed through the vacuum formed between the boards wiU be in immediate connection with the leaves of the plants, the common earth placed in the centre of the row enabling it to maintain that position. These boards can of course be set to any required dis- tance apart, that distance being deter- mined by the quantity of blanching ma- terial at command. This mode, whether applied to single rows or the more econo- mical system of bed-culture, I consider to be at least equal in its effects to any ad- vantage that can be derived from the use of tiles." The third and final earthing of the early crops is accomplished at intervals of ten or twelve days before the celery is required for use, placing the mould high and close about the leaves. " I have, however," Mr Duncan observes, "found a different sys- tem to be advantageous with celery in- tended for winter use. Some time towards the latter part of October, when the weather is dry and favourable, the plants are fully earthed up ; but the soil is neither put so high, nor is it so closely packed to the leaves, as is recommended for the earlier crops, as I have found it to keep better under such conditions. After the winter has fairly set in, I have a sufficient quan- tity for a fortnight's consumption covered over with leaves which had previously been heated, from which cause they will readily remain in flakes of some 6 inches in thickness, and resist alike the action of 146 CULINARY OR KITCHEN GARDEN. frost and moisture. The covering over of a day's consumption is merely removed with a fork so much farther on to the bed, and this takes place from day to day. When, however, severe frost sets in, the whole of the ridges are covered over in the same manner ; but the protection is removed on the recurrence of favourable weather, in order that the plants should not suffer from being too closely excluded from the atmosphere." Soil and manure. — From the nature of this plant, the soil is of little consequence to it, except just that into which the roots are running ; and this is in general prepared for them, as will be seen from what has been said above regarding the formation of the trenches, which, we repeat, cannot be made too rich with well-decayed ma- nure. "We avoid, however, rank dung, such as is used by the market-gardeners around London, which has a tendency, while it enables the plants to attain a large^ size, to render them, as they mostly are; tough and woolly. We use very decayed manure, and, until earthing up takes place, supply the roots with liquid ma- nure poured in amongst them, and after- wards by the subterranean irrigation also noticed above ; and the best manure we have found for this purpose is guano, with a little salt added, or water richly impregnated with soot or pigeons' dung. Taking the crop and subsequent preserva- tion. — Always begin at one end of a row or bed, taking the plants up by the roots, and carefully avoiding bruising the stems or breaking the leaves. Cut the roots off, and bury them in the trench, but remove the plant otherwise entire to the vegetable- house. Remove the loose outer leaves, and lay them by themselves, to be washed clean, should they be required for soups. The best parts of them, being cut out and cleanly washed, are sufficiently good for the stock-pot, or for flavouring soup given in large quantities to the poor — a mode of disposing of the fragments of kitchen stuff we would like to see, more generally practised. The centre and solid part of the head should be carefully examined, and every portion that appears to be discoloured removed ; and when washed quite clean, they shoidd be dipped in clean salt-water, to dislodge any small worms which, in mild winters, are apt to find their way into the very heart of the plant. Almost all vegetables^ should have a dip in the salt-water vat, if only for precaution's sake. The young gardener should recollect that in the self- same state in which he carries the celery from the vegetable-house it is laid upon his employer's table, and therefore he should make himself acquainted with the form used by the family, for there are va- rious ways of dressing it. As frost sets in, a quantity of the crop for immediate use should be taken up carefully, retaining the roots and what soil may be attached to them, and tying the leaves together, carrying them on hand-barrows (which is the best way to prevent their leaves from getting broken) to the root-cellar, and laying them in amongst sand — not, however, too dry, else it would absorb the moisture too rapidly out of the leaves and stalks, and render them tough and ultimately useless for salads. From time to time during winter this should be attended to; and in the event of not having the con- venience of a root-cellar, or, far better, of a vegetable - house (such as fig. 677, vol. i.), which we consider the best of aU structures for the preservation of such crops during winter, supplies should be^ brought in; for, irrespective of preserving the crop from frost and wet, and being more comfortable for the man who serves the kitchen, it prevents the ground from being poached, and leaves it in a tidy state, which, according to the usual prac- tice, it is not. We have adopted two methods to in- sure its preservation during winter, either of which we have found to answer our utmost expectation. We grow most of our celery in what is called the Scotch fashion — that is, in trenches from 4 to 5 feet in breadth, setting the plants in rows across, and at such distances apart as ac- cord with the size we wish the plants to attain. Following the London market- gardeners' practice, we do not earth up until they have attained nearly their full size, at which period we earth them up as high as can be done without burying their hearts. Should the weather con- tinue mild, we give them a little more towards the middle of November, at which time, and when the leaves are perfectly dry, we tie them up loosely, and place a common drain-tile on each side of every ACETAEIACEOUS PLANTS.— CELEEY. 147 plant, to protect the leaves above where they are covered with the soil, putting in only as much soil between the tiles as will keep them steady in an upright position. We then bank up the sides of the trench, as shown in the annexed cut, fig. 52, along thesides of which we drive in upright posts, 3 inches square, and of such a height as will carry a roofing of boards laid in an Kg. 52. MODE OF WINTBKING CELERY. imbricated manner, a few inches over the top of the plants. These posts are set 10 feet asunder, and exactly opposite each other ; and their tops are connected with coupling of lighter scantling. The roof boarding is then laid on, and nailed to the couples, which ties the whole roofing together. By this means the rain is thrown off, and falls into the deep trenches between the beds. Should the weather set in severe, we introduce a little light dry littering matter amongst the tiles, and nail a couple or three courses of boards along the sides ; but this is seldom found necessary with us, although in many colder localities it will be of ad- vantage. This side-boarding should only be used in very severe weather, as its absence permits a free circulation of air to blow through. The boarding which covers the roof is the portable wooden copings we use for our wall -trees, and which, during winter, would otherwise be laid past in the store -sheds. The posts and coupling are used for a variety of purposes during summer, such as supporting netting over single rows of gooseberries and currants, to preserve them from birds, temporary roofing over out-of-door summer mushroom-beds, ifec. Neither the posts, couples, nor board- ing are ever cut, as we construct such temporary erections always of the same size. The other mode of preserving celery to which we have alluded is even much simpler, and within the reach of every one. We first form a triangular embank- ment of soil, the sides sloping to some- thing like an angle of 45°. These sides are made smooth, and are each in length somewhat more than the depth the celery plants have been al- ready earthed up to. In November, when the growth has ceased, the plants are carefully taken up with balls about their roots, a few of the low.er and coarser leaves are removed — • they are now of no fur- theruse — andthe plants are laid side by side along each of these slop- ing banks, their roots being placed at top, and their leaves pointing downwards, with the view of pre- venting rain or snow getting into their centres. When one course is laid along each side, soil is laid over and be- tween them, to the extent of preventing any part of the one plant touching the other. The surface is again rendered even, and a second row laid on in like manner, taking care, however, to place the roots of this second course 6 or 7 inches higher than the last, or to select shorter plants ; the intention being, in either case, to prevent the leaves of the top course resting on those of the lower. Indeed, it is a good plan to introduce a few branches between the two courses of leaves, should they appear too crowded, to admit a circulation of air to pass through amongst them. These are co- vered the same as the first, only to a greater depth, and the whole finished off much in the form of a potato pit. Should severe frost or much wet set in, we thatch the whole over with coarse littering straw, as far down only as where the leaves of the top course protrude through the soil. To thatch the leaves over would only tend to cause them to rot, for we have found in mild winters that they have continued to grow as well as if they had been allowed to remain in their ori- 148 CULINARY OR KITCHEN GARDEN. ginal position, if not better. The prin- ciple in either case is the same — keeping the plants dry, and preventing snow and rain from falling into their hearts. In cold wet soils, we think it would be an improvement to pack the plants, after being laid on the inclined banks, in finely- sifted coal-ashes, or in sharp river-sand. The operation in both cases should be carried on when the plants and the soil are moderately dry. Approved sorts and their qualities. — Of this vegetable there are two pretty distinct classes, namely, the red solid and the white solid. Cole's superb red. — This is comparatively a new variety of great excellence, surpassing, we think, all others in solidity and flavour. Not that it is like the immense celery grown for the market or for exhibition purposes, which is too often more fit to look at than to eat ; but it is of a size such as is required for a gentleman's table, averaging, if well grown, about 6 lb. per stick (for stock, head, and stem may be consi- dered synonymous terms in speaking of the blanched part of this plant). It has also the remarkable property of not piping, or becom- ing hollow or stringy, and has been known to stand twelve months without running to seed. It is also extremely hardy. Mr Thompson, how- ever, in estimating the comparative merits of this famUy, says that red solid, alias new large red, new large purple, new Russian, Cole's red. Cole's superb solid red, stripped solid, Violete de Tours, are the same thing, and so also is the Celeri violete, the seed of which has been for several years distributed by the London Horti- cultural Society as the very best red celery. The Manchester red is believed by him to be scarcely different, and may be considered the same variety, excepting that it has acquired a stronger habit and rounder stalks. Shepperd's red is now preferred to the Manchester red by the prize-growers, because of its flatter stems, and its consequently blanching better. In fact, he reduces all our red varieties to one, the type of which is the red solid. Cole's superb white. — Differing only in colour from the last. Manchester giant red. — One of the largest sorts grown, and excellent for soups and stewing, but far inferior to the last in point of flavour as a salad. It is grown largely for the market. Old solid red. — An excellent old sort, if it can be procured true. It used to be much grown by the market-gardeners about London ; but they have since substituted another of far inferior quality, merely because it comes earlier into use. Sutton's solid white. — A very large yet solid- growing sort, exceedingly white and crisp. We believe it originated a few years ago with the Messrs Suttons of Reading. Lion's paw. — A short broad flat-stalked var riety, of excellent quality, very crisp, and white. Nutt's champion. — Originated with Mr Nutt of Sheffield within these few years. It attains, under good management, a very large size, and is, for its size, of excellent quality, very white, and not apt to run to seed. Seymour's white champion. — This is an im- provement of other white celeiies raised by Mr Seymour. The number of years they have sustained their popularity is the best proof of their excellence. The stalks are broad, flat at the base, closely overlapping, and forming a com- pact, well-blanched crisp heart. To the above sorts Mr R. Thompson adds — " White solid, alias fine white solid, Celeri Turo, Celeri plein blanc. — Of strong and rather tall growth, blanches readily, and comea into use earlier than the rod solid varieties. " Italian, alias upright Italian, upright, large upright, giant, Patagonian. — Tall, strong, erect, deeply furrowed; not so crisp as Seymour's. " Wall's white. — Is an improved variety of the Italian, which is esteemed by the growers for competition. " Curled white, alias Nain frize. — Leaves much curled, resembling parsley, and, like those of the latter, might be employed for garnishing ; it is dwarf, hardy, and crisp, but not fine fla- voured. " Early dwarf solid white, alias Court hatif, Celeri Turc of some. — Dwarf, but very solid, and forms a compact heart ; excellent for early use." In estimating the difference between the eat- ing qualities of red and white celery, it may be stated that the latter is preferred by most people of taste, on the plea that red celery is ranker in flavour, especially when cooked, than the white varieties ; and, when served as a salad, the same opinion is entertained by many. Again, as to the difference between large and moderately- grown celery, the case stands pretty much the same, large celery never being so crisp and ten- der, or so well-flavoured, as that of medium size, provided both have been equally speedily grown. Diseases and insects. — In some soUs, those abounding in iron in particular, celery is apt to canker, for which there seems no remedy ex- cept changing the constituents of the soil. A parasitic fungus has long been observed to at- tack the leaves when about half-grown, which is considered by botanists to be Puccinia He- raclei Grev. Another has made its appearance within these three or four years, of which we have been unable to gain any information. So serious was it with us in 1851, that we had many hundred plants to throw away to prevent its spreading farther. The celeiy or parsnip fly (Tephritis onopordinis Fab.), fig. 53, seems its chief enemy amongst in- sects. They breed in the leaves, and from the blotched appearance they cause, the leaves af- fected may readily be cut off and burned before the maggot is formed, for it is in that state that it is most to be dreaded. It is thus described in the " Cottage Gardener," vol. i. p. 73 : " If the withered parts (of the leaves) are examined, and the cuticle or skin of the blisters is raised, there will be found beneath it some small green grubs, which have eaten away all the green pulp or parenchyma of the parts so withered. These ACETAEIACEOUS PLANTS.— CELEKY. 149 grubs are the larvse of Tephritis onopordinis. The grubs may be foimd in the leaves of the Fig. 53. the substance of the stem ; so that we have no doubt portions of the stalks, although contaiu- Fig. 54. CELERY-FLY, GUUB, &C. celery in June, July, Augu3t,September, October, and November, for there are two or more broods of them in the course of the year. The grubs, although less frequently, are found doing similar damage to the leaves of Alexanders and parsnips. When full grown, the grubs descend into the earth, and remain in the chrysalis state till the spring following, when they give birth to the fly. Then the celery-fly may usually be found upon the leaves of the laurel, hovering over flowers, and resting upon palings in the sun- shine, from the middle of May to the end of July." MrWestwoodthus describes it: "The general colour of the body, which is five-jointed, varies from rusty brown to shining black ; head buff, with black hairs; legs yellow; thorax (throat) sprinkled with long black hairs ; wings black, with various pale spots ; eyes green. The whole length of the insect is not more than one- sixth of an inch, and its wings, when outspread, barely half an inch across." Mr Westwood sug- gests that a string smeared with bird-hme, and stretched over the celery plants, might catch many of the parents. This is a good idea, and, if carried out, would no doubt entrap many moths and butterflies also, which would be a wholesale mode of lessening the numbers of grubs afterwards. Piophila apii (the celery stem-fly), fig. 54. — The discovery of this hitherto undescribed in- sect is due to the author of the article " Ento- mology," in the " Gardeners' Chronicle," 1848, p. 332, who thus describes it, and its mode of operation : " The larva burrows into the solid stem and fleshy stalks, working its way up the latter, its tract, as well as itself, being at first almost invisible, from its similarity in colour to VOL. II. ^ CKLERY STEM-FLY AND GRUB. » ing the grub, are often eaten, owing to its pre- sence not being suspected. The eye of the en- tomologist, however, especially if assisted by a moderate lens, easily detects the unwelcome visitor, which may indeed be expected when the solid part of the stem shows traces of being worm-eaten. It would seem, in fact, that it is in the solid part that the injury is commenced, the grubs eating upwards into the more succu- lent stalks of the leaves, leaving their traces in the former visible in their tracts, which become rusty red, owing to the action of the moisture and air upon the grooved surface which they have quitted. By careful examination and re- moval of the leaves, the authors of the mischief may be found in their burrows, in the shape of glossy white cylindrical grubs, with a slight yel- low tinge, having the anterior part of the body pointed, and the hind part obtusely rounded, and marked with two black points, from whence proceed two delicate air-vessels, appearing like threads of gold beneath the transparent skin, and which run along the whole length of the body as far as the segment immediately behind the head, where they form two minute excreted appendages. The hind joints of the body are indistinct, but the fore ones are more distinctly to be traced. The mouth consists of a black horny apparatus, capable, as well as the head itself, of being withdrawn within the subsequent segment, as far as the two excreted lobes of the air-Tessels above mentioned. " The fly very closely resembles that reared from the cheese maggot. The thorax and abdo- men are entirely jet black, and very glossy, with a very sUght brassy tinge, and with fine golden grey hairs scattered over the body. The head is chestnut-coloured, paler near the mouth, and black in the middle above. The eyes and club of the antenna; are pitchy; the bristle of the latter luteous, or yellowish. The legs, in- cluding all the coxjB or joints by which they are attached to the body, are very pale straw yel- low ; the tarsi, especially in the hind feet, some- u 150 CULINARY OR KITCHEN GARDEN. what more dusky. The wings are entirely hyaline and colourless, with the veins very pale buff." General rema/rks. — The European names of celery are — Appio in Italian ; Sellerie in Ger- man ; Apio hortensis in Spanish ; Sellery in Dutch ; and Celeri in French. The seed will keep for ten or twelve years. In saving seed, it is better to select some of the plants from the seed-bed, and to grow them without blanching, transplanting them again in spring, and placing them in a warm well-exposed part of the gar- den, growing if possible only one sort in a sea- son. The side suckers should be removed, and seed saved only from the best umbels. The seed ripens in September, and, when thoroughly dried in the heads, should be thrashed or rubbed out, and bagged for use. A considerable preju- dice exists with some people as to the colour of the heads — some preferring the red variety, while others will only have the white. The preponderance is, we think, in favour of the latter. The management of Mr Cole, who raised the variety that heads our list, is to the following effect, and will be better understood in a sepa- rate paragraph, than had we divided his in- structions into our different heads. His princi- pal crop is thus produced : The trenches are dug out in the usual manner, 4 feet apart, and manured with the spent dung of an exhausted mushroom-bed. The seed is sown the second week of February upon a slight hot-bed. When the plants are strong enough, they are pricked out in rich soil under hand-glasses, and are removed, with balls of earth, into the trenches, in the first week of June, and set 9 inches apart in the row. At planting, as is usual, they received a copious watering, to prevent the possibility of a check. In earthing up, a medium course is adopted, neither too frequently nor too much at one time. About a month after planting, a slight earthing up is given them, they having been previously well watered with liquid manure or soot- water the day before this earthing takes place. Soot-water is given as a manure, and dry soot is sprinkled along the rows, to prevent the operations of worms. In regard to Mr Cole's success in growing celery, it should be stated that the garden is of a boggy subsoil, and below the level of an adjacent river, which accounts for the absence of water- ing, upon which most cultivators depend so much — he watering only once or twice after planting. He admits, however, that in dry or elevated situations it is almost impossible to give too much water, and would prefer giving a good soaking once every fortnight to watering more frequently and in smaller quantities. Very rich dung, he remarks, is not good for celery, and strong manure-water should be avoided. It has been imagined, pretty generally, that bad man- agement made bad celery, and especially plant- ing it in too rich soil, to induce extra luxuriance. This opinion Mr Cole dissents from so far ; and we believe that he is right when he says — " The bad quality of celery is attributable to the bad kinds grown," and asserts that no person could grow this kind of celery, which has been named " Cole's superb red," so as to make it either pipy or stringy, or inferior in flavour. In regard to the effect of culture, he says that " late earthing has more to do with making celery stringy than anything else, as it is quite certain that, if the leaves of celery are exposed to full light and dry air for a length of time, the tissue will be- come harder than if the leaves were grown in comparative darkness. We need no stronger proof of this than the acrid flavour of the outer as compared with the inner leaves of the same celery — a fact demonstrating that, if the leaves are exposed for a long time, they acquire an acrid flavour, which no blanching can wholly remove. For an early crop he sows in heat early in January, and pricks the plants out upon a slight hot-bed ; for a second crop, in February, in heat, as before directed ; and for a late crop, in March, in the open ground." — Jour. Hort. iioc. Mr Cole believes that this celery could be grown to the weight of say twelve pounds, were it desirable to have it so ; and for this purpose he would plant in trenches 1 8 inches deep, and the same in breadth, and use a compost of tvirfy loam, peat, and leaf mould, or thoroughly rotted cow-dung, in about equal quantities. He would also place the plants 18 inches apart in the row, and keep the soil well stirred between them during their early growth. §2.. CELERY. Natural History. — Celeriac, a sub-variety of the last, is used for most purposes like the com- mon celery, but is much hardier, and differs from it in having a considerable-sized swelling on the stem close to the surface of the ground, which is the part chiefly used, although the leaves, which are much smaller than those of celery, are also used in soups, &o. It is much cultivated in the north of Europe, on account of its root, which may be kept in good condi- tion for use throughout the winter : this the common celery cannot be with them, on account of the inclemency of the clijnate. Use. — The bulbous-looking form which the root presents above ground is cut into shoes, and used in German salads. This, as well as the leaves, is cooked like other celery, only they are less delicate to eat. It is not in vei-y high esti- mation in Britain, although a few years ago the London markets were supplied with it to a con- siderable extent from the Continent. Mode of propagation and season of sowing. — The same as for celery. Planting. — The transplanted seedlings are removed from the nursery-beds, and planted on the surface (not in trenches) in moderately enriched soil. They should be set in rows 18 inches apart, and a foot from each other in the line. At planting, all the embryo suckers or side shoots should be rubbed off — a precaution to be ACETARIACEOUS PLANTS.— THE LETTUCE. 151 kept in view throughout its growth, as the energies of the whole plant ought to be directed to the formation of the bulb- like root. Subsequent cultivation. — Keep the ground thoroughly stirred up between the rows ; and when the bulbs have nearly attained their full size, they should be covered lightly with soil, to blanch them white, and to render the outer coating of their skin more tender. In warm dry weather give abundance of water, to encourage the swelling of the bulbs, for on their size and tenderness their merits depend. Taking the crop, and subsequent preserva- tion. — The crop will be fit for use in Oc- tober ; and in November, upon the ap- pearance of severe frosts, they should be pulled up, with their leaves attached, and planted, in sand somewhat moist, in a cold pit covered with wooden shutters, where they wiU continue a sort of exist- ence through the winter, and become somewhat intenerated by absence from light and moderate humidity. The usual practice is to cut off the leaves and bury the bulbs in pits under ground. Oeneral remarks. — Seed is saved in the same way as celery, and may be employed for the same uses. It retains its vegetative property ten or twelve years. It is the Celeri-rave of the French, and the Ejiott-cellerie of the Germans. It is also called Knob-celery, Knoll-celery, Geleri navet. There is also a sub-variety veined with red, and another with curled leaves, or Celeri-rave a femlles frisees. Insects amd diseases. — Celeriae is liable to be attacked by the celery-fly, Tephritis onopordinis, (which see.) We are not aware that the roots have hitherto been attacked by the PiophUa apii, which has of late years been detected in the stems of celery. § 3. — THE LETTUCE. Natural history. — Lettuce {Lactuca satiea L.) belongs to the natural order Compositse, and sub-order CiohoraceBB, tribe Lactucese, and to the class Syngenesia, and order Squalls, in the Linnsean arrangement. The generic name is derived from the Latin Lac, milk, from the milky juice which abounds in most of the genus, and has been of much importance in medicine. That of Lactuca iierosa, for example, is highly narcotic, and has been even employed with great advantage as a substitute for opium. The production of the opium qualities, which exist in all this genus, is much lessened by cultiva- tion, and especially by blanching; hence blanched endive is less poisonous than it would be if eaten in its natural state. It would be curious to know if this had anything to do with the process as a branch of culture. The lactucarium brought into notice some years ago by Dr Dun- can of Edinburgh, who found it could be ad- ministered where poppy opium could not with safety, was prepared from the juice of lettuce. The native comitry of the lettuce is unknown; it, however, appears to have been cultivated in Britain since 1662. According to Herodotus, it was in use 550 yeare before Christ ; yet Pliny says the ancient Romans knew but one sort. In his time they were cultivated so as to be had at all seasons of the jtear, and even blanched to render them more tender. Gerard is the eai'- liest English author who writes of them. He gives an account of eight sorts cultivated in his day. It is quite evident, from the names of many of our still cultivated sorts, that they must have reached us from the Greek islands — Cos, for example — and from various places in the Levant. Italy, Egypt, and the south of France have contributed their share. Uses. — As one of our best salad herbs, the lettuce is well known — eaten raw in French salads, with cream, oil, vinegai-, salt, hard-boiled eggs, &c. It is also eaten by many with moist sugar and vinegar, and some prefer it with vine- gar alone. It is excellent when stewed, either alone or eaten with partridge ; and in most vegetable soups it forms an ingredient, and is an excellent addition to Scotch broth and hodge-podge, as a substitute for cabbage. It is eaten at almost all meals by the French ; by the English after dinner, if not served as adjuncts to dishes dur- ing the repast; and by many after supper, the time when the Romans first ate them — but in the time of Domitian they changed this order, and served them with their first entries at their feasts, much as is done in many parts of the Continent at this day. In a raw state lettuce is emollient, cooling, and in some degree laxative and aperient, easy of digestion, but containing little nourishment. Propagation. — The only mode of propa- gation is by seed. Sowing and planting. — As lettuce is re- quired throughout the whole year, sow- ings must be made from the beginning of February to the end of September — say twice in February and March, and three times each other month. But where young lettuce is required when about 2 inches high, the seed will require to be sown once a-fortnight during winter, and once a- week during summer and autumn. The hardy kinds, to stand over winter for early spring use, should be sown in August and September. The first crop sown in February should be upon a slight hot-bed, and when about 2 inches high should be transferred to a colder bed covered with glass, and protected from frost. These may, in the beginning of April, be trans- 152 CULINAEY OR KITCHEN GARDEN. planted to the bottom of a wall having a southern exposure, where they will be protected by the projecting coping, and by the awnings used to protect the blos- soms of the trees. In default of such, plant in the warmest border the place affords, and protect by branches or other means most at hand. These may be set at 6 or 8 inches apart, and the smaller taken up with balls, and planted in the open border about thef beginning of May, setting them 12 inches apart each way, as the smaller and hardier sorts should be chosen for this purpose. In February and March, seed should be sown on a warm border, and the plants protected until fit for planting in the more exposed borders or quarters of the garden. For a first general summer crop, sow about the end of March and begin- ning, middle, and end of April, in a well- exposed place, and continue sowing as above. During the heat of summer, sow on borders with a north aspect, and keep the ground moist by watering. Lettuce is much improved by careful transplant- ing; therefore every crop, as soon as the young plants will handle, should be set in nursery-beds sufficiently thin as not to touch each other. For this it is impossible to give exact dimensions, as so much depends on the varieties sown — the cos or upright-growing kinds requir- ing less space than the cabbage sorts ; and even in each of these there exists a considerable difference in size. In all cases of nursery-bed transplanting, there is no error in planting thin, as the thinner the plants are the stockier they get, and the better rooted — the purposes aimed at in this stage of their growth. The beds prepared for them should be in high cul- tivation — that is, thoroughly enriched and completely pulverised. If a little half-decayed turfy soil, or half-decayed leaves, were dug into such beds, the roots would work into them, and lift with bet- ter balls, and especially so by using the transplanting trowel, fig. 27. In removing them from the seed-bed to the nursery plantation, the ground should be well watered lif dry. Instead of pulling up the ten- der plants, as is usually done, the ground should be loosened by the transplanting fork, fig. S5, which is a useful implement, and may be em- ployed in taking up root-weeds too firmly fixed in the soil to be drawn up by the hand. Its principal use, however, is in loosening the soil about the roots of young seedling plants, such as cabbage, endive, lettuces, or the like, previous to their removal to the nursery-bed, and also in Fig. 55. TRANSPLANTING FORK. facilitating their removal from it to the place of final planting, when the transplanters, figs. 29, &c. are not to be used, or the transplanting trowels, figs. 27 and 28. The use of all the latter implements is to remove with compact balls of earth around the roots; and they are of great service when plants of a large size are to be removed, particularly during dry weather, and when the least possible check is to be given to their growth. A saving of time and space is obtained by their use : for example, most of the BrassicsB, the lettuce, and endive, may be retained in nursery-beds, even should the former attain a height of 9 or 1 inches, and the two latter 4 or 5, and until the ground intended for them shall be cleared of its present crop. The fork, fig. 55, is, on the other hand, to be employed for lifting young crops of onions, leeks, lettuce, endive, and similar long and tender-rooted plants, so that, by loosening the soil around them, they may with greater safety be taken up than if pulled by the hand. These forks are of various sizes — the smallest is Z\ inches broad at the points of the prongs, 6 inches in length of prongs, andlOJinches, including the handle. The prongs are flattened, and are half an inch broad at the broadest part, tapering to a sharp point. The fork is attached to the handle by a bent neck, the part of which that is attached to the prongs acts as a fulcrum, while the handle acts as a lever. Fig. S6 is a modification of the last, the prongs of which are 6 inches in length, and which. Fig. 56. TRANSPLANTING FORK. with the bending at the neck and handle, mea- sures 13 inches in length. In this case the prongs are round, tapering to a point, are three in number, and form a fork 3 inches in breadth. It is used for similar purposes as the last, and also as a planting tool. When transferred from the nursery-beds to the open quarters after the beginning of May, shallow drills should be drawn according to their size, and the plants set in them : being somewhat below the general surface, they will derive shelter ; and should water be required, which will be the case in dry weather, it can be more advantageously applied. If in plan- ACETARIACEOUS PLANTS.— THE LETTUCE. 153 tations by themselves, they should be ac- commodated aocordiug to their natural full size. Such sorts as the tennis-ball, or the Laitue grotte, two of the smaller sorts, will have plenty of room if 10 inches apart ; while such as the drum- head will require nearly double. It is seldom, however, unless in large gardens, that plantations of lettuces are made to any extent by themselves ; they form a sort of element in mixed planting, and therefore are often interlined with other crops, such as cauliflower, cabbage, broc- coli, &c., in which case a lettuce plant is very properly placed between each two of the others in the same line, that no interruption may take place in stirring the ground between the rows. In such places they are usually cut for use before they injure the regular crop. The London market-garden practice is to sow the white cos variety from the 10th to the middle of October in frames, which are filled with soil to within 6 inches of the top, giving a slope of 1 foot in 4 the length of the lights, whict always face the north. As soon as the seeds are sown the sashes are removed, and a man is placed in this department to keep off the sparrows, give air, and shut up in case of rain, the great secret being to keep them as dry as possible, and to let them have all the air they can get. This will appear strange to a non-eating salad reader, but it should be remembered that millions of this variety are so grown within a few miles of London, and the price obtained pays the expense. They are planted out in February or early in March, in rich well-trenched ground (after celery), 1 foot apart each way. Mr Cuthill, on whose high authority the above statement is made, observes, that "gentlemen's gar- deners buy the same seed, but, owing to their mismanagement during winter, and the poor state of the ground, they cannot grow such fine lettuces as the market-gardener. Some of the latter," he continues, " are too greedy in regard to crops — for instance, they have often three crops on the ground, all coming forward one after another : but the best cultivators do not do this; it tramples the ground, and does not give any crop fair play. The rapid growth of a lettuce depends much upon hoeing or stirring the soil." About the beginning of October an abundant supply of the hardier varieties should be planted out at the bottoms of garden-walls, on dry warm borders, and on raised banks, sloping both towards the sun and also/rom it. On these, in open places, lettuces often stand the winter well ; and should those on the southern side be cut off by strong sunshine suc- ceeding severe frosts, those on the oppo- site side may escape, as the process of thawing will take place more gradually on them. In cold and elevated situa- tions, pits and frames will be required to insure their safety. In such circum- stances the plants should be kept mode- rately dry, and as much exposed to the light and air as possible : hence the lights shoidd be kept off during good weather ; and when on, should be tilted up both night and day, to admit full ventilation. If in frames, it will be of advantage in this respect if they be clear of the ground the thickness of a brick, so that air may pass freely through ; in very severe weather they may be let close down to the ground. Covering the spaces between the plants with coal-ashes will be found of advantage. In planting lettuce to stand over win- ter at the bottom of walls, every aspect should be made use of; for it is often found that those set behind a north wall will succeed better than those having the protection of a south one. Besides planting at the bottoms of walls for protection during winter, wher- ever there are pits or frames and glasses to spare for the purpose, these should in like manner be filled with young lettuce- plants, to afford a spring supply should the others fail. The seed of lettuces is small and light ; half an ounce will sow a bed of 80 square feet, and will, under ordinary circum- stances, produce eight hundred plants. The seed being small, it is necessary the ground should be well pulverised and made smooth before it is sown, and that it be not covered more than about the eighth of an inch. Some recommend sowing lettuce on the ground where it is to remain, either broadcast or in rows, and, when the plants come up, to thin them to the distance of from 6 to 14 inches apart, according to their size or sort. This is a waste of 154 CULINARY OR KITCHEN GARDEN. ground ; for while they are in the seed- bed or nursery plantation, they are pro- gressing in growth, while other crops may be ripening off to make way for them. Besides, the process of transplanting greatly lessens their disposition to run to Subsequent cultivation. — During spring the young crops must be protected from frost, and during summer from drought by copious waterings of manure-water, and frequent stirring of the ground be- tween the plants ; and snails and slugs should be kept under by watering with lime-water when the ground is dry, or dusting with lime in powder when it is already too moist. During winter the plants should be kept dry, clear of weeds, dead leaves, and all matter likely to en- courage damp amongst them. The ground should be frequently stirred amongst the plants, and abundance of air given to those under glass frames or hand-glasses. In the growing season every stimulant should be applied, for mnoh of the excel- lence of the crop depends on its quick- ness of growth. Blanching being often desirable, the cos varieties will be has- tened towards maturity by having their leaves loosely tied together with strands of matting : the cabbage sorts do not re- quire this attention. For means of pre- serving during winter, see Endive ; the means and method of proceeding are alike in both. Forcing. — The lettuce is seldom forced in Britain ; on the Continent there is a slight stimulus given to produce them fine during winter and early spring. In Holland and Belgium this is carried on with great care and success. The means adopted will be understood by what follows. The Dutch and Belgian mode of obtaining fine lettuce throughout the winter is — About the beginning of October, not later, an ex- hausted hot-bed, on which melons or cucumbers have been grown, or, in default of this, a bed of fresh materials well fermented, and in which the excess of fermentation has ceased, is chosen, and formed into a bed for the purpose. These beds, we may observe, are for the most part either wholly or in part imder the ground sur- face, - pit being dug out for their reception : this is rendered necessary from the intensity of their winters. After the heat has considerably declined, the surface is earthed over to the depth of a foot or more with light soil, chiefly decomposed leaf-mould with an admixture of sand, and filled up to within 9 inches of the under surface of the glass. The surface is ren- dered smooth and level by slightly beating it down with the back of a spade, and is then most correctly marked out into squares corre- sponding exactly with the size of the square of glass, and immediately under them. The plants, being previously sown very thin three weeks or a month before, are not excited by any extra means; on the contrary, they are kept exposed, and so become sturdy, stocky plants, so that when they have formed their fourth leaf they are judged fit for being transplanted into the prepared bed. One plant only is placed in each square, and that in its very centre. A few plants are put along the back and ends of the bed to serve as substitutes should any of the principal ones be eaten by the wireworm, which is very troublesome ; if not required, these are thrown away. We do not recoUeet seeing any of the cos varieties so grown, but the cab- bage kinds only : the Klein groen, or small green with black seed, very similar to our tennis-ball, or the Laitue grotte of the French, is used where the squares of glass are small; and the Groote geel or large white, similar to our drumhead or Silesian, where the squares exceed a square foot each. After planting a slight watering is given, and the whole surfece of the bed is neatly covered with white sand, which is kept during the whole growth exceed- ingly clean and free of weeds and muscous mat- ter. The lights are then put on, and made to fit exceedingly close all round the sides and ends of the frames, these being rebated for their reception ; and no air is given for the first two or three days — that is, until the plants have taken root. Afterwards air is admitted, but with extreme caution, the lights being slightly elevated both at bottom and top, so that a com- plete change of air takes place almost instan- taneously : this is found better in practice than a less efficient and more protracted mode of ventilation, and perhaps on this a great deal of their rapid growth and delicate crispness de- pends. In the early part of winter this ventila- tion is often left on during the day and night also ; but the sashes are never completely re- moved, but kept on to keep the surface and the plants diy. When the lettuces have at- tained their full size, and have become com- pletely cabbaged, air is totally withdrawn ; should the leaves touch the glass, the frame is carefully elevated a few inches to prevent their coming in contact with it, and running the chance of being injured by frost. When the frosty nights come on, the utmost vigilance is exercised to prevent the frost passing through the glass, for if it did so, the whole crop would inevitably perish : covering must therefore be attended to, as the exclusion of cold and damp are the principles of their preservation. During the whole process, no artificial heat must be applied; and water must also be withheld, as it is probable that the roots, having passed through, or nearly through, the bed of soil, abstract suffi- cient moisture from the dung-bed below, thus rendering surface-watering unnecessary. To do ACETARIACEOUS PLANTS.— THE LETTUCE. 155 justice to the Belgian, German, and Dutch gai-- deners, we must say that their lettuce so grown is equal at Christmas to what we usually see in our own gardens in July and August. It should, however, be observed that with them a frame or two of such lettuce is considered as great a triumph of skill as a house full of four- pound queen pine-apples is with their brethren in Britain. To keep up a winter supply, two or three sowings are made, and consequently the same number of plantings. At this season frames are not required, as with us, for winter- ing planting-out plants, and other requirements in EugUsh practice, therefore every frame and glass sash at the command of the Continental gardener is employed in the production of his lettuce crops. The same practice has been re- peatedly tried in England — as at Longleat, Bul- strode Park — but with very varied success. The late Mr Niumau, a celebrated Dutch gardener, brought over by the late Mr Labouchere, often acknowledged to us the great difficulty he had to contend with in the cloudy atmosphere at Hylauds in Essex, even when compared with that of Holland. It is probable, however, that the more variable state of our climate had its share in his difficulties. A remark of this ex- cellent cultivator is worth recording in this place — namely, that the difference even of two days in plantations made in October not uufre- quently caused a difference of from a month to six weeks of their attaining maturity towards spring. The plants are kept as close to the glass as is possible without their touching it, and the reason for placing each plant exactly under the centre of a pane of glass is to prevent the chance of drip falling into its heart, which would utterly destroy it. For this purpose, also, the glass should be kept in the best possible repair, and the laps should be leaded or other- wise secured. Taking the crop. — As lettuce is gathered for use, the whole plant should be pulled up by the roots j but as there would be a great chance of the earth, particularly from amongst the fibres, getting in amongst the leaves in their transit to the vegetable-house, it is better to cut the roots off and bury them in the ground in which they grew. The outer leaves should be cut off, and the root part of the stem cut clear over with a sharp knife, the whole plant carefully washed and rinsed in clean water, after having been steeped a few minutes in the salt- water tan ; any of the tips of the leaves injured by frost in winter, or by insects or drought in summer, should be care- fully cut off, and the utmost vigilance exercised that aphides and other insects are not allowed to remain attached to the leaves, and that all sandy and earthy particles be carefully washed out; the lettuce should then be set on end, the top uudei'most, in a clean salad-basket, to allow the water to drain completely out; and it should be understood that it, as well as all other salads, receive no further cleansing after they are sent from the garden. Approved sorts, and their qualities. — Lettuce is divided into two very distinct tribes or sub- famdies — namely, the Cos and the Cabbage kinds. The former are of upright growth, hardy, and in general firm and crisp ; the latter less hardy, and more soft and flaccid, and even on that account preferred by some. The same difference exists in regard to their merits for cooking, some preferring the one and some the other. French cooks usually choose the cab- bage kinds. Green Paris cos. — This is the best variety of cos lettuce at present grown, and although less hardy than the brown cos, it withstands our ordinary winters when planted at the bottom of walls. As a spring, summer, and autumnal lettuce, we think it unrivalled, growing to a large size, of a fine green colour, and, from the manner in which the outer leaves cove over the interior ones, becoming nicely blanched without having to be tied together. It is known as Sut- ton's superb green cos, Ady's fine large cos, and Kensington cos. It is the Eomaine verte Marai- cherc, and Chicon, ou Komaine verte Maraichere, of the " Bon Jardinier." Paris white cos. — This is the sort most gene- rally grown by the London marketgardeners, millions of it being produced annually within a few miles of London alone. Next to the green Paris cos this is the largest, tlie best, and the longest in iiiuning to seed of all the summer let- tuces we have grown. It is less hardy than either the last or the following, and with them may be considered all of this class requii cd in any ordinary garden. This opinion is, we observe, confirmed by Mr Thompson in the sixth volume of " The Journal of the Horticultural Society," p. 26, who remarks, " It was sown April 1 0th, and had not commenced to run July 27th, while all the other cos lettuces sown en the same day were showing flower." Known also as London white cos, Sutton's superb white cos. It is the Romaine blonde Maraichere of the " Bon Jardinier," and is much cultivated, as well as the last, around Paris. Seeds white. The common white cos runs to seed sooner than this variety. Brown cos. — This old and excellent sort stOl maintains its position as being the hardiest of all the class. It grows to a, large size, blimclies well, and is exceedingly crisp and tender. It is known as Bath cos, brown Bath cos, white- seeded brown cos, Wood's improved Bath cos, hardy brown cos, and Sutton's Berkshire brown cos. This excellent variety is not much culti- vated on the Continent ; the outside leaves being of a brownish colour renders it with them objectionable. Seeds white. Waite's white cos.— An excellent variety, appa- rently intermediate between the Paris green cos and Paris white cos ; not quite so dark or green as the former, yet somewhat greener than the 156 CULINARY OR KITCHEN GARDEN. latter. The three varieties are so excellent that either or all may be grown advantageously. Bath green cos. — Has great merit as a hardy winter green sort, and nearly related to the old Bath cos, only less brown on the outer leaves, and while it has white seed this has black seed. Hence we have, in seed catalogues, black-seeded Bath cos and white-seeded Bath cos : the latter appears to be the hardiest, while the former seems to be the best. Artichoke-leaved lettuce. — Comparatively a new variety of singular habit, having the leaves long, upright, and very much cut at the edges ; it is a hardy variety, blanches well, and does not speedily run to seed. It is the Romaine a feuilles d'artichaufc of the " Bon Jardinier." The seeds are black, and should be sown in June and July for autumn and winter use. The above may be considered the very best, and the following rank next to them in this respect : new crystal cos ; early green cos, which is identical with the Brighton green cos ; Brighton cos ; Egyptian cos, and Egyptian green cos ; golden cos, the same as the Florence cos ; Alphange cos (of this variety the French cultivate two sub-varieties, the one having black and the other white seed) ; red-spotted cos, the same as Aleppo, bloody, and the Sanguine ou panachee, Eomaine panachee a grain blanche, of the French. Seeds white. Seed-lists contain such names as Bearfield cos, Victoria cos, white Brunoy (the latter said to be very large), and a variety of other names, which are either un- known to us, or which are identical with some of the above. Of cabbage lettuce we have for summer culti- vation — The Neapolitan. — A large, white, crisp, and firm variety of great excellence — we think the best of all others for summer use, as it comes in early, and is long in running to seed, blanch- ing itself naturally ; leaves somewhat curled, toothed at the edges. Seeds white. Large white. — Heads large, flat, compact, with smooth leaves and white seeds. Of medium earliness, and not inclined to run to seed during hot weather. A profitable sort. Known as the late cabbage, large mogul, Swedish or sugar, Saxony, and princess, and is the Royal t graine blanche. Blonde Paresseuse, Blonde d'6tS ou Jaune d'etg of the French. Malta. — Heads compact and flattish ; leaves palish green ; blanching naturally ; of a fine pure white colour and tender consistency. An old tried variety. It is the Laitue de Malte of the " Bon Jardinier." Versailles. — Not much removed from the Neapolitan ; the leaves are, however, of a paler green, of excellent quality, and cabbaging white and crisp. It is the Laitue de Versailles, Laitue de Versailles blonde, of the " Bon Jardinier." Imperial. — An excellent large sort, but infe- rior to either of the above. It is known as the vmiou, and is the Imperiale ou grosse Alemande of the French, and differs only from their Laitue Turque, or Turque 4 graine noire, in having white instead of black seed. Black-seeded yellow. — Very similar to the large white cabbage lettuce, differing chiefly in the seeds of the present one being black. It is the Blonde de Berlin, Blonde i, graine noire, Royal ^ graine noire, of the French. White Siksian. — One of the largest size. Leaves crumpled or wavy at their edges ; pal- ish green, slightly tinged with reddish brown on their outer surfaces. It is known as the drum- head, large drumhead, or cabbage, Spanish, imperial. A long-cultivated sort. It is the Ba- tavia blonde ou SUesie of the " Bon Jardinier." Of other summer cabbage lettuces the fol- lowing rank next to the above : Asiatic, Belle bonne. Ice, Grand admirable, Victoria, Mogul, (which is identical with superfine new French), Laitue de HoUande, Grosse brune paresseuse, and Grosse grise. The Nonpareil of the English is synonymous with the Metrelle of the French. Of cabbage lettuce we have, for winter and early spring use — Temiis-ball. — A long-cultivated sort. Heads small, firm, white, and crisp ; very hardy, and not apt to run to seed in spring. Very much prized with French cooks, who dress it whole in a variety of w^ays. This is one of the sorts which should be sown about the 12th or 15th of August. The seed is black. It is known also as green ball or button, and capuchin. It requires little room in frames during winter, and yields a great return in spring, as almost the whole plant is eatable. Black-seeded grotte. — An excellent winter let- tuce, somewhat similar to the last. There is a black and white seeded variety, and also various other grotte lettuces, much more cultivated in France than with us, all of great merit. Where small, hard, compact, and dehcate sorts are required, this class should be extensively grown; not that they differ much in appear- ance or quality, but by procuring several sorts by name, the chance of disappointment in pro- curing some that are good is lessened. Brown Butch. — An excellent hardy free-grow- ing sort, attaining a pretty large size, cabbaging freely, and of good quality. The outside leaves are reddish brown, the centre ones white and delicate. It is less hardy than the others iu this class ; but as it is of much larger size, its cultivation is of consequence. Hardy-green Hammersmith. — An excellent small hardy green variety, which has long been iu cultivation. Leaves much wrinkled and con- cave ; dark green in colour, and thicker than most of this class ; seeds white ; the hardiest sort in cultivation. It is known also as the early frame, early dwarf Dutch, Roman cab- i)age, hardy green, green Dutch, and Prussian cabbage. It is the Laitue verde of Continental gardens. While Dutch. — Leaves yellowish green, some- times tinged with reddish purple at their tips ; seeds white ; cabbages freely, and of excellent quality; somewhat larger than the tennis-ball. Known also as the early yellow, early green forcing, and early cabbage. It is the Laitue 4 bord rouge, ou Cordon rouge, of the French. There are four species of Lactuca cultivated besides L. saliva, the presumed type of the cul- tivated varieties described above. These are Lactuca crispa, palmata, intyhacea, and quercina. ACETARIACEOUS PLANTS.— THE LETTUCE. 157 Their merits liave, however, attracted little at- tention in Britain. The French profess to have several kinds in the seed-shops, which they consider adapted to the purpose of growing to be out young, as we do mustard and cress. These they call Laitue chicoree, Laitue h oou- per, Laitue epinard. Any sort of the upright or cos varieties will do equally well. Diseases and insects. — Among the latter are the lettuce-fly {Anthomyia laetucm Bouch.), the larvte of which, according to Euricola, in " Gardeners' Chronicle," make their appearance in August, but more abundantly in September. They are not very readily distinguished from those of the cabbage and turnip, being of a yellowish-white colour, tapering towards the head, which is pointed, and armed with two short black claws at the nose. These maggots live in the involucra of different varieties of lettuce, feeding upon the seed and receptacle ; and when they have de- voured these, they push themselves out back- wards, either to enter another seed-vessel, or fall to the ground to become pupae. When the seed stems are gathered and dying, the larvK change to pupae, being bright chestnut coloured ; oval cases, which are rough when examined under a lens, with two minute tubercles at the head, and two hooks and a few other tubercles at the tail. In May a few of the pupse hatch, although they are sometimes found as early as April and as late as July. The male fly is intense black, clothed with short hairs and bristles ; the eyes reddish brown, and meeting above ; face inclining to chestnut colour, with a bright spot of the same on the crown ; the fore part of the trunk bears four varying whitish stripes; the body is ashy grey ; the segments blackish, at the base a deep black ; wings, two, stained with black and beautifully irridescent ; the base and poisers ochreous ; the nervures of the vrings pitchy. The female is entirely ashy grey, and less bristly ; the eyes not meeting on the crown, with a bright chestnut-coloured stripe between them ; body oval ; the apex cone-shaped ; horns and legs blackish ; wings and nervures lighter than in the male, which it equals in size. The A rctia caja — Euprepia cjja of others — fig. 57 (the garden tiger-moth), appears in July, and often commits sad havoc upon lettuce crops, and also on strawberries. The caterpillar is one of the most voracious of all its class, eat- ing double its own weight per day. They do not eat the solid part of the leaf, but suck out the juice, and thereby destroy the plant as com- pletely as others do who devour the leaves and stems. It has been ascertained that one of these caterpillars, weighing 36 grains, voided daily more than 15 grains' weight of excrement; yet its ovm weight only increased 2 grains daily. The caterpillar of this moth is to be found in June, and the perfect insect in July, so that its period of voracity is providentially not of long dura- tion. It is well known in gardens in its perfect state, and may be readily captured while on wing by using an entomologist's net. Hind wings bright red, with blue-black spots ; fore legs of a reddish brown, marked with creamy white; thorax brown, with a red neck-band ; abdomen red, with blue-black bars. The caterpillars ai'e VOL. II. dark brown, thickly covered with reddish-brown hairs. They cast their skin quite entire, and Fig. 57. TIGER MOTH AND CATERPILLAR. these may be frequently picked up in mistake for the living insect. Another enemy to the lettuce, as well as many of the products of the garden, is the Tipula ma- culosa of Hoffmausegg (the spotted garden-gnat), fig. 68. Thegrubs Fig. 58. of the genus Ti- pula are amongst the worst ene- mies to gardens. It would appear that, until lately, we had no cor- rect idea of the number of speci&s by which we are infested — Tipula oleracea apparent- ly bearing the whole blame of the injury done us by his family. Ruricola,in " Gar- deners' Chro- nicle," 1846, p. 317, appears to have drawn at- tention to this species, and de- scribes them as follows; "These larvae are of the same dirty earth colour as those of T. oleracea; but they are only three-fourths of an inch long, and as thick as a large crow-quill. They are wrinkled, and when at rest contract themselves, drawing in the head and thoracic segments, so that this portion looks more like the anal extremity : the animal, however, is able to thrust out its head and crawl along very X SPOTTED GARDEN-GNAT OR CRANE FLY, GRUB, AND PUPA. 158 CULINARY OR KITCHEN GARDEN. well, although it is destitute of feet. The head is small, brown, and furnished with two black jaws, short antennae, and, I believe, minute palpi. Two vessels of a pale colour are visible down each side of the back, and one in the centre ; the tail is furnished with two divaricating hooks, and two short teeth between them ; the stern being truncated, which will readily distinguish the larva from that of T. oleracea ; it has two large spiracles, with two tubercles below, and two fleshy masses, which are capable of great dilatation, and assist it exceedingly in walking. In the spring these larvae change to pupse in the earth. They are about the same length as the larvae, but scarcely so stout, and of the like dirty colour ; the head and thorax are defined, the latter having a short slender horn project- ing on each side ; the wings are small, but dis- tinctly visible, as well as the legs, which are placed between them. There is a spiny ele- vated line on each side of the abdomen ; each segment having a transverse row of minute spines above, and five larger ones beneath ; the penultimate joint is surrounded by six longer spines and two smaller ones ; and the apex pro- duces a large conical process above, and a shorter one beneath. The flies are abundant in May and June in meadows, gardens, fields, hedges, and especially on the sea-coast. There must be either two or three broods in the year, or a constant succession of the flies, although the spring may be the season when the greatest number are hatched; but that will vary with the temperature." The gnat is " not quite half an inch long, but the wings expand one inch. The male is of a fine yellow colour ; the black horns are longer than the thorax, and taper ; they are 13-jointed ; the first joint is elongated, the second small and cup-shaped ; all the others are elliptical, with a few bristles at the base of each, excepting the apical one, which is very minute ; head with a large black patch on the crown; forehead conical, with a little black dot on each side ; the face forming a cylindri- cal rostrum, with a hairy beak, bearing a black spot on the top. Palpi are longish and black ; the eyes are hemispherical and black, but there are no ocelli ; the thorax is marked with three black stripes down the back, the centre one the shortest, and the sides are spotted with black ; the scutel has a black dorsal stripe ; the abdo- men is linear and obtuse, with a row of black spots down the back, and smaller brown ones on the sides ; the wings divaricate or rest hori- zontally on the body ; they are of a smoky, yellow tint ; the costa is yellow ; there are an areolet, two little stigmatio cells, and seven apical ones ; six long black legs, very slender and tapering ; base of thigh pale yellow, and of shanks yellowish brown. The female is rather larger; the horns shorter; the abdomen is fusi- form; the apex accuminated, and furnished with two fine sharp lateral valves, and a smaller centrical one. The eggs, which are scattered by the female, are intensely black, but dull, oval, and spoon-shaped. This, however, might arise in my specimens from their not being fertile. " Some idea may be formed, from the following data, of the mischief committed by this insect. On the 23d of April T found the grubs at the root of my pease ; on the 29th some had eaten off trusses of flowers in the strawberry beds, close to the crown, retiring afterwards just benea^ the surface of the earth ; the first week in May they were not uncommon among the roots of lilacs andundertufts of grass ; on the 28th of the same month I observed some recently transplanted let- tuce drooping, and, on examination, found the roots separated from the crown, a little below the surface, and close to where these grubs are diffi- cult to detect, owing to their colour, and their re- maining quite motionless when disturbed. The end of July they were eating the roots of dahlias, carnations, and various flowers ; and the 7th of August they infested some potato ground along with the T. oleracea ; after which I lost sight of them. " Lime-water will not kill them ; and the only mode I have been able to adopt with any success has been to search round sickly plants, and dig up all that have been killed by them, and destroy the culprits ; but this must be done speedily, otherwise they will soon decamp to feed upon other plants. I should think water- ing with brine, nitrate of soda, or perhaps strong liquid manure, would keep them from our crops." Brine applied sufficiently strong to kiU or drive away these grubs would kill the plants them- selves. Sulphur, tobacco or quassia water, or spirits of tar incorporated with the soil, we think, would be found more effectual. Besides these, a species of aphis has recently been discovered which commits great depredations on lettuce crops, by attacking the roots of the plants. This species does not appear to have been observed by entomologists prior to 184,9, and hence re- mains unnamed. Birds are fond of the seeds of lettuce, there- fore newly-sown crops should be protected by netting the beds over; and the seed, while ripening, requires a similar protection. General remarks. — Select some of the best- formed plants that have stood over winter ; thin them out where they stand, if the place is eli- gible; if not, transplant them in spring to a warm and sunny spot, setting them from 2 to 3 feet apart, according to the size of the kinds. Keep no two sorts near to each other ; or, better, as the seed retains its vegetative properties for many years, grow in small gardens, only one sort for seed in one season. The seed will be ripe in August. Cut the plants when the flowers have faded, and leave them on a dry border for a day or two; the seeds will mature themselves in the seed-vessels, deriving nourishment from the sap in the plants; when dry, remove them under cover of a dry airy shed, and thrash out the seed when it begins to fall out. The seed ripens very irregularly if left standing, the top parts ripening and shedding before the lower parts and the side shoots are equally matured. § 4. — ENDIVE. Natural history. — Endive (fiichormm endivia L.) belongs to the natural order Compositae, suborder Cichoraceac, and tribe Ciuchorai, and ACETARIACEOUS PLANTS.— ENDIVE. 159 to the class Syngenesia and order iEqualis in the Linnsean arrangement. For derivation, vide SucooBY. It is said to be a native of the East Indies, China, and Japan, and to have been in- troduced in 1548. This Phillips disputes, and we think with good reason, for Ovid mentions it in his tale of " Philemon and Baucis." Colu- mella also notices this vegetable as sufficiently common in his day ; and Pliny tells us clearly that it was " eaten both as a pot-herb and salad by the Romans in his time ; " and in book xx. chap. 8, he speaks of the endive or garden suc- cory as being medicinal. Gerard gives an ac- count " of the manner by which the garden endive was preserved for winter use in the time of Queen Elizabeth." His method may not be un- interesting to the horticulturist of the present day. He says — " Endive being sown in July, it remaineth till winter, at which time it is taken up by the roots, and laid in the sun or air for the space of two hours ; then will the leaves be tough, and easily endure to be wrapped up in a heap, and buried in the ground with the roots uppermost, where no earth can get within it, which, if it did, would cause rottenness ; and which, so covered, may be taken up at any time convenient, and used as salads all winter, as in London and all other places is to be seen ; and then it is called white endive." Taking a hint from this quotation, we have often, in taking up endive in November, planted it in an inverted position, by burying the leaves in dry peat earth (which is an excellent antiseptic), the roots uppermost, and exposed to the air, and have kept it in good condition from two to three months. From all we can learn, we are dis- posed to believe endive a native of Egypt, and that it was carried from thence to Italy, and from thence to Britain, along with many other of our horticultural productions. Uses. — The leaves are the only parts used, and these only when blanched, to diminish the natural bitterness of taste. It is one of our best autumn, winter, and spring salads, and is also stewed much in the same way as lettuce. Propagation. — In a cultivated state it can only be regarded as an annual, and is therefore propagated by seed, -which is light, and vegetates freely : half an ounce of seed will sow a seed-bed of 40 square feet. Soloing and planting. — The earliest crop should be sown in May, on a warm border, in rich and weU-pulverised soil. In sow- ing, scatter the seed thinly, and cover to the depth of a quarter of an inch. If sown earlier, the plants are apt to run to seed in autumn ; and if sown too thick, they come up slender, and if not timeously thinned, are much retarded in their growth. For principal crops, sow twice in June and twice in July ; and for a late crop to stand over winter, if mild, and to come in early in spring, sow again towards the middle or end of August. The seeds may be sown broadcast in beds 3 feet in breadth. In dry warm weather water freely, both while in the seed-bed and nursery plantation. As bulk of vegetable and tenderness in texture, as in the case of the lettuce, are the great requisites, every stimulus should be given to increase the rapidity of growth, and this will be accelerated by the application of liquid manure, such as dissolved guano, soot, or pigeons' dung, applying it either early in the morning or late in the after- noon. When the plants are about 2^ inches high, remove them carefully, and transplant them into another bed of equally enriched soil. Set the plants from 3 to 4 inches apart each way, water at planting, and afterwards, if the weather is dry. From this bed they may be trans- ferred, when about 4 to 5 inches in height, to where they are to come to their full size. The early crop should be sparingly planted, unless the demand is great, as they are very apt to shoot up to seed, more especially if the seed is of last year's growth. A part of this early crop may be planted on a warm well-exposed bor- der, and the remainder interlined with newly-planted-out broccoli or cabbage, or between rows of dwarf pease, the partial shade being of advantage to them, and in some degree preventing their running to seed prematurely. In taking up for final transplanting, great care should be taken that the roots are disturbed as little as possible, and that as much soil as will conveniently remain about them be also taken along with them — and for this purpose the planting trowel should be used, instead of the dibber. As the plants are taken up, set them closely together in the planting-tray, with their leaves up- right, and on no account follow the bar- barous practice of cutting the leaves off nearly by the middle. The planting-tray is a light shallow Isox, about 27 inches in length, 18 inches wide, and 3| inches in depth. In the sides should be cut two slits sufficient to introduce the fingers, for greater convenience in carrying it to the place of planting. Such trays are much better than baskets, as they prevent the loose earth falling on the walks, pro- tect the roots better from the air during their transport, and are more economical, on account of their greater durability. The ground for the principal crops should 160 CULINARY OR KITCHEN GARDEN. be open and well exposed to the sun, thoroughly manured, and dug or trenched to the depth of 2 feet. Draw drills from 12 to 15 inches apart, according to the kind of endive to be planted, as some, like the Batavian or broad-leaved sorts, reqiiire more room than the green-curled, and those to be used early in autumn may also be set closer together than such as are to remain till a later period. The drills should be 3 inches deep, which, by the earth falling into them during the process of hoeing, &c., will assist in blanch- ing the crop ; they also render the pro- cess of watering more convenient, and economise the fluid, and afford, as in all cases of drilled crops, greater facility for cleaning the ground and stirring it up, upon which so much of the success of all crops depends. The plants, according to size, as stated above, should be planted with the trowel, at from 9 to 14 inches apart in the row : if the ground is in proper condition, this will not be found too great a distance ; if otherwise, a less distance will suffice. In all cold and late situations, the warmest spot in the garden should be set apart for this crop, as it is, with the ex- ception of the kidney-bean and potato, the most tender of all our ordinary escu- lents. The shade of trees should be avoided; and for the latest crops of all, a dry place, and if possible sloping to the south, should be chosen. Subsequent cultivation. — The summer crop will require nothing more than atten- tion to watering, and keeping the ground clear of weeds, until it has nearly attained its full size, when a portion of the crop should be blanched ; but this should not be done all at once, only in progression — say from 20 to 50 plants about every third day. The methods of blanching are va- rious. The Belgians, who are the best growers of this crop in the world, com- mence at the end of a row, and, taking the leaves carefully up with both hands first, hold them tight with the left hand, and with the right hand apply a small willow twig, and frequently a leaf of Ju- neus glaums, which they use largely for all temporary tying purposes, round the leaves at top, thus causing the large outer leaves to blanch the more tender ones towards the heart of the plant. They are methodical in all their gardening opera- tions ; and so, in this case, they thus tie up as many plants as will last for six days, at the end of which time they begin to gather the crop, which will be begin- ning to blanch, and will every day be improving. They take up as many as they require for the day's consumption, and with the twigs or rushes now dis- engaged, they proceed to where they left off tying at first, and tie up as many more as they have that day taken for use; and in this way they go on throughout the whole crop. They also sometimes draw a little earth about the plants as we do, but they prefer the former practice. The English practice, in market-gar- dens, is to tie up in the same way, using strands of matting instead of twigs or rushes, performing the operation once in eight or ten days. This operation should in all cases be attended to in dry days, or when the leaves are completely free of damp from rain or dew. In private gar- dens the same plan is followed, though, in some cases, they draw earth around the plants .when both are in a dry state, and thus effect the end, although not so completely. Indeed, when the earthing- up system is to be followed, it will be found expedient to tie up the leaves first, and therefore, if this is done properly, earthing up must be superfluous. By ty- ing up the plants while quite dry, drawing the leaves up in a conical form, and tying them tight about 3 inches under their tips, damp is prevented from getting to the hearts, and no deterioration can take place in the flavour ; and therefore, we would say, for summer crops, this is the better way. For autumnal supply, when the weather is less favourable, and every means should be employed to prevent decay taking place, Fig. 59. jjj consequence of damp, in privategar- dens at least, the en- dive blanching-pot, fig. 59, should be used. These are merely modifica- tions of the sea-kale blanching-pot, fig. 39, diminished in size ; and as there is no occasion for a portable top or lid to enable the culti- vator to examine his crop, they are made ENDIVE BLANCHING-POT. ACETAEIACEOUS PLANTS.— ENDIVE. 161 all in one piece, ha-ving a knob at top to serve as a handle for lifting tliem off or on. They are from 9 to 12 inches in diameter, and the same in height; are placed over the plants when nearly full grown, the leaves being gathered up with one hand, while with the other the pot is placed over them, so as to enclose them completely, and thus insure their blanch- ing, while they are protected from frost, snow, or rain. The curled-leaved varie- ties are much more readily blanched than the broad-leaved or Batavian sorts, there- fore a corresponding degree of care is required in performing the process. As to the length of time required for blanch- ing, much depends on the season. Dur- ing summer, while the plants are growing vigorously, the process wiU be effected in a week; while towards autumn, and during winter, when vegetation is more sluggish, double or treble that time will be required. The other means employed are to invert empty flowerpots over the plants, taking care to stop up the holes in their bottoms, laying a slate or pan-tile over each plant, particularly the green curled sorts : the Batavian, from its difference in habit, does not admit of this process. Setting two long narrow boards along each side of the row, and bringing them together at top in form of a triangle, and afterwards drawing earth over them to keep them steady ; covering the dwarf- growing sorts with half-decayed leaves, dry tanners' bark, sand (a method in use in the days of Gerard), coal-ashes, or even sawdust, are all had recourse toj but all of these, as will readily be seen, are far inferior to using the blanching-pot, or even the tying-up process. For protection during winter, the Lon- don market-gardeners take up their latest crops, and set them thickly on sloping banks, by the sides of hedges, for the sake of shelter ; while others throw up long narrow ridges, in an east and west direc- tion, and plant both sides, which produces a succession — those on the southern side coming in first, while those on the opposite side, if later in arriving at perfection, have often the advantage over the others of withstanding the winter's cold better, be- ing less influenced by the freezing during night, and rapid thawing during the day. Partial shelter may be afforded the plants during winter, when planted in the open garden, by sticking the ground be- tween and around them with old pea- stakes, branches of trees, furze or broom branches. This wards off cutting winds, and catches the perpendicular frost as it falls; but, in using such means, they should be stuck firmly in the ground, to prevent their being blown about so as to injure the plants by friction ; neither should they be above 2 feet in height, as the lower they are the less effect the wind has upon them. The best way, however, to secure fine endive during winter, is to take the full- grown plants up in November, or before severe frosts set in, choosing a dry day, and when the leaves are also dry. Tie the leaves loosely together with matting, first removing a few of the largest and oldest outside leaves ; take them up with good balls of earth attached to them, and carry them to the conservative-pit (fig. 676, vol. i.), or the span-roofed vegetable-pit (fig. 677, vol. i.), and plant them in mo- derately dry sand, in half-decayed peat earth, if it can be procured, which, on account of its antiseptic properties, will resist decay longer. They should be placed closely together, but not so close as to touch each other. In the one case, they will be kept perfectly dry, in consequence of the permanency of the roof, while ample ventilation is secured by opening the sides, as shown in our figure. In such a structure they will enjoy almost as much air as if in the open ground, while they will be completely protected from damp and frost. The conservative-pit (fig. 676, vol. i.) offers also an excellent means of keeping endive, and all similar plants, if taken up with balls, and planted in it. The boarded roofing, which is in conve- nient pieces, keeps the interior dry, while light and air, when wanted, can be fully admitted, by propping it up as shown in our figure. All places for the purpose of keeping esculent vegetables during winter, should be placed in a dry airy situation, and with a northern aspect, so that the sim may rarely shine upon them : during their season of hibernal existence, every stimulus to growth should be guard- ed against. We have recently constructed a very useful pit for this purpose, 150 feet in length, and 7 feet wide. It is simply a brick wall, 15 inches in height, built pa- rallel with an existing north wall, covered 162 CULINAEY OR KITCHEN GARDEN. with standard or Ridder Morello cherries, the branches of which are 3 feet from the ground. A batten of wood, with notches cut out opposite the stems of the trees, is fastened to the wall by holdfasts at that height ; to this, and to the wooden wall- plate on top of front wall, the rafters are fixed, at the distance of 3| feet, which is the breadth of a great portion of our glass lights and felt shutters, that either may be employed if necessary. For pro- tecting lettuce and endive the former are not required; and the latter, during win- ter, are mostly in use for covering over the glass lights of pits, &c. during the night. As a covering for this pit, we employ the boarding used as portable coping to the garden-walls (vide fig. 40, vol. i.), which during winter is not re- quired : these are laid upon the rafters in an imbricated manner, but not fixed to them, but they are secured to each other by cords every 6 feet, after the manner of Venetian blinds ; but instead of drawing up, like them, they are folded up the one over the other, when air is wished to be admitted, or when it is necessary to open them to take out the supply, remove dead leaves, &c. When the plants are fully grown they are removed from the quarter, tied up, and planted in rotten tan within the pit ; the boarding is put on, and the whole safely secm-ed. We have never had so fine a supply of endive before as we have this season, and we are still cutting, on the 10th of March, that which was put in the first week in November. Soil and manure. — The object being to produce the largest amount of vegetable matter, and in the shortest space of time, it follows that the soil cannot be too rich or in too high a state of cultivation for this crop. Beyond the application of stable-yard manure, as usually applied, we use no other manure, save that at every watering we enrich the liquid by the addi- tion of guano, soot, or pigeons' dung, and occasionally ammoniacal liquor, or the water through which gas passes during the process of purification, which appears to be an excellent manure for most garden crops, but cannot everywhere be procured. It should, however, be understood that this liquor is not gas-tar, which of itself would have very opposite effects. Taking the crop, and subsequent preserva- tion. — Endive is always used in a blanched state, both for appearance sake and to get rid of a certain natural bitterness con- tained in the green leaves. It is divested of its outer, coarser, and unblanched leaves and roots, with any points of the remaining leaves that may have been in- jured, or have begun to decay. It is then thoroughly washed, rinsed afterwards in clear water, or in salt and water, allowed to drip dry, and placed in a clean basket fit for use. The preservation of the crop being so connected with its subsequent culture, for that the reader is referred to the last paragraph. Forcing. — Endive is rarely forced in Britain, our chief dependence being placed on the preservation of the preceding year's growth over winter. The truth is, with all our affectation for French cookery and salad-eating, we are a vast stride behind our neighbours on the other side of the Channel in both. They force endive, and we do not. Their mode of proceeding is thus given in the " Bon Jardinier," which contains all that is new in French garden- ing : " For early-forced scarole (broad- leaved or Batavian endive) the seed is sown in January, under glass, in a strong heat. After the seeds have vegetated, and the plants are fit to handle, which will, in general, be from twelve to eighteen days after sowing, they are pricked out on another hot-bed, at a lower temperature than the last, ventilation is attended to, and in course of the end of February and during March the crop is ready for use. The plants, of course, are small compared to those grown by us in the open air, but they are produced in gi-eat number on account of the extent of framing every garden contains, and the abundance of stable-yard manure procurable, by which almost all the forcing in the market- gardens about Paris is carried on. When the scarole has attained the height of 6 or 8 inches in the frames, it is tied up to blanch, which it does in a few days. Sometimes they sow the seed in October, in a bed vrith a mild bottom-heat, and afterwards prick out the plants into a similar bed, placing them at the distance of about 6 inches asunder, either under glazed sashes supported on frames, or under cloches or large bell-glasses, placed close together on the heated material. These they cover in severe weather with or straw mats, wliich they very ACETARIACEOUS PLANTS.— ENDIVE. 163 properly prefer to Russian mats, the most indiiferent of all protections, warding off neither cold nor wet in so efficient a man- ner. We have a third mode, by sowing about the middle of September in a cold frame : in about three weeks the plants are of fit size to prick out tinder glass to gain strength, after which they are trans- ferred to a glass frame, set pretty thickly together, and protected from cold by ample coverings alone." It will be under- stood that these crops are not intended to attain the same size they do with us, but are cut for use while quite young and tender ; and by such means we might obtain a better supply of young lettuce for winter use than we do by growing them in boxes, pots, or pans, in the high temperature usually done. This mode, however, imposes a great amount of la- bour in covering and uncovering; and from the high price of labour with us compared with that of France, it would hardly pay the commercial grower. In some few private gardens, such supplies, both of lettuce and endive, are kept up ; but, in general, the demand for glass is so great with us for other purposes that few private families would afford the neces- sary means. Winter salad-growing is the beau ideal of the French gardener ; his mind is, as it were, concentrated on it, and indeed he has little else to think of Not so with those of Britain, whose win- ter operations are far more multifarious, besides the difference of climate. Approved sorts and their qualities. — The endive, like the lettuce, is divided into two very distinct classes — the Batavian or broad-leaved (the Soa- roles of the French, the Breitblattrige-endivie of the Germans), and the curled-leaved (the Chicoree of the French, the Endivien-cichorie of the Germans.) An excellent paper was pub- lished some years ago, in the 4th vol. of the " Transactions of the Horticultural Society of London," on the varieties of endives. The French seed-lists contain many names ; those of Britain contain few, and of those, three or four are all that is in general inquired for. The broad-leaved Batavian and small Bata- mail are the only two broad-leaved sorts worth the attention of the general cultivator. The former is known also as broad-leaved endive, common yellow, and double yellow ; the latter is the Scarole petite, Soarole courte, Scarole ronde of the French. The former is that most usually grown, but from careless seed-saving is not always to be procured genuine. The latter has the following merits, which are worth notice, and are thus given by Mr Thompson, from spe- cimens grown in the London Horticultural So- ciety's garden : " Leaves pale green, broad, of moderate length, slightly ragged at the edges ; inner leaves hooked at the top, naturally form- ing a good heart ; blanching with little trouble, and is mild and sweet compared with many others." Nearly allied to the broad-leaved, but inferior to it, is the curled Batavian, fine-curled and yellow-curled Batavian, which are all the same. The large Batavian is merely a large variety of the small Batavian, inferior to it in not heart- ing so well. It is the Scarole grande, Scarole de HoUande, of the French. Lettuce-leaved Batavian. — More tender than the other varieties, therefore not adapted for winter crops or cold localities, luiless for early summer use; the leaves are large, blunt, and cut at the edges : it does not blanch without tying up. It is known as the white Batavian and new Batavian, and is the Scarole 4 feuUle de laitue, Soariole blonde, of the French. The green and white Batavians are only seed-list names, referable to the common broad-leaved sort. Large green curled. — An excellent sort, differ- ing from the following only in being somewhat larger in size, and in having its outer leaves more upright. It is known as the green ciirled, yellow winter endive. Small green curled. — With the last, the two best of their class, and most extensively grown. Leaves about 6 or 7 inches long, beautifully curled, the outer leaves lying close to the ground, the inner ones thickly set, forming a compact heart, easily blanched, very hardy, and, with the last, best adapted for winter use. It is the Chicoree frisee, Chicoree de Meaux, Chicoree endive, of the French. White curled. — This sort is much used by the French for cutting young, as described in para- graph Forcing. The full-grown leaves are nearly 8 inches long, and when grown in the open air they seldom or ever form a heart, and are be- sides tough and bitter. It is the Chicoree blanche, Chicoree toujours blanche, of the French. Certainly not worth cultivating for a general crop. Small French green curled. — This sort is much cultivated in France for the earliest crop, heart- ing early, and being less liable to run to seed than some others. It is so small and so prostrate that it is difficult to tie up. It is known as the fine-curled, and is the Chicoree fine d'gte, Chi- coree frisSe fine d'ltalie, and Chicoree d'ete, of the French. Dutch green curled. — So near in aU respects to the large green curled as not to be worth grow- ing as a separate sort. Like the other, it is hardy, and blanches well. Long Italian green curled, or Endivia longa. — Similar, if not inferior, to the following. Italian green curled, or Endivia riccia. — So similar to the last as not to be worth cultivating as a distinct sort; indeed, neither is worth cul- tivation in a climate like ours. Triple-curled moss. — A curious new sort, ex- ceedingly well curled, and, although a variety of the following, is worth cultivating to a limited 164 CULINARY OR KITCHEN GARDEN. extent. It is the Chicorfie mousse of the French. Staghorn endive. — A variety of no long stand- ing ; leaves upright, much cut and jagged at their points, which accounts for the name. It hearts well, but is very tender, running to seed too soon, and being impatient of wet and cold. Use- ful as a summer endive, but useless for winter crops. Insects and diseases. — Endive is pretty well exempt from both, but, like most tender escu- lents, is often attacked by slugs (Lknaa) and snails {Helix) ; but these can readily be subdued , by dusting over with powdered lime, or watering with lime-water. Several species of the genus lulus, or snake millepedes, attack the roots of en- dive. We have lately discovered lulus pulchellus, fig. 48, /. terrestris, and /. complinatus, abun- dant about the roots of endive plants in a cold pit. In the quarters where they grew, hundreds have been dug up during November and Decem- ber, notwithstanding the plants were repeatedly watered vrith lime and soot water during their growth; and even nitrate of soda was pretty pro- fusely applied at the time of digging the ground. In some seasons, however, lime and soot water have been found to save the plants; and a single experiment made this last season seems to argue in favour of flowers of sulphur being sown in the drills previous to the plants being planted out; and this, no doubt, would have acted better had the sulphur been buried deeper. General remarks. — The seeds of endive are saved in the same way as those of chicory and lettuce (which see). The European names are Chicor^e des Jardins in French ; Endivia in Italian ; and in German and Dutch the same ; Endibia in Spanish. § 5. — SUCCORY. Natural history. — Succory, chicory, or wild endive (^Oichorium intybus L.), belongs to the natural order Compositse, sub-order Cichoracese, and tribe Cichoreas, and to the class Syngene- sia, and order jEqualis. The generic name is of Egyptian origin, adopted by the Greeks. The plant has been used by the Egyptians from the earliest ages, and it is most probable that they would communicate to the Greeks its name, as well as the manner of using it. Forskahl says the Egyptian name was Chikouryeh. They did, and still do, make their chicory of much conse- quence ; and it is well known that it, along with similar plants, constitutes half the food of the Egyptian peasantry at this very day. The spe- cific name intybus is derived from the Arabic name Hendibeh ; and Pliny informs us that in his day they called the wild endive (our chicory) Ciohorium, and the cultivated sort (our endive) they call Serfs. According to Phillips, the gar- den endive was cultivated in England in the reign of Edward VI. ; " but the wild endive or succory," he adds, " intubus, being indigenous to the soil, was grown in aU probability at a much earlier period, both as a pot herb and as a salad ; " and Gerard informs us that " the leaves of these wild herbs are boiled in pottage, or broths, for sick and feeble persons ; " and this generally correct authority adds that the wild endives (our chicory) " do grow wild in sundry places in England, upon wild and untilled barren ground, especially in chalk and stony places." There can be therefore no doubt that, culti- vated or uncultivated, the chicory was in his day, 1548, sufficiently well known. The chicory is indigenous to many p^rts of the south of England, particularly in chalky soils, and it has been long cultivated in Italy, France, and other parts of the Continent as an agricultural plant, the leaves being used as green food for cattle, and the roots, when kiln-dried and ground, as a substitute for coffee. It has also been long used in these countries as a salad herb, the leaves and roots both being used ; " yet in this country," says Loudon, " it had not attracted the notice of horticulturists till after the time of Miller." A revival of its uses was no doubt brought to England, from the Conti- nent, after the general peace in 1814-15. Use. — In other countries, as we have stated above, it has been extensively and profitably grown, particularly in Holland and Flanders, and has occupied a place in gardens for an un- known length of time, the leaves being blanched, and used as one of their most popular winter salads. The blanched leaves are called Barbe de Capucin, or Friar's beard. In Belgium the roots are scraped and boiled, and eaten along with potatoes, or with a sauce of butter and vinegar. The roots have been taken on board ship, and planted in boxes filled with sand, and in this way afforded wholesome salads for months together. Its principal use is as a sub- stitute for endive, and it is employed for the same purposes. The mode of propagation is by sowing the seed. A quarter of a pound will, be suificient for an ordinary private garden, as it is light, somewhat like endive, to which it is closely related. Sowing and planting. — The seeds ai'e sown, towards the end of June, in rich deeply-trenched ground. Sow thin, and cover about one quarter of an inch. When the plants come up, thin them to the dis- tance of 6 or 7 inches apart, transplanting those thinned out into another piece of ground equally manured and trenched, to allow the long fusiform roots to extend deep into it. Some sow, after the Flemish manner, in the broadcast way, and trans- plant on the same system. The drill mode is, however, better in both cases: the drills should be 9 inches apart, and the plants 6 inches distant in the row; for the stronger the plants are, and the more room the foliage has for development, the more elaborated matter will be thrown into the roots ; and it is this prepared matter, stored up in them during their ACETARIACEOUS PLANTS.-SUCCORY. 165 growing season, that will supply the means for the young coming leaves dur- ing winter forcing, for they of themselves can collect little or nothing towards the support of the crop. Subsequent culture. — About the beginning of October the roots should be lifted, the leaves being carefully cut off, but not so close to the crown as to endanger the hearts of the plants. Amateurs had better leave 3 inches of the base of the old leaves, to pre- vent accident. The roots are then planted as thick as they can well be done in a bed of sand on the floor of a mushroom-house, packing the sand closely about them, and, when finished, giving a good soaking of tepid water. Old boxes may be filled with them, and casks, as is usual on board of ship, having their sides perforated with holes 1^ inches in diameter, and 7 or 8 inches apart. Lay a few inches of sand in the bottom of the cask, and on that lay the roots horizontally, with their crowns in the centre of the holes ; on this layer of roots lay more sand and roots until the cask is filled, watering each layer of roots as they are covered with the sand. Large flower-pots may also be used, or indeed anything that will keep the sand together. It may be convenient to fill many of these at once ; and by placing them in a dry cellar or open cool shed, they will remain for a month or two stationary. For the first gathering, one or more of these should be removed to a warmer place, where a temperature of from 45°, 50°, to 60° can be maintained, and where light can be completely excluded. In a week after- wards place another supply in, and so on during winter, or as long as the stock of roots lasts. They will seldom afford more than one gathering, and may be then thrown away, and the boxes or casks filled again with roots from the open ground. In this way a constant succession of salad may be kept up from the beginning or middle of November till April. Some recommend taking up all the crop of roots at once : this is unnecessary, until the be- ginning of February, when they will begin to become naturally excited into growth. It is expedient then to remove them to a bin of sand in the cellar, or to bury them deep in the ground, to preventtheirgrowth. It is also recommended by some to shorten the roots and remove the side fibres ; but this is only cutting off the resources of the VOL. II. plant, and lessening its means of produc- ing a crop of large succulent leaves. This excellent and wholesome salad was, we believe, first brought into notice in Covent Garden market by the indefatig- able Mr Cuthill, who, in 1839-40, carried the first sample of it which appeared there in his own hand. It was in C9nse- quence of a letter from that individual, published in " The Gardeners' Magazine," about fifteen years ago, that this plant was first grown as an article of field-culture, for the purpose of its roots being used for mixing with coffee. This is somewhat strange, seeing that it has been a common marketable article on the Continent time out of mind. Mr Cuthill sows his chicory about the first of June, either broadcast or in drills. When the plants are up, they are thinned out to a foot apart, and the ground is kept free from weeds. The roots are taken up in November, and stored by exactly like beet. When endive becomes scarce, the chicory roots are planted in 1 6-sized pots, five roots in each. When the chicory begins to spring, invert 24-sized pots over those the roots are in ; exclude the air, and place them in a forcing house or frame : each pot will afford three or four cuttings. A dark mushroom-house, where a fire is kept, is an excellent place for chicory; and a cellar is good for spring crops, but sel- dom warm enough, if not artificially heated, to depend upon for a regular winter supply. The Belgians and Dutch blanch im- mense quantities of chicory during winter and spring ; indeed, it forms one of the most prominent articles in their vegetable markets for several months together. The roots are taken up in autumn, and all the larger ones selected; they are then placed in a bed, almost as close as they can stand together, with merely a little earth to fill up the spaces between them, experience having taught the Belgian gardener the important fact pointed out theoretically by Mr T. A. Knight, that the new annual supply of leaves of plants of this descrip- tion is derived from the stock of sap ela- borated in the preceding year, and requires nothing from the soil but moisture. Upon the bed of roots thus closely packed toge- ther, and defended from frost in winter, a slight hot-bed of manure is laid in spring, with 6 or 8 inches of earth interposed. Into this earth the leaves shoot, struggling 166 CULINAKY OR KITCHEN GARDEN. for light and air, and becoming perfectly blanched and crisp, and losing most of their natural bitterness. With us who have greater convenience in the shape of heated cellars, or other places capable of having light completely shut out, we ma- nage better, by planting the roots in beds on the floor, and thus produce the crop at less risk and greater certainty as to time, without half the labour. Planting in large pots or in boxes, and inverting pots or boxes of the same size over them, and setting them on the floor of a vinery, and behind the hot-water pipes or flues where they exist, or indeed in any out-of-the-way place where there is a temperature from 50'' to 55°, and exclusion from light, will secure this excellent winter and spring salad in great perfection, and with little trouble. Those who desire it during spring may readily blanch it in the open ground, leav- ing some roots where they grew, and plac- ing sea-kale or endive pots over them. They will continue to yield a crop until they begin to run to seed. Taking the crop. — Each head of leaves is cut when of 7 or 8 inches long, taking with them a thin slice of the crown to keep them together, as in cutting sea-kale. When washed and tied up into small bundles of a handful each, they are fit for dressing. Three handfuls will make a good-sized salad, and may be eaten alone with oil and vinegar, or mixed with a little chervil and tarragon, or with young lettuce. Sorts amd their qualities. — The Continental growers profess to have three sorts — the common large-leaved, the Chicoree h navet, or Cafechi- cor6e, and the variegated. General remarks. — The European names are, Chicorfie sauvage in French ; Cicoria in Italian ; Gemeine ciohorie in German; Suikerei in Dutch; Achicoria in Spanish. In saving seed, select some of the strongest roots that have not been forced ; support the flower-stalk as it advances, and cut them over when flowering is done, and treat them as recommended for lettuce. The seed will keep three or four years. § 6. — DANDELION, TAEEAGON, ETC. Dandelion (^Leontodon Ta/raxacum L.) belongs to the natural order Compositas, sub-order Cich- oraceEB, and tribe Taraxaceae, and to the class Syngenesia and order .^Equalis in the Linnsean arrangement. The generic name is derived from Leon, lion, Odon, a tooth, from the tooth-like di- visions of the leaves. Indigenous to most parts of Britain, particularly in rich soils. The young leaves, even in their green state, make an excellent ingredient in salads ; and the leaves are an excellent substitute for succory, and for this purpose they are blanched during winter in a similar manner. (See SnccOKT.) It is a neglected and despised plant, which might be made much use of by the poor, and those liv- ing in towns who have no gardens ; for roots of it may be got for the digging up, and, if planted in sand in a dark cellar, or even in pots set on the window-sill, much wholesome matter might be obtained from it. The roots are as valuable as the leaves. It is produced in great quantities in the London markets, although we are not aware of its cultivation being tried upon a com- mensurate scale to meet the demand. The amateur who may wish to grow the dan- delion in his cellar for salad purposes, should possess the root-extractor, fig. 60, an excellent implement for the purpose of taking up such Fig. 60. ROOT-EXTRACTOR. roots, which can be carried in the pocket. The mode of using it is to thrust it deeply into the ground, so placed that the root may be taken between the prongs. The bent part near the handle, acting as a fulcrum against the surface of the ground, greatly facilitates the withdrawal of the root without breaking it, when the handle is pressed towards the ground. General remarks. — The European names are. Dents de lion, or Pisse-en-lit, in French ; Amar- gon in Spanish; Paardebloem in Dutch; Lowen- zahn in German ; Piscia in letto in Italian. Our own common English name bears a close re- semblance to some of these. Tarragon {Artemisia Dracmicnhis L.) belongs to the natural order Compositse, sub-order An- themideae, and to the class Syngenesia and order Superflua in the Linnsean arrangement. The generic name is derived from Artemis, one of the names of Diana. Pliny, however, informs us that in his time there was an opinion that the plant was named after Artemisia, the queen of Mausolus, king of Caria. The specific name is said to have been given from the tortuous form of the roots resembling the sinuous tail of a dragon; others think it derived from Tarchon, the Arabic name of the plant. It is a native of the south of Europe, others say of Siberia, and was introduced into England in or before 1548. It is cultivated for its leaves and the points of its young shoots, both of which are used as an ingredient in salads, soups, stews, pickles, and other compounds. Tarragon vinegar, so much esteemed as a fish-sauce, is made by infusion of the leaves in common vinegar. It is also added to most salads to correct their coldness. Three or four plants are sufficient for an ordinary fa- mily ; but if required during winter in a forced ACETARIAGEOUS PLANTS.— MUSTAKD. 167 state, twenty or more plants will be required. A very small portion is sufficient for a day's consumption, either for salads or soups, a small handful of the leaves or young shoots being quite sufficient. When used with salads, it should be cut up very small, and served on a plate by itself, so that every guest may season his salad to his own taste, as many have a dis- like to its flavour. Being a hardy perennial, it is increased by di- viding the roots ; every portion, however small, will grow, if only a bud be left at the top. It may also be propagated by seed, but this is sel- dom done. The seed may be sown in March. The slips or roots should be planted at the same time, or in autumn. It may also be propagated by cut- tings of the young shoots, taken off in July, when the plant is in full growth, and these will strike freely under a hand-glass in a shaded situa- tion. It should be planted in a dry warm soil, as it is apt, when planted in cold damp soils, to die during winter. If seed is sown, it should be in a small seed- bed broadcast, and the plants removed, after they have attained the height of 6 inches, into rows in an open part of the garden, free of shade and damp, and where the soil is perfectly dry, in lines a foot and a half apart, and the plants a foot asunder in the lines. They will speedily increase, and become fine bushy plants the same year. Their subsequent cultivation consists in keep- ing the ground around them clear of weeds; and when the plants are showing flower-stems, they should be cut off, unless a plant or two be left for seed. This is, however, seldom done, as the plant propagates sooner and better by dividing the root. Towards November, take up a few of the plants, and plant them in large flower-pots or boxes, to be placed in a mild heat to produce green leaves and shoots during the winter. The plants potted in November may be from time to time, to suit the demand, placed on the floor of a vinery, or in a moderately-heated pit, in any temperature from 45° to 60°. A very small portion of the green leaves or tops of the young shoots should be picked off, and served with the salad daily ; a somewhat larger quantity when it is to be used for stews or soups, and in still larger quantity when to be pickled, or for making tarragon vinegar; and for the latter purposes it should be suppUed when the plants are at their fuUest size. General remarks. — No insects that we are aware of attack this plant. It should be planted in very dry soil, and in a sunny situation. The European names are, L'Estragon in French; Dragoncello in Italian ; Dragun in German. A quarter of an ounce of seed will be sufficient for most gardens, but young plants are usually pur- chased from the nurseryman. Two dozen will be enough to make a plantation. Burnet (Poterium Sangmsorba L.) belongs to the natural order Eosacese, and to the class Monoecia and order Polyandria in the Linnsean arrangement. The generic name is derived from Poteriow, a cup, because it is used in cooling drinks. Indigenous to Britain ; generally found in calca- reous soils which have long been under pasture. The young leaves are often used in mixed salads, particularly when made in the Italian style, which, according to an old proverb, is good for nothing without them. The branches and leaves are also used in soups. It was for- merly in higher repute than at present. Propagation. — By seeds sown in March or in September, in any common garden-soil. Half an ounce of seed will be sufficient for any garden. It does not propagate so freely by division of the plant; and although this is recommended in books, it will be found better to transplant the young seedlings, when 3 inches in height, into lines a foot apart, and the plants 9 inches asunder in the line. A plantation thus made will last from six to ten years. Subsequent cultivation. — All that is required is to keep the ground clear of weeds, to prevent the plants running to seed, by cutting over the flower-stalks as they appear. A few plants should be cut over by the ground occasionally, to keep up a succession of young and tender leaves. Twelve plants will be sufficient for an ordinary family. A small handful will be suffi- cient for a salad ; for soups, double that quantity will be required. The European names are — Pimperella in Ger- man; Pimprenella in French; Pimpinellainltalian. § 7. — WHITE AND BLACK MUSTARD. White mustard (Sinapis alba L.) belongs to the natural order Cruciferse, and to the class Tetradynamia and order Siliquosa in the Lin- nsean arrangement. The name is derived from Sino, to hurt. Ops, the eye — as its pungency hurts the eyes ; by others, from the Celtic Nap, apphed to the cabbage tribe. It is indigenous to many parts of Britain — found growing in corn-fields. It was formerly called Senvia in English. Tusser mentions the use of mustard in Queen Mary's time ; but it is uncertain whether it was the white or the black mustard he meant. Gerard informs us that the garden- mustard, which produces the whitest seed, was not become common in Elizabeth's reign, but that he had distributed the seed into different parts of England to make it known. Mustard was not manufactured in his day, but was brought to table whole, or bruised in vinegar. The principal use of both white and black mustard in gardens is as an indispensable ingre- dient in salads, the young leaves and stalks being cut close to the ground before the forma- tion of the second series or rough leaves appear. Formerly the dry seed was pounded with vine- gar, and, according to Gerard, " is an excellent sauce — good to be eaten with any gross meats, either fish or flesh, because it promotes diges- tion and sharpens the appetite." Propagation always by seed. From a pint to ten quarts of seed will be annually required, according to the demand. Where a daily sup- ply is required, seed should be sown every third, fourth, or fifth day throughout the year. As the crop is to be cut when in the cotyledon leaf 168 CULINARY OR KITCHEN GARDEN. state, it should be sown thick ; and, to preyent the earthy particles mixing with the leaves, it should never, if {)ossible, be covered. Cotyle- dons, or seed-lobes, are appendages of the em- bryo, enclosing or accompanying the tender plantlet, and containing its first nutriment. Upon the principle of the presence or absence of cotyledons we have the grand and primary division of plants that are cotyledonous on the one hand, and plants that are acotyledonous on the other; as well as the subordinate divisions of monocotyledonous, dicotyledonous, and poly- ootyledouous plants also. These distinctions are deemed to be the true key to a natural sys- tem, and form the basis of the arrangements of Jussieu. The two first lobe-looking appendages, vulgarly called seed-leaves, as shown in this plant, exemplify the cotyledon. The London market-garden method is to sow the seed thickly on the surface of old tan made smooth and level, and laid over the floors of their vineries ; for to such an extent is this branch of culture car- ried for the supply of the metropolitan demand, that one grower alone, Mr Chapman of Vaux- hall, sows a whole house every other day. The tau is well wetted previous to sowing the seed, and no covering whatever is put on the seed beyond a damp mat, which is laid over to keep in the moisture. They vegetate according to the degree of temperature kept up, which should, however, not exceed 60° or 65°. When the plants are about 2 inches high, the mats are removed during the day to admit light to give the necessary green colour to the young leaves, but are put on again at night to hasten the growth ; foi-, as with all salads, the quicker the growth the better and more tender the pro- duce. The crop is cut when from 4 to 5 inches in height, and each handful, as it is cut, is put into a clean punnet-basket, and is fit for use. If thus grown, no washing is required, excepting a slight rinse shortly before using. Steeping such salads in water, to rid them of sand and dust, destroys the flavour, and renders them flaccid and tough. They should be cut as soon previous to use as possible. The above may be called the winter culture upon a large scale. For private use, shallow boxes or pans are used, and these are placed in any spare corner of hot- houses or pits, where the necessary temperature is kept up. The boxes should be 4 inches deep, and of a length and breadth suitable to the accommodation; and sowings should take place every third or fourth day, and the crop placed as near the glass as convenient, on suspended shelves or otherwise. Summer culture must be conducted on the same principle, in spring and autumn covering the crop with hand-glasses ; and, during the heat of summer, sowing on cool borders behind a wall. To save seed — a process scarcely worth the attention of the private grower, on account of its cheapness — a crop may be sown thin in an open part of the garden in March or April. The seed will ripen in August, and, when thoroughly dried, may be thrashed out for storing by. The European names are — Moutarde in French ; Mostazo in Spanish ; Senapa in Italian; Senf in German ; and Mosterd in Dutch. Blaeh mustard {Sinapis nigra L.) belongsi to the same class and order as the last, and is, like it, a native of Britain, and found in similar situations ; it is also a native of Italy. It is no doubt the mustard of the ancients, although there are great doubts of its being the mustard of Scripture, whose seed is refen'ed to by our Saviour. It is by some cultivated as a salad plant, the same as the last, but the tender leaves are oftener used during spring as a substitute for, or as an addition to, spring greens. The uses of its seeds for medicinal and domestic puiposes are well known. The ancients ate the young plants stewed, and the leaves of the older plants were boiled like other pot-herbs. The young leaves of both this and the white mustard are usually mixed with those of cress in salads. When grown as a spring green, the seed is sown in autumn, and the plants are thinned out to a foot or 18 inches each way. Like all oleiferous seeds, they greatly exhaust the ground, and re- tain their vegetative properties for an unknown length of time ; so that, where it has once been grown, and the seed allowed to drop and become buried, they will come up for a century or more afterwards. This is the reason why charlock {Sinapis artietms) is so difficult to eradicate out of land it has once been allowed to seed on. The black mustard has beent'ecommendedto be sown on soil infested with wireworm, the roots being so acrid that the larvae will not eat it, and hence perish from hunger. The European names are the same as for white mustard. § 8. — CRESSES. Garden cress (Lepidium sativum L.) belongs to the same class and orders as the last. The generic name is derived from Lepis, a scale, from the scaly form of its silicles, or parts of the pods to which the seed is attached. Its native country is unknown. Introduced to England before 1548. Of the same use as the white mustard (which see). Of the white mustard there is only one variety — of the garden cress there are several, all, however, used for the same purposes ; but, being somewhat different in their cultivation^ we shall notice them under the next head, viz. — The common garden or plain-leaved cress, and the curled-leaved, are the two sorts most gene- rally cultivated, and in this respect they differ not from that of the white mustard already de- tailed. In respect to merits, the former is the most delicate, as it is used younger; but the latter is preferable, particularly for garnishing. Golden cress. — A variety of slower growth, and of a yellowish-green colour. Seldom grown. Broad-leaved cress. — A coarser variety, with broad spatulate leaves, seldom forced, but usually grown for mixing along with rue, leek- tops, nettle-tops, and overgrown mustard, in rearing young turkeys and other poultry. For soups it answers very well. Normandy curled cress. — A very valuable variety, by far too little cultivated. It was introduced to England about 1814, and in vol. vii., p. 38, of the " Gardeners' Magazine," we brought it before the notice of the public. Our ACETARIACEOUS PLANTS—CRESSES. 169 practice, to secure a constant supply from the open air, as it is much hardier than any of the other varieties, is to sow at the bottom of a south wall in September and October ; for Scotland, read beginning of September and middle of October. This will, with very slight protection during severe frosts, afford a supply during winter and spring. Sowings made in an open border in March and April, and in a rather cool shaded place in May, produce crops in regu- lar succession. In gathering it for use, the younger leaves should be picked off singly, reject- ing the older and larger; but on no account cut the plants over as is done with common curled cress, as the Normandy variety will continue sending up fi'esh leaves for a long period. It is difficult to procure the seed true, the common curled being in general substituted for it. If, therefore, one is fortunate enough to obtain it genuine, it is better to save the seed for future use. Broad-leaved Normandy. — A sub-variety of the last, with broader and more succulent leaves. Its culture is the same as the last. To have either of these in perfection, they should be thinned out to 9 inches or a foot apart. General remarJcs. — The European names are — Cresson Alenois in French ; Tuinkers in Dutch ; Mastinco in Portuguese ; Gemenie garten kresse in German ; Cresoione in Italian ; and Mastuerzo in Spanish. Water ci-ess {Nasturtium officinale H. K.) be- longs to the same class and order as the former. The name is derived from Nasus, nose ; Tortus, tormented— from the effects of most of the ge- nera upon the muscles of the nose — a name given by Pliny. Indigenous in most parts of Britain, growing in small streams, generally where the water is pure, and having a slight motion. One of the most wholesome of all our salad herbs, and one of the oldest in use. Its quali- ties are warm and stimulating — the very reverse, in some respects, to most other plants used in a green or uncooked state. Xenophon strongly recommended its use to the Persians; and the Romans recommended it to be eaten with vine- gar, as a remedy for those whose minds were deranged, and hence the Greek proverb — " Eat cress, and leam more wit." The Dutch and English eat great quantities of this cress in spring, as an antiscorbutic. Gerard and Lord Bacon wrote strongly in its recommendation. The young shoots and leaves are eaten by them- selves, often with bread and butter, and also used in spring soups and broths, as well as for garnishing cold meats. A salad so easily pro- cured, and of so much importance to the health of townspeople and those of sedentary habits, cannot be too highly recommended. The sup- ply of water-cresses brought daily to Covent Garden market alone has been calculated at 6000 bunches; and Mr Cuthill remarks that," " if 10,000 bunches more than they already re- ceived were brought every market morning, they would be all sold;" and this is perhaps not more than the half of the quantity sold in other parts of England daily. Propagated by seed, and by planting rooted branches of the plants. Plants from seed are, however, to be preferred, as they do not run to seed so soon. Sowing and planting. — Planting should be performed in spring or autumn, and sowing the seed in February, April, and June, by which fine young crops would be obtained. Phillips recommends those having large pieces of water in their grounds to throw the plants on the surface of the water. They will mature their seed, and soon propagate an abundant supply. Cuthill says, " Few small places are without water, and nothing need be easier than to intro- duce it into a neatly-formed trench, 2 or 3 feet broad, and to plant the cresses," which may be gathered in a seedling state on the margins of brooks or streams, where they naturally abound. Plant three rows along the bottom of such a trench, setting the plants 2 feet apart in the line. Cover the surface between the plants with 2 inches of clean gravel or small stones, and allow the water to flow in to cover them to the depth of 3 inches at first, increasing it to 6 inches after they have taken root and begun to grow. Very excellent instnictions are given for their cultivation in the 4th vol. of the " Horticultural Society's Transactions," p. 540, and also in " The Gardeners' Magazine," vol. i. p. 151. The fol- lowing is the substance of the former : The best place for forming a plantation is a clear-running stream, not more than an inch and a half deep, upon a sand or gravelly bottom ; and if the water is supplied from a deep spring, so much the better, on account of the increased temperature of the water preventing it from becoming frozen during winter, and hence securing a constant supply of salad. The plants should be placed in rows parallel with the course of the stream. In shallow water, the plants should be set at the distance of 18 inches apart; in deep water, allow them from 5 to 7 feet. When the plants begin to grow in water one inch and a half deep, they soon check the current, so as to raise the water to the height of 3 inches about the plants, which is considered the most favourable circumstances they can be placed in. The cress will not grow freely in a muddy bottom, nor will the crop be so clean and well-flavoured. They should be planted in gravel or chalk. It is also absolutely necessary to have a constant current, for the plants will cease to prosper if the water is still or stagnant. They should be kept pretty thin by constant gathering, or pruning away occa- sionally superfluous shoots. In winter the water should be rather deeper than in summer, say 4 or 5 inches. The beds should be cleaned out and replanted twice a-year, with a view of keeping them young and clearing away weeds, and any mud that may accumulate, as well as keeping the crop always clean and fit for use. Young plants are procured from the tops of the old ones, choosing those best furnished with roots. These are placed at the requisite distance on the bottom, with a stone on each to keep them in their places until they take root. The time of renewing the beds is in May or June, and from September to No- vember. This renewal should be made progres- 170 CULINARY OR KITCHEN GARDEN. sively, so as to keep up the constant supply. Those replanted in May are fit to cut in August, and those planted in November are ready to cut in spring. It wUl be expedient to place planks in such a way, a few inches above the water, as to facilitate the operations of gathering. The young shoots, to the length of from 4 to 6 inches, should be cut (not broken) off, and then carried to the vegetable-house, and thrown for two or three hours into a tub of clean salt- water, to rid them of insects or their larva. They should then be rinsed in clean water, and tied up in little bunches of about half a handful each. Tipula repens (Linn.),T.scricea(Gmelin). — The larva of this insect fixes its cocoons very firmly to the.under side of the leaves of water-cresses, and in this state is unconsciously eaten by thou- sands. The precaution stated above, of washing them in salt water, seems to be the only way of ridding the leaves of these insects. The European names are — Creason de fontaine in French ; Berro in Spanish ; Brunnenkresse in German ; Agriao in Portuguese ; Waterkers in Dutch ; Cressione di sorgenti in Italian. Many gardens have their water-cress beds; and no park in the kingdom, where water is to be had, even at the expense of an Artesian well, should be without one. The Parisians have formed water-cress plantations, and one or two exist in the neighbourhood of Edinburgh; and one ex- isted a few years ago, and may do so still, at Mistley Hall, of 30 acres in extent. Aiaerican cress, or Belleisle cress (Barharea prcecox Dec), belongs to the same class and order with the last. The name is derived from its having anciently been called the herb of St Barbara. Indigenous to Britain, and found in watery places. The Winter cress {Barharea vulgaris H. K.) belongs to the same genus as the last, and is also indigenous to Britain, and found in moist shady situations. Both are used as winter and spring salads. They are reared from seed ; half an ounce will sow 20 feet of drill. Sow in drills a foot apart, and an inch deep, choosing a damp shady situar tion. Sow about the 20th of August or 1st of September for a winter and spring supply. In Scotland a warmer and better situation should be afforded them. For summer use sow once a fortnight from March to July. Water abun- dantly in dry seasons. Pick the outside leaves for use, and cut down flower -stems as they appear. In November, afford the winter-standing crop a slight shelter of small branches stuck amongst them; and if too crowded, thin out to prevent injury from damp. The seed of both is produced in abun- dance by leaving a few plants to come into flower during the summer. The European names of the American cress are — Cresson d'Amerique in French; Ameri- fcanischer kresse in German. It is also called by some English seedsmen Black American cress, and also French cress. The winter cress is known as Cresson de Terre in French ; Hierba de Santa Barbara in Spanish ; Winter ki'esse in German ; Erba di Santa Barharea in Italian ; and Winterkers in Dutch. Indian cress, or Narsturtium, abbreviated to Sturtion by many (Tropceolum ma jus L.), be- longs to the natural order Tropseolese, and to the class Octandria and order Monogynia in the Linnsean arrangement. This genus forms the whole of this order, which is remarkable as being the only natural order in which the peculiar acrid flavour of the Cruciferae is found to exist. The generic name is derived from Tropceum, a trophy. The leaf resembles a buckler, and the flower an empty helmet, of which trophies were formed. It is a native of Peru, and was introduced to England in 1686; but the minor variety was first brought to Europe by the Spaniards in 1580. In the first edition of Gerard's " Herbal " we find it described by him as growing in his garden, where Holborn now stands. Both T. majus and T. minus are cultivated in our gar- dens — the former most generally. The French style the flower La grande Capuchin. Both varieties are much cultivated as orna- mental climbers; and the fruit, if gathered before it ripens, makes an agreeable pickle without the aid of spice, and is an excellent substitute for capers, which it much resembles. It is accounted a good antiscorbutic. The flowers as well as the young leaves are used in salads. The flowers are also used to garnish dishes, particu- larly by artificial light, and were in our early days much more employed for this purpose than at present. The seeds are pickled in salt and vinegar, when made into imitation capers. Although both varieties are perennial in their native country, the coldness of Britain prevents their continuance through the winter;' they are therefore treated as annuals, and sown every March or April. They are usually sown in single rows, one row of a few yards in length being sufficient for the culinary purposes of a private family. The seed, which is large, is deposited in drills 24 inches deep. When grown for ornament, they are sown two or three seeds in a patch at the foot of a trellis or pyramidal support, and, if intermixed with sweat pease, have a very good effect. When grown by mar- ket-gardeners, or upon a large scale for their seed, they are sown in drills 3 feet apart, topped when about 2 feet iu height, and treated the same as scarlet runners {which see). They trans- plant freely, and to have them early in flower, particularly in Scotland, they are sown in March in pots or boxes placed in a mild frame or pit; when 3 or 4 inches in height, they are set in a shaded sheltered place for a few days to harden off, and are then transplanted to where they are finally to grow. This is the best way to manage them, as the seed, if too early sown in cold soil, is apt to rot ; and if planted out too soon, is as apt to be killed by the frost, more than 1° of which it will not stand. Soil. — This should not be too rich, else a gross disposition is induced, rendering them rambling in growth, and producing fewer flowers or seeds than if on a rather poor light soil. Neither disease nor insects seem to attack the plants. The blossoms are endowed with the power of emitting electric sparks towards evening, u, phenomena first observed by the daughter of Linnreus. It is most distinctly seen ACETARIACEOUS PLANTS.— PURSLANE, ka. 171 with the eye partly closed. The berries should be gathered for use while quite green. Abun- dance of seed will be found in a ripened state when the plants are pulled up upon the first attack of frost. They do not retain their vege- tative powers above two years. Their European names are — Capucine in French ; Mastruco do Peru in Portuguese; Kapuzinerblume in Ger- man ; Fior cappucino in Italian ; Spaanche kera in Dutch ; and Capuchinas in Spanish. § 9. — PURSLANE, CHERVIL, ETC. Purslane {Portulaca sativa Haw, P. saliva, Var. Aurea Haw, and P. oleracea L. — all the three are cultivated in our gardens) belongs to the natural order Portulacese, and to the class Dodecandria and order Monogyuia in the Lin- nsean arrangement. The generic name is de- rived from Porto to carry, Lac, milk, supposed medical quality. P. satira is a native of South America, introduced in 1652; while P. oleracea is a native of Europe, introduced 1582. Its young shoots and leaves, which are very fleshy or succulent, are used in summer salads, and are sometimes used in French and Italian soups, and also as pickles. Its existence is only to be looked for in gardens of the highest order. Being annuals, they are yearly reared from seed. A quarter of an ounce will sow a bed of 32 square feet. For a first crop, sow in Feb- ruary or March upon a gentle hot-bed, for all the sorts are very tender, and this first crop must have the protection of a frame and glass lights. A two-light frame will be sufficient. As the plants reach the height of 2 inches, thin out to the distance of 4 inches apart; the soil should be of such light and rich consis- tency as that usually employed for cucumbers. The second crop should be sown upon a warm border in dry light soil in May, and successional sowings should be made, if a constant supply is demanded, every fortnight till the first week in August, after which recourse must be had to bottom-heat and the protection of glass cover- ings. It is best to grow them where they have been sown, but they may be transplanted in cases of emergency. The shoots are fit for use when from 2 to 5 inches in length, and should then be cut off with a knife and shghtly rinsed in clean water, when they are fit for use. The European names are — Pourpier in French; Porcellana in Italian; and Portulak in Dutch and German. The seed is not worth the trouble of saving. Chervil (Chcerophyllum sativum, Pers.) be- longs to the natural order Umbelliferse, and to the class Pentaudria and order Digynia in the LinuEean arrangement. The generic name is derived from 0/iairo, to rejoice ; Phyllon, leaf — that is to say, a plant whose leaves have a plea- sant smell. A native of several parts of Europe ; by some considered indigenous to Britain. Gerard cultivated it in his garden ; and Par- kinson says, " It is sown in gardens to serve as a salad herb." These are the earliest notices we have of its being cultivated iu Britain. Pliny tells us that the Syrians cultivated it as a food, and they ate it both boiled and raw. It has long been cultivated by the French and Dutch, and they have still hardly a soup or salad but the leaves of chervil make a part of the compo- sition. The leaves are used in most salads and in many soups, and as a seasoner it is by many pre- ferred to parsley, when used for these purposes. Being an annual, it is propagated by seed. To maintain a constant supply, sow about the beginning of February, and make successional sowings every month till August, about the end of which a larger sowing should be made in a warm situation, to form a winter and early spring supply. Some only sow in spring and autumn, and trust to keeping the plants from seeding ; this is, however, precarious. Sow in drills 10 inches apart and 1 inch deep. Trans- plant only in cases of emergency, unless it be in saving seed of the fine-curled variety, which will be improved in the fulness of its leaves, if transplanted once or twice before it shoots up for seed. An ounce of seed is sufficient to sow 24 square feet. It should be sown thin. A light soil, not over-manured, is the best for aU odori- ferous plants. When the leaves are 2 inches in height they are fit for gathering; a small handful is suffi- cient for a large salad. Plain, chervil is the most common, but except that it is hardier than the curled varieties, it should be discarded. Curled chervil. — This sort, on account of its delicately-curled leaves, is much used for gar- nishing, as well as for the ordinary purposes for which the plain sort is used. Being a larger grower, it requires more room for its develop- ment; indeed, the plants, to have justice, should stand a foot apart each way. When intended for winter use it should have the protection of hand-glasses, frames, or branches of trees stuck thickly around and amongst it. In very un- favourable situations it is well to pot a dozen or two plants, and shelter them under glass during winter. Frizsled-leaved French chervil (Cerfeuil frise) is an improved variety of the last, even more beautiful, but also more tender. It is best adapted for summer crops. Few insects attack the odoriferous plants. Seeds of all the varieties are easily saved. The plants of the two last varieties should be trans- planted once or twice when intended for this purpose, and a somewhat richer soil will be of advantage. The European names are — Cerfeuil in French ; Cerfoglio in Italian ; and Garten- kerbel in German and Dutch. § 10.— RAPE, CORN-SALAD, ETC. Rape {Brassica napus L.) belongs to the natural order Cruciferse, and to the class Tetra- dynamia and order Siliquosse. For derivation of the generic name, vide section Cabbage. In- digenous to Britain. It is cut when quite young, and before the second leaves are formed, and mixed with cress 172 CULINARY OR KITCHEN GARDEN. and mustard. Its culture for this purpose is the same as these. It is the Navette of the French; Mapo salvatico of the Italians ; and the Eapskohl of the Germans. Corn^salad {Yalerianella olitoria Deo.) be- longs to the natural order Valerianeae, and to the class Triandria monogynia in the LinnEean arrangement. The generic name is a diminutive of Valerian. Indigenous to Britain. Another species is cultivated — viz., V. eriocarpa, or Italian corn-salad, of much larger growth. Both are used as a substitute for lettuce in spring. The latter sort, besides being used for salads, is also used when grown in rich soil and of considerable size, as a substitute for spinach. They are both much used on the Continent, where they appear under the names of Salade de chanoine, Mache, Poule grasse, Doucette, &o. Sow in August and September for winter and spring use, and in February and March for Bummer supply. The seed is small. Sow them, and cover about the eighth of an inch. An ounce of seed will be sufScient for an ordinary family. Brook - lime ( Veronica Beccahunga L.) be- longs to the natural order Serophularinse, and class Diandria and order Monogynia in the Lin- nsean arrangement. The derivation of the name is doubtful. Indigenous to most parts of Bri- tain, growing in ditches and streams often along with water-cresses, and is used for the same purposes, and cultivated in the same manner. Wood sorrel {Oxalis acetosella L.) belongs to the natural order Oxalidese, and to the class Decandria and order Pentagynia in the Linnsean arrangement. The generic name is derived from Oxys, acid — from the acid taste of the leaves. In- digenous to most parts of Britain, existing in vast quantities in moist woods. It is used as an in- gredient in spring salads ; and, although quite capable of cultivation, it is found so plentifully in April and May, in a natural state, as to render its culture scarcely profitable. It is much used on the Continent, and is the Oseille of the French, Acetosa of the Italians, and Saueramp- fer of the Germans. Coriander {Coriandrum sativum L.) belongs to the natural order Umbelliferse, and to the class Pentandria and order Digynia in the Lin- nsean arrangement. The generic name is de- rived from Koris, a bug, from the smell of the leaves. A native of England, in corn-fields. It is chiefly cultivated in gardens on account of the tender young leaves, which are used in soups and salads. It is raised by seed sown annually — in February and March for summer use, and again in August or September for win- ter supply. A very few plants are sufficient for an ordinary garden. General remarks. — It delights in a light sandy soil. The plants should stand 18 inches apart. European names — Koriander, German and Dutch ; Coriandre in French ; and Coriandro in Italian. § 11. — THE RADISH. Natural history. — Badish (Raphanus satixus L.) belongs to the natural order Cruciferse, sub-order Orthoplocese, and tribe Raphanea;, and to the class Tetradynamia and order Siliculosse. The generic name is derived from Rha, quickly; Phainomai, to appear, from its rapid germination. The name radish is supposed by Phillips to come from Radix, a root. The cultivated radish is thought to be a native of China, but it appears, by the writings of ancient naturalists, that its culture is of great antiquity in many parts of Europe, although it was not grown in England prior to 1548. They were very highly esteemed by the Greeks, and were grown largely in Egypt in the days of the Pharaohs, for the abundance of oil their seeds afforded ; they are still grown to a great extent in that country at the present day. Pliny speaks of a turnip-rooted kind, and of a sweet and tender sort, and of one that con- tinued good throughout the winter. Gerard cultivated four kinds of radishes in Queen Eliza- beth's time. Uses.— In the south of France the roots are roasted in wood-ashes ; they are also used there in soups, to which they give an agreeable fla- vour. The Roman physicians recommended them to be eaten raw in a morning with salt, and before taking any other food, a practice in use in some parts of England at present. Radishes abound in a penetrating nitrous juice, which makes them diuretic, and cleansing to the intestines and viscera. They are considered also as excellent antiscorbutics. At present they are usually eaten raw with salt as a salad, with butter and cheese. The leaves are some- times boiled as greens, and the roots make an excellent dish, when rather too large for a salad, by being boiled and served to table as asparagus. Neither the roots nor leaves, how- ever, afford much nourishment. The roots are often sliced and added to mixed salads, and are occasionally eaten alone with salt, vinegar, and other condiments. The young leaves are also eaten along with mustard and cress, and for this purpose the seed is often sown in the same manner as they are. The seed-pods, when nearly full-grown, but still green and tender, are added to mixed pickles, and pickled alone as a substitute for capers. Propagation. — The radish, being an annual, is propagated from seed. Sowing. — As this salad is in request throughout the year, successional sowings must be attended to. Where there is the accommodation of a tanked pit or dung-heated pits or frames, a sowing for winter supply should be made every ten days from the beginning of November to the beginning of March. Where such conveniences do not exist, then for win- ter use a sowing should be made at the end of October, another about the middle of November, one at the end of that month, and others twice during Decem- ACETARIACEOUS PLANTS.— THE EADISH. 173 ber, January, and February ; and from the end of that month sow every ten days, throughout the remainder of the season. These sowings have reference to the turnip-rooted and spindle-rooted va- rieties in ordinary use. For the black, white, purple, and brown Spanish sorts, which are hardy, and continue long fit for use after attaining their full size, these should be sown in August, and another crop in September, which will carry the supply through the winter, whether they be kept in the ground or taken up and pitted like potatoes. The seeds will in general germinate in less than a week, and in six weeks the plants will be fit for drawing. The ordinary turnip and spindle-rooted sorts should be sown broadcast, whether in beds, in the open air, or in pits and frames. Avoid too thick sowing. Two ounces of seed will sow three lights of a pit or frame of the ordinary breadth, or the same quantity will sow a bed of 50 square feet in the open ground. They are often sown thinly between rows of potatoes in pits or frames, as they will be gathered off before the potatoes have attained a size to injure them. The hardy winter sorts should be sown in rows, as they occupy the ground much longer, and will require the surface to be frequently stirred up by the hoe. Cover the seed fully half an inch, and, in sowing in the open borders, avoid spilling any of the seed on the surface, as such will attract birds, which are very fond of them. Net the ground over to protect them; or, better, cover with wire-netting, which, although rather more expensive in the first instance, will be found the cheap- est in the end. Both the tap-rooted and turnip-rooted kinds should be sown at the same time, as well as those differing in colour, to afford a greater variety in the salad. For late autumn, winter, and early spring crops, choose the warmest and driest border the garden affords ; while for those for use during the heat of summer, a cool moist place should be selected. The radish is one of the few exceptions to drill-sowing, which has for its chief principle the means afforded the cultiva- tor for thinning his crops, so that each plant may have room to develop itself to the extent at which it should arrive, when VOL. II. in its fullest state of perfection. The radish does not require this care, as the strongest seeds vegetate first, and the plants produced from them are daiiy withdrawn for use, thus leaving room for those which follow in succession. It is good practice to sow at the same time with the radishes such seeds as lettuce, leeks, parsley, &,c., because these vegetate much more slowly than the radish, and as it is removed they come in in succes- sion, and fill the space until such time as they are of such a size, and sufficiently har- dened off, as to be fit for planting in the open border of the garden. Indeed, so great a difference exists in the germinat- ing process of these seeds, that radishes, leeks, and parsley may be sown on the same day. When the first is withdrawn, the second takes its place; and when the plants are of a size to be transplanted to a nursery-bed, to fit them for final trans- planting, the parsley comes in, which takes so long a time in germinating as to have given rise to the common but vulgar saying, " that parsley-seed goes nine times to the devil before it begins to grow." By following this rather unusual mode, time and space are economised ; and as lettuce, leeks, and parsley plants are im- proved by transplanting, the advantages to them individually must be evident. " The London market-garden practice for obtaining early radishes in the open air is to sow from the first to the last week in December, choosing as warm a situation for the purpose as possible. The ground being prepared, the seed is sown broadcast. The alleys are marked out, and the mould from them is thrown over the seed. A, wooden rake is used to make all level ; no iron rakes are used in market -gardens. After sowing, straw, which has been previously shaken out of the London stable-manure, is put over the beds 2 or 3 inches in thickness. When the plants come up, which depends upon the winter, the straw is removed every day, and put on every night, until all danger from frost is past. It takes 5° of frost to hurt a radish after it is half- grown." CUTHILL. It is only in the most favourable situa- tions that radishes, with the exception of the winter kinds, can be advantageously grown in the open air during winter. Did they even, by covering or otherwise, z 174 CULINARY OE KITCHEN GARDEN. survive the frost, they would be hard and stringy compared with such as are grown rapidly on a mild bottom temperature ; and, indeed, apart from their quality, what with covering and uncovering during winter, the cost in labour would be as much, if not more, than would attend their production in a heated pit or frame. Radishes grown in artificial heat require abundance of ventilation, and as little exclusion from the light by coverings as possible. The temperature should range from 48° to 58°, but may be increased to 70° with impunity; and tepid water should be frequently applied, for the radish is fond of moisture; but pouring cold water upon them, or any other forced vegetable, during winter, when the soil is already too cold, is extremely injurious. Subsequent cultivation. — In the open air, radishes require protection during win- ter, either by the means practised by the London market-gardeners stated above, or by other means, such as hooping the beds over and covering with mats, &c., all of which we think are far behind the conditions of the present age. If they are wanted during that period, glass as a covering should be employed; and where that is the case, either a tanked pit, or frames placed over vegetable mat- ter in a state of fermentation, may be em- ployed ; the latter of itself, when broken down by decay, will, as a valuable ma- nure, repay the expense of collecting and working. ' Soil and manure. — The soil should be deep, light, and mellow, and thoroughly pulverised by deep digging or forking, without which radishes will ever be hard and unfit for use, and this is more especi- ally the case with the long or spindle- rooted kinds. Strachan, a writer in " The Horticultural Society's Transactions," vol. iii., p. 438, observes on this subject, " The character of a good long-rooted radish is to have its root straight, long, free from fibres, not tapering too suddenly, and especially to be fully formed on the top, or well shouldered as it is called, and without a long neck; the roots should be ready to draw while the leaves are quite small, whence the name of 'short-top radish ; ' and if they soon attain a, proper size, and also force well, they are then called earlj/ and frame radishes." To at- tain these properties the soil should be light and rich, but not made so by i-ecent manuring, unless of a very decomposed description. Taking the crop and subsequent preserva- tion. — Radishes are gathered day by day, and hence serve the purpose of thinning ; still they should on no account be sown thick ; but, supposing the seed good, the plants at germinating should stand 1 inch or 1^ inches apart. The strongest-leaved ones, therefore, may be taken as the largest, but not always the best root ; these should be drawn first. When col- lected and in the vegetable-house, they should be washed quite clean, the thready fibres, where they exist, cut close off, also a small part of the tips of the root, and all the leaves removed excepting two or three of the last-formed ones on the crown, which should be retained. Care must, however, be taken that the roots do not become too old and hard ; a good criterion is to break them over, and if the parts separate freely, then they are fit for use; but if they do not, then they are too old for salad purposes. The winter or Spanish kinds should be dug up about the beginning of November, deprived of their tops, and pitted like potatoes, or buried in sand in the root-cellar. This sand, however, should not be too dry, for reasons given elsewhere. Approved sorts and their qualities. — An excel- lent paper on the classification of radishes will be found in the 4th vol. of the " Transactions of the Horticultural Society," p. 13. By this arrangement they are divided into three classes, namely, Spring and Summer ki>ids,Autumn kinds, and Winter radishes. The Spring and Summer Mnds consist of scar- let or salmon-coloured — and its sub-varieties, short-topped scarlet, and early-frame scarlet; and to these we may add, as improvements on the originals. Wood's early frame, not very long, but very early, and well calculated for forcing ; Beck's superb short-top, a long-rooted variety, of good shape and colour, with leaves particu- larly small; long white Naples, an improvement on the old long white cultivated in Gerard's time — a very good variety,and esteemed bysome on account of its semi-transparent white colour. Purple-rooted only grown as affording a variety in point of colour. Of turnip-rooted sorts we have the white and red; and of these some sub-varieties, particu- larly of the latter — such as the pink, rose- coloured, scarlet, and crimson, which are mere shades of difference in colour. The scarlet olive- shaped, a quick grower, tender, and considered rather milder than most other sorts. There is a grey turnip-rooted sort grown by some; we have found it to be merely a dirty white, and ACETAEIACEOUS PLANTS.— THE EADISH. 175 the large and small yellow turnip-rooted variety stand no higher in our estimation. The Autumn kinds are the round brown, large in size, not very handsome in shape, nor of a decided colour. White Russian, a very large sort, of good form, somewhat resembling a well- formed white carrot; in flavour resembling rampion. Not in general cultivation in Britain, but much grown in the north of Europe. The red metz, a French variety esteemed in the Paris markets, in which it forms the principal supply; roots of moderate length, rose-coloured, with few leaves, and those very small. Winter radishes.- — Of these, the best is the large Spanish black-rooted. The skin is black, with numerous white dots; irregularly pear- shaped ; flesh white, firm, and solid ; much hotter than any other kind. Esteemed on ac- count of its hardiness, and as affording an agree- able winter salad when cut into slices. Large white Spanish; skin white, tinged with green; flesh firm, solid, and white ; form oval ; flavour hot and pungent. Purple Spanish is only a sub- variety of the black ; the skin is purplish ; flesh firm and white. Oblong brown, another sub- variety, with brownish skin; shape pyriform; plant very hardy. The Chinese rose winter radish is also a sub-variety of the white Spanish. Insects and diseases. — The plants, when in their seed-leaf state, are preyed upon by the aphides, and other insects, which are destructive to all plants of the order Cruciferse : vide Cab- bage and Turnip. General remarhs. — Some of the best plants should be saved from the principal spring sow- ing, for seed. Take them carefully up in May, preserving the leaves entire; select the most perfectly formed roots, and transplant them into rows 3 feet asunder each way, inserting the roots with a large dibber so deep that their crowns will be just level with the surface of the ground. It is unwise to save seed from more than one variety flowering at the same time, as the plants are liable to hybridise with one an- other, and seed of the previous year's sowing should always be sown. To save seed of the winter radishes, some of the best-formed bulbs should be planted as above in March, and the pods gathered when they become brown and fully matured. Seed radishes must be covered with nets to protect them from birds ; and if the quantity of seed to be saved is great, the whole stalks should be cut over, and, when dried, stacked by until there is time for thrashing them out. If the quantity is small, the pods may be cut off individually as they ripen. " The seeds of the different varieties are easily distin- guished by an experienced seedsman. Those of the long white radish are small, flat, and pale ; of the scarlet and purple long-rooted, large; and of the first very light coloured, compared with those of the latter; of the white turnip, small, round, and brown ; scarlet turnip rather larger, and somewhat darker ; purple turnip larger and brown, being similar to the long- rooted purple, except in size."- — Cottage Gar- deners' Dictionary, p. 762. The pods for pick- ling should be taken when nearly full grown, but still soft and green, which will in general be the case in August. The European names are — Eadis or Rave in French; Rabano in Spanish; Eettig in Ger- man ; Rafano in Italian ; and Tamme radijs in Dutch. CHAPTER VII. BSOULBNT-ROOTBD PLANTS. § 1. — THE CARROT. Natural history. — The carrot {Daucm carota L.) belongs to the natural order Umbelliferae, and to the class Pentandria and order Digynia in the Linnsean arrangement. The generic name is derived from Daio, to separate, because it dispels flatulency ; the specific name, Carota, is from the Celtic Cnr, red, the colour of the root. The carrot, in its wild state, is indigenous to many parts of Britain, generally in sandy or chalky soil ; when and how it became reclaimed, or elevated to its cultivated state, is not now known. In that state it was known to Diosco- rides and Phny ; and the latter informs us, book XXV. chap. 9, that the best kinds came to Rome from Caudia, and the next best from Achaia. Theophrastus, in the 9th book of his " History of Plants," says that the best carrots are found in Sparta. Gerard calls these plants Daucus cre- tensis verus, or Candia carrots, and says that the true Daucus of Dioscorides does not grow in Candia only, but is found upon the mountains of Germany, and upon the hills and rocks of Jura, about Geneva. It is possible, therefore, that Britain received her first supply from the latter situation. Later authorities think that the carrot was introduced into this country by the Flemings, in the time of Queen Elizabeth, and that they were first sown about Sandwich, in Kent. Of one thing we are certain, that carrots, as well as several other culinary vegetables, were imported to London, from Holland, during Eli- zabeth's reign, and moreover that the leaves of carrots were used in the head-dresses of the ladies of her court, in imitation of those of pre- vious date, who employed the leaves of the wild carrot for a similar purpose. Uses. — Few vegetables are in greater demand for culinary purposes than the carrot. It is used in soups, in stews, as a vegetable dish, and even in puddings ; and so much are young carrots in demand in good cookery, that they are supplied throughout the summer from the open ground by repeated sowings, and during winter by arti- ficial heat. In some parts of England carrots are served up with fish, as parsnips have long been, during Lent. Both the seed and the roots are used in medicine, the seed of the wild car- rot being considered one of the most valuable diuretics of native growth. The roots of carrots contain a large portion of saccharine matter, and have been used in the manufacture of sugar, and in distilling, all over the Continent, where their cultivation has been longer and more ex- tensively pursued than in Britain. Excellent bread has been made of white carrots, when washed and boiled, and mixed with flour in equal proportions by weight : such bread will keep good for a week. Propagation. — Although the carrot is a hardy biennial, the roots, which are the only part used in domestic economy, are fit for use the same year. Seed must therefore be sown annually, they admit- ting of no other mode of propagation. Sowing.— A. small sowing may be made about the beginning of February, choos- ing a warm dry border, with a view to have young carrots fit to draw for use by the beginning of May ; and another should follow about the middle or end of the month, and again a larger sowing by the first week in March : the state of the wea- ther must, however, regulate these. These periods are adapted to southern culture ; in the north, it is seldom that seed sown previous to the 1st of March repays the trouble. Crops sown so early in the sea- son will derive considerable benefit from the ground being covered with dry litter during the continuance of frosts. The early horn only should be employed for these early sowings. For general crops, the middle of March and during April is a proper season, taking advantage of the ground when it is dry. For a supply of young carrots during winter, sow on slight hot-beds in December, January, and Fe- bruary. The two later sowings will be the most satisfactory. The end of April, and even the middle of May, is preferred by many for getting in their principal crop, they thinking thereby to escape the ESCULENT-ROOTED PLANTS.— THE CARROT. 177 attack of the carrot maggot, Psila rosce : this, however, depends to some extent on the season, for cold and late springs have their effect upon the insect as well as upon the germination of the plant. Many also defer tiU the beginning of May, from the apprehension that, if the seed is sown ear- lier, the plants will be liable to run to seed. Sow again in June and July, and lastly towards the end of August or beginning of September — the later crop to supply autumn demands. Some depend on this sowing for a winter supply, substituting them for young carrots, for which they are a poor representative, except in form, being devoid of the same flavour and co- lour ; and although they may pass with some for such purposes, they will not escape the keen eye of a French cook. Forcing carrots during winter is no seri- ous matter, if the conveniences of hot- beds or tanked pits be at command ; and those who will not go to the expense of such conveniences must just go without, or be content with such as are produced by late sowing, and kept in the ground till they are wanted. One great advan- tage arising from not sowing too early, is that the seed has a much less time to lie in the ground before germinating, and hence brairds as soon as the weeds, and therefore admits of earlier hoeing ; where- as, if very early sown, the weeds get the start of the young carrots, and render the operation of cleaning them more tedious and less effective. The seed does not come up for four or five weeks in spring, and for three or four in summer and autumn. The seed of chickweed, and many other weeds, vegetates in much less time in the same temperature, and hence the pro- priety of bringing on an artificial germi- nation, as afterwards to be noticed, recon- ciling as near as may be the germination of the carrots and the weeds. The ground intended for this crop should be trenched not less than 2^ feet in depth, and well pulverised during the operation. It should be in a sufficient state of enrichment from the manuring of the previous crop ; hence the ground from which celery has been removed is deemed the best, on account of its having been well wrought during the previous summer and autumn, and also as having been suf- ficiently enriched. Notwithstanding this, trenching is desirable ; and if this opera- tion has been carried on as the ground became vacant, and thrown up in rough ridges, so much the better, as all that will be required at the period of sowing the carrots will be to level down the ridges and break down the clods with a coarse rake, rendering the surface sufficiently le- vel and smooth for the drawing of the drills; for carrots should, for principal crops, be always drill-sown. When the ground is dry and prepared as above, the drills may be drawn with the drill-rake in the way described under section Onion, p. 33 ; a very slight pressure will give them the proper depth — an inch and a half The distance at which the teeth should be set depends on the distance the rows are to be apart from each other; 9 inches being the usual distance for horn carrots, and 1 foot for the larger-growing kinds. The head of the drill-rake being marked off in inches, the three screws are to be slackened, the teeth set at their respec- tive distances, and the screws to be tight- ened up again. Previous to sowing, the seed should be well separated by rubbing between the hands with an admixture of a little dry sand, or finely-sifted coal-ashes, without which preparation the seeds would not separate freely, and hence the crop would come up unequal and patchy, besides wasting much of the seed. A quiet still day should be chosen, as the seed is so very light that it would be liable to be blown away before it could be covered in. Sow thinly in the drills ; and as the seed is committed to them it should be covered in immediately : by walking along each drill with a foot on each side of it, and by drawing the feet along, one after the other, the process of covering will easily be effected ; or, if the ground is wet, by go- ing down every fourth or fifth space, the same number of drills may be covered by the head of a wooden rake. In this state the ground should be left ; all scratching and raking, after the seed is sown, is so much labour thrown away, and the ground anything but improved by the operation. In extremely light soils it may, however, be slightly footed over, or trod in, as it is technically termed, because such soils are improved mechanically by the process of compression; hence in old and long- wrought market-gardens, where the soil is soft and spongy, a hght wooden roller is 178 CULINAEY OR KITCHEN GARDEN. employed; and indeed, in large private gardens, rolling is a more business-like way of performing the operation, and in- volves a less expenditure of time. It is a common practice with carrot- growers to assist the germination of the seed — a process by which several days are gained, and which is of advantage in late wet springs, and also in gardens, where the ground may not be prepared, or where the previous crop has scarcely been removed from it. This process is effected by mix- ing the seed with damp sand, and placing it in a warm situation, such as on the floor of a hothouse, or indeed anywhere else, if in a temperature from 1 0° to 20° higher than the soil into which it is to be sown. Others place the seed in a bag, and steep it in rain-water for about forty-eight hours, eight or ten days before sowing is to take place. If in quantity, and spread out on a floor to the thickness of 9 or 10 inches, it will of itself generate sufficient heat, by a slight fermentation which will take place in consequence of being thus wetted, to cause the seeds to chip or germinate ; but if in small quantities, it had better be laid upon a floor, or in shallow boxes, in some warm room, until this takes place. In either case, great care must be taken that germination is not allowed to go too far, else, in the process of sowing, the germs of vegetation wiU be liable to be broken ofij which will destroy the seed. In careful hands, this is a process in seed-sowing which might be advantageously applied to all seeds that are long in vegetating. On the principle of simultaneous cropping, many market-gardeners sow a thin crop of radishes broadcast along with their carrots; the former come off for use before any damage is done to the latter. The carrot-seed, when not prepared as we have stated, will, early in the season, lie in the ground for five or six weeks before they come up, while the radishes seldom lie above a fortnight. Others, particularly private gardeners, sow a thin sprinkling of leek-seed along with the carrot, which may be done in the same drill, to admit of early hoeing. Others sow onions, and instances have been known where cab- bages, savoys, or Brussels sprouts have been planted in the same line, and at 4 or 5 feet apart, as well as where planted pro- miscuously over the ground, in which the carrot crop has escaped the attacks of insects, while crops adjoining, sown alone, have been completely destroyed. We have seen a case of this sort, in the very old garden of the Earl of Morton, which has probably existed as such for two centu- ries, on which as fine clean carrots were produced as could be wished, and not for one season only, but for several consecu- tive years ; and we were informed by Mr Smeal, the gardener, that before he prac- tised planting brassicaceous plants along with his carrots, none had been produced previously in the garden, in the recollection of the oldest person living at Dalmahoy. The Brussels sprout is the best for this purpose, as it grows tall and slender, and shades the carrots less than any of the spreading sorts. Carrot- seed is more liable to be bad than most other garden-seeds; it will, therefore, be a wise precaution to sow 60 or 100 seeds in a flower-pot, and place it in the heat of a mild hothouse to vegetate. By counting the number of plants which come up, the quality of the seed will be correctly ascertained. One ounce of seed, if good, will be sufficient for a bed of 130 square feet, if sown broadcast ; and if sown in drills, the same quantity will be suffi- cient for 150 feet. Subsequent culture. — When the broad-^ cast-sown crop comes above the ground, it should be thinned out with the 2- inch draw-hoe ; this hoeing, however, is more to suppress weeds and keep the sur- face of the ground open ; the principal thinning should take place when the plants have attained the height of from 2 to 3 inches, and then they should be singled out to from 4 to 5 inches, clearing the ground at the same time of every weed. This will admit of after-thinning for im- mediate use ; and, should the demand not require them in sufficient time, then a third and final thinning should take place, leaving the horn sorts 6 or 7 inches apart, and the large-growing sorts 9 or 10 inches. Those of the former, in drills, may be left at 5 or 6 inches apart, and the latter at from 6 to 8 inches. Much as we advocate deep-stirring the ground between the rows of crops gene- rally, the carrot forms almost the only exception, as, by so doing, it encourages the lateral fibres to grow large, and pro- duce what is technically called forked roots ; flat-hoeing, however, for the ESCULENT- ROOTED PLANTS.— THE CARROT. 179 suppression of weeds, must be attended to. Soil and manure. — A light deep sandy soil is natural to the carrot ; in fresh loamy soils it also flourishes in great per- fection ; a cold stiflf clayey one is the least of all adapted to it, and in such soils ex- pedients like the following are sometimes had recourse to — namely, to thrust a long dibber, such as is used for planting horse- radish, into the soil, filling up the per- foration with sand, and dropping 3 or 4 seeds into it, to be thinned out to one, after they have attained the height of 2 inches. In this way, carrots of large size have been obtained. In well-drained peaty soil, they have been successfully grown, and in such are usually free of disease, or the attacks of underground insects. In strong soils, they are often difficult to get up : to aid them in this, deep drills are drawn, and filled with light soil, such as leaf-mould, in which clean sea or river sand has been incorporated ; in this the seeds are sown, and vegetate freely, and establish themselves until of a size and strength to penetrate the stronger soil below. The manures best suited to this crop are those in a liquid state, applied during growth : stable-yard manure, un- less in a very decomposed state, should not be applied; and to keep it until it is in a proper state for this crop is an evi- dent waste of its fertilising powers, which had much better have been employed in the feeding of the previous crop. The application of fresh manure causes them to grow forked and misshapen, as well as to be attacked by insects : the only ma- nure we apply, and even that is seldom, is a light dressing of pigeons' dung; guano may also be applied with advantage, espe- cially if in a liquid form. The experiments made some years ago by Mr C. W. John- ston, on the application of salt to various crops, gave the following result in the case of carrots : Light sandy soil, manured with 80 bushels of salt, and 20 tons of stable-yard manure per English acre, yielded 23 tons 6 cwt. 1 qr. 18 lb. ; the same extent, with 20 tons of manure, only 22 tons 18 cwt. qr. 26 lb. ; manured with 20 bushels of salt, only 18 tons 2 cwt. ; without any manure or salt, 13 tons 4 cwt. Salt and soot is a favourite manure for carrots, and the quantity applied may be to the extent of 10 bushels of salt and 20 bushels of soot per acre. Turf-ashes, and the ashes of wood and garden-refuse, have been found beneficial jphen applied in a newly-formed state to carrot, onion, potato, and beet crops ; they contain silica, alumina, oxides of iron and manganese, sulphates of potash and lime, phosphates of lime, magnesia, common salt, and char- coal ; they should not only be dug into the ground, but sown also on the surface, previous to drilling, by which means they come in immediate contact with the seed. Forcing. — To obtain carrots in a young state, fit for use during winter, artificial means must be resorted to. A mild hot- bed of dung and leaves, or a tanked pit, is the proper accommodation for their seed ; therefore, if the true early horn, which is the best suited for forcing, as well as most approved of by cooks, should be sown at the periods stated above, either the tank or bed should be covered, to the depth of 9 inches, with light rich sandy soil, and the seed sown in the broad- cast manner, and covered about half an inch with sharp dry sand ; a temperature ranging from 55° to 65° will be sufficient, and instead of raising this temperature by additional fire-heat, during frosty weather, rather cover up the glass roof to exclude the extra cold. Where a less abundant supply is wanted, seed may be sown in shallow pots, and these placed in a mildly- heated pit, close to the glass. Radishes and young onions may be obtained in the same manner. The London market-gardeners' practice is to sow the early horn only, in frames and beds to be hooped over, and covered with mats. A sowing is made in Novem- ber, and another in January. When the plants are up, they are thinned to 4 inches apart. The hooping-over and mat-cover- ing practice is behind the intelligence of the present times. Private gardeners act better, and grow their winter carrots un- der the protection of glass coverings, either in pits or in frames. Taking the crop, and subsequent preserva- tion. — Carrots should be taken up on the approach of winter, and when their grow- ing season is over. To leave them in the ground injures their flavour and colour ; and if so left after the turn of the year, they begin to become hard, fibrous, and ultimately, when their spring growth com- mences, unfit for use. Besides, it is evi- 180 CULINARY OE KITCHEN GARDEN. deuce of bad cultivation to allow any ground to be occupied with a crop during winter, which might as well be dug up and stored by, and so give an opportunity for the improvement of the soil by manur- ing, trenching digging, ceased ; besides, n|& their leaves cover- >!» ing the ground will TURNIP-HOE. tend to keep weeds down. AU the other crops should be sown in drills, 1 inch in depth, and at a distance between according with the variety, as some have very small leaves, like the Maltese, while others have them larger, like the Robert- son's yellow-stone, &c. For the former, 1 foot is sufficient, thinning out the plants to 6 inches apart ; while for the latter, 18 inches between the rows, and 10 inches from plant to plant, will be a proper al- lowance when thinned out for the last time. In all crops there is an evident mistake in too close cropping, and in few more so than in the turnip. These dis- tances would be ill adapted for field culti- vation, where bulk of crop is the object aimed at : the case, however, is different in garden culture, where no turnip should exceed the diameter of 4 inches; and from 2 to 3 inches is a better size. The ground should be in a highly-enriched state, that quick growth may be induced. It is of vast importance, in securing a good braird, and also a means of escaping the fiy, that vegetation should be rapid. This natu- rally ensues when the seed is sown imme- diately before rain ; but as this cannot be at all times calculated upon, the drills, if the ground is very dry, may with advan- tage be well soaked with water before sowing, using soft rain or river water in preference to cold spring-water, that the temperature of the soil may not be low- ered ; and for this purpose it is advisable to drill and water early in the morning, and to sow towards the afternoon, for, if the day be warm, the soil will have regained its former temperature. It is well also for this crop to mix guano and salt with the water, to the extent of a pound- weight of each to 25 gallons of liquid. The seed, also, may be steeped for six or eight hours in soft tepid water before sowing ; and if soot or flowers of sulphur be mixed in the water, both will adhere to the seed, and render it less palatable to birds. In drilling, as for carrots, the drill-rake should be used for opening them equi- distant, speedily, and of uniform depth ; and the drill sowing and covering ma- chine {see section Potato) will be found a great economiser of labour. The ground, after sowing, should be left quite open, and by no nieans scratched over with a rake, as if it were a border of inignonette in a highly-dressed parterre. The agri- culturist rolls his turnip-rjdges down after sowing, to break down the hard clods of earth, and render the process of singling more easily effected, as well as more completely to cover the seed in the drills. The gardener has seldom the same reason for doing this, as his soil is pre- sumed to be sufficiently pulverised by previous working; and it can only be where his soil is strong and lumpy, and, even then, when it is sufficiently dry that the roller may mellow down the clods, that he is justified in the operation. The evil of finely raking kitchen-garden ground is sufficiently obvious : it prevents the admission of heat and air to the roots or seeds ; in many gases renders it crusty and hard on the surface, so as to prevent the young plants breaking through it, and in fact completely stultifies every argument in favour of keeping the ground open and pervious to the elements. Many persist in raking garden ground from an idea of neat- ness and orderly appearance ; but the best appearance such ground can have is a total absence of weeds, and a loose, open, pervious surface. There are no garden grounds kept in higher order than the market-gardens round London, in many of which a rake is scarcely to be found, and seldom employed unless in breaking in the ground previous to planting or sowipg-^rarely otherwise. In ground subject to the disease called Anbury, or Einger-and-toes, which is occasioned by a small species of Ct/nips {vide paragraph Diseases and insects), the usual means may be adopted at sowing; for, should they do no good, they can do no harm, and most of them will advantage the crop, as manures, sufficiently to repay the la- bour. These are, sowing the ground with soot, salt, guano, spirits of tar, lime, soap- boilers' waste, or any cheap alkaline sub- stance : thpsp are best spread over the ground before drilling, as that operation greatly favours their thorough amalgama- tion with the soil. 186 CULINARY OR KITCHEN GARDEN. " The London market-gardeners sow principally the early stone or Dutch, it being in great demand in spring. Various ways of producing it are practised, such as growing it in frames ; but the best plan is to raise it, like potatoes, in hooped beds — i. e., in trenches, dug out and filled with 2 feet of hot dung. Sow in February; hoop and cover with straw, and expose the plants daily ; the quality of the turnip depends much upon quick growth and plenty of moisture." — Cuthill. This practice, how- ever suitable it may be to the climate of London, would be found of little avail in most parts of Scotland, where, to insure success, glass coverings day and night must be had recourse to. We may, at the same time, take this opportunity of stat- ing that, high as the system of cuhnary cropping is, as carried on by the London market-gardeners, all this hooping and covering with straw, mats, (fee, is neither profitable, nor up to the present state of horticultural science. Let them have pits miles in length if they will, 6 feet in width, supported on 10-inch piers, and sunk or elevated, below or above the surface, ac- cording to the dryness of the subsoil; and these not less than 4 feet in depth, with side walls of 10-inch brick- work, for durability and exclusion of cold, and covered with cheap glass. In spring, they could forward in these turnips, radishes, asparagus, let- tuce, small salading, early cauliflower, early dwarf pease, French beans, &c.; while tomatos, which come in altogether to the market, could be spread over three or four months. In summer, cucumbers, melons, &c. could be produced ; and in autumn, late cauliflower, full-grown lettuce, endive, &c. could be protected, thus producing three crops per annum, and at (after the first cost of erection, which would last ten or fifteen years) little more expense of working than the present antiquated pro- cess, and certainty substituted for uncer- tainty, and constant success for frequent failures. It is quite notorious that a let- tuce salad cannot be procured in Covent Garden market, after October, equal to what is quite common in the Paris market all the winter; and asparagus, before New Year's Day quite a novelty in London, is a common affair in Paris and Vienna by the 1st of December. Stable-manure, or heat produced by vegetable fermentation, must for long yet be the heating medium employed by the London growers, on ac- count of its cheapness and abundance, and the comparative scarcity and expense of fuel. The Glasgow and Edinburgh growers are differently circumstanced, where a load of stable-manure costs nearly as much as a load of coal. Were the demand equal, and could the same prices be obtained in the latter case as in the former, no doubt heating by combustion would be adopted by the northern growers. In these days of cheap timber and cheap glass, there is no reason why Mr Solomon of Covent Garden market should exhibit in Regent Street asparagus purchased in Paris on the 1st of December, better than is shown in Covent Garden market on the 1st of Feb- ruary ; and far less reason is there why we should be supplied with early potatoes and pease from Spain, Portugal, Holland, or even Cornwall, when these could be produced by every grower round London quite as early, of much better quality, beinff fresh, and as cheap, were they only to cast aside their dependence on the identical means employed a century and a half ago, which a reference to the writers of that period will evidently show. In open-air productions they surpass aU Bri- tain ; in the production of forced vegetables and fruit they are immeasurably behind. To insure a speedy germination of the seed, care must be taken that it is not buried too deep : 1 inch may be taken as the maximum depth in garden soils; if placed deeper, vegetation is considerably retarded; and indeed, if too deeply buried, it may not vegetate at all, until brought nearer the surface by some future opera- tion of digging, &c. Turnip-seed, if new, will germinate, and appear above the sur- face, in ordinary soils and situations, in the month of July, in about eight days ; but older seed, which should assuredly be employed, will take from ten to twelve days ; much' of this, however, depends on the state of the weather. The Swedish and Teltow turnips, as we have stated above, maybe transplanted with every success. In gardens where the eco- nomy of ground is an object, it is well to sow both kinds in beds by themselves, in the broadcast manner, and, when the leaves are about from 3 to 4 inches in height, to transplant them to where they are to remain. By adopting this method, ground may be got cleared and prepared ESCULENT-ROOTED PLANTS.— THE TUENIP. 187 for their reception, which, might otherwise be in full perfection of crop at the period when these turnips should be sown. In lifting them, care should be taken that the roots are got up entire : the operation of lifting them will be facilitated if the seed- bed get a good soaking of water early in the morning of the day on which trans- planting is to take place ; it will cause the roots to part more freely with the soil, and they, at the same time, will ab- sorb such a portion of water as will greatly make up for the evaporation to which their leaves wiU be exposed before the spongiolets are in a condition to throw in a sufficient supply for the support of the plants. A dibble of sufficient length and thickness miist be used, so that the root may be set in the hole in such a manner that its natural position may be main- tained, and the soil gently pressed around it, but not in the way practised by many, of thrusting the dibble into the ground as soon as the root is set in the hole, in an oblique direction, and giving it a twist, with a view, as they say, of firming it at the bottom. Such a mode of proceeding is of aU others the most likely to push the root out of its perpendicular position, if not to break it entirely. Besides the advantage of economising space, by following the transplanting prin- ciple in the case of Swedish turnips, we have the opportunity of rejecting forked or apparently malformed roots ; and even another, and to us rather unexpected, ad- vantage has occurred in Wigtonshire, as reported by Mr Stephens, in " The Book of the Farm," vol. ii. p. 82, and obtained by Mr A. Johnstone, " on transplanting swedes on land which he had not got ready for sowing them at the proper sea- son. He sowed some seeds of Skirving's swedes in a bed in April 1 847, and trans- planted the plants from them as late as the 22d of June. From ten to twenty days afterwards, the transplanted plants running into flower, some of them were pulled up, and others cut over near the ground; when, in about fourteen days afterwards, bulbs began to form, and new stems and leaves were put forth luxuri- antly. He then cut over others that had flowered, and the same results followed. Finding the green leaves succulent, he caused them to be puUed as green food, and continued to do so during the season. three times, never imagining that the bulbs would be of any value. Meanwhile, however, the bulbs enlarged until the end of October, when two were pulled up, and one weighed 18 lb. and the other 15 lb., with scanty stem and leaves, because the former ones had been cut down not long before." This appears so far to confirm the newly-started opinion that tubers and bulbs will increase in size after the leaves and stems have been removed from them. " The question after such treatment of the bulbs" of the Swedish turnip " is. Are they deteriorated as food?" From an analysis made by Professor Johnston, it would appear they were not. The Teltow may be set in rows 1 foot apart, and the plants 9 inches asunder in the row; while the Swedish should have 18 inches between the rows, and 12 be- tween the plants in the line. Thick-sowing can only be sanctioned on the plea of affording sufficient food for the Haltica nemorum (the flea or beetle), the Curculio contractus, Tenthredo (or saw- fly), and other insect enemies, to satiate them during the period of their limited existence, and still leave a crop behind. Other means have been had recourse to, with more or less effect, such as that of mixing old and new seed in equal propor- tions, dividing the mixture, and steeping one half twenty-four hours in water ; aU though sown at the same time, four dis- tinct brairds will be insured, one of which has, so far as our experience goes, a fair chance of escaping. It has often hap- pened, when one-year and three-year old seed have been mixed and sown together, that the insect completely ate up the braird from the new seed, and had disap- peared before the other had come above ground. Radish seed, which germinates so much sooner than the turnip seed, has been sown for a like purpose ; for it should be borne in mind that these insects prey alike upon all cruciferous plants. No better way exists of ridding the crop of such intruders than that recommended by Mr A. Gorrie many years ago, which is to dust the young plants with caustic lime in powder, and the simplest way of applying it is to put it into a thin canvass bag, and to shake it over the plants twice a-day, when their leaves are quite dry; but this remedy, like most others, greatly depends on the quality of the medicine. 188 CULINARY OR KITCHEN GARDEN. Lime which has been slacked and laid by for some time is of little avail; it should be brought direct every three or four days from the kiln. Nor should it be laid on in large quantities, more especially when the leaves are wet, else it forms an incrustation on them, and shuts up their pores of respiration, making in such cases the cure as bad as the disease. We have no dread whatever of the turnip flea so long as a lime-bag is at hand, and provided those intrusted with the opera- tion will do as they are desired. Heavy rains also discomfit the insects, and, as a substitute, water let fall from the rose of a watering-pot held 3 or 4 feet above them will produce a like eifect. All blanks which occur in the drills, from whatever cause they may emanate, should be speed- ily re-sown ; but before doing so, fork up the soil in the patches, and drill and sow afresh ; and to keep the crop as equal as possible, steep the seed to be sown twenty- four hours in tepid water to forward its germination. Subsequent culthation. — Keeping the ground thoroughly stirred by deep hoeing with the Vernon hoe, or the grubbers attached to the hoeing, sowing, and drill- ing machine, which will not only promote growth in the plants, but prevent the appearance of weeds, are the principal operations required, if we except the im^ portant duty of thinning the crop as it advances. The distances we have stated above. The operation of thinning should be performed by the turnip-hoe, fig. 64, which for this purpose should be kept clean, and as sharp as a knife. The 2 -inch or 2^-inch hoe is the implement best suited for this purpose, and a dex- terous person, accustomed to such an im- plement, will hoe triple the quantity with it that an old woman will do with a 7-inch tool, as recommended and used in the sister art. In very dry seasons, tur- nips, in all their stages of growth, are much improved by watering ; it swells the bulbs out rapidly, and prevents their becoming hard, dry, and stringy, as well as running prematurely to seed. The first thinning by hoe should take place when the plants have made their first rough leaves — that is, those succeeding the radicle or cotyledon leaves, and at this time about 1 inch in breadth, if sown broadcast in beds, which the two earliest crops may be, and thinned to the distance of 2 inches apart, and in course of a week to the ultimate distance of 4 inches apart. Those of later crops in rows, when of the same size, should be thinned first to 3 inches, and in course of eight or ten days to 6 inches apart in the lines. This, again, depends on the size of the varieties, as well as the size at which they are to be drawn for use ; so that in some cases the 3-inch distance may be sufficient, afterwards drawing every alternate one for consump- tion. In small gardens, where young tur- nips are in demand, this is sufficiently ex- pedient ; but otherwise it is better to give the second thinning, and to depend, as already said, for supply upon a small crop sown on purpose. Half that distance will be sufficient for the French or Teltow tur- nip, as neither its roots or foliage are large. Soil and manure. — A turnip soil is al- most a synonymous term with a light sandy or light loamy soil, for in such they succeed better than in stronger and more tenacious ground. In the former the crop will be much earlier, more easily managed, and the roots of better flavoured quality. In strong soils the crop is much later, more likely to shoot up to seed, particu- larly early in the season, and the roots are always deficient in flavour. New soils produce the best turnips, but all should be in an enriched state, either naturally or artificially. The richest manures may be applied, and, as has been shown prac- tically in the case of one of the most powerful (pigeons' dung), disease as well as insects have been greatly kept imder by it. The turnip tribe differs from the potato in two most important points. First, The quantity of water they respectively contain. In the potato this forms three-fourths, but in the turnip nine- tenths, of the whole weight, when taken from the ground ; or they consist of — Potato. Turnip. Water, 76 91 Dry nutritive matter, . 25 9 100 100 Second, In the presence of starch in the potato, while the turnip contains in its stead a substance called pectose, or pectic acid, which contains more oxygen than starch, but serves the same purpose in the nutrition of animals. " In fleshy fruits, such as the plum, peach, apricot, apple, pear, &c., and in the bulbs or roots of the tur- nip, the carrot, the parsnip, &c., there exists no starch, but in its stead pectose, or pectic acid. ESCULENT-ROOTED PLANTS.— THE TURNIP. 189 This substance is nearly as nutritious as starch, and serves the same purposes when eaten. It contains, however, less hydrogen and more oxy- gen than starch does, and changes more readily into other substances, both in the plant and in the stomach." — J. F. W. Johnston, in Agriculr tmal Chemistry and Geology, p. 46, 325. Forcing. — This is seldom attempted in this country, excepting in gardens of the highest order. It forms an important part in Russian and German gardening, where otherwise it would be late in the spring before they could be obtained from the open ground. Slight beds of leaves, or of leaves and stable-yard litter com- bined, about 3 feet in height, are, for the purpose of forwarding an early crop in some British gardens, made up in Febru- ary ; and when the heat has risen to the surface, they are earthed over, to the depth of 3 or 4 inches, with light rich soil. The seed is sown broadcast, and covered to the depth of half an inch, choosing the true early white Dutch, or early six-weeks, as coming soonest into use. Air must be freelyadmitted on all favourable occasions, and, in severe weather, the glasses covered during the night. When the plants have shown their iirst rough leaves, about the size of a shilling, they should be thinned to the distance of 3 inches apart; and when pulling commences, which will be when they have attained the size of a pigeon's egg, a regular system of thinning should take place by removing the largest first. Shght watering will be required, and that should be applied at from 60° to 80° of heat, with a view of adding to the warmth of the soil rather than abstracting heat fi'om it. The turnip does not, however, require a temperature of more than from 50° to 60°. Talcing the crop, and subsequent presena- tion. — From the time the bulbs are of the size of a pigeon's egg, until they attain a diameter of about 4 inches, they are fit for use, and are drawn progressively. When gathered and removed to the vege- table-house, they should be clean washed, the tops cut off close to the crown, and the tail-root close to the bottom of the bulb, in which state they are ready for the kitchen. Those that are intended for winter use may for the most part, in fa- vourable situations, be left in the ground, securing a few for supply in the event of frost, which should be stored by in the root-cellar. In cold, wet, and unconge- nial localities, it is quite necessary that VOL. II. the crop be taken up and stored for win- ter and spring use, after the manner of potatoes {which see). To prepare them for this a dry day should be chosen, and also one when the ground is dry to pull up the roots, to divest them of their tops and tails, cutting both off close to the bulb. Some, however, object to this, and leave about an inch of the tops, and the whole tail or root entire, alleging that the sap is better retained in the bulb when these curtailments are not made. Approved sorts and their qualities. — Garden turnips may be divided into two classes, the yellow and white bulbed sorts. The white va- rieties are most esteemed for table use in Eng- land; while the yellow, particularly during win- ter, hold the same rank in Scotland. French cooks rarely use the yellow sorts; they are, therefore, less generally grown in gardens, being considered less mUd in flavour than the white ones, while many prefer them on this very account. Yellow Malta. — This is a beautiful small- bulbed variety, from 14 to 2 inches in diameter, of great symmetry in form, slightly flattened above, somewhat concave on the under side to- wards the tap root, which, as well as the neck, is remarkably small; skin very smooth, of a bright orange-yellow colour ; leaves also small, admitting of their standing close on the ground. This is the very best, for summer use, of all the yellows, and, from its fine small size and form, is usually dressed whole. It is rather tender for winter use. Known also as the Maltese golden. Robertson's golden stone. — A comparatively new and excellent variety, brought under our notice three years ago by Mr Robertson, Paisley. In shape it is nearly globular, and of a deep orange- yellow colour throughout, very slightly tinged with green on the top, often none; the best yellow for autumn and winter use, as it keeps well, and is exceedingly hardy. It attains a pretty large size. Finland. — Is thus described in Messrs Peter Lawson and Sons' " Vegetable Products of Scot- land," p. 13, div. iii. : " This is a beautiful little turnip, of a bright yellow throughout, even to the neck, somewhat similar to a small firm yel- low Malta, but differing in the fine colour, and having the under part of the bulb singularly depressed, from which issues a small mouse-tail- like root. It is also somewhat earlier than the yellow Malta." We believe it is also hardier. Our knowledge of it extends to having seen it growing in Messrs Lawsons' experimental grounds, and from its appearance we would judge it, along with the yellow Malta, well suited to small gardens. Yellow globe. — Bulbs of medium size, globular, and always nearly under the surface of the ground ; top greenish; leaves rather small and spread- ing. This is a most excellent turnip for garden culture, and, with Robertson's golden stone, the two most valuable where the larger-sized garden turnips are required. To these may be added the old and long-cultivated yellow Dutch and 2 B 190 CULINAEY OR KITCHEN GARDEN. yellow stone, the last probably the type from ■which the third has been obtained. The yellow Preston, or Liverpool Preston, and the yellow Altringham, are both much grown in the north- west of England. We consider them good, but coarser in growth and delicacy of fibre than those we have described above.) White Dutch. — One of the oldest in cultiva- tion, and most esteemed for early crops; round and much flattened; leaves medium-sized. While young, it is juicy and of excellent flavour, but apt to become spongy and dry when too old, particularly in dry seasons. In perfection when from 14 to 24 inches in diameter; after that size it is next to useless. It will not keep either in the ground or in pits through the winter, compared with the following. White stone. — Shape of the bulb much more globular than the last, and firmer in texture and rather stronger in fohage. According to the Messrs Lawsons' description in " Vegetable Pro- ducts of Scotland," div. iii. p. 14, " it is not, however, so well adapted for early spring-sow- ing, being more apt to run to seed, and has acquired the name of early from the circum- stance of its arriving soon at maturity when sown at a late period of the season. A care- fully selected and improved variety of this is known in some parts of England by the name of mouse-tail turnip ; and, in addition to this, some seed-catalogues present us with the names of red- topped, mouse-tailed, and we think we may add the name of snowball also. It is sometimes also called the white garden stone. Early six-weeks. — Bulbs of an irregular globu- lar shape, produced for the most part above the surface of the ground. It arrives soon at per- fection — hence the name ; a go6d- tasted turnip, soft, and not adapted for winter use. We sow it as an intermediate crop during summer, for the supply of young tender turnips. It is known as the autumn stubble, early dwarf, and early ball. Stone globe. — A well-shaped globular bulb, produced generally almost under the surface, which circumstance, together with its hardiness, renders it the best winter-keeping sort. Its leaves are stronger than any of the above, and of a much darker colour. The French turnip or natet. — Of an oblong fusiform shape, from 3 to 6 inches in length, about I inch in diameter at the top ; dull, semi- transparent, whitish colour ; possessed of pecu- liar qualities, for which it is esteemed in French cookery. Vide Z7s«s, p. J 84. Swedish turnips, we have remarked, p. 183, are grown in gardens, particularly in cold and ele- vated places, with a view to afford a supply dur- ing spring, when other sorts are consumed ; as also for the purpose of placing the bulbs in a warm dark cellar in November, and succes- sively in small lots till February, to produce a substitute for sea-kale, or to make an addi- tional dish in resemblance of it. For the former purpose, a rather scarce and not often grown variety is the best— namely, Thorpland globe swede — on account of the symmetry of its form, which is of a beautiful globe shape, vrithout the least appearance of neck, and also on account of its being smaller in size than any other variety in this section. We are aware that the prevail- ing opinion is that the larger the swede the more tender the fibre is, and altogether better for the purposes for which they are generally grown. This may in field culture be quite correct; but we have found this variety superior, in our estima- tion, for culinary purposes, when grown in garden soil, and not sown till the beginning of July. Diseases and insects. — The turnip is attacked by a multitude of insect enemies, of which Athalia centifolia of some, A . spinarum of others (the turnip saw-fly, black caterpillar, blacks. Fig. 65. TURNIP SAW-FLY AND GRUB. canker, black palmer, nigger or black grub), fig. 60, is one of the worst. It is called saw- fly, from the use and appearance of the instru- ment with which it deposits its eggs. This is placed at the extremity of the abdomen of the female, on the under side, and is so constructed that it combines the properties of a saw and auger. The following excellent description is given by Mr Curtis, in "British Entomology," vol. xii. folio 617, as quoted by Mr Stephens in the "Book of the Farm:" — "Head wider than long ; deep black, with three ocelli in the centre; eyes oval ; antennae black above, and for the most part dull yellow beneath; labrum and pulpi hght yellow; thorax black above, vrith a trian- gular space in front ; the scuteUum, and a spot behind it, reddish orange ; the collar, which is rather long and slender, black on the sides and yellow in the middle ; abdomen rather short, entirely orange yellow, inclining to red, with a small black spot on each side of the first seg- ment ; legs likewise orange yellow; the tarsi paler, approaching to whitish ; the tip of the tibiae, and of each of the tarsal joints, black; the tibiae, with two spines at the apex and the joints of the tarsus, each with a very slender lobe be- neath; extremity of the ovipositor black; wings yellowish at the base ; the costa and stigma black. Length, 3 to 3{ lines, exclusive of the antenna. Antennae short and somewhat club-shaped, nine or ten jointed in the male, but generally with the appearance of eleven joints in the female ; the radical joint slightly thickened at the extre- mity; the second shorter and oval; the third as ESCULENT-ROOTED PLANTS.— THE TURNIP. 191 long, or longev, than any two of the other joints taken together ; the remainder decreasing some- what in length to the terminal one, which is large and oyai. The flies, which appear in the early part of summer, and deposit their eggs on the young turnip plants, have probably survived the winter under groimd in the pupa state, en- veloped in their cocoon. Emerging from them, as soon as the milder weather is confirmed, in their winged state, the females immediately lay their eggs, after which they very soon die. The eggs appear, for the most part, to be placed round the outer margin of the rough leaves. In favourable weather they are hatched in a very short time, and the young larvaa immediately commence their attack on the plant. At first these larvae are of a deep black colour, and, of course, small size ; but they grow rapidly, and in course of a few weeks attain their full dimen- sions. In the course of their growth they change their skin several times, and most of their moult- ings are attended with a slight change in their colour. After casting their last skin, they are of a dark lead or slate-grey colour, paler beneath." Mr Curtis states that they are sometimes green, a colour which we never saw them assume, for in general they are not liable to much variation in this respect. Like most of the other larvae of their tribe, when touched or in any way disturbed, they coil themselves up and remain motionless. When full grown, the larvae cease to eat, and allow themselves to drop from the plant that nourished them to the ground, in which they usually bury themselves ; or they take shelter among rotten leaves, moss, &c. When examined after a short time, they are found to be com- pletely enclosed in a cocoon composed of two distinct layers of silk. The inner layer is of a fine satin lustre; and when the cocoon is opened, it appears as if it had been washed with a solu- tion of silver. When the fly is fully matured, it makes its exit by gnawing with its mandibles a hole in one end. The larvae are known in dif- ferent parts of the country by the names we have given above. They often destroy the crop entirely, and at other times very seriously injure it, destroying the leaves either wholly or in part. Some have asserted that they do not attack the Swedish turnip; but this opinion is not borne out by facts : nevertheless, they are less severe upon them than on the other varieties. Many remedies have been recommended for lessen- ing their numbers : as to complete annihilation, that is only a thing to be wished for, without much expectation of its being realised. Brushing them off the leaves, by drawing a light broom over the plants, has been recom- mended. This recommendation is offered on the presumption that they are unable to crawl on the ground and recover their position ; but ex- perience has shown us that they have the power of locomotion sufEoiently strong to enable them to ascend again when brushed off. Besides, as they are produced in generations following each other in succession, from August till near No- vember, a frequent repetition of brushing would be necessary during that period. Birds greatly assist us in reducing their numbers, and heavy showers of rain are of great service, while it points out to us a remedy in applying water from the rose of a watering-pot held somewhat elevated, that the force of the falling water may be the greater. A fire-engine, or a powerful garden-engine, may be brought to play upon them with great advantage ; and, if wrought upon the walks, a boy may be employed to direct the nozzle, BO that the water may not be unneces- sarily wasted on the spaces between the drills. Lime-water is better than pure water; the trouble of applying both is the same, and the difference in expense next to nothing. The caustic pro- perty of the lime-water will destroy them in vast numbers; for falling upon them while young, and particularly when they have newly shed their skin, it is instantaneously fatal to them. Dust- ing the leaves with powdered hot lime once a day is very destructive to them, acting upon their tender bodies even with more effect than when applied in a liquid form. Catching the perfect fly before it has laid its eggs is the next most effectual plan ; and this can readily be done by the aid of an entomologist's net, for they are slow flyers, and do not take long flights at a time. Each fly caught would prevent the com- ing into existence of from 250 to 300 caterpillars. Hand-picking the caterpillars would be very wholesome advice to give a Chinaman ; butwhere labour is high, and large breadths have to be gone over, very unsuitable to the British culti- vator. Old ducks and old fowls, as well as troops of young ones — remedies recommended by most writers upon rural affairs for more than a cen- tury — in most cases verify the old saying, " The cure is as bad as the disease." Ceutorhynchus contractus, the turnip-weevil, closely resembling the Curculio pleurostigma, fig. 47, is often found feeding upon young tur- nip leaves in company with Haltica nemormm, the turnip flea-beetle. It is a small insect, scarcely 1 line in length, of a uniform black colour, slightly tinted with metallic blue on the elytra, the latter with punctured lines. Haltica nemorum. — The turnip flea-beetle, fig. 66, is thus described by Mr Stephens in " The Book of the Farm," vol. ii. p. 73 : « The insect which first infests the turnip plant, and attacks its seed-leaves, is the tur- nip flea-beetle, Haltica ne- morum, fig. 66, usually, though improperly, desig- nated the turnip-fly, which is a very different sort of insect. The flea-beetle is a coleopterous or hard- shelled insect, capable of either penetrating the ground or bearing a con- siderable pressure." " It is a small insect," says Mr Duncan, " scarcely one- eighth of an inch in length. It is smooth, shining, and of a brassy black colour, with a slight tinge of green, par- ticularly on the wing-cases ; the antennas black, with the second and third joints, and the apex of the first, of a pale colour. The thorax Fig. 66. TURNIP PLEA-BEETLE AND GRUB. 192 CULINARY OR KITCHEN GARDEN. is convex above, and pretty deeply punctured ; the wing-cases are much wider than the thorax, likewise thickly and irregularly punctured, each of them with a pale-yellow or slightly sulphur- coloured stripe running along the middle, curved inwards posteriorly, and not reaching quite to the extremity ; the under side of the body and thighs black ; all the tibiaa and tarsi of a pale hue. This little insect feeds on the turnip, which it attacks both in its perfect and larva states. When the plants have acquired some degree of strength, and the fohage is consider- ably developed, the injury done by it is insigni- ficant; but, unfortunately, its favourite food is the young plant, just as it is beginning to un- fold its cotyledon leaves. These it consumes with the utmost avidity, both as a larva and a full-grown insect ; and where it abounds, the field is often wholly stripped of its crop in a very short time. Indeed, their powers of mas- tication are surprising for creatures of so small a size. They are found to attack the turnip plants as soon as the latter make their appear- ance ; and one of the difficult points to deter- mine is, how they are produced so speedily and so opportunely. In regard to the turnip saw-fly and lepidopterous insects the process is obvious, the eggs being laid upon the plant by the parent fly, and the larvse evolved more or less speedily, but after the lapse of some consi- derable time. The appearance of the plant and insect being in the present case almost simul- taneous, it has been thought difSoult to con- ceive how the same process should be gone through." — Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, vol. viii. p. 353. Various conjectures have been formed to account for the early appearance of this insect on the turnip plant. "But these conjectures," continues Mr Duncan, " may now be referred to merely as matters connected with the past history of this insect, and as showing the difficulty that has been experienced in tracing it throughout its diflerent forms and changes. This, however, has been recently done by Mr H. Le Keux, and we are no longer in doubt as to the points alluded to. This ob- server found that the sexes pair from April to September, during which period the eggs are deposited on the under side of the rough leaves of the turnip. The female insect does not ap- parently lay above one egg daily ; in a week ten pair are found to lay only forty-three eggs. These eggs are very minute, smooth, and partak- ing of the colour of the leaf. They are hatched in ten days ; the maggots (fig. 66) are an eighth of an inch long, pale, fleshy, and eyhndrical, with six pectoral feet; the eyes dark, and a dark patch on the first and last segments of the body; they immediately eat through the lower skin or cuticle of the leaf, and form winding burrows among the pulp, upon which they feed. The thickness of the leaf is sufficient to afford them ample scope for this, and they may be seen at work in their galleries by holding the leaf up to •the light. These maggots or larvas are full fed in sixteen days, when they bury themselves in the earth not quite 2 inches under the surface, selecting a spot near the bulb, where the turnip leaves protect them from wet and drought ; they enter upon their chrysalis state in the' earth, and the beetle emerges in about a fort- night. About thirty days carry the insect through all its diflerent stages, and of these ten are passed in the egg state, six as a maggot, and fourteen in the chrysalis. There appear to be five or six broods in the season." — Transac- tions of the Entomological Society of London, vol. ii. p. 24. On this subject Mr Stephens, in "Book of the Farm," vol. ii. p. 74, makes the following sensible remarks on the economy of such in- sects, and also on the remedial measures that might be adopted for their suppression : " In the case of those insects which feed on the foliage of plants in their larva state, and after- wards derive their aliment from other sub- stances, the general law seems to be that a much longer duration is assigned to the larva than to the perfect insect ; and it may be that this is not observed in regard to such as always consume vegetables, because in either of these conditions they serve the same purpose in the economy of nature, to which the prolonged ex- istence of the larva bears reference in the other instance. Parallel examples are of frequent occurrence amongst insects. Unless the eggs of the common fiesh-fly were hatched with ex- treme rapidity, the larvae, when they appear, would neither obtain their food in perfection, nor fulfil the useful purposes for which they are now subservient. The remedies against the attacks of this insect," Mr Stephens fears, " are of a hopeless character ; at least, it is better to prevent their appearance than to wage war against them when they do appear, as, even in the efforts to eflect their destruction, the culti- vator is the chief sufferer." The preventive measures, Mr Stephens thinks, are to keep the ground clear of weeds, particularly those of the cruciferous order, which are especial favourites with this beetle, to sow in drUls instead of broadcast, " and to sow the seed thick and of the same age, for it is found the more rapidly the plants grow at first, they are the less often attacked; to put the seed for some time before it is sown amongst flowers of sulphur, and sow the sulphur amongst it." This latter is, we know from several years' experience, u, very great check to this insect, and, indeed, to all others that attack the CruoifersB. We have little faith in brushing the insects off the plants, as they have the means of taking possession of them very shortly afterwards: dusting with hot lime, and watering with lime-water, applying it with force, are the best remedies we have tried. For years we held a strong opinion on the advan- tages of sowing turnip-seed of several ages, believ- ing that the insect would seize upon and devour the crop which first germinated, and which would be from the seed of the previous season's growth ; and that by the time the older seeds had germinated, the brood would have changed into another state ; and such, no doubt, might be the case, if the insects were all produced at once, or from one hatching of the eggs. Subse- quent observation, however, has convinced us that this is not the case, but that brood after brood is hatched ; and severail germinations of ESCULENT -ROOTED PLANTS.— THE TURNIP. 193 seed would only be presenting each brood with a supply of food in about as regular a succession as they themselves are produced. Burning the surface of the land is beneficial where it can be carried into effect, as by that means the chrysalides will be destroyed; and an equally certain way is to trench the ground deep. Indeed, the destruction of insects alone, were no other benefit to arise from trenching, would of itself be a sufficient recompense for the labour incurred. Sowing the surface of the soil with gas-lime two or three mornings after the seed has been sown, has been recommended on account of the disagreeable smell being so offen- sive to the insect as to drive it away. Spirits of tar, in the absence of gas-lime, would have the same effect. Charcoal dust may also be sprinkled over the plants when they are either wet with rain or dew; and in small gardens the watering-pot may be had recourse to to wet the foliage, should neither rain nor dew fall. A temporary light-frame, stuck full of green alder-branches, and drawn over the crop, will discompose the enemy, and a stripe of light woollen cloth, 6 inches in width, and covered with bird-lime, tar, or any equally adhesive matter, and nailed to a wooden axle attached to two 12-inch wheels, and drawn over the crop, will greatly lessen their numbers, as the cloth brushing over the tops of the young plants will disturb the fleas, and cause them to leap from the leaves and become attached to the cloth; and, on account of its adhesiveness, they will be unable to disengage themselves. This operation, per- formed about twice a day, will in general secure a crop. In small gardens a piece of cloth so covered and attached to a handle like a small flag, and drawn over the plants backwards and forwards, will have the desired effect. Aphis rapcB Curtis, A. nastator Smee, j4. di- anthi Schrank, figs. 67 and 68, is thus weU de- Fig. 67. TURNIP APHIS, MALE. scribed by Mr Stephens, in the "Book of the Farm," vol. ii. p. 77 : " Fig. 67 represents the winged male of the common turnip plant-louse. Aphis rapce, magnified. Its characters are ochra- ceous ; horns moderately long, setacious ; two first joints black, third ochraceous at the base; head blackish ; coUar ochraceous and brown ; disc of shining black ; abdomen greenish ; wings irridescent ; the nervures light brown ; tips of the thighs, shanks, feet, and claws black. Abun- dant beneath the leaves of the common turnip the whole of July, &c. It is at once distiu- TURNIP APHIS, FEMALE. guished from the other species by its long tubes and small apical cells of the wings. The cross lines below represent the natural size of the body and of the expanse of the wings. Fig. 68 is the female of the same species magnified. It is bright green, sha- greened ; horns fuscous, except at the base; eyes, tips of shanks, and feet black. The small figure on the left represents the aphis of the natural size ; and the figure below re- presents one of the na- tural size just excluded." Rurioola, in "Gardeners' Chronicle," 1847, p. 21, of this insect says : " It is to be hoped that the species of the aphides will be determined, that it may be settled whether those found on the turnip (of which there are three species), the potato, the spinach, &c., be identical or dif- ferent. Another object will be to ascertain if the aphides actually feed upon the leaves and shoots of the later plants, and breed there." Of the Aphis rapce, he continues: "I do not re- member ever observing it before midsummer. In July it becomes abundant, and in favourable seasons continues increasing until the end of October, or later. The first are hatched from eggs, and it is said are all females ; these bring forth young until the autumn, when males are produced, as well as females furnished with wings. These lay eggs, which remain through the winter." The injury done by the various species of aphides, or plant-lice, is incalculable, as may be well supposed when we consider that there is not a plant that would seem exempt from their attacks in one way or other ; and it would also appear, from the investigations of some of our most eminent entomologists, that almost every plant has an aphis natural to it, and upon which it is designed to feed. Euricola, in "Gardeners' Chronicle," 1842, p. 3, of this ex- tensive genus thus speaks : " There is no family of insects which deviates in its habits more from the general laws of nature than the aphides ; for whilst it is an almost universal rule that this class of animals should progress through the various transformations of egg, larva, pupa, and imago, the aphides have the power of evad- ing three of these states by the faculty they possess of producing young ; for, influenced by natural causes, they are both viviparous and oviparous — bringing forth young at mild sea- sons, when the temperature is not injurious to their tender offspring, and laying eggs in autumn, which are better calculated to resist the cold of winter. But this is not the most curious ano- maly in their history, for a succession of young aphides can be produced without the presence of the male insects. For instance, as soon as an aphis is bom, if it be taken away and placed upon a plant, under a glass, where nothing can possibly gain access to it, it will, notwithstanding, produce young; one of which. 194 CULINARY OR KITCHEN GARDEN. being also removed, and treated with the same care, -will possess the same prolific faculty." Their power of reproduction, as observed by Bonnet and Eeaumer, is such that the count- less myriads of them which appear in our fields and gardens yearly can be accounted for with- out our having recourse to miraculous causes. " With such an inexhaustible power of fecun- dity, it is fortunate for man that no insects are subject to the attacks of such a variety of enemies. Ist, There are the lady-birds {Cocci- weMo— figs. 14 and 15), which feed upon the aphides both in their larvao and perfect states; 2dly, The aphidivorous Syrphidse, the maggots of which are exceedingly useful in diminish- ing the number of the plant-lice. Then there are the Hemerobii; or golden-eyes, whose larvse are called Aphis-lions (fig. 69), a ferocious fa- mily nearly related to the ant-lions. Another set of insects are parasitic, and deposit minute eggs in the old aphides, which then change to dull ochreous, horny objects, sticking to the leaves on which they had fed, frequently exhi- biting a hole in their sides, from where the parasitic little ichneumon called Aphidius had issued." The earwig and ant wage constant war against them, and soft-billed birds work wonderful destruction amongst them ; and to these we may add, as valuable to man — The Aphis-lion, fig. 69, of which there are numerous species. They belong to the family Fig. 69. APHIS-LTO.V, GRUB, AND EGGS. Hemerobiidas and order Neuroptera. The pre- servation of this family should be sedulously cared for, as they are bred, live amongst, and feed upon the plant-eating species of aphides, and are of the greatest importance to man. The aphis-lion makes its appearance in May, and may be observed walking about upon the leaves of plants, resembling more in appearance a small mass of cottony-like matter than a living insect. This covering is composed of the fragments of the skins of the aphides it has destroyed, and which, by a peculiar power invested in its jaws, as soon as it has sucked the vitals out of its prey, it throws upon its back, until, by re- peated additions, it at last assumes the form of a large semi-globular mass, probably as a means of hiding it from its own peculiar enemies, or more probably as a covering of protection to its soft and fleshy body. When the larva is fiiUy grown, it spins a cottony cocoon of a globular form, within which it is transformed into a short inactive pupa. Its duration in the pupa state varies with the season of the year : it, however, remains in this state throughout the winter, the fly being produced in the early part of sum- mer. The flies are generally abroad in the evening, remaining quiet through the day ; they are by no means active on the wing. On being touched they give out a most disagreeable odour. The females deposit their eggs on the leaves of plants, especially such as are infested with aphides, attaching them to the leaf by a long slender arm or stalk, of a whitish colour — the eggs, when so placed, having somewhat the appearance of minute fungi. This stalk of at- tachment is composed of a glutinous matter the female discharges at the time of laying the egg, and this matter, hardening by exposure to the air, maintains the egg in a firm position. The insects, as soon as they are hatched, finding themselves in the midst of masses of aphides, commence warfare at once ; and, as we have observed above, as the slaughter goes on, the skins, or fragments of them, are transferred to the back of the aphis-lion, until it becomes clothed as we have described. And amongst parasitic insects which aid in the reduction of the aphides, may be instanced the Aphidius avence. — This little ichneumon fly deposits its eggs in the apterous female aphides, and by this means reduces their numbers ex- ceedingly. ^ It is black and shining ; horns long, and in the male having twenty joints; the body is brown, narrowing towards the base, which is rough and ochreous, as is also the niargin and a patch on the back ; legs rusty ; hips and thighs, excepting the first pair, pitchy ; feet blackish; upper vrings having a large smoky stigma, and a large central cell, the posterior ones entirely wanting. rapw, fig. 70. — Very similar in ap- pearance and Fig- 70. habits to the last ; the horns, how- —:.,,_,_.-_ ~ ever,areshor- ^!!5t O'^l ter, and only '"■■■'" y fourteen-join- led ; the un- der sideof the base and the mouth ochre- ous; stigma of upper wings smoky ochre ; legs bright ochreous, variegated with dark brown, and rusty. Phytomym nigricornis (the black-homed leaf- miner), fig. 11, often attacks turnip crops. They operate by feeding upon the parenchyma of the leaves, in which they form long irregular gal- leries on the inside of the lower cuticle; they are APHIDIUS KAP.E. ESCULENT-KOOTED PLANTS.— THE TURNIP. 195 not visible on the upper side of the leaf. They often attack plants in greenhouses. The only way we know of is to pick off the leaves as soon as the insect appears to have attacked them, and to burn them. The larvse of this insect are devoured in vast numbers by the Ceraphron niger and Microgaster mrides. Noctua exclamationis and N. segetum (the heart and dart moth, fig. 71,and common dart-moth, fig. Fig. 71. HUAKT ANn DAUT MOTH AND CATEUCILLAR. Natural size. 72). These insects appear to be either increas- ing of late years, or more probably their economy is now better understood than formerly. They Fig. 72. COMJUO.V DART-MOTH, CATERPILLAR, AND CHRYSALIS. Natural size. are of the class called surface caterpillars, or surface grubs, and are exceedingly destructive to various crops, particularly to turnips, pota- toes, and mangold-wurzel. They commence hostilities upon the turnip in July, by eating off the crowns. They afterwards attack the bulbs, and render them unfit for use. In June they attack the mangold-wurzel by eating off the roots immediately under the surface of the ground, and they attack the potato when just pushing above ground. They seem to feed by night, and towards morning carry away portions of the leaves, which they drag into holes, so that they may feast upon them at leisure and in safety. Like rabbits, they seem to take a plea- sure in cutting over the tops from mere wanton mischief, as they have been detected decapitating plant after plant, without waiting to eat the same. " Where the eggs of N. exclamaiioma are laid has not been recorded ; but it is stated that the moth of N. segetum deposits hers in the earth. The caterpillar of the former is some- what cylindrical, but a little d^ressed above, having six pectoral, eight abdominal, and two anal feet. It is of a dull lilac colour, with a broad pale strip down the back, the margins of which form a darker line along each side, and there is a double dorsal line extending the whole length. The head is horny and brown; the minute eyes, and two curved lines, as well as the jaws, are black. The first thoracic segment is rather homy and dotted ; the following seg- ments have four little tubercles on each, pro- ducing hairs, as well as similar ones on the sides. The stigma is black. When full fed, it is an inch and a half in length, and buries itself, forming an oval cell of the earth, in which it changes to a shining rust - coloured chrysalis, to pass the winter in; and the following June, or perhaps earlier, the moth hatches." The moth " is of a clay colour, the wings reposing horizontally ; the horns are like bristles, but slightly pectinated in the males ; the tongue is long; on the front of the thorax is a transverse dark patch; on the upper wings there are two waved lines near the base ; to the second is at- tached a long, longitudinal, deep-brown streak ; above it is a spot varying in size and form, and beyond it a large kidney-shaped one; then follows a transverse, pale, waved line; and near the cilia is a more irregular one. The under wings are white, the upper margin and nervures brown; but in the female the wings are entirely dark brown ; their expanse is IJ inch. The caterpil- lar of N. segetum " (or Agrotis segetum of Curtis) " is more cylindrical than the foregoing species ; the sides are greener, and there are three black dots on the stigma." An excellent description of it will be found in the " Eoyal Agric. Journ.," vol. iv. p. 1 06. Ruricola, in " Gardeners' Chrou.," 1844, p. 619, from whose excellent paper the substance of the above is taken, suggests, as re- medies, salt-water, lime-water, and an infusion of tobacco, as being distasteful to these grubs, and also soot applied to the surface early in the year, and laid on an inch in thickness. " One lb. of soap, dissolved in 16 gallons of soft water, and applied warm to the infested ground, espe- cially round the roots, the surface caterpillars will dart out of their burrows, and may thus be readily collected ; but no time must be lost, as they will retire under ground as soon as its effects have subsided." The use of hot water has been too little hitherto understood in the destruction of insects. It may be applied at nearly the boiling point to most plants without injury to them, but with manifest effect upon insects, particularly grubs, whose skins are thin ]96 CULINARY OR KITCHEN GARDEN. and tender. We should not be surprised to see, ere long, a hot-water apparatus, somewhat simi- lar to Mr Fleming's excellent machine for de- stroying weeds in walks, in use in every garden for the destruction of insects alone. Bomhyx tubricipeda (Linn.), the spotted buff- moth, fig. 73, is particularly destructive : no plant Fig. 73. " The maggots produced from them eat into the pulp, and form large whitish blisters on Fig. 74. SPOTTED BUFF-MOTH AND CATEBPILLAn. Natural size. seems to come amiss to it ; it feeds on the tur- nip, horse-radish, carrot, scarlet-runner, and even mint does not escape its ravages. In the months of May and June they are observed in pairs on walls, plants, &c., when they should be destroyed. It is of a pale ochre or buff colour ; antennse black, bipectinate in the male ; the eyes, feelers, and legs black, with the exception of the thighs, which are orange ; tarsi and hinder tibia buff; body buif ; the upper wings have one or more ^dots, with two black spots upon the margin; it is, however, very variable in its markings, vary- ing from whitish buff to deep ochre, with large black spots. The eggs, which the female de- posits on the leaves of plants, are whitish, round, and smooth. The caterpillars, when first hatched, are of a yellowish white, with very few long hairs. When of full size, they are about an inch and a half long ; they are then of a dark green, with a white line down each side. The stigmata white, and covered with reddish-brown hairs. It has six sharp-pointed pectoral feet, eight on the abdomen, and two hind ones, of a more fleshy nature. Aphis brasaicm (figs. 42, 43), the Aphis floris- rapse of some entomologists, is also destructive to turnip crops, and indeed to most plants of the same natural order. Aphis d/iibia (the black-spotted turnip-leaf plant-louse) is often found in company with A. ra/pai on the under sides of the leaves of turnips. Both these species resemble each other closely, only in A. dubia the colour is a dull green, sha- greened ; horns dusky at their extremities, as are also the tops of the thighs, shanks, and feet; the eyes and ocelli are black, as are two patches on the collar, and several transverse broken strips along the back. Drotophilafiava (the yellow turnip leaf-miner), fig. 74, is a minute fly, which lays its eggs on the YELLGW-TORNIP LEAF-MINER. che upper side. When full-grown, they are pale green, and change to chestnut-coloured pupas, with two small horns at the head, and from these the flies are produced. These are ochreous, with black hairs, and two little feathered horns. The eyes are black ; there are three ochreous strips down the trunk; the six legs and two balancers are yellowish and downy ; the two wings are large and irridesceut. The larva: of this insect are de- stroyed by two little parasitic hymenopterous flies, the Ceraphron niger and the Microgaster virides. Centorhynchus pleurostigma (the turnip gall- weevil) effects the disfiguration, at least, of the turnip bulb, by " the female piercing a hole in the rind of the turnip with her proboscis, and depositing an egg in it ; and the young maggot, which is fat and whitish, often of a bright flesh- colour, lives on the substance of the bulb," caus- ing those excrescences which are so often ob- served on turnips, particularly in dry seasons. The general appearance of this insect is that of a small black seed, and, excepting in colour, it resembles the turnip-seed weevil, which latter is of a grey colour. Triphcena pronuba (the great yellow under- wing), fig. 75, in its caterpillar state, is one of Fig. 75. GBKAT YKLI.OW UNDERWINO MOTH, CATER PTLLATl, AND cHUYSAus. Naturul sjze. ESCULENT-EOOTED PLANTS.— THE TURNIP. 197 GARDEN CENTIPEDE. those enemies known as surface-grubs, and often attack the turnip-bulb, particularly in gardens where the plants are nearly full grown. These have also their natural enemies in the genus Cryp- tops — Scolopendraof Fig. 76. some(thecentipedes), fig. 76. Ifthevalueof these were rightly understood, the vul- gar prejudice against them would be re- moved. They are all of the carnivorous or flesh-eating section, and devour immense numbers of underground grubs, larvse, &c. They live entirely on the insects they find in the soU ; they are of a rusty-red colour, more than an inch in length ; antenn8ehairy,having seventeen joints ; legs hairy, having twenty-one on each side. One species, Cryptops hortensis, is almost entirely confined to the southern counties of England ; the rest are common everywhere. Amongst lepidopterous insects — that is, those of the butterfly and moth kind — there are some species injurious to turnip crops, which are thus described by Mr Stephens in " The Book of the Farm," vol. ii. p. 79 : — "Cerostoma xylostella (the turnip diamond- back moth), fig. 77. — When at rest, the wings are Fig. 77. colour. " The antennae have white scales ; the abdomen is ash grey, with brown, tufts ; the Pig. 78. TURNIP DIAMOND-BACK MOTH, closed and deflexed, and the horns are projected forward in a straight line. It is more or less brown. The upper wings are long and narrow, and, when closed, form two or three diamonds upon the back. The inferior wings are lance- shaped, and of an ash colour, with a very long fringe. Its length is 2^ Mnes. The caterpillar is green, about half an inch in length, slender, and tapering to both ends. They are exceed- ingly active, and on the slightest touch wriggle themselves off the leaf they are feeding on, and let themselves down by a silken thread, and re- main suspended tUl the cause of alarm subsides. As many as 240 have been counted on one leaf; and such is their avidity, that not the smallest vestige of a green leaf is left by them. This larvse is destroyed by a black ichneumon, named Oampoples: pamsoas." Mamestra brassicce (cabbage-moth), fig. 41, at- tacks the Swedish turnip. Mamestra oleracea (white-line brown-eyed moth), fig. 78 (see section Cabbagi:), is also an enemy to the turnip and lettuce, as well as the cabbage. This moth is of a dark rusty-brown VOL. II. WHITE-LINE BROWN-EYED MOTH. Natural SlZe. feet are greyish brown, yellow-ringed below ; the fore wings have no connected cross lines ; the round middle spot is surrounded with white; the kidney spot is orange colour in the shape of a lunule ; very delicate white and black dots are seen on the watered band ; the fringes are deeply toothed, bordered by a faint white line ; the under wings are ochre yellow, or dirty white, with darker shades towards the whitish fringes. The reddish or yellowish brown cater- pillar has on the back, and on each side, a dark stripe, and a whitish one nearly over the feet; the under side and feet are light brown ; it is dotted with black between the dark stripes. When young, and sometimes also when fully grown, the ground colour is green. The pupa is shining reddish brown, and remains in the earth during winter." — Kollar. It feeds upon the cabbage, turnip, and lettuce, and is best destroyed by sprinkling caustic lime over the plants as soon as the caterpillar appears, repeat- ing the operation while they continue to appear. Pontia irassicm, fig. 44 ; Pomtia rapm, fig. 46 ; and Chrysomela hetvlce, are all more or less inju- rious to turnip crops, feeding on the leaves. They are, however, kept in check by the ichneu- mons Microgaster glomeratus and Pimpla instiga- tor, and by the cynips Pteromatus brassicce and P. pontia. Awthomyia gnava, in its maggot state, attacks turnips during autumn, forming cavities in the bulbs. The female fly is ash-coloured, vsrith a black line down the body, broadest at the base, and is nearly ^ of an inch in length, and J an inch in expanse. The male fly has a black trunk and legs ; body linear, of the same colour as the female, with testaceous bands and black dorsal spots. Anthomyia fcrassicoB (cabbage-fly), thsA.radi- cum of some entomologists, fig. 79. When the maggots attack the roots of the cabbage, the roots " become enlarged and carious, the mag- gots revelling in the cavities. They are very similar to those of flesh-flies, being fat, yellovrish white, tapering to the head, which has two black hooks. The blunt tail has two brown spiracles and some minute spines. Excepting in the depth of winter, they may be found feeding all the year. Heat, however, generates them most rapidly, for in May and June they exist at the same time as maggots, pupse, and flies. The larvEs are transformed to bright rust-coloured homy pupse in the roots, or they bury themselves in the earth. These cases have a few tubercles 2c 198 CULINARY OR KITCHEN GARDEN. at the head, and minute teeth at the tail. The flies which hatch from them differ so much in Fig. 79. CABBAGE-FLV. the Bexes, that they do not look like the same species. The male is ashy grey and very bristly; the eyes nearly meet on the crown, and the face is silvery grey, with a long black streak on the forehead ; the two horns are small, black, with 'a downy bristle ; the trunk is grey, sides whit- ish, with three faint broken stripes down the back ; body linear, shining grey, with a black stripe along the centre ; the edges of the seg- ments are also black; two wings transparent; two balancers ochreous ; legs black and spiny. Female ash grey ; face silvery white; sides of the trunk pale ; eyes distant, with a broad black stripe between them, of a chestnut colour in front ; the body is conical at the tip ; the wings are ochreous at the base ; nearly ^ of an inch long, and J an inch in expanse. " Anthomyia trimaculata is another species which attacks the roots of cabbages in summer and autumn. The male fly is light grey, reflect- ing white, with four black broken stripes down the trunk; three brown spots on the scutel; a black stripe on the body, which is checkered with brown ; the legs are black. The female is a httle larger and paler ; tips of thighs and shanks reddish brown." Regarding the diseases to which turnips are liable, the anbury and the finger-and-toes are the principal, if they are in reality distinct, which we believe they are not. The cause of these well- known diseases seems little understood ; at least, opinions on the subject are at great variance one with another. Mr Marshall, in " Rural Economy of Norfolk," vol. ii. p. 33, ascribes it, according to the long-received opinion, to repeatedly cropping the same ground with the same crop, bad culti- vation, and also the presence of an insect in the tap-root, by which the course of the sap is divid- ed, and insteadof the natural bulb an excrescence is produced. Mr Stephens, however, in " The Book of the Farm," vol. ii. p. 80, denies this, and we think with much better judgment. After stating the well-known fact that this disease has occurred on ground never before cropped with turnip, this high authority remarks ; " If the dis- ease were occasioned by the puncture of insects, better cultivation would not abate its virulence, but rather increase it, as the turnip would thereby be rendered much more palatable to them. The truth is, all such diseases arise from poverty of the soil — either from want of manure, when the soil is naturally poor, or rendered effete by over-cropping. Labour, clean, and manure the soil fully, according to the condition it presents, and no anbury will appear, unless it may happen in peculiar seasons, which always counteracts the effect df culture, and affects plants in a manner similar to the want of nourish- ment. Insects are invariably found in the bulbs of turnips diseased with anbury, but they are the effect, and not the cause of the disease, as the habits of the insects clearly indicate." Repeatedly cropping the same ground would have analogous effect to poverty in the soil, as crop after crop would exhaust the soil of those principles neces- sary for the most perfect growth of the plant, and hence debility in the vegetable system would be the consequence, and a predisposition induced to the formation of these excrescences. On dissecting these swellings while in a growing state, no traces of insects are detected ; but when decomposition takes place, several species of in- sects are then to be foimd feeding on the putrid mass, attracted no doubt to it by some peculiar instinct. These insects, however, vriU be found in the soil, and amongst the manure applied to the crop, and would doubtless remain there, and feed on other food, were the turnips free of this disease altogether. Others, however, trace the cause of this dis- ease to insect attacks, and attribute it to Gur- cvlio pleurostigina, and describe its operations thus: — The maggot found in those excres- cences so frequently met with in the Bras- sica tribe, particularly in old gardens, where these crops have been long cultivated, and known by the names Atabury, Anbury, Fingers-and- toes. Club-root, &c., is the larva of this weevil. It is described by Marsham as of a dusky black colour, having the breast spotted with white, the length of the body being one line and two- thirds. Clubbing often makes its appearance on the roots even while in the seed-bed, and at first assumes the form of a small gall or wart ; as the plant progresses, these become more numerous and increased in size ; and within each, when cut open, is found the maggot, the larva of this insect. If left undisturbed, the maggot continues to feed upon the young woody part of the root, until it arrives at its pupa state, when it emancipates itself by eating a hole through the outer bark. While the maggot continues to feed on the alburnum, the excrescences enlarge ; and as the alburnum becomes destroyed, the sap is pre- vented from ascending, and the plant languishes from want of support ; and this becomes evident in dry weather, or in hot sultry days, when they will .be seen flagging and ultimately dying. This disease is said to be more prevalent in old garden- ground than in newly cultivated soils, and more especially where successive crops of Brassica have been grown year after year, and is ac- counted for from the circumstance of the eggs of successive generations being deposited in the soil, until at last it becomes completely replete with them. This disease is of more frequent occurrence in very dry seasons than otherwise, because such seasons are more favourable for ESCULENT- ROOTED PLANTS.— THE POTATO. 199 the hatching of the eggs of insects deposited in the soil. The remedies proposed are — deep- trenching, change of crops, abundant supplies of water at the roots, charcoal-dust to the extent of half an inch laid over the surface, and slightly pointed in ; sulphur and also soot are applied with advantage, both of which are obnoxious to most insects ; spirits .of tar, dry gas-lime, the ammouiacal liquor from the gas-works, are also beneficial. Gas-lime has been applied in quan- tities varying from 8 to 12 bushels per acre, and, for turnips, is raked in just before sow- ing ; while for other BrassiciB it is pointed in with a spade to the depth of from 6 to 8 inches, and applied in a larger quantity. In the case of transplantable BrassicEe, frequent removal has been attended with beneficial effects, but this is owing, probably, more to the care taken in re- moving the excrescences at each transplanting, than to any other cause in connection with the operation. General remarks. — Saving turnip-seed, as well, indeed, as that of all brassicaceous plants, is a very peculiar branch of rural economy, requiring great circumspection in first selecting the speci- mens, which should always be the most perfect of their kind, and afterwards in preventing those intercourses to which all this natural order is so prone. Were cabbage, cauliflower, and turnip to be grown together, and did their period of flowering happen to occur at the same time, it is uncertain what might be the progeny from their seed. Certainly a great deterioration might be anticipated. — Vide Sect. Propagation BY Seed. In saving, therefore, seed of any par- ticular variety of turnip, no two sorts should be attempted in the same garden at the same time, nor should any other allied plant be suifered to flower at the same period. The finest formed bulbs should be selected in autumn, and trans- planted into an open airy part of the garden, and placed, according to their respective size of growth, at from 2 to 3 feet apart each way, that the light and air may have free access to every part of the plant, while in flower, and while per- fecting its seed. In spring, as the flower-stems extend in height, if only a few plants be experi- mented upon, they should be tied to stakes for support ; if many be grown together, they are less liable to sustain injury from wind. A judi- cious pmning away the smallest side-shoots, particularly such as flower latest, will be of ad- vantage to those left ; and besides this, little further care is necessary, beyond securing the crop from birds, which in all gardens can be readily excluded from the seed, by covering the plants with netting, elevated a foot or two above the topmost branches. If plenty of room is allowed, the seed will ripen pretty regularly; but the first-ripened pods should not be sacrificed by being allowed to shed their seed in waiting till the smaller and later ripen also. It is better to lose the last than the first. When the seed begins to change to a brownish colour in the pods, the whole crop should be cut over by the ground, and laid upon a dry place to mature fully. The accumulated sap remaining m the stems and branches will afford them sufficient nourishment, although separated from the root, to mature the seed. The precaution of covering with the net, while the crop is drying, must not be neglected; and when the whole is sufiiciently dry, carry it to an open, airy, dry shed, and thrash it out, spreading over the floor a thick canvass cloth to receive the seed. The thrashing should not be done violently — a stout lath will be sufS- cient for the operation ; and when the first beat- ing is over, gather up the seed from the cloth, pass it through a sieve, and lay what passes through upon another smaller cloth, still farther to dry it. In a day or two afterwards, the same operation should be repeated, when most if not all the seed good for anything wUl be got out. Sift and dry the seed thus secured ; and when thoroughly dry, bag it up for storing away. Great care must, however, be taken that the seed is thoroughly dry, and that, vmtil it is so, it be spread out thinly ; for, if laid in too great a thickness, or even bagged too soon, it is, of al- most all other seeds, the most likely to get into a state of fermentation, which would destroy its vitaKty. Turnip-seed, like all the other varieties of Brassica, will keep for years ; and if wdl kept, will improve for the first four or five years ; and, in some cases, such as early Dutch turnip, cauli- fiower, broccoli, &c., we have had long enough experience to be satisfied that seeds of either, if, as we said before, well kept, are better at the end of the seventh or eighth year than they are the season following their saving. — Vide Sect. Pbo- PAGATiou BY Seed. The European names are — Navet in French ; Steckrube, or Eube, in Ger- man ; Nabo in Spanish ; Navone in Itahan ; Baap in Dutch. § 3. — THE POTATO. Natviral history.— 'She potato {Solarium tuhero- mm L.) belongs to the natural order Solauese, and to the class Pentandria and order Monogynia in the Linnsean arrangement. The generic name is derived from Solor, to comfort, from some of the species soothing by stupifying. Some say from)SoZ,the sun; and others from SvXanum (from Sus), from its being serviceable in disorders of swine. The derivation maybe possible, buttheap- plication is not very evident. The English name is probably derived from Batata, the Indian name of the sweet potato, which was known in this country thirty-three years before the introduc- tion of the potato ; or it may be from Papas, the name given it by the natives of Quito, where it grows wild. The order Solaneaa comprises up- wards of 900 species, which are found distributed over a large portion of the globe, the genus Solanum alone furnishing about 170 of that number. AU the tribe are suspected of pos- sessing narcotic properties; but it is thought by many that tUs has been exaggerated, on account of the intense and deleterious properties of deadly nightshade (Atropa belladonna), the mandrake (Mandragora vernalis), and some others that belong to it. Some of them, like the potato, contain, however, very opposite properties in the same plant. An extract from the leaves and stems is a powerful narcotic, ranking between belladonna and conium, the 200 CULINAEY OK KITCHEN GARDEN. poisonous hemlock; and the berries, although in n less degree, partake of the same natui:e also ; while the tubers, when cooked, afford a whole- some and nutritive food. The water in which potatoes have been boiled is of a very suspi- cious character, and has been employed in the destruction of aphides on other plants — all these properties being, no doubt, known to the late Dr Neill, when Ixe asks, " Who could, & priori, have expected to have found the most useful plant among the natural family of the Luridae, several of which are deleterious, and all of which are forbidding in their aspect?" The people in Burgundy, long after its introduction into Europe, were interdicted from either culti- vating or using the potato, as it was " deemed a poisonous and a mischievous root." Liebig concludes that the deleterious or poisonous alkaloid found in the leaves and stem of the plant is formed in and around the shoot, where it germinates in darkness ; but there is no evi- dence that the tubers are thereby rendered in- jurious or deleterious— or, if so, they are brought to a wholesome state by the process of boiling and roasting. The native habitat of the potato has not been very correctly ascertained. According to Mr Darwin, it grows wild in the islands of the Chonos Archipelago, in great abundance in the Bandy shelly soil near the sea-beach. Mr Low asserts it grew as far south as latitude S0°. Humboldt sought for it in vain in the moun- tains of Peru and New Granada. Ruiz and Pavon discovered it in a wild state at Chancay, on the Peruvian coast — a circumstance far more recently confirmed by Mr Caldcleugh, who sent native tubers to the Horticultural Society of London. Mr Cruikshanks, in letter to Sir W. J. Hooker, says, " This wild potato is very com- mon at Valparaiso ; it grows chiefly on the hills near the sea. It is often found in mountainous districts far from habitations, and never in the immediate vicinity of fields and gardens." Mr Meyer affirms that he found it not only in the mountains of Chili, but also in the Cordillera of Peru. This plant appears from other autho- rities to extend over a large extent of latitude, and hence it is by no means improbable that each of these travellers did find it in an indi- genous state at the places mentioned. Indeed, from a remark of Mr Darwin's, this appears suf- ficiently probable, as he fovmd the same plant on the sterile mountains of Central Chili, where not a drop of rain falls for more than six months, and within the damp forests of the islands in the Chonos Archipelago. The date of the introduction of the potato into Britain is involved in nearly as much un- certainty as the exact spot of its nativity. It is generally believed that the first tubers were brought to England from Virginia by the colo- nists who were sent out by Sir Walter Ealeigh in 1584, and returned in 1586. Phillips, in "History of Cultivated Vegetables," vol. ii. p. 80, however, thinks it uncertain whether Sir Walter or his people brought it, or whether it was not afterwards sent him by Sir Thomas Grenville, or by Mr Lane, who was the first governor of Virginia. Herrist, who went out with them, wrote an account which will be found in De Bry's " Collection of Voyages," vol. i., under the title " Boots." He describes a plant called openawk thus : " The roots are round, some large as a walnut, others much larger ; they grow in damp soils, many hanging together as if fixed on ropes; they are good food either boiled or roasted." Gerard describes two sorts of potatoes, the one evidently the sweet potato (Ipomcea batatus), which was sup- posed to possess an invigorating property. The other sort was evidently our common sort, which he calls Batata Virginiana, sive Virgini- anorvm. To the continent of Europe the potato had been introduced before its arrival in this country, and it is believed to have first found its way into Spain in the early part of the sixteenth century, from the mountainous parts of South America, where around Quito it is caUed papas. From Spain it reached Italy, and shortly after must have been brought into Belgium, for Clusius informs us that he received it at Vienna in 1598 from Mons, a city in Hainault, to which it had been carried from Italy by one of the attendants of the Pope's legate. It appears to have spread rapidly throughout Germany in Clusius's time. It reached Ireland in 1610, and not 1566, as as- serted by some writers, who most probably mistook the common potato for the sweet sort procured either from Spain or Italy, as we have no accotmt of its reaching Europe so early, with the exception of the surmise that Sir John Hawkins introduced it in 1563, a surmise not supported by historic evidence. It was certainly used as an article of food by the Irish long before its utility was gene- rally known in England. In 1684 it was cul- tivated sparingly in Lancashire, from stock said to have been accidentally thrown ashore by a vessel wrecked on the coast ; while others say it was carried over from Ireland, from the estates of Sir Walter Raleigh near Cork. Be this as it may, Lancashire has from about that period been famed for the abundance and quality of its potatoes, to which the mildness and humidity of the climate greatly tends. Gerard grew them in his garden in 1597, and recom- mends their "being eaten as a deUcate dish, and not as common food." Parkinson appears to have paid more attention to their cooking, and recommends their being " roasted, and steeped in sack and sugar, or baked with mar- row and spices, and even preserved and candied by the comfit-makers." Lord Bacon, who wrote his " Natural History " shortly after the publi- cation of Gerard's " Herbal," calls them potado- roots, and gives a curious account of a method of growing them in pots. In the early part of the seventeenth century this root was grown in the gardens of the nobility as a curious exotic. Phillips, in " History of Cultivated Vegetables," vol. ii. p. 85, says, " The potato appears to have been a great delicacy in the time of James the First; for in the year 1619 it is noticed among the different articles provided for the queen's household. The quantity supplied was extremely small, and the price high, being at that time one shilling per pound." ESCULENT- ROOTED PLANTS.— THE POTATO. 201 The first instance we have met with of the potato being brought forwai'd as an object of national importance is the letter of Mr Buck- land read before the Royal Society in 1662-3, recommending the planting of potatoes in all parts of the kingdom to prevent famine. His contemporary, the celebrated John Evelyn, held them in small estimation. He says in " Sylva," writing in 1699, " Plant potatoes in your worst ground. Take them up in November for winter spending ; there will enough remain for a stock, though ever bo exactly gathered." London and Wise did not consider the potato worthy of notice in their " Complete Gardener," published in 1719. Bradley, a voluminous writer of the same date, says, after having described parsnips, carrots, onions, &c., " Potatoes and Jerusalem artichokes are roots of less note than any I have yet mentioned." It was not until towards the middle of the last century that they were even generally known throughout England, and their cultivation even in gardens was scarcely under- stood in Scotland tiU about the year 1740, and it was not practised in fields till about 1760. So little was their cultivation understood in 1725-6, that, as we are informed by "The General Report of Scotland," vol. ii. p. Ill, the few potato plants then existing in gardens about Edinburgh were left in the same spot of ground from year to year, a few roots being taken up for use in autumn, and the remainder left in the ground covered with straw to protect them from the frost. In 1728, Thomas Prentice, a day- labom-er at Kilsyth, showed the first example of planting them in the open fields; yet in no country in the world are they cultivated to so great a degree of perfection as they are in Scot- land at this day. Uses. — Most of these are so well known that it would be superfluous to recapitulate them all. Still there are many purposes to which they are applied not generally known ; to these, therefore, we shall now only refer, premising, however, that those curious in the matter will find an in- teresting paper on the subject in the 1st vol. of the " Gardeners' Magazine," p. 438, in which thirty-one different uses of the potato will be found noticed. An agreeable brandy has been produced from the roots by distillation — an in- vention due, according to the " Memoirs of the Royal Academy of Sciences in Sweden for 1747," to Mr Chas. Skytes. He states that an acre of potatoes, compared to an acre of barley, will yield a spirit in the proportion of 566 to 156, even admitting the potato to be planted on worse ground than the barley. Dr Anderson states in the " Bath Society," vol. iv. p. 50, that he had distilled from 72 lb. of potatoes that had been properly fermented (with no addition ex- cept yeast), an English gallon of pure spirit, con- siderably above proof, and about a quart more below proof. The tender tops are used, both in Canada and Kamtchatka, as spinach ; the boil- ing, no doubt, freeing them of their narcotic property. The starch or fecula obtained from the roots is now extensively used to adulter- ate and even pass off as a substitute for sago, starch, arrow-root, tapioca, &c. — a very harm- less imposition, and a great boon to cultiva- tors, particulai'ly since the appearance of the potato epidemic, as those judged unfit for the food of man in their natural state, are manufac- tured into representations of these supposed nourishing articles. Mrs Morris, a London lady, so early as 1807 discovered that the liquor ob- tained in making potato-starch would clean silk, cotton, or woollen goods, without damage to the texture or colour. Potato fecula is by many preferred for making souffles, and is for that purpose, as well as others connected with do- mestic economy from a souflle to maccaroni, sold in the shops under the learned names of Fecule de Pomme de Terre, and others of more recent date, vrith which the public allows itself to be gulled. A size is made from potatoes, which has great advantages over common size, for the pur- pose of white-washing, as it does not smell, and it has also a more durable whiteness. Yeast may also be made fi'om the roots, fit for the use either of the baker or the brewer. Potatoes are extensively employed by bakers to mix with their flour in making bread, and bread so made is considered Ughter, and by many preferred to that made of flour alone. They are washed and peeled, and the pulp grated down, and in that state are mixed with the dough. Before potatoes became scarce in consequence of the disease, and their value approximated so near to that of wheaten flour as to render the operation scarcely remunera- tive, almost all cottagers, and indeed many families who baked their own bread, used them constantly. We know well that families of dis- tinction, who keep their own baker, have pota- toes mixed with most of their fancy bread, rolls, &o. ; and this is done on their parts not for eco- nomy, but for improving the lightness of the bread, and rendering it more digestive. Much has been said on the value of the potato as an article of food, and there can be little doubt that more dependence has been placed on it, as such, than it deserves. It is more than thirty years ago since Mr Cobbett stigmatised it as " the accursed root ; " and that extraordinary man foretold then the disappointment that would in course of time arise from its too ex- tensive cultivation. Without entering into the question of political economy, we may safely assert that much of the human misery that has taken place both in Ireland and the Highlands of Scotland may be traced to a too implicit re- liance on this root as an article of human sus- tenance. Wherever the potato can be advan- tageously cultivated, there the cereal crops will prosper also ; and if we analyse the produce of an acre of wheat, barley, or oats, with one of potatoes, the difference in the amoimt of nutri- tious matter will be sufSciently evident. Man is said to be made up of a bundle of habits. Before the introduction of the potato, the Jerusalem artichoke was much appreciated, and were that plant sufBciently hardy to stand our climate, or rather to perfect its tubers with- in the same space of time as the potato, the loss of the latter would not be regretted, as the former is far more wholesome and much more nutritious. It maintained its place in public estimation even long after the potato was intro- 202 CULINARY OE KITCHEN GARDEN. duoed. The potato having no peculiar taste, like bread it can be used long by the same indi- vidual without becoming unpalatable, and is no doubt a useful vegetable to be eaten along with butcher-meat upon the same principle that most other vegetables are. Long use has also habi- tuated us to it, so that for such purposes its loss would be felt for a time ; but as an article of direct food, on which thousands are to depend for sustenance, its total extinction would be no great loss. And this the less so, seeing we have substitutes for it as easily cultivated smd as productive, could we only rid ourselves of a confirmed habit. Propagation. — The usual and most ex- peditious way is to propagate by planting medium-sized tubers whole, or the larger ones cut into sections or sets, as they are technically termed, having one eye or bud to each. By this means a crop is obtained the same season, and the variety, if not subjected to a considerable change of cli- mate, continued for years without much change in character or deterioration in quality. It is also propagated by seeds, when new or improved varieties are wished for, and by this means most of the sorts at present in cultivation have been ob- tained. The process has also been had recourse to since the appearance of the disease, thinking thereby, by getting a new breed either from seed home-grown, or imported from its native country, that a new progeny with increased vigour would be produced. These hopes have not been realised ; seedling plants, from home-grown or imported seed, have suf- fered almost alike. Seed has, however, produced improved varieties ; but unfor- tunately the process has been so carelessly gone about, that, with very few exceptions, we do not find any satisfactory informa- tion as to the means employed. It is pro- bable much of the success has been the result of chance, or the natural proneness of the plant to run into variety from seed, some of which may be good, others infe- rior to the parent plant. It is also propa- gated by layers and cuttings, modes that can only be considered expedient when sets are scarce, or when it is desirable to multiply a new or scarce variety. Propagating the potato by cuttings has for several years been extensively employed by Messrs Hay and Sangster of London, with a view to restore vigour in the plant and arrest the progress of disease, by ob- taining through this means a healthy pro^ geny. In procuring cuttings, the potatoes are placed in spring on a moderate hot- bed, as they think it important that the cuttings should be as short a time as pos- sible on the old tubers. When the young shoots have attained the height of 4 or 5 inches, they are cut off much in the way dahlia cuttings are taken from the roots — that is, taking no part of the old tuber along with them. They recommend that the planting of the cuttings in the open ground should be proceeded with before the 20th of May (that is, for the latitude of London), and, at planting, that 1 or 2 inches of their tops should be left above ground, and a slight watering given if the ground is dry. In this way they have secured a healthy crop over 5 acres of ground from the tubers produced by the plants originated by cuttings in the pre- ceding year. " The only fault," they say, " in planting cuttings, is that the tubers grow too large, and some anything but handsome ;', but this must be put up with, if growing any description of potatoes three years by that process is to bring the stock to a healthy state, which they have no doubt will be the result." By an analysis of the tubers grown in the ordi- nary manner by sets, the amount of fe- cula or starch was found to be only 11 f per cent, while those originated by cut- tings gave 15^ ; and upon a subsequent analysis the latter were found to yield 17 per cent, which is nearly the maximum amount to be expected from healthy tu- bers. How far Messrs Hay and Sangster are correct in thinking that a deficiency of saccharine matter in the potato, as it now exists with us, is the cause of the disease, may admit of doubt, as also that their process has the effect of restoring to the tubers that element ; one thing, how- ever, is certain, that potatoes struck by cuttings by ourselves have yielded an abundant, early, and healthy produce. Layers of the young shoots will also root freely ; but the advantage of the lat- ter mode is, we think, very questionable, except for the purpose of multiplying any rare or new sort expeditiously. Propagation by seed is a very simple affair. All that is required, where the more nice and scientific process of inter- marriage, or cross impregnation of the pistil of one sort with the pollen of an- other, has not been duly attended to, is to select the largest and best ripened apples ESCULENT-ROOTED PLANTS.— THE POTATO. 203 (or plums, as they are" called in some places) in September or October, and to wash out the seeds and keep them dry- till spring, when they should be sown in drills in a warm situation ; or the seed may be retained in the apples, and those buried in dry dust till spring, when the seed can be easily rubbed out. When the young plants have reached the height of 2 or 3 inches, they should be thinned out to 5 or 6 inches apart, and the thinnings may be transplanted at the same time. Towards the close of the season the tubers will have ripened, and, as they are small, select the largest, as they are the most promising, and keep them for planting in the February or March following, if cir- cumstances prevent them being planted as soon as they are dug up and examined. The autumn following will determine their size and productiveness, and any old woman, after the first boiling, will give ample evidence as to their quality. "A variety of the potato" originated from seed "is generally considered to continue about fourteen years in perfec- tion, after which period it gradually loses its good qualities, becoming of inferior flavour and unproductive." — Cottage Gar- deners' Dictionary, p. 739. To this rule there is, we think, at least one exception, and that is in the case of the old and highly- approved American early, which we have now known for about half a century, and see little difference in it in either of these respects. The case is very different with others, for those of our early days are now unknown even by name, and it is possible that the variety above named forms the exception to the above rule. May this not have been the original variety im- ported direct from America ? The types of other varieties may have reached us from a more southern latitude, and been of larger size, more dehcate, and of diffe- rent qualities. The early varieties do not readily produce seed. This may be, how- ever, effected, when desired, by planting the sets on little mounds of earth, and training the stem to a stake for support, and washing the soil from the roots, so that only the points of the fibres enter the ground. The plants will blossom and per- fect seed. Some sorts of potatoes produce seed, while others do not. Most of the late varieties produce seed freely; the early sorts rarely do so. This peculiarity was not unnoted by Mr Knight, who also dis- covered the cause, and accounts for it in this manner : " I suspected the cause to be the preternaturally early formation of the tuberous root, which draws off for its support that portion of the sap which, in other plants of the same species, affords nutriment to the blossoms and seeds ; and experiments soon satisfied me that mycon- jectures were well founded." His experi- ments in connection with this matter will be found fully recorded in the " Philoso- phical Transactions for 1806," and also in the " Transactions of the Horticultural Society," vol. i. p. 188. Unless the object be to secure seed, experience has proved the advantage of cutting off the flowers before the fruit is set. Knight accounted for this, and states that the process will increase the gross weight per acre by about 1 ton in weight ; subsequent experience has confirmed this opinion. Planting. — The usual season for plant- ing garden potatoes is from February to the end of April, the early varieties being planted first. Of late years autumnal planting has been resorted to as one of the many means recommended for saving the potato from the attacks of the myste- rious epidemic, and, no doubt, with very beneficial effects, admitted by many as well as experienced by ourselves. Many, however, view this as a chimera. Autumn planting is by no means a new feature in cultivation ; we have practised it for up- wards of thirty years, founding our data upon the simple and indisputable fact that the soil is the natural matrix for the tuber to be preserved in during its season of repose. As regards precise seasons for planting, much depends on soil and situ- ation. In all dry and warm soils, plant- ing may commence in November; or, indeed, the tubers may be replanted the same day the crop is lifted : but this will not much hasten the season of their coming to maturity, only plants originated from this early planting will be stronger in spring on account of the tubers losing nothing of their elaborated sap, which all those taken up and kept, if not completely excluded from the air and kept in a low temperature, must inevit- ably do. With this extra strength, there- fore, they push away stronger in spring, and not only arrive at a useful state 204 CULINARY OR KITCHEN GARDEN. sooner, but are better able to resist spring frosts than those which are so much weaker. Planting, therefore, may be gone on with from November to April, when the ground is di-y and free from frost. " Planting in the open ground is best done in October and November, and may thence be continued until the end of March. This last month is the latest in which any considerable plantation should be m^de. They will succeed if planted in May or even in June, yet it ought always to be kept in mind that the ear- liest planted, especially in dry soils, pro- duce the finest, healthiest, and most abundant crops." — Cottage Gardeners' Dic- tionary, p. 738. Dr Lindley, in an excellent article on the culture of the potato, " Gardeners' Chronicle," 1842, p. 155, remarks, "The period of planting should be as soon after the 1st of March as circumstances will permit." " I have uniformly found," Mr Knight says, " that, to obtain crops of potatoes of great weight and excellence, the period of planting should never be later than the beginning of March." This is in order to give the potato as long a summer as possible. From experiments made some years ago in the garden of the Horticultural Society, it appeared that a crop planted in the first week in March exceeded that planted in the first week of April by about \\ tons per acre. It must be obvious, however, that the propriety of planting thus early will depend upon the nature of the soil, and that it is too early for wet heavy land, although it is the best season for light soils. In reality, land cannot be advan- tageously planted with potatoes until all the superfluous moisture has drained away or evaporated. In some parts of England, sets for the earliest out-of-door crop are planted in October, choosing a dry sheltered situa- tion and light soil. The sets are placed 8 or 9 inches deep, and the surface covered over with straw, fern, or dry litter, so as to exclude frost, retain the heat absorbed by the soil during sumrner, and effectually throw off rain ; in fact, to retain the heat in the soil, and prevent its escape by radiation. The ground is gene- rally set off into beds with deepish alleys between them, which receive the water thrown off by the covering. The plants appear above ground in March, and are protected from frost by hooping them over and covering with tarpauling. Early potatoes are in this way procured in May, or by the beginning of June, even in Lancashire. Preparation of the grmtndfor planting. — Amongst the many instances of mis- management to which this plant has in many cases been subjected, is a disre- gard to the thorough working of the soil in which it is planted ; for although the tubers are produced at no great depth under the surface, still the food-collecting roots penetrate to a considerably greater extent. Trenching the ground, or, in absence of this, deep-digging, is an im- perative condition to their most success- ful cultivation, and, in carrying out either of these operations, the manure, if such is to be applied, should be completely incor- porated through the soil. The practice is absurd, although sanctioned by most writers on the subject, as well as followed by cultivators for ages, of placing it in immediate contact with the set or tuber in the trench or drill prepared for then- reception. No doubt the slight fermenta- tion which must of course take place when very rank stable-yard manure is employed, gives a certain degree of ex- citement to the tuber, and may, to some extent, cause an earlier development of roots ; but no sooner are they produced than they begin to extend in length, and travel with a rapidity in proportion to their growth as far as they possibly can from the mass of manure placed by the planter for their special use. If the doc- trine is to be considered valid which has been propounded by vegetable physiolo- gists, that plants derive their chief root- support from the food collected from the soif by the spongiolets which are placed onl)/ at the extremities of the minute fibres, it appears pretty clear to us that the plant derives little if any advantage from the manure so placed, beyond the slight stimulus given during the short time fermentation is in operation, imme- diately after the tuber is placed either over it or under it (for they are placed in both ways) ; and that manure incapable of fermentation is not only absolutely useless but positively injurious, tending, as has been asserted by many of our most intelligent cultivators, to encourage ESCULENT-EOOTED PLANTS.— THE POTATO. 205 greatly the disease under which the potato is now suffering. Manure, to be beneficial to any plant, must be placed so that it is within the reach of the spongiolets; and as they ramify in all directions away from the seed, tuber, or whatever else may consti- tute the origin of the plant, it appears pretty clear that it should be as tho- roughly mixed with the soil as possible, and hence confining it within the narrow limits of a drill is of all modes of applica- tion the most wasteful. In accordance with these views, they are right who re- commend plajiting the potato in ground enriched by previous manuring, whether employed for the last crop, or applied to the ground without any crop at all, be- cause they get rid of one of the evils stated above — namely, encouragement to the disease. Manure, to be useful to any crop, must become soluble, and this con- dition does not come immediately about in the case of such manures as rank stable-litter : its application, therefore, must be regarded as of little service to the present crop ; but that it will be so to the succeeding crop is to be expected. The mode, therefore, of preparing ground for potatoes, as usually practised — viz., planting them in drills or trenches along with manure — must be regarded as erroneous ; and, as we have already ob- served, if manure is to be applied, let it be so during the process of trenching or digging, and let it be as completely mixed with the soil as possible. The methods of planting the potato are numerous. That of planting with the dibber, next to that of placing them in trenches amongst rank manure, is the worst. The rapidity with which the former is accomplished is an inducement with many, but it is a very imperfect one, unless the ground is very dry, and the dibber of a diameter to make a hole sufii- ciently wide to admit of the set or tuber falling to the bottom ; and this is not easily done when the soil is light or gra- velly, as portions of it will fall in before the set is introduced, and consequently some will be much deeper planted than others. The better way is, to open a drill with a hoe or spade, of an equal depth throughout, and to set the tubers in it, and afterwards draw the soil over them, so that in most cases there may VOL. II. be 6 inches of mould over them when finished. This insures their being all placed at a uniform depth, and leaves the mould quite open and soft both under and above them, — affording, in the first place, a proper state for the young and tender roots pushing their way into it ; and, in the second, allowing the rains to sink in, and the solar heat and air to penetrate, and admitting of an uninterrupted pro- cess of evaporation taking place. In regard to distance, much depends on the sort. The small-growing early kinds may be set in rows 15 inches apart, and from 8 to 10 inches in the line ; but for the later and stronger-growing sorts, 20 inches to 2 feet should be allowed row from row, and from 12 to 15 inches in the line. There is no gain in too thick planting. In ordinary garden-soils the sets may, with every propriety, be placed 6 inches under the general level of the surface. In damp wet land the sets should be placed on the surface of the dug ground, and the mould drawn over them, in form of a broad flat ridge, say 6 inches in height at the centre, and 10 inches at the base. Where the ground is very wet — but such is very unfit for the potato — the old lazy- bed manner may be followed, which is by dividing the ground into beds of 4 feet in breadth, leaving 2^-feet alleys between. Dig the bed deeply over, set the tubers in rows across, at the distances stated above, and cover them at first by laying 4 inches of soil, taken from the alleys, over them ; and in course of a few weeks afterwards^ but before the shoots appear above ground, lay over that 3 inches more from the same. In such cases, ridges may be thrown up, from 1 to 2 feet in height, and from 2 to 3 feet apart ; and on the top of these set the tubers, and cover them over as above. These are extreme cases ; and when the soil is incapable of being thoroughly dried by draining, to admit of the process being carried on in a more business-like manner, it were better to crop the ground with some other crop. In regard to the depth the sets should be put in the ground, much depends on its texture — as to whether it is light and pervious to solar heat and air, or whether it is retentive, and impenetrable to either. From experiments made in the London Horticultural Society's garden, the fol-. lowing results have been arrived at : — 2d 206 CULINARY OR KITCHEN GARDEN. " In warm dry land we regard 9 inches as not too deep, provided the sets are large and strong; in cold stiff soil 4 inches would be better : 6 inches is a good depth in average soils, and indeed may be con- sidered the best depth in most soils. Weak sets do not come up well at 9 inches deep ; but, on the contrary, 4 inches is too shallow, occasioning the tubers to be par- tially exposed to the light, and hence to become green. If, however, the land is so shallow as to admit of no greater depth, then more space must be allowed between the rows for earthing up. In one of the experiments above alluded to, different depths were also inquired into, when the rates of produce were nearly as follows : 3 inches deep gave 13 tonsj 4 inches, 14 tons; 6 inches, 14^ tons ; and 9 inches, 13 tons. At so great a depth as 9 inches, sets are apt to perish, unless the soil is dry, light, and warm. The deeper, however, the sets can be safely inserted the better, for the following reason : Potatoes are formed on underground branches ; the deeper set, the more branches wiU be formed before the shoots emerge from the soil, and consequently the more ample wiU be the means possessed by the potato plant for forming tubers. The important practice of earthing up is designed to effect the same end by compeUing the potato stem to grow as much as possible under- ground." Subsequent experience has proved that earthing up is of little conse- quence, if the potato has been planted from 6 to 8 inches deep in the first instance. Size and choice of sets. — Since the pre- vailing malady has been so destructive to the potato, sets — that is, cut sections of the tuber, having one eye or bud each — are much seldomer used than formerly. The larger the set is, the stronger we would naturally expect the plant to be, on ac- count of the greater amount of elaborated matter it contains compared with a smaller one j but this does not appear to be the case ; no one set need have more than one eye or bud. Some have placed much im- portance on the end of the potato from which the set is cut, and recommend the rejection of the watery or less ripened end of the tuber, as well as the root end, or more ripened portion also, assigning as a reason that the former has too many small eyes, and that plants produced from it are apt to run too much to haulm ; and to the root end they object, fancying that it is tardy in growth, and more liable to dis- ease. They say, Make choice of the middle of the potato, which, if cut in two, will afford two sets, having one eye each. This appears to us to be merely the shadow of the well-known fact that fully-matured potatoes, fit for food, are less proper for seed than those that are much less per- fectly ripened, and hence the demand for seed-potatoes from upland and late loca- lities, where, in fact, the potato seldom ripens to full perfection. Physiologically, there is a difference between the two ends of a potato; practically viewed, it is so small that it may be little regarded. The late Mr Main was quite of this opinion, and set the whole down as a mere matter of speculation. In the present condition of the potato, whole tubers are preferred to cut sets, and these are usually selected from the medium-sized ones. The only objec- tion that can be started against the em- ployment of whole tubers is the number of eyes they have, compared with a mere section, which may be cut with only one. This objection is, however, easily remedied by the careful destruction, by the touch of a red-hot wire, of all the eyes but one ; but this should be done with as little in- jury to the skin of the potato as possible, else the escape of its juices may be as great as in a section cut from a larger specimen. Mr George Lindley was of opinion that sets with only one eye in each, produced the crop ten days or a fortnight earlier than those having two or more eyes left on. We have not planted sets for years, but use the medium-sized tubers whole. The late Mr Knight was of opinion that very small potatoes produced a much later crop than when large ones were used for seed : this is to a certain extent true, because they are too imperfectly matured, and therefore we never plant them. He also placed considerable importance on the position the sets are placed in at planting. In " Trans. Hort. Soc.,"vol. iv. p. 448, he says, " When the planter is anxious to obtain a crop within the least possible time, he will find the position in which the tubers are placed to vegetate by no means a point of indifference ; for these being shoots or branches which have grown thick instead of elongating, retain the disposition of branches to propel their sap to their leading buds, or points most ESCULENT- EOOTED PLANTS.— THE POTATO. 207 distant from the stems of the plants of ■which they once formed parts. If the tubers be placed with their leading buds upwards, a few very strong and very early shoots will spring from them ; but if their position be reversed, many weaker and later shoots will be produced, and not only the earliness but the quality of the produce, in size, will be much affected. To the selection of sets some have at- tached great importance; for ourselves, we prefer, as stated above, medium-sized whole tubers, as these are not over-ripened, and because they do not require to be cut as larger ones do. Large tubers have been recommended, but have been shown to be of no advantage whatever. It has also been proved that, if the tubers are over- ripened, they are apt to produce disease. It is, therefore, better to take up the seed- potatoes before they become over-ripe ; or, still better, to purchase seed from upland situations, where the potato seldom ripens to full maturity. The argument of those who advocate the planting diseased tubers in preference to sound ones, is practically, that they soon rot away after the young shoot has begun to germinate, while sound sets are apt to repaain till the ripening of the crop, retaining in themselves the germ of the disease — thus showing an effort, on the part of nature, to throw off the disease. Professor Lindley on this point remarks, " Gard. Chron.," 1850 : « It is possible that the morbid matter which causes disease may disappear in the general decay of the tuber, in the one case, and may remain unchanged in the other, prepared to seize upon the haulm as soon as it is ready to receive its influence." The experiments of Mr Smith, of Wokingham, Berkshire, ap- pear to be very conclusive in this respect, and highly deserving of our attention. Mr Smith planted wry much diseased sets on the 18th of March, the crop from which was ripe and taken up on the 2d of Au- gust, perfectly free of disease; while sound ones of the same variety, as well as others, were planted in February, and, being taken up during the August following, were found vert/ much diseased. Very rotten late potatoes were planted by the same gentle- man in November, 6| inches ; over the sets were first laid 2 inches of the natural soil of his garden, then a layer of half- decayed weeds, and over that a covering of the same earth. This crop was taken up also in the beginning of August, and was found without disease. These experi- ments were made from 1846 to 1849 ; and a person in the same town repeated the experiments in 1850, with exactly the same results. Whatever deductions may be drawn from these experiments theore- tically, it wiU be admitted they are of great practical importance. Subsequent cultivation. — As soon as the plants are fairly above the surface, hoeing and surface- stirring should be commenced, as few plants thrive better in an open and oft-disturbed soil. The very early crops should have the earth drawn around each plant in form of a cup, to serve as a shel- ter from the cold winds, which are a great enemy to them during early spring : a similar shelter will not be produced if earthed up in the usual form, which leaves them exposed on the top of the ridge. The draw-hoe, fig. 80, is well adapted for this earthing-up purpose, while implements penetrating much deeper into the soil must be used for loosening the ground between the rows. Of the implements used in potato culture, the following may be given as examples : — Draw-hoea, fig. 80, are amongst the moat use- ful of all garden implements : l£ey are employed for destroy- Fig. 80. ing weeds, stirring up the surface- soil, drawing drills, and earthing up crops. They vary in size and form — the smallest, which is used for thinning out seedling crops, being I^ inches broad at the face or cutting part, and the same in depth of blade. There is attached to them a hose, 2 inches in length, for receiving the handle, which is straight, varying in length from 18 inches to 3 or 4 feet, according to the purposes for which they are intended. The shortest of these are very dexterously used by English labourers for thinning turnips which are sown broadcast, using one in each hand. The largest is 9 inches in the face and 3| inches deep in the blade, and are almost all now made so that the hose part for receiving the handle is riveted on to the blade, as shown in our figure ; formerly they were forged all in one piece, the hose part being on the top of the blade. The neck of the hose-piece should be slightly bent, so that when the operator is standing nearly up- right, which is the easiest position for him, the face or cutting part of the blade may be at an DRAW-HOE. 208 CULINARY OR KITCHEN GARDEN. ^^ TRIANGULAR DRAW-HOE. DRAH'-HOR AND RAKE COniBtNBD, angle of 68°, which is the best suited for enter- ing the ground. From the smallest to the largest there are intermediate ones, differing in size, in general, to the estent of half an inch in length of face, and denominated 24-iuch, 3-inch, SJ-inch, and so on upwards to 9-inch hoes. Hoes in form and proportion to that of our fig. 80 are the most common in use. There are, however, other Fig. 81. forms, such as fig. 81, which is trian- gular in shape, hav- ing each of its sides calculated for cut- ting up weeds and slightly loosening the surface. It is used also for drawing drills, the corner points being well adapted for the purpose. The Vernon hoe and the Spanish hoe have been already described, page 38. The compound Fig. 82. hoe, or draw-hoe and rake combined, is a useless affair. We notice and figure it (fig. 82) to giv^ us an opportunity of stating how much better it would be to have each as a. separate implement. Nearly twenty varieties of draw-hoes are figured in the " Encyclopaedia of Gardening," all, with three or four exceptions, examples of those used in the rudest state of cultivation, and in- F'g. 83. ferior to those of ^g^^^^^^the present day. in isavage s surfaoe- I I stirrer, fig 83, is a SAVAGE'S SDRFACE-9TIRRER. 'iseful implement belonging to the hoe class. It may be described as a common hay-fork, of rather more than double the length of prongs, which are bent over about the middle, thus forming a two-pronged scarifier of consider- able power and utility. The prongs are 3 inches apart, and 4 inches long from the bend to the points, but there is no reason why they should not be double that length. The opera- tor, as in all cases with similar tools, walks backwards, while he presses the points of the implement into the soil, and draws it after him, stirring the ground as deep as the prongs will reach between rows of potatoes and other culi- nary crops. Such stirring implements are far more useful than the common draw-hoes, which, from their construction, cannot enter the ground to a sufficient depth . Fig. 84. Fig. 84 is an excel- lent implement in the section of hoes, and is known in the south of England as the Guernsey prong, being much used in that island. It is thus delineated and described in " The Garden- ers' Chronicle" for 18S1: " It is something in the shape of a hammer, the head flattened into GUERNSEY PRONG. a chisel an inch wide, and the fork the same. The wbole length of this prong is 9 inches, and it is attached to a staff 5 feet long. Such an implement is light and easy to use ; it requires no stooping, and will tear up the deepest-rooted weeds." Its great utility, however, is to deeply stir and pulverise the Fig.. 85. soil. Glendinning's pich-forle, fig. 85, is a somewhat similar im- plement, and used by its inventor upon his strong and stubborn soil with great eco- nomy of time and ad- vantage to the soil. The Bloomfield hoe, fig. 86, is much used in Norfolk. It is somewhat like the common draw-hoe, but hav- ing the advantage of keeping itself clear of mould at the neck, Fig. 86. GLKNDINNING S PICK-FORK. BLOOMFIELD HOB. which the common hoe has not in conse- quence of the short- ness of the neck, or that part which con- nects the blade with the. handle. The spe- cimen we have given, fig. 80, is, however, less objectionable on this account, as will be seen by the manner the blade is attached to the handle. Gidney's improved Prussian hoe, fig. ST. This is an excellent instrument, when cutting, down weeds only is the Fig. 87. object, and where the "^x soil is not to be deep- ^^v ly stirred. The blade ^1^.^^^ is set at such an angle ^ll^. that it shaves down ^^V the weeds just below ^^ the surface, and leaves ^ ^^them uncovered ; \~fg^^ whereas the old hoe GiDNEv's PRUSSIAN HOE. covcrs up thc fallcu weeds, and this aids them to root afresh. It is well calculated for hoeing flower-borders, and can be usefully em- ployed in the kitchen-garden for hoeing foot- paths between beds, or amongst young crops where seed-weeds are appearing. The face of the blade of the specimen our figure is taken from is 6 inches long, quite straight, the back rounding off towards the point, which is acute. The breadth of the blade is 1| inches. They may, however, be made both larger and smaller, according to circumstances. Br Newington's hand-cultivator, fig. 88, is of the hoe-stirring section. The frame or head- piece is 16 inches vride, of iron or heavy wood, to press the tines into the ground without much pressure being applied by the operator. It is fitted with three strong curved tines very sharp at the points, and which, when the imple- ment is drawn forward, stir up the ground from 6 to 9 inches in depth. It is also fitted up with three shares for drawing drills for seed- sowing. It is the type of fig. 89, which Dr ESCULENT- ROOTED PLANTS.— THE POTATO. 209 Newington calls his "Patent hand-row cidtivator and drill-hoe." The head and handle are much NEWtNQTON'S HAND-COLTIVATOU. the same as in the last, only the head is so con- structed that -when the tines (three) at present Fig. 89. newington's hand-how cultivator. shown as affixed to it are removed, hoes of dif- ferent sizes, a, b, and c, can be substituted, and in this form it acts as a weed-kUling hoe ; and these hoes are placed like the tines, one in the centre of the front bar or head, and two in the hind one. A moulding-board for earthing up has also been added to it, but we think with much less effect than in Sievewright's improve- ment upon it, which, although acting upon the satne principle, is every Way a Buperior imple- ment. Sievewright's improved cultivator is one of these contrivances for the economising of labour, and Is thus described by him in " Gardeners' Chroni- cle," 1849, p. 500. After premising that the ma- chine has been most effectually employed in hoe- ing between drills, grubbing up ground to the depth of from 5 to 6 inches, and earthing up be- tween potatoes and cabbages, &c., the intelligent improver proceeds : " When I use it for hoeing between drills, I use iiat tines, which are five in number ; the transverse bar at the back expands to the width of 21 inches, or contracts to 13 inches; and should even this latter width be greater than the drills will allow of, I take out the two hind tines. There is a weight which is fixed at pleasure on any part of the bar running through the centre, the position of which is re- gulated by the way in which you are using the machine, and which keeps it working steadily." This is a circular piece of cast-iron attached ; and one, two, or more may be used, according to the weight required. " When I use the machine for grubbing up ground, or for working it into a fine state, I change the flat tines to a set which I have, similar in form to those of a common grubber : in this way I prepare the ground for the reception of a second crop, saving the expense of digging ; and, when no manure is required to be buried in, doing the work far better than the spade. When earthing up potatoes or cabbages, the front tine is left in, the four hinder ones taken out, the moulding-boards put on ; and as the trans- verse bar expands or contracts, I am enabled to earth up potatoes 21 inches between the rows, or cabbages at 13. The wheel in front regulates the depth to which the tines enter, and keeps them to a uniform depth in' the soil ; the hind wheel can be applied for the same purpose, and, where the ground is rough, has the additional effect of steadying the machine." In our own practice with this excellent machine, we place the weight referred to above here, finding in our light soil the hind wheel of little service. " The whole machine, which is of iron, is very light, and the work which I have described it as do- ing is quite within the power of a lad. The work a man could do with it would not be less than 2 acres per day, hoeing between turnips, at 2 feet apart; the grubbing he would do nearly Fig. 90. SIEVElVRlfiHT'S CULTIVATOR IMPROVKO. 210 CULINARY OR KITCHEN GARDEN. as quickly ; and would certainly earth up pota- toes at the rate of an acre per day." Through the courtesy of Mr Sievewright, who[early direct- ed our attention to this machine, we have had two in operation during the last three years, and can corroborate all Mr Sievewright has said about it. The modification of this implement, shown by figs. 90, 91, possesses, we think, important im- provements on both Dr Newington's and Mr Sievewright's machines, both of whom had in view mainly its adaptability to the power of one man. Now we do not exactly see wherein there is any decided economy in this, and have there- Fig. 91. IMPROVED CULTIVATOR WITH BARTHING-UP BOARDS. fore adapted ours to be wrought by a man and a boy. In both of the former the operator had to walk backwards — a position in which his phy- sical power could not be exerted to its greatest advantage. Again, in stony and hard ground the machine was found inefiective ; nor could the ground be stirred so deep, nor the other processes so satisfactorily accomplished, as when a man's whole power is directed to drawing it forward, while a boy guides it behind ; and the two lift it more conveniently at the end of each row, and introduce it into the next, without dis- ordering or dirtying the gravel walks at the ends of the quarters. Our other appendages will speak for themselves. The grubbing-tines are the same, as are also the angular hoes, which fit into the same holes in the frame as in Mr Sievewright's; and the moulding boards are similarly attached. We have, however, added the stilts, which enable a boy to regulate the direction of the machine be- hind ; while the man who draws it in front is left to exert his whole strength in pulling it through the ground, which he could not do to anything like the same advantage were he to walk backwards, and with the guiding of the machine to attend to at the same time. By gaining this additional force, the tines or grub- bers can be let into the ground to double the depth they formerly could, which is an import- ant matter, and to a certain extent supersedes the operation of digging in all loose and work- able soils. It is true, weeds are not so com- pletely buried by grubbing as by turning them in by digging; but garden-ground in a highly- cultivated state should be clear of weeds ; and even should they exist, the triangular hoes are to be fitted in, and the ground run over by the machine the day previous to the grubbing tak- ing place. The expedition with which both these operations are accomplished, bears in no case anything like a relative proportion to the time occupied in digging ever so superficially the same breadth. The machine is so con- structed that the frame can be contracted or expanded to any extent to meet the difference in the breadths between all garden crops; and the same applies to the moulding boards also. With the improved machine which has been manufactured for us by , Mr SUght, the eminent engineer, and which has been con- structed to our entire satisfaction, we can grub to the depth of 9 inches, or hoe between the rows of crops, or earth up an acre of potatoes per day, at the cost of the wages of a man and a boy— say 3s. We may also state that we hold no exclusive right in this machine, it being a combination of former principles adapted by us to horticultural and nursery purposes with a view to the economy of time, and doing the work better than by the ordinary operations of shallow digging and hoeing, and the still more laborious operation of earthing up with the draw-hoe. These machines may be seen at the works, and procured of Mr Shght, engineer, Leith Walk, Edmburgh. These are the parts embodied in both Dr Newington's and Mr Sievewright's implements ; but to these we have added a drilling and sow- ing appendage, fig. 92, which not only draws the drills more equal in depth and distance than can be done by the ordinary process of using the garden-line and draw-hoe, but saves three- fourths of the time, and lessens the evil of treading the ground in an equal proportion — a most important advantage when the soil is wet. The drilling and sowing appendage is fitted on the frame, and covers a space of 44 feet in breadth, so constructed that the drills can be drawn to any distance apart, varying from 6 inches to 18 inches ; and from 4 to 6 drills can be opened at the same time, and the seed depo- sited in them. The coulters that open the drills are placed on the front of the cross arm or bar ; the boxes for containing the seed are placed on top of it; and the delivering tubes, for conveying the seed from them to the drills, are placed immediately behind and within these coulters, ESCULENT -EOOTED PLANTS.— THE POTATO. 211 and reach to within 2 inches of the drill, by which the seed can be sown even in windy wea- ther, when it could not be safely done by hand. The lower ends of the tubes are also sloped off. by which the seeds are readily seen as they fall. A set of similar coulters is placed behind the cross arm or bar, but somewhat wider than those in front, and reversed in their position, so Fig. 92. DRILLING AND 60WIN0 MACHINII. that as the seed is dropped in the drill, and the machine in motion, these latter cover the seed by drawing the soil, pushed aside by the open- ing coulters, over the seed, which finishes the operation. The quantity of seed delivered is regulated by the extent of opening in the delivering-tubes, which can be graduated to any extent to suit such seeds as onions, turnips, &c.; and can be entirely stopped at the ends of the rows, by the boy who guides the machine behind simply raising the iron rod shown between the stilts. In commencing the operation of drilling and sowing, a Une is stretched from one end of the ground to the other : along this line either the right-hand wheel, or the right-hand drill-coulter, according to circumstances, is to travel, so that the drills may be set oif straight at starting. The machine is drawn along to the other end of the ground by the man, while the boy guides it along the line — thus opening, sowing, and covering in at once the number of drills the machine is set to. When the first series of drills is finished, the machine is turned, and proceeds in like manner to the other end of the ground, performing the same operation, the boy keeping in this case the left-hand wheel exactly upon the previous wheel-track. By this means, we believe, 2 acres of onions or turnips could be sown per day. Like all sowing-machines, this is best adapted for what are known as round seeds, such as rape, turnip, cabbage, onions, &c.; but it is also adapted for sowing parsnips, carrots, &c., provided the seeds of the latter are properly rubbed down and mixed with sand, as is usually done. The mould- boards being attached, deep drills can be drawn for potatoes; and when one of these is removed, short dung or any of the artificial manures can be ploughed in, or the weeds on the surface buried as in ordinary digging, and in one-third of the time. All such machines are, however, better adapted to light soils, or to ground in a high state of cultivation. The later or principal crops should not be earthed up at all — or, if so, only to a limited extent ; and for this purpose our improved cultivator with double mould- boards will be found far better than the ordinary hoe earthing-up system. If potatoes are planted 6 inches deep, they are rather injured than impi'oved by earthing up, some say to the extent of diminishing the crop one-fourth. We have remarked in the article Carrot, p. 178, that deep-hoeing between the rows is inexpedient, as it has the effect of en- couraging the lateral fibres to extend, and to induce greater growth in them, produc- ing side roots, or what are commonly called forks. Now, the very opposite course should be pursued in the case of the po- tato, and every encouragement given to the side roots to extend themselves, for nearly at their extremities the tubers are formed; so that deeply stirring the ground between them tends to their extension. This process, however, must not be car- ried beyond a certain stage in the growth of the plants, else the extremities of the roots, which it is our object to encourage, may become seriously injured if deep- stirring takes place after they have nearly met in the spaces between the rows. This can only be ascertained upon examina- tion. Some kinds of potatoes produce their tubers, at a much greater distance 212 CULINARY OR KITCHEN GARDEN. from the stem than others. These are chiefly to be found amongst the late sorts. Most of the early ones produce theirs (jlose to the stem, or at the extremity of very short runners, seldom more than 9 inches from the stem. The blossom should be cut off as soon as it appears, for most of the evil will be effected if the process is delayed until the fruit is formed. What- ever may be said of curtailing the stems, even when they encroach on other crops, nothing but dire necessity would induce us to do anything of the kind. Cutting the haulm off entirely as soon as the plants have produced their flowers, as re- commended by M. Tombelle Lomba as a remedy against the disease, has by no means been satisfactorily proved to have that effect; but it has an effect which might naturally be supposed — that of very materially diminishing the crop. If the disease is purely atmospheric, it is natural to suppose the leaves and stems would be first affected, as their office is to collect and elaborate the matter they throw into the roots and tubers; and, in doing this, they would at the same time transmit the disease along with that matter. As a na- tural consequence, we are bound to be- lieve that the leaves become affected by the disease before its effects become so evident in them as to be observed by man, and hence the transmission of it to the roots must be going on before any visible symptoms appear in the leaves themselves; and if they are allowed to remain on until the plants have perfected their flowers, the roots will be as much inoculated by that time as if the leaves and stems were left on altogether. So rapid is the transmission of the disease to the tubers, that we have traced symptoms of it in them before any visible signs of it appeared in the leaves, and to such an ex- tent in one case as led us to inquire if the disease might not originate in the soil or manure, affecting the roots first, afterwards the tubers, and lastly the stalks and leaves — reversing the generally supposed order. If, therefore, any beneficial results are to arise from cutting off the haulm at all, it must be done much sooner than has hitherto been recommended; and by doing so, the supplies will be entirely cut off, and the tubers reduced to the identical cir- cumstances of those that are sometimes kept over a year, and buried in sand in a dark cellar, and which are known to send out numerous immaturely-formed potatoes from their sides, without the aid of haulm or leaves — a practice sometimes adopted to produce young potatoes during winter. No doubt the opinion laid down by Dr Lindley is quite correct, when speaking of the possibility of the tubers ripening after the haulm has been removed, after it has ar- rived at a certain condition; but before it has arrived at this condition (the season of flowering), has not the disease already been transmitted to the tubers ? The rationale of his views is thus given by Mr Stephens in " The Book of the Farm," vol. ii. p. 258 : " That it may be that potato tubers, after having arrived at a certain condition, possess the power of continuing their growth by their own proper and unassist- ed vitality ; and this is rendered the more probable by the well-known fact, that the flour which gives them their principal value does not descend directly from the leaves as flour, but is in the first instance of the nature of gum, or some othe fluid organisable matter, formed in the leaves and sent downwards into the tubers. Having reached the tubers, it undergoes its final change, and from a soluble substance is gradually converted by their vital force into insoluble flour. To that vital operation we have no rea- son to suppose that the leaves contribute : all that they do is to produce the matter out of which the tubers generate the flour. It must be observed that M. Tombelle Lomba does not cut off the stems till after flowering. It is possible that at that time the leaves of the potato have done their work as far as the tubers are concerned, and that their further duty is to nourish the tubers. If so, we have an explanation of the result of which M. Lomba so positively speaks." Not only, according to M. Lomba's assertion, is the disease arrested in its progress by cutting off the haulm, but the tubers suffer no di- minution in size after the operation. This latter assertion has been by no means proved in practice, in this country at least, to be correct. Soil and manure. — Potatoes succeed best on newly-reclaimed land, provided it be light and dry ; and in newly-broken-up light rich loam they will succeed better without manure than with it, and, if less weighty in crop, will be of improved fla- ESCULENT-ROOTED PLANTS.— THE POTATO. 213 vour and quality. We speak of flavour and quality, or fitness for tlie table, and not of their chemical constituents. Mr Johnston, in " Elements of Agricultural Chemistry and Geology," p. 327, has shown that the quantity of starch is larger in po- tatoes which are grown upon land long in arable culture, than upon such as are newly brought into cultivation or broken up from grass. One peck of potatoes, grown upon land near Paisley, which had been almost constantly under crop for the last thirty years, produced 7 lb. of starch; while another peck, gTOwn on a bleach- gi'een, newly broken up, yielded only 4 lb. There is land in Cornwall, and also in Essex, that has yielded crops of pota- toes annually for nearly as many years ; but although the crops in both cases are both early and abundant, we have ever considered them inferior in flavour, at the table, to such as were grown from new land. In well-drained peaty soil they prosper, if not at too high an altitude. Clay soils produce waxy, and sandy soils mealy potatoes ; and some soils have the property of changing the character of a variety entirely. Clay soils, in the pre- sent state of the potato disease, should be avoided. Out of 163 cases in England, 1 29 were returned as having suffered much by the disease. In Scotland, 1 6 cases es- caped out of 27 ; but in Ireland and Wales there was scarcely an exemption from dis- ease. Whereas in peaty soil, Mr Stephens, in " The Book of the Farm," vol. ii. p. 402, informs us, " out of 32 cases of the culti- vation of the potato in moss in England, only 5 suffered much, and 17 little, while 10 escaped altogether; of 31 cases in Scot- land, 9 were bad; of 41 Irish cases, only 2 suffered much, 24 little, and 15 escaped. The conclusion is — in pure, well-drained peat moss, potatoes suffer very little from disease." In poor soils, manure must be applied, and this should be of the nature of half- decayed leaves or littering matter, to keep the ground open and dry, particularly if the soil is retentive or the locality wet. Besides, manure in the state of either of these will undergo progressive decompo- sition along with the growth of the crop, and become reduced to a soluble condi- tion, in which state only manurial appli- cations can be of any use, about the same time that the tubers are forming and VOL. II. swelling, at which period the plant stands most in need of increased nourishment. Very decomposed rich manure, applied at planting the sets, may be prejudicial in morewaysthan one, particularlyif brought into close contact with them. It cannot be of much benefit, because, by the time the plants really do require manurial as- sistance, this very rotten application will have become soluble and commingled with the soil. Not that in this way it is en- tirely lost; on the contrary, it is absorbed by the soil, and ready to be given out to the spongioles as they are formed : but un- fortunately, as in general applied upon the drill-system, one-half of its fertilising in- gredients descend, or are washed down per- pendicularly to where it was placed ; while the other half, and perhaps the most va- luable — the gaseous portion — ascends up- wards in a perpendicular direction also, leaving the broad spaces between the rows destitute of enrichment altogether. Ne- cessity has long compelled the British agriculturists to adopt this mode of apply- ing manure, because of the difficulty in obtaining a sufficient quantity to meet their extensive demand — and no doubt, for turnips and similar deep-rooting plants, the rule is unexceptionable ; but the roots of potatoes take an entirely different di- rection in search of food from those of the turnip, carrot, mangold-wurzel, &c., for these extend downwards, and occupy a narrow line in the direction of the row ; and from the fusiform character of the two last, it would be inexpedient to en- courage the enlargement of any lateral fibres they might send out, as each of these would either rob the principal root, or enlarge some of the lateral fibres into side roots, and cause in them that mal- formation known technically as " fork- ing." Thus manure cannot be kept too close to the roots of such plants, and therefore laying it in the drills is per- fectly .correct. Not so, however, with the potato, whose roots ramify in all directions horizontally in search of food, and there- fore require that the ground should be equally manured all over. This plant also requires the greatest quantity of azote at the later periods of its growth, when the tubers are swelling, because they con- tain a much greater amount of that sub- stance than the leaves. Manures, there- fore, to be beneficial to this crop, should 2e ^14 CULINAEY OR KITCHEN GARDEN. be those of slow decomposition ; and it is equally clear that they should be distri- buted equally over the ground. Vide Preparation of the ground. In these opinions we are supported by Dr Madden, who, in " Prize Essays of the Highland and Agricultural Society," vol. xiii. p. 359-70, observes, "that a manure, to suit well for the potato crop, should pos- sess the following qualities : It must be spread equally through the soil, so that the spongioles, atthe termination of the spread- ing fibres of its roots, may be supplied with nourishment. It must yield azote during the whole period of the growth of the plants — in fact, rather more is required during the later period than prior to the development of the tubers j for, from M. Boussingault's analysis, it appears that they contain five per cent more of this substance than the leaves. In an economi- cal point of view, therefore, the best manure for potatoes would be one which contained plenty of azote, but still did not decompose very rapidly — cow-dung, for example." Peat ashes is an excellent manure for potatoes and turnips. Their constituents are as follow : — Silica 32 Sulphate of lime (gypsum) . . 12 Sulphate and muriate of soda (glauber and common salt) ... 6 Carbonate of lime . . . . 40 Oxide of iron .... 3 Loss 7 100 — the quantity applied, 1 lb. to the square yard, and applied in their most recent state. Guano, if applied in a liquid state, and repeated frequently, will no doubt carry on the crop until its complete state of maturity has arrived; but the best secu- rity is to have the ground in high condi- tion, either by large manuring for previous crops, or by trenching in plenty of cow or stable manure some time previous to planting the sets, and difiusing it equally over the whole. Salt has been beneficially applied to potato crops. On a soil of a light and sandy nature, without any manure, the return was 308 bushels of tubers per English acre ; while the same extent ad- joining, manured with 20 bushels of salt, gave a return of 584 bushels. Situation has also as much to do as either soil or manure in increasing the quantity of Starchy matter or meahness in the tuber, as well as securing the crop. "This starchy matter," Dr Lindley remarks (" Gard. Chron.," 1842, p. 155), " can only be formed abimdantly by the action of light upon the leaves, which are the na- tural laboratory in which such secretions take place, and from which they are con- ducted by sure though hidden channels to the tubers, where they are stored up. To plant potatoes, therefore, in plantations or orchards, or under the shade of trees, is to prevent the formation of mealiness which renders this plant so nutritious,' and to cause the tubers to be watery and worthless." But the potato may suffer by its own shade as much as by the shade of other plants. When its sets are planted too close, the branches shoot up and choke each other, so that the more sets are planted the smaller will be the crop of this plant. Mr Knight was the first to point out this common error, and to show that there is a certain distance at which the sets of each variety of potato should be planted, so as to insure the greatest produce. By plant- ing too close, the plants smother each other; by planting at too great a distance, land is uselessly wasted. Practice and well-conducted experiments demonstrate what theory suggested — that the true dis- tance at which potatoes should be set is determined by the average length of the haulm. One kind of potato is dwarf, and only grows 6 inches high ; its rows should therefore only be 6 inches apart. Another kind gi'ows 3 feet high, and its rows should be 3 feet asunder. The space from set to set in the row appears to be immaterial ; 6 or 8 inches is sufiicient for those which grow 2 feet high. An experiment, made in the gardens of the Horticultural Society of London, " showed that the early cham- pion, a sort whose stems are on an aver- age 2 feet long, was planted in rows 2 feet 6 inches apart ; the produce was 15 tons 1 9 cwt. 82 lb. net per acre," or, in round numbers, 16 tons; "while, by reducing the distance between the rows to 2 feet, the produce was increased to 24 tons; but, by diminishing it still farther to 1 foot 6 inches, the produce was reduced to 22 tons 16 cwt. 102 lb.; and where the rows were only 6 inches apart, the produce fell to 16 tons 17 cwt. 110 lb. Such an experi- ment seems conclusive." As regards manure for potatoes, the ESCULENT-EOOTED PLANTS.— THE POTATO. 215 inference is, that, under all circumstances, two crops, manured with guano, have been saved out of three; that, if applied to autumn and early spring-planted crops, it is advantageous, but that it is dangerous in late planting. The conclusion arrived at in the use of farmyard manure is, that if used abundantly in a very rank condi- tion, and especially if applied in this state to late-planted crops, it is an extremely disadvantageous application. Ashes are a safe manure when applied by themselves, and crops have suffered little or nothing by disease throughout Britain when ma- nured with them alone, in the proportion of 27 to 4 ; and, when mixed with farmyard dung, the success has been as 54 to 1 5 — or that is, in the former case, 4 suffered much, while 27 suffered little or nothing; and in the latter, 15 suffered much, while 64 nearly escaped. Saline manures have not been productive of injury, and are per- haps beneficial. Without manure, the re- sults are favourable as regards the disease. In England, 33 cases suffered much for 96 which escaped; in Scotland, 1 suffered for 11 that escaped; in Ireland, 1 for 7; and in Wales, 1 for 2 — the whole giving 35 cases of suffering for 116 which escaped. Nothing is discernible in favour of salt; nor does sea-weed indicate a better effect. The conclusion of the whole matter may thus be summed up — That oyer-luxm-i- ance, arising from whatever cause, was highly favourable to the progress of dis- ease, and vice versa. Forcing. — The true ash-leaved kidney, Jack- son's improved kidney, British queen, early ten- weeks, Soden's early Oxford, early Manly, golden dwarf, and others of a like early description, should be chosen for this purpose, selecting whole tubers of medium size, and placing them close together, either in shallow boxes filled with light rich sandy soil, or on the borders of an early peach-house or vinery ; or, better still, among half-decayed leaves placed on the surface of a moderate hot-bed, one light of which will be sufficient space to excite a sufficient number of sets to plant a pit of 15 or 18 sashes — that is, nearly 100 feet in length — of a 6-feet pit. The genial heat from the leaves below will gradually excite the tubers (but on no account must the process be hurried, for too rapid excitement would cause an undue excitability in the sap, and greatly weaken the embryo shoots), while the humidity arising from the leaves below will prevent any loss taking place in the juices of the plant by unnecessary evaporation, the young roots of which will strike into the partially de- cayed leaves which will adhere to them, and render their removal a safe and easy matter. When the shoots have attained the height of 3 inches, they should be transplanted into a light soil, laid 4 inches in thickness on the surface of a bed of dung and leaves, in a slight state of fermentation. We do not usually, unless the heat is rather strong, cover the whole surface of the bed at once with soil, but only lay it in ridges across, about a foot apart, centre from centre, and on these set the plants, filling up the intervening spaces afterwards as the heat of the bed declines, and as the roots extend. By this means the heat from the bed has free means of ascending upwards to warm the atmosphere of the pit. The plants are set 4 inches apart in the lines. It should be remarked, that a very slight excess of bottom-heat is very prejudicial to this plant, causing them to become, in a few days, drawn up, slender, and etiolated in colour ; and the same bad effect is produced by a deficiency of ventilation. At the same time, cold must be excluded, for few plants suffer sooner by frost than this ; covering the glasses nightly with felt, or wooden shutters made to fit the sashes over which they are to be placed {.iiide fig. 789, and Sect. 5, On covering the rooes of glass-houses and PITS, roR the exclusion oe cold ob the reten- tion or HEAT, &0., vol. i. p. 5S1 ), is a much better precaution than employing extra heat in the bed. Although we have mentioned a bed of fer- menting material, we do so, not that it is better than, or even so convenient as, growing them in a tanked pit (of which figs. 629, 631, and 632, vol. i, pp. 450, 461, may be referred to as exam- ples), which of all other modes is the best for all sorts of kitchen-garden productions required at an unseasonable period of the year. Indeed, for all such purposes we expect to see the day when long narrow borders shall be constructed, with vaults under them, and these heated with hot- water pipes, or having tanks of water circulating under them. In such cases, all that is required is an extent of common frames and sashes to be placed over them, to cover in the whole surface. In such borders, most of the productions of the kitchen-garden may be brought to great matu- rity. Beds of fermenting material can only be advantageously employed when abundance of leaves is conveniently to be had, or where tan- ners' bark can be got for little less than carting away. Either to purchase such material, or to employ stableyard manure, would be a much more extravagant process than even that of tank- ing or vaulting the border, as noticed above. The results never can be so satisfactory, on account of the uncertainty of heat, atid the unnecessary amount of labour. Where there are extensive lawns to keep in order, or where the rotting down of tree-leaves is carried on — for the purpose either of converting them into manure, or employing them, when thoroughly reduced, and mixed with sharp river-sand, as a substitute for peat-earth for American plants — then advantage may be taken of the process of fermentation, and potatoes, pease, asparagus, lettuces, &c., all requiring very little heat, may be grown upon the massea In this way we employ leaves to a great extent. As they are gathered from the lawns and drives, they ar^ 216 CULINARY OR KITCHEN GARDEN. carried to an enclosed place, well exposed to the sun, and shut out from general view, and made up into a mass 12 or IS feet in breadth, 60 or more feet in length, and 4 feet in height. When hard trodden down, ". fine genial fermentation takes place. This mass is covered with frames and gashes, and soil is laid on the surface of the leaves to the depth of 6 inches: on this the tubers of potatoes, when sprung a few inches high, are planted, pease sown, lettuce planted, and the full-grown roots of asparagus set. The lights are put on, and in cold weather are covered with felt shutters of a size corresponding to that of the glass sashes. In such large masses a pretty uniform heat is maintained without the aid of huings ; and all the labour attending the process of culture consists in ventilating, on all favour- able occasions, protecting in cold weather by covering, and planting or sowing for successional crops. Potatoes may be placed in a slight heat, in front of a vinery or similar place, when the young shoots are sprung to the length of 3 or 4 inches ; or a better system is, when the young roots have made 2 or 3 inches' progress, to sepa- rate the plant from the tuber, and plant them in the beds as above. Examine the soil at the roots frequently, to see that they do not suffer from a deficiency of moisture, as leaves, during fermentation, give out a much less amount of vapour than stable-yard manure does ; and^if a proper degree of humidity is not kept up at the roots, the crop will be scanty and inferior in quality. When the potatoes have fairly esta- blished themselves, and their roots begin to ap- pear on the surface, lay in between the rows 3 inches of dry fine soil, that has been kept for some time under cover, choosing a fine warm day for the purpose. Forcing potatoes in pots was successfully prac- tised by the late T. A. Knight, Esq., the essence of whose practice is to the following effect : At the season when the general crop of early potatoes is ripe, and in the process of being taken up, select tubers having perfect eyes, and plant then in 6-inoh pots, one tuber in a pot. Bury the pots in the ground till they are required for planting ; during this period, the excitability of the plants is not at all expended on account of the low temperature at which they vegetate, and therefore, when plunged in the hot-bed, they instantly shoot with very great rapidity, and in a few days begin to generate tubers. One stem alone should be suffered to grow in each pot; for where more remain, the tubers are smaller, and the entire crop is not increased in weight. The embryo shoots should be rubbed off as they appear. When the plants grow in small pots, the gardener will have apparently the advantage of being able to take out the largest potatoes, by inverting the pots, without materially injur- ing the fibrous roots; but this will rarely be found possible in practice, because the plants, having the range of their roots confined to the limits of the pots, soon occupy the whole of their pasture, and therefore do not produce their tubers in succession, as they will imder ordinary circumstances. Mr Knight confined his plants, (which were naturally of a very dwarfish growth), to small pots, because, under this mode of cul_ ture, the tubers reach maturity sooner, and are superior in quality : but the crop is not so heavy as where the roots are permitted to extend more widely; and, therefore, where a larger but rather later crop is required, the best plan is to place the tubers in small pots to vegetate, and from these to remove them, with their roots and germs uninjured, to the hot-bed. " I tried," says this great experimentalist, " the effect of placing a few tubers on the floor of my cellar, disposing them just in contact with each other, and as soon as the germs were about 4 inches long, a hot-bed was made to receive them. This experiment succeeded perfectly ; and as it is not attended with so much expense and trouble as either of tlie preceding methods, it will be found, in most cases, the most eligible. All that appears necessary to obtain an early crop is to advance the growth of the plant as much as convenient under a low temperature, so as to avoid all unnecessary expenditure of its excitability, and consequently to preserve its germs and roots, as much as possible, uninjured by transplanta- tion." We have long grown the potato in pots, and with sufficient success ; but we would always recommend the tubers being planted in the pots as soon as they are ripe. By this process, the slow and gradual vegetation is brought into action, and the pots can be placed in any out-of-the- way place until the young shoots begin to appear above the ground, at which period, for reasons that requii'e no explanation, they should be placed in a light and airy situation. Some will vegetate sooner than others, and those that do so should be first removed to the Ught ; and a better place for them cannot be found than a cool pit covered with glass, or suspended shelves placed near the top of a vinery or peach-house, but always where frost cannot reach them. This slow process of germination is admirably adapted for those that are to be placed in a little higher temperature towards the end of January or middle of February, or even later; but for those intended to be excited by the end of November or middle of December, a little more heat will be required than that stated above. Of course, a crop thus early produced can never be ex- pected to be so good as one produced later in the season. It is, however, a good plan to have all the tubers intended for forcing planted in pots, or laid on a floor, as Knight has recom- mended, and to draw from that stock crop after crop as they are to follow in succession. The London market-garden practice for forc- ing early potatoes is thus detailed by Mr Cuthill in his work already quoted : " When potatoes are wanted early, a long bed 5 feet wide is dug out to the depth of 2 feet. This trench is filled with hot dung, on which 6 inches deep of the surrounding mould is put. Middle-sized whole potatoes are used for planting : they are placed in close succession along the bed, covered with 2 inches of mould, hooped, and covered over with mats and straw. In about a mouth they wiU have sprouted ; frames are then got ready, placing 2 feet of hot manure along the whole line of frammg, which is sometimes 100 yards in length ; the mould is put on to the depth of 8 inches ; the potatoes are carefully taken up ESCULENT-ROOTED PLANTS.— THE POTATO. 217 from the striking-bed, all shoots are removed except the main one, and they are planted 4 inches deep. Radishes are then sown thinly over them, covering lightly with mould. When the haulm of the potato has grown to about 6 inches in height, the points are nipped ofif : this is done in order to give the radishes fair play; and although it may stop the growth for a few days, still the crop is always excellent. The plants are never moulded up, a plan which weakens the potato more than anything else. After planting, nothing more is required but to admit plenty of air, and give water," and, of course, exclude frost : " the crop is not dug up untU it has come to maturity." Potatoes are also largely grown in hooped beds in the open ground, the tubers being sprouted as above described. " The beds or ridges are dug out 2 feet deep in January, filled with hot dung, and covered with the surrounding mould to the depth of 10 inches. The potatoes are taken up and planted 5 inches deep, and above all ra- dishes are sown. The ridges are then hooped over, allowing about 2 feet of space in the middle between the mould and the hoop. They are covered with mats and straw ; but, as soon as the radish has come up, they are uncovered daily, and covered again every night. This is continued till the potatoes are ready for digging in May; for sometimes large losses are occa- sioned by a sudden change of weather on cold April nights." As regardS the sorts grown for eaily forcing, our authority also states that Mr Fitch, a very extensive grower at Fulham, cul- tivates the true early shaw: many grow the ash-leaved kidney, because it always fetches the highest price ; while Mr Cuthill himself prefers the lapstone kidney, as being the best flavoured, most mealy and productive. This variety is a great favourite with us ; but we have not found it so good for forcing as the ash-leaved kidney and golden dwarf. The following deception is common in the early-potato trade : The old tubers of the Corn- wall kidneys are kept back till July, and then planted. " They grow fast, but the crop never ripens before frost sets in ; as soon as the haulm is cut down, large quantities of straw are put on the ground, and towards Christmas the tubers are dug up, put into 1-lb. and 2-lb. baskets, and sold for new potatoes at from 6d. to 8d. per lb." They are full of water and tasteless, and the skin remains firmly attached ; and, when cooked, they have very little resemblance to new pota- toes, except in size and external appearance. The substitution of immaturely-ripened pota- toes — of a variety known as the Dutch winter potatoes, for early-forced ones — is largely practised in Covent Garden market. Twenty- five years ago, we had these potatoes sent from Holland, with instructions to plant in autumn in the open ground, and statement that they would grow all winter, and be fit for use early in spring. The result was, that the tubers came into use exactly at the same time as did those of the ash-leaved kidney and several others planted in March. This is a small round potato, with a very uniform outline and smooth skin, by no means uncommon in the vegetable mar- kets abroad as oue of their ordinary sorts. If the old tubers be kept back till July and then planted, an abundant crop of immaturely- formed young tubers will be found at the roots ; and, if kept in the ground till they are required, they have all the external appearance of fine forced potatoes, but not one of their qualities. Young potatoes, during winter, are produced by selecting the largest tubers of almost any variety in spring, placing them in a cool cellar to retard vegetation. The embryo sprouts as they appear are rubbed off until the mouth of August or September, when they are removed to a warmer place — the floor of a mushroom- house, for example. Here they are laid upon a bed of Ught sandy soil, about 10 inches apart from each other; they are then covered over with similar soil 4 or 5 inches deep, watered with tepid water, and allowed to remain so tQl December, at which time numbers of young potatoes will be found attached to the old tubers by a transformation of the matter in the latter into young potatoes, and this without the pro- duction of stems or leaves. They may, for the same purpose, be packed in soil in old casks, boxes, or, indeed, anything that will keep the soil together ; and they may be placed in any out-of-the-way place, if in a temperature of from 50° to 60°. Taking the crop, and subsequent preserva- tion. — The early varieties are taken up for use as they attain the required size, which, in warm exposures, wiU be about the beginning of June, and so on till the middle of July in less favourable places. Some remove the soil partially from about the roots, and gather the largest tubers, leaving the smaller ones for a week or so longer,in the expectation of their attaining a larger size. It is seldom, however, that this mode of proceeding realises the hopes of the grower, for the potato, if once dis- turbed at the roots, seldom recovers the check. It is, therefore, better to take up the crop as it is required, and immedi- ately replant the ground with something else. For private use, only as many should be taken up daily as may be re- quired for that day, as they will not keep good above a day or two ; and hence the inferior quality of those young potatoes brought to the London markets from the Continent, compared with those grown in the vicinity. The end of May in England, and the beginning of June in favoured spots in Scotland, is the commencement of potato-taking; while, on less favoured situ- ations, it is delayed till the beginning of July, even where partially protected. A week's delay in commencing on the crop is of much impoi-tanoe to the bulk and 218 CULINARY OR KITCHEN GARDEN. quality, for at those periods, particularly if the weather is warm, and accompanied with " May showers," the young tubers swell amazingly fast. In July, August, and September, they will be in fine condi- tionfor familyuse. Those intended forseed should be gone over, and if any spurious ones have crept in by accident, tliey had better be removed, as they will be readily distinguished by their haulm from the others. When the foliage of these begins to decay they may be lifted, so that the ground may be cropped with something else ; and if they are buried in a deep pit, in a dry yet cool shady place, they will require no further care till the season of planting arrives. Care, however, must be taken that they are not laid in too great quantities together, for fear of their heat- ing ; and also that each sort be kept sepa- rate and correctly named, to prevent con- fusion at planting time. Late varieties constitute the great bulk of crop, and are those which require most care in taking up and storing. So long as the haulm continues green, the potato should be allowed to remain in the ground, as this is quite indicative that the tubers have not arrived at full ripened maturity, which again is indicated when the haulm begins to wither and die off. This is an important point in their management, so far, at least, as relates to those intendedfor the table, in which flouri- ness (or starch) cannot too much abound; and unless fully ripened, that conver- sion cannot properly take place. The art of keeping potatoes (if really free from the disease) is founded upon sufficiently cor- rect principles, the leading point of which is exclusion from light ; for if this is not attended to, they not only become injured in their nutritious qualities, but are ac- tually rendered poisonous when allowed to become of a green colour, which they readily will do if exposed to light — and this the sooner, if vegetation is in the least ex- cited. Keeping them in potato-houses, therefore, unless so constructed as to ex- clude light, must be considered injurious to them. In this state of darkness they should be placed the very day they are taken out of the ground ; and it were better that they were stored by in rather a damp state, than that they should be exposed for a day to the light with a view to dry them. Drying has a bad effect on the skin of the potato, for if subjected to this, the skin and part of the epidermis are made to part with their natural juices, which ever afterwards renders them incapable of absorbing moisture, even if presented to them. Fermentation is an important evil tq guard against, as it changes the whole substance of the tuber, and, so far as seed- potatoes are concerned, destroys their vegetative principle. To guard against this, they should be placed in small quan- tities together, in long narrow ridges with partitions of earth between them, divid- ing the whole into compartments of a size such as will probably be sufficient to supply the wants of the owner for a week or so at a time. Potatoes once dried should never be again wetted imtil they are going to be used. Straw or any other littering matter is an objectionable cover- ing for potatoes, for by its decomposi- tion carburetted hydrogen is formed, and mixes more readily amongst the potatoes in the heap than it escapes through the soil laid over it. The greatest care should be taken that all tubers bruised or cut during the operation of lifting should be kept by themselves for immediate use ; and were it not that potato-lifters would think us far too fastidious, we would say every one whose skin is broken should be rejected also, with the same care and upon the same principle that all apples bruised at gathering are kept apart from those sound ones carried to the fruit-room. Keeping potatoes has the effect of di- minishing tiie quantity of starch in them ; those in October, according to Mr John- ston (in " Agricultural Chemistry and Geology," p. 329), which yielded readily 17 per cent of starch, gave in the follow- ing April only 14i per cent. The effect of frost is also to lessen the quantity of starch. It acts chiefly upon the vascular and albuminous part, but it also converts a portion of the starch into sugar — hence the sweetish taste of frosted potatoes. The housing of potatoes, unless such quantities as are required for immediate use, is exceedingly wrong in principle, as is also the manner in which many are carelessly pitted out of doors. The points to be kept in view are, a dry airy exposed situation, having a northern exposure and perfectly dry below, and piling the pota- toes on a smooth level surface not lower ESCULENT- BOOTED PLANTS.— THE POTATO. 219 than the surrounding soil, in long narrow ridges 3 feet on the base and 2 feet in the perpendicular, the sorts to be kept separate with earthen partitions as stated above. It is better to pile the whole stock in one or two long ridges than to have a dozen of small conical ones scattered about, and from which the frost and heat are seldom properly excluded. We prefer the floor of the pit to be level with the surface, to prevent the chance of damp ; and also having the whole stock in one place for convenience of covering, turning over if need be, and for taking out as required. If the tubers are stored when very wet, and fears arise on this head, a row of drain-tiles may be laid along the floor u.nder the potatoes open at both ends, but secured against the intrusion of mice or rats by placing a fine wire covering over their orifices. A tile-pipe or two may be placed with a like precaution, communi- cating with them, and passing like a small chimney through the top of the pit. During winter, these may be all left open for the circulation of air ; but by the be- ginning of February they should be com- pletely stopped up, to prevent the en- trance of heated air from without : at that time all danger from fermentation will have ceased. Where turf can be got conveniently, a course of it, with the green side uppermost, may be laid over the tubers, but no littering matter whatever ; and if turf cannot be conveniently got, lay the soil on at once. The object of covering is twofold — first, to exclude frost and wet; and secondly, to exclude heat: now earth, although no bad non-conductor of heat or cold, is not sufficient of itself to answer our purpose; therefore, after 9 or 1 inches of soil are laid on, thatch the whole over 1^ feet in thickness with straw, fern, heath, or any similar non-conducting material. This is more particularly ne- cessary with those that are to be kept till a late period in the spring, to last till new potatoes come in, which cannot be kept at too low a temperature. With the general stock, all that is required is to exclude wet and frost, therefore the thatching need not be so thick. In stor- ing late potatoes for spring, use the prin- ciple of the ice-stack (figs. 720, 721) ; and what has been said regarding the keeping of ice (vol. i.. Section Ice-house) should be strictly kept in view. Approved sorts and their qualities. — Potatoes are divided by cultivators into early and late sorts. The names, we should observe, are very arbitrary, most localities having their favourite sorts, and consequently their own names. An extended list would, therefore, be of little gene- ral utility, more especially in the present un- healthy state of the plant. We will, therefore, coniine ourselves to the best of the early and second early varieties (which for the most part constitute the garden sorts), the names of which are more permanent. Ash-leaved kidney. — One of the most popular sorts for forcing, and also for the earliest crop in the open borders. It fetches a better price in the market than any other, is exceedingly thin-skinned, of good form, and with few eyes. Should be planted whole, with the end contain- ing the eyes uppermost ; or, if cut, the incision should be made lengthways through the centre. Jackson^s improved ash'leaved kidney. — A se- lected variety from the last, of larger size, greater hardiness, and a more productive bearer. Not quite so early as the last, and, being better set with eyes, is much less liable to remain in the ground without springing : an excellent sort. British queen. — A round potato of dwai'f and prolific habit ; one of the earhest. Soden'searly 0;c/ord.— Around potato of recent origin ; very early, aud well adapted for forcing. Fox's seedling. — A popular early potato about London, either for forcing, or for earliest crops in the open air. There appears little difference between this variety and that of early Manley and early Cockney. Tubers round, white, rather waxy. Early frame and early ten-weeks are very simi- lar. Indeed, any of the last five sorts may be grown with advantage, particularly for forcing, and the earliest border crops. Jackson's golden drop. — Very dwarf in haulm, of good quality, and well adapted for forcing. Skin tender, and a productive cropper. Rufford kidney. — A long-famed Lancashire variety, not in very general cultivation elsewhere. It is a very early variety, mealy, well-flavoured, and stands the frost better than any other early sort. It is also known as the lady's finger. The most comprehensive as well as the best descriptive lists of potatoes, are those published by Messrs Peter Lawson and Son, the eminent niu'serymen and seedsmen, Edinburgh, first in their "Agriculturist's Manual" some years ago, and more recently in their " Vegetable Products of Scotland," a work of much research and great accuracy, invaluable both to the gardener and farmer. These lists are rendered valuable, as they comprise all the known varieties, with clear descriptions " as to the habit of growth, nature and colour of foliage and flower; the shape and colour of the tubers, and peculiarities of the skin; with general remarks as to their use and comparative value for the table," — forming a very safe guide, from which the cultivator may select suitable varieties, and reject such as may appear unadapted to his soil, or which, for other reasons, may seem unworthy of culture. From the last of these works we have made the following selection, omitting, however, all 220 CULINARY OR KITCHEN GARDEN. such as are described as unhealthy, or of second- ary merit : — " Earliest garden sorts adapted for forcing, ore accownt of their dmarf habit of growth. — Ea/rly framie, common. — Stem slightly reclined ; about 14 feet high ; tuber medium-sized, and roimd; colour whitish and roughish ; mealy, good fla- vour, and healthy. " Fox's ea/rly delight. — Stem growing upright ; about 14 feet high ; tuber slightly hollow at the end, of a roimdish shape ; colour whitish, and slightly rough-netted hke ; mealy, superior fla- vour, and healthy. " Fox's early globe. — Stem slender and reclin- ing ; about 1 foot high ; tuber round, and few- eyed ; colour whitish, slightly rough, and netted- like ; mealy, good flavour, and healthy. " Fox's John Bull, or early kidney. — Stem slen- der and reclining; about IJ feet high; tuber long, nearly uniform thickness ; colour whitish, and smooth; pretty mealy, good flavour, and healthy. " London dwarf kidney. — Stem slender and rechning ; about 1 foot high ; tuber flat, thickest near the point; eyes prominent; colour whitish, and smooth; waxy at small end; indifferent fla- vour, and healthy. "Williamson's favourite. — Stem slender and reclining; about 14 feet high; tuber slightly elongated; colour whitish, and smooth; mealy, good flavour, and healthy. " Earliestgarden potatoes,not so well adapted for forcing as the preceding, on account of their taller habit of growth. — Ash-leaved early. — Stem up- right and loose ; about If feet high ; tuber roundish; colour whitish, and roughish; me- dium flavour, but healthy. " Chapman's early kidney. — Medium between the ash-leaved and July kidney; resembles the latter in form. " Early seedling. — Stem slender and strag- gling; about 2 feet high; tuber round, few-eyed; colour whitish, and smooth; mealy, superior fla- vour, and very healthy. " Eopetoun early. — Stem strong and upright ; about 2 feet high ; tuber large, round, with few eyes ; colour dull white, rough, and netted-like ; mealy, good flavour, and very healthy. Per- haps the most superior variety in the class to which it belongs. " Invermay early. — Stem spreading; about If feet high; tuber round; colour very white, and smooth ; mealy, good flavoured, and very healthy. "Kay's early American. — Stem slender and spreading ; about 1^ feet high ; tuber slightly oblong and flattish; colour light red, and roughish; mealy, medium flavour, and very healthy. " London pa,riicular. — Stem rather upright and compact; about 2 feet high; tuber round, or slightly elongated; colour whitish, and roughish; medium, good flavour, and very healthy. " Main's particoloured seedling. — Resembles the ash-leaved kidney in form, but rather larger, and the round end of a deep purple colour. Raised in 1850. " Musgrove's snow white. — Stem rather upright and compact, about 2 feet high ; tuber round. hollow at the point ; colour remarkably white, rough, and netted ; medium, good flavour, and very healthy. " Second early garden potatoes. — Caraccas. — A late, prolific, and healthy growing sort; of superior quality; roundish, slightly flattened shape ; reddish colour, and rather under the medium size. It was found wild |in Caraccas. This variety is also known by the names of the American and the Prince-regent potato. " Dwarf American early. — Stem pretty up- right, about 1 foot high; tuber sHghtly flattened; colour white, and rough ; mealy, good flavour, and pretty healthy. " Early Wellington. — Stem slender and spread- ing, about IJ feet high; tuber round; coloiu' yellowish white, and very rough; mealy, good flavour, and very healthy. " Qoldrfinder. — A very tall, luxuriant-growing, and productive variety, with white, shghtly ob- long, and somewhat flattened tubers; reputed as being of superior quality, and yielding a good crop, even on inferior soUs, and with little ma- nure. '■^ Lawhead early red. — Stem slender and spreading, about 2 feet high; tuber very round; colour dark red, and roughish; mealy, good fla- vour, and healthy. " Lawhead early white. — Stem rather slender and spreading, about IJ feet high; tuber rather large; colour whitish, very rough, and netted; mealy, good flavour, and pretty healthy. " Lawson's conqueror. — Very similar to Peffer- mill prolific, but tubers generally of a larger size. "Matchless kidney. — Stem upright and com- pact, about 1 J feet high; tuber oblong; eyes few and prominent ; colour white, and smooth ; mealy, superior flavour, and medium healthy. " New ea/rly Windsor seedling. — Stem rather slender and spreading, about IJ feet high; tuber round; colour white, and smoothish; mealy, good flavour, and very healthy; of excellent quahty, being dry, mealy, and of an agreeable flavour, and very prolific. "Painted lady, early. — Stem upright and com- pact, about l| feet high ; tuber irregularly round; colour white and reddish; rather waxy, flavour medium, and healthy. " PeffermiU prolific. — Medium - sized ; skin roughish ; eyes deep ; roimdish shape, inclining to a flattened oblong; colour huffish white. "Prince of Wales' early. — Stem strong and upright, about 2 feet high; tuber large, slightly oblong, and flat; colour white, and smooth; rather mealy, good flavour, and very healthy. " Prince Regent. — The commonest white po- tato in the Scotch market; similar as to quality, but rounder in shape than thePeflfermill prolific. "Ross's pigma kidney. — Stem spreading, about 1 foot high; tuber small, long, crooked, and few- eyed; colour whitish, and roughish; mealy, su- perior flavour, and medium healthy. " Rough Robs. — The potato to which this name has been applied is a healthy-growing and pro- lific second early, roundish shaped, slightly flat- tened, and reddish coloured; rough-skinned tu- bers; and is much esteemed in the lower part of Argyllshire and neighbouring districts, for the purpose of succeeding the earlier white sorts. ESCULENT-ROOTED PLANTS.— THE POTATO. 221 " Seelc-7io-fmiher.— Stem compact and bushy, about 14 feet high; tuber round; colour white, rough, and slightly netted; mealy, good flavour, and healthy. " Smith's yellow Peruvian. — Tubers rather un- der the medium size ; roundish, or slightly elon- gated, with numerous deeply-sunk eyes, and of a yellowish-white colour. This is a healthy- growing and superior late sort, having a peculiar yellow-coloured flesh ; received from its native country, Peru. " Tall American early. — Stem strong and pretty upright, about 2 feet high; tuber flat- tened; colour very white, and rough; mealy, good flavour, and very healthy. " Taylor's forty-fold. — Stemslenderandspread- ing, about IJ feet high; tuber oval, and much flattened; colour rough and dull reddish; mealy, superior flavour, and very healthy. " White Sutherland kidney. — Stem very up- right and compact, about If feet high; tuber curved, fiat, and small towards the stalk ; colour whitish, rough, and netted; mealy, good flavour, and healthy." The number of potatoes described in Messrs Lawsons' work is 17S ; .-and as the whole have been grown in their extensive experimental grounds, and their conditions carefully recorded by competent persons, we consider their list as the best data in existence by which their respec- tive merits may be calculated. The garden va- rieties extend to fifty-eight in number, and from these our selection has been made. The nomenclature adopted above is -that by which the varieties of potato are best known in Scotland; but an examina- tion of the models of them, no w in the Botanical Museum in the Royal Gar- dens at Kew, will enable those inter- ested to recognise th& sorts, although presented to them under new names. Second earlies. — Early Shaw, or Shaves eoHy, a variety grown exten- sively by the London market-garden- ers for forcing, to come to market in May. It is, for an early sort, a large, beautiful, oblong, white-skinned po- tato, whose only fault is its hollow eyes. It is very productive. American early. — One of the most valuable potatoes ever grown. How long it has been in. cultivation we have no knowledge, farther than it was well known to us fifty years ago. It has always maintained a good po- sition in the estimation of cultiva- tors, being very productive, of me- dium and uniform size, and of excel- lent quality from August tiU the following spring. It has resisted the epidemic better than any other sort. Round, yellowish white, very flow- ery at an early stage. Fifty-fold. — A most extraordinary cropper; tubers not very large, of uni- form size, and keep welL Ewrly champion. — Tubers large, round, white ; very prolific, and in high estimation in the London market. VOL. II. Lapstone kidney. — Decidedly the best kidney- potato grovm ; an excellent cropper ; tubers sometimes 7 inches in length and 3 in breadth. We have remarked of this sort, that it is longer in coming through the ground in spring than most others ; and the stems at first appear weakly, but they soon lose this appearance, and grow most vigorously. It is a first-rate potato for the table in August and September, and wiU keep in excellent condition till May following, without losing either its meaUness or flavoiu-. It is of Yorkshire origin, said to have been raised •by a cobbler, and hence the name. Many of the late varieties, which were for a time popular, have disappeared, and others are yearly coming into notice — a circumstance easily accounted for, seeing how freely the potato is reared from seed. A catalogue of sorts was published in 1842 by Mr^Chatwin, enumerating and describing above ISO varieties. On the Continent the sorts are ■innumerable, but chiefly small, as the potato is there regarded more as an article of food for man than for the inferior animals. The last five sorts are chiefly of English origin, or cultivated more largely there than in Scot- land. They are not included in Messrs Lawsons' descriptive lists. Insects and diseases. — The Aphis nastator is frequently found on the leaves of the plants ; but so far from its being the cause of the disease, as asserted by Mr Smee, it is seldom found upon them in sufficient numbers to produce much effect. The larva of Noctua exclamationis (the heart-and-dart moth,'fig. 71) is far more destruo- "Pig. 93. DEATH S-IIRAD MOTH AND CATERPILLAR. Half natural size. 222 CULINARY OR KITCHEN GARDEN. tive. It attacks the haulm just under the sur- face of the soil, and perforates right through it, and not unfrequently cuts it asunder. It also attacks the tubers, and may often he detected in them at taking-up time. The ■wire-worm or click-beetles, of which no fewer than sixty species occur in Britain, in their larva state, often attack the tubers ; of the larvas of Cataphagus lineatus, fig. 19, we have found as many as forty-seven attached to one moderate-sized potato. Their presence in soils cropped with autumn-planted potatoes we dread much more than frost, or any other cvU that could befall the sets. C. obscurus is most abundant in Scotland, and although we are not deficient in any of the Elateridaj tribe, still it seems to be the most destructive. The caterpillar of that beautiful and rare insect, the death's-head hawk-moth (fig. 93), is sometimes found on the stems of potatoes, but not to such an extent as to infiict very great injury. The caterpillar of Bepialus lupulinus (the garden swift) is often destructive to the potato. " The moth. Pig. 94. usually, is chalky brown, head and tho- rax woolly, and its upper vrings dark-bright brown, with a broad line of white ; but sometimes this is absent, and at other times theupperwings are chalky white. These moths appear about the end of May, and are very abundant in the evening in meadows and other grassy places. They deposit their eggs apparently indiscriminately, which soon hatch, and the caterpillars produced are cylindrical and yellowish white, with black dots and hairs on the upper part and sides of their segments. The caterpillar changes to an ochre- ous shining cylindrical pupa." — Gardeners' Chronicle. In the latter state it is often very destructive to potato roots. The curl, which committed no small devasta- tion on the potato crops some years ago, is now little heard of. Opinions as to its cause, and the remedies proposed, were both about as con- flicting as those of the present more fatal epi- demic. The cause of the scab or ulcers on the skin of the potatoes has been as little under- stood as either— some attributing it to the ma- nures applied, and others to certain ingredients in the soil. It is now less heard of; superior cultivation has probably effected, so far, a cure in this case. The rook is gravely charged with making free vsith our seed- potatoes as soon as they are planted, and also helping himself to a few full-grown ones in autumn. We believe, if the matter were investigated by even a less en- thusiastic ornithologist than Mr Charles Water- ton, that it would be found the seed-potatoes purloined, in most cases, are infested with wire- worms, which are attracted to the sets as soon as they are placed in the ground. We have GARDEN SWIFT AND CATERPILLAR. Natural size. long ago satisfied ourselves upon this point, and will never kiU one of these birds ; but those that are sceptical may do so, and on dissecting the maw they vrill find abundant evidence as to this point in the numbers of wire-worms contained in it. It is possible that, during the short period of incubation, hunger may drive them to steal a few sets, but it is searching for the vrire-worm more than the potato that leads them to the newly-planted fields. The important services the rook performs to man in the destruction of his more-to-be-dreaded enemies are so great, that they should be admitted as evidence to character when he is arraigned at the bar of vul- gar prejudice. Nothing like a correct opinion, we believe, can be offered regarding the cause of the disease which has for some years more or less been dis- astrous to the potato crop. All, therefore, that can be done, in our present state of know- ledge on the subject, is to apply the best reme- dies we can. Our own opinion has all along been in favour of autumnal planting, not as anin- falUble remedy by any means, but as one of very considerable mitigation. Nor are we alone in holding this opinion. Out of sixty-four returns furnished by various individuals throughout England and Wales of the state of the general crop of 1849, fifty-three were in favour of au- tumnal planting, while only eleven were against it. In England, those planted in autumn were by the same report stated to be better, in the proportion of thirteen to eleven, than those planted in January and February; and had these reports extended to May — for even to that late period do some people delay the fin- ishing of their potato planting — the difference in favour of autumnal planting would have even been much greater. General remarhs. — The potato appears to change its character by change of climate or circumstances. Most of the Scotch and Irish varieties degenerate when removed to England, and often when removed from one district of the same country to another. They soon de- generate when taken to the West Indies; and although cultivated by our countrymen in many parts of the East Indies, where they yield good crops, yet are they deficient in that flavour pe- culiar to them in Britain. The most extraor- dinary change of character we recollect of is that recorded by Phillips, on the authority of Samuel Bate, Esq., who went vrith the first settlers to Van Diemen's Land. He took out about half a bushel of potatoes for seed, which were all of one kind ; but to his great surprise, when they were dug up, he had five distinct varieties — viz., the white champion, the round red, the kidney, a small round potato, and the variety commonly called the miller's thumb. A sample of each of these was afterwards sent into a warmer climate, where, on being planted, they all degenerated into one, the original variety ! " The best rules to obtain and preserve sound potatoes and a good crop are — 1. Grow none but those which ripen by August ; 2. Plant whole middle-sized potatoes; 3. Plant on mo- derately-light soil, manured some months pre- viously; 4. Apply no manure at the time of ESCULENT-ROOTED PLANTS.-JERUSALEM ARTICHOKE. ^23 planting ; 5. Plant in November, in light dry soils, but not until February in wet soils ; 6. Preserve seed-potatoes between layers of earth until required ; 7. Plant as you dig — that is, dig enough for one row, and then plant it with the dibber, so as to avoid trampling on the ground." Why not plant in the trench as the digging goes on ? " 8. Let the tops of the sets be 6 inches below the surface; 9. Do not earth up the stems; 10. Do not cut down the stems; 11. Take up the crop as soon as the leaves begin to look yellow, in July or early in August; 12. Store in a dry shed between layers of earth, sand, or coal-ashes." — Cottage Gardeners' Dictionary, p. 741. The European names are, Pomme de Terre in French ; Tartufl biauchi, or Pomo di Terra, in Italian ; Kartoffel in German ; Batata da Terra in Portuguese ; Aardappel in Dutch ; and Batatas Inglezas in Spanish. § 4. — THE JERUSALEM ARTICHOKE. Natural history. — The Jerusalem artichoke {Helianthus tuberoms L.) belongs to the natural order Compositae, sub-order Helianthese, and to the class Syngenesia and order Frustranea. The generic name is derived from Helios, sun, and Anthos, a flower, from the resemblance of the flowers of the genus to that luminary, which they are supposed to look towards while the earth is illuminated by his hght. The popular name Jerusalem is merely a corruption of its Italian name Oirasole, and artichoke is derived from the resemblance in flavour which the tubers have to the bottoms of artichokes. Parkinson, in whose time it was introduced, calls it Battatas de Canada. Coles describes them, forty years after- wards, as the Potatoes of Canada. In Martyn's edition of Miller's " Gardeners' Dictionary " we are informed that they were called so because the French brought them "first out of Canada to these parts ; not that they are natives of that country, but had been introduced there from Brazil." A writer in the " Penny Cyclopaedia," but upon what authority he does not mention, says this plant was introduced into Europe at the Famese garden at Rome, from whence it was originally distributed. They were first planted in England in 1617, and so rapidly did their cultivation proceed that before 1629 they were so common in London " that even the most vulgar began to despise them." Parkinson remarks that in his time " they were baked in pies, with marrow, dates, ginger, raisins, sack, &c. ; but the too frequent use, especially being so plentiful and cheap, hath rather bred a loathing than a liking for them." We notice this plant thus largely because the advent of its restoration to cultivation has commenced, and also to show that they may yet be produced abundantly, which their long-neglected state induces some to doubt. " The potatoes of Canada," says Coles, " called by ignorant people Jerusalem artichokes, were of great account when they were first received amongst us, but, by reason of their great increase, they are be- come common, and consequently despicable. especially by those who think nothing good unless it be dear ; but if any one please to put them into boiling water, they will quickly be- come tender, so that being peeled, sliced, and stewed with butter and a little wine, they will be as pleasant as the bottom of an artichoke." The whole genus, except S. tuherosus, flowers most profusely, but, in consequence of its sel- dom producing flowers, few varieties have been produced. This is to be regretted, because if so, improved varieties might be expected, as has occurred in the case of the potato. Some varieties are said to have been produced in France, where it is much more extensively grown than with us, but of their merits little has hitherto transpired. The improvement wished for would be, increase in the size and number of the tubers, and a dwarfer habit in its growth. From the experiments made by Messrs Payen, Poinsot, and Terey, and published in the "Jour, de Pharm.," vol. xvi. p. 434, it appears that 100 parts of the tuber contain 23.96 parts of nutritious substance, or twice as much as is obtained from the potato, and some- thing more than the cerealia contains. The tubers on which these experiments were made were grown on a sandy soil of moderate good- ness, which had been manured with ammonico- phosphate of magnesia. A state of flowering might be induced by removing the tubers as soon as formed, so as to throw the strength which would otherwise be consumed by them into the stem, on the principle pointed out by Mr Knight in regard to causing early potatoes to produce flowers. " I took," he says, " several methods of placing the plants to grow in such a situation as enabled me readily to preverit the formation of tuberous roots, but the following appearing the best, the others need not be re- ferred to. Having fixed strong stakes in the ground, I raised the mould in a heap round the bases of them, and in contact with the stakes ; on their south sides I planted the potatoes from which I wished to obtain seeds. When the young plants were about 4 inches high, they were secured to the stakes with shreds and nails, and the mould was then washed away by a strong current of water from the bases of their stems, so that the fibrous roots only of the plants entered into the soil. The fibrous roots of this plant are perfectly distinct organs from the nmners which give existence, and subsequently convey nutriment, to the tuberous roots ; and as the runners spring only from the stems of the plants, which are, in the mode of culture I have described, placed wholly out of the soil, the formation of tuberous roots is easily prevented: and whenever this is done, numerous blossoms will soon appear, and almost every blossom will afford fruit and seed." From this Mr Knight concluded " that the same fluid or sap gives existence alike to the tuber and the blossom and seeds, and that whenever a plant of the potato affords either seeds or blos- soms, a diminution of the crop of tubers, or au increased expenditure of the riches of the soil, must necessarily take place." By these means he succeeded in producing varieties of sufii- ciently luxuriant growth and large produce for 224 CULINAEY OR KITCHEN GAEDEN. general culture, which never produced blos- soms. — HwtioiHiural Society's Transactions, voL i. p. 188. If similar means were adopted in the case of the Jerusalem artichoke, there is little doubt that improved varieties would be produced; and in their case the want of blossoms may arise as much from their disposition to form tubers in an early stage of their growth, as from (as is gene- rally supposed) a deficiency of climate. Use. — The tubers may be used in every way like the potato, and, being more nourishing and less flatulent, may be eaten by people in delicate health, when debarred from the use of most other vegetables. They make one of our best white soups, " Soup de la Palestine." They are often planted in game-preserves as food for pheasants, and hares and rabbits are remarkably fond of them. Propagation. — The small tubers are saved for planting whole, or the larger ones may be cut into one or two pieces the same as potatoes, only care must be taken that one eye or bud at least be retained in each set. Planting. — Like potatoes, they may be planted the same day the crop is taken up in autumn, or at any other time when the ground is dry till the beginning of March. They are planted in every respect as recommended for potatoes, only they require a greater distance between the rows on account of their great height, which often extends to from 6 to 10 feet, and also the large size of their foliage.. The best method is to plant them in single lines at a considerable distance apart, for the same reason and in the same way as recommended for the late- growing kinds of pease. The usual mode of setting the tubers is to dibble them in, as is often done. in the case of the potato — and in both cases improperly, because, the sets not being all of the same size, the smallest ones drop to the bottom, while the larger ones are- often left suspended midway down, coming in contact with the sides of the hole, thus leaving them at unequal depths, and the latter in the worst possible position for enabling the radicles of the young roots to reach the soil. It is much better, in plant- ing all tubers, and even very large seeds, to open drills with the hoe or spade, and to- place the tubers in the bottom. Another good way is to place them in the bottom of the trench, either above or below the manure (when such is applied), as the process of digging goes on. This latter way is much the best when the land is wet or the soil strong, as treading upon it in either case, after being newly trenched or dug, would be injurious. When the sets are drilled in, they should be covered by the hoe or rake, and the soil placed over them left as loose as possible ; and in either way the tubers should be kept as near as possible to 6 inches under the surface. A piece of ground richly manured, and in an open situation, should be prepared, by being either trenched or deeply dug. The total neglect of these two conditions has long been the ruin of this esculent root, which, in general, is pushed away into some out-of-the-way corner, as if it were "branded with a mark of disgrace, and unworthy of being seen amongst the plants of the garden." In such situation it is allowed to remain for years neglected, and only visited when its tubers are sought for, which, in consequence, are smallj and scarcely fit for the purposes of the eook. The tubers should be set 3 feet apart, if set in continuous rows, row fjpom row, and 2 feet distant in the line. They will require no other attention till the following autumn, excepting keeping the ground clear of weeds. In regard to produce, they will yield as heavy a crop as ash-leaved kidney potatoes ; and the nutriment contained in that quantity will be more than double. It has been recommended to top the stems when about 3 feet in height, in the expectation of throwing a greater amount of nourish- ment into the tubers : this has not, how- ever, been found to be the result ; while the shortening of the stems makes them send out numerous side branches, causing shade, of which the plant is very impa- tient. From experiments made in the extensive nurseries of Messrs P. Lawson and Son, it clearly appears that topping, instead of being beneficial, is really inju- rious. The produce of a row 60 yards in length of plants topped, yielded only 144 lb., while that of the adjoining row, of equal length, yielded 163 lb. Neither of these rows had guano or any other kind of manure applied to them. A third row had 8 oz. of Peruvian guano applied to the surface of the soil when the stems were 3 inches in height — it yielded 188 lb. ; while a fourth had a like quantity of guano applied at the same time, but ESCULENT- ROOTED PLANTS.— JERUSALEM ARTICHOKE. 225 buried 1 inch under the surface near the roots of the plants, in which case the produce was 210 lb. We have had on a poor peaty soil, manured as for potatoes, even much greater returns of crop. Of all the substitutes recommended for the potato, no one is so likely to answer our anticipations as this. It is of as easy culture, equally hardy, affording twice as much nutriment, cooked in the same man- ner, and capable of being cultivated in the same soil. Soil and manure. — A light, warm, sandy, loamy soil, or a peaty soil, with a sufficient amount of sand to sharpen it and keep it open, is the best for this crop. In over- rich soils it is apt to grow too much to stem, and in close shaded places it is liable to be drawn up tall and slender ; in either case, with a less weight of tubers than in soils less 'enriched, and situations better exposed to the light and air. Talcing the crop, and suhsequetLt preserva- tion. — Taking the crop should be delayed so long as there is growth in the plants ; for as long as vegetation goes on, the tubers will be increasing in size. Where the ground is not required, the stem may be cut over a foot from the ground, and the tubers left in the ground till wanted,, as they are apt to turn blackish in cook- ing when exposed to the light., If the groimd is required, the tu- bers may be dug up and stored by as recommended for potatoes, separating the smaller from the larger, and replanting the former in gi'ound cleared of some of the brassicaceous or legu- minous crops, but not in ground which has borne a crop of tuberous - rooted plants. Great care should be taken, in Hfting the crop, that every tuber may be ex- traetedj and the roots should also becleared off the ground, as every tuber,however small, will grow, and prove trouble- some to the succeeding crop. The best way to lift them is to introduce a three-pronged fork, fig. 95, so deep in the ground as to reach below the tubers ; to lift the mass as entire as possible ; and to place it on the surface, when the tubers Fig. 95. THRBB-PRONGBD FORK. may readily be picked out. A few for immediate use may be buried in sand in the root-cellar, for it is a slovenly and time-wasting process to have to go to the plantation for a few roots as they may be required ; and as the taking of them, in this way, is generally done in haste, there is a greater risk of leaving some of them behind. List of approved sorts. — Generally it is consi- dered that there is only one variety ; this opi- nion, however, is incorrect, and arises out of the neglected state this excellent tuber is allowed to remain in. If the crop be carefully examined, as it should be, it will be found that there are some varieties better than others, both in size and form of tuber, and height of stem. Those, therefore, which show evidence of improvement in these respects should be saved for planting; and, in the absence of varieties being originated from seed, this is the only means at present in our power of improving their quality. In an excellent work recently published by Messrs P. Lawson St, Son, the eminent nursery- men in Edinburgh, entitled " Synopsis of tho ' Vegetable Productions of Scotland," we find two varieties described — the " Common Jerusalem Articholte," and the " Yellow Jerusalem Arti- choke" — of which latter it is said, " The tubers of this variety are of a yellowish colour, and generally smaller and more irregularly shaped than the common sort; they are also said to be superior in quality,, and of a more agreeable taste when cooked." Rhissobms HeliantJlemi (the Jerusalem arti- choke aphis, fig. 96). — Few cultivators, we sus- pect, have any idea that this proverbially hardy plant is no more exempt than almost all others from the attacks of aphi- des. Such, however, is the case; and, stranger still, instead of feeding upon the foliage, as most other aphides do, this one feeds upon the tu- bers, and forms one of a section of this tribe whose habitations are subter- ranean. The species, however, to which we now refer, confines its operations entirely to the surface of the roots of this plant, thrusting its long proboscis into the tuber, and thereby de- riving sustenance. The writer of the article Entomology in the "Gardeners' Chronicle " (1 848, p. 399), thus lucidly describes it : " We have found these insects, in the middle of winter, on digging up the tubers of this plant, generally secreting themselves in the crevices formed by the juxtaposition of two or more of the tubers. Here they are to be found in small societies, con- sisting of one or two large individuals (females), and a few small and more slender ones (young). Of course, were they to occur in great numbers,' Fig. 96. JERUSAJ.KM AUTICHOSE APHIS. 226 CULINARY OR KITCHEN GARDEN. they would deteriorate the quality of the vege- table ; but we have Beldom found above two or three dozen upon some of the scattered tubers. The full-grown insect is opaque, white, with a slight huffish tinge, finely serecious and setose ; the head and first segment of the body with a slightly greyish-brown tinge, and the legs and antennae of a light huffish brown. The antennae are moderately long, and apparently six-jointed, the third joint being the longest ; under a power- ful lens, the extremity of the sixth joint exhibits some traces of articulation. The mouth is con- structed in the same manner as all the Aphidse, and other homopterous and hemipterous insects. The four anterior legs offer nothing peculiar; their tarsi are two-jointed, but the two hind legs are inserted quite at the sides of the body ; they are long, with a long tarsus, composed of a single joint, armed at its extremity with two hooks; the peculiar lateral insertion of this pair of legs enables the insect to throw them upwards, back- wards, and forwards, in the same manner as a dytiscus throws its hind legs about. We ob- served that they used these hind legs as feelers ; the abdomen is destitute of the saccharine tube of the winged species of the family." The habits of this insect naturally point out to us a remedy against its attacks, by taking the tubers up, and washing them in lime or salt water, and after- wards storing them by for use ; and it is pro- bable that the small ones used for seed, if served in the same way, and immediately planted in a different part of the garden from where they grew, would be secured against their attacks. General rema/rhs. — The European names are — ■ Topinambour and Poire de Terre in French; Erde Apfel in German ; Aardpeeren in Dutch ; Girasole in Italian ; Girasol in Spanish. §5. -EED BEET. Natwal History. — Red Beet {Beta vulgaris L., var. rubra) belongs to the natural order Che- nopodese, and to the class Pentandria and order Digynia in the Linnsean arrangement. The generic name is derived from Bett, red, in Celtic, in allusion to the colour of its roots; others ascribe it to the second letter in the Greek alpha- bet, beta, from the fancied resemblance to it of the seed-vessel. The cultivated beets are natives of the south of Europe. The red beet was in- troduced into this country in 1546. One species, Beta maritima, or sea-beet, is a native of our southern sea-shores ; its roots are not valued, but its leaves make a good substitute for spinach, and are used as such. It would appear from Pliny that Sicily is the native country of our cultivated beets, as, in his day, the Greeks were in possession of both a black and white sort : the latter they called Sicilian beet. Few escu- lent plants were held in greater estimation than this by the epicures of ancient Rome. Several varieties have been long, and are still, cultivated on the Continent, for being manufactured into sugar. Use. — The roots are the only parts used, and are boiled and stewed, and eaten cold, with vine- gar and oil, in slices. They enter into mixed salads, and are much used for garnishing ; and for all these purposes the deeper coloured they are the more they are appreciated. Some, how- ever, it ought to be noticed, prefer them of a bright-red colour, but all must be of fine quality in fibre, solid, and of uniform colour. The roots are also eaten cut into thin slices, and baked in an oven ; dried and ground, they are sometimes mixed with coffee, and are much employed as a pickle. The juice of the roots is sometimes used by young females in the High- lands as an economical rouge. Mixed with dough, it makes a wholesome bread, but for this purpose the white or yellow-rooted sorts are preferred. The roots of all the sorts are better baked than boiled. Propagation. — All tlie varieties are produced from seed, ■which vegetates more rapidly if steeped, six or eight hours previous to sowing, in tepid water : when sown in dry soil, without this pre- caution, they are tardy in coming up — a circumstance noticed by Pliny, but rather overstretched by that historian. He says, the seed has " a strange and wonderful quality, for it will not all come up in one year, but some in the first, others in the second, and the rest in the third year." This slowness in vegetating should be taken into consideration, and the seed committed to the ground as recommended for carrots, else the weeds are apt to get ahead of the crop, and so render hoeing more tedious : one ounce of seed wiU sow a drill 150 feet in length. Sowing and planting. — Three separate sowings should be made — namely, the first in the last week of March, the second in the second week of April, and the third at the end of that month. If the seed is new, and the spring cold, plants for an earlier sowing would be apt to run to seed, instead of forming bulbs ; yet, in families of distinction, where beet is re- quired all the year, a small sowing should be made in a warm border, about the end of February, or, with much greater suc- cess, on the 1st of March, upon a very slight hot-bed. The London growers " are very particular about the time of sowing it, for one week too soon sown spoils it. It is generally put in about the first week in May; but even with the same seed, and same soil, it makes a great difference if it is transplanted, because, in removing the seedlings, all forked ones are thrown away. In this operation great care must be taken that the points of the roots are not broken off."— Cuthill, p. 26. ESCULENT -BOOTED PLANTS.— EED BEET. 227 Beet sown too early is liable to be killed by the late spring-frosts. The superior varieties of beet for salad purposes do not grow very large nor long ; yet, from their fusiform shape, it is neces- sary that the ground should be deeply trenched or dug, and finely pulverised, that the roots may meet with no obstruc- tion in their descent, to induce their be- coming forked or misshapen ; and, for the same reason, recent manure should not be applied, but ground employed which is in good condition, such as that from which celery has been removed. Although all the beets transplant well, if done while the plants are small, still it is better to sow in drills than broadcast — either to leave the crop in that way, or to trans- plant it entirely. These drills should be 18 inches apart, and 2 inches deep. Some pierce holes, 2 inches deep, with a blunt dibble, at the distances at which the plants should ultimately stand in the rows, and drop three or four seeds in each, thinning out the plants after they come up, so as to leave only one in each place. There can be no objection to this mode, more than that of sowing in the opened drills, pro- vided care is taken to place the seeds at a proper and uniform depth. In strong retentive soils beet seldom grows so clean, nor will it vegetate so freely, as in light sandy soils. To obviate this defect, and secure well- formed roots, some drive a dib- ble 4 inches in diameter into the ground, a foot or 15 inches deep, at the distance of 9 or 10 inches apart, and fill these holes with sand, in which a little salt and guano have been mixed ; in these the seeds are dropped, and thinned out as above. The roots, by this means, have less inducement to fork or send out side fibres, and in general are produced of good form and size. When blanks occur in the lines, at the period of thinning, the supei€uous ones may be taken carefully up with the small planting-fork, fig. 55, as it is im- material whether much soil is attached to the roots or not; and if planted in the blank spaces, on a moist day, they wUl succeed perfectly; — only care must be taken that the roots are not doubled up during the operation, but extended to their whole length, and the soil gently, and not too tightly, placed around them. Subsequent cultivation. — Thinning the crop to the distances stated above, and keeping the ground clear of weeds, con- stitute all that is required till the roots are fit for taking up. Soil and manure. — The soil in which the beet thrives best is that of a deep, light, sandy nature, rather dry than moist ; and the best manure, if such be required, is guano, soot, and salt, in equal propor- tions, and applied when the seed is sown; • — or, should the crop look weakly after it is 6 or 8 inches high, applied to the roots in a liqidd state. Pigeon dung incorpor- ated with the soil during the previous winter has been found beneficial ; and spirits of tar, applied at the same time, has secured the roots from the attacks of wire-worm. Much of the sweetness and tenderness of the roots depends on the soil : on poor light soils, as also on heavy ones, the very best varieties will taste earthy and unpleasant. Salt is a bene- ficial application to this crop, as well as to the green and silver beets — one reason for which undoubtedly is, the beet being a native of the sea-shore. Taking the crop, amd subsequent preserva- tion. — By the beginning of September in England, or the latter end of that monthin Scotland, the roots will be of a good size for use, and by the end of October in both they may be taken out of the ground al- together. They are sometimes destroyed by frost, more especially in the north; but leaving them in the ground destroys their colour, for which reason it is better to take them up and place them amongst sand, along with other roots, in the root- cellar, or to store them after the manner of potatoes {vide p. 218). The London mar- ket-gardeners winter their " beet in large sheds stored in moderately damp mould, and banked up with straw. It is a mis- take to pack it up in dry sand or earth for the winter; and the same may be said in regard to carrots, parsnips, salsify, scor- zonera, and similar roots." — Cuthill in Marlcet-gardening around London, p. 26. The object here is, that the moist soil may not draw the natural sap out of the roots so readily as dry sand or soil would do, and hence their tenderness; and possibly, in the case of the beet, the colour also may be preserved. In taking up the roots, the greatest care must be exercised that they are neither cut, broken, wounded on the skin, nor any of their fibres re- moved ; and when the small-leaved varie- 228 CULINARy OR KITCHEN GARDEN. ties are grown, few if any of the leaves should be cut off. A dry day should be chosen, and when the roots have been ex- posed for a few hours, to dry the soil that may adhere to them, they should be packed by as noticed above. Some prefer pack- ing the roots, for preservation during win- ter, in sifted coal- ashes, assigning as a reason that ashes are less likely to encou- rage decay; and others recommend plac- ing them on shelves elevated a little above the floor in dampish cellars, believing that the air passing around them tends to their preservation. Both plans may be good in very damp cellars, but otherwise the roots would be liable to become shrivelled and dried up. The leaves should not be cut off closer to the crown of the root than 6 or 8 inches. The roots will keep tiU the July following. List of approved sorts and their qualities. — Whyte's black. — Judging from its appearance in a growing state, it would be by most pronounced a coarse sort, on account of the largeness and want of red colour in the leaves. It is, how- ever, thedarkest beet grown, but should not be sown before May'. Castlenaudari. — A good variety, brought into notice some years ago by the London Horticul- tural Society. It is much used in France, and prized on account of its flavour, which resem- bles that of the kernel of a nut. It is' the Bette- rave rouge de Caetlenaudri of the "Bon Jar- dinier." Glen dwarf -red. — A very excellent crimson variety gi-own by Mr Handisyde of the Glen nurseries, Fisherrow; roots scarcely 9 inches in length, of uniform shape, not disposed to fork, with small thin dark- coloured leaves, scarcely 7 inches in length. Cuitel's dwarf-red and Atkim' crimson. — Very similar to the last, all the three growing a good deal above ground. Small deep-red. — We have grown this- and the following for several years from the stock of Messrs P. Lawson and Son, who describe it in " Vegetable Products of Scotland," p. 24, thus: " Leaves rather small and spreading, of a very deep red colour ; roots growing more above ground ; smaller and more bluntly tapered than those of the common ' red beet ;' both in skin and flesh of a much deeper blood-red colour. Known also as superb deep blood-red." New blood-red or mulberry. — " This seems a sub-variety of the small deep-red, from which it diflfers chiefly in being of a much darker or al- most blackish mulberry colour." Barrofs new crimson. — This very excellent variety is less liable to fork than the Castlenau- dari ; colour very dark crimson, leaf-stalks tinged with yellow. Considered by Mr' Thom- son the best beet grown. Insects and diseases. — The beet is not very liable to either, if in proper soil and under good cultivation. General remarks. — The European names are Bette-rave in French; Barba-Biettola in Italian; Biet-wortel, or Karoot, in Dutch; Kothe Rube in German ; and Betarralga in Spanish. In sav- ing seed, select the best formed roots, and try the colour by making a slight incision, which afterwards dry up with a littlp caustic lime. Both form and colour constitute their merits. Transplant them, and treat them as recom- mended for carrots and parsnips. Only in cold situations plant them in a warm sheltered place, against a south wall if there is room, or support them ■with stakes as the flower-stems extend, to prevent their being broken by the wind. Oae plant will produce seed enough for a small ^r- den. No two varieties should be thrown to- gether ; and as the seed will retain its vegeta- tive properties for nine or ten years, it is better to save one sort only annually. § 6.— SALSIFY, SKIRRET, ETC. Salsify (Tragopogon porrifolius L. — leek- leaved salsify) belongs to the natural order CompositsB, tribe Scorzonerese, and to the class Syngenesia .^EquaUs in the Linnaean arrange- ment. The generic name is derived from Tragos, goat, andpogon, beard, from the bearded appear- ance of the seeds— vulgarly goat's-beard ; the Bpecific name from Porrium, the leek, on account of the resemblance of the leaves to those of the leek. Indigenous to England, but not very common. The roots, which are the only parts eaten, are long, white, and fleshy, tapering like the parsnip,' but never attaining the same diame- ter. Tragopogon pratensis was cultivated in gardens in the time--of Parkinson ; but that spe- cies has been superseded by our present subject. It has been hitherto confined to gardens of the first order, but would be worth the attention of amateurs, as afibrding an additional dish of vegetable diet. The roots are used simply boiled, like carrots and parsnips; the flavour is mild and sweetish. Dressed like asparagus, there is some resem- blance in taste ; and the flower-stalks, if cut in spring on the second year before they become hard, and dressed like asparagus, make an excel- lent dish. It is propagated by seed sown in drills an- nually in March, April, and towards the latter end of May for succession. The drills should be 18 inches apart, and 2 inches deep. When the plants come up, thin to 6 inches in the lines, and keep them clear of weeds. In August and Sep- tember, and thence through the winter, the roots wiU be fit for use ; and in November, take up those remaining, and store them by for win- ter use in the same manner as parsnips. They are quite hardy, and may remain all -winter in the ground, if it is not required for re-crop- ping or improving. One oimce of seed wiU sow a drill 40 feet in length. To increase the size of the roots, water with liquid manure dur- ing hot dry weather. The seed keeps good for four years. ESCULENT-ROOTED PLANTS.— THE PARSNIP. 229 Save seed in the same manner as with car- rots ; one or two plants will afford a supply for a small garden. It is not subject to the attacks of insects, although hares and rabbits are exceed- ingly fond of it. It is, however, almost invari- ably attacked by Erysiphe cichoracearum, Link, a small parasitic fungus, one of the mildews ; but it has not the effect of injuring the growth of the plant much, as it is late in summer when it makes its appearance, in the form of numerous white blotches. This vegetable is much culti- vated in France. The European names are — • Salsifis in French ; Sassifica in Italian ; Bocks- bart in German ; Barba cabruna in Spanish ; and Boksbaard in Dutch. The SMrret {Sium. sisarum L.) belongs to the natural order UmbelUferae, sub-order Or- thospermsB, and tribe Amminese, and to the class Peutandria and order Digynia in the Lin- naean arrangement. The generic name is de- rived from Siw, water, in Celtic. The specific name is from Dgizer, the Arabic name, which signifies carrot. A native of China. Introduced before 1548. Use. — The roots, which are composed of small fleshy tubers, joined together at the head or crown, are the parts eaten. When boiled, they are eaten with butter, and are sweet and very agreeable. They are much used in French cookery, and more cultivated on the Continent than with us, although there are few gardens of importance without them. Their cultivation is similar to that of salsify, only they are propagated both by seeds and by off-sets taken from the old roots. The better way, however, is by seed. The European names are, Chervis in French ; Sisaro in Italian ; Zuokerwortzel in German ; Suckerwortel in Dutch ; and Chirira-tordesca in Spanish. In the north of Scotland, according to Loudon, it is cultivated under the name of Crummbck. Seorzonera (Scorzonera Jiispa/nica L., Spanish Scorzonera) belongs to the natural order Com- positae, sub-order Cichoraceae, and tribe Scor- zonerese, and to the class Syngenesia and order .(Equalis in the Linnsean arrangement. The generic name is derived from Scurzon, the Catalonian name of the viper. The plants are esteemed in Spain as a certain remedy for the bite of a viper; but it is believed that the slender tortuous form of the roots has given rise to this belief, rather than any quality inherent in the plant ; for it is a rule to which there are very few exceptions, that all plants used as food by man possess very inactive qualities. If their action was po-w^erful, they would be unfit for ioodi."—Encyc. of Plants, p. 668. It is a native of Spain, and was introduced to Britain before 1S76, The roots, which are long, black, and taper- ing, about J of an inch in diameter at top, are the parts used. They are boiled or stewed after the manner of parsnips ; the outer rind is scraped off, and the roots placed to steep in cold water for several hours, to extract a part of their bitter flavour. It is also variously used in French VOL. II. and Italian cookery. It is found in all our best gardens, but, like salsify and skirret, occupies about one-fifth the space that parsnips do. It is propagated by seeds ; and its cultivation, in all respects, is similar to that of salsify and skirret, only requiring about 4 or S inches more space between the rows, and 3 inches more be- tween the plants in the lines. An ounce of seed will sow a drill 40 feet in length. Few insects trouble it ; but, like the salsify and skirret, the Mrysiplie cichoracearum, or mildew fungus, some- times attacks it. Its European names are— Scorzonere, or Salsafis d'Espagne, in French; Soorza-nera in Italian ; Skorzonere in German ; Escorzanera in Spanish ; and Skorzoneere in Dutch. Hamhurg parsley {Apium petroselinum L., var. Tuberosum, " Bon Jardinier ") belongs to the na- tural order Umbelliferse, sub-order Orthospermse, and tribe Ammineae, and to the class Peutan- dria and order Digynia in the Linnsean arrange- ment. The generic name is derived from Apon, water, Celtic, from its place of growth. This refers more especially to Apium grawolens, the common celery. The Hamburg parsley is a va- riety of the common sort, Apium petroselinum, having large fleshy roots, and for these it is cul- tivated. The roots as well as the leaves communicate an agreeable flavour to soups and stews. It is much grown in Germany, and was formerly so in England, and often cooked like the parsnip or the yellow turnip. It is propagated by seed, which is sown at the same time as parsnips, and the routine of culture differs not from that of that plant. § 7. — THE PAESNIP. Natural history. — The parsnip (Pastinacea sativa Tourn.) belongs to the natural order Um- belliferse, sub-order Orthospermse, tribe Peuce- daueae, and to the class Pentandria and order Digynia in the Linnsean arrangement. The name is derived from Pastus, nourishment; or, according to others, from Pastinum, a dibber or dibble, the root resembling that implement in form. Indigenous to Britain ; found generally in calcareous soils and in waste places. Like the carrot, it is difficult to say whether it is to cultiva- tion or importation that we are indebted for this root in its present state — most probably to the latter — and that it may have been brought from Germany or Italy. Phillips asserts (but of this we have doubts) that if the wild parsnip is grown for two or three years successively in rich soil, it will assume all the characters of the cultivated sort. It appears to have been early reclaimed and cultivated on the banks of the Rhine, for Pliny says they were brought from thence to the Roman emperors' tables. Gerard speaks of a broad-leaved and narrow-leaved variety being grown in gardens in his time. Use. — In former times the parsnip was more generally used as an article of food than at pre- sent, and was with us then, as in Roman Catholic 2^ 230 CULINARY OR KITCHEN GARDEN. countries at present, used with salt fish during the season of Lent. It is a good substitute for the potato, yielding a large return of very nou- rishing food, and is often, by country people, eaten when mashed up with that root. Parsnips contain a very considerable portion of sugar, and from this cause they yield a very excellent spirit by distillation. In the north of Ireland the cottagers obtain a sort of beer by mashing the roots and boiUng them with hops, and then fermenting the liquor. Wine closely approach- ing in quality the Malmsey of Madeira is made from the roots ; and marmalade made with pars- nips and a small quantity of sugar is thought to excite appetite, and to be a very proper food for convalescents. Bread has also been made from the roots; and in Holland they are much used in soup. The present demand for them, how- ever, is to be eaten with fish or other salt meats. Propagation. — Always by seed, which is jBat, thin, and light. Half an ounce of seed will sow a bed of 100 square feet, if sown broadcast, and the plants afterwards thinned to 8 or 9 inches distance. The seed will vegetate sooner if steeped in water, as recommended for carrot-seed. Sowing and planting. — The seed should be sown as early in spring as the ground is in a proper state of dryness to receive it. As the roots extend to a considerable depth, the ground should be trenched at least 2 feet deep. The drill-system is the most proper to follow : the drills should be from 15 to 18 inches apart, and 2 inches deep; and when the plants attain the height of 3 or 4 inches, they should be thinned to 6 or 8 inches in the line. Where they come up too thick, they should at that stage be thinned j and as they transplant readily at that age, any blanks in the rows may be made up, or the plantation ex- tended by additional rows. Subsequent cultivation. — Keep the ground clear of weeds by hoeing, which should be shallow, for reasons given in article Cae- ROT. Soil and manure. — A light pervious deep soil is the best ; and if in moderate condition, by the manuring of the previous crop, it will be better than applying ma- nure at sowing. Should it be necessary to do so, let the manure be in the most decomposed state possible, or, if otherwise, lay it in the bottom of the trenches as the trenching proceeds. It will grow in a stronger soil than the carrot, and succeeds well in sand or in peat, if sufficiently ma- nured. Soap-boilers' ashes have been ad- vantageously employed as a manure for the parsnip, carrot, and potato; and where laid on to the extent of a pound-weight per square yard, have had good effect in resist- ing the attacks of insects at the roots. Taking up the crop, and subsequent preser- vation. — By the end of September the most forward roots will be fit for use; but the general lifting should not take place till the leaves are killed by the frost. It is a much hardier plant than the carrot ; and therefore, if the ground is not required, and the roots are free from disease, they may be left in the ground till spring with safety : otherwise they should be dug up, and their tops taken off as recommended for carrots, and either packed in sand in the root-cellar, or pitted as recommended for potatoes. In general it is best to take up all such crops, so that the ground they occupy may be manured and trenched during winter. Approved sorts and their qualities. — Long Jer- sey. — An improved variety of the common sort, being much larger and thicker towards the top. This is the variety cultivated in the Channel Islands, where the cultivation of this plant has been long successfally carried on. The crown is somewhat concave or hollow — hence it is often known as the hollow-crowned> Guernsey, and hollow-headed. It is the Fanais Lisbonnais of Guernsey. Roots 1 8 inches long, and often from 4 to 5 inches in diameter at the top. The best variety for cultivation. Common long-rooted. — Scarcely so large as the last ; crown or top sUghtly convex. This is the Fanais longue of the French, the Fanais coquine of Guernsey, Jersey parsnip, and Guernsey parsnip. Twnip-rooted. — This variety is much smaller than either of the last, of good quality ; and as its roots are short and somewhat turnip-shaped, it is adapted to thin soils. It is the Fanais rond and Fanais royal of the French. Boot formed almost on the surface of the ground, and attain- ing the size of from 4 to 6 inches in diameter. Early short-horn. — A recently introduced sort, of delicate flavour and appearance on the table. A smaller and shorter sort, if of improved fla- vour, would no doubt be valuable, as our present sorts are too large to appear whole. The late Dr NeiU, in " Edinburgh Encyclo- paedia," mentions the Le Batard ov, de Siam yellow, apparently intermediate between the tur- nip-rooted and long-rooted varieties, and of more richness in flavour and tenderness of flesh than any of the others. It does not appear to be in our seed-lists, although mentioned by Noisette in " Manuel Complet du Jardinier." The intro- duction of this variety would, for garden pur- poses, be important. Insects and diseases. — "The parsnip is subjected to the attacks of a few insects. The maggots of the parsnip-miner {Tephritis onopordorm, fig. 53) ESCULENT-EOOTED PLANTS.— THE PARSNIP. 231 are hatched from May to July, and feed upon the parenchyma or pulp of the leaf, causing large blisters upon them ; and when two or three larvae are feeding on the same leaf, the blisters unite and form large discoloured patches ; but other- wise the mischief is not serious. The caterpil- lars of the flat-bodied moth {Depressaria pastina- cello) infest the parsnips left for seed, and often much injure and diminish the yield. They pre- fer the parsnip to the carrot seed ; and on this account the growers of carrot-seed sow some parsnips beside them, by which to lure the in- sect from the carrot crop. These caterpillars are greyish blue, with the head, thorax, and pec- toral feet black ; upon each of the segments are six distinct little black dots, producing single minute hairs; the sides and the belly are yellow, and the abdominal feet are dotted with black. They live in July upon the flowers and young seei of the parsnip. There seems to be no better mode of ridding parsnip crops of these caterpillar pests than hand-picking, and shaking the umbels of the flowers over a vessel for them to fall into. The flower of the parsnip is not nearly so liable to be affected by insects, damp, or mildew as that of the carrot, on which ac- count the crop of seed is a surer one, though it should be borne in mind that it will not retain its vitality beyond one year." — Jour, of the English Agr. Sac, vol. i. p. 419, as quoted in " Book of the Farm," vol. ii. p. 100. Besides these, the Depressaria applana, D. daucetta (the carrot- blossom moth), in the caterpillar state, make great havoc on the seed-crop of parsnips also. General rema/rks. — The European names are — Panais in French ; Pastinaca in Italian ; Chari- baria in Spanish ; Pastiuake in German; and Pinksternakel in Dutch. Seed is saved in the manner recommended for carrots. The quan- tity produced from one plant will be sufficient for a small garden; and, according to Mr Stephens, " from 14 lb. to 4 lb. of seed, being very light, may be expected from a square rood of 16^ feet, dependent on the nature of the season, and escape from the attacks of insects. Birds do not injure it, though, if the seed is not gathered from the umbels as they ripen, they are very apt to be blown off by the wind." CHAPTEE VIII. OLBRACEOUS PLANTS, OR POT-HERBS, COMPEISINQ SUCH AS ARE USED FOR GARNISHING ANI) SEASONING. The plants which constitute this chapter, being chiefly aromatic, should be accommodated with a light poor soil, and be cultivated by them- selves, on whatever scale the garden may be ; and if we except the common parsley, which requires to occupy a considerable space, a bed or two at most of the others will be found sufficient. The situation chosen for them should be some snug and convenient spot, sheltered and warm, as the majority of these herbs delight in a warm sunny spot; conve- nient, because some or other of them are in daily use, and if scattered over the garden, as is too often the case, much time is lost in collecting them. To prevent mistakes, every variety should be legibly named at the end of the bed next to the walk ; and the smaller the garden is, the more necessity there is for this being attended to. § 1. — PAESLEY. Natural history. — Parsley {Apium petroseli- nnm h.) belongs to the natural order Umbelli- ferae, to the sub-order Orthospermae, and tribe Amminese, and to the class Pentandria Digynia in the Linnsean arrangement. The generic name is derived from Apon, water, Celtic, from the place where the plant grows ; and the spe- cific name iroTupetre, a stone, and selinum — stone selinum. It is a native of Sardinia, introduced about 1548. Gerard spells it parsele, parsely, and parsley ; and says it " is delightful to the taste and agreeable to the stomach." Phillips asserts that " parsley easily resisteth the cold and the heat, if it be sown on a rich damp soil, or near a spring." This is a very different condition, as to situation, to what it enjoys in cultivation ; and hence cultivators in ge- neral sow it in dry exposed places, to avoid its damping or rotting off during winter, which it is very apt to do in strong damp soils, be they ever so rich ; and in much elevated situations it is with great difficulty preserved during win- ter and spring. That it would succeed better if planted near a spring is possible, as the water rising from a great depth is higher in tempera- ture than the surrounding atmosphere, and hence springs seldom freeze. Few, however, have such springs at command, and so com- pletely protected as to exclude hares, which are exceedingly fond of this plant. Indeed, it has been sown often in preserves, where it has been wished to encourage these destructive creatures. The seed of the common parsley has the pro- perty of remaining long in the ground after sowing before it vegetates — from forty to fifty days. Some fatal mistakes have ocoun-ed by people gathering ^thusa cynapium (fool's pars- ley), a poisonous plant often found in old gardens as a weed, and so similar to parsley as to be readily mistaken for it ; and instances are recorded where the leaves of Conium maculatum (hemlock) have been gathered for it in the same way. To avoid such, it would be well if amateurs, and those not sufficiently acquainted with these plants, were to cultivate the curled parsley only, which could not be mistaken for either. The plain-leaved sort, however, is hardier, and withstands the win- ter cold better, and therefore is often sown where the finer curled varieties would not sur- vive. Use. — Parsley is in great demand throughout the whole year for a variety of culinary pur- poses, and is the common garnish to all cold meats, and enters into many sauces, soups, broths, &c. It should always be brought to table when any dish is introduced that is strongly seasoned with onions, as it takes off the smell and prevents the after-taste of that strong root. Forenoon tipplers chew a leaf of parsley to pre- vent their breath from bearing witness against them. The leaves are gathered when quite dry, and hung up in small bundles, in an apartment heated to from 60° to 70°, to dry. In a day or two they may be pounded or rubbed down to a powdery state, and bottled for winter use. Hung up to the roof of a kitchen, or placed in a Dutch oven in the evening at a moderate dis- tance from the fire, they will be in a fit state by morning for pounding. It retains its flavour long when dried, if kept excluded from air. In this state it is excellent for seasoning omelets and all similar dishes. Propagation. — It is propagated by sow- ing the seed only. An ounce of seed will sow a drill 150 feet in length. OLERACEOUS PLANTS.— PARSLEY. 233 Sowing. — Sow early in February, if the ground is dry ; if not, from thence till the end of March. Another sowing should be made in May, and another in July, for young plants to stand over win- ter. To insure the finest curled varieties, the plants should be transplanted once at least ; and if oftener, it is said, the more certain will be the result. Sow, therefore, either thinly broadcast or in drills, covering, in either case, to the depth of three-quarters of an inch. When the plants are fit to handle, take them carefully up, preserving their long tap- roots quite entire, and transplant them in lines 18 inches asunder; but where the ground is rich, and the variety extra curled, 2 feet will be a more proper dis- tance. Set the plants carefully with the dibble, at first 3 inches apart ; and after they have commenced growing for a week or so, thin out to 6 inches, mak- ing new lines with the thinnings; and in three weeks afterwards, finally thin to 12 inches, plant from plant, in all the rows. By this means, and in a highly-manured deeply-trenched soil, we have grown the plants so large as completely to cover the surface of the ground. Some have recommended cutting over the old plants in autumn, to secure a supply in spring. It is much better to depend on an autumnal sowing, provided the seed is sown before the end of July. In small gardens, parsley may be sown as an edging to walks or footpaths, to eco- nomise space, as well as to be readily got at when wanted for use. Subsequent cultivation. — Keeping the plants clear of weeds by deeply hoeing between them, and pulling up any that pre- maturely run up to seed, is their summer routine. On the approach of winter, cut off a supply of leaves for drying, as al- ready noticed; remove decaying leaves, to prevent damp ; and shelter the winter standing-crop by the best means at com- mand — of which few are better than sticking the ground around them pretty thickly with short branches of deciduous trees or broom, stuck firmly in the ground, so as not to be blown about by the wind. Cover the surface between the rows with finely-sifted coal-ashes, to coun- teract damp, and to keep the leaves clean. In some situations it is necessary to take up a j)ortion of the crop, and to pot it, or plant it in light dry soil under frames and sashes. In neither way does it do so well as protected where it has been grown. It is in such cases that drying the leaves and bottling them becomes necessary; but even in this way the dried leaves can only be used for seasoning : for garnish- ing they become entirely useless. Soil and manure. — The first cannot be too rich, and the second should be the most potent that can be applied, particu- larly to summer crops ; but both must be more sparingly employed in the case of crops to stand over winter. Taking the crop, and subsequent preserva- tion. — The leaves should be cut over by the foot-stalk, and not plucked over by the middle, as so often carelessly prac- tised. Each leaf should be cut by itself, and the larger and more fully developed bottom ones taken first. When removed to the vegetable-house, they should be rinsed in clear water, and the foot-stalks of the leaves cut close off, and the leaves placed in a clean salad-basket ready for use. Approved sorts and their qualities. — The ori- ginal old plain-leaved is hardier than the fine curled sorts, on account of its being less succu- lent, and less liable to retain moisture. It is desirable to sow it in cold situations, particularly for winter and spring use; but for all other seasons and purposes, The fine curled, or triple curled, should be preferred ; and of these we have, amongst other names in seed-catalogues, the following : Myatt's, garnishing, very dwarf, and exceedingly curled. Engelfieid extra curled. — Very large Eind finely curled. Reid's fine curled. — A variety we receiyed some years ago from Mr Eeid of Else Park, Yorkshire, which is hardy, standing the damp cold of the Holdemess, as well as that in many parts of Scotland which it has reached. By carefully selecting from any of the last three varieties, and by repeated transplanting and high cultivation, the finest curled parsley may be obtained. Hamburg parsley (Apium petroselimum, var. Tuberosum, "Bon Jardinier") is a variety of the common parsley cultivated for its large fusiform roots, as already described. It is used for all the purposes of the common parsley ; and in addition, the roots are served at table as a separate dish, like the Feltow turnip or pars- nip. The leaves are much larger than those of the common plane parsley, and fully as little curled. The Naples parsley, or, as it is often called, celery parsley, appears to be a hybrid between the Hamburg parsley and the celery. In France and Italy the foot-stalks of the leaves are much used as a substitute for celery, and its cultivation is much the same. It is only in 234 CULINARY OR KITCHEN GARDEN. gardens of the highest order in Britain that it is found. Insects and diseases seldom attack the parsley, unless in dry seasons, and in light ferruginous soils, where either an underground grub, or, we rather think, a disease of the canker description, destroys the roots, which causes the plant immediately to die. We have never been able to detect an insect at the roots, although the effects are exactly similar to those which affect carrots, when their roots are about as large as a quill. Saturating the ground with lime-water has arrested to some extent the disease ; but whether this arises from the caustic effect, or from the mere addition of moisture, we cannot say. General remarks. — The European names are — PersU in French; Petersilie in German; Peter- selie in Dutch ; Petroseliuo in ItaUau ; Perejil in Spanish; Petrusohka in Russian ; Pietruszka in Polish. § 2. — DILL, BORAGE, ETC. DUl {Anethum grwceolens L.) belongs to the natural order Umbelliferse, sub-order Ortho- spermse and tribe Peucedanese, and to the class Peutandria and order Digynia in the Linnsean arrangement. A native of Spain, and intro- duced to Britain in 1570. The generic name is derived from Ano, upward, Theo, to run, on ac- count of its quick growth. Others derive it from a Greek word signifying to burn, the plant being very heating. A hardy biennial plant seldom used, and then only for the leaves, which communicate a shght degree of its powerful aromatic flavour to pickles, and also occasionally in soups and sauces. A dozen and a half good plants will be sufficient for a large family's use. It is little more than an annual with us, therefore requires to be sown annually, either in March or April, or as soon as its seeds ripen in autumn, and in favourable places will stand over the winter. Like all warm and high-scented plants it re- quires a light poor soil, because such a soil is found most favourable for the preservation of their aromatic properties, such plants being only found naturally growing on such soils. It should be grown in • warm cellar, or to an apartment behind one of the pine-stoves, as al- ready described under the article Seakale, p. 1 06 ; and those who have not these conveniences may set the roots on the floor of an early peach- house or vinery, or even behind the flues or hot- water pipes, covering the roots with soil to ex- clude air and retain sufficient moisture around them, and to allow the leaves and foot-stalks to develop themselves in all the light such places afford. Some attach importance to growing rhubarb in the dark, with a view to blanch it. This process has no other effect than that of greatly deteriorating the flavour of the crop. A temperature as low as that recommended for sea-kale, p. 106, and similar treatment in every respect except that of blanching, is all that is reqmred for producing rhubarb in its fullest perfection during the winter season. To save seed. — One flower stem, if left on a single plant, will afford a sufficient quantity for maintaining a succession of young plants. In- sects and diseases are unknown to the rhubarb. Estimate of sorts. — The original species of Bheum undutatum, R. palmatum, B. Hhaponti- cmm, &c., have now nearly given place to hybrid varieties, possessing the merits of larger size, delicacy in texture, improvement in colour, or coming earlier into use : of these, the Elford or Bucks early scarlet is, although a small-growing sort, esteemed for its brilliant scarlet colour, which it retains although forced in darkness. JBritannia rhubarb. — An early variety, and possessing the rather rare merit of scarcely ever throwing up flower-stems. The leaf-stalks grow quite erect, and are both numerous and of large size, and of a beautiful dark pink colour. Rui/al Albert. — Not so early as the last, nor so productive, on account of the energies of the roots being wasted in the support of the flower- stalks which it so readily sends up, and that in its earliest stage of growth. Mitchell's grey eagle. — A new and excellent variety, originated with Mr Mitchell of Enfield. Randall's early prolific. — Comparatively a new variety, of great merit and productiveness, as yet little known in the provinces ; high coloured and well flavoured. Myatt's Linmceus. — Of medium earliness, yielding large crops of leaves. Myatt's Victoria. — The latest, with the excep- 258 CULINARY OR KITCHEN GARDEN. tion of is. Emodl, a sort seldom grown, and there- fore valuable, as prolonging the season of this exceUeut vegetable. Goliath. — Of medium earliness, and of large size. The European names for rhubarb are— Rhu- barbe in French ; Ruibarbo in Spanish and Por- tuguese ; Rabarber in German and Dutch ; Rabarbai'o in Italian. § 2. — THE TOMATO AND EGG-PLANT. The tomato or love-apple (Lycopersicum escu- lentum, Tou, L.) belongs to the natural order SolanEB, section Pericarpum baccatum, and to the class Pentandria and order Monogynia in the Linnaean arrangement. All of the genus Lycopersicum, consisting of nine species and several varieties, are cultivated in their na- tive countries (Peru and South America) as esculent fruits. The common tomato (i/. escidentum) was introduced to Britain in 1S96, and with its varieties much cultivated, although, in most of Britain, requiring the protection of glass. The name is derived from Lykos, wolf, Persicon, a peach — in poetical allusion to the beautiful appearance and deceitful value of the fruit. The ripe fruit is in much request for making tomato sauce, one of the most delicious and wholesome of all sauces, both for meat and fish. Medicinally considered, it is an excellent substitute for calomel, and can be taken when that valuable medicine cannot, and with much less injury to the constitution. The ripe fruit is much used in soups in this country, and in France and Italy to such an extent that, to supply the demand, whole fields of the plants are cultivated. In a green state the fruit is pickled, and when fully ripened, the juice is ex- pressed and kept for winter use in the form of ketchup. In the neighbourhood of London it is grown to a great extent, and finds a ready sale in Covent Garden market during Septem- ber and October, and fetches a good price. It is singular that some of the enterprising growers for the metropolitan market have not thought of producing a supply throughout the year, as few fruits are more easily ripened. We believe we were the first to exhibit ripe tomatos in Covent Garden market — not for sale, but to show they could be produced in March and April, and, in- deed, throughout the London season. The fruit seldom ripens in Scotland in the open air, unless in a few very favourable situations ; nor is there much demand for them, unless in fami- lies of the highest order. It ripens in the vici- nity of London and in the southern counties in August and September, and keeps in good con- dition throughout October. The plants are usually pi-opagated by seed, but will strike freely by cuttings taken ofi' the terminating side-branches; and when their cul- ture is to be extended throughout the year, the latter is the best mode, the plants so originated running less to haulm, and fruiting in greater abundance. They may be continued for several years, if kept in a sufficient temperature ; but when grown in the open air they perish annu- ally, and, in fact, are annuals in their own countries. Wc have had plants in a constant state of bearing for three years, when grown in a pine-stove. The London practice is to sow the seed in seed-pans, in a genial heat, about the end of March, and, when the plants are about 2 inches high, to prick them off into large 60- sized pots, in light rich soil, and keep them near the glass in a growing state, admitting air on all favourable occasions, till the beginning of May, after which they are exposed more freely to harden them off, to be fit to plant out at the bottom of a south wall by the end of that month. They should, however, not be set too near the roots of the fruit-trees, as they exhaust the ground exceedingly. When first planted out, shelter them for a few days by sticking branches in front of them, to ward off cold winds and scorching sunshine. When fully established, they should be as much exposed as possible, as they require all the light and sunshine that even a London climate affords to ripen them tho- roughly. Some form beds of warm dung, cover- ing them with frames and sashes, and treat them the same as late cucumbers ; others plant them at the base of sloping banks, covering the sur- face with slates to attract heat, and train the plants upon them. Some train the plant to a single stem, rubbing off all side shoots as they appear, which induces the flowers to issue from the base of the leaves attached to the main stem. Others train the main stem upwards against a wall or paling, and lay in the side branches in a horizontal direction ; and others stop the leading shoot as soon as one or two branches of flowers are formed, and retain them in a very dwarf state, by which means a number of plants may be grown in a small space. Our practice is to forward them in pots placed in pits or hot-houses, shifting into larger pots as they advance in growth, and in May to plant them in pits from which early potatoes and such- like crops are removed, and to train them over the surface of the beds like cucumbers, placing slate under them for attracting a greater degree of solar heat. We also grow them in pots 14 inches in diameter, in very rich soil, arranged in a single row along the back of a pit, and train the sh-oots to the wall, by which means little space is occupied, so that the principal part of the pit can be used for other crops, such as late cucumbers and melons. For winter supply, we grow them in large pots placed along the front of a pine-stove, and train one leading shoot up under each rafter, as at that time the vines are withdrawn from the house. A cucumber or melon house is the best situation for them dur- ing winter, and a few plants will produce an ample supply for a large family. Those planted against walls, in the open air, produce abundant crops, in most places of moderate climate, in most seasons, but do not ripen well. If the fruit, when fully grown, be cut off, taking at- tached to it a foot or two in length of the stems, and suspended under the roof of a pine-stove or vinery, they will ripen to tolerable perfection. Only two species are cultivated in Britain, the L. cerasiforme, or cherry-shaped, of which there is a red and yellow variety; and these are, for some culinary purposes, particularly for dress- MISCELLANEOUS VEGETABLES.— THE GOUED. 259 ing whole, preferred to L. esculentum or com- mon tomato, of which there are red-fruited, yel- low-fruited, and white-fruited varieties, all of which are of various forms and sizes, according to the culture they are subjected to. It is highly probable that some, if not all the other species, deserve our attention, particularly L. perumanmn, which is perennial. The red spider, fig. 22, and thrip, fig. 21, are ex- ceeding apt to attack the foliage, when grown in a high temperature, and in too dry an atmo- sphere ; and the Cocctts adonidum, or mealy pine- bug, infests them under similar circumstances. One or two fruits, saved when fully ripe, will afford abundance of seed for a large garden. The seed should be washed out of the pulp, and, when thoroughly dried, kept in paper bags for futm-e use. It retains its vegetative properties for two years. The European names are— Tomate in French ; Tomates in Spanish; Appeltjes des liefde in Dutch ; Porno d'oro in Italian ; and Liebes ap- fel in German. The Egg-plant (Solanum Melongena Dunal) belongs to the same natural order and class, and order in the artificial system, as the last. The generic name is derived from Solvr, to comfort — soothes by stupifying ; the specific name, accord- ing to Forskahl, from Bydendjan, its name in Arabic— a name by which it is known in all the gardens in the West Indies, where it is jnuch cultivated. It is a native of Africa, and, indeed, is found all over the tropics, where it is exten- sively cultivated, and used, both boiled and stewed, in sauces like the tomato. A correspon- dent in the " Gardeners' Magazine " asserts that the Chinese, on great occasions, cook the fruit, which very much resembles a hen's egg both in colour, shape, and size, while hanging on the plant, and serve up the entire plant to table in a pot. The plant was introduced into Britain in 1597. When fit for use, they part fieely from the stalk. Being an annual, it is reared yearly from seed, sown during March in seed-pans, placed in a tem- perature of 60° to 65°. When the plants have at- tained the height of 2 inehes, they should be set singly in pots of the large 60-size, and still conti- nued in the samedegree of heat. As they advance ingrowth, repeated shiftings will be required; and when in pots 10 or 12 inches in diameter, they may so remain to perfect their fruit. A rich soil is beneficial, and as they seldom ripen in the open air of this country, they generally are ac- commodated with a place in a pit or greenhouse, after the plants have been removed out of doors for the summer season. Here they become both ornamental and useful. One fruit will afford sufficient seed for continuing the stock. The varieties grown are the common or white- fruited, the violet-fraited, and yellow and red fruited : of these the French prefer the violet- fruited, which they call Aubergine, and this sort is as common in the Paris markets as the to- mato. Their favourite mode of dressing them is to scoop out the seeds, filling the cavity with sweet herbs, and then frying them whole. In Britain the plant is in general grown for its singular appearance, few people knowing that they are a wholesome and excellent food. Under the above management the fruit will ripen about the end of August. The European names are— Molongene in French ; Melanzana in Italian ; ToUapfel in German and Dutch. § 3. THE GOUKD AND PUMPKIN. The gourd and pumpkin (Cucurbita oi'ifera L., and C. pepo L.) belong to the natural order Cu- curbitacese, and to the class Moncecia and order Monadelphia in the Linnsean arrangement. All the varieties of gourds and pumpkins are eat- able, as are also the species of the allied genus Lagenaria (bottle gourd), which last are natives of India, while the gourds and pumpkins are natives of Astracan, Chili, the Levant, and other Eastern countries ; and although all tender an- nuals with us, most of them perfect their fruit in most seasons, and in most parts of our coun- try. As the fruit of these plants is used in their green or unripe state, we use the term " per- fect their fruit," because it attains its useful con- dition. The bottle gourds and pumpkins have been cultivated in this country since the latter end of the sixteenth century, but the gourds proper are of much more recent date. The pumpkin, C. pepo, has long been cultivated in England, where pumpkin-pies are much relished by the peasantry, who store by the fruit in autunin along with crab-apples for winter use. Many of the varieties are much grown on the Continent, and used in soups and stews, as well as boiled and fried. In America they are largely grown, and used not only for the above purposes, but are also put into pies and tarts. The succade gourd, or vegetable marrow, is that of all others most cultivated in gardens, and is a profitable and wholesome vegetable. It is used for culinary purposes in all stages of its growth, dressed either whole while quite young, or cut into sections as it gets larger. The C. melopepo maxima (the mammoth or large American gourd) is the largest of all the tribe, attaining the weight of from 160 to 200 lb., keeping for several months after it is ripe, and being used as a substitute for carrots and potatoes in soups and broths. The majority of gourds are grown in this country for ornament ; many of them, when trained to poles, are exceedingly curious; others are grown for use, but not to the extent they are either in America or on the continent of Europe. As all of them are annuals, they are originated from seed, which should be sown in March upon a moderate bottom-heat, using rich soil, and covering the seed, which is large, to the depth of an inch. Where the number of plants required is not great, it is advisable to plant one seed in a large 60-sized pot, and when about 3 inches high to re-pot into a 48-sized pot, which will be sufficient for the plants until they are to be planted out for good — which rarely can be, with- out protection, before the middle or end of May. The best situation for the vegetable mar- row, or such as are to be grown for cooking, is the top of a compost-heap or dunghill, as they 260 CULINARY OR KITCHEN GARDEN. require a fall supply of nutriment at their roots ; and from the size of their leaves, &c., they not only cover over compost-heaps or dunghills from sight, but also tend to decompose the latter. During summer they require liberal supplies of water, training the shoots to the ground, and reducing all superabundant side branches, and stopping leaders, after a sufficient crop of fruit has set. The European names for the gourd and pumpkin are — Courge in French ; Zucoa in Italian ; Abobaro in Portuguese ; Kurbis in German ; Calabaza in Spanish ; Kauwoerde in Dutch. The French distinguish the vegetable marrow by the name of Courge a la moelle, and the Germans call it Markige melonenkurbis. The large American gourd the French designate Potiron jaune; and the Germans, Melonenkurbis. § 4 — CAPSICUM. Capsicum (Cayenne or Guinea pepper) be- longs to the natural order Solanese, and to the class Pentandria and order Monogynia in the Linuaean arrangement. The generic name is derived from Kapto, to bite, from its pungent qualities. They are chiefly natives of India, China, Egypt, and the Brazils, and are all culti- vated and much used in the countries to which they are indigenous. The capsicum was first in- troduced into Europe by the Spaniards ; and they are known to have been cultivated in Britain so early as the reign of Edward VI. Their varieties are almost without end, differing in size, colour, and form of their fruit. The com- moner varieties are extensively grown by the market-gardeners about London, for the supply of the markets and for the Italian warehouses. They are much used in pickles, seasonings, and made dishes, as both the pod or capsule and seeds yield a warm acrid oil, the heat of which being imparted to the stomach is thought to promote digestion and correct the flatulency of vegetable aliments. The seed-pods of Capsicum frutescens furnish the Cayenne; pepper of the shops. The expressed juice of the fresh pods affords hqjiid bird-pepper, so much used in soups iu most warm climates. Both the green and ripe pods are used as pickles, and also for making Chili vinegar, which is done by simply putting a handful of the pods in a bottle, afterwards filled up with the best vinegar, and stopping it closely up. In a few weeks it is fit for use. Man-dram, so much used in warm countries to provoke a languid appetite, is prepared by gathering the pods while dry of Capsicum bac- catum or bird-pepper, and mixing them with cucumboi-s cut into thin slices, with garlic and shallots cut also very small, to which a little lime-juice and Madeira wine are added, and the whole being mashed and mixed with liquid is fit for use. The pods, gathered fresh and eaten before meals, tend greatly to assist digestion. Tlie general mode of preparing Cayenne pepper is by gathering the pods when ripe. In India they are dried in the sun, but in Britain they should be dried on a slow hot-plate, or in a very moderately-heated oven; they are then. pounded and sifted through a fine sieve, mixed with salt, and, when dried, put into close-corked bottles for the purpose of excluding the air. This article is subject to. great adulteration, flour being often mixed with it, and, still worse, red lead, which is much of the same colour, and greatly increases the weight. The better way is to dry the pods in a slow oven, split them open, extracting the seeds, and pounding them down to a fine powder, or passing them through a coffee-mill, sifting the powder through a thin muslin sieve, and pounding down the parts which do not pass through, and sifting again until the whole is reduced to the finest possible state. Place the powder in air-tight glass bottles, but add no salt or other ingredient whatever. What is called Cayenne pepper-pot is prepared in the following manner, and is sold at a high price iu the Italian warehouses: " Take the ripe bird-peppers, dry them well in the sun, then put them into an earthen or stone pot, mixing flour between every stratum, of pods, and put them into an oven after the baking of bread, that they may be thoroughly dried ; after which they must be well cleansed from the flour, and, if any stalks remain adhering to the pods, they should be taken off and the pods reduced to a fine powder : to every ounce of this add a pound of wheat flour, and as much leaven, as is sufficient for the quantity intended. After this has been properly mixed and wrought, it should be made into small cakes, and baked in the same manner as common cakes of the same size; then cut them into small parts, and bake them again that they may be as dry and hard as biscuit, which, being powdered and si&ed, is to be kept for use." The annual capsicum and the larger sorts are usually grown for the supply of the markets more on account of their size than of their q^uality. We grow the capsicum largely for aU cuhnary purposes, but prefer Capsicum fru- tescens, a shrubby perennial sort, producing small but vei-y pungent pods. These we keep in bearing for from two to three years, when they are thrown away, and successional. plants reared from seed. The European names are — Piment in French ; Spanischer pfeffcr in German ; Peberone in Italian. § 5. — ROSEMARY AND LAVENDER. Rosemary {Rosmarinus officinalis L.) belongs to the natural order Labiatse and tribe Monardese, and to the class Diandria and order Monogynia in the Linnsean arrangement. A native of the south of Europe, from whence it was intro- duced most probably by the monks in the dark ages. It has long been a cultivated plant in our gardens, and employed for the most oppo- site purposes. The sprigs are used as a garnish for some dishes ; they are also by some stuck into roast-beef while roasting, and are sup- posed to communicate an agreeable flavour to it. They are in some parts presented to the company at funerals as tokens of remembi'ance, and are afterwards thrown into the grave. A MISCELLANEOUS VEGETABLES. -THE HORSE-EADISH. 261 decoction of the leaves is much used by ladies to wash their hair with, and it is not devoid of medicinal properties. It is often planted on graves by relatives both in England and on the Continent. The name is derived from Ros, dew ; Marinus, of the sea — that is, dew of the sea. It is a half-hardy shrub, requiring to be planted in a dry poor soil, and in a warm shel- tered situation. It is readily propagated by cuttings taken when the young wood is half ripened, and placed in a shaded place under a hand-glass. There are three varieties, the common green-leaved, the silver, and the gold striped— the former is the hardiest. It is also reared from seed, which is imported from France. The European names are — Romarin in French ; Romaro in Spanish ; Rosmarino in Italian ; Rosmarin in German; Rosmarinho in Portu- guese ; and Rosmaryn in Dutch. Lanender {LaTendula spica L.) belongs to the natural order Labiatse, tribe Nepeteae, and and to the class Didynamia and order Gymno- spermia. A native of the south of Europe. A plant of the greatest antiquity. It appears to be the Nardus stricta or Nardus indica of ancient writers, and by them was held in high esteem. A very interesting account of this plant is given by Phillips in his " History of Cultivated Vegetables," vol. i. p. 298. The name is derived from Latio, to wash ; and the plant is recorded in the " Hortus Bri- tannicus " as being introduced in 1S68, but it is highly probable it was cultivated in the monas- tic gardens at a much earlier period. There are two varieties cultivated, the common and the broad-leaved or French : the former is smaller in the spike, but much more aromatic ; the latter is, however, the most extensively grown for distillation and other purposes. Alcohol extracts the virtues of the flowers com- pletely, and gives off by distillation all their odorous parts; water acts leas completely. Ac- cording to the " London Dispensatory," " the oil on which its virtues depend is obtained separately in distillation with water, in the pro- portion of 1 ounce of oil to 60 ounces of the flowers." Lavender is grown in most gardens, both for distillation and for being dried and placed amongst linen, as weU as forming an ingredient in those repositories of perfumes called sweet- pots. The flowers should be left on the spikes and gathered when quite dry, and just before they are fully expanded. When cut with about 6 inches of the stalks, and tied up in small bundles about an inch in thickness, and sus- pended from the roof of a dry chamber at a temperature of from 60° to 70°, they will dry in twenty-four hours, and be fit for storing by for use. When the flowers fall from the spikes during drying, they should be gathered up and placed in paper bags, and in this state are as fit for use as if they had remained on the spikes. Lavender is grown to a great extent about Micham in Surrey, for the purpose of distilla- tion ; and the lavender-water made of home- grown flowers is considered superior to that imported from France. VOL. II. It is readily propagated by seeds, cuttings, or slips — the former make the best plants. The seed is procured from France. It should be sown in March in poor light soil ; and when the plants are about 2 inches in height they should be transplanted to nursery-beds, in which they should remain till the following spring, when they may be planted out for good. Cuttings are struck in the same manner as with all other shrubby hardy plants, and when rooted should be treated as directed above for seedlings. A dry poor soil is the most favourable, and a warm situation fully exposed to the sun the best place for it, as well as for all other highly-aromatic plants. The European names are — Lavande in French ; Eapliego in Spanish ; Lavendula in Italian ; Spiklavendel in German; Alfazema in Portu- guese ; and Lavendel in Dutch. § 6. — THE HORSE-RADISH. The horse-radish {Coclelearia armoracea L.) belongs to the natural order Cruciferse, tribe Alyssinese, and to the class Tetradynamia in the Linnaean an-angement. The plant is a native of England, found occasionally in damp watery places. The generic name is derived from Cochlear, a spoon, from the spoon-like or concave leaves of several of the genus. Most of the plants of this family, several of which are indigenous to Britain, are wholesome as salad plants,being powerful antiscorbutics, and capable of stimulating the digestive organs. The horse- radish is cultivated in every garden, and is used as a condiment to roast-beef. The root is the part used, and is served at the table either finely scraped down or grated, which latter is the best and moat elegant form. It is also used in winter salads and sauces. Propagation is always efiected by planting portions of the roots, which grow readily, and the soil moat conducive to it is a deep, rich, light sand or alluvial deposit, free from stones or other obstructions, as the longer, thicker, and straighter the roots are the more they are valued. With the exception of the Jerusalem artichoke, there is scarcely another culinary vege- ■ table of equal importance in which cultivation is in general ao greatly neglected as in this. We find it often, like the former, planted in some obscure corner of the garden, where it may have existed for years, and only visited when the proprietor's table is about to be graced with Old England's national dish. The operation of hastily extracting a root or two is too often all that is thought of, and the crop is left to fight its way amongst weeds and litter aa best it may. The best directions laid down for im- proved culture are the papers by Mr Knight and Mr Judd, in the " Transactions of the Hor- ticultural Society." The former, in vol. i. p. 207, says, " During winter, trench the ground 3 feet deep, and in the following February pro- cure the aets, in the choice of which take the strongest crowns or leading buds from old plants, cutting them about 2 inches long. Mark out the ground in 4-feet beds and 1-foot alleys ; 2l 262 CULINARY OR KITCHEN GARDEN. then take from the first bed 9 inches of the top soil, laying it upon the adjoining bed ; after which take out an opening at one end of the bed, in the common way of trenching, 15 inches deep from the present surface; then level the bottom, upon which plant a row of sets across the beds at 9 inches apart each way, with their crowns upright; afterwards dig the next trench the same width and depth, turning the earth into the first trench over the row of sets, thus proceeding, trench after trench, to the end. Where more than the produce of one bed is required for the supply of the family for twelve months, the third bed is next to be planted, which treat as directed for the first, only observ- ing to lay the earth on the fourth, and so on for any number of beds. Upon every alternate bed which is not planted a dwarf annual crop may be grown. The plants must be kept clear of weeds during summer, and as soon as the leaves decay in autumn let them be carefully raked off; in the following February 18 inches of the earth of the unplanted bed must be laid as light as possible, and equally over the beds that are planted, then trench and plant the vacant beds exactly in the same manner as before directed. The following autumn the first planted horse-radish may be taken up by opening a trench at one end of the bed to the bottom of the roots, so that the sticks or roots of the crop may be taken up entire, which for size and quality will be such as have not gene- rally been seen. The following February the one-year-old crop will require additional earth as before directed, which must, of course, be taken from those beds which are now vacant." Mr Judd, as described in the work last quoted, takes about 3 inches of the top part of the roots of the crop to be taken up, and those he cuts ofi", so as to leave only about a quarter of an inch under the crown. He trenches the ground 2 feet deep, and if he applies manure, puts it at the very bottom of the trench. " For if not done," he says, " the horse-radish, which always puts out side roots, would send out such large side roots from the main root, in search of the dung lying contiguous, as materially to injure the crop. In planting, holes are made 18 inches apart every way, and 16 or 18 inches deep. The root-cuttings are let down to the bottom of the holes, which are afterwards filled with finely-sifted coal-ashes, and the surface of the bed is raked over." We trench our ground for this crop 3 feet deep, laying on a good coat of manure in the bottom, which is well mixed with the soil 2 feet below the surface ; the plant-sets, as recommended by Knight above, deprived of all their lateral small fibres, are dropped in holes made by a 2|-inch dibble, gauged to penetrate to the required depth; the holes are filled with the soil above, and the roots left to find their way to the surface, which they do in due season. We have also planted the roots in single lines in trenches dug out as for celery, and as the plants shot up- wards, earthed them up during the first season. The winter following we remove all the soil from them, and cut off eveiy fibre from the main stem or root, and earth them up again, by which means we have roots fit for use of a large size and uniform shape. In November we take up as much of the crop as is likely to be used during winter, and pack it by in moderately dry sand in the root-cellar, where it is easily got at when required. The Scapula forficularis, the garden pebble- moth, is the only insect we know of that is injurious to the horse-radish. This insect, in its perfect state, measures rather more than an inch across the wings when fully expanded. The uppermost pair are hazel-coloured, with four stripes, two of which are very distinct, while the other two are faintly traced. The body and under wings are whitish, and on the latter near the middle there is a curved brownish streak, and another of a blackish colour on the margin. The first brood of caterpillars make their appearance in May, while the second do not appear until autumn. They are from 8 to 10 lines in length ; head of a light-brown colour; body yellowish-green, with longitudinal black stripes. The means chiefiy employed for their destruction are, dusting the plants with white hellebore powder in a dry state ; or caustic hme applied in their earliest state is equally effectual. A species of mildew often appears on the foUage, but, so far as we know, has little effect upon them. This is Erysiphe leguminosarum Link. The European names are — Cranson, or Le grand raifort, in French; Ramolaccio in Itahan; Rabano in Spanish ; Merrettig in German ; Loseelkraut in Dutch. CHAPTER XII. SOILS. § 1. — THEIR ORIGIN AND NOMEN- CLATURE. An intimate knowledge of the nature, and even the nomenclature of soils, is of the utmost im- portance in every branch of cultural science, — to the horticulturist even more so than to the agriculturist, because the subjects under his care are more delicate, and of a much more varied character. The hardier fruit-trees will flourish in soils where the peach, apricot, and vine would refuse to live ; and the same rule holds good amongst many of the productions of the culinary garden. It is, however, in con- nection with the thousands of plants of exotic origin that the nicest distinctions in regard to the nature and nomenclature of soils are called forth ; for certain genera of plants — nay, even certain species of the same genus— require a very opposite soil from those brought from the same locality, ranking in the same natural order, and to all external appearances differing little from them. Those which naturally inhabit a silioious soil will seldom exist long in an argil- laceous one ; and those from peaty soils will not long live in calcareous ones. Seeds of most plants will germinate in a soil composed chiefly of vegetable matter ; but after germination, those whose natural food is derived from an argillaceous soil, will soon linger and die of starvation. There is no universal soil, wherein all the productions of a garden can be grownf while a rich loamy soil may be considered all that is desired by the agriculturist, for in such all his crops will flourish alike. The horticulturist has yearly to collect, from wherever they can be procured, soils of very opposite characters. To him, therefore, a knowledge of the nature of soils is of paramount importance ; and that knowledge is only to be obtained by one or other of the three tests — which wiU be after- wards noticed — namely, botanical, chemical, or mechanical. Some acquaintance with the nomenclature of soUs is to him of equal importance. He may receive plants or seeds from Caffraria, described as having been growing in a silicious soil ; from New Zealand, as having been produced in an argillaceous soil ; from Canada, in a peaty soil; from somewhere else, in a calcareous one, and so on. Therefore, without a sufficient knowledge of the difference between these, he would be liable to commit an error of almost daily occurrence, by sowing or planting in a soil perfectly unsuitable for the healthy development of the seed or plant. A complete nomenclature of soils is still a desideratum, as was the case in every other de- partment of natural science, until the various specimens in each were reduced to systematic arrangement. At present, the names of soils are scarcely even conventional, nor can it be otherwise until they are subjected to the mles of classification ; and no doubt they will, through the agency of chemistry, be yet arranged into classes, orders; genera, and possibly species and varieties. The only feasible attempt we know of being made in this very important matter is that of M. de Gaspariu, which, although far from perfect, is still a step in the right direction. He divides all soils into two classes — namely, inorganic and organic — and this will, we believe, always be recognised as the fundamental prin- ciple of aU classification. His subdivisions we do not, however, think sufficiently clear to be of much practical use in their present state. The inquiring reader will find a translation of his arrangement, from the Comptes Rendnes de I'AcadSmie des Sciences, in the 27th volume of Jameson's Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal. For every practical purpose of cultivation, at least with our present limited knowledge of the subject, soils may be divided into six different classes, and these, we think, will be found to express, sufficiently clear, an idea of the parti- cular soil that is meant. These are, argillaceous or clayey, containing above 50 per cent of clay; silicious or sandy, containing not more than 10 per cent of clay; calcareous or limey, containing more than 20 per cent of carbonate of lime; loamy, having from 20 to SO per cent of clay; gravelly, com- posed of small stones, silica, a small portion of loam or of clay, and often a considerable per- centage of oxide of iron, particularly in some pit gravels valued for their binding nature, and employed for walk-making, (in alluvial and river gravel this oxide is much less abundant) ; peaty, chiefly fonned of vegetable matter, in which a large proportion is in an inert state — most so when it exists in deep masses, surcharged with 264 CULINARY OR KITCHEN GARDEN. water, and least so when in a thin surface stratum, resting on a dry base. Before, how- ever, treating on these individually, we may offer a few brief remarks on the origin of soils generally. " It is the generally received opinion of the formation of soils, that they have proceeded from the detrition of rocks by the force of ex- ternal agencies; that the disintegrated materials have been carried by floods to the ocean, and, there accumulating, are formed into horizontal layers. But the decay of rocks themselves must be very gradual : in some dry countries, inscriptions are perfect, and their angular edges and shapes but little blunted or altered, after a lapse of twenty centuries. The formations that are taking place, in the present quiescent state of the globe, are made by the sea, fresh-water rivers, and by lacustrine deposits from sub- stances collected and rolled along by the course of the waters over the earth. The depositions go on in many places visibly, though slowly : but we know little of the processes by which the vast alluvial deposits have been made, in all the different arrangements, mixtures, and com- binations, to the depth of several hundred feet, and extending over vast tracts of various and discordant qualities ; or of the means em- ployed by nature in the process of alluvial depo- sition from the detritus accumulated at the foot of mountains, from the decomposition of rocks, and of the subsequent removal and consolida- tion, or even of the operations by which animal and vegetable exuvise are converted into soil. But these petrifactions and organic remains would seem sufficient to place one fact beyond dispute, that the globe has undergone many extensive changes; and it is not a little curious that they are confined to particular formations, and are not found in contiguous strata, and that the remains of trees and vege- tables are found only in some few similar situ- ations. Soils are often found to contain sub- stances that do not exist in the rocks on which they rest; and rocks frequently possess materials of which no vestiges can be detected in the upper soil, and which, being destructible, would be found in some degree or quantity, if soils were derived from the adjacent formations. These circumstances would appear to indicate that other agents than detrition have been at work in the production and creation of soils. " The alluvial formation constitutes the greater mass of the surface of the earth, and is composed of rocky substances, formed of pre- viously existing rocks, and supposed to be formed by the detrition and ruins of other for- mations, broken down by the gradual action of water. They are loose in textiu'C, and are never covered with any rock or solid secondary strata, and may be reckoned a very recent depo- sition, the formation of which is still going on. The deposit is mostly composed of clay, sand, and gravel, which, in a great variety of combi- nations and modifications, constitute what is termed land or soil. They contain sands from quartz, and clays from the disintegration of slates, felspar, and micaceous rocks, mixed with other substances, and fill up hollow places, and form very extensive tracts. They also contain calcareous tuffs, common salt, and peat, subter- ranean and submarine forests, bogs, iron ore, metals, ores, and gems in grains." — Donaldson on Soils and Manures, p. 10. This view appears also to have been taken by Mr Morton, who observes in his work on soils, that " the surface of the earth partakes of the nature and colour of the subsoil or rock on which it rests. The principal mineral of the soil of any district is that of the geological for- mation under it. Hence we find argiUaoeous soil resting on the various clay formations, cal- careous soil over the chalk, and oolitic rocks and sUicious soils over the various sandstones. On the chalk the soil is white; on the red sand- stone it is red ; and on the sands and clays, the surface has nearly the same shade of colour aa the subsoil. The lime, potash, and iron, existing in various proportions in the rock, are acted upon by the atmosphere, and the rock is decom- posed; some of it will form impalpable matter, some into sand, and some into coarse gravel or rubble. The surface is composed of the same materials as the subsoil, with the addition of vegetable and animal matter, in every state of decay, internally mixed with it ; and we perceive a change in the external appearance of the sm'- face whenever there is a change in the subsoil below." Whitley, in " Application of Geology to Agri- culture," dissents somewhat from these opinions, and asserts that " the ordinary effect of atmo- spheric infiuence does not appear sufficient to produce such changes. We are therefore led," he continues, " to the conclusion that some more powerful and effective agent has been at work; and the phenomena connected with the facts we have reviewed are only consistent with the theory of a vast body of water having, by its violent action, broken and comminuted the earth's surface to a considerable depth, thus holding in mechanical suspension the materials of which the soil and subsoil are composed— the coarser and heavier parts first subsiding, then the clays, and lastly the fine earthy matter. In endeavouring to establish this view of the formation of soil, the decomposition of rocks by atmospheric and chemical agencies must not be overlooked. These causes had probably produced extensive changes before that cata- strophe, whose effects we have just been describ- ing, and to the present time their operation tends to improve and deepen the soil. The crumbling down of rooks by decomposition may be regarded as conservative of the soil, by sup- plying fresh portions to replace those that are constantly washed away." Notwithstanding the attempt to establish this water theory, which is by no means new, Mr Whitley cannot altogether get rid of the theory laid down by Donaldson, Morton, and others. Ansted, in " Geology," vol. ii., follows, although in a more modified degree, the views of Whitley stated above. In reviewing these opinions, Mr Henry Stephens, in " The Book of the Farm," we think very justly, draws the following conclusion: "It appears to me the origin of the soil is not so SOILS. 265 easily explained as the matter seems to be assumed by the authors just quoted ; aud that difficulty attends the explanation of their origin may be inferred from the fact of most geologists having hitherto paid little attention to the re- lations of the loose materials composing the sur- face of the globe. They are well acquainted, and coincide in opinion, with the relations of the indurated rocks which form the crust of the earth, but are far from being agreed as to the causes which have placed the enormous masses of incoherent matter, met with in every quarter of the globe, in their present positions. These masses of clay, sand, and gravel, bear no fixed relation to one another, like the indurated rooks, and, therefore, have not been placed by the operation of any law of order, but simply that of gravity; and it is this want of order in their position which bafles the ability of the geologist to ascribe the origin correctly." The highly respectable authority last quoted further remarks : " Notwithstanding the possi- bility of the formation of mould upon the sur- face of hard rocks by means of atmospheric in- fluences, there cannot, I think, a doubt exist that by far the largest proportion of the agricul- tural soil is based upon the incoherent, and not on the indurated rooks." The term rock, it should be observed, is used here as applied by geologists, " not only to the hard substance to which this name is commonly given, but also to those various sands, gravels, shales, marls, or clays which form beds, strata, or masses ;" and the conclusion arrived at by Mr Stephens is, " that the agricultural soils of the low part of a country are generally not derived from the hard rocks upon which they may happen to be placed, but have been brought to their present position from a distance by means of water." After stat- ing various cases which have come under his own observation, he proceeds : " It is not denied that the chemical action of the air, and the phy- sical force of rain, frost, and wind, produce visible effects upon the most indurated rocks; but of course they must have much greater effects upon incoherent ones. Combined in their action, they could only originate a mere coating of soE over the surface of indurated rock, if the rock were situated within the region of phano- gamous vegetation, because it would then be constantly covered with plants. But the plants in their turn would protect the rocks against the action of external agencies; and although they could not entirely prevent, they would at least retard the accumulation of soil beyond what the supply of vegetation required. Some other agent, therefore, more powerful than the ordinary atmo- spherical elements, must be brought to bear on indurated rocks, before a satisfactory solution of the formation of soils can be accepted. That other agent is water; but the moment we assent to the agency of water being able, by its abrasive power and buoyant property, when in motion, to transport the abraded parts of rocks to a distance, and let them fall in coming in contact with some opposing bai-rier, that moment we must abandon the idea of the soils formed from abradedmatter being derived from the indurated rock upon which they rest. Mr Buist draws these conclusions, after describing the relative positions of deposits to the rocks upon which they I'est, in a large and important district of Perthshire, where he says "that the alluvial matters of these districts, in general, belong to periods much more remote than those originally assigned to them, and came into existence under circum- stances pj-odigiously different from those which presently obtain ; that the present causes — that is, the action of our modern rivers, brooks, aud torrents, and of the air and water on the surface now exposed to them — have had but little share in modifying our alluvial formations, or bringing them into their present form." Professor John- ston, in " Lectures on Agricultui-al Chemistry and Geology," sums up this matter in the fol- lowing words : " Thus the general conclusion is fairly drawn, that the earthy matter of all soils has been produced by the gradual decay, degra- dation, or crumbling down of previously existing rocks. It is evident, therefore, that whenever a soil rests immediately upon the rock from which it has been derived, it may be expected to partake more or less of the composition and character of that rock ; and that where the soil forms only the surface-layer of a considerable depth of transported materials, it may have no relation whatever, either in mineralogioal cha- racter or in chemical constitution, to the imme- diately subjacent rocks. The soils of Great Britain are divisible into two such classes. In some countries an acquaintance with the pre- vailing rock of the district enables us to predict the general character and quality of the soil ; in others — and nearly all our coal-fields are in this case — the general character and capabilities of the soil have no relation whatever to the rocks on which the loose materials immediately rest." Sir H. Davy, in accounting for the transition from rock to soil, remarks that the operation may be easily conceived by referring to the in- stance of soft granite, or porcelain granite. This substance consists of three ingredients — quartz, feldspar, and mica. The quartz is almost pure silicious earth in a crystalline form ; the feld- spar and mica are very compounded substances: both contain silica, alumina, and oxide of iron. In the feldspar there is usually lime and potass ; in the mica, lime and magnesia. When a granite rock of this kind has been long exposed to the influence of air and water, the lime and potass contained in its constituent parts are acted upon by water or carbonic acid ; and the oxide of iron, which is almost always in its least oxidised state, tends to combine with more oxygen. The con- sequence is, that the feldspar decomposes, and likewise the mica, but the first the most rapidly. The feldspar, which is, as it were, the cement of the stone, forms a fine clay ; the mica, partially decomposed, mixes with it as sand ; and the un- decomposed quai-tz appears as gravel, or sand of different degrees of fineness. As soon as the smallest layer of earth is formed on the surface of a rock, the seeds of lichens, mosses, and other imperfect vegetables which are constantly float- ing in the atmosphere, and which have made it their resting-place, begin to vegetate. Their death, decomposition, and decay afford a certain quantity of organisable matter, which mixes 266 CULINAEY OR KITCHEN GARDEN. with the earthy materials of the rock. In this improved soil more perfect plants are capable of subsisting ; these in their turn absorb nourish- ment from water and the atmosphere, and, after perishing, afford new materials to those already provided. The decomposition of the rock still continues; and at length, by such slow but gra- dual processes, a soil is formed on which even forest trees can fix their roots, and which is fitted to reward the labours of the cultivator. Such, therefore, being the opinions offered regarding the primary formation of soils, let us briefly consider them in the order in which they stand above. Argillaceous or clayey soils derive their name from, and are formed of substances, the basis of which is argil or alumen, alumina or alumine, the oxide of aluminum, one of the newly disco- vered terrigenous metals, which unites with only one proportion of oxygen, and forms the well- known base called alumina, which contains, in one hundred parts of " aluminum," about eight of oxygen. Sir H. Davy laid it down as a rale in practice, that the name clayey soil should not be applied to any soil unless it contained one-sixth of impalpable earthy matter, and did not effer- vesce to any great extent with acids. Argilla/- ceous soils occur in extensive and often very thick beds in most alluvial districts, transported thither by the agency of water, and accumulating for ages. This soil is much mixed with silica and other matters, and is found of different colours, as oxide of iron in different states and combina- tion is amalgamated with it. Clay enters into all good soils ; in fertile ones it abounds to the extent of 9 to 15 per cent, whilst in barren lands it exists to from 20 to 40 per cent. " The absence of it," Donaldson observes, "forms a soil too dry and porous : a proper quantity forms the best clay lands and clayey loams, and a superabundance of it constitutes a soil too wet and cold for vegetable life, in a moist state, and hardening and contracting by heat into a state very hurtful to the growth of plants. The purest clay contains upwards of 60 per cent of sand, and is always mixed with mineral, animal, and vegetable substances." Stiff or strong clays, although they absorb the greatest quantity of water when it is poured upon them, or in the case of heavy rains, do not absorb most moisture from the atmosphere in dry weather. They then become caked on the surface, and evapo- ration from below is consequently interrupted, so that crops are burnt up on them sooner than on light porous sandy soils. Clayey soils are also much colder than lighter soils, because, from their closeness of texture'and often superabund- ance of moisture, the rays of heat are prevented from penetrating them. They are, however, more uniform in temperature, as the same cause that prevents the absorption of heat prevents its radiation also. Clay has a strong affinity for water, on account of the alumina forming its basisretainingit with great tenacity; audit is this quality which constitutes its distinguishing cha- racteristic. " It may be remarked," says Donald- son, " that this quality seems to exist in soils in a smaller proportion than is generally supposed, owing to the state of combination and exposure. Clay soils of all colours and qualities are known by the property of holding water very tenacious- ly; and when once wetted, they are dried with very great difficulty. The most general colours of clayey soils are red and black, of various de- grees of fertility and texture. The red soils are hardest; the black is softer, and in many cases very waxy and plastic, arising from the minute- ness of the particles affording so many points of adhesion. In dry weather they are hard and lumpy, as the red-coloured ; in moist weather they dissolve more easily and readily. Clay soils require much power and labour, and dry weather if possible, during the process of being wrought, and narrow ridging or thorough draining in order to carry away the excess of moisture. Clay soils, when well enriched with manures, are na- turally well qualified for carrying good crops; but they require much care and industry, as well as a very considerable portion of practical skill in their management, in order to keep them in good condition ; yet, when the natural adhesive toughness can be mastered, they generally yield the heaviest and most abundant crops. One grand requisite is, to keep the land in condition ; a poor worn-out clay being the most ungrateful of all soils, and hardly capable of repaying seed and labour." Clay soils, although, when in a high state of cultivation, capable of produc- ing, during summer and autumn, most culinary vegetables in a high state of perfection, are very unfit for preserving them through the winter, or for producing them early in the season. If ameliorated by culture, and free from extra moisture, they are well adapted for most of the hardier sorts of fruit trees. The oldest speci- mens of these with which we are acquainted are growing in rich alluvial clayey soils. The composition of pure clay is thus given by Donaldson, p. 15 : — Silica, 0.36 Alumina, 32.5 Lime, 0.35 Oxide of iron. 0.45 Sulphuric acid, . 19.35 Water, 47.00 Siliciom or sandy soils. — This term can only with strict propriety be applied to soils havmg at lea,st seven-eighths of sand in their composi- tion, and which do not effervesce when acids are applied. Calcareous sandy soils, which may be considered a variety of this soil, are readily distinguished from the strictly silicious by effer- vescing when acid tests are employed. " Sandy soils are composed of the rough, dry, and hard granulations of stones that have been disinte- grated and reduced to particles by the action of the various agencies that are supposed to have contributed to the formation of the different substances that are found in the composition of the globe. Sands are much mixed with other substances, and accordingly vary very much in colour : white, red, yellow, brown, black, and green, with many varieties, as the chief colour- ing qualities are wanting or abundant. When more unequally reduced, sand forms gravel ; when composed mostly of flints, it is called silicious ; with mica it is micaceous ; and when SOILS. 267 very finely reduced, it constitutes dust and quicksand. Silica is a most abundant earth, forming a great proportion of primitive rooks, and of the bases of the globe. In fertile sorts it averages 50 to 80 per cent ; in barren lands, 40 to 70 ; but these proportions never mark with much precision the quality of the soil, as so very much depends on mixture and combina- tion in a geographical position. Silica absorbs 0.25, or one-fourth of its weight of water, with- out dropping, and evaporates twice as fast as chalk, and three times faster than alumen." — Donaldson on Soifs and Manures. Silica forms the chief constituent in most soils, frequently forming nearly nine- tenths of its whole weight; "but this is by no means always the case, for in calcareous or limestone countries we frequently find soils containing a very large quantity of lime. These differences in the proportion of the earthy components of the soil give rise to the varieties of light or free, and stiff or clayey soils, which are also modified by a greater or less quantity of organic sub- stances." — Solly's Rural ChemiMry. Silicious or sandy soils absorb heat from the sun readily, and hence are valuable for the pro- duction of early crops. They are also wrought with much greater ease, and at almost all sea- sons with equal propriety. They are incapable, however, of yielding the greatest weight of pro- duce ; and fruit trees neither live so long in them, nor are so exempt from various diseases. In homely phraseology, they are considered " hungry soils," and speedily decompose manure when applied to them. This is owing to their want of cohesion and incapability of retaining moisture. Air and moisture readily enter into them, and hence the putriflcation of organic matter goes on rapidly in them, and from want of body to retain its parts, it is soon washed down beyond the range of most roots, or its gaseous parts escape into the atmosphere. In the application of manures, therefore, to such a soil, no more should be applied at once than is sufficient for the sustenance of the crop of the current year. Increasing the depth by trench- ing will, to a certain extent, correct the former of these defects ; and adding argillaceous matter to them in due proportions will transform them into a soil nearly approaching in texture and value to the alluvial. Calcareous or limey soils. — These readily efiervesce upon the application of acids, as both lime and magnesia have a powerful affinity for acids, and, in fact, are never present in the soil unless in combination with some of them, and that is most commonly the carbonic. Lime is also not unfrequently found combined with sulphiiric acid, constituting gypsum or sulphate of lime. Calcareous soils are confined to the limestone and chalk formations; and in the latter case, when mixed with clay, become ex- ceedingly difficult to work. Such soils, also, are late, and unfavourable for the brairding of seeds. However paradoxical it may appear, there are not unfrequent instances in the chalk countries where, although the substratum may be solid chalk to the depth of a hundred feet or more, there may be a great deficiency of it near the surface ; and hence it is frequently brought up, by sinking shafts and tunnelling, for the purpose of being laid on as a top-dressing, and to make up what is found to be wanting in the surface-soil. Fruit trees do not long exist in a healthy condition where chalk foi'ms the sub- soil. In such a soil, according to Professor Johnston, there are 56 lb. of lime in 1000 lb. of calcareous soil ; while barren soil contains only 4 lb. That is, if a soil contains more than 20 per cent of carbonate of lime, it is called a calcareous soil ; if it contains no more than 5 per cent, it is called a marly soil. Loamy soils. — This term should be limited to soUs containing at least one-third of impalpable earthy matter, and effervescing copiously with acids. Considerable discrepancy, however, ap- pears to exist in regard to what loam really is. " Loam or mould is composed of decomposed animal and vegetable matters, is a principal material in soils, and differs greatly according to the quantity and quality of the matter itself, the state of reduction it has reached, and from the manner in which it is incorporated with the constituents of the soil. Such soils are almost invariably dry, and possess the happy medium of absorbing, retaining, and giving oS moisture in the quantity most suitable to the growth of plants. Much of their fertility may be ascribed to the quality of the original subjacent forma- tion being favourable to the growth of vegeta- tion which grew and died upon it, and, along with animal remains, produced the quality and depth of the stratum. The property of depth generally bears a direct ratio to the fertility of the soil, or rather the latter to the former." — Donaldson on Soils and Manures. Sir H. Davy defines loam as " the impalpable part of the soil which is usually called clay or loam ;" and Reid, in " Chemistry of Nature," offers the following definition : " The term loam is applied to soils which consist of about one-third of finely-divided earthy matter, con- taining much carbonate of lime." Mr Stephens, in " The Book of the Farm," says — " Loam, in my opinion, consists of any kind of earth con- taining a sensible admixture of decomposed vegC' table matter. I say," he remarks, " a sensible ad- mixture, since no soil under cultivation, whether composed chiefly of clay or of sand, but wBat contains some decomposed vegetable matter. Unless, therefore, the decomposed vegetable matter of the soil so preponderates as to greatly modify the usual properties of the constituent earths, the soil cannot, in truth, be called by any other name than a clayey or sandy soil ; but when it does so prevail, a clay loam, or a sandy loam is formed. But if loam is almost synonymous with clay, then a sandy loam must be a contradiction of terms. Again, a soil of purely vegetable origin— such as crude peat or leaf mould — cannot be called loam, as admix- ture of an earth of some sort with vegetable matter is required to make loam, under every recorded definition of that term. Thus, then, all soils have the property of clay and sand ; and a considerable admixture of decomposed vegetable matter converts them into loam. Hence it is possible for husbandry to convert 268 CULINARY OR KITCHEN GARDEN. any earthy soil into a loam, as is clearly exem- plified in the vicinity of large towns." Loamy soils are by far the most valuable of any, and are also the most numerous. Hence we have clay loams and sandy loams, vphich are synonymous terms for strong loams and light loams — the former containing a larger propor- tion of clay, and the latter of sand. Closely allied to these are gravelly loams, which, with sandy loams, are exceedingly valuable, and when unaccompanied with iron are amongst the more useful of all soils. They neither retain too much water, nor do they exclude the sun's heat. They are evidently of alluvial formation, and exist most generally by the margins of rivers, or in the bottoms of valleys. We have also fibrous loams, much sought after by the plant cultivator; as well as virgin or maiden loam, equally in request. The former of these is valued for the abundance of the fibrous roots of plants it contains, which, as they decompose, afford food to the living plant ; while the latter is procured from ground that has never been subjected to cultivation ; and although a small portion only of organisable matter is found in it, still it is perhaps of all others the best suited to horticultural purposes. Gravelly soiZs vary considerably in degree — that is, frojaalw a luto a a ajLCtmbined with small stones, 'gravelly loam. The former and its nearest 'allies consist almost entirely of small stones and particles of silicious matter, and are barren and unproductive ; the latter of fragments of rock or water-worn stones, varying from the size of a large pea to a hazel-nut, or even larger, inter- mixed with sand and with more or less of loam or vegetable matter. Most of the soils in this section are open and porous, and give off mois- ture very quickly ; and on this account, together with the heat they absorb, are apt to burn in warm dry seasons. Such soils seldom suffer from wet, unless when very shallow and on a retentive subsoil. If unmixed with iron, and containing a sufficient quantity of loam or vege- table matter, gravelly soils are valuable in the garden, yielding early spring crops, and tending, from their dryness, to maintain them during the frosts of winter. They are not, however, in general adapted for fruit trees or fruit-bearing plants. The small stones of which gravelly soils are so much composed tend greatly to in- crease their temperature, and act as better con- ductors of heat than the finer particles of sand; but although such soils are more easily heated than sands, they are cooled also in the same proportion. Gravelly soils, when loam and vegetable matter predominate, are, next to light or moderately light loams, amongst the very best garden soils. Peaty or mossy soils. — These are evidently of vegetable origin, and as they contain a super- abundance of vegetable matter, often in an inert state, they require the agency of other matter to break them down and fit them for the growth of plants. Peaty soils in any of their modifications are seldom employed in the formation of garden soils, although, in the state of that known amongst plant cultivators as " heath mould " or " sandy peat," they are indispensable in good culture. Such peat is found, for the most part, on the sides of mountain ranges, and near the tops of secondary hills, and is composed of a basis of black soil, the result of decayed vege- tation of the lowest order of plants, intermixed with the remains of heath, Cahina vulgaris, &o., and abounding in small white sparkUng particles of silica, or fragments of primitive rocks, and sometimes also of small fragments of the more recently formed white sandstone. It is found in shallow beds, seldom many inches deep, evi- dently the accumulation of ages, partly trans- ported thither by rain and melting snow from a higher altitude, and partly by the decomposi- tion of vegetation. To be useful for plants, this soil must be free of oxide of iron, which often abounds in such formations. Turfy peat is the result of semi-decayed vegetables, various species of Musci, Juncem, Cyperacece, &c. ; and when dried moderately in the sun and broken down, is valuable for most plants, and may be modified by the addition of sand or loam to suit the ma- jority in cultivation. Black and inert peat is in its natural state totally useless, and can only . be rendered useful by burning, charring, roasting, draining, reducing in volume and shape, and by a large admixture of sharp silicious sand. That from the sea-beach is valuable, as carrying with it a considerable amount of saline matter. Peat bogs, which have been drained and cultivated, contain often 80 to 90 per cent of organic matter. The origin of peat, when in masses, opens up a broad page in the historical changes which a country has undergone. Often under 10 or 16 feet of this substance, and extending over hundreds of acres, may be not only dis- covered a rich argillaceous soil, but also the marks of former cultivation ; in other cases the same soil, in which are still to be found the roots of oaks and other trees, while remains of their trunks and branches are scattered through the superincumbent mass, and these of a size with which our present largest trees are as mere saplings, and, strange to say, often at altitudes where the whole art of man could not get the same species to grow at the present day. Such magazines of almost neglected matter might be advantageously employed by being transported to light sandy or gravelly soils, in which there is a great deficiency of vegetable matter. Their ashes also form valuable stimulants, and assist in the germination of seeds on all, but more especially on strong clayey soils. Celery, pota- toes, and carrots are almost the only garden crops that seem to prefer an improved peaty soil. Fruit trees seldom succeed in such, al- though many shrubs and American trees do. Subsoils exercise a considerable influence on the soil above them. Thus a clay subsoil, being impervious to water, renders the surface soil, of whatever nature it may be, wet and cold. A gravelly or porous subsoil tends greatly to dry, and of course render warmer, the surface-soil, even should it be clay ; and when a porous soil rests upon a gravelly subsoil, scarcely any de- gree of humidity can injure it. A rocky sub- soil may be either drying or retentive, according to its structure ; " a massive subsoil keeping SOILS. 269 the soa above it habitually wet ; while a strati- fied one, if the lines of stratification dip down- wards from the soil, wUl preserve even a reten- tive soil above it in a comparative dry state." Much, therefore, in the formation of garden soUs depends on the subsoil, and to this too Httle attention has been in general paid. All efforts to improve, or even to make a new gar- den soil, by the collection of the best materials, wUl be unsatisfactory, if the subsoil is left im- pervious to the free passing downward of water, or if left in its natural state, when containing a superabundance of mineral matter unprofitable or deleterious to the roots of trees or plants to be cultivated over it. Where subsoils are re- tentive of water, they should be thoroughly drained; where they contain mineral matter unfit for the roots of plants, their character should be changed by the application of coun- teracting agents. AU soils consist of two parts — organic and inorganic ; the former chiefly owes its origin to the remains of vegetables and animals, " which," as Professor Johnston observes, " have lived or died in or upon the soil, which have been spread over it by rivers and rains, or which have been applied by the hands of man, for the purpose of increasing its natural fertility. This organic part varies very much in quantity in different soils. In some, as in peaty soils, it forms from SO to 70 per cent of their whole weight ; and even in rich long-cultivated soils it has been found, in a few rare cases, to amount to as much as 25 per cent. In general, however, it is present in much smaller propor- tion, even in our best arable lands. The rich alluvial soil of the valley of the Nile contains only 5 per cent of dry organic matter. In stiff and very clayey soils, 10 to 12 per cent is some- times found ; in very old pasture-lands, and in gardens, vegetable matter occasionally accumu- lates so as to overload the upper soil. To this organic matter the name of humus has been given by some writers. It contains, or yields to the plant, the ulmic, humic, and other acids. It suppHes also, by its decay in contact with the air which penetrates the soil, much carbonic acid, which is supposed to enter the roots, and thus to assist the growth of living vegetables. During the same decay, ammonia is likewise produced, and this in large quantity, if animal matter be present in considerable abimdance. Other substances more or less nutritious are also formed from the organic matter in the soil. These enter by the roots, and contribute to nourish the growing plant, though the extent to which it is fed from this source is dependent both upon the abundance with which these sub- stances are supphed, and upon the nature of the plant itself, and of the climate in which it grows. " Another influence of this organic portion of the soil whether naturally formed in it, or added to it as manure, is not to be neglected. It con- tains — as all vegetable substances do — a consi- derable quantity of inorganic, that is, of saline and earthy matter, which is liberated as the organic part decays. Thus living plants de- rive from the remains of former races, buried VOL. II. beneath the surface, a portion of that inorganic food which can only be obtained from the soil, and which, if not thus directly supplied, must be sought for by the slow extension of their roots through a greater depth and breadth of the earth in which they grow. The addition of manure to the soil, therefore, places within the easy reach of the roots not only organic, but also inorganic food." The inorganic part of soils is that which re- mains behind when the organic part is destroyed or abstracted by burning the whole to a red heat in the open air, and consists entirely of earthy and saline substances. The former are insoluble in water, while the latter are soluble. The amount of soluble matter contained in the majority of soils is not great, " and consists of common salt, gypsum, sulphate of soda, sul- phate of magnesia, with traces of the chlorides of calcium, magnesium, and potassium ; and of soda, potash, lime, and magnesia, in combination vrith nitric and phosphoric, and with the humic and other organic acids. It is from these soluble substances that the plants derive the greater portion of the saline ingredients contained in the ash they leave when burned. In hot wea- ther, the evaporation on the surface causes the water to ascend from the porous subsoil ; and as this water always brings with it a quantity of saline matter, which it leaves behind when it rises in vapour, it is evident that the longer the dry weather, and consequent evaporation from the surface, continues, the thicker the incrusta- tions will be, or the greater the accumulations of saline matter on the surface. When rain falls, the saline matter is dissolved, and descends again to the subsoil. In dry weather it re- ascends; hence the surface-soil of any field will contain a larger proportion of soluble inorganic matter in the middle of a hot dry season, than in one of even ordinary rain : hence also the fine dry weather, which, in early summer, hastens the growth of crops, and later in the season favours their ripening, does so probably, among its other modes of action, by bringing up to the roots, from beneath, a more ready supply of those saline compounds which the crop requires for its healthful growth. "The earthy or insoluble portion of soils rarely constitutes less than 95 lb. in 100 of the whole weight. It consists chiefly of silica, in the form of sand ; of alumina, mixed or com- bined with silica, in the form of clay ; and of lime, in the form of carbonate of lime. It is rarely free, however, from 2 or 3 per cent of oxide of iron ; and, where the soil is of a red colour, this oxide is often present in still larger proportion. A trace of magnesia also may be almost always detected, and a minute quantity of phosphate of lime. The principal ingredients, however, of the earthy part of all soils are sand, clay, and lime ; and soils are named or classi- fied according to the quantity of each of these three they may happen to contain." The following simple rule has been laid down by Mr Johnston, by which the practical culti- vator may determine sufficiently accurately the nature of an ordinary soil : " If an ounce of soil be intimately mixed with a pint of water 2 M 270 CULINARY OR KITCHEN GARDEN. till it is perfectly softened and diffused through it, and if, after shaking the heavy parts, it be allowed to settle for a few minutes, the sand will subside, while the clay — which is in finer particles, and less heavy — will still remain float- ing. If the water and fine floating clay be now poured into another vessel, and be allowed to stand till the water has become clear, the sandy part of the soil will be found on the bottom of the first vessel, and the clayey part on that of the second, and they may be dried and weighed separately. If 100 parts of dry soil, not peaty or unusually rich in vegetable matter, leave no more than 10 of clay when treated in this man- ner, it is called a sandy soil ; if from 10 to 40, a sandy loam ; if from 40 to 70, a loamy soil; if from 70 to 85, a clay loam ; from 85 to 95, a strong clay soil ; and when no sand is separated at all by this process, it is a pure agricultural clay." Such a soil is not of very frequent occur- rence ; and were it even so, it would be one of the worst for garden purposes. " If a soil contain more than 6 per cent of car- bonate of lime, it is called a marl ; if more than 20 per cent, it is a calcareous soil. Peaty soils, of course, are those in which the vegetable matter predominates very much. The quantity of ve- getable or other organic matter is determined by drying the soil well upon paper in an oven, until it ceases to lose weight — taking care that the heat is not so great as to char the paper — and then burning in the open air a weighed quantity of the dried soil : the loss by burning is nearly all organic matter. In stiff clays this loss vrill include also a portion of water, which is not wholly driven off from such soils by dry- ing upon paper in the way described. To esti- mate the lime, a quantity of the soil should be heated in the air till the organic matter is burned away. A weighed portion (200 or 300 grains) should then be diffused through half a pint of cold water, mixed with half a wine-glassful of spirit of salt (muriatic acid), and allowed to stand for a few hours, with occasional stirring. When minute bubbles of gas cease to rise from the soil, the water is poured off, the soil dried, heated to redness as before, and weighed : the loss is nearly all lime."- — Johnston's Agricuitv/ral Chemistry and Geology, pp. 81, 86. § 2. — DETERMINATION OF THEIR NATURE, ETC. This is only to be arrived at, with any degree of certainty, by botanical, chemical, or mechan- ical tests — that is, by observing the plants that grow on them ; by chemical analysis ; and by their roughness, smoothness, taste, smell, or fracture. For almost all practical purposes the former will be found a safe guide, but for strictly scien- tific determination a chemical analysis is requi- site, while many who are ignorant of both botan- ical and chemical science arrive at pretty cor- rect conclusions by the last of these. The qualities of a soil may be determined with con- siderable accuracy, by a good botanist, from the plants which grow upon it, so far as the actual state of the soil has reference to culture ; they do not, however, always indicate the improve- ment of which it is susceptible, although they do so to a very considerable extent. The 2'«s- silago farfara, or common colt's-foot, is as cer- tain an inhabitant of the blue clay as its exist- ence. It has appeared in the clay brought from the bottom of the London basin when boring for water, and exposed to the air, in places where it existed not before ; and the accidental deposit of a single cartload of blue clay upon a barren sandy waste has been soon followed by the appearance of this plant. The Salicornia her- bacea is only found in saline soils ; the Vacci- nium uliginosum in peaty ones ; the Rumex acetosa in ferruginous ; the Arenaria rubra in sandy ; and the Caltha palmtris in marshy soils. Marshy soils are indicated with consider- able certainty by the plants which grow in them, and the same may be said of very dry soils; but the earths of fertile soils cannot be inferred with BO much certainty, as cultivation, manures, and circumstances have so much changed their pri- mitive character. Chemical analysis is not al- ways to be depended upon either, for testing the soil of a large field for example, as there may be a very considerable difference in various parts of it ; so that, in fact, the result of the analysis is that of the identical spot from which the specimen was taken, and may be very dif- ferent from that of other parts — nay, probably from the greater part of the whole field. Loudon thought that " by far the greater number of plants only indicate the state of a soil relatively to water and organic matter. In short," he ob- serves, " nature may be said to have only three kinds of soil relatively to plants — the dry, the moist, and the fertile." " Such a mode of esti- mating the comparative properties of soils," says Mr Stephens, "might be correct enough were their products constant ; but when these change with the circumstances in which the soil is placed, the test scarcely admits of general application." The very circumstance of chang- ing the condition of soils, whether by adding to or diminishing their natural constituent parts, as by manuring, burning, or draining, no doubt has the effect of causing the disappearance «f many plants and the appearance of others ; but these latter indicate, by their presence, the change produced, and form a new series of tests by which the soil, in its improved state, is to be again recognised. A copious application of lime will produce plants affecting a calcareous soil, their appearance indicating the addition of a new matter that did not previously exist in it. Draining produces similar results — namely, the disappearance of bog or aquatic plants, and the vegetation of moderately dry soils appearing. High cultivation is productive of a still greater change in vegetable products; for with the manure the seeds of plants are brought in, the produce of more fertile soils — and even with the crops sown — the seeds of plants not even indigenous to our country, although now erroneously considered as such, will be intro- duced. The Chrysantltemum segetum may be offered as an example. Nothing but a complete SOILS. 271 change in the constituent parts of a soil will cause the plants of one soil naturally to affect another, a circumstance every plant cultivator knows from experience. Taking soils in the order in which we have already placed them, we find that in Argillaceoits soils, Saponaria officinalis, Orobus tuberosus, Lotus major, Carex (many species), Juncus (many species), Tussilago farfara, Poten- tilla reptans, P. anserina, P. argentea, Thalic- trum flavum, Spirssa ulmaria, Aira Ciespitosa, Equisetum arvense, &c., exist. In Calcareous soils, Onobrychis sativa, Clema- tis vitalba, Veronica spicata, Verbascum lych- nitis, Lithospermum officinale, Campanula glo- merata, Phyteuma orbiculare, Hehanthemum vulgare, abound. In Silicious soils, Veronica vema and most of the annual speedwells, SUene Anglica, Echium vulgare, Herniaria glabra and H. hirsuta, Are- naria rubra, Spergula arvensis, Papaver arge- mone, P. hybridum, Thymus serpyllum, Rumex acetosella, Acynos vulgaris, Trifolium arvense, Lamium purpureum, abound. Loamy soils produce Anagallis arvensis, Sher- ardia arvensis, Valerianella ohtoria, Lithosper- mum arvense, Lapsana communis, Sonchus ole- raceus, Fumaria officinalis, Gnaphalium margra- telia, Tritioum repens. Chrysanthemum leucau- themum. Gi'avelly and peaty. — In ike former chiefly Poly- gonum convolvulus, P. aviculare, Aira oaryo- phyllea, Agrostis vulgaris, Lolium perenne, Papaver dubium ; and on the latter Vaccineum (various species), Spergula subulata, Tormentilla officinalis, Calluna vulgaris, Erica tetralix, Ga- lium aparine, present themselves. Bumex acetosella indicates the presence of iron, Equisetum arvense a cold and retentive subsoil, Alchemilla aphanes ia indicative of a most unproductive soil; whUe Cireium arvense and Senecio Jaoobea, although both affecting light and strong loams, indicate in both cases a fertile one, and the little Draba vema and Scle- ranthus annuus are found on the most sterile of aU. This list might be greatly extended, but we have confined it to such plants as are likely to be met with on soils intended for gardening operations. Stellaria media and Fumaria offici- nalis are indicative of a rich condition of soil. Chemical amalysis. — Most of the authorities we have consulted seem to hold out little hope that the majority of cultivators, in their present state of chemical knowledge, can derive much advantage from attempting to analyse soUs themselves, and therefore recommend the em- ployment of professed chemists, who have both the requisite conveniences and a thorough know- ledge of the subject, founded on scientific prin- ciples. The quantity of soil best adapted to a perfect analysis is stated to be 400 grains ; it should be collected in dry weather, and exposed to the air till it becomes dry to the touch. Discretion must be used in selecting specimens for exami- nation, as soUs differ much even within a very limited space. It should therefore be taken from different places, and from 2 to 3 inches below the surface. It is here that the first and principal difficulty arises in the true analysis of soils ; and if due caution be not exercised, the chemical result may be as far from the tnith, as regards the whole field, as if we trusted to its nature from examining the plants which grow upon it. Soils, when collected for this purpose, if not immediately submitted to the chemist, should be kept in close-stopped phials until wanted. All soils, as may be supposed, are variable in composition: their nature is generally a good deal dependent on the subsoil and the stony matters beneath the surface, many of which are slowly decomposing or crumbhng away, and adding to the soil the substances of which they consisted. We have already stated that a soil, to be use- ful for the purpose of cultivation, consists of silica, potash, soda, alumina, lime, magnesia, oxide of iron, oxide of manganese, phosphoric acid, sulphuric acid, chlorine,andorganic matter. We shall now glance at the relative importance of these constituents to plants, and their amount in the soil, upon the authority of Dr Henry Madden of Brighton, as quoted in " The Book of the Farm." " Silica. — This is the pure matter of sand, and also constitutes on an average about 60 per cent of the various clays, so that in a soil it generally amounts to from 75 to 95 per cent. In its uncombined state it has no direct influence upon plants, beyond its mechanical action in supporting the roots, &o. ; but as it possesses the property of an acid, it unites with various alkaline matters in the soil, and produces com- pounds which are required in greater or less quantity by every plant. The chief of these are the silicates of potash and soda, by which ex- pression is meant the compounds of silica, or more properly silicic acid, with the alkalies potass and soda. " Alumina. — This substance never exists pure in soil. It is the characteristic ingredient of clay, although it exists in that compound to the extent of only 30 or 40 per cent. It exerts no direct chemical influence on vegetation, and is scarcely ever found in the ashes of plants. Its chief value in soil, therefore, is owing to its effects in rendering soil more retentive of mois- ture. Its amount varies from 4 per cent to 1 3 per cent. " Oxide of iron. — There are two oxides of iron found in soils — namely, the peroxide and pro- toxide; one of which, the protoxide, is fre- quently very injurious to vegetation — indeed, so much so, that \ per cent of a soluble salt of this oxide is sufficient to render soil almost barren. The peroxide, however, is often found in small quantities in the ashes of plants. The two oxides together constitute from 4 to 10 per cent of soil. The blue, yellow, red, and brown colours of soil are more or less dependent upon the presence of iron. " Oxide of manganese. — This oxide exists in nearly all soils, and is occasionally found in plants. It does not, however, appear to exert any important influence either mechanically or chemically. Its amount varies from a mere 2 72 CULINARY OR KITCHEN GARDEN. trace to about IJ per cent. It assists in giving the black colour to soil." These four substances constitute by far the greatest bulk of every soil, except the chalky and peaty varieties, but nevertheless, chemically speaking, they are of trifling importance to plants, whereas the remaining eight are so absolutely essential that no soil can be cultivated with any success, unless provided with them, either na- turally or artificially. And yet, when it is con- sidered that scarcely any of them constitute 1 per cent of the soil, their value will no doubt excite sm-prise. The sole cause of their utility lies in the fact that they constitute the ashes of the plants ; and as no plant can by possibility thrive without its inorganic constituents {its ashes), hence no soil can be fertile which does not contain the ingredients of which these are made up. The very small per-centage of these ingredients in any soil necessitates a minute analysis of every soil before it can be ascertained whether or not it contains any or what propor- tion of these ingredients. But the reason for such minuteness in analysis becomes obvious when we consider the immense weights which have to be dealt with in practical agriculture ; for example, every imperial acre of soil, consi- dered as only 8 inches deep, will weigh 1884 tons, so that 0.002 per cent — that is, only a two- thousandth per cent, the amount of sulphuric acid in a barren soil — amounts to 80.64 lb. in the imperial acre ! " Potash and soda exist in variable quantities in many of the more abundant minerals, and hence it follows that their proportion in soil will vary according to the mineral which pro- duced it. For the sake of reference, I have subjoined the following table, which shows the amount per cent of alkalies in some of these minerals, and likewise a rough calculation of the whole amount per imperial acre, on the supposition of a soil composed solely of these rocks, and of a depth of 10 inches, and the amount is abundant beyond conjecture. Name of Mlaeral. Amount per Homeof AlkaU. Amount per Imperial acre In a soil 10 inches deep. Felspar, Clinkstone, . Clayslate, Basalt, 17.75 3.31 to 6.62 2.75 to 3.31 5.75 to 10. Potash, Potash'and soda, Potash i Potash and soda. tone cwt qrs lb tone cwt qra lb 423 18 2 8 — 71 17 2 to 143 IS 35 18 3 to 71 17 2 17 to 25 7 3 7 " One unacquainted with chemistry will na- turally ask the question — How is it that these alkalies have not been long ago washed away by the rain, since they are both so very soluble in water ? The reason of their not being dissolved is the following, and it may in justice be taken as an example of those wise provisions of nature, whereby what is useful is never wasted, and yet is at all times ready to be abundantly supplied. " These alkalies exist in combination with the various other ingredients of the rock iu which they occur, and in this way have such a powerful attraction for those ingredients that they are capable of completely resisting the sol- vent action of water as long as the integrity of the mass is sustained. When, however, it is reduced to a perfectly impalpable powder, this attraction is diminished to a considerable extent, and then the alkali is much more easily dis- solved. Now this is the case in soil, and conse- quently while the stony portions of the soil contain a vast supply of these valuable ingre- dients in a condition in which water can do them no injury, the impalpable powder is sup- plied with them in a soluble state, and hence in a condition available to the wants of vegetation. " In the rocks which we have mentioned the alkalies are always associated with clay, and it is to this substance that they have the greatest attraction: it follows, therefore, that the more clay a soil contains, the more alkalies will it have ; but at the same time it will yield them less easily to water, and through its medium to plants." The following analysis of a soil, drawn up by Baumhauer of Utrecht, from a tract in North Holland gained by embankment from the sea, without reference to its barrenness or ferti- lity, is given by Mr Stephens, in order to show the great variety of substances contained in it, and also how important they are in the growth of plants : — Subsoil, Subsoil, (aurfaoe). 15 inches deep. 30 inches deep. Organic matter and water combined, . 8.324 7.700 9.348 Humic acid, . 2.798 3.911 8.428 Crenicacid, . 0.771 0.731 0.037 Apocrenicacid, 0.107 0.160 0.152 Potash, 1.026 1.430 1.521 Soda, . . . 1.972 2.069 1.937 Ammonia, 0.060 0.078 0.076 Lime 4.092 6.096 2.480 Magnesia, 0.130 0.140 0.128 Peroxide of iron, . 9.039 10.306 11.864 Protoxide of iron, . 0.350 0.563 0.200 Protoxide of manganese. 0.288 0.364 0.284 Alumina, 1.364 2.676 2.401 Phosphoric acid, . 0.466 0324 0.478 Sulphuric acid. 0.896 1.104 0.576 Carbonic acid. 6.085 6.940 4.775 Chlorine, 1.240 1.382 1.418 Soluble sUioa, 2.340 2.496 2.286 Insoluble silicates, 67.646 61.706 55.372 Loss, .... 1.006 0.935 1.231 100. 100. 100. " On comparing the constituents of such a soil as the above with the mineral ingredients obtained by incineration from the ashes of plants, it is found that plants withdraw from the soU chiefly its alkaline, mineral, acid, and earthy ingredients ; and if all these were not essential to the very existence of the plants, they would SOILS. 273 not of course be taken up by them ; and as the plants constituting our cultivated crops with- draw those ingredients in a varied amount, it follows that unless the soils we cultivate contain them in ample amount and variety, it will be impossible for the plants placed above them to arrive at a perfect state of development of all their parts ; for, chemically speaking, and rar tionally speaking too, soils cannot be expected to produce crops abundantly, unless they con- tain a sufficient supply of every ingredient which all the crops we wish to raise require from them. " The practical purpose of all analyses of plants and soils should, therefore, be to make us acquainted with the constituents of every variety of cultivated crop at their different stages of growth, and to ascertain whether or not each soil in use contains a sufficient supply of such ingredients. The analysis of plants should have thus a twofold object — namely, to guide the cultivator in the treatment of the plants at the various stages of their growth, and to instinict him as to what quantity the ripe plant in its healthy state finally carries off of those ingre- dients from the soil." Professor Johnston, in " Lectures on Agri- cultural Chemistry and Geology," observes, " The latter only of these two apphcations of such knowledge has hitherto been kept in view by chemists ; and so little has been done in re- ference to it, that we scarcely know as yet what any one eviire plant, when fully ripe, carries off from the soil. In reference to the former appli- cation, the few imperfect researches detailed in the preceding sections (of the second edition of his Lectures) contain all that we yet know. We may well say, therefore," he concludes, " that our knowledge of the inorganic constituents of plants is yet in its infancy, and that our present opinions upon the subject ought, therefore, to be permitted to hang very loosely about us." The following table, showing the per-oentage of mineral ingredients taken from the cultivated soil by some plants, is given by Mr Stephens : — 100 lb. of Eoor OB TUBBH. Leaves. Uiidtied. Dried. Undrled. Dried. Potato, . 0.8 to 1.1 3.2 to 4.6 1.8 to 2.5 18 to 25 Turnip, 0.6 to 0.8 6.0 to 8.0 1.5 to 2.9 14 to 20 Beet, . . — 6.3 — — Jerusalem \ artichoke, j — 6.0 - - Carrot, . . 0.7 5.1 — ■ 16.42 Parsnip, . 0.8 4.3 — 15.76 Maagold- \ wurzel, / Cabbage, . 1.2 7.0 0.53 7.55 — — — 18.25 On the results given in the above table, to- gether with three others of a similar nature by Mr Stephens, Professor Johnston makes the following observations : " The quantity of inorganic matter contained in the same weight of the different crops we raise, or of the different kinds of vegetable food we eat, or with which our cattle are fed, is very unlike; and the quan- tity contained in different parts of the same plant is equally unlike. These results cannot be the effect of accident. They are constant on every soil, and in every climate ; they must, therefore, have their origin in some natural law. Plants of different species must draw from the soil that proportion of inorganic matter which is adapted to the constitution, and is fitted to supply the wants of each ; while of that which has been admitted by the roots into the general circulation of the plant, so much must proceed to and be appropriated by each part as is suited to the functions it is destined to discharge. And as from the same soil different plants select different quantities of saline and earthy matter, so from the same common sap do the bark, the leaf, the wood, and the seed select and retain that proportion which the healthy growth and development of each requires. It is with the inorganic as with the organic food of plants — some draw more from the soil, some less ; and of that which cir- culates in the sap only a small portion is expended in the production of the flower, though much is employed in forming the stem and leaves." Of the great utility of analysis Dr Ure observes, that " no system can be devised for the improvement of land independently of experiment; but there are few cases in which the labour of analytic trials will not be amply repaid by the certainty with which they denote the best methods of melioration, and this will particularly happen when the defects of compo- sition are found in the proportions of the primi- tive earths. In supplying organic matter a temporary food only is provided for plants, which is in all cases exhausted by means of a certain number of crops; but when a soil is rendered of the best possible constitution and texture with regard to its earthy parts, its ferti- lity may be considered as permanently estab- lished. It becomes capable of attracting a very large portion of vegetable nourishment from the atmosphere, and of producing its crops with comparatively little labour or expense." Determining the quality of soUs mechanicaUy and empirically. — The difficulties which present themselves to most cultivators in carrying out a scientific chemical analysis of soils have been noticed : we shall now briefly state more simple means by which the most important constituents of soils may be determined, so far, at least, as is applicable to cultivation. The best practical directions on this head are those published in the " Encyclopedia of Gar- dening," of which the follovping is an abbreviated extract : — " The specific gravity of a soil may be ascer- tained, by introducing into a phial which will contain a known quantity of water equal volumes of water and of soil; and this may easily be done by pouring in water till it is half full, and then adding the soil till the fluid rise to the mouth. The difference between the weight of the soil and that of the water will give the result. Thus, if the bottle contains 400 grains of water, and gains 200 grains, when half filled with water and half with soil, the specific gravity will be 2 — that is, it will be twice as heavy as water; 274 CULINARY OR KITCHEN GARDEN. and if it gained 165 grains, its specific gravity would be 1825, water being 1000. " The presence of clay and sand in any soil is known — the firat by its tenacity, the other by its roughness to the touch, and by scratching glass when rubbed upon it. " The presence of calcareous matter in soil may be ascertained by simply pouring any acid upon it, and observing if it effervesces freely. Muriatic acid is the best for this purpose. Cal- careous soils, magnesian soils and clays, are, for the most part, softer to the touch than arenari- ouB soils. To ascertain the quantity of calcare- ous earth present, dry soil thoroughly, and weigh 100 grains of it, which gradually add to 1 drachm of muriatic acid, diluted with 2 drachms of water, in a phial poised in a balance ; the loss of weight will indicate the escape of carbonic acid, which will be 44 per cent of the quantity of calcareous earth in the soil. " The presence of organised matter in any soil may be ascertained very satisfactorily by weigh- ing it after it is thoroughly dried, then subject- ing it to a red heat, and weighing it again — the weight so found will be the proportion of or- ganic matter, and carbonic acid gas, if there should be any. The same object may also be attained by ascertaining the specific gravity of the soil, but with less accuracy. " The presence of metallic oxides in a soil may generally be known by their colour. Ferrugi- nous soils are red or yellow; cupreous soils interspersed with greenish streaks, &o. Cupre- ous impregnations of soils are rare, and the usual green matter in such soils as the greerir samd of English geologists appears to be coloured by iron, which is almost the only metallic im- pregnation in considerable quantity in any soil. " The presence of salt, sulphur, coal, &c., may be known by the absence or peculiarity of vege- tation, as well as by colour, and the appearance of the water of such soUs. Saline soils may be distinguished by the taste ; sulphiu-eous soils by their smell when thrown on a hot iron ; and the presence of coal by its fragments, which will be left after the soluble matters are removed by water and miuiatic acid. " The capacity of a soil for retaining water may be thus ascertained : an equal portion of two soils, perfectly dry, may be introduced into two tall cylindrical glass vessels, in the middle of each of which a glass tube has been previously placed. The soils should be put into each in the same manner, not compressed very hard, but so as to receive a solidity approaching to that which they possessed when first obtained for trial. If, after this preparation, a quantity of water be poured into the glass tubes, it will subside, and the capillary attraction of the soils will conduct it up the cylinders towards the top of the vessels. That which conducts it most rapidly, provided it does not rise from the weight of the incumbent column of water in the tube, may be pronounced to be the better soil.". " SoUs, considered scientifically," says Dr Mad- den, " may be described to be essentially a mix- ture of an impalpable powder, with a greater or smaller quantity of visible particles, of all sizes and shapes. Careful examination will prove to us that, although the visible particles have seve- ral indirect effects of so great importance that they are absolutely necessary to soil, still the impalpable powder is the only portion which directly exerts any influence upon vegetation. This impalpable powder consists of two distinct classes of substances ; viz., inorganic or mineral matters, and animal and vegetable substances, in all the various stages of decomposition. A very simple method may be employed to separate these two classes of particles from each other ; viz., the impalpable powder and the visible par- ticles ; and in so doing, we obtain a very useful index to the real value of the soil. Indeed, aU soils, except stiff clays, can be discriminated in this manner. The greater the proportion of the impalpable matter, the greater, cwteris pa/rilus, will be the fertility of the soil. To effect this separation, the follovring easy experiment may be performed : Take a glass tube, 2 feet long, closed at one end ; fill it about half full of water, and shake into it a sufScient quantity of the soil to be examined to fill the tube about 2 inches from the bottom, then put in a cork, and, hav- ing shaken the tube well to mix the earth and water thoroughly, set the tube in an upright position for the soil to settle down. Now, as the largest particles are of course the heaviest, they fall first, and form the undermost layer of the deposit, and so on in regular gradation, the impalpable powder being the last to subside, and hence occupying the uppermost portion. Then, by examining the relative thickness of the various layers, and calculating their propor- tions, a very accurate mechanical analysis of the soil may be made." Colowr of soils. — Soils vary in colour from black to dirty white, the intermediate ones being red, blue, brown, light yellowish brown, &c. They derive these colours, for the most part, from the oxides of iron contained in them, and also from decomposing vegetable substances, which all surface-soils contain in a greater or less degree : some black soils may be totally devoid of iron altogether, but these are few. All very black soils, such as peat and deep deposits of vegetable mould, are inert; and hence so is old garden mould, long under cultivation and gorged with organic manure. The protoxide of iron is a powerful agent in communicating a black colour, sometimes, in stiff clays. White soils are chiefly over the chalk formation, and the sandy deposits found near the sea-shore are often of a yeBowish white, both, however, darkened by the addition of organic manure. Eed SQils, or rather dull brownish red, de- rive their colour from peroxide of iron. Blue soils are found in the basins of stagnant water, and in deposits of great depth, such a5 the London basin of blue clay; they change colour to a darkish brown by exposure and cul- tivation. Brown and light-yellowish brown-coloured soils are by far the most common as well as the most valuable ; and although this colour is de- rived from oxide of iron, it does not often exist to a very injurious extent, excepting in gravelly soils of a binding nature. A greater variety of colour exists in subsoils; and the brighter these SOILS. 275 are, the more injurious thoy are to the soil over them. The effects of colour on soils are various, and have a considerable influence in regulating the quantities of heat absorbed from the sun's rays. The darker-coloured soils absorb most heat, while the lighter-coloured ones reflect most of that element. Much, however, of the absorbent property depends on the nature of the soil, whether it be free of superabundant water or the reverse ; and hence a great difierence exists in this respect between watei'-logged black peat and dry black soil containing abundance of organic matter, although the latter faciUtates the preservation of temperature, in consequence of the vegetable and animal matter it contains, when heated to the same degree, cooling more slowly than a wet pale soil entirely composed of earthy matter ; while stiff clay is with difficulty heated, and soon parts with the heat it acquires. Hence it may be considered the coldest of all soils. Chalks are heated with difficulty, but, being drier, when once heated they retain it longer, less being consumed in causing the eva- poration of their moisture. Soils containing much carbonaceous or ferruginous matter ac- quire a much higher temperature from the sun than pale soils. From the experiments made by Schubler with the thermometer in the shade, sand of a natural colour indicated a temperature of 1124°, black sand, 1234, and white sand, 110°, giving a difierence of 13° in favour of a black colour. Sir H. Davy ascertained that a black-coloured soil containing one-fourth of vegetable matter increased in temperature in one hour 23° by ex- posiure to the sunshine ; while a white chalk soil only gained 4° in the same time, and under the same circumstances. But the black soil, when re- moved into a shaded place, cooled 15° in half an hour; while the chalky soil only lost 4° in the same time, and under the same circumstances. Most physiologists agree that the pure soil, without organised matter and water, is of no other use to plants than merely affording them a fixed abode, and a medium by which they may fix themselves to the globe. Soil is also neces- sary to plants by enabling them to obey those laws of nature by which their roots are kept below the surface, and their leaves exposed to the free atmosphere. " It is commonly supposed that plants derive the whole of their food from the soU, but this is a great error. It is a fact well ascertained by chemical experiments, that plants derive the greater part of their nourishment from the au-, although the soil is equally essential to their growth." — Solly in Rural Chemistry. In general, much more depends on the tex- ture of a soil, and its capacity for retaining or parting with water and heat, than on its chemi- cal composition. Svhsoils are of vast importance, because on them depends, in a great measure, the capacity of the surface-BoU for retaining or parting with water and heat. Of these, the worst is clay, kept wet with subterraneous water, and the best are those of clay restiog on gravel or por- ous rock. The latter of these is the best of all for a garden, because, while the water finds a ready means of escape through the fissures in the rock, the roots of the trees are at the same time prevented from extending too deep, and made to take a horizontal direction nearer the surface, and also prevented from extending into a cold and uncongenial soil, causing late excite- ment of the sap in spring, immature ripening of the wood and buds in autumn, and conse- quent paucity of fruit and premature decay iu the trees. The soU, for reasons already stated, is, jinder such circumstances, much increased in temperature, producing earlier crops of culinary vegetables, and those of much better quality, on account of the greater rapidity of their growth. Gravelly subsoils are not always to be depended upon, for these are sometimes placed over basins of impervious clay, from which water cannot escape until it rises as high as the margin of the basin itself, leaving the gravel thus saturated with water. Again, gravel abounding iu oxide of iron is a bad subsoil, and often occurs. Next, therefore, to a rocky bottom, that of clean allu- vial gravel is to be preferred ; and in such all the productions of a garden will prosper, and that often when the climate is indifferent. Not- withstanding these advantages, how seldom, in practice, is this attended to. Much labour and expense are gone into in the improvement of the upper soil, while the lower and more im- portant is left in its natural state. Artificial subsoils are seldom thought of, although of their advantages no one can doubt; and as nature has pointed out to us that an open porous one is the best, our fii-st attempt at garden-making should be to imitate her in this respect. We have shown in vol. i, p. 29, 31, how an artificial subsoil can be formed for fruit-tree borders; and as experience has proved the great utility of these, the enlightened horticulturist will at once see the feasibiUty of extending the same process under the whole of his garden. We may here only state, that where sufficient drain- age material may be difficult to procure, re- course may be had to concreting, taking care that a, sufficient number of drain-tiles be laid underneath for the free escape of the water, which should find its way into them through apertures left in the concrete fioor. It must, however, be admitted that such excessive drain- age is not applicable to all situations alike, so far as the removal of water alone is concerned ; but so far as keeping the roots near the surface, and preventingtheir extending into a badsubsoU, the rule is absolute. Along the eastern coast of Britain, where the annual fall of rain is less than half of what it is on the western, this excessive drainage is of much less importance, unless in low situations where subterranean water abounds, and where it cannot be conveniently drained off. Mineraloffuxd quality of soil. — The temperature and proper amount of moisture in a soil is of far greater importance to the successful culture of plants than its mineralogical structure, and this has reference to hardy as well as to tender plants. " I entertain little doubt," Dr Lindley observes (in " Theory of Horticulture"), " that the time is at hand when it will be considered 276 CULINAEY OR KITCHEN GARDEN. quite as necessary to furnish heat for the soil as for the air ; not, however, heat without mois- ture, for that would evidently produce much greater evils than it was intended to cure, as has indeed been found by inconsiderate expe- rimenters. I quite agree," continues the doctor, " with Mr Writgen in believing that it is the temperature and moisture of a soil, much more than its mineralogical quality, that determine its influence upon vegetation." Moisture in the soil. — " Water," continues the same authority, " is one of the most important elements in the food of plants, partly from their having the power of decomposing it, and partly because it is the vehicle through which the so- luble matters found in the earth are conveyed into the general system of vegetation. Its im- portance depends, however, essentially upon its quantity. We know, on the one hand, that plants wiU not live ia soU which, without being chemically dry, contains so little moisture as to appear dry ; and, on the other hand, an exces- sive quantity of moisture is, in many cases, equally prejudicial. The great point to deter- mine is, the amount which is most congenial to the constitution of the plant. The effect of continuing to make plants grow in a soil more wet than suits them, is well known to be not only a production of leaves and ill-formed shoots, instead of flowers and fruit, but, if the water is in great excess, of a general yellow- ness of appearance, owing, as some chemists think, to the destruction by the water of a blue matter, which, by its mixture with yellow, forms the verdure of vegetation. If this condi- tion is prolonged, the vegetable tissue enters into a state of decomposition, and death ensues. In some cases the joints of the stem separate, in others the plant rots off at the ground ; and all such results are increased in proportion to the weakness of light and the lowness of tem- perature. DecandoUe considers that the col- lection of stagnant water about the neck of plants prevents the free access of the oxygen of the air to the roots ; but it seems to me," says Dr Liudley, " that much more mischief is produced by the coldness of the soil in which water is allowed to accumulate. It seems also probable that the extrication of carburetted hy- drogen gas is one cause of the injury sustained by plants whose roots are surrounded by stag- nant water; but upon this point we want much more satisfactory evidence than we yet Stones are valuable in all soils, as they, in general, are composed of the same material as the soil itself, and, indeed, may be considered as the soil in a previous state. By their gradually crumbling down by the action of air, frost, and moisture, they are continually adding new im- palpable matter to the soU. As a considerable portion of this impalpable matter is annually consumed by planlf^, were it not for the pre- sence of stones the soil would ultimately become sterility itself. The practice, therefore, of raking ofl' stones is just removing so much of the soil itself; and the iU effects of this have been long ago observed by cultivators, while they were ignorant of the cause — so much so, it has been stated that some farmers, finding their land so much deteriorated after the removal of the stones, returned them again, after which the soil regained its former fertility. Impalpable matter in the soil — that is, matter not .to be perceived by.touch — is of vast import- ance to vegetation, and is a product of both organic and inorganic matters. Its functions are exceedingly complicated, and are thus spoken of by Dr Madden : " In this portion of the soil, the mineral and organic matter are so com- pletely united, that it is quite impossible to separate them from each other ; indeed, there are weighty reasons for believing that they are chemically combined. It is from this portion of the soil that plants obtain all their mineral ingredients, and likewise all their organic por- tions, in so far as these are obtained by the roots ; in fact, plants receive nothing from the soil except water, which has been associated with that portion which is at present engaging our attention. The particles forming the impalpable matter are in such close apposition that the whole acts in the same way as a sponge, and is hence capar ble of absorbing liquids and retaining them. It is in this way that soil remains moist so near the surface, even after a long-continued drought ; and I need not say how valuable this property must be to the plants, since by this means they are supplied with moisture from below, brought up by the capillary action of the soil during the heat of summer, when otherwise, unless artifi- cially watered, they would very soon perish. Another most useful function of this impal- pable matter, is its power of separating organic matter from water in which it has been dissolved. Thus for example, if the dark-brown liquid which flows from a dunghill is taken and poured on the surface of some earth in a flower-pot, and a sufficient quantity added to soak the whole earth, so that a portion flows out at the bottom of the pot, this latter liquid will be fo•■ proportion of certain mineral matters is necessary for the proper action of the organic matter in its prepar ration as the food of plants, when reduced to an aqueous or gaseous state ; and also that certain minerals enter into the structure of plants, giving them greater strength of stem, and thereby ena- bling them better to maintain an upright posi- tion — a position of all others the most favour- able for the action of atmospheric influences upon their respective organs. The real object of a plant is to reproduce its kind, and when it has done so, as in the case of annuals, it ceases to live — decomposes, and becomes resolved into that matter upon which it had existed, and be- comes the food of plants of its own, or probably of other species. The decay of the annual parts of plants, such as their leaves, &c., in the case of trees, and the higher grades of vegetable life, aids the nourishment of themselves while in life, and fertilises the soil after their removal for other crops. Such is the natural production of organic manure. On the other hand, the advo- cates for mineral or inorganic manures say : Plants, by means of their roots and leaves, per- form the various functions necessary for their existence ; the former penetrate the soU in search of moisture, and of mineral ingredients dissolved by moisture, and essential to the plant; and these materials are taken up by the sap and passed into the leaves, where, by the influence of the sun, the leaves acquire the power of acting on various gases contained in the atmosphere, of absorbing them, and of changing them into ma- terials adapted to their growth. Without the mineral ingredients from the soil, plants could not obtain them otherwise, as none exists in the air. " If we consider," says Mr Nesbit, in " Lectures on Agricultural Chemistry," " the nature of plants, in their wild state especially, we shall find, if they be supplied with an ade- quate quantity of mineral matter according to their varieties, and according to their circum- stances, they will obtain all the rest from the air without any assistance." Mr Nesbit appears to overlook the amount of nourishment plants, even in their natural state, derive from the de- composed remains of their predecessors. No doubt, all plants derive a great part of MANUEES. 289 ilieir food from the atmospliere ; and the lower they are hi the scale of creation, the more evident thia appeai-s. The first traces of vegetation on the oooled-down masses of lava in volcanic re- gions are various species of cryptogamic plants, which have scarcely such appendages as roots ; there, however, they thrive, deriving their whole sustenance from the atmosphere : by their dis- solution they leave organic matter in the fissures, which, in turn, supports a higher order of vege- tation to perform the same important office, until a sufficient body is at last accumulated to give support to the largest shrubs and trees; thus showing, as we rise in the scale of vege- table life, the vast importance — nay, the positive necessity — of organic matter being present to secm-e healthy development. The operation of rendering the most sterile soUs in course of time fertile, may be instanced in the case of planting with trees soils naturally possessed of little or no organic matter ; yet on such soils do trees not only grow, but in time produce thousands of tons of valuable timber, leaving the soil much richer in vegetable matter than it was prior to their being planted. Dm-ing the first few years, trees so circumstanced make little progress; but as they increase in size, and as their annual ex- foliation increases, so do they in bulk and mag- nitude. These facts are quite sufficient to prove that vegetables have the power of feeding largely on the atmosphere, and deriving from it the gi-eat bulk of their sustenance. According to some, more than three-fourths of the solid matter found in plants is derived from the air, and not from the soil. Seeing, therefore, that plants derive so much of their food from the air, it may not be unimportant to inquire from whence and how their food is provided. We believe that it arises from the soil in the shape of gaseous matter disengaged by the great chemical opera- tions constantly going on in the great laboratory of nature, and mixing in the atmosphere, and fed upon by the leaves of plants. The supply necessary to keep up this enormous demand is almost provided by plants themselves, even when in a state of nature, by the annual shedding of then' foliage and decaying parts ; but when in an artificial state, where greater development is required, then it becomes necessary for man to add to these sources such materials, or what are called manures, as he deems best fitted for their wants and circumstances. Before noticing those manures individually, which experience has proved to be of most con- sequence to the horticulturist, we may observe that, according to our highest authorities on vegetable chemistry, all plants are composed of oxygen, hydrogen, carbon, and nitrogen, or azote, with a small proportion of saline bodies. All manures, therefore, should include these elements, as a deficiency of either may prevent the formation of those parts in the vegetable, for which its peculiar organisation is contrived, and on which much of its healthy existence depends. All manures must be rendered soluble, as no solid substance can enter into a plant. Hence, manures deposited in the soil must undergo a species of dissolution, and become wateiy or gaseous before they are capable of being ab- sorbed either by the roots or leaves of plants. Sir H. Davy thought that such parts as became gaseous, and passed into the atmosphere, af- forded little benefit to plants, as the gases soon become diffused through the mass of suiTound- ing air. More recent authorities think otherwise, and say that plants feed as much by the leaves as by the roots, and that their food is sup- plied by the gases which evolve around them, and which of necessity must arise from the soil. The application of manure to the soil no doubt acts in two very different ways, yet both indispensable to vegetable existence ; first, by being taken up by the roots, after it has as- sumed an aqueous form ; and, secondly, by be- ing taken up by the leaves, when it becomes resolved into a gaseous state. The first of these has been long admitted, the other has more recently been recognised. To insure that effect in the former, the manure is buried in the soil near to where the roots are situated. To secure the latter, it may be thought that the manure should be spread upon the surface, or probably applied to the leaves in a more direct manner. Neither of these are absolutely neces- saiy, although of the effect there can be little doubt. A certain portion of the manure, when reduced to a proper state, is taken up by the spongioles at the termination of the roots, while another portion, becoming disengaged from the soil, escapes into the air which sur- rounds the plant, and is fed upon by the leaves. Hence one of the great advantages of frequently stirring the soil between rows of crops, and which is done by most people for the suppres- sion of weeds ; by others , as they say, to pro- mote evaporation, and for the admission of the rays of heat to the roots — few thinking that this very necessary operation tends to facihtate the escape of fertilising gases from the boU, to be fed upon by the leaves, which would be pre- vented from escaping if the surface was allowed to remain hard and unbroken. No doubt, a great amount of these gases is dissipated into the atmosphere, and may be lost ; or they may be returned, for aught we know, by various atmospheric operations — such as becoming mixed with rain, dew, &c., and in this state be brought to act upon the foliage in a way un- known to man. Nor is it necessary that these gases should become amalgamated with either rain or dew ; they may remain in a gaseous form, and be carried to the foliage, if not of the plant from under which they arose, of others equally important, by the action of the air itself. The effects of gaseous food taken up by the leaves must of course be much less appar- ent in the open air than it is within the more limited atmospheres of pits and hot-houses; and that they are actually less is admitted. The principle, however, remains the same. The heat and moisture afforded by the tank system of heating is, so far as these two elements go, quite satisfactory ; but plants do not thi-ive, by any means, so well in houses so heated, as in others heated by the use of stable manure in a state of fermentation ; nor do plants, in pits heated by leaves, tanners' bark, fiax refuse, or any 290 CULINARY OR KITCHEN GARDEN. other vegetable matter subjected to the same amount of fermentation, either prosper so well, or recover from a sickly state so soon as they do in pits heated by stable manure, all other conditions being the same. Practically we know this, and account for the difference in -the almost total absence of ammoniacal gases, or other fertilising matter, in the former when compared with the latter. So apparent is this, that some of our best cultivators — Mr Fleming of Trentham, for example — have recommended pigeons' dung, or other highly -enriched ma- nures, to be mixed with the water in the tanks, to bring about this invigorating state in the atmosphere of pine-stoves, which are deficient in it — although heat and moisture are abun- dantly suppUed by the tanks. Sickly plants, in pots, plunged in a common dung-bed, rapidly recover ; and pines grown in such material, although their roots are also confined within pots, attain a larger size and greater vigour. Melons grown in pots suspended by then- rims, and placed over a vault heated by dung linings, are found to prosper as well as when planted in soil laid immediately over the hot- bed. These and many other instances could be given of the healthy condition of plants, when grown in an atmosphere highly charged with gases arising from dung in a state of fermenta- tion, and while their roots are almost precluded from being affected by them. That the plants so circumstanced must derive no ordinary share of their nourishment in a gaseous form is pretty evident, and it is equally so that that nourish- ment is not conveyed to them by their roots. It follows, therefore, that the leaves are the organs through which it is supplied. If, there- fore, such an operation goes on in pits and hot- houses, it necessarily follows that the same action is going on in the open air — with this diiierence only, that, in the former case, the atmosphere is more limited and the supply more abundant than in the latter. These effects have been discovered and accounted for by men of observation and intelUgence — such as those who practise in the highest grades of artificial cultivation ; while the more superficial go-by-rote practitioners scarcely bestow a thought upon the matter. Absorption by the root is the process by which plants take up their food from the soil, or from those ingredients which areartificiaUyaddedtoit, called manures. The investigations of Hedwig and DecandoUe have long ago set this matter at rest, at least to the satisfaction of vegetable phy- siologists. For the satisfaction of others, we may state that the food of all vegetables must be reduced, by some means or other, to an aqueous form, and in that state it is absorbed by the spongioles, or sponge-like appendages situated at the points of the fine fibres or root- terminators, and from them conveyed through the roots to the stem, branches, and leaves of the plant. Absorption by the leaves was first elucidated by Duhamel and Marriotte, and by the experi- ments made soon afterwards by M. Bonnet of Geneva, chiefly with a view to ascertain whether the absorbing power was alike on both surfaces of the leaf. The deductions drawn by him were, that the leaves of herbs absorb moisture chiefly by the upper surface, and the leaves of trees by the under surface. The cause of this dis- parity between the absorbing surfaces of the leaves of trees and herbs was not very clearly shown by Bonnet. Keith conjectures that the physical cause might be the existence of a greater or smaller number of pores in the leaves of the herb and tree respectively. The chemical cause would be the pecuhar degree of affinity existing between the absorbing organs and the fluid absorbed. Duhamel, looking to the phy- sical cause merely, regarded the lower surface of the leaf of the tree as being endowed with the greater capacity of absorbing moisture, chiefly for the purpose of catching the ascending exhala- tions which must necessarily come in contact with it as they rise, but which might possibly have escaped it if absorbable only by the upper surface, owing to the increased rapidity of their ascent at an increased elevation ; and regarded the upper surface of the leaf of the herb as being endowed with the greater absorbing power, owing to its low statxire, and to the slow ascent of exhalations near the earth. " This," -says Keith, " does not throw much light upon the subject ; and the experiments were still deemed insufficient, as not representing to us the actual phenomena of vegetation, though the fact of the absorption of moisture by the surface of the leaf is fully confirmed by such phenomena." The leaves absorb both moisture and gaseous food by means of the stomata, or, in the absence of pores or stomata, by means of the absorbent power of the epidermis, not only of the root and leaf, but often, as it may be beheved, by the other parts of the plant also — at least when they are soft and fleshy, as must be the case in suc- culent plants, which are for the most part de- void of leaves altogether. § 2. — ORGANIC MANURES. Stahle-yard manure. — The most important, and hence the most general in use of these, is stable-yard manure, composed of vegetable mat- ter, such as straw, hay, and other material em- ployed either as food or litter to such animals as the ox, the horse, the cow, the hog, &o. It is valued in proportion to the quantity of their excrements mixed with it, the amount of urine with which it is saturated, and the manner in which it is kept previous to its application to the soil. The quality of the food, and the peculiar construction of the digestive organs of the ani- mal, affect it also in some degree ; and hence the dung of one animal is of higher value than that of others. " For," as Donaldson (On Soils and Manures) remarks, "the same kind of food given to animals of a different genus will yield an excrement of a very different quahty ; and even when given to those of the same species, and under the same treatment, a great differ- ence will often be found, which can only be attributed to the construction and action of the constitutional organs. The dung of swine is of a cold nature, inclining to form a saponaceous ORGANIC MANUEES. 291 mass, and constitutes a manure of great power and duration. The dung of cattle contains mat- ter soluble in water, and gives in fermentation nearly tlie same products aa vegetables, absorb- ing oxygen, and producing carbouio acid gas. The insoluble part seems to be mere woody fibre, and analogous to the residuum of the vege- tables that constitute their food, after being de- prived of all the soluble materials. The process of rumination imparts a richness of quality from the juices of the saliva, necessary for, and pro- duced by, the additional chewing which the food undergoes." The great value " of stable- yard manui'e arises from its containing both animal and vegetable substances; the former abounding with molecules of the body itself from fatty matters, the latter yielding an ali- ment to plants from saccharine and extractive matters, but exerting no action on the soil or its contents ; the former possessing substances more active and energetic, which also afford a direct aliment, and act on the vegetable matters, and decompose and stimulate the humus in the soil, which becomes exhausted by supplying the extractive matter and carbonic acid, and re- quires a regular renovation." As regards the state in which the nutritive matter of stable-yard manm'e should be, to be at once ready to enter into the composition of plants as an aliment of food, there can be but one opinion — it must be aqueous or gaseous ; and hence recently-applied manure, in a soHd state, can be of no use to them until it is reduced to a state of solution and sus- pension. "Water is the vehicle by which fertilis- rug matters are conveyed to the plant, and these must be in » very comminuted state to be ca- pable of being suspended in it. " Chemists are much divided," Dr Madden obsei-ves, " as to what precise amOunt of decomposition is requi- site to render organic matter in a proper state to become food for plants. All agree that decom- position must have cotnmenced ; some maintain that it must be completed. My own belief, founded on extensive observations, and not a few experiments, is, that all the products of de- composition, in every stage, are atailahle as food for plants, provided they are either liquid, or capable of dissolving in water." In reference to applying manure to the soil immediately before planting or sowing, Mr Donaldson very justly observes, "A mass of dung, cold or warm, lying in a drill, must be in too gross a foi-m to pre- sent and afford ready and palatable aliment to the tender fibres of plants, and a further reduc- tion and mixing is necessary to produce that matrix of comminuted and finely-blended sub- stances in which plants delight so veij much to grow. The influence of air and moisture will reduce dry substances to a manure by blending with the soil. Much time, however, is required, and a great quantity of moisture, and frequent stirring of the land. It is reasonable to suppose that stable-yard dung, and all substances that are appUed to land as manure, should be in a reduced state ; and in the case of the former, it would require an application to the land at an early season, that it may be broken and mixed by the subsequent working of the implements ; " or, in other words, that it may be changed and rendered soluble by the time the plants require its assistance. The best compost-heap is the soil itself, and the best system of manure man- agement ie to buiy it in the soil before it loses any of its fertilising properties. The changes necessary for its reduction to a proper food-supplying state will take place better in the soil than in the exposed midden. Of aU man- ures, stable or farmyard dung is the most effec- tive fertihser yet known ; and although others may be equally quick in their effects, yet none of them are so lasting. Compared with inor- ganic fertilisers, and many of the modem arti- ficial compounds, it may be set down as the real substantial food of plants ; while they can only be regarded as provocatives of appetite — mere stimulants, producing a sudden and ephemeral effect — leaving the plant much in the condition of an animal pampered with rich food in youth, and left to shift for itself before it has arrived at a state of puberty — that is, the period of exis- tence, in both animals and vegetables, when they require the greatest amount of nourishment. Notwithstanding the vast importance of this material as a fertihser, few things within the whole range of rural economy are so shamefully wasted and misused. Unnecessary exposure to the weather, excessive fermentation, and a slo- venly or ill-timed application of it to the soU, are of every-day occuiTence. To avoid these (the two former in particular, for it is in these states that the greatest loss is sustained), the manure should be committed to the soil as soon after it is made as convenient, and the process of fer- mentation and decomposition allowed to go on there. Gardens are differently circum- stanced in this respect from farms,' because, in the former, crop after crop succeeds each other in such rapid succession, that almost daily, if not weekly, opportunities offer of ground being cleared of one crop, and under preparation for another. These opportunities should not be lost sight of ; and as garden ground can hardly be too much enriched, manure in greater or less quantity should be applied to almost every crop. By this means the ground becomes enriched by the very essence of the manure, which would otherwise be allowed to escape in a gaseous state during excessive fermentation, deprived of much of its best properties while undergoing unneces- sary decomposition, whether on the dunghill or cucumber-bed, leaving it at last, when in the form of what is called spit dung, so highly prized by some gardeners, in a state little bet- ter than that of a mass of inei-t peaty matter. The application of stable-manure, for the most part, has hitherto been considered as beneficial only when applied immediately previous to the sowing or planting of the crop. To this long- received opinion we by no means subscribe, and therefore in practice apply such manure gene- rally in autumn, through the winter, or, indeed, whenever the gi'ound requii-ing enrichment is cleared of its crop. This is new neither in theory nor in practice; it has been acted upon by excellent cultivators with the best results, and was first recommended by Sir Humphry Davy, who has clearly enough explained the principle in his papers on "Agricultural Chemistry." When 292 CULINARY OR KITCHEN GARDEN. the manure is used in a fresh state, and dug into the ground in autumn or during winter, the soil has sufficient time to become completely im- pregnated with the elements of fertility required for the succeeding spring crop ; at sowing or plant- ing, a slight dressing of guano, bone-dust, nitrate of soda, &C., is given, to act as stimulants in fur-- thering the early growth of the crop : as the roots descend into the soU, they come into imme- diate contact with the store of food previously buried in it, and now reduced to that state in which only it can be serviceable for the purpose of nutrition. Much of the fertilising properties of manure is lost by over fermentation, the effects of rain, snow, and exposure to the weather ; and by the time the process, as generally fol- lowed, of turning, fermenting, and preparing the dung, has been accomplished, little of its best properties is left ; whereas, when the ma- nure is applied to the ground soon after it is made, and dug in, a slow process of fermenta- tion takes place, during which the ammonia is absorbed by the alumina as fast as it is formed. This will be found to be more strikingly the case in strong soils than in light ones, as the former contain a greater portion of alumina and humus than the latter ; besides which, a me- chanical improvement takes place during the decomposition of the Uttering matter, it keeping the soil open and more pervious to air. Another advantage attends autumn or winter manuring ; namely, it is more convenient tobringthe manure in then than during summer, when the process of carting or wheeling would be destructive to the walks. And as garden ground can scarcely be rendered too rich, it matters not how long before the crop is to be sovm or planted the manure is applied, as it is enriching the soil all the while, and fitting it for cropping when the time for so doing aiTives. Stable-yard manure loses more than is generally imagined by the process of making, as usually performed. Direct experi- ments have shown, as stated in Morton's " Cy- clopaedia of Agriculture," that " 100 cwt. of fresh farmyard manure are reduced to 80 cwt., if al- lowed to he till the straw is half-rotten ; 100 cwt. of fresh farmyard manure are reduced to 60 cwt., if allowed to ferment until it becomes 'fat and cheesy ;' 100 cwt. of fresh fai'myard manure are reduced to 40 or 50 cwt., if completely de- composed. This loss not only affects the water, and other less valuable constituents of farm- yard manure, but also its most fertiHsing ingre- dient, nitrogen. Chemical analyses have shown that 100 cwt. of common farmyard manure con- tain about 40 lb. of nitrogen ; and that, by fei-mentation during the first period, 5 lb. of nitrogen is dissipated in the form of the volatile ammonia ; in the second, 10 lb. ; in the third, 20 lb. Completely decomposed manure has thus lost about one-half of its most valuable consti- tuent. The practical deduction which appears to be warranted by these experiments is, where it is possible, to apply farmyard manure in a fresh state to the land." Rank and entirely un- fermented manure may be less valuable to thin light soUa than to strong heavy ones, but even much of this depends on the kind of crop which is immediately to foUow. Our own experience satisfies us as to the advantage of manuring at' these times, and in this way, and we have only to look to the highest cultivated garden-ground in Britain, the London market-gardens, for a corroboration of the fact. They lay on the manure as they receive it, not with a view so much to benefit the succeeding crop, as 'to keep the ground in a high state of enrichment for all succeeding ones, the manure undergoing all the while the necessary changes from a solid to a soluble state. Qreen vegetable manure is an important and much-neglected fertiliser in garden culture. It requires no previous preparation : all plants contain much saccharine or mucilaginous matter, and therefore cannot be used too soon after their death. Green vegetable manure consists of the sweepings of lawns, annual , weeds be- fore they have formed their seed, pond weeds, fresh turf, the refuse of vegetable crops, &c. A great waste occurs in most gardens by carrying all refuse vegetable matter to the rot-heap, there to decompose and be returned again in the shape of vegetable mould, while no small portion of it is sent down the nearest river, or buried in the most convenient pit. In its application it should not be buried to too great a depth, otherwise the necessary fermentation would be prevented by compression. At a proper depth decomposition proceeds slowly, the soluble matters are gradu- ally dissolved, and the slight fermentation that goes on, checked by want of a free communica- tion with the air, tends to render the woody fibre soluble, without occasioning the rapid dis- sipation of elastic matter. The use of green vegetable manure is of the greatest antiquity ; it was practised by the ancient Romans, and BtUl largely employed in Italy to this day. It is pro- bable, however, that this mode of enriching the soil is better adapted to warm climates than to colder ones, because vegetation is more rapid and luxuriant in the former than in the latter. This opinion, sound or unsound, bears lightly on gardens, where the climate is supposed to be warmer, and the crops far more luxuriant than on farms. We think highly of green vegetable manures ; and, operating upon a light soil and good climate, we commit all such matter not eaten by animals to the soil, and indeed grow spinach, spurrey, and buck-wheat, and other rapid-growing crops, for the express purpose of being dug into the ground immediately before the formation of their seed. Sea-weed ranks amongst green vegetable ma- nures, and its application as such in places where it abounds is so far commendable. It abounds in soda, or the mixed mineral alkali, and con- tains somewhere about ^th of a gelatinous sub- tanoe similar to mucilage, and |ths of its weight of water, but no ammonia. Like all green vege- table manures, it should be applied to the laud as soon as gathered, as it loses both bulk and quality by keeping. Its effect on land is tran- sient ; and it is probable that, if the expense of collecting and applying were expended on the purchase of salt, applied in rainy weather, the effects would be equal. Rape-cake contains carbon and hydrogen, and hence is an effective manure, better fitted, how- ORGANIC MANUEES. 393 ever, for damp soils than for light and sandy ones. Applied as manure, it has been found destructive to that intolerable pest the wire- worm {oide p. 182). The rate at which it is ap- plied is about 5 cwt. per acre. Leaves of trees. — These, from necessity, are col- lected during autumn and winter in large quan- tities where extensive pleasure-grounds exist, and, when rotted down, afford an excellent ma- nure for most soils. Leaves of trees, when de- cayed, as well as the wood itself when so reduced, form what is termed vegetable mould, containing more charcoal but less oxygen, weight for weight, than the plants that produced it. It yields moi-e ammonia, and contains more azote, on aecotmt of the diflferent circumstances under which it has been formed. Vegetable mould is an indispen- sable manure in garden cultui'e. Tanners' harh. — ^Both bark and leaves of trees, according to Donaldson (in " Treatise on Soils and Manures," p. 15), "require long time, and much mixing and preparation, to reduce them to mould : hot lime will be the quickest solvent for fresh bark, and the destruction of the fibre being effected, earths and dimg may be added, which will bring the whole mass into a soluble and putrescent state. Hot stable*dung has been used in the first application, in order to reduce the woody fibre ; but caustic lime is stronger and quicker, and, after the dissolution has been effected, the mild materials may be added, and the mixture completed. Time will effect a dis- solution of the fibre without any mixture with the bark ; but a long period wiU elapse, and it is usually preferred to break it up by hot appli- cations. The i-educed mixture may be used as a manure for any purpose, but chiefly for top- dressings, arising from its finely divided and comminuted state." With decayed leaves and a copious admixture of sharp sand, it makes an excellent compost for growing American plants in, many of which, particulai'ly azaleas and rhodo- dendrons, thrive as well in it as in natural peat- earth. It is a good manure to light sandy soils deficient in vegetable matter, and, in a less de- composed state, valuable for keeping open soils of the closest texture. Sawdust is much of the nature of tanners' bark ; but, unless entirely of oak wood, it con- tains much less of the tannin principle, that of coniferous trees containing a considerable amount of resinous matter ; but when both are extracted, it forms with sand a good substitute for peat, for hardy shrubs and trees. Both, however, should be broken down without the use of caustic lime, when intended for such pur- poses, as all American plants have a dislike^ to calcareous matter even in small quantities. Both tanners' bark and sawdust, when charred, constitute a tolerable maniu:e, and are both in that state valuable, when incorporated vrath nightsoil, urine, and similar potent manures. Horns and hoofs of animals are similar in con- stitution, containing very little earthy matter, and only 0.023 of phosphate of lime ; the chips and shavings of both, procured of the comb- makers and turners, have been strongly recom- mended by some. Repeated trials have not led us to a like conclusion. VOL. II. Oi/ster shells, like those of both sea and fresh- water ajiimals, ai-e constituted chiefly of cai'bon- ate of lime combined with soft animal matter ; they differ chiefly from animal bones in having a much greater proportion of carbonate of lime, af- fordingsometimesalmost pure lime when burned. JBones ground to powder are extensively used in stimulating the first efforts of vegetable life, being sown immediately before, or along with, the seed. In a crushed state they are employed in the formation of vine borders, as they are slow in decomposing, and, in their decay, afford food to the plants long after all other manures applied at the same time have become exhausted. We have found them excellent as drainage for plants intended to be kept long in the same pot. The action of bone-dust upon the soil appears to be little understood. " Up to a certain quan- tity used," Mr Stephens remai'ks, " this manure has an evidently beneficial effect, but beyond that quantity no apparent benefit is derived from its use, in so far, at least, as the crop is concerned I have tried to raise turnips," he says, " with different quantities of bone-dust, varying from 12, 16, 20, to 24 bushels per acre, and found the crop improved up to 16 bushels ; but the quantities beyond that, even to 24 bushels, produced no greater effect on the crop in the same field, and on the same sort of soil, than 16 bushels. It is therefore unnecessaiy," he concludes, " in so far as the crop of turnips is concerned" (that being the crop he experi- mented upon), " to sow more than 16 bushels of bone-dust alone, or 8 bushels with coal-ashes or street manure." Where the ground has been previously manured with farmyard dung, 8 bushels of boue-dust is deemed amply sufficient for any annual crop. Bone-dust, in combina- tion with sulphiu'ic acid, has of late years been greatly recommended, and in this stfite it has been found to have greater effect in raising crops on strong land than bone-dust alone. The manner of preparing the sulphurated bones is to mix a given quantity of sulphuric acid with twice its bulk of water, and to place twice the weight of bone-dust as of the acid in a tub or trough, and pour over the bones the prepared liquid gradually, and by times ; the bones wiU become entirely dissolved, and form a mass with the acid and water. When the mass is di'ied, it win assume the appearance of granulated pow- der, and is then fit for use. One cwt. of bones, with 56 lb. of sulphuric acid, will be sufficient bone- manure for an acre of strong garden-ground, previously manured with stable-dung ; for it should never be overlooked that bone-dust, like most others of the modern fertilisers, should only be regarded as an auxiliary, and not as a general manure. Bones are often broken down by fermentation with sifted coal-ashes, and even with pure sand, and their value considerably increased, probably on account of their being disintegrated to the smallest possible degree, and thereby mixing more readily with the soil. The method of fermenting bone-dust in this manner is thus describ'ed by Mr Stephens : " Mix four cart-loads of bones with as many of sand, or mould, or sawdust, in a flat-topped heap. The bones should be thoroughly drenched with 2 P 294 CULINARY OR lilTCHEN GARDEN. water, and the other materials moistened. In a few days such a heat will be generated in the heap as to render it unbearable by the hand. As the wet side of the heap will not be heated so much, it should be covered with sand. Whe- ther the heat should be allowed to die out be- fore the heap is used is a point still unascer- tained, but a large heap makes better manure than a small one ; so do unboiled bones and fresh ones than boiled and stale ones. Large bones may be reduced by fermentation in this way, by turning the heap over at the end of a fortnight and watering it afresh, and at the end of a month very few whole bones will remain." This is important to those living remote from bone-mills, and might be taken advantage of where dog-kennels are maintained, for the pre- paration of the bones of dead carcases used for the dogs' food. Blood is a powerful manure, and has been beneficially applied to fmit trees, particularly the mulberry and vine. In general, it is formed into a compost with earthy or vegetable matter. Animal bodies. — Of all manures, animal sub- stances, when weU prepared, are the most power- ful promoters of vegetation. " In that state," Mr Donaldson remarks, "almost the whole body becomes volatile, and so far attenuated, subtilised, and refined, as to be rendered cap- able of entering the vessels of the minutest plants. So soon as the parts are sufficiently divided to be mixed with the earthy materials, the process of preparation must go on quickly; and as soon as incorporation has been effected, the application must not be long delayed, in or- der to prevent the great loss of bulk that wiU ensue from the rapid decay of the many com- plex elementary substances which compose the organisation of the bodies." A few years ago; Mr Roberts, author of an excellent treatise on the vine, broitght the use of carrion, or animal manures, before the notice of the public, and employed it lai-gely in the preparation of fruit- tree borders. Of its advantages as a powerful fertiliser there can be no doubt. There is, how- ever, something loathsome in the apphcation. When formed into a compost, slaked lime may be mixed with the heap just before it is to be used, and, by combining with the other ingre- dients, will quicken their action, and add a soapy and very valuable quality to the compost. The dung of birds, either domesticated or wild, affords one of the most powerfiil of all manures. That of pigeons is the most common in use, merely because it can be procured in the greater quantity. That of domestic poultry is equally efficacious. AH are excellent for root crops ; and carrots grown with no other manure than pigeons' dung have yielded heavy crops, and free from the attacks of insects. It is an ex- cellent manure for pot plants, but requires to be used sparingly. We use it extensively in pine culture, for camellias, oranges, &e. ; and for most rapid-growing plants we use it in a liquid state. Pigeons' dung is hot and stimu- lating, abounding in the volatile alkaline prin- ciple. The fresher it is appUed the better, as long keeping, and especially fermentation, of which it is very susceptible, diminishes the amount of soluble matter. Its principal part is carbonate of ammonia, leaving a consider- able residue of carbonate of lime and common salt, The dung of domestic poultry difiers only from it in containing a greater portion of silica. Babbit's and deer's dung is considered even superior to that of pigeons and poultry, and like that should be used while fresh, and in small quantities, when employed as a simple ; and when used as a compound, mixed with equal parts of earth to correct its fiery and corrosive fermentation. It forms an excellent top-dress- ing or mulching for all sorts of rapid-growing pot plants, and may be laid on the surface of the SOU in pots to the thickness of half an inch. ChiMno is the accumulation of the excrements of searfowl, found in great quantities in situa- tions where these birds congregate. It has been used by the Peruvians for ages. It was first made known to Europeans in 1804 by speci- mens sent over by Baron Humboldt. It was afterwards mentioned by Sir H. Davy and Sir Joseph Banks ; and about thirty years from its first importation by Humboldt, it began to at- tract considerable notice in Europe. Various analyses of it have been published; but, in con- sequence of the extent to which adulteration has been carried, these tests can be of little ge- neral advantage. The component soluble parts of genuine guano are, muriate of ammonia, phosphate of ammonia, sulphate of ammonia, sesqui-carbonate of ammonia, oxalate of am- monia, with about equal quantities of water, and soluble organic matter, and urea. The constituent insoluble matters rather exceed the soluble, and of these urate of ammonia and sub-phosphate of lime form by far the largest portion. This manure, before using, should be kept as dry and as little exposed to the air as possible ; hence, for horticultural purposes, where no large quantities are requu-ed at a time, but the applications are frequent, it is best kept in casks. It is an excellent stimu- lating manure, beneficial to almost all garden crops, and is found of much service when mixed with composts for pot plants. Water is neces- sary to bring its fertilising powers into action ; a circumstance which appears to be well under- stood by the Peruvians, who never omit giving water whenever it is applied to the roots of plants. In dry soils, during dry weather, it is not active in its effects; but when applied to growing crops in a liquid state, its effects are speedy and obvious. Indeed, we seldom water any plant or crop, which we wish to stimulate rapidly, without mixing guano with the water. Like bone-dust, it is better adapted to light soils than to strong clays ; and its effects are much more obvious in dry and warm climates than in cold and wet ones. In the present adulterated state of guano, it is absurd to lay down rules as to the quantity to be applied to a given spa<;e. Such rules have been promulgated with ap- pai-ently great cai-e ; but, we fear, in many cases, not taking into account that not two samples of guano are found to agree in their constituents. Colour is no test, and even weight is not to be depended upon. The following simple test was published by " The Time^ Cor- ORGANIC MANURES. 295 respondent," and is worth the attention of pur- chasers : " Burn 200 grains of guano in an open fire, in a common iron ladle ; it must be fre- quently stiiTed, and after keeping it at a strong red heat for ten minutes, and allowing it to be- come cold, if the ashes weigh more than 72 grains it is not genuine Peruvian guano." In applying guano in a dry state, it is advis- able to keep it somewhat apart from the seed or roots, because, if of good quality and applied liberally, it is apt to injure them ; bo it is also, when applied in a liquid form to growing crops, if applied too strong, and allowed to fall on their leaves or tender stems. Like all other potent manures — the dung of birds, rabbits, deer, &c. — it is better to apply a little at a time, and re- peat the application. In its hquid state we have found it very beneficial to all the Brassica tribe, to asparagus, rhubarb, and sea-kale. Nightaoil is an excellent manure, computed in value at five times that of horse-dung. It is, however, transient in its effects, and leaves no residuum or earthy matter for decomposition. It is usually mixed with other materials, such as peat, garden soil, vegetable -mould, &c., in the proportion of one part of its bulk to five of the othei-s. It is, however, most conveniently managed when in a liquid state ; and when re- duced by water in the proportion of 1 to 5, is in a fit state to be applied to the soU over the roots of plants, but never over their leaves. Liquid manure is composed of the urine of animals, dissolved excrementitious matter, the draining of dunghills, wash-houses,.scuIleries, &c. From such sources it is easy to conceive that it is of variable value as a fertiliser, depending upon the proportions which each of these contribute to the manure-tank. Its importance in culture is daily becoming more valued and understood. Its effects are of the most active description, be- cause it is, as it were, the already prepared food of plants. The Chinese and Flemings, who have employed it for ages, and place great reliance upon it, allow it to putrefy in lai-ge tanks, and dilute it with water previous to using. Chemists assert that putrefaction is not only usdess but actually injurious, causing the soluble matter to dissipate ; and also, that in an unmixed state it would contain too much animal matter to form a fluid fit for the roots of plants to take up by absorption. On the other hand, they admit that urine, in a putrid state, abounds in ammoniacal salts, and if less active than when in a fresh state, is nevertheless a very powerful fertiliser. From the way in which it is generally collected — namely, conveyed to a reservoir or tank — it follows that putrefaction can scarcely be pre- vented, as it has often to remain for days, or even weeks, accumulating before it is required for use. Opinions as to the relative value of solid and liquid manures are as yet greatly at variance ; the cost of its application, when ap- pUed upon a large scale, is no doubt a strong argument against its use, and this the more so when it has to be conveyed to a considerable distance, and where steam or mechanical power, and great extent of pipes, are required for its transport. According to the calculations made by Mr Stephens on the sewerage water of Lon- don, it is stated that 560 tons of water only afford one ton of fertilising ingredients; and if this estimate is correct, then would we say sewerage water would be one of the most ex- pensive applications that could be applied to any land. But the sewerage water of London is very different from hquid manure collected in private establishments, because it is so much at- tenuated in consequence of the extraordinary supply of water brought into London for domes- tic and other purposes, and the enormous quan- tity of rain water which falls on the general sur- face, all of which, excepting what little is lost by evaporation, finds its way into the common sewers, and is mixed with the materials which constitute the whole mass, and thereby greatly reduces its manurial value. From this it is quite evident, that, in the management of a liquid- manure tank, care should be taken that a limited quantity only af rain or other water be admitted into it — perhaps not more than sufficient to flush the drains occasionally out. The arguments brought forward against liquid manure, based on the analysis of the sewerage water of towns, scai'cely apply to the liquid manure procured from private dwelhngs, or even well regulated farmyards ; and it is from these sources that liquid manure applied to horticultural purposes is derived. The urine of animals possesses greater value than solid dung, but is liable to great loss when not properly treated. The ammonia, which is one of its principal ingredients, is found in greatest quantity when putrefaction has taken place ; but as ammonia is a highly volatile sub- stance, it evaporates rapidly from the watery solution ; and when this evaporation is allowed to take place, then liquid manure ceases to be so valuable as it otherwise would be. With little trouble this evaporation may be prevented. Sul- phuric acid and sulphate of iron, both cheap articles, if mixed with the liquid in'the coUect- ing tank, wiU fix the ammonia ; for liquid manure containing an average amount of ammonia, 1 lb. of acid to 150 lb. of liquid wiU be sufficient; and where a greater or a lesser amount of ammonia is contained, a greater or lesser quantity of acid will be required. The acid should be diluted with water before throwing into the tank. Sulphuric acid in no way affects the value of liquid manure as a fer- tiliser ; it only prevents lie loss of ammonia, as the compound it forms with it . does not become volatile under the temperature of boil- ing water. Indeed, experience has proved that its value is much enhanced by the ad- dition of the acid. From the experiments of Mr Kinninmonth, quoted in " Morton's Cyclo- pedia," " 3000 gallons of cows' urine, to which sulphuric acid has been added, are equal in fer- tilising value to 6 cwt. of Peruvian guano, and superior to 20 cwt. of farmyard dung. To 160 gallons of urine he adds 3 lb. of acid diluted with water." However little value some che- mists and many agriculturists may place on the drainings of the dunghUl, or on hquid manure properly collected and prepared, gardeners place great reliance on it, and agree with Nicol, who emphatically declared it to be " the nectar of 296 CULINARY OR KITCHEN GARDEN. vegetation.'' The analysis of Professor John- ston has shown that liquid manure contains, in a soluble state, every element necessary to the growth of plants ; and also that the drainings of the dunghill are more valuable than urine alone, containing as it does a considerable portion of phosphate of lime, as well as an appreciable amount of sihoa in a soluble state, neither of which are found in vu'ine alone. Liquid manure is most beneficially applied to the roots of plants while in a vigorous growing state. It can be applied to them also when solid manures cannot, as in the case of vines and fruit- trees, plants in pots, and to ciilinary vegetables, at any time during their active existence. To prevent unnecessary saturation, it should be as little attenuated as possible; and, to prevent chill- ing the roots of tender plants, it should be heated to from 60° to 100°. With these precautions it may be applied to all plants with beneficial effects. Ammoniacal liquor is a solution of ammonia, partly caustic and partly combined with carbonic acid and sulphuretted hydrogen. This is a power- ful fertiliser, but is much too strong to be applied to crops in an unmixed state : it requires to be attenuated by the addition of from four to six times its bulk of water. In this state it may be advantageously applied to the roots of growing crops, such as all theBrassioae, spinach, asparagus, &c. Of this excellent fertiliser Mr Solly remarks, " In consequence of the volatility and caustic nature of free ammonia, it is found advisable for most purposes to fix the ammonia of gas liquor. This may either be done with an acid, or with gypsum or sulphate of iron : a cheap acid like the sulphuric is, generally speaking, the most convenient." Fish, blubber, and the residue of many manu- factured materials composed of animal or vege- table substances, have been used with consider- able efiect to most soils and to most crops. Charcoal and the ashes of trees, shrubs, and all vegetables, whether in a living or dead state, afford a considerable amount of fertUising mate- rial ; but all those, to be useful, must be burned under a slow smouldering fire. When slowly con- sumed they contain the fixed alkaline salt called potash, which is extracted by lixiviation and crystallisation. Wood ashes contain soluble salts, earthy phosphates, and carbonates, silica, and metallic oxides, differing in quantity and com- position in different plants. Vegetable ashes contain lime, potash, soda, silica, magnesia, and the sulphuric, carbonic, phosphoric, and muri- atic acids, with oxide of iron and magnesia ; but the products differ very much in different plants. These ashes should be kept perfectly dry after being obtained, as water washes out the alkali, leaving only the insoluble and earthy parts be- hind. Burned clay and charred peat stand in near relation to these. A long list of organic manures might be given, but the above are those of greatest importance, and, if rightly prepared and applied, may be con- sidered sufficient for all pi'actical uses. It is not in the deficiency in point of numbers, but in the preparation'and application of manures, that we are so far behind. § 3. — INORGANIC MANURES. Of all inorganic or mineral manures Hme is the most important. It is found existing in the com- position of most plants. In one form or other it is found in most soils — in calcareous ones abun- dantly, in sUioious soils sparingly, and in fertile loams in moderate yet sufficient quantities, suit- able to the plants produced on them. Lime, considered as a maniure applicable to horticul- tural purposes, ranks under the five following heads : — QuicJe or hot lime is valued for rendering solu- ble organic matters, such as vegetable or animal manures already in the soil, and is in that state when it is taken from the kiln, after the water and carbonic acid are driven off during the pro- cess of burning. In this state it has a powerful attraction for water, and when applied to the soU, greatly assists in converting the woody fibre and other organic matters into hu/mus, forming what is called humate of hme. The cai-bonic acid gas which may exist in the soil, or is sup- plied by water or the atmosphere, reduces the humate of lime to a soluble state, and converts it into a fit food for plants. Quick or caustic hme is especially useful ia soils rich in humus, as most all old garden-soils are. It is also use- ful in soils containing sulphate of iron, by de- composing that salt which is so hurtful to vege- tation. It also renders inert matter, such as dead peat, nutritive and useful to plants. Mild lime is lime which has been exposed to the action of the atmosphere for some time after burning. Its action upon vegetable substances is altogether different from that of quick or hot lime, inasmuch as it prevents the too rapid de- composition of substances already dissolved, act- ing in this respect similarly to chalk. Quick lime is most advantageously applied to soils abounding in inert vegetable matter ; mild hme, to soils natru-ally deficient in a proper amount of calcareous matter, which may be de- termined by their not effervescing when ^cids are applied to them. " When a soil deficient in cal- careous matter contains much soluble vegetable manure, the application of quick hme should always be avoided, as it either tends to decom- pose the soluble matters by uniting to these car- bon and oxygen, so as to become mild lime, or combines with the soluble matters, and forms compounds having less attraction for water than the pure vegetable substance. The case is the same with respect to most animal manures, but the operation of the Ume is different in different cases, and depends on the natm'e of the animal matter to which it is applied. Lime should never be applied along witli animal manures, unless they are too rich, or for the purpose of prevent- ing noxious effluvia." — Encyc. of Qard., p. 490. In regard to the season of application, Mr Donald- son remarks, " Autumn is not to be recommend- ed, owing to the solubiUty of lime in water, and the want of the summer heats, to develop the action of the lime on the substances in the soil. Caloric must be held as one chief spring of che- mical affinity; it dilates bodies, sepai-ates the particles, diminishes the attraction for each other, and proportionably augments the attraction of INORGANIC MANURES. 297 the particles of adjacent bodies, and consequently produces combinations, and facilitates reciprocal unions. The winter will chill the operations, and at that time there is no growing crop to de- rive any present benefit." And in regard to the condition of the soil, when lime is to be applied, the same authority remarks, " Lime being re- duced to a finely pulverised state by calcination, it requires the soil to be, if possible, equally well prepared with itself; for between a variety of finely-blended ingredients there will be pro- duced a number of reciprocal actions and afii- nities of the different parts, that would not hap- pen iu a smaller quantity of these substances in a more aggregated and cohesive state." Besides, as a manure, lime is useful iu all garden soils which contain, to a greater or less extent, snails, slugs, and insects, constantly preying on the crops cultivated. An opinion has long existed against the use of lime containing magnesia. " Such Mme," says Mr Edward Solly, " is in general objectionable as a manure. It is probable that the tendency which magnesia has to remain caustic for a long time, absorbing carbonic acid but slowly from the air, is the cause of this." Magnesian lime- stone, though it has been foimd to injure crops, has yet been used with good effect in some cases. " When a magnesian limestone is burned, the magnesia is deprived of carbonic acid much sooner than the lime ; and if there is not much vegetable or animal matter in the soU, to supply by its de- composition carbonic acid, the magnesia will remain for a long while in the caustic state, in which state it acts as a poison to certain vege- tables." — Encyc. of Gard., p. 490. On the other hand, Mr Donaldson, from his own practical ex- perience, says, " On one field a double allowance, or 400 bushels to an acre, was appHed as an ex- periment to test the noxious quality of the lime. In every case the application was attended with the very best success, and for several years the green and cuhniferous crops were excellent ; and on the gi'ound where the double allowance was appUed, the crops showed a great superiority. Here was no damage from magnesian Ume, but very great benefit." Different kinds of lime no doubt produce different effects, but that none produce the injurious effect noted above is, we think, more than probable. Limestone rocks containing alumina and silica produce a poorer lime than pure limestone, but it is only their poverty in calcareous matter that renders them less valuable, and certainly no noxious quality to affect vegetation exists in them. Clialh is a calcareous formation, supposed to be composed, according to recent microscopical ob- servations, of animalcules so exceedingly minute that one cubic inch of it contains upwards of a million of them. It is of three kinds — hard chalk, Bofb chalk, and chalk marl. Hard chalk is burned, and used in the same way as lime ; soft chalk is dug from pits, and when spread on the surface of the ground falls into a fine powder, and is then readily incorporated with the soil. Chalk marl is not very abundant, and when found it is used in much the same way as the last. As a manure, chalk acts much in the same way as lime, only it is considered much less powerful in its effects. It also acts mechanically on soils, rendering strong clays more easily worked, cor- recting acidity in sour lands, and retaining mois- ture in such as are very light, burning, or sandy. Like shells and shell sand, it is useful to soils naturally deficient in calcareous matter. Sulphate of lime or gypsum is also a calcareous formation, or limestone in combination with sul- phuric acid. It is useful in soils deficient in calcareous matter, and to some extent absorbs the ammonia from the air, and yields it to plants in greater abundance than they could otherwise obtain it. Phosphate of lime forms a constituent in almost all plants, therefore its presence in any matter, or iu its native pure state, is useful as a manure. It is present in excrementitious substances, and to a considerable extent in the straw forming farmyard dung, and is a combination of phos- phoric acid and lime. Nitrate of potass, which is the chemical name of nitre or saltpetre, when reduced to a powder by bruising, and applied during wet weather as a top-dressing at the rate of one or two cwt. to the acre, appears to act beneficially on loams and clays, and the reverse on light sandy soils. Nitrate of soda, a compound of fossil alkali, is ' soda combined with nitiic acid. It is used in the same manner as the last, and thought by some equal to it in affording nourishment to plants. It has been remarked by Mr Solly, in " Rural Chemistry," p. 146, that " the nature of the in- fluence which nitrates exert in vegetation is but little understood. Some plants, such as the sun- flower, tobacco, lettuce, and many others, always contain more or less of these salts. Others do not contain them, but, when supplied with nitrates, are subsequently found to contain the base without the acid. The soda, potash, or lime is combined with some organic acid, whilst the nitric acid has disappeared. It is probable that, in these cases, the nitrogen of the acid is assimilated by the plant, or that it assists in the formation of gluten and alburnum. Nitrates can have but very little value as manures on the soils which naturally contain salts of nitric acid, or which, in consequence of the substances they contain, are constantly forming nitrates. On soils containing neither nitrates nor other alka- line salts, they appear to produce very beneficial effects. These remarks apply equally to nitrate of soda and nitrate of potash ; at least similar effects are produced by the two salts as far as regards the increased formation of gluten and alburnum." Common salt is a combination of soda with muriatic acid. This, with several other saline substances, has been long employed as a manure, and the results have been as various as the ap- plications themselves. It is employed, no doubt, with marked advantage to plants, natives of the sea-coast, such as asparagus, sea-kale, &c., and in such cases is applied by sowing it on the sur- face previous to rain, and at the rate of from 16 to 20 bushels per acre, this being repeated two or three times during the year. Salt is found in every animal and vegetable manure. It is de- tected in many plants, and consequently is of advantage in stimulating vegetable growth, as 298 CULINARY OR KITCHEN GARDEN. well as in the destruction of numerous insects. Notwithstanding, Mr Solly remai-ks of saline matter, " Nearly all that can at present be said respecting saline manure is, that the addition to the soil, in moderate quantity, of those sub- stances which plants are found to contain, is always good. The mode in which they act, and the ofiice they perform in the nutrition of plants, is as yet but very imperfectly understood." Ashes constitute an important class in manures, differing, however, in their effects, according to the substance which has undergone the process of burning, and the manner in which the process has been accomplished. The ashes of all vege- table substances consist principally of those sub- stances which plants require, as charcoal, lime, phosphoric acid, and alkaline salts. Of these, charcoal or carbon is the most valuable ; and hence, to secure it in the greatest quantity, the process of burning should be carried on as slowly as possible ; and this is best effected by covering up the mass while burning, and admitting no more air than just sufficient to keep up a smoul- dering fire. The ashes of all vegetables contain almost the same constituent parts, and are found useful in all soUs, and to the majority of crops. They should always be applied while newly burned, as they lose much of their value by keeping, even although kept under cover. A medium quantity of vegetable ashes may be taken at 1 lb. weight to the square yard. Coal- ashes are less valuable as a mamu'e ; but as they are to be had in much greater abundance than any other, their use should not be disregarded. The finer parts only should be employed, as the half-consumed coal and the vitrified cinder can be of little use. The finer parts, separated by sifting, contain alumina, carbon, silica, carbonate of lime, oxide of iron, sulphate of hme, and potash. Their chief value appeai-s to consist in the carbon and lime they contain. Soot consists principally of carbon, with a con- siderable portion of salts of ammonia, which it obtains during the combustion of the coal : these are, however, extremely volatile, and hence much of them is lost. Soot is one of the best of all manures for garden ground ; its effects, how- ever, last only during one crop, and its application should coincide with the time of sowing or plant- ing. It is beneficial also aa being destructive to insects : the quantity appUed may be from 40 to 50 bushels per acre. It is not from any want of manures that any land need be left in a state of comparative steril- ity, their value depends on their proper accumu- lation, preservation, and application ; yet, for all that has been written upon the subject, we see in all directions the very essence of fertility allowed to run to unprofitable waste. The following paragi'aph from " Donaldson on Soils and Manures," p. 110, is deserving the especial attention of cultivators : " The effects of ma- nures of all soi-ts depend much on the quality of the land to which they are applied, and also to the state of preparation of the soil, at the time when the substances come in contact with each other. Finely reduced and pulverised bodies cannot mix with those of a grosser form. Masses, clods, and lumps, either of homogeneous or heterogeneous substances, will he together, and remain in the original state of cohesion or aggregation ; but no affinity or com- position takes place at sensible distances, and consequently no results follow from the com- bined influences of the bodies in union. The contact of a pulverised substance with a mass of gross formation cannot produce the effects of combination ; the finer particles of the former touch only the external surface of the latter, the interior parts remaining unaffected and unavail- able for the purposes and effects of alteration." The profitable apphcation, therefore, of manures, depends on deeply working the soU, reducing it, during the operation of turning, to a pulverised state, blending the mauurial apphcation tho- roughly with it, and never allowing it to lie long undisturbed, or to become exhausted by heavy cropping and scanty apphoations of manure. The land must be kept in constant possession of decomposing animal and vegetable substances, by the frequent application of putrescent ma- nures ; and if so done, the mineraling redients we have referred to may then be applied with a certainty of remunerating the cultivator for his expense and labour", but no direct dependence should be placed on mineral manures alone, and far less on the compounds sold as artificial fer- tilisers. THE HARDY FRUIT GARDEN. INTEODUCnOK § 1. — SELECTION OF KINDS, ETC. In no department of horticulture has greater progress been made within this last quarter of a century, than in the production of improvedl varieties of fruits, and the superior management of the trees and plants that produce them. In both cases there was ample room for amend- ment. For the former, we are mainly indebted to our Continental neighbours, both for the numerous fine varieties we have received front them, and also for the impetus the experiments of Dr Van Mons, and other Flemish pomolo- gists, gave to those of this country, in rearing new varieties from seed. For the latter, not only we, but they also, are indebted to the per- severance, skiU, and superior inteDigence of such men as Rivers, Thompson, Errington, Ileming, Spencer, Harrison, &c., whoj carrying out the theories laid down by Lindley, Knight, Hayward, &c., and even establishing new ones of their own, have reduced the science of fruit-tree management to principles founded on reason and a correct physiological basis. Equally great has been the advance in the no less important part of the science, the establishment of a cor- rect nomenclature, for which we were at first under eminent obhgations to the Horticultural Society of London, by the publication of their fruit cataloguBj in which the names of a vast number of fruits have been determined, by com- parisons drawn from trees grown in their own garden. One of the many names "previously given to the same variety in different parts of the kingdom has been selected as the standard, and the others given merely as synonyms. This was a great boon to fruit-growers-, and, to a cer- tain extent, raised up a spirit of observation and inquiry amongst them, the advantages of which are so obvious as to require hardly any comment from us. The task was herctdean ; and, without the means at command of so im- portant a society, could not have been satisfac- torily carried out. That such a first effort should have attained a perfect result, it would be unreasonable to expect. It, however, so far paved the way for others to complete a task so creditably begun. The publication of the "Pomo- logical Magazine,*' under the auspices of that So- ciety, the " Guide to the Orchard," by Mr G. Lindley, and " The Orchai'd" by ourselves, sub- sequently followed ; and these three works have done more than aU the others that preceded them to render the nomenclatm'e of fruits in- telligible to general readers. The pomological work projected by Mr R.. Hogg, if equal to the excellent specimen he has given us in his " British Pomology," which in- cludes the apple only — and we have no doubt it wUl be so — will, from the published material at his command, collected by others, and his own thorough practical knowledge of the subject, place pomological nomenclature in Britain on a basis superior to that of any other country in the world. Following up such examples, we have given copious descriptive lists of fruits. Our object, however, has been directed more to a selection of the best kinds suited to the variable climate of Britain, and also to its different localities, than to any ^ttempt at a general description, which, in a work like the present, would be quite out of place. Our descriptions are brief, but, we hope, sufficiently clear for all purposes of practical cultivation ; fmd our recommenda- tions only given where experience, during a long and extensive practice in various parts of the kingdom, justifies them. We have throughout steadily kept in view the exclusion of bad and inferior sorts, and passed unnoticed some few new varieties, with regard to the merits and defects of whieh we have not as yet had an opportunity of satisfying ourselves. The advantage of giv- ing the synonyms must be apparent to most, as on looking over nursery catalogues, where too often synonyms are disregarded, a person about to foiTU a selection of fruits has to wade through the list of names, and probably, after fixing on 300 HARDY FRUIT GARDEN. fifty, as he supposes, diflferent sorts, finds, upon consulting a list similar to our own, where the synonyms are given, that he has not more than oue-tHrd of the number of reaUy distinct varie- ties in his selection, and that the remainder are only diflferent names for the few he finds to be really distinct. And well it is for him who has consulted such a list, for, had he not, it is pro- bable his misfortune would not be discovered until the trees had arrived at a bearing state — a loss both of time and of hope. In illustration of this, we may state that a person not well ac- quainted with such matters, in purchasing twenty peach trees, might find, when they fruited, he had in reality got only one sort, namely, the Grosse mignonne, which has no less than twenty-three English synonyms besides several French ones, and aU, it must be ad- mitted, very taking and popular names too. In peal's, apples, cherries, &c., similar in- stances, although not to the same extent, occur ; and this confusion exists (as in the case of the peach referred to) more generally with the very best sorts than with those of inferior quality. In former times, not only our commercial orchards, but many of our best private gardens, were encumbered with fruit trees, few of which had much claim on the attention of the culti- vator — a fact which a reference to the nursery catalogues of the early part of the present cen- tury, or a glance back at our early days, will sufficiently prove. These things are now greatly altered, so far as the leading nursery catalogues and the best private gardens are concerned ; but we regret to see little improvement taking place in the cider orchards of England, and the large commercial orchards in Scotland. The former, in a commercial point of view, require great amendment, and the attention of cider-makers should be directed more to chemistry than to "use and wont;" the latter, if not speedily remodelled, had better be utterly destroyed, as no one will use such inferior fruit as is grown in them, while they can obtain a superior article at the same cost, brought from Holland, France, or Germany. Not that we think the fruits imported from either of these countries, although they possess greater natural advantages in regard to climate than our own, are in general equal to what might be produced at home, were we to discard our inferior sorts, and cultivate such improved sorts as are quite suitable to our climate. If this is not done, there is no doubt that the land at present occupied as orchard ground would be far more profitably employed in the production of agricultural crops. We believe there are few situations, either in Eng- land or Scotland, dedicated to the production of fruit, that, under good management and a judi- cious selection of sorts, might not produce fruit equal, and in many cases superior, to that im- ported. Both remain nearly stationary, as re- gards culture and selection; and while they remain in their present state, they must cout tinue to be unprofitable to their owners. In market-gardening considerable improve- ment has taken place — a result arising from com- petition from abroad ; and the day is not far distant when the trashy fruits which at present cumber and greatly deteriorate other crops in such gardens, both in England and Scotland, will be removed, and their places occupied with better sorts. This was done almost simultane- ously by most of the large commercial growers about Loudon, as soon as the superior Flemish and other pears were made known to them. Apples and aU other fruits underwent a similar change ; so that the kinds found in the market thirty years ago, with the exception of a few good and standard sorts, are now almost un- known even by name. A similar improvement has taken place in most private gardens by the introduction of sorts of the very highest charac- ter, possessing the properties of ripening early and keeping late, thus spreading the fruit season over the greater part of the year, instead of its covering, as formerly, scarcely half of that period. We would remind those (and we know there are many such) who, from a mistaken notion of economy, still allow their gardens to be crowded with old and worthless sorts and worn-out trees, producing precarious crops— and those on walls in general towards the extremities of their branches, and of very inferior quality — how much they lose, both in quantity and qua- lity, and how much they would gain by rooting such trees out, and planting those of higher merit. There is no profit in very large fmit- trees : if standards, they scarcely repay the value of the ground they occupy ; and if on walls, as we have stated above, scarcely one- sixth of the surface is made available for the production of fruit. Trees of moderate size afibrd a greater variety, because a greater number can be planted in a given space, and, if managed as recommended by the best writers of the present day, they wiE come into bearing a year or two after planting, will be most productive, and continue in health and produptiveness, if rightly treated, for a quarter of a century — quite long enough for any fruit-bearing tree, exposed to our vai-iable climate, to be allowed to exist. No doubt there are some exceptions to this rule, but they are very few indeed. In the selection of hardy fruits much discrimination is required, so as to adapt the sorts to the requirements of the owner, as well as to the situation, soil, and chmate where they are to grow. Over soil we have complete control ; over situation and cli- mate we have comparatively little, and here it is that the judgment of the planter is called into action. Latitude should weigh with him much less than altitude ; for experience teaches us that many excellent fruits will arrive at gi-eat perfection at 100 feet of altitude, which would scarcely ripen at all at double that height in the same latitude. Some looahties are, how- ever, from natural causes, little understood, better adapted to the ripening of fruit than others, even in the same latitude, and at the same elevation. The green gage plum we may instance as an extraordinary example of this : it is found to ripen, as a standard, to greater per- fection at Traquair, from 400 to 500 feet above the level of the sea, than it does at Dalkeith, which is only 100 feet — the two places being within half a degree of each other. The gar- SELECTIONS OP KINDS. 301 dens at Authrey, at 150 feet altitude, situated at the base of the Ochil hills, have long been noted for the size and exeellenoe of their peaches and pears ; indeed, those that we have seen of the latter equal any we ever saw gi'own in the vicinity of London ; while in gardens at the same altitude, on the southern banks of the Forth, with equal skill and attention, the same results do not occur. Figs ripen against the waU at Preston Hall, 412 feet above the level of the sea, better than they do at Dalkeith or Mel- ville Castle, only a quarter of that height. The peach, the apricot, and many of our finer apples and pears, ripen in some parts of Ross-shire better than they do in many parts of North- umberland, even at the same height above the sea. The apricot ripens to perfection in many places on the eastern coast of Scotland, at an altitude where it^ is scarcely possible for them even to exist on the western shores. Altitude, or elevation above the level of the sea, is considered by most writers on chmate, &c., equivalent, as regards the warmth or coldness of a locality, to receding whether north or south from the line — 600 feet of altitude being thought equal to a degree. These calculations, however correct they may be as general principles, are in reality of little importance to the British hor- ticulturist. From the insular position of our country, its hilly and diversified surface, as well as its being situated between the parallels of 50° and 58° 40' of north latitude, great and marked inequalities of heat, cold, and moisture occur over its surface, all of which operate powerfully on the productions of his care. The geographical position has more influence on the cultivation of fruits, &o., than the difference in altitude below that point at which fruits cease to ripen. Cultivation has also a great effect on this ; drainage, shelter, and exposure, will elevate the temperature, and improve the climate in one situation over that of another at the same alti- tude, and render the soil capable of raising a higher class of vegetable products, as well as mitigate the effects of certain baneful atmo- spheric influences. The geological series, also, produces a very considerable influence, both physical and chemical, upon the superincumbent soil, irrespective of their exact altitude. Pro- fessor Johoston, struck vrith this fact in travel- ling through Wigtownshire, remarks, in " Letters on Scottish Agriculture," that, in passing an " imaginary line, the husbandry changes, the soil seems more barren, the people more indo- lent, and their methods more primitive. You ask tlie reason, and you are told that the climate is unfavourable to profitable culture. But if, in the midst of this broad tract of country, a patch of limestone, or trap, or old red sandstone appear, all at once the difficulties appear to vanish, and heaven and earth seem to conspire in rewarding the diligent ciiltivator of the soil." The same holds good in the cultivation of fruit trees, which are so often found to prosper upon such formations, while they linger out an unpro- fitable existence 100 or 200 feet lower. The in- fluence of elevation above the level of the sea is little understood, nor has it been sufficiently attended to. Sir Thomas Brisbane and Mr Gal- VOL. II. braith, in " Edinburgh New Philosophical Jour- nal," have calculated the decrease in temperature to be 1 ° for every 212 feet of altitude — in latitude, 55°-57° ; and Mr Hewitt Watson, in "Magazine of Natural History," vol. i. p. 444, raises it to 239 feet, between 53° and 59° ; admitting, at the same time, that neither of these estimates are worthy of implicit reliance. Others state the decrease of temperature at 1° for 300 feet in perpendicular elevation. With such uncertain data regarding altitude, little advantage can be taken in selecting a situation either for a garden or orchard. We have, in vol i. p. 20, spoken of the advantages of rather elevated situations for gardens in general; and, in addition to the opinions there offered, we may add, that fruit- tree gardens and orchards should never be estab- hshed in low-lying places, because they are of all others the most subject to the baneful effects of rimes and frosts. The primary object, therefore, to be kept in view in the selection of fruits for any particular locality, is to ascertain its climate and circum- stances, to draw conclusions either from those fruits which prosper in such places, or from those nearest approaching thereto. Perfection is not to be arrived at at first ; for, from what has been briefly stated above, there are certain circum- stances of which man remains as yet compara- tively ignorant,, which may lead to satisfactory results, or the reverse. We have, in various instances, noted those sorts not in general cultivation which are capable of arriving at perfection in northern latitudes, with a view to their being substituted for the inferior sorts supposed alone fit for such locali- ties. In good climates, good fruit, under any ordinary management, may be expected. It is in indifferent or bad climates that we wish to see superior fruits introduced, to the exclusion of the bad ones now grown, and to stimulate gi'owers in carrying out our views. " We hope to live to see the day," says a sensible writer, in the " Cottage Gardener," No. 221, " when such pears as the Glout morceau, Passe colmar, Ne plus meuris, and Beurre ranee, will be offered in Covent Garden market during the vpinter and spring months, in quantities as great as the Lammas, Williams' Bon chretien, and Bergamots, are during the early autumn. There is no reason why this should not be so, if commercial growers could only be brought to see what their own interest is. The greatest London market-gardeners have long found out the value of such crops, and it is by them that the market and fruiterers are mainly supplied ; but the country orchardists are wholly ignorant of, or perfectly easy on the subject." And we as earnestly wish to see the day when our Scotch markets and street venders' stalls shall be swept of the veriest trash which is hawked about under the name of apples and pears — ^when the Elshen- halfts, the Pow Megs, and the Grey goodwives, shall give place to the Dunmore, Louis bonne (of Jersey), Urbaniste, &c. Next to judicious selection is the judicious management of the trees themselves ; and amongst the modem improvements in this de- partment is that of keeping a proper balance 302 HARDY FRUIT GARDEN. between the roots and the branches — by operating more upon the former and less on the latter than has been the practice in bygone days. jNot, however, that root-pruning is altogether a new idea, for it was, to a certain extent, recommended by Bradley and others of our older authorities, to be employed upon extraordinary occasions. It has now been reduced to a regular system, and those enlightened individuals who have adopted the practice place much greater reliance upon its due administration than upon all the systems of branch-pruning recommended by former practitioners. With a view to convey something like a cor- rect idea of fmits, it has been suggested that nurserymen should keep specimens of their fruits, modeUed in wax, for the guidance of purchasers. A more economical way would be for the nurserymen of Britain to join together in the pubHcation of a pomological work with coloured figures, somewhat similar to Hooker's " Pomona Londonensis," the " Pomological Ma- gazine," or the " Pyrus-Malus Brentfordensis," the colouring to be under the direction of a competent person, so that uniformity might be insured. We are aware of the cost of such works, and also that neither of the first met with such encouragement as to induce their proprietors to continue them ; but in the case to which we refer, a share of the expense ought to be borne by the purchasers as well as by the nurserymen, by a shght additional price on each ti-ee. Both would be equally benefited, and therefore both should bear their share of the expense. The late Messrs Ronalds of Brent- ford published their beautiful " Pyrus-Malus Brentfordensis" at their own cost; and we have their authority for stating that the ex- pense was covered in a few years by the in- crease in their sales of apple-trees, these being the subjects illustrated. It is not at all unusual for nurserymen to go to the expense of figuring new fruits, but the public have no great con- fidence in these representations. Some have also had many of their fruits modelled in wax, and very beautifully coloured, — ^the Messrs Law- son of Edinburgh are doing so at the present time ; and, beautifully as these specimens are executed, the misfortune is that the next nur- seryman who follows their example, by employ- ing different artists, and procuring the speci- mens from either better or worse localities, will produce models as different as the fruits them- selves would be in these circumstances. It would be otherwise with coloured figures ; they would be all engraved from the same plates, and aa the colouring is done in general by hand, a great difference might occur here, if not under the direction of some competent indivi- dual. No doubt they might be coloured by a process employed in France for several years, and exemplified in the coloured plates in vol. i. of this work ; but this process, although much more correct, is attended with much greater expense. Collections of fruits, engraved and coloured, are much more portable, and far less liable to injury than specimens of them modelled in wax, and coloured ever so correctly. A short lettei'press description, somewhat in the tabular form, as adopted by the Horticultural Society in their catalogue of fruits, would not add much to the expense of such a work ; and if so exe- cuted, sufficient confidence would be placed in it by the public, as it would render both de- scription and figure, as it were, stereotyped, and completely remove the impression formed, that little confidence can be placed in nursery de- scriptive catalogues in general. One of our very best pomological writers (Mr Errington) has very lately remarked in " The Cottage Gardener," — "Since the million willhave gardens, and possess the desire, without the practical knowledge, to avail themselves of su- perior fruit, some means should be placed with- in' their reach, of knowing at a glimpse what wiU suit their purpose. Catalogues they imder- staud not ; neither have they time nor inclina- tion to collect facts by a slow and tiresome de- tail, which would put them in a position with the really practical man, in adapting kinds to their necessities, or as subordinate to their schemes." No doubt, even the best executed coloured figures of fruits would only satisfy so far as actual appearance goes ; but this goes a great way with fruit, as well as with a section of humanity it might be deemed rudeness to name. Size, colour, and form would be identi- fied ; but flavour, quality, and season of maturity, would only be obtained from a short letterpress description. Of such importance is the settlement of the nomenclature of fruits, which, notwithstanding all that has been done of late years, is stiU in a state of very great confusion, that the Belgian government has very recently issued a royal commission, not only with a view of settling the nomenclature, by reducing the names by which they are at present known to a common standard, but also to collect and publish all ex- isting information concerning their merits and cultivation. Much gratified we are that our hints thrown out above have already been thus anticipated, and that to the extent of being car- ried out under the auspices of one of the most enlightened sovereigns in Europe. We are also glad that the interests of Great Britain in this matter are intrusted to the care of two of her most accomplished pomologists, Mr Rivers and Mr Thompson, who, we have no doubt, vinll see that the publication is made available to our cUmate and circumstances — both of which are so different from those of Belgium, that a work adapted to the one country, however credit- ably executed, would be of little value to the other. In regard to the extent to which we have carried our select lists of fruits, it may be con- sidered by some that they are too exclusive, while others may think them by far too much extended to come directly under the denomina- tion of selections. Our object has been to bring together as many of the best varieties in each class as we know to be worthy of general culti- vation, bearing in mind, at the same time, that many of them that are adapted to one purpose, or to one locality, are by no means fitted for others ; and also, that the tastes and require- ments of different individuals are nearly as vari- THE OEIGIN OF NEW FEUITS. 303 ous as the kinds of fruits themselves. lu form- ing selections, however, much depends on the space to he planted, the season when the fruit is most required by the owner, whether he is curious in possessing a great vai'iety, or content with a few sorts that may suit his taste and cir- cumstances. As a general rule, we would say, in reference to apples and pears, ]?lant few of those which ripen eai'ly and do not keep long ; of other fruits, a just proportion of those that ripen early and ripen late — in both cases with the view of prolonging the season to its utmost limits. Those who ai'e short of room, yet anxious for variety, may accomplish this by working three, four, or more sorts on the same tree. One ad- vantage attending the cultivation of a number of sorts is, that some kinds in some seasons, from a variety of causes, fail altogether, whereas others escape, probably to fail in their turn the suc- ceeding season. From these lists there will be no difficulty in selecting sorts to meet all these emergencies, their adaptation to circumstances, quality, time of ripening, and duration, being all given. § 2. THE OEIGIN OP NEW FEUITS. Concerning the origin of new i}arieties of fruits, little is satisfactorily known. One thing is cer- tain, that under favourable circumstances this process has been going on probably since the creation of fruit trees themselves. That the type of our cultivated apples, for example, is really the crab apple in something like its pre- sent state, seems confii'med by the circumstance, that by sowing seeds of any, even of our most highly-improved sorts, a, certain disposition is manifested by them to return to their natural or wilding state. Mr Robert Thompson, one of our highest pomological authorities, appears to be of opinion that seedUngs of some of our most approved varieties are found only to partake in some degree or other of the properties of their direct parents, but that the greater part of such seedlings more or less affect a wild and inferior character, in no marked manner resembUng their parent, in form, colour, nature, time of arriv- ing at maturity, &c. This opinion is borne out by the observations made by some of the best American pomologists, one of whom asserts, that " a hundred seeds of the golden pippin will produce large-leaved apple-trees, bearing fruit of considerable size ; but the tastes and colours of each wiU be different, and none will be the same in kind with the pippin — some will be sweet, some bitter, some sour, some maukish, some aromatic, some yeUow, others gi-een, red, or streaked." The same rule also seems to hold good in all countries where the apple is culti- vated. Seeing, therefore, that fruits produced from trees not only originated from seeds taken from the same parent tree, but also from seeds taken from the same fruit, possess quahties essentially different, the mystery attending the origin of new varieties of fruits appears the more extraordinary and unaccountable. With these considerations in view, we need not be surprised at the few varieties of superior fruits, which make their appearance, like angels' visits, " few andfar between," nor at the apparent apathy with which experienced growers regard new varieties, however highly recommended, until they have " seen, felt, and tasted," and hence are enabled to judge for themselves. Mr Thompson asserts, and his opinion is borne out by most of our leading vegetable physiologists, " that there is a strong tendency in plants from seeds of culti- vated fruit-trees of high character to revert im- mediately to the state of wUdings." The late Mr T. A. Knight, who experimented much in such matters, and with the best results, proved the fact that the wUd crab-apple, fertilised by the poUen of a cultivated apple of merit, produces better varieties from seed than can possibly be obtained from seeds taken from the most ap- proved fruits themselves. Seeds of cultivated sorts, or, what are deemed preferable, seeds of wildings originated from cultivated varieties, have been chosen by the Flemish pomologists to sow with a view to obtain improved kinds. These seedhng plants they nourish and get into a fruit-bearing state as soon as possible, and from the seeds of these they raise a second gene- ration ; thus they go on sowing, the seeds of generation after generation, and begin to look out for improved sorts from the second and third generation upwards. This, however, is too early to expect a complete fulfilment of their wishes, although a very perceptible amelioration ensues in each of these generations, and by con- tinuing the process the highest degree of ex- cellence is often at length obtained. For the consolation of experimentalists, we may mention that Dr Van Mens found that good varieties are sometimes obtained from the third generation of apples, in others it may be the fourth or fifth ; and in the case of pears, upon which this excel- lent observer experimented most, the sixth or seventh. An interesting paper on this subject was published some time ago in the " Annales Soc. de Hort. de Paris," by M. Poiteau, headed, " Considerations on the Processes employed by Nurserymen for obtaining better Sorts of Fruits, and on the means by which Nature appears to accomplish the same effect." M. Poiteau com- mences by observing that improved varieties of our best fruits seldom originate with nursery- men, but owe their origin more to the chance productions found in woods, hedgerows, or in obscure places where the finer sorts are scarcely known. In this opinion he is strengthened by what has occurred in our own country. Our nurserymen and pomologists have acted on the very natural principle that good varieties might be expected from good sorts. In this they have, strange as it may appear, been most signally dis- appointed ; and Duhamel, and other leading French pomologists, failed in the same way. From these failures M. Poiteau concludes that experimentalists are wrong in expecting to ob- tain at once what can only be produced in time. He seems to infer that seedling apples and pears, for instance, require some years and some culti- vation before they can arrive at their fullest state of perfection ; thus so far agreeing with the doctrine laid down by Dr Van Mons and others. He may be correct enough in the theory he has formed as to the facility with which the 304 HAEDY FRUIT GARDEN. Americans in tlie United States so readily pro- cure superior fruits, and at so little trouble : this he attributes to the ignorance or neglect of grafting shown by the earlier settlers, who, in'the anxiety to establish a country, neglected to per- petuate their fruit trees by grafting or budding, and had at last recourse to rearing their trees from seeds. From the fruit trees imported into America now about three hundred years ago, seedlings have been originated both by accident and design ; and these, having undergone the ameliorating influence of successive generations, have now arrived at that period of their exist- ence which has developed their true and useful character. Climate has, no doubt, much to do in regard to the superiority of American apples; but the breaking up of new lands, as conjectured by M. Poiteau, has little to do with this, or with the production of new or improved fruits ; for although such circumstances may improve the quality of the fruit, it cannot alter its physical nature or constitution. Most of our present esteemed fruits were brought by slow degrees to the West from the • East, and principally from Asia and Egypt. Gibbon, in " History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire," vol. i. p. 62, remarks : " In the more remote ages of antiquity, the world was unequally divided. The East was in the immemorial possession of arts and luxury, whilst the West was inhabited by rude and warlike barbarians, who either disdained horticulture, or to whom it was totally unknown. Under the protection of an established government, the pro- ductions of happier climates, and the industry of more civilised nations, were gradually intro- duced into the western countries of Europe ; and the natives were encouraged, by an open and pro- fitable commerce, to multiply the former as well as to improve the latter. Almost aU the flowers, the herbs, and the fruits that grow in our Euro- pean gardens are of foreign extraction, which, in many cases, is betrayed even by their names. The apple was a native of Italy ; and when the Romans had tasted the richer flavour of the apricot, the peach, the pomegranate, the citron, and the orange, they contented themselves with applying to eJI their new fruit the common de- nomination of apple, discriminating them from each other by the additional epithet of their country." This progress, in a westerly direction, is going on at the present day ; and the fruits of the East are sought for with considerable avi- dity by the tribes inhabiting the western shores of America. Indeed, as we have elsewhere stated, no very long time has elapsed since neither the grape, the apple, nor the pear existed in that great and progressing continent. Improved -oarieties of fruits accidentally or scientifically produced. — Accident no doubt gave rise to the first improvements in fruits, and the same operation is still daily going on in nature, almost unheeded by man, until the changes ai-e made manifest to him by their welcome results. The reason why such changes should take place, or why the character first stamped by nature on what has been botanically called species, or highly-marked variety, should have a tendency to disappear in the progeny, has been " a stum- blingblock to the systematic botanist and to the superficial student in physiological science." But that such a tendency does exist is well known even to very superficial observers ; and it has been remarked by those who have looked more closely into the matter, that this tendency is more remarkably developed in some species than in others. It would be out of place here to attempt to account for this deviation from ?what has been considered an unalterable law of nature. Tak- ing it, therefore, as an admitted fact that such a disposition does exist, let us consider briefly the share that accident and design have in the matter. That the scientific process of hybridising is no doubt the most certain mode of procuring improved varieties of fruits is quite clear, yet many varieties, including some of our very best fraits, have been originated by accident. This is exemplified in the case of the Claygate pearmain, scarlet nonpareil, and Hawthoruden apples ; the two first having been found growing wild in the neighbourhood of Esher, Surrey — ^the former in a hedgerow, and the other in the garden of a petty pubUc-house ; and the remains of the last still exist in the grormds of Sir J. W. Dnim- mond of Hawthomden. Many others have had a similar origin. Of our best pears, Williams' Bon Chretien sprung up from seed in the garden of a schoolmaster at AJdermaston in Berkshire ; the Elton originated in an orchard in a parish of that name in Herefordshire ; while the excel- lent ChaumonteUe was found wild at Chaumon- telle in the department of the Oise in France, and the Duchesse d'Angoiileme in a similar manner in the forest of ArmaUle, near Angers. The Elruge, which is one of the best, if not the very best of our nectarines, owes its origin to a nurseryman of the name of Gurle or Gourle, at Hoddesdon in Hertfordshire, in the reign of King Charles II., before the doctrine of the sexual intercourse between plants was much known in Britain, from which we may naturally infer that artificial impregnation had not been had recourse to. The Claremont nectarine — a variety of the last — was raised by Mr John Greening, gardener to the Duke of Newcastle, who owned Claremont about the year 1750 ; and Fairohild's nectarine was raised from seed by a gardener of that name, so long back as previous to 1722 — both of these, in aU proba- bility, without the aid of artificial fecundation. In America the same accidental originations have been going on ever since the apple was introduced into that country ; and, as accidental varieties of the very highest order there, may be named the Newtown pippin, Baldwin, Swaar, and the Spitzenburghs, as well as many othei's. Many of their peaches and plums — tTie Washing- ton, for example — are also of accidental origin. The same thing might be instanced as occurring in all countries, and not only as regards fruits, but also very generally as regards plants. At what period artificial impregnation, or the crossing one variety with another, began to be practised, with a view to improve either plants or fruits, has not been at all satisfactorily re- corded. The process was unknown to the an- THE OEIGIN OF NEW FRUITS. 305 cients, therefore the means of obtaining cross- bred varieties artificially could not have existed prior to the discoveiy of the sexes in plants, nor in all probability for many years afterwards. Among the first to promulgate the theory of suc- cessfully raising fruits from seeds, and the ad- vantage of raising successive generations of the same seedling, was Dr Van Mons of Brussels, who published his views thereon in the " Jour- nal d'Agrioulture des Pays Bas," in which he recommends sowing only the seeds of existing varieties of the highest merit, and asserts that, by doing so, varieties will be produced with a much greater chance of improvement than if pa- rents of much less merit were employed. In this view he is supported by the late Mr G. Liudley, who says, in " Guide to the Orchard," — " In sowing seeds for the purpose of procuring im- proved varieties, care should be had, not only that the seeds be taken from the finest existing kinds, but also that the most handsome, the largest, and the most perfectly ripened speci- mens, should be those that supply the seed. A seedling plant will always pai-take more or less of the character of its parent, the qualities of which are concentrated in the embryo when it has arrived at full maturity. How this concen- tration takes place, we are as ignorant as why certain constitutional peculiarities are in man transferred from father to son, and from gene- ration to generation ; but we know that it does take place. Now, if the general qualities of a given variety are concentrated in the embryo under any circumstances, it is reasonable to sup- pose that they will be most especially concen- trated in a seed taken from that part of a tree in which its peculiar good qualities reside in the highest degree. For instance, in the fruit of an apple growing upon a nortli wall there is a smaller formation of sugar than in the same variety growing on a south wall ; and it can be easily understood that the seed of that fruit which is itself least capable of forming saccha- rine secretions, will acquire from its parent smaller power of the same nature than if it had been formed within a fruit in which the saccha- rine principle was abundant. It should, there- fore, be always an object with the gardener, in selecting a variety to become the parent of a new sort, to stimulate that variety by every means in his power, to produce the largest and the most fully-ripened fruit it is capable of bearing." The correctness of these opinions is, however, denied by others. Many of our finest varieties of fruits have been no doubt produced by means similar to the above ; but by far the greater number are of accidental origin. The writings of Mr Knight, the late Dean of Man- chester, Dr Lindley, and a host of others, have thrown much light on this subject in this coun- try; and the physiological authorities on the Continent have contributed abundantly also. The following excellent fruits may be instanced as a few of the many that have been originated by artificial means : the Napoleon pear was raised by Dr Van Mons at Louvain ; the Marie Louise, by the Abb^ Duquesne in Belgium ; our English Haoon's incomparable, by Mr Ha- con of Downham Market, Norfolk ; the highly esteemed Qansel bergamot, by Lieut.-General Gansel near Colchester, from a seed of the autumn bergamot ; Coe's golden drop plum was produced by a market-gardener of that name at Bury St Edmunds, from a stone of the green gage, the blossom of which had been impreg- nated by the white magnum bonum, the two trees growing near to each other in his garden ; the Downton imperatrice was raised by Mr Knight of Downton Castle, from a seed of the white magnum bonum, fertilised by the pollen of the blue imperatrice ; the Pitmaston orange nectarine was raised from a seed of the common Elruge by Mr Williams of Pitmaston ; the Acton Scott peach was raised by Mr Knight, and is the offspring of the noblesse impregnated with the red nutmeg ; the almond peach was raised by the same gentleman from a seed of the sweet almond, the blossom of which had been impreg- nated by the blossom of a peach. The male parent of the Downton strawberry was the old black, while the female was a, kind of scarlet ; and in the case of the Elton cherry, the father was the White heart, whUe the mother was the Graffion, &o. The spontaneous change of character in fruit.— Mr Knight states in the second volume of the "Hort. Trans.," p. 160, that he had a tree of the white magnum bonum plum forty years old, which one year produced on one of its branches red fi-uit perfectly like the red magnum bonum. He also mentions one of his May Duke cherry- trees, which some years previously had con- stantly on one of its branches oblong fruit, ripened later, and of greater weight than those on the other parts of the tree. But the most extraordinary instance we know of spontaneous production is that of the excellent and well- known Hunt's tawny nectarine, the origin of which is stated by Mr George Lindley, in "Guide to the Orchard," p. 282, to have been, not through the seminal process, but, as it appears, by a spon- taneous effort in nature to enlarge the parts of fructification of the flower of Fairchild's nec- tarine, by which was produced this admirable variety, so superior to that from which its origin is dated. Mr Lindley remarks, " There appears to me a great singularity in this accidental change of character, and to some it may appear incred- ible ; but I state it as a fact that has happened under my own inspection, being perfectly satis- fied that it had never been observed previously by any other person." After enumerating several similar instances, Mr Lindley proceeds, "These, with many other instances of spontaneous pro- duction which might be enumerated, lead me to conclude that we may possibly have other varie- ties, both of plants and fruits, which have not originated from seed." Peach and nectarine fruit has been frequently produced on the same tree, and even on the same branch. The first instance of this extra- ordinary freak is recorded in the correspondence between Peter CoUinson, an eminent English botanist, and Linna3us ; and the last, which we had an opportunity of seeing some years ago, was in the extensive fruit-gardens of the late Mr John Wilmot of Isleworth. The tree was of the Royal George variety, and seldom failed in pro- 306 HARDY FRUIT GARDEN. ducing fruit of the peach and nectarine on the same branch. — {Vide art. The Peach.) The mountaineer peach comes almost as often smooth'as downy, and was raised between the red nutmeg peach and the violette h^tive nec- tarine, conclusive enough evidence of their com- mon origin. Native locality of fruits. — All fruits appear to thrive best, with the least amount of care, in the locality in which they originated. This is instanced in many cases in our own country, and even more strikingly so in America, where we find that the Newtown pippin and the Esopus Spitzenburgh are the apples of New York; Peck's pleasant, and the Seek-uo-farther, are those of Connecticut ; the Baldwin, and the Roxbury russet, the leading kinds in Massachusetts, &c. § 3. ON THE DURATION, IN A HEALTHY The late eminent Mr T. A. Knight about half a century ago started an opinion that every variety of fruit tree had assigned to it a limited period of existence, and, as the end of that period approached, unmistakable evidence would be given, by the declining health and vigour of the trees, and also of the quaUty of the fruit they produced, of its approaching end. Speechly, WUhamson, and others, refer to a deterioration which appeared to them to be taking place in the case of the fruit trees of their time; but this they attributed to a change of climate in our country, and anticipated a restoration upon the return of more genial seasons. Our own opinion is strongly in favour of the theory that our seasons, for many years past, have been less genial and less favourable for the growth of fruit than they were formerly ; and, however little the mean temperature for the year, or for a series of years, may differ, still we believe our summers are less warm, and our springs much colder, accompanied with a considerable amount of frost, and this at a much later period than heretofore. Beforethe general employment of the thermometer, which is of comparatively recent date, we had no other means of arriving at any- thing like correct data as to the temperature of our climate but the historical facts of early har- vests, notwithstaudingthe rude system of agii cul- ture followed, the enormous oaks and other tim- ber trees, the remains of which are abundantly found in bogs, and in altitudes and situations where the oak can scarcely, with all our boasted improvements in arboriculture, now be got to grow at all ; for, with the exception of those in Hamilton Park, and a few solitary specimens in other places, we have no oaks in Scotland now bearing any comparison with those of former ages. More pertinent to our present subject, however, are the data furnished by Langley in his "Pomona," who has given us, in the case of almost every fruit cultivated by him at Twick- enham near London, the date of the very day when they ripened— dates by no means corre- sponding with the ripening of the very same sorts, and in the very same locality, at the present time. No doubt tender fruit-trees suffer much from a succession of cold frosty springs occurring late in the season, and more especially when fol- lowing a cold wet autumn, when the wood be- comes only imperfectly ripened, and also when the latter end of February and March has been sufficiently warm to set the sap in motion, causing the buds to burst forth, and the young shoots and foliage to expand, as they often do thus early, and are as often out off by frost in April and May. Thus far the healthy duration of fruit trees is seriously affected, and they may no doubt be killed outright. Returning, however, to Knight's theory — a doctrine, we confess, we were at one time almost a convert to. His views wiU be best explained by using his own words : "I think I am justified in the conclusion, that all plants of this species" (the apple being that on which his experiments were chiefly made), " propagated from the same stock, partake in some degree of the same life, and wiR attend the progress of that life, in the habits of its youth, its maturity, and its decay, though they will not be any way affected by any incidental injuries the parent tree may 'sus- tain after they are detached from it." — Knight's Treatise on tits Apple and the Pear, p. 15. This opinion received countenance from seve- ral eminent pomologists, not only in this country, but on the Continent and America also. Ken- driok, in his " New American Orchardist," de- clares his a.ssent to it. Of the Doyenne pear he says, " This most eminent of all pears has now become (in America) an outcast, intolerable even to sight ;" of the excellent brown beurre, " once the best of all pears, now become an outcast." The St Germain " has long since become an abandoned variety," &c. Downing, Hovey, and other American authors, deny that such a fate has befallen these fine fruits ; and the healthy existence of them in France, where they have existed from their veiy origin, as well as their present state in Britain, where they have all been cultivated for a much longer period than they have been in America, proves to us the un- soundness of the doctrine, and the danger of con- founding causes and effects. On this Downing very sensibly remarks, in " Fruits and Fruit- trees of America," p. 552 : " While we admit that, in the common mode of propagation, varieties are constantly liable to decay or become compa- ratively worthless, we believe this is owing, not to natural limits set upon the duration of a variety — that it does not depend on the longe- vity of the parent tree, but upon the care with which the sort is propagated, and the nature of the climate and the soil where the tree is grown. It is," he continues, " a well-established fact, that a seedling tree, if allowed to grow on its own root, is always much longer lived, and often more vigorous, than the same variety when gi-afted upon another stock ; and experience has also proved that, in proportion to the likeness or close relation between the stock and the graft, is the long Ufe of the grafted tree. Thus, a variety of pear, grafted on a healthy pear seed- ling, lasts almost as long as upon its own roots. Upon a thorn stock it does not endure so long ; upon a mountain ash rather less ; upon a quince stock still less, until the average life of the pear THE DURATION OF FRUIT TREES. 307 tree, when grafted on the quince, is reduced from fifty years — its ordinary duration on the peai' stock — to about a dozen years. This," Mr Downing says, " is well tnown to every practical gardener, and it arises from want of affinity between the quince stock and the pear graft. The latter is rendered dwai-f in its habits, bears early, and perishes equally soon." We do not quite agree with Mr Downing as to this very great limitation; bvit, admitting it even to be so to a certain extent, we would, for many purposes and reasons, retain the quince stock ; for longe- vity, under cei-tain conditions, is of secondaiy consideration, more especially as pears upon quince stocks produce their fruit so soon after grafting, that there would not be much greater trouble in keeping up a succession of young trees than in doing the same with gooseberries and currants. Following Mr Downing, who says, " Next to this, the apparent decay of a variety is often caused by grafting on unhealthy stocks ; for although grafts of very vigorous habit have frequently the power of renovating in some measure, or for a time, the health of the stock, yet the tree, when it arrives at a bearing state, will, sooner or later, suffer from the dis- eased or feeble nature of the stock. " Carelessness in selecting scions for grafting is another fertile source of degeneracy in varie- ties. Every good cultivator is aware that if grafts are cut from the ends of old bearing branches, exhausted by over-bearing, the same feebleness of habit will, in a great degree, be shared by the young graft ; and, on the contrary, if the thrifty straight shoots that are thrown out by the upright extremities, or the strong limb sprouts, are selected for grafting, they insure vigorous growth and healthy habit in the gi'aft. Finally, unfavourable soil and climate are power- ful agents in deteriorating varieties of fruit trees. Certain soi-ts that have originated in a cold climate are often shortlived and unproductive when taken to warmer ones, and the reverse. This arises from a want of constitutional fitness for a climate different from its natui-al one. For this reason the Spitzenburgh apple soon degene- rates if planted in the colder parts of New Eng- land ; and almost all northern sorts, if trans- planted to Georgia." And upon the same prin- ciple, many fine apples of America will not thrive in England, much less in Scotland. " But this only proves that it is impossible to pass certain natural limits of fitness for climate, and not that the existence of the variety itself is in any way affected by these local failures." Knight's doctrine was denied by DecandoUe, Mr George Lindley, and by many of the most eminent vegetable physiologists. The former of these says, " Vaiieties will last as long, and remain unchanged as long, as man chooses to take care of them ; " and of this we have sufli- cient evidence in the case of the pearmain, which is the oldest apple on record, and still showing no symptoms of decay; and the same may be said of the Cat's-head, London pippin. Winter queening — or quoining, as written by some, and probably more correctly. The latter observes, in " Guide to the Orchard," p. 16, in reference to the supposed degeneracy of the golden pip- pin, " I cannot for a moment agree to such an opinion, because we have facts annually before our eyes completely at variance with such an assertion." Mr Knight even set a hmit to the existence of a variety, and obsei-ves, " that no variety of apple wUl continue to exist more than two hundred yeai-s." Nearly two hundred va- rieties could be named that have continued thus long, and without those discouraging symptoms he anticipated. Downing remarks, and with great good reason, " that the hardihood of any variety depends gi-eatly upon the circumstances of its origin. When a new variety springs up accidentally from a healthy seed in a semi-natu- ral manner, like the Seckel, the Dix, and other American native sorts, it wiU usually prove the hardiest. It is as if it were an effort of nature to produce a new individual out of the materials in a progressive state, which garden culture has afforded. Cross-bred seedlings — one parent being of a hardy nature, and both healthy . — such as Knight's own seedlings, the monarch and Dunmore pears — are next in hardiness. Lastly, we rank varieties reared by Van Mons' method — ^that of continually repeating reproduc- tions. This, as Van Mons distinctly states, is an enfeebling process, without any compensatory element of vigour. Hence it follows, as a matter of course, that seedlings of the fifth and sixth generations, as are some of his varieties, must in their origin be of feeble habit. Van Mons himself was fully aware of this, and, therefore, resorted to grafting by copulation " — in fact, root-grafting, as Downing remarks — "well know- ing that on common stocks these new varieties would in light soils soon become enfeebled and decayed." Mr Downing seems very averse to grafting on quince stocks, and we believe we can clearly see through this, which, at first sight, may seem prejudice on his part. The climate of America is favourable (that is, around New York, the sphere of Mr D.'s operations) to the production of fruits, at a much earlier age of the trees than with us in Britain; and therefore those means recommended by Mr Elvers, and others of our best fruit-cultivators, are uncalled for. With such a chmate we would probably also use the pear stocks ; but in a climate such as ours in Britain, and in garden-ground highly manured, we would decidedly, for certain pur- poses, give the preference to quince stocks. Downing has clearly taken Knight upon the weak side of his theory when he says, " In Knight's original essay on the decay of varieties, he clearly states that the local decline of a variety is mainly owing to neglect, and to graft- ing on a bad stock. We allude to the fact, re- peatedly verified, that healthy young shoots taken from the roots of an old variety in apparent decline, produce trees which are vigorous and healthy. The decay," Kiiight says, " of the power of life in the roots of seedling trees is exceedingly slow comparatively with that in the branches. Scions obtained from the roots of pear-trees two hundred years old, afford grafts which grow with great vigour, and which are often covered with thorns like young seedling stocks; whilst other grafts, taken at the same time from the extremities of the branches of 308 HAEDY FRUIT GARDEN. sucli trees, present a totally different character, and a very slow and nntealthy growth. Although Mr Downing's remarks are more of a practical nature than of a physiological one, they bear the stamp of keen observation. Physiologists may, nevertheless, differ from him in certain deduc- tions he has drawn. Knight's theory does not, however, appeat to be new, for we find Mortimer, author of some tracts on religious education, and also on hus- bandry, in or about 1707, setting forth in gi-eat grief the constitutional decay of the Kentish pippin — a variety at the present day as healthy as it was at any period of its existence. No doubt, many of the apples and pears of the fif- teenth and sixteenth centuries have disappeared, as will not a few originated from seed even in the present century before it has closed. But this very naturally arises from the circumstance of their being superseded by better sorts, or be- ing found inferior to many old ones still in cul- tivation. Many of the trees in the Herefordshire orchards, to which Mr Knight alludes as being the diseased progeny of others long since dead, having outlived their prescribed period of exist- ence, which he limits to two hundred years, may ere this, as has been justly remarked by Mr Hogg (" British Pomology," p. 97), have dis- appeared also, "having perfoi-med their part, and fulfilled the end of their existence." The golden pippin, amongst others which Mr Knight names as being now worn out, appears to be in as thriving a condition, when not maltreated, as it was two hundred years ago. In the Bromp- ton Park nursery, Mr Hogg assures us, (p. 97,) the same golden pippin has been cultivated for nearly two centuries, and continued from year to year by grafts taken from the young trees in the nursery quarters. " I never," he says, " saw the least disposition to disease, canker, or decay of any kind ; but, on the contrary, a free, vigor- ous, and healthy growth." The vine, the peach, and the apricot have been propagated by exten- sion since the earliest ages, yet we never hear of a wearing out of any of the varieties of these trees ; and this possibly arises from their being treated in a more natural manner, or more care being bestowed on their cultivation, than has been the case with the apple, which, we know from ocular demonstration, is nowhere worse managed than in the very Herefordshire orchards to which Mr Knight refers. CHAPTER I. PROPAGATION. Notwithstanding the close analogy that for the most part exists between the natural economy of animals and vegetables, there are some im- portant points in which they widely differ, and in none more so than in the means of their propa- gation. AU vegetables were created for the sus- tenance of animals ; and hence, wherever the latter exist, the former are to be found. The whole surface of the globe, whether covered with water or not, is replete with vegetation, and that vegetation exists not without its use. To supply the whole animal creation, it fol- lows that vegetables must be not only exceed- ingly numerous, but also readily produced — at least, their means of production must be much greater than that of animals themselves. Plants not only produce immense quantities of seeds, but they extend themselves by shoots which run on or under the ground ; they are capable of multiplying themselves by roots, tubers, and bulbs, both formed under ground, and in some cases on the leaves and stems ; and they produce innumerable buds, each of which, by human art, can be rendered equivalent to a seed, and hence the great facility by which plants are multiplied both by nature and art. It is probable that something like one hundred thousand species of plants exist ; the herbaria of some botanists contain nearly that number in dried specimens. Thirty thousand seven hun- dred species are enumerated as indigenous or cultivated in Britain alone ; and if we include the botanical varieties, and those of cultivated vegetables, fruits, roses, and florists' flowers, eleven or twelve thousand may be added. § 1. PROPAGATION BY SEED. Propagation by seed is the primary and most general process by which plants are multiplied and perpetuated, AU plants are so produced, although in many, such as ferns, mosses, algse, and fungi, the seeds are so small as to be invisible to the naked eye; yet these latter are amongst the most widely diffused of all vegetables. The seeds of the latter are dispersed by a variety of means, by atmospheric and other causes, their minute- ness and buoyancy adapting them well for aerial distribution. There is scarcely a point on the globe's surface, or even in the ocean's depths, VOL. II. where they are not found to exist : the whole atmosphere seems to be replete with them ; and when they are brought into contact with solid bodies forming a proper nidus for them, there they take root and flourish. Nor are the plants originated from such apparently slender means proportionably minute; many of them attain an almost gigantic size, as exempHfied ia many of the Algae, whose ramified branches extend to the length of hundreds of feet, while the tree ferns rank amongst the monarchs in the tropical forests. The powers of reproduction by seed are truly immense : a single capsule of the tobacco plant contains about one thousand seeds ; one of the common medicinal poppy, eight thousand; while the vanilla plant has been computed to contain from ten to fifteen thousand. Each of these, upon a very moderate calculation, produces from twenty to thirty capsules on each plant. To give some idea of the powers of reproduction amongst cryptogamous plants, we may state that a single frond or leaf of the common spleenwort is esti- mated to produce one mUliou of seeds. Most plants originated from seeds resemble their parents in a very striking degree, although, occasionally, deviations of greater or lesser im- portance occur ; hence many of our most valu- able plants, and especially fruits and culinary vegetables, have so originated, and when suffi- ciently marked by symptoms of improvement, are denominated varieties. All vegetable life commences from seed. Its first stage and after progress are thus described by Dr Lindley in " Introduction to Botany :" " If we place a seed in earth at the temperature of 32° Fahr., it wiU remain inactive till it finally decays ; but if it is placed in moist earth above the temperature of 32°, and screened from the action of Ught, its integument gradually imbibes moisture and swells, oxygen is absorbed, carbonic acid expelled, and the vital action of the embryo commences. It elongates downwards by the radicle, and upwards by the cotyledons, the former penetrating the soil, the latter elevating themselves above it, acquiring a green colour by the deposition of carbon absorbed from the at- mosphere in the light, and unfolding in the form of two opposite roundish leaves. This is the first stage of vegetation. The young plant con- sists of little more than cellular tissue, only an 2e 310 HARDY FRUIT GARDEN. imperfect development of vascular and fibrous tissue being discoverable in the form of a sort of cylinder of bundles lying juat in the centre. The part within the cylinder, at its upper end, is now the meduUa, without it the bark ; while the cy- linder itself is the preparation for the meduUary sheath, and consists of vertical fibres passing through cellular tissue, and separates them hori- zontally in every direction. " The young root is now absorbing from the earth its nutriment, which passes up to the sum- mit of the plant by the cellular substance of the medulla, and is thence impelled into the cotyle- dons, where it is aerated and evaporated : such of it as is not fixed to the cotyledons passes down through the bai'k into the root. The plumula, forced onwards by the current of sap, which is continually impelled upwards from the root, next ascends in the form of a little twig, at the same time sending roots in the form of fibres down- wards in the centre of the radicle, which become the earliest portion of wood that is deposited : these fibres by their action now compel the root to emit little ramifications. Previously to the elongation of the pliuuula, its apex has ac- quired the mdimentary state of a leaf; this con- tinues to develop as the plumula elongates, until, when the first internodium of the latter ceases to lengthen, the leaf has actually arrived at its complete formation. When fully grown, it repeats in a much more perfect manner the functions previously performed by the cotyle- dons ; it aerates the sap that it receives, and returns the superfluous portion of it downwards through the bark to the root ; it also sends fibres down between the medullary sheath and the bark, thus forming the first stratum of wood in the new stem. During these operations, while the plumula is ascending, its leaf forming and acting, and the woody matter created by it descending, the cellular tissue of the stem is forming and expanding horizontally to make room for the new matter forced into it ; so that development is going on simultaneously, both in a horizontal and perpendicular direction. This process may not inaptly be compared to that of weaving, the warp being the perpendicular, and the weft the horizontal formation. In order to enable the leaf to perform its functions of aera- tion completely, it is traversed by veins origi- nating in the medulla, and has delicate evapora- tory pores (stomata), which communicate with a highly complex pneumatic system, that extends to almost every part of the plant. " The plumula having produced its first leaf, others are successfully produced around the axis at its elongating point, all constructed alike, connected with the stem or axis in the same manner, and performing precisely the same func- tions as have been just described. At last the axis ceases to elongate ; the old leaves gradually fall off; the new leaves, instead of expanding after their formation, retain their rudimentary condition, harden, and fold over one another, so as to be a protection to the delicate point of elongation, or, in other words, become the scales of a bud. We have now a shoot with a woody axis, and a distinct pith and bark, and of a more or less conical figure. At the axilla of every leaf, a bud had been generated during the gi-owth of the axis, so that the shoot, when deprived of its leaves, is covered from end to end with little symmetrically-arranged projecting points, which are the buds. The cause of the perfect shoot being conical is, that, as the wood originates from the base of the leaves, the lower end of the shoot, which has the greatest number of strata, because it has the greatest number of leaves above it, will be the thickest ; and the upper end, which has the fewest leaves to distend it by their deposit, will have the least diameter. Thus that part of the stem which has two leaves above it will have wood formed by two successive deposits; that which has nine leaves above it will have wood foi-med by nine successive de- posits, and so on ; while the extreme vital point, as it can have no deposit of matter from above, will have no wood, the extremity being merely covered by the rudiments of leaves hereafter to be developed. If at this time a cross section be examined, it wiU be found that the interior is no longer imperfectly divided into two por- tions- — namely, medulla and skin — as it was when first examined in the same way, but that it has distinctly two internal, perfect, concentric lines, the outer indicating a separation of the bark from the wood, and the inner, a separation of the wood from the medulla : the latter, too, which in the first observation was fleshy, and saturated vrith humidity, is become distinctly ceUiilar, and altogether or nearly dry." Such is the first pro- gress of a plant from seed. Air, moisture, darkness, and heat are all in- dispensable in promoting germination ; the ab- sence of them is the cause why seeds found at greater depths in the soil than air penetrates to, vegetate when brought within its influence, and why they remained inactive during the period of their being so deeply immured. What de- gree of credence may be given to the asser- tions of those who say they have caused to vege- tate the seeds of wheat taken from the tomb of an exhumed mummy, or of raspberry tarts being made of fruit the produce of plants raised from seed taken from a Roman barrow, we shall not stop to investigate further, than by observing that, if these facts are true, an absence of air, or rather oxygen, was the cause of this long-sus- pended vitality. That seeds do remain for a number of years in a sound state when placed so deep in the ground as to be beyond the influence of oxygen, and probably an insufficiency of mois- ture, is highly probable; but there is a vast dif- ference between a score or two of years and a few thousands. When seeds are sown too deep, the effect is that they germinate much slower than if placed nearer the surface, and often, pai'ticularly in damp soils and wet seasons, they perish alto- gether. The following table was drawn up by Petri : Of seed sown at the depth of 4 an inch, §ths came above ground in 11 days ; at 1 inch in depth, aU came up in 12 days ; at 2 inches, |ths came up in 18 days ; at 3 inches, |ths came up in 20 days ; at 4 inches, |ths came up in 21 days ; at 5 inches, |ths came up in 22 days ; at 6 inches, ^th came up in 23 days, — showing, therefore, that shallow sowing is the best. PROPAGATION BY SEEt). 311 The lai'ger seeds are, such as the acorn and walmit, the deeper they should be placed ; while very small seeds, such as rhododendron, &c., should be sown upon a smooth surface, and scarcely covered at all. It is necessary, however, that light be excluded until geiininatiou has taken place. Moisture is necessary to germina- tion, and without it seeds would ever remain inactive. The quantity of moisture requisite to cause germination in some seeds is much greater than in others ; and hence pease, beans, &c., when hasty vegetation is desired, are often soaked in water for some hours before sowing; and in dry states of the soil, the di'ills are watered before the seed is committed to them. DeoandoUe foimd that a French bean, weighing 644 milligrammes, absorbed 756 of water. The grand secret of keeping seeds in a good state in our seed ware- houses is their being kept di-y ; and if they could be at the same time excluded from au', no doubt their period of vitality would be consider- ably lengthened. Absence of light is another condition, as has been shown by M. Boitard and others, almost indispensable to germination. In the case of very small seeds which do not admit of being covered with soil, germination will be much assisted if they be covered with bell glasses, either painted black or having a thick piece of cloth laid over them. According to the recent experiments by Mr Hunt, the luminous or light- giving rays, and those nearest the yellow, have a marked effect in impeding germination ; while the red or heat-giving rays are favourable to the process, if abundance of water be present ; while the blue rays, or those concerned in chemical action or actinism, accelerate the process and cause rapid growth. The temperature necessary for the germina- tion of seeds extends over a considerable range in the scale of the thermometer. "We have stated that 32° Fahr. is the lowest with which we are acquainted at which seeds will germinate, because below that degree water freezes, and cannot, therefore, be absorbed by the tissue of the seed. It is possible, however, that some of the less perfect plants, such as some of the Algse and Fuel in the ai-ctic regions, may vegetate even below that point. The general range, however, is from 45° to 80° or 90°. Some seeds, such as the rose-acacia, Robinia, pseudo-acacia, and some of the Australian acacias, have been immersed for some minutes in boiling water without their vitality being destroyed. In cultivation, some require the heat of the tropics, while others vegetate freely in the heat of our springs. The highest limit of prolonged temperature which cereal grains can bear in water is stated by Ed- wards and CoHn to be 95°, and the highest they can bear in sand or earth, 113° Fahr. Dr Lind- ley records a case of the seeds of the raspberry having germinated after being subjected to the boiling point of syrup, which is 230°. The seeds of the annual poa, Poa annua, chickweed, Alsine media, and various others, will germinate at very little above 32°. These points may therefore be taken as the maximum and minimum of vegeta- tion. One seed producing twin plants. — In the ordi- nai-y course of nature one seed produces one plant as a general rule ; bat to this there are ex- ceptions, one of which is stated by Mr Thwaites, in " Annals of Natural History," as occurring in the case of a single seed of a hybrid fuchsia pro- ducing two plants " extremely different in ap- pearance and character, one of them partaking of the character of F. fulgens, and the other of F. coccinea," these being the two parents. " It cannot be doubted," he says, "that these very dissimilar structures were the produce of one seed, since they were closely coherent, below the two pairs of cotyledon leaves, into a single cylindrical stem, so that they had subsequently the appearance of being branches of one trunk." It is not improbable but the same thing fre- quently occurs in the case of forest trees of natural gi'owth, where two apparently distinct trees rise from one root — a circumstance ac- counted for, but we believe erroneously, by sup- posing two seeds to have sprung up together, and that, from the closeness of their stems, a species of natural engrafting had taken place while they were very young. Vitaliti/ of seeds. — We have stated above, that some seeds are supposed to retain their vitality for two thousand years or more. There are others, if placed under the ordinary conditions natural to them, that lose that power almost immediately after they have arrived at full ma- turity ; many continue sound one year, others two, and some few not only for a greater number of yeai's, but also being improved by keeping. We are not aware that this latter fact has ever been physiologically accounted for, but practi- cally it is known to be the case. The following common instances may be given. Melon and cucumber seeds are improved by age, in so far that they are found to be more productive of fruit, and less prone to grow to branches than when new ; cauliflower and most of the brassica tribe are less liable to button or run prematurely into flower ; while turnips bulb better, produce less top, and are less liable to run to seed in spring, when the seed is several years old, than if the produce of the preceding season. If such seeds, therefore, be well kept, we would say that they were better when four years old than when one year ; and, if this theory be correct — and we think the experience of years goes far to prove it so — ^that they are in a very fitting state for sowing while under ten years. Gardeners have long seen the importance of this, and hence it is no unusual thing for many to carry about seeds of the two first mentioned in their pocket, that the necessary maturation may be accelerated by the warmth of their bodies. We state this latter case, not as an example to be followed, but as an evidence of the principle. The object aimed at in the cultivation of the plants we have named is not bulk of gross vegetable matter, but to insure an end ; and that end is to produce those fruits and vegetables in the highest state of perfection they are capable of arriving at, and most fitted for the purpose for which they are cultivated. A still more extraordinary instance than those of the mummy wheat, &c., of the pro- tracted vitality of seeds, is to be found in a paper by Mr Kemp, published in the " Annals of Nat. 312 HARDY FRUIT GARDEN. Hist.," vol. xiil. p. 89. It relates to the disco- very of the seeds of plants which upon vege- tating were found to be those of Polygonum, Convolvulus, Rumen acetosella, and a species of Atriplex. They were found at the bottom of a sand-pit 25 feet deep, about a quarter of a mile west of Melrose. These seeds were im- bedded amongst decayed vegetable fibres, rest- ing on a stratum, 8 inches in thickness, of fine sandy clay. Under this stratum was a mass of gravel resting on a mound of the boulder for- mation 90 feet in thickness, and which Mr Kemp supposes was formed by the action of glaciers. The stratification of fine sand over the seeds was alternated with thin seams of impalpable clay, in both of which traces of car- bonaceous decayed wood and minute pebbles were found, resembling much the foundation of a river, as seen when a section is cut through its bed to some depth. These and other circum- stances led Mr Kemp to the conclusion that the river Tweed had anciently run in this direction, or that a lake of considerable size had at some very remote period existed here, but which is at present at a considerable distance, and be- tween 50 and 60 feet below the level of the sand quarry. " It is certain," Mr Kemp con- cludes, " that in the time of the Romans, about two thousand years ago, no lake existed here ; and when we reflect on the time necessary to have worn down the barrier of trap rock, and to have drained so large a lake, which must have stood at its highest level whilst the thin layers of sand were deposited over the bed with the vegetable remains, the antiquity of these seeds is truly astonishing, and it is most wonderful that they should have retained their power of gennination." Oily seeds lose their vitality speedily, probably from their power of absorbing oxygen, and the chemical changes thus induced. Some seeds retain their vitality much longer than others : thus the seeds of melons have been kept for forty-one years, maize thirty years, rye forty years, .Mimosa scwiiraa sixty years; and, stranger than aU, those of the kidney bean, after being kept for a century, have germinated, while gar- deners in general believe that they are of one year's duration only. Seeds will germinate more speedily, if sown fresh, when nearly ripe, than if they were fully ripe ; and in the latter case, if sown immedi- ately, than if kept for some time — say for some months, or a year or two. Intimately connected with the nature of seeds .is the condition of the soil into which they are sown ; and hence gardeners bestow both much more labour and care in its preparation than farmers do. All soils must be thoroughly pul- verised to render them fit for the reception of , the seed, and hence the great necessity of trench- ing, digging, forking, raking, &c., to reduce the sou to a fit state of fineness. These operations must not, however, be carried on when the soil is wet, else all the labour will be worse than in vain. AU soils must be comparatively dry be- fore the seeds are committed to it. The soil, to be in a fit state, upon examination should be found to be composed of small particles sepa- rated from each other by interstitial spaces or cavities. If wet, these cavities wUl be full of' water instead of air ; but if in a proper state, the particles will be sufficiently moist, while the cavities wUl be dry and charged with air. Nor is it the presence of air alone, although one of the essential conditions of certain germination, that is here required ; these cavities admit the solar heat, without which, in early spring, ger- mination would be slowly enforced — so slow, in- deed, that many seeds might perish before vege- tation could take place. In Ught sandy soils, abounding in carbonaceous matter, seeds germinate rapidly ; in stiff clayey soils, more tardily ; and if imbedded in peat- moss fuUy charged with water, they would either perish, or remain probably for ages in a dormant state. Most seeds vegetate freely in decayed vegetable mould, with a slight addition of fine sand ; others, such as some of the Coniferse, would speedily rot in such a preparation, and succeed best when placed in a more primitive soiL The foUowing table was drawn up by Adam- son, founded on experiments made by him in France, as to the period seeds remain in the ground, after sowing, before germination takes place : " Strawberry blite, beans, mustard, kid- ney beans, turnips, radishes, 3 days ; lettuce and aniseed, 4 days ; melon, cucumber, gourd, and cress, 5 days ; horse-radish and leek, 6 days ; orache, 8 days ; purslane, 9 days ; cab- bage, 10 days ; hyssop, 30 days ; parsley, 40 to 60 days ; almond, chestnut, peach, and peony, 1 year ; rose, hawthorn, hazel-nut, and cornel, 2 years." — {Fam. des Plantes, vol. L p. 84.) The following table was drawn up from ex- periments made in the botanic garden at Ge- neva ; the seeds were watered similarly, and the temperature to which they were exposed was 63° Fahr. .as a medium : Amaranthacese, 9 days ; Cruciferae, 10 days; Boraginese, Malvacese, CaryophyUese, 11 days ; Compositse, Convol- vulaoese, Plantaginese, 12 days ; Polygonese, 13 days ; Campanulacese, Leguminosse, Valerinaoese, 14 days; Graminese, Labiatas, Solanese, 15 days; Rosacese, 17 days; Ranunculacese, 20 days; Onar grarise, 22 days ; Umbellifer^, 23 days. The order in which seeds germinate appears often to be very capricious. Many, when sown in spring, vegetate in course of a few days, which, if sown in autumn, would not come up the same year. The seeds of biennials, for the most part, are committed to the ground as soon as they are ripe, vegetate, and become strong plants before winter, and flower the ensuing summer. Heat, moisture, and absence from light, are the conditions necessary to insure germination. The former is a main agent in accelerating this process, and hence seeds are sown, in general, in spring, instead of during winter, although the latter practice is often re- sorted to in the case of garden pease and beans, with a view to insure their early ripening. This is, however, a questionable practice. Seeds of tender plants ai'e sown in hot-beds, in pots plunged in a mUd bottom-heat ; and sometimes imperfectly ripened ones are sown, and this has been found to promote their early vegeta- CKOSSING OR HYBRIDISING. 313 tion. Steeping seeds for a few haul's in warm water has the desired effect, more especially when the boU into which they are to be sown is dry, as often occurs during the heat of summer. Hard seeds, such as walnuts, almonds, &c., are often buried for a day or more in matter in a, moderate state of fermentation ; and at other times the shell is paired, cut, or filed thin, so as to assist the embryo plant's escape from its hard encasement. The more scientific operations are, watering with ohloriae, as first suggested by Baron Humboldt ; the application of iodine and bromine, in conjunction with hydrogen, as pro- posed by Goppert : both these, as well as oxalic and other acids, have no doubt the effect, when frequently applied, of hastening the process of assimilation, and accelerating vegetation. These have, however, the effect of causing the plants thus hastily brought, into a state of existence to assume a sickly appearance through over- excitement, and not unfrequently many of them die. Dr Hamilton and M. Otto of Berliu made seeds to vegetate, notwithstanding they were from twenty to forty years old. On the use of these, as well as of a diluted solution of chlorine, Dr Lindley, in "Theory of Hort.," remarks, " Theoretically, it would seem that these effects ought to be produced, but general experience does not confirm them ; and it may be conceived that the rapid abstraction of carbon, by the pre- sence of an unnaturally large quantity of oxy- gen, may produce effects as injurious to the health of the seed as the too slow destruction of carbon, in consequence of the languor of the vital principle." The natural season for sowing seeds is unques- tionably as soon as they are ripe, but for the purposes of cultivation it is often necessary to defer this process for a few weeks or months. This is pointed out to us by nature ; and, in- deed, some seeds are not capable of retainiug their vitality many days after they are removed from the plant. Seeds which naturally fall from the plant, either by their weight or by some other means not easily accounted for, secrete themselves in the ground, or amongst moss or leaves, &c., so as to be ready in spring to start into new life. Many vegetate during autumn, and survive the winter, as it were, in an infant state, and are prepared, upon the approach of the warmth of spring, to perform the offices they are destined for. This is remarkably exempli- fied in the case of most of the plants from North America and Califomia ; and these, according to the most approved mode of culture, should be sown as soon as they are ripe ; while, again, Mexican and Chilian seeds succeed best when sown in spring. According to Mr Gordon of the Ohiswick gardens, the seeds of the trees and shrubs of Europe and of India " should be sown in autumn, and annuals or perennials in the spring. All seeds, of whatever kind, should be sown in dry soil, and not wetted tUl they begin to vegetate. In the case of old or sickly seeds, to water them at the time of sowing is to insure their destruction by rotting. Shad- ing is to be preferred to watering ; and one of the best constructions for the purpose is a pit glazed with double sashes. Finally, all seed- lings should be potted or transplanted as soon as possible, except bulbs." Experiments in seed-sowing are and have been numerous : that of sowing them in snow, as exemplified by M. Lucas, and detailed in the " Garten Zeitung," is one of the most extraordi- nary, and least in accordance with the laws of vegetable physiology, as snow must be nearly at the temperature of 32° ; hence they are placed at the very lowest point of temperature at which germination can take place. For what reason M. Lucas follows this unusual course does not very clearly appear. The majority of seeds ex- perimented upon by him were those of alpine plants, which of necessity in nature vegetate at the lowest temperatures. The idea of sowing seeds in new-fallen snow, or in that which has been frozen in ice-houses, and immediately plac- ing them in a hot-house with a temperature of 60° or 65° Fahi-., can amount to nothing other than sowing the seeds in the usual way, and drenching them with the coldest water; and that, with a view to accelerate their vegetation, is contrary, in the fullest extreme, to what has been considered the highest principle of good culture. In the Munich botanic garden, experi- ments were first tried, and frequently since in Britain, of sowing seeds in powdered charcoal, the results being an advance of one day in the process of germination. Minute seeds are often sown on the surface of charcoal blocks, on pieces of sandstone, and woollen cloth kept moist, but with effects of small importance to the general cultivator, although valuable to the botanical gardener, as, by this means, seeds of mosses, ferns, &o. are found to vegetate freely ; while, if sown in soil, they might, from their minuteness, be liable to be too deeply buried. According to Mr Limbm'n, electricity has a powerful influence in accelerating the vegeta- tion of seeds, on account of its connection with all transformations of organic substances, either as cause or effect. Dr Carpenter, entertain- ing the same views, remarks that, " when chemical decomposition takes place, electricity is always developed," but suspects that in some instances it may be absorbed again by the new state of the compound. The influence of dif- ferent coloured glass on the germination of seeds has been successfully experimented upon by Dr Horner of Hull, M. Payen, and others, who arrived at the conclusion that the violet or de- oxidising colour produces similar chemical ef- fects to the negative or alkaline pole, while red produced the acid or opposite effect by the re- tention of the oxygen. Alkalies were success- fully employed by M. Maltuen, who found that seeds vegetated sooner when placed at the nega- tive pole of a galvanic battery than at the posi- tive or acidised pole. Seeds enclosed by him in phials of acids and alkalies were found to ger- minate much quicker in the latter ; while in the former they vegetated much slower, and some- times not at all. § 2. — CROSSING OR HYBRIDISING, We have elsewhere stated that most plants originated from seeds resemble their parents in 314 HARDY FRUIT GARDEN. a very striking degree, although occasionally deviations of greater or leas importance occur — Bometimes, no doubt, naturally, and of late years much oftener by design. The true cause of such departures from legitimacy iu nature, is, we believe, enveloped in obscurity. Man has it, however, in his power, under certain conditions, to create varieties ad infinitumj by the process of cross-breeding or hybridising — a process re- quiring great nicety in the performance, and a thorough knowledge of the physiological struc- ture of plants. The old philosophers had some slight idea of sexuahty in plants, and Pliny some- where says, "All trees and herbs are furnished with both sexes ;" but nothing definite appears to have been known until Sii' Thos. MiBington and Nehemiah Grew, in or about 1676, clearly established the fact. It is true, Malpighi, Csesal- pinus, and others, laid claim to priority in the discovery ; but, in alluding to this circumstance, Dr Lindley remarks, " I see nothing so precise in their works as we find in the declaration of Grew, 'that the attire (meaning stamens) do serve as the male for the generation of the seed.' " It would also seem, from a very cm-ious passage in the Book of Deuteronomy, that the Jewish lawgiver was well acquainted with the phenomena of hybridisation, and with the dan- ger of deterioration attendant on its being al- lowed to proceed indiscriminately among culti- vated esculents : " Thou shalt not sow thy vine- yard with divers kinds of seeds ; lest the fruit of thy seed which thou hast sown, and the fruit of thy vineyard, be defiled." — Deut. xxii. 9. Ca- merarius, so early as 1694, threw out some con- jectures upon this subject. It was afterwards taken up by Bradley, in 1717, who proved the fact by producing hybrids artificially ; by Lin- nseus, in 1744 ; and fuUy established by the ex- periments of Koelreuter, and since by a host of others. It is not a little strange that the great founder of the sexual system should have written a dissertation on the subject; and al- though he endeavoured to establish a doctrine which was true, the facts upon which he gi'ounded his doctrine, in the estimation of mo- dern botanists, were false. He even went so far as to allege that hybrid productions may occur between species belonging to different genera, and even to different families — a case, says the systematic botanist, of which no example that can at all be relied upon has ever yet been met with. That natural hybrids do exist is not denied by the most strenuous advocates of the purity of the sexes in plants, but they say that they are few in proportion to the number of vegetable species, and none exist which are the certain production ef a union of species belonging to distinct families. There are some who think otherwise, and contend that, if man can by art produce hybrids at yn&, by the connection between two species of the same genus, why should not nature have done the same over and over again since the creation of the world, and that by the very in- struments which are the grievous marplots of every gardener who wishes to keep his favour- ite variety of melon, or his select early cabbage, pure and unadulterated ? None knows the dif- ficulty of preventing a species of adulterous in- tercourse from taking place amongst certain families of plants better than the enthusiastic hybridiser ; for, with all his precautions, such things wiU happen. The fact is admitted in the case of disecious plants, and conspicuously so in the numerous so-called species of willows. The doctrine held by some of the older botanists was recently almost revived by the hints thrown out by a learned gentleman at one of our scientific meetings in Edinburgh, much to the alarm of the younger, and perhaps more ardent than prudent students in botanical science, that there were originally only a few species formed, and that the rest of the vegetable world had arisen by hybridisation. The willow and the carex have been sore stumblingblocks to botanists : either of them may ask the first botanist that comes his way, " Pray, sir, what is a species ?" " Plants agree," says the author of the " Sub- urban Horticulturist," " with animals in the off- spring when it is reared from seed bearing a general resemblance to the parent ; but as iu every family the children of the same parent dif- fer individually in features, temper, disposition, &c., so among seedling plants, from the same seed- pod no two plants will be found exactly alike, and some will occasionally differ considerably from all the rest. Nevertheless, it is an un- doubted fact that all seedling plants not only possess the character of the species from which they have sprung, but even, in by far the greater number of cases, some of the peculiarities of the individual. The seeds of any kind of cultivated apple, for example, will produce plants, the fruit of all of which will more or less resemble that of the parent, though, perhaps, some one or two among a hundred may be considerably different. Hence, by selecting from beds of seedling plants those which are in any way remarkably different from the rest, new varieties are procured ; and till within the last half-century, when cross- breeding began to be practised by gardeners, this was the only way in which an improved variety of any species of plant was procured. If the seeds of varieties did not produce plants closely resembling their parents, how could all the im- proved varieties of cuUnary, agricultural, and floricultural plants be perpetuated ? That the same law which governs herbaceous plants holds good in trees and shrubs cannot be doubted; and if the seeds of a variegated tulip are more likely to produce plants which shall have variegated flowers than those of a tulip with only one col- our, so, we should say, the hemes of a variegated holly are more likely to produce plants with variegated leaves than those of a green-leaved holly. If this law did not hold good in ligneous as well as in herbaceous plants, how are we to account for the different varieties of Hibiscus syriacus coming true from seed ?" Advantages of hybridisation. — By this pro- cess man is enabled to change the character and quality of flowers, and of fruits. The colours and symmetry of the former may be changed, or made more perfect, and the size, form, and flavour of the latter may be much improved, by a judicious selection of the parents called into action. Indeed, by this process man CROSSING OR HYBRIDISING. 315 possesses the power of modifying the works of nature, and rendering them better adapted to his wants and wishes. What would our gardens now be, were it not for the hundreds of beautiful flowers produced by this means, as weU as the many superior fruits produced in a similar manner ? The families of roses, azaleas, rhodo- dendrons, pelargoniums, fuchsias, and hosts of others, bear evidence of this; while the improved kinds of pears, apples, strawberries, peaches, &c., give a still more conclusive corroboration. By this process the races of fruits and of culi- nai-y vegetables have been brought as near to perfection as it is, perhaps, possible to bring them ; and it is more than probable that wheat, corn, barley, &e. are capable of being yet greatly improved if suflicient pains were taken with them. Nay, even the timber trees of our forests, which are subject to the same laws, are capable of a like improvement. The laws of hybridisation, or cross-breeding. — "The species to be experimented on must be nearly related. The apple will not cross with the pear, nor the gooseberry with the currant." — Keith. M. DecandoUe says, "that hybrids resemble the female parent chiefly in the leaf and stem, and the male parent chiefly in the flower and organs of fructification." Professor Lindley reverses this order, which has led Keith to remark that the resemblance may have been found to be sometimes the one way, and sometimes the other. The Hon. and Eev. W. Herbert thinks, from what he saw in Amaryllides, that in hybrids the flowers and organs of reproduction partake of the character of the female parent ; while the foliage and habit, or the organs of vegetation, resemble the male. "Hybrids may be fertilised, however, by the pollen taken from one of the parents, and then the offspring assumes the character of that pai'ent."- — Balfour. Further, on this very interesting subject Dr Lindley remarks, in " Theory of Horticulture," that "if the pistil of one species be fertiHsed by the pollen of another species, which may take place in the same genus, or if two distinct varieties of the same species be in like manuer intermixed, the seeds which result from the operation will be intermediate between its pa- rents, partaking of the qualities of both father and mother. In the first case, the progeny is hybrid, or mule ; in the second, it is simply eross-bred. In general, cross-breeds are capable of producing fertile seed, and thus of perpetuat- ing one of the species from which they sprang. Hybrids, on the contrary, are often sterile, and therefore incapable of yielding seed. Reasoning from a few facts, and from the analogy of the higher orders in the animal kingdom, it has been believed that all vegetable hybrids are sterile ; and when sterility is not the conse- quence of the intermixture of two species, it has been thought that such species are not naturally distinct, however different their appearance. But facts prove that undoubted hybrids may be fertile; and when we consider that plants are not analogous to the higher orders of animals, but to the lowest, concerning whose habits we know nothing whatever, it is obvious that no analogical inferences can be safely established." — ( Vide Mr Anderson's views at the end of the article.) Duration of hybrids. — "Hybrids are fertile only till the third or fourth generation, when they revert ultimately to the type of one of the parents." — Keith. " When cross-breeding is ef- fected between what are considered different species, the offspring is a mule, or hybrid, which, in most cases, is incapable of maturing seeds, and generally, in the course of a few years, de- generates, or reverts to its original parentage. There are, however, instances of mules, or true hybrids, producing fertile seeds, from which plants have been raised, partaking of all the characters of the parent hybrid plant," as in the case of some of the Cacti. — Sub. Sort. Uncertainty in propagating hybrids even other- mse than by seed. — " It would appear, from the case of the Oytisus adami, or purple laburnum, that a true hybrid or mule cannot always be propagated with certainty, even by portions of the plant, or by what is called extension, since it never can be certain whether the portion taken off for propagation will produce the mule or one of the parents. As it is uncertain what are and what are not very distinct species, many of the plants originated by cross-breeding, and considered mules, may in reality not be so, and may consequently prove permanent and improved varieties." — Idem. In this extraordi- nai-y tree the foHage is sometimes that of the common laburnum, sometimes of the purple cytisus (C purpureus), and sometimes interme- diate between the two. The origin of this ano- malous tree is not believed to have been from seed produced by the ordinaiy process of cross- breeding, but by some accidental mixture of the cellular tissue. The difference between propagating by seed and propagating by any other mode is very great. — In propagating by seed, the species or variety in the abstract is propagated ; whUe by all the other modes practised by gardeners the species or variety is continued without alteration in character, by an extension of the parts of the original tree or plant. Thus, a Havrthornden apple of 1852 is not a new plant, but only a por- tion of the original tree continued by the process of extension, cariying with it its habits and pro- perties. Were we to sow the seeds of variegated plants, or of weeping oaks, ashes, or elms, few of the progeny, if any,", taking it as a general rule, would exhibit the variegated or pendulous characters of their parents ; and hence the neces- sity of continuing these varieties by budding, grafting, &c. On the same principle, were we to sow the seeds of any of our best apples, pears, plums, Sec, the chances of obtaining from their seeds improved varieties, or even such as are equal to the parents, would be few indeed ; we, therefore, are compelled to continue them by other means than from seeds. There are, how- ever, exceptions to this rule, as in the case of the pendulous or weeping oak at Mocoas Court, many of the acorns of which, when sown, pro- duce plants very similar to the original ; and we recollect having pointed out to us by the Due d' Aremberg a splendid purple orcopper-coloured 316 HAEDY FRUIT GARDEN. beech in hia grounds at Enghien, which produced a considerable proportion of plants from seeds closely resembling the parent, while other trees of the same age and size in the same grounds produced invariably plants having green leaves, and in all respects like the common beech. In regard to the aptitude of frait trees to produce plants from seed slightly removed in quality from the tree from which the seed was taken, we may mention the golden pippin apple and the green-gage plum, which often do (produce plants whose fruit is as little different from the originals as that of the progeny of the wild plum or crab apple is different from the trees from whence the seeds were gathered. It should, however, be remarked, that as these two fruits are amongst the very best of their class, and may have taken many generations to have brought them to their high condition, it is pos- sible that it may take as many more to reduce them in quality to their original or natural state. The circumstance also sti-ongly favours the theoiy laid down by Dr Van Mens in the " Journal d' Agriculture des Pays Bas," of Mr G. Lindley in " Guide to the Orchard," both else- where referred to, as well as that of most culti- vators who have made the propagation of im- proved fruits and plants their study. The practice of our best seed-savers is to save seed only from plants in the highest state of perfec- tion, and in the highest state of culture; and by this means they continue to us not only what are called species, but varieties also, little changed from the plants from which the seeds were taken ; and by this means only can we continue annual and biennial plants, as well as many of gi'eater longevity, although we cannot depend on this mode in all cases with the same degree of certainty that we can on the various modes of propagating by extension — namely, by cut- tings, division of the plant, grafting, budding, &c. However much the systematic botanist may be discomposed by the production of hybrids, or of cross-bred plants, the florist, pomologist, and gardener have much cause to rejoice ; for by this process they all have gained a triumph over nature, which, according to her greatest advo- cates, she could hardly have effected herself. The happy results of the late Mr Knight, in the production of some of our very finest fruits, and of our best pease, and other culinary vegetables, is of itself sufficient proof of the great utility of the process. We are told by botanists that hybrids are fertile only to the third or fourth generation. How can this doctrine be recon- ciled with the case of Knight's marrowfat pea, which has continued to reproduce itself over the whole kingdom for upwards of thirty genera- tions, and is likely to continue as long ? For the interesting experiments of Mr Knight, vide the " Philosophical Transactions from 1789 to 1820," and various papers in "Horticultural Society's Transactions, first series," &c. " The power of hybridising," Dr Lindley re- marks, " appears to be far more common in plants than in animals. There is scarcely a genus of domesticated plants in which this effect cannot be produced by the assistance of man. It is, however, in general, only between nearly allied species that this intercourse can take place, those which are widely different in struc- ture and constitution not being capable of any artificial union. The cause of the sterility of mule plants is at present unknown. Sometimes, indeed, a deficiency of pollen may be assigned ; but in many cases there is no perceptible dif- ference in the healthiness of the structure of the fertilising organs of a mule plant and of its parents." Even the very comprehensive ana- tomical observations of Professor Henslow have thrown no light upon the subject, for he could detect no appreciable difference between the condition of the stamens and pistil of the hybrid or its parents. Amongst the instances of fertile hybrids found wild in nature, Dr Lindley states the following as remarkable cases : " The Cistus ledon constantly produced between C. monspeU- ensis and laurifolius, and Cistus longifolius be- tween C monspeliemis and populifolius," ob- served by Mr Bentham in a wood near Narbonne. " The same acute botanist ascertained that Saxi- fraga luteo pwpwrea of Lap., and S. ambigua of DecandoUe, are only wild accidental hybrids be- tween S. aretioides and culycifiora. Gentianas, having a similar origin, have also been remarked upon the mountains of Europe. It is difficult not to believe that a great number of the re- puted species of Salix, Rosa, Rubus, AquUegia, and other intricate genera, have also had a hybrid origin." It has been stated above, as the opinion of some, that hybrid varieties cease to reproduce themselves after the third or fourth generation. We have already instanced Knight's marrowfat pea, &c., as an exception to this rule ; and on looking over some old seed-lists — ^that of Gordon, for example, one of the earliest seedsmen esta- bhshed in Edinburgh — we find in his " Dic- tionary," published in 1774, the names of many of our kitchen-garden seeds identical with those of seed-lists of 1852 : that any change for the worse has taken place in them, we have no right to suppose. True species, in the strict sense of the word, they cannot be ; hybrids, therefore, they must be. The same may be said of our cereal plants, some of which have, no doubt, existed for centuries. It appears, therefore, pretty clear that hybrids may continue in a fer- tile state for ages, without much, if any, deteri- oration. Had hybrids in a state of nature been as long and as closely watched, it is probable that our list of recognised individuals would be much larger than it is at present. The follow- ing explanation of the law which governs this case is given by Dr Lindley : " It is a general law of nature that seeds will perpetuate a species, but not a variety ; and this is no doubt true, if rightly considered : and yet it may be urged, if this be so, how have the varieties, well known to gardeners and agrioulturistsj for many years, been unceasingly carried on from genera- tion to generation without change ? The long red and round white radishes of the markets, for instance, have been known from time im- memorial in the same state in which they now exist. The answer is thus : A species will per- petuate itself from seed for ever under any cir- CROSSING OR HYBRIDISING. 317. oumstanoe, and left to the simple aid of nature ; but accidental varieties cannot be so perpetuated — if suffered to become wild, they very soon re- vert to the form from which they originally sprung. It is necessary that they should be cultivated with the utmost care ; that seed should be saved from those individuals only in which the marks of the variety are most dis- tinctly traced ; and all plants that indicate any disposition to cast off their peculiar character- istics should be rejected. If this is carefully done, the existence of any variety of annual or perennial plant may be undoubtedly prolonged through many generations." The following concise and excellent rules are given in the " Cottage Gardeners' Dictionary," regarding the process and eifects of hybridising : " Hybridising, strictly speaking, is obtaining a progeny between two different species, by fer- tilising the stigma of one with the pollen of an- other ; and cross-breeding is obtaining a progeny between varieties of the same species. The pro- geny of hybrids cannot produce seed, but cross- breeds are fertile." The following may act as a guide to the raiser of varieties : " The seed- vessel is not altered in appearance by impreg- nation fi'om another plant ; therefore, no hasty conclusion of failure is justified by that want of change. " The colour of the future seed out of that first hybridised seems to be most influenced by the male plant, if its seeds and flowers are darker than those of the female. Captain Thurtell, from his experiments on the pelargonium, found the co- lour and spot of the petals to be more influenced by the male than by the female. Indeed, all expe- rience proves that the progeny usually, though not invariably, taost resembles in colour the male parent. Large stature and robustness are trans- mitted to the offspring by either parent, but Mr Knight generally found the most robust female parent producing the finest offspring. Captain Thurtell, from lengthened observation, has as- certained that the form of the petals follows most closely that of the female parent. Mr Knight says that the largest seed, from the finest fruit that has ripened earUest and most per- fectly, should always be selected. In stone fruit, if two kernels are in one stone, these give birth to inferior plants. The most successful mode of obtaining good and very distinct varieties is to employ the pollen from a male flower grown on another plant than that bearing the female parent. To avoid previous and unde- sired impi-egnation, the anthers of the female parent, if they are produced in the same flower with the pistils, must be removed by a sharp- pointed pair of scissors, and the flower enclosed in a gauze bag to exclude insects, until the de- sired pollen is ripe. Another effectual mode of avoiding undesired impregnation, is bringing the female parent into flower a little earlier than its congeners, and removing the anthers as above described : the stigma will remain a long time vigorous if unimpregnated. When double flowers are desired, if a double flower should chance to have a fertile anther or two, these should be employed for fertilisation, as their offspring are almost sure to be double." VOL. II. Besides the opinions already stated, others be- lieve the sterility of hybrids to arise from a defi- ciency of poUen or fertilising dust; while the highest authority we can quote (the late Dean of Manchester) was of opinion that it arises from the juices of each individual type being inadequately adapted to yi«ld the exact proportion of what is wanted for the pollen of its kind ; and ihat, wherever that adaptation is perfect, a perfect offspring is produced. " Where it is not per- fect," he says, " an inadequate or a weak fertili- sation takes place. It is further 'to be observed that there is frequently an imperfect hybrid fertilisation, which can give life, but not sus- tain it well. There are several crosses which I have frequently obtained, but could not raise the plants to hve for any length of time." He states various crosses which he effected, but lost the plants so produced while they were yet young, " on account," as he says, " of his mil being mry uncongenial to them," but which, he be- lieved, undermorefortunate circumstances, would have been saved. Such crosses sometimes are a hundred times more delicate in their first stage than natural seedlings. " In these cases, I apprehend," says the same authority, " that, although the affinity of the juices is sufficient to enable the pollen to fertilise the ovule, the stimulus is insuf&cient, the operation languid, and the fertilisation weak, and inadequate to give a healthy constitution. It has been gene- rally observed that hybrid fertilisation is slower than natural fertilisation, and that often a much smaller number of ovules are vivified. The same cause probably operates in that respect ; the affinity not being perfect, the necessary in- gredients are attracted by the pollen less readily and insufficiently, and by many of the grains- not at all." Seedlings originated hy unknown, causes, or sports of nature. — The laws of nature are, upon the whole, uniform, and seldom are they vio- lated. In endeavouring to trace the first origin of our longest established cultivated cuhnary vegetables and fruits, a degree of obscurity ap- pears to envelop the subject. If all our apples and pears originated from the Pyrus malus and Pyrus commmiis, and our cabbages and pease from Brassioa oleracea and Pisum satimim, as we are taught to believe, when, and by what means, it may be asked, did the first remove from the originals to an improved variety take place ? This is a problem we have never met with any satisfactory solution of. The original plant in either case could not be a hybrid, for there was no other to hybridise it with. High cultivation was very unlikely to be the cause either ; for, at the period of their first appear- ance, we may presume, cultivation was little attended to. Were they accidental sports, as the weeping ash and weeping oak and various others are said to have been ? If so, this pro- cess must have been going on from a very re- mote period, as we are informed that twenty- two sorts of apples, and thirty-six kinds of pears, were known to the Romans in the days of Pliny. The Romans knew nothing of hybridising, nor was it well known to the modems till about the beginning of the present century. We can readily 2s 3ia HARDY FRUIT GARDEN. admit that natural hybridisation may have been going on since the first tree in each of these cases came into existence ; but how came they to exist in the first instance? If nature has been sporting in this way for so long a period, she will, no doubt, continue to do so till the end of time. If she has done so in the case of our fruits and culinary vegetables, may she not have been doing so in the case of all other plants and trees ? and, therefore, may not hundreds of these, recognised now as species at least, have been so produced ? Is not the same law going on yearly in the case of nine-tenths of what are called our improved vegetables ? for it is certain that even that proportion is not produced by actual ai-ti- ficial cross-breeding ; and the same thing is also going on in the case of our improved fniits. By what other means were the Hawthomden, Clay- gate pearmain, scarlet-nonpareil apples, &c., pro- duced ? The former, now in the last stage of decay, was a foundling in the garden from whence it takes its name ; and of the two latter — the one was found wild, in a neglected hedge- row, at Claygate, near Claremont, and the other in the garden of a petty public-house in the vil- lage of Esher, and within a, mile and a half of each other. Many other instances could be given in support of this sportive freak of Dame Nature's. As these fruits are amongst the most valuable of theii- kind, we need not despair of being provided with still more improved fruits to the end of time, and that without the inter- vention of artificial means. The weeping ash, set down as a sport of this kind, appears to be cvu'sed with that sterility which some attribute to mules and hybrids, as it produces no seed capable of reproducing itself in its pendant form. But the truth is, the origi- nal weeping ash, from which we presume eveiy plant of the kind in Europe has been derived, is a female tree, so that, when the original or any of its progeny has produced seeds, it has been in consequence of their flowers having been fecun- dated by those of some male tree in its vicinity. The Moccas Court weeping' oak is more fortu- nate, as it produces from seeds almost all the young plants with drooping branches. What- ever may have been the origin of the golden pippin apple and green gage plum, they, as al- ready remarked, produce plants from seed in general differing as slightly from themselves as the produce of a crab-apple or wild plum dif- fers from the trees that produced them. The seeds of the cultivated cabbages and pease are well known to produce a progeny in all respects like their parents. Well may we say with the Psalmist, "0 Lord, how wondrous are thyworks ! in wisdom hast thou made them all." However diversified opinions may be upon the subject of hybridising, or cross-breeding among plants, of the vast importance of it none can doubt. Those interested in the matter should consult the valuable papers by the late Dean of Manchester, the Hon. and Rev. W. Herbert; Mr Thwaites' interesting remarks in the "Annals of Natural History," i. N. S., p. 168; or Lind- le3r's works, &c. &o. The former of these talented writers spent a long lifetime in the study of this particular department of vegetable physiology, and arrived at conclusions of themselves original, if not sub- stantially correct; but as to their correctness, for ourselves, we have not a shadow of doubt. This opinion is greatly strengthened by the declaration of Professor Lindley, who says of the paper from which the following quotation is taken, " tliat it is the best paper we possess upon the practical ■value of the facts elicited by hybridising." " I will therefore state briefly and humbly," says the Dean, " what is the general basis of my sur- mises as to the diversification of vegetables, to which that of animals must be in a certain de- gree analogous. We know that four races of men have branched out of one stock — the white, the black or African, the brown or Asiatic, and the red, with various subdivisions of aspect amongst them; and we know nothing of the mode or time in which those diversities arose. Revelation and history are equally silent on those facts. They must have occm'red very early. We are equally in the dark as to the races of dogs. Old writers allude to difierent kinds of dogs, and we do not know when or how any one of those we possess originated ; and the same may be said in respect to the origin of languages. From these facts I draw this inference, which seems to me incontrovertible, that a course of change was in operation in the early ages after the Deluge, which had ceased, or was greatly diminished, before the era at which our know- ledge of events began to be more precise, and handed down by wi-iting. I shall be told that these different races of men breed freely together, and that these dogs intermix and produce mongrels also, and we see thereby that they are only varieties of one kind. Granted : I entertain no doubt of their having respectively descended from one pair of created individuals. But how do you prove to me that the cat, lynx, tiger, panther, lion, &c., did not descend from one created pair 1 I am rather inclined to think that they did (but this is only surmise), and even the horse and the ass from one created pair ; and I am quite unable to believe that the several sylvise of the wren family, some of which can with difficulty be distinguished except by the proportions of their quills, and which have, nevertheless, very diverse habits, notes, and nests, were created separately and specially ; and when I look to the vegetable races, I am still more unwiUing to assent to the assertion, that every plant which this or that botanist has called a (fistiuct species, or even a distinct genus, had a special creation in the period before the sun and moon shone upon this world, when God created vegetables. Upon what authority is such an assertion made ? Upon none but the dictum of those who are pleased to inculcate it. Upon what ground is it made ? Upon none that wUl bear investigation ; — upon a rash as- sumption that everything cross-bred is sterile, and that, if the offspring is sterile, the parents are thereby proved to have been descended seve- rally from the Creator. In the first place, the fact is even false as to animals. Bufibn records an instance of the fertility of a mule. I have seen that which I am satisfied was a hybrid be- tween a bitch and a fox which was the father of CEOSSING OR HYBRIDISING. ' 319 many puppies. But if the fact were positively- true, how is it to be proved that the constitution and frame may not have undergone such changes in the diversification as to prevent intermixture ? If I can show that in one genus of plants cross- breeding is not only easy, but more easily ob- tained than fertility by the plants' own poUen, and that in others, so closely allied to it as to make it a question whether they are not sections of one genus, cross-breeding cannot be effected generally, and in no case easily ; that in some genera of plants many or all the cross-bred varie- ties are fertile, and in others nearly allied thereto, all, or almost all, are sterile, — the assertion that the races of canis or dog must have had one origin because their crossed produce is fertile, and the races of felis, from the cat to the tiger, must have had separate origin because their crossed produce is sterile (supposing the fact to be true, which is not ascertained), must fall to the ground. The only thing certain is, that we are ignorant of the origin of races, that God has revealed nothing to us on the subject ; and that we may amuse ourselves with speculating thereon, but we cannot obtain negative proof — that is, proof that two creatures or vegetables of the same family did not descend from one source. But we can prove the affirmative, and that is the use of hybridising experiments, which I have invariably suggested ; for if I can pro- duce a fertile offspring between two plants that botanists have reckoned fundamentally distinct, I consider that I have shown them to be one kind; and indeed I am inclined to think that, if a well-formed and healthy offspring proceeds at all from their union, it would be rash to hold them of distinct origin. We see every day the wide range of seminal diversities in our gardens. We have known the dahlia, from a poor single dull-coloured flower, break into superior forms and brilliant colours ; we have seen a carnation, by the reduplication of its calyx, acquire almost the appearance of an ear of wheat, and look like a glumaceous plant ; we have seen hollyhocks in their generations branch into a variety of colours, which are reproduced by the several de- scendants with tolerable certainty. We cannot, therefore, say that the order to multiply after their kind meant that the produce should be precisely similar to the original type ; and if the type was allowed to reproduce itself with variation, who can pretend to say how much variation the Almighty allowed ? Who can say that His glorious scheme for peopling and cloth- ing the earth was not the creation of a certain number of original animals and vegetables, pre- destined by Him, in their reproduction, to exhibit certain variations which should hereafter become fixed characters, as well as those variations which even now frequently arise, and are nearly fixed characters, but not absolutely so, and those which are more variable, and very subject to re- lapse in reproduction 1" — Jour, ofliort, Soc. For the following remarks on this very in- teresting subject we are indebted to our excel- lent friend Isaac Anderson, Esq., S.S.C., one of the most scientific, energetic, and successful hybridisers of the present day : — " To go fully into the theory and practice of hybridising, a volume might be devoted to the subject, and still leave it unexhausted. To start with the beginning would be to start with crea- tion itself — in fact, nature, as conjectured by Linnaeus, was occupied by but few original types of the innumerable vegetable forms which have been transmitted to us. How these few first types, if that great authority was right in that belief, have become varied and multiplied, from classes to tribes, from tribes to genera, and from genera to species and endless varieties, belongs to those mysteries of Divine agency which set all inquiry at nought, and upon which it were equally unprofitable and presumptuous at the present time to speculate. For who, in treating of such a science, dare invade a field where the Omnipotent invoked no aid from man — ere yet, indeed, man was ; while the sun and skyey infiuences, and the whole host of insecti- vorous races, now extinct, were perhaps but parts of the agencies and instrumentalities by which, ' WitK herbs, and plants, and frmtful trees, The new-foi-med globe He crowned,' and made it fit for man's use and habitation ? Who can speculatenow on those atmospheric pro- perties, 'instinotwithlife,' under whose influence man grew and increased in strength, till the span of his existence extended to near a thousand years — when there were giants on the earth — ' When man was in stature as tow'rs in our time, The first-born of Nature, and, like her, sublime 1 ' A life-giving and life-sustaining Spirit breathed the will, and effected the purposes of the Cre- ator. Perhaps a larger portion and a more genial form of electricity than now obtains, may have imparted » principle of higher vitality to the air, and through that medium have commu- nicated a stronger impulse, and more enduring energies, to both animal and vegetable life. This may or may not have been ; certain it is that a change has taken place. Since the Deluge, the vital forces have been greatly weakened. Man, since then, has scarce lived a tithe of his former term ; and the vast exhumations of fossil flora bespeak an exuberance and variety of vegetation, in temperate zones, that have no parallel at the present day even in tropical regions. " Why do we now see natural families with genera whose affinities are indisputable, and yet in their extreme links so dissimilar ? Perhaps no one of the larger family of plants has its in- termediate connections better filled up than the Ericacece, yet how many links are awanting in the chain between the Skododendron arboreum of India, of 40 feet high, and the Chamcdedon (Azalea) proeumhens of our own Highland mountains, of only 4 inches, or some of the smaller heaths ! Though all allied, how many links are there between the various tribes, and even genera, of this most interesting family; e. g., between the Vaccinieoe and the Pyrolew as separ- ate tribes, or between" the Rhododendron and the Menziesia, as separate genera. The scarcely- known elevated plateaus and ridges of the Andes have already yielded up some kindred races in the Bejaria and Thihaudia ; and who can tell if, when better explored, many more links awanting may not be supplied ? Travel- 320 HARDY FRUIT GARDEN. lers have observed examples of the Rhodorese on the high mountains of the Hawaian group of isles in the Pacific, and in Manilla, Malacca, and other islands of the Indian Ocean, as well as in North-west America, yet unknown to gar- dens. Thirteen species of this family have been observed on one hill in Borneo alone, and at least half that number in Java. Dr Hooker has reclaimed about thirty species from the Sikkim ranges of the Himalaya, and of such varied growth and aspect, that our thymes may represent the one group, and our oaks the other — one tiny thing (A nivaJe) creeping on the ground at 18,000 feet above the sea, and another (E. bar- batum) attaining a stature of 60 feet. " All these discoveries have done much to fill up many gaps in this widely-distributed famUy, and the discoveries of future travellers may fill up many more. " But how many tribes, genera, and their spe- cies, are for ever lost ! Man inhabits but the disjecta membra of a former world. With continents, now beneath the ocean, ax-e buried — perhaps for ever lost — genera which, if restored, might supply all those gaps which leave exist- ing races so vride apart. But nature has left materials to work upon, and the art and inge- nuity of man may do much to fill up the blanks. "A very eminent nurseryman — ^the late Mr Cunningham of Comely Bank — so t&r filled up one link of this order, by hybridising the Phyl- lodoce (Menniesia) ccerulea with the Bhodotham- nus chamcecistu!, and producing therefrom the beautiful (so-called) Brianthus erectus. But the parents were too far remote, and the progeny — ■ a proper mule — is consequently barren. It is somewhat singular, that whUe the M. ccerulea will cross with the Ehodothamnus chamwcistuSy the latter will not be crossed with it. It was the Meuziesia that bore the seed from which the so- called Brianthus was raised. I speak from my own experience in this matter, having, before Mr Cunningham's experiment was known, at- tempted unsuccessfully to cross the Rhodotham- 7IMS with the M. Ccerulea, though I have since succeeded in ripening seeds and raising plants from the cross inverted. These I sowed on 18th June 1850, and on 10th September four young plants had come through. " To those who would attempt the hybridising or cross-breeding of plants, I will now ofi'er some suggestions for their guidance. " It is an essential element to success that the operator be possessed of indomitable pa- tience, watchfwlness, and perseverance. Having determined on the subj,ects on which he is to operate, if the plants are in the open ground, he will have them put into pots, and removed under glass, so as to escape the accidents of variable tem- perature — of wind, rain, and dust, and, above all, of insects. A greenhouse fully exposed to the sun is best adapted for the purpose, at least as regards hardy and proper greenhouse plants. " Having got them housed, secure a corner where they are least Ukely to be visited by bees or other insects. The plants which are to yield the pollen, and the plants which are to bear the seed, should be both kept in the same tempe- rature ; but where this cannot be managed, pollen from an outside plant, in genial summer weather, may be used, provided it can be got ; for there is a class of insects which live exclu- sively on pollen, and devour it so fast after the pollen vessels open, that, unless the plant is under a hand-glass (which I would recommend), it is scarcely possible to get any pollen for the required purpose. To secure against chances of this nature, a sprig with opening bloom may be taken and kept in a phial and water inside, where it will get sufficient sun to ripen the pollen. But here, too, insects^ must be watched, and de- stroyed if they intrude. An insect Uke, but smaller, than the common hive bee, which flits about by fits and starts, on expanded wings, after the manner of the dragon-fly, is the greatest pest, and seems to feed exclusively on poUeu. The hive bee, the humble bee, and wasp give the next greatest annoyance., AU these may be excluded by netting fixed over apertures from open sashes or the like. Too much care cannot be bestowed on excluding these intruders, whose single touch, in many cases, might neutralise the iritended result ; for the slightest application of pollen native to the parent plant is said by phy- siologists to supersede all foreign agency, unless, perhaps, in the crossing of mere varieties ; and the truth of this, observation consists with my own experience. Without due precaution now, the labour, anxiety, and watchfulness of years may issue in vexation and disappointment. " As a further precaution stiU, and to prevent self -fertilisation, divest the blooms to be operated on not only of their anthers, but also of their corollas. Remove also aU contiguous blooms upon the plant, lest the syringe incautiously directed, or some sudden draft of air, convey the native pollen, and anticipate the intended ope- ration. The corolla appears to be the means by which insects are attracted ; and though, when it is removed, the honey on which they feed is still present, they seem puzzled or indifferent about collecting it ; or if, haply, they should alight on the dismantled flower (which I never have detected), the stigma is in most oases safe from their contact. " It will be some days — probably a week or more, if the weather be not sunny — ere the stigma is in a fit condition for fertilisation. This is indi- cated in many famihes, such as ericacece, rosacece, scrophularinece, aurantiacece, &c.,byaviscous exu- dation in the sutures (where these exist) of the stigma, but generally covering the entire surface of that organ. In this condition the stigma may remain many days, during which fertilisation may be perfoi-med ; and this period will be longer or shorter as the weather is sunny, or damp or overcast. " In cei-tain families, such as the Maltacem, Ge- raniacece, &c., where the stigfna divides itself into featheiy parts, and where the viscous process is either absent or inappreciable by the eye, the separation of these parts, the bursting of the pollen, the maturity of the stigma, and all which a little experience will detect, indicate the proper time for the operation, sunny or cloudy weather always affecting the duration of the period dur- ing which it may. be successfully performed. " As to the proper time and season best adapted CKOSSING OE HYBKIDISING. 321 for Buch experimenta, a treatise might be written ; but here a few remarks must suffice. "As for the season of the year, from early spring to midsummer I wovjd account the best period ; but, as I have just observed, I regard all cold, damp, cloudy, and ungenial weather as unfavour- able. On the other hand, when the weather is genial, not so much from suu heat as at times occurs from the atmosphere being moderately charged with electricity, when there is an elas- ticity, so to speak, in the balmy air, and all nature seems joyous and instinct with life, this, of all others, is the season which the hybridist should improve, and above all if he attempt muling. " The hybridist should be provided with a pocket levs, a pair of wire pincers, and iiarious coloured silk threads. " With the lens he will observe the maturity of the pollen and the condition of the stigma, whether the former has attained its powdery, and the latter (if such is its nature) its viscous con- dition. If he find both the pollen and the stigma in a fit state, he will, with the pincers, apply an anther with ripened pollen, and by the gentlest touch distribute it very thinly ov«r the summit of the stigma. The operation performed, he will mark it by tying round the flower-stalk a bit of that particular coloured silk thread which he wishes to indicate the particular plant which bore the pollen,, and at same time tie a bit of the same silk round the stem of the latter, which will serve till recorded in a note-book, which should be kept hj every one trying experiments on a large scale. " It would be out of place here to give even a general outline of the parts of flowers, to show how these diifer the one from the other in vari- ous tribes of plants. The experimenter, if he is not a botanist, and even though he is partially acquainted with the science, must, from books and observation, make himself familiar with the various organs, male and female, of each separate family of plants on which he means to work, otherwise he will be often puzzled where to find, them, or even to distinguish the one from the other. " As for the time of the day, it may be done almost any hour from 9 a.m., tUl 4 o'clock p.m.,, and with equal success. My other avocations have often limited me to earlier and later hours ; but I would suggest from ten tiU twoi o'clock as the best time of day, always preferring fair, ge- nial, and sunny, to chill, damp, or cloudy days.. "On recurring to my note-book for 1850, 1 find a very favourable state of atmosphere occurred in the beginning of March of that year, when I crossed the Phyllodoce (Memiesia) ccerulea with the jRhodothamnus (Rhododendron) chanuecistus, sowed on 18th June that year, as above noticed. At this time, too, I succeeded in crossing the above rhodothamnus with a large-leaved white- flowered Kepal species of rhododendron, the blooms of which were 2 inches across the limb. But though I ripened that season three or four pods of this last cross, each pod of seed beautifully ripened, all of which I sowed, I cannot assert that any one seed vegetated ; and though it is now nearly three years since the seeds were sown, I stUl preserve the seed-pot. And I may remark here, from my own experience, that two years is not too soon to despair of vegetation even of seeds from abroad, on which, of course, no cross had been efi'ected. " Few seasons have occurred so favourable for the hybridist as the short interval in the begin- ning of March 1850, above alluded to. Singularly enough, happening to visit Lord Rosslyn's gardens at Dysart House, on the 1st of June that year, with the late Professor Dunbar, Mr M'lntosh (the author), and Mr Sprott, I observed the above rhodothamnus marked as crossed. I found it had been crossed at the above period, and with Rho- dodendron arboreum I The seed-pods were then fully swollen, and approaching maturity ; but I have not heard that anything has come of them. "It is quite unnecessai-y to offer any directions as to the results to be effected. If it is desired to reproduce the larger, finer formed, or higher coloured bloom of a plant having a tall, strag- gling, or too robust a growth, or having too large or too coarse foliage in a plant , without these drawbacks, I need not suggest to select, in an- other species of the same family, a plant of an op- posite character and properties — say of dwarf compact growth, handsome foliage, and free flowering habit ; and if such can be obtained, work with it, making the latter the seed-bearer. Or, if it be desirable to impart the fragrance of a less handsome kind to another more handsome, I would make the cross upon the latter. I cannot speak with certainty from my own experiments how far perfume may be so communicated; but I have some things far advanced to maturity to test it ; audi entertain the hope that fragrance may not only be so imparted, but even heightened, varied, and improved. Or if it be desired to transfer all, or any valuable property op quality, from a tender exotic species to a native or hardy kind, work upon the latter ; for so far as constitution goes, I agree with those who hold that the female averrules in this particular. I would offer this gaution to those who wish to preserve the purity of certain flowers for exhibition, especially those having white grounds, not to cross such with high-coloured sorts. I once spoiled a pure while bloomed Calceolaria for exhibition by crossing it with a crimson sort ; all the blooms on those bi-anches where the operation had been per- formed, being stained red, and not the few flowers merely on which the cross was efi'ected. " In this note,, already too long, I cannot further illustrate my remarks, by recorded experiments in the various tribes upon which 1 have tried my hand ; but I cannot leave the subject with- out ineuloatingi. in the strongest manner, the ob- servance of the rules I have laid down to prevent vexatious disappointments. If any doubts arise about the cross being genuine or effectually se- cured, let not the seeds be sown. Three, four, five, and even six years, must oftentimes elapse with trees and shrubby things ere the result can be judged of ; and if eventually it prove a failure, or even doubtful, it is worse than labour lost, in- asmuch as it may mislead. If there is no gi'eat departure from the female parent, the issue is to be mistrusted. It is singular, if well accom- plished, how much of both parents is blended 322 HARDY FEUIT GARDEN. in the progeny. Gentlemen eminent as physio- logists have read nature's laws in these matters a little differently from what my own humble experience has taught me, and assigned to the progeny the constitution and general aspect of the one parent, while they gave the inflorescence and fruit to the other. I have crossed and in- verted the cross, and can venture to give no evidence on the point, except, perhaps, as to constitution, to which the seed-bearer, I think, contributes most, A weU-managed hybrid should and win blend both parents into a distinct inter- mediate, insomuch so as to produce often what might pass for a new species. If the leaning be to one more than another, it is probably to the female, though this will not always be the case. " Again, it is asserted that a proper hybrid — i. e., one species which is crossed with another species, which is separate and distinct from it — will produce no fertile seeds. This does not accord with my obseiTations. Dr Lindley has remarked very justly (' Theory of Horticulture,' p. 69), ' But facts prove that undoubted hybrids 7)iay be fertile.' My hybrid, Veronica Balfour- iana (an intermediate between V. saxatilis and V. fruticitlosa), seeds, I would say, more abun- dantly than either parent; and the progeny from its self-sown seeds I find to be of various shades of blue, violet, and red, rising in my garden, some having actually lai-ger, finer-, and higher-coloui-ed blooms than the parent bearing the seed ; and I am familiar with the same result in other things. Yet I am far from asserting fertility in the pro- duce between two members of allied but distinct genera — such, for example, as in the Brianthus, which I have found to be unproductive, whether employed as the male or female parent. As above conjectured, its parents were far too remote in nature's own arrangement. The hybridist has a field before him ever suggestive of new modes of acting. He may try, as I have done, what may be effected under various tinted glass. My persua- sion is, that I effected from a pale yellow a pure wAJte-grounded calceolaria, by placing the plants under blue-shaded glass, by which the sun's rays were much subdued. He may also apply chemi- cal solutions to plants with ripening seeds. Nature, in producing, as it sometimes does, plants with blooms of colours opposite to those of the parent, must be governed by some law. Why may not this law be found out? For example, under what influences was the first white fuchsia, the F. Venus Victrix, produced, the purest yet of all the race, and the source from which aU the whites have been derived ? " While I have necessarily confined the above remarks to things proper to the flower-garden, !i. wide and still more important field lies be- yond. The late lamented Mr Knight of Down- town did much in this way to improve our garden fruits and other esculents, and with a success that none else — so far as I am aware — has since attained. Why should not these efforts be extended to the improvement of agricultural as well as horticultural productions ? Why not caiTy them int^ field and forest, to the creation of new, moi-e useful, and more elegant forms ? Nature is boundless, and its objects are endless, and this subject, of all others connected with plants, the most engrossing and exciting. Rich results await the intelligent experimenter ; but I would advise none to embark in the pursuit who has not sufficient leisure to devote to it, and, as I said before, who is not possessed of indomitable patience, watchfulness, and perse- verance, with a fixed determination not to be fretted or discouraged by frequent failures. "Maryfield, Jvme 1853. I. A. ' § 3. — PROPAGATION BY GRAFTING. The art of grafting is so ancient, that anything connected with its origin is lost in the obscurity of ages. Theophrastus and other Greek authors speak of grafting as if it had been well known in their day ; and Varro, a Roman writer, no- tices upwards of twenty modes as practised in his time. The late Professor Thouin enumerates above forty methods ; and M. Louis Noisette some years ago published a description, with figures, of one hundred and thirty-seven. The most probable conjecture as to the origin of that variety of it known as inarching, is the acciden- tal meeting of two branches from neighbouring trees, which, first by friction against each other till the bark of both branches became displaced, and afterwards by uniting, formed so perfect a junction, that when either was separated from its fellow, it became supported by the other. Of the origin of grafting proper, as well as of budding, we know little or nothing. We have stated aboye that the varieties of grafting are very numerous. In this country these are divided into what may be called three distinct species — namely, grafting, budding, and inarching ; while on the Continent no such dis- tinction is observed. The French, for example, have no proper word to represent either, but use the general term graffe for all of them. Hence, graffes par gemmes — grafting by buds, or budding, &c. The theory of grafting has been explained by DecandoUe, in his "Physiologie V^g^tale ;" by Mr G. Lindley, in " Guide to the Orchard ;" Keith, in "Physiol. Botany;" Knight, Loudon, and others. On this subject the former says : " The shoots springing from the buds of the scion are united to the stock by the young growing alburnum, and once united, they deter- mine the ascent of the sap rising from the stock ; and they elaborate a true or proper juice, which appears evidently to reaseeud in the inner bark. This sap appears to be sufficiently homogeneous, in plants of the same family, to be, in courae of its passage, absorbed by the growing cellules near which it passes, and each cellule elaborates it according to its nature. The cellules of the alburnum of the plum elaborate the coloured wood of the plum ; those of the alburnum of the almond, the coloured wood of the almond. If the descending sap has only an incomplete analogy with the wants of the stock, the latter does not thrive, though the organic union between it and the scion may have taken place ; and if the ana- logy between the alburnum of the scion and that of the stock is wanting, the organic union does not operate ; and as the scion cannot absorb PROPAGATION BY GRAFTING. 323 the sap of the stock, the graft does not succeed." Mr Q. Lindley, after referring to the circum- stance that, in the stems of grafted trees or plants, the cellular tissue is found alive in the liber and medullary rays only, and that it is essential that those parts both in the scion and stock should be brought into contact, proceeds : " In regard to the medullary rays, these are so numerous, and so closely placed, that it is scarcely possible that a portion of one stem should be applied to another, without the me- dullary rays of both touching each other in many points. No care, therefore, is required to insure this, which may be safely left to chance. But in regard to the liber (or bark), as this is confined to " narrow strip in both stock and scion, great care must be taken that they are both placed as exactly in contact with each other as possible, so that the line of separation of the wood and bark should, in both stock and scion, be accurately adjusted. The success of grafting depends very much upon attention to this. But there are other reasons why this ac- curacy in adjusting the line between the bark and wood of the stock and the scion is so im- portant. It is at that part that the roots of the latter pass downwards over the former ; and it is also there that the substance called cambium, which serves as food for the young descending fibres, is secreted. It is obvious that the more accurate the adjustment of the line separating the wood from the bark, the more ready will be the transmission of young fibres from the one to the other ; and that the less the accuracy that may be observed in this respect, the greater the difficulty in this transmission will be. Pro- vided the stock and scion be of exactly the same size, the adjustment can scarcely fail to be ac- curate in the most unskilful hands : it is in the more common case of the scion being much smaller than the stock that this is to be more particularly attended to." Keith's remarks are even more clearly given : he says, " The whole of the art of artificial grafting is founded upon the capacity inherent in plants of uniting toge- ther by the stems in given circumstances and in a given mode. But the natural graft is always effected by means of the union of the liber of the respective stems composing it ; so that the perfection of the art of grafting consists in ap- plying the liber of the graft and stock together in such a manner as wiU most facilitate their incorporation ; and hence the graft will not succeed, unless the two Ubers are brought into contact, and closely bound together. Nor will it succeed well, unless the plants engrafted have some natural affinity to one another, as that subsisting between the plum and cherry; in which, and in aU other cases, the union is ef- fected by means of a granular and herbaceous substance exuding from between the wood and bark, and binding and cementing together the stock and graft, though not uniting the former layers of wood." Knight, in reference to the same subject, says : " It will be necessary that I describe the motion of the sap, as I conceive it to be at the period when grafts are most advantageously in- serted. The graft first begins its efforts to unite itself to the stock just at the period when the formation of a new internal layer of bark com- mences in the spring ; and the fiuid which ge- nerates this layer of bark, and which also feeds the inserted graft, radiates in every direction from the vicinity of the medulla to the external surface of the alburnum. The graft is of course most advantageously placed when it presents the largest surface to receive such fluid, and when the fluid itself is made to deviate least from its natural course. This takes place most efficiently when a graft of nearly equal size with the stock is divided at its base, and made to stand astride the stock;" as in a variety of saddle-grafting invented by this eminent phy- siologist. The principle on which all the operations in grafting, budding, and inarching are founded, according to Loudon, is dependent on the phe- nomena of the union of newly generated tissues, when in the act of being generated. " No union can take place between the parts of plants pre- viously formed, but only when these parts are in the act of forming. Thus two shoots or branches may be selected, and by means of si- milar sections be most accurately joined, and placed under the most favourable circumstances for uniting ; yet when the two are bound toge- ther, though a union do ultimately take place, not one particle of the existing tissue, at the time of grafting, becomes united with similar tissue brought in contact with it. Close con- tact is all that takes place with regard to these surfaces of the scion and stock, but a vital union only occurs when nascent tissues meet. The alburnums of the preceding year never unite. The vital union is formed solely by the coaUtion of newly generated tissues, thrown out by such parts as have the power of generating them. This power does not exist in the heart-wood, nor in the outer bark, but only in the albur- num, or rather in the substance imbedded be- tween it and the inner bark, constituting the cambium. If the sections are placed against each other so as the inner barks coincide, the scion may perhaps derive an immediate supply of moisture ; but it does so only in a mechani- cal way, and a piece of dry sponge might as truly be said to have formed a connection from its absorbing moisture, in consequence of its being placed on top of a stock, as the scioif, that only takes up moisture as above mentioned. When, however, new tissue is formed by the parts of the respective sections, then, when the portions so formed protrude so as to meet, they immediately coalesce, forming a connecting chain of vessels between the buds of the scion and the roots of the stock. If an old grafted tree is cut down, and all the wood cut away to the origi- nal portions which existed at the time of graft- ing, it will be found that the sections made by the grafting-knife are only mechanically pressed together, and may be easily taken asunder. Instances frequently occur of the inner bark of the scion being placed out of contact with that of the stock, and a union nevertheless ensues ; but this takes place in consequence of the cel- lular substance protruding from the respective alburnums over the surface of the old wood, 324 HARDY FRUIT GARDEN. which it only covers : as soon as the new-formed tissue of stock and scion touch each other, a union is then formed." The objects of grafting are manifold ; these, however, may be divided into three distinct heads — namely, to continue in their original purity, as well as to multiply, by extension of their parts, trees and plants which could not conveniently be otherwise increased ; to acce- lerate the production of fruit and flowers ; and to induce fertility. Grafting with a view to continue the .purity of a variety of fruit or flower. — Were we depen- dent entirely for a reproduction of our finest fruits and flowers upon the progeny arising from their seed, our disappointments would be great and frequent, if botanists are cor- rect in their theory that all varieties, how- ever improved they may be compared with the parents from which they originated, whe- ther the intercourse between the flawers was brought about by the agency of man or from accidental causes, have a direct tendency to revert to the type from which they origi- nated : then would all our most choice fruits and flowers revert backwards, if their propa- gation were continued by sowing their seeds. The quality of many seeds is liable to be affected by impregnation, occasioned by the casual intro- duction of the pollen of congenerous plants into the blossom ; and notwithstanding the greatest care that man can possibly take, a species of ac- cidental intercourse is perpetually going on : so that even were plants capable, in a high-bred state, of continuing themselves in a state of purity, and of reprodueiug themselves undete- riorated, and supposing such a law did not exist of varieties returning, after a time, to their ori- ginal type, this promiscuous intercourse would be of itself quite sufficient to warrant the adop- tion of propagation by extension, if the object be to maintain the improved variety. Grafting makes us independent of any such chances, as if the graft of a favourite variety or species of either a flowering shrub or fruit-bearing tree be placed on a proper stock, and the usual cul- ture bestowed upon it, it may be continued for ages without showing signs of deterioration. Nay, even many herbaceous plants may be, thanks to M. Tschoudi of Metz, the inventor of flhis variety of the art, continued in the same manner. The possibility of continuing a variety beyond the natural limit of life allowed to th-e tree from which it was taken, was doubted by Mr Knight and some others. The majority, however, of botanists, and our highest physio- logical authorities, deny the truth of Knight's views, and contend that a variety may be con- tinued by extension to an almost indefinite pe- riod. Many trees and plants may be readily multiplied by extension, that could not be other- wise increased. By this means, also, we multiply such plants as will scarcely root by cuttings or layers, and rarely produce seeds (if ever) in this country, as well as almost all other trees which contain in themselves only one sex. Willows, poplars, &c. of this class, for the most part root freely by cuttings. All our esteemed fruits are increased by extension in some of its various modifications, as are the numerous varieties of variegated leaved, weeping or pendent-branched trees and shrubs, &c. Grafting with a view to accelerate the prod/ac- tion of flowers or fruit. — Plants originated' di- rectly from seeds are apt to grow luxuriant, and to attain both a considerable size and age before they show a disposition to produce flower-buds. This habit is corrected by removing scions of them, and working them on stocks of the same, or of some nearly allied species, by which pro- cess flowering is accelerated by impeding the descent of the properly elaborated juices of the tree, and inducing the principle of maturation instead of encouraging that of growth. The plant itself may be cut down and grafted with its own branches to produce a like effect. Grafting a young twig upon an old stock has the effect of making it flower earlier than it would otherwise do, in consequence of the accumulation of sap in the old stock becoming beneficial to the twig, and giving a check, at the same time, to its tendency to produce leaves. As an example, if a seedling apple be grafted, the second year of its growth on the extremi- ties of a full-grown tree, or even on a stock of five or six years from seed, it will show blossom- buds the second or third year ; whereas, if it had remained ungrafted, it might not have shown such buds for ten or twenty years. It is a usual practice in gardens to take shoots off seedling camellias, rhododendrons, and similar plants, and to graft them on established plants of the same species, and thus we prove their merits several years before the original plants would show symptoms of flowering. Grafting with a view to induce fertility. — The laws which govern this part of the vegetable economy are almost identical with those of the preceding. Mr Knight observes, that the effects produced by grafting . " are similar to those which occur when the descent of the sap is impeded by a ligature, or by the destruction of a circle of bark" — ringing, as it is practically called. " The disposition in the young trees to produce and nourish blossom-buds and fruit is increased by this apparent obstruction of the descending sap, and the fruit of such young trees ripens, I think," he says, " somewhat earlier than upon young trees of the same age, which grow upon stocks of their own species ; but the growth and vigour of the tree, and its power to nourish a succession of heavy crops, are diminished, apparently by the stagnation in the branch-es and stock of a portion of that sap, which in a tree growing upon its own stem, or upon a stock of its own species, would de- scend to nourish and promote the extension of the roots." Grafting with a view to renew the Acad.— This is often found to be expedient, particularly in the cafie of old and diseased trees, and also those which have ceased to be productive. If such trees were cut down either to within a few inches of the point where they were formerly grafted, or were the larger branches amputated close to or at any distance from the main stem or trunk, abundance of young shoots would be produced, arising from innumerable PEOPAGATION BY GRAFTING. 325 latent buds witH which their bark is every where replete. From these, provided the stem be not cut over below the original graft, abundance of material would be provided for the future for- mation of the tree. But if care be not early taken to rub off all the buds as they begin to develop themselves, leaving only the proper numbers, and those well placed, the one would rob the other ; and before a selection is made, the season of growth may be nearly terminated. Besides, in this case, if the tree be large, or of an indifferent variety, no change for the better takes place — only the renewal of the tree, which wiU be some years in coming into a bearing state. It were better, under such circumstan- ces, to graft the tree with more choice kinds, which would not only give an improved quality of fruit, but that fruit would be produced within a much shorter space of time. The grafts could also be put on where the branches are required to be; and the sap being directed at once into proper channels, the shoots would attain a size and maturity, before autumn sets in, which would enable them to elaboi'ate the necessary sap for the formation of fruit-buds within a very short space of time. The process of heading down and grafting old fruit-trees is a much neglected part of fruit-tree culture ; and we need not point to commercial orchards only, when we see so many cases where a different course might be expected. One of the advantages of this mode of grafting is, that the organisable matter deposited in the roots and the part of the trunk left, is thrown with great force into the scions, causing them to make strong and vigorous shoots ; but as they cannot take up all this organisable matter at once, it is stored up for them in the interior of the tree, and supplied to the branches, in future years, as it is wanted : whereas, if the tree operated upon be not cut down entirely to one stem, but its branches only partially shortened, and part of them only furnished with scions, these branches will attract the juices to themselves, and greatly weaken the scions, if indeed they do not entirely perish. Orafling several sorts on one tree. — In heading down old trees of large size, particularly in small gardens where only a few trees can be accommodated, this process may be advanta- geously adopted, and a variety procured. Even on one apple or pear tree, both early-ripening and late-keeping sorts may be produced, thus affording a long succession of fruit ; whereas, if only one kind be grown, that season is greatly diminished. Many varieties of camellias may, in like manner, be produced from one plant, affording a greater variety as well as a long suc- cession of blooms. Grafting to produce a reduction in size. — This is effected by working the apple on the paradise or doucin stock, the pear on the medlar or quince ; whUe, to produce a contrary effect, the former is grafted on the crab, and the latter on the wUd-pear stock. Dwarf fruit-trees are valuable in small gardens ; and indeed some nurserymen^ such as Mr Rivers, have planted whole miniature orchards, the trees being much the size of ordinary gooseberry bushes. VOL. II. Choice of grafts. — These should be chosen from the young shoots of the previous summer growth, if indeed the operation be not per- formed by using scions of the same season's growth, as practised by Knight, the Baron Tschudy, and others ; but for general practice the outside lateral shoots are preferred, because they are less robust, and less apt to run to wood, than those from the centre or top of the tree, and not so weak as those at its base, and under the shade and drip of the rest. Besides this, they are bettor ripened, and are found from ex- perience to produce the truest specimens of the fruit of the tree from which they are taken. " An exception to this rule is to be found when the trees are in a sickly state, when, of course, the grafts should be taken from the strong shoots in the centre, or near the top of the tree. The ends of each scion should be cut off, and the middle part only used, rejecting both the top and the base of the shoot. The grafts should be cut off the parent tree some time previous to their being used, experience having shown that it is necessary to allow the stock to have the ad- vantage over the graft in forwardness of vegeta- tion. The sap of the stock should be in active motion at the time of grafting, which would also be the case with the scion, if left on the parent tree ; whereas the grafts being taken off some time before, the buds wOl be unavoidably kept back, and ready only to swell when placed upon the stock. Grafts should be collected any time in January or the beginning of February, and kept at their whole length, laid in dry mould, in a situation where they are not exposed to either frost or much sunshine, until they are to be used." — Practical Gardener. Choice of stocks. — Such stocks must always be chosen as have a near affinity to the scion to be* put upon them. There is, however, another reason why a judicious choice of stocks should be made — namely, that they may be adapted to the soil they are to be planted in. Hence, where the soil is damp, and subject to be overflowed occa- sionally with water, such as meadows by river sides, &c.,the quince wiU be found the best stock for the pear ; whereas in dry sandy soils it would be the very worst. Again, the white-beam tree is the most proper stock for the pear in chalky soils ; in such soils even the pear stock would scarcely live. On properly adapting the stock to the soil, and the variety to the climate, much of the success in fruit-tree culture depends. The influence of the stock upon the graft. — On this subject opinions have long been at variance, and it appears also to have attracted notice at an early period. The following may be regarded as the leading opinions offered : " Crab stocks cause apples to be firmer, to keep longer, and to have a sharper flavour. If the breaking pears be grafted on a quince stock, the fruit is ren- dered gritty or strong, whUe the melting pears are much improved on such stocks." — Miller. " The scion overruleth the gi-aft quite, the stock being passive only." — Lord Bacon. " This, as a general proposition, remains true, it being evident that the scion, bud, or inarched shoot, is endowed with the power of drawing or form- ing from the stock that pecuhar kind of nour- 2t 326 HARDY FRUIT GARDEN. ishment which is adapted to its nature, and that the specific character of the engrafted plant remains unchanged, although its qualities may be partially affected." — Neill. " The influence exercised by the stock is very marked, and it is of great importance to select good stocks on which to graft slips. In this way the fruit is often much improved by a process of ennobling, as it is called. The scion, also, in some cases seems to exercise a remarkable effect on the stock. Slips taken from varieties with varie- gated leaves, grafted on unvariegated, have caused the leaves of the latter to assume varie- gation ; and the effect, when once established, has continued even after the slip was removed. The effects of grafting are well seen in the case of the red laburnum, when united to the yellow species. The red laburnum is a hybrid between the common yellow laburnum and Cytisus pur- pwreus, or the purple laburnum. The branches below the graft produce the ordinary yellow laburnum flowers of large size ; those above often exhibit the small purple laburnum flower, as well as reddish flowers, intermediate between the two in size and colour. Occasionally the same cluster has some flowers yellow and some purple." — Balfour. " Since, then, the develop- ments of the graft are proved to be, in fact, altogether uninfluenced by the stock, it may be safely asserted that the latter ought to be con- sidered as a medium only, or vehicle, through which the vascular organs of the former pass, and are conveyed into the soil, whence their spongioles and rootlets, by the aid of electric agency, affect the intro-susception of the nutritive sap. It may, however, be admitted, that in the first instance the cellular system scad juices of the stock exert an attractive energy upon those of •the graft; and that while the former affords an appropriate matrix or bed, wherein the granular excisions from the scion may affix themselves and be secured, the latter keeps up that supply of moisture which is required till the union is completely effected. A graft or scion, there- fore, can be viewed in no other light than as a cutting deposited in a more congenial medium of nutrition than the soil, all the former deve- lopments of which cutting are completely its own, and wholly independent of anj physical agency or influence exerted by the stock." — Towers. " In proportion as the scion and stock approach each other closely in constitution, the less effect is produced by the latter; and on the contrary, in proportion to the constitutional difference between the stock and the scion, is the effect of the former important. Thus when pears are grafted or budded on the wild species, apples upon crabs, plums upon plums, and peaches upon peaches or almonds, the scion is, in regard to fertility, exactly in the same state as if it had not been grafted at all ; while, on the other hand, a great increase of fertility is theresult of grafting pearsupon quinces,peaches upon plums, apples upon white thorn, and the like. In these latter cases, the food absorbed from the earth by the root of the stock is com- liiunicated slowly and unwillingly to the scion ; under no circumstance is the communication between the one and the other as free and per- fect as if their natures had been more nearly the same : the sap is impeded in its ascent, and the proper juices are impeded in their descent ; whence arises that accumulation of secretion which is sure to be attended by increased ferti- lity. No other influence than this can be exer- cised by the scion upon the stock. Those who faucy that the contrary takes place — that the quince, for instance, communicates some of its austerity to the pear— can scarcely have con- sidered the question physiologically, or they would have seen that the whole of the food com- mutated from the alburnum of the quince to that of the pear is in nearly the same state as when it entered the roots of the former. What- ever elaboration it undergoes must necessarily take place in the foliage of the pear, where, far from the influence of the quince, secretions na- tural to the variety go on with no more inter- ruption than if the quince formed no part of the system of the individual. "^G'. Lindley. The influence of the graft upon the stock ap- pears scarcely to extend beyond the power of communicating disease, as shown by the diffi- culty of inducing health and vigour in a tree that has been grafted from another in an un- healthy state, even although grafted upon a healthy stock for many times in repeated suc- cession. Disease is certainly communicated to the stock when the infection is conveyed by scions taken from a tree in which inherent or hereditary disease exists. In connection with the influence the stock may be supposed to have upon the graft, we may observe, that while it is perfectly possible to have a hundred sorts or more of apples upon one tree, and of pears upon another tree, each after its kind, yet no difference occurs in one of them, either in size, colour, flavour, or form, but each grows on as if it were upon a distinct stock of its own. And, again, we have white, red, and the intermediate variety of currant called the champagne by some, all growing on the same bush, and all retaining their individual charac- ters for years. The peach, nectarine, amd apri- cot have been wrought all on one tree, each re- taining its own marks of peculiar distinction. The sap which supplies nourishment to all these is only a simple fluid collected by the roots of the stock, passing upwards through it to the fruit and to the leaves, which latter have the power of digesting and modifying it, and form- ing it into a proper juice, which re-descends in the inner bark ; and even every bud and leaf upon the whole tree maintains its individu- ality, and prepares its own proper food or organ- ising matter out of that general aliment the sap, which was conveyed, a mere simple fluid, alike to all : the leaves, therefore, have the power of preparing the food for the plant, and of convey- ing it to the fruit. If, therefore, any change takes place, it would be in the leaves, which are the vegetable laboratory, and not in the fruit. The sap, which ascends year after year in form of a mere simple fluid, and returns again year after year in an elaborated form, gives bulk to the branches, stem, and even to the stock; still the latter, although increased in size, is not al- tered in constitution, and will no more throw PROPAGATION BY GRAFTING. 327 out branches similar to those of the engrafted part than the latter would branches similar to those of the stock. The stock and graft remain ever distinct, although forming one and the same living subject. But while grafting or budding never effects any alteration in the identity of the variety or species of fruit, still it is not to be denied that the stock does exert certain influ- ences over the habits of the graft. These have, however, been already noticed in a general way. The Americans and French graft and bud their fruit trees on much taller stocks than we do, and they believe that this tends to the dura- bility of the tree. The late Mr Wilmot was of opinion that the stock, becoming buried by the accumulation of soil in gardens, was in time transferred into a perfect root ; and when this takes place the trees begin to decline in vigour, and soon after die. General remarks on stocks for fruit trees. — The late Professor Thouin, who studied this matter thoroughly, observes that the historians and poets of antiquity have written, and the moderns have repeated on the faith of others, that every scion will take on any sort of stock, provided there be any resemblance in their barks ! Thus PUny, Varro, Columella, &c., speak of apples and vines grafted on elms and poplars, and of differ- ent fruits being borne on the same stock ; and some of later date state even more absurd ano- malies. Even to this day, if such extravagances be not really believed by many gardeners on the Continent, there are some of those who do their best to persuade us to believe that such things are ; and many ingenious contrivances we have seen by which such deceptions are carried on. One of these is produced by what the French call Graffe des Charlatans, and is often con- structed by selecting an old orange stem, with a few miserable branches on top, into which they drill holes from the bottom of the stump up- wards, through which they ingeniously intro- duce slender shoots of roses, jasmines, and like flexible plants, the roots being planted in the same soil as the orange, the shoots being intro- duced below the surface of the soil, and the points of the tops brought out at various heights of the orange stem. The classical reader will no doubt recollect Pliny's account of the tree in the garden of LucuUus, grafted in such a, manner as to bear apples, pears, plums, almonds, olives, figs, and grapes. Similar ingenioxis deceptions are prac- tised in Italy to this day. Mr Rivers, a highly respectable nurseryman, has long paid great attention to the subject of stocks, as well as several others, who have given us the benefit of their experience in various forms. One of the most experienced vmters on fruit trees — Mr Errington — in a valuable article in the " Journal of the Horticultural Society," after remarking that other causes must be at work, beyond the mere question of a deficiency of heat in our climate, to prevent the finest Flemish pears arriving at full maturity, observes, " If the habit of the quince was duly considered, and the soil adapted accordingly, the result would be a much higher amount of success than is at present attained. I do not wish it here to be inferred," he says, " that I would advocate the total banishment of the pear stock from our gardens ; not by any means. What I would urge is, that most of the Flemish kinds which are not found to succeed in a satisfactory way on the wall, would probably be much improved if grown as dwarf standards or pyramidal trees, providing proper means are taken to subdue, and continue under control, their tendency to produce super- fluous shoots. The production of such shoots constitutes the principal reason why the fruit becomes unsatisfactory. The tree is in exciting soil, perhaps, with unlimited power to range in quest of food ; the necessary consequence is, that abundance of breastwood is formed. Now, it so happens that the amount of foliage on such breastwood is not an iota more than is requisite to elaborate the great amount of watery juices thrown into the system. No : nature, true to her principles, produces no more foliage than is necessary for a due amount of reciprocation be- tween the root and the branches. The tree is half stripped of its elaborative powers at the moment they are most needed, and the conse- quence is large fruit filled with half-elaborated juices. The gardener, to be sure, is obliged to cut away the breastwood, or general barenness would be the result." This refers to the prac- tice of what is called summer pruning. If a pro- per dwarfing system, Mr Errington believes, were adopted, there would be little occasion for disbudding. " There are three ways," he ob- serves, "of arriving at this end: the one by using the quince stock ; the next, by the free stock in a limited amount of soil ; and a third, by root- pruning. The free stock, with a very limited amount of soil, ofiers a chance of striking at the root of the evil. If, however, the limita- tion is very severe, and the soil too light, there arises another source of failure ; the fruit, in a hot dry summer, may become stunted, and crack. To be sure, top-dressings will obviate these things, but it would be preferable so to establish pear-trees as that they would require little or no assistance in the way of labour. We come now to the quince stock ; and to this I would beg to draw particular attention. I think there can be no doubt of the general success of the quince, provided those who adopt it could be prevailed upon to prepare the stations for its reception with some regard to the habits of the quince. It vfill be at once admitted that the great object here is to provide a congenial soil for the stock ; this done, the success of the graft will follow as a matter of course." With a view to modify the luxuriance of the free stock, this high authority suggests a system of root-pruning, to commence even while the stocks are intheseed- bed, by means of frequent transplanting, to check the tendency in them of forming strong and forked roots, and to induce them to form plenty of fibrous roots near the surface. By this means, and placing the roots afterwards under proper control, it is probable that the pear upon free stocks may cometo assume a dwarfish habit— and if so, it would be desirable, as any ordinary gar- den soil would suit it ; whereas, if the quince is used, a soil and other conditions must be arti- ficially prepai'ed for it. Some pears succeed bet- 328 HARDY FRUIT GARDEN. ter on the quince stock than others, but all are similarly affected in assuming a diminished ha- bit, and most of them an increase in fertility. Pear stocks are obtained by sowing the seeds of the cultivated pear, and are, to distinguish them from those produced by sowing the seeds of the wild pear, called free pear stocks, while the others are called wild pear stocks. They are both more hardy and more durable, and hence adapted for standard trees in the formation of orchards. On the Continent great attention is paid to the different kinds of stocks, which nur- serymen form into three classes to suit intend- ing purchasers. The quince stock is propagated from layers, which no doubt adds to its property of dwarfing the trees for which it is used. Most cultivators bud such pears as are in- tended for standards or for walls, and graft those intended to be grown as dwarfs, as in the latter case the tree divides into branches the first year, and is at the end of that period almost as far advanced in its formation as a budded tree will be at the end of the second year. ' Apple stocks. — The stocks employed for the apple are the wild crab, which is procured by sowing the seeds of the most healthy wildings found in the woods. It is the most durable, and least subject to canker. The free stock is the produce of seeds of the cultivated apple, and ranks next to the former in durability and hardihood. The doucin, or paradise stock, is preferred for dwarf standard trees and espaliers. It is less durable than the crab stock, is reared by layers, and succeeds better in a rather rich moist sou than in a poor dry one. The French stock is also reared by laying, and is the most diminu- tive of all stocks — used principally for trees to be grown in pots, or planted as miniature orchards. Budding is preferred for apples intended for full standards, the bud being inserted within 9 inches of the ground ; while those intended for dwarfs, espaliers, and most of the delicate-growing sorts, are grafted for reasons already given. The Paradise stock, like the quince, has the natural property of emitting numerous fibrous roots near the surface of the ground, and also of controlling the vigour of the graft, and in- ducing an earher state of bearing in the tree. There are three varieties of Paradise stocks used on the Continent — viz., the Doucin, Pomme de Paradise, and the Pomme de St Jean. Tho two former are vised for different purposes— the first for dwarf trees, and the second for pyra- midal ones. It is, however, rather too delicate for our cUmate, unless in the most favoured situations, though of all others the best for trees to be grown in pots. The Pomme de St Jean is of a hardier character than the true Paradise, although not quite so dwarf. The Doucin is much more vigorous, and, with the English Paradise stock, the most worthy of our attention for the production of ft'uitful pyramids. Aprieot stocks, — The stocks usually employed for this purpose are, the common plum, the muscle plum, the pear plum, the common apri- cot, and the Brussels or St Julian stock, which latter is preferred for standard or rider trees. The first of these is obtained by sowing the stones of that plum, and is regarded as one of the best for the purpose, and hence very exten- sively employed ; the second from seeds of the pear plum, so called from the shape of the fruit; the third from stones of any of the cultivated sorts, but it is considered inferior to stocks from various species of plums ; the last has been long used in this country, and is well adapted for the apricot, but not for peaches, being too full of sap at the budding season. The late Mr Knight anticipates that, by budding the Moorpark apri- cot upon the apricot stock, it would become hardier, and less subject to that disease or state of debility which is supposed to be the cause of its branches dying off during summer. Rogers, who is an excellent practical authority, says there are two stocks the Moorpark may be wrought on — viz., the muscle for dwarf trees, and the Brussels for riders and standards. Plum stocks. — The plum is wrought upon the Brussels stock and common plum stock, and apparently with equal advantage. Peach and nectarine stocks. — " These are usually propagated by budding only, and the stocks used are either the Brompton stock, muscle plum, or pear plum. The latter is the best, and therefore used for French peaches and others of our finer sorts. It is said that peaches wrought upon the pear plum stock are much less liable to mildew than those upon the com- mon muscle stock ; the muscle is the best for Eng- lish peaches. The Brompton stock is strongly disapproved of by Mr G. Lindley, who says : ' Where trees of a permanent character are re- quired, the substitution of such a stock cannot be too strongly condemned.' On the other hand, Rogers — by no means a slight authority — as well as the most eminent nurserymen, are of a different opinion. It may have happened that a dislike to the Brompton stock arose from see- ing the fate of apricots budded upon it, for which fruit it is ill adapted and unsuitable. The late Mr Ronalds says : ' I have no reason to think that the Brompton stock will not bear as ' fine fruit, and last as long, as either the muscle or pear plum, if budded low for dwarfs.' " Quince stocks. — The quince is generally pro- pagated by layers, where the object is to pro- cure them for stocks for pears. If laid during winter, the plants wiU be rooted by the follow- ing autumn, when they should be transplanted into nursery lines, when in two years they will be fit for grafting. They are also propagated by cuttings, put in during winter ; and the better varieties, intended to be cultivated for their fruit, are grafted, the stem being trained to a clean rod to the height of 4 or 5 feet. Almond stocks. — The plum stock is preferred for cold and wet soils to those df the peach or the almond itself, being much hardier than they. The peach stock is thought by Mr R. Thomson to be less durable than the almond, and more apt to die off in this case, as they are apt to do when used as a stock for the peach and necta- rine. Almond stocks are procured by sowing the seeds when the object is to grow them for stocks, as well as for obtaining new varieties. Cherry stocks. — The small black or wild red cherry of our woods is generally chosen for this purpose. The MoreUo cherry has been recom- PROPAGATION BY GRAFTING. 329 mended with a view to render the trees of a dwarf habit ; and the Mahalab cherry has been suggested for a similar purpose. These are all obtained by sowing their seeds, which, if sown in spring, will come up the same season, and should not be transplanted till the second sea- son after sowing. They will be in fit condition to bud the season following, if intended for dwarfs, but not until the second, third, or even fourth year, if intended for standards ; though as regards this much depends on the strength they attain. Standards should be budded or grafted 6 feet from the groimd — the former process being performed during summer and the latter in spring, and also in all cases where budding may have failed. The cherry does not succeed equally well in all soils, and we believe that much of this depends on the kind of stock employed. The wild cherry stock is best adapted for strong damp or clayey soils, and the Mahalab for soils of a light sandy or chalky nature. Stocks originated by sowing the stones of the cultivated varieties are of short duration, and subject to gum, and shed their blossoms without setting their fruit ; on these accounts, therefore, they should never be employed. Medlar stocks. — The Whitetorn stock has been, but very improperly, used as a stock for this fruit. The common pear stock is the most natural, and therefore the most proper, for the purpose of either budding or grafting. Rose stocks. — The rose is propagated by bud- ding, from cuttings, layers, suckers, and seeds. The more valuable varieties are increased by the former method, as, if the operation be properly performed, every bud will form a distinct plant. Budding is also had recourse to in the forma- tion of standard roses — a taste of Dutch origin, imported into France, and from thence, in 1803, brought into England. The stocks in general use have been the tree rose, Rosa tillosa, R. canina, R. ruhigenosa, R. tormemtosa, R. pomi- fera, &c. These have been collected from tho woods in a wild state, planted in nurseries, and budded the same year or the following spring. Ifotwithstanding the great demand for rose stocks annually, little has been done by culti- vators to improve or render more certain the supply. Of late the Manettii, crimson Bour- sault, and some other strong-growing kinds, have'been employed ; and for perpetuals. Bour- bons, Noisette, Chinas, Teas, &c., the Manettii stock is recommended. But budding must be performed in September ; if earlier, the buds are apt to perish in consequence of the watery nature of the stocks. July and August is the proper time to bud, when the dog rose is used as a stock. Stocks in general, physiologically and anato- mically considered. — There are certain relation- ships existing between plants, beyond which it would be impossible to produce a union by the process of grafting or budding — somewhat ana- logous to that limitation which prevents cross fecundation from taking place in the flowers of plants of dissimilar species. Neither process would be successful by employing plants of such remote relationship as the melon and the vine, the potato and the cabbage, &o. These limits, so far as grafting or budding is concerned, de- pend anatomically on the organic structure of the tissue, and physiologically on the vital functions of the plant. The anatomy of plants is yet so little known, even to botanists, as well as to general cultivators, that they are unable to determine by dissection the plants which bear sufficient analogy to each other to cause them to produce either of those unions to which we have referred, and therefore all we at pre- sent know of the matter is what is taught us by practical experience. "From this it is found that as plants of the same natural family have an analogous organisation, they alone can be grafted on one another with any prospect of suc- cess ; though the success of the operation, even within this limit, will not always be complete, partly perhaps from some difference in organic structure, as in the case of the apple and pear, which can only be united for a few years, but chiefly on account of the physiological differences which may and do frequently exist. DecandoUe succeeded in grafting the lilac and the fringe tree on the ash, the fringe tree on the lUac, and the lilac on the phillyrea, and the olive on the ash and the privet; and although these grafts did not live a long time, on account of the phy- siological differences of the species, yet their having succeeded at all sufficiently proves the anatomical analogy of plants within the same natural order. This analogy is greater between plants of the same genus ; more so still between individuals of the same species; and most so between bmnches of the same individual." — Sub. Bort. Dr Van Mens considers grafting upon small pieces of the roots taken out of the ground, and planting the same as soon as grafted, to be of all others the best mode with regard to the condition of the grafted sort— _^j'st, because the smallest quantity of the stock is used ; and, second, because the lower part of the scion being thus placed in the ground, after a time it throws out fibres from that portion, and so at last is actually growing on its own roots. There are other conditions in which a union by grafting cannot take place — viz., plants with milky sap, as most species of Euphorbia, will not unite with those having thin, watery juices. Thus Acer platanoides, for example, being the only species of that genus having milky juice, cannot be grafted on any others of that family. Any two plants whose sap is not in motion at the same period, cannot be successfully grafted. Although in the case of the common laurel and cherry an adhesion takes place, their union can- not be calculated upon beyond three or four years. Soft-wooded trees or plants will not readily associate with hard-wooded ones ; nor woody plants with such as are herbaceous ; nor will annuals with perennials. Season of graftinff. — The number of plants upon which this operation is performed is so great, and their constitutions and circumstances BO variable, that no definite period can be fixed upon as a general rule. From what has been said of the phenomena of the art, it will have been understood that the period of operation is to be entirely guided by the state of the ascent of the sap. The spring, therefore, is the proper 330 HARDY FRUIT GARDEN, season for apples, pears, and all similar hardy trees, in our climate. There is, however, an ex- ception to this otherwise very general rule prac- tised both in Germany and in North America, where, the stocks having been taken up in au- tumn, are kept in sheds or cellars, and grafted during the winter. The whole stock of a nur- sery may thus be done when no other work could be carried on out of doors; and when spring returns, the stocks, with their grafts tied and clayed in the usual manner, are taken out and planted. The same practice is often fol- lowed in Britain in the case of roses and pears, particularly in the latter case, when root-graft- ing is employed. The vine is best grafted when in leaf ; if done sooner, it is apt to bleed to the extent of preventing the union from taking place. The general rule, however, is, to let the sap in the stock be in full motion, whUe the sap in the scion is only beginning to flow at the time of operating. " This mode of reasoning," says Mr Towers, " appears to be founded upon the old theory of the exclusive agency of the as- cending sap ; and it implies that the scion is in a dry and thirsty condition, eager to imbibe the ascending fluid. The electrical theory con- siders the flow of the sap as an operation of m- duction — that the buds of the twigs are the im- mediate instruments by which that induction operates — and therefore, that just in proportion to the identity of condition subsisting between the scion and the stock, will be the speed and certaiaty with which the union between the two is effected. What experience may finally deter- mine," says this authority, "I know not; but I am prepared to say, that I have instances now before me— all of successful grafting — wherein the scions taken off the tree at the moment of ' grafting in the crown,' were more speedily knit- ted to the stock than others that had been cut off and kept in mould for some weeks before they were wanted." Rhododendrons and azaleas, and most similar plants, succeed by grafting in March, using scions of last season's growth ; or they may with equal success be wrought in autumn, using scions of the same year's growth. Plants grow- ing in hot-houses, and subject to artificial ex- citement, may be grafted at almost any season, if the wood be in proper condition. Hard-wooded deciduous trees, such as the oak, elm, &o., should be grafted in April, cutting the stocks down to within 6 inches of the ground, using scions of the previous year's growth, and, when clayed over, earthing up all round. Succulent plants, such as Cacti, &c., should be grafted in August ; they succeed best when the scion is cut in form of a wedge, and in- serted in the crown or along the angular sides of the stock : no claying is necessary, only a little soft moss or cottony matter wound round the part of union to prevent the entrance of moisture. Partial shade is necessary until the union has taken place. The operation of grafting will be readily un- derstood by a glance at fig. 99, a being the stock, and 6 the graft or scion; as will be seen, a smooth sloping cut is made in an upward direc- tion on the stock, while a similar cut is made in the scion, but, of course, in an opposite or downward direction. These two cuts are Fig. 99. SPLICB-GRAFTJNG. Fig. 100. made so that the inner bark of the one corre- sponds with the inner bark of the other ; they are then placed together (c), and secured by matting (rf), to keep them in their places, and covered with clay or other adhesive matter (e), to exclude air, &o. The operation is most simple when both stock and scion are of exactly the same size; when otherwise, the operation must be varied to suit the circumstances : the chief point, however, is so to shape the incisions that the inner bark of the one may fit the inner bark of the other; and the more these are brought into immediate contact together, the greater certainty attends the operation. Whip, splice, or tongue graftirig, fig. 100.— This is the mode adopted by most nurserymen, as be- ing the most expeditious and certain when applied to young trees, whose stocks are not much more in diameter than the scion. In performing the operation, the stock (a) is cut over at the height the graft is to be put on ; then, with a very sharp thin-bladed knife, cut a thin slip of wood and bark upwards, about 3 inches below the top of where the stock has been cut over. In making this cut, insert the edge of the knife rather hori- zontally; and when it has gone through the bark and nearly to the middle of the stock, pull the knife straight up- wards, making the cut with one pulL Then, about half way down this cut, cut a thin tongue not more than three- eighths of an inch in length. In the same way proceed with the bottom pait of the scion, b, WHIP OR TONGUE GRAFTl.NG. PROPAGATION BY GRAFTING. 331 makiug a sloping cut of about the same length as the cut in the stock ; then make a tongue to corre- spond with that in the stock, but cut upward in- stead of downward. The scion is then to be placed on the stock, inserting the tongue of the former into the tongue of the latter (c) ; bring the two edges of the cut in the top of the stock and the two edges of the cut in bottom of the scion to meet exactly ; or, if the graft be larger than the stock, so that both edges of the bark of the former cannot meet the corresponding edges of the latter, then let one of the edges meet — but this must be done with great precision. The stock and scion, being thus joined, must be bound closely together by soft matting, begin- ning to wind it round the stock an inch or two below the part grafted, and continued upward to the top of the stock; and this, if well done, wiU in many cases be sufficient to secure suc- cess even without the application of clay. A ball of well-prepared clay (some use grafting- wax) is then formed round the stock and scion, when the operation may be considered finished. The use of the clay or wax is in order more effectually to exclude the air until the union takes place; and both this, and the chance of the clay falling off during dry weather, will be secured by drawing up earth around the ball so as nearly to reach its top — that is to say, when the graft is put on near the ground. When it is placed at a greater height, such as in the case of standard trees, then a little moss or soft hay tied over it will be equally efficient as a non- conductor of heat and moisture. The clay or wax envelop is intended also to preserve the graft in a uniform temperature, and so prevent the rising sap from being checked by cold days or nights. When the scion and stock are both of kinds that do not unite freely, the tongue is sometimes omitted, but in that case more care is required in tying. In the case of shoots hav- ing much pith, such as those of the rose, the graft is often put on the stock without being tongued into it. In the French mode of whip-grafting there is no more pared off the stock than exactly the breadth of the scion; and in the early days of grafting in this country it was performed with- out a tongue, the addition of which gave rise to the term, as that of whip-graffcing owes its name to the manner in which the scion and stock are cut so as to fit each other when se- cured in the manner of a whip-thong to the shaft or handle. The term splice is borrowed, evidently, from nautical phraseology. Sometimes, in this mode of grafting, the stock is not shortened down to the scion, but a por- tion of it is left with a bud at its extremity, the better to secure the rising of the sap to the graft. Some operators cut a notch in the scion immediately under a bud, which notch is made to rest on the top of the stock ; and if both stock and scion are of the same size, the top of the latter is certain of being healed over the first season. A sub-variety of splice-grafting, fig. 101, is often practised in the case of peaches, "necr tarines, apricots, and other tender shoots with large pith. It is found of advantage to have a Fig. 101. SPI.rCE-GBAFTING * THE 1>EACH. quarter of an inch of two-year-old wood at the lower extremity of the scion, and to have the stock cut with a dovetail notch. In the case of the fruit trees mentioned, the buds of thescion on the back and front are re- moved, leaving two on each side and a leader; and when these have grown 6 or 8 inches, their extremities are pinched off with the finger and thumb, by which means each shoot will throw out two others : this produces in au- tumn a finely-shaped tree with ten branches. Such trees will bear two or three fruits the se- cond year from the graft." — Gofrdeners' Magazine. Downing describes American whip or tongue grafting as fol- lows ; Having chosen the stock, " cut it off at the point where it appears best to fix the graft. If the stock is quite small, it may be within 3 or 4 inches of the ground. Then, with a verysharp knife, make a smooth cut up- wards about 2 inches in length. Next make a slit from the top of this cut about one-fourth of the way downwards, taking out a thin tongue of wood. Cut the scion 4 or 5 inches long, or so as to have three buds; then shape the lower end with a single smooth sloping cut about the same length as that on the stock, and make the tongue upward to fit in the downward slit of the stock. Now apply the scion accu- rately to the stock, making the inner hark of the scion fit exactly the inner bark of the stock, at least on one side. Without changing their posi- tion, tie them together carefully with a piece of best matting or tape, and finally cover the wound with well-prepared grafting clay or wax. This ball of clay should more than cover the union by an inch above and below, and should be about an inch thick. If grafting-wax be used, it need not be above half au inch thick. About the middle of July," for plants in the open air, " after a rainy day, remove the ball of clay, and if the graft is securely united, also the bandage ; and the angle left at the top of the stock should now be cut off smoothly, in order to allow the bark of the stock and the scion to heal nearly over the whole wound." Mr Downing further remarks, " Though it is little attended to in common prsictice, the amateur will be glad to know that the success of a graft is always greatly insured by choosing the parts so that a bud is left near the top of the stock, and another near the bottom of the scion. These buds attract the rising sap to the por- tions where they are placed from woody matter, and greatly facilitate the union of the parts near them, the upper part of the stock and the lower part of the scion being the portions soonest liable to perish from a want of nourish- ment." Saddle-grafting (fig. 102) is practised only where the stock is of moderate dimensions. The stock (o) is cut into a wedge-like form, and 332 HARDY FEUIT GARDEN. II SADDLE-GRAFTING. Fig. 103. the scion (6) slit up the middle so as to adapt it that it shall be seated across or ride upon the former (c). This mode was in- Fig. 102. vented by Mr Knight, and used by him chiefly upon cherry trees ; and he states that even where the wood has been so suc- culent and imperfectly ripened as to preclude every hope of success by any other mode, ho found this most successful. The advantage of this mode con- sists in offering the largest sur- face for the junction of the scion and stock, but, as in whip-graft- ing, the bark must, at least on one side, be neatly fitted to the bark on the other. Fig. 102 will show the principle. A variety of saddle-grafting is much used in the Hereford- shire orchards, of which fig. 103 is a representation. In this case the scion must be much smaller than the stock, and is split up between 2 and 3 inches from . its lower end, so as to have one "side stronger than the other. This strongestside is introduced between the bark and wood, while the thinner division is fit- ted to the opposite side of the stock. Mr Knight, who de- scribed this mode in the " Hor- ticultural Society's Transac- tions," says that the apple and pear grafted in this manner seldom fail, and that it may be practised with success either in spring upon last year's scions, or in July with the young wood of the current year. He attri- butes one advantage to saddle- grafting which must appear very clear — namely, that the sap is not driven from its natural course, but ascends from the stock to the scion freely, which is not the case when the scion is put on one side of the stock only, as in almost all other methods. Cleft-grafting appears to have sADDLE-GBAFTiNo.been one of, if not the most pri- mitive of all modes, which may be naturally inferred from its great simplicity. Although easily performed, it has a clumsy ap- pearance, but is yet very useful in the case of old trees requiring to be cut down from old age, disease, or other causes. Fig. 104 will show the principle, a, the stock, of almost any diameter. Two grafts (6 c) are here shown, but there may be several, according to the size of the stock. The operation is thus performed : The head of the stock is first sawn over, and afterwards smoothed with a knife. A cleft is then made in the stock with a hammer and splitting knife, or as often with a carpenter's chisel. The scion is prepared as shown in our figure, and pushed Fig. 104. HEREFORDSHIRE into the cleft as the knife or chisel is with- drawn, taking care that the inner bark of the scion fits to that of the inner bark of the stock. When the number of grafts desired is in- serted the whole is bound round with matting, and clayed in the usual manner. " Apple stocks in many Ame- rican nurseries," according to Downing, " are grafted in great quantities in this mode, the stocks being previously taken out of the ground, headed down very near the root, cleft-grafted with a, single scion, sloping ofi" with an oblique cut the side of the stock opposite that where the graft is placed, and then planted at once into rows, so as to allow CLEFT-GRAFTING, ouly a couplo of buds of the scioil to appear above ground. It is not usual with many either to tie or clay the grafts in this case, as the wound is placed below the sur- face; but when this plan is adopted, the grafts must be set and the trees planted at once, drawing the well-pulverised soil with great care around the graft. Another way of grafting apple stocks common in some western nurseries consists in tongue-grafting on seedling stocks of very small size, cut back almost to the root. This is perform- ed in winter by the fireside ! — the grafts carefully tied, and the roots placed in the cellar in sand till spring, when they are planted, the top of the graft just above the gi-ouud." — Fruits and Fruit Trees of America. Cleft-grafting with one scion is in general not a good mode, be- cause if the split has been made right through the stock, it is in danger of being injured by the weather before it is covered by wood by the scion. If the cleft is made only on one side of the stock, the evil is mitigated; another objection arises when only one scion is used — the tree becomes, as a matter of course, attached, as it were, to one side of the root only. Cleft-grafting the vine. — This is sometimes done, and in the following manner : A spur is cleft, commencing the incision exactly above the second eye ; the scion, when chosen, is cut in a wedge-shape form at its base, commencing the slope of the wedge immediately below a bud, so that when the scion is inserted into the cleft, the bud of the latter and that of the stock may be placed opposite each other, which is consi- dered the most favourable position for success. The process of tying and claying goes on in the usual manner, with this exception, that a small hole is left in the clay opposite to the bud of the scion, to allow that bud to develop itself freely. When the scion has grown fourteen or fifteen days, it is then headed back to one bud, which is left to draw up the sap until the union has fairly taken place between the stock and scion. 'The proper season for grafting the vine in this way is when the shoots have made four or five leaves ; if done sooner, there is a danger of the sap flowing so fast as to prevent a union taking place by what is called bleeding. This process is often adopted in grafting sue- PROPAGATION BY GRAFTING. 333 culent plants; and some Continental gi-owers employ it in the propagation of roses and ca- mellias. For the latter purpose it is of consider- able importance, as each individual bud is made to form a plant, the scion being cut so that only one bud is attached to each. Crown-grafting is merely a variety of cleft-graft- ing, and is sometimes called rind-grafting. It is practised upon old trees, either for their total re- newaljOruponlargeamputatedbranches, to renew by degrees. It is, upon the whole, abetter mode than cleft-grafting, because the stock, if old, is not subjected tothe chance of being split, the scions in this case being placed I between the bark and the wood. Fig. 105 will illus- trate the process. It is performed later in the season than cleft-grafting — that is, from the end of March to the end of April — because then the bark separates more freely from the wood than at an earlier period. In rind or crown grafting, great care must be taken that the bark of the stock be not bruised during the process of open- ing the bark for the recep- tion of the scion, and for this purpose a proper spatula or grafting-knife Some use a piece of hard wood, fashioned in form of a scion, and others one of bone or ivory ; the use of these is to se- parate the bark from the wood without injuring the former. The scion is prepared without a tongue, and is placed in the stock so that its wood may be in contact vdth the alburnum of the stock. Sometimes it is cut with a sort of shoulder at the top of the cut, that the graft may rest on the wood of the stock, and in this case it is called shoulder-grafting. Fig. 106. The graft being prepared in either way, the bark of the stock is opened to the extent of 2 inches, and the scion is made to pass down between the wood and the bark. If the bark of the stock is hard and dry, and does not yield readily, it may be scored or cut perpendicularly downward, to en- able the operator to open it, so that he may thrust the scion into its place with its cut side next to the wood: this being done, tying and claying is followed as in for- mer cases. Peg-grafting.— Thvi is one of the oldest varieties of this mode of propagation, although now sel- dom used. The annexed cut, fig. 106, and a brief description, vrill sufficiently explain its principles. The stock is cut over horizon- _ tally at the desired height, and a rrtG-oRAFTiNG. hole is drilled in the centre to VOL. II. CTIOIVN-QRAFTING. should be used. receive the end of the scion, and this hole must be in proportion to the size of the tree tp be operated upon : if for a small tree (for it should bo understood that the scion in this case may comprise the whole tree) or plant, a J-iuch gimlet will be sufficient ; but for one of large dimensions and spreading head an augur of 2 or 3 inches may be used. The depth to which this perforation should be made will, for obvious reasons, be determined by the size of the scion. The scion should also be of the same diameter with the stock, and so fa- shioned that a portion of its lower end is re- duced, leaving only so much of the centre as will form a peg (from thence the name) or dowel, in the phraseology of carpenters, to fit exactly into the perforation, so that, when the surface of the section of the stock and scion come together, the bark and alburnum of each shall be exactly opposite to each other, which leads at once to the conclusion that the diameter of both stock and scion should be equal. When the scion is thus fitted on top of the stock, the graft or top of the tree is supported firmly in its upright position by props, to secure it against displacement by winds, ^0. The place of junc- tion is carefiiUy clayed round ; and if the ope- ration is performed close to the ground (which, although not in all cases necessary, is in most instances expedient), is covered over with soil, the better to exclude the air. By this means trees of almost any size may be grafted, so long as we have mechanical power to elevate them, and keep them in their proper place. This was accomplished prior to 1817 by Dr Van Mens of Brussels, who inserted an entire tree on the stump of another. This rather uncommon efibrt in the art of grafting was shown to the late Dr NeiU in 1817, who describes it as follows in " The Horticultural Tour," p. 310 : " A neighbour hav- ing, in the spring season, cut down an apple- tree about 15 feet high, which Dr Van Mone considered as a desirable kind, and a good healthy tree, he immediately selected a stock of similar dimensions, and, cutting it over near the ground, placed on it, by the mode of peg-grafting, the foster tree, supporting the tree by stakes, and excluding the air as we have noticed above." The experiment suc- ceeded perfectly, the tree becoming, in course of the second summer, nearly as vigorous as ever. The same tree we saw in 1832, in as vigorous a state of health as any in the garden. Whip-grafting in theFrench manner. — The French propa- gatorsnever pare more off the stock, whatever its size may be, than exactly the width of the scion. Shoulder or chinh grafting will readily be understood by the annexed figs. 107, 108. It sHouLDKR-oRAFTiuG. is bcst adapted for trees or 2 u Figa. 107, FR ENCH AND RNGLTSH ; 334 HAEDY FRUIT GARDEN. branchea of which the stock and graft are of the same diameter. Side-grafting is merely a modifloation of whip or splice grafting, and is performed on a stock whose head is not out off, or on a branch with- out its being shortened. The great utility of this mode is the facility it offers of supplying branches to parts of trees where they may have become too thin, or making a branch in case of accidents. It is usefully employed upon wall or espalier trees that have become naked of fruit-buds towards the centre, while they may have abundance towards their extremities. Branches of the same kind, or of other kinds if desired, may be by this mode put on at the base of the old branches, and the young shoots trained over them as they advance, thus providing young and bud-producing wood at those parts of the trees which must have otherwise remained in a state of sterility. The same may be done upon stan- dard fruit-trees with a liie effect, and orna- mental trees and shrubs may be again clothed with young wood at those parts where, from mismanagement or otherwise, they may have become naked. There is only one disadvantage attending this mode, which is, as the branches on which the operation is performed have not been cut back, the scions are less likely to take : as the flow of the sap is not materially in- terrupted, it is apt to pass without forming the union between the graft and the branch. This may, however, be so far remedied by bending down the branch to as low an angle as possible, which will tend to moderate the rapidity of the sap's flow ; or atight ligature may be placed on the branch a little above the graft. The French have a variety of side-grafting, which they call veneer- grafting, and which they employ in working young oranges and camellias. For this purpose they form the incision in the stock by taking a very thin slice out of it, and leaving a sort of shoulder at the lower extremity, upon which the scion is made to rest. This is one of the neatest modes in use, as, if well done, the union becomes so complete as scarcely to be detected afterwards. Another variety of side-grafting is practised on the vine in its dormant state. An opening is cut out of the branch to be operated upon from 2 to 3 inches in length, and to the depth of about half the diameter of the branch, the ends being cut obliquely, something in the dovetail form. The scion is cut so as to fit this space, tied round, but not clayed, as the branches shoiild be laid down so that the grafted parts may be covered with moist soil. About a month there- after the plants are plunged in a nuld bottom- heat, and in about the same length of time the young shoots will begin to show themselves. Wedge-grafting is also a modification of side- grafting, and is advantageously employed in the propagation of the Deodora and other Coniferae, We believe this method owes its origin to Mr Barron, who describes his plan in " The Gar- deners' Magazine," and from which we learn that both the scions and stocks are of the wood of the preceding season's growth ; that the slit in the stock is cut through the pith, and is from 1 to 1 \ inches in length. The scions used are from 3 to 5 inches long; they are inserted in the usual manner, and grafting-wax is used instead of clay, as being lighter, and therefore less liable to bend down the heads of the stocks. Root-grafting. — This method is often practised in nurseries, in cases where stocks of the species intended to be increased are scarce ; and at other times, as in America and Germany, as has been already noticed, to economise time, as the ope- ration can be performed during winter and un- der protection, so that, when spring arrives, they may be taken out and planted in nursery lines. One precaution ought to be taken in this mode — namely, washing the top parts, at least of the root stocks, to prevent the possibility of earthy matter getting between the scion and stock. The mode of attachment may be any of those already described, as the whole difference consists in forming a union between a scion and a root in- stead of a stem. When the attachment has taken place, and planting is completed, draw up the earth around the neck of the plants so as to cover the point of union. The rarer species of oaks, for example, may be grafted upon the roots of the common sorts ; and the otherwise useless roots left on the ground, upon removing old thorn hedges, may be used as excellent stocks upon which to attach pear-grafts. Herbaceous grafting. — This is comparatively a modern invention, discovered by Baron de Tschudy, and consists in attaching the solid parts of herbaceous plants, or of woody plants when in an herbaceous state, to others of the same or sufficiently nearly allied species, while in a similar state. The tree Peony has been successfully grafted upon the fleshy roots of the herbaceous kinds of the same genus ; the melon and cucumber, the potato and love-apple, have been frequently grafted upon each' other; and almost the whole of the cultivated Brassicae have been or are capable of being grafted on each other. These latter are, however, to be regarded more in the light of experiments than of useful adaptations. In Pig. 109, the the case of tree Peony, fig. 109, the operation is performed from the middle of July to the mid- dle of August. The tubers throw out roots in autumn, and are then takenup and potted, and pre- served under co- ver duringwinter. The operation is exceedingly sim- ple, and consists in selecting single tubers of the plant, in which a triangularnotch, a, is cut near its top; to this notch ROOT-onAFTING-TnE TREE PEONY, a SCiOU Of thC tree sort, b, is made to fit, having two or three buds upon PROPAGATION BY GRAFTING. 335 it ; when placed, c, it is tied with soft matting, and clayed or waxed over in the usual man- ner. If the plant which supplies the scions be scarce, then one bud may be used instead of three. In selecting the tubers for this purpose, barren ones — that is, those liaving no Tisible eyes — are as good, if not possibly better, than those which have them. By this means dahlias may be multiplied largely, as every tuber is suit- able for a stock, while only the crown of th? whole root produces cuttings. Qrafiit\g a/imual and perennial plants is pos- sible ; we have yet, however, we confess, to learn its utility. Expeditious grafting. — In nurseries and large plant establishments every means to secure stock of a new or rare plant is of vast importance ; and hence many ways have been tried to effect this end. Heat, moisture, shade, and slow excite- ment are the necessary conditions, and hence the operation is going on at all seasons, and the success attending it, in judicious hands, is truly astonishing. For as soon as a new plant is pro- cured, an almost certain calculation is made ac- cording to the number of leaves or buds on it, that in a few weeks as many plants will be pro- duced as there are leaves or buds on the original. The French adopt a very appropriate name for this species of propagation ; they designate it Greffe Uouff6e, or stifled graft, from the process being carried on under closely-covered bell- glasses to exclude the air. The plants, being small, are in pots plunged in bottom heat, and in this state they are kept until a union takes place. Almost every first-rate propagator has his own way of putting on his grafts, or rather buds ; for, as we have said, every bud is made available, and expected to produce a perfect plant. The cleft form is often adopted, but almost any of the others, under judicious modi- fications, are equally applicable. Great care is, however, taken that the scion or bud be placed on the stock near to a bud, and this bud must be scrupulously preserved, as on that much of the success depends. When the bud or scion is placed on the stock, it is secured with a soft worsted, cotton, or other thread, and the place of union, as well as the top of the stock not covered with the scion, is covered vrith a thin coating of grafting-wax. Sometimes, however, a little moistened cotton or fine moss is used as a substitute. As the moisture arising under the bell-glass would soon become too great for the plant in its yet tender state, that coveiing is fre- quently removed, and wiped clear of the con- densed steam ; air is admitted, after the first three or four days, by little and little at a time, until the union has taken place, when it is more abun- dantly supplied, and ultimately the glass is re- moved altogether. The principal thing required in this delicate operation is neatness in execu- tion, and rigid attention to the conditions we have named above. Qrafting OoMJ/crcE.— Somewhere about 30 years ago, the Baron Tschudy practised the grafting of the Finns laricio on the common Scotch fir in the forest of Fontainebleau ; a description of his method has been published in " The Gar- deners' Magazine." Various modes have since been adopted in Britain, in consequence of the increasing popularity of that natural order of trees, the difficulty of procuring seeds of many of them, and the increasing demand for their possession. Engrafting the Coniferse, which a very few years ago was looked upon as requir- ing skill little short of necromancy, has now be- come an every-day affair in. every respectable nursery establishment. The rationale, however, of Tschudy's theory is no doubt the foundation of most of our modem manipulations. The pine and fir tribe is successfully grafted about the middle of June, at which time the young shoots will have attained somewhat more than half their year's growth. An inch or two of the top of the shoot, the leader being preferred, should be cut off ; the leaves to the extent of 3 inches should be cut off, leaving, however, a pair of leaves, fig. 110, opposite and close to the section or point where the shoot was cut over : these, being retained, will draw nourishment to the extremity of the stock before the scion becomes fully attached. The shoot is then spUt down between the pair of leaves to the depth of 2 inches, and the scion, which,inour example, is that of Abies morinda (the stock being Pinus cembra), having its lower leaves cut off, and a thin portion of its sides pared off, is inserted to the full depth of the incision in the stock, in the same manner as in cleft-grafting. When the scion is much smaller than the stock, as in our example, the scion is kept close to the side of the stock, so that the bark of both may unite. Two scions, one on each side, may be put on, one of which may be cut away afterwards, should both take — the two giving a double chance of success. The usual process of tying the graft and claying com- pletes the operation, or, in the case of feeble subjects, grafting-wax may be em- ployed as a substitute for clay. Fig. Ill shows a variety of wedge or side grafting, we believe first practised by Mr Barron at Elveston, and successfully employed in the ease of coniferous trees. The scion in our example, fig. 1 1 2, is the Deodar cedar, and the stock the Pinus cemhra. Mr Barron used the cedar of Lebanon as a stock. He also used scions of GRAFTING CONIFERS. Fig. 111. SIDK-GRAFTINa CONIFERS. 336 HARDY FRUIT GARDEN. Fig. 112. SCION OF CONIFER PREPARED FOR GRAFTING. the preceding year's wood, and inserted them in wood of one or two years' growth. We have found, when the stock was strong, as the leading shoot of Firms cembra, or other similar growing Conifera, that the current year's shoot, when about three parts grown, is admirably suited for the purpose ; and also, as in our illustration, when the ! scion has grown to about the length of 2 inches, and with 2 inches of last year's wood — which latter is inserted in the young wood of the stock, out- ting the latter quite through the pith to the depth of 14 or 2 inches, and securing it in the usual manner. The Pinus cemhra may be objected to by some, on accoimt of its less robust growth ; but the same success has followed when the common spruce, and even the Scotch fir, have been used. Grafting coniferous trees is a process had recourse to mainly to multiply the rarer species and varieties of which seeds are difficult to pro- cure. So far as perpetuating some of the rarer species to fill up the blanks in botanical and systematic collections, until others originated from seed can be obtained, we see no great harm in having recourse to this mode of propagation ; but hero the limits of that species of increase should cease. Some have endeavoured to pro- mulgate the theory that grafting has the effect of rendering certain species— those from Mexico, for example, which are too tender to stand our northern climate — more hardy, if wrought on hardy and free-growing stocks ; a doctrine we cannot by any means subscribe to, more than that the same operation would have the effect of causing trees of this order to assume the longevity, size, and fuU development of those originated from seeds. Such, however, is at present the rage for pines, that a glance at the stoclis most fitting for the purpose of grafting may not be considered out of place here. The larch has been long used as a stock for the deodar, on which it takes readily ; but seeds have been so abundantly imported of that mag- nificent tree, as to render both the process of grafting, and striking it from cuttings, obsolete matters. The cedar of Lebanon has been also employed for the same purpose, but the stocks in this case are as valuable as the species to be wrought upon them. The Scotch fir {Pinus sylvesiris} makes a good stock for Pinus BanJc- siana and its congeners. Pinus austriaca (the Austrian pine) is probably the best stock for the majority of the tribe ; it is u free grower, and transplants well, even when of a considerable size. The Weymouth pine (Pinus strohus) has been recommended as a stock for Pinus Lamber- tiana, P. monticola, and those allied to them ; but who would think of choosing as a stock a tree that is by no means adapted to our climate 1 -^indeed, so much so, that few good specimens of it are to be even met with. The pinaster (Pinus pinaster) is a stock on which Pinus Lemoniana and its allies will take freely and grow rapidly for a time ; but the days of this, as of all other grafted pines, are few, compared with those ori- ginated from seed. The spruce fir forms the general stock for the section of Abies ; while Jwniperus Virgimiana (the red cedar) is suitable to the whole of the free-growing junipers, and manyof the cypresses also ; and the common yew to the whole genus Taxus : the more delicate species, however, will succeed better on stocks of the upright or Irish variety. Orafting soft-wooded or succulent plants. — The object here is more of an ornamental than of a useful character. The beautiful EpiphyUums truncatum, RusseUianum, &c., are slow-growing plants on their own roots, but become exceed- ingly beautiful when grafted on the tall and stronger-growing species of Cacti, such as Per- eskia, Opuntia, Cereus, &c. The operation is simple, and requires the scions to be taken just as they are beginning their growth : they are inserted in the stocks by simple incision, and secured, for a short time, from falling off by a slight bandage of matting. They are foimd to succeed best when placed in a rather shady place till adhesion takes place. Many varieties of pelargonium may also be wrought on the same stock, which, for conserva- tory specimen plants, has a pleasing and rather novel appearance. The cleft mode of grafting is adopted generally on the Continent, choosing the stock and scion of nearly the same size, and placing them under a glass shade ; or if large, in a close somewhat shaded place for a few days. About fifteen days will in general effect a union of the parts. According to a paper in the "Kevue Horticole," it would appear that grafted pelar- gonimns have continued healthy for many years. Inarching, or grafting by approach, differs only from most kinds of grafting we have refen-ed to, in having the scion stiU attached to the parent tree, from which it is deriving support until the union with another takes place, when it is separated entirely. Professor Thouin enume- rates thirty-seven varieties of this mode of pro- pagation. These, however, may practically be reduced to two — namely, crown inarching and side inarching, the former having the head cut off at the time of operating, and the latter retaining the head for a time. The spring is the season for performing this operation gene- rally, but any season when the sap is in proper condition, as may be the case in hot-houses, is equally proper. This species of grafting is the only one to be met with in nature, and that only in the case of plants of near propinquity ; it may also have given the first idea of grafting to man. Inarching is productive of the same effects as grafting, in inducing an early dispo- sition to frait-bearing ; it is also applicable to plants that are difficult to propagate by other means. Method of performance. — For this purpose it is necessary that the plants to form both the stock and scion should be either growing near to each other, or, if in a portable state, placed BO that their branches may meet. A portion of PROPAGATION BY GRAFTING. 337 the bark is then removed from each at the intended point of union, say from an inch to three inches in length, according to the size and strength of the subjects ; these parts are fitted together so that the inner barks of both coincide, and the process of tying and claying or waxing follows as in common grafting. Some, however, tongue the scion and stock in the same manner as is done in tongue-grafting. In either way the ■ cambium shortly becomes developed, the albur- num of the sciop and stock becomes united; and when this is accomplished, the scion may be cut off a little below where it is united to the stock, either at one operation, or only partially cut through first, and in a few days completely severed. A week or two after the union has taken place, the remaining portion of the scion, if any was left on when separated from the parent plant, should be cut off close to thestock,thatthe woimd may heal over, and leave the stem as per- fect as possible. Side inarching without tonguing is well adapted for young shoots of camellias, oranges, &c. ; and when the wood of both scion and stock is soft, and full of sap, a union speedily takes place. Tongue inarching is useful when both or either stock and scion are more fully matured, and are somewhat hard and dry. Inarching with partially-nouruhed scions only differs from the modes we have described above, in having the lower end of the scion inserted in a phial or bottle of water. This water should be changed from time to time, and at each re- newal a very thin slice should be removed from the scion, by which its vessels will be kept open, and be able to draw up sufficient support to the graft until adhesion has taken place. Sometimes the end of the shoot is placed in a pot of damp soil, and at others stuck into a potato or turnip. Grafting-clay is prepared by mixing three parts of strong clay with one of horse or cow dung, separated from straw or litter, but having a small quantity of hair, such as is used lq pre- paring plaster lime, mixed with it, to render it more adhesive and less liable to fall off. This mixture should be well incorporated and spread out on a hard flooring, and beaten with mallets or clubs, turning it frequently and giving a little water, and beating again until reduced to a very strong plaster, and fit for being put on with the hands, and for remaining on both in wet and dry weather without crumbling or cracking. The addition of the hair wUl be found better than using straw or hay, as is usually done. Some recommend the addition of a little salt, with a view to preserve the moisture, which, if not too abundantly applied, may have its advantages. Grafting-wax. — Of this there are many forms, the principal of which are wax and rosin, wax and pitch, tallow and rosin or pitch melted together, and used in a melted but not in a very hot state. Sometimes these are applied in the form of dough or putty; at other times they are spread on paper, cotton, linen, &c., and cut into narrow strips. For very delicate plants the latter forms are the best, and we believe that, for ordinary purposes, for exotic plants, cobblers' wax is better than any, as it can be applied in a cold state ; whereas the heat at which most of the others will be of sufficient consistency and ductility for putting on must be too great for very tender plants, more especially when in a soft and herbaceous state. One of the best pre- parations for this purpose is that recommended by Mr Powell — viz., 1 lb. of pitch, 1 lb. of rosin, 4 lb. bees'-wax, \ lb. hogs' lard, \ lb. turpentine, melted and mixed well together ; this composi- tion to be, while in a fluid state, spread upon sheets of moderately thin brown paper, which, when cold, is to be cut into slips about three quarters of an inch in breadth. The scion, when fitted to the stock, is to be wound round with one of these slips, which, when breathed upon, becomes soft and limp, and when cold, suffi- ciently adhesive to remain on until purposely taken off. Plastic wax, which is as pliable as the last, is thus prepared ; Common sealing- wax, any colour except green, one part ; white wax, one part ; mutton fat, one part ; and honey, one-eighth of a part. Melt the fat and white wax first, add the sealing-wax gradually in small pieces, and lastly, put in the honey just before taking it off the fire ; pour it into tin moulds, and keep shaking it till it begins to congeal. When breathed upon, or similarly shghtly heated, it is fit for use. In grafting, there are certain important re- quisites which must be attended to, whatever mode of performing the operation may be adopted. These requisites are thus noticed by Professor Balfour, in his recently published excellent " Class Book of Botany," p. 669 : « In the case of dicotyledonous trees, care must be taken to bring the growing parts into contact — the two alburnums and the two hbers. We cannot expect that the old wood of trees, in which the active processes of plant life have ceased, will unite. The plants on which graft- ing is practised must be botanically allied, or, at all events, there must be a similarity in the composition of their sap. Union may take place between plants which, in their natural state, require the same chemical ingredients in the same proportions. This is generally the case with varieties of the same species, more rarely with plants of different species, and least frequently with such as belong to different genera. The lemon may be grafted on the orange, because, as Lindley says, the sap of the latter contains all the earthy and saline sub- stances which the former requires, and can sup- ply them in sufficient quantity to the engrafted twig. But the fig or the grape would not flourish and ripen fruit on the same stock, be- cause these fruits require other substances than the root of the orange extracts from the soil, or in greater quantity than the sap of the orange can supply them. The sap of the stock, in order that grafting may be successful, must contain all that the engrafted bud or shoot re- quires in every stage of its growth. If the pot- ash or lime required by the grape be not taken up, and in sufficient quantity, by the root of tiie orange, it will be in vain to engraft the for- mer upon the latter, with the hope of its coming to maturity or yielding perfect fruit. Grafting of varieties on the stem of the species whence they are derived is very common, and is con- 338 HARDY FRUIT GARDEN. stantly practised with roses, camellias, apples, &c. Species of the same genera are also fre- quently united. The peach may be grafted on the almond, the apricot on the plum, the plum on the cherry, and the pavia on the horse-chest- nut ; but the operation will not succeed between the horse-chestnut and the almond. Genera of the same natural order also may sometimes be vmited : thus, the pear may be grafted on the quince, or on the thorn, or on the amelanchier, all of these belonging to the natural order of Rosacea. The lilac is said to adhere to the ash and to Phillyrea latifolia; the olive to the ash ; the chionanthus to the ash and lilac — all belong- ing to the natural order Oleacese. The chest- nut may be grafted on the oak, in the family AmentiferaB ; and Bignonia radiccms on Catapala, in Bignoniaoeae. There are marked instances of plants which seem to be allied, and yet which cannot be grafted on each other. Thus chest- nuts will not graft on beeches, nor apples on pears. As regards the persistence of leaves, it is generally necessary that the plants should correspond ; but to this there are exeeptions. Some evergreens can be grafted on deciduous plants. Prunus laurocerasus and P. lusitanica (the Portugal and common laurel), both ever- greens, live for some time grafted on the bird- cherry, and are less sensible to cold than those growing on their own roots. Eriobotrya japo- nica and E. glabra, also evergreens, live for a very long time grafted on the hawthorn. The cedar of Lebanon, grafted on the common larch, lives upwards of ten years, but it remains stunted and dwarf." The instances of parasitic plants, like the loranthus, mistletoe, &o., adher- ing to other plants of widely different genera, cannot be fairly stated as exceptions, as the process by which they adhere is not common grafting. " The seeds, and not the buds or slips, are applied to the stems on which they grow, and certain root-like processes are sent in- wards." Mr Beaton, Mr Moss, and others, have stated that buds or slips of mistletoe have been made to adhere. Grafting has the effect of causing some plants to become more hardy and others more tender, and also of causing plants to produce their flowers and fruit at an earlier period of life than were they at once originated from seed ; and Knight thought that the fruit upon grafted trees ripened earlier in the season than on trees of the same age, and of the same kind, not grafted, or even grafted upon stocks of their own species ; and that the growth and vigour of a tree, and its power to produce successive heavy crops, are diminished apparently by the stagna- tion in the branches and stock of a portion of that sap, which in a tree growing upon its own stem, or upon a stock of its own species, would descend to nourish and promote the extension of the roots. When the stock is by nature weaker than the scion, or incapable of supplying it with as great an amount of sap as if the sup- ply was derived from its own roots, without any such interruption, then the tree grafted will be limited in the period of its existence in proportion to the scanty supply of sap; and on the other hand, the scion of a weakly variety vpill gain strength and increased longevity when worked upon a stock capable of sup- plying it with as much or a greater quantity of sap than its roots would supply. But much of all this depends on the accuracy of the opera- tion, for a weakly scion may be inaccurately fitted to a stronger stock, and hence an inter- ruption to the ascent of the sap will take place, and consequences directly opposite to what is anticipated are certain to ensue. It is, there- fore, probable that it is more owing to the bunghng way in which the operation is per- formed that grafted plants and trees so fre- quently die a year or two after they have been grafted, and that some others, although they may continue living for a greater number of years, fail in assuming a robust and healthy ap- pearance. The nature of the sap, in some trees, may have its share in this ; and it is probable that to either or both of these may be attributed the repeated failures in securing healthy and robust young trees in the order Coniferse. Monoootyledonous plants were long con- sidered as incapable of being grafted. Signer Calderini of Milan pubKshed, in the " Annales des Sciences Naturelles," an account of some experiments he made on grasses of different species. This experiment was made with a view to improve the vigour of delicate and tender varieties, by grafting them on more robust stocks ; and in this he succeeded. The modm operandi was '.from having observed that these plants have at each knot a shoot enclosed in the sheath of the leaf, which can be easily drawn out while the plant is young. He intro- duced some of these into plants of the same species, having previously removed their young shoots, and found that half of them succeeded. The experiment, we fear, goes no further than to resolve a physiological problem, which is in itself sufficiently interesting : the practical ad- vantage appears to us to be very slight. § 4. — PEOPAGATION BY BUDDING. Budding is the operation of transferring the buds of one tree to the branches of another; and its use is the propagation of plants which could not be effected at all, or much less conve- niently, by the other modes of extension, such as striking by cuttings, grafting, &c., as well as multiplying a species or variety more expedi- tiously thsvn by either of the other modefe of propagation^as one bud in this case is sufficient in itself to form the future plant, when planted on the alburnum of another of the same or very nearly allied species, while several buds are re- quired in all other methods of propagation. In transferring the bud of one plant to the wood of another, they become vitally united together, as in the case of grafting, which can only be regarded as budding in another form. This process is chiefly employed on woody plants and trees, although it is sometimes performed upon herbaceous plants also, but never on an- nuals. The varieties of budding are numerous, ^much more so than useful. Professor Thouin enumerates twenty-three methods by which the operation is perfoiTned ; and it is probable that PROPAGATION BY BUDDING. 339 ten or a dozen more have been added since lie wrote. These for the most part owe their ori- gin to foreign cultivators, who are not only ex- pert in performing the operation, but attach considerable importance to some or other of the various modes. Few comparatively of these are practised by the British gardener, who very judiciously calculates more on success than on manipulations from which apparently little is to be gained. All the modes are, however, based upon the same principle — viz., the union between the bud and stock, which takes place, iu the first instance, in consequence of the exu- dation of organisable matter from the soft wood or alburnum of the stock ; and that union is rendered permanent and complete by the re- turning sap from the leaves of the stock, or from those of the shoots made by the bud. The rationale of budding has been thus laid down by Mr George Lindley, in " Guide to the Orchard :" — " Budding differs from grafting in this, that a portion of a stem is not made to strike root on another stem, but that, on the contrary, a bud deprived of all trace of the woody part of a stem is introduced beneath the bark of the stock, and there induced to strike root. In this operation no care is requisite in securing the exact contact of similar parts, and a free channel for the transmission of the roots of the bud between the bark and wood of the stock ; for, from the very nature of the operation of budding, this must of necessity be insured. The bark of the bud readily coheres with the wood of the stock, and secures the bud itself from all accidents or injury. But if precautions of the same nature as in grafting are not requi- site in budding, others are of no less moment. It is indispensable that the bud which is em- ployed be fully formed, or what gardeners call ripe. If it is imperfectly formed) or unripe, it may not be capable of that subsequent elonga- tion upwards and downwards upon which the whole success of the practice depends. Second- ly, great care should be taken, in raising the bark of the stock for the insertion of the bud, that the cambium be not disturbed or injured. The cambium is a secretion between the wood and bark, not only destined to support the de- scending fibres of the buds, but also to generate that new cellular substance within which the descending fibres are finally found imbedded. " If, in the preparation of the bait for receiv- ing the bud, this cambium be injured or dis- turbed, it becomes much less capable of effecting the cohesion that is necessary than if uninjured. In budding, therefore, the bark should be care- fully lifted up, and not forced from the wood with a bone or metal blade, as is usually done ; for although it is no doubt true that an opera- tion clumsily performed will often succeed, yet it should be remembered that, if skilfully ma- naged, it would be attended with much more success ; and that a habit of continually operat- ing with delicacy will enable the gardener to succeed with certainty, in cases in which a bungling practitioner would be sure to fail." Besides the mere purpose of propagation, budding induces important changes in the con- dition of plants ; as, for example, buds trans- ferred from a seedling tree or shrub, and placed on one of greater age, will produce fruit and flowers sooner than if left on the parent plant. Weak-growing plants, budde_d on stocks of a stronger character, become strengthened ; and hence the weaker-growing vines attain greater strength when budded on the Nice or Syrian. The double yellow rose, which seldom flowers naturally, will do so if budded on some of the stronger-growing China varieties ; and almost all weak-growing plants, if wrought upon stronger- growing ones of the same species, will be equally strengthened. Almost all buds are formed at the axle of the leaves or extremity of the branches, and contain the rudiments of future leaves, branches, or fruit, as well as in many cases the means of pro- pagation. Buds do not spontaneously disen- gage themselves from the plant to form new individuals, but they may be taken off by man, and artificially made the means of producing future plants. When buds are situated as above, they are called normal or irregular buds, to dis- tinguish them from those that are placed around the collar of the plant, upon the leaves or stem, or otherwise not being axillary or terminal, and which are called adventitious. Some plants do not produce buds, such as annuals ; and even many trees in tropical countries are equally destitute of them, while in cold countries they universally exist. The season for performing the operation of budding is in spring, when the sap is rising, and in the end of siimmer — say July or August — • when the sap is descending. In the former case the inserted bud develops itself imme- diately, while in the latter this development does not take place till the spring following. At other seasons, also, the operation has been successfully accomplished, much depending on the kind of tree, and also on whether it be an early or late season. In budding at an early season, it is of importance to insert the bud with the whole of its wood attached; but as the season advances, and the buds have attained their full maturity, the less of this woody mat- ter that is retained the better. "Budding in spring or early summer is generally accompa- nied, it may be presumed, by a copious current of sap. Not so, however, late summer-budding on all occasions ; for the season may have been unusually warm and dry, the stock may be short of sap — or, in other words, be beset with a pa- ralysed root action. All these are impediments. A copious watering the evening previous to the process will, however, promote the free rising of the bark,on which so much depends. In addition to this, a cloudy day is preferable to a sunny one." — Cott. Gard, Diet. Mild cloudy weather is in general preferred for this operation, because the viscous surfaces exposed to the air are more liable to be dried up by evaporation, by which the heal- ing process is retarded, if not entirely prevented ; besides, in dry windy weather the bark will not rise so well. This opinion has, however, been of late questioned by Mr Saul of Bristol, who says, in the "Gard. Mag. of Botany," "that in warm weather the sap is more gelatinous ; and the bud, on being extracted and inserted in the 340 HARDY FEUIT GARDEN. stock quickly, properly tied, &c., adheres more readily. On the contrary, in wet cloudy weather the sap is more thin and watery, and the bud will not unite so freely." To this he adds, " that a fall of rain — likely in such weather — after the buds are inserted, will fill up the incisions, and thereby rot and perish the buds before they have time to unite with the stock. Not only is clear weather best for the experienced budder, but likewise for the amateur and tyro." Much of the success depends on the state of the bud. " The mature bud," Mr T. A. Knight, in " Transactions of the Horticultural Society," vol. iii. p. 136, observes, " takes immediately with more certainty, under the same external circumstances; it is much less liable to perish during winter, and it possesses the valuable property of rarely or never vegetating prema- turely in the summer, though it be inserted be- fore the usual period, and in the season when the sap of the stock is most abundant. I have," he says, " in different years, removed some hundred buds of the peach-tree from the forcing-house to luxuriant shoots upon the open wall; and I have never seen an instance in which any of such buds have broken and vegetated during the summer and autumn. But when I have had occasion to reverse this process, and to insert immature buds from the open wall on the branches of trees growing in a peach-house, many of these, and in some seasons all, have broken soon after being inserted, though, at the period of insertion, the trees in the peach-house Lad nearly ceased to grow." The season of budding, or rather the state of the plant, is of primary importance in securing success. " Buds should either be inserted," says Dr Lindley, in " Theory of Horticulture," p. 244, " when the vegetation of a plant is languid, or growth above the place of insertion should be arrested by pinching the terminal bud; otherwise the sap which should be directed into the bud, in order to assist in its adhesion, is conveyed to other places, and the bud perishes from starvation. For similar reasons, when a bud begins to grow, having firmly fixed itself upon the stock, the latter should be headed back nearly as far as the bud, so as to compel all the current of sap to flow towards it, otherwise the buds of the stock itself will obtain that food which the stranger bud should be supplied with." Much of the success in budding depends on the condition of the bud at the time of its inser- tion ; yet even as to that condition opinions are by no means agreed. We have stated that such buds as appear to have lost their root or heart by the operation of extracting the woody matter under them, are useless, and should be dis- carded. This is denied by Mr Lymbum, who asserts that blind buds owe their origin to the bud itself being diseased, more than to the sup- posed injury they sustain in the removal of the piece of wood connecting the bud with the al- burnum. A writerin "The Gardeners' Chronicle," 1842, on this matter remarks: "The bud will sometimes take although the heart appears to bo gone ; it will sometimes adhere and start quickly, although more wood be left in the shield than will allow the sides to lie flat down; but the evident desideratum is, that no more of the wood adjacent to the eye be left than will secure its close attachment to the shoot upon which it may be placed, nor any less than may suffice to retain the growing principle, the limit of which must be defined by a combination of theory and practice, and at present remains a problem to be solved. Many buds have I inserted, in which the eyes have not been sufiiciently swollen, and no produce has come forth ; and many a bud have I inserted, in the hope that the cambium would fill the vacant hole, which fear told me was too large, yet which a scanty supply of buds induced me to retain — ^bu t all in vain ; for though the bark adhered the eye was lost, and many a wood bud inserted thus has become dry before it could adhere. I beHeve the great secret to be, taking the bud in its proper state — i. e., full formed (not too near the base of the stock, from which it will part with difficulty, nor too near the top, because insufficiently ripe) — and to insert it when the receiving plant and the weather are in a favourable state to continue the elaboration of those juices necessary to form a junction. The period of the year is, comparatively speaking, immaterial. I have inserted buds at all times, and have now in my possession a plant that was worked on the 21st October, ten years ago. Shoots that grow angularly, and are nearly the same size all the way up, afford better buds than such as are produced on long rapid-growing branches : the buds on the latter are seldom well defined, and if inserted at all hollow in the centre, are sure to go blind." Peculiar advantages of budding. — To those noticed above we may add the facility that the process affords of producing a shoot in almost any part of the tree, at the will of the operator, where, without this transplanting of a bud, no branch could be induced to form. Many varie- ties may by this mode be made to grow on a siugle tree, which no other species of grafting could effect so completely. Many stone-fruits are multiplied by this means, which could not be BO successfully accomplished by the other species of grafting. And, lastly, the buds of young fruit-trees, when transplanted to the branches of full-grown ones, will be induced to produce their fruit, which, if left on the parent stem, might not do so for years. Mr Knight, by transferring the blossom buds of an abundant fruit-bud-producing tree to the branches of those which do not show these organs so profusely, or even sparingly, caused excellent crops of fruit thus to be produced on the latter. Natural advantages of budding. — Trees propa- gated by this means are thought to be of longer duration than those that are grafted ; they also are in general two years longer in pi-oducing fruit than grafted ones of the same species. The process is employed on most stone-bearing fruit trees, as in their case grafting is apt to bring about a disposition in them to throw out gum at the point of union. Trees, also, which may have failed to take by grafting in spring, may be budded in July or August — an important matter in fruit-tree nurseries. Most woody plants may be multiplied by budding, many of which could not be oJ)erated on by grafting. PEOPAGATION BY BUDDING. 341 Preliminavy process. — The state of the bark, both in the bud and in the stock, must be at- tended to, as the bark in both cases must sepa- rate freely from the wood beneath ; for if either be unfit in this respect, there will be little chance of success in the operation. This is best ascer- tained by making trial incisions, and if both are found in a proper state, operations should be at once commenced. If the bark do not rise freely, the process should be delayed for a few days ; and this state wUl often be accelerated if copious supplies of water be given at the roots, more especially in hot dry weather. The buds are then to be cut from the parent tree, not indi- mdually, but the shoots of the current year on which they are growing are to be removed, their leaves out off, leaving a part of the leaf- stalk to each, to serve as a handle in insert- ing the bud, as well as to act as a protection to it. The reason for cutting off the leaves is to prevent the loss of sap by evaporation ; and branches so treated may be sent to a great dis- tance without injury to the vitality of the buds, if they are carefully packed in an air-tight case. While the operation of making the incision for the bud in the stem of the stock is going on, the cuttings should be placed handy, kept under shade, and with their lower ends in a pan of water. As each incision is made a bud is cut from the shoot, and when prepared, is inserted as quickly as possible, and fiied by coiling a strand of fresh matting, &c. around the bud and stock — which matting should be kept in a moist state, and handy to the operator. Such arrangements are necessary in most sorts of budding. Shield-hiddmg, in one or other of its modifi- cations, is that most generally practised in Bri- tain, and, with flute-budding, may be said to embrace all the modes of the operation really useful. Shield-budding in spring is much practised by the Continental cultivators, and is found expe- dient at other seasons, in the case of roses, camellias, and many other flowering plants. For deciduous trees like the Fig. 113. Fig. 114. apple and pear, the buds are selected in autumn, and kept during winter * attached to the shoots they . are produced on, by placing ' their ends in the ground, as is usually done in the case of scions for grafting. In spring, when the sap is up in the stock, the buds are taken from the cuttings, and inserted in the fol- lowing manner : A trans- verse out is made by the common or the French budding-knife, figs. 113, 114, intheshoot containing the bud, a little below an eye ; and this transverse cut is met by a longer in- cision downwards, com- mencing a little above the BUDDiNo-KNivEs. Byo, takmg great care that VOL. II. Fig. 115. COMMON AND FRBNCH a portion of the wood is removed with the bark in which the bud is situated. The bark of the stock is then cut in manner resembling an invert- ed T; the greatest care should, however, be taken that the edges of both the cuts in the stock and bud be cut clean, so that they shall, when brought together, form a speedy and uniform union. In the case of the rose, the stock should be pruned down about eight days after the bud is inserted to the shoot above it on the oppo- site side of the stock, which shoot should be shortened by being pinched back to two or three eyes, remov- ing at the same time all the side shoots as they are produced; and when the shoot formed from the bud has extended to its fifth leaf, the point should be pinched off, which wUl cause it to branch out, and, in all probability, induce it to flower in September of the same year. The rose is also budded in spring, even before the sap rises in the stock, in the following manner : A niche is cut out of the stock, say an inch or so in length, as in fig. 116. A bud is taken of the same size and form, re- taining a small portion of the wood; the bud is then nicely fitted to the niche, and secured by coiling a strand of soft matting round it. In Fig. 116. the same manner the camellia, orange, and rhododendron may be budded, only in their cases the entire leaf should be left attached to the bud. A modifi- cation of this manner is often resorted to in the case of the latter plants — namely, by taking a bud, a, with a portion of the wood attached to it, and cut- ting out a similar piece from the stock, b, and substituting the onefor the other. In the case of some very delicate plants, cot- ton wool or very soft moss is placed round the bud, and secured by passing a strong thread round it, to keep it firmly in its place. In ordi- nary cases, however, the expert budder uses nothing but fine strands of bast matting, and the success as well as the expedition with which this nice operation is performed in our British nurseries is truly wonderful. Thfe rationale of budding is thus clearly 2x SHTKLD-EUDDING THE ROSE. SHIELD-BUDDING THE CAMELLIA. 342 HARDY FRUIT GARDEN. explained by Dr Lindley, in " Theory of Hort.," p. 223 : " By these means we gain the import- ant end of bringing in close contact a consider- able surface of organising matter. The organi- sation of wood takes place on its exterior, and that of the bark on its interior surface, and these are the parts which are applied to each other in the operation of budding ; in addition to which the stronger bud finds itself in its new position as freely in communication with aliment- ary matter, or more so, than on its parent branch. A union takes place of the cellular faces, or horizontal system of the stock and bark of the bud; while the latter, as soon as it begins to grow, sends down the woody matter or vertical system through the cellular substance. In con- sequence of the horizontal incision, the return- ing sap of the scion is arrested in its course, and accumulates just a little above the new bud, to which it is gradually supplied as it is required. Sometimes the whole of the wood of the bud below the bark is allowed to remain; and in that case contact between the organising sur- faces of the stock and scion does not take place, and the union of the two is much less certain. As it is, however, usually practised with tender shoots before the wood is consolidated, the con- tact spoken of is of less moment. In all oases, a portion of the wood of the bud must be left adhering to it, or the bud will perish ; because its most essential part is the young woody mat- ter in its centre, and not the external surface, which is a mere coating of bark." This shows the necessity, in carefully removing the woody part of the bud, of preserving the root, as it were, of the bud itself, as has been already said. The Americans do not extract the wood from the bud, but leave it in as cut from the shoot, and this may possibly suit their hot, dry cli- mate ; but from experiments made by Mr Saul of Bristol, who has practised both methods in the extensive nurseries at Diu'dum Dovras, his conclusions are in favour of the English mode — namely, of extracting the wood from the bud. Sometimes, he says, there may be an advantage in putting in the wood — namely, when the shoot has become firm, and the wood and bark will not freely separate ; then, if inserted in a free- growing stock, it will in all probability take. The evidence of both writers and practitioners in both countries is so divided upon this sub- ject, that we shall here transcribe the American practice, as given by Mr Downing, one of their best authorities, in his useful work, " Fruits and Fruit Trees of America." American shield-budding, — "Having your stock of buds ready, choose a smooth portion of the stock. When the latter is small, let it be near the ground, and, if equally convenient, select also the north side of the stock, as least exposed to the sun. Make an upright incision in the bark from an inch to an inch and a half long, and at the top of this make a cross cut, so that the whole shall form a T ; from the stick of your buds (your knife being very sharp) cut a thin smooth slice of wood and bark containing a bud ; with the ivory heft of your budding- knife now raise the bark on each side of the iuoiaion just wide enough to admit easily the prepared bud. Taking hold of the foot-stalk of the leaf, insert the bud under the bark, pushing it gently down to the bottom of the incision. If the upper portion of the bud projects above the horizontal part of the T, cut it smoothly off now, so that it may completely fit. A ban- dage of soft matting is now tied pretty firmly over the whole wound, commencing at the bot- tom, and leaving the bud and the foot-stalk of the leaf only exposed to the light and air." Mr Downing continues : " The American variety is found greatly preferable to the European mode, at least for this climate. Many sorts of fruit trees, especially plums and cherries, nearly ma- ture their growth, and require to be budded in the hottest part of our summer. In the old method, the bud having only a shield of bark, vrith but a particle of wood in the heart of the bud, is much more Uable to be destroyed by heat or dryness than when the slice of wood is left behind, in the American way. Taking out this wood is always an operation requiring some dexterity and practice, as few buds grow when their eye or heart wood is damaged. The Ame- rican method, therefore, requires less skill, can be done earlier in the season with younger wood, is performed in much less time, and is uniformly more successful. It has been very fairly tested upon hundreds of thousands of fruit trees for the last twenty years ; and although practised English budders coming here are at first greatly prejudiced against it, as being in du-eot opposi- tion to one of the most essential features in the old mode, yet a fair trial has never failed to convince them of the superiority of the new." Saul's new method of shield-budding. — ^"In budding," says this cultivator, " the top bud on the shoot should be commenced with, cutting from about an eighth of an inch below the bud or eye, to from half an inch to an inch above it, in order that there may be a suficiency of bark to hold with the fingers without rubbing the portion which is to be inserted ; take out the wood as already recommended ; next make an incision in the shoot of the stock close to the main stem, and about half an inch long— this is long enough ; cut across at top, raise the bark with the end of the budding-knife without bruising it, and insert the bud. It is now to be tied with a little worsted or cotton. One tie below the eye and two above will be ample, as its entire length will not be more than half an inch, and a quarter of that below the eye. The most inexperienced amateur need not give more than two rounds below the eye and three above ; but the practical workman will find the number I have mentioned sufficient." Shield-budding reversed, fig. 1 17, is performed by having the transverse cut at the bottom of the perpendicular slit instead of at its top, and of course the shield is revei-sed in position. This mode is preferred by those who think that the sap rises in the bark equally with the wood; but as this opinion is not ftiUy entertained, the process is seldom used in this country, although very generally in the south of Europe, particu- larly in the propagation of orange-trees. It is admitted to be suitable for trees having gummy sap. For the same purpose budding with the PROPAGATION BY BUDDING. 343 Fig. 117. SHIELD-BUDDING REVERSED. eye turned downwards has been recommend- ed. But its most important use is to induce a state of productiveness in fruit trees. In consequence of the bud being placed with its point downwards, an inter- ruption takes place in the flow of the sap. This effect is denied by many, wlio say the shoots after a time regain their natu- ral position, and hence no such interruption takes place. The shoot, no doubt, the second year, takes its natural upright direction ; but the bend, which is always abrupt at the point where it changes from the pen- dant to the upright, has much the same effect on the sap's flow as that of bending an up- right branch downwards, but probably not to the same ex- tent. Shield-buddimg with a termi- nal bud. — This mode is some- times employed inj the case of a tree losing its leading shoot, or of a branch meeting with a similar accident. Shield-budding with a mem to repair injury done to the bark. — This is done by paring the edges of the wound smooth, and selecting a piece of healthy bark from the same or from another tree of the same species, of the same shape and size, and covering the wound so exactly that a union takes place and the blemish is repaired. It is difficult to cause adhesion in the case of stone-fruits by this means. It is, however, sel- dom resorted to. Shield-budding the rose is thus described by Mr Paul, in his beautiful work, " The Eose Garden," p. 131; and as few have succeeded more in the propagation of " the queen of flowers," we present his modus operandi in nearly his own words : " The piece of bark is called the bud {d, fig. 118), and the tree in which it is inserted is called the stock. In the first place, obtain a shoot from the tree whose identity we wish to perpetuate ; from this the leaves are cut off, leaving, however, about half an inch of the leaf-stalk to every bud. Before proceeding farther, the prickles should be rubbed off both stock and scion, that they may not interfere with the operation, or annoy the fingers of the operator. Now take the budding- knife in the right hand, and make a longitudinal cut, a a, about an inch in length, terminated at the top end, 6, with a cross cut. In using the knife, take care not to cut too deep : through the bark is aU that is necessary ; deeper is, indeed, injurious. Now turn the handle of the knife to the incision, running it up and down the out a a, twisting it slightly on either side, to raise the bark. All is now ready for the reception of the stranger bud. Take the shoot which is to furnish it in the left hand, with the thicker part towards the finger-ends; with the knife in the right hand, commence cutting about half an inch behind the bud, passing the knife up- wards under the bud, and to about the same distance beyond it. The knife should have a Fig. 118. MR PAUL 9 METHOD OF SHIELD-BUDDING. keen edge, that the bark may not be ruflJed in the operation. In cutting out the bud, the knife should pass through almost level ; it may, however, in some cases dip a trifle, when passing directly under the bud, as the wood before and behind it is not always on the same level. If the bud be cut ever so skilfully, there will be a little of the wood adhering thereto. This some advise the removal of ; others say, let it remain. Much depends on circumstances. If the shoot is not fuUy ripe, or if, from the nature of the variety, the wood is soft when taken, cut the bud as shallow as possible, and place it with the wood in the stock; but the shoot is usually ripe and flrm, and then the wood should be withdrawn. To do this easily, place the bud between the fore-finger and thumb of the left hand, with the cut uppermost, and with the upper end pointing from the hand. Insert the point of the knife just beneath the wood, c — that is, between the wood and the bark — and by a skilful twist of the knife (which can only be acquired by practice) the wood may be jerked out. Now with the same hand place the bud on the bark of the stock, parallel with the longitudinal incision, and with the upper end towards the top of the shoot; then with the handle of the knife raise the bark on the side opposite to that on which the bud is placed,, pushing two-thirds of the bud beneath the bark with the thumb. Now raise the bark on the opposite side, and the bud may be gently pushed under with the handle of the knife, or will pro- bably drop in. When properly placed, the eye of the bud should be directly under the opening caused by the raising of the edges of the bark of the longitudinal incision/; if it be not so, the handle of the budding-knife should be in- serted beneath the bark, to push it to a right 344 HARDY FRUIT GARDEN. position. But if tlie bud be not deprived of the leaf-atalk, if that is allowed to protrude from the opening, the eye will be secured in the best site. After being inserted, the bud should be drawn upwards to the cross cut, and the upper end cut at the same angle, that its bark may abut against the bark of the stock laid open by the cross cut 6. The bud then is inserted, and it now remains to bind it in. For this purpose, take worsted or bast — the former is generally preferred; commence tying at the bottom of the cut, passing upwards till the whole length of the incision is bound over. Where the buds are feeble, or where success is deemed important, it is customary to tie a little damp moss or a leaf over the bud after the operation is completed, which is in no case ob- jectionable, except on account of the additional time it occupies. " About three weeks after the operation has been performed the worsted may be removed. If the bud is not well united, let it be tied up loosely again ; if it is, leave it untied, and there is an end of care till the following spring. In February, the wild shoot may be cut away 2 inches beyond the bud, when the latter will break, and soon form a tree. It is often said that it is unnecessary for the bud to remain so long dormant, and that it may be made to break, and, if an autumnal rose, even to flower, the same year." Mr Paul admits the truth of this statement, but condemns the practice. " It is accomplished by cutting off the wild shoot a few inches above the bud, or by tying a ligature tightly round it at the same distance. The ob- ject sought is to cut off certain channels, through which the sap naturally flows, that it may be- come concentrated in the vicinity of the bud. The results are usually premature development and an unsound plant. If the buds break soon after being inserted, the shoots are puny and weakly, evidently suflering from want of nourishment. If allowed to lie dormant till spring, they have a rich store of food at their command, and grow with surprising vigour. When a bud has shot a few inches, and formed two or three good leaves, the heart of the shoot may be pinched out, when from the axle of each leaf an eye will in time push forth. In May the stock may be headed down close to where the bud has been inserted; and if the growth be vigorous, the wound made in so doing will quickly cicatrise, and a perfect plant is the re- sult. If the time for budding be demanded, we should give July. It does not, however, require great penetration to see that this point depends in some measm-e on the season. The practised hand will cut and raise the bark, to ascertain when it parts freely from the wood ; the tyro will find a criterion in the prickles. If slight pressure cause them to separate from the bark, the stocks are in good order, and the fitness of the shoots or scions may be ascer- tained by the same test. If the weather be hot and sunny, morning and evening are the best periods for budding. A July sun pouring down his rays upon the operator is not altogether pleasant, and in regard to the operation, does not increase the chances of success. The shoots Fig. 119. from which the buds are to be taken should not be cut from the tree till we are ready for action, and the less time that elapses between the different branches of the work the better." ScaMop-budding may be performed at almost any season of the year, and also upon trees hav- ing thick or corky bark. It is accomplished by taking a thin tongue-shaped section of bark from the side of the stock, and a similar section from the shoot containing the buds, but in neither case removing the wood. The section contain- ing the bud is then laid on the corresponding scallop in the stock, its upper edge exactly fitted as in shield-budding, and at least one of its edges as in whip-grafting. After this it is secured ia the usual way. Annular or ring budding is performed either at the period of the first ascent, or at that of the principal movement of the sap in August. The stock and scion are formed as in fig. 119; but in either case the top of the stock is not to be interfered with. This is a valu- able mode of propagating trees or shrubs with hard wood and thick bark, or those which, like the walnut, have buds so large as to render it difficult to bud them in the common way. This mode is also of great value, and may be turned to good account, where hares or other vermin have destroyed the bark n«ar the ground, or even for fractured bark upon any part of a tree. Eeoourse is frequently had to such a process in America, and it is thus described by Downing : " In snowy winters, fruit trees in orchards are sometimes girdled at the ground by field-mice, and a growth of twenty years is thus destroyed in a single day, should the girdle extend quite round the tree. To save such a tree it is only necessary, as soon as the sap rises vigorously in the spring, to apply a new ring of bark, in the annular mode, taken from a branch of proper size ; tying it firmly, covering it with grafting clay to exclude the air, and finally drawing up the earth so as to cover the wound completely. When the tree is too large to apply a single ring, separate pieces, carefully fitted, will answer ; and it is well to reduce the top somewhat by pruning, that it may not make too large a demand on the root for a supply of food." Flute or tube budding. — Of this there are four distinct varieties, witli several modifications ; none are much practised in Britain. Common flute-budding, as will be seen by our figure of annular or ring budding, consists in removing a ring of bark from the stock, and procuring a similar ring of equal size, having a bud or buds, and which is to be fitted to the un- barked part of the stock, making the two barks fit exactly at their point of union. Should the ring to be attached be of rather too large diame- ter, it may be slit down the middle, and a por- ANNULAR BUDDING. PROPAGATION BY BUDDING. 345 Pig. 120. tion removed, so that, when placed on the stock, it may fit closely ; aud if too small, it is in like manner slit up longitudinally, to admit of its being put round the stock, and, if properly per- formed, a piece may be added to make good the deficiency. It is then tied on, and the slit cov- ered with clay or grafting-wax, to exclude the air till adhesion takes place. The operation is generally performed in spring, and considered by the Continental cultivators of advantage in the case of plants difficult to bud by other means. In the south of France, terminal flute- budding is chiefly had recourse to in the case of figs, mulberries, walnuts, chestnuts, &c. Terminal flute or tube budding, fig. 120. — Of this there are several modifications. It is em- ployed in cases of trees that are thought not to take readily by other means, such as the white mulberry, the walnut, &c. The operation is usually performed in spring, but may also be done in autumn. In the former case, the scions are taken off in autumn, aud stuck in the ground in a cool shady place till spring. The scion and stock should be as nearly of the same size as possible, at least the stock should not ex- ceed in diameter the scion, as it is desirable that the ring of bark taken off the latter should completely surround the former. When, however, the ring of bark is larger than the stock to be covered, a small portion of it may be cut out, so as to make the joining of its edges as com- plete as possible ; for it is im- portant that they do join. Budding with the pushing eye oflFers very considerable advan- tages in the process of rapid propagation. M. Carridre, in " Bfevue Horticole," October 1852, throws the following light upon this interest- ing subject. " Let us only see," he says, " how a rose-grower proceeds when he wishes to propagate speedily some new or choice va- riety. He encourages, by every means in his power, the perfect development of the first young shoots the plant pushes out ; and in this he succeeds in obtaining in June, and even some- times in May, eyes with which he can bud fresh stocks— these eyes, of course, being ready to push into shoots. The plants so budded will supply him, towards the end of summer, with other young shoots furnished with dormant eyes, such as will only push next spring, and with these he can bud more stocks, and obtain plants that will flower in the following season ; and by this course, in the space of a year he finds himself in possession of a considerable stock of a variety of which he had only a single plant at the outset." By the same process, M. Carridre observes, other plants can be as speedily propagated, and instances a new variety of lilac, which he had received on the 24th of May, on which day he took ofi' a small shoot from which five buds were wrought. Four of them took, TERMINAL FLUTE-BUDDING. and one of them is now (October) 28 inches long, affording 22 eyes fit for budding, which, if bud- ded now, would produce next spring a score of plants, the produce of one of the buds wrought last May. " Admitting," he continues, " that the success was not always so great, and that each of the four first buds produced shoots having only 1 6 eyes, still I should next spring find myself in possession of 64 plants." Of aU the varieties of budding, that termed shield-budding, fig. 115, is the most useful, and, therefore, the mode followed most genersjly in our nurseries. It is now considered pretty gene- rally, amongst practical propagators, to be the most judicious way of multiplying most of the varieties of fruit and ornamental trees and shrubs, and to a very considerable extent has superseded propagation by grafting. The season for performing the operation, as has already been remarked, extends over a considerable period, depending much on the kind of tree and condition of the wood; aud the only rule that can be laid down in this case is, that the buds should appear plump, fvilly and perfectly formed in the axles of the leaves, and the bark rising freely in the shoot into which the bud is to be inserted. This state depends upon the free ascent of the sap ; and hence, as has been sug- gested by Mr Saul, mild and warm weather is to be preferred to a dull and cloudy state of the sky for performing the operation. Hardy ever- greens take freely if budded in June, selecting buds from shoots of the preceding year's growth, and inserting them in the stock without remov- ing the wood, as is usually practised with deci- duous trees. Towards the end of June and be- ginning of July, the most forward in growth of deciduous ornamental trees and shrubs should be proceeded with, taking the buds from the most advanced shoots of the present year's growth. From the beginning of July to the middle of August, stone-fruits and pears, with the exception of the peach and apricot, may be successfully wrought ; and during the latter end of August and beginning of September, peaches, apricots, and apples will be in a fit condition for budding. Many other modes of budding might be de- scribed — the above maybe taken as the principal. The part of the stock into which the bud is ,to be inserted demands consideration. In a leading article in " The Gardeners' Chronicle," 1842, this matter is very clearly explained. " When first inserted, the bud is mainly nour- ished by matter sent down from the leaves of the stock ; it should therefore be introduced near the lower end of a shoot, and not near the point. The number of buds to be put into the same branch is no further material, than that many incisions in the same branch will have the effect of impairing its general health. As the young bud is to be nourished at first by the leaves above it on the stock, the best place to insert it is close beneath some leaf in full acti- vity ; it is not, therefore, the most open and smooth part of the stock that is to be selected (although we see this daily done) when a choice can be made. For the same reason, it might appear injudicious to shorten the branch into 346 HARDY FRUIT GARDEN. which a bud is inserted ; but if the shoot is not stopped, the rising sap will be attracted into the youngest leaves, and expended in their increase; while, on the other hand, if the shoot is stopped, the sap will be forced laterally into the buds already forming on its sides, and the new bud will participate in this advantage. It is there- fore, upon the whole, advantageous to cut off a part of each shoot into which a bud is intro- duced. The removal of a quarter of it is enough to answer the intended purpose. As it is im- portant in every way that the vigour of the budded branch should be preserved for the buds which are forming, aU flowers or fruit should be cut off it, and from the twigs in its vicinity, otherwise these parts will consume the organis- able matter which should be applied to the ser- vice of the new buds." § 5. — PROPAGATION BY CUTTINGS. The accidental sticking into the ground of a willow twig, or other equally ready-rooting plant, may have taught man the art of increasing by cuttings. Propagation by cuttings, like grafting, by no means constitutes a new plant, but only an extension of the parent from which it was taken, differing in no respect in habit, nature, or property, from it. Many plants originated from cuttings, such as the poplar, vine, elder, willow, &c., attain as large a size and as great an ago as if originated from seed ; and the first and last of these are almost invariably propagated by this means, and that often when the cutting or truncheon is of large size and considerable age. The oak and beech amongst trees are, however, exceptions to this rule, and it was long thought that coniferous trees were incapable of this mode of increase. Subsequent experience has, how- ever, proved this opinion to be incorrect, for with the exception of Araucaria exeelsa, Pinus nobilis, and a few others, our expert nursery propagators increase this popular family with seemingly little difficulty; and there is no doubt but that plants of this order so multiplied will make more healthy and more durable trees than those propagated otherwise than by seeds. In- stances have occasionally occurred of some coni- ferous trees propagating themselves somewhat in the way of layers or cuttings, as where their lower branches have come into contact with the ground, and been partially by accident covered with soil, they have rooted, and their points taken an upright direction, and when afterwards separated from the parent, have become toler- able trees. These instances are of rare occur- rence, but they no doubt first led the observing cultivator to adopt, artificially, a more certain process than was thus pointed out to him by nature. That portion of a plant or tree selected for a cutting must of necessity contain buds or eyes on its surface to secure its growth, and hence that portion of the stem or branches called the internode— that is, the spaces which intervene between leaf and leaf, or bud and bud, as exem- plified in the vine, fig. 121, and which have no buds, as from a to a — is of all parts the most Fig. 121. CUTTING OF VINE. improper for the purpose. The vine, and some other plants, when subjected to a humid atmo- sphere, throw out roots even into the air, but these are always found to proceed from the buds, 6 6. "Hence it has been inferred," Dr Lindley observes, "that the roots of a plant are as much productions of buds as branches are, and that the stem is nothing more than a collection of such roots held together, under the form of wood and bark." This is the reason why cuttings should be cut close below a leaf bud; if cut above it on the inter- node,roots could not be produced. This opinion seems confirmed by the circumstance of the old trunks and larger branches of pear-trees, when blown down, often striking roots at those parts where they come in contact with the ground, as instanced in the celebrated old pear-tree at Holme Lacy, in Here- fordshire, and in the case of many others of far less note. Upon care- fully examining such trees, it wiU be found that the roots have ema- nated from latent buds which, had they not come in contact with the soil, would for ever have re- mained dormant. And in the very same way, roots were produced from the under side of the ancient mulberry- tree described by Dr NeiU, In " Horticultural Tour," p. 13, as then existing in a garden at Canterbury, and which had been prostrated above a century. Another well-authenticated fact is recorded by Mr Livingstone in the fourth volume of" The Horticultural Society's Transac- tions," in the case of the Petrocarpus marmpmm, one of the largest trees of the East Indies, which is " readily propagated by cuttings of all siaes, if planted even after the pieces have been cut for many months, notwithstanding they appear quite dry, and fit only for the fire. I have witnessed," says Mr Livingstone, " some three, four, five, six, or seven inches in diameter, and ten or twelve feet long, come to be fine trees in a few years. While watching the transformation of the log into the tree, I have been able to trace the progress of the radicles from the buds, which began to shoot from the upper part of the stump a few days after it had been placed in the ground, and marked their progress till they reached the earth. By elevating the bark, minute fibres are seen to descend contemporaneously as the bud shoots into a branch." And even chips of such trees as the poplar, having a portion of the bark remaining on them when buried in the ground, have been known to produce roots, and ultimately to become trees — -a circumstance noticed by some of our oldest horticultural writers. Of fruit-bearing hardy trees, the vine, fig, mulberry, gooseberry, and currant are for the most part propagated by cuttings. Almost every variety of apple may be propagated by cuttings; the pear less readily; and all other PROPAGATION BY CUTTINGS. 347 sorts are so by grafting, budding, suckers, or layers. Cuttings ofluxrdy fruit trees should be taken o£f any time between the shedding of the leaves in autumn and the first swelling of the buds in spring. The earlier, however, they are taken off and planted after the ripening of the wood the better, as in this case the ceJIus will form at their base during winter, and the roots com- mence to push out early in spring. A some- what shaded and cool place, such as behind a north wall, is the most proper ; and one exposed much to the sun is the worst that could be chosen. During AprU and May, whUe their roots are forming, they will derive considerable benefit from the pai-tial shade of the wall, if not planted neai-er it than 3 or 4 feet; while by the end of June, and through July and Au- gust, they will enjoy a sufficient amount of sun- shine. By the end of October they will be ready for transplanting into nursery lines in the open garden. For the various modes of performing the operation applicable to hardy fruit trees, mde articles Vine, Fig, Mulberry, Goosebehrt, and Apple. Cuttings of hardy deciduous trees and shrubs are for the most part taken off in autumn, when the wood becomes ripe, and may be either planted at the same time, or laid in pretty thickly in the soil, having one-third of their lower ends covered with earth. In this way space is eco- nomised ; and as the callosity will form at their root ends, if brought in close contact with the earth, as well in this position as if planted out, they may afterwards be planted when time per- mits, only the earlier in spring the better. Cuttings of Conifera.— Many of these are now found to propagate freely by this means, and many fine plants are already in our collections, even of the very recently introduced sorts, such as Taxodium sempernrens, Cryptomeria japo- nica, and the funebral cypress. The hardier and more common sorts, as the Arhor vitce, Irish or upright yew, Swedish juniper, and many of the small-leaved kinds of pines, if the cuttings are taken off as soon as they have completed their annual growth, and planted in a shady border, or in a pit with a northern exposure, will root freely, and make as good plants as if origi- nated from seed. The following very judicious directions have recently been given by Mr Ap- pleby, in the ninth volume of "The Cottage Gar- dener," p. 242 : " The way to manage Coniferse is first to prepare a pot to put them in ; drain it well, and cover the drainage with a little moss ; then fill the pot to within an inch of the top with a compost of loam and sandy peat, mixing it freely with sand ; upon this place an inch of pure sand, watering it gently, to settle it and make it firm. Then prepare the cuttings— take them off the tree just at the point where the last made wood joins to the wood made the pre- vious year ; trim off, without wounding the bark, the lower leaves and branches, if any, and insert the cuttings in rows across the pot till it is full. The best time to do this is about the month of October, though they will do pretty well up to the March following. Water the cuttings gently, and allow the tops to dry, then place them in a gentle hot-bed, just warm enough to cause them to form a swelling at the base, but not so hot as to induce shoots, unless the operator has the convenience of a greenhouse to harden them off. They do not require bell-glasses, or at least will root very well without them. In putting in cuttings of Coniferse in the above manner, I refer more especially to the more rare kinds, such as the Cryptomarias, some Cupressuses, Taxodium sempervirens, Arbor mtce, and some of the genus Taxus. Others that are more common may be successfully propagated by cuttings put in early in the autumn, under hand-glasses, on a north- west border, where the sun leaves them about ten o'clock. For such the ground should be prepared in a similar way to that in the cutting- pots, and the cuttings put in by the same method. The hand-glasses should be kept on through the winter, and removed as soon as they begin to grow in spring." This excellent cultivator re- commends taking up the cuttings and potting them, and placing them under a cold frame to encourage their free growth, and most wisely recommends their being planted out into nur- sery-rows before the roots become matted round the sides of the pots. In the case of Aravxaria excelsa, which is rarely propagated successfully by cuttings, he recommends taking out the cen- tral shoot, or main leader, which will induce several other leaders to push up, any of which may be taken off as soon as formed, and put in as cuttings. This will no doubt secure young trees of perfect form, keeping the original as a stock to provide future supplies. Cuttings of partially ripened wood. — In this state most hardy evergreen shrubs are propa- gated, as well as roses, particularly the China, tearscented, and most climbing sorts, which, if put in towards the end of summer in a sheltered somewhat shaded place, will form their callosity during winter, and root freely in spring. Of greenhouse plants, the camellia, oleander, and similar plants, may be given as examples. These should be allowed to form their callosity in a low temperature, which should be increased as the roots begin to appear. Cuttings of young wood. — Themajority of hardy soft- wooded flowering plants will readily root by this means. Pinks, carnations, double wall- flowers, and most double-flowering herbaceous plants, penstemons, salvias, verbenas, dwarf lo- belias, snap-dragon, lychnis, mimulus, &c., may be given as examples. And of soft-wooded green- house plants, pelargoniums, fuchsias, cuphia, heliotropium, calceolaria, selago, tropseolum, maurandia, &c. These should be cut imme- diately under an eye or bud, as shown in fig. 122, their lower leaves removed so far only as the cutting is to be planted in the soil or sand, the leaves above that being left entire. They should also be planted as soon after they are removed from the parent plant as possible, to prevent their suffering from unnecessary eva- poration. They should be placed in pots well -drained, and half -filled with the soil congenial to the species ; over that should be laid a covering of pure white sand, in which there are few or no traces of iron or earthy matter, of a thickness somewhat more than 348 HARDY FRUIT GARDEN. the depth to which the cutting is to be set, say from one-half to an inch in depth. It is of much importance that the Fig. 122. cuttings be planted be- fore the leaves flag, and it is of equal conse- , quenoe that they be ' arranged as near to the edge of the pot as pos- sible; those so placed will root sooner than such as are set nearer the centre. In striking soft-wooded plants, no suspension to their en- ergies should be allow- ed to take place if pos- sible; hence their leaves should not be permit- cuTTiNG Off PELaRGONruM. tcd to flag, thc opera- tion should be carried on in the shade; and when planted they should be gently watered, and the pots plunged in a slightly-heated hot-bed, and air excluded by covering with bell or hand glasses, if the conve- nience of a properly-constructed propagating pit is not at command. Shading from bright sun, keeping the atmosphere damp around them, and maintaining a uniform mild heat, are the conditions most favourable for their speedily striking root. Care must, however, be taken that they suffer not from damp, and that air be admitted to them gradually, and increased as the process of rooting advances. This requires not daily, but almost hourly attention. Soft- wooded stove-plants require a bottom tempera- ture of from 70° to 80°. Greenhouse soft- wooded plants, on the other hand, require it in a less degree, say from 50° to 60°, particularly until the caUua is formed, after which, and when the roots are growing, it may be increased 10° more. Some of these, however, should have no extra bottom-heat beyond that of the tempera- ture of the house or pit they are placed in until their callosity is formed, after which an increase as above will stimulate both the roots and young shoots. No leaves should be cut ofi'or reduced in size unless they are numerous and large, and even this can only be sanctioned to the extent of preventing a greater degree of evaporation taking place in them than can be supphed by the cutting or the humidity which surrounds it ; and shading should only be resorted to with a view to secure the same end. Too close an atmosphere, accompanied with the necessary moisture around soft- wooded cuttings, tends greatly to destroy them, by causing them to damp off; and this is more to be guarded against when they are closely covered with bell or hand glasses than when grown in a properly-con- structed close pit, where the glass roof can be slightly obscured or covered with thin canvass, thus modifying both the amount of light and air. AU soft-jcooded plants are readily increased by cuttings, if the above conditions be com- plied with. As soon as the cuttings begin to grow, more air and light should be admitted to them ; and such as begin to push up weakly shoots should be topped, and, when fairly rooted. transplanted from sand into small pots in their proper soil. The hard- wooded plants that strike best from young shoots or tops are Erica, Epacris, Chinese azaleas, Perium, Chironia, the majority of Aus- tralian plants, Cytisus, 'Begonia, Boronia, Bur- chellia, Calothamnus, Calycanthus, Ceanothus, Chamsecistus, Cistus, Chimonanthus, Helichry- sum, Astelma, *citron, clethra, cKauthus, colle- tia, *combretum, coronilla, corrsea, cotoneaster, *croton, daphne, deutzia, diosma, adenandria, dracophyllum, *echites, Edwardsia, elseagnus, empetrum, enkianthus, ephedra, escallonia, fontanesia, *Eranciscea, 'gardenia, gardoquia, gnidia, gravellia, Hudsonia, hyssopus. Ilex, Illi- cium, *Ixora, 'Jatropha, Lambertia, Laurus, Lechenaultia, Ledum, Luculia, Medicago, Metro- sideros, *Murraya, Myrtus, Phylica, Pimelea, Plumbago, Polygala, Psoralea, *Quisqualis, Solea, Weigelia, &c. These, with the exception of those marked *, win strike, if placed in a moderate bottom-heat, say of 55° to 60°, until the callus is formed, when it may be increased to 65° or 70°. Those marked * will require from the first a bottom temperature of from 70° to 85°, accompanied by the conditions stated above. Many plants, however, are difficult to strike by cuttings by any of these means ; other modes are thferefore resorted to, as in the case of the orange and lemon, the cuttings of which should be cut off under a bud, and their base made to rest on the bottom of the pot, without the intervention of any soil whatever — " the object of which seems," as observed by Dr Lind- ley, " to be to place the absorbent or root end of the cutting in a situation where, while it is completely drained of water, it may, neverthe- less, be in the vicinity of a never-failing supply of aqueous vapour. If it were surrounded by earth, water would readily collect about it in a condensed state, and the vessels being all open in consequence of being cut through, would rise at once into the interior ; but the application of the root end immediately to the earthen bottom of the pot, with which it is so cut as to be nearly parallel, necessarily prevents any such accumulation and introduction of water, unless over-watering is allowed." In following out this principle, the intelligent reader will naturally discover that shallow pots or pans are better for the purpose than those that are of the usual depth, unless they be only half filled with soil, BO that the base of the cutting may touch the bottom without being of too great a length, which would disfigure, in many cases, the future plant. By only half-filling the pot, the sides above the sand or soil afford a partial shade; and where bell-glasses are not at hand, a piece of glass may be laid over the mouth of the pot as a very good substitute. Mr Alexander Forsyth, one of our most in- telligent gardeners, many years ago published in " The Gardeners' Magazine" (vol. ii. p. 564) an improvement on this mode. Fig. 123 will 'show his principle. A 48-sized pot was rendered water-tight at the bottom, by press- ing a handful of clay, a, over the drainage holes, above which he placed broken crocks, b, PROPAGATION BY CUTTINGS. 349 STRIKING CUTTINGS. SO as to raise the bottom of a small 60-sized pot placed within the other, so that the tops of both should Fig. 123. be level. The spaces between the inner and outer pots he filled up with soil, c, proper for the plant to root in, and above this white sand, d, placing the cut tings so that their bases should rest against the sides of the in- ner pot — which latter is filled with water, e, which, passing through the sides of the pot, reaches the cuttings. Others have, to effect the same end, placed a flat piece of crock under the base of each cutting, at such a, depth in the soil that the cutting shall rest upon it ; and others insert a smaller pot, turned bottom upwards, within a larger one, and insert the cuttings round the sides of the inverted pot. This is a good plan where bottom heat is applied, as it ascends within the inverted pot, and reaches the roots better than if it had to ascend through the soil. Cuttings of plants that are slow in forming a callus are sometimes half severed from the parent plant, and allowed to remain so until the wound be healed and the callosity begin to form, a circumstance which leads to the belief that air is a necessary agent in its formation. Plants containing a large pith are often difficult to strike, and those with hollow stems are equally so : in such cases the joint or node should inva- riably be cut through ; and in this, as in all other cases, the cut should be made with a clean sharp knife. Begarding the choice of cuttings, where strong and upright plants are required, the tops of the leading shoots, or the strongest of the side ones nearest to them, should be chosen ; and where less robust and bushy plants are aimed at, then the more slender side-shoots, and those nearest the bottom of the plant, should be taken. These latter shoots, if taken off with what is technically called a heel — that is, a small portion of the older branch at the junction be- tween the two — will strike more readily, as the portion of heel removed is in general well sup- plied with very minute incipient buds. The best time for taking off cuttings of green- house and stove plants is in spring, or early in summer, that the young plants may be estab- lished before next winter. There are, however, circumstances which set this rule aside, and in such cases the process must be carried on at other seasons. Many hard-wooded plants re- quire to be slightly excited into growth early in spring, to cause them to push out shoots fit for the purpose; by this means many heaths and VOL. II. other plants which do not strike readily, or take a long time to root, are pushed on, so as to be established before the close of the growing season. Bottom ft«a(.— The importance of bottom heat, accompanied with sufficient light and moisture, is thus spoken of by Professor Balfour, in " Class Book of Botany," p. 658 : " In causing cuttings to strike, we require a somewhat higher temper- ature than that of the climate in which they naturally grow. A willow-cuttiug stuck in the open ground will strike root; but it does so much faster, and more vigorously, when placed in a hot-bed. A white-thorn cutting in the open ground wiU not root at all ; in a warm propa^ gating-house it will do so readily. It is not the temperature of the atmosphere, but the tem- perature of the soil that requires to be raised. We must first obtain roots, and then leaves will follow. The cellular tissue of roots is first pro- duced by a local process, and the production of this tissue is kept up by the heat of the soil : hence the necessity for bottom heat, in order to secure good roots in the first instance ; and without them there will be no vigorous leaf- buds." This has reference more directly to cut- tings of soft-wooded plants, which, immediately after being inserted in the soil or sand, begin to form roots, often in the course of a few days. Others require longer time ; and some require months, before the stimulating effects of heat should be applied. On the advantage of bottom heat applied at the proper time, Dr Lindley re- marks, in "Theory of Horticulture," p. 213: " This is for the purpose of giving them a sti- mulus at exactly that time when they are most ready to receive it. Had they been forced at first in bottom heat, the stimulus would have been appHed to cuttings whose excitability had not been renovated, and the consequence would have been a development of the powers of growth so languid that they probably would not have survived the coming winter; but the sti- mulus being withheld till the cuttings are quite ready for growth, it tells with the utmost possible effect." Many plants, like the oleander, will strike roots if their ends be placed in water, and, when sufficiently rooted, may be planted in ordinary soil. Others, such as pelargoniums and verbenas, will root readily if planted in damp sphagnum; and many shrubs, such as the rose, will root readily in halfdecayed flax-dressers' refuse. Most plants will root, if set in the soil natural to them ; but the universal medium in which all valuable plants, and such also as are difficult to root, succeed best in, is clean silver sand laid over the soil in which the plant delights, so that when the roots pass through the sand they find their natural supply of food awaiting them. Many plants, although they will root freely in sand, refuse to grow in it, and in such cases the cuttings should be removed from it as soon as their roots are formed, and potted in soil con- genial to them. Cuttings of heaths, and similar hard-wooded plants, may be safely sent to a great distance, if placed loosely in a tin case, with from a tea- spoonful to a table-spoonful of water, according 2 Y 350 HAEDY FKUIT GAEDEN. to the size of the case, and that hermetically closed. We have known them so sent from Edinburgh to Vienna ; and further, Dr Falconer, in reference to deciduous cuttings, directs that they be cut early in November, choosing oldish and firm wood, with the greatest number of buds; cover their ends with wax, and roll them up separately in cotton ; make them up in bundles of from six to ten cuttings in each, and envelop them again in cotton covered with paper, and finish with a wrapper of stout silk or cloth, coated on the inside with India-rubber in the liquid or adhesive state, so that the side and end folds may adhere together for the exclusion of both air and wet. In this way Professor Bal- four states, in " Class Book of Botany," p. 658, " slips have been sent to Saharunpoor via Bom- bay (a distance of 7000 miles from Falmouth), in a state fit for planting when transmitted, in less than two months; and cuttings to be grafted will continue good double that period. Sometimes ringing is had recourse to, in the case of cuttings of plants which are difficult to strike. The interruption of the sap caused by this process has the effect of forming a callosity, which, if inserted in the ground after being separated from the plant, sends out roots freely. Piping is a species of propagation differing not in principle from striking by cuttings. It is applied to pinks, carnations, and similar her- baceous plants having jointed or tubular stems. Pipings should be put in as early as they can be got fit for the purpose, that the plants may be- come strong before winter, which in England is about the endof May or beginning of June. They are taken from the young shoots of the current year's growth. The lower leaves, in the case of pinks, are stripped off to within two or three joints of th^ top of the cutting. The lower part is cut off, close under a joint, with a clean and sharp knife. " When prepared, throw them into a pan of water, for from five to seven minutes, to stiffen. The piping-bed being ready, press them into the soil about three quarters of an inch, and the same distance apart : give a good sprink- ling of water, and as soon as the foliage is dry put the glasses over them. In about three weeks they will have rooted : at this period the glasses may be removed by degrees, first lifting them half an inch on one side for a day or two, and then all around; about the fourth day they may be taken off. Pinks will root as freely under a north wall as anywhere, and require less attention in shading when in such a situa- tion. Prepare a layer of spit dung, let it be put together thoroughly wet, and beat down with a spade to a level surface : if 8 inches deep, it vvill be quite sufficient to keep the worms from disturbing the young plants. On this must be placed the compost for the plants to root in, 3 inches deep. This should also be in a moist state, but not wet, and be moderately pressed to a smooth surface. The compost for the pur- pose must be of a sandy quality — leaf-mould or decayed vegetable mould, and silver sand sifted fine, equal parts of each. In the absence of the above, any sweet and sandy soU, pro- portioned as above, will answer ; but we give the preference to leaf-mould from its cool and retentive nature. Florist. '—Mr Neville m Beck's PIPINGS OF CARNATIONS. This may be considered the English practice. In the north, where the growth is later, slight bottom - heat is often required to make up by slight excitement what we want in warmth of climate and time to secure strong plants be- fore the season of growth termi- nates. The best florists have long abandoned the absurd practice of shortening the leaves of their pipings, and prepare them as shown, fig. 124, a ; b exhibits the mutilated piping of bygone times. Propagation by cuttings of the root. — Many plants may be multiplied by cuttings of the roots, instead of the more usual way of using portions of the branches or young shoots. Mr Knight has shown that the energies of a variety, artifi- cially produced (a hybrid), exist longer in the system of the root than in that of the stem ; so that it is more expedient to employ the roots of old varieties of fruit trees for cuttings than to use the stems. Many rare trees, shrubs, and plants are propagated by this means, and excel- lent thorn-hedges are formed by planting cut- tings of the roots — that is, pieces of them about a foot in length; and even chips, having some portion of the bark on them, of the poplar, if planted, will produce trees. In both cases ad- ventitious buds exist, and these, when called into action, form the future plants. Horse- radish, sea-kale, &o., if their roots be cut into pieces of only a few inches in length, and laid horizontally in the soil and slightly covered, will form roots at the one end and leaves at the other. The Moutan paeony is most suocessfiiUy multiplied by cuttings of the roots. The com- mon plum-trees and Pyrus japonica are readily propagated in a similar manner, plums having an extraordinary power of forming buds on their roots. That beautiful and not long introduced plant, Anemone japonica, has this property in an eminent degree all over the surface of its roots, so that they may be chopped into very small pieces, yet each of these is capable of forming a new plant. And amongst the equally inte- resting family of CEnothera the two species (E. macrocarpa and (E. ccespitosa are scarcely, excepting by seed, capable of being otherwise multiplied. Acacia puhescens amongst green- house plants, and some of the Ardisias, Olero- dendrons, Dracoemas, &c., amongst stove plants, are only by this means increased with certainty. Cuttings of the flower-stems are found to be the best mode of propagating the double-flowering varieties of the scarlet lychnis, double rockets, and many similar border-plants ; these, if cut PROPAGATION BY CUTTINGS. 351 / \ ry into lengths before flowering, and placed under a hand-glass in a shaded border, root freely. Cuttings of leaves. — Some idea of this mode of reproduction was entertained about the begin- ning of the last century, as in a work in Dutch by Agricola we find copperplate illustrations showing whole fields covered with orange leaves represented as growing into trees. Although this is suflioiently absurd, still a knowledge of the fact that some plants will strike roots from their leaves must have been possessed. The leaves of the orange, auouba, and the fig, being fur- nished with adventitious buds, will mvdtiply in this manner, as will also most of the generaAchi- menes, Gloxinia, Gesnera, and many other plants of like habit. Some of the Begonias, and many succulents, do the same; and the old and much neglected Bryophyllum Fig, 125. produces abundance of young plants along the largins of the leaves. I he process is as sim- le as the result is cer- iva, and aU that is re- uired is to lay the i laves flat down on the irface of silver sand, eeping them in their I ] lace by pegging them own; or, better, lay- I ig a small stone upon lem, placing them in 1 eat, with a due mount of moisture i.nd shade, as in other cuttings : from the veins a and crenate notches i around their edges, roots will speed- ily issue, as shown in fig. 125 ;and whenform- ed, the leaf, if it has not rotted away, may be torn up into pieces. Sometimes the foot- stalk of the leaf is inserted in the sand as if it were a cutting pro- per, in which case an excessive development of cellular tissue takes place at the base; a callus is formed, from which roots proceed, fig. 126, and after- wards a leaf-bud, which forms the future plant. \i Vi|i ^ " It is not sui'prising," -pj, Ljjj^igy remarks, " that leaves should possess this quality, when we remember that every leaf does the same thing natur- ally while attached to the plant that bears it; that is to say, forms at its base a bud which is constantly axillary to itself." PROPAGATION BY SINGLE LEAF. Fig. 126. (\ \ f/ PROPAGATION BY LEAF. Besides the plants we have named above as capable of propagating themselves by this means, the following are given as examples by Professor Balfour, in " Class Book of Botany :" " Some leaves naturally produce buds on their surface, as may be observed in Malaxis,ilspi(imm biilbi- ferum, and Nymyhaia micrantha. Other leaves, when placed in particular circumstances, give rise to leaf-buds at their margin. Thus the leaves oi Bryophyllum callycinum, when placed on the surface of damp soil, exhibit little roots all round their edge. The leaves of Dioncea mmci- pula can also be made to produce buds, and so can those species of Gesnera, Gloxinia, and Achimenes. Occasionally leaves take root and form plants, as was observed by Knight in Mentha piperita. Buds are formed accidentally on the leaves of Drosera, Portulaca, Cardamine pratensis, and Nepeta glechoma. They are also formed on fleshy detached leaves, as on those of different species of Crassula, Aloe, on the bulb scales of Eucomis regia, Lilium candidmn, Hyacinth and Squill, and on the leaves of Orni- tlwgalum thyrsoides. The leathery leaves of Ficus elastica, Hoya carnosa, and of species of Citrus, Aucuba, and Theophrasta, are occasion- ally bulb-bearing." Bell-glasses and hand-glasses are placed over newly-planted cuttings, with a view to preserve a uniform degree of humidity in the atmosphere by which they are surrounded, and to prevent, by the almost exclusion of air, that draught on the energies of the foliage which would take place were they not protected from its action. An excess of heat, cold, air, water, and even light, are alike injurious to tender cuttings ; and, therefore, to guard against these extremes such coverings have been adopted. , § 6. — PEOPAGATION BY LAYERS. Layering is one of the simplest, and probably one of the most primitive of all modes of pro- pagation. It consists generally in bending down the branches of shrubs or trees which are produced nearest the ground, and sufficiently flexible for the purpose, so that a portion of their length near to the middle may be covered with earth, and so bent that the point of the branch may be placed in a perpendicular direc- tion. The object of layering is to multiply the tree or plant without alteration in its chai'acter. The result, however, often is that a tree origi- nated by layering does not always assume the robust and uprigbt character of its parent, but assumes that of a rooted branch, as is often exemplified in the case of coniferous trees. This may, however, be corrected by cutting over the layer, after it is fairly rooted, near to the ground, where some latent bud may spring, and so send up a proper leader.. It is also employed in the case of plants which are difiicult to graft or bud, and which do not strike freely by cuttings, or produce seeds in this country. Herbaceous plants, such as the carnation, strike root readily from layers, and make as good plants as if propagated by any other means. Hardy shrubs with long trailing branches, like 352 HARDY FRUIT GARDEN. the clematis, honeysuckle, Wistaria, &c., propar gate readily by this means : the branches being trained along the surface of the ground, strike root at every eye or joint, but are made to do so usually at every alternate joint ; and some of them, like the bramble, will emit roots from the growing point, if inserted in the soil to the depth of an inch ; and the same mode has been practised with the common gooseberry. Roses, for the most part, are multiplied by layering, the operation being performed during spring or autumn, and sometimes at both seasons in the same year. The supply of plum and paradise stocks for grafting or budding fruit-trees on is procured by a species of layering, consisting merely in spreading out the branches on the surface of the ground, pegging them down early in spring, and covering them entirely, excepting the very points, with soil to the depth of half an inch. During summer, every bud sends up a shoot and produces roots at its base, forming by autumn a perfect plant, which is then cut off and transferred to nursery lines. The vine is often, in nurseries, propagated by bending down the shoots, and laying them in pots plunged in the ground ; but this is by no means a process to be recommended, as vine-plants so produced are seldom well rooted. — ( Vide art. Vine.) Many rare plants, difficult to increase other- wise, are laid in pots suspended so as to admit of their being either bent within the circum- ference of the pot, or introduced through the drainage-hole in its bottom ; and sometimes the Chinese practice is followed, of forming balls of earth, covered with moss, around the branch, and supporting it there until roots are formed in the mass. The season for performing the operation ex- tends nearly over the whole year. Hardy trees and shrubs are usually operated upon in spring, before the ascent of the sap, or delayed until the sap is pretty well up, towards the middle of summer. In nurseries where propagation is carried on to a large extent, very many of the hardy trees and shrubs are layered during autumn and winter. With plants in the arti- ficial atmosphere of a hot-house the case is different, and hence the operation may be per- formed at such times as the plant is found to be in a fit condition, irrespective of the above seasons. The best condition for the shoot to be in, is when that part of it where the sap is to be interrupted, whether by tonguing, ringing, notching, twisting, slitting, piercing, or betiding, is somewhat mature, -or what is called half- ripened. The shoots most proper to select are those in a healthy vigorous state of growth ; and the most improper, such as are stunted, diseased, or imperfectly formed. Old wood will root in time, but neither so soon nor with the same certainty as half-ripened wood, because the flow of the sap is more sluggish in the for- mer than in the latter. The operation of layering is thus performed in general practice : The ground around the stool or parent plant, presuming it to be growing in the open groimd, is loosened carefully, and if dry, moderately watered ; the shoots intended to be laid are then selected individually. If, as in the case of the roae or similar shrubs, only each shoot is to become a new plant, an incision is- made on the under side of the shoot, and a few inches from its base ; the top of the shoot is gently bent upwards, both with a view to give the future plant an upright direction in growth, and also to keep open the incision, particularly when tongued. In this position it is let into a slit formed in the soil, the part, where the in- cision is made being the point of connection between the descending portion of the layer (which is to be removed after rooting has taken place), and the upright portion of the layer which is to constitute the future plant ; the earth is then firmed about the shoot, which so far completes the operation. In layering, a great error is often committed by inserting the part to be rooted too deeply in the ground, and this is often done to save the trouble of pegging them down with a hooked stick. From 3 to 6 inches is the proper depth for layers of trees or shrubs ; but even this must be regulated by their size and age. The shoots of the previous season's growth are the most proper for this purpose, although older branches, particularly of Boft-wooded trees andshrubs,in extreme cases, may be used : but these require a longer time to root, and often have to be examined; and when indications of the formation of granulous matter do not appear, fresh incisions should be made to induce this state. Or the suggestion thrown out by Mr Knight may be followed of taking up the layer entirely, and removing a ring of its bark below where the former incision was made, so as completely to prevent the descent of the sap, and thereby force the shoot to em- ploy it in the formation of roots. The part of the layer at which the incision is to be made, should be immediately under a bud or joint, which is the point most favourable for the emis- sion of roots. The depth to which the incision should be made depends much on the nature of the plant, but in ordinary cases it should only penetrate into the alburnum, and not through it, as in the latter case the ascent of the sap would be arrested, and the buds and leaves above it prevented from performing their pro- per functions ; whereas, in the former case, the effect desired will be accomplished, which is to form an impediment to the descending sap, causing it to exude at the wound, and form that granulous matter which is the certain indication of the first formation of roots. There are vari- ous means of causing this interruption to the descending sap — namely, ringing, or removing a ring of bark, wholly or in part, from the layer; tmsting it by bending it at a very acute angle ; cutting a notch out of it ; forming a slit or tongue, kept open by placing in it a small piece of chip or stone ; twisting a piece of wire tightly round it ; boring a hole with a broad awl or gimblet, or driving a nail or peg through it. Several of these practices are sufiB- ciently barbarous as well as uncalled for : ring- ing in particular cases, and notching, tonguing, and twisting in ordinary ones, are all that is necessary ; and often a thin shce of bark paired off the side of the layer is found sufficient. The fact of the sap ascending chiefly through the PROPAGATION BY LAYERS. 353 alburnum to the leaves and buds, and de- scending in an elaborated form by the inner bark, forming in its downward progress a new layer of alburnum, shows sufficiently that even ringing does not interrupt the rising of the sap in spring, so long as the alburnum is not cut through ; yet its descent is interrupted in con- sequence of the incision made during the ope- ration of ringing, and which, although it merely cuts into the alburnum, in no way affects the inner bark. A granulous callosity is formed at the point of interruption, from which roots will in due time protrude. In the case of some trees, if the incision in the layer does not extend half-way through, no granulous matter will be formed the first year ; but, on the other hand, if the incision is made much deeper than half the thickness of the layer, then the ascent of the sap is interrupted, and the shoot naturally dies. The manipulations of this mode of propaga- tion are exceedingly simple ; the following will explain the routine. In ordinary cases of nur- sery layering, the plant to be propagated is called the stool, and hence all nurserymen have their stool ground, in which is planted every kind of tree or shrub to be thus increased. Stools are cultivated only for the production of shoots proper for layering, hence they are out close down to facilitate the operation. The stool occupies the centre, the young healthy wood is reserved, and the slender and unhealthy is cut out. The ground around being loosened up, shoot after shoot is gently drawn down from the stool ; a notch, tongue, or other incision is made on its under side, and from 6 to 10 inches from its base the earth is opened, and the layer is fitted into the soil, of a depth according to its na- ture and strength. It is then secured in the desired position by a hooked peg, fig. 127, a single, 6 double, or by a shoot of flexible na- ture, such as willow, which is twisted at the middle, and the two ends thrust into the ground, one on each side of the layer ; the soil is laid over it.thepointof theshoot cut off, leaving one or two PEGS FOR LAYEniNo. cycs abovB the ground sur- face. The incision for the most part consists in simply entering the knife below a bud, and cutting to such a depth as has already been noticed, and drawing the knife up- wards, leaving what is in common phraseology called a tongue ; sometimes a simple notch is out out : in the former case, a bit of tile, thin stone, or chip of wood, is inserted to keep the tongue open or the wound from collapsing. Some plants will root freely without any incision being made, others if only a small portion of the bark be pared off ; some if they are slightly twisted or fractured, while others will not, unless a ring of bark be taken off or tightly bound round with a piece of wire. The effects of all these are the same — namely, the obstruction offered to the descending sap, and the consequent formation Fig. 127. of granulous matter, and the after protrusion of roots. In the case of trees which are too strong or too brittle to bend down, so that their side branches may be laid in the ground, the process of plashing them — or of elevating the soil in pots, boxes, or raised banks — must be had recourse to. In the former case the branch may be plashed — that is, cut in its under side — causing the direction of the fracture to run to- wards the main stem, cutting and proceeding until the branch will readily bend as low as re- quired, taking care, however, that a sufficient portion of the bark remains unbroken on the upper side. The side branches may then be laid in the usual manner. The time required for layers becoming suf- ficiently rooted to be fit for separation from the stool, depends on a variety of circumstances. Some trees and a few shrubs require two years ; roses, and the majority of similar shrubs, if their present year's wood be operated upon when about half ripened, will be fit for removal the same autumn ; if laid in spring or the winter preceding, they vrill be ready about the same time ; while herbaceous and soft-wooded plants will produce their roots in a few days or weeks : and the same will occur in the case of many plants under artificial excitement. Layering herbaceous plants is had recourse to in the case of rare or valuable plants, as being attended with much less risk of losing the plant than if the more ordinary process of mak- ing cuttings were adopted : it is also had re- course to with a view of getting stronger plants in a less space of time. The process is com- menced when the shoots are of sufficient lengths and have attained some degree of consistency, which state usually occurs about the time the Fi]'NAB6 LARRB TRANijPLANTBR. 378 HARDY FRUIT GARDEN. Mr M'Nab's tree-liJiingmachine,&g.lSd.—Two ■wheels, much stronger, and about a foot higher than those of an ordinary [cart, are fixed to a pair of strong shafts similar to those in a brewer's dray, kept together by a bar of timber 6 inches by 3, placed about 18 inches in front of the wheels. Under the bar, and along under those parts of the shafts forming the body of the ma- chine, is bolted on a bar of iron, 3 inches by 1 inch, and at the centre of the body of the machine are forged on to this bar two sockets in which the axles of the wheels work, for there is no axle extending across from wheel to wheel as in ordinary two-wheeled carriages. A similar bar of iron is bolted on to the inside and outside of the frame for greater strength. At front, and also at back of the carriage, so as to be clear of the wheels, are placed two wooden cylinders or rollers, 6 inches in diameter ; the outside ones are wrought with short iron hand-spikes, and the two inside ones by a winch at each end, and they are also furnished with a rack-and-pinion catch to keep them in their place when fully wound up. At the back part of the carriage is a double iron bolt, which ties the back ends of the carriage together, and which can be tightened up by a screw at each end. This bolt answers the purpose of an ordinary cross-axle, which latter could not be used, as it would cross the carriage at the exact point where the stem of the tree is to be placed. In loading the tree or shrub, the ball is prepared as in ordinary cases ; two strong planks are laid from side to side of the trench which surrounds the ball, the two hind rollers and the double iron bolt are removed, the car- riage is then pushed backwards, the wheels running on the two planks, until the trunk of the tree or centre of the shrub is, as near as can be calculated, in the exact centre of the car- riage. The hind rollers and double iron bar are then put in their places, the latter being screwed up as tight as possible to keep the wheels from spreading, which they have little chance of doing, on account of the great strength of the frame- work. Several narrow pieces of stout plank, and of equal lengths, are then pushed as far under the ball from the two opposite sides as can conveniently be done, and from the two opposite sides are pushed in as near to one-third of the diameter of the ball, each, as can be, two strong 2i-inch cable ropes, the ends of which are brought up to the rollers, and introduced under the one and omr the other, and so made fast to the outer ones. The two rollers at each end of the carriage are then set in motion, the outer ones by the short iron handspikes, and the two inner ones by the crank-handles. By continuing the process of winding-up, the cable is, of course, shortened, and as it is, it carries up with it the ball in a very easy and gradual man- ner, the thick pieces of plank introduced under it preventing it from sinking into the ball, or injuring the roots. When the ball is elevated sufficiently high to be free from the ground, the hole may be filled in, and horses put to the machine, one in the shafts, and two abreast as leaders, if the tree is so large as to require them ; one, however, or in general two, are found sufficient to remove a tree weighing, includ- ing the ball, from two to three tons. Horset power, however, depends a good deal on the ground the machine has to pass over. If the tree is very high, guide-ropes are necessary to keep it in a perpendicular direction, to assist in passing through amongst other trees, and more especially in assisting to plant it in a proper state when placed in its new situation. When the tree has arrived at the place of its destination, all that is requiredis to place the two strong planks formerly used alongthe two sidesof the pit, and to draw the machine over it, stopping when the ball is exactly overthe spot where it is to beplaced. The wheels being blocked, and the horses removed, all that is to be done is to begin uncoiling the cable by reversing the motion of the rollers. When the ball is set down, the short planks placed under it are to be removed, and the cable pulled out. Our machine, made of the very best materials and workmanship, cost £25. It has been in use eleven years, and has not required the least re- pair. It is capable of removing trees to any distance : we once brought a tree to Dalkeith from the neighbourhood of Glasgow, 46 miles, with one horse, with the greatest ease. Two- wheeled carriages are much more convenient for transplanting trees than four-wheeled ones, on account of the less space required for turn- ing, and hence are better adapted for being taken into thick plantations, and for traversing drives, walks, and rides, which often have very acute curves. 3Ir Barron's large tree-lifting machine. — Al- though illustrated by three very good woodcuts in " The British Winter Garden," the letterpress description of this machine is rather too brief to be clearly understood. This ponderous machine consists of two parts, each mounted on a pair of massive broad-tired wheels. The front part is furnished with shafts, constructed so as to give the greatest degree of strength, being without mortice or tenon. The hinder part has a short pole behind, to which horses may be attached to draw it backwards when detached from the front part. Both these parts are furnished above the axle with thick bolsters or bearers, and are con- nected together by two strong oak beams trussed with iron rods, 21 feet long, which serve for bearers to support the tree in a perpendicular position. The carriage is allowed as much lock as possible, and the whole fitted together with bolts and nuts, which in a few minutes can be taken to pieces at any part, separating the front and hind wheels in order to place the carriage with the greatest facility in a proper position for placing the tree upon it, as well as for lowering it in its new situation. The platform upon which the ball of the tree rests, and which is portable, and placed under the ball before it is removed from its original place, is suspended from the two long bearers by ten strong chains, the whole being raised by a screw-jack, and sus- pended sufficiently high for travelling ; six of the ten chains are stronger than the others, the links being |-inch iron. " Each of the chains must have a strong ring at one end, and a hook at the other : two of these are termed lifting- chains, one at each end of the poles for the screw-jack to lift by; the other four strong PLANTING. 379 chains are termed sling-chains, and are placed on the beams of the carriage. When the tree is raised at one end, the two sling-ohains are hooked into each other under the poles, then the four smaller or corner chains are placed on the beams the same as the sling-chains. The end of the poles being raised, the corner chain is then fastened round the ends of planks which form the platform under the ball ; the poles at the other end must now be raised, and the sling and corner chain fastened as at the other end. Two screw-jacks have been tried, one at each end, which, at first sight, might appear to expe- dite the operation, but this," Mr Barron thinks, " is not the case, as it is necessary for the corner chains to be fast at one end whilst being raised, in order to keep the tree in an upright position. In the majority of oases, (except where the tree is very tall, or top-heavy, or the ground uneven over which the carriage has to pass), it will be found that the weight of the immense mass of earth, when properly balanced in loading, and the comer chains all properly fastened, will be sufficient ballast for maintaining the tree in an upright position, and that the guide-ropes are seldom used except when the tree is loading or unloading." The carriage with its load is drawn over the spot where the tree is intended to be placed, the hind and fore parts of the machine are separated, the tree let down by the same means by which it was elevated, and withdrawn from both sides ; the operation of covering up the roots after they have been regularly spread out is pro- ceeded with, and the whole routine completed. The platform and mode of introducing it under the roots, as well as Mr Barron's mode of pre- paring the ball and preserving the roots, will be best understood by an extract from his recently published " British Winter Garden," p. 31. "A tree being about to be lifted, say from 40 to 50 feet high, the diameter of the branches being of the same dimensions ; the groundwork opera- tions would commence on the outside of a circle of from 20 to 25 feet in diameter, more or less, judging from the kind of tree how far the roots would extend horizontally. The soil would be then cleared from the roots, carefully preserving every fibre as far as practicable, up to within a given space of the stem, where the remaining mass of earth and roots must be left undis- pkepahation of roots vor transpi.anting. turbed, as shown in fig. 140, forming a parallelo- gram, say 9 feet 6 inches by 8 feet. A chan- nel is then excavated about 2 feet square, in the direction of the line a b ; this being done, two strong poles (of ash, oak, or Spanish chest- nut) of equal thickness are then passed under the centre of the tree, and on them a strong 3-inch ash or oak plank, 20 or 22 inches wide, hooped at the ends to prevent it from splitting. A strong chain is then laid under the poles at each end, by which the mass is raised by a screw-jack. The ball is slightly hollowed out below all round, to admit of bevelled-edged planks being placed under it, the two end ones resting on the centre broad plank, and the two side planks resting on the ends of the two end ones. Some litter must then be stuffed firmly in, between the planks and the soil, with a spade, by which means every part will stand to its bearing when raised up." The cut will show the care Mr Barron be- stows on the preservation of the roots ; and in this he is right. His mode of lifting is also fa- vourable to this, as there is no pressure upon them, the whole mass being placed on a plat- form under the ball, where there are few roots, and even these in most cases of no great import- ance. There are difficulties, however, to con- tend with even in this excellent mode of taking up large trees, the chief of which is getting the platform placed under the ball, as well as in its removal after the tree is set in its place ; and we suspect that in such hands as Mr Barron's the operation would be more completely accom- plished without any ball whatever, as it is quite evident that there is scarcely a useful food-col- lecting fibre within the compass of the ball here exhibited, and this the more so the older and larger the tree is. In our opinion the ball here preserved is of more importance in supporting, or rather in preventing the main roots from being broken entirely off, in consequence of their great length, during the operation of re- moval, than in containing within it a single root capable of supplying the tree with food, and that the tree must remain in a state of perfect inactivity until the formation of fresh spongl- olets at the points of the fibres preserved, or depending for the time entirely on those which may have escaped injury during the opera- tion. For there is no doubt that those that have been preserved will speedily become most active in providing a supply to the tree as soon as they are again imbedded in their na- tural element. Mr Barron's smaller J tree-lifting machine. — The maclaine we have described above, as will readily be understood, is for the removal of treesof a very large size. The one we are about to notice is for transport- ing trees and shrubs of 380 HARDY FRUIT GARDEN. much smaller dimensions ; and as these are by far more generally operated upon, we think this latter machine deserving of especial notice. The framework or platform to be placed under the ball is somewhat similar to, and introduced under the ball much in the same way as the last, only the centre poles are in this case dis- pensed with, " as a 3 or 4 inch oak plant is found sufficient, if free of knots, to carry a tree from 1 to 2 tons weight. By this machine, when the tree is ready for being lifted, it can be raised in a few minutes by a windlass at each end ; and when taken to the place of destina- tion, it can be lowered from it in the same short space of time." This carriage is like the first in two parts, a hind and fore part— a cir- cumstance rendered necessary to facilitate the process of loading and unloading. It differs also in having three wheels instead of four, and in the lifting power being given by a windlass at each end, over which the cable passes, which is secured to the platform under the ball. As the windlass is turned round by means of levers, as in weighing an anchor, the cable is wound round it ; and as it becomes at each turn more and more shortened, the platform and ball upon it are elevated until sufficiently clear of the ground. By these simple mechanical appliances the great transplanting operations carried on at Elveston during the last twenty-five years have been executed. Mr Holmes' machine for transplanting trees of large size. — Trees of large size have been very successfully transplanted by Mr Holmes, Amport House, Hants, as described by him in the sixth volume of the "Journal of the Horticultural Society," p. 14. The ball is prepared in the usual way by excavating a trench around it, preserving the roots with as much care as pos- sible. A common four-wheeled timber carriage is made use of, and an inclined roadway formed on one side of the hole for the fore wheels to run in. " The fore wheels are separated from the hind ones; the former run backwards down the roadway towards the tree, and the hind wheels on the opposite side (a more abrupt way having been cut for them, as it is of no further use as a roadway), so as to place the tree to be removed in the middle, and so that the ball and roots clear the wheels. Instead of the pole belonging to the carriage when used for timber being retained, a pole with a slight curve in the centre, so as not to come in contact with the stem of the tree, is used, which, together with two strong oak or ash beams, about 1 foot square by about 1 2 feet long, serve to connect the wheels and sustain the weight of the tree to be lifted ; and two short cross pieces, about 3 feet in length and from 2 to 3 inches thick, are placed at right angles with the beams running lengthways, the stem of the tree being in the centre of the hole. These cross beams have each a hole cut through, about 6 inches by 2^ inches, in order to let the eye of the screw through." These screws are each 2 feet long. " The top of these cross beams sustains the plate in connection with the screws, which plate is 6 inches square. Connected with the plate is the box or nut through which the screw passes. The screws are worked by levers in- serted in their heads horizontally, and there is an eye at the bottom of each screw, made very strong, for the chain to pass through. The chains are then braced completely round the ball of the tree, so as to injure the roots as little as pos- sible, and care is taken that each chain has its due share of the ball or weight of the tree, and also that an old mat is placed next the ball, then a piece of plank, and next to this the chain, so that neither ball nor roots may be harmed. A man is then placed to work each screw, which he does by a small pin or lever 2 feet long. When the men have screwed up as high as the screws will allow, the tree is wedged so as to retain what has been obtained by the screw. For this purpose a few wedges 2, or 3 feet long are required, and a few fiat boards for the wedges to rest upon firmly. When the wedges are found to sustain the weight, un- screwing is commenced and the chain tightened. In this way the process of raising goes on, alter- nately screwing and wedging." If the screws were of a sufficient length, we think that wedg- ing would not be required, and that the ball would be lifted in much less time. " If things are well managed the tree will generally swing at the second screwing up; and, in raising, a little tact and care is necessary. Care should be espe- cially taken that the wedges are securely placed before unscrewing; and when the bottom of the ball is high enough to clear the surface of the ground in travelling, the horses are put to ; be- fore which it is well to lay a few planks down for the wheels of the carriage to pass over until upon firm ground. No tying of anything is re- quired, as the pressure upon the screws pre- vents everything from slipping, and the tree continues perfectly upright during the whole process of removal. A guide-rope is attached to the tree by way of precaution, but its greatest use is in placing the tree upright during the operation of transplanting. " When the tree has arrived at its destination the fore wheels are driven down the roadway through the hole till they arrive at an abrupt termination, which is left in order that the tree shall be exactly in the centre of the hole. The ball is then unscrewed imtil it touches the ground; the chains are loosened; the screws and cross-beams are taken down ; the hind wheels separated from the fore ones by pulling out the hind pins or bolts which fasten the beams to the carriage; and lifting the beams one on each side, and one end only on the ground, the fore wheels are then pulled out, then the hind wheels, leaving the tree standing upright as at first, which con- cludes the operation as far as removal is con- cerned." There can be no doubt that keeping trees in a vertical position during the process of re- moval is the most rational, because there is no strain placed on either the stem or the roots. Whereas that of janker-moving is attended with both these evils, as well as an almost certain dis- placement of the bark at the part where it comes in contact with the axle ; and even if the bark is not displaced entirely, the whole of its vessels PLANTING. 38r as well as those of the trunk at that part, be- come bruised to an extent from which the tree seldom recovers. Throwing over trees with large balls and strong roots on their sides to effect their removal in a horizontal direction, is most destructive to the roots on the side of the ball which is undermost. Difficulties will pre- sent themselves, however, in the case of trees to be removed in a perpendicular state when they are to be taken out of thickets, or where surrounded by other trees, on account of the branches coming in contact with each other. Trees so situated are not the most fit to be taken out of sheltered plantations and planted in open parks. It were better, therefore, to choose such as are growing on the outskirts of plantations as being better suited to stand the exposure of the open park, as well as on account of their being free from the entanglement of the branches of others. It is worthy of remark that Mr Holmes' season of operation com- menced in September, and was finished in December, The number of trees transplanted iu 1847 was 204, of which 199 were in a thriv- ing condition in November 1850. They aver- aged from 48 feet in height to 13 feet ; and in girth of stem, at 2 feet from the ground, from 43 inches to 7 inches. The kinds were— 7 ; 18 oaks, 59 beech, 1 purple beech, 3 birch, 22 elms, 5 limes, 36 hornbeam, 25 horse-chestnuts, 28 sycamores. We have in this an excellent specimen of successful transplanting ; and no doubt much of the success depended on the early period at which the operation was per- formed. Mr Madkay's large tree-lifting machine. — The vast improvements of late years carried on at Kingston Hall by the spirited proprietor, Edward Strutt, Esq., by which a barren knoll has been transformed into a richly-wooded park, owes much of its present effect to the skill and perseverance of Mr Mackay, Mr Strutt's intelli- gent gardener, under whose directions the im- provements were carried on. Mr Mackay, im- proving on Mr Barron's large machine noticed above, constructed one more perfect in some of its details, although not essentially differing in prin- ciple. A description and figure of this machine was given in " The Gardeners" and Farmers' Jour- nal." It has since been figured and described very lucidly by Mr Brown of Amiston in " The Forester," second edition, p. 474, which de- scription and illustrations, figs. 141 to 144, will show its principle. " It consists of two pairs of Fig. 141. MACKAY S TRANSPLANTER. SIDE ELEVATION. Fig. 142. MACKAV S TRANSPLANTER. GROUND PLAN. wheels, each pair working upon a strong axle of Superior quality. Each pair of wheels is about 9 inches broad in the rings. The pair situated on the front part (see engraving at 6) are about 54 feet in diameter, and the pair situated on the hinder part (see engraving at a) are about 7 feet in diameter, and distant from each other about 15 feet, thus making the length of the VOL. 11. machine, from one axle to the other, 15 feet. On each of the axles is placed a strong frame, in order to raise the horizontal bearers to a con- venient height, and at the same time with the view of making the whole machine move in a workable manner {see section of front frame k, and section Of back frame I). The front frame, I may also state, is made to turn upon a hori- 3 c 382 HARDY FRUIT GARDEN. Fig. 143. , M i II' EHO S£iCTION. Fig. 144. I J |g| !»| ^ H ' l-av ' ' ij •j^ ' END SECTION. zontal VcLeel, in the same maimer as in the case of a carriage, for the easy turning about of the machine in any re- quired direction, as is represented in the ground plan of the tree-lifter at m. Rest- ing upon the frames, as is shown in the front and back sec- tions, and parallel to each other at a dis- tance of about 2 feet apart, are two strong beams of wood about 10 inches deep by 6 inches broad {see side elevation of tree-lifter at c, and also on the ground plan at » n). Those beams are fastened to the frames placed above the fore and aft axles by means of strong iron bolts, which can be un- screwed as occasion may require ; and placed across upon those hori- zontal beams again are two others {see ground plan at o o), into which the jack-screws are placed. The screws are also shown in their working state in side elevation d d, witli their cross handles for turning, e e. On the under part of these jack-screws, as placed through the cross-beams, are attached the strong chains by means of which the tree is principally taken out of its place (see p p) ; and as an assistant to them, there are side-chains attached to strong iron rings fixed upon the beams (see //). Those side-chains are made to act along with the others attached to the screws, and are also found necessary to retain the weight of the tree, and its ball of earth during the reversing of the screws for a new hold. The horizontal planks upon which the ball of earth rests, supported by the chains, are shown on side elevation at g ; and the two cross planks which are placed upon the horizontal ones, for the better support of the ball, are also shown at h h. Those planks re- quire to be made of the best oak, not less than 4 inches thick." To render this description of the machine more perspicuous, it will be neces- sary to refer to the mode of loading and un- loading, and as this is inseparable from the pro- cess of taking up and replanting the tree, we shall give it as described by Mr Marnoch, in " The Gardeners' and Farmers' Journal," who was present to witness the operation of remov- ing trees 40 feet in height, weighing each, in- cluding the ball of earth and the machine, up- wards of ten tons, and drawn by nine horses. The trees to which Mr Marnoch alludes " were growing on the outskirt of a wood. The ground around the tree was cleared, and at 44 feet from the stem of the tree a circular cutting was made to the depth of about 3^ or 4 feet, and about 24 feet in width. This done, then, on the most open side of the tree, a sloped cutting was made from the surface of the ground to the , bottom of what may now be called the ball of earth, and a similar sloping opening was made on the opposite side of the tree. The first of these sloped cuttings was made for the pur- pose of drawing out the tree, up this slight in- cline, to the surface of the surrounding ground. The circular opening in the earth around the tree, and the two sloping roads on each side being now prepared, the workmen commenced to undermine the ball of earth : this being done all round, four stout oak planks, long enough, were placed under this ball of earth in front and behind — that is, crossways to the direction of the machine ; and imder these two others were placed lengthways, with their ends in the direc- tion to back and front of the machine. It will now be understood that these four oak planks under the ball of earth cross each other at their four extremities ; and around their extremities, at each of the four comers, four sets of strong iron chains are fastened." A reference to our plate will explain this. " The first set of chains brought into play were those attached to the bottom of the jack-screws. Being made as tight as possible over the ball of earth, they were then hooked on to the end of the jack; the two jacks were then turned by two or four men each, as the case may require, until the tree and the ball of earth were raised from the ground about 6 or 10 inches. The jacks were then permitted to rest, and what are called the side- chains were put in requisition. These, as we have already stated, are fastened to the planks under the ball of earth, at the same point as the others, the opposite ends being made fast to the side-beams, as shown in the engraving. This being done at the four corners, the jacks are then reversed, and the first set of chains slack- ened ; the weight of the earth and the tree is then sustained by the side-chains. The first set of chains are again adjusted, and made as tight over the ball of earth as manual power can efiect. The jack is again run down, and again attached to the chain at the lowest point it wUl reach. The jacks are once more applied, and run up to the end of the screw, which has been com- pletely worked up to the under side of the cross- beam on which it rests. By this second lift the jacks have probably gained upon the 6 or 10 inches which they made at the first lifting, and the bottom of the ball is now 15 or 20 inches from the ground. The side-chains, which are now quite slackened by the second lift of the jacks, are again made as tight as possible ; this accomplished, and all securely and equally fas- tened to the side-beams again, the jacks are gently reversed, till the weight is equally divided betwixt the side-chains and the jack-chains. The tree is now in a condition to be drawn out, unless it should be necessary to give it a third lift with the jacks, so as to raise it still higher from the ground ; and if so, the side-chains must always be attended to as already described. They may properly be called the guard-chains, as they prevent accidents in the event of break- age of any of the jack-chains, when the former would take the weight of the tree, and prevent its falling. About 10 or 15 feet up the stem of the tree, four ropes extend from this point to the two front and the two back corners of the machine ; and this is all that experience has PLANTING. 3S3 found necessary to preserve tlie tree in a per- pendicular position during its transport on the machine to its future place of growth. The perpendicular position of the tree is, however, greatly secured by the four side or guard chains. We have novr to describe the mode of introduc- ing the stem of the tree within the machine. This is effected in the following manner : the machine is drawn as near to the tree as circum- stances will allow ; it is then taken to pieces by uuscrewiug the diiferent bolts, — that is, the main horizontal beams are unfastened and thrown over the wheels on either side. The larger hind- wheels are then placed in their proper position on the sloped cutting behind the tree, and the smaller fore-wheels on that before the tree ; the large beams are then lifted on to their places, one on either side of the tree, and made secure with the iron bolts and the requisite fastenings. The tree then stands with its stem betwixt the side-beams, and with a pair of wheels behind and another before. The chains and jacks are then applied as already described, and thus the process is complete. The next and only other point deserving further allusion, is that of plant- ing or placing the tree where it is ultimately to grow, and this is effected in the following way : The hole, sufficiently large to receive the ball of earth, is dug the necessary depth ; then, on the opposite sides of the hole, a sloped cutting, wide enough to admit the machine to be drawn down and through it, is also provided. Into this cutting, therefore, the machine and tree are drawn, and through it the team of horses first pass. When the tree has reached the proper point, the machine is permitted to rest. Props of brick or stones are then raised at the four corners immediately under the ends of the cross- planks. These props may be three or four bricks in height ; and when all is prepared in this way, the jacks are reversed, and the ball of earth gradually lowered down, till the ends of the cross-planks rest upon the corner props, and the tree has taken its proper perpendicular posi- tion ; and this is effected by raising or lowering of these corner props. All being adjusted, any opening that may remain betwixt the bottom of the ball of earth and the bottom of the hole provided for the tree is filled up with earth^ the whole being made firm around and under the roots of the tree. The brick or stone props are then struck out, and the planks removed — a process easily effected, as the tree now rests upon the earth which has been placed under and about it. These planks are, however, well ironed at each end, that, in case of any difficulty in removal, a horse or horses may be readily yoked, and the planks withdrawn." The whole of this routine differs little from that followed by Mr Barron, excepting in one particular, which we think a very important one, namely, setting the newly-removed tree in a pit, instead of planting it on, or nearly on, the surface, as practised by Mr Barron. In good deep soils we would ad- mit of an excavation to the depth of 18 inches being formed, on which the tree, if of large size, is to be set, and the earth gathered up around it in form of a flat-topped mound. The operation of supporting the tree after planting would be by this considerably facilitated, and the roots would be placed in an equally favourable con- dition. M. Vallet's tree-lifting machine. — However ex- cellent both these machines may be, there is little doubt that both must be regarded more as improvements upon the machine invented by M. Vallet, a French nurseryman in the time of Louis XIV., than as original inventions. M. Vallet'a was invented to facilitate the taking out and in the immense orange-trees in tubs, for which the French gardens are and were celebrated. It consisted of a four-wheeled machine, without an axle to connect the two hinder wheels, which was left out to allow the machine to be pushed back, so that the orange-tub could be enclosed between the framework forming the sides. When the tree was so placed, a strong bar of timber was secured to the two ends of the beams which formed the sides of the carriage, and answered the end of a portable axle. On the top of four strong upright posts, one at nearly each corner of the machine, was placed two rollers, the dowels at their ends working in iron sockets fixed in the upright posts, the hindermost of which was made so as to be taken out and put in conveniently ; over these rollers a cable-rope was wound, so that by unwinding them the two cables fell towards the ground, and was made to pass under the bottom of the orange-tub, and when re-wound again by a man at each corner working a short lever, the tub was elevated to any height required to clear it of the ground, while being removed to the allotted place. The bar of timber connecting the hinder part of the sides of the machine, as well as the hinder roller^ being removed, the machine was drawn forward, leaving the tree in the position allotted to it. With a similar machine we have removed hun- dreds of large trees, by introducing a platform of strong planking under their balls, and pass- ing two cable-ropes under it, as here described ; and with another with two wheels, very similarly constructed, we have moved many of great size and weight. The most powerful and perfect of all such machines, is, however, undoubtedly that invent- ed and patented by Mr M'Glashan, who has favoured us with the following description and drawings of it, figs. 146, 146. " The first part of Mr M'Glashan's process is to lay down a square frame of T u-on a, in size equal to that of the ball to be removed. He then takes cutters b, made of malleable iron, and 1 foot broad, and 3 feet deep, or with head and neck 44 feet, and with holes at different heights for apin, which regulates their depth to be screwed in, so that they can be made,at very little trouble, to lift any depth of ball from 1 to 3 feet. These cutters are driven with wooden mallets into the soil to the depth required all round, and being in- serted sloping inwards, they give to the enclosed mass the form of a square blunted wedge. A bar of angular iron c is then laid along the top of the four rows of cutters, and extension-rods d, going across the frame, force the heads of the cutters apart as far as necessary, and conse- quently cause the points to converge at- the bottom. Two parallel beams e are then laid 384 HAEDY FRUIT GARDEN. ajeross the frame, upon wbicli are laid two cross- beams. A clasp or collar/ lying hard on these two cross-beams is thus put round the trunk of the tree, which being made tight by screws, as shown in figure, serves to steady the tree and bear a portion of the weight when the lift is .taken. The means of raising the mass are a car- riage, which also serves the purpose of transplant- ation. It consists of two long beams g, which have an open space for wheels to run in, as shown in figure ; the length of the axle is the same as the thickness of the beam, and is set in a plumber box, with a cast-metal seat h, that is bolted to the long beams which rest on it, and Fig. 145. A1*GLASHAN's transplanting machine. ground I'LAN. of course adds to the strength of them. The two long beams are bound together fore and aft by bars i, and cross-lifting beams, which are firmly bolted to them. There is a third wheel in front, which carries a portion of the weight, and, having a handle on the top, acts as a helm does to a ship, so that the carriage can be turn- ed very quickly round a sharp corner, and easily governed through amongst trees. There are two bolsters j, raised up on the long beams at each end of the carriage, across which are laid two beams h (already alluded to in de- scribing the binding of the long beams), for the screws to work upon ; these serve to give height enough for the ball being raised to clear the ground. Horses can work at any end of the carriage by simply affixing the shafts to either of these extremities. The beauty of the con- struction of this carriage is, that it is as appli- cable for removing large shrubs as it is for forest trees. The end bar i and cross-lifting beam Te are taken oS, and the carriage is moved back, en- closing the tree until it is exactly over the lift j the end bar and cross-lifting beams, which wore taken off, are replaced and screwed on. The process of raising the mass is accomplished by screw power ; the screws are two or four in number, as the case may require, and so ar- ranged as to make the lift equal. They are made fast to the beams of the frame, and are worked by men. When the screws are put in motion, the frame and enclosed mass rise erectly upwards. In ordinary circumstances, a tree with a ball of 10 feet, in about 20 minutes' working of the screws, should be completely raised from the pit. The propelling power, when the ground is soft, and horses cannot be used, or when it may be inconvenient to use them, is by a winch attached to the front of the carriage, and block and tackle made fast to some neighbouring tree, piles driven into the ground, or any other hold most convenient ; but when the way is clear, and the road good, horses will do the work more expeditiously. It will be found necessary, when the ground is soft, to lay planks to prevent the wheels sinking, until they get on hard ground. The pit being already dug, the mass is moved directly over it, and the tree and ball are lowered into it on the same principle as it was raised ; the earth is then filled in all round about, and the apparatus removed, and the operation is completed. The reader at first sight may be apt to think that the cutters which were put round the ball would sever the large roots; but if the operator has any desire to PLANTING. 385 preserve them, which, Mr M'Glashan remarks, is still a very undecided question, it can be easily done by finding out their position with piercers, and driving a cutter on either side of them, and thus preserving them entire. Although 10 feet is the size described here (as it has already been done), it can either be reduced or enlarged as the tree or operator may require. Fig. 146. M*6LASHAN S TRANSPLANTING MACHINE. SIDE ELEVATION. We think this machine would be much im- proved, and rendered more generally useful, if the frame were extended in length, so that, in- stead of the ball being square, it might be oblong in shape. To render the machine wider than 4 feet would be disadvantageous, because it could not be made to travel on walks or nar- row roads, and would be difficult to introduce amongst bushes and other trees. Lengthening it out to the extent of 4 feet more would present no difficulty in those respects ; while by doing so, instead of a ball 4 feet square, we could have one 4 feet (the present breadth) by 8 feet in length, securing upon two sides a much greater length of uninjured roots. The spade-shaped cutters are as good as anything that can be de- vised when the intended ball is of a size to include all or at hast a sufficient numher of roots, according to the size of the tree to be removed ; but to remove a tree with a greater extent of roots, the ball should be cleared all round with spades and picks in the usual manner, saving as many roots as possible, tying them together in bundles, and disposing of them in such a way that they would be secured against accident during the operation. This being done, the ball should be undermined, and the tap or down- ward-growing roots cut off with a long chisel- shaped instrument, instead of tearing them up and breaking them by main force. When the ball is thus prepared, if broad grippers, in form like the letter L, were intro- duced along the sides of the ball, just as Mr M'Glashan's cutters are, but not quite so close together as to prevent the roots which extend beyond them from passing between them, the turned in ends of the grippers made to pass under the ball on all sides, the extension-rods attached to them, and the T iron placed as in his method, the ball would be kept together not only at the sides, but under the bottom likewise. The operation of lifting should be exactly as recommended by the patentee ; for of all modes hitherto employed none are so simple and effec- tive aa his. The turning in the ends of the grippers below the ball would prevent the soil from falling away from below, and the ball being prepared as in ordinary cases, this transplanter could be employed in all soils, however stony or gravelly, which at present it cannot be, on 386 HARDY FRUIT GARDEN. account of the moral impossibility of driving in the cutters amougst stones and gravels. This slight modification does not in the least detract from the usefulness of this valuable machine, nor alter its most important principle, which is the lifting power it possesses above all others. In the case of very large trees, it would be well to have an extra set of wheels, from 8 to 9 feet in diameter, which would greatly lighten the draught, and admit of a better counterpoise to the top of the tree, the weight of the ball being more under the axle. Another improvement in the case of very tall trees, with a view to main- tain them in a perpendicular position, would be to place a soft collar round the trunk, 10 feet or so above the ball, and to secure to it and the four corners of the machine four diagonal poles, which would act as stays or fulcra, and prevent the tree from falling over. As at present constructed, the weight of the ball is the only counterpoise. Low wheels are used when large shrubs or trees, branched to the ground, are to be removed, be- cause the machine, in that ease, is better got under the branches. These alterations suggested them- selves to us while Mr M'Glashan was lifting a large tree lately in Dalkeith Park, and he at once acceded to them ; for we have seldom met with an inventor who is more open to conviction in all matters relating to the improvement of his invention. In the experiment referred to, he took up, with a most perfect ball of 4 feet on the side and 3 feet deep, a large holly tree, and had it ready for attaching the horses, in one hour and five minutes, with no other assistance than one of his own men and three labourers to assist in driving in the cuttei-s and working the screws by which it was lifted out of the ground. Beyond a certain size, this, as well as all other machines of a similar character, is incap- able of removing trees with safety, not, in the case of Mr M'Glashan's machine, from want of mechanical power, but on account of the am- putation to which the roots are exposed, unless we go at once into the principle laid down some years ago by the late Sir Henry Steuart. If we ad- mit his theory to be correct as to cutting back the roots the season previous to removal, and allow- ing the wounds to heal over, and the roots to send out a new supply of fibres with their necessary spongiolets, then the cutting back and removal at once, as proposed by Mr M'Glashan, is no doubt preferable ; because, with all the care with which trees can possibly be removed upon Sir Henry's plan, the spongiolets must be seriously injured, particularly by his method of trans- porting them (namely, upon a rude kind of janker) ; whereas, by Mr M'Glashan's plan, the same amputations take place at the period of removal which take place at the commence- ment of Sir Henry's, and the formation of new fibres and their necessary Spongiolets goes on after removal , and these are not afterwards interfered with : lessening the risk of removal in the first instance one-half in favour of Mr M'Glashan's machine, and much more if we take into consideration the injury the bark sustains when thrown over the axle of the janker, and the no less injury done to the roots during their transport, and placing them in the pit prepared for them. For trees or shrubs re- quiring a ball of 4 feet on the side, or 64 cubic feet, and from that downward, within which the whole roots are enclosed, Mr M'Glashan's is the best we have seen. The circular form of ball is no doubt the most natural, and therefore must be the best, because the roots of all trees, where no obstruction pre- vents their extension, do radiate from one centre, which is immediately under the trunk. This being the case, all deviations from the circular form must be erroneous in principle, and very seldom followed in practice. It is seldom that trees of extraordinary size are removed, unless under very peculiar circum- stances ; and if so, they are seldom conveyed to any great distance. When such cases occur, it were better to tunnel under the balls; and after placing a strong flooring of planks under them, secured to each other at the ends by a plank laid transversely, and to oross-planks laid over the top of the ball, and screwed firmly to these below, to prop them up in that position until proper rails be introduced under the whole, with rollers between the rails and plank floor- ing, laid at an easy incline from the bottom of the ball to the surface, and so continued to the new pit, into which the ball could be slid down by a similar incline. It would signify little whether the bottom flooring were left in the new pit or taken out ; the loss would only be the material, which in time would rot away. But even if this were a matter of consideration, their removal could easily ■ be efi'ected by drawing them out at either end after they were disengaged from each other. Trees of any size may be removed in these days of mechanical ingenuity ; to do so most success- fully is merely a question of expense. We shall now describe the smaller apparatus for removing shrubs and young trees, fig. 147. Fig. 147. m'glashan'e small transplanter. The first thing done is to open the frame a, (which has a joint at one corner, and a faster^- ing at the other), and put it round the tree, and again fasten it ; four spaces 6, with wooden handles, are then driven with the foot in the inside of the frame (or if the ground is hard, with a mallet striking on the head or tramp), as deep as required. Two exteilsion-rods c are then passed through the opposing handles of the spades, the handles are then drawn apart, and holes being in the extension-rods, a pin is PLANTING. 387 put in whicli keeps the spades in that position. Two hooks, d are then put on two opposite sides of the frame, tlirough which a handspike e is passed ; all things are now ready for the lift, which is taken by four men, two at each end of the handspikes, who take hold of them and lift up shrub and ball. (It will be found that lifting a ball of earth 2 feet square on this principle will not occupy more time than five or six minutes). It may then be carried on the hand- spikes, or, if the distance is great, on a wheel- barrow, to the place where it is to be trans- planted ; the hole being dug, the ball and plant are placed in it, and the earth filled in round about, and the apparatus removed, which com- pletes the operation. The sizes of this machine vary from 14 inches to 4 feet 6 inches, but of course a 4-feet 6 ball will require four spades entirely of malleable iron, and the extension- rods require a screw at one end (instead of a pin), to facilitate their application. The janker tree-lifter. — This, if not the best of such machines, is evidently that in most com- mon use. It is, however, only calculated for carrying them in a horizontal position, while all those we have noticed are calculated to carry them perpendicularly. No doubt the latter is the best, because there is no strain on any part of the stem, and also because the branches are less Uable to sustain injury during their tran- port One objection to the janker is in its con- struction : the wheels should be much higher than they generally are, and, in addition to this, the bolstering over the axle should be much greater and the pole longer. These things com- plied with, the branches would be carried higher, and hence escape the injury they sustain by trailing on the ground. IS either in loading nor in the act of transport can the janker be much objected to ; it is in the unloading and placing the tree perpendicularly on its new site that the defects of this machine become most obvious, and this is increased in proportion to the size of the tree. The raising the height of the wheels and bolstering over the axle, as we have sug- gested, will, however, to some extent modify this defect. Many hundred trees of from twenty to thirty feet in height have been transplanted by this machine in Dalkeith Park within these few years, and a success has attended the operation more than usually satisfactory. These trees were in no way previously prepared, but great care has been taken in preserving the roots, per- forming the work in fitting weather, and above all, giving sufficient scope to the new roots to extend in prepared soil. Transplanting herbaceous plants. — These for the most part are easily transplanted, as well as multiplied, and the season for performing the operation is either before they begin to grow, in spring, or immediately after they have ceased flowering. Indeed the rule should be, to divide for propagation, and to transplant as soon as they have done flowering, and when the stems are beginning to decay. So extensive is this assemblage of our gardens, that the processes of transplanting and subdivision will require to be going on at almost all seasons of the year. For general purposes, however, the autumn and spring are the most proper. Herbaceous plants are easily transplanted wjth few exceptions, and some of these are, Dictamnus, Potentilla, Dian- thus. Acanthus, Astragalus, Coronilla, Lathyrus, Linum, Iberis, Lupinus, Lythrum, Medicago, Nepeta, Papaver, Pisum, Sautolina, Statice, Trillium, Helonias, and several others. Transplanting by mudding-in, or puddle-plant- ing. — This mode is much in use in Belgiiim and Germany, and over most parts of the Continent where tlie soil is light ; it is, however, seldom practised in Britain. The operation is thus performed: When the pit is dug, water is poured in, and the mould is stirred about until it becomes a complete mass of mud ; mould and water is added until the pit is about half full. The tree is then inserted, and the roots wrought up and down, so as to spread them as equally through the mass as possible. The remaining soil, after being converted into mud, is then thrown in until the pit is full, when the whole is covered with dry soil, and raised round the stem, leaving a hollow basin for future supply of water ; the whole is then mulched over with litter. Councillor Diel, a scientific German author and amateur, asserts that trees thus planted in spring prosper better in cold situa- tions than those planted in autumn in the or- dinary manner. Ponty, in " Rural Improver," observes of this practice, that the soil becomes speedily too firm and too hard, and prevents tlie roots of the plant from spreading, and also that water is completely prevented from reach- ing to the roots. In this opinion every sensible planter will concur. Transplanting by fixing with water. — This is merely a modification of the last method, and is sufficiently useful in dry soils, in dry weather, and when tlie tree is to be planted without a ball. Ponty, in the work last quoted, approves of this plan, and describes it as follows : " The hole being made, and the tree placed in it in the usual manner, the root is then slightly covered with the finer part of the soil, the tree being at the tame time shaken, as is common, to settle the earth about its roots. Water is then applied with a common garden watering- pot, by pouring it upon the soil with some force, in order to wash it close to and among the roots of the plants. But this can only be done effi- ciently by elevating the pot as high in the hand as can conveniently be used, after first taking ofl' the rose. It will be obvious that for such purposes a large pan with a wide spout is to be preferred. The hole is then filled up with the remainder of the soil, and that again consoli- dated with water as before, which usually fin- ishes the business." The late Mr M'Nab, a high authority, recommended the soil to be wet enough to be almost like thick paint. Placing the tree according to its former aspect. — Some cultivators attach considerable import- ance to placing the tree at planting so that it shall stand in the same position with respect to the cardinal points that it did pi'evious to re- moval ; believing that, in the case of trees having young and tender bark, the bad effects of sun- strokes are thus guarded against. The majority of planters, however, pay little attention to the 388 HARDY FRUIT GARDEN. subject as regards trees in general. There can be little doubt that, in the case of a tree that has been for some years trained to a wall, in the event of its being transplanted, the surface ex- posed to the sun should be again so placed ; the back of its stem and branches being inured to exposure ; while that which has been shaded and placed next the wall would be liable, from its greater tenderness, to suffer not only from sun-strokes, but from the effects of severe frost also. Whether this precaution be absolutely indispensable, as regards trees in general, admits of some doubt : one thing is evident, that an adherence to the rule can in no case be injuri- ous, and may be easily effected by marking the side of the tree that faced the south with a piece of chalk, or by tying a strand of matting round it, the knot of which will indicate the particular side of the tree. Transplanting turf. — Turf is transplanted, or, as it is in general called, laid, for the purpose of forming grass verges, and for covering whole lawns, and often for repairing blanks in both. The whole art of turf-laying consists in render- ing the ground upon which it is to be placed both level and of equal solidity, that it may not settle into holes or inequalities. Much of the success in both these depends on the quality of the turf procurable ; that from old sheep-pas- tures composed of the dense and low-growing perennial grasses, and completely free of all other plants, and from a rich loamy soil, is to be preferred. The turf should be cut, for the former purpose, of a breadth somewhat more than the breadth of the finished verge, unless that verge exceed 18 inches in breadth, when it will be better to cut it in two breadths for the convenience of removal. For the latter purpose a width of 12 inches will be sufficient. it should be cut as nearly of an equal thickness as possible, having the sides cut perpendicular, and the ends of each piece obliquely. Each piece may be of the length of from 3 to 4 feet, and be rolled up to prevent its breaking in the transport. The ground should be carefully and firmly trodden and beat down. When the whole is laid, it should be again beaten down by the implement called the turf-beater, formed of a piece of oak plant, 11 inches by 8 inches, and 22 inches thick, with a handle projecting in a slanting direction, and the sides neatly cut straight by a line with another implement called theedging-iron.fig. 148, — an implement invented by us many years ago, and for utility not as yet superseded. In the case of large lawns, sowing ■with the approved lawn seeds is the most eco- nomical mode, but it requires a year or two be- fore it becomes what is called a firm sward, or that is fit to walk upon. Sometimes, where parterres are to be laid down on the lawn, their forms are defined with turf verges, and the in- termediate spaces sown with grass seeds. With- Fig. 148. BOX-KDUINO IRON. out this, it would be next to impossible to define the lines of intricate patterns correctly,^the only alternative being sowing down the whole space, and, after the second year, cutting the figures out of the entire piece. The same re- marks are also applicable to the formation of grass terraces. For a list of lawn grasses, vide Flower Gabden. In preparing the ground for a lawn, whether to be sown or turfed, it is requi- site to have the whole completely cleaned of root weeds, trenched 2 feet deep, completely levelled, and afterwards repeatedly rolled until it becomes of a uniform even surface. The turf is then to be laid on, fitting it closely, and beat and rolled uutil it be solid and even. It is of some importance in the formation of lawns, whether they be turfed or sown, to con- sider the nature of the soil upon which they are formed. If too rich, the grass, in either ease, will grow too quickly, be apt to become coarse, as well as difficult to keep in good order by the scythe or mowing-machine. This evil, however, time will correct, as the repeated cutting will in time reduce the surface to a proper condition. If the soil, upon the other hand, be too poor, then the sward never becomes compact and imi- form, dying away in patches, and those occupied with such plants as are the well-known emblems of sterility. A moderately rich soil is the best ; it will produce grass of a better colour, more uniform in surface, and continue longer ere over- run with moss. The proper season for laying or planting turf is after or during autumnal rains, and during winter in the absence of frost. Late in spring and during summer is the worst season, as the heat and drought are equally un- favourable to the grasses taking root, and the turfs shrinking or contracting in size leave in- equalities between them which it is difficult to rectify. Transplanting in the Quinqunx manner. — This mode consists in setting the plants so that those in one row may be opposite to the blank in the other, so that, whichever way the plants are looked at, they will appear to be in direct lines. CHAPTEE III. PRUNING AND TRAINING. Peuninq and TsAiNiNa are two important operations in horticulture, and so closely con- nected together, that we shall, to prevent repe- tition, consider them under one head. The principles upon which both are founded vary according to the object in view. The latter de- pends more or less on these facts — namely, that as the sap in all trees has a natural tendency to flow in an upward direction, it follows that the buds at the highest points above the roots will be the strongest, and more disposed to produce leaves and shoots ; and therefore, when the for- mation of wood is desired, the nearer to the per- pendicular a tree is trained the better; whereas if the formation of blossom-buds be the object in view, the very opposite direction should be given them. In fact, training is the power ■which governs the flow of the sap in trees and plants. Hence our best nurserymen train their wealily-growing young plants nearly in a verti- cal direction, while they place the strong-grow- ing kinds nearly horizontally, and even in some cases nearly pendulous. During the growing season they have an eye to the progress each is making, and elevate or depress the shoot accord- ing to circimistances. The same rule should be attended to by gardeners, even with trees in a bearing state. Pruning, on the other hand, con- sists in regulating the number and bulk of the various parts of a plant by the reduction of its branches, leaves, buds, bark, or roots, so as to produce different effects on the parts which re- main. The principles upon which pruning is mainly founded are thus clearly given in the " Suburban Horticulturist : " " The nutriment of plants is absorbed from the soU by their roots, and formed into leaves, branches, flowers, and fruit by their buds ; by operating on the buds and roots, therefore, we can regulate what is produced by them. If the stem and branches of a plant contain a hundred buds, by removing half of these the shoots or fruit produced by the remainder will be supplied with double their former supply of nourishment ; and if all the buds be removed but one, the whole of the sap sent up by the roots will be modified by that single bud, provided care be taken to re- move other buds as they appear. On the other hand, when the whole of the buds on a tree are so abundantly supplied with sap from the roots as to produce chiefly leaves and shoots without VOL. II. blossoms, then, by cutting off a portion of the roots, the supply of sap is lessened, a moderate degree of vigour is produced, and instead of barren shoots blossom-buds appear. By these means the growth of plants is controlled by pruning. Pruning has not the power to increase the vigour of an entire tree, because it cannot increase the quantity of food taken up by the roots, but it can diminish the vigour of the entire tree by cutting off part of the roots, or it can increase the vigour of particular parts of the tree by amputating the branches, or taking off the buds at other parts. Pruning can pre- vent trees from producing flowers, and hence increase their general vigour and longevity. It can modify the general form of trees, as well as increase particular parts of them, and it can add to the vigour of stunted or diseased trees, by concentrating their sap, or directing it to a few buds instead of a great many. One of the most useful effects of pruning is to cause the develop- ment of dormant'or adventitious buds, which is effected by amputating the shoot, branch, or stem close above any point where visible buds are usually situated, though they may now be wanting there." Volumes have been written on the practice of training and pruning fruit trees, while really little that is useful is to be found relative to the theory of it. Among the former are the writings of Errington, Seymour, George Lindley, Hill, Knight, Forsyth, Fleming, Spencer, Beaton, Harrison, Hayward, &c. ; and the Continental writers have been equally numerous, amongst the most celebrated of whom may be numbered Pro- fessorThouin, Quinteney, Arand dAndilly, &c. &c., all of whose works may be consulted with great advantage; while, on the latter subject, dAlbert, Cotirs Theorique et Pratique de la taille des Arbres Fruitiers, edit. 6, should be studied: a translation of this work would be valuable to the English reader. Of late years, however, the theory of pruning andtraining has been occupy- ing the attention of some of our most eminent practical horticulturists. The principal objects of pruning are the modi- fication of trees to be trained to walls or espaliers, the promoting the formation of blossom-buds, the promoting growth and bulk, the curing dis- ease, the enlargement of the fruit, i-enewal of the head, proportioning the head to the roots, 3d 390 HAEDY FRUIT GARDEN. &o. &o. Pruning is also performed upon the roots to induce fruitfulness, and to check over- luxuriance in growth. In pruning, the following practical rules should be attended to : Commence the operas tiou upon hardy trees, as soon after the begin- ning of October as the gathering of the fruit will allow. Avoid frosty weather, or when it appears to be approaching. In cutting, always draw the knife in an upward direction, and leave the wound smooth to prevent the lodgment of water. In removing young wood, leave about an inch of the branch above the last bud, and make the cut on the side opposite to it. But, in removing an old branch, cut it as close to the stem or branch left as possible, in order that the bark of the latter may cover the wound the sooner. Use a sharp knife, a due share of consi- deration, and be not in too great a hurry, lest you remove the branch which ought to have been left. Fig. 149 shows the leading methods of training wall and espalier trees, with the names by which they are designated. Fig. 149. VARIOUS MODES OP TBAINrNO. u, the herring-bone fan ; b, the irregular fan ; c, the stellate fan ; ci, the drooping fan ; e, the wavy fan ; /, the horizontal ; (?, the horizontal with screw stem ; h, the horizontal with double stem ; it the vertical with screw shoots ; ft, the vertical with upright shoots. Besides these, espaliers are trained horizon- tally, or in form of a table, the stem rising through the centre of the trellis, and the branches being trained in a radiating form. Sometimes the espalier is placed vertically, sometimes placed at one or other angle of elevation, either according to the latitude of the place or the whim of the owner. They are also now often trained in the domical and curvilinear manner, of which examples will be found in sect. Espalier Rails, vol. i. p. 556. Sometimes necessity occasions the trees to be planted on one side of the wall, having their branches brought over the top, and trained pen- dulous on the other ; while others have planted the trees on one side of the wall whose branches were to cover the other, depending on the check the sap would meet with where the branches come in contact with the sides of the coping ; and one old and excellent fruit cultivator, Mr Mearnes, trained the stems of his trees, bare of branches, to the top of the wall ; and, by carry- ing a leader horizontally, trained the shoots from them in a downward direction, reversing the position of the vertical with upright form. The varieties of training now in use are less numerous than formerly, and other modes of inducing fruitfulness are practised, and with evident effect. In regard to training dwarf standards within a limited space, in addition to the examples we have given, and the notice of others, we may add that of them all there appears none superior to that of training in the spiral form, fig. 164, &c., p. 395 ; that is, having the branches trained spi- rally round stakes set in a circular form, which stakes are to be removed when the branches have attained a sufficient size to retain their spiral form ; and next to that, Hayward's mode, fig. 151, &c., p. 395. AU pruning and training, however, must be considered subor- dinate to a proper selection of stock, and to operations on the roots, much more than on the branches. The true balancing of the power of the roots to that of the branches is most im- portant. The season for pruning. — The season of prun- ing, in the general acceptation of the term, ex- tends over the whole year. The process is, however, divided into two general sections, namely, winter and summer pruning. Many do not begin to prune till spring, commencing with the apricot, and taking in close succession the peach, plum, pear, cherry, and last of all the apple and fig, the sap of which is not properly in motion till April. Autumn and winter prun- ing, so far as concerns fruit trees, is objected to PRUNING AND TRAINING. 391 by some as being injurious, and causing a dry- ing and hardening of a portion of the wood close to the part cut, and hence the granulous matter does not so easily protrude between the bark and the wood as when the trees are furnished with sap. Hence, say they, all pruning of fruit trees should be performed at the period at which the rising of the sap takes place. We should, however, observe that the vine is an exception to this rule. " To prune in autumn strengthens a plant, and will bring the blossom- buds more forward ; to cut the wood late in spring tends to check a plant, and is one of the remedies for over-luxuriance. At the opening of spring, the blossom-buds can be certainly distinguished, which is a great guide to the judgment in many critical cases ; but on the other hand, if the blossom buds get much swelled, they are liable to get bruised or knocked off, in the various operations of uutacking, cut- ting, and re-nailing the branches. Supposing the winter course of pruning to be divided into three periods — autumn, the cold months of win- ter, and the beginning of spring — the plants to be excepted from the two first are uniformly the fig, when not in a forcing-house ; the vine, for the most part, because the autumn is sel- dom hot and fine sufficiently long to ripen the year's shoots. Some except the peach and nec- tarine from the middle period, but not from the first ; because, they say, if a severe frost happen immediately after the pruning, the points of the unripened shoots, and particularly the wood-bud next to the cut, are generally so much hurt that there must be a second shorten- ing farther in than was intended, to furnish those shoots with leaders." — Encyclopwdia of Gardening. Theoretically speaking, autumn, soon after the fall of the leaf, is the best season for pruning, when the object is to promote strength in the tree ; and next to this, winter, performing the operation in mild weather : for until the soil becomes lowered in temperature, the roots are collecting a certain stock of nutri- ment, which they will throw into the branches retained after pruning; whereas, if the pruning be deferred till spring, all the nourishment which has been taken up by the rejected branches will be lost in consequence of their removal. Dr Lindley, in reference to this subject, gives the following reasons why pruning in early autumn should have this effect : " During the season of frost (winter) a plant continues to absorb food solely from the earth by its roots; and if its branches are unpruned, the sap thus and then introduced into the system will be distri- buted equally all through it, let us say (as in fig. ISO) from 5 to c d, and e. If late pruning is had reoourseto, and the branch- es from a to c, d, and e are re- moved, of course a large propor- tion of the sap that has been ac- cumulating during the winter will be thrown away, and 6 to c will retain no more of it than the Fig. 150. or DISTRIBUTION OF SAP. exact proportion which that part bears to the part abstracted. When, however, early or autumnal pruning is employed, a to c, d, and e are re- moved before the sap has accumulated in them, and then all which the roots are capable of col- lecting during the period of repose will be de- posited in the space from b to a, and conse- quently branches from that part will necessarily push with excessive vigour." — Theory of Horti- culture, p. 259. Winter pruning. — Some trees may, un- doubtedly, be operated upon during the month of October, and some ought to be so even sooner, as in the case of the raspberry, the old wood of which should be removed as' soon as the fnut is gathered, because whatever amount of food such wood may draw from the roots after that time, is so much unnecessarily drawn from the soil : besides, its removal admits more light and air to the yoimg wood left, on which the succeeding crop depends. Trees which are weakly, and such as have their wood well ripened, may also be pruned thus early. Yet for the generality of fruit trees and bushes, the beginning of November is a good time (and this even depends a good deal on the locality, as to whether it be early or late) ; and the process may extend over the following three months. Early pruning has, however, like early autumnal planting, its advantages — the principal of which is, that the wounds may begin to heal up before severe frosts set in. Cultivators, for conveni- ence, often defer this operation till the frost is too severe for operating upon the soil ; and to this too many are driven, from not having a sufficient number of men to do everything in its proper season. Hardy trees and shrubs may, with few exceptions, be pruned during autumn and winter ; but such as are tender should be left till spring, as, besides the injury which may be done them by frost, in conse- quence of their wounds not being healed, many of their branches may be killed or injured dur- ing winter ; and the extent of this cannot be ascertained till even late in spring, and after they have begun to grow. Tea-scented and all similar tender roses offer examples of this. Summer-pruning fruit trees. — Could this ope- ration be dispensed with, and rendered unneces- sary by root - pruning, limiting the supply of food, and attention to training, it would be most desirable. While, however, rich, deep, and broad borders are indulged in, there can be little hope of this being secured. To plant in rich borders and deep soils has as great a ten- dency to increase the size of the mbbish-heap as the size or quantity of the fruit. A continu- ance of this practice will produce those annual crops of breastwood which must be removed and consigned to the faggot-pile, for removed they must assuredly be to prevent a, general barrenness. It is worth while to inquire when and how this is to be best accomplished, and it is equally worth while to study how their formation may be, if not entirely, at least in a, great measure prevented. Bearing on this point, we find Mr Errington, in " Journal of the Horticultural Society," thus 352 HAEDY FEUIT GARDEN. writes : " I hold it good pear-culture to make a practice annually of selecting the shortest- jointed and most mature annual shoots, and tying them down to the principal leaders in the June and July summer-pruning. The old and mechanical spurring system is nearly exploded by this time : it has proved a most fallacious course of practice for centuries, and the gardener who adheres yet tenaciously to it must be much attached to mere prescription. I do not say. Spur not at all. No ; when natural spurs con- tinue to form and advance into blossom-buds, by all means preserve them, but do not entirely rely upon them." The more we prune, the more the trees will grow to wood; the more we cut off the extra supply of food, whether by cir- cumscribed borders, root-pruning, ringing the branches, &o., the more we conduce to fruitful- ness, and the less to the formation of super- fluous wood. Branch-pruning is, therefore, a secondary consideration, unless we do so to in- crease the bulk or model the form of the tree. The following opinions bearing on this case deserve the careful consideration of the pomo- logist. " If we take into consideration the physiological fact," says a writer in " The Gar- deners' Chronicle," " that by the agency of leaves the gases extracted from the atmosphere by those organs, and the juices drawn from the earth by the roots, are mixed, assimilated, and rendered subservient to the tree, thereby in- creasing its growth and perfecting its fruit, the question arises. Is summer-pruning beneficial or injurious ? Admitting, then, that the leaves are the agents by which the juices of the tree are prepared to enter into its system, to take part in the various economy of life and the reproduction of its species, it is clear that by removing those leaves we diminish the resources of the tree. Now, in summer-pruning, we re- move at least one-third of the leaves of the tree subjected to the operation; and nature never clothes a tree with more leaves than is neces- sary for its resources at the roots; a proper har- niony is thereby kept up between those two organs, and perfect health of the tree is the result. In summer-pruning we deprive the tree of its digestive organs without at all diminish- ing the absorption at the roots; the juices, con- sequently, not meeting with a proper surface of exposure, which, if no summer-pruning had been performed, they would have done, are re- turned to the tree in a crude and unprepared state ; the wood thereby is not of a natural tex- ture, and the fruit is deprived of its proper flavour. That the over-abundant juices of a tree so treated make a vigorous effort to repair the injury is manifest by the quick appearance of succulency from all parts of the tree, at once establishing the fact that it is overcharged with sap in a crude state. The growth of the tree at that period is not of the character of one slowly and gradually increasing in stature, but a rapid and simultaneous outbreak of the sap from all parts, even where no appearance of buds had previously existed. That trees left untouched till winter-pruning, with a whole summer's growth, are both unsightly and untidy, cannot be denied ; and to leave them in that state to be broken by the winds of autumn, would evince carelessness, whatever good intentions there may have been in so doing, and would be highly censurable. But the tree may be ren- dered an object by no means unsightly without cutting away half its branches, as is the com- mon practice : the latter may be stopped, and when practicable secured to the wall, or what-, ever substance they may be trained upon ; and when the period for general pruning comes, all superfluous branches may be removed. As the greater abundance of leaves is at the base of the shoots, the loss in topping, and the occar sional removal of a whole shoot, in comparison to the general practice, would be but trifling." Another writer in the same paper says, " So far as I can judge from my own observations, the summer-pruning of fruit trees is productive of nothing but leaves to the trees and disappoint- ment to their owners. I have pruned at all times, but I can safely say that I never yet saw a blossom-bud upon the spur left for its pro- duction, if the tree was at the same time grow- ing vigorously. It is true that, by root-pruning or ringing the bark, I have made these spurs form blossom-buds, but these practices are not always desirable." " Never cut away a twig in summer," says another authority, " that can by any possibility be got to the wall. Prune freely in the winter, and keep the trees well balanced; nail in at full length all young shoots intended for bearing; keep up a succession of young shoots, to supply the places of those that are worn out and exhausted in bearing, and ring the trees when the growth of them is too luxu- riant." Opposed to these opinions are two other writers in the work last quoted, the first of whom remarks : " Many, however, do not so much deserve blame for pruning as for not pruning. The wall trees in many places grow as they may, and rows of fruit trees in the quarters are never pruned during the summer; all are generally left for the winter-piiming. The luxuriant growth of wood in summer robs the fruit of nourishment, and increases the ex- tension of roots to supply the increased extent of branches in the following season. During winter the knife removes a great portion of the branches, and the equilibrium that nature has established between them and the roots is partly destroyed, and a luxuriance of fruitless branches continues to be produced on account of the increased powers of the roots. I ima- gine that summer-pruning does diminish the absorption at the roots, and that it establishes a uniformity of circulation between roots and branches. There is such a mutual action exist- ing between these, that whatever is done to cur- tail the one will affect the other. A judicious summer -pruning of crowded and luxuriant young shoots will allow a free circulation of air, and the genial influence of the ,sun will better mature the wood that remains; it will also moderate the action of the roots, and the reciprocity between them and the branches will thereby be better established without the neces- sity of pruning much in winter. The use of a strong pair of scissors is all that is necessary for pruning fruit trees in summer, when the wood PRUNING AND TRAINING. 393 is soft. By this practice the juices supplied from the roots, and the gases received from the atmosphere, will be concentrated hi the branches, and better fruit be obtained." The second, in following up a somewhat similar principle, ob- serves ; " If pruning commenced with the grow- ing season, and was judiciously carried on, the a-esult would be very different from what arises from the bad practice of aUowiug a tree at mid- summer to present the appearance of an un- dipped hedge. The tree might well make a rapid and simultaneous outbreak from all parts ; and even if the superfluous wood was left on the tree until the winter-pruning, the rapid out- break in spring, although not to such an extent as it had been in summer, will yet be much greater than is consistent with the permanent weUbeing or fruitfulness of the tree ; for as sure as these strong growths are cut away after hav- ing become strong, so sure will the tree make vigorous efforts to replace them, unless the sup- ply from the roots is interrupted. Hence the great good of root-pruning, or, what is perhaps better with young trees during the first three or four years after planting out, when they are so very apt to make strong wood, of lifting and replanting them. If pruning' begins as soon as shoots appear where they are not wanted, a great deal of wall may be gone over in a short time. The trees by this method will pre- sent a neat and healthy appearance; and the young wood, by being freely exposed to the action of sun and air, will be well ripened. Respecting leaves, when they are produced in great quantity, they are generally small, and small leaves are by no means so efficient as larger ones are. Take the vine for example. If the fohage is good, and has been properly ex- posed to the influence of light, &c., the wood will be strong, the eyes plump, and, under favourable circumstances, a good crop will be produced. Now, the reason of all this is very obvious — it is breadth and health of foliage, and not numerical quantity, that is requisite to ela- borate the juices of a plant ; two or three large and healthy leaves are better than a dozen small ones. Physiologists are in error when they forbid us to prune a forest tree because a few of its leaves would be lost. This remark is equally applicable to fruit trees ; but still I am no advocate for putting the axe-and-saw mode into general use. Pruning, to be efficacious, whether on fruit or forest trees, should be per- formed as soon as the part to be rejected is capable of removal." The object of summer pruning seems to be twofold, — namely, the production of artificial spurs, on which fruit-buds are expected to form, and reKeving the tree of superabundant growth, as well as admitting sun and light to insure the ripening of the fruit. The encouragement of artificial spurs is wholly unnecessary; their exis- tence is a scourge on the trees, drawing that nourishment from the soil by the roots fQ;- their useless support, that by better management would be directed to the enlargement of the fruit and the healthy condition of the trees. No doubt fruit-buds are sometimes formed upon these spurs, and in some varieties of trees more than on others ; they, however, in courae of time, as the spur enlarges, become situated so distant from the wall as to derive little more benefit from it than if they were growing on open standards. All fruit trees, such as the apple, pear, &c., have, within their wood, up to a considerable age, abundance of latent buds ready to be called into action, and these are called into action when the necessary conditions are complied with, and one of these conditions is a total removal of all artificial spurs during the winter-pruning. This undeniable fact shows the absurdity of summer-pruning with a view to the production of fruit-buds, as these will be abundantly produced wherever the artificial spurs are discouraged, and being set close on the branches, and near the wall, derive that benefit from radiated heat for which walls are especially constructed. Pruning standard fruit-trees. — The principal object here is to modify the head, and to thiu the branches so that the sun and air may pene- trate to every part, so that the fruit may ripen throughout the whole tree in an equal manner. All standard fruit-trees should be allowed to assume their own natural habit of growth, and those habits are various — some throwing out their branches horizontally, others almost up- right or fastigate, some drooping, and others very irregular. Such habits should not be in- terfered with ; a reduction of redundant or mis- placed branches, together with all useless spray and dead spurs and shoots, should only be effected. All fantastically formed heads in stand- ard fruit-trees only tend to defeat the real object for which they were planted ; and although very copious dii-eotions have been laid down by most writers on the subject, from the days of Mascall downwards, modern pomologists agree with us in allowing eveiytreeto assume its own naturalhabit. " If the tree is to be left to its natural shape, which is by farthe best, it will, in the apple, pear, cherry, and most other fniit trees, assume something of the conical shape, at least for some years ; but whatever shape it has a tendency to assume, that shape must not be counteracted by the pruner, whose operations must be chiefly negative, or directed to thinning out the weak and crowded shoots, and preserving an equal volume of branches on one side of the tree or on the other, — in technical language, preserving its balance." — Encyc. of Gard. The directions for this mode of pruning, laid down by Thomas A. Knight, in his " Treatise on the Apple and the Pear," as also in various of his interesting papers in the " Trans, of the Hort. Soc," are of great practical utility. The essence of them is, that the points of the external branches should be everywhere rendered thin and pervious to the light, so that the internal parts of the tree may not be wholly shaded by the external parts : the light should penetrate deeply into the tree on every side, but not anywhere through it. When the pruner has judiciously performed his work, every part of the tree, internal as well as external, will be productive of fruit ; and the internal part, in unfavourable seasons, will rather receive protection than injury from the external. A tree thus pruned will not only produce much 394 HARDY FRUIT GARDEN. more fruit, but will be also able to support a much heavier load of it without danger of being broken ; for any given weight will depress the branch, not simply in proportion to its quantity, but in the compound proportion of its quantity, and of its horizontal distance from the point of suspension, by a mode of action similar to that of the weight on the beam of the steelyard ; and hence 150 lb., suspended at 1 foot distance from the trunk, will depress the branch which sup- ports it no more then 10 lb. at 15 feet distance would do. Every tree will therefore support a larger weight of fruit, without danger of being broken, in proportion as the parts of such weight are made to approach nearer to its centre. We have gone to some length on this head, as we know little attention is in general paid to standard fruit-trees, and more especially in orchards of high repute, and from which a con- siderable profit is expected to arise. If there be any department in gardening in a more deplor- able state than another, of a surety it is our com- mercial orchards. Indeed, even where better things might be expected, standard fruit-trees are allowed to grow as if they had no legitimate owner. Coxe, an American pomologist of high repute, remarks very truly, " when orchard trees are much pruned, they are apt to throw out nume- rous (superfluous) suckers from the boughs in the following summer ; these should be rubbed off when they first appear, or they may be easily broken off' while young and brittle, — cutting is apt to increase their number." This chiefly takes place when trees have been long allowed to grow wild, and afterwards been subjected to unnecessarily severe pruning. Our principal orchard as well as full standard fruit-trees are the apple, pear, plum, and cherry. The above remarks have reference chiefly to the two first of these, and the following to the two last. The muscle plum, Orleans, and dam- son, are the principal plums fitted for stand- ard or orchard culture in the northern counties of England and most of Scotland. There are, however, some varieties of other plums of in- ferior quality grown in some of our commercial orchards, whose total extirpation would be no serious loss. In the south the case is different, and there the green gage and other first-rate plums are met with ripening in great perfection. Plums, when grown as full standards, require but little pruning, and that consists of moderate thinning out of the branches when the trees have passed the meridian of their growth. The plum is liable to suffer from spring frosts oh account of its early blossoming ; it is therefore wise not to thin their branches too much, as often, when the frost has destroyed all the blossom on the outer branches of the trees, those that are towards the centre will escape, on account of the protection afforded them by the external ones. Indeed, the same rule holds good even in more favourable climates, and therefore a self-protecting power like that, although, as Mr Errington observes, it may cause " the tree to look somewhat confused amongst its sprucely pruned neighbours, must not be despised, more especially as it brings such fruit to perfection despite of its unsystematic appearance." The cherry, with the exception of the May duke and Kentish, are not so productive in our northern orchards as in those of the south ; but we have several varieties of geans which rival either in flavour and productiveness. In the south the case is different, the greatest drawback in their culture being the difficulty to preserve them from birds, and hence we would suggest the propriety of growing them as espaliers or dwarf standards, in which case they could be readily protected by nets. Standard cherries require little pruning, except shortening back the young shoots for a year or two after planting. They submit unwillingly to pruning when of a large size, and are apt to dwindle away after the re- moval of many of their large branches. The case is rather different when trained as espaliers or dwarf standards. In both cases they will con- tinue productive for years under a judicious use of the pruning-knife. Pruning dwarf standards. — Much of what has been said above is apphcable to these also. They are, however, more generally planted in gardens, and require a greater degree of nicety in their management. Here also the kind of tree should be allowed to assume its own natural character without restraint, and the branches so disposed that the sun and air may penetrate to all parts of it. At the winter-pruning every shoot of the present season's growth should be cut clean away, excepting the terminal ones at the points of the branches, which should be short- ened back to half their length, or more, accord- ing to their strength, and the size the tree is intended to be grown to. Natural spurs or fruit-buds will protrude from the main branches all over the tree in most kinds of apples, and pears, and others will arise from those parts where the young shoots were cut from, without the encouragement of artificial spurs, as is so often practised. Some sorts of apples are better adapted to this mode of priming than others, and there are some few to which it is wholly in- applicable. Spring pruning, although highly recommend- ed by some, is equally condemned by others. Downing says, " We should especially avoid pruning at that period in spring when the buds are swelling, and the sap is in full flow, as the loss of sap by bleeding is very injurious to most trees, and in some brings on a serious and in- curable canker in the limbs." Hayward in his " Inquiry into the Causes of Fruitfulness and Barrenness in Plants and Trees," and also in his " Science of Horticulture," has strongly advocated constraining fruit trees within limited bounds. In the former of these works, page 235, he observes : " If it be desired to train them so as to fill a circular space, like bushes, they are best trained with their branches re- versed, as by this mode they are not only brought to bear a great deal of fruit in a small compass, but are confined and protected against injury from high winds without stakes, which saves a great deal of trouble and expense. To follow this plan, plants must be obtained to fur- nish one upright stem, of from 3 to 4 feet in height, and at this height be made to throw out PRUNING AND TRAINING. 395 HAYWARD 3 MODE OP TRAINING. Fig. 152. O. «- from four to six branches, 3 or 4 feet long, like this figure— fig. 151. At the winter-pruning the branches must Fig. 151. be brought down and fixed to the stem with small wil- low twigs or twine — thus, fig. 152. When they are fixed in this manner thesapwillnot flow in Bufli- cient quantity- down the branches to form wood branches at their ends, but the buds will more readily form for blos- soms and fruit. The wood shoots will be thrown out on the upper sides of the reversed branches, where they may be permitted to grow their full length during summer, and in the winter they may beeither cutout, or brought down the same as the first branches, either to fill up any vacant space, or to take the place of the old branches if cut out. Or, if it be desirable, the stem may be allowed to advance to form another tier of drooping branches for bear- ers, as in fig. 153. Indeed, on the same principle, it may be carried to a greater height. The general man- agement of pruning, &c., of trees trained in this manner, must be conducted and regulated by the same principles as when trained to any other shape. All collaterals thrown out where they are not wanted must be re- moved as soon as they are discovered ; and as the re- versed branches or bearers are worn out, they must be cut away, and fresh ones brought down in their places." To prevent crowd- ing, when the ends of the branches are brought down' towards the stem of the tree, instead of being tied to the stem they should be tied to a hoop, 6, fig. 152, fixed to the stem, about 18 inches from the ground ; and as shoots are most likely to be sent out from the curvature given to the branches, as at a, fig. 152, those best placed to admit of being bent down HAYWARD S MODE OF TRAINING. Fig. 153. to supply the place of the parent branch when worn out, should be selected, and all the rest rubbed off. It would not be of advantage to have more than two tiers of pendant branches, as in such a case the trees would become too tall, and be liable to suffer from the wind; besides, the topmost tier of branches would rob those of the undermost, upon the principle already explained. Much of the success of this method of training lies in attention being paid to disbudding, or the removal of all such shoots as are not wanted to carry on and extend the tree, or to succeed and occupy the place of the worn-out bearers. Mr Hayward remarks that this mode of training is well adapted to apple trees on paradise stocks, pear trees on quince stocks, cherry trees, &c., and also to peach trees in pots. It has also the advantage of requir- ing no stakes for support, which of itself is no small recommendation. Hayward's que- nouille mode of training is even better adapted to small gardens than that practised by the French — (vide Pruning and Training the Pear.) The spiral-cylinder mode of training recom- mended by Hayward is well adapted to small gardens, and is thus described by him — " In- quiry into the Fruit- HAYWARD S MODE OF TRAINING. Fig. 154. SPIRAL TRAINING. Fig. 155. SPIRAL TRAINING. Fig. 156. SPIRAL TUAI.VING. fulness and Barrenness of Plants and Trees," p. 238— "Prune and manage the tree so as it shall form from three to six branches, of as nearly equal size as pos- sible, within about 6 or 8 inches of the ground, as in fig. 1S4 ; and as soon as the branches are grown from 3 to 5 feet long, fix six rods or stakes into the earth for supportingthem, in a circle about the root, as in fig. 1 55, the centre dot marking the root, and the others the rods. Each branch is then to be brought down, and being fixed to the rod near its base, the branch is to be carried round in a spiral man- ner, on such an eleva- tion as will form an inclination of about 15°, and each branch is to be fixed in the same manner, one after an- other; thus all will move in the same di- rection, one above the other, like so many cork-screws following in the same course, as shown in fig. 156. As, from the position of the branches, the fruit-bud of each leader will pre- sent the most vertical sac HARDY FRUIT GARDEN. channel for the sap, the strongest shoot will form there, and thus aflbrd the means of continuing the leaders to a great height, and for a great length of time, without crossing or obstructing each other, or throwing out useless collaterals. At the same time, by the depressed position of the leading branches, enough sap will be pushed out on their sides to form and maintain vigorous fruiting spurs. As trees trained in this manner need never exceed the bounds allotted them on a border or bed, a greater number of trees may be planted, and a greater quantity of fruit pro- duced in a given space, than can be the case when they are trained in any other manner. But as pear and apple trees on free stocks may be found to grow too rude and large after a few years, those best answer which are grafted on dwarf-growing stocks — that is, pears on quince stocks, and apples on paradise stocks. How- ever, to keep dwarf trees from growing too lux- uriant and rude, it is a good practice to take them up and replant them every three or four years. If this is done with due care as soon as the leaves are off the trees in the fall of the year, it will not injure them, nor prevent them bearing a full crop of fruit the following year." Three to four branches we have found to suc- ceed much better than six, which, unless the circle be large, causes crowding and want of light and air to the inner side of the trees. We do not anticipate that trees trained in this form will continue long productive towards the base of the branches ; but, on the other hand, suc- cessive ones might be brought in — the old spurs being cut clean away, and the branch made a conductor for a young shoot procured near its base, or grafted on it by the side-grafting process. The horizontal mode of training may be said to be entirely confined to the gardens of Britain. Neither the French, Dutch, Germans, or Ameri- cans practise it ; and they, with ourselves, may be considered the only nations where training becomes necessary, or is cared for in the culture of fruit. Hitt, if not the inventor of this me- thod, was certainly the first to reduce it to sys- tem and practice. He employed it in various forms, and subsequent cultivators have added to or varied it also. It is the mode which, with the exception of the pendulous, places the tree under most constraint, and removes it farthest from its natural position. There are two objec- tions to this mode ; namely, the length of time required for a tree to attain the height of the wall or espalier, as in general it only makes an increase in height of from 9 to 12 inches yearly — that is, the distance between each horizontal branch. The other is : should one of the three eyes, at which we are directed to cut back the perpendicular leader, get injured, or not break, we must then lose one of the side branches, for a leader cannot be dispensed with ; and, conse- quently, a blank is left on one side or the other which is not readily rectified. To obviate this defect, it has been proposed to combine the fan form with the horizontal. Of these prpposals the most novel is that suggested by Mr Green, and published in " The Gardeners' Magazine," vol. viii. p. 539. For a wall under 20 feet in length, ho would plant a pear tree, for example. at one end of the wall, at u, fig. 157, and striking a line from b toe, the one near the top, and the other Fig. 157. green's mode of training. Fig. 158. gheen's mode of training. near the bot- tom of the wall, he would then train all the shoots to one side after the fan manner, bending the shoots where they intersect the line, as shown in our figure, into the horizontal di- rection. In the case of walls of greater length, he would plant the tree as in ordinary cases, striking two lines from the top to the bot- tom of the wall, as indicated in _fig.lS8,bye/<7, _ training the tree in the fan manner as be- fore, and giv- ing the branch- es a horizontal direction at the points where they severally intersect the two lines e g and ef. It is easy to suppose how, upon the same princi- ple, trees couldbe trained taking a perpendicular direction. We notice this mode more on ac- count of its novelty than its utility or beauty. The principal objects in training frviit trees are, to place the branches so that the sap may be under the control of the cultivator ; to place the leaves so that they may be presented with greatest advantage to light and air ; to expose the fruit to the same influence ; to place them, when grown, against walls, so that they may enjoy a greater degree of heat, by its being radi- ated from the wall, than were they grown as standards or open espaliers, on which no radi- ated heat can be expected. The constraint im- posed upon the tree by its branches being fast- ened to a wall or espalier tends to moderate its growth, and hence, instead of making much wood, a disposition is brought on for the forina- tion of fruit-buds. Branches which are loose, and capable of being moved by the wind, grow more luxuriantly than such as are fixed to an- other body, and hence, all other circumstances being equally favourable, trees so trained are more productive of fruit than such as are left in their natural position. Training ifi a per- pendicular direction is more favourable for the luxuriant growth of trees, than when they are trained horizontally, and much more so than when they are caused to grow in a pendant form. This accounts for the practice of elevat- ing the direction of one branch, and depress- ing that of another, when they are of unequal PRUNING AND TRAINING. 397 strength, and when it is desired that'they should be in that respect equal. The branches of every tree which are produced nearest the root be- come weaker year after year, and are the first to decay, because of the tendency of the sap to rise rapidly towards the topmost, and hence leave them without their due share. It is for this reason that, in training all trees, it is recom- mended to secure wood there for the after sup- ply of the tree, which, if neglected, would soon cause them to assume a naked and worn-out appearance. Great care must, therefore, be taken to keep up a supply of wood there, and that can be readily effected by cutting the young wood well in, by training the young shoots ver- tically instead of horizontally, by not leaving too many on, and by stopping them when they have attained about a foot or so in length ; these lower buds will thus be strengthened, and when cut back to a healthy bud the following year, wood of a proper strength will be produced. The shoots produced on the upper side of all branches, trained either hodzontally or inclined, will be the strongest. It follows, therefore, in keeping lip a proper equilibrium, that the weak- est shoots of the former, and the stronger ones of the latter, should at the proper pruning sea- son be retained. The best wood-buds will be placed at or near the base of the shoots, where proper attention is paid to stopping during sum- mer; therefore, in peach training, for example, a due share of young wood should be secured from these, and the more so if the tree is weak or requires an increase of branches. Pruning to increase the mgour of the tree. — This process applies to old fruit-trees whose heads have become diseased and unproductive. It is also practised upon young trees which are in an unhealthy or weakly state, and consists in cutting over the entire stem a few inches above the graft, and at other times merely cutting back the larger branches to near the stem or trunk. This operation has the power of increasing the vigour of the tree in two ways : " 1 st. If we assume that a certain amount of nourishment is supplied by the roots to all the branches and buds of a tree, by cutting off one- half of the branches on it at the proper season, we direct the whole supply of nourishment to the remaining portion, which will consequently grow with nearly double their former luxuri- ance. 2d, Again, when a tree becomes stunted or enfeebled in its growth, the thinness of its inner bark, with its consequent small sap-vessels (which, it must be remembered, are the principal channels for the passage of the ascending supply of food), renders the upward and downward circulation tardy, and the growth is small. By heading back or pruning judiciously, all the force of the nourishing fluid is thrown into a smaller number of buds, which make new and luxuriant shoots with larger sap-vessels, and which afford a ready passage to the fluids ; and the tree, with these renewed energies, will continue in vigour for a long time. This treatment is especially valu- able in the case of small trees of feeble or stunted gi'owth, which are frequently cut back to a single bud, and a new shoot or shoots fiiU of vigour gives a healthy habit to the tree."— Dowhing. VOL. II. Pruning newly transplanted trees. — Maiden trees, when planted against walls or espaliers, require pruning in order to furnish them with a head. The received opinion is, that towards the end of March or beginning of April, as the wood-buds begin to swell, one of three courses must be taken ; either shorten the shoots of the previous year, or cut down the tree to two, three, or four eyes, according to the strength of the tree, cutting the weakest always most in. This course is most frequently practised, parti- cularly in the peach, nectarine, and apricot. If the shoots be well placed for beginning the form of the tree, instead of heading down the stem, shorten these back to two, three, or four eyes, according to the strength of the tree, and at the same time, for wall or espalier trees, rub off the fore and back wood-buds. Downing on this subject takes an opposite view : " Pruning the heads of transplanted trees at the season of re- moval," he thinks, " is generally an injurious prac- tice. It is certainly needless and hurtful in the case of small trees, or those of such a size as will allow the roots to be taken up nearly en- tire ; for as the action of the branches and the roots is precisely reciprocal, and as new roots are rapidly formed just in proportion to the healthy action of the leaves, it follows that by needlessly cutting off branches we lessen the vital action of the whole tree. At the same time, where trees are transplanted of so large a size that some of the roots are lost in removing them, it is necessary to cut back or shorten a few of the branches, as many as will restore the balance of the system, otherwise the perspira- tion of the leaves may be so great as to exhaust the supply of sap faster than the roots can col- lect it. A little judgment only is necessary to see at a glance how much of the top must be pruned away before planting the tree, to equal- ise the loss between the branches and the roots." Many of the best French cultivators do not head back their trees at planting, more espe- cially the peach, but lay in the two original or principal branches at their full length, and only disbud them late in autumn, by which the vigour of the tree is greatly promoted. These branches are trained to an angle of from 60° to 65°, and in autumn all the buds are neatly re- moved by a penknife, excepting four on each branch. Late in the autumn of the second year, the four lateral shoots from the two principal branches are cut back to one-third of their length. In the following year, the lateral branches are disbudded to the extent of one- half ; and in the future winter management, dis- budding takes the place of our usual custom of pruning, a practice at one time strenuously re- commended by Walter Nicol. The following reasons are given in " Theory of Horticulture," p, 260, against this very gene- ral practice : " With regard to pruning plants when transplanted, there can be no doubt but it is more frequently injurious than beneficial. It is supposed, or seems to be, that when the branches of a transplanted tree are headed back, the remaining buds will break with more force than if the pruning had not been performed ; but it is to be remembered that a transplanted 3 IS 398 HARDY FEUIT GARDEN. tree is not in the state of one which has not been removed. Its roots are not fully in ac- tion, but from the injuries sustained in remov- ing, they are capable of exercising but little influence on the branches. The great point to attain, in the first instance, is the renovation of the roots, and that will happen only in propor- tion to the healthy action of the leaves and buds : if, therefore, the branches of a plant are removed by the pruning-knife, a great obstacle is opposed to this renovation; but if they remain, new roots will be formed in proportion to their healthy action. The danger to be feared is, that the perspiration of the leaves tnay be so great as to exhaust the system of its fluid con- tents faster than the roots can restore them, and in careless transplanting this may doubtless happen : in such cases it is certainly requisite that some part of the branches should be pruned away, but no more should be taken off than the exigency of the case obviously requires ; and if the operation of transplanting has been well performed, there will be no necessity whatever. In the case of the transplantation of large trees, it is alleged that branches must be removed, in order to reduce the head, bo that it may not be acted upon by the wind; but in general it is easy to prevent this by artificial means. In the nur- series it is a universal practice to prune the roots of transplanted trees ; in gardens this is seldom performed. Which is right? If a wounded or bruised root is allowed to remain upon a transplanted tree, it is apt to decay, and this disease may spread to neighbouring parts, which would otherwise be healthy ; to remove the wounded parts of roots is therefore desir- able. But the case is different with healthy roots. We must remember that every healthy and unmutilated root which is removed is a loss of nutriment to the plant, and that too at a time when it is least able to spare it. There cannot be any advantage in the removal. The nursery practice is probably intended to render the operation of transplanting large numbers of trees less troublesome ; and as it is chiefly ap- plied to seedlings and young plants with a super- abundance of roots, the loss in their case is, therefore, not so much felt. If performed at all, it should take place in autumn, for at that time the roots, like other parts of a plant, are comparatively empty of fluid ; but if deferred till the spring, then the roots are all distended with fluid, which has been collecting in them during winter, and every part taken away carries with it a portion of that nurture which the plant had been laying up as the store upon which to commence its renewed growth." The practice of cutting off the whole tops as well as a considerable portion of the roots of young quicks or thorns, when planted for the formation of hedges — a practice almost invari- ably followed in Scotland — is radically wrong, and hence there can be no doubt that the oppo- site practice, followed in the north of England, of planting them of a much larger size and without any curtailment whatever, is much pre- ferable, leaving whatever pruning may be neces- sary for forming the fence till after the plants have become thoroughly established ; and were the hedges in the latter case as well managed afterwards as they are in the former, the ad- vantage of the superior mode of planting would be more evident. Cutting back or shortening the branches of trees at transplanting is considered seldom neces- sary by Hayward, who says, in "Enquiry into the Causes of the Fruitfulness and Barrenness of Plants and Fruit Trees," &c., p. 210 : "When the plants and trees are of a proper form or figure, and are removed with care at the proper season of the year, it is better to observe such care in removing and taking up as to do it without in- jury to the roots, and to take them up suflS- ciently early in the season to allow them full time to recover and establish themselves, so as to furnish the sap required to sustain the head and branches undiminished. But if it be late in the season when trees are taken up, and the roots are so much diminished and injured that the following season the trees cannot be fur- nished with sufScient sap to sustain the head and branches, or to prevent the bark and vessels from becoming inflexible, it is better to head them back; for as the sap-vessels of the branches which form the old head will be in- capable of expanding, so as to receive all the- sap furnished by the roots, the second season, after removal, when the roots are restored, the sap will force its way out and form new branches near the root : the better plan, therefore, in such cases, must be to reduce the head and branches just at the time the buds open in the spring after planting, and to shorten them to such lengths that the roots may be able to fill and support them." Much, however, in a practical point of view, depends on circumstances, such as the care with which the trees have been taken up and removed, their healthy and robust state, and the suitableness of the soil they are planted in, as well as the early season at which they have been transplanted. If these be as they ought to be, then in few cases is shortening back the branches necessary, as, if planted sufficiently early in autumn, the roots will have placed themselves in a condition to supply in spring all the nutriment required by the branches, providing the trees are not old and of very large size. Whereas, in opposite cases, when the trees are carelessly taken up, and their roots much broken and exposed during their transit from one place to another, if they are naturally weakly, or rendered so by improper management previously, the soil into which they are to be placed uncongenial, and the planting delayed till late in spring, then either a curtailment of the branches must take place, or the tree be allowed to stand over for a season to become established at the roots, and heading back performed the following autumn. Wherever fruit trees can be transplanted so as to render heading back unnecessary, it is of great advantage, as such trees come much sooner into a bearing state, and seldom after, unless from unnecessary excite- ment at the roots, require very much priming ; whereas young trees once established at the roots, and headed hard back, begin to grow to wood vigorously, are much longer in coming PBUNma AND TRAINING. 399 into a fruit-bearing state, and continue long of robust habit, increased rather than diminished by severe pruning, and causing the mutilating practices of root-pruning, ringing, &c., to be had recourse to. Leaf-pruning consists in removing a portion of the foliage while the tree or plant is in a grow- ing state ; an operation in tree management, we believe, first described, and its eifects explained, by Mr Beaton, one of the most scientific gar- deners of the present day. The object is to reduce the strength in over-luxuriant trees, and the means employed to pinch the leaves off as fast as they are unfolded from the bud, thus preventing the formation of buds at their axils, and the return of the sap to the root. " When a tree fills the space allotted to it against a wall, and shows a disposition to still further growth, by throwing up strong vertical shoots above the wall, and luxuriant breastwood on the main boughs, instead of checking this disposi- tion by any of the ordinary modes of pruning, Mr Beaton assists the tree to throw off the superabundant sap by disleafing the breastwood and vertical shoots, and in the winter-pruning he displaces all the buds on such shoots, even those on the points, after which they die off by degrees, and are cut out. If trees are not very luxuriant, indeed, one year of this treatment will reduce them to a moderate degree of strength. As buds are only formed in the axils of the leaves, probably much disbudding and pruning might be saved by disleafing as soon as the leaves are developed ; but it must always be borne in mind that every leaf has not only the particular office to perform of nourishing the bud in its axil, but the general one of contri- buting to the nourishment of all that part of the tree which is between it and the farthest extremities of the roots. Hence, in particular cases, where it is desirable to give additional vigour to the roots, instead of disleafing or dis- budding a weak tree, all the leaves and shoots it produces, even the breastwood and upright shoots, which the French call gourmands, ought to be encouraged within certain limits. Disleafing is frequently practised with fruit- bearing plants, both ligneous and herbaceous, ■with the view to admit the sun and air to the fruit, and sometimes also to assist in ripening wood by stopping growth." — Sub. Hort., p. 344. Of the ingeniousuess of this practice there can be no doubt, and in skilful hands the desired effect will be .accomplished. We -would, how- ever, depend more on taking up and replanting, or on root-pnining, in all cases where these operations can be conveniently carried into effect. The removal of leaves while plants are in a growing state has the most debilitating effect on them of any operation that can be applied, and if carried too far would certainly terminate their existence. To a limited extent the practice has advantages ; and in the case of strong- growing trees, the removal of the leaves from such shoots as the experienced pruner foresees are to be removed at all events, may be done with the greatest safety, and, if done in proportion to the strength of the tree, will be attended with great advantage. Root-pruning is an operation often rendered ne- cessary to check over-luxuriance in the tree, and to induce in it a disposition to become fruitful. It is, when properly and timeously performed, per- haps one of the most important modes of prun- ing. There is no doubt, seeing,how much the tree depends on its roots, that they should demand as much of our attention as the branches ; for. unless a proper balance is kept up between them, no satisfactory results need be looked for. The best cultivators of fruit trees, fully alive to this, have the roots of their trees as much under their control as the tree itself, and are no more afraid of laying them bare, and using the pruning-knife upon them, than they are at operating on the branches. By a proper adjustment of the roots, the sterility of trees, whether proceeding from want or super- abundance of food supplied from the soil, is corrected, fresh and proper food is secured to them, the roots placed in the best position to take up this food, which is in general when near the surface, where they have their neces- sary share of solar heat, &c. Where excessive vigour- exists in the tree, and consequently an absence of fruit, this is remedied by curtailing, or even totally removing, so many of the strong roots as may be thought necessary. Autumn is in general preferred for this operation, although many have executed it with good effect even when the trees were in full growth. The operation need seldom be repeated oftener than once in three years, and sometimes less frequently suffices, much, depending on cir- cumstances. The operation is generally per- formed by opening a trench so wide that the operator may easily reach the roots, and to such a depth as to get completely under them ; for it is often those which strike down^¥ard which most require to be operated upon. The distance also from the stem of the tree will depend on its size, and the extent to which the operation is to be carried. The larger and stronger roots should be cut off, leaving the wounds clean and smooth, to enable them to heal over speedily, and form callosities from which the new and more valuable roots will proceed. Koot-pruning during summer was, we believe, first brought into notice by the late Mr Beattie, of Scone Palace, who operated upon a whole wall of pears with remarkable effect ; and we find Mr Errington extending the opera- .tion over a much greater extent of the season. " It will appear," he says, " strange to some per- sons to talk of root-pruning when trees are in full growth ; but in all probability a better period could not be chosen than the end of July, for to delay longer with subjects requir- ing the operation, especially of trees of tender habit, is to lose a good chance of facilitating the ripening of the wood. Late growths are anta- gonistic in all cases to the latter process ;" and this holds good most in rich deep soils which encourage growth, and cold late autumns, inca- pable, in consequence of want of heat, of ripen- ing the wood. Koot-pruning has received a fresh impetus by the example shown by Mr Rivers, the respectable nurseryman at Saw- bridge Worth, who may be said to have reduced 400 HARDY FEUIT GARDEN. periodical pmnmga of this kind to a perfect system ; and with this, and the use of less luxuriant stocks, has secured a new character in the habit and productiveness of many of our best fruits. Koot-pruning is often very carelessly and in- efficiently performed; and hence, like many other excellent things not properly done, the result falls short of the operator's expectations, and he becomes loud iu condemning the prin- ciple. It is not to be done by merely thrusting down a blunt spade or other instrument all round the tree, and mangUng such roots as the instrument comes iu contact with — nor even by digging a trench all round, and cutting off the stronger horizontal roots that may come in the way, leaving them ragged and lacerated at the points of amputation. The evil sought to be remedied much seldomer rests with such roots than with those which descend in a perpendi- cular direction under the centre of the tree, which such a mode of operating cannot reach. The best directions we have met with on this subject are in a leading article iu " The Gar- deners' Chronicle" for 1841, p. 763, as the prac- tice of Mr Crace, as applied to the roots of pear trees which he wished to keep of small size. He root-prunes annually, leaving the roots each time about an inch longer than before. " He does not leave the roots with their ends wounded, as they would be if chopped through with a spade ; but he cuts all the larger roots obhquely with a sharp knife, so as to leave a clean stand- ing wound, 3 or 4 inches long, with its face downwards. The effect of this," he says, " is to cause the wound to send forth a fan of fine fibres from its whole circumference. The young fibrous roots of a plant proceed in all cases from the surface of the wood, and not from the bark ; they only pierce the bark when they seem to grow from it. When the root is crushed by the blow of a blunt tool, all the part exposed to the blow is killed, and soon decays. That decay may either proceed no farther than the vicinity of the injury, or, as will happen more frequently than we suppose, it will spread and infect the sound parts iu contact with it. In either case the production of young fibrous roots can only take place by forcing them through the bark which lies over the wood from which they have to spring. But when the wound at the end of a root is clean, decay will not take place ; and the surface of the wood will produce fibres from that part which is iu contact with the earth. No resistance is offered to this process ; on the contrary, from the moment that the fibre be- gins to form, it finds itself iu contact with the earth, where its food resides, and there, imbib- ing vigour from the soil, it immediately contri- butes to the general system something of that organisable matter out of which more fibres are to be produced." Many advocates for root-pruning recommend the operation to be performed annually, " for," as Mr Rivers remarks, " if a tree is suffered to grow two, three, or more years, and then root- pruned, it will receive a check if the spring be dry, and the crop of fruit for one season will be jeopardised; therefore, those who are disin- clined to the annual operation, and yet wish to confine the growth of their trees within limited bounds by root-pruning — say once in three years — should only operate upon one-third of their trees in one season ; they will thus have two-thirds in an unchecked bearing state." The operation is usually thus performed : A trench 18 inches wide or so is opened all round the tree, and about 2 feet distant from the stem ; but this distance depends greatly on the size and age of the tree, the object being to ascer- tain the state and position of the roots, so that those growing in a perpendicular direction, or those of strong growth growing in a horizontal direction, may be amputated to a proper length. This is a necessary operation in most soils and situations, but more especially so in cold and wet soils, and in northern climates, because it has the effect of causing the trees to make less luxuriant growth, and hence enables the wood to become more perfectly ripened iu autumn. Every fruit-bearing tree, under cer- tain conditions, may be advantageously ope- rated upon from the period of the fruit's ripen- ing until the sap begins to flow in the roots. These conditions appear to be favourable soils and warm situations, where not only the fruit but the wood also ripens early. Under circum- stances of an opposite character, where the trees grow late in autumn and ripen their wood im- perfectly, it is often necessary to reverse the operation, and root-prune during summer. There is also some danger to be apprehended when root-pruning is performed during winter, parti- cularly iu wet seasons and in damp soils, as the roots that have been cut at that time are liable to rot, and the wounds are long in heaUng. Mr Errington has shown that he has induced fertility and moderate growth in pears which had been long perfectly barren, and which had put forth nothing but wood of unproductive luxuri- ance, by root-pruning, even when the operation of ringing had failed to produce a similar effect. The order iu which this cultivator places the various kinds of fruit trees to which this process has been beneficially extended is — Pears, apples, plums, peaches, and nectarines, and then the cherry and apricot. The pear, when upon the pear or free stock, is peculiarly liable to form tap-roots, and when these are growing luxuriantly without bearing, it is almost, he says, impossible to root-prune them too severely, at least the deeper roots. " If in an orchard, and the trees are of some size, they may be curtailed all round ; the amount of root removed bearing, of com:se,^a direct ratio to the amount of luxuriance. In the espalier border we must be content to get at them how we can, remembering that even the cutting of one side will assuredly affect the whole system of the tree, although not, perhaps, in an equal degree ; at least we dare not, in the present state of gardening science, affirm it." Root-pruning the appU. — The apple, even on the crab stock, is much less liable to send down tap-roots than the pear on the free or pear stock ; it therefore requires this operation to be performed with some degree of caution. If too severely limited at the roots, the tree is apt PRUNING AND TRAINING. 401 to become greatly paralysed ; small leaves and Bhort slender shoots will be produced the first year afterwards, and that inveterate enemy the red spider will grievously attack the foliage. " We introduce this caution," says Mr Erring- ton, " to show that some degree of moderation becomes necessary, and that although root-prun- ing is correct in principle, yet it may be preju- dicial in rash hands." Root-pruning the plum. — The majority of plums are little liable to assume those gross habits which render other trees unproductive; still cases frequently occur where an examination of the roots, and a slight curtailment of some of the stronger ones, may become necessary. In youth, and in over-rich soil, the plum is apt to make strong wood, and in such cases root-prun- ing should be attended to ; but, like the peach and nectarine, much may be done by topping the strongest shoots early in their growth, which will cause them to send out laterals of a more useful size. Old plum-trees, when once in a bearing state, seldom require such attention. When, however, it is intended to grow the plum in the pyramidal standard form, root-pruning becomes an almost necessary condition, and even performing the operation during summer has been found to have its advantages. As the pyramidal form is so well adapted to small gar- dens, on account of the small space the trees occupy, and the little shade they occasion, every means should be employed to bring them into the most perfect state possible. The French have not in general succeeded in growing the plum in this way, although in the case of most other hardy fruits they have long excelled : in- deed, it is to them we are Indebted for our first knowledge of this mode of training. Of root- pruning they know Httle — at least, if they do, they seldom practise it ; and it is to this we attribute their want of success in regard to the plum, when trained even in their favourite fashion. Root-pruning the peach and nectarine. — The great object in root-pruning these is to keep the roots near the surface to insure early growth, moderately strong wood, and that thoroughly ripened in autumn. If the roots are deep, vege- tation is late in spring before it is brought into action, crude and excessive juices are drawn from the soil ; and although the wood grows vigorously during summer, it is so watery and gross, and continues growing so late, that our ordinary seasons are not sufficiently warm to perfect its elaboration. Much, therefore, de- pends on stopping strong shoots to cause a sup- ply of laterals to be formed, and these, if pro- perly managed, will be found preferable to the others. When the peach attains a bearing state, unless the roots be too deep, or too highly sti- mulated with manure, they seldom produce wood of a character that will render an inter- ference with their roots necessary. ■Root-pruning the peach, nectarine, and apri- cot is practised by Mr Fleming at Trentham with the most beneficial effects, to counteract late growth in a climate proverbial for its humidity, and by no means warm. By this means this excellent cultivator keeps his trees in a fine bearing state, by limiting their growth within proper bounds, and thus insuring well-ripened wood and buds, and as a consequence abundance of fruit. As soon as the fruit is gathered from the trees a general examination of their roots takes place, and such as require it are shortened back more or less according to their strength. This checks their growth sufficiently early, and facilitates the ripening of the wood, which, without this cutting off the supply at the roots, would continue to grow on to so late a period that ripening, under the circumstances of the situation, would be impossible. In all late situa- tions this plan should be followed, whether they be wet or dry ; and there are few places, in the north in particular, where it should be neglected, for it is almost midsummer before we have any- thing like free and vigorous growth; and in consequence of our usual mUd autumns, our trees continue growing on, till their progress is all of a sudden arrested by frost, the shoots being full of sap, and of so gross a character that no art of man can afterwards save them from destruction. This is the foundation of nine-tenths of all the mishaps and diseases to which our wall-trees are so liable. The middle of September, or as soon as the crop is gathered, is the proper season for root-prun- ing the peach, with a view to induce productive- ness the following year. The operation will check the growth and hasten the ripening of the wood, which, from that period till the end of the season, will have sufficient time to become matured. Root-pruning the cherry. — Unless for the rea- sons above given, this is found to be seldom necessary. The stronger-growing sorts will sometimes, for the first few years, make very strong wood, and in such cases the operation may be had recourse to ; and if not, where the branches run off, bare of fruit-buds to a consi- derable distance from the trunk, such well- placed young wood as may arise from them may be trained, using the naked branches as a trellis on which to train them. We have in some cases side-grafted young branches on such branches, and so covered the centre of the trees with young and fertile wood. Mr Rivers, with a view to correct the gross habit of some of these sorts, has wrought them upon Mahaleb stocks. Root-pruning the apricot. — In some soils root- pruning is advantageously performed on this tree, and we have seen it done on trees of con- siderable size and age, with evident success. Some pomologists, however, object to root-prun- ing this tree, but upon what grounds we never could clearly see. Root-pruning tJte fg and the vine. — In open-air culture these seldom are thus operated upon, it having been found better to plant them in shal- low borders, with impervious bottoms, and to confine the roots of the former within proper bounds by walling them round. The most thorough system of root-pruning is, however, taking up the trees in early autumn, regulating their roots, and immediately replanting them again ; and this, if properly done, may be per- formed with great advantage upon every kind of fruit-bearing tree. In the case of amateurs, and even where lai'ge trees are to be operated 402 HARDY FRUIT GARDEN. upon, witliout sufficient manual power to effect the entire taking up and replanting, and also in cases where local obstructions come in the way, we would say, be content with opening a trench round the roots, as far as may be convenient ; and after removing the soil carefully from the roots within reach, reduce them according as they can be got at, remembering, however, that the fewer roots reached the more severely they may be dealt with. Binging is a species of pruning practised often on the branches of fruit trees, and occasionally on the larger roots also. The operation con- sists in removing one or more rings of the bark, by which the return of the sap is obstructed, and it is thus obliged to accumulate above the part operated upon, instead of taking its other- wise natural course downwards. The practice has been long in use on the Continent ; but until Mr Knight explained the physiological nature of the operation, little notice was taken of it in Britain. The following excellent explanation of the theory has been given by that eminent man in " The Trans, of the Hort. Soc," vol. iv. p. 229 : " The true sap of trees is wholly generated in their leaves, through which it descends through their bark to the extremities of their roots, de- positing in its course the matter which is suc- cessively added to the tree ; whilst whatever portion of siich sap is not thus expended sinks into the alburnum and joins the ascending cur- rent, to which it communicates powers not possessed by the recently absorbed iiuid. When the course of the descending current is inter- cepted, that naturally stagnates and accumulates above the decorticated space, whence it is re- pulsed and carried upwards, to be expended in an increased 'production of blossoms and of fruit ; and, consistently with these conclusions, I have found that part of the alburnum which is situated above the decorticated space to exceed in specific gravity very considerably that which lies below it. The repulsion of the descending fluid, there- fore, accounts, I conceive, satisfactorily for the increased production of blossoms and more rapid growth of the fruit upon the decorticated branch ; but there are causes which operate in promoting its more early maturity. The part of the branch which is below the decorticated space is ill supplied with nutriment, and ceases almost to grow ; it in consequence operates less actively in impelling the ascending current of sap, which must also be impeded in its progress through the decorticated space. The parts which are above it must, therefore, be less abun- dantly supplied with moisture, and drought in such cases always operates very powerfully in accelerating maturity. When the branch is small, or the space from which the bark has been taken off considerable, it almost always operates in excess, a morbid state of early ma- turity is induced, and the fruit is worthless. If this view of the effects of partial decortication, or ringing, be a just one, it follows that much of the success of the operation must be dependent upon the selection of proper seasons, and upon the mode of performing it being well adapted to the object of the operator. If that be the .production of blossoms, or the means of making the blossoms set more freely, the ring of bark should be taken off early in the summer preced- ing the period at which the blossoms are re- quired ; but if the enlargement and more early maturity of the fruit be the objects, the opera- tion should be delayed till the bark will readily part from the alburnum in the spring. The breadth of the decorticated space must be adapted to the size of the branch ; but I have never witnessed any except injurious effects whenever the experiment has been made upon very small or very young branches, for such become debilitated and sickly long before the fruit can acquire a proper state of maturity." The operation of ringing, although for certain purposes valuable enough, should not be carried too far; and if it could be so managed that de- cortication should be performed only on such branches as could be afterwards entirely re- moved without disfigurement to the tree, then it might be more generally adopted. Its effects in all cases are to render those portions of a tree operated upon unhealthy, and ultimately to make them perish. There is a modification of ringing less injurious to the tree, but also less effective in its results, namely — Spiral ringing. — This mode of ringing has been suggested as being less liKely to be injuri- ous to fruit trees, particularly peaches, apricots, plums, and cherries, which are much less patient of the operation of common ringing than apples and pears ; but the evil ought not in any case, for such purposes, to be extended farther than the edges are capable of healing in some degree, or the life of the subject might be endangered by the process. Ringing by ligature, Ac. — Instead of removing a ring of bark, a piece of wire, of strength pro- portioned to the size of the branch, is placed firmly round the part, which has the effect of obstructing the sap, but to a much less degree ; and a weight, such as a heavy stone, &c., is used in Malta and elsewhere, by being placed in the fork of a branch, and made fast, so as not to be shaken down. The pressure it exerts on the part it touches to some extent obstructs the circulation of the sap, and produces, in propor- tion to its compression, the effect desired. A girdle of Roman cement, put on in the man- ner of claying a graft,has been recommended, and a piece of rope tightened round the branch has also been tried. In either case, the compression caused has had the same effect as that of cut- ting a ring of the bark out altogether, and with far less serious effect on the branch, as both are removed when the effect is produced. lu regard to the season of ringing by cutting the bark, as well as the breadth of the ring removed, that must be guided by circumstances. The former, some assert, may be performed at any season, but its effects will only be obvious when the sap is on the ascent. In regard to the lat- ter, the breadth of ring removed should bear a proportion to the size of the branch operated upon. It may vary from l-16th of an inch to an inch, which latter will answer the purpose as well as if of greater breadth, and has the ad- vantage of healing over during the same, or, in general, the Bucceeding year ; and the depth to PEUNING AND TEAINING. 403. ■which such an incision should go should not ex- ceed the thickness of the outer and inner bark. Its effeou are more obvious on the apple and pear than upon other trees, some of wMch, such as stone-fruits, seem to be scarcely affected by it at all ; yet, curious enough, it affects the gooseberry, while the currant is unaffected by it, so far as our observation goes. It has a marked effect on the setting of the fruit, if per- formed just before the blossoms begin to ex- pand. With root-pruning so thoroughly understood as it appears now to be, we do not think that, except in extreme cases, the mutilating practice of ringing should be much resorted to. It is rather a dangerous operation in unskilful hands, and only answers the purpose of root-pruning to the extent of the branch or branches it may be applied to, while it is generally detrimental, if not fatal, to the parts above where the opera- tion is performed ; whereas, root-pruning acts upon eveiy part of the tree alike, and more or less at the will of the operator, and at the same time,insteadof being hurtful inits consequences, is extremely beneficial, as it prevents the roots from penetrating too deep, and getting into a bad subsoil, which is one of the principal causes of unhealthiuess and unproductiveness in them; it limits the supply of sap collected by them to the just requirements of the tree ; it increases the number of proper food-collecting fibres, directs them to where the proper food is to be obtained, and keeps them near the surface, so that they may enjoy the influence of both warmth and air, two essential elements, of which they would be deprived if allowed to penetrate deeply into the soil ; it admits also of placing fresh soil for the roots to work in, and of the renewal of that from which they have extracted all that is useful to them. Close pruning is chiefly performed both on forest and fruit trees when the shoot or branch to be removed is in a ripened or mature state, and when the part to be amputated is to be cut out from the branch or stem from which it has sprung. Although this is done in both cases, and upon branches of considerable size, the in- tention being chiefly directed to the Removal of ill-placed or superfluous growths, still one object must in neither case be overlooked — namely, to cut so that the surrounding bark may cover, in the least possible time, the whole of the wounded part ; in both cases, to pre- vent decay taking place in the main stem or larger branch ; and in fruit - bearing trees, to leave no appearance of a wound or blemish on the bark. The smaller the branch removed, the sooner will the wound be healed over — a circumstance which points directly to time- ous pruning, and to the evU of allowing super- fluous or ill-placed branches to continue on the tree. This is particularly the case as regards stone-fruits, whose wounds, if large, heal very tardily, and often not at all. In cutting, the wound should not be made larger than the size of the section of the part removed, that the process of healing by the bark's covering it over again may speedily take place. Yet, at the same time, the branch should bo cut ehse in to the stem, to prevent the development of latent buds, wliich are placed at the base of such branches, and if not removed along with it, would become excited in spring, and have to be re- moved afterwards, besides preventing the ope- ration of healing over from taking place, at least in so complete a manner as could be desired. There is, however, an evil, on the other hand, in cutting too closely in — that is to say, when an unnecessary portion of the bark of the stem or branch, from which the other has been cut, is displaced, because a much longer time will be required before the healing process is accom- plished. In pruning fruit trees, on the prin- ciple of encouraging the production of natural spurs or flower-buds, instead of that of creating artificial ones, the removal of the young wood at the winter's pnining demands attention in this respect, in so far as, if the young wood be not cut close in to the branch from which it issues, the latent buds left at its base will de- velop a mass of useless foliage, and in time form crowded clusters of spurs, most of which will be productive of small spray and leaves, with few or no flower-buds ; while, if out close in, natural flower-buds will be protruded from the edges of the wound, and along the smooth clear branch, both below and above where the young shoot was removed from. Spur pruning. — The creation of artificial spurs on fruit trees was the invariable rule of former practitioners. The best cultivators now depend upon the inducement of natural spurs. " It must be confessed," says Loudon, "however, that pruning has but little to do with the pro- duction of spurs that are prolific in blossoms — that depends far more on adjusting the nourish- ment supplied by the root to the demands of the fruit-bearing branches, to the mode of train- ing, the kind of tree, and other particulars, which, when attended to, spurs are produced naturally." The means of producing these spurs have been sufficiently explained in various parts of this work. Pruning by stopping, or pincliing hack. — This is a species of pruning performed on trees dur- ing the growing season of their young wood, and is important in the case of many trees. When a shoot is stopped or pinched back while in a growing state, the sap which was impelled towards the point of the shoot — as the sap always is, in proportion to the vertical or hori- zontal direction of the branches and young shoots ^ — is now taken up in adding to the size or substance of the leaves or fruit which may be upon it, or in developing the buds at the axil of the leaves ; or, in other cases,, converting them from leaf-buds to flower-buds. In the case of the vine, this has been known since the days of Pliny ; and, according to a paper in the "Ann. Hort. Soe. Paris," three crops of grapes have been obtained in one sea- son lirom the same vine by adopting this process —a process, however, no one expecting a large crop the following year would, if wise, run the risk of following. Mr T. A. Knight, in follow- ing the stopping system in the case of the fig (his plants being kept in excitement by means of artificial temperature), obtained three crops 404 HARDY FRUIT GARDEN. of fruit from the same plants within the same year. " The principal use of stopping, how- ever," as is sensibly remarked by Mr Loudon, " is to promote the setting and swelUng of fruit either on the shoot of the current year, as in the case of the vine and the melon, or at its base, as in the case of the peach. Much of the winter-pruning of trees might be prevented by stopping the shoots early in summer, provided the state of the tree did not require that the shoots should be allowed to grow their full length, in order to send down nutriment to the increase of the roots, in consequence of which, greater vigour is in turn imparted to the stem and branches. In this case of pruning, as in every other, the state of the tree, and a variety of circumstances connected with it, require to be taken into consideration." Finger-pruning or disbudding is performed in the spring, as well as during most of the sum- mer, and has for its object the reduction of the number of young shoots to proper limits, by displacing them when about an inch or two in length, thereby economising the energies of the tree, and directing the sap — which wovdd go to their formation, and afterwards be, along with them, cut off and thrown away — into those that remain. Indeed, finger-pruning or disbudding, if properly attended to, would, in most cases of trained trees, render the pruning-knife unneces- sary, unless for the removal of dead, diseased, or superabundant shoots. The removal also of superabundant fruit-bnds during early spring, although seldom practised, is deserving of attention. To allow all to expand, greatly weakens the tree, and is one of the causes why we so often have a bad crop of fruit notwith- standing an amazing display of blossom. It would be perhaps going too far to say that every flower-bud should be removed excepting those only from which fruit is to be expected; yet, could we be guaranteed against accidents, there is no doubt that the tree would gain greatly in strength, and the setting of the fruit be more completely insured. Without, however, going so far as this, the operation of disbudding, or reducing the num- ber of blossom-buds to something like an approxi- mation to double the number of fruit required, would, if carried into effect, be attended with very marked results. This operation may be performed during winter, at or soon after winter- pruning, or it may be delayed until the buds begin to swell in spring. In inexperienced hands the latter period would be the safest, as the wood and blossom-buds could then be better distinguished. Bending down the branches of standard frait- trees is done with a vi-'w to moderate the flow of the sap, and answers the same purpose as training wall-trees horizontally, or in the pen- dulous form. In the case of full standard trees, strings are attached to the points of the extend- ing branches, and fastened to the stem or trunk ; weights suspended from the extremities of the branches have been suggested, but this is neither so business-like nor so safe a course as that of forming a single rail, elevated a few inches above tho surface of the ground, and of a diameter corresponding with the spread of the branches ; their points being fastened to the rail, depresses the branches to any required degree, and pre- vents their being broken by the wind. The top of the tree may by this means be modelled into what may be called the domical form, simi- lar to fig. 800, vol. i. The time for performing the operation is soon after midsummer, and the effect produced is the interruption of the flow ' of the sap, and the consequent production of abundance of blossom-buds. Laying bare the roots of fruit trees is an old practice, mentioned by Evelyn as common in hia day. It is still very generally practised on the Continent, the soil being removed around the stem to such a depth as to expose the princi- pal roots to the action of the atmosphere. Of its utihty there are great doubts. It can only be re- garded as a species of mutilation — such as cutting notches in the stem and larger branches, strip- ping off portions of the bark, as recommended by Arnaud d'Andilly about the middle of the seventeenth century in France, and towards the latter end of the last century, and beginning of the present, in Britain, by Lyon, King, Forsyth, and others. Every species of artificial muti- lation, whether of plants or animals, has the effect of bringing about a sort of prematurity, and until that state is arrived at, reproduction does not take place. But these should only he had recourse to as expedients when the more natural modes of providing a proper soil and situation, and judicious pruning and training, have failed. For further on pruning and training, mde articles Apple, Pear, Vine, &c. Pruning is to be regarded as an art, and a very important one, when conducted upon cor- rect principles, which it is not always, and that more especially in its application to the growth of timber. The remarks previously made, and all those which directly apply to fruit trees, have for their object the very reverse of accumu- lating bulk of woody matter ; the operations of the pruner must, therefore, be guided accord- ingly. If straightness of stem and bulk of tim- ber be the object, as may be said to be the case in all coniferous trees grown for profit, then, as a general rule, it may be stated that tho leading shoot should be preserved with the greatest care. No doubt such plants will, like most others, replace such losses, when they accidentally occur, by sending up one or more leaders ; but if these are left to themselves, a striving for the lead will enfeeble the whole. All should be removed save the strongest one, if well placed. The sap in all plants has a natural tendency to flow to the highest points, and hence we find the leading shoots always the strongest, the buds farthest from the root, if nearly vertical to it, the plumpest and best formed ; while both lateral branches and their buds, toward the bottom of the tree, are found invariably to be the weakest, and in course of time die away altogether. Hence, we think, nature teaches us our first lesson in timber-tree pruning ; she does so, beginning near the ground, and proceeds upwards progressively, but sZow^ii; and so should we, if increasing the bulk of the PRUNING AND TKAINING. 405 stem, or of the main branches, of ramifying trees, such as the oak, chestnut, &o., whose main limbs for certain purposes are as valuable as the trunk itself, be our object. Nevertheless, this is a business requiring caution and early attention, for if lateral branches be allowed to form near the bottom of the stem", and per- mitted to continue, their amputation 'afterwards has a serious effect not only on the constitution of the tree, but on the quality of the timber also. "When a large branch is cut off immediately from the body or trunk of a large tree, the usual sap which supplied it in its ascent from the roots will be stopped short, and for a time will ooze out from the cut part. In a short time, however, the sap, as it rises in those vessels of the trunk which formerly supplied the branch taken off, becomes stagnated, and causes rot in that part, which can never be the case while the branch remains to draw up and prepare the sap in its leaves ; and this is the case in all instances of large branches, as they are cut from large trees. But in the case of a branch being thus cut from a young sapling in a rapidly growing state, the tree is not injured but improved, the sap of the plant being in such a vigorous state that rot cannot take place. Now the practical deduction to be drawn from this is, that the amputation of a large branch immediately from the body of a large tree, instead of being favour- able to its health and value as timber, is the reverse. I say immediately from the body of the tree, because the cutting off of a part of a branch is by no means injurious to the health of a tree; but, on the contrary, when part of a, large tree is cut off — i e. foreshortened — the flow of the sap to that part is cheeked, and the body or trunk of the tree is in proportion en- larged." Such are the views entertained by a very good practical forester, Mr Brown of Arniston. Simi- lar views have been entertained for many years, and much discussion has taken place on the sub- ject, particularly in the earlier volumes of " The Gardeners' Magazine,"and since in the two principal horticultural newspapers. " The Forest Pruner," by Ponty, and " Nicol's Planter's Kalendar," edit- ed by Mr Sang, are de- serving of perusal in con- nection with this matter. The annexed woodcuts; from the last of these works, will explain the effects of judicious and injudicious pruning bet- ter than a lengthened letterpress description. Fig. 1 59 represents a tree of thirty years' growth, which has been regularly and properly pruned. Fig. 160, a tree of the same age, which has been neglected as to pruning during its early growth, and has now been pruned in a way too frequently practised — namely, by Fig. 160. Fig. 159. Fig. 161. .PROPERLY PRUNED TREE. VOL. II. IMPROPERLY PRUNED TREE. sawing and lopping off the branches after they have attained a large size. Fig. 1 61 shows the bad consequences of neglecting early pruning, in the case of a plank cut from an ash tree, which had been prun- ed by lopping off the large branches many years be- fore it was felled. " The cuts in this case," says the very intelligent and vener- able editor, " had been made several inches from the bole, and the branches being very large, the stumps left had become rotten. The enlargement of the trunk had not, how- ever, been stopped, for the new wood had covered over all the haggled parts, in some places to several iuchesthick. Yettheeffects of the previous exposure to the action of the weather, by injudicious pruning, is strikingly markedby the de- cayed stateof the parts con- nected with the branches which had been amputated." From this it will clearly appear, that, if pruning is to be practised on deciduous trees at all, it should be com- menced while they are young, and carried on progressively ; and if so, no such blemishes will be found in the timber when cut up. Yet it does sometimes happen that young plantations under twenty years' growth are to be pruned (and we wish we could say that this was of more frequent occurrence). In such cases, where the ill-placed branches, or those intended to be 3f EFFECTS OF BAD PRUNING ON WOOD. 406 HARDY FRUIT GARDEN. removed, exceed in diameter 2 inches, it is better to commence at their extremities, and shorten them back yearly. By thus cutting off their supplies, by reducing the number of leaves, the base of the branch will not increase much in size, but as it is yearly lessened more and more of its nourishment, it will become sickly, and ultimately die away altogether ; and as this pro- cess goes on simultaneously with the increasing growth of the trunk, the core or dead fragment left in the trunk will be very small, and in moat cases not traceable in the wood when the tree is felled. Besides, this foreshortening of the lower branches will cause the sap which was destined to support them to take another direction, and as none is so natural to it as to a.scend through the trunk, it will take that course ; for it is an invariable law in the vegetable economy, that when a branch of a healthy plant is cut off, all that sap which would have been expended in supporting the part removed is directed into the parts which remain. However much pruning may be insisted upon, with the view of increas- ing bulk of timber, an even more important matter is allowing the trees plenty of room, so that they may both have a sufficient supply of food by the roots, and also an opportvuiity of properly elaborating the same in the leaves, by a full exposure to light and air. Pruning Conifers. — As regards the season of pruning coniferous and ornamental hardy trees, be they evergreen or deciduous, winter has in general been the time chosen. This is, however, a mistake — the latter end of spring and through- out the whole summer being the most proper time, because at that season the wounds made speedily heal up, on account of the trees being in the full vigour of growth. The considerations of leisure time and antiquated habits should be disregarded. Coniferous plants were, until with- in these few years, almost exempted from the pruuing-knife ; indeed, so far was this prejudice carried, that it was held little short of murder to remove a branch from them. One noble example we have, however, who foresaw (now rather more than a century ago) the propriety of praning this section of trees. The third Earl of Haddington, who planted Tyningham, the greatest planter of his day, and author of a work on arboriculture, thus says : " I was once a great enemy to the pruning of firs, because what came from Norway never had met with that treat- ment ; but now I think, when the side branches are taken away when they are young, there can be no harm in it, for the bark will soon grow over the wound, and so no knot can be withiu that part, for tlie fir never puts out side branches after they have been once cut off. What I pur- pose is, that after it has been planted for three years to begin and cut away two tiers of branches, and every year afterwards cutting away one." As the great object is altitude in the pine tribe, the removal of the lower tiers of branches has a positive tendency to effect this, although it would be hazardous to amputate branches of a large size. Coniferous pruning should be performed only during summer ; aud when the trees assume flat spreading heads (we do not mean those whose natural habit is to be so, but such as the larch, silver fir, &c.), the extreme points of two or three tiers of branches even above that which is to be removed may with great advantage be foreshortened. This should, however, be done so as not to disfigure the tree, or show the points of the amputated shoots. That most elegant and likelyto be most valuable of all our recently introduced conifers, the Cedi-us deodar, is a case in point. It naturally, while young, sends out branches in a horizontal and afterwards a droop- ing manner, and these extend themselves to a great distance, often reclining on the ground by reason of their own weight : this disposition is the cause why the leading shoot of this tree seems so weak, and so seldom takes a perpendi- cular direction. Prune the lower branches as stated above, and this apparent debility in the leader will disappear, and it will assume its pro- per habit, and shoot with great vigour in a per- pendicular direction. All the young plants of this species, while yet in the nursery, should have their lower branches taken off, and those above, to the extent of two tiers, foreshortened also. The Abies canadensis and Cedrus libani are familiar instances of sad mismanagement in this respect. The former is oftener found as- suming the character of a flat or bushy shrub than that of a tall tree; and the latter very often a scrubby meagre-looking tree, branching out within a few feet of the ground, and ramify- ing into innumerable branches, either vertical or horizontal. Now, we consider (apart from the erroneous practice of keeping such plants in pots till they are finally planted out) that want of judicious early pruning is the cause why the former seldom attains the character of a tree, and the latter becomes a, caricature of its natural habit. No doubt, in the case of both there are seminal varieties occasionally occur- ring, which may in some few instances account for sucli forms ; but, in general, it is a thorough neglect of pruning in youth which is the prin- cipal cause. Coniferous plants will bear pruning with as much impunity, and with as great advantage, as other trees or plants, if the operation is per- formed at the proper season and at a proper age. None, however, suffer more from an op- posite course. Pruning ornamental trees. — These require the least care on the part of the cultivator in this respect of all other trees, as there is no induce- ment to alter their natural forms, or to reduce their bulk, the fullest development of their natural character being the object for which they are grown. Prtming ornamental shrubs. — Here as much science is required as in the pruning of fruit trees. The chief object to be kept in view is the reduction of all redundant wood, aud an encouragement of those parts from which the flowers are to come. Some require to be spurred in, like the vine ; some will admit of little cur- tailment of the young wood further than judi- cious thinning, as many of them flower on the terminal points; while others, like the rose, flower on the young wood, which, with a view to tlirow greater strength into it, requires to be left moderately thin, so that the energies of the PRUNING AND TRAINING. 407 plant may be thrown into tlie flower-buds and tho shoots that produce them. Shrubs are, liowever, much neglected iu this respect, and by far too little care is taken to thin them of superfluous wood, to remove that which becomes old and decayed, and of no other use than to overcrowd the plant, and prevent a free circu- lation of air from passing through it. llowermg shrubs should be deprived of their decayed flowers as soon as they fade, if the production of seed be not an object. A want of precaution in this respect exhausts the plants more, in their exertions to perfect their seed, than that of the production of the flowers themselves. Stopping or pinching off flower-bearing shoots after they have shown their flower-buds, as is often practised on the rose, retards their season of blossoming; while stopping the shoots around them, on which no flower-buds appear, has just an opposite effect. The barbarous practice of using the hedge- shears— justified only by those who are too laay to use the pruuing-knife, or too ignorant to know how to use it — cannot be too severely condemned. Yet nothing is more common than to see fine and rare shrubs, which, if left to themselves, would become the ornaments of the Jawn, metamorphosed into so many shaven and shorn dumpy haycock-looking monstrosi- ties of various sizes and shapes, presenting not one single feature of their natural character or form. One great plea is used iu defence of the practice, namely, the keeping them within pre- scribed limits — few indeed, in these days, ven- turing to assert that they are improved in ap- pearance. Root-pruning would be a far more justifiable operation, and judicious hand-prun- ing, taking care that, while extending branches are foreshortened, and some removed where they are too crowded, the natural habit of the tree or shrub be not destroyed. The shears, as a pruning instrument, can only be usefully employed in cutting ornamental hedges and box-edgings, or in the formation of verdant architectural subjects in the tensile style. Cree's system of pruning forest trees. — This . system deserves the serious attention of all who wish to grow forest trees with straight stems and sound timber. The operation of fore- shortening the branches, which forms the cha- racteristic of this mode of pruning, is begun while the tree is young— indeed, before it is removed from the nursery — and is continued until the trunk of the tree has attained that height which the cultivator deems the most proper for the purpose for which the timber is intended. The philosophy of this mode of pruning is twofold — namely, the production of timber clean and free from knots; and this most desirable end is attained, because the side branches are shortened annually, whenever they extend beyond three or four feet from the main stem, and, as a consequence, they seldom attain a greater diameter close to the stem than about an inch ; and as these side branches are not removed until the tree has attained the height of 16 to 20 feet, the wound caused by their removal speedily heals up, with- out leaving a trace of their existence on the bark, or the vestige of a knot in the timber when cut up for use — quite the antipodes to the effects of removing large branches, as illus- trated as by figs. 160 and 161. If these branches be removed close to the trunk, but without disturbing the bark of the latter, the wound in all cases will heal over within two years. The first removal of branches close to the stem does not take place until the tree has, as we have said, attained the height of from 16 to 20 feet, with a stem, close to the ground, of nearly as many inches in circumference ; and the mode of removal is by taking one tier of bi-anches off annually, commencing with the tier nearest the ground, and performing the operation a little before midsummer, while the sap is in motion, BO that in its downward flow so much of it will be arrested around the sides of the wound, and matter deposited sufficient for the formation of new bark, to cover over the part where amputa- tion took place. By this process of foreshortening the side branches, the tree is made to assume a narrow conical form ; and as the trees to which we refer are supposed to be growing in a close planta- tion, no other form would present so great a surface of foliage to the action of light and air within the same space, and it is to the pre- sence of these elements we must look for the accumulation of bulk in timber. The same practice may be extended to trees growing in open exposed places ; but while such may not produce the same cubic contents of timber within the same space of time that a tree would growing alongside, and allowed to take its na- tural course of growth, the timber of the pruned tree, on cutting up, will be the superior. After the trunk is in this way cleared of branches to the height the cultivator desires, all pruning ceases, and the top is allowed to take its own course, so long as it is allowed to grow. Mr Cree's mode is exceedingly well adapted to coniferous trees, not only for the production of superior timber, but also when planted for shelter to other trees, as the operation of shortening the side branches throws strength into the leader, inducing an upright growth, while the shortening prevents their spreading- out tendency, and allows a much freer circula- tion of air to the trees around them : if properly followed out, it would admit of those planted as nurses to remain longer, and to attain a more useful size, than is usually the case, before their total removal. This process should be strictly followed in all cases where height to trees is a consideration. Pruning and training will be found further detailed under the heading of the various sub- jects to which they are to be applied. Implements employed in pruning. — Many fanci- ful implements have been from time to time in- vented and recommended for this purpose. In- genious although some of these are, and amusing as they may be to amateurs, they are regarded for the most part with indifference by the prac- tical operator. The following we consider the most useful, and with them every operation of pruning may be advantageously accomplished. Of pruning-knives the peach-pruner o, fig. 408 HARDY FRUIT GARDEN. 162, is in very universal use. That of Saynor of Sheffield is deservedly popular. The London peach-pruner, b, of Barns of Shef- field, is also an excellent implement, tapering to a narrower point than the former, and there- Fig. 162. PRUNING-KNIVE9. fore, for the purpose of pruning, either when the shoots are close together or when they have not been disengaged from the wall, superior to it. They are the two best in use for the pur- pose. Either of these is well adapted for graft- ing purposes, the blades being thin. The strong primer, c. of Saynor of Sheffield, is well adapted for all ordinary pruning where the branches to be removed are pretty strong. Some prefer the blade when more curved to- wards the point; this, however, makes little difference in the working of the implement in proper hands. This may be considered the common garden-knife, and is a vast improve- ment over that of former times, which con- sisted of a blade fixed to the handle with- out a joint, enclosed in a sheath of leather or pasteboard (most generally the latter), and carried in a side pocket o.n the thigh of the operator. The present is a clasp or folding knife, and may be carried with much greater safety to the person. The former is now nearly out of use. The blade of a knife cuts on the same principle as a saw ; a hooked-pointed blade, therefore, is injurious when used in cutting woody shoots, and can never leave so clean a section as a blade with a straight edge. d and e are small peach-pruners, the one having a horn handle nearly cylindrical, but slightly curved, the other a bone or ivory handle somewhat ovate, tapering in a. wedge form, much in the way of the common budding- knife, but less thin at the point. In cases of emergency it may, however, be used for bud- ding also. They are both well adapted for peach-pruning, particularly when operating upon the young wood. Those wo use are also of Say- nor's manufacture. /is a small pocket-pruner having two blades, the one larger than the other. Its merits con- sist in its lightness and small bulk, as well as being useful for pruning, making cuttings, or cutting flowers. g is a, convenient pruner when soft or small branches are to be operated upon. It is fur- nished at one end of the handle with a small botanical glass, useful in searching out insects or other minute objects. It is known also as Saynor's botanical-knife. A useful knife for amateurs, being small and readily carried in the waistcoat pocket. h, Saynor's new budding-knife. This is not only a convenient pruner, but is well adapted for the purpose for which it is intended, having a folding gouge-like blade at one end of the handle for lifting the bud or bark after the ne- cessary incisious have been made. Pruning-chisels are nearly as various as prun- ing-knives. The best, however, are in shape of a carpenter's chisel, but with a handle of greater or less length and strength, according to the height and size of the branch to be amputated. They vary in breadth of cutting face from 1 to 3 inches, and are wrought by placing the face of the chisel upon the part of the branch where the cut is to be made, and being held there (when the handle exceeds 2 feet in length) by one man, while another, with a wooden mallet, striking upwards, drives the chisel through the branch. Thus branches of almost any size may be cut off at from 7 to 20 feet from the ground. Branches nearer the ground may be cut off with chisels with shorter handles, but in Fig. 163. most such cases it will be better to sever them with the saw and smooth the wound afterwards with the knife. Fig. 163 shows this chisel without its handle. Another modification of it is sometimes used in orchard and ornamental tree-pruning, differ- ing only from the former in having a guard or plate placed behind the blade to prevent its entering too far into the trunk from which the branch is to be removed. Careful work- men need no such precaution. The advantage of the pruning-chisel in all cases over the pruning-saw, is its saving the trouble of ascending the tree, and the damage that may be done to the branches by a man puuNiNG- going up to cut off the branch. An oHisEi,. excellent substitute for all pruning- chisels is found in the American or Indian pole-saw, fig. 164 a, which has a blade about i inches broad and from 18 inches to 2 feet in length, fixed to a pole-handle of any m PRUNING AND TRAINING. 409 required length so as to reach the branch to be removed. This saw differs from the common saw in operating by pulling instead of thrusting, so that a person stand- Fig. 164. ing on the ground can work the saw to every advantage, while it is sufficiently stiff not to break while passing through the wood. The common pruning-saw, fig. 164 6,is about 2 feet in length, and varies from 1 inch to 3 inches in breadth. It is used on branches within reach and of ordinary dimensions, and also where the chisel could not be conveniently applied. The cuts made by saws, of whatever description, should have the wound smoothed by the knife or small plane, and in most cases be painted over with some mild paint, to exclude the air and moisture. Pruning-hills may be described as large knives, and in the hands of an expert workman are valuable in cutting off branches larger than the pruning-knife could sever. The stroke should always be given in an upright direction, and, if possible, one blow should perform the operation. They are very useful in pruning thick and over- grown shrubbery, as they can be wrought with greater effect in thick jungles than almost any other cutting implement. Sometimes they have only one cutting face, and that is in general somewhat crooked towards the point ; at other times they Fig. 165. have an axe- like face of several inch- , es in length I upon their back — see fig. 165 — useful in cutting large branches; and at others they have, instead of a cutting face upon their back, a set of teeth or serratures, by which the operation of sawing may be performed. Of averuncators — from the Latin averunco, to prune — there is a considerable variety, differ- ing little in principle, however they may in form. Their use is to remove branches at a considerable height from the ground without the aid of ladders or the trouble of ascending the tree. Fig. 166 exhibits one of the best of them. It may be described as a cutting imple- ment, with a compound blade attached to a handle of greater or less length, and operating by means of a lever acted upon by a cord pass- ing over a pulley. The branch, which should rarely exceed the diameter of 1^ inches, is taken between the cutting faces y the cord, on being pulled smartly down, acts upon the lever so as to bring these cutting faces together, severing the branch at the same time. PRUNING-SAWS. PRUNING-BILL. Fig. 166. Fig. 167. LARGE PRUNING-SHEAES. AVERUNCATOR. Pruning-sAears are also still greater in variety. Fig. 167 shows one of the most powerful. The blades or cutting faces move on a centre at o, by which one of them opens and encloses the branch to be removed, which it does by making a clean draw-cut, leaving the section of the por- tion remaining on the tree as smooth and as little lacerated as if it had been removed by a knife or a chisel. They are very usefully em- ployed in reducing the size of shrubs or orna- mental trees, less frequently, however, in the case of fruit trees. The subject before us is capable of severing a branch from 1 to 2 inches in diameter. An implement on much the same principle is made smaller in size, and therefore adapted more for smaller amputations. Fig. 168 is a newly-invented-pruu- ing implement, by Mr Under- wood, Haymarket, London, Cutler to the Government Offices, &c. It is powerful in its action, and of excellent material, the best of its kind. a, fig. 1 69, is one of the small- est of its kind, and useful for pruning off tender shoots. It is, however, more an instru- ment for the amateur than for the practical pruner. b and d is in operation somewhat DNEERWOOn S I'RUNINO-SHEAltS. c are of similar use. 410 HARDY FRUIT GARDEN. similar to the averuncator, fig. 166. It is for cutting off leaves, bunches of grapes, flowers, &c., that may not be readily reached by hand ; and while it severs the leaf, &c., it still holds it until it may be taken in the hand. The wire x, passing round the handle and lever in form of a ring, when pulled downwards by the cord y, draws the leaves towards the handle, and causes Fig. 169. PRIIMrNG SCISSORS. the shear-like faces tO' meet : these, instead of being sharp at their edges, meet in what may be called the half-check form, bruising rather than cutting asunder the footstalk of the flower or leaf, and thus preventing its falling. The stud a above the ring prevents it from slipping upwards, and the spring between the lever and handle keeps the shears open until acted upon by the cord, e cuts in the same manner, and is useful in gathering roses or other flowers, or pruning soft branches when it is desirable that they shall not fall to the ground as they are cut. /, the grape-thinning scissors, may be regarded as a pruning implement, because they are every- where employed for thinning or pruning out the superfluous berries from the bunches of grapes. They differ no otherwise from common scissors than in being much longer, and having their cutting points much more pointed that they may be worked among the berries with less danger of pricking those that are to be left. 'I'he gooseberry pruner, fig. 170, is useful in removing the superfluous young wood from the Fig. 170. GOOSEBERRY PRUNES, gooseberry and currant, and similar trees, and is considered by many to facilitate the operation, when compared with the pruning-knife. CHAPTER IV. THE APPLE. In its natural state tho apple is indigenous to most parts of Kurope, and known in common parlance as the Crab-tree, botanically as Pyrus- MaluSf Linn. : Mains communis, Dec. As a fruit-bearing tree it is cultivated in all civilised countries, but more especially in those of tem- pests climates. In a natural state it is UU' known in America ; but wlien it was introduced there is as unknown to us as the period when the first remove took place from the crab or wild state to the useful or cultivated. " It is probable," Hogg, in his excellent work on the Apple, remarks, " that it has existed as an indi- genous tree throughout all ages, and that the most ancient Varieties were accidental variations of the original species, with which the forests abounded. These being cultivated, and sub- jected to the art and industry of man, would give rise to other varieties, and thus a gradual amelioration of the fruit would be obtained. That such a change might take place naturally in Britain, as well as in other parts of Eiirope, where it existed indigenously, is highly probable ; and that some imprdvemeut in this respect had taken place prior to the Roman invasion is natu- ral to suppose ; but of this we have no certain record, because the history of our country ex- tends no farther back. That ii similar amelio- ration had taken place at a much earlier period in other countries is certain, as the apple is spoken of as existing for ages before. History, however, informs us that apples were not only brought to England by th6 Romans, but that in the days of Pliny they possessed two-and-twenty varieties." Mr Hogg is of opinion that the apple existed in this country at a very early period, and remarks, " that it was known to the ancient Britons before the arrival of the Romans, is evident from their language. In Celtic it is called Abhall or Abhal; in Welsh, Aval; in Armoric, Afall and Amll; in Cornish, A ral and Avel. The word is derived from the pure Celtic, £aU, signifying any round body. The ancient Glastonbury was called by the Britons Ynj/s Arallac, and Ynys AtaUon, which signifies an apple orchard, and from this its Roman name avallunia was derived." The apple must there- fore have been known in Britain before the arrival of the Romans, and that it continued to exist after they had left the island, and before the Norman conquest, is certified by William of Malmesbury, who says " that King Kdgar, iu 973, lay down under the shade of a wild iipple- tree." Iu a bull of Pope Alexander III., iu the year 1175, confirming the property belonging to the monastery of Winchcombe, in Gloucester- shire, is mentioned " the town of Twining, with all the lands, orchards, meadows," &,c. And in a charter of King John, granting property to the priory of Lanthony, near Gloucester, is mentioned "the church of Herdesley, with 12 acres of land and an orchard." That any of these early varieties, or even of the aboriginals, now exist is highly improbable, as the intro- duced kinds in all probability were lost between the time when the Romans quitted Britain and that when the ecclesiastical power began to be establish-ed. Many seedlings might, however, during this period, have been originated natur- ally from the seeds of the early imported sorts, as well as from those of our earliest varieties. From such sources, and the importations after- wards by the monks of Norman varieties, it ia probable that the stock of apples was first raised iu England. The same causes would lead in time to their dispersion into Scotland and Ireland. As the priesthood in those days combined with their own profession various others, of which horticulture, we are informed by their historians, was one, it is quite reason- able to suppose, as they spread over the king- dom, that they carried the apple with them. If any of the originally imported sorts do really exist, which some think probable, it must have been by the process of engrafting, by which pro- cess any variety may be continued for ages upon the principle of extension of its actual parts, while the tree from which the scions have been taken may have long ceased in itself to exist. In its wilding state, the apple is u, tree of con- siderable longevity, while in its improved or cultivated state it is much less so ; the hardier kinds being supposed by some to extend only to from two to three centuries, many unquestion- ably not nearly so long. Much of this, however, depends on soil and situation. Like all other trees, the apple accommodates itself to the soil and situation in which it may be placed to a greater or less degree, and many varieties attain a much greater degree of perfection in some localities than others. The apple succeeds best within a certain range of latitude, of which the 412 HARDY FRUIT GARDEN. southern parts of England and the northern provinces of France may be taken as the latitu- dinal range. Exceptions, however, may be made to this rule, in the case of the apples of Astra- chan in Russia, and the Malo di Carlo from the north of Italy. The transportation of the for- mer south improves its condition, while the re- moval of the latter northward has an opposite tendency. The apples of Normandy, fine in their own country, are deteriorated much when transplanted even to England, and still more so if carried into Scotland. A similar process of amelioration seems to have been going on in America, where, as we have observed, the apple does not appear to be indigenous ; the change effected naturally has been from seedlings raised either by accident or design, from the earlier introduced sorts, and also by importations from Europe. May not the former circumstance in some degree account for the supposed superiority of many of the American apples ? — and if so, may we not sup- pose that the apple trees of America are, if thus from a cultivated origin, of shorter duration as to longevity than those of Europe, which have at some period been raised from the tree in its natural state 1 Many of the varieties enumerated in the fol- lowing list are as yet little known in Scotland, and even in many parts of England they are equally unknown, if we except the gardens of the higher classes. These lists might have been greatly extended, but we think the selections made will be found of some advantage to those who have gardens and orchards, and who may not have made the subject of pomology a branch of their study. The selections are also made with a view both to insure quality and abundance of produce, as well as to extend the season of perfection to as great an extent as possible, and the variety is sufficiently extensive to meet, we think, the wants of most. America may be called the land of the apple, as the Netherlands is of the pear ; we have, therefore, selected a few from their long catalogues of fruits, which we think likely to suit the climate of Britain. Few of the finer sorts of American apples have had a fair chance in .Britain. To assign a reason for this would be difficult. We cannot lay it entirely to the difference of climate. We may do so, to some extent, to a want of knowing that many of their varieties are far superior to many of our own, and that they are produced under circumstances, so far as climate is concerned, as adverse as that of many parts of Britain. While the Pomme de Neige, Straat, Gloria mundi, and other excel- lent American apples, thrive so well with us, it is surely worth making the experiment with many others. Of the number of sorts cultivated prior to the time of Parkinson we have no certain re- cord, but that they were numerous is evident from the following data. Parkinson enume- rates no less than 59 sorts. Hartlib mentions 200, and was of opinion that 500 existed. Rea, in his " Pomona," names 20 varieties, 16 of which are not mentioned by Parkinson. Meager gives a list of 83 as cultivated in the London nurseries in his day, of which 51 are not noticed in the lists of Parkinson or Rea. Worledge gives a list of 92, chiefly cider apples. But the most complete enumerations are those of the London Horticultural Society, extending to 1400 varie- ties, and Mr Hogg's descriptive catalogue of 942 sorts, many of which are noticed for the first time. Several attempts have been made to establish a classification of apples founded on characters at once permanent and well defined ; of these, the systems propounded by Sickler, Christ, Manger, Diel, and Dochnahl, particularly the two latter, are the most perfect. Those in- terested in this important department of poni()-- logy should consult Mr Hogg's work on " British Pomology" from page 7 to 16, in which also will be found an ingenious classification of British apples, by himself. The three principal divisions into which this author arranges this fruit are : 1st, Summer apples, " consisting of such as either ripen on the tree or shortly after being gathered, and which generally do not last longer than the beginning of October." 2d, Autumnal apples, " including such as are in use from the time of gathering to Christmas." 3d, Winter apples, " including such as are in use during the whole of the winter and spring." These are again divided into sections founded on the fonn of the fruit, and these again into sub-sections founded upon their colour. This classification is not, however, considered perfect by Mr Hogg himself, as we find by a letter addressed by that enthusiastic pomologist to the editor of the " Cottage Gardener." He says, " It is not such a classification as I should like to have introduced, but it is sufficient for all ordinary purposes. I am engaged on a sys- tem which will reduce apples to a more natural arrangement ; but as I have not been able to bring the numerous varieties into their proper positions as yet, I shall defer its publication till a future time." In justice to Mr Hogg, we ought to state that in his private grounds at Worth, in Sussex, he has in cultivation a greater collection of hardy fruits than has hitherto been congregated in any other garden, or for a simi- lar purpose. Those, therefore, who are engaged in the science of pomology should put them- selves in communication with him, as he is still adding to his already extensive collection, and informs us, in the letter above referred to, that for the purpose of adding to his stock — which he grows principally for the purpose of enabling him to study their characters thoroughly pre- viously to, we trust, giving the world the benefit of his acute researches into every hardy fruit, from the almond to the strawberry — he purposes to exchange grafts with those adding to their col- lections, and to supply those who may not be in a position to exchange grafts at a small cost. Size of (lie apple tree. — The apple tree seldom, in this country, attains a large size, although in some localities it attains a considerable age. The case is otherwise in America, as Downing men- tions two of enormous dimensions, which, ten years before he wrote, were 1 30 years old, and one of these, at 1 foot from the ground, measured 1 3 feet 2 inches in circumference of trunk, the THE APPLE. 413 other 12 feet 2 inches. These trees bore that season about 30 or 40 bushels of fruit, but in the year 1780 they together bore 10 bushels. Another apple tree is also recorded by the same authority, which measures in girth 12 feet 5 inches, and which has yielded in a single season 1214 bushels. Use of the apple. — In France and great part of Germany the apple constitutes a considerable portion of the food of the people of all grades, and is extensively manufactured into cider, brandy, &c. But it is in America that its value is fully appreciated. The finest sorts are, as with us, esteemed for the dessert, but they are there eaten at meals to a much greater extent. " As the earliest sorts ripen about the last of Jime, and the latest can be preserved till thjat season, it may be considered as a fruit in perfec- tion the whole year. Besides its merits for the dessert, the value of the apple is still greater for the kitchen ; and in sauces, pies, tarts, preserves, and jellies, and roasted and boiled, this fruit is the constant and invaluable recourse of the culinary department. Apple butter, made by stewing pared and sliced sweet apples in new cider until the whole is soft and pulpy, is a com- mon and excellent article of food in many far- mers' families, and is frequently made by the barrel in Connecticut. The juice of the apple unfermented is in some parts of the country boiled down till it becomes molasses. When fermented, it forms cider ; and if this is carefully made from the best cider apples, it is nearly equal to wine ; in fact, many hundreds of barrels of the cider of New Jersey have been manufac- tured in a single year into an imitation cham- pagne, which is scarcely distinguished by many from that made from the grape. " Dried apples are also a considerable article of commerce. Farmers usually pare and quarter them by hand, and dry them in the sun ; but those who pursue it as a matter of trade pare them by machinery, and dry them slowly in ovens. They are then packed in bags or barrels, and are used either at home, in sea stores, or are exported." — Downing's Fruits and Fruit Trees of America. Planting the apple.— Mv Hogg, in introduc- tion to " British Pomology," says : " The apple may be grown on almost any description of soU, providing it is not absolutely wet. That on which it succeeds best is a humid sandy loam, or a well-drained strong clay, which, if it possess a calcareous or gravelly subsoil, will be still more advantageous. It is not reqi;isite that it should be of so great a depth as for pears, as the apple, having no tap-root, does not penetrate so far into the soil. From 18 inches to 2 feet will be found a good depth ; but where the soil is good, and the subsoil sufficiently humid, with- out being literally wet, even 1 foot or 18 inches will answer every purpose." Rogers, we think, writes sensibly on this subject in " The Fruit Cultivator," p. 8. He says, " The size and flavour of the fruit, the general health and duration of the trees, is most commonly the result of good or bad soil. Climate and situation also affect both trees and fruit, but not in the degree in which the same are affected by the qualities pre- VOL. II. dominant in the land. Of all soils to be met with, that of a soft hazel loam, containing a small portion of sand, seems to be the most congenial to the apple generally, fin such soils the tree is seen to flourish longest, is most productive, and remains freest from disease or attacks of insects." He agrees with Mr Hogg as to depth of soil, and adds, " If the bottom be wet, the trees should be planted high, and every means taken to drain the ground. A wet bottom of gravelly clay should be avoided if possible, no kind of apple thriving long if the roots once enter into such a cold substratum." In planting pyramidal trained apples on the paradise stock, they may be set at 5 feet distance apart ; and if root-pruned every third or fourth year, should they show symptoms of over-vigor- ous growth, this will be found ample space for them. The age of such trees, when planted, should be from two to three years, and those should be chosen which have a straight leading stem, well furnished with buds and branches from the stalk upwards. If the soil be shallow, wet, or of indifferent quality, it will be advisable to plant them on little mounds, by gathering the surface-soil together ; or, better, by laying down a wheelbarrow-load or two of fresh fibrous turfy soil, and planting upon it. Deep-rooted soils in sheltered situations are not the most proper for the apple, although such have been most erroneously recommended ; for it is often seen that apple trees succeed well in any kind of loam, though it be not more than 1 foot in depth, so as the bottom is sound and dry ; the roots take an extensive horizontal range, the young wood is always of more mode- rate growth, and better ripened than when the roots strike deep into the ground. For all kinds of training, young trees two years from the graft should be chosen. Apples intended for dwarf standards are worked low upon para- dise stocks, to correct luxui'iance in growth. Those intended for half or full standards are wrought high on crab or free stocks. The varieties of apples are now so great that it may reasonably be expected, and it is so, that one variety succeeds in one sort of soil, and in one situation, better than in others ; for this reason we have given an extended list, so as to meet the greatest variety of soils and circumstances. Criterion of a good apple — Dessert sorts. — Ele- gance in form and colouring is no doubt a high recommendation, and such produce the best effects when on the table. It does not, how- ever, by any means follow that the handsomest apples are the best flavoured^ — often quite the reverse. The Pomme d'Api may be given as an example. Medium or small-sized apples, such as the golden pippin and nonpareils, afford a good criterion ; while Adam's pearmain and Alex- ander, although exceedingly handsome, are too large to dish well, as confectioners and table- dressers phrase it. In flavour they should be sugary, rich ; and if highly aromatic, so much more are they esteemed by connoisseurs. The flesh should be firm, crisp, and juicy — proper- ties which may in general be looked for in yel- lowish-fleshed apples, and those having a brown- ish russety skin marked with dull yellow and 3g 414 HARDY FRUIT GARDEN. red ; and seldom in pale yellows, light greens, or bright reds, if all of a uniform colour. Culinary sorts. — For the generality of pur- poses these cannot be*ver large. Their great merit consists in their becoming equally soft throughout, when boiled, stewed, or roasted, of which the Hawthornden, Carlisle codlin, and Beauty of Kent furnish examples; while the Yorkshire greening, Normandy rennet, and seve- ral russets, are the types of those which fall soft in cooking, and still retain their form when in their ripe state, a quality much prized by cooks. The Norfolk bifSn is of all the best for baking whole in a coolish oven, and then flattening by pressure into the form they appear in the shops. The Hawthornden and Keswick oodliu are pre- ferred for making apple-jelly, affording a clear and transparent preserve. The Keswick, Car- lisle, and most other codhns, fall in cooking while yet green, and as they are early, are much valued on this account. Cider sorts. — The more astringent they are) without regard to richness in flavour, as the Siberian Harvey, the better they are fitted for this purpose, although, strange to say, many of the highest-flavoured apples, such as the golden Harvey or brandy apple, are often used for this purpose. Mr Knight states that the specific gravity of the juice of any apple recently ex- pressed, indicates with very considerable accu- racy the strength of the cider it will produce. In the descriptive list of fruits reference is frequently made to their size. The annexed diagram is intended as a scale by which those we describe as large, medium, or small sized may be understood. No. 1. Alfriston, large ; No. 2. Dutch mignonne, medium sized ; No. 3. Golden pippin, small sized. Fig. 172 represents the forms of apples. Their designations are as follows : — a, conical ; b, irre- gular conical; c, pearmain shaped; d, oblate; e, roundish ovate ; /, oblato-ovate. Fig. 171. FORMS OF APPLES. LIST OF SORTS AND THEIR QUALITIES. DESSERT APPLES. Acklam's russet. — Colour pale yellow, tinged with green, greyish russet on the side most exposed to the sun ; form round, slightly flat- tened ; below medium size. In use from No- vember till March. Quality first-rate. Tree very hardy and an excellent bearer. Of York- shire origin. Succeeds best in a dry soil. Syno- nym, Norfolk pippin. Annat scarlet pippin. — An excellent apple THE APPLE. 415 of Scotch origin. We have received excellent specimens from Mr Archibald Gorrie, the raiser. Size medium, quality good, exceedingly beauti- ful, and in condition for the dessert during Januaiy and February. Tree perfectly hardy, and a good bearer. Ashnead's kenid, — Colour yellow, covered ■with dots of russet; form oblate; size medium; quality excellent. In use from November to May. Tree hardy, a good bearer, but most of all esteemed for its long keeping. Possessing so much of the richness of the nonpareil as to lead to the belief that it is a seedling from that variety. Baddow pippin. — Colour deep lively green, changing as it ripens to yellowish green on the shaded side, dull red on the side next the sun, changing to orange; form roundish or oblate; size medium. In use in November, keeping till April and May. Quality first-rate, partaking somewhat of the Eibston and nonpareil. Com- paratively of modern origin, being only intro- duced to public notice in 1848. Synonym, Spring Rihaton. Barton's incomparable. — Colour yellowish green, covered with patches of pale-brown rus- set ; form ovate or conical ; size below medium. In use from October to February. Quality of the highest excellence. Tree healthy, attaining a large size, and an excellent bearer. " This variety," Mr Hogg observes, " seems to be but little known, and, considering its excellence, rarely cultivated. I am not aware that it exists in any of the nurseries, or that it was at any period extensively propagated. The only place where I ever met with it was in the private gar- den of the late Mr Lee of Hammersmith, whence I procured grafts from a tree in the last stage of decay." It is probable that trees of it may exist in the nurseries of Messrs J. and C. Lee at Ham- mersmith, or in the Brompton Nursery. It is a variety that should be rescued from oblivion. BeachamweU. — Colour yellow ; form ovate ; size smallish ; quahty first-rate. In use from De- cember to March. Synonyms — Motteux seedling, BeachamweU seedling. Tree very hardy, but does not attain a large size, and is by no means so extensively cultivated as its merits deserve. Borsdorffer. — Colour yellow and red; form oval; size smallish; quality first-rate. In use from November till March. This is a German apple of great merit, but rather tender for the north of England, and most of Scotland. Breedon pippin. — Colour dull yellow, tinged with orange, inclining to red on the side most exposed to the sun ; form roundish ; size small. In use during October and November. QuaUty one of our best dessert apples, somewhat resem- bling and exceeding in flavour the Court of Wick. Tree hardy, not attaining a large size, and an abundant bearer. Christie's pippin. — Colour yellow, tinged with green on the shaded side, mottled with russet and red spots next the sun ; form oblate and very handsome ; size medium. In use from December to February. Tree constitutionally weak, subject to canker and mildew. When wrought on the paradise stock, it forms a com- pact and handsome little pyramid. Quality first-rate for dessert, and withal a very abun- dant bearer. Clara pippin. — A new dessert apple of con- siderable merit. It is a seedling from a pip of the Court of Wick. Fruit about the size of the parent ; flesh firm, orange ; flavour rich and sugary ; keeps till the end of May. Skin rather tough, orange yellow on the one side, tinged with brownish red on the other side. Originated ijvith F. J. Graham, Esq., prior to 1848. Cockle pippin. — Colour brown and yellow ; form ovate ; size medium ; quality first-rate. In use from December till April. Slender-growing tree, but an excellent bearer, and very hardy. Ripens well as a standard at Dalkeith. Known also as Nutmeg cockle pippin. Nutmeg pippin. White cockle pippin, and Brown cockle pippin. Colonel Vaughan's. — Colour waxen yellow, streaked with crimson on the shaded side, bright crimson streaked with very dark crimson, thickly strewed with greyish-white dots on the side next the sun ; form oblato-conical, or conical ; size below medium. In use in September and October. QuaUty very excellent for the dessert. Not met with in general cultivation, but is very extensively grown in Kent for the supply of Coveut Garden market. Cornish aromatic. — Colour russety red ; form roundish ; size large ; quality first-rate. In use from October to January. Tree a free grower, and an excellent bearer. Synonym, Aromatic pippin. Court-pendu Plat.— Co\onr dark-red ; form oblate ; size medium ; quality first-rate. In use from December till April. This is evidently of French origin, and is one of the most popular apples on the Continent. Too tender for Scot- land and the north of England, unless planted against a wall, where it ripens to perfection, but seldom attains its fine colour. Its foreign syno- nyms are numerous. In England it is some- times called Wollaton pippin, Gamon's apple, at which latter place we saw some years ago many trees of it in great luxuriance as open standards, and learned from the proprietor, the late Sir John G. Cotterall, that his father had brought them from France. It has the peculiarity of blossoming late, and hence often escapes the spring frosts ; and accordingly Mr R. Thomson says it has been called the wise apple. Court of Wick. — Colour yellow ; form oblate ; size under medium ; quality first-rate. In use from October till March. Tree slender in growth ; good bearer; one of our best dessert fruits. It does not appear to be much culti- vated in Scotland. At Dalkeith it ripens well on dwarf standards. As is the case with most good fruits, it has a host of synonyms — as Oolden drop, Wick's pippin. Fry's pippin, Phillip's reinette, Kingswick pippin. Wood's new trans- parent. Wood's Huntington. There is a scarlet Court of Wick, but that is inferior, and should be guarded against. Crofton scarlet. — Colour brownish red ; form oblate ; size medium ; quality good. In use from October to December. Synonym — Red Crofton. Crofton white. — Similar to the last, only of a paler colour. Keeping only till the beginning of November, and somewhat inferior in quality. 416 HAEDY FRUIT GARDEN. Cornish gilliflower. — Colour dull-green on the shaded side, brownish-red streaked with brighter red, and slightly marked with russet on the side most exposed to the sun. Form ovate, angular on the sides, and ribbed round the eye. Size large. In use from December to May. Quality one of our best dessert apples, remarkable for its rich and aromatic flavour. Tree hardy, at- taining the medium size, but not a great bearer. Mr Hogg remarks, that it produces its fruit at the extremities of the last year's wood, and great care should therefore be taken to preserve the bearing shoots. It succeeds well grafted on the paradise stock, and grown as an espalier and open dwar£ Creed's ma/rygold. — Colour deep rich yellow on the shaded side, deep orange next the sun, and covered with beautiful red, striped witli darker red on a ground of delicate russet, and thickly strewed with dark russety dots. Form roimdish; size medium. In use during Octo- ber and November. Quality excellent as a des- sert apple. Tree hardy, and of slender growth. Raised by Mr Creed, gardener, at Norton Court, Kent, a few years ago, from a seed of the scarlet nonpareil. Downton pippin. — Colour fine lemon-yellow, with a slight tinge of red next the sun, marked with a few traces of delicate russet, and strewed with numerous pale-brown dots. Form some- what cylindrical; size small. In use from No- vember to January. Quality good as a dessert fruit, greatly resembling the golden pippin, but less rich in flavour. Tree healthy, and a vigor- ous grower and a most abundant bearer. Raised by Mr Knight of Downton Castle from the seed of the Isle of Wight orange pippin, impregnated with the pollen of the golden pippin. Syno- nyms — Elton pippin, Elton golden pippin. Knight's pippin. Knight's golden pippin, St Mary's pippin, Downton's pippin of Diet. Dredge' s fair maid ofWishford, — Colouryellow, covered with large patches of thin brown russet tinged with orange, and a few red streaks on the side next the sun. Form oblate-cylindrical. Size medium. In use from December to March. Quality fit for the dessert, and excellent for culinary purposes. Tree middle-sized, a free grower, and abundant bearer. Dredge's fame. — Colour dingy yellow, with a tinge of green, covered with patches of thin russet, mottled with pale red on the side ex- posed to the sun. Form roundish, inclining to ovate; size above medium. In use from De- cember to March. Tree hardy, coming early into fruit, and an abundant bearer. This and the last originated with a nurseryman named Dredge, of Wishford, near Salisbury. We have grown both these on the chalky soils of Hamp- shire with great satisfaction, but have found them less healthy and productive in Scotland. Early harvest. — Colour pale yellowish-green, becoming clear pale yellow as it ripens. Form round. Size medium. In use in the end of July and beginning of August. Quality one of our best very early apples. Tree healthy, but not a vigorous grower, and a most abundant bearer. This is of American origin, but suc- ceeds admirably in this country, ripening at Dalkeith as a dwarf standard about the middle of August. Synonyms — Early French reinette, Early July pippin, Large white Jvmeating, Yellow harvest, Prince's yellow harvest. Early /«ijc«.— Colour pale yellow, with an orange tinge next the sun strewed over with numerous minute whitish dots ; form round- ish, slightly flattened, and prominently ribbed from the eye downwards to the base ; size medium. In use about the second or third week in August. Tree healthy, hardy, but not a strong grower ; an excellent bearer, rivaDing in this respect the Hawthornden, to which it bears some resemblance, and in point of quality is quite equal to it. It is thought to be of Scotch origin, and if so, is one of the best early apples produced in the north, Elford pippin. — Colour yellowish green, marked with russet on the shaded side ; red, and striped with darker red on the side most ex- posed to the sun ; form roundish, inclining to ovate ; size medium. In use from October to January. Tree healthy, a vigorous grower, and excellent bearer. Quality first-rate as a winter dessert apple. Brought recently into notice by Mr Maund, and conjectured to have originated at Elford, near Lichfield, to which neighbour- hood it is as yet chiefly confined. Esopus Spitzenberg. — Colour almost entirely clear bright red, marked with fawn-coloured dots on the side next the sun ; yellow tinged, and streaked with red on the shaded side ; form ovate ; size large. In use from Novem- ber to February. Of its merits under English cultivation, Mr Hogg remarks : " Along with the Newtown pippen it ranks as one of the most productive and profltable orchard fruits, but like many, and indeed almost all the best Ame- rican varieties, it does not attain to that degree of perfection in this country that it does in its native soil. The tree is tender and subject to canker, and the fruit lacks that high flavour and peculiar richness which characterises the im- ported specimens." We think, however, if this excellent fruit, along with many other of these American varieties, were planted against south- ern walls, that they would succeed. Since the adoption of hollow walls heated by hot water, and the more recent improvement of glass walls, we see no reason why such apples as this and the Newtown pippin should not be so accom- modated. It would be more profitable than planting peaches, plums, &c., in them. Mr Hogg, in describing the Flushing Spitzenberg, which is an American apple of little value, says, " In the Horticultural Society Catalogue this latter is made synonymous with the Esopus Spitzenberg, but it is quite a different variety." Essex pippin. — Colour yellow; form round; size under medium ; quality good. In use from October till February. Allied to the golden pippin, but much hardier. Farleigh pippin. — Colour yellowish green ; form oblong-ovate ; size medium ; quality good. In use from January till May ; much esteemed on account of its long keeping. Tree hardy and a fair bearer. Fearn's pippin. — Colour reddish ; form oblate ; size medium ; quality, both for dessert and euUn- THE APPLE. 417 ary purposes, first-rate. In use from October till March. Tree of slender growth and an abun- dant bearer. Succeeds well as an open standard at Dalkeith. Synonyms — Clifton nonsuch, Ferris pippin, and Florence pippin, in Covent Garden market. Foreman's Crew. — Colour pale yellowish green, with reddish brown on the sunny side, thinly covered with yellowish-brown russet ; foi-m conical, flattened at both ends ; size below medium. In use from November till April. Quality first-rate. Tree rather tender, and sub- ject to canker ; well adapted, if wrought on the paradise stock, for dwarf-training. It is an abundant bearer. Originated about thirty years ago with T. S. Foreman, Esq., Penuydarron, South Wales. Gilliflower, Cornish. — Colour dark green and yellow ; form ovate ; size medium ; quality first- rate. In use from November till May. Were this not a rather shy bearer, it might be set down as one of the very best apples. Rather tender for the north of England and the most of Scotland. Known also as the Cornish July flower, an evi- dent corruption of the proper name. GiUiflower, smnmer. — Colour striped ; form roundish ; size large ; quality good. In use in September. This is a. very abundant bearer, but best suited to the cUmate of England. Gogar pippin. — Colour pale green ;form oblate ; size medium ; quality fair. We introduce it on account of its hardiness being suitable to most of Scotland, of which it is a native, having originated at Gogar near Edinbm-gh. It is often sold as the stone pippin, from which it is perfectly distinct. In use from November tiU April. Golden drop, Coe's. — Colour yellow ; form ovate; size under medium; quality first-rate. In use from December till June. This is an excellent apple, and highly deserving extended cultivation. Golden Harvey. — Colour russet and yellow; form rpundish ; size under medium ; quality first-rate. In use from November till June. One of our best dessert apples, having a pecu- liar fiavour of brandy, hence often known as the brandy apple. It is much cultivated in the west of England, even in elevated localities, for the purpose of making the best quality of cider, as weU as for the dessert. It is, how- ever, by no means a hardy tree, yet succeeds well at Dalkeith as a dwarf standard. Golden pippin.— Colour yellow; form round- ish; size under medium; quality first-rate. In use from November till April. An old favour- ite, possessing all the properties of a first-rate apple. Requires the protection of a wall even in the best situations in Britain ; and under such circumstances it ripens to great perfection in many parts of the north of Scotland. The varieties of the golden pippin, with their syno- nyms, are so numerous, that we shall only give the leading sorts, leaving the reader to take for granted that all other names are merely synonyms of one or the other, or that they are of inferior quality to those we shall notice. The golden pippin was noticed by Evelyn in 1660 as common in England. Golden pippin, Fra/iiklamd's. — Colour yellow ; form oval ; size under medium ; quality excellent. In use from October to January. Apparently a hardy variety, as two trees of large size and considerable age fruited most abundantly in a neglected part of the Claremont Gardens, sel- dom failing. This appears to be of American origin, in which country of apples the golden pippin seems to be lightly esteemed. Downing, one of the highest pomological authorities in that country, observes of them that they have " never become popular, either because the taste here does not run in favour of small apples, with the high and sub-acid flavour of the golden pippin and other favourite English sorts, or because our Newtown pippins, Swaars, and Spitzenbergs, &c., are still higher flavoured, and of a size more admired in this country. There are half-a-dozen sorts of apples which are improperly called American golden pippins, but we have never yet been able to find a dis- tinct and new variety of this name. What are so termed are usually the Fall, or the yellow Newtown pippin." Synonym — Sudlow'sfall. Golden pippin,IIughes's. — Colour yellow; form roundish ; size under medium ; quality first-rate, deserving high recommendation. In use from November till March. Golden pippin, new. — Colour yellowish ; form roundish ; size under medium ; quality inferior to the two foregoing, although good. In use from November till April. Tree scarcely so hardy as the preceding, but, like it, a, most abundant bearer. Golden pippin, scarlet. — Colour yellowish rus- set, slightly dashed with scarlet streaks ; form semi-conical; size under medium ; quality rather inferior to the preceding, yet good. In use from November till January. Tree hardy, and suitable for a dwarf standard in most gardens. It is an excellent bearer, rather deficient in juice. Golden pippin, summer. — Colour yellow ; form ovate ; size under medium ; quality first-rate. In use during August and September. A very valuable summer apple, and a good bearer. The cluster golden pippin, and Screveton golden pippin, are inferior to those named above. Golden russet. — Colour dingy, yellow russet on the shaded side, sometimes with a little bright red on the side next the sun ; form ovate ; size medium. In use from December to March. Quality excellent — indeed, one of our best. Tree healthy and a good bearer, if planted in a warm situation, in which only it will ripen thoroughly. This is a very old English variety, and is thus quaintly described by Worledge : " It has no compeer, it being of a gold-coloured coat, under a russet hair, with some warts on it. It lives over the winter, and is, without dispute, the most pleasant apple that grows, having a most delicate aromatick hautgust, and melting in the mouth." Synonym — Aromatic. Golden pearmain, winter. — Colour deep rich golden yellow, paler on the shaded side than on that exposed to the sun, where it is of a deep orange, with streaks and mottles of crimson, and covered with russety dots ; form abrupt 418 HARDY FRUIT GARDEN. pearmain shaped; sizo medium. In use from October to January. Quality first-rate, and withal a beautiful fruit. Tree healthy, hardy, and will grow in almost any situatiori, and is very productive. It appears that some confu- sion has existed between this excellent apple and the no less excellent variety now, according to Mr Hogg, to be known as King of the pippins. It appears that the late Mr Joseph Kirk, of Bromp- tou, a most respectable pomologist, brought out this apple under the latter name, whereas Diel had previously possessed and described it under the name of the golden winter pearmain. Act- ing on the recognised principle of priority of description and of naming, Mr Hogg has very properly withdrawn the name of King of the pippins, and substituted Diel's name of golden winter pearmain ; the name of King of the pip- pins belonging, according to him, to another and very different apple. Synonyms — King of the pippim, Hampshire yellow, Hampshire yellow golden pippin, Jones's Southampton pippin. Jngestrie's yellow. — Colour yellow ; form oval ; size under medium; quality fair. In use during the latter end of August till October. We notice it as a great bearer, and excellent substi- tute for some of the golden pippins, in situa- tions where they may not succeed. It ripens to full perfection in September as a dwarf standard in the Dalkeith gardens, and we find it a valuable dessert fruit. Both this and the red Ingestrie are cross-bred seedlings raised by Mr Thos. A. Knight from the golden pippin. Irish peach apple.- — Colour pale yellowish green, tinged with reddish brown, thickly marked with green dots on the side most shaded, but on the other side of a fine red, speckled with yellow spots ; form roundish, slightly flattened and somewhat ribbed ; size medium. In use in the vicinity of London by the first week in August. One of the very best, as it is one of the very earliest apples. Tree hardy and an abundant bearer. Synonym — Early Crofton. Juneating, white. — Colour pale yellow ; form roundish ; size small ; quality good ; ripens in July, and valued as an excellent early fruit, particularly when grown against a wall, in which case it ripens in the end of June. The syno- nyms are many, and can only be, for the most part, regarded as corruptions of either Ginetting, or Juniting, by both of which it has been known for ages. Mr Hogg has, however, altered the orthography in his " British Pomology " to Joanneting, and has adduced reasons which, to us at least, are very satisfactory. Tree slender grower, but healthy, and a most extraordinary bearer. One of the very best to be worked on the paradise stock for pot culture. So ex- cellent do we consider this little early apple, that to those who are building orchardAiouse& we would recommend them not to omit having a tree or two of this in them. Kerry pippin.— Colour red and yellow ; form oval ; size medium ; quality first-rate. In use during September and October. Tree slender in growth, but a very abundant bearer. Syno- nym — Edmonton's aromatic pippin. King of th^ pippins (Hogg's). — Colour greenish yellow, with a blush of red next the sun, slightly marked with light-brown russet ; form oval, or conical ; size medium. In use in the end of August to beginning of September. The very circumstance of its early ripening proves this to be a very difierent fruit from the golden winter pearmain, so often called Bling of the pippins. Quality one of the richest-fiavoured early dessert apples. Large yellovj hough. — Colour pale greenish yellow ; form oblong-oval ; size above medium. In use in the beginning of August (in Britain). Quality as a dessert fruit first-rate. Tree vigor- ous, and an excellent bearer. Synonyms — Large early yellow bough, Sweet bough, Early bough. Bough, Sweet harvest. Of American origin. Leyden pippin. — Colour pale green and red ; form roundish ; size medium; quality first-rate. In use during August and September. Tree moderately hardy, a very great bearer, somewhat resembling the white Astrakan. Lord Nelson,KirJc's. — Colour red; form round- ish ; size large ; quality good. In use from November till March. Tree not robust, a good bearer, and very showy fruit. Lucombe's pine-apple. — Colour uniform clear pale yellow, with a slight orange tinge on the side next the sun, the whole surface covered with pale-brown russet dots; form between ovate and conical, slightly ribbed near the apex; size rather below medium. In use from Octo- ber till January. Quality first-rate. Tree hardy, and an excellent bearer. Originated in the highly respectable nursery establishment of Lucombe, Pince, & Co. of Exeter. Synonym — Pine-apple pippin. Maclean's favourite.- — Colour yellow; form roundish ; size medium ; quality excellent. In use from October till March. Tree hardy ; mo- derate bearer. According to Mr Thomson, of the Loudon Horticultural Society, a fruit "of the highest excellence." MargU. — Colour yellow and red; form ovate ; size under medium ; quality first-rate. In use from October till March. Tree a slender grower, but very hardy, and an abundant bearer. In fiavour this apple somewhat resembles the Rib- ston pippin, which is no slight recommendation. Synonyms— JI/kmcA's pippin, Never fail. Morris's Court of Wick. — Colour pale green where shaded, with light red next the sun; form roundish oblate ; size small, resembhng its parent, the old Court of Wick. In use from October to February. As a dessert fruit excelling in quality even its much-prized parent. Tree Blender in growth, hardy, and a good bearer. Morris's russet. — Colour brownish russet where shaded, but where exposed to the sun in good seasons becoming bright red on one side ; size below medium. In use from October to February. Quality of the highest degree of excellence as a dessert apple. *Both these ex- cellent apples originated with a Mr Morris, a market-gardener, near Brentford. Of their merits as regards a Scotch climate we have no information as yet, our trees of them not having yet fruited. Newtown pippin. — Colour greenish yellow; form roundish ; size medium ; quality first-rate. In use from December till May. Of American THE APPLE. 419 origin, and is one of tlie very best of their apples. Downing, a high American authority, thus spealis of this excellent apple in his very interesting work on " The Fruits and Fruit Trees of America," p. 118: « The Newtown pippin stands at the head of all apples, and is, when in perfection, acknowledged to be unrivalled in all the qualities which constitute a high-flavoured dessert apple, to which it combines the quality of long keeping without the least shrivelling, retaining its higli flavour to the last. It is very largely raised in New York and New Jersey for exportation, and commands the highest price in Covent Garden market, London. This variety is a native of Newtown, Long Island, and it requires a pretty strong, deep, warm soil to attain its full perfection. The tree is of rather slender and slow growth, and even while young is always remarkable for its rough bark." It is too delicate to be grown as an open standard in Britain, but is richly wortlj the protection of a wall, more especially in Scotland. Fine speci- mens have been so produced in the Dalkeith gardens. Synonyms — Green Newtown pippin, American Newtown pippin, PetersburgA pippin. Large Newtown pippin, Green winter pippin, Bunfs Newtown pippin. Newto wn pippin, yellow. — Colour yellow ; form roundish ; size large ; quality first-rate. In use during December till April. A much hardier tree than the last, and ripens in inferior situa- tions. Downing, already quoted, speaks highly of this American apple. He says that it "strongly resembles the foregoing, and it is difficult to say which is the superior fruit. The yellow is handsomer, and has a higher perfume than the green, and its flesh is rather firmer, and equally high flavoiu'ed ; while the green is more juicy, crisp, and tender. When fully ripe, it is yellow, with a rather lively red cheek and a smooth skin ; few or none of the spots on the green va- riety, but with the same russet marks at the stalk. It is also more highly fragrant before and after it is cut than the green. Both the Newtown pippins grow alike, and they are both excellent bearers. This variety is rather hardier, and succeeds best in the eastern States. We have kept the fruit until the 4th of July." Both these varieties are much better worth growing on south walls than many of our peaches and plums, and on heated walls would ripen equally well as on standards in America. New rock pippin. — Colour green; form round; size medium; quality first-rate. In use from December till June. A valuable dessert apple on account of its long keeping. Nonpareil apples present a formidable list in most catalogues. In that of the Catalogue of the fruits cultivated in the gardens of the Horti- cultural Society of London, no fewer than 30 varieties, exclusive of synonyms, are enume- rated. The following may be taken as the best. Nonpareil, old. — Colour greenish yellow; form roundish ; size under medium ; quality first-rate. In use from December till June. In the south of England this tree, in favourable situations, bears well as a standard, while in most other parts, the north of England and Scotland in particular, it does not succeed without the pro- tection of a wall. The whole section possess a peculiar and excellent flavour, and are all good keepers. The synonyms, exclusive of foreign ones, are — Hunt's nonpareil, English nonpareil, Lomden's pippin. Nonpareil, JSraddieh's. — Colour green; form roundish; size under medium; quality first-rate ; one of our very best winter dessert apples. In use from December to the end of April. An abundant bearer, but requires a wall. Synonym, Ditton nonpareil. Nonpareil, early. — Colour greenish yellow; form oblate; size under medium; quality first- rate. In use from September till January. Its synonyms axe— New nonpareil, Stagg's non- pareil. Hide's fancy. Summer nonpareil, Lacy's nonpareil. Nonpareil, Stubton. — Colour greenish yellow; form roundish ; size under medium; quality firsfc- rate. In use from December till April. Flesh peculiarly rich and sugary. Nonpareil, Downton. — Colour greenish russet; form roundish; size under medium ; quality first- rate. In use from November till April. Nonpareil, golden. — Colour yellowish russet; form round; size under medium; quality first- rate. In use from November till March. This is one of the handsomest of the section. Nonpareil, Pitmaston. — Colour pale green and russet; form roundish; size under medium; quality first-rate. In use from November till February. Synonyms — Pitmaston russet non- pareil, St John's nonpareil. Nonpareil, Pitmaston. — " One of the greatest bearers," says Mr Errington, " with which we are acquainted. This we call everybody's apple ; no cottage garden should be without a couple. We have h tree which we have never knowu fail of a good crop for eighteen years ; this can be said of few apples." Nonpareil, Ross. — Colour slightly russety, tinged with red on the side next the sun; form roundish, tapering a little towards the eye; size medium. In use from November to February. Quality one of the very best of its section. Tree hardy, succeeding in most soils in a healthy state, and withal a great bearer. Certainly the best Irish apple in cultivation. Nonpareil, scarlet. — Colour red; form round- ish; size under medium; quality first-rate. In use from December till March. Tree hardy com- pared with the rest of the section, found wild in the garden of a public-house at Esher, Surrey. This, however, with all the section, requires the protection of a wall, to \fhich they are well en- titled, as forming one of the most valuable tribe of the apple kind. Much as we esteem the non- pareils in Britain, in America they are less thought of. Mr Downing describes only three, and observes of the old nonpareil that it "is a favourite apple in England, but it is little esteemed in this country." Nonsuch park apple. — Colour yellow; form roundish ; size under medium ; quality excellent. In use from November till March. Somewhat resembling the golden pippin. Ord's apple. — Colour deep grassy green, freckled with grey specks and brown russety dots on the shaded side; brownish red, with 420 HAEDY FRUIT GAEDEN. patches of darker red on a russety ground on the side exposed to the sun; form somewhat conical, but very irregular in outline, on account of the prominency and unequal size of the ribs; size medium. In use from January till May. Quality first-rate, deserving more general cultiva- tion. By no means a common fruit in nurseries, but one which should be found in all. It origi- nated from a pip of a Newtown pippin imported in 1777. Synonyms— Simpson's pippin, but not Simpson's seedling, which is an inferior fruit. Osterley pippin. — Colour yellowish green, with many russety dots on the shaded side; palish red, with russety specks on the side exposed to the sun ; form orbicular ; size rather below medium. In use from October to February. Quality excellent, as may be supposed, seeing that it was raised from a seed of the Ribston pippin at Osterley Park, Middlesex. Synonym — Osterley apple. Pearmain.* — This is an extensive section. The following may be considered the best. Pearmain, Adam's.— Colour yellowish red; form pearmain shaped — that is, of the form of a truncated cone, to which the whole section al- most bears a striking resemblance ; size medium ; quality first-rate. In use from October till Feb- ruary. Tree moderately hardy, and an abundant bearer. Synonym — Norfolk pippin. Pearmain, Qlaygate. — Colour yellowish red ; form similar to the last ; size medium ; quality first-rate. In use from November till the end of March. This excellent dessert apple was first discovered in a hedgerow at Claygate, near Esher, Surrey. Tree hardy; an abundant bearer, requiring a rather strong soil. Pearmain, Herefordshire. — Colour yellowish green and red; form same as the last; size large; quality first-rate. In use from November till March. A very old and excellent Herefordshire variety. Tree hardy and a good bearer. It is known also as the Old pearmain, Parmain, and Royal pearmain of some. So highly is it esteemed in America, that Downing says of it, " this deli- cious old variety, generally known here (Ame- rica) as the winter or autumn pearmain, is one of the finest of all winter dessert fruits; and its mild and agreeable flavour renders it here, as abroad, a universal favourite, both as a dessert apple and for cooking." Pearmain, Mannington's. — Colour rich golden yellow, covered with thin brownish russet on the shaded side, with dull brownish red on the side exposed to the sun ; form pearmain shaped; size medium. In use from the latter end of October tiU the beginning of March. Tree hardy, an early and abundant bearer, frequently producing fruit the second and third year from the graft; in habit rather a smallish tree, and well adaptedfor small gardens; quality first-rate, out by far too little known. It is somewhat sin- gular that this excellent apple, although known to have originated so early as about 1770, was not made generally known till 18i7, through the London Horticultural Society. " The ori- ginal tree grew up at the root of a hedge where the refuse from a cider-press had been thrown ; it never attained any very great size, but continued to preserve a stunted and diminutive habit of growth tUl it died about the year 18-20."— Hogg. Pearmain, Lamb Abbey.— Colom green, yel- low, and red; form same as the last; size medium; quality first-rate. In use during January, and continuing till April, keeping well without shri- velling. Tree healthy, a free grower, and an ex- cellent bearer. Originated from a seed of an im- ported Newtown pippin, sown in 1804 by the lady of Neil Malcolm, Esq., of Lamb Abbey, Kent. This is an extraordinary kind. " If the Pit- maston has a rival," says Errington, " in point of sure bearing, this is the fruit. It grows com- pact, and the fruit generally in clusters like bunches of nuts." Pearmain, scarffi.— Colour yellow; form as the last; size medium; quality first-rate. In use from September till January. Tree hardy and a good bearer. Synonyms — Bell's scarlet pear- main, Oxford peach-apple. Pearmain, Rushock. — Colour deep yellow, al- most entirely covered with cinnamon-coloured russet; form conical, very handsome; size rather under medium. In use from December to April. Quality first-rate. First brought into public notice by Mr B. Maund, and figured by him in his interesting work on "Flowers and Fruits." This excellent apple is of Worcester- shire origin, raised about the year 1821. Pearmain, Hubbard's. — Colour, generally covered with pale-brown russet, yellowish green where shaded, and brownish red where most exposed to the sun. In hot seasons the russety ground disappears, and then the yellowish green becomes predominant, mottled with orange or pale red next the sun. Form more ovate than is general in this section; size small. In use from November to April. Quality one of the richest flavoured of dessert apples. Tree hardy and healthy, although of slender growth, and an excellent bearer. Requires a warm situation in Scotland, and in many places is well deserving a place on an east or west wall. It is a real Norfolk apple, and largely grown for the Nor- wich market. Pearmain, royal. — Colour dark green while on the tree, changing after gathering, first to a greenish yellow, and afterwards to a clear crim- son strewed with russety specks ; form pear- main-shaped, having a very prominent rib on one side ; size large ; in use from November to March; tree vigorous, hardy, and an abundant bearer. A very old English apple, and must not be confounded with the summer pearmain, which in some nurseries is sold for this. Herefordshire pearmain of some. * " Much doubt has existed," Mr Hogg remarks, '* as to the origin of tliis word, and in a communication to " Tlie Gardeners' Clironicle" for 1848, 1 there stated what I conceived to be its meaning. Tlie early foi-ms in wliich it was written were Pearemaine and Peare-maine. In some early historical worlts of the same period" (it should he under- stood that the pearmain has been in cultivation in Norfolk since the year 1200) •' I have seen Charlemagne written Charlemaine, the last portion of the word having the same termination as pearemaine. Now, Charlemagne being de- rived from Carolus magnus, there ia every probabihty that pearemaine is derived from Pyrtts magftus. The signification, therefore, of pearmain ia the Greaf pear-apple — in allusion, no doubt, to the varieties known by that name bearing a resemblance to the form of a pear." THE APPLE. 421 Pearson's plate. — Colour yellowish green and red ; form oblate ; size under medium ; quality first-rate. In use from November till April. Tree hardy. A very handsome and excellent des- sert apple, less cultivated than it deserves. Pennington's seedling. — Colour green, chang- ing to yellowish green, with many large russety spots on the shaded side ; rough brownish russet, with a slight tinge of brown on the side exposed to the sun ; size medium ; form oblato-ovate. In use from November to March; quality a des- sert apple of the highest order. Pine-apple i-ussef. — Colour greenish yellow, with numerous white specks on one part, and rough thick yellowish russet on the other; form roundish ovate, with obtuse angles ; size me- dium. In use during September and October; quality excellent, and abounding in juice more than most others. Tree hardy, and a good bearer. Synonym — Sardingham's russet. Pomme grise. — Colour green in the shade, covered with thick scaly russet, deep orange on the side next the sun; form roundish ; size small. In use from October to February ; qua- lity first-rate. Of Canadian origin, but has been long introduced into England. Tree rather a slender grower, but an abundant beax-er. Syno- nym — Grey apple. Bavelston pippin. — Colour greenish yellow, nearly covered with red streaks, and strewed with russety dots ; form roundish, somewhat irregular, in consequence of the prominent ob- tuse ribs; size medium. In use during August. Quality in Scotland deemed excellent as a des- sert fruit, and is so much prized as to be in general grown against a wall. In the better climate of England, and in competition with so many superior fruits, it sinks into a second or third rate scale. It is, however, a valuable table apple for the colder parts of Scotland, where the finer kinds will not succeed. Reinette, Franche. — Colour greenish yellow, changing as it ripens to pale yellow, always tinged with carmine red when fully exposed to the sun ; form roundish oblate, slightly angular on the sides ; size above medium ; in use from November to April ; quality first-rate. Tree a free grower and an abundant bearer; requires a dry hght soil and warm situation. A very old French variety, and there esteemed as much over most other varieties as the Eibston or golden pippin is with us. Synonym— i^VewcA. reinette. Reinette, golden. — Colour red and.yeljow; form oblate; size medium; quality first-rate. In use from October till January. Tree hardy, aud an excellent bearer, requiring a light and warm soil ; fruit also handsome, and of great excellence. This variety is much prized on the Continent, and fiourishes imder the fol- lowing synonyms in Britaia —Wyker pippin, Kirh's golden reinette, Dundee, Yellow German reinette, MegqincA favourite. Reinette grise. —Colour yellow russet; form ob- late; size 'medium; quality first-rate. In use from November till March ; of French origin ; hardy, and a good bearer. Ribston pippin.— ColouT greenish yellow and red; form roundish; size medium; quality first- VOL. 11. rate. In use from November till March ; ori- ginated at Ribston Hall, Yorkshire. Tree hardy; good bearer ; requires a good, rich, deep soil: in light poor soils it is apt to canker, and the fruit to become spotted. Its excellence claims for it a place in every garden. Synonyms — Glory of Yorlc, Travers's apple, Formosa pippin. Russet, Powell's. — Colour pale-brown russet upon a greenish-yellow ground, which is rarely visible unless shaded closely by a leaf, tinged with brown on the sunny side ; form roundish, flattened somewhat at the base ; size small. In use from November to February ; quality first- rate. Tree slender, but an abundant bearer, ripening as a standard in the Dalkeith gardens. Russet. Boston. — Colour russet; ^orm roundish; size medium ; quality first-rate. In use from December till April. This excellent apple is of American origin, a native of Massachusetts, and is one of the most popular market fruits of the country. It is a prodigious bearer, aud in every way highly deserving extensive cultivation. Synonyms — Boxhury russet, SMppen's russet of some. It succeeds well in Britain, and deserves to be more generally known. liusset, keeping. — Colour pale yellowish-brown russet, with a bright fiery red cheek on the side most exposed to the sun ; form roundish ; size me- dium. In use from October to January, or even March ; quality of the highest rank. This is another excellent apple brought into notice by Mr Hogg, who remarks, in " British Pomology," " that it is an apple which is very little known, and does not seem at all to be in general culti- vation." Russet, rosemary. — Colour-yellow, tinged with green on the shaded side, pale red on the side exposed to the sun, slightly covered with pale- brown russet ; form ovate ; size below medium. In use from December to February; quality of the very first class. Russet, Sylce House. — Colour russet; form ob- late; size mider medium ; quality first-rate. In use from November till March. Tree slender grower, a free bearer, and in every way deserv- ing extensive cultivation. It ripens well on dwarf standards at Dalkeith. Sam Young. — Colour russet ; form oblate; size under medium ; quality first-rate. In use from November till March. Originated at Kilkenny in Ireland, hence the synonym Irish russet. Well adapted to the climate of most of Scotland. Straat. — Colour greenish yellow ; form round- ish ; size medium ; quality excellent. In use from November till May. This fine apple some- what resembles the Newtown pippin, but is apt to canker in cold situations. Synonym — Straat of Floy and Kenrick, American pomologists. An apple in high esteem among the Dutch set- tlers in Albany, where the original tree grew in a street {stroat, Dutch), and hence the name. Thorle, summer. — Colour pale yellow on one side, bright red on the other ; form oblate ; size rather under medium ; quality first-rate, the flesh being very white and delicate. In use during August and September. This excellent hardy fruit succeeds well in most ordinary situations as a standard ; is improved when grown as an espalier, with a southern exposure; one tree may 3h 422 HARDY FEUIT GARDEN. with advantage be planted against a wall in a large garden. It is known also as Watson's Nonsuch, Whorl pippin. WosmstaM.— Colour deep golden yeUow on the shaded side, red striped, and mottled with darker red on the side next the sun ; form roundish, and tapering a little towards the apex; size medium. In use till May and June. Tree hardy, and an excellent bearer ; quality first- rate, being equal in flavour to the Ribston pippin; originated with a tailor at Sittingbourne, iu Kent, somewhere about 1810. American apples of high merit not much cul- tivated in Britain : — American summer pearmain. — Colour yellow, covered with patches of light russety brown, and slightly streaked with red; form oblong; size medium ; quality very tender, and rich flavoured. In use during September, and fit for either the kitchen or dessert. Tree healthy, great bearer, and succeeds well on light soils. Baldwin. — Colour yellow in the shade, striped with crimson, red, and orange, where exposed to the sun ; form roundish ; size large ; quality first-rate. In use from November till March, but is in highest perfection in January. " The Baldwin," says Mr Downing, " stands at the head of all New England apples, and is unques- tionably a first-rate fruit in all respects. It is more largely cultivated for the Boston market than any other, and bears most abundantly, while in flavour and general characteristics it evidently belongs to the same family as the American Esopus Spitzenberg, and deserves a like popularity. Belle- Fleur, white. — Colour pale yellowish white, marked with small brown dots; form pearmain-shaped ; size above medium ; quality good. In use from October till April. This is one of the most widely disseminated and po- pular apples in the Western States ; grows strong, and bears abundantly. According to Downing, identical with the Cumberland Spice- of-Coxe, which may be considered as one of its many synonyms — always a good sign of a valu- able fruit —to which the following may be added — White bellflower, Green belljlower, Detroit, Wliite Detroit, Monstrous belljlower of Coxe ; Ohio fa- vourite. Hollow-cored pippin of some. Chandler. — Colour greenish yellow, streaked and overspread with duU-red ; form roundish ; size large ; quality good. In use from November tUl March. Tree of moderate growth, and a great bearer. A great favourite in Connec- ticut. Ea/rly strawberry apple. — Colour yellowish white, striped with bright and dark red ; form roundish ; size rather under medium ; quality excellent, and described by Downing, in " Fruits and Fruit Trees of America," as being amongst the very finest of their apples. In use at New York, in the vicinity of which it originated, in July. Pall pippin, — Colour yellowish green, becom- ing a fine yellow when fully ripe, with often a tinge of brownish blush on one side ; form roundish ; size large ; quahty first-rate. In use from October till December. On the authority of Mr Downing, this is said to be a veritable American apple, although thought otherwise by Dr Lindley and Mr B. Thomson, who make it synonymous with Reinette Blanche d'Espagne. The former authority observes, " It is very pro- bably a seedling raised in this country (Ame- rica) from the white Spanish reinette or the Holland pippin, both of which it so much re- sembles, and from which it in fact difiers most strongly in the season of maturity." It is con- sidered the first of autumn apples in the middle States, where its beauty, large size, and delicious flavour for the table, or for cooking, render it very popular. Unlike the majority of American apples, this comes to great perfection in Britain ; a first-rate culinary or dessert fruit. Jonathan. — Colour light yellow in the shade, nearly covered with red stripes, deepening into dark red where exposed to the sun ; form round- ish ovate ; size medium ; quality excellent. In use from November till March. This is a fine apple, of great beauty and good flavour ; grows vigorously, and is very productive. Mouse apple. — Colour dull green, becoming yellowish when fully ripe ; form roundish ob- long ; size large ; quality excellent. In use from November till March. This is one of the most popular American winter apples, considered by some superior to the Rhode Island greening, and deserves extensive trial everywhere. Northern spy. — Colour yellowish in the shade, nearly covered with rich dark red, marked with crimson and purplish streaks where exposed to the sun ; form conical, much ribbed ; size large ; quality excellent. In use from December till May. This is comparatively a new American fruit, of the Spitzenberg family, and has of late years attracted a good deal of notice. Tree hardy, and bears well. Peach pond sweet. — Colour light red, some- what striped ; form somewhat flat, and slightly one-sided and angular in shape ; size medium ; quality excellent. In use during September and November. Peck's pleasant. — Colour green when first gathered, turning, when ripe, a beautiful clear yellow, with bright blush on the sunny side ; form roundish, somewhat angular; size above medium ; quality flrst-rate. In use from No- vember till April. This excellent fruit belongs to the Newtown pippin class, which is suffi- cient recommendation to it. Porter. — Colour bright yellow on the shaded side, with a dull blush next the s\m ; form ob- long, narrowing towards the eye ; size large; quality good. In use during September. This is a great favourite in the Boston market. The fruit is remarkable for its beauty, and the tree for its productiveness. Pumpkin russet. — Colour pale yellowish green, slightly covered with russet ; form round ; size large ; quality excellent, considered as one of the most valuable of the large sweet apples of New England. In use from September till February. Russet, Putman. — Colour yellow, blotched with russet ; form flattened at the ends ; size above medium ; quality excellent. In use in March and April. It is considered decidedly the most valuable keeping apple in the West, THE APPLE. 423 not inferior to the Newtown pippin. Tree healthy, luxuriant, and a good bearer. Swaar. — Colour greenish yellow, turning to dead gold when ripe, with many distinct brown spots, and slightly marbled with russet on the sunny side ; form roundish ; size large ; quality first-rate. In use from December till March. A truly noble American fruit. According to Downing, " produced by the Dutch settlers on the Hudson," and named Swaar, meaning heavy, on account of its unusual weight ; requires a deep rich sandy loam to bring it to perfection. It is one of the finest-flavoured apples in Ame- rica. Does not succeed in damp or cold soils. Sweeting, ladies'. — Colour red in the sun, pale yellow in the shade ; form roundish ovate ; size large ; quality first-rate. In use from December till May. Mr Downing considers this the finest winter sweet apple for the dessert yet known or cultivated in America. Its handsome appear- ance, sprightly flavour, and the long time it remains in perfection, render it universally ad- mired. No garden should be without it. Tree healthy, and bears abundantly. KITCHEN APPLES. Alfreston. — Colour greyish yellow ; form round- ish ; large. In use from November till April ; quality first-rate. This excellent apple ia of English origin, and often called Lord Gwyder's Newtown pippin,Old■ wall in most parts of Britain. Synonyms — Beurrf Plat, Bergamotte crassane, Cresane. An old French variety, long cultivated in Britain. Crassane, Althorp.— Colour greenish brown ; form roundish ovate ; size rather under medium; quality excellent. In use in October and No- vember. Of English origin, raised by the late T. A. Knight, Esq. Tree much hardier than the former, and succeeding well as a standard in most favourable places. Well worthy of a wall in the colder parts of Scotland and north of England. Crassane, winter. — Colour greenish yellow and brown ; form turbinate ; size large ; quality ex- cellent. In use in January. Tree hardy and an abundant bearer, suitable to similar situations as the last. Cashing. — Colour light-greenish yellow, sprin- kled with small grey dots ; form obovate ; size large ; quality excellent. In use about the middle of September. Another excellent pear of American origin. Dearborn's seedling. — Colour pale yellow; form obovate ; size medium ; quality excellent. In use in September and October. Tree hardy and an abundant bearer, succeeding well as a standard in most places. Of American origin, in which country it is held in high repute. It is somewhat allied to the White Doyenne, and probably sprang from a seed of that variety. De Louvain. — Colour light yellow, slightly marked with russet, taking a ruddy tinge next the sun ; form obovate, slightly tapering towards the stalk ; ^ize medium ; quality excellent. In use from September till the beginning of De- cember. Raised by Dr Van Mons of Louvain in 1827. Synonym — Poire de Louvain. Dix. — Colour deep yellow, marked with russet dots ; form oblong ; size large ; quality excel- lent. In use in October and November. Another American pear of very great excellence, origi- nated near Boston, about forty years since. It is described by Mr Downing as " a. fruit of the highest excellence, and well deserves the atten- tion of all planters." It is one of the hardiest of pear trees, and although the tree does not come into bearing until it has attained a considerable size, yet it produces abundantly, and from its habit will undoubtedly prove remarkably long lived and free from disease. Downton. — Colour yellowish brown ; form pyriform; size rather under medium ; quality good. In use in January and February. Of English origin, having been raised by the late T. A. Knight, Esq. Tree hardy and an abun- dant bearer, succeeding well in most places as a standard. Doyenne hlanc. — Colour pale yellow ; in most respects resembhng the next, except in colour. In use in September and October. An excellent bearer, and where it succeeds as a standard in the southern countries its fruit is superior to that grown on a wall. It has no less than twenty-five synonyms — a proof of its excellence, and the extent to which it is cultivated, as well as of the great confusion that exists in pomolo- gical nomenclature, and the necessity of syno- nyms being strictly attached to all fruit-tree lists. These are — White beurre, White autumn beurrS, Beurri blane, Beurre du Roi of some, BeurrS Anglaise, White Doyenne, Dean's, Snow pear. Poire neige. Poire de lemon. Poire de seign- eur. Pine pear, Warwick Bergamot St Michel, Bonne-ente, A courte guesse, Monsieur Citron, de September, Passe Colmar d'automne of some, Va- lencia. Doyenne gris. — Colour russety red ; form obovate ; size rather under medium ; quality 456 HAEDY FEUIT GARDEN. excellent. In use during October and November. Keeps better than the preceding, which it much resembles in all respects except in colour. An excellent standard pear in a favourable climate, and deserving a wall in the north of England and most of Scotland. Synonyms — Doyenne grey, J), red, D. d'Awtomne, D. rouge, D. galeux, St Michael Dure, Grey Dean's. Duckesse d'AngoulSme. — Colour brownish yel- low ; size very large, sometimes weighing 1 J lb. ; form obtuse-oblong ; quality, when grown as a standard, as it is in the south of England, excel- lent; apt to become dry and devoid of fine flavour whenever ripened against a wall. It is a splendid pear. In use in October and Novem- ber ; if staudard-grown, it will last much longer. Of French origin, being discovered accidentally in a hedge near Angers. .This variety appears to succeed better on the quince stock than on any other. Dundas. — Colour brilliant clear yellow, slightly sprinkled with greenish-black dots, bright red towards the sun ; altogether a very beautiful pear ; form obovate ; size medium ; quality very good. In use from the beginning of October till December. Another of Dr Van Mens' rearing. We have not seen it growing as a standard in Britain ; it is, however, on account of its great beauty, worth a place on an east or ■west wall. Dunmore. — Colour green-brownish russet ; form obovate ; size large ; quality first-rate, in flavour equal to the Brown beurrS. Of English origin, having been raised by the late T. A. Knight, Esq. Tree hardy, and an excellent bearer. In use in September. Succeeds in most places as a standard. Its blossoms are less liable to be injured by spring frosts than most others — a most important quality, particu- larly for the climate of Scotland. Elton. — Colour brownish red; form oval ; size rather under medium; quality excellent. In use in September. Fruit generally without cells or seeds. Succeeds in favourable situa- tions as a standard. Of English origin : found by T. A. Knight, Esq., in an orchard in the parish of Elton, Herefordshire. The original tree in 1812 was supposed to be at least 170 years old. Emerald. — Colour pale-greenish brown ; form obovate ; size medium ; quality excellent. In use in November and December. Succeeds as a standard in all favourable 'situations. Tree hardy, and an excellent bearer. Bears some resemblance to the Olout morceau, but better adapted to our climate. Of English origin. t!yewood,— Colour msset ; form oblate ; size under medium ; quality excellent. In use during October and November. Treevigorousandhardy, and an excellent bearer, succeeding well as a standard in most places. Another excellent pear of English origin, raised by T. A. Knight, Esq. Flemish ieauty. — Colour russet red ; form obovate ; size large ; quality excellent. In use in September and October. Tree hardy, and succeeding as a standard in sdl ordinary situa- tions. The fruit should be gathered before it becomes too ripe, else it is apt to become dry and musky. This pear is held in high repute in America, where, according to Downing, it at- tains a size of 12 inches in circumference. — Synonyms — Imperatrice de France, Josephine of some French catalogues. La belle de Flanders, Bosch, Base sine, Bouche nouvelle, Fondante du Bois of some. Brilliant. Fondante d'Automne. — Colour pale green ; form obovate ; size rather under medium ; qua- lity excellent. So highly is this pear esteemed in America, that Downing says, " If we were asked which are the two highest-flavoured pears known in this country [America], we should not hesitate to name the Seckle and the Fon- dante d'Automne (autumn-melting)." In use in September and October. Tree hardy, and suc- ceeds well as a standard in most gardens, and where not, it deserves a wall. This variety should not be confounded with the Fondante du Bois nouvelle, which is an inferior fruit. Fondante du Bois. — Colour greenish yellow ; form obovate ; size rather under medium ; quality excellent. In use from December till March. Tree hardy, and an excellent bearer, even as a standard in moderate situations. A fruit altogether equal to the Passe Colmar in quality, and keeps longer. Forelle. — Colour yellowish green and russet, beautifully speckled with red ; form obovate ; size rather under medium ; quality excellent. In use from November till January, or later. A German fruit of great merit. Requires a warm soil and exposure, and well deserves to be trained as an espalier, and in colder loca- lities against a wall. Synonyms — Poire truite, Forellenbirne — both meaning trout-pear, because the skin is speckled like a trout. It has been remarked that pears like this, having so brilliant a colour, are rarely possessed of such merits and of so rich a fiavour. They are in general as- tringent and coarse. This tree blossoms early, and has often been remarked to have its fruit so far advanced as to have withstood the late spring frosts that have frequently destroyed the blossoms of all others. Frederic de Wurtemberg. — Colour yellow when ripe, with a fine red or rather rich crim- son side next the sun ; form irregular pyriform ; size large. In use in September. Quality vei-y good. Tree moderately hardy and a good bearer. Originated with Dr Van Mons in 1812. A very different fruit from the Beurri de Capiamont, with which it is often confounded. Fulton. — Colour at first grey russet, changing as it ripens to a fine cinnamon russet ; form roundish, flattened ; size below medium. In use in October and November. Quality excel- lent, if gathered before fully ripe, but if allowed to ripen on the tree of much less value. Tree hardy. Very great bearer. An American variety ; a native of Maine— likely to become a good market-fruit in this country. Glout morceau. — Col our pale green ; size large ; form obtuse elliptic ; quaUty first-rate. In use from November to January. One of the finest pears grown. An excellent bearer, but requires a wall in most situations. Eipens well as a stan- dard in the neighbourhood of London. A Flem- ish pear of the highest merit. Synonyms— Col- THE PEAR. 457 mar d'Hiver, BeurrSEardenpont,Beurr^ d'Hiver nowcdle, BeurrS de Cambron, Roi de Wurtembergj Gloux morceaux, Hardenpont d'Hiter, Got liic de Cambron, Linden d'Automne. This excellent pear has got into disrepute in some localities, on account of its not ripening. In cold climates this is the case when wrought upon the pear stock ; on the quince it ripens well in most parts of Scotland — a circumstance pointed out by Mr Rivers, even in the superior climate of Hert- fordshire. On the quince stock we have little doubt that this pear would ripen against a wall even in the Highlands. Groom's Princess-Royal. — Colour greenish brown, slightly traced with russet ; form round- ish ; size medium ; quality excellent. In use during January and February. Tree hardy and a good bearer as a standard. This is a very re- cent addition to our English pears, having been raised by Mr Groom, the well-known florist. Hacon's incomparable. — Colour brownish green ; size above medium ; form roundish. In use from November to January, or later. Qua- lity excellent. Tree very hardy, and an excel- lent bearer, succeeding in most places as a stan- dard. Synonym — Doicnham seedling. Origi- nated with Mr Hacon of Downham Market, Nor- folk. On the pear stock it requires from seven to ten years before it comes into a bearing state, fruiting on the quince stock much sooner. Blossoms seldom injured by spring-frosts. Hartard. — Colour russety olive yellow, with a brownish-red side next the sun ; form oblong py- riform ; size rather above medium ; quality " one of the best and most profitable orchard pears to plant in quantity for market purposes. It pro- duces enormous crops of fine-looking fruit, which is of fair quality, and commands the best prices. The tree is remarkably hardy and vigor- ous, its upright shoots forming a fine head." — (Downing.) It is of American origin, and well worth the attention of orchardists in this coun- try as a substitute to the trashy sorts so gene- rally grown, its only fault being its not keep- ing. Synonyms — Boston Espixrne, Cambridge sugar pear. Hessel. — Colour brown ; size below medium ; form obovate ; of value not so much for high flavour as for its wonderful productiveness, for which reason it is extensively grown for the mar- ket, and it of all early autumn pears is the best adapted for cottage culture, and this the more BO as the trees are of moderate growth. Very hardy, and fitted for all situations. Originated at the village of Hessel near Hull. Jargonelle (of the English.) — Colour yellow- ish brown ; size large ; form pyramidal ; qua lity the best of its season. In use in August and September. Tree hardy in pear soils ; apt to canker when grown as a standard in light soils. Ripens as a standard in most parts of Scotland, and attains a high flavour, but to grow it to its full size and beauty a west or east wall is required. We have two jargonelles in cultivation — the one called the English and the other the French. It is highly probable that both were introduced here from France. On this Mr Downing remarks, " Although called by Thomson the English jargonelle, to distinguish it from the fruit more common under that name on the Continent, there is no doubt that it was introduced originally from France. Anti- quarians derive its name from Oergon, Italian, a corruption of Grcecum, whence Merlet sup- poses it to be the Numidianum Grwcum, of Pliny, and the Grceculum of Macrobius. This, if correct, would prove it to be a yery ancient sort." Synonyms — Gross cuisse madame, Sweet summer, Espargne, Saint Sampson, Beau pre- sent. Saint Lambert, J'oire des tables des princes Prauenschenkel. Tree of strong yet pendulous growth. Jargonelle (of the French). — Colour light green, becoming lemon-colour, with a tinge of red on the sunny side when ripe ; form obovate ; size medium; quality very inferior to the last, and decaying soon at the heart. In use during August. Tree of strong upright growth ; much cultivated in France, and there recognised as the Cuisse Madame. Synonyms — Sabine d'MS, Supreme, Vermillion d'Et4, Bellissime d'EtS, Bellissime Supreme, Bellissime Jargonelle, Red Muscadel. Jean de TFittc— Colour brownish green; form obovate ; size under medium. In use in January and February. Quality excellent, something in the way of the Glout Morceau, but keeps longer, although not quite so rich. Tree hardy ; an excellent bearer as a standard tree around Lon- don ; does not appear to succeed so well in the north, unless planted against a wall. Lawrence. — Colour pale yellowish green, slightly marked with palish brown; form obovate, tapering to an obtuse end; size above medium ; quality excellent. In use from October to March, ripening regularly in succession, and not liable to rot. This is another American pear of considerable merit. Downing informs us that it rose from seed in Flushing, Long Island, in the neighbourhood of two other pear trees only, the St Germain and the yVhite Doynne, and bears some proofs, in its qualities, of being a natural cross between the two. Louise Bonne (of Jersey). — Colour greenish- brown and red; form pyramidal; size above me- dium, when not overloaded ; quality good. In use in October. This excellent pear is claimed by the English as a Jersey fruit, and by the French for the neighbourhood of Avranches. It was first brought into n otice in 1 820, when speci- mens of the fruit were exhibited at the London Horticultural Society Rooms, from the garden of General Gordon of Jersey. It is now in very general cultivation, and succeeds well as a stand- ard in most gardens. Synonyms-— TFiZiiam. the Fourth, Louise Bonne d' Avranches, Beurre ou Bonne Louise d'Araudore. We have adopted the synonyms given by Mr Thomson in the " Fruit Catalogue of the Horticultural Society," and the description from fruit grown for several years in the Dalkeith gardens. The Louise Bonne of Jersey of Mr Rivers appears by his description to be different. In a foot-note in his Descriptive Catalogue of PearSihe says, "This is (that is, his variety) the Louise Bonne d' Av- ranches of the French; the true Louise Bonne of Jersey is an inferior variety, ripening earlier in the season." We have trees of both varieties. 458 HARDY FRUIT GARDEN. but that of Mr Rivers not having as yet fruited ■with us, we are unable to say whether in reality a difference exists. Mamuette. — Colour pale green and brown; size large; form oblong obovate; quality excel- lent. In use in September and October. Mr Thomson remarks, "This is one of the few good French pears that will bear as a standard, and as such this requires a favourable soil and situar tion." Marie Louise. — Colour brown and yellow; form oblong; size above medium, often large; quahty first-rate. In use in October and No- vember. This truly fine pear was raised from seed by the Abb6 Duquesne, of Belgium, in 1809; introduced to England by Dr Van Mens in 1816. Tree hardy, and succeeds well as a standard in favourable situations, where it bears abundantly, and the fruit so produced is supe- rior to that grown against walls, in which latter condition it must ever be grown in most parts of Scotland. Sjnonyras^Braddich's field stand- ard, Forme de Marie Louise, Princesse de Parma, Marie Chretienne, readily distinguished from the next by its crooked and declining branches, with narrow leaves. Marie Louise (Van Mens). — Colour yellow, brownish red on the side next the sun ; form pyriform; size above medium; quality second- rate, but in good seasons, when not overcropped, of excellent quality ; apt to produce more fruit than the tree can bring to full maturity. Tree hardy, erect, with strong dark-coloured shoots. In use in September and October, and does not keep well. An inferior fruit to the last. The Marie Delcourt of Mr Thomson in " Fruit Catalogue of the Horticultural Society," No. 306, is probably the Marie Louise (Delcourt) of Mr Eivers, No. 90 in his descriptive catalogue, and also of the French gardens, said by the last authority to be superior to the old Marie Moccas. — Colour pale brown; form obovate; size medium ; quality excellent. In use in De- cember. A hardy tree, bearing well as a stand- ard, and almost resembling the following in point of merit. Originated at Moccas Court, Hereford- shire. One of our best standard pears. Monarch, Knight's. — Colour yellowish brown; form obovate; size medium; quaUty excellent. In use in January. Tree hardy and a great bearer, even in a standard form. Originated with T. A. Knight, Esq., and with the last two valuable acquisitions to our standard-growing pears. They are both well worthy of the notice of Scottish orchardists. Knight called this the Monarch, because he conceived it superior to all others, and on account of its perfecting its fruit in the first year of the reign of William the Fourth. Moor/owl egg, Galston's. — Colour yellowish brown; form roundish; size medium; quality good. This appears to be a rather rare sort; we have only seen two or three specimens in cultivation, and these grown against walls in Perthshire. In use in October and November. A very different fruit from the Old moorfowl egg, an old hardy Scotch variety not worth growing where better sorts will live. Napoleon.' — Colour pale green, turning yel- lowish by keeping; form obtuse pyramidal; size large; quality excellent. In use in November and December. Tree healthy, and ripens as a standard around London, but requires the aid of a wall in Scotland. It was raised by M. Liart, a gardener at Mons. According to Down- ing, he received a medal from the Mons Horti- cultural Society for the fruit, and hence the synonym Medaille ; the original tree was pur- chased for thirty-three francs by the Abbg Du- quesne, who bestowed on it the name of Napo- leon. Synonyms — Roi de Rome, Medaille, Charles d'Autrich, Suorie DorSe of some, Wurtemberg, Neil. — Colour pale yellow; form obovate; size large ; quality good. In use in September and October. Tree very hardy, succeeding in many places as a standard; a great bearer, and produc- ing beautiful fruit. Raised by Dr Van Mons from seed sown in 1815, and named by him in honour of that excellent man and enthusiastic horticulturist, the late Dr Neil of Edinburgh. Is apt to overbear itself, and should be, there- fore, moderately thinned of wood, and even that shortened so as to insure a limited supply of young shoots. Nelis, winter. — Colour yellowish-brown; form obovate; size under medium; quahty excellent. In use in December and January. Produces excellent although not full-sized fruit as a standard around London; requires a wall in the north of England and most of Scotland. This is another excellent Belgian variety. Syno- nyms — Beurri de Malines, Milanaise, Owce- lier, Nelis d'Hiver, Etrov/nieau, Bonne de Ma- lines. Ne plus Meuris. — Colour brownish russet; form roundish, usually very irregular; size me- dium ; quality excellent. In use from November to March. " One of the best late pears, although not so handsome as some." — (Thomson). Of Belgian origin, from the stock of Dr Van Mons. Passe Colmar. — Colour brownish yellow; form obovate; size large; quality excellent. In use during December and January, and with good management much longer. This very excellent pear is of Belgian origin, and being raised by the Counsellor Hardenpont. It is one of our most popular winter pears, on account of its excellent flavour, vigorous growth, and abundant bearing. In too rich soils it is apt to grow too luxuriantly, and therefore root-pruning has often to be had recourse to, to keep it of moderate size, and to induce fruitfulness. This is a much more hardy tree than the old Colmar, and is exceedingly free from canker and disease. To increase the size of the fruit, they should be regularly thinned after setting, and some recommend, to attain this end, the removal of half the fruit-bearing spurs in the month of March. Synonyms — Chap- mans, Colmar d'Or, Colmar Preul, Colmar Har- denpont, Colmar Gris, Colmar Epineux, Passe Colmar Epineux, Passe Colmar Gris, Passe Col- mar Gris dit Precel, Beurre Colmar Gris dit Precel, Fovdante de Mons, Fondante de Panisel, d'Anans, Present de Malines, Marotte Bucrie Jaune, Souveraine, Gamhier, Colmar Sowcerain, Cellite, Beauire d'Argenson, Regentin. The Passe Colmar d'Or is given by Mr Thorn- THE PEAR 459 Eon, in "Fruit Cat. Hort. Soc," No. 339, as merely a synonym of the common Passe Colmar. Mr RiversBays, in " Descriptive List of Pears," p. 4, " It is the better variety of the two, quite distinct. Those fruits which are exposed are of a rather bright red on the sunny side. The Col- mar gris, unripe, is of a uniform grey, and, when ripe, not so yellow as the preceding. Both varie- ties bear abundantly as standards on the pear stocl^but do not ripen their fruit kindly at Sawbridgeworth. On the quince they succeed well." This is by no means an uncommon re- sult in the case of many other pears, and the more unfavourable the situation, the more ob- vious is the case. Petre. — Colour pale yellow, slightly marked with russet towards the eye ; form obovate ; size about medium ; quality excellent. In use in October, and if gathered before fully ripe will keep some weeks. This is an American pear of the highest excellence. The original tree, Down- ing informs us, is still growing in the old Bertram Botanic Garden, near Philadelphia. It appears to have originated from a seed received by the elder John Bertram from Lord Petre of Essex, in 1735, who, in twenty-five years afterwards, received fruit of this tree, which he pronounced superior to the tree from whence the seed had been taken. Tree moderate in growth, and an excellent bearer. Prince's Saint Germains. — Colour greenish, co- vered with a brownish russet, the side next the sun turning dull red as it approaches maturity; form obovate, somewhat inclining to oval ; size medium. In use from November tiU March. An American pear, originated from a seed of Saint Germain panachSe, or Striped Saint Ger- mains, but much superior to it. It is a very hardy tree, and an excellent bearer ; keeps weU, and esteemed superior to the old St Germain. Synonym — New St Germain. Saint Germain. — Colour yellowish green and brown ; form pyramidal ; size large ; quality excellent. In use from November to January. An old French variety, long cultivated in our gardens ; requires a wall in most situations, and is a healthy tree, and abundant bearer. Synonym — Saint Germain Gris, Saint Ger- main Jaune — names evidently arising from the colour of the fruit in different stages of its existence. Seckel. — Colour brownish red ; form obovate ; size small ; quality excellent. In use in October. Another American pear of great merit, well adapted to European culture ; an excellent bear- er, having a peculiarly rich aroma, with a honied sweetness. Synonym — New Tori; red-cheek, Red cheeked Seckel. A very curious account of the supposed origin of this pear is given by Down- ing, page 415 of his interesting work on the " Fruits and Fruit Trees of America." Grafted on the apple, this excellent pear has been much improved in size, but not equally improved in flavour. If it is one of the very best of the American pears, it is, we should think, one of the most ugly in appearance. Although it succeeds well in many parts of Britain, it has never attained maturity at Dalkeith. Swan's egg. — Colour greenish brown ; form obovate ; size under medium ; quality good ; the best of our hardy standard pears, ripening in most parts of Scotland, and an abundant bearer. Trees apt to grow very tall. In use in October. Thomson's. — Colour pale yellow; form obo- vate ; size medium ; quality excellent. In use in November. Flavour resembling the Passe Colmar, exceedingly rich. Tree hardy, and bears well as a standard in most gardens. Vicar of Winkfield.—Colonr greyish brown and red ; form pyramidal ; size very large ; qua- lity good. In use from November to January. Tree hardy, and a good bearer, but most es- teemed on account of its large size. Of French origin, being discovered a few years since grow- ing naturally in the woods of Clion by a French curate, whence it obtained the names of Le Cur4, or Monsieur le CurS. It was soon thereafter imported into England by the late Rev. Mr Rham, vicar of Winkfield in Berkshire, and hence that name also. The other synonyms are — Dumas, Bourgermester, incorrectly of Bos- ton ; and Kenrick, an American pomologist, has called it Clion. Van Mons' Leon le Clerc. — Colour yellowish, nearly covered with a brownish russet; form oblong ovate ; size large ; quality very good. In use in October and November. This fine pear originated with M. Leon le Clerc, an ama- teur cultivator of Laval, in France. This must not be confounded with Leon le Clerk, described in our list of culinary pears. Comparatimly new or recently introduced des- sert pears. — Abele de St Denis. — Size large ; qua- lity excellent ; succeeds well on the quince stock in forming a pyramidal tree, and where there is room to spare deserves a wall. Beau Present d'Artois. — Size large ; quality good, half melting. In use during September. Tree very hardy, and succeeds well on the quince, either as a standard or pyramid, in either case bearing abundantly. Belle Hwgevine, — Size large ; quality excel- lent, and fruit handsome. In use during March and April. Tree very hardy, succeeding well on the quince stock. Belle apres Noel (Esperen). — About the size, and something of the shape, of a moderate- sized cressane ; colour bright yellow, red on the sunny side; very handsome ; rich and high- flavoured. Tree rather of slender growth, yet an abundant bearer. In use from the middle of December to middle of January. Lately brought into notice by Mr Rivers. Bergamotte d'Esperen. — Size small, somewhat resembling the Autumn Bergamotte ; quality excellent. In use during April and May. Suc- ceeds well on the quince stock. Beurre Andusson. — Size medium ; quality good, and very handsome. In use in November. Tree hardy, and succeeds well, and bears abun- dantly as a pyramid on the quince. BeurrS Bretonneau. — Size large ; quality ex- cellent. Tree hardy, and succeeds well on the quince, double-worked, and is very prolific as a pyramid. In use during May and June. BeurrS Brissic. — Size medium ; quality excel- lent ; form obtuse. In use in March and April. 460 HARDY FEUIT GARDEN. Tree hardy, succeeding well as a standard on the quince stock. Deserving general cultiva- tion. BeurH Colmar (Van Mens). — Size medium; quality excellent ; form obovate ; colour yellow- ish when ripe ; a first-rate autumn pear. In use during October and November, Originated from seed with Dr Van Mons. Altogether a different pear from the Autumn Colmar, which it some- what resembles. Beurre Daviss. — Size medium ; form obovate ; quality good. In use during January and Fe- bruary. Somewhat resembling the Passe Col- mar, but keeps better. Tree hardy, succeeding well as a standard. Beurre de Benoist— Size large ; quality excel- lent, slightly perfumed, and has an agreeable flavour. In use during September and October. Adapted to standard culture, and succeeds well on the quince. Synonym — Beurre Auguste Be- noist, Benoist. Beurrg d' Esperen. — Size large; quality good. Tree hardy, healthy, and succeeds well on the quince stock. In use in January. Beurri de Streokman (Van Mons). — Size me- dium ; quality good. Tree hardy, and bears well as a dwarf standard, more especially on the quince stock. In use in January and February. Beurre Dumortler, — Size medium; quality good, and of high flavour — the fruit we tasted was remarkably so ; form obovate ; colour dull- ish yellow. In use in September. Tree hardy, and succeeds as a standard in Mid-Lothian. BeurrS Criffara. — Size medium ; quality excel- lent ; ripe in August. Tree hardy, and a great bearer, succeeding as a pyramid or standard. Beurr4 Gris d^Hiver nouxeau, or BeurrS de Lufon. — Of this pear Mr Rivers remarks : — " This fine large pear is, I think, calculated to form an important feature in our winter des- serts. It seems to be of the race of the old Brown beurrS — BeurrS Gris of the French. Its fruit has nearly the same shape, but it is larger, and generally covered with a thick coat of rus- set. It differs, however, widely from its type, in the great merit of being fit for the table for two or three months after Brown ieurres are gone. It is in season generally from the end of January till the middle or end of March. Its flavour is peculiarly high, its flesh melting and very juicy, but liable in some soils to be a little gritty. It does not grow freely on the quince unless under glass, and is not hardy enough for a pyramid on the pear stock, unless in very warm and sheltered situations ; but it amply deserves a wall (a south-east, south, or west aspect, would be the most eligible). It ought to be in every good collection of pears." It must, from the above, be considered a delicate sort, and only fitted for the best situations. BeurrS Langelier's. — Size large ; quality excel- lent ; one of the very best winter pears ; succeeds well on the quince, and bears as a pyramid in most ordinary situations. In use during Octo- ber and November. Synonym — Langelier's Beurre. BeurrS Lucratif. — Size medium; quality ex- cellent ; colour pale yellowish green ; form obo- vate. In use during September and October. Tree hardy, succeeding either as a standard oi' on the wall. Of Flemish origin. BeurrS Magnijique. — Size large; quality ex- cellent ; form obovate. In use in November and December. Tree hardy, and an excellent bearer, either as a wall or standard — the former in most parts of Scotland. This name has been given as a synonym to the BeurrS Diel by Mr Thomson in third edition of " Catalogue of Fruits," &c., but subsequent experienoJdi has proved this to be a very different fniit. Beun'S Montfontaine. — Size medium ; quality excellent; form obovate; flesh crisp. In use during September and October. Tree hardy, a, good bearer, and ripens well as a standard. BeurrS Navez (Van Mons). — Size large ; qua- lity excellent ; said by M. Van Mons to be the sweetest of all pears. In use during September. BeurrS Robin.— Size large ; quality good. In use during October and November. Tree very hardy, succeeding on the quince, and equally adapted for standard, pyramid, or wall. BeurrS Seutin. — Size large ; quality good. In use in January. Succeeds well as a pyramid ou the quince stock, suitable also for walls or standards. BeurrS superfin. — Size large ; quality excel- lent. Tree healthy, succeeding well on the quince, and makes a handsome pyramid. In use during December and January. BeurrS supreme.— Size medium ; quality good ; form roundish, resembling that excellent pear, Comle de Lamy. Tree hardy, succeeding well as a standard, and is in all cases an excellent bearer. In use during October and November. BeurrS winter (Rivers). — Size large; quality excellent, flavour very rich and vinous. Tree hardy, and succeeds well on the quince stock double worked, either as a wall or standard. Tills excellent pear was raised by Mr Rivers of Sawbridgeworth, from the seed of the Easter beurrS. In use during February and March. Must not be mistaken with either the Black Achan or Chaumoniel, both of which are some- times called Winter beurrS. Bezi d'Esperen. — Size large; quality good. In use during December and January. Tree very hardy, succeeding well on the quince stock either as a pyramid, standard, or wall tree. This excellent pear was raised from seed sup- posed to be that of the Winter Nelis, by the late Major Esperen of Malines. Bonne Gustave (Esperen). — Size large; qua- lity good. In use during December. Tree hardy, and bears abundantly wrought on the quince, whether trained as a pyramid or stan- dard. Canning. — Size large; quality excellent. In fruit resembling the Haster beurrS, but differing in the habit of the tree, which is more robust and hardy. Succeeds as a pyramid on the quince, but deserves a wall in most places. In use during January and February. This is given by Mr Thomson as a synonym of Easter beurrS; it appears, however, to be different, more especially in respect to hardiness. Columbia. — Size large ; quahty excellent, juicy and melting ; form obovate ; colour, when ripe, a fine golden yellow tinged with orange. In THE PEAE. 461 use from November to Januaiy. Of American origiu, and, so far as it has been tried in Bri- tain, likely to become a great acquisition, as it is both handsome and productive. Compte de Flandre. — Size very large ; quality excellent, melting ; of Belgian origin. In use during December. Tree hardy, succeeding well on the quince stock, and trained either as a stan- dard or pyramid, but in most places deserving a wall. Delice de Jodoigne (Bouvier). — Size large ; quality good ; an excellent autumn pear. In use during November. Tree very hardy, suc- ceeding well on the quince, and trained as a pyramid. De Spoelberg. — Size medium ; quality good ; flavour rich and melting. In use in November. Tree hardy, succeeding on the quince double wrought, either as a standard or wall. Synonym — Yicomte de Spoelberg. Dr Bouvier (Van Mons). — Size large; quality excellent. In use in February and March. Tree hardy; inclined to put out thorns; suc- ceeds well as a standard, and if double wrought on the quince. Doyenne d'Effay. — Size medium ; quality ex- cellent; melting; form obovate. In use in November. This excellent pear succeeds on the quince, and makes a handsome pyramid. Doyenne, Gouhault. — Size large ; quality excel- lent, as are all the Doyennes. In use from January to April. Tree very hardy, succeeding well on the quince as a standard in most places. Doyenne nouveau. — Size medium ; quality ex- cellent; flesh tender and juicy; form obovate. In use in April. Very productive when wrought on the quince and trained as a pyramid. Drapiez. — Size medium ; quality excellent ; form obovate. In use in October. A very ex- cellent autumn fruit, especially as it succeeds as a dwarf standard on the quince stock. Mim d'Heyst (Esperen). — Size medium ; qua- lity excellent. In use in March and April. Tree tender, requiring a warm soil and situa- tion. On the quince, if double wrought, it suc- ceeds well, but requires the protection of a wall in Britain. Fondante de Guirmensier.— Size large; quality excellent. In use in December. Remarkable for its productiveness as well as fine quality. Frederick de Wv/rtemberg. — Size large ; qua- lity excellent; flesh juicy and melting; colour deep yellow when ripe, with dashes of red crim- son next the sun. In use in' September and October. Tree hardy, and bears early, even as a standard. One of Dr Van Mons' excellent pears, deserving of general cultivation. Grand soleU (Esperen).— Size large; quality excellent; flesh half-melting. In use from De- cember to March. Tree tender, requiring a wall in most situations. Not adapted to the generality of Scotland. Josephine de Malines (Esperen). — Of this pear Mr Bivers gives the following high descrip- tion : " This very fine late pear seems to be of the Passe Colmar race, for it has much resem- blance to that well-known variety in its pointed leaves, the size and form of its fi-uit, and gene- ral habit. It grows freely on the quince, and VOL. II. bears well as a pyramid, even when grafted on the pear stock, but deserves a wall in the cool and moist parts of England. Its season [but who, Mr Rivers very justly remarks, can tell the ripening season of pears, when Ne plus weuris ripened this season in November'!] is from March to the end of April, and its flavour is, I think, the highest and most agreeable of any pear known, being, at the same time, per- fectly melting and juicy." Paquency. — Size medium; quality excellent ; flesh melting; sweet, with a rich perfume ; form obovate; colour dull yellow, slightly marked with russet. An excellent French pear, suc- ceeding on the quince and trained as a pyramid. In use during October and November. Saint Auhin sur Riga. — Size large; quality excellent ; flesh melting, tender ; flavour rich. A New Jersey pear of much excellence either as a wall or standard. In use in January and February. Suffolk thorn. — Size medium; quality good; flesh melting ; flavour partaking of Oansal's Bergamotte, from which it is a seedling; form roundish. In use in October. Forms a hardy tree when wrought on the quince stock. KITCHEN PEAliS. Bellisime d'Hiver. — Colour brown and red; form roundish ; size large. In use from Novem- ber till April. Quality first-rate. This is one of our best stewing-pears. An abundant bearer, and succeeds in favourable situations as a stan- dard. Synonyms — Teton de Venus, De Bur, Belle Noisette. Belmont. — Colour pale yellowish brown ; form obovate ; size large. In use during No- vember. Quality good. An excellent bearer, and succeeds in most gardens as a standard. Bergamot, Easter.— Colour pale green ; form obovate; size medium. In use during March and April. One of our best culinary pears. Keeps well, retains its juice, and if properly ripened is not liable to shrivel. Succeeds as a standard only in favourable situations; requires a wall in most parts of Scotland and the north of England. Synonyms — Robertas keeping, Pad- dington, Bergamotte d'Biver, Bergamotte de Bugi, Bergamotte de Paques, Bergamotte de Tou- louse, Winter Bergamot, Terling, Royal Tairlon. Bezi d'Heri. — Colour greenish yellow ; form roundish; size medium. In use from October to January. An excellent bearer, and much esteemed for culinary purposes. Succeeds as a standard in ordinary good situations, but re- quires a wall in cold upland places. Synonyms — De Bordeaux, Besi royal. Bon Chretien, FlerMsh. — Colour yellowish brown ; form obovate ; size medium. In use from November to March. A great bearer as a standard in the southern counties of England, rarely so succeeding in most of Scotland. Syno- nyms — Bon Chretien Turc, Bon Chretien nouxelle. Catillae. — Colour brownish yellow and red; form turbinate; size large. In use from Decem- ber to April. Succeeds well as a dwarf standard trained quenouille in the south of England, re- quiring a wall in the north, and throughout Scotland generally. Much esteemed as a culi- 3n 462 HARDY FEUIT GARDEN. nary fruit. Synonyms — Pound pear, Bell pear, Groote mogul. Grand monarque. An old French variety. Franc real d'Hlver. — Colour brown and yel- low; form roundish ovate; size medium. In use from December to March. Tree hardy, and a good bearer. Stews tender, and of a bright light purple colour. Synonyms — Franc real, Fin or d' River. Gilogil. — Colour russet; form roundish; size very large. In use from November to Feb- ruary. Quality good, and very handsome. Syno- rtyras— Garde d'Ecosse, Poir gohert, and various corruptions of Gilogil. Leon le Clerc. — Colour yellowish russet; form obovate ; size large. In use from December to April. ISTot identical with Van Mons' Leon le Clerc. Quality good for culinary purposes. Vredale's St Germain. — Colour greenish brown; form pyramidal; size very large, sometimes at- taining the weiglit of 3 lb. ; long esteemed as one of our most valuable culinary fruits; requires the aid of a wall in most situations. In use from January to April. Synonyms — Lent St Germains, Cliambers' large. Union, Uvedale's warden, Piper, Pichering^s pear, Pickering^s warden, Germain haher. SELECT LISTS OF PEARS FOR PARTICULAR LOCALITIES, ETC. The following selection is considered by Mr Errington to be the best twenty sorts in the country : — 1, Citron de Carmes ; 2, Jargonelle ; 3, Dunmore ; 4, Williams' Bon Chretien ; 6, Beurre d'Amalis ; 6, Fondante d'Automne ; 7, Louis Bonne of Jersey ; 8, Aston Town ; 9, Beurre d'Capiamont ; 10, Marie Louise; 11, Althorp Cresane ; 12, Beurre Diel ; 13, Passe Colmar ; 14, Hacon's Incomparable ; IS, Glout Morceau ; 16, Winter Nelis ; 17, Knight's Mon- arch ; 18, Easter Beurre ; 19, Beurr^ Ranz ; 20, Ne Plus Meuris. Of these the following are adapted to a southern orchard' — Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4, S, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, II, 14 ; for a northern or- chard — Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 8, 14 ; for east and west walls in the north, or for dwarf standards in the south— Nos. 2, 3, 10, 11, 12, 13, 15, 16, 17, 1 9, 20 ; sorts fitted for cottages, being par- ticularly profitable— Nos. 2, 3, 4, 7, 9,12, 14, 17. Mr Rivers recommends the following twelve varieties as pyramidal pears on the quince stock, placed in the order of their ripening. Those marked * may be chosen by those who require only a few trees. This selection is made, howevei', for the southern and midland coun- ties : — Doyenne d'Etg, July ; *JargonelIe, Au- gust ; Bon Chretien (Williams), September ; *Beurrg dAmalis, September ; Van Mons' Leon le Clerc, October ; "Louis Bonne of Jersey, Oc- tober ; Beurr^ Diel, November ; Belle de Neol, December; *Passe Colmar, December ; *Orphe- line d'Enghien, January and February ; Jose- phine de JMalines, March ; "Susette de Bavay, April and May. For twenty-four sorts add — Citron des Car- mes, July ; Beurr^ Giffard, August ; Beurrfi Andusson, September; Doyenne, white, October; Doyenne gris, October ; Duchesse a'Angoulfime, November ; Urbaniste, November ; Winter Nelis, December ; Beurr^ Langelier, January ; Beurr6 Stcrckman, February ; Beui-r6, Easter, March ; Beurr6 Ranz, April and May. N,]i. — The Orpheline d'Enghien of Belgium is synonymous with the Soldat Laboreur of France and the Beurre d'Aremberg of most of the collections in Britain. The following are given by the same authority . as suitable for wall-culture : — For south or south-west walls. — *Crassane, "Col- mar, St Germain, *Doyenne d'Ete, Chaumon- telle. Passe Colmar, Jargonelle, *Glout Morceau, Brown Beurr6, Fortun^e, Van Mons' Leon le Clerc, Gansal's Bergamot. For west or north-west walls. — Beurre Diel, Beurre d'Amalis, *Beurre Langelier, Beurr^ Banz, "Beurre Gris d'Hiver nouveau, *Duchesse d'Orleans, Grosse Calebasse, Marie Louise, Na- poleon, Louise Bonne of Jersey, "Josephine de Malines, "Triomphe de Jodoigne. For east or south-east walls. — 'Beurre Easter, Citron des Carmes, Orpheline d'Enghien, Bergar mot d'Esperen, Duchesse d'Angoul6me,CrasBane d'Hiver, *Winter Nelis, "Doyenne Gris, Susette de Bavay, Urbaniste, "Triomphe de Jodoigne, Doyenne Goubault. For north walls. — Catillac, Bellisime d'Hiver, Passe Tardive, Leon le Clerc de Laval, and Vicar of Winkfleld, all good baking or stewing pears. Tljese are, however, only adapted to north walls in the south, or more favourable situations in the north. These are almost without exception unsuitable for either standards or north-aspected wall-cultivation in cold northerly places; for altliough many of them will arrive at a pretty good size, still they will not ripen even when grafted on quince stocks. Select list of pears which ripen at Culsean Castle, Ayrshire.' — Beurr6 Langelier, B. d'Capiau- mont, B. d'Amalis, B. Ranee, Leon le Clerc, B. d'Aremberg, B. Easter, B. Brown, E. Gracioli of Jersey C!) Hacon's Incomparable, Louise Bonne of Jersey, Marie Louise, Napoleon, Winter Nelis, Fondante d'Automne, Thomson's, Gan- sal's Bergamot, Autumn Bergamot, BeurrS Diel, Duchesse d'Angouleme, Glout Morceau, Jargonelle, Knight's Monarcli, Passe Colmar, Williams' Bon Chretien, Urbaniste, Compte de Laniy, Dunmore, Chauraontelle, and Catillac. Select list of pears which ripen well at Drum- lamig Castle, Dumfriesshire. (W. & S. indicate their being grown on walls or standards). — Ber- gamot autumn, W. ; B. Gansal's, on a quincje stock, S.; Beurre d'Aremberg, W.; B. brown, W.; B. Ranee, W. ; B. Easter, W. ; Bon Chretien, sum- mer, W.; B. Williams', W.; Citron des Carmes, W. ; Cressane, W. ; Doyenne, white, very fine on standards; Duchesse d'Angoul6me, W. ; Dun- more, W. ; Glout Morceau, W. ; Green pear of Yair, S. ; Hessel, S. ; Jargonelle on W. and S., grafted on the quince stock, on the latter pro- ducing large crops, but the fruit is rather gritty; Louise Bonne of Jersey, W. ; Marie Louise, W. ; Moorfow! Egg, S. ; Napoleon, W. ; Winter Nelis, W.; St Clair? W.; Urbaniste, W. ; Van Mons' Leon le Clerc. Pears which ripen at DalJceith ParJc, Mid- Lothian. (S. and W. indicate Standard and Wall.) THE PEAR. 463 —Aston Town, S. ; Bergamot autumn, S. ; B. Gausal's, S. and W.; Beurrd Ananas, S. and W.; B. Bosc, W.; B. Brown, W. and S.; B. d'Arem- berg, S. and W.; B. d'Capiaumont, S. and W.; B. Diel, S. and W.; B. Duval, S. and W.; B. Easter, S. and W.; B. Ranee, S. and W.; Chau- montelle, S. and W. ; Citron des Carmes, W., (for an eai-ly supply, would no doubt ripen also as a standard, if tried) ; Colmar, W. ; Comptede Lamy, W. ; Crassane, W. ; Crassane Althorp, W. ; Doyenne Gris, W. ; Duchesse d'Augoul6me, W. and S. ; Glout Morceau, W. and S. ; Hacon's In- comparable, W.; Hessel, S.; Jargonelle, W. and S. ; Louise Bonne of Jersey, W. ; Marie Louise, "W. and S. ; Moorfowl Egg, Galston's, W. ; Napo- leon, W. and S. ; Winter Nelis, W. ; Passe Colmar, W.; St Germains, W. ; Seckel, S., indifferently; Swan's Egg, S. ; Vergouleuse, W. ; Doyenne Blanc, W. ; Auehan, W. and S. Many other sorts recently planted have not as yet fruited. List of perry pears. — Barland, an old Here- fordshire pear, where it is much cultivated and esteemed ; Foxley, also esteemed for the same purpose, of Herefordshire origin, (specific gra- vity, 1070) ; Huflfcap brown, HufFcap red, Huff- cap yellow, Hampton rough, Courel, Moorcroft, Oldfield, (spec, grav., 1067) ; Squash, (spec, grav., 1060); Teinton, Squash new meadow, Stump- fling, Wolfs, Holemore, (spec, grav., 1066) ; Long- land, (spec, grav., 1063.) Of these the Barland, Teinton, Squash, Oldfield, Longlaud, and Hole- more, are most in repute in Herefordshire, Wor- cestershire, and other perry-making districts. Pears suited to the north of Scotland. Those marked • require a wall, unless the situation is remarkably sheltered and warm. — Alexander de Russe, Autumn Bergamot, Beurr6 d'Arem- berg,BeurreDiel,*Beurr6 Ranee, *ChaumonteIle, *D'Auch, Gilogil, Grey Doyenne, Hassel, *Jar- gonelle, London Sugar, Marie Louise, Moorfowl Egg, Madeleine, Poire Neil, Prince's pear. Passe Colmar, Saint Germain, Swan's Egg, Summer Bergamot, White Doyenne, Winter Nelis, Yat. Auehan, Gratioli (of Jersey), "Althorp Crassane, 'Knight's Monarch. Pears for kitchen or stewing purposes, (not in- cluded in our descriptive list, p. 461, recom- mended by Mr Rivers). — Belle Angevine, ripe in April, very large ; Black Pear of Worcester, February, fine red when stewed ; Chaptel, April, good bearer ; Ramilies, February, large, a great bearer ; St Lezin, October, large and handsome ; Summer Compote, August, an 'abundant bearer. Pears, many of which are of recent introduction, (recommended by Mr Rivers, and not included in our descriptive list, many of which we have in cultivation, but as they have not as yet produced fruit with us, we give them on Mr Rivers' autho- rity). — Archduke Charles, large size, first qua- lity, season November to December, productive, standard; Bergamotte Bernard, medium size, second quality, December to May, productive, standard; Bergamotte Fievee, small size, first quality, September, productive, standard ; Beurre Golden, (Rivers), a very old variety of the Doyenne family, very productive, standard ; Beurrg de Beaumont, large size, first quality, Sep- tember, veryproductive,Btandard;Beurrede Bor- deaux, medium size, first quality, October, ve productive, standard; Beurre de Mortgeron, me- dium size, first quality, September — like BeurrS Rauce, but seems to do better on the quince stock than that variety — very productive, stan- dard ; Beurre de Noirohain, medium size, first quality, April, very productive, standard ; Beurre Moire, large size, first quality, October, very productive, standard ; Beurrg Van Marum, large size, first quality, November, productive, stan- dard ; Bonne d'Etg, medium size, first quality, November, productive, standard — this is given as a synonym of the White Doyenne in the " Fruit Catalogue of the Horticultural Society." Mr Rivers says, in France this is a well-known and distinct variety. Bonne des Zoes, me- dium size, first quality, September, productive, standard ; Caennais, medium size, first quality, November, productive, standard; Captif de St Hglene, small size, fii'st quality, December, very productive, standard ; Delioe de la Cour, large size, first quality, November, productive, stan- dard ; De Lepine, medium size, first quality, January, productive, standard ; Duchesse d'Or- leans, large size, first quality, October, very pro- ductive, standard ; Episcopal, medium size, first quality. May to June, productive, standard ; Inconnue (Van Mens), medium size, first quality, February, very productive, standard; Miel de Waterloo, large size, first quality, November, very productive, standard ; St Marc, large size, first quality, November, very productive, standard. Amongst the many new pears enumerated in Mr Rivers' Catalogue for 1853-54, the following winter varieties, adapted to quince stocks, de- serve the attention of planters : Susette de Bavay, in use from March to May ; Fondante de Malines, January and February; Belle de Noel, or Belle apres Noel, January; Alexander Bivort, January ; Zephirin Gregoire, January to March ; Duchesse de Mars, December and January ; Soldat d'Esperen, December. The following distances may be given at which pear trees should be planted, according to the sort of stock employed and mode of training adopted : viz., Standards on pear stocks, 20 feet apart ; espaliers or walls trained horizontally on the pear stock, 24 feet ; espaliers or walls trained vertically on the quince stock, 4 to 6 feet ; espaliers or walls trained horizon- tally on the quince stock, 15 feet; pyramidal trained on quince stocks, and not root-pruned, 6 feet ; pyramidal trained on quince stocks, root-pruned, 4 feet ; pyramidal trained on pear stocks, not root -pruned, 10 feet; pyramidal trained on pear stocks, root-pruned, 6 feet. Groising the finer varieties of the pear in pots. — This appears to be a Russian practice, ren- dered necessary on account of the deficiency of climate to cultivate the best French and Belgian varieties without the aid of glass covering dur- ing the severity of their winters. They are, therefore, kept in cool glass-houses during win- ter, where they blossom and form their fi-uit; and as soon as the Russian summer sets in, which is so much more warmer than ours, the trees are set out in the open air, where they ripen to great perfection. This circumstance appears to have led Mr Rivers to adopt pot cul- ture and the construction of orchard-houses, 464 HARDY FRUIT GARDEN. reversing, however, the Russian practice, as more suitable to the climate of Britain ; and hence his practice is to winter his trees in the open air, plunging the pots in rotten tan or saw- dust, for the equal preservation of the roots and pots. In February he removes his potted trees into very economical glass structures, which he calls glass-roofed sheds, or rather wooden pits with glass sashes as a covering. No fire heat is applied. An abundance of air is admitted by sliding shutters placed in front and back of his structures — solar heat transmit- ted through the glass roof being found suflScient to ripen the most delicate and choice. " The trees," he says, " for this purpose, should be dwarf bushes, grafted on the quince stock, and the pots 1 5 inches deep and the same over ; liquid manure and surface-dressing in summer will enable them to carry a good crop. I potted some pears," he informs us, " on quince stocks, in the beginning of April 1847, and placed them in front of a (glass) shed facing the south. Se- veral now (1848) are full of fruit, the pots used being 12 inches wide and the same in depth. They have stood in the south front of the shed all the summer, the surface of each pot being covered with moss, and the plants are in fine health. Apples on the paradise stock may be grown in pots with the same facility." The principle, in the hands of Mr Eivers, who is an excellent cultivator, has been attended with the most satisfactory results. It is, however, by no means a new feature in fruit-growing in this country, for we recollect seeing apples growing in pots in the nursery of Messrs Gibbs at Bromp- ton, in 1815 ; and very soon afterwards the late Earl of Lauderdale erected a very large glass- house at his seat at Dunbar, in which apples and pears were grown for several years in pots arranged upon stages like greenhouse plants. The most prolific and eligible sorts of pears for pot culture, Mr Rivers remarks, are the " Brown Beurre ; Beurr6 Gris d'Hiver nouveau ; Doyenne d'Hiver Nouveau ; Easter Beurr6 ; Glout Morceau ; Bergamotte d'Esperen ; Gau- sal's Bergamot ; Duchesse d'Orleans ; Beurre d' Aremberg ; Beurre Ranee ; Crassane d'Hiver ; Doyenne Goubault ; Marie Louise ; Passe Colmar ; St Germain, and Van Mons' Leon le Clerc. The above are all autumn and winter pears. If summer pears are desired. Doyenne d'Ete, Jargonelle, Citron des Carmes, and Colmar d'Etd may be potted." So many of our best pears being of French or Flemish origin, the following key to the pro- nunciation of their names may be useful:^ Ananas d'Ete — An-an-ah Da-tay; Angleterre — Ahn-glet-are ; Beurrg — Bur-ray ; Belle de Bruxelles — Bel de Broosell ; Belle et Bonne — Bel-a-Bun ; Belle-Lucrative — Bel-lu-crah-teve ; BeurrS de Capiumont — Bur-ray de Cap-u-mohn; Beurr^ d'Amalis — Bur-ray Dah-mah-lee ; BeurrS Gris d'Hiver nouveau — Bur-ray Gree dee-vair noo-vo ; Beurre Diel — Bur-ray De-ell ; BeurrS Bronzee — Bur-ray Brone-zay ; Bezi d& Heri — Ba - zee Daree ; Bezi Vaet — Bazee Vah-ai ; Beurre Crapaud — Bur-ray Crah-po ; Bezi de Montigny — Ba-zee de Mon-teen-gnee ; Bon Chretien Fondante — Bone Cray-te-an Fone- donte; Boucquia — Boo-kiah; Calebasse Grosse — Cal-bass Groce ; Capucin — Capu-sau ; Chau- montel trds Gros — Sho-mone-tell tray Gro Compte de Lamy — Conte de Lah-me ; Colmar Epine — Col-mar A-peen; Crassanne — Cras-sahn; Cuise Madame — Kuees Mah-dam; D' Amours — Dam-oor ; De Louvain — Dul-oo-vau; D^lices d'Hardenpont — Day-lece Dar-dahn-pone; Do- yenne d'Et6 — Dwoy-on-nay Day-tay; Doyenne Panache — Dwoy-on-nay Pan-ah-shay ; Dumor- tier — Du-mor-te-ay ; Duchesse d'Angouleme — Du - shess Don - goo - lame ; Duchesse d'Or- leans — Du-shess Dor- lay-on; Eafant Prodige — On-font Pro-deeje; Epine d'EtS — A-peen day- tay; Figue de Naples — Feeg de Nah-pl; Fon- dante du Bois — Fone-dont du Bwoi; Fondante d'Autorane — Fone-dont du-tonn ; Forme de Delices — Form de Day-lece; Forelle — Fo-rel; FortunSe — For-tu-nay ; Franc R&l d'Hiver — Fronk Ray-ahl Dee-vair; Glout Morceau — Gloo Mor-so ; HSrieart — Hay-re-car ; Jalousie — Jal- oo-zee; Jalousie de Fontenay Vendfe — Jal-oo- zay de Fone-ten-ai Vou-day ; L6ou le Clerc — Lay-on le Clair ; Limon — Lee-mohn ; Louise Bonne — Loo-eze Bun ; Madeleine, or Citron des Carmes ■ — Mad-lane, or Cee-trone day Carm; Marie Louise — Mah-re Loo-eze ; Michaux — Me- sho ; Passans de Portugal — Pah-sahu de Por-tu- gal ; Pailleau — Pahl-yo ; Paradise d'Automne — ■ Par-ah-deze du-tonn; Passe Colmar — Pas Col- mar ; Quilletette — Keel-tet ; Reine Caroline — Eane Car-o-lene ; Eeine des Poires — Eane day Pwore ; Rousselet Hatif — Eoos-lay Hat-eef; Senspeau— Sahn-po ; Sieulle — Se-uU ; Sucr§e de Hoyerswarda — Seu-cray de Hoyerswarda — Sur- passe Virgalieu— Seur-pass Vere-gal-yu ; St Ger- main—San Jare-man ; Sylvange — Seel-vonje ; Valine Franche — Vol-lay French ; Verte Longue — Vairt Longh ; Verte Longue Panach^e — Vairt Longh Pan-ah-shay ; Virgouleuse — Ver - goo- leuz ; Wilelmine — Wil-el-meen. European names. — Pear, English — Poire, French— Pero, Italian — Pera, Spanish— Birn- baum, German— Peer, Dutch and Flemish. In regard to any systematic mode of classify- ing the pear beyond that of arranging them as summer, autumn, winter, and baking pears, however' much such may be desired, we know not of any satisfactory attempt even having been made by British pomologists. Should Mr Hogg proceed with a general work on British pomology, which it is to be hoped he will, we may then expect to see this interesting and dif- ficult subject handled with that talent and suc- cess he has given a foretaste of in his excel- lent work upon apples. It may be remarked that we have retained few of the older pears in our descriptive list : these have become now obsolete in all good collections, as their places have been taken up with infinitely better sorts. These, for the most part, have been obtained from Belgium since the general European peace. They are found, by the experience of thirty years or more, to be well adapted to our climate, either as wall, espalier, or standard fruit in general, and as adapted to the former in many very in- different localities, as well if not better than many of those formerly so cultivated. In regard THE PEAR. 465 to our estimation of theiv respective qualities, we cannot do better tliau quote what Mr R. Thomson says on the subject in the third edi- tion of the " Catalogue of Fruits in the London Horticultural Society's Gardens." " It is neces- sary to observe, that varieties esteemed of the highest excellence by some are deemed inferior by others. In geueral, this diversity of opinion is owing to diflTerence of soil, situation, or climate ; for if these are unfavourable, a variety which proves to be first-rate, when pi-oduced under fa- vourable circumstances, is often found inferior to one that, although second-rate, is more hardy." The number of varieties now in cultivation is very great. The Romans, in Pliny's time, pos- sessed 36 varieties. Parkinson enumerates (i4 ; Miller, 80. The " Luxembourg Nursery Cata- logue " at Paris contained 1 89 select sorts about the beginning of the present century. The " Cata- logue of the Horticultural Society" contains 442 described sorts. G. Lindley, in " Guide to the Orchard," 162 ; Rogers, in "Fruit Cultiva- tor," 50 ; Downing, an American author, 233, many of which are of American origin ; P. Lawson and Sons' " Fruit Catalogue," 267 ; Mr Rivers, in "Descriptive Catalogue of Pears" for 1843-4, enumerates 156 sorts of dessert pears and 14 baking and stewing sorts, of all which, Mr Rivers informs us, he has specimens in a bearing state, and from which his grafts are taken, which insures correctness of nomen- clature. BISBASSS. ' The pear is much less liable to disease than the apple, at least in Britain. In America, and also in France, it is otherwise. lu the former country, two diseases often assume a decided character, the one called The Insect Blight, and the other The Frozen Sap Blight, appearing sometimes in succeeding seasons, and again only after the lapse of several years. The in- sect 'blight is thus described by Mr Downing, in his excellent work, " The Fruits and Fruit Trees of America:" — " In the month of June or July, when the tree is in full luxuriance or growth, shoots at the extremities of the branches, and often extending down two seasons' growth, are observed suddenly to turn brown. In two or three days the leaves become quite black and dry, and the wood so shrivelled and hard as to be cut with difficulty with a knife. If the branch is allowed to remain, the disease some- times extends a short distance farther down the stem, but usually not much farther than the point where the insect had made his lodgment." This insect has been described by Professor Peck under the name of Scolytws pyri. " It is very minute, being scarcely one-tenth of an inch long ; and it escapes from the branch almost as soon as, by the withering of the leaves, we are aware of its attack ; hence it is so rarely seen by careless observers. In the perfect state it is a very small beetle, deep brown, with legs of a paler colour. Its thorax is short, convex, rough in front, and studded with erect bristles. The wing-covers are marked with rows of punctured points, between which are two rows of bristles, and they appear cut off very obliquely behind. This insect deposits its eggs some time in July or August, either behind or below a bud. Whether the egg hatches at once we are not aware, but the following spring the small grub or larva gnaws through the sap-wood, or tender alburnum, beginning at the root of the bud, and burrows towards the centre of the stem. Around this centre or pith it forms a circular passage, some- times devouring it altogether. By thus perforat- ing, sawing off, or girdling internally, a consider- able portion of the vessels which convey the ascending sap, at the very period when the rapid growth of the leaves calls for the lai'gest supply of fluid from the roots, the growth andthe vita- lity of the branch is checked and finally extin- guished. The larva, about this time, completes both its transformation and its passage out, and, in the beetle form, emerges with wings into the air, to seek out new positions for laying its eggs and continuing its species." The remedy pur- sued for the destruction of this insect con- sists in cutting off the branches about a foot below the point where it has fixed its abode, which is readily discovered by the discoloration in the bark, and this operation should be carried into effect upon the very first indication of its appearance. The frozen sap blight is occasioned by the trees continuing to grow late in autumn, and being attacked by early autumnal frosts while the sap-vessels are full of fluid matter. By alter- nate freezing and thawing of the sap it loses its vitality, and becomes dark and discoloured ; and in some cases, Downing remarks, it becomes so poisonous as to destroy the leaves of other plants when applied to them. So serious is this dis- ease in some parts of America, as to create great alarm amongst the cultivators of fruits. " To distinguish the blight of the frozen sap from that caused by the attacks of the Scolytus pyri," Mr Downing remarks, " is not difficult. The effects of the latter cease below the spot where the insect has perforated and eaten its burrow in the branch, the former spreads gradually down the branch, which, when dissected, shows the marks of the poison in the discoloration of the inner bark and the pith, extending down some distance below the external marks of injury. If the poison becomes largely diffused in the tree, it will sometimes die outright in a day or two ; but if it is only slightly present, it will often entirely recover. The presence of black, dry, shrivelled spots of bark on the branches, or soft sappy spots, as well as the appearance of thick clammy sap in winter or spring pruning, are the infallible signs of the frozen-sap blight." We are not aware that such a disease has yet made its appearance in Europe, although others may exist of less virulence, arising from similar causes in certain seasons. Duhamel, in " TraitI des Ar- bres Fruitiers," mentions a diseased state in the sap, arising from excess of manure, somewhat analogous to this American disease. He says, " The sap, corrupted by putrid water or the ex- cess of manure, bursts the cellular membranes in some places, extends itself between the wood and the bark, which it separates, and carries its poisonous acrid influence to all the neighbouring parts like a gangrene." " In a soil over-moist 466 HARDY FRUIT GARDEN. or too rich," Downing remarks, " the pear is always liable to make late second growths, and its wood will often be caught unripened by an early winter. For this reason, this form of blight is vastly more extensive and destructive in the deep rich soils of the western states than in the dryer and poorer soils of the east. And this will always be the case in over-rich soils, unless the trees are planted on raised hillocks, or their luxuriance checked by root-pruning." Although the frozen-sap blight occurs to a much less extent in Britain, still its existence may be traced in situations where the tenderer pears are attempted to be cultivated, and espe- ciallyso when a sudden and early winter succeeds a damp and warm autumn, and less so when the Bummer has been dry, and the growth of the trees has been completed early. When the trees continue to grow to a late period in the autumn, which they often do in cold situations, where they are induced to make a second growth, and where, in consequence of being planted in too deep and too rich a soil, vegeta- tion is prolonged beyond its natural limits, strong and watery shoots are produced ; and when in this state, the pear-shoots in many parts of Europe are as subject to this disease as they are in America. The varieties of pears which naturally ripen their wood early in the autumn are rarely attacked by this disease, and hardy ones, at least in Britain, are more certain to escape than the finer or more delicate sorts. Insects. — The pear is attacked by most of the insects that infest the apple tree. The Aphis lanigera lUig. EriosornM lanigera of more recent entomologists, however, rarely attacks it. Seve- ral of the insects we have described as destruc- tive to. the apple tree are more or less to be found on the pear tree also. The following may be regarded as the principal enemies almost peculiar to the pear. The red-bud caterpillar, {ToHrix ocelJana, Fenthina ocellana Fr., Pyralis luscana Fabr.,) — the moth of which is given, fig. 196 — is very destructive to the buds of the pear, and is also found on the apple. The Fig. 196. moth is thus described by I KoUar; "A white broad transverse band, stud- ded with grey spots, extends through the middle of the fore- wings from one edge to the other.andocoupies morethan one- third part of their whole surface, thus distinguish- ing this moth from every other. The other parts of the fore wings are grey. This moth is found on fruit trees towards the end of May. Its wings are closed, and lie slanting on its body. It is very timid, and can only be caught in cold rainy weather. Throughout the month of June it lays its eggs singly, sometimes on the fruit-buds, and KED-BUD OATEUPIH.AB. Perfect Insect. sometimes on the leaf buds only, where they remain all winter, and only come to life the fol- lowing spring. As soon as the sap is in mo- tion, and the bud somewhat expanded, thelittle caterpillar creeps out of its hiding-place, and begins to gnaw the bud. A honey-drop is not unfrequently seen on the bud, which, issuing from the wound made by the insect, serves as a sign to assure us that the fate of the bud is de- cided, and that it will never expand farther. The bud is prevented from growing, and from attaining its full size, by the honey-drop, the points of the calyx of the flower thus becoming so closely glued together that their unfolding is necessarily prevented ; and the caterpillar takes advantage of the opportunity to devour one blos- som after another, until it arrives at its full size. Should the caterpillar come out rather later, when the buds are already unfolded, some of the blossoms are spared, and consequently some of the fruit. As soon, however, as the caterpil- lar finds a fruit near it, it immediately takes pos- session, and feeds upon it. It attains its full size in about four or five weeks ; it then spins itself a white cocoon, in which it changes to a light- brown pupa, and makes its appearance again in May as a moth." Dusting the trees, just as the buds are expanding, with finely-powdered hot lime, we have found the most effectual remedy. The operation should be performed two or three times during the period of the buds' expanding, and, if possible, in still weather. The finer particles of the caustic lime, finding their way into the heart of the buds, destroy the insect in its most tender state, and just as it is hatched. The moths are slothful, and seldom quit the tree, so that their capture while on the wing is seldom accomplished. The pear-weevil, GurcuUo {Antlionomus) pyri of Kollar, is as destructive to the pear as the CureuHo pomoruni is to the apple. In their perfect state, both insects are so much alike that they are scarcely distinguishable ; in their larva state, on the contrary, they differ ex- ceedingly both in their form and mode of liv- ing. " While the apple-weevil," Kollar remarks, " contents itself with only single blossoms for the abode of its offspring, the pear-weevil attacks all the blossoms, and even the blossom-buds and leaf-buds together. If a pear tree is examined at the time of blossoming, it will be seen that many buds are brown at the points, as if affected by the hoar-frost. If these buds are examined closely, there will be found a dirty-white rugose maggot, with a dark-brown head, which in time is changed to a small weevil. It is scarcely more than 3 lines long, brown, with a white uneven band, almost in the middle of the ely- tra, and two black shoulder-spots, therefore perfectly like the apple-weevil. This insect probably passes the winter under the bark, or in the earth near the stem. Early in spring, when the pear tree begins to bud forth, the female lays her eggs in the buds, which causes them to become brown by degrees, and to fall off when the insect has attained its perfect state." The principal remedies against this insect are cutting off the buds that assume the brown colour referred to above, and burning them, as THE PEAE. 467 they certainly contain tBe insect; and if not cut off for this purpose, would only serve as a habi- tation, wherein it would become perfect, and so continue the propagation of its species without a chance of fruit being produced. If, as is sus- pected by some, the female shelters herself in the ground and not on the tree, then the appli- cation of a collar, covered with some adhesive matter, as already referred to, would prevent her ascent by the stem of the tree. The red-footed beetle, fig. 197, {Luperus rufi- pes, Fabr.,) a small but destructive beetle, in- fests the foliage of fruit trees very generally. Last year, 1852, it ap- Fig. 197. peared in great num- bers during May on the leaves of pear trees, perforatingthem into innumerable holes, and continu- ing its depredations throughout the greater part of the summer. Its name is derived from the colour of its feet, which are bright- ish red, while the whole body is of a shining black colour. The tips of the anten- nae are also black, the basal part being red- dish. It deposits its eggs in the ground round the base of the tree, and when the beetles are hatched, they ascend the tree by climbing up the stem. Their ascent may be prevented by the means we have already suggested, and the eggs removed or destroyed as also already recom- mended in similar cases. Fig. 198. RED-FOOTED BEETLE. GO.^T niOTH AND CATERPILLAR. - The goat moth, fig. 198, (Bcymhyx liijniperda, Colsus Ugniperda Liunfeus, Fabricius, and others,) is not only one of the largest native species belonging to the Lepidopterous order, but also, one of the most destructive to some of our timber and fruit trees, and is not unfrequently discovered in the interior of old pear-trees, where it excavates for itself a .habitation in the solid timber. It is a nocturnal-flying moth, and from its great size is easily captured in a gauze net. As many as one thousand eggs have been discovered in the body of a single female, which leads to the conclusion that its natural enemies must be both powerful and many; for so destructive an insect, if allowed to mul- tiply unrestrained, would soon spread desolation in our fruit gardens and forests. The perfect insect measures from 2| to nearly 3 inches from point to point of its fore wings, which are of an ashy-brown colour, shaded with dark brown, especially across the middle, marked with many irregular transverse streaks in the form of irregular network. The hind wings are brown, the reticulations being marked with somewhat obscure lines. The thorax is ochre- coloured in front, palish in the middle, with a black bar behind. The female is larger than the male. It sits quietly during the day, and is with diifioulty discovered on account of its gene- ral colour resembling the bark of the tree. The aiitenuEe have a light-grey shaft and black rays, and are more strongly feathered in the male than in the female. The caterpillar, when fully grown, is nearly 4 inches long, and as thick as a man's finger, of a dull yellowish hue, with dark chest- nut-coloured scales on the back of each ring of the body. The body is smooth and shining, having only a few short scattered hairs upon it.- It is dark red on the back, and the spiracles at the sides are of the same colour. The head is black. The caterpillar emits a strong goat-like smell, from which its English name is derived. Its organs of manducation are so powerful as to enable it to masticate the hardest wood,- and to bore deeply into the timber, in which it forms a, burrow for shelter and the propagation of its species. When they attack young trees, they so completely excavate the interior as to cause them to be broken over by even very slight winds. They live entirely on the wood, and, unlike most other moths, do not attack the foliage. They live chiefly in the same tree they have chosen for their abode ; and their presence in it is only discovered by the decaying appearance in the tree itself, or by their excre- ment being observed on the trunk, and known by the name of worm meal — the digested portion of the wood they have 468 HAEDY. FRUIT GARDEN. subsisted upon. They remain two years and up- wards in their larva state, and during that period cast their skin eight times. Pupation usually takes place in spring, and shortly before that the caterpillar becomes of a light ochre-yellow colour. The abdomen of the pupa is yellow. The back is furnished with strong spines, sometimes black, and at other times of a reddish-brown colour. The cocoon is constructed of chips of wood, gnawed off and cemented together with a glu- tinous secretion, and lined with silk. It is placed immediately within the opening of the tree, which enables the pupa to press itself partially out of the hole when it arrives at that state of matuiity at which the shell bursts, and when the moth is in a state to emerge into the air, which is usually in June and July. The female is furnished with a strong ovipositor, by means of which she introduces her eggs into the bark of the tree, the caterpillars, while young, living between the outer and inner bark, and as they get older and stronger they penetrate into the solid wood. The means most likely to keep this formidable insect in check are to endeavour to capture the moth during night, either by catch- ing it while on the wing in a gauze net, or by decoying it to its destruction by placing burning lights near to where it abounds ; fumigating it while in the caterpillar state within the tree, by blowing fumes of sulphur or tobacco into the holes ; or mechanically, by thrusting iron wires into the holes, or immuring them within their wooden prison by stopping up the holes in such a way as to prevent their escaping, or the en- trance of the limited amount of air necessary for their existence. The pear saw-fly, Tenthredo Timnwrrhoidalis of Fabricius, attacks the fruit of the pear, within which she deposits her eggs. The fly appears towards the latter end of May and beginning of June. The female chooses the under side of the leaves of the pear tree, where she lays her eggs to the number of from forty to sixty. The eggs are merely attached to the leaf, and are arranged with extraordinary precision, one row being quite regular, and the next so placed that the eggs in it cover the spaces between those in the row immediately in front of it. In form they are longish, in colour yel- lowish, and hare the appearance as if besmeared with mucous matter. In a few days the young caterpillars are hatched, and are at first of a whitish yellow, changing gradually to a darker colour. KoUar describes the caterpillar as be- ing hatched within a few days after the eggs are laid, and "as soon as it is exposed to the light, it spins a web over itself, the threads of which proceed from its mouth. The caterpillar never appears out of this web, and when it has partly eaten a leaf, it spins itself a web on another, and always in company with other caterpillars. It has a black head, and immediately under the throat two black dots. The other parts of the body are ochre-coloured and transparent, with- out hairs. It measures from 9 to 10 lines long. Tlie two fore feet, and the two upon the last segment, are finely tapered, so that they rather resemble claws than feet, because they do not use them for crawling, but to draw themselves out of and into their webs. These caterpillars' attain their full size in five weeks ; they then leave the trees, and bury themselves deep in the ground." Here again we have a remedy pre- sented to us, by destroying the caterpillar in the soil, as has already been suggested. But man has here also excellent assistants in keeping iu check this destructive insect. The caterpillar or larva of Ophion mercator, an ichneumon fly, lays its eggs in the body of the pear saw-fly, just as the. latter has attained its full size, and just before it drops from the tree to the ground, living upon its vitals, and making use of its empty skin for a winter shelter. The pear chermes, (Chermes pyrl Schmidber- ger, Psylla pyri Stephens.) The chermes is al- lied to the aphis, and, like them, extremely destructive to such fruit trees as each species prefers. The chermes of the pear infests the young shoots mainly, and by insinuating its long and delicately-formed tongue into the ten- der bark, it not only sucks up the juices, but defiles the leaves and shoots with its disagree- able and abundant excrement. When full- grown, this insect is somewhat larger than a large aphis, having a broad head, terminating in front in two cone-like protuberances. ■ The mouth, instead of being situated in the head, is placed in the middle of the breast, behind the hind and fore feet. The male is somewhat of a crimson colour, shaded with dark brown or black. The female is without shading, and is entirely crimson. The wings in both sexes are pure white. They make their appearance in spring in their winged state, and immediately pair, after which the female lays her eggs in great numbers on the young leaves and blos- soms, as well as on the young shoots and embryo fruit. Hatching is completed in a few days, the young chermes resembling plant-lice, but' being of a dark yellow colour, and furnished with six feet. Kollar remarks, " They are called nymphs or larvae in this state, according to the extent of their development. After a few days they change their skins, and become darker, and somewhat reddish on the breast. After changing their skins, they quit the leaves, blossoms, and fruit, and proceed more downwards to the hear- ing wood and the shoots of last year, on which they fix themselves securely one after the other in rows, and remain there till their last trans- formation. When the nymphs have moulted for the last time, and have attained their full size, the body swells out by degrees, and be- comes cylindrical. They then leave their as- sociates; and before they lay aside their nymph- like covering, they search out a leaf, to which they fasten themselves firmly, and appear as if they were lifeless. After a few minutes, the skin splits on the upper part of the covering, and the winged insect proceeds from it." Dur- ing summer it flies about, and towards autumn selects a place of shelter, and remains there till early in spring, when it again begins its work of regeneration. The natural enemy to this chermes is the ant, which is attracted to the twigs infested by the copious fluid-like excrement emitted by the chermes, which they devour as well as many of the insects that produce it. Tha THE PEAR. 469 young chermes may be easily brushed off the leaves by means of a painter's brush, and, as they fall to the gi-ound, destroyed by treading upon them. The winged insect may be cap- tured during May, their red colour rendering them distinguishable to the eye. Aphis pyri-mali, the pear-and-apple aphis. That the pear and the apple have each a, dis- tinct species of aphis peculiar to themselves ia believed by some ; a large majority, however, of entomologists consider the aphis found on both these trees to be identical, and hence the name Aphis pyri-mali. However this may be settled by men of science, it is quite enough for all practical purposes to consider them the same. Those species of the genus Aphis, plant-louse, green-fly, black-fly, &c., which are destructive to fruit trees, are too well known to require' a lengthened description of their forms and trans- formations. It may be sufficient for our pur- pose to glance at their mode of attack, and offer the best methods for their suppression or de- struction. They do not eat up the leaves of trees and plants like many caterpillars, but they insert their rostrums into the leaves, and suck up the sap, causing the leaves to wither and fall off, and, consequently, greatly enfeebling the tree, if they do not kill it altogether. They appear as early in spring as the first develop- ment of the tender leaves, being produced from eggs laid on the branches the previous autumn, and consist entirely of females, destitute of wings ; and these are no sooner brought into existence than they begin their work of de- struction. In about ten or twelve days this earliest brood begins to produce young, which appear to be females also, and, like the former, destitute of wings. In about ten days after- wards, this second brood produces a third brood; but, unlike the former, this latter has in it both winged and wingless females, and the same production of both winged and wingless insects takes place in several succeeding genera- tions to the extent of about sixteen, some say twenty, generations annually. The insects of the third generation that have wings quit the tree on which they were hatched when of mature size, and seek out for themselves other trees on which to feed and propagate their species, the wingless ones remaining on the tree on which they were bred. Towards the middle of September, males and females are produced, at which time the last generation for the season is produced. The apple-and- pear aphis, Kollar remarks, produces the males without wings, while the peach aphis. Aphis persicce, produces them with wings: he also observes, " When these newly-born males and females have attained their full size, pairing takes place. The females then no longer pro- duce living young ones, but lay eggs, from which the mothers of the forthcoming generations proceed. They do not, however, lay their eggs on the leaves, because these would fall off, and the eggs lying on the ground till spring would be destroyed ; but they lay them on the twig or shoot itself, and either all around it, like the apple aphis, or on the buds, or near them, like the plum-and-peach aphides, the latter some- VOL. II. times laying their eggs on the matting with which the twigs are fastened to an espalier in summer. The females, having thus provided for their future spring progeny, die off by de- grees in the autumn. The eggs have now only the winter to endure, which never kills them, however severe and changeable it may be." The natural enemies of the aphis are the larvas of syrphideous flies, or those of the ladybird beetles, figs. 14 and 15, which are nourished chiefly on the aphides. The ant is said by some to be attracted to the locality of the aphis by the sweet fluid ejected by the latter, and that they feed only on it ; our own observation is, that they not only feed on this ejected excrementitious matter, but that they devour the aphides themselves in inconceivable numbers. ■ Birds also aid in devouring them. The eggs of the apple-and-pear aphis may readily be rubbed off the shoots on which they are laid during autumn and winter; they are easily seen lying close together like grains of gunpowder. Washing or syringing the infested shoots with a strong decoction of tobacco, tobacco liquor, wetting and dusting with Scotch snuff, are amongst the prevailing remedies. Fumigating with tobacco, where the trees can be covered so as to retain the smoke, is also destructive to the aphis' in every state but in that of the egg, and dusting the trees with finely-pulverised caustic lime is also effi- cacious. Trees that have been painted over during winter with spirits of tar, have been found exempt from the attacks of aphides for several years after. The following mixture, ap- plied every year, or every other year, has been found efficacious in the case of fruit trees gene- rally, — viz. 1 lb. quicklime, 1 lb. Scotch snuff, 1 lb. sulphur vivum, 4 lb. lamp-black, 1 lb. soft soap, mixed together in water until the whole form into the consistency of thick paint, applied by a painter's brush to the branches in February, taking care that every part of the tree is covered with the mixture. In preparing tobacco-water for this and similar purposes, J lb. of strong tobacco, steeped in 1 gallon of soft water for six or eight days, occasionally stirring it, and squeez- ing the tobacco to disengage the juice, will make a liquid sufficiently strong for the purpose of washing the shoots ; and if reduced by adding another gallon of water, will be in a fit state for syringing over the trees. The wood leopard-moth (Zeuzera asculi), fig. 199, is in its habits similar to the goat-moth, fig. 198, living in the trunks of various trees, the apple and pear amongst others. The cater- pillar of this moth is 1 4 inches long, of a yel- lowish colour, with four black spots on each side of the segments, with the exception of the thoracic and apical ones. The head is marked with two black spots, and its feet consist of two anal, six pectoral, and eight abdominal ones. The males are hatched about the end of June, and are much smaller than the female, which measures about 2| inches when the wings are expanded. The male is white, with semi-trans- parent wings. The nervures are ochreous, with many large black spots, having a green tint on the superior, much smaller and paler in the 3o 470 FRUIT GARDEN. interior. The antennae are black, shorter than the thorax, setaceous. The head and thorax are Fig. 199. mode would be to paint them with vegetable spirits of tar. The caterpillar of the pear-moth — Tortrix (Pcedisca) angustiorana Ha- worth— fig. 200, although most in- jurious to the fruit of the pear, Fig. 200. WOOD LEOPARD-MOTH AND CATERPILLAR.' densely clothed with fine wool. The thorax is long and oval, with six black spots in two lines down the back. The legs and eyes are also black, the abdomen branded with grey and black. The antennae in the female are simply setaceous, the basal joints woolly. The abdomen is larger and blacker than in the male. The females make their appearance later than the males, and are found till about the end of Au- gust. The eggs are laid in July, and the larva; issue from them in September, but do not arrive at maturity till the following June. The moths are nocturnal flyers, the females far more abun- dant than the males. The former deposits her eggs in holes made in the bark by means of her strong horny ovipositor, to the number some- times of three hundred or more. The larva feeds at first on the bark of the tree, but soon afterwards gaining strength, proceeds to form for itself a tunnel, in which it resides, in the wood of the tree. Like that of other tree-borers, its presence in a tree may be detected by the ex- crementitious matter, like sawdust, protruding from the surface of the bark ; and when such is perceived, tobacco or sulphureous smoke should be injected, or the larva crushed by the intro- duction of a piece of wire. It has been recom- mended as a preservative to fruit trees to paint tlieir bark over with oil. A far more effectual PEAR-MOTH, GRUB, AND CHRYSALIS. appears to have long escaped the obser- vation of entomologists. An excellent description, with figures, is given of it in " The Gardeners' Chronicle," 1850, p. 20, from which we learn that the caterpillar is bred in the blossom, and commences its attack on the fruit im- mediately under the crown or eye. It is thus described : " It was a quarter of an inch long, of a dirty greenish ochreous colour, and reddish brown down the back. The head was ochre- ous, with a square labrum and two minute antennae, having two brightish brown pointed spots at the base, and a line of the same colour on each side, with minute black eyes. The thor- acic segment is ample, horny, shining, and ochreous, variegated with brown. There are eight or ten minute tubercles on each segment, from which arise long- ish hairs : the six pectoral legs are spotted with black, and it has eight abdominal and two anal feet." As means for destroying this insect, it has been suggested to search for the maggots in the eyes of the fruit, where any of the web by which it covers itself is observed ; but in extracting them it is probable that injury would be done to the fruit itself. The more rational way is to collect the leaves in autumn, and to burn them, as it is conjectured that the eggs are laid upon them, or that the caterpillars spin webs amongst the withered leaves, or in chinks in the bark, to undergo their transformations. If they hyber- nate in the latter, nothing can be better than painting the trees with spirits of tar. • The small pear-midge {Sciara pyri Schmid- berger) is injurious to the pear by laying its eggs in the blossom, and after attaining its larva state it feeds on the fruit, which, according to KoUar, drops off in great numbers. The perfect insect is described by him as having " club- shaped halteres, the club dark brown and the stem whitish. When alive, the abdomen is of a lead colour, with black wings. The head and tho- rax are black, as are also the antennae ; the palpi are of a pale yellow, the feet whitish, and the tarsi black. The veining of the wings is the same as in the other species of Molobrus " or Sciara. The large pear-midgo {Sciara pyri major THE PEAR. 471 Schmidberger, Sdara Schmidbergeri Kollar) is similar in its effects to the last, differing little from it except in size. We are not aware of any means being taken for the suppression of either. The slug-worm, or slimy caterpUlar {Selandria atra Stephens, not Tenthredo ceran of Linn., nor T. oethiops of Fab.), fig. 201, is a well-known 1ms. 'ifl. ated, with a view to make it more adhesive ; and tobacco-water has also been employed, ap- plying it both early in the morning andlate in the afternoon. We think, however, the application would be more effective if used during the night, at which time the insect is traversing the foliage, and unprotected by it. Dusting the trees late in the evening with caustic lime is a much more effectual remedy, and of more easy application. The large p6ar astyages — Astyages (Ooleo- pjiora) hemerobiella—&g. 202, although very Fig. 202. SLUG-WOKM AND PERFECT INSECT. insect, so far as its effects are concerned, to those who cultivate the pear and the cherry, for it is equally injurious to both, often stripping the trees of their foliage. In their caterpillar state they are both singular and inactive, repos- ing upon the foliage more like black slugs or young tadpoles than the larvae of a sawfly. Their being also covered with a moist slimy mat- ter gives them the appearance of the excrements of birds. The caterpillar has six pectoral, and fourteen abdominal, but no anal feet; the whole body is of a deep bottle-green colour, thorax very much dilated, nearly concealing the whole head. They feed entirely on the upper sides of the foliage, retreating beneath the leaves during the day, and wandering about during the night in search of fresh food. They cast off their bottle-green skins when about a month old, and afterwards appear in a ooat of a buff colour, which has led to their being considered, in this state, as a distinct insect. Shortly after this change they quit the trees, and retreat under the earth, where they repose till about the end of July the following year, when they emerge in their fly state, and commence the process of re- production. Ruricola, in " The Gardeners' Chro- nicle," observes, in describing this insect, that he is inclined to believe that there may be two sorts of this genus which feed upon pear-leaves; for towards the end of July he had some dull ochreous larvae sent to him, eating the leaves in the usual way, with black heads only ; and when they changed their skins, they became en- tirely of a deep ochreous colour. The natural enemy to the slug-worm appears to be a minute very hairy species of Acarus, or spider. The artificial means for their suppression is syringing with lime-water in which soft soap is incorpor- LARQE PEAR ASTVAGES AND GRUB. destructive to the foliage of the pear in some seasons, seems to be of periodical develop- ment, appearing in vast numbers in one season, and scarcely to be found in others. The cater- pillars are enclosed in a dark- coloured, nearly cylindrical case, about half an inch in length, having both ends open; out of the lowermost end the head of the caterpillar is from time to time protruded ; while from the upper end, which is somewhat elastic, the insect discharges its excrement. The caterpillar is of a pale- brown colour ; the head small, and deep black ; the sides are flesh-coloured, with small dark spots ; the segment immediately behind the head is black, hard, and glossy, with a palish line down the middle ; the two next segments have a small black triangular spot near • the margin, and a smaller dark dot on each side, above the legs. The remaining segments, with the exception of the last, are destitute of reflexed hooks ; while the last has a pair of prolegs on the under side, the whole of this segment being covered with a black scaly patch. This cater- pillar's mode of feeding is different from that of mpst others, its mouth being brought into close contact with the under surface of the leaf: the insect, ensconced in its cylindrical covering, seems to stand erect, or at right angles with 472 FRUIT GARDEN. the plane of the leaf. It forma a slight open- ing in the cuticle of the leaf, merely cutting through the surface, but not piercing through the whole leaf, applying its mouth to the edges of the opening thus made, and feeding upon the parenchyma alone. It then by degrees in- troduces the fore-part of its body between the two surfaces of the leaf, and mines the leaf round the spot where it made its first perforation, to the extent of half an inch or more in diameter, leaving the surface of the leaf marked with a broadish blotch. It moves from leaf to leaf, and proceeds in each case exactly as above. When it has attained ite full size it ceases feed- ing, and begins to attach itself to the branches or trunk of the tree, and there undergoes its transformations, appearing again in its moth state in the July following. The body and fore wings of the perfect moth are of a dirty white colour, speckled over with very minute dark- coloured dots. The hind wings are of a brownish colour, the legs being hairy. In size it is some- what more than half an inch from tip to tip of the wings. The best way of ridding the trees of this pest, is by watching for the insect when it first commences its attack on the foliage ; it can then readily be seen standing on end, as it were, on the under surface, and from its position and size can be easily picked off. , The pear-tree oyster-scale {Aspidiotis ostrece- formis), fig. 203, is much less frequently met with Fig. 203. I'EAR-TREE OYSTfill-SCALB AND PERFECT INSECT. than the apple mussel-scale, fig. 191; or, from its external appearance being so similar to the colour of the bark of the pear tree, may be either overlooked by cultivators, or mistaken for the bark. Its effects are similar to those of the apple mussel-scale, and the means of de- struction are no doubt the same. The reader is referred to our notice of that insect. The Paradoxical pear platygaster {Psilus Boscii Turine, Platygaster Boscii Latreille, and Inostemma Boscii of Haliday), is a very minute hymenopterous insect, scarcely a line long, yet very destructive to the fruit of the pear. Like the large and small pear-midges, the black- gall midges, &c., they lay their eggs in the blos- som, and the larvse exist within the fruit. Such pears as are attacked are, according to KoUar, easily known, " because their growth far exceeds that of the other pears, and they (the insects) have attained a considerable size when the petals have scarcely fallen off. When this is seen, it is certain that one sort of larva or other is to be found in the core. When a pear thus infected is permitted to grow, it increases in size for some time, loses its roundness and bright green colour, and becomes longer, as if pressed inwards all round the middle part. This is the period when the larva begins to attain its full size, and there- fore the best time for taking them from the tree ; for if rainy weather ensue, cracks are found in the pears, by which the larvse find a con- venient outlet to precipitate themselves to the ground. It is seldom that the larva; are found in the core of those pears lying on the ground, if the rainy weather is of long continuance ; and when this is the case, most of the pears remain on the tree till they are almost completely rotten. If the weather be dry, they usually fall off sooner; and in that case those pears that are lying on the ground should be picked up and destroyed, because; when in that state, the larvae often remain long in them." This is no doubt the most judicious way of thinning these destructive creatures, and those allied to them. They have, besides, their natural enemies, which feed upon and destroy them, particularly a gold-shining hymenopterous insect which makes its appear- ance exactly at the same period as the platy- gaster and pear midges. The Black-gall midge (Cecidomyia nigra, Meigen) is very destructive to the blossom of the pear, and to a great extent produces those failures in the crop which are usually set down as caused by easterly winds, late frosts, &c. They lay their eggs in the blossom as soon as the petals begin to show themselves out of the calyx, by piercing through the petals with their long ovipositor, and depositing their eggs on the anthers, to the number generally of ten or twelve, often more, for as many as twenty larvfe have been found in one pear. The eggs, if the weather is warm, will be hatched in four or five days ; and before the blossom has fully expanded, they descend to the core of the fniit, where they separate, and begin to devour the fruit in all directions. By the time they have eaten up all the pulp they have attained their full size, and only wait an opportunity of escaping from their feeding-place and find their way to the ground, which they do by availing themselves of cracks in the fruit, or when it becomes partly decayed, so that they can reach the surface, from whence they spring to the ground and bury themselves. Sometimes they eat their way out of the fruit to effect their escape, and at other times remain for a considerable time within the pear, even when it has fallen from the tree. The larvae of so many insects are found within the prematurely fallen apples and pears, that it is well to gather all such up, and THE PEAR. 473 thoroughly destroy them. The gall and pear midges usually attain their full size during the second and third week in May, much depend- ing on the weather whether it be cold or hot. The common elm-destroying soolytus {Saoly- tus destructor Oliv., Hylednus scolytus Fabr.), fig. 204, although called elm scolytus from its attacks on that Fig. 204. tree, is never- theless as inju- rious to other trees also — the pear and apple in a particular degree ; and al- though nearly related to the Scolytus hcem- orrhousotMey, fig.l78,itisevi- dentlydistinct. Dr Hammer- schmidt has, however, en- deavoured to establish an- other species, viz. Scolytus pruni, or plum scolytus ; this other entomo- logists regard as identical with S. destruc- tor, found also on the plum as well as on the apple and pear. The perfect insect, or beetle, has the head and thorax black and glossy, very thickly dotted with very minute dots. The antennas are of a light blackish brown, terminating in a sort of knob. In size the beetle varies from two lines in length, and half a line in breadth, to nearly a third less. In form it is nearly cylindrical. The wing-cases are cut off somewhat obliquely behind, and are somewhat hollowed near their base, are of a brownish-black colour, marked with dots in very fine lines. The legs are of a reddish brown, the second joint being pretty broad. The larva is yellowish white, with a yellowish shining head and brown mouth, from one to two lines in length. They confine their operations entirely to the inner bark of the tree, which they often so completely destroy as to cause the death of the whole branch, and often of the tree itself, when they attack the main trunk. Their de- struction is difficult, for their presence is seldom discovered until their effects give unmistakable evidence of it, when the branch had better be removed entirely, or that portion of the bark removed under which they burrow, and the inner bark with the insect scraped off and de- stroyed. Painting the external bark over where they reside with spirits of tar will probably be found the most effectual remedy with the least injury to the tree. The pale brindled beauty-moth — Phigalia (Geometra amphidasis) pilosaria Autor — fig. 206, appears about the middle of March. • Fore wings Fig. 205. ELM-DBSTROVINO SCOLYTUS, AND SECTION OF WOOD SHOWING ITS KAVAGES. PALE BKINDI.ED pSAUTY-.'VIOTH. Male and Female, of the male are brownish grey, thickly covered with dots of the same colour, with a few white ones interspersed, and traversed by greyish cross stripes. Hind wings whitish, with a brown- ish undulating stripe running through their middle. The margin of the wings are fringed, having behind the fringe a dark grey line. The female is without wings, much smaller than the male, brownish, with many angular tufts of very soft hair. The body of the male is greyish green, with many long soft hairs. The sexes pair in March, and immediately after the female begins to lay her eggs, which she disposes in rows upon the small twigs of the pear tree, to the number of upwards of one hundred and fifty, which occupies her several days. The caterpillars are of a green colour, and appear just as their food, the young leaves, begin to expand. Their natural enemies are the ants, and to escape from them the female deposits her eggs generally on lofty pear-trees. The eggs being deposited on young small twigs only, and covered with a web of long grey hairs, may be readily detected, and should be gathered and destroyed. The pear-leaf miner — Argyromyges Scitella (Mentz in Isis), Argyromyges Clerkella Ste- phens, Curtis, Knight, &c., but not of Linnaeus, (perhaps not pear-tree blister-moth. Tinea Clerh- ella often confounded with this insect, but twice as large)— " measures about J of an inch in the expansion of the fore wings, which are of a glossy silvery-white colour, the terminal por- tion being orange with white fringe, but varied on the fore margin near the tip with two white triangular spots edged with black lines, and with a trident-like black mark at the tip, and with the margin terminated by a black spot glossed with purple. The perfect insect generally ap- pears at the end of May, when the female deposits her eggs on the under surface of the leaves, the young larva; penetrating the under cuticle, and feeding on the parenchyma, leaving the two surfaces of the leaf untouched, and 474 FRUIT GARDEN. thus forming lai'ge oval or roundish patches, several of -frhich often unite together, and thus 206. PEAR-LEAF AIINER AND GRUB. the greater part of the leaf assumes a blistered appearance. It is in the beginning of autumn that the leaves appear to be most affected by the ravages of these larvse, which are fleshy, yellowish white, hairy, with six pectoral, eight abdominal, and two anal feet depressed. When full grown, the larva pierces the upper cuticle of the leaf, and comes into the open air ; it then spins some longitudinal threads close to- gether on the upper surface of the leaf, and be- neath these forms its cocoon, which Mr Curtis describes as boat-shaped, with the keel upwards, of a very close texture, and with a slit at each end, the cast-off larva skin being thrust through one of these slits, and the moth escaping by the other. Sometimes these insects abound to such an extent as seriously to affect the growth of the trees, and the size and flavour of the fruit." We have more than once remarked that the most radical mode of subduing such insects as deposit their eggs on the leaves, or in the ground under the trees, is iu the first case to collect all the leaves when they fall in autumn, and con- sign them to the flames ; and in the second to gather up the soil at the bottom of the walls for a foot in breadth, and the whole surface as far as the branches of standard trees extend, and carry it to the charing-pile, or wheel it away to those spaces in the garden that are not planted with fruit trees. This is a wholesale disposal of the inpects while in their chrysalis state ; and one hour thus employed will be equal to days in picking them off the leaves, and pounds of to- bacco and other remedies thrown on the trees, which might nearly be as usefully thrown into the sea. § 2. — PRUNING AND TRAlNlNa THE AFPLK AND PEAR. The apple and pear are grown as orchard or full-sized standard trees, as dwarf-standards in various forms, as espaliers, and, in the case of the more choice kinds, trained against walls, particularly in cold situations, and in various other ways, as noticed below. Trees intended to be grown as full-sized or orchard trees should have a stem not less than 6 feet in height, and that stem encouraged to attain the greatest pos- sible strength. Such trees are often rendered use- less for this purpose by mismanagement in the nursery before they are planted out for good, by the absurd practice of training up the stems as if they were intended for whip handles, by which they become attenuated and slender, and long after require the support of stakes to keep them in a perpendicular position, and even to carry the weight of their own heads. The fol- lowing hints may be the means of remedying this defect. In purchasing the trees, choose those that have their suramer-shoots upon their stems ; but to secure this, the selection must be made before the nurseryman has trimmed his trees in the usual manner. Allow these to remain till the time of planting, and then shorten them to the length of about 3 inches, leaving them in form of spurs to produce shoots. and leaves in the ensuing summer. Shorten the leading shoot to three buds above the in- tended height of the future trunk or stem. About the beginning of August (sooner in the south) these stem-shoots should have the tips of their points pinched off ; but the shoots above the contemplated height of the stem, and which are to form the branches of the future tree, should be left entire. In autumn, as soon as the young wood is ripe, cut close off to the stem the lower half of the stem-shoots, and top the upper half of them to about the length of 3 inches as before, that they may, during the fol- lowing summer, draw strength to the stem. This practice is, we are aware, by no means generally followed, as most people cut off every vestige of shoot from the stem, considering them not only unnecessary, but actually injurious to the tree. They serve, however, an important purpose, as they elaboi-ate sap which is depo- sited in the stem in the formation of layers of wood, strengthening the stem by increasing its size, and acting with the shoots now forming the head in the production of roots. In autumn, or early in winter, the shoots above the stem, which are now to be considered the foundation of the structure of the future tree, should be cut back to about 9 inches in length, and two shoots from each of these should be encouraged during summer. If any of them, however, show a much greater robustness of character than the others, they should have their tops pinched off to- wards the end of July, so that all may be said to have a fair start the ensuing spring. The direction of the shoots forming the head of the new tree should now be attended to, and made to diverge in the directions most proper for forming a uniform and equally-balanced top. From want of attention to this, many trees THE PEAR. 475 become misshapen at the outset, which all pruning afterwards will not be able to correct. The side shoots on the stem should be shortened in July as in the previous year, but in autumn they are to be cleared off entirely, having per- formed their allotted office ; and in cutting them oif, do so close into the stem, that the wounds may heal over, and the stem ultimately be as clear of blotches as if such shoots had been removed in the nursery, or as if they had never existed. Should the stem, however, be still apparently too weak to sustain the head without support, a few of those side branches immediately under the top may be left for an- other season, when they may be finally removed. The head may now be allowed to take much of its natural growth, for trees differ from each other in the habits they assume ; the only care taken being to cut out any shoots that cross each other, to pinch back during summer those likely to overgrow the rest, and at next winter- pruningto 8horten,where necessary, for the pro- duction of branches where they may be required for the perfect formation of the tree. Established orchard trees should not be left, as is too often done, to run wild. The principles of pruning them are simple. Thin out the branches, that every part may alike enjoy the influence oif light and air ; remove all dead, diseased, or mis- placed branches, as well as the young spray which IS apt to arise towards the hearts of the trees, particularly after severe pruning has taken place. The most superficial observer must have re- marked how superior the fruit of the apple and pear is, both in size, flavour, and colour, when produced on the outside of the tree, or towards the extremities of the branches. This is en- tirely owing to the greater portion of light, sun, and air it has compared with that growing to- wards the centre of the tree, almost deprived of these elements. This of itself should be suf- ficient reasonforthinningall standard fruit-trees. Thinning out old and exhausted branches, and encouraging those that are younger, has also its advantages, because the sap becomes more elaborated and concentrated in wood of three or four years' growth than in such as is older ; and the older the tree grows, the more sluggish is the circulation of the sap in it, that recipro- city which should exist between the roots and the branches goes on declining, and hence the tree begins to die by piecemeal, and the fruit becomes inferior, and at last worthless. From this it becomes quite apparent, that, as the tree, from age or bad soil and climate, begins to show such evident signs of decay, amputation of even large limbs should take place, and that young wood should be encouraged. This prin- ciple is carried to its fullest extent in the opera- tion of heading down the tree entirely, and al- lowing it to renew itself by the formation of a complete set of new branches. After this, the knife will be brought into requisition until the tree again assumes a size to require the use of the saw in the removal of its branches. Pruning the apple and pear as a half standard is conducted exactly as above, so far as the modification of the head is concerned. The branches, however, never attain so large a size. and are, therefore, constantly under the control of the knife. The stem, in this case, averages about 3 feet in height. Pruning the apple a^d pear as an open dwarf (en gobelet, or en tonnoir, Fr.) — This mode is well adapted to small gardens ; and as the trees are not intended to be of a large size, they are wrought on the doucin or paradise stock ; and the sorts best adapted are those of slender growth, making short wood, and requiring little pruning to keep them within the prescribed bounds. Trees for this purpose should be planted as maiden plants, but should not be cut down when planted, but allowed to stand a year to become established, and then be headed down to 4 or 6 inches, according to their strength : from three to four shoots will be pro- duced from each of the cut-down branches, and these will be sufficient to form the future head. " At the end of the second year," Mr George Lindley directs, (in " Guide to the Orchard," p. 11 9,) " two or three of the best placed from each branch should be selected, and shortened back to 9, 1 2, or 15 inches each, according to their strength, taking care to keep the head perfectly balanced, so that one side shall not be higher nor more numerous in its branches than the other, and all must be kept as near as may be at an equal distance from each other. If this regularity in forming the head be attended to and effected at first, there will be no diffi- culty in keeping it so afterwards, by observing either to prune to that bud immediately on the inside next to the centre of the tree, or that immediately on the outside. By this means, viewing it from the centre, the branches will be produced in a perpendicular line from the eye ; whereas, if pruned to a bud on the right or left side of the' branch, the young shoot will be pro- duced in the same direction, so that if the branches formed round a circle be not thus pruned to the eyes on the right successively, or on the left successively, a very material differ- ence will be found, and the regularity of the tree will be destroyed in one single year's prun- ing, which may be readily illustrated thus : — Fix four branches, either in a direct line or to a circular hoop, at the distance of 8 inches from each other; let the first branch on the left be called a, the second b, the third c, the fourth d; head down a to the left-hand bud, b to the right, c to the left, and d to the right. When these have grown a year, those between J and c will be only 6 inches apart, while those between a and b, and between c and d, will be 10 inches; thus the distances now are not as 8 to 8, but as 6 to 10, which would require two years' prun- ing in a contrary direction to restore the head to its former regularity; and it must not be for- gotten that this system of pruning will hold good in every other case. What has just been said has reference only to the leading shoots, which are always produced from the terminal buds when pruned, and which alone form the figure and beauty of the tree. The interme- diate space must, of course, be provided for at the same time, having a regard to the number of branches thus employed, that they do not crowd each other. On the contrary, they must 476 FRUIT GARDEN. be kept thin and perfectly open, so as to admit plenty of sun and air, without which the fruit produced will be small, and good for little : the middle of the tree, ind^d, must be kept quite open from the first to the last, taking care that all the surrounding branches lead out- wards, and preserve a regular distance from each other. In pruning the supernumerary shoots, they should be cut down to within an inch of the bottom, which will generally cause the sur- rounding eyes to form natural blossom spurs ; but where the tree is in a vigorous state of growth, branches will probably be produced in- stead of spurs; if so, they must all be cut out close except one, which must be shortened as before. In all the winter prunings care must be taken to keep the spurs short and close, none of which should at any time exceed 3 inches — cutting out clean all blank spurs, which have produced fruit the previous summer, to the next perfect bud below." In pruning the apple and pear, every means should be taken to encourage the formation of natural spurs in preference to artificial ones; and it may be here remarked that some kinds are naturally disposed to produce the former at an earlier age and in greater abundance than others, and these should have a preference in the formation of a selection, particularly in small gardens. The Keswick codlin may be given as an example of the one, and the Clare- mont or Easter pippin of the other. The former of these produces natural spurs profusely at an early age, while the latter rarely produces them until the tree has attained a considerable size and age, and even then but sparingly. This mode of training occupies more surface space, certainly, than that of espaliers, about to be noticed ; but, on the other hand, it gives a much greater surface of exposure to the sun and light to the leaves and fmit. We rarely encourage artificial spurs, but cut out all lateral shoots close in to the wood from whence they arise ; and it is curious to see that young natu- ral spurs will protrude from the smooth clean bark on the wood of one, two, or more years' growth, and especially so from the little callosity formed at the places from which the laterals were cut. The varieties which do not send out a sufficient number of natural spurs from the surface of the main shoots rendered bare by this system of pi-uning, are easily made to be clothed with fruit-bearing spurs by selecting young wood well placed, and laying it in upon the naked branches referred to. And again, by following out Mr Fleming of Trentham's prac- tice, Ave side-graft shoots near the base of those naturally devoid of fruit-buds, and by either of these simple plans have fruit (the attacks of in- sects in the blossoms excepted) from near the surface of the ground to near the top of the trees. By this mode of pruning the fruit is much less liable to be blown from the trees by winds than if they were produced from buds formed on spurs often a foot or more in length. Pruning the apple and pear in the conical or pyramidal form. — When the trees are so pruned, and the horizontal branches form stages above one another, they arc termed en girandole, or chandelier-like, a form in much repute on the Continent. These are, in general, produced by cutting in the side branches, as shown at fig. 207, which shows the tree in three successive Fig. 208 shows such a tree when mo- Fig. 207. GIRANDOLE TRAINING. First stages, delled to the desired shape, and fig. 209 the same tree with the branches of the current year's growth tied down in the quenouUle man- Fig. 208. Fig. 209. GIRANDOLE TRAINING (JUENOUILLE TRAINING. Complete. ner. Trees may be trained in this manner to the height of 12 or 15 feet, but for small gai-- deus from 6 to 10 feet will be found a preferable size. The effect of bending down the branches THE PEAR. 477 in this manner is to cover the shoots with blos- som-buds, and to produce most excellent crops. Although this tying- down mode of training is productive of large crops of fruit, still the re- straint imposed upon the energies of the {rees has the effect of rendering them comparatively shortlived. The French gardeners themselves admit that trees trained in the en quencmiUe manner do not last longer than ten or twelve years, and many of them are giving up the prac- tice. This, however, may be in a great degree attributed to overcropping and too severe root- pruning; for a French or Belgian gardener is everlastingly operating on either the roots or branches of his trees. Trees managed in this manner in Britain are not found to be so short- lived. The process of pruning may be thus described : Shorten the upright or leading shoot to a foot above the ground. Let the shoot from the uppermost bud be trained upright in summer, and those below outwards. It must be understood that we are speaking of a young tree commencing to be so trained, allowing all to grow without stopping. At autumn or win- ter pruning, cut back the upright leading shoot to 15 inches above where it was previously cut. The buds, of which several will be found situ- ated immediately below where a vigorous shoot has been shortened at the winter-pruning, are cer- tain to break into shoots in spring ; continue to train the uppermost or leading shoot in a perpen- dicular direction as befoi'e, and the others spread- ing. Thus proceed till the tree has attained the desired height, observing most particularly never to allow the upper tiers of branches to extend as far as those below them. The form which the tree should ultimately assume is that of a pyramid or cone, broad at the base, and gra- dually tapering towards the top. If the top branches overhang the bottom ones, the latter vrill become weak and useless for fruit; they wUl linger for a time, and then die off. At the autumn or winter pruning the tree should be cut so as to have a regular tapering outline ; and during summer, should any of the upper shoots threaten to extend beyond the lower ones, such shoots should have their points pinched off. Shoots not required to form branches should also have their points pinched in summer. If the branches are disposed to grow too upright, they should be tied down to nearly a horizontal position, and secured to small stakes, or to the next lower tier. If kept in a right position for two or three weeks in the growing season, they will afterwards retain it. This is a very good mode of growing both apples and pears, particularly in small gardens, as they occupy much less space, and cause less shade than if grown as open standards. Indeed, fruit trees do not produce fruit in exact proportion to their size, but rather to the mode of pruning and training they are subjected to, as well as the stocks they are wrought upon. Mr Rivers has shown many excellent examples of this, and in his " Miniature Fruit-Garden" has exempli- fied his principles as regards this mode of train- ing the pear and apple. A perfectly-managed pear-tree, trained as a pyramid, he illustrates by the annexed out, fig. 210, as it ought to appear VOL. II. in July, before its leading side-shoots and per- pendicular leaders are shortened, " which is best Fig. 210. RIVERS PYRAMIDAL TRAINING. done towards the end of August. This shorten- ing must be made at the marks shown on our figure, and all the side shoots shortened in the same manner, as well as the leading shoot. The spurs a a are the bases of the shoots that have been pinched in June." After referring to autum- nal or early winter planting, Mr Rivers proceeds : " Care should be taken in selecting trees that are furnished with buds and branches from bottom to top ; but if a young gardener intends to plant, and wishes to train up his trees so that they will become quite perfect in shape, he should select plants one year old from the bud or graft ; these will, of course, have good buds down to the junction of the graft with the- stock. The first year, a tree of this description should be headed down so as to leave the shoot about 18 inches long. If the soil is rich, from five to six or seven shoots will be produced ; one of these must be made the leader, and if not inclined to be quite perpendicular, it must be fastened to a stake. As soon in summer as the leading shoot is 1 inches long, its end must be pinched off; and if it pushes forth two or more shoots, pinch all off but one, to about 2 inches, leaving the topmost for a leader : the side shoots will in most cases assume a regular shape; if not, they may be this first season tied to slight stakes, to make them grow in the proper direction. This is best done by bringing down and fastening the end of each shoot to a slight stake, so that an open pyramid may be formed ; for if it is too close and cypress-like, enough air is not ad- mitted to the fruit. They may remain unpruned to the end of August, when each shoot must bo shortened to within eight buds of the stem ; the abortive buds, of which there are generally from three to four at the base of each shoot, 3p 478 FRUIT GARDEN. Fifr.^u. should not be included in that number. This will leave the tree like the annexed fig. -211, and no pruning in winter will be required. The second season the trees will make vigorous growth. The side shoots which were topped last August wiU each put forth three, {our, or more shoots. As soon as these are 4 inches long, they must be pinched off to within 3 inches, ail but the leading shoot on each side branch; this must be left on, to exhaust the tree ..of its superabundant sap till the end of August. ' The perpendicular leader must be topped once or twice ; in short, as soon ^„ as it has grown 10 inches, i,„,gHs' pinch off its top ; and if it pvaAMiDAf-iKAiNiNo. breaks into two or three shoots, pinch them all but the leader, as directed for the first season. In a few years most symmetrical trees may be formed. When they have attained the height of 6 or 8 feet, and are still in a vigorous state, it will be necessary to commence root-pruning to bring Jhem into a fruitful state." It should be re- membered that Mr Rivers places great import- ance on root-pruning and the use of quince stocks for the pear. Amongst both apples and pears certain sorts assume naturally very different forms of growth; some grow close and compact, some horizontal and crooked, while others are slender and thin in their growth, and are indisposed to put forth lateral shoots. • " The lower part of every branch," it is observed by Mr Rivers, " will then generally be furnished with dormant buds, so that to form a good pyramid of these slender- growing varieties it is necessary to begin the first year with a graft, and to pinch the leader as soon as it is 6 inches long. If by any neglect the lower part of the pyramid be not furnished with shoots, but have dormant buds, or buds with only two or three leaves attached, a notch must be cut about half an inch in width just above the bud from which a shoot is required. This notch must be cut through the outer and inner bark, and the cambium or first layer of wood ; and if the shoot or stem is young, say from 2 to 4 inches in girth, it may be cut rouud half its circumference. If this is done in spring or summer, the following season a shoot will gene- rally make its appearance— sometimes even the first season, if the stem or branch is notched early in spring. Varieties of apples inclined to be compact and close in their growth, form very handsome pyramids ; but they are apt to be un- fruitful, as the air is not admitted enough to the interior of the tree. This may be easily avoided by bringing the lateral shoots down to a hori- zontal position for a year or two, and fastening the end of each shoot to a stake ; an open pyra- mid shape will thus be attained, which the tree will keep. Othorvarieties put forth their laterals horizontally, and some are even pendulous.' The leading perpendicular shoot of varieties of this description must be supported by a stake till the tree is of mature age." The winter-pruning of pyramid pear-trees is almost reduced to a mechanical operation, when the summer management has been properly attended to. Keeping the tapering form in view, it consists in cutting each shoot a little shorter than the one immediately below it, tak- ing care to cut to a bud situated on the side of the shoot towards that direction in which it would be most desirable the prolongation should proceed. Shoots that are too vigorous for the rest are not cut to a bud on the upper side, but to one situated below. M. Cappe has introduced another feature of regularity in training besides that of a merely tapering contour. This is effected by what is called a tutor — that is, a straight perpendicular stake, to which the stem is trained ; and from the top of this stake five wires are stretched to as many equidistant points on a hoop near the ground, or to five short stakes set at equal dis- tances from each other, as well as from the base of the stem. These wires represent the angles of a five-sided pyramid ->- a pyramid apparently 15 feet high on a pentagonal base. Branches are trained directly from the stem to each of the wires. In order to convey some idea of this mode of training, one may imagine five upright trellises or screens projecting from a central upright, forming the partitions of as many equal recesses widening outwards. The branches form such partitions with good effect, as regards regularity ; and when they become ornamented with leaves and fruit, the whole will prove an interesting sight. It has been suggested that, instead of branches radiating from the stem in five directions, it might be found more convenient to train them out to four points — say east, west, north, and south. It may, however, be observed that, in the pear tree, five buds form a spiral once round the shoot or stem ; or, in other words, suppos- ing the leading shoot to be perpendicular, every fifth, tenth, fifteenth, &c. bud will be in the same vertical plane. Therefore, if the number of buds between one branch and that next above it be always a multiple of five, the branches radiating in eacli of the five directions will ori- ginate exactly above each other. Espaliers. — Apples and pears are very suc- cessfully grown when trained as espaliers. The advantages are, the little space which they oc- cupy compared with standards, the protection of the fruit from the effects of high winds, and their capability of being protected in spring from late frosts, and when the fruit is ripe from the attacks of birds. The best mode of constructing espalier rails will be found described and illus- trated in Sect. " Espaher Rails," vol. i. p. 556. In regard to the management of the trees them- selves, supposing them to have been planted in autumn, as soon as the leaves have fallen, they are then in a fit state for commencing training. But, first, we should observe that espalier train- ing admits of all the modifications practised when similar trees are grown against walls. THE PEAR. 479 The two leading modes, however, are the open fan and horizontal. In the former of these the centre is left open, in consequence of the curva- ture given to the inner branches, which gives the tree an awkward and vacant appearance, and on this account it is, therefore, seldom adopted, lu proceeding to form a young tree upon the horizontal principle, the following is the method adopted : Let a plant one year old from the graft be taken with three equal even shoots, if this can be secured : fix five short stakes in the line of the proposed espalier — one in the centre, and two on each side — about 12 or 15 inches distant ; train the centre shoot perpendicularly to the centre stake, and the two side ones hori- zontally to the four others, keeping these at their full length till the plant has been a year established. This is by no means a general practice, but one worthy of due consideration (zide article, Pruning newly-planted fruit trees, p. 379). If the tree appears healthy and vigor- ous, cut back the branches, the two side ones to 6 inches, and the centre to 9 or 10. When the young shoots are produced from these, train the extreme or strongest one from each of the side branches horizontally. The centre shoot wUl have produced three shoots at least, the upper- most of which must be continued perpendicu- larly, and the two next beneath trained hori- zontally, one on each side. This process must be continued from year to year, till the tree has arrived at its intended height, which is generally about 6 feet. If the centre shoot produces three others annually, when cut down to 9 inches, it will require seven years to complete the seven series of horizontal branches ; but sometimes it happens that the centre shoot produces two series, or five branches, by shortening it to 18 inches instead of 9 ; if so, this advantage may be seized. Should the tree, after having been planted a year, not possess sufficient vigour to throw out three shoots from the centre branch, all the three centre branches must be cut back to two or three eyes, and a single shoot trained from each; theyear following, proceed as directed at first. In this mode of training, the horizon- tal branches must be laid in at their whole length, without shortening any of them until the extreme branches of the two adjoining trees meet each other. The following directions on the formation of horizontal espaliers are given by Mr Robert Thompson in " Morton's Cyclopaedia," and as no higher authority in such matters can be quoted, as well as because his method differs in some essential points from that just given, we are in- duced to give it at length : — First season. Mr Thompson plants in autumn, and commences priming and training the spring following, in- stead of giving the tree a year to establish itself, as recommended by Mr Lindley. " The tree being headed down to a foot above the ground train the shoot which pushes from the upper- most bud upright in summer; and the shoots which push immediately below this, incline one to the right and anotilier to the left, for the commencement of the two lower horizontals : but these must not be trained horizontally in the first instance ; they must be elevated to form an angle of about 45°, or like the legs of a wide V, taking care to bend them down gradually if they are likely to become too strong. If one of them grow stronger than the other, depress the strong and elevate the weak." This, to a cer- tain extent, acts as a substitute for allowing the treeto have a seasonforestablishingitself pre- vious to the horizontal training of the branches. " Second season. — Cut back the upright leading shoot to a foot above where it was shortened in the preceding season. If the side shoots are strong, bind them to nearly a horizontal posi- tion, and train them at full length ; if weak, shorten them a little, and allow them to retain nearly their former elevated ppsition, in order to encourage their growth. Lateral shoots may be permitted to grow till July, and then stopped by cutting or pinching off their points. Third season. — Cut back the leading upright shoot to a foot, as before, and encourage side shoots from it to furnish the third course of horizontal branches. The tree being well established, these wiU be stronger than the first two produced, and therefore need not be so much elevated. The others may now be brought to a horizontal position, but with a gentle curve upwards from the stem. They should not come directly out from the latter, as the rounds of a ladder are in- serted in its sides. If they spring from the stem 1 or 1 1 inches from the ground, they should ascend in the first instance, and then be trained along in a horizontal direction, at the height of 1 3 inches. The next course of branches, origi- nating a foot above the former — that is, at the height of 22 or 23 inches from the ground — must be trained at the height of 25 inches, thus leav- ing a foot between the courses. In this man- ner the tree is formed ; and the directions here given, being applicable to subsequent seasons, need not be repeated. When the stem, how- ever, has attained the height to which the up- right shoot must be shortened in autumn, two shoots only for horizontals will be required ; and those afterwards springing from it, being apt to grow too strong, must be kept in clieck. Winter pruning. — The portions of shoots left at greatest length in the summer — that is, the breastwood— must now be cut in more closely than the others. Many of those which were shortened to 3 inches need not be touched ; but where there are several of such too near each other (causing crowding in the spurs), some of them may be cut to one eye, or even quite close to the old wood. Fruit spurs that have ex- tended too far should be shortened, and before they get too old they should be cut back to their lowest buds, which will then push others afresh." Rivers' upright mode of training the apple and the/.>ear. — With a view to economise space, and at the same time to be enabled to plant a number of sorts of new and esteemed pears on quince stocks, so that they would quickly come into bearing, Mr Hivers, finding the horizontal me- thod would take up too much space, adopted the expedient of transforming his horizontally- trained espaliers into the form represented by the annexed fig. 212. As will be readily seen, all the horizontal branches were removed ex- cepting the lowermost pair, and from them ver- 480 FRUIT GARDEN. tical ones were laid in.. One great objection to horizontally-trained apple and pear trees, both on walls and espaliers, as in general managed, Fig. 212. SV-'A.v/„-,-. RIVERS' UPRIGHT TRAINING. is, that the fruit they produce is usually towards their extremities, and these, extending to a great length, cause an amazing waste of space, while the centre parts are comparatively barren of fruit. The following will, in connection with the figure, explain his views : " The shoots a a should be 8 inches from the central stem, and those marked h i the same distance from those marked a a. Thus a tree with five branches will occupy 32 inches, say 3 feet, of wall room ; a tree with seven branches will require 4 feet, but as some space ought to be allowed for the spurs on the outside branches, say 5 feet. If the wall is of a moderate height — 8 feelfc for in- stance — a tree with seven branches will produce quite fruit enough of one sort. This method offers a, strong contrast to espaliers on pear stocks, planted in the usual manner, 24 feet apart, and trained horizontally : nearly five trees for one will give so many additional chances to the cultivator. A single tree may fail, or its fruit may become imperfect, owing to an adverse season, but out of five trees there will in every season be a good chance of having some good pears." The first proceeding, as re- gards the vertical shoots, after they are ripened, is to shorten each to from 10 inches to a foot in length, and the leading shoot must be short- ened at the same time, and to the same extent. In May, each of these shortened branches will have put forth two or three shoots, which, as soon as they have attained the length of 4 inches, are to be pinched back to 2 inches, leav- ing the topmost one on each shoot, a a and b b, as shown in the cut. The leader is to be served in the same manner. " You will then, if the tree is five-branched, have five young leading shoots. As soon in June as they have attained to 8 inches in length, pinch off the end of each, and when they break into two or three shoots as before, pinch all but one to each branch : this may be repeated, if the soil be rich, two, three, or four times in the summed-. The tree will soon reach the top of the wall, and every bud in the five branches will be perfect, either a blossom-bud or one in embryo. When every branch has reached the top of the wall, com- mence root-pruning in autumn." (Vide Moot- pruning, p. 399). If larger trees are wished, go as to give more fruit of each sort, " trees with nine upright branches may be planted 7 feet apart, or trees with eleven upright branches 9 feet apart. Trees, however, can seldom be pur- chased with shoots so numerous ; young trees must, therefore, be planted and cut back annu- ally for two or three years, till the proper num- ber of perpendicular shoots are supplied." This is an excellent plan for amateurs, or those having only a limited extent of walling, yet desirous of growing a considerable number of sorts, either for variety, or for proving new kinds. The vertical position, however, of the branches will induce a disposition in the trees to grow strongest near the top of the wall or espalier, but this can readily be corrected by judicious root-pruning, and pinching back the young wood. Reversing the position of the tree — that is, allowing the main stem to reach the top of the wall or espalier, and carrying a branch horizontally under the coping to the right hand and to the left, and from these train- ing the wood produced by them in a pendant form — would moderate the flow of the sap, and produce flower-buds in even greater abundance. Pruning and training the apple and pear against walls. — The finer varieties of these, especially the latter, can only be expected to ripen in full perfection in the northern counties of England and in most of Scotland when trained against walls, and those in the coldest localities must have a southern exposure. There are a few situations, however, even in Scotland, where many of the finest apples and pears ripen toler- ably well when trained as espaliers and dwarf standards, and many others where they ripen on walls with an east or west exposure. On walls heated by hot water, as at Dalkeith, most of the French and Flemish pears ripen to full perfec- tion. The general modes of training adopted are the horizontal and fan forms; other forms are, however, often met with. In regard to the quality of the fruit and its capability of keep- ing, there is no doubt that the same varieties ripened on open standards around London, and in the southern counties, are far superior to those ripened on our best unheated walls in the north. On account of the natural luxuriance of growth, more especially of pears, the horizontal mode of training has long been the favourite form, and more especially in the case of walls of less than 8 or 9 feet in height. Mr Rivers, how- ever, and others, have adopted other forms (Wde fig. 212). For the mode of setting off— that is, giving the first formation to horizontal- trained trees— vide article Espaliers,-p. 5S6. The same rule is apphcable to wall trees also. Much of the health of all fruit-trained trees depends on judicious summer-pruning. (See our re- marks on that head also.) Harrison, an excel- lent practical authority, has, in his " Treatise on Fruit Trees," laid down his views on the sum- mer and winter pruning of the apple and pear in a very clear and luminous manner, carrying the subject through twelve consecutive years, with useful illustrations. His principle is to THE PEAE. 481 keep the fruit-spurs very short, never allowirig one spur to have more than three or four fruit- buds. He also cuts off the spurs entirely, or cuts them down for renewal every fourth or fifth year. By this means ho has much larger fruit, and each spur is allowed to bear only once, when it is cut out, and succeeded by an embryo bud at its base. As an illustration of this part of his judicious practice, we subjoin fig. 213 from his useful work, which exhibits the condition of a portion of a branch of a pear tree during the twelfth year of his routine. "The spurs No. 1 must now be cut down to two fruitful buds, as a a fig. 213, which will HARRISON & MODE OF XnAINlNO. cause an embryo or more, as b b, either to push the following summer, or to swell considerably, so as certainly to push after the old part of the spur has been pruned away. At the next win- ter-pruning it must be cut down to the lowest fruitful or growing bud, if there be such situ- ated about an inch from the branch which sup- ports thespur.otherwise the spur must be cut down to about half an inch from its origin. It will sometimes happen that when one of the spurs is cut down, three or four fruitful buds or shoots will arise around that part which is left, as dd,lc h If they are fruitful buds,.they must all be allowed to remain until the next winter-pruning, when they will generally be in the condition described by d h In thinning them, all must be taken away except two, which two should be the strongest and best matured ; and if they be situated at the opposite side of the old spur, as c c, they must be preferred to those that are closer together, as hk; for when that is the case they interfere with and injure each other. When those spurs which remain come to have lateral spurs, as spur e, one of the main spurs must be cut away, 9, the spur to the left. When shoots are produced instead of fruitful buds, as represented hjd d,i; h, they must be pruned down once, or more if required, during summer, and at the winter-pruning they must be regulated agreeably to the foregoing directions. It will frequently be the case that a fruitful bud will be formed at the lower part of such a shoot. If two shoots, situated in the manner of the buds e c, have each a fruitful bud at its base, both of them may be left, but other- wise only one. If none of the shoots should have a fruitful bud, then two of them, situated as before described, must be left, and be cut down to the lowest-growing bud upon them; and when a shoot pushes the next summer, it must be nailed down in the direction described by h, which will cause it to form a fruit-bud at its origin, as i, and at the next winter-pruning the shoot must be cut off just above such fruit- ful bud. This method of nailing down shoots during the summer, in order to make them pro- ductive of fruitful buds, may be practised upon any part of the tree when circum- stances require it. When the spurs thus cut down and regulated have borne fruit a proper length of time, they must then be cut down to the lowest bud, or entirely cut away, as the case requires. These instruc- tions must also be attended to in every other spur, upon every part of the tree, at a similar age and state." Of the great advantage of laying in young wood as practised by Mr Harrison, there can be but one opi- nion — it keeps up a succession of young wood on the trees, from which only fine fruit can be expected, and gets at once rid of these cumbersome and useless masses of old spurs which long were allowed to disfigure the wall and espalier trees in even our best gardens. Fig. 214 exhibits the appearance of a branch of HARRISON S MODE OP TRAINING. a tree so treated during the tenth and eleventh years of Mr Harrison's routine, and fig. 216 its appearance in the twelfth year. " The spurs upon that part of each shoot which were produced " by being uaUed or laid in previous seasons, "wiU now have borne fruit one season; they must be allowed to retain all the fruitful buds there are upon them; there will generally be two or three, as at a a, c c. If the shoots (which pushed from the spurs) that were shortened during last summer should now have a fruitful bud at the bottom of them, they must be cut off just above each bud. If there should not be a fruitful bud, let such shoots be cut down to half an inch in length." If the young shoots laid in " should extend so as to crowd each other, let their ends be pruned back so far as they in- terfere, at which they must afterwards be kept, by cutting them back to that part every summer and winter pruning. " All the spurs upon the shoots, fig. 214, A A, 482 FRUIT GARDEN. must now be allowed to retain whatever fruitful buds there are upon them, as a a, with the ex- ception of the first spur upon the shoot, as b, which must now be cut down to the lowest bud, or entirely away. This is done in order to obtain a new shoot. Those spurs upon that part of the shoot produced the second year after being trained in, as c c, will generally have ' two or three fruit-buds each ; they must be all retained. The shoot B will now be furnished with fruitful buds," but as it will sometimes happen that a shoot or two will push instead of fruitful buds being formed, such shoots must be pruned back during summer to 2 inches, once or more if rec^uired, which will cause them to form fruitful buds at their lower parts. " The shoots A A, fig. 215," which is the state of mat- HARBISON S MODE OF TRATNIWG ters at the twelfth year, "must now be cut away so far back as to the origin of the shoot 6, which shoot must be trained forward in order to supply the place of the shoot A cut away. The spurs upon the shoots B B will now generally be well supplied with fruitful buds ; they must be permitted to retain three each, and next year four each, except the first upon the shoot, which must at that time be cut down in order to produce a, new shoot for training in, as was done to the shoots A A. The spurs which afterwards proceed from these shoots, obtained by thus cutting down spurs, must have the same proportion of fruitful buds left upon them at every winter-pruning, and also be treated in every respect as already laid down for the spurs which the preceding shoots supported. This practice of cutting back the shoot A up to the spur b must be done for the first renewal ; but when a new one is desired the second time, the old shoot must be cut so far back as only to leave about half an inch remaining, unless there be a growing or fruitful bud situated near its origin, when it must, in that case, be pruned off just above it ; and a shoot must be nailed in from some of the intermediate spurs, in order to supply the vacancy caused by the removal of the old shoot." Harrison very justly remarks, that pear trees produce their fruit on spurs and buds simi- lar to apples ; the first part of his practice, which we have quoted above, is applicable to them also, but, he continues, " one mode of pruning is not alike suitable to all kinds of pear trees." The St Germains, Brown beurr6, Ber- gamots. Swan's egg, &c., amongst pears, have their spurs as far distant from each other as apples have; while some other sorts, such as the Crasane, Chaumontellc, &c., have their spurs very rank on the branches, and hence a differ- ent mode of treatment is necessary, which leads to the second part of our quotation bearing, upon the necessity of laying _in a succession of young wood, &o. Spttr-pruning the apple and pear. — That both these trees produce their fruit upon spurs is true, and wherever natural spurs or fruit-buds are produced, they should be carefully retained, if not produced in too great numbers, in which case they should be thinned out at the winter- pruning. The creation of artificial spurs was long the sheet-anchor of the cultivators of bygone days, and consisted of annually, about midsum- mer, cutting off every young shoot formed upon the main branches to within about half an inch of their base : some, however, were not very particular as to dis- tance; and hence, in the course of a very few years, immense bundles of spray pro- jected from the face of their wall and espalier trees a foot or more in length, placing v/hat few fruit might by ac- cident be produced at such a distance from the wall as to derive no more benefit from it than if it had been pro- duced on a standard tree. The case is now different, and this spur-producing system is considered obsolete by every cultivator of ordi- nary understanding. The pear and the apple both will produce better and more abundant crops of fruit from natural buds formed on shoots of two years' growth, if of a proper character, and duly exposed to light during the growing season, than upon all the artificial spurs that can be created by the mismanagement of man. To secure a supply of such wood, all that is required is to select, at the July disbudding, or summer-pruning as it is called, such a num- ber of the shoots of the cuiTent year as can be conveniently laid in, either between the perma- nent branches or tied down over them, choos- ing such as are short-jointed and changing to- wards a brownish colour, which latter indicates that they have nearly arrived at their full matu- rity, and only require a short period longer to complete the elaboration of their juices and the formation of embryo fruit-buds. Green and luxuriant shoots should be rejected and removed at their base, either at the time of selection, or, better, at the winter-pruning. These selected shoots should be laid in regularly, but not too thickly, all over the tree. The practice of Harri- son, already given, bearsupon thissubjectforcibly, and the no less high authority of Errington bears similar testimony. On pear-pruning and the tying-down system he says, " By this we mean the reserving many of the annual shoots at the winter-pruning, and tying or otherwise fastening them down on the old wood. Pears, say they, bear best on the two-year-old wood. Be it so; then let us take care that some of the annual shoots reach two years. We have before advised that all the shortest-jointed and early-ripened THE PEAR. 483 wood should be left; and now, wlien the knife must of necessity be passed over the trees, iu order to correct the omissions of the past sum- mer, let us again advise that every short-joiuted shoot with plump eyes or buds be tied down to the old wood — not more, however, than one, or at most two, at a given point — and thus proceed- ing from the root-stock to the extremities to clothe the wood from end to end. When this plan is adopted, all barren-looking spurs may at once be cut clean away, unless they give pro- mise of blossom-buds. The hobby, however, must not be ridden too hard; still preserve the genuine fruit-spurs with the utmost care. Under this system let there be no spurring back, as it is called, of young and green shoots, in order to create spurs. Such, we know, may sometimes be generated, but it is the exception to the rule. By this tying-down mode, when estab- lished, plenty of natural spurs will be produced ; and, moreover, the tendency to produce ' breast- wood ' will be lessened exceedingly." — Cottage Gardener. Training the apple and pear in a pendant form, referred to before, has the effect of pro- ducing fruitfulness without having recourse to much pruning or mutilation. For this purpose trees are sometimes planted on one side of a wall or espalier, and trained to a single stem to the top, and are there headed back for the pur- pose of producing shoots to be trained in a downward direction on the opposite side. A modification of this is to train a single stem to the top of the wall or espalier, and from thence to carry two leading shoots in a horizontal direction to the right hand, and also to the left, as recommended by Mearns, and from these to train the shoots proceeding from them downwards ou the same side of the wall or espalier. Another modification is to train two similar horizontal branches along nearly to the bottom of the wall or espalier, as recommended by Rivers, and to train the shoots from them upwards, in either a perpendicular or some- times iu a diagonal or spiral direction. The flow of the sap is considerably checked by hav- ing to travel in a horizontal line ; but the evil in the latter case is, that the upright or diagonal branches nearest the centre of the tree become much stronger than those towards its extre- mities. Training to horizontal trellises forming a plane with the horizon, and also on inclined walls, has no doubt the effect of moderating the rapidity of the flow of the sap, but both place the blossoms in a position more liable to sustain injury from frosts than where the trees are trained vertically. They are, nevertheless, under such circumstances, more readily protected by artificial coverings. Summer - pruidng the apple and pear when trained as espaliers. — Mr Eobert Thompson thus speaks of this important operation : " Unless summer-pruning be duly attended to, fruitful- ness need scarcely be looked for. If neglected in summer, a mass of shoots will give the espalier the appearance of an untrimmed hedge ; and the question is. What is to bo done with these super- abundant shoots ? If they are left to the winter- pruning, and then cut close to the horizontal branches, the latter will be rendered naked, and must remain weak, for they cannot increase in thickness if they are not furnished with suflScient foliage. If, on the other hand, the shoots are shortened back to within a few buds of their bases, almost every one of these buds will push, and a greater thicket than that produced in the preceding summer will be the result. The alter- n.ative is summer-pruning. The leading shoots must not be meddled with in summer, at least not until the branches of one tree meet those of the adjoining ; but all other shoots produced along the branches must be checked. When the most forward of these have pushed about 6 inches, shorten them to 3 inches. The rest may be allowed to go on a little longer ; but in the first fortnight of June, all of them should have their points cut off. About midsummer com- mence at the upper part of the tree, and shorten more than half the shoots to within 3 inches of their bases. About a week after, treat nearly half of those which have pushed from the lower branches in the same manner ; and a few more of the shoots on the upper part may be also shortened to 3 inches. Eeducing thus the su- perfluous shoots by degrees, the tree does not experience a shock like that which is the con- sequence of a sudden and an extensive privation of foliage. If trees have been neglected till mid- summer, the shoots must not then be swept off close, or nearly so, at once. In such a case, shorten them all a little, and then keep on re- ducing them iu a gradual manner. No entire shoots should be left throughout the summer, but a sprinkling of those shortened to stubs of 6 or 8 inches in length may remain till the winter-pruning. Their leaves will elaborate sap for the benefit of the tree, whilst, from their shortened condition, they occasion no injurious shade as regards the adjoining parts where fruit- spurs are being formed." This mode of summer- managing espalier pear and apple trees has a direct reference also to such trees trained against walls, and to a very great extent to such as are grown as standards. It is a part of practice which merits the attention of every fruit culti- vator. Thinning the crops. — It is common with most people to remark, that the apple and pear bear well and the reverse in alternate years. The cause of this, for the most part, is allowing the trees to exhaust themselves by carrying more fruit in one season than they can well bring to full maturity. The trees become greatly weakened, and the extraordinary draught made by their roots upon the soil in which they grow extracts from it all, or nearly all, the food it contains suitable to their existence. The organisable matter stored up by the tree for its natural support is also exhausted in its efforts to perfect the crop ; and hence in the succeeding season, with a de- ficiency of elaborated sap in the tree itself, and a deficiency of food in the soil within reach of the roots, we need not wonder that a season of sterility results. Fruit cannot be expected un- less the buds are stored with the necessary amount of elaborated sap for their full develop- ment, the production of blossom, and much 484 FRUIT GARDEN. more so the several parts of the fructification. No doubt the application of stimulating food would go far to remedy this, by applying it both to the roots and leaves ; and hence trees under glass continue to bear large crops for many suc- cessive years. But these stimulants are not so easily applied to trees in the open air. Were the fruit judiciously thinned as soon as it is fairly set, with something of a Mice care we be- stow on our peaches and vines under glass, our apples and other hardy fruits would not only yield us year after year an ample supply of fruit, but that fruit would be of a very superior quality. Every deformed or under-sized fruit that a tree is allowed to ripen is like a robber preying upon the energies of the tree; and even when gathered they are found to be of little or no use to the owner. It frequently happens that when apples are set too thick, nature takes the case into her own hands, and points out to man what he should have done to ease her of her superfluous burden, and throws them off herself by thousands. To have fine fruit and yearly crops, judicious thinning should be early attended to. All fruit trees and fruit-bearing plants should be thinned of their fruit as soon as it is fairly set,' and for this purpose fine- pointed scissors should be used. It may be considered by many as too high a refinement in fruit culture to say that even strawberries, gooseberries, currants, &c., should be subjected to the same rule. Whatever these may think, one thing is quite certain, that if the finest specimens of these fruits be desired, that end can only be attained by judicious thinning. There is, no doubt, a considerable amount of labour attending such a proceeding, and he who will not bestow that labour must be con- tent to put up with a, very inferior quality of fruit, and also with diseased and shortlived trees, and the usual failure of crops. There is no garden in Britain where this principle is car- ried out to the full extent it ought to be. This, however, in many cases, rests not so much with the gardener as with the employer ; for there are few gardens in which nearly double the amount of manual labour bestowed on them would not require to be employed, in order to carry out high culture to its fullest extent. Some attention, in this respect, is bestowed on wall fruit-trees, and all our best cultivators, awake to the importance of the matter, see its propriety, and act accordingly. But there are too many who have never thought (or, if such a thought ever crossed their mind, they have not acted upon it) of thinning the apples and pears, cherries and plums, with which now and then their wall trees are excessively loaded ; the consequence is, that for several years perhaps, afterwards, they are saved the trouble, and, until the trees naturally regain their wonted vigour, their walls are devoid of fruit; or if there is any, it is limited in quantity and infe- rior in quality. Peaches and apricots on walls are in general better attended to in this respect, and the consequences are manifest ; as the same rule applies to every fruit-bearing tree, the same practice should be followed. By early thinning fruit, another important end is gained, namely, the destruction of thousands of insects which deposit their eggs or entomb themselves in the embryo fruit. CHAPTER VI. THE PEACH AND NECTARINE. The peach and nectarine, although in cultiva- tion spoken of as two distinct fruits, owe tlieir origin to one and the same parent, Amygdalus Persica L., Perdca vulgaris of Miller ; and some botanists consider the peach, nectarine, and almond as only one species. The only diflference between the two former is, that the one has a downy skin, and the other a smooth one. Their identity has been again and again confirmed by fruit of both sorts being produced, not only on the same tree, but on the same branch; and one instance is recorded of the same occurring in one fruit, one side of which was downy, like the peach, and the other smooth, Uke the nectarine; and the Boston nectarine originated from a peach-stone. The French have always considered them the same, and designate them as downy and smooth peaches. Persia is considered the native country of the peach, and its introduction into Italy is conjectured to have ocovirred so early as the time of the Emperor Claudius. It was first received into England about the middle of the sixteenth century, and in all probability was imported from France, where it had been long cultivated prior to that period. It was introduced into America by the earlier settlers, somewhere about 1680. So great a resemblance exists between many kinds of peaches and nectarines, that sufficient marks of distinction would be difficult to fix upon, so as to know the one from the other, had we no other characters to assist us except the form, size, colour, texture, &o. of the fruit alone, as in the case of the apple and the pear. There are happily other and more permanent charac- ters, and these have been made use of by several ingenious pomologists, with a view to establish a classification, the importance of which in a family of fruits so numerous as the peach has now become will be sufficiently obvious. Poiteau and the Count Lelieur in France, and Mr Robert- son of Kilkenny, were the first to turn their at- tention to this matter; but it remained for the late Mr G. Lindley, and Mr Thompson, of the London Horticultural Society Gardens, to esta- blish, upon a clear and satisfactory basis, a mode of classification which for the purpose will be regarded as sufficiently correct. Mr Thomp- son divides the varieties of this fruit into two grand divisions, namely, peaches and nectarines; these, again, into two classes, melters or free- VOL. II. stoms,oT such as have the flesh parting freely from the stone when ripe ; and paoies or clingstones, or such as have the flesh adhering to the stone when ripe. Clingstone peaches with us are termed Pavies by the French, and our cling- stone nectarines are their Brugnons, Mr Thomp- son classes all peaches and nectarines into three other divisions, founded on the leaves. First, Leav«s serrated and glandless; second, Leaves crenated or sermlated, with globose glands; third, Leaves crenated or serinilated with reni- form or kidney-shaped glands. These glands are placed on the foot-stalk of the leaf, close to its junction with the leaf itself. Some little dis- crimination is required to distinguish the two forms of glands from each other, and the exami- nation should take place when the leaves are fully developed, and not from one leaf alone, but from several on the same branch or tree. The flowers, again, afibrd two subdivisions; namely, i*'m«, Large flowers, as in the Noblesse peach : Second, Small flowers, as in the Elruge nectarine. The varieties of peaches and nectarines are now numerous. In 1573, Tusser merely men- tions peaches red and white. By 1 629 they had increased considerably, as Parkinson enumerates 21 sorts ; Miller, in 1750, 31 varieties; Long- ley, in Pomona, 1729, describes and figures 39; Rogers, 43; Forsyth, in 1806, describes 40, and gives the names of 27 more, which he says may be added. This long list, however, requires to be purged of many which are mere synonyms. The Horticultural Society Fruit Catalogue con- tains 47, 19 of which are nectarines; and Down- ing, in " Fruits and Fi-uit Trees of America," describes no less than 79 peaches, and in addi- tion 18 nectarines. Some of the American nur- serymen's catalogues enumerate abovelOO kinds, all origing,ted in that country; and the Fruit Catalogue of Messrs Lawson & Son describes sorts. The peach will not succeed either in England or France as an open standard, but in China and the United States it attains a high degree of perfection when so grown. The peaches of Pekin are celebrated as being amongst the finest in the world, and of a very large size. In no country in the woi-ld is the peach grown in such quantities as in the United States. In the eastern states they do not succeed well, but in all the 3q 486 FRUIT GARDEN. middle, southern, and western States they grow, and produce the heaviest crops in every garden and orchard. " Thousands of acres," Downing observes, " in New Jersey, Delaware, and Mary- land, are devoted to this crop for the supply of the markets of New York and Philadelphia ; and we have seen, in seasons of great abundance, whole sloop-loads of fruit of second quality, or slightly decayed, thrown into the North Eiver in a single morning. Many growers in New Jersey have orchards of from 10,000 to 20,000 trees of different ages, and send to market, in good seasons, as many bushels of fruit from the bearing trees." Of the peaches of China we have received several — the flat peach, remarkable for its singular shape, and the more recently intro- duced Shaughae, for its enormous size. Propagation. — The peach and nectarine are propagated in Europe, like all other fruit-bearing trees, by seed, when the object sought for is new or improved varieties ; in America, often by seed for general planting, although their best pomo- logists condemn the practice. In the middle, southern, and western States the peach flourishes with little care, many growers having peach or- chards containing from ten thousand to twenty thousand trees, many of them from seed ; and thousands of acres in Maryland, Delaware, and New Jersey are occupied with peach orchards for the supply of the Philadelphia and New York markets alone. They also raise the peach from seed, for the purpose of stocks, because, as Mr Downing, an American author, remarks, " The peach is the most easily propagated of all fruit trees. A stone planted in the autumn will vege- tate the ensuing spring, grow 3 or 4 feet high, iind may be budded in August or September. Two years from this time, if left undisturbed, it will usually produce a small crop of fniit, and the next season bear most abundantly, unless the growth is over-luxuriant." In Britain the case is otherwise, the peach-stock being in much less repute — the plum, which is a much hardier stock, and better fitted for a cold and variable climate, being preferred. The stocks, therefore, employed for the peach and nectarine in Britain are the Brompton stock, mussel-plum, pear-plum, apri- cot stock, and the almond ; and, when very dwarf trees are required, the Mirabelle plum is sometimes chosen. Of these the pear-plum stock is preferred for the French peaches, and most of our finer sorts ; and next to it the mussel-plum is in general preferred for English peaches {vide p. 328). In France, the almond stock is pre- ferred by some growers with a view to check the over- luxuriance of the peach; and Knight recom- mends its use for the finer varieties of peaches and apricots, and also as a preventive of mil- dew. The plum stock is preferred for clayey soils, and the almond for such as are light, shal- low, or chalky. In regard to rearing the peach and nectarine from seed, at least in Britain, little attention has been paid to the subject, although several excel- lent sorts have been so produced (vide Select List). The late Thos. A. Knight held the opinion that the peach, if reared from seed, would in course of successive generations become so hardy, or naturalised, as to succeed as an open standard in many parts of Britain. This Opinion has not, however, been borne out by experience, nor has much attention been bestowed on the subject. He also observes, that it may always be made to produce fruit, when three years old, from seed, and thinks it possible to bring it to that state at the end of a single year. In rearing the peach from seed, the process is to bury the stones in autumn in thick layers covered with earth. Early in spring the stones are taken out of the earth, cracked, and the kernels sown in rows in ci mellow loamy soil, to the depth of about an inch. In September following they are fit for budding, which is performed within 6 inches of the ground. Some English cultivators sow the seeds of the peach and apricot at the bottom of walls in the places where they are to remain, and bud them in July of the same year, or graft them in March the spring following. In grafting the peach a sub-variety of splice-grafting {vide p. 331, fig. 101) is very successfully fol- lowed, although, in the hands of an expert operator, almost any of the methods noticed under the head Propagation by Grafting, p. 830 to 333, may be adopted. Budding is the mode of propagation most generally followed in our British nurseries, and is performed in July or August, inserting the bud within 6 inches of the bottom of the stock for dwarf-trained trees, and from 3 to 5 feet high for standards or riders. The bud will shoot the following spring, and under favourable circumstances produce a shoot from 3 to 4 feet in length during the first sum- mer. In spring the top of the stock should be cut off close above the bud, and the wound smoothed, that the bark may heal over it. These shoots are, however, when strong, often stopped in June the season after budding, or in the March following, to four, five, or six eyes, from each of which a lateral shoot is produced, which forms the first part of the structure of the future tree. The shoots of the second and third years' growth are shortened by pinching their tops off to three or four eyes, according to their strength, in June, to cause the production of another set of lateral branches, or headed back with the knife in March following to from four to six eyes. The number of eyes left, in both cases, must ever depend on the state of the trees, whether they are growing luxuriantly or the reverse. In the former case, more buds should be left than in the latter. Some, however, pinch off the point of the shoot produced by the bud when it has attained the length of 6 or 8 inches. Five buds are then allowed to extend, and these again have their points pinched off, leaving from 5 to 6 inches of shoot, each of which is disbudded, leaving only two shoots from each. Under fa- vourable circumstances and vigorous growth, a fan-shaped tree is thus produced in one season. Situation and soil. — The peach and nectarine not only require the best situation our gardens afford, but, in the greater part of Britain, require the protection of walls also. As a general rule, they should occupy stations on those walls hav- ing a southern exposure, a few points to east or west of south making little difference. In many parts of England they are grown to great perfec- tion on direct east and west walls, but seldom THE PEACH AND NECTARINE. 487 with profitable success either aa standards or trained to open espaliers. In few places in the north of England or Scotland will they prosper otherwise than against south walls. In certain upland and cold districts it is imprudent to plant the peach at all, as pears would yield a far more profitable aud certain return. Latitude has much less to do with this than altitude ; for excellent peaches and nectarines are produced in some parts of Ross-shire and Sutherland, while in many of the localities along the English and Scotch border they would not do much more than drag out a miserable existence, and to at- tempt to grow them for their fruit would be hopeless. One cause why the peach succeeds so well in the far north, and one which has, so far as we know, been unnoticed in books on horti- culture, is the lateness of the season when the flowers expand, and the warmth of summer and fine autumns which in general occur in the warm sheltered spots chosen for gardens so far north, and which are often at the base of hills or rocks, enjoying the reflected heat therefrom. Some lay great stress on the quality of the soil in which the peach is planted, and no doubt on this much of their future prosperity depends; but, on the other hand, much depends on situa- tion as regards local climate aud circumstances. We have had very healthy trees grooving in a cold stiff clayey soil upon a chalk subsoil, as at Stratton Park, Hampshire ; on a rich loamy soil on a gravel substratum at Abercairney, Perth- shire ; on a poor light sandy soil (ground origi- nally reclaimed from a heath-clad common), at Claremont, in Surrey; aud on an equally light and poor sandy soil at Tay mouth Castle, in Breadalbane, and on a made sl)il of intermediate quality at Dalkeith. In the deep rich alluvial soils of the Carse of Gowrie, splendid peaches are produced from very healthy trees, and also in the deep alluvial sandy soUs in Flanders. In all these cases, however, climate, either naturally or artificially, is favourable to the growth of the peach. These, and various other circumstances coupled with climate, lead us to the behef that much of the ultimate success depends on judi- cious pruning and training, reducing or encou- raging the strength of the trees, as the case may be ; adapting these operations to the circum- stances of both soil and climate ; and, above all, selecting those varieties which are suited in con- stitution to the locality. The nomenclature of soUs is still so vague that it is almost next to useless to recapitulate those recommended in books. As a specimen, however, we may make the following quotation from the " Encyclo- pedia of Gardening," p. 913 : "A good soil for peach trees," according to Abercrombie, " is com- posed of three parts mellow unexhausted loam, and one part drift-sand, moderately enriched with leaf-mould, or the cooler dungs." Forsyth says, " Peaches require a lighter soil than pears and plums, and a light mellow loam is best." Harrison prefers " a loamy soil, somewhat adhe- sive," as do most of the experienced gardeners of the present day. From even these high autho- rities little can be gleaned useful to the tyro in horticulture. A rich, mellow, somewhat adhe- sive loam, taken from near the surface of an old pasture, without the aid of artificial en- richment, together with what vegetable matter may exist on it, is no doubt the best for all moderately-good climates. A lighter soil may be more advisable in a cold or damp climate or locality. There are other circumstances that have too often been very much overlooked, namely, that there are certain soils naturally, and certain localities having nothing very parti- cular in their general character, that are much better suited to the peach than others contiguous to them, and between which it would be difficult to draw a visible line of distinction. In good climates, even with an indifferent soil, peaches often thrive well. In bad climates, be the soil what it may, they do not. It should, however, be our aim in culture to improve both, and so far as possible to make each act as auxihary to the other. In making prepared borders for the peach, we would avoid too light a soil, and approach a pretty rich mellow alluvial or loamy deposit, taking special care that the bottom is rendered thoroughly dry, and the depth graduated to the coldness or dampness of the locality; SCod no means are better to insure this than vaulting them underneath, as recommended, vol. i. p. 31. Thorough drainage is not only necessary to the welfare of the roots of the peach and all other tender trees — and this the more so, as the situa- tion is cold, late, or damp — but subterranean aeration, or underground ventilation, is equally essential; and next to vaulting or chambering the borders underneath, is the system of drain- ing and aeration recommended, vol. i. p. 27, and illustrated by fig. 11. Indeed, were arrange- ments made by which the air in such vaults could be heated during spring and summer as ex- emplified in the gardens of the Marquis of Tweed- dale, vol. i., p. 31 , the roots of such trees as the peach and nectarine would be placed in a condi- tion nearer to that of their native country, Persia, and made to reciprocate with the atmospheric heat their leaves are placed in during the warm days of our springs and summers. With this increased temperature and aeration below, a stronger and more congenial soil could be em- ployed for them, thus not only insuring healthy development in youth, but also extending the period of their productive existence. Under such conditions the peach and nectaiine would flourish in situations where at present they can scarcely be maintained alive. In cold and damp situations, peach-tree bor- ders can hardly be made too shsdlow, if resting on a solid subsoil. We have them, in some cases, only 14 inches deep, resting on an alluvial gi'avel ; but in warm and dry places a greater depth may be indulged in. We have more than once, in vol. i., pointed out that,as all borders are reduced in depth, they should be proportionally increased in breadth, to allow ample scope for the roots, while at the same time they are kept near to the surface, that they may enjoy the benefit of sun- heat and air. We may also here state as an un- conditional rule, that no peach-borders should be cropped, and that they should be as little disturbed as possible. Leaving the borders of fruit trees uncropped, or admitting only crops of 488 FRUIT GARDEN. the lightest nature to grow upon them, was re- commended by Justice nearly a century ago. Gardeners, in general, look upon this practice as a loss of ground, which no doubt it is; but if a sacrifice is to be made, it is certainly better to choose the least evil, and rather leave the bor- ders entirely uncropped than injure the fruit trees, for which both they and the walls were constructed. Too deep, too damp, and too rich borders have been more disastrous to the peach than all the other ills that befall it, as under these circumstances the wood can never ripen, but will continue growing on till the winter frosts arrest its progress ; and without properly ripened wood all our other efforts are in vain. The more the border slopes from the wall to- wards the walk in front the better, as the surface is presented at a better angle of elevation to the Sim than were it flat. Again, all peach-borders should be elevated above the general surface, and this the more so as the situation is cold, damp, and late. No manure whatever should be dug into peach-borders, nor mixed with the soil on their first formation, unless, in the latter case, the soil be poor indeed, and the manure very much decomposed. Enrichment is better applied by mulching during the warm months of summer with pretty good manure, the essence of which is washed down by rains, and the eva- poration and drought counteracted while it is lying on the surface. Bank manure is highly injurious to all fruit trees. Better have a 6-feet border uncropped, than an 18-feet one cropped in the usual manner. Planting. — From the remarks offered in the article Transplanting, p. 356, it will be seen how important a matter early autumnal planting is ; and if it is so as regards trees in general, it must be especially so in the case of our most valuable and tender ones, amongst which the peach and nectarine stand so high. The im- portance of shallow planting is there also en- forced, p. 365. In regard to arrangement, peaches and nectarines should be placed together on the same wall. Such an arrangement gives the appearance of system ; it offers great faci- lities in the formation of the borders, and in covering the fruit from the attacks of wasps and flies, the blossom in spring from frosts, and ad- mits of the walls being heated with hot-water pipes, &c. In planting, regard should be had to keeping the early-ripening kinds together, the medium-ripening sorts by themselves, and the late ones next each other. Weak and vigorous growing sorts, in each of the sections, should be planted alternately ; and riders or standards of the same sort as those immediately under them, as dwarfs are to be considered the per- manent trees ; so that, when the former are removed to make way for the latter, no confu- sion may arise in the collection, and no one sort be entirely removed. The permanent trees should be planted not less than 20 feet apart from stem to stem, and the riders placed exactly between them, on all walls from 1 to 1 2 feet in height, the intention of the riders being to cover the top part of the wall while the dwarfs are filling up below. On walls of less height the distance should be greater to allow the trees to extend horizontally. A good deal, however, as to the distance depends on the soil and climate. If these be congenial, a peach tree will cover double the distance, as they often live to a con- siderable age, and attain a large size. In regard to the age of the trees at final planting, some cultivators prefer maiden plants, while others give a preference to those which have been trained for two, three, or four years in the nur- sery. Those who are good trainers, and parti- cular about their trees, will choose the former; while many, and by far the most, prefer the latter, especially when it is desirable to have the walls filled speedily, or to make up blanks occa- sioned by deaths, &c. Maiden trees are those of the season next after budding, and have only one shoot. The season after, they are called trained trees, and have several shoots. Healthy and moderately vigorous young trees only should be selected for planting. Shallow-planting is of much importance in peach culture,— indeed, what is called surface- planting, iu most soils, is to be recommended; that is, spreading out the roots on the prepared soil no deeper than the general level of the border, and laying over them 6 or 8 inches of soil, leaving it in form of a slightly raised mound. Taking up and replanting trees of ordinary dimensions is often requisite, more especially when they either have got into a too vigorous state of growth, making too strong shoots, and showing a deficiency of flower-buds ; or when, iu an opposite condition, making small wood, and showing symptoms of debility — in the one case indicating that the roots are throwing into the system too large a supply of sap, and in the other a deficiency. Taking up in autumn, and replanting, is a remedy in both cases : in the former, the strongest roots should be shortened back, and in the latter &esh and suitable soil should be afforded them, and that of a richer nature than, that in which they have formerly been growing. Judicious replanting and root- pruning, adding or diminishing the supply of food by the roots, will in a great degree obviate the necessity of branch-pruning ; for if a reci- procity be not maintained between the roots and branches, by placing the roots in the condi- tion we have here described, pruning will as- suredly, in most cases, rather aggravate the com- plaint than alleviate it. Pruning and training on the open Kails. — So much has been written on pruning and training these trees, and so little remains to be added to the excellent rules laid down, that it appeal's to us to be mere egotism to profess to lay down rules which may have novelty only to recom- mend them. We deem it, therefore, far more useful to recapitulate the substance of what has been already written, especially of late years, than to confine our observations to our own practice alone ; for, in truth, we have been act- ing for the last forty years upon one or other of the systems pursued with the utmost degree of success by those who have made the culture of the peach their particular study. The peach is also cultivated under such a variety of circum- stances that no one method recommended can be wisely considered universal in its application. THE PEACH AND NECTARINE. 489 And we may here also remark, that much of what will be said regarding pruning and train- ing these trees in the open air, is applicable to those under glass also. Season of pruning. — Some advocate early au- tumn-pruning, some midwinter, and others early in spring, when the buds begin to swell. The earlier authorities say little of early autumnal pruning, but many of them advocate winter for performing the operation, chiefly December and January. The most prominent of these are HiU, Abercrombie, Kennedy, Niool, and, lat-' terly, Harrison. The advocates for spring-prun- ing are Forsyth, Rogers, Switzer, &o. Amongst more recent writers opinions on this matter are similarly divided. Mr Errington, practising in a cold part of Cheshire, and one of our most celebrated fruit-tree managers, says, " Many persons do not like to prune their peaches in the dead of winter ; for our own part, we have pruned at all seasons for many years, and could never find any injury resulting from midwinter pruning of the peach. Where such has oc- curred, it must have been in the case of bloated and badly-ripened wood, and this is liable to such injuries under any circumstances." The prevaihng opinion is, we believe, in favour of spring-pruning, because, say its advocates, the wood-buds are at that time more easily distin- guished, and the wounds heal more rapidly. Our own opinion is, if they are not pruned by the end of October or beginning of November, par- ticularly in cold climates, it is better to defer the operation till spring. Much of this, however, de- pends on the ripened state of the wood, and also if the locality is subject to severe winters or to late spring-frosts. The best thing under adverse circumstances, such as cold situations, &c., is to depend on summer-pruning mainly, leaving little to do afterwards, but the removal of such wood as may have sustained injury during vrin- ter, thinning out where too thick, and shortening back shoots either imperfectly ripened, or such as have been left at too great a length previ- ously. Harrison prunes as early in the season (that is, in autumn) as the state of the trees will permit, beginning his general winter-pruning by operating on the peach and nectarine first. " I have," he says, " noticed some persons prune peach and nectarine trees that were in a bear- ing state as late as April, when the bloom-buds were just bursting. The effects that followed such a system were in numerous instances very evident, for soon after the blossoms had expand- ed, many of those situated nearest to the end of the shoots withered and dropped off, and the tree was considerably weakened. Young trees, how- ever, I uniformly prune in spring for the first two years after being planted, being careful that it is performed before the rising of the sap." As we have noticed in the case of the vine, early autumn-pruning strengthens a tree, while late spring-pruning greatly weakens it. Both For- syth and Rogers disagree with Harrison, both recommending spring-pruning, the latter re- marking that sometimes young shoots or old branches receive injury or die during the winter, and which cannot be seen till the spring-growth commences : " another thing," he says, " the later a peach tree is pruned, the sooner are the wounds healed." The principal object to be aimed at, in pruning and training the peach and nectarine, is to keep up a constant succession of young wood in every part of the tree ; for un- less this be accomplished, the crop of fruit must be partial and defective, and the trees them- selves become naked and worn out. With this object before us, it behoves us to adopt that mode of pruning and training most likely to insure success ; and as some of the many me- thods laid down are better adapted to some situations, soils, and circumstances than others, it is necessary that we not only make ourselves acquainted with these modes, but also choose from amongst them that which is best suited to the circumstances with which we have to deal. In connection with this, Mr George Lindley, in " Guide to the Orchard," p. 301, remarks, " To effect this (that is, keeping up a succession of young wood), the annual shortening of the young wood is perfectly calculated ; but the manner in which this ought to be performed has by no means been fixed upon one certain principle : the various methods laid down and insisted upon by writers being greatly at vari- ance with each other, they leave the inexperi- enced gardener in a dilemma as to which course he should pursue." A supply of young wood throughout every part of the tree is to be effected by pruning alone, and a judicious distribution of its young wood. " Commencing with the winter-pruning," Mr Lindley continues, "the first rule to be laid down as a basis for all the rest, is to shorten every shoot in proportion to its strength, and to prune to where the wood is firm and well ripened ; this will cause all the pithy and unripened wood to be removed, thence causing a supply of that which is better ripened for the ensuing year. But in order to give every facility to the ripening of this wood, it must be trained thin, not in profusion, accord- ing to the general custom, but such shoots only as may be required for the following year. Trees which have arrived at a bearing state should have their strongest bearing shoots shortened to 12 or 14 inches, those next in strength to 8 or 1 0, and the weaker ones to 4 or 6 inches, prun- ing each to what is termed a triple eye, or that where there is a blossom-bud on each side of a wood-bud. Where branches are not in a bearing state, these triple eyes will not be found. They must, therefore, be pruned to a wood-bud alone, which is always known by its sharp point. When the tree has been pruned once in this manner, the shoots must be trained neatly, nearly parallel to each other, so that a line continued in that direction would lead it- self clearly out to the extremity of the tree." Mr R. Errington, in " Cottage Gardener," vol. i. p. 116, lays down the following very explicit rules : " To understand this operation the better, it may be well to state what are the prime ob- jects ; namely. First, To thin out or remove superfluous shoots, in order to insure sufScient light and a due circulation of air to the remain- der; Secondly, To shorten back, for the twofold purpose of removing unripe or immature por- tions, and of inducing plenty of successive 490 FRUIT GARDEN. shoots lower down the tree. For illustration, we will suppose an established tree, which has been planted five or six years. The nails being all unloosened, excepting a few to hold the principal shoots, operations should commence at the bottom of the tree near the collar. Here it is that a watchful eye must be keenly exer- cised, at each returning pruning season, in order to preserve and continue a due succession of rising shoots from the lowest portion of the tree. It is evident that if the young shoots at this point are not taken care of, the lowest part of the tree will become barren, and a part of the wall wasted, besides which the tree will not be BO ornamental. It frequently happens that some of the young shoots at this point are in- ferior in character ; and very frequently shoots which spring from the collar, and reach a yard or so, possess a fine young shoot lower down, which is fitter to become the leading shoot of that portion of the tree than the one already existing. When such is the case, it becomes necessary to cut away the older portion. This must be done with a clean cut,, and nearly close to the point from which the future leader comes. However, the flr.st point is to out away any cank- ered or diseased shoots, and then to shorten judiciously these at the lowest level that can be obtained. It may here be observed that no fruit should ever be permitted to grow for the space of a foot from the top of the collar on any given shoot. If fruit is produced at these lower extremities they are always inferior, and they only serve to oppress a portion of the tree which ought always to be kept as a nursery for young shoots to keep the tree well famished. By ' shortening judiciously' we mean cutting back the lowest-placed young shoots as low as possible, provided a few good eyes or buds are left, and that such shoots are not required to fill existing blanks in the walls. Such, then, when pruned back, may be considered a guarantee against the tree becoming naked. We come now to bear- ing wood, and here the main point is selection, supposing there are more young shoots than are required. In making a choice, it is necessary to distinguish between the different kinds of young shoots ; for, strange to say, there are at least three kinds of young shoots on many peach and nectarine trees, and on most there are two." These Mr E. characterises as — first, Perfect bearing shootsjsecond, Exhausted shoots; third, Barren shoots, and these refer to the young spray. First, " Perfect bearing shoots. — These, in general, may be known by the majority of the eyes or buds seated on them being threefold — that is to say, in threes. When such is the case, the two outer ones are almost always blossom- buds, and the central one a wood-bud. All such is deemed wood of first-rate character, and it is the aim of the experienced cultivator to secure as much of this as possible. Second, Exhausted shoots. — We are not assured that this is the most proper title to give this class of shoots ; one thing, however, we do know, that when such shoots do begin to prevail generally over a tree, it is a pretty sure sign of a ' break- ing up of the constitution of the tree.' These have, for the most part, a single bud at a joint. and that bud a solitary blossom-bud. Such could not be readily distinguished, in early au- tumn-pruning, by a novice from the next class ; and this is a reason why amateurs who prune for themselves had better defer it till the early part of February. Wood of this character, rf left on the tree, has seldom vigour enough to produce fine fruit. Indeed, such wood not un- frequently 'sets' its blossoms more freely than the preceding class ; and it is by no means un- usual, at the thinning period at the end of May, ' to meet with shoots of this class with a score of fruit on, yet no leading bud or growing shoot. These fruits exhaust the tree much, and even- tually fall off. Third, Barren shoots. — These, again, possess solitary buds. They are, however, usually of late growth, and may readily be known by their pale and unripe character ; or they are the production of over-luxuriant trees, and serve to denote a tree of gross constitution or vigour misplaced. The difference between these and the preceding section is at once ap- parent at spring-pruning. The solitary buds of the former becoine veiy plump of a sudden, whilst these do not appear to increase at all. Wood of this character, if ripened, is frequently of eminent service, inasmuch as it serves to keep up the main fabric of the tree ; and al- though not bearing wood itself, it is capable of producing fine bearing shoots for the ensuing year. Some of this must, therefore, be occa- sionally reserved, especially if a blank or space bare of shoots in any part be anticipated ; for be it understood, much in peach-pruning depends on a far-seeing eye or skilful anticipation." The above may be taken as a description as to the condition of the tree, while the following may be considered as the rationale of Mr Errington's management of it, so far as regards its pruning : " The main business is to reserve a series of shoots all over the tree of the class No. 1, and where this class cannot be obtained, to secure enough of No. 3 ; the No. 2 class may, in most cases, be considered a last resource. So much for selection. We must now advert to the short- ening of the young spray. Only two reasons exist for shortening at all : the one is where shoots overtake each other, in which case some must be made to retreat, or the tree would be soon all confusion ; the other is founded on the necessity of removing unripe portions. The first case any mere tyro can judge for himself, the second requires some care. A little prac- tice will, however, teach the uninitiated the dif- ference between the two. The principal cri- terion is hardness. A practical man would soon distinguish them, although blindfolded, by means of his knife. Colour has something to do in this matter. Ripe wood is generally of a brownish colour — unripe, of a pale and delicate green. In ordinary oases about one-third has to be cut away ; nevertheless it is not easy to lay down a general maxim as to shortening, for it becomes necessary, for the sake of successional wood, to shorten more severely at the lower parts of the tree, decreasing in its amount progressively upwai'ds." In regard to the removal of large branches, Mr E. observes : " We never take these away unless compelled by sheer necessity. The THE PEACH AND NECTARINE. 491 peach and nectarine are very impatient under such violent operationa. Sometimes, however, actual decay of a branch takes place, and then such operations must be performed. The main business is to secure the wound afterwards. The admission of air and wet to the wound is ruin- ous. A kind of grafting-mixture, composed of cow-dung and lime, is very good. This should be fastened down with some waterproof material, and the whole tied tight. Upon all wounds on two or three year old wood we make a point of. applying a good coating of thick white-lead." Harrison, who practised in a high cold climate in Yorkshire, has very differently laid down his practice in his " Treatise on Fruit Trees." After having recommended, as strongly as the autho- rities we have already quoted, the necessity of keeping up a sufficient supply of young wood from towards the bottom of the tree, and also retaining as much wood as near to the origin of each branch as possible, to prevent nakedness below, he proceeds ; " The mode of treatment recommended and practised by some persons, of leaving wholly uushortened, at the winter regu- lation of the trees, all the wood which is retained for healing the following year, very much pro- motes the naked state of the branches" towards the bottom and centre of the tree. "I have tried," he says, " such a system of management, and with all the efforts I could make I never could keep the trees perfectly furnished with bearing wood for many successive years, because the leading bud always pushed a shoot first, and then three or four more near the top ; and by the sap finding such ready means of being em- ployed in these new shoots, the lower part was always nearly destitute of them. Not only is particular attention required to the obtaining and preserving bearing-wood in the situations described, but also in retaining a proper supply for beai'ing fruit the following year. The dis- tance which I consider best is to have all the young wood trained at 4 inches apart, for when they are much nearer than this the shoots crowd each other, because in summer one or two shoots are required to be retained for supporting the fruit which is upon the tree that season, as well as for a supply of wood to bear fruit the ensu- ing year." In regard to shortening the wood, &c., Mr H. scarcely differs from the opinions already given above, but in addition to their ob- servations, he says : " If there be any short spurs formed upon the two or three year old wood which is retained, let such be preserved, as they will be productive the following year." This is in accordance with Knight's views, afterwards to be noticed, and is stated by that great man as being valuable in cold climates, where theyoung wood of the peach does not always ripen. " It will sometimes happen," Mr Harrison continues, " that short wood will be found to have only single and double blooming buds upon them, with a growing ' or wood-bud' at the end, but no intermediate growing ones. In this case, if wood be not wanted at that part, the shoot must be left its entire length ; but if wood be re- quired in order properly to furnish the tree, let such a shoot be cut down so as to leave about half an inch of it remaining; there are generally a few embryo buds around the base of the part from which a new shoot will afterwards push. When a tree happens to have a great number of shoots so supplied with blooming buds, one-half, one-third, or one quarter of them must be cut down as directed, according to the quantity the tree has, or the portion of new wood required. The necessity of cutting to a growing or wood bud is, that at the ensuing spring a shoot may push at the top of that one shortened at winter-pruning, so that whatever fruit there may be below it the following sum- mer, it may have its required support from the tree, otherwise it will drop off or be defective in size and flavour. If a fruit of particular im- portance happen to be so circumstanced, a bud may be inserted artificially above the fruit, by which nourishment will be derived to it, and it will be matured. With the view of having a leading shoot to every branch of last year's wood, some persons do not prune their trees till late in spring, when they can more certainly discover which bud will push, and which will not. But so many injurious effects result from this practice, that it is advisable entirely to give it up. When it is found expedient to cut back part of a main branch, let it be done very cau- tiously. Always prune close up to a good lateral shoot for a supply, and do not prune farther back than 3 feet from the end of the branch ; for when a large portion of a main branch is taken away, the superabundant sap accumulates at the entrance into the lateral shoots, and the bad effects resulting from it will soon be apparent." Mr Knight's method of managing the peach upon n species of spur pruning is, as was re- commended by him, exceedingly well adapted for cold climates, and where the trees do not thoroughly ripen their young wood. " Instead of taking off so large a portion of the young shoots, and training in a few only to a consider- able length, as is usually done, and as I should myself do to a great extent in the vicinity of London, and in every favourable situation, I pre- serve a large number of young shoots which are emitted in a proper direction in early spring by the yearling wood, shortening each where ne- cessary, by pinching off the minute succulent points generally to the length of 2 or 3 inches. Spurs which lie close to the wall are thus made, upon which numerous blossom-buds form very early in the ensuing summer ; and upon such, after the last most unfavourable season, and in a situation sp high and cold that the peach tree in the most favourable seasons had usually pro- duced only a few feeble blossoms, I observed as strong and vigorous blossoms in the present spring as I had usually seen in the best seasons and situations ; and I am quite confident that if the peach trees in the gardens round the metropolis had been pruned in the manner above described in the last season, abundant and vigorous blossoms would have appeared in the present spring. I do not, however, mean to recommend to the gardener to trust wholly in any situation for his crop of fruit to the spurs produced by the above-mentioned mode of pruning and training the peach tree. In every 492 FRUIT GARDEN. warm and favourable situation I would advise him to train the larger part of his young wood according to the ordinary method ; and in cold and late situations only, to adopt to a great ex- tent the mode of management above suggested. A mixture of both modes in every situation will be generally found to multiply the chances of success, and therefore neither ought to be ex- clusively adopted or wholly rejected in any situation. The spurs must not be shortened in the winter or spring, till it can be ascertained what parts of them are provided with leaf-buds." This very sensible paper of Mr Knight's is well worth the attention of peach-growers in all situations, even in those whose climate is suffi- cient to mature the young wood to perfection, and especially so in sU late and cold localities. Mr Seymours mode of management is charac- terised for neatness, regularity, and almost mathematical precision in the disposal of his wood. It is, however, we apprehend, in the most favourable situations for peach-culture that this excellent plan can be fully carried out. The annexed cut, fig. 216, will explain the principle upon which Seymour works, better Fig. i;i6. SKYMOUR 5 AIODB OP PEACH-TRAININO. than a lengthened description vpithout it, and will show how capable the plan is of being carried out, as it were, mechanically. It will also be seen that every side shoot and every lateral proceeding from it is placed exactly where it should be; and to understand the principle more clearly, it will be necessary to refer to the com- mencement of the process immediately after the tree is planted. We may, however, first remark, that from the base of every lateral in spring a second one is produced to take the place of the other at the winter-pruning. And further, no laterals are allowed to be more than one year old, and are cut oif close to the leading shoot on which they are produced, with the view to prevent the formation of spurs. In course of time the leading shoots become worn out, and are then removed, their place being supplied from the best-placed laterals near to the main stem. The first step in starting a newly-planted maiden tree, upon Seymour's principle, is to head the plant down to three eyes, each of which eyes will produce a shoot during summer. In autumn or in spring, whichever is adopted for winter-pruning, head down the centre shoot of these to three eyes, to produce in the follow- ing summer three more shoots as before, leaving the side shoots always at full length. In spring, all the buds on the lower sides of these side branches are rubbed off, leaving those only which proceed from the upper side of the branch, and these from 9 to 12 inches asunder. When the young wood has extended to the length of 5 or 6 inches they are stopped ; but the leading branches, as we have stated, are never interfered with. Every year vrill produce a side shoot on each side of the tree, and the laterals which proceed from them, at the dis- tance we have stated, are at first laid in between them; but the following spring these are re- moved from the wall, and trained up in the main side-branches. In shortening what may here be called the upright leading-shoot, it is necessary to observe that, although we have stated three buds as being sufficient to be left, this depends greatly on the health of the tree. If weak, or of moderate growth, three buds will be sufficient ; but if strong and vigorous, then five may be safely left, which will thus give two pairs of side shoots instead of one, and thereby fill the wall sooner. By the autumn of the third year, the number of laterals will be doubled on the two side- branches first laid in, as a new lateral is sure to spring from the base of the one laid in the pre- vious season, as well as one from its point. As to winter-pruning in the fourth year, all the later- als of two years' growth, and which have already produced a crop of fruit, are to be removed entirely ; and those of the pre- vious summer's formation are to be unfastened from the wall, and laid upon the main leading side- branches in their place. Here it is that the beauty and symmetry of Seymour's mode of training become apparent So methodically has the author of this mode of training laid down his principle, that, taking a radius of 10 feet, making the middle of the trunk near the ground the centre, he divides the curved line described into 10-inch pai'ts, which are the points to which the leading side-branches are all directed. Should it at any time appear to the cultivator that these side leading-branches are too far apart, or if it is thought that more laterals can be advantageously laid in between them than those already produced, then some of these may be shortened, and so increase the number. This will seldom be necessary with strong-growing trees, although it may be so in the case of weak-growing ones. Hayward's mode. — This author writes on the subject of fruit trees both practically and phy- siologically. How far he is correct in all the deductions he has drawn may adm^it of some doubt; he has, however, treated his subject so differently from most other writers, that we deem his theory deserving a place amongst those of others who have made the training of the peach their peculiar study. On our present THE PEACH AND NECTARINE. 493 subject he says : " As the fructification of plants depends much upon the state and condition of the branches, and the surface of the trank, branches, and leaves exposed to the sun and the air, the proper adjustment and arrangement of these must be an important object of our consideration. Experience proves that very fine fruit is seldom produced on vei-y strong or on very weak branches, but generally on branches of a middle growth ; therefore, to render n. tree permanently fruitful, it must be necessary to manage and train it in such a manner that all the sustenance furnished by the roots shall be appropriated to the production of branches of a proper and equal growth, and that these be so arranged as to present the needful surface of leaves to the required infiuence of the sun and air. In determining the form and figi.u:e of a tree, as few persons are so devoid of taste as to prefer deformity to symmetry, or to be indifferent whether their plants and trees ex- hibit beauty or ugliness iu their forms and figures, we may take it for granted that it must be desirable, as far as possible, to blend beauty with prolificacy in training them, which may be done in great perfection. But the raising and training a tree is like the building of a house, or the raising any regular structure ; for if the plan be not first arranged and understood, and a proper foundation laid to sustain it, disorder and confusion must pervade the structure, and it can never be rendered desirable, commodious, or elegant. Then as the first stem and branch of a plant must form the foundation of the future tree, before we fix on a plan, or begin to train, we must first determine the space it is intended to occupy, and next, the form we wish it to assume. Every plant and tree is appointed by nature to attain a certain comparative height, and fill a certain comparative space, before it fructifies. Then in determining the heights to which plants and trees shall grow, we may con- sider the objects of nature to be two — the one to place it above the obstruction of inferior plants, the other to afford a certain surface of bark, or such a space of trunk and stem for the sap to pass over and through, as is necessary to prepare that which is required for fructifica- tion." To the second of these our subject is more especially at present directed. " Then how to attain the required surface of bark, or of stem or trunk, within 1 foot or 2 of the earth, with a tree that nature has appointed to grow 8 or 10 feet high before it forms its head for fructification (which is the case with the peach tree), must be the first or grand object of training ; and, as has been observed, as the peach tree bears its fruit on shoots of the last year, and when the branches are either too strong or too weak they will not bear fine fruit, it must be necessary to train this tree in such a manner and form that its sap shall be so equally divided as to form shoots of a medium growth, and that they be so placed as uniformly and constantly to cover the same space with fruit branches every successive year. The sap in all erect young trees, of which the peach is one, vsUl flow into and through those channels that oc- cupy the most vertical position next the root ; VOL. II. HAVWARD S MODE OF PEACH-TRAINING. HA\WAHD S MODB OF PEACH-TRAINING. Fig. 219. and it is not only in this respect evident that the flow of the sap is impelled by a principle directly opposite to that which impels the flow of water, but as water will flow over a great height above its level, with equal rapid- ity through a syphon as through a tube of the same size placed in a declining position, and leading into an open space below its level ; so will the sap flow through a branch so disposed as to form an inverted syphon in equal quantity as through the same branch had it been fixed in a vertical posi- tion. Thus the strong- est shoot wUl form at the point-bud a, fig. 217 ; or as in figs. 218 and 219. But if a branch be fixed in a horizontal position " — as in fig. 220— "the Strongest shoot will be produced in the most vertical bud nearest the base a, and the point- bud b will form the weakest shoot : it must, then, be obvious, that if it be desired to train the branches in a hori- zontal position, and still to extend them as much as possible in length, the point of the branch 6 must be turned up," as in fig. 221. "The point-bud b will then form nearly as strong a shoot as if the branch had been fixed in a vertical position ; and the bud at a, from its vertical position, and being nearest the root, will take a large share of sap, and form a strong shoot also ; if there- fore it be desired to direct the full supply of the sap to the point-bud b, and from that to form the strong- Fig. 221. est shoot the root will 5 supply, the a y buds at a, with all inter- vening buds, must be re- MwNvi.,- moved: when havward's aiode OF PEACH-TRAINING, all interven- ing buds are removed, as habit soon reconciles a plant to the position of its trunk, its sap will be passed with 3 E HAVWARD'S MODE OF PEACH -TRAINING. Fig. 220. HAYVVARD S MODE OF PEACH -TRAINING. 494 FRUIT GARDEN. equal facility through it when in a depressed position as when in an erect one, after a year or two." The above may be considered as the rationale of Mr Hayward's theory of the circulation of the sap ; and, in accordance with these views, he has laid down a principle of training the peach — of which fig. 222 will give a very correct idea Fig. 222. hayward's mode of PEAtH-TRAINING, Fig. 223. CALLOW S MODS OF PEACH-TRAINING. — when the tree has arrived at its full size and form. Some attention is required at starting upon this principle. From our figure it will be seen that two branches start from the main stem, and are laid in in nearly a horizontal direc- tion. To secure this without loss of time, it be- comes desirable that these shoots should be pro- duced the first year from budding. " This may be done," Mr Hayward observes, " by either in- serting the buds opposite to each other in the stock, or, when performing the operation of budding, those buds only should be inserted which have three leaves appended to them, as from such buds three shoots will be produced. Then, as soon as the buds begin to swell in the spring, the centre shoot should be picked out with the point of a pen-knife : the two lesser shoots will then push out sufficiently strong to form two equal stems; and these, if carefully guarded, will produce a plant of proper growth the first year from the budding. But if plants with two equal stems are not to be had, plants with one good stem only may be made to throw out a second one without, qutting back. By this mode one stem will appear to be a year behind the other in growth; but as the division of sap. will be equal in a few years, the youngest will attain the size of the other, and in the end both stems will be equal in their appearance and in their produce." Hayward's theory has been ra- ther severely treated by theoretical critics, many of whom find it easier to discover faults than to remedy them. His writings, although not in all cases agreeing with the generally- received physiological opinions, may nevertheless, as a whole, be perused with advantage. Callow's method of training the peach, fig. 223, shows the main branches in a position more horizontal than that in modes in general use ; the ends, however, of all the leading branches are elevated, forming a cur- vilinear inclination with the horizon, giving the trees a very elegant al- though not a constrained appearance. The old wood is not overcrowded, and the spaces between are very re- gularly filled up with the young bear- ing-wood, which is shortened yearly in spring, according to its strength, while the leading shoots are allowed to extend with little shortening at all. This mode is better adapted to low than to high walls. The fan mode of training, in one or other of its various modifications, is that most usually followed, both with the peach and apricot. It is by far the most natural, and admits of remedying the defects arising from the loss of a branch, which is almost impracticable in forms so truly symmetrical as those of Hayward or Seymour, and to which both these trees are oftentimes sub- ject. In one or other of its forms it is most generally followed in Britain, and is deserving of our attention— ;/irs«, because no peach trees in the world are trained so well ; secondly, because, on account of climate and other circumstances, Britain is not the most favourable for the successful cul- ture of the peach, nectarine, and apricot, to all of which this mode is applicable ; and where the greatest deviation from it has been practised, there the superiority of its principles is most clearly exhibited. A method of fan-training was recommended some years ago by Mr Kendall in the second volume of " The Gardeners' Magazine," p. 142, which has so much system and. simplicity in its whole arrangement that we have often been in- duced to follow it in training these trees on the open walls. A Fig. 224. maiden tree is se- lected and planted. In spring it is head- ed down to four eyes, placed in such a manner as to throw out two shoots on each KENDALL'S MODE OF ^^^^' t''"^ prCSCnt- PEAcH-TRAiHiNo. iug the appearaDCB THE PEACH AND NECTAEINE. 495 of fig. 224. At the following pruning season the two uppermost shoots are cut back to their eyes, o a, placed in such a manner as to throw out one leading shoot, and one shoot on each side ; the two lowermost shoots are cut back to two eyes, b b, so as to throw out one leading shoot, and one shoot on the vippermost side. The tree has then the appearance of fig. 225, having five leading shoots on each side, and Fig. 225, systems to which this class of trees is subjected, consists in preserving a sufficient quantity of young wood at the bottom of the tree ; and on no account must the pruner cut clean away any shoots so placed without well considering if it will be wanted, not only for the present, but for the future good appearance of the tree." Fig. 226 is a figure of a tree so managed in a more advanced state, in which it will be observed that the five Fig. 226. KENDALL 3 MODE OF PEACH-TRAINING. which are to form the first stage of the future tree. These ten shoots must be placed in the exact position in which they are to remain, and none of them are to be shortened. The third year, each of the ten leading shoots must be al- lowed to produce two other shoots on the up- permost side — one of those near the bottom, and the other about the middle of the shoot, and a third shoot from the under side of each — about half-way between those left on the upper side. The leading shoots should be allowed to extend without shortening. All shoots except those enumerated should be removed by disbudding. From the commencement of the fourth year fruit may be allowed to be produced, in quan- tity according to the strength of the tree, for nothing is so injurious to the peach as to allow it to produce fruit during its second and third years, if the object be to have healthy and long- lived trees. From the end of the third year, all the shoots excepting the leading ones must be shortened at the season of pruning, but to what length will depend on the vigour of the tree and judgment of the operator, bearing in mind that the stronger the tree the shoots should be laid in at greater length than when the tree is weakly ; and care should also be taken that the young wood be not retained too thick. In shoi'tening the shoots at the autumn or winter pruning, Mr Kendall recom- mends " cutting close to the bud, so that the wound may heal the following season." This operation has been questioned by Mr Beaton and others, who say the cut should be made at some distance above the bud. To this we will have afterwards to refer. The following season each shoot at the extremity of the leading branches should produce, besides the leading shoot, one on the upper, and two on the under part, more or less, according to the vigour of the tree : whilst each of the secondary branches should produce, besides the leading shoot, one other, placed near to the bottom ; " for the grand art of pruning," Mr Kendall observes, " in all leading shoots laid in at full length when the tree was as is represented by fig. 224, are quite trace- able in the advanced state of the tree, fig. 226, and form its chief ramifications, the secondary and young yearling wood filling up the spaces be- tween them. The general equilibrium of the tree is maintained by laying a greater quantity of wood, during summer, where the leading or secondary branches show too much vigour, as well as allowing a greater quantity of fruit to be pi-oduced on them also. Where debility ap- pears in the case of others, a completely opposite course is adopted. " Whatever system of training," Mr Kendall observes, "is to be pursued, the leading branches should be laid in in the exact position they are to remain ; for whenever a large branch is brought down to fill the lower part of the wall, the free ascent of the sap is obstructed by the extension of the upper and contraction of the lower parts of the branch. It is thus robbed of part of its former vigour, whilst it seldom fails to throw out, immediately behind the part most bent, one or more vigorous shoots. To assist the young practitioner in laying in the leading branches of the tree, the following method may be acceptable : Drive a nail into the wall, exactly where the centre of the tree is to be, then with a string and chalk describe a semicircle of any diameter ; divide the quadrant into 90°; the lowerbranch will then take an elevation of about 1 2°, the second of about 27^°, the third about 43°, the fourth 584°, and the fifth about 744°. A nail should be then driven into each of these points, and the chalk rubbed off." In very unfavourable situations, perhaps no systematic mode of training can be completely carried out, at least to the extent shown in our previous examples. In such cases, therefore, the cultivator must adopt that which may be characterised as the irregular mode — namely, to secure a supply of young wood from such parts of the tree as produce it, and often, instead 496 FRUIT GAEDEN. of placing it in the direction in which it would be placed in ordinary cases, he must lay it in wherever there is wall space convenient to the part from whence the shoot arises, and this without regard to whether the shoot is placed in a direction towards the root or top, and also to whether it is placed vertically or pendulous- ly ; the chief care being ' to cover the wall, as well as the naked branches which, under such circumstances, are almost sure to ijresent them- selves. It must be admitted that excellent crops are thus produced; but the trees will ever want that trim orderly appearance which those present which may be trained upon any of the foregoing principles. One important point in peach-pruning in Britain is the yearly shortening of the young wood, for without such a precaution in such a climate the tree would cease to exist in vigour for any length of time. The above may be considered the leading fea- tures of peach pruning and training as practised in Britain. American practice.— ^o\v strange it may ap- pear to us, who take such trouble with our peach trees, to read in Downing's " Fruits and Fmit Trees of America," — " It has always been the prevailing doctrine in this country that the peach requires no pruning. It has been allowed to grow, to bear heavy crops, and to die pretty much in its own way." The bad effects of this neglect have been discovered, and although most of their peach trees are grown in open orchards as our apples are, experience has led the most enlightened American cultivators to adopt prun- ing upon the shortening-ih principle, and the advantage of this alteration has become suffi- ciently obvious. " At the end of February," says Downing, " or as early in the spring as may be, we commence pruning. This con- sists only of shortening-in, — i. e., cutting off half the last year's growth over the whole out- side of the head of the tree, and also upon the inner branches. By reducing the young woo