CORNELL UNIVERSITY LIBRARY NEW YORK STATE SCHOOL OF INDUSTRIAL AND LABOR RELATIONS THE GIFT OF Leo Price, M. D. Cornell University Library The original of tiiis book is in tine Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924002289209 TREASURY DEPARTMENT UNITED STATES PUBLIC HEiO-TH SERVICE PUBLIC HEALTH BULLETIN No. 71 MAY, 1915 STUDIES IN VOCATIONAL DISEASES I. THE HEALTH OF GARMENT WORKERS ' ; ■■ By j/W. SCHERESCHEWSKY Surgeon,''fr. S. Public Health Service II. THE HYGIENIC CONDITIONS OF ILLU- MINATION IN WORKSHOPS OF THE WOMEN'S GARMENT INDUSTRY By J. W. SCHERESCHEWSKY Surgeon, V. S. Public Health Setvice-; and D. H. TUCK Assistant Physicist. V. S. Public Health S«;rVice PKKPAKSP BY PIRECTION OF THE SURGEON GENEHAl WASBIHGTON GOVEBKMENT PHINTING OFFICE ■ 1915 TREASURY DEPARTMENT UNITED STATES PUBLIC HEALTH SERVICE PUBLIC HEALTH BULLETIN No. 71 MAY, 1915 STUDIES IN VOCATIONAL DISEASES I. THE HEALTH OF GARMENT WORKERS By J. W. SCHERESCHEWSKY Surgeon, U. S. Public Health Service II. THE HYGIENIC CONDITIONS OF ILLU- MINATION IN WORKSHOPS OF THE WOMEN'S GARMENT INDUSTRY By J. W. SCHERESCHEWSKY Surgeon, TJ. S. Public Health Service and D. H. TUCK Assistant Physicist. XT. S. Public Health Service PREPARED BY DIRECTION OF THE SURGEON GENERAL WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1915 Page. Examination of female garment workers 39 General and special occupations 40 Posture of female garment workers 41 Nativity and race of female garment workers 41 Length of time in the United States 41 Length of time in special occupation 41 Previous occupations 42 Civil condition 43 Fertility of married garment workers 43 Earnings of female garment workers .• 44 Number of persons in families, number of rooms, and number of bed- rooms in domiciles of female garment workers 45 Hours of labor of female garment workers 46 Physical data 46 Average age of female garment workers 46 Age distribution 47 Significance of the average age of female garment workers 47 Height, weight, abdominal circumference, and chest measurement of female garment workers 48 Distribution of heights of female workers 48 Weight of female workers 48 Circumference of chest of female workers 48 Abdominal circumference of female workers 49 Strength of grip of female workers 49 Evidences of protection against smallpox of female workers 49 Pulse rate, blood pressure, and percentage of hemoglobin of female gar- ment workers 49 Blood pressure of female workers 50 Percentage of hemoglobin of female workers 51 Development and nutrition of female workers 52 Pelvic measurements of female workers 53 General physique of female workers 53 Defects and diseases of garment workers 54 Statistics on defects and diseases 54 Frequent or significant defects and diseases 61 Anemia 61 Albuminuria 62 Appendicitis 62 Arteriosclerosis 62 Chronic bronchitis and emphysema of lungs 62 Color blindness 63 Chronic constipation 63 Defective hearing 64 Effects of industrial noises 65 Defective posture in garment workers 65 Varieties of bad posture 66 Effects of previous military training on posture 66 Effects of physical exercises on posture 66 Posture of females 67 Spinal defects 67 Effects of faulty posture upon the health of the individual 68 Effects upon the respiratory system 68 Defects and diseases of garment workers — Continued. Page. Effects upon the abdominal organs 69 Relation of faulty posture to hernia 70 Visceroptosis 70 Relation of faulty posture to flat and weak feet 71 Effect of faulty shoes 72 Habitual working posture of machine operators 72 Garment trades as factors in producing faulty postures 73 Defective teeth and pyorrhea alveolaris in garment workers 73 Incidence of pyorrhea 74 Defective vision in garment workers 75 Use of glasses among garment workers 77 Menstrual disorders of female garment workers 78 Nervous affections in garment workers 78 Occupational pains 80 Nose and throat affections 80 Suspended matter in the air 83 Trachoma 83 Tuberculosis 84 Valvular disease of the heart 85 Varicose veins 86 Venereal diseases in male workers 86 Result of blood tests 87 The subjective state of health of garment workers 87 Summary 90 Summary of the observations as to the physical status and health of garment workers 91 Social and physical data of garment workers 92 Defects and diseases of garment workers , 94 Conclusions 97 Recommendations , 101 LIST OF TABLES. Table 1. — ^Race and nativity of male garment workers 19 Table 2. — Previous occupations of male garment workers 20 Table 3. — Civil condition of male garment workers 22 Table 4. — ^Average annual earnings of male garment workers 23 Table 5. — Number of persons in families of male garment workers 24 Table 6. — Number of rooms in domiciles of male garment workers 24 Table 7. — Number of bedrooms 25 Table 8. — Use of coffee and tea among male garment workers 25 Table 9. — Use of alcohol, male garment workers 26 Table 10. — Use of tobacco, male garment workers 27 Table 11. — Form of smoking used by habitual smokers, male garment workers. 27 Table 12. — Age distribution of male garment workers 28 Table 13. — Average heights of workers 29 Table 14. — Distribution of heights among male garment workers 29 Table 15. — A\erage weight by groups 30 Table 16. — Average weights of male garment workers for each height 30 Table 17 . — ^Average chest circumference of male garment workers 31 Table 18. — Number of male garment workers with circumference of chest (at rest) less than one-half the height 31 Table 19. — Vital capacity of male garment workers 32 6 Page. Table 20. — Vital capacity of male gannent workers as compared to height Table 21. — Abdominal circumference of male garment workers Table 22. — Distribution of pulse frequency, male garment workers ^^ Table 23. — Summary of blood pressures, male garment workers ^° Table 24. — State of development and nutrition of male garment workers 38 Table 25. — General occupation and special occupations of female garment workers 40 Table 26. — Nativity and race of 1,000 female garment workers 41 Table 27. — Previous occupations of female garment workers 42 Table 28. — Percentage of married, single, and widowed 43 Table 29. — ^Average annual earnings of 955 female garment workers 44 Table 30. — Average size of family, average number of rooms, and average num- ber of bedrooms of female garment workers, New York City 45 Table 31. — Ages by groups 46 Table 32. — Age distribution, female garment workers 46 Table 33. — Distribution of heights, female garment workers (height in stocking feet) 48 Table 34. — Distribution of pulse rate, female garment workers 50 Table 35. — Distribution of blood pressures, female garment workers 50 Table 36 . — Hemoglobin observations below 75 per cent, female garment workers. 52 Table 37. — State of the development and nutrition of female garment workers. 52 Table 38. — Defects and diseases observed in 2,086 male and 1,000 female gar- ment workers 54 Table 39. — Frequent or significant defects or diseases among male and female garment workers 61 Table 40. — Posture of 1,073 male garment workers 65 Table 41. — Spinal defects of male and female garment workers 67 Table 42. — Degree of defective vision, male garment workers 76 Table 43. — Degree of defective vision, female garment workers 77 Table 44. — Nervous affections in garment workers 79 Table 45. — Average dry and wet bulb temperatures and relative humidities in shops of the garment trades (based on Rogers's data) 82 Table 46. — Distribution of relative humidities, shops of the garment trades (Rogers's data) 82 Table 47. — Complaints of garment workers 88 Table 48. — Summary of social and physical data of garment workers 92 LIST OF CHARTS AND FIGURES. Chart I. — Monthly variation of employees in women's garment trade 45 Figs. 1 and 2. — Kyphotic posture gg Fig. 3. — Slanting backward posture gg Fig. 4. — Combined kyphotic and slanting backward posture gg Figs. 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9 show excellent postures in garment workers as a result of previous military training gg Figs. 10, 11, and 12 show excellent postures, the result of physical training 66 Fig. 13. — Extreme case of flat feet in a pressor 72 Figs. 14 and 15 show examples of bad and of good posture in youths of the same age (17 years) just entering the garment trades 72 Fig. 16. — Example of extreme neglect of oral hygiene in a garment worker. 72 Fig. 17. — Varicose veins in a presser (average severity) gg Page. PART n. — The hygienic condition of illumination in worlcshops of the women's garment industry 105 Introduction 105 General scope of the investigation 105 Acknowledgments 106 General principles of natural and artificial illumination 106 Natural illumination .'. . 106 Sources of daylight 106 Secondary sources 106 Intrinsic brilliance of sky 106 Sky angle 108 Effects of window glass 109 Effects of cleanliness 110 Tertiary sources of illumination 110 Distribution of illumination 110 Summary of principles of daylight illumination 110 Artificial illumination Ill Intensity of illumination Ill Minimum standard of artificial illumination 112 Distribution 113 Glare 113 Angle of glare 113 Shadows 113 Color of light '. . . . 114 Details of inspection 115 Description of apparatus used 115 Initial inspection 115 Photometric survey 116 Discussion of results 116 Measure of precision of observations 116 Orientation of windows 116 Window glass 117 Condition of glass 117 Sky angle 117 Floors on which workshops are located 118 Floor area — ^window area ratio 118 Effective window area 118 Albedo of walls and ceilings 119 Albedo of material worked upon 119 Working planes 120 Extent of artificial illumination 121 Illumination of cutting tables 121 Arrangement of cutting tables 121 Artificial illumination of cutting tables 124 Distribution 125 Gas illumination 125 Glare 125 General comment on the illumination of cutting tables 125 Pressing boards 126 Intensities of illumination 127 Artificial illumination 127 Glare effects 127 8 Discussion of results — Continued. Pressing boards — Continued. P*8«- Distribution ■ ^^^ Gas illumination Sewing machines ^ Perpendicular arrangement ^^^ Parallel arrangement ^^^ Prevailing intensities of illumination on machines 131 Distribution of daylight illumination 132 Artificial illumination 132 General methods for artificial illumination of machines 133 Reflectors used 133 Glare effects 133 Finishing tables 134 Arrangement of finishing tables 134 Prevailing intensities of illumination 134 Artificial illumination 135 Reflectors used 135 Glare effects 135 Basting tables 136 Artificial illumination 137 Reflectors 137 Glare effects 137 Buttonhole machines 138 Location 138 Prevailing intensities of illumination 138 Artificial illumination 138 Reflectors 138 Distribution 138 Glare effects 138 Design departments 139 Working planes 139 Artificial illumination 139 Glare effects 139 Prevailing intensities of illumination 140 Illumination of stairways _ 140 Windows 140 Color of walls, ceiling, and stairs 140 Artificial lights 140 Reflectors 140 Location of units 141 Prevailing intensities of illumination X41 Summary 141 Conclusions I45 Recommendations I45 Improvement of daylight illumination I45 Artificial lighting I47 Appendix A. — Methods of determining sky angle and angle of glare 151 Appendix B. — Reproduction of photometric survey of a typical workshop in the women's garment industries (shop No. 15) 15g Appendix C. — Tabulation of data secured in the photometric survey of a group of 34 typical workshops of the women's garment industries. New York, N. Y. summer of 1914 Ig^ 9 Page. Appendix D. — ^Mettod of rearrangement of working planes in order to im- prove daylight illumination in a typical workshop of the women's garment industry, New York, N. Y 186 Appendix E. — Distribution curves of combination of lamps and reflectors commonly used in the artificial illumination of workrooms in the women's garmeiit industry. New York, N. Y., and discussion 188 Appendix F. — Photographs of illuminating conditions in workrooms of the women's garment trades, New York City, with explanatory notes 219 Appendix G. — Extracts of notes made in photometric survey of workshops in the women's garment industry in New York City 223 LIST OF PIGUEES. Part II: Fig. 1. — Variations in sky brilliance according to cloud conditions 107 Fig. 2. — ^Typical relation of loft buildings in the women's garment in- dustries, New York City, to the sky and adjacent structures 108 Fig. 3. — Transmission curve of glass for light according to angle of inci- dence 109 Fig. 4. — Sharp-Millar photometer 115 Fig. 5. — Side elevation and plan of Sharp-Millar photometer 115 Fig. 6. — Storage battery, voltmeter, regulating resistance and leads in box. 115 Fig. 7. — Characteristic illumination gradient, cutting table, in proximity and perpendicular to window 122 Fig. 8. — -Characteristic illumination gradient, cutting table parallel to window 123 Pig. 9. — Characteristic illumination gradient, cutting table, in center of shop 123 Fig. 10. — Fall in illumination gradient on sewing-machine banks placed perpendicular to window 130 Fig. 11. — Illumination gradient of banks of sewing machines parallel to windows 131 Appendix A: Fig. 1. — Method of determining the sky angle of a room 151 Fig. 2. — Method of determining angle of glare for cutting and basting tables. 152 Fig. 3. — Method of determining angle of glare at sewing machines 153 Fig. 4. — Method of determining angle of glare at pressing tables 154 Fig. 5. — Method of determining angle of glare at finishing tables 155 Appendix B: Fig. 1.— Plan of shop No. 15 156 Appendix D: Fig. 1. — Poor utilization of daylight illumination in workroom of women's garment industry 186 Fig. 2. — Rearrangement of working planes shown in fig. 1 to secure better illumination 187 Appendix E: Fig. 1.— Type of reflector, D-10, 12, 14, 16 188 Fig. 2 .—Type of reflector OB 188 Fig. 3.— Type of reflector P-9 188 Fig. 4.— Type of reflector C-8 and C-10 188 Fig. 5.— Type of reflector HM-40, HM-60, S-11 188 Fig. 6.— Type of reflector, H-9673, XE-60 188 Fig. 7. — Type of reflector, one-half tin 188 Fig. 8.— Type of reflector B-12 - 188 Fig. 9. — Type of reflector, fancy 188 10 Fig. 10. — Reflex gas lamp. Appendix E — Continued. ^„^ 188 Fig. 11. — Four-mantle gas arc lamp Fig. 12.— Distribution curve of reflector D-10 and 50-watt gem lamp J-o» Fig . 13 .—Distribution curve of reflector D-10 and 100-watt tungsten lamp . 190 Fig. 14.— Distribution curve of reflector D-12 and 50-watt gem lamp 191 Fig. 15.— Distribution curve of reflector D-12 and 100-watt tungsten lamp . 192 Fig. 16 .—Distribution curve of reflector D-14 and 50-watt gem lamp 193 Fig. 17.— Distribution curve of reflector D-14 and 100-watt tungsten lamp . 194 Fig. 18.— Distribution curve of reflector F-9 and 60-watt tungsten lamp (small bulb) 195 Pig 19.— Distribution curve of reflector F-9 and 60-watt tungsten lamp (large bulb) 196 Fig. 20.— Distribution curve of reflector F-9 and 100-watt tungsten lamp.. 197 Fig. 21.— Distribution curve of reflector C-8 and 50-watt gem lamp 198 Fig. 22. — Distribution curve of reflector C-8 and 60-watt tungsten lamp (large bulb) 199 Fig. 23.— Distribution curve of reflector C-8 and 100-watt tungsten lamp. 200 Fig. 24.— Distribution curve of reflector C-10 and 40-watt tungsten lamp.. 201 Fig. 25.— Distribution curve of reflector C-10 and 60-watt tungsten lamp (small bulb) 202 Fig. 26.— Distribution curve of reflector O-IO and 60-watt tungsten lamp (large bulb) 203 Fig. 27. — Distribution curve of reflector C-10 and 100-watt tungsten lamp. . 204 Fig. 28.— Distribution curve of reflector HM-60 and 60-watt tungsten lamp (large bulb) -. 205 Fig. 29. — Distribution curve of reflector HM-60 and 100-watt tungsten lamp 206 Fig. 30. — Distribution curve of reflector HM-60 and 150-watt tungsten lamp 207 Fig. 31. — Distribution curve of reflector HM^O and 60-watt tungsten lamp (large bulb) 208 Fig. 32. — Distribution curve of reflector HM-40 and 100-watt tungsten lamp 209 Fig. 33. — Distribution curve of reflector D-16 and 100-watt tungsten lamp. 210 Fig. 34. — Distribution curve of reflector D-16 and 250- watt tungsten lamp. 211 Fig. 35. — Distribution curve of reflector H-9673 and 50-watt gem lamp 212 Fig. 36. — Distribution curve of reflector H-9673 and 100-watt tungsten lamp 213 Fig. 37. — Distribution curve of reflector J tin and 50-watt gem lamp 214 Fig. 38. — Distribution curve of opaline globe reflex lamp 215 Fig. 39. — Distribution curve of clear glass globe gas arc lamp 216 Appendix F: Fig. 1. — Machines, shop No. 18 (on flrst and second floor) poor lighting ar- rangement (note absence of lamps in reflectors) 220 Fig. 2. — Glare effects from projecting filaments in a shop with poor day- light illumination 220 Fig. 3. — Fishtail burners used in the illumination of machines 220 Fig. 4.— Bare lamps used in the illumination of machines 220 Fig. 5. — Finishing tables, lamps project below reflectors 220 Fig. 6.— Fini s hi n g tables, shop No. 10c; artificial light provided for byflsh- tail gas burners 220 Fig. 7. — Illumination of pressing tables, projecting fllaments, and naked lamps 220 11 Appendix F — Continued. Page. Fig. 8. — Illumination of pressing tables, shop No. 8. Shallow saucer re- flectors permit glare effects from exposed lamps 220 Fig. 9. — Illumination of pressing tables, shop No. 12. Gas arc in clear globe and low suspended fishtail burners produce glare effects 220 Fig. 10. — Pressing table, shop No. 11, with opal extensive bowl type reflectors; 250-watt tungsten lamps 220 LIST OF TABLES. Part II: Table 1. — Color composition of ordinary light sources as compared to average daylight 114 Table 2. — Distribution of sky angle values of windows 117 Table 3. — Distribution of floors of shops surveyed 118 Table 4. — Albedo of walls and ceiling 119 Table 5. — Albedo of material commonly worked upon 120 Table 6. — Percentage of shops in which working planes were illuminated by daylight only and by combined artificial light and daylight 121 Table 7. Prevailing intensities of illumination (by tables) on cutting tables 126 Table 8. — Prevailing intensities of illumination (by boards) on 175 pressing boards 7 ' 127 Table 9. — Prevailing intensities of illumination on sewing machines by shops 131 Table 10. — Prevailing intensities of illumination on sewing machines by machines 132 Table 11. — Prevailing intensities of illumination on finishing tables by unit spaces 134 Table 12. — Prevailing intensities of illumination on basting tables 136 Table 13. — Prevailing intensities of illumination on stairs 141 Table 14. — Illumination found at working places 142 Appendix C: Table 1.— General data 164 Table 2.— Cutting table data 164 Table 3. — Basting table data 165 Table 4. — Machine data 167 Table 5.— Finishing table data 170 Table 6.— Pressing table data 172 Table 7. — ^Buttonhole machine data 174 Table 8. — Cutting table data, design room 175 Table 9. — ^Machine data, design room 176 Table 10. — Finishing table data, design room 177 Table 11. — Pressing table data, design room 178 Table 12. — Illumination of stairs 179 Table 13. — Outdoor illumination 181 Table 14. — General summary of conditions of daylight and artificial illu- mination 183 Appendix E: Table 1. — Solid angle value (in steradians) of various zones according to their angle from the vertical 218 INTRODUCTION. While it is self-evident that the health of workers and the hygienic conditions under which industries are carried on have always been of fundamental importance to society, it is only within the past decade or so, in this country at least, that these questions have begun to receive their merited recognition as a part of the general problem of safeguarding the public health. In the past the true correlation of conditions affecting the health of workers to those affecting the public welfare has been misapprehended in that questions involving the hygiene of industries have been treated more or less as separate and accidental branches of sanitary science, constituting a field entirely apart from that of the study of general hygienic conditions. Fortunately, however, the old viewpoint is being rapidly replaced by the concept that, far from constituting a separate field of their own, the hygienic conditions in industries must be considered as forming a part of the general field of public-health work. This is the more evident from the fact that industrial conditions aflfecting the health of the worker can never be separated sharply from those of his total environment, nor is it possible to define where the field of industrial hygiene ceases and that of public health begins. It inevitably hap- pens that an investigation of a particular zone of sanitary science leads us further and further afield, so that, in following collateral ramifications, we soon find ourselves once more considering broad questions of the public welfare. When recent legislation increased the functions of the Pubhc Health Service, it became possible to enter more freely into the study of questions of industrial hygiene and enlarge materially the sphere of the service's former activities in this direction. One of the first matters for investigation seemed to be that of the actual con- dition of health of workers in various industries. Studies of this character are necessary in order properly to assess the value which should be assigned to the influence of insanitary conditions, inherent in the industry under consideration, upon the health of the worker, and the effect of other insanitary conditions common to his social and economic status. Fortunately, an opportunity was early presented to make the first of a series of such studies which the service hopes to extend as facilities permit. The Surgeon General of the Public Health Service (13) 14 received a request from the Joint Board of Sanitary Control of the Cloak, Suit and Skirt, and Dress and Waist Industries of New York City, to make an investigation of the health of workers in these industries, together with studies as to hygienic conditions of illumi- nation in shops of these trades, and certain studies as to the air of such shops as aflfected by the use of gas-heated pressing irons. It was, accordingly, decided to make these studies, and the writer was detailed to have general charge of them. TTie Joint Board oj Sanitary Control of the CloaJc, Suit and SMrt, and Dress and Waist Industries. — As the request for these studies was made by the Joint Board of Sanitary Control of the Cloak, Suit and Skirt, and Dress and Shirt Waist Industries of New York City, which cooperated in the work, it may be of interest to describe briefly this board, which constitutes a new departure in the history of industries in the United States. As a result of a strike of garment workers in New York, in 1910, among other industrial differences which were composed, the Joint Board of Sanitary Control was constituted for the purpose of improving and supervising the sanitary conditions in the associated garment trades, i. e., the cloak, suit and skirt, and dress and waist iadustries. This board consists of representatives of the manufacturers, of the cloak, suit and skirt, and dress and waist maker's unions, and of the general pubhc. Its executive and sanitary activities are conducted under the supervision of a director. Its general duties are as f oUows : 1. To estabhsh and enforce sanitary standards in the shops of the above-mentioned industries. 2. To reduce, so far as possible, the danger from fire hazards. 3. To see that workers receive proper instruction in fh-e drills and fire prevention. 4. To educate workers in the principles of industrial and personal hygiene and to stimulate a demand among them for hygienic indus- trial conditions. 5. To see that complaints received as to insanitary conditions existing in shops of the trade are investigated and the conditions rectified. Extent of the cloak and suit, and dress and waist industries. — The principal center of the cloak and suit and dress and waist industry in the United States is found in New York City. According to the figures contained in the Third Annual Report of the Joint Board of Sanitary Control, it appears that in 1913 there were 1,735 shops, with 48,967 persons engaged ia the cloak, suit, and skirt trades, and 700 shops, employing 36,868 persons, in the dress and shirt-waist industries, or a total of 2,435 shops and 85,835 workers in both industries. In the cloak, suit, and skirt trades about 87 per cent of 15 the workers are males and 13 per cent females, while in the dress and waist industries the proportions are reversed, 77 per cent being females and 23 per cent males. Scope of the investigation'. — The investigation began on April 13, 1914, and the portion described in this report lasted till November 1, 1914. A certain part of the investigation, relating to the effect of gas-heated apparatus upon the air of shops, is still being continued, and the results will be set forth in a subsequent report. The investigation consisted of the following lines of inquiry: 1. A complete physical examination of about 2,000 male and 1,000 female workers in the industries concerned. 2. Detailed studies of the hygienic conditions of illumination in shops of the two industries. 3. Chemical examination of the composition of the air in shops of the cloak, suit, and skirt and waist industries, particularly as to the presence of carbon monoxide gas. 4. Observations as to conditions of heat and humidity present in the shops of the trade. 5. An inspection as to sanitary conditions of shops. Through the courtesy of the faculty of Cornell Medical School, the facilities of its chemical laboratory were placed at the disposal of the service for the chemical part of the investigation, while the facihties of the out-patient department were obtained through the kind offices of Prof. W. Gihnan Thompson, for the further detailed study of the physical condition of workers or for the medical and surgical relief of any defects or diseases requiring immediate attention found as a result of the examination. Due acknowledgment is hereby made for this assistance. Due acknowledgment is also rendered to the Joint Board of Sanitary Control and its director, Dr. George M. Price, for the cooperation that made this investigation possible. STUDIES IN OCCUPATIONAL DISEASES. PART I. THE HEALTH OF WORKERS WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO THE CLOAK, SUIT, AND SKIRT, AND DRESS AND WAIST TRADES IN NEW YORK CITY, N. Y. By J. W. SCHEKESOHEWSKT. The first part of this report deals with the data derived from the physical examination of garment workers. Offices were occupied by the service at 31 Union Square, west, for the conduct of these examinations, one set of oflB.ces being used for the examination of males, the other for the examination of females. Through the cooperation of the Joint Board of Sanitary Control and the imions of the industries under consideration, information as to the objects of the investigation was disseminated among the workers, so that there were no dearth of applicants for physical examination. The examination of males were conducted by the writer. Passed Asst. Surg. Friench Simpson, Passed Asst. Surg. Kobert Olesen, Acting Asst. Surg. William H. Sheldon, and Acting Asst. Surg. H. C. Wifiiamson. The examinations of females, under the supervision of the writer, was conducted by Acting Asst. Surgs. Ebba A. Dederer, Frances Shostac, Eva Cohnheim, and Fanny Dembo. Dr. Barsky of the Joint Board of Sanitary Control also rendered assistance in the examinations, for which due acknowledgment is hereby made. Type of physical examination. — The type of physical examination made was thorough. Aji average from 40 to 50 minut esjEas-apfiat in the examination of ea cETlndividual. Besides examining conditions of the viscera and the general physicaFstatus, observations were made as to the height and weight, circumference of the chest at rest, at fuU inspiration, at expiration, the abdominal circumference, vital capacity, strength of grip of the right and left hands, pulse rate, the systolic and the diastolic blood pressure, the percentage of hemoglobin in the blood, condition of the reflexes, the teeth, state of the vision, including color sensation, condition of the bodily orifices, conditions of bones, joints, and extremities, the incidence of albumen and sugar , 95485°— Bull. 71—15 2 (17) 18 in the urine (in males only) and in 259 instances the blood was tested for the presence of syphilitic antibodies. The physical examination of females was not quite so complete as that of the males. In addition to the physical data enumerated above, civil and social data were obtained in regard to the foUowing points: Name, age,' address, shop, nativity, race, years in the United States, married, smgle, or widowed, number of children living, number of children dead at time of examination, number of persons in family, health of family, number of rooms in homes, number of bedrooms in home, habits in regard to tea, coffee, alcohol, and tobacco, general occupation, years in general occupation, special occupation, years in special occupation, previous occupation, years in previous occupation, whether piece or week worker, hours of work daily, hours of work weekly, average weekly earnings, average yearly earnings, posture at work, whether standing or sitting. Data were also collected as to the previous state of health and as to any subjective symptoms present at the time of examination. EXAMINATION OF MALE WORKERS. In view of the fact that the male workers examined were exclusively engaged in the cloak, suit, and skirt trades, while the females, on the other hand, came almost entirely from the dress and shirt-waist trades, it win be convenient first to consider the data derived from the examination of the males and then those in relation to the females. The male workers examined, as previously stated, consisted of those engaged exclusively in the cloak, suit, and sldrt trades, in which some 70 or 80 per cent of the workers are males. For the purposes of classification the workers in this trade may be divided into the follow- ing five groups: (1) Cutters; (2) operators; (3) finishers; (4) pressers; (5) miscel- laneous workers (tailors, sample makers, buttonhole makers, bushel- men, and the hke). These perform the f oUowiag duties : Cutters cut out the garments- according to the patterns furnished them; operators sew the pieces together by means of electrically driven sewing machines, each oper- ator making the entu-e garment so far as this can be accomplished on the machiae; finishers perform ia general such operations upon garments as must be done by hand, such as overcasting seams, sewiag on buttons, and the Hke; pressers, as then- name indicates, press the garments whenever this is required. Posture at work.—Oi the workers above enumerated, two classes (cutters and pressers), habitually work standing, while two, namely, operators and finishers, work sitting. Among miscellaneous workers, whose number is small as compared to the classes just enumerated, 19 there is some variation in the posture, the majority working while sitting, while a few, such as those engaged in draping work, now sitting, now standing. There are thus important postural differences between the various classes of garment workers. There is also a difference in the wage scale of these workers, two of the groups (operators and finishers) being paid upon a piecework basis, while the two remaining groups (cutters and pressors) are paid by the week. Number of each class examined. — ^The following number of each group was examined: Operators, 976; pressors, 720; finishers, 280; tailors, 54; cutters, 4S; other miscellaneous workers, 23, or a total of 2,091. It is thus seen that 1,976, or about 95 per cent of those examined, belong to the three principal classes of workers from a numerical standpoint in the cloak, suit, and skirt trade, i. e., oper- ators, finishers, and pressers. Nativity and race. — The following table (Table 1) gives the race and nativity of the male garment workers examined. Table 1. — Race and nativity of male garment worTcers. Race. Nativity. Occupation. i 1^ 1 3 1— i ■B o Ah p3 (A 1 < 1 a 1 ■a 3 ■H 3 Operators Pressers 971 663 279 53 48 24 6 65 3 -'i 832 515 243 41 39 22 131 137 28 12 9 2 7 11 7 1 1 '"' i 5 65 3 2 976 1 ' i 722 282 Tailors 55 Cutters 48 Mi'jPfilla.Tip.nns 24 Total 2,038 65 i 1,692 320 . 25 1 1 2 1 65 2,107 Per cent by race 96.7 3.08 0.19 80.4 16.2 1.19 0.047 0.047 0.095 0.047 3.09 It will be seen from this table that 96.7 per cent of the male workers examined belong to the Jewish, 3.08 per cent to the Itahan, and 0.19 per cent to the PoHsh race. Only two of the number examined were born in the United States, 80.4 per cent being born in Russia, 15.2 per cent in Austria, 3.09 per cent in Italy, 1.19 per cent in Rumania, and 0.047 per cent in Turkey, Germany, and England, respectively. Length of time in the United States. — The average length of time male garment workers had been in the United States was as follows : Cutters, 8.62 years; operators, 10 years; pressers, 8.35 years; fin- ishers, 8.69 years; tailors, 12.88 years; other miscellaneous workers, 4.64 years. The average length of time in the United States for all male garment workers was 9.25 years in the 2,091 instances in which this information was collected. Length of time in special occupation. — The workers examined had followed their special occupations for the following average time: 20 Operators, 9.48 years; pressors, 7.76 years; finishers, 8.5 years; cutters, 6.58 years; tailors, 22.15 years; other miscellaneous workers, 6.42 years. Comparing these figures with those of the average times in the United States for these several occupations, it wiU be seen, with the exception of the tailors, that apparently male garment workers took up their special occupations shortly after their arrival in the United States. Previous occupation. — Data referring to previous occupations were collected in the case of 957 operators, 696 pressors, 277 finishers, 46 cutters, 51 tailors, and 23 other miscellaneous workers a total of 2,052 instances. In 478 cases the workers had no previous occupa- tion. Previous occupations were reported in 1,574 instances. The following table gives a Ust of these occupations: Table 2. — Previous occupations of male garment workers (2,052 observations). Occupation. Opera- tors. Press- ors. Finish- ers. Cutters. Tailors. Miscel- laneous. Total. 243 146 3 1 4 28 50 7 477 Baker Barber 1 2 3 1 Blacksmith 28 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 1 2 1 30 Bookbinder 1 Bra.'wfmmrtry wnrlrpr J Bricklayer 1 Bristol-hair worker 1 Brush maker 5 1 Buttonhole maker 3 1 ranrly ■mn.lrPT 1 1 1 1 21 1 2 Capmaker 11 12 Caretaker Carpenter 9 1 31 Cement layer 2 1 3 Cigar maker 1 Cigarette maker 3 38 1 198 1 1 1 Clerk 32 1 57 2 9 1 2 Comb maker 2 Commerce 1 1 3 Cook 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 Danciag teacher Dock worker Dressmaker 1 Dyer 1 1 1 1 Eggcandler 1 Embalmer Embroiderer 4 3 1 Errand boy 3 4 Expressman, . 4 36 1 1 5 Farmer 5 Fireman 1 1 11 Furniture-factory worker Furrier 6' Hail- worker Innkeeper Ironworker Knitter i' 3 i' 2 i' 1 13 1 26 i' 2 1 2 1 16 1 27 2 2 1 20 Ladies' hats Lead worker '_'_[ 1 ¥ 2 1 17 1 i' 21 Table 2. — Previous occupations of male garment workers {2,05$ observations) — Contd. Occupation. Opera- tors. Press- ors. Finish- ers. Cutters. Tailors. Miscel- laneous. Total. Linesman . - - . - . 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 1 3 2 2 2 1 2 Miller 2 1 1 7 1 6 1 1 4 2 1 1 4 1 3 1 9 paS ™ - . r^.^ :. '. '. : ; : : : : : : : : : : : r. : : : 5 7 4 1 4 1 2 1 4 2 1 1 3 3 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 1 2 1 3 1 28 1 1 59 87 1 1 447 1 1 15 2 15 1 1 1 2 5 269 6 737 Teacher 3 15 1 2 1 1 2 2 7 1 1 1 1 13 10 1 1 1 23 1 1 2 3 Total 959 696 277 46 51 23 2,052 It will be seen from this table that the pressers exhibited the greatest variety in their previous occupations, having been engaged in 77 previous calhngs. The operators come next with a list of 48 different trades. The cutters had 10 kinds of previous occupations, the miscellaneous workers 8, the finishers 4, the tailors but 1. Only 1 tailor out of 50 had had any previous occupation. Ninety-nine per cent of the finishers, 70 per cent of the operators, and 50 per cent of the miscellaneous workers had previous occupations directly con- nected with the clothing trades, while in the case of pressers and cutters having previous occupations, in only 4 per cent and 0.5 per cent, respectively, of the instances were these caUings connected with the garment trades. It will be noted that among pressers as a class a number of the previous occupations entailed considerable muscular exertion, and hence required a vigorous physique, no less than 40 or 50 per cent of the previous occupations reported by 22 pressers being of this character. In the case of the operators 14 pre- vious occupations reported, or 29 per cent, called for vigorous muscular exertion, while in the case of the finishers aU the previous occupations reported were of a sedentary character. Civil condition of male garment workers. — In regard to this condition the following percentages (Table 3) of male garment workers were, respectively, single and married : Table Z.— Civil condition of male garment worlers {per cent singl ! and married). Married. Single. Per cent. 66.5 83.28 81.00 29.00 85.19 74.00 Per cent. 33.5 Pressers. 16.72 Piuishers 19.00 Cutters . 71.00 Tailors 14.1 Children iom to married garment workers. — The total number of children bom to 1,518 married garment workers was 4,878, of whom 4,096 were living and 882 were dead at the time of the examination. The percentage of the children who died of the total number bom was therefore 15.82. The average number of children born to each married garment worker was 3.21, while the average number of children living at the time of examination to each married garment worker was 2.7, leaving an average of 0.51 children dead prior to the time of the examination. Analyzing by groups, the births and mortahty of chUdren among married garment workers, the following results were noted: Married operators (639) : Average number of living children to each married operator, 2.39; of children dead, 0.31; of total children born, 2.70. Married pressers (578) : Average number of hving children to each married presser, 2.83; of children dead, 0.58; average total number of children born, 3.41. Married finishers (225) : Average number of living chUdren to each married finisher, 3.70; average number of children dead, 0.93; aver- age total number of children born, 4.63. Married tailors (46): Average number of children hving, 2.83; of children dead, 0.57; of total children born, 3.4. Married cutters (14) : Average number of hving children to each married cutter, 0.71 ; number of children dead, 0.21 ; total number of children born per cutter, 0.92. Married misceUaneous workers (16): Average number of hving children to each miscellaneous married worker, 2.5 ; average number of children dead, 0.19; average total number of children born, 2.69. 23 The percentage of children dying of the total number born, prior to the time of the examination, was as follows for these groups: Operators, 11.7 per cent; pressors, 17.11 per cent; finishers, 21.7 per cent; cutters, 23 per cent; tailors, 16.6 per cent; other miscel- laneous workers, 7 per cent. It is thus seen that the group having the highest number of children, namely, the finishers, had also the greatest mortaUty among the children bom to them, with the excep- tion of the cutters, in which group the number of observations is too small to permit of drawing conclusions. Income of garment workers. — In collecting information as to the amounts earned by garment workers, reliance had to be placed upon their individual staterhents. These statements furnish the results set forth in the following table: Table 4. — Average annual earnings of male garment workers. Occupation. Annual earnings. Occupation. Annual earnings. {893 748 720 S666 Tailors Pressors . 562 Cutters 486 From this table it is seen that the miscellaneous workers had the highest earning capacity followed, in order named, by cutters, oper- ators, pressers, and lastly the finishers. The high wages earned by the miscellaneous workers is due to the fact that this group contained a large proportion of specially qualified workers of whom some earned wages to the amount of $1,500 annually. It will be noted, with the exception of the cutters, that the mortality among the child- ren bom to married garment workers apparently bears a general rela- tion to the annual earnings in that the group earning the highest wages — i. e., miscellaneous workers — had the lowest mortality among their children, whereas the finishers with the lowest annual income had the highest mortality. The average annual earnijags of all the male garment workers examined, as reported by them, were $611.50. The annual income of garment workers, however, is not in direct proportion to their weekly wages for the reason that employment is not continuous throughout the year in this industry. This occupation presents a marked seasonal fiuctuation, as there are periods of great activity in production in the busy fall and spring seasons, while during the sum- mer and the middle of the winter, there is relatively little work to be had. Number of persons in families of male garment workers. — It was deemed of interest to ascertain, in connection with the wages earned, the number of persons in the families of male garment workers. 24 Accordingly, data on this point were collected. The following table shows the number of persons in the families of male garment workers; Table 5.- -Number of persons in families of male garment worhers. J Opera- tors. Pres- sers. Finish- ers. TaU- ors. Cut- ters. Miscel- laneous. All main worliers. 959 5,070 683 3,7H 278 1,638 54 294 48 187 24 121 2,046 Number in families 10,969 5.28 5.64 5.53 5.44 5.5 6.04 6.35 From this table it appears that the average number of persons m the families of male garment workers was about the same for each class, and that the average number of persons in the families of male garment workers was 5.35. Number of rooms in domiciles of male garment worTcers. — Turning now to the number of rooms in the domiciles of male garment workers, the following table gives the data concerning this point in 2,048 instances: Table 6. — Number of rooms in domiciles of male garment worhers. Number of rooms in domicile. Opera- tors. Press- ers. Finish- ers. Cutters. Tailors. Miscella- neous worlcers. Total. Per cent. 1 16 259 480 154 43 6 1 1 1 35 228 307 84 21 e" 2 65 606 978 294 84 8 7 1 98 13 93 124 37 10 2 1 6 28 9 3 3.17 3 rooms 12 28 8 6 8 11 2 2 29.8 47.7 14.35 4.1 .39 grooms 34 49 i 1 2 49 Sleep in shops . . 2 98 Total 962 684 279 47 63 23 2,048 Average number of rooms in domi- cile 3.98 3.77 3.8 4.15 4.11 3.48 3.88 From this table it is seen that the average number of rooms in the domiciles of all male garment workers was 3.88. The pressers, with an average of 3.77 rooms, had the lowest average, while the cutters, with 4.15, had the highest. In 47.7 per cent of the instances the num- ber of rooms in the domiciles of male garment workers was 4, and in nearly 30 per cent of the cases there were but 3. Dividing the aver- age number (5.35) in the families of male garment workers by the average number of rooms in then* domiciles (3.88), it will be seen that the average number of occupants per room is 1.37. Considering now the number of rooms stated to be used as bed- rooms in the domiciles of male garment workers, the results set forth in the following table were noted: 25 Table 7.— Number of bedrooms. Opera- tors. Press- ors. Finish- ers. Tailors. Cutters. Miscella- neous worlsers. General average. Number of observations 959 1,648 634 1,061 280 436 64 83 48 67 24 36 2,049 3,231 1.614 1.562 1.557 1.63 1.445 1.6 1.576 It will be seen frdm this table that operators with an average num- ber of rooms, used exclusively as bedrooms, of 1.614 in their domi- ciles had the highest average, while cutters, with 1.445, had the low- est. The pressers, who had the highest average number of persons in their families (5.54) had the lowest number of rooms used exclu- sively as bedrooms. Hours of labor.— Smce the strike in the garment trades in New York, in 1910, the daily hours of labor in the garment trades has been fixed at 60 hours per week, namely, 9 hours daily, except on Saturday, which is a half day. Overtime is allowed in the busy fall and spring season, but it appears from the Third Annual Report of the Joint Board of Sanitary Control that the necessity for working overtime has been greatly reduced. HABITS OF MALE GARMENT WORKERS IN REGARD TO THE USE OF TEA, COFFEE, ALCOHOL, AND TOBACCO. Use of tea and coffee. — Observations were made as to the use of tea and coffee among male garment workers in 1,961 instances. The following table shows the number of non-users of either beverage, the number of habitual users, and the number of occasional users of coffee and tea: Table 8.— Use of coffee and tea among male garment workers Total Num- Num- ber num- ber Non- ber using Total Occupation. users of coHee Per cent. using coffee or tea Per cent. coffee or tea Per cent. coffee or tea occa- Per cent. num- ber of obser- or tea. habit- ually. sion- ally. sion- ally or habit- ually. vations. 141 81 32 9 7 3 15.4 12.5 11.5 17.6 14.9 14.3 403 368 156 18 27 11 44.0 66.7 66.4 35.3 57.4 62.4 372 200 89 24 13 , 7 40.5 30.8 32.1 47.1 27.6 33.0 775 668 245 42 40 18 84.6 87.5 88.5 82.4 85.1 86.7 916 649 277 Tailors 51 47 Miscellaneous workers 21 Total 273 13.9 983 50.1 706 35.9 1,688 86.1 1,961 From this table it appears that 273, or 13.9 per cent of workers in regard to whom this information was collected, used neither tea nor 26 coffee, while 1,688, or 86.1 per cent, used coffee or tea habituaUy or occasionaUy. Of this number 983 used either or both of these bever- ages habitually, and 705 used them occasionally. An individual was said to be an habitual user when the beverage m question was used daily. Although there was but little difference among the various groups of workers as to theh- habits in regard to tea and coffee, finishers were inclined to use these beverages the most freely and tailors the least freely among garment workers. The number of observations, how- ever, in this latter group was low, and several of their number after having been free users of these beverages in the past had recently discontinued their use on the advice of physicians. Use of alcohol among garment workers. — As a class male garment workers were found moderate in their use of alcohol. Very few of those examined gave indications of the immoderate use of alcohol in the past. The following table shows the number of total abstainers, the num- ber of occasional, and the number of habitual users of alcohol in 1,976 male garment workers in whose case these data were recorded: Table 9. — Use of alcohol, male garment workers. Occupation. Total abstain- ers. Per cent. Occa- sional users of al- cohol. Per cent. Habit- ual users of al- cohol. Per cent. Total. 297 132 86 24 19 6 32.0 20.3 30.9 51.0 35.2 30.0 483 347 144 20 26 10 52.0 53.5 51.8 42.5 48.2 50.0 148 170 48 3 9 4 16.0 26.2 17.3 6.4 16.6 20.0 928 Pressers ... . 649 278 Cutters . 47 Tailors 54 20 Total 664 28.5 1,030 62.1 382 19.3 1,976 From this table it appears that 564, or 28.5 per cent of male garment workers included in the table, were total abstainers; 1,030, or 52.1 per cent, made occasional use, and 382, or 19.3 per cent, made habitual use of alcoholic beverages. "Habitual use" has the same meaning as applied to the use of alcoholic beverages as it has to the use of coffee and tea, i. e., it implies daily use. Cutters, as a class, showed the greatest number of total abstainers (51 per cent), pressers the least (29.3 per cent) ; cutters also showed the least number of habitual users of alcohol (6.4 per cent), while pressers also showed the highest number (26.2 per cent). It is possible that the work of the presser, requiring as it does considerable muscular exertion, besides exposure to the added heat of pressing irons, and the humidity generated from damp pressing cloths, is a factor in determining the greater addiction of pressers to alcoholic beverages. 27 Among the habitual users of alcoholic beverages the relative num- ber of habitual drinkers of beer only (120) was very nearly equal to the number (129) of drinkers of beer and whisky. The number of habitual users of beer only and of beer with whisky occasionally was 165, as compared to 97 who use whisky habitually and whisky with beer occasionally. The average daily consumption of those habitu- ally using beer alone was 3.07 glasses per day; of those using whisky alone, 1.4 drinks per day. Naturally the habitual users of both beer and whisky showed the greatest daily consumption of alcoholic bev- erages, the amount used daily being 3.06 glasses of beer and 1.44 drinks of whisky for each habitual user of both beverages. Vse of tobacco among male garment workers. — Observations as to the use of tobacco were collected in 2,072 instances. The following table shows the number of male garment workers who were, respect- ively, nonsmokers, occasional smokers, and habitual smokers: Table 10. — Use of tobacco, male garment workers. Occupation. Non- smokers. Per cent. Occa^ sional smokers. Per cent. Habitual smokers. Per cent. Total. Operators .... 623 295 173 29 34 14 63.8 42.5 61.7 60.4 63.0 58.4 36 17 3 3.6 2.45 1.07 414 382 104 19 19 10 42.6 55.1 37.4 39.6 37.0 41.6 972 Finishers.. 280 Tailors.. . 1 1.8 54 Total 1,068 62.5 56 2.7 948 45.8 It wUl be seen from the above table that of 2,072 male garment workers, 1,068, or 51.5 per cent, were nonsmokers; and 948, or 45.8 per cent, were habitual smokers. It is seen that the habit of smoking is not unusually prevalent among male garment workers, the number of nonsmokers exceeding the number of those smoking. Examining now the form of smoking used by the habitual smokers among male garment workers, the following table gives the number and percentages of the habitual smokers smoking cigarettes, cigars, pipes, and pipes and cigarettes together, respectively: Table 11. — Form of smoking used by habitual smoiers, male garment workers.. Occupation. Cigar- ette sniok- ers. Per cent. Cigar smok- ers. Per cent. Pipe smok- ers. Per cent. Cigar- ette and pipe smok- ers. Per cent. Total number habit- ual smok- ers. 390 361 98 18 19 10 94.0 94.57 94.2 94.8 100.0 100.0 15 9 5 1 3.86 2.38 4.8 6.2 9 8 1 2.2 2.07 .96 414 Pressers 4 1.05 382 104 19 Tailors 19 10 Total 896 94.6 30 3.14 18 1.9 4 .42 948 28 From this table it is seen that 896 of the 948 habitual smokers, or 94.6 per cent, smoked cigarettes; 30, or 3.14 per cent, smoked cigars; 18, or 1.9 per cent, smoked pipes, while 4, or 0.42 per cent, smoked both pipes and cigarettes. The average daily consmnption of the 896 cigarette smokers was 9,231 cigarettes, or an average of 10.3 cigarettes to each person, per diem. Thirty cigar smokers smoked 88 cigars per diem, or an average of 2.66 cigars daily to each person, while 22 workers usmg pipes smoked 186 pipefuls a day, or an average of 8.5 pipefuls daily. It is seen that cigarette smoking is by far the most popular form of tobacco addiction among male garment work- ers. The kind of cigarettes most preferred by these workers were Turkish cigarettes. Several instances of irregular and intermittent action of the heart, bradycardia, tachycardia, and a nmnber of cases of chronic pharyngitis and laryngitis, thought to be due to excessive smoldng, were observed among male garment workers. PHYSICAL DATA. Age of male garment workers. — The average age of aU male garment workers examined was 32.26 years. The average age, by groups, was as follows: Cutters, 25.36 years; operators, 29.53 years; pressers, 34.59 years; finishers, 35.6 years; tailors, 36.6 years; other miscellaneous workers, 31.77 years. The following table shows the distribution of ages by five-year periods and the percentage of each period in the various groups of male garment workers : Table 12 — Age distribution of male garment workers. Age distribution of garment workers. Per cent of each age group. Ages. 1 o 1 1 1 s J ■a "o 1 m w f^ 1 1 1 3 i 1 1 1 < 18-19 20-24 25-29 30-34 35-39 40-44 45-49 50-54 15 228 309 225 107 64 16 7 5 1 9 83 140 150 132 112 61 29 8 3 2 9 42 46 47 43 33 19 21 12 4 2 1 1 2 6 11 17 7 5 2 3 2 22 16 6 2 2 5 6 8 2 1 1 38 382 522 447 303 207 92 59 28 8 4 1 1.53 23.8 31.95 23.24 11.8 5.85 1.66 .725 .617 .14 1.264 11.6 19.5 20.43 18.35 15.6 7.1 4.04 1.1 .42 .28 3.23 15.00 16.5 16.8 16.4 11.8 6.9 7.54 4.3 1.43 .72 .36 1.85 3.70 11.1 20.4 31.4 12.95 9.26 3.70 5.55 4.17 45.8 33.3 12.5 4.17 8.34 20.8 20.8 3.33 8.34 4.17 4.17 1.S2 18.3 25.00 21.4 14.6 9.9 4.4 55-59 1 34 60-64 65-69 .191 .047 70-74 Total num- ber 907 719 279 64 48 24 2,091 A V e r age ages 29.53 34.59 35.6 36.5 25.56 31.77 32.26 It wiU be seen from this table that the maximum age incidence in the various groups fell as f oUows : Operators, between 25 and 29 years; pressers, between 30 and 34 years; cutters, between 20 and 24 years; 29 tailors, between 35 and 39 years, while in finishers the age incidence was nearly equal for the age periods from 20 to 24, 25 to 29, 30 to 34, and 35 to 39. In miscellaneous workers the age incidence was equal for the periods 20 to 24 and 25 to 29. Taken together, it will be seen that 79 per cent were between 20 and 34 years of age and over 90 per cent were between 20 and 40 years. Height. — For various reasons it was not found expedient in the case of male garment workers to measure their heights otherwise than in their shoes. The heights of male garment workers given in this report are therefore about seven-eighths of an inch in excess of their actual heights. The average height of aU male garment workers examined was found to be 65.46 inches. In the groups the following average heights were found: Table 13. — Average heights of workers. Nuruher. Average height. 717 24 48 964 64 280 IiKlies. 65.82 Miscellaneous wortrers . . 65.81 65.73 Operators . 65.35 65.19 Finishers . 64.69 The following table gives the distribution of heights observed: Table 14. — Distribution of heights among male garment workers. Height between— Oper- ators. Pressers. Finish- ers. Tailors. Cutters. Miscel- laneous workers. Total. 1 1 1 3 9 17 28 45 55 39 40 25 13 5 1 59 and 60 inches 1 16 35 77 130 163 182 154 103 58 39 7 8 1 1 3 14 47 73 105 141 124 92 63 35 21 6 1 5 28 1 2 4 13 6 11 5 2 3 1 70 4 10 9 6 11 5 3 1 1 1 1 4 3 8 3 2 2 1 159 fi? s^.r\r\ fi4 innhfip 266 338 65 and 66 inches 381 66 and 67 inches 343 232 68 and 69 inches 131 84 30 15 1 3 Total 964 717 280 64 48 24 2,087 It will be seen from this table that the maximum incidence of height fell between 65 and 66 inches. In 1,328 instances, or in over 62 per cent, the height fell between 63 and 68 inches, and in 75 per cent of the instances the height was between 63 and 68 inches. The maximum height noted was in a cutter 72.5 inches tall, while the minimum was in a presser who was 57.5 inches in height. In considering the average heights of the various groups of gar- ment workers, it wiU be seen that the pressers are the tallest, fol- lowed in order by the miscellaneous workers, cutters, operators, tailors, and, lastly, the finishers. The difference between the average height 30 of the finishers and that of the tallest of the groups, namely, the pressors, is 1.13 inches. Average weights of male garment worlcers.— It was also found im- practicable to weigh the workers naked. AU weights were taken with the individual clad in his shoes and trousers, the body bemg stripped from the waist up. The weights so obtained were, on an average, about 3 i pounds in excess of the actual weight. The average weight of all male garment workers was found to be 141.21 pounds. The average weight of the several groups of male garment workers was as foUows: Table 15.— Average weight by groups. Average weight. Tailors Pressers Miscellaneous workers.. Operators Fmishers Cutters It wiU be seen that the finishers manifest an inferiority in weight, as they do in height, to both operators and pressers. Although the cutters are the lightest of the groups, their low average age, and their standing position, together with the natm^e of their work, which does not require much muscular work, tends to account for their lighter weight. In the groups represented by large numbers the pressers manifest a decided superiority in weight, as they do in height. In this group we find a class of workers engaged in an occupation en- tailing considerable muscular exertion in the manipulation of the heavy pressing iron, together with the muscular effort required by their continuous maintenance of the standing posture. Relation of height and weight. — ^Turning now to the relation of height to weight, the following table shows the average weights of male garment workers for each height: Table 16. — Average weights of male garment workers for each height. Height between— Number of observa- tions. Average weight (pounds). 57 and 58 inches ' ... 1 1 5 28 70 159 266 338 381 343 232 131 84 30 15 3 142 75 115.00 59 and 60 inches 118. 75 fin and fil inches 117 70 126. 23 62 and 63 inches 131 11 134.00 64 and 65 inches 137 25 65 and 66 inches . 141 27 66 and 67 inches 143 68 148. 73 69 and 70 inches 156 00 161.70 Total 2,087 31 ' Excluding the two upper and the three lower heights in which the number of observations was too small on which to base averages, this table shows a fair correlation of weight to height. It was found that the average increment of weight for each inch of height was 4.97 pounds for heights between 61 and 71 inches. Circunvference of chest oj male garment workers. — ^Three measure- ments were taken of each chest at the nipple line: At rest; at full inspiration; at forced expiration. The following table gives the average circumference as found: Table 17. — Average chest circumference of male garment workers. Occupation. Number. Chest passive. At inspi- ration. At expi- ration. Expan- sion, Operators .... . . . 987 710 278 48 54 23 34.90 36.00 34.61 34.17 36.20 35.17 36.21 37.24 36.00 35.72 37.30 36.56 34.40 35.60 34.37 33.86 35.69 34.80 1.81 1.64 1.63 Cutters... 1 86 1.79 Miff'-^^llRn'vinS . 1 76 fjpnerfll av'^ragfi 2,080 35.27 36.57 34.82 1 75 It wiU be seen from the above table that the tailors ' have the largest chests, followed in order by pressers, miscellaneous workers, operators, finishers, and. cutters. The average chest expansion was 1.75 inches. The highest chest expansion was found in the cutters, and next to these, the operators, while the lowest was found among the finishers. The higher average chest expansion of the cutters and operators is doubtless due to the low average ages in these groups which would be accompanied by a greater mobility of the thoracic walls. Turning now to the relation of the circumference of the chest to the height of the individual, the following table shows the number of instances among male garment workers in which the circumference of the chest, at rest, was less than one-haK the height of the individual: Table 18. — Number of male garment workers with circumference of chest {at rest) less than one-half the height. Occupation. Total number. Number witii Chest measure less than one-half the height. Per cent. 972 280 694 48 53 23 156 40 54 11 3 5 16.1 Finishers 14.35 7.65 Cutters 22.9 Tailors 6.65 MiRCfillaTiAnnq, 21.6 Total . . 2,070 269 13.0 ' Pressers must be regarded as actually superior to tailors in chest circumference, as a number of the small group of tailors were obese. 32 From this table it will be seen that in about 13 per cent of the cases the circumference of the chest, at rest, was less than one-half the height. Considering the workers by groups, we find that ia 22.9 per cent of the cutters, 21.6 per cent of the miscellaneous workers, 16.1 per cent of operators, 14.35 per cent of finishers, 7,65 per cent of pressers, and in 5.65 per cent of tailors, this measure- ment was less than one-half the height. The relation of the circum- ference of the chest to height is of interest in that it is the general practice to reject recruits for military service who have a chest cir- cumference of less than one-half the height. Vital capacity. — ^The vital capacity of male garment workers was measured by means of a dry spirometer. In order to avoid the transmission of communicable diseases by means of the mouth- piece, a large number of glass mouthpieces were prepared, a sepa- mouthpiece being used for each individual. After use, each mouth- piece was sterUized by boiling before being used again. The following table shows the average vital capacity of male gar- ment workers in 1,787 instances in which this observation was made: Table 19. — Vital capacity of male garment workers . Opera- tors. Pressers. Finlsli- ers. Tailors. Cutters. Miscel- laneous. Total. Total number of observations Total vital capacity cubic incbes. . Average vital capacity do Maximum vital capacity do Minimum vital capacity do 857 195,873 230.1 330 70 563 129, 430 227.9 340 60 256 52,635 204.8 10,065 209.5 310 80 10,240 238.2 330 150 20 4,415 220.75 260 170 1,787 402,658 225.29 It will be seen from this table that the average vital capacity was 225.3 cubic inches. Cutters with 238.2 cubic inches had the highest average vital capacity, followed in order by operators with 230.1 cubic inches, pressers 227.9 cubic inches, miscellaneous workers 220.75 cubic inches, tailors with 209.5 cubic inches, and, lastly, the finishers with 204.8 cubic inches. It will be seen from the above that fuiishers are again inferior to the other groups of garment workers. It is worth noting th^at pressers, though superior to oper- ators in weight, height, and average circumference of chest, are their inferiors in both chest expansion and vital capacity. The youngest group of workers, namely, cutters, showed the greatest average expansion and greatest vital capacity. ..The operators, next in point of age, showed the second highest chest expansion and vital capacity. The greater average age of pressors and the consequent diminution in the mobUity of the ribs is, in aUlikeUhood, the cause of their lesser vital capacity, in spite of the superiority of their physique, as compared to the younger groups (operators and cutters). The maximum observation of vital capacity, however, namely 34Q cubic inches, occurred in a pressor. 33 BelMion of vital capacity to heigJit. — ^The following table gives the average vital capacity in relation to various heights of male garment workers : Table 20. — Vital capacity of male garment worJcers as compared to height. Operators. Pressers. Finishers. TaUors. Height. Num- ber. Average vital capacity. Num- ber. Average vital capacity. Num- ber. Average vital capacity. Num- ber. Average vital capacity. 57 to 58incli6s 1 330.0 58 to 59 inches 1 3 8 16 26 39 52 32 38 22 13 5 18Q.0 173.3 175.0 178.4 186.2 188.2 203.3 213.2 233.4 218.6 241.6 220.0 1 15 32 67 112 136 161 138 88 53 35 6 7 1 150.0 186.0 187.7 208.1 216.1 227.4 229.4 240.9 244.7 250.4 ♦ 267. 4 276.7 249.3 280.0 1 2 11 36 63 85 113 99 61 41 27 16 5 1 100.0 195.0 197.3 186.1 203.9 218.2 226.4 235.0 241.1 262.1 256.5 273.8 293.0 270.0 60 to 61 inches. 3 4 10 6 6 9 5 3 1 220.0 62 to 63 inches 202.5 190.0 64 to 65 inches . . 215.0 166.6 66 to 67 inches . - . 237.2 222.0 68 to 69 inches 216.7 220.0 70 to 71 inches 1 180.0 72 to 73 inches Total 852 230.4 562 229.6 255 205.6 48 207.4 Cutters. Miscellaneous. All male garment workers. Height. Number. Average vital capacity. Number . Average vital capacity. Number. Average vital capacity. Per cent. 57 to 68 inches. . 1 1 5 25 63 136 230 293 323 297 182 114 71 23 13 2 330.0 180.0 154.0 183.6 189.5 197.6 209.2 220.3 226.0 237.6 240.8 252.4 259.4 273.9 260.8 275.0 0562 .0562 59 to 60 inches .2810 1. 4050 61 to 62 inches... . 1 2 2 11 5 11 4 2 3 1 250.0 185.0 220.0 231.8 246.0 236.4 240.0 295.0 270.0 260.0 3 5410 62 to 63 inches 1 4 8 6 2 2 2 210.0 196.2 221,7 236.6 230.0 250.0 187.5 7. 6600 63to64iaches 12 9300 64 to 65 inches 16. 4950 65 to 66 inches 18. 1750 66 to 67 inches . 16 7000 10. 2250 68to69inches 6 4150 3. 9900 70 to 71 inches ■ 1.2920 .7310 72to73inches .1130 Total : 42 239.5 20 322.5 1,779 226.1 100. 055 It will be seen from this table that, with the exception of the extreme upper and lower groups, which contain very few observa- tions, that the mean vital capacity increases between the heights of 59-60 and 70-71 inches, the average increment for each added inch of height being 11.8 cubic inches. Abdominal circumference. — The abdominal circumference was taken at the umbilicus. The average abdominal circumference of 2,046 male garment workers was found to be 32.42 inches. 95485°— Bull. 71—15 3 34 The following table gives the average abdominal circumference observed in the various groups: Table 21. — Abdominal dramference of male garment workers. Operators. Pressers. Finishers. Tailors. Cutters. Miscellaoe. ous. Number of observations Total circumference in inches. Average in inches 955 30,720.90 32.18 690 22,716.37 32.98 277 9,022.25 32.56 54 1,848.75 34.20 48 1, 463. 75 30.50 725.00 Total number of workers 2, 046 Total abdominal circumference in inches 66, 497. 02 Average abdominal circumference in inches 32^ 42 It will be seen that the cutters, by reason of their youth, showed the lowest average abdominal circumference of 30.5 inches. Then followed, in order, operators with an average of 32.18 inches, finishers with 32.56 inches, miscellaneous workers with 32.92 inches, pressers with 32.98 inches, and, lastly, tailors with 34.20 inches. We see in the case of the tailors the effect of a sedentary occupation combined with age in increasing the average girth of the abdomen. The difference between the average abdominal and average chest circumferences of male garment workers was 2.85 inches. The excess of chest girth over average abdominal circumference was 3.67 inches for cutters, 3.02 inches for pressers, 2.25 inches for miscel- laneous workers, 2.05 inches for finishers, and 2 inches for tailors. It is probable in the case of cutters and pressers that their work in the standing posture, discouraging as this does the accumulation of abdominal fat, has an influence, in these two groups of workers, in determining their lesser abdominal circumference, as compared to that of the chest. Strength of gnp.—The average strength of grip of male garment workers was found to be 33.6 kgs. for the right hand and 31 kgs for the left. Cutters had the highest right-hand grips, with an average of 36 kgs. m the right hand, and 32.5 kgs. in the left hand. This is probably due to the development of the hand and forearm muscles produced by the constant and accurate guiding of the rather heavy, vibrating, electrically driven cutting machines. Pressers came next with right and left hand average grips of 34 6 and 32.5 kgs.,- operators with 33.5 and 31 kgs.; tailors with 31.1 and 26.5 kgs.; and lastly, the finishers, with 29.2 and 26 kgs., respec- tively The maximum right-hand grip observed was 65 kgs. in an operator, the maximum left being 61 kgs. in a presser The minimum right and left hand grips were 7 kgs. and 5 kgs., respectively both observed in operators. The finishers manifested the same inferiority m strength of grips as they showed in other measurements. 35 Evidences of protection against smallpox. — The male garment workers, as a class, showed a high degree of protection against small- pox by vaccination. In 2,065 garment workers in whom this observa- tion was made 103, or very nearly 5 per cent, showed no evidence of previous successful vaccination. In 1,905 workers, or 92.1 per cent, good vaccination scars were present, while 60 individuals, or 2.9 per cent, had been protected by a previous attack of smallpox. Pulse rate, hlood pressure, and percentage of Tiemoglohin. — The aver- age pulse frequency observed among male garment workers was 76.8 beats to the minute, with the following averages for the several groups: Finishers, 76.12; operators, 76.22; miscellaneous workers (in- cluding tailors), 76.5; pressers, 77.96; cutters, 78.1. The pulse was counted with the subject at rest in the sitting pos- ture, several observations being made in order to minimize, so far as possible, the effects of excitement due to the examination upon the pulse rate. The following table gives the distribution of the pulse-rate fre- quency among male garment workers: Table 22. — Distribution of pulse frequency. Male garment worhers. Pulse frequency. Oper- ators. Pressers. Finish- ers. Cutters. Miscel- laneous workers. All male garment workers. 30 to 39 1 6 29 218 335 246 90 32 4 1 1 1 28 142 224 154 96 30 8 3 3 40 to 49 1 9 71 92 60 31 11 4 1 3 50 to 59 1 13 12 11 6 4 1 3 19 26 15 12 1 1 70 60 to 69 70to79 689 80 to 89 90 to 99 234 100 to 109 110 to 119 120 to 129 5 130 to 140 3 Total 962 689 280 48 77 2,056 It wiU be seen from thia table that in very nearly 80 per cent of the observations the pulse rate lay between 60 and 89. Two rather marked cases of bradycardia were observed, the pulse rates lying between 30 and 39, while in three oases the pulse rate lay between 130 and 140. Blood pressure. — ^Meastirements of systoHo blood pressure were taken in 2,066 instances and that of the diastolic blood pressure in 2,051 instances, among male garment workers. The auscultatory method was used, the subject being at rest in a sitting posture. The following table gives the distribution of the blood pressure observed in lO-mOlimeter intervals, and the mean systolic and dias- toUo pressures recorded in the various groups. 36 Table iZ.Summary of blood pressure of male garment workers. DISTEIBUTION OF SYSTOLIC BLOOD PEESSUEES. Millimeters of mercury. Opera- tors. Press- ers. Fin- ishers. Tail- ors. Cut- ters. Miscel- la- neous. Total. Per cent. 3 20 72 251 311 182 80 24 13 1 1 1 3 9 32 139 197 164 73 46 23 13 4 2 1 2 7 26 73 64 60 21 8 8 3 2 1 7 39 139 497 613 426 180 85 46 18 I 2 0.338 90 to 99 1 4 13 16 7 1 7 2 1 2 1 4 11 20 6 5 1 1 10 5 7 1.89 100 to 109 6.77 no to 119 24.0 120 to 129 29.85 130 to 130 20.6 140 to 149 - . 8.7 i^in to 1.50 4.1 2.23 .87 ion to 1S9 .44 .15 200 to 20Q .1 oon tn 99Q OQ(\ fn o^Q 250 to 259 1 1 1 1 .05 .05 958 708 275 54 47 24 2,066 123.39 129.25 125.0 128.0 122.3 119.5 125.65 DISTEIBUTION OF DIASTOLIC BLOOD PEESSUEES. 40 to 49 1 8 50 151 217 157 73 26 9 3 2 1 3 24 71 70 61 28 12 3 1 2 24 161 489 648 454 183 61 20 6 2 0.1 13 83 233 316 212 70 20 5 1 1.17 60 to 69 11 16 13 8 2 3 1 4 11 19 10 3 1 12 10 1 1 7.85 70 to 79 23.9 80 to 89 31.6 90 to 99 22.2 100 to 109 8.92 110 to 119 2.98 120 to 129 . . . .98 130 to 139 .29 140 to 149 .098 1.50 to 159 - .. . 160 to 169 1 1 049 Total 954 697 274 54 48 24 2,051 83.84 85.12 84.66 90.6 84.0 80.6 84.53 It wLU be seen from this table that the average systohc blood pressure of 2,066 male garment workers was 125.66 millimeters. The average diastolic blood pressure of 2,051 workers was 84.53 millimeters. The average pulse pressure observed therefore was 41.12 millimeters. This falls within the limits of the normal pulse pressure usually given as between 30 and 50 millimeters. Pressers had the highest systolic blood pressure of 129.25 millimeters. Then followed in order taUors with 128 millimeters, finishers with 125 miUimeters, operators with 123.39 millimeters, cutters with 122 mil- limeters, and other miscellaneous workers with 119.5 millimeters. The highest systolic blood pressure noted was 262 m illim eters in a presser. Taking 150 millimeters as a point usually regarded, when reached, as significant of pathological hypertension, there were 165 systolic blood pressures observed of 150 millimeters or over. Among pressers, 91 blood pressures, or 12.85 per cent of the observations 37 reached or exceeded this pressure; among operators, 40, or 4.2 per cent; among finishers, 22, or 8 per cent; among tailors, 12, or 22.2 per cent; while no systoho blood pressures of 150 millimeters or more was observed among the remaining groups. It is probable that the greater average age of the tailors and the frequency with which pressors had previously engaged in occupations demanduig muscular exertion, together with the fact that the occu- pation of pressors in itself calls for the expenditure of considerable muscular energy, accoimt for the excess of high blood pressures in these two groups. Hemoglobin. — In view of the necessity for using some rapid method in determining the percentage of hemoglobin present, the Tallquist scale was used. The scales employed were cahbrated by comparing readings made by them against readings by two other forms of hemoglobinometer (Dare's and Gower's). The Tallquist scales were found on the average to give readings between 8 and 10 per cent lower than these instruments for hemoglobin values frequently encoun- tered, namely, between 80 and 100 per cent. About 8 or 10 per cent should, therefore, be added to the percentages given herewith. Computed by the Tallquist scale, the average percentage of hemo- globin of 1,998 male garment workers in whom this was estimated was 86.79 per cent. The minimum reading noted was 65 per cent. In 101 instances hemoglobin percentages of below 80 were observed. According to groups, the small group of miscellaneous workers with 88.5 per cent had the highest average percentage of hemoglobin. Pressors were next, with an average of 87 per cent, followed in order by operators with 86.8 per cent, cutters with 86.7 per cent, tailors with 86.2 per cent, and finishers with 86 per cent. Although pressors had the highest average percentage of hemoglobin of the three large groups of workers, this group, nevertheless, furnished the worker in whom the lowest reading (65 per cent) found among males was recorded, and also had the greatest number of individuals (31 in 658 observations, or 4.7 per cent) in whom the hemoglobin was below 80, according to the Tallquist scale. This suggests the possibfiity pointed out by Rogers and others that there may be some relation between a greater frequency of low hemoglobin among pressors and their exposure to chronic carbon monoxide poisoning from gas-heated pressing irons. This point is still being investigated by the Public Health Service. Development and nutrition. — While the personal equation of the examiner is undoubtedly a factor in the classification of an indi- vidual as to the state of his development and nutrition, nevertheless, such observations are of value. The following table shows how male garment workers were classified by the examiners as to the state of their development and nutrition. 38 Table 22- -StaU of development and nutrition of male garment worhers. Development. Nutrition. Workers. Good. Per cent. Fair. Per cent. Poor. Per cent. Good. Per cent. Fair. Per cent. Poor. Per cent. Operators 248 284 45 14 10 15 25.7 39.5 16.1 29.2 18.5 60.0 462 299 121 21 23 7 47.9 41.6 43.4 43.7 42.6 28.0 255 135 113 13 21 3 26.4 18.8 40.5 27.1 38.9 12.0 473 424 117 22 25 15 49.0 59.1, 42.0 45.9 46.3 60.0 331 215 104 21 18 6 34.3 30.0 37.4 43.7 33.4 24.0 161 79 58 S 11 4 16.7 Pressers 11.0 Finishers 20.8 Cutters 10.4 Tailors 20.4 Miscellaneous workers.. 16.0 Total 616 29.5 933 44.6 540 25.9 1,076 51.0 695 33.5 318 15.5 As is to be expected, among garment workers, the state of develop- ment is not on a par with that of nutrution. A good state of the latter is considerably more frequent than the former (51 per cent, as compared to 29.5 per cent). Pressers were the best developed and best nourished large class of garment workers, some of them possessing even magnificent muscular developments. Physiques of great excellence were also encoimtered among operators. Sixty per cent and 60 per cent among miscellaneous workers, 39.5 per cent and 59.1 per cent among pressers, 29.2 per cent and 45.9 per cent among cutters, 25.7 per cent and 49 per cent among operators, 18.5 per cent and 46.3 per cent among tailors, and 16.1 per cent and 42 per cent among finishers were respectively weU developed and well nourished. The finishers, therefore, furnished the most unfavorable comparison with the other groups from the standpoint of develop- ment and nutrition. Physique of garment worJcers.—Jn considermg the impressions derived from the physical examination of garment workers, it was found that the pressers were the fuost robust from a physical stand- point. The finishers were decidedly inferior to all the others. This is but natural as the work of the presser not only requu-es considerable muscular exertion, but is also prosecuted in the standing posture White,! m makmg a survey of the conditions under which women are employed in the State of Indiana, has caUed attention to the fact that gnls who work in the standing posture are, on the whole, healthier lookmg and more robust than those engaged in sedentary occupations. The same seems true for male garment workers. The work of operators, whHe making no great demands upon the muscles requires concentration alertness, and speed, in order to earn a high wage The work of the finisher, on the other hand, caUs for these qualities to a mmor degree only; therefore, we find, in the cloak, suit, and skirt trades, a gravitation of those whose efficiency is low , either by reason to\rpl11-H;ftSrr^^ "'""^^^ ^^^-'^^^ ^-^^^^-^ ^"-^ La^o."^;^;;;^;^^^^, 39 of age or physical inferiority to this class of work. This seems ample to accoimt for the relatively poorer physical showing of finishers among male garment workers. The patellar reflex among male garment worJcers. — Data as to the state of the patellar reflex were gathered in 1,958 instances. In 1,708 instances this was normal, whUe in 250 instances abnormahties were observed. The patellar reflex was exaggerated in 156 instances or 8 per cent, was sluggish in 36 instances or 1.84 per cent, and could not be ehcited in 58 instances or in nearly 3 per cent of the cases. Tailors exhibited the greatest variations from the normal in the state of the patellar reflex, in 11 cases out of 50 observations, the reflex being exaggerated, sluggish, or absent. Finishers came next with 15.8 per cent of abnormal patellar reflexes; pressers with 13.9 per cent; miscellaneous workers with. 11.1 per cent; operators with 10.8 per cent and, lastly, cutters with 6.4 per cent abnormal reflexes. Of the three large groups of workers — namely, operators, pressers, and finishers, the finishers showed the greatest percentage of exaggerated reflexes with 8.7 per cent. Operators came next with 8.27 per cent and then pressers with 7.4 per cent. The reflex was sluggish or could not be ehcited in 7.2 per cent of the finishers, 6.7 per cent of the pressers, and in 2.52 per cent of the operators. FEMALE GARMENT WORKERS. The female garment workers examined, were, for the most part, engaged in the dress and waist industries, 86.2 per cent of those examined beiag derived from this industry and 13.8 per cent from other needle trades. As compared to the cloak, suit, and skirt trades, the dress and waist trades present certain differences. In the first place the former industry is concerned in manufacturing garments from woolen fabrics^ for the most part, which are heavier, darker, and made up upon lines usually simple and severe. These circum- stances create conditions favorable to the employment of males, the manufacture of these garments being largely a question of mechanical skiU once the design and cut of the garments is settled upon. In the dress and waist trades, however, the materials dealt with are largely cottons, snks, mercerized fabrics, and the hke. There is a much greater variety of styles in the garments produced, the lots of the same styles being usually smaller. The fabrics, themselves, hght colored, for the most part, and of various patterns must be handled more carefully to prevent soiling. There is more room for the exercise of the taste of the individual worker. The design of the gar- ment and the skill in draping enter more into the value of the finished product as compared to the cost of the material than they do in the cloak, suit, and skirt trade. The dressmaker or the sewing girl is the 40 natural prototype of the worker in the dress and waist trades as the journeyman tailor is in the cloak, suit, and skirt trades. As a consequence we see, as mentioned before, that some 77 per ce;3rt of aU the workers in the dress and waist industries are females. ' General and Specific Occupations. — The female workers in the gar- ment trades are perhaps less highly specialized than male workers in the cloak and suit trades. Only three classifications were accord- ingly made of female workers; i. e., operators, finishers, miscel- j laneous workers. The duties of female operators and finishers are similar to those in the cloak and suit trades. Pressing is but a subsidiary operation ia the dress and waist trades owing to the lightness of most of the, materials used. Women engaged in pressing are therefore few in number, such pressing as is done being, for the most part, accom- plished with light, electrically heated irons. The following table gives the general occupation (industry) and special occupation of the 1,000 girls examined: Table 25. — General occupation and special occupations of female garment workers. Special occupations. i o s 1 1 i i 8 1 1 8 .9 .si S o 1 3 i 1 1 I t3 t3 o 606 68 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 1 1 2 1 1 .... 8 111 1 1 1 Miscellaneous workers: Bookkeepers 1 Buttonhole workers 1 Cleaners 1 Designers 1 Drapers 58 17 3 3 38 1 8 1 8 1 12 7 18 1 1 3 4 1 58 Dressmakers 17 Dress ornaments 3 Embroiderers "Kxaminers. ..... 38 Fellers " 1 Floor girls Forewomen 1 Hem stitchers Lace cutters 12 Packers Pressers 18 Sample workers ......... I Stock clerks — Trimmers 3 Tuckers — Not given .... . ... 1 Total lU 862 1 1 4 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 9 1,000 From this table it wiU be seen that there were exammed 625 operators, 186 finishers, and 189 miscellaneous workers. Eight hundred and sixty-two workers, or 86.2 per cent, were en- gaged in the dress and waist trades. 111 or 11.1 per cent, in the cloak and suit trades, and 27, or 2.7 per cent, m other needle trades. 41 Posture. — Female operators and finishers work in the sitting pos- ture, while miscellaneous workers are about equally divided into workers who work sitting, standing, and both sitting and standing. Among the females examined 88 per cent worked sitting, 6.2 per cent worked both sitting and standing, while 5.7 per cent worked standing. Unlike the cloak and suit trade, in which approximately one-third the workers (the pressers) work ia the standing position, 88 per cent of the workers examined ia the dress and waist trades were sedentary in their postures. Nativity and race. — ^The foUowing table gives the nativity and race of the female workers examiaed: Table 26. — Nativity and race of 1,000 female garment workers. Nativity ol 1,000 lemale garment workers. Nativity. Russia Austria-Hungary. . . Italy United States Boumania Great Britain Germany Switzerland Argentine Republic Holland Nimiber. Per cent. 741 101 70 42 30 8 2 2 1 1 74.1 10.1 7.0 4.2 3.0 .8 .2 .2 .1 .1 Race of 1,000 female garment workers. Race. Jewish Italian German Polish Irish Magyar Scotch English Roumanian Dutch French Number. Percent. It wUl be seen from this table that 88.8 of the female workers ex- amined belonged to the Jewish, 7.7 per cent" to the Italian, 1.8 per cent to the German, and the remainder or 1.6 per cent to other races, j As to nativity 74.1 per cent were bom in Russia, 10.1 per cent in Austria, 7 per cent in Italy, 4.2 per cent in the United States, and the remainder ia other countries. The female garment workers ex- amined differed from male garment workers in the greater percent- age of races other than Jewish and the greater percentage of native- born Americans. Length of time in the United States. — Turning now to the average length of time of female garment workers in the United States, the average time since arrival in this country of 949 foreign-born female garment workers was_6.4 1 ye ars. By groups, the average time spent in the United States by operators was 6.34 years, by finishers, 5.94 years, by miscellaneous workers, 7.135 years. As the average length of time foreign-born male garment workers had been in the United States was 9.25 years, foreign-born female garment workers had spent, on the average, 2.91 less years than the males in this country. Length of time in special occupation. — The average times spent by female garment workers in their special occupation was found to be 4.63 years with the foUowing average times for each group: Opera- 42 tors, 4.94 years; finishers, 4.79 years; miscellaneous workers, 3.67 years. The average times spent by females in their special occupa- tions was, therefore, considerably less than that spent by males. There is also a greater difference ia the average time spent in their special occupations and their average time in the United States, as compared with the males, indicating that the females did not take up their employment in the dress and waist trades, almost immedi- ately after their arrival, as seems to have been the case with the males. Previous occupations of jemale garment worker s.^Sev&a. himdred and twelve, or 'l\.2 per cent of the female workers had no previous occupation, while 288 workers, or 28.8 per cent reported that they had engaged in other occupations prior to the present one. The following table gives the character of the previous occupa- tions reported by female workers and the numbers engaged in each of them: Table 27. — Previous occupations of female garment workers. Previous occupation. 625 oper- ators. 186 finish- ers. 189 mis- cellaneous workers. Total. Artificial flowers 3 1 1 1 2 3 1 1 4 34 3 7 9 3 27 5 1 4 1 1 1 Bookagent : 1 Bookkeeper 1 Chambermaid 1 Cigar maker 2 4 Cigarette maker 1 3 Cleaner (garments) 1 5 Clerk Draper 4 Dressmaker 10 2 1 6 2 3 3 3 10 5 Embroiderer 1 Errandglrl U 12 Examiner Feather worker Finisher 16 43 Floorgirl Forewoman (assistant) J Fur worker 1 1 1 6 Garter maker Grmder on glasses 1 Hairdresser 1 1 1 Hair worker 4 1 5 1 8 1 5 Handkerchiefs Hand sewer 2 7 Hemstitcher Housewife 5 13 Lace cutter Laundress 2 2 2 3 4 7 \ MiUiner 2 1 Neckwear Novelty cards 1 1 2 20 J Nurse girl 1 2 29 3 Office girl Operator 13 3 1 6 Packer Paperbox maker Pressor 1 1 2 Presser, white goods 2 1 Press feeder Ribbon puller 1 4 1 Saleswoman 3 1 Sewing at home 1 Silk wearer 1 1 1 Stocking maker 1 Taflor -"-ii--"!^! !!!;!!!]!!!!!;;!!;;! 5" 1 1 5 i 1 ' Other trades. 43 Table 27. — Previmis occupations of female garment workers — Continued. Previous occupation. 625 oper- ators. 186ftnisli- ers. 189 mis- cellaneous workers. Total. Trimmer (hats and caps).. Tucker Typewriter.. Underwear (ribboner).. Weaver (ribbons) Winder, cotton factory. Total No previous occupation . Total 152 473 62 134 84 105 712 1,000 While in the case of males some 77 per cent had been engaged in some previous'occupation, less than 29 per cent of females had been previously so engaged. Of the 288 previously occupied females no less than 212, or 73.5 per cent, had previous occupations directly connected with the needle trades. The majority of these occu- pations were of a sedentary character, only 10 of the 67 reported, or about 15 per cent, requiring work other than of a sedentary nature. Giml condition of female garment workers. — Of the 1,000 females ^examined, 865, or^6;5_per cent, were single; 71, or 7.1 per cent, were .married; and 63, or 6.3 per cent, were widows. Accor3ing to groups the following percentages were, respectively, married, sxQgle, and widowed: Table 28. — Percentages of married, single, and widowed. Single. Married. Widows. Per cent. 89.9 74.2 87.8 Per cent. 6.92 10.74 84.49 Per cent. 4.16 15 JMiscellaneous workers 6.45 \ It will be seen that the female workers show very different condi- tions as to their civil state from the males, only 7.1 per cent being ■married and the remaining 92.9 per cent beiag either single or wid- bwed. It will be remembered, among male garment workers over 73 per cent were married. CJiildren horn to married female garment workers. — ^The number of children bom to married female industrial workers is naturally of interest, in view of the influence engagement ia an industry may have on child bearing. i The total number of children bom to 71 married female garment ^workers up to the time of the examination was 129, or an average of 1.82 children to each married female garment worker, the average age of the married women being 29.39 years, or nearly the average of the male garment workers. The number of children actually living at the time of the examination was 97, or an average of 1.36 children to ieach married female garment worker. As 32 of the 129 children bom had died prior to the time of the examination, the percentage of 44 mortality among tlie children of married female garment workers was 24.8 per cent. Eeferriag now to the 63 widows, it was found that these had borne 85 children, or an average of 1.35 children to each widow. Of these, 21 had died, leaving an average of 1.02 living chil- dren to each widow at the tioae of the examination. The percentage mortality observed was similar to that among married female gar- ment workers, i. e., 24.7 per cent. Comparing this mortality wit! that observed among the children of married male garment workers, it is evident that there is considerable difference in favor of the children of married male garment workers, their percentage mortality being but 15.82, as compared to 24.8 per cent for married female workers. This is but confirmation of the well-known truism, namely, that iadustrial mothers have a greater mortality among their children than the mothers not engaged in industries. It is also evident that the number of children bom to the married female garment workers is lower than that of the married male gar- ment workers. The average in this latter group was 3.21 childreii, as compared to 1.82 for married female garment workers. These results are, therefore, in accordance with the facts hitherto observed, viz, that not only does the industrial occupation of married females interfere with child bearing, but at the same time it increases the mortahty among the children bom. This is exactly opposite to the effect on infant mortality of a declining birth rate, so far as a general population is concerned, this effect being to diminish the general mortality among infants. This arises from the fact that, in a general population, when fewer infants are bom each infant receives better care and the diminished number of members of the family renders the economic position of each more advantageous. Earnings of female garment workers. — Information as to the earnings of female garment workers was derived in the same way as for the males — that is, from their individual statements. This uiformation is contained in the following table: Table 29. — Average annual earnings of 955 fcrmale garment workers. Occupation. Amount. Occupation. Amount. 1 Miscellaneous workers S445 377 Finishers S29I jQperators 3if It will be seen, from the above table, that the average annual earnings of the female garment workers is much lower than those of the males, the average annual earnings of all male garment workers being $611.50, or 1.62 times greater. Only one group of females axe in competition with the males, and that is the group of finishers, of whom 111 were finishers in the cloak, suit, and skirt trades, from which industry the male finishers examined were also derived. B 45 "will be remembered that tbe average amiual earnings of male finishers 'were $486, as compared to $294 for female finishers. The annual learnings of male finishers are consequently 1.65 times greater than jthose of female finishers. Hence, they bear practically the same delation to the earnings of the female finishers as do those of female (garment workers to the wages of male garment workers in general. i As is the case in the cloak, suit, and skirt trade, we encounter the 'Same fluctuation in seasonal activity in the dress and waist trades. i The following chart, plotted from figures in the United States (Census Report of 1910, shows very well this seasonal variation in bctivity in the women's garment trades. Monthly Variation of Employees in Womens Garment Trade. / 70, 000 Ib5, 000 ibo,ooo iss,ooo 160, 000 145,000 /40, 000 135,000 no. 000 Jan. Fee. Mar. Apn Mnr Jum July Aug. StrT: Oct. NOV. Dec. Ml A /\ 5! / /\ V f \ \f \ / \ \ * \ \ 1 \ 1 \ \ \ / K s/ Chabt 1. Number of persons in families, number of rooms, and number of bed- rooms in domiciles offemxile garment worTcers. — As, in the case of males, [tin connection with the annual earnings of female garment workers,- the average number of persons in their f amihes, the average number of rooms in their domiciles, and the average number of rooms used as bedrooms is of interest. ( The following table shows these data in the case of 989 female garment workers in regard to whom this information was collected: Table 30. — Average size of family, average number of rooms, and average number of bed- rooms of female garment worTcers, New York. Aver- Aver- Total Aver- Nnm- Total Nmn- Total age Num- num- age ber of per- ber of num- ber ber of berof bed- Special occupation. of ob- sons in sons of ob- rooms ber of ofob- bed- serva- fam- serva- m rooms serva^ rooms tions. ilies. lamily. tions. homes. in home. tions. in homes. in home. • Operators 619 3,572 5.77 623 2,709 4.35 614 1,287 2.10 Miscellaneous workers 187 1,094 5.85 187 818 4.37 185 377 2.04 "PiTiishfirs 183 1,043 5.71 183 708 3.86 181 332 1.83 Total 989 5,709 5.78 993 4,235 4.26 980 1,996 2 04 Six female workers out of 989 lived alone, an average of 0.6 per cent. 46 From this table, it appears that out of 989 female garment workers but 6, or 0.6 per cent, Hved alone, whUe the average number of persons in their families was 5.78. The average number of rooms m their domiciles was 4.26, and the average number of rooms used exclusively as bedrooms was 2.04. The average number of occupants per room in their domiciles was 1.35. Hours of labor. —The hours of labor of female garment workers were the same as for the males, i. e., 50 hours per week (9 hours daUy, with a half day on Saturday). PHYSICAL DATA. Average age of female garment worTcers. — ^The average age of 999 female garment workers was 22.86 years. By groups, the foUowii^ ages were noted: Table 31. — Ages by groups. Female operators Female finishers Female miscellaneous workers Yean. 22. H 24.40 22.0) It is seen that the finishers were the oldest group, the operators came next, and the miscellaneous workers were the youngest. The average age of all female workers was unexpectedly low, being practi- cally 10 years less than that of the males. The following table gives the age distribution of female garment workers by years up to the age of 29, and by 2-year periods for tie remainder: Table 32. — Age distribution, female garment worTcers. Age. 15 years 16 years 17 years 18 years 19 years 20 years 21 years 22 years 23 years 24 years 25 years 26 years 27 years 28 years 29 years 30 to 32 years . 33 to 36 years. 36 to 38 years. 39 to 40 years . 41 to 44 years. 45 to 49 years . 60 to 54 years . 65 to 59 years . 60 to 64 years. 66 to 69 years. 70 to 74 years. Total., - Ope^a- tors. 10 21 34 61 70 70 103 78 39 40 24 11 17 9 18 4 7 5 1 1 1 1 625 Finish- 186 Miscel- laneous workers. 189 Total. 1 20 41 66 98 112 96 143 116 66 55 44 20 28 15 26 13 14 14 5 4 1 1 1,000 Percent. 4.1 6.f 9,8 11.2 9.f US Hi 6.t 5.i 4,4 2.0 2,! li 2.f 1.3 1.) 1.4 .i .4 .1 .1 100.11 47 Age distribution oj jemale garment worTcers. — From this table it is seen that the highest age iacidence falls in the twenty-second year, the twentieth year, and the twenty-third year being not far behind in this respect. Twelve and eight-tenths per cent of the workers were between 15 and 19 years, whUe 68.6 per cent of the workers were between 19 and 25; 81.3 per cent were between 16 and 25, whUe 92 per cent- were less than 30 years of age. Tlie significance oj the average age oj jemale garment worTcers. — The low average age of female garment workers, together with other internal evidence to be adduced, points to the conclusion that unhke males females entered the women's garment trades as a provisional employment on ly pen ding their marriage. In the case of i5al^7oii the other hand, engagement in the garment trade may be regarded as a permanent means of liveUhood. In support of this view we have the following points of evidence : 1 . The low average age of female garment workers. — But a relatively small proportion of them had passed the marriageable ages. Most of the persons of these ages were already married or widows, the average ages of these being 29.39 years, but little lower than the average of male garment workers (32 years). 2. In spite of very much lower wages we have the circumstance that but 6 out of 989 workers lived alone. The average number of mem- bers in the families of female garment workers were higher (5.78 for the females as compared to 5.35 for the males), the average number of rooms in their domiciles was greater (4.26 as compared to 3.89), and the number of rooms used exclusively as bed rooms was also greater (2.04 as compared to 1.58). The number of occupants per room was also slightly less in the case of the families of female gar- ment workers as compared to those of the males (1.35 as compared to 1.37). This indicates that the majority of female garment workers were members of families in which they were not the chief bread winners. In addition to this the average length of time females had engaged in their special occupations as compared to the males was considerably less, being 4.63 years for females as compared to 9.28 years for males, or almost exactly one half. Besides this 47 per cent of the female garment workers who had married were widows, indicating that when they had become de- pendent through the death of their husbands, they entered or reen- tered the trade. The low percentage of married women among female workers, compared to the high percentage of married males, is further evidence of the provisional character of the engagement of females in the garment trades. Still further evidence is contained in the annual earnings of female garment workers. These average but $7.25 per week, a sum insuffi- cient for complete economic independence in a city such as New York. ) 48 We see, therefore, that there is a considerable difference in the economic status of male and female garment workers. The males not only had to earn sufficient money to maintain themselves but also to support families, large as a general rule. In the case of the females the evidence seems to point to the conclusion that in the great majority of instances these girls had homes and were only partially dependent upon their earnings for their maintenance. HeigJit, weight, abdominal circumjerence, and chest measurement of female garment workers. — The average height of 986 female garment workers in their stocking feet was 60.3 inches. The following table gives the distribution of the heights observed : Table 33. — Distribution of heights of 985 female garment workers. [Height measured in stockings.] Height. Number of obser- vations. Mean height. Height. Number of ohser- rations. Mean height. 54 to 55 inches.... 2 15 33 72 113 168 179 151 Inches. 54.4 55.4 66.3 67.4 68.3 69.3 60.3 61.3 62 to 63 inches 135 82 28 2 4 1 Inches. 62.3 63.2 56 to 57 inches 64 to 65 inches 64.2 57 to 58 inches 65.2 58 to 59 inches 66 to 67 inches 66.1 59 to 60 inches ... . 68 to 69 inches 68.0 60 to 61 inches Total 61 to62inclies 985 Distribution of heights of female garment worlcers. — It will be seen from this table that 818 female garment workers, or a little over 83 per cent, were between 57 and 63 inches tail. The minimum observed was 64.3 inches and 68 inches the maximum. There was practically no difference in the average heights of the various groups of female workers as there was in the case of the male garment workers, among whom, it will be remembered, pressors were considerably taller and heavier than finishers. Weight. — The average weight of 986 female garment workers was 119.9 pounds. If the average weight of females 60 inches high is taken to be in the neighborhood of 110 poimds, it wHl be seen that female garment workers are rather heavy for their heights. The weights of the females were measured with the subject clothed only ia a sheet, so the weights given are nearly those of the stripped indi- vidual. There was no essential difference observed between the weights of the various groups of females as was the case m the males. Circumference of the chest. — ^The average circumference of the chest at rest of 986 female garment workers was 31.99 mches. At forced expu-ation this measurement was 31.88 inches and at fuU inspiration the average circumference was 33.24 inches. The average expan- sion was, therefore, 1.36 inches. The mean circumference of thQ 49 chest at rest of 28 male garment workers whose height was between 60 and 61 inches was 33.12 inches. They therefore exceeded females in the circumference of the chest at rest by 1.13 inches. Like the males, the average chest expansion was low, being 1.36 inches for females, as compared to 1.75 inches for males. It should be stated, in the opinion of the writer, that, owing to the development of the breasts, chest measurements in females are not likely to be of the same accuracy as is the case in males. There was no significant difference observed between the chest circumferences in the various groups of female workers. Abdominal circumference. — The average abdominal circumference at the level of the umbUicus was 31.2 inches in 956 female garment workers. It will be seen, therefore, that the excess of chest over the abdominal circumference in female garment workers was 0.79 inch as compared to 2.85 inches for all male garment workers between 60 and 61 inches taU. The average abdominal circumference of male workers of this height was also slightly less than that of the females, being 30.82 inches, as compared to 31.2 inches. Strength of grip of female garment worJcers. — The average strength of grip of 990 female garment workers was 16 kgs. for the right and 13 kgs. for the left hands. There were no important differences observed in the average strength of grip in the various groups of workers. The maximum grips observed were 30 kgs. for the right hand and 30 kgs. for the left hand with right and left hand minima of 2 kgs. each. It is seen that the average strength of grip of the females is less than one-half of that found for the males (i. e., 33.6 kgs. for the right and 31 kgs. for the left hands). The maximum right and left hand observations registered for males (65 kgs. and 61 kgs.) are also well over twice the maxima registered for females. Evidence of protection against smallpox. — Good vaccination scars were present in the case of 907, or 90.7 per cent, of the 1,000 female workers examined; 16, or 1.6 per cent, were protected by a previous attack of smallpox; 77, or 7.7 per cent, showed no evidence of previous successfid vaccination. The previous prevalence of smallpox among females was lower than among the males (1 .6 per cent, as compared to 2.9 per cent) . A somewhat greater percentage showed no evidence of previous successful vaccmation (7.7 per cent, as compared to 4.98 percent). Pulse rate, hlood pressure, and percentage Jiemogloilin. — The average pulse rate noted in 977 observations was 78.8 This exceeds the aver- age pulse rate of the males by two beats. The table following shows the distribution of the pulse rates observed. 95485°— Bull. 71—15 4 50 Table 34.— Distribution of pulse rate, female garment workers. Pulse rate. Opera- tors. Finish- ers. Miscel- laneous workers. Total. Per cent. 55 to 59 . 1 21 29 219 87 139 34 35 13 14 7 6 3 1 1 1 4 7 57 24 42 15 13 6 5 3 1 2 30 45 356 134 210 65 62 25 23 11 7 3 I 0.205 60 to 64 5 9 80 23 29 16 14 6 4 1 3.07 65 to 69 4.61 70 to 74 - 36.4 75 to 79 . . - 13.7 80 to 84 21.5 85 to 89 6.65 90 to 94 6.35 95 to 99 2.66 100 to 104 . . ' 2.36 106 to 109 1.13 110toll4 .712 115 to 119 .306 120 to 124 . ... 1 .24 125 to 129 .1 130 to 134 140 to 144 - - - 1 1 .1 hsfirvntinns Total c 610 187 180 977 Not stated, 23. It will be seen from this table that the most usual frequency observed was between 70 and 74, with the frequency of 80 to 84 next in order. The maximum rate observed was 140 to 144 (ia a case of hyperthyroidism) ; the lowest, between 53 and 59 in a normal subject. In 71.6 per cent of the observations the frequency was be- tween 70 and 84, while in 82.86 per cent of the cases it lay between 65 and 89. There was very little difference in the average pulse rates observed for the several groups. Blood pressure oj Jemale garment worTcers. — The average systolic blood pressure of 999 female garment workers was 113.39 millimeters, while the average diastolic pressure observed was 79.92 millimeters. The average pulse pressure was, therefore, 33.47 millimeters. The following table gives the distribution of the systolic and dias- tolic blood pressures observed : Table 35. — Distribution of blood pressure, fcTnale garment workers. SYSTOLIC. Millimeters of mercury. Operators. Finishers. Miscella- neous workers. Total. Per cent. 80 to 89 7 57 159 210 141 38 7 2 2 1 1 1 17 44 68 35 18 7 3 2 8 89 252 335 221 63 17 6 4 3 1 0.8 8.9 25.2 33.5 22.1 6.3 1.7 .6 .4 .3 90 to 99 15 49 67 45 7 3 1 100 to 109 110 to 119 120 to 129 130 to 139 140 to 149 150 to 159 160 to 169 170 to 179 2 180 to 189 Total 625 185 189 999 51 Table 35. — Distribution of blood pressure, female garment workers — Continued. DIASTOLIC. Millimeters of mercury. Operators. Finishers. Miscella- neous workers. Total. Per cent. 50 to 59 14 79 224 173 101 27 6 3 18 62 60 35 4 2 1 2 25 74 64 19 10 3 1 1 19 122 360 287 155 41 10 2 2 1 1.9 60 to 64 12.2 70 to 79 36.0 80 to 89 28. 7 90 to 99 15.6 100 to 109 4.1 110 to 119 1.1 120 to 124 .2 130 to 139 1 1 .2 140 to 149 .1 Total 625 185 189 999 It will be seen from this table that 808, or 80.7 per cent, of the systolic pressures observed lay between 100 and 129 mOlimeters, while 802, or 80.1 per cent of the diastolic blood pressures lay be- tween 70 and 99 millimeters. Foiirteen systolic blood pressures, or 1.4 per cent, exceeded 150 millimeters, while 8, or 0.8 per cent, were less than 90 millimeters. In the case of the males 165, or approxi- mately 8 per cent, of the systolic pressures reached 150 millimeters or more. We therefore find pathological hypertension about 5.7 times as common among the males as the females. Undoubtedly factors in creating this difference he both in the low average age of the females and also the greater uniformity of the latter as to age, over 92 per cent being less than 30 years. In addition to this we find very few of the females had ever fol- lowed any other than a sedentary occupation. These two facts would account sufl[iciently for the absence of any large percentage of hypertension among the females. Hemoglobin 'percentage of female garment workers. — As was the case in the examination of the males the Tallquist scale was used in com- puting the percentage of hemoglobin in the blood of female garment workers. These determinations are subject to the same corrections as for the males. The average hemoglobin, as computed by this scale, was 77.8 per cent, a reading which is probably about 8 per cent too low (see under examination of male workers). Considering readings below 75 per cent hemoglobin, on the scales employed, as being sig- nificant of deficiency of hemoglobin in the case of females, who give normally somewhat lower readings than males, 118 or 11.8 per cent of the female workers had hemoglobin percentages below 75 per cent. The table following classifies these observations according to the observed percentages. 52 Table SQ.—Hemoglobm observations below 75 per cent, female garment workers. Occupation. Below 73. Below 72. Below 70. Below 68. Below 65. Below 60. Below 55. Total. 2 2 32 11 9 30 10 14 1 1 1 2 1 i' 1 68 Fmishers 26 Total 4 52 54 3 3 1 1 118 Per cent of total observations (994) having hemoglobin below 75, 11.9. Maximum observation, 95 per cent hemoglobin. From this table it will be seen that 4 of the recorded percentage3 were below 73 per cent, 52 below 72 per cent, 54 below 70 per cent, 3 below 68 per cent, 3 below 65 per cent, 1 below 60 per cent, and 1 below 55 per cent. The minimum reading was between 55 and 50 per cent. Among males the number of observations below 80 per cent (which in the case of males with scales employed was held to be indicative of be- ginning anemia) was 96, or about 4.2 per cent. It is thus seen that anemia seemed to be about 2.8 times as common among female as among male garment workers. Development and nutrition of female garment worJcers. — ^The remarks previously made with respect to observations as to the state of devel- opment and nutrition of male garment workers apply equally to the females. The following table gives the state of the development and nutri- tion of female garment workers, as classified by the examiners: Table 37. — State of the development and nutrition of female garment workers. Development. Nutrition. Occupation. "i 1 (S i 1 I 1 S 1 1 £ f Operators 441 112 109 70.6 60.2 57.7 154 60 61 24.6 32.2 32.2 30 14 19 4.8 7.6 10.1 625 186 189 404 109 108 64.5 58.6 57.1 177 58 54 28.4 31.2 28.6 44 19 27 7.1 10.2 14.3 625 ■B^lTilshers 18S Miscellaneous .1^, All 662 66.2 275 27.5 63 6.3 1,000 621 62.1 289 28.9 90 9.0 1,000 From this table it Would appear that the operators constituted the best developed class of female garment workers, 70.6 per cent being said to be well developed, 24.6 per cent fairly developed, and 4.8 per cent poorly developed, while miscellaneous workers made the poorest showing, the figures being 57.7, 32.2, and 10.1 per cent, respectively. The general percentages for aU female garment workers were 66.2, 27.5, and 6.3 per cent for good, fair, and poor development. In regard to the nutrition 62.1 per cent of all female garment workers were 53 regarded as well nourished, 28.9 per cent as fairly nourished, and 9 per cent as poorly nourished. We find, according to the opinion of the examiners, a parallelism between the state of the nutrition and the development of females. The observations recorded in regard to the development and nutrition of the males show a con- siderable preponderance of those regarded as well nourished, com- pared to those whose development was also considered good, the former class being greatly in the majority. It is thought that this arises from the fact that greater variations exist in the muscular development of the male. There is probably a greater similarity in the lives of females, as regards influences affecting their develop-- ment than in the case of males, temperament, disposition toward exercise, the choice of an occupation, and similar circumstances often having a marked influence upon male development, whereas in females, it seems reasonable to assume, with their lesser inclination to violent exercises, coupled with their usually iadoor life, that the influences affectiag their development will be far more uniform than in the case of the male. Pelvic measurements of female garment worTcers. — Observations as to the pelvic measurements of female garment workers were made in 825 instances, the measurements taken being the external conjugate diameter, and the distances between the anterior superior spiaes and that between the iliac crests. The foUowing averages were found: em. Anterior superior spines 24. 37 Iliac crests j 27. 1 External conjugate 19. 08 Among the 825 thus measured, 5, or 0.6 per cent, had generally contracted pelves pfthe justo-minor type, and 4, or 0.49 per cent, had.flattened pelves. General physique of female garment worTcers. — The general im- pression of the physique of female garment workers was not un- favorable on the whole. Their condition of youth and the lack of family responsibflities which they enjoyed, naturally made for a greater cheerfulness and vivacity on the part of the females which would intensify such favorable impression. As a class they were incUned to be short and rather stocky with a tendency to overweight. As stated elsewhere in this report, with males, engagement in the garment trades seemed to them the serious business of life; the necessity for obtaining work paramount. With the females, on the other hand, in the majority of instances the attitude toward their work showed that they thought of it as provisional only, the expec- tation of marriage and the establishment of a home being always in the background. 54 DEFECTS AND DISEASES OF GARMENT WORKERS. Statistics on defects and diseases.— The defects and diseases in male and female garment workers were observed and recorded in 3,086 instances, 2,086 males and 1,000 females. The total number of defects and diseases observed was 13,457 of which 9,541 were present in males and(|JSln 7emale§r> This gives a general average of 4.36 defects or diseases per persdn'examined, the average number of defects per person being 4.57 for males and 4,33 for females. Classified by groups the average number of defects and diseases noted to each person examined was as follows: Males.— Operators, 4.38; pressors, 4.62; finishers, 5.04; tailors, 4.33. 5.63; cutters, 3.77; miscellaneous workers, 4.17. Females. — Operators, 3.63; finishers, 4.49; miscellaneous workers. Only two per cent of those examined were found free from defects of any kind. It is seen that tailors among males, and finishers among females, were, as a class, the most defective, followed in order by finishers, pressers, miscellaneous workers, operators and cutters among males and miscellaneous workers and operators among females. The following table gives a list of the defects and diseases observed in garment workers: Table 38. — Defects and diseases observed in 2,086 male and 1,000 female garment workers. Male workers. Female workers. Total. Defect or disease. o 1 1 j ! is a o k s a s Abscess: Connective tissue, head 1 1 1 63 1 3 """"i" 43 .1 1 ""2 4 118 "i?" ...... 1 1 1 13 1 1 31 Acne vulgaris 33 11 3 3 7 10 121 1 3 3 1 1 1 7 1 Adhesions , Intestinal, post- 1 1 19 1 1 45 2 1 18 1 5 2 1 (0 (') (') 45 2 2 ■""2i" 2 1 68 3 26 """96" 13 1 65 2 2 4 37 1 31 23 3 2 214 Anesthesia, traumatic, skin of chest 1 1 1 Angioma of leg 1 1 1 1 Angioma of tongue 1 1 1 1 1 Appendicitis , chronic Arayria of conjunctiva Arterio-sclerosis 7 1 20 1 2 3 1 1 12 3 2 30 1 35 1 9 1 1 2 68 Arthritis: Deformans 1 3 Gonorrheal 2 > Female urine not tested. 55 Table 38. — Defects and diseases observed in ^,086 male and 1,000 female garment workers — Continued . Male workers. Female workers. Total. Defect or disease. i o i 1 s 1 i. II r 1 .1 .g ll a i i pq Arthritis of shoulder joint 1 1 3 1 "i' ■"■"9' ""i" 5 11 ...... ...... "i" ...... 1 14 2 268 5 ...... ...... 1 1 ...... 3 "'65' 114 1 226 741 36 ""29' 1 1 10 ...... 1 •Asthenia . . . 3 3 1 4 7 14 1 1 1 17 20 Atony, mtestinal 1 Atrophy; 2 2 2 1 1 Atrophy of testicle: 1 2 1 4 1 6 2 1 3 4 3 25 81 1 1 1 1 1 3 1 1 6 Right 2 1 1 1 1 2 5 1 3 12 Blind: Left eye 2 2 1 4 Right eye 3 1 1 Bradycardia 1 13 21 1 6 40 1 1 3 ■Bronchitis: Acute catarrhal 6 16 1 5 2 3 2 3 30 Chronic 3 1 92 •Bursitis: 1 1 1 Pnbf\^roTTii«i . . 1 1 1 1 Cataract 1 ...... 1 1 2 1 2 3 Traumatic 1 Chalazion 1 Chloasma 1 1 Cirrhosis of liver 1 2 1 1 1 3 3 ...... 56 16 4 10 466 ...... 14 2 1 3 Clubfoot 3 Colitis 1 1 1 25 6 2 6 259 1 18 5 2 1 92 10 5 1 ' 1 1 1 7 2 170 4 57 Conjunctivitis: Acute catarrhal 17 Chronic 4 3 18 Follicular 1 14 2 5 12 Constipation, chronic 75 21 49 49 1 734 5 1 6 1 1 Corneal opacity 8 2 1 15 Curvature of spine, angular. 2 Cyst: _ 1 1 1 1 1 Ovarian 1 1 Sebaceous, of scalp 1 1 2 1 2 1 1 Cystocele 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 281 682 8 516 1,422 217 1 29 1 4 Deaf mute 1 110 226 3 240 467 62 1 14 1 1 Defective hearing 105 229 5 168 643 121 53 97 8 14 2 9 5 7 42 65 1 78 457 19 14 31 9 18 346 696 9 93 218 17 19 47 9 3 31 5 3 16 3 83 152 5 65 132 12 742 Defective vision 2,163 253 1 Deflected nasal septnim Deformity of chest, occupa- tional Deformity of chest, rachitic. 9 4 2 15 4 10 58 Deformity of chin, cicatricial 1 Deformity of foot, trau- matic 1 1 1 5 ""2 2 1 17 3 1 Delayed menstruation 2 3 10 1 1 ""i" 1 2 Dermographia 2 1 4 1 1 Diabetes meliitus 4 8 2 1 1 IS Dilatation of colon, chronic. 3 5b Table iS,.— Defects and diseases observed in 2,086 male and 1,000 female garment workers — Continued. Male workers. Female workers. Total. Defect or disease. p. o fi 1 ■s 3 Mm "si i o 1 ■a a 1 i .1 PI 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ""ig' 10 70 2 2 "i 1 1 "266' 2 8 2 2 "1 ...... 1 1 1 "i" 1 1 4 38 147 23 4 1 1 27 •""5' 1 '"""5 ""55" 9 1 ■3" ...... '"'i' 1 "u 2 1 ■Dislocation: Congenital of hips 1 1 1 1 Hip joint (old) 1 1 1 Shoulder joint (old) 1 125 29 46 2 1 1 1 200 Mflmhrn.Tiniif; 2 9 1 22 6 7 30 2 2 3 1 12 1 1 1 5 1 1 2 27 Elongation of uvula " Emphysema of lungs 12 6 72 Empyema of frontal sinus. . 2 3 8 3 14 Entropion 1 1 1 1 Epiphora. ... . . 1 1 Episcleritis.. . 1 1 Exostosis, metacarpal bones Exostosis of rib . 1 .1 1 Favus (fine;ernails) 1 ...... 1 Favus of scalp (old) . 3 3 1 Fibroid phthisis 1 1 1 2 3 Fibroma of breast 1 1 1 1 1 70 163 G6 3 1 1 147 335 117 ...... 2 4 16 1 2 . Fistula, anal Flat feot: Slis;ht 51 90 28 20 62 16 2 10 1 3 7 4 1 7 2 25 84 7 2 8 30 3 4 33 13 2 185 482 110 4 Severe . . . . Flattened pelvis 3 1 Ganglion, extensor tendons hand 1 2 7- 1 1 14 3 Gastritis: Acute, cat 1 1 Chronic 4 5 6 8 43 NGastric neurosis 1 1 •Gastric lolcer i 1 1 ■i 1 7 ' G astro-enteritis ' Gastron-hca 1 1 1 1 1 4 16 1 58 13 Glaucoma 1 1 Gleet 1 1 Glycosuria, transitorv 1 1 ■ Goiter, parenchvmatous 3 6 1 26 5 1 4 1 4 GonoiThea 1 Gynecomastia I Hallux valgus 24 7 8 1 35 5 1 8 1 12 3 113 22 1 Hammer toe Harelip ' Hay fever 1 1 1 1 1 1 Hemeralopia , Homirrania 2 1 3 • Hernia: Left inguinal— Incomplete Complete 6 7 13 10 9 9 12 13 9 19 7 4 1 2 6 3 4 3 3 1 1 2 "i" 1 17 25 30 23 32 12 6 3 5 1 2 165 1 17 1 Right inguinal- Incomplete 1 30 Complete 23 32 Double inguinal- Incomplete ...... 1 1 Complete 12 Femoral """i' 2 1 2 40 1 5 Ventral "i i ...... 4 6 1 2 179 1 Herpes: Facial Genital " High blood pressure Hodgkin's disease 91 22 12 6 ""s" ""■3" 57 Table 38. — Defects and diseases observed in ^,086 male and 1,000 female garment workers — Continued . Male workers. Female workers. Votal. J Defect or disease. o £ 1 e5 a 1 p. O 'h II s i ■a i3 Hydrocele 6 3 3 2 3 7 21 6 ""43" 2 268 28 2 " "i' "s "'12 2 "264" 49 5 1 ""2 6 "'i' ""2 2 ""s 1 ...... 1 1 5 1 ■"22' 1 1 10 3 2 2 1 1 1 6 "i' 69 1 18 15 7 13 2 1 1 6 1 1 29 Hyper hydrosis. . 5 8 1 3 1 1 12 ■ Hypertrophy of heart Hypertrophy, prostate Hyperti'ophy, tonsils Hypertrophy of turbinate 17 1 141 16 2 17 ""76' 8 2 5 1 36 1 1 2 2 45 2 4 2 5 1 6 119 34 43 8 5 42 7 1 472 * 77 Hjrpertrophy of thyroid "i 7 , 1 1 1 Hvpothvria 1 4 1 2 2 •\Hysteria 6 Impetigo 1 2 1 15 1 11 2 15 1 1 •Indigestion, intestinal . 1 1 1 2 4 1 "'i' 4 1 5 4 4 1 Infantile uterus 2 2 2 Inflamation of— Connective tissue of foot. 2 Ethmoid cells 3 1 1 4 2 3 2 1 4 '""i" 4 12 Mammary gland 2 Postate gland . 1 6 Ingrowint; toenails 1 1 1 1 1 5 Insufficiency of inferior rectus 1 Insufficiency of superior rectus 1 1 6 2 4 3 11 3 Intermittent and irregular 1 1 1 1 3 16 1 Iritis. 1 1 ...... 1 16 1 1 4 2 22 1 2 Keloids 1 1 70 4 4 1 1 249 8 9 12 5 4 1 29 1 1 Kyphosis: Slight 148 2 3 10 2 3 1 13 22 2 1 1 2 1 4 2 3 7 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 259 11 Mai-ked 1 1 1 11 Eypho-scoliosis: Slight 14 Moderate 1 1 6 Marked 1 5 Laryngitis: 1 2 Chronic 9 1 4 2 1 5 34 1 1 19 1 Leukorrhea 3S is 1 i 1 1 6 1 2 2 2 2 2 46 2 69 1 1 Lipoma diffuse 1 1 1 2 1 2 1 2 2 1 12 1 Lordosis: Slight 3 1 14 1 3 24 Marked 1 Loss of eye: Left Right 1 2 Loss of fingers: Left hand C2^ 2 1 9 2 Low blood pressure (below 100 mm.) Ltmibago.... i 22 2 1 1 1 13 1 1 61 2 58 Table S8.— Defects and diseases observed in Z,086 male and 1,000 female garment workers — ContiBued. Male workers. Female workers. Total. Defect or disease. O 1 Fh 1 1 i • P. O i^ § . a ■^ M n MalnutritioQ . . . 8 18 2 6 4 7 ...... 1 14 31 ....„ 6 ...... 1 ...... 8 8 ...... 2 14 31 1 1 Metatarsalgia, Morton's 1 1 1 3 1 2 3 ....„ 1 3 1 3 6 1 1 1 2 1 -Myalgia 3 3 1 1 1 1 1 Myotonia 1 1 Nasal obstruction (old frac- 1 6 2 10 1 2 1 1 11 8 89 2 3 1 1 2 7 1 i S8 2 2 1 6 6 12 Nepliroptosis 2 S 1 1 1 1 16 12 4 1 97 Neuritis; brachial plexus: Left 1 Eight J •Neurit^: Ext, cutaneous nerve 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Sciatic nerve 2 3 2 g Supra-orbital nerve 2 2 2 5 32 2 13 57 "'is' 4 2 '■■42' 32 1 9 ■■"2' 1 ...... 4 1 45 54 1 31 35 25 1 25 ...... 1 15 3 8 4 2 6 3 1 8 ...... 2 1 Occupational pains .... 61 Orchitis, chronic 1 1 6 1 1 2 105 37 2 4 Osteoma of tibia, right Osteo-myelitis, ciironic, of tibia 1 1 Otitis media: Acute catarrhal 2 38 17 Chronic catarrhal 57 14 5 3 4 1 1 2 29 20 1 5 8 6 5 6 147 10 1 1 8 2 2 18 5 1 Oxaluiia 2 2 Papilloma, nasal septum. . . Papilloma of skui, extensive 2 1 1 1 1 2 2 1 Paralysis of facial nerve 1 1 1 Paralysis of recurrent la- ryngeal nerve 1 left Paronychia, chronic, of toe. 1 4 Pediculosis 1 1 2 1 4 1 1 1 327 54 Perforation, nasal septum. . ■Periostitis of tibia 1 Pharyngitis: Acute 1 154 14 1 24 33 Chronic 104 23 56 9 3 4 5 1 5 3 7 12 1 8 7 3 14 9 ■ 372 108 1 Naso Phlebitis •Piles: 62 28 15 54 44 14 21 19 2 I 1 1 2 2 ...... 19 24 16 1 16 4 4 6 140 101 32 171 136 57 Internal, and mixed . . . Pityriasis versicolor Pleura, thickened from old empyema Pleurisy: 18 19 1 10 2 2 3 6 51 1 1 1 5 76 With effusion Polypoid degeneration, nasal mucous membrane. 1 1 Polypus of auditory meatus . 1 1 I Polypus, nasal 4 ■ 4 9 59 Table 38. -Defects and diseases observed in 2,086 male and 1,000 female garment workers — Continued. Male workers. Female workers. Total. Pefect or disease. S ^ • 1 3 oa' 1 1 1 1 m Polypxis of soft palate Polypus, uterine...- 1 1 "'i' 2 ■"■■4 ...... 1 158 1 ...... ""6 1 7 24 174 ""2 154 11 3 "is" ...... 13 ...... 3 ""'i' ...... ...... 1 2 ...... 8 4 7 9 1 2 "'"22' 1 1 1 1 1 2 Premature ejaculation 2 1 1 1 3 14 1 ...... 2 1 4 7 1 2 4 24 2 2 1 480 4 7 Prolapse of rectum 1 1 '""'5' 1 1 2 f Psychasttienia . 1 5 4 3 1 2g Pterveium 2 ...... 77 1 1 1 1 34 4 Purpura hemorrhagica. . . . 2 Pyorrhea alveolaris Rectocele 205 170 19 7 2 87 37 1 638 1 Relaxed sacro-sciatic ligar ments 2 2 4 4 1 1 1 1 1 3 1 6 15 108 2 1 6 1 Rhinitis: Acute catarrhal Atrophic 6 6 291 1 5 190 1 2 1 84 ""2 11 1 1 5 36 ...... 30 10 14 598 1 17 38 HvDertroohic. 14 8 772 1 2 2 Scabies 2 336 6 14 3 2 227 6 7 2 106 2 1 6 718 16 22 4 1 1 ...... 6 Scoliosis: SllgM 19 2 19 11 102 3 2 18 2 1 34 6 872 27 Marked 25 Sehorrhea (marked) Shortening of leg, left (old 1 4 1 1 1 1 Sluggisn circulation 7 4 2 13 1 1 Spasm of leg (muscular) 1 9 1 Spur, nasal septum 4 4 1 3 8 1 1 8 7 1 5 9 2 1 1 3 2 3 2 21 1 1 1 Strabismus: 1 External . 7 2 1 5 1 4 1 2 2 1 11 10 1 1 1 6 Supernumerary .nipple 7 1 1 1 1 9 2 Synechia: 1 1 1 1 1 _ SvnhUis 2 1 2 1 1 4 1 2 1 5 8 1 2 Tonsillitis: 1 2 1 11 4 3 22 1 2 3 2 26 1 1 1 "■'io' 1 1 1 14 8 6 60 3 1 1 22 20 16 Trachoma: 8 Old 1 1 2 4 1 8 • Tubercle of lungs (active) . . Tubercle of lymph glands . . 1 3 1 68 ' 7 1 .Tubercle nf testicle 1 'Tubercle of lungs: 8 9 13 6 1 4 3 1 3 1 1 2 3 29 Suspected 4 2 29 Tvnhoia fever 1 1 2 •-Valvular disease of heart: 2 11 S 14 1 2 8 27 8 Mitral 8 8 6 49 60 Table 38.— Defects and diseases observed in ^,087 male and 1,000 female garment^ workers — Continued. Male workers. Female workers. Total. Defect or disease. o 1 1 j 1 o k 1 . a a i Valvular disease of heart- Continued. 1 1 2 ...... '"23" 13 ""2 ...... 1 4 2 4 1 2 1 1 22 12 26 21 45 15 1 3 4 2 2 2 1 1 48 62 46 1 48 Varicose veins of legs Visceroptosis and gastrop- 7 6 10 4 6 3 S3 59 1 2 S 1 1 1 6 I 2 3 6 Urticaria 1 2 1 3 Uterine displacement: 1 2 2 3 1 2 4 2 1 4 Web toes 1 Total defects and 4,228 3,320 1,412 304 181 96 2,277 832 807 9,641 3,916 13,457 Average number of defects yperperson. 4.38 4.62 5.04. 6.63 3.77 4.17 3.63 4.49 4.33 4.57 3.92 4 36 The number of defects and diseases recorded is Tery large. It should be borne in mind, however, that it was the practice to note all defects present. A large number of these undoubtedly were of minor importance and did not impair the health or the efficiency of the individual concerned. On the other hand, a large nximber of the defects or diseases did impair more or less seriously the health or efficiency of the subject. In many cases the presence of such defect or disease was unsuspected by the individual, who, in every instance, was given advice as to the proper steps for correcting the condition. Owing to the arrange- ments previously referred to, which were made with Cornell Medical School, many garment workers were referred to this dispensary, when they had no family physician, and others were referred to their family physicians. The workers did not avail themselves in every instance of this advice, but a total of 421 workers, 378 males and 91 females, reported at the Cornell clinic for treatment, besides those who went to their family physicians. ■ Glancing over this table it will be seen that certain defects and' diseases were exceedingly common among garment workers. It should, however, be stated at once that no class of disorders peculiar to the garment trades were found, or which would not probably be foimd with like freqjiiehcy in similar groups of w;orkers engaged in sedentary, indoor occupations. ' ! ' 61 Frequent or significant defects and diseases. — Proceeding now to the discussion of the more frequent or significant defects and diseases among garment workers, the following shorter table of such defects and diseases, together with percentages of incidence in males and females, is inserted at this point for the sake of convenience in reference: Table 39.- -Frequent or significant defects or diseases among male and female garment workers. Defect or disease. Males. Number. Per cent. Females. Number. Per cent. Aiiiemia Albuminuria (1,512 male specimens) of urine Appendicitis, cnronic Arterio-sclerosis Bronchitis, chronic Color blindness Constipation, chronic Defective hearing Defective posture Defective teeth Pjrorrhea alveolaris... : Defective vision Deflected nasal septum Diabetis mellitus (1,392 teste for sugar) Emphysema of lungs ." Flat and weak feet (all degrees) Gastric ulcer Hernia (all varieties) High blood pressure (150 mm. and over) Hyperthyria Hypertrophy of tonsils Low blood pressure (below 100 mm.) Menstrual disorders: Amenorrhea (not physiological) Delayed menstruation Dysmenorrhea Irregular menstruation Menorrhagia Nervous affections otitis media (chronic catarrhal, and suppurative) Pharyngitis and naso-pharyngitis Piles, external, internal, and mixed Pleurisy, fibrinous Rhinitis, atrophic, and hypertrophic.-' Spinal curvature (all grades) Trachoma: Active Old Tuberculosis Valvular disease of heart Varicose veins of legs Visceroptosis, including gastroptosis and nephroptosis. 96 45 13 65 81 56 466 281 582 576 217 17 70 -599 2 152 165 4.6 2.98 3.87 2.7 1 22.3 \ 13. 4 )27.9 27.0 25.7 68.2 10.4 1.22 3.35 28.7 .1 7.8 7.9 12.8 2.2 207 142 381 241 51 612 1,060 _-10.0 6.8 ^18.2 2.44 J9.3 ^_60.3 .4 .3 3.11 1.79 3.0 2.6 118 17 3 11 1 268 65 114 226 168 741 6 2 14 12 204 15 4 10 202 22 31 32 74 99 66 25 198 205 11.9 1.7 .3 1.1 .1 26.8 6.5 11.4 23.6 15.8 74.1 3.6 .2 20.8 .5 .2 1.4 1.2 20.4 1.5 .4 1.0 20.2 2.2 3.1 3.2 7.4 9.9 6.6 2.5 19.8 20.5 1.2 2.3 2.3 2.1 .AneTtiia. — Only mild grades of secondary anemias were found to be present, as a rule. The lowest percentage of hemoglobin, according to the Tallquist scale, encountered among 1,998 male garment workers, was 65 per cent and between 50 and 55 per cent in 999 females. Four and six-tenths per cent of the males had percentages of hemoglobin below 80 per cent and 118 females, or 11.9 had percentages below 75 per cent. Considering that the scales used, gave readings on the average of from 8 to 10 per cent too low, and that males usually show, on the average, about 5 per cent higher percentage of hemoglobin than females, it is thought that the percentages herewith reported are very fair, so far as the males are concerned. The condition of the blood of 62 females can not be regarded as being so satisfactory, in view of the fact that low percentages of hemoglobin were about 2i times as fre- quent among females as among males. The fact that a large pro- portion of the females examined consisted of yoimg individuals, of the age at which mild^ types of chlorosis seem rather common, helps to account, to a certain extent at least, for the greater frequency of low hemoglobin percentages among females. Another factor, undoubtedly of importance, is the greater variety in food, chosen by males as a sex, their heartier appetites, and, to coin a phrase, their better dietetic instinct. WhUe the observations show that, as a class, the females presented good nutrition, malnutrition, among poorly nourished females, seemed more marked than in the case of the males. One point was well emphasized by the determination of the hemo- globin percentages. This was the imreliabUity of the attempts to determine the richness or poverty of the blood by the appearance of the individual. Many of the workers examined, who, judging by their pallor, or the color erf the mucous membranes, would be considered anemic upon this evidence alone, had, upon estimation, a normal per- centage of hemoglobin, whereas, in a number of instances, individuals whose color was apparently good, had hemoglobin percentages decid- edly below the normal. ATbuminuria. — The urine of the males only was systematically examined. As a result of the examination of 1,512 specimens, 45 urines, or 2.98 per cent were albuminous. In 11 cases, at least, other signs of chronic nephritis, such as hypertrophy of the heart, and hypertension were present. In a majority of the instances, however, the fact that the urine might be albuminous was not suspected from the condition of the individual until the specimen was examined. Appendicitis, chronic. — Chronic appendicitis seemed more preva- lent than might be supposed, this condition being diagnosed upon the history of previous attacks, tenderness and signs of past inflam- mation in the right iliac fossa. The condition, contrary to the usual observations, was found to be nearly three times as common among females as among males, being diagnosed in 1.7 per cent of the females and 0.6 per cent of the males. Thirty additional males, or 1.4 per cent, and 19 females, or 1.9 per cent of those examined had under- gone previous appendectomies. Arteriosclerosis. — Sixty-five males, or 2.86 per cent, and three females, or 0.3 per cent, gave well marked indications of arterio- sclerosis. The great preponderance of this observation on the side of the males is well accounted for by the greater average age of the males. Chronic bronchitis and emphysema of the lungs. — Chronic bronchitis and emphysema of the lungs seemed relatively frequent among male 63 garment workers but more than 3 times lefes frequent among the females. Chronic bronchitis was present 81 times and emphysema of the lungs 70 times among the males examined, while these condi- tions were found only 11 times and twice each among the females examined. The respective incidences of these two diseases were for males 3.87 per cent and 3.35 per cent, while, for females these were 1.1 per cent and 0.2 per cent. Among males instances of these diseases were found principally among pressers, finishers, and tailors, the latter having the highest percentages, both of chronic bronchitis and emphysema of the lungs (5.56 and 11.1 per cent). ' It is seen that the frequency of these conditions was greatest in the oldest class of garment workers, viz, the tailors. It is thought that there are two causes which would predispose toward chronic bronchitis and emphysema of the lungs, so far as garment workers are concerned. The first is the sedentary posture, in the case of tailors and finishers, the second, and previous occupation in trades requiring severe muscular exertion in the case of the pressers. The diminution in the respiratory exciu-sion of the ribs entailed by vicious postures in sedentary occupations favors the early calcifi- cation of the costal oart-ilages, thus predisposing to the development of emphysematous conditions of the lungs, while the fixation of the thorax, determined by strong muscular efforts must also be regarded as a predisposing factor in the development of these conditions. More stress has been laid ia the foregoing on the incidence of emphy- sema orsjtie lungs than that of chronic bronchitis for the reason that ia the majority of cases, the bronchitis was secondary to the emphysematous condition. Color ilindness. — It was thought it might be of interest to deter- mine the incidence of color bhndness among garment workers. The Holmgren set of test worsteds was used for this purpose. Fifty- six, or 2.7 per cent, of the male garment workers were found to be color blind while only 1 of the females, or 0.1 per cent, was so affected. WhUe it is well known that color blindness is decidedly more com- mon among males than among females, the very low incidence of color blindness among the females examined is doubtless due to the selective influence of the dress and waist trade. Fabrics in the cloak, suit, and skirt trades are woolen and for the most part dark or neu- tral in tint, while the colors of the fabrics in the dress and waist trades are likely to be bright and variegated. Color-bhnd persons would be at considerably more disadvantage in the dress and waist trades than in the cloak, suit, and skirt industry, because of the need of matching fabrics, combining tints, and selecting variously colored thread in the former occupation. Chronic constipation. — ^Approximately 22.3 per cent of the males and 26.8 per cent of the females examined suffered from habitual con- 64 stipation. A considerably larger number, while not habitually con- stipated, complained of the state of their bowels, as to irregularity, attacks of constipation, and the hke. Among males this condition was most frequent in taUors with 38.9 per cent, next in cutters, with 29.2 per cent, finishers with 26.9 per cent, operators with 26.6 per cent, and lastly the pressers with 12.5 per cent suffering from habitual constipation. Among females habitual constipation was most marked in operators, with 27.3, while both finishers and miscellaneous workers were somewhat less constipated, their percentages being about 21 per cent each.' Among males it is probable that the standing posture of pressers, together with the twisting movements of the trunk in their occupar tion, may account for the considerably lower percentage suffering from habitual constipation in this group. It is true among cutters, who work also in a standing posture, that the percentage of those suffering from habitual constipation is high, The cutter, however, is not required by his occupation to put forth the muscular efforts of the presser, nor are his movements likely, in so great a degree, to bring the muscles of the trunk and abdomen into play. So far as females are concerned, the predisposition of women to constipation is well known, owing to their usually quiet Hfe, weaker abdominal muscles, and lack of regularity of habits. In addition to purely occupational conditions, such as defective posture and the sitting position which favor habitual constipation, it would seem that certain dietetic factors in the case of garment workers predisposed to this condition. The use of green vegetables and fresh fruit among garment workers was small, and milk was very generally drunk, especially at lunch time. Perhaps, however, the most important personal factor in inducing this condition was the very general neglect on the part of garment workers of forming regular habits of defecation. Leaving their homes for their work hurriedly in the morning, the visit to the toilet is put off for some more convenient time and is too often for- gotten in the stress of work at the shop. Eesort to laxatives and purgatives was very common among garment workers. Many of them had the "cathartic" habit, the individual stating that his bowels moved only when some purgative was taken. In connection with habitual constipation the number of garment workers suffering from piles was considerable, 241 males, or 11.5 per cent, and 66 women, or 6.6 per cent, suffered from external, internal, or mixed piles. Defective hearing. — Impaired hearing seemed to be relatively common among garment workers. The hearing was defective in 281 males, or 13.4 per cent, and 65 females, or 6.5 per cent. One hundred and forty-two males, or 6.8 per cent, and 75 females, or 7.5 65 per cent, were found to be suffering from chronic catarrhal or from suppurative middle-ear disease. Among some of the females with this condition the hearing was, as yet, not demonstrably impaired, while in some of the males with defective hearing, apart from collec- tions of wax, no changes were visible in the tympanic membrane. Until further comparative data shall have been collected by the examination of workers in other industries, it is, of course, impossible to say to what extent garment workers suffer from impaired hearing, as compared to other groups of workers. There seems ground, how- ever, for the belief that the number of persons suffering from impaired hearing among garment workers is in excess of that in the general population. As will be discussed later, a very large number of chronic catarrhal affections of the nose and throat were present among gar- ment workers. It is probable in many instances that the chronic middle-ear disease observed to be present resulted from an extension of the catarrhal condition of the nose and throat. Effects of noise. — Apart from catarrhal conditions, the effect of exposure to continuous noise is well known to impair hearing. The deafness of boiler makers and riveters is proverbial. Garment workers are by no means free frona the effects of noisy conditions. Several banks of sewing machines, all electrically driven, produce a vibratory roar which, through the years, can not be without effect upon the hearing apparatus. Defective 'posture. — ^Although the figures in the table show that 582, or 27.9 per cent, of the male workers, and 114, or 11.4 per cent, of the females had defective posture, the actual number was considerably greater. At the outset of the examiaation, unfortimately, data as to the posture were not collected unless this was bad. Later, notes of the posture were taken in the case of 1,073 males. The following table gives the number and percentage of good, fair, and bad postures observed in this group: Table 40 — Posture of 1,073 male garment workers. Posture. ft O £ 1 i .1- s 1 ■i 1 1 3 1 ■ s 3' o Eh 1 Good 117 169 247 21.9 31.7 46.4 79 85 203 21.5 23.2 55.3 21 23 68 18.75 20.50 60.6 2 8 13 8.7 34.8 50.5 11 9 6 42.3 34.6 23.0 3 2 7 25 16.6 58.4 233 296 544 21 7 Fair 27.6 Bad Total.... 633 367 112 23 26 12 1,073 It will be seen that among 1,073 male garment workers in 21.7 per cent the posture was good, in 27.5 per cent was fair, and in 50.8 per cent the posture was bad. The finishers, with 60.6 per cent of bad postures showed the highest number of postural faults; the 95485°— Bull. 71—15 5 66 cutters with 23 per cent of bad postures held themselves the best, on the whole. Varieties of had posture.— Two main varieties of bad posture were distinguished: First, the kyphotic posture, with rounded shoulders, contracted chest, arms dangling forward, the normal curvature of the lumbar spine partly obliterated, the beUy muscles relaxed, the buttocks flattened, and the knees partly flexed; and second (for want of a better name), the "slanting backward" posture, in which the abdomen is protruded, the upper part of the thorax leans backwards, and the weight is borne in a large measure upon the heels. In the first posture the principal strain seems to be borne by the spinal and sacro-Uiac ligaments; in the second by the pubo-femoral ligaments. Combinations of both postures were also met with. The vicious element in both these postures lies in the circumstance that a disproportionally small amount of the strain of keeping the trunk erect is thrown upon the body muscles, while the stress upon the bones, ligaments, and joints is disproportionately great. The following photographs (Plates I-III) give a good idea of these postures as observed. Nos. 1 and 2 show the "kyphotic " posture, No. 3, the "slanting backward" posture. No. 4, a combination of the two. That such postures are by no means a necessary accompaniment of occupation in the garment trades is shown by the fact that many workers were seen whose muscular development and postures were excellent in every way. Effects of previous military training. — In view of the foreign birth of the majority of garment workers, the question will at once arise as to the effects upon the posture due to compulsory military train- ing. It may at once be stated that military training in the youth of the individual exerted a prolonged and favorable influence upon the posture. The following figures (Nos. 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9) show the excellent postures of several garment workers who had received military training during youth. The case of the subject shown in figure 9 is especially noteworthy. This individual, now 59 years of age, served in the Austrian army about 26 years ago. Although now the subject of mild emphysema of the lungs and chronic bron- chitis, he suffers but little inconvenience from this defect and does his work easily. It is seen that, apart from possessing good muscular development, his shoulders are flat and his posture excellent. Effects of physical exercise on the posture. — The following photo- graphs show young garment workers who, though having no previous mihtary training, were interested in physical exercise. The subject in figure No. 10 is particularly interested in swimming, No. 11 in wresthng, while No. 12, originally an ironworker, maintains the exceUent muscular development acquired in this trade by regular exercise. Public Health Bulletin 71. Fig. 1.— Kyphotic posture. Fig. 2.— Kyphotic posture. Fig. 3. — Slanting backward posture. Fig. 4. — Combined kyphotic and slanting backward posture. 67 While some allowance should be made for added excellence from conscious pride in their physiques, so far as the posture is concerned, still it seems quite evident that these young men, so long as they still take interest in the condition of their bodies, will suffer no harmful postural effects from their occupation. Posture of females. — ^ While the postural habits of females were not studied so carefully as those of the males, still it was evident that defective postures were not so frequent among them. In the first place, the modern corset appears "to be a decided aid in preventing very bad postures. Secondly, consciousness of the personal appear- ance is a far more powerful influence in females than it is in males. Inasmuch as until very recently the prevailing styles and the type of corset used are not becoming unless the posture assumed by the wearer be more or less correct, we have in females a powerful incen- tive to good postures which is not operative for males. Besides this, in females their average age was so low that as a rule the normal tendency of human beings to "slump" when habitually sedentary had not as yet time to overcome the operation of other influences which in females tend to make for a good posture. Spinal defects. — In connection with the discussion of posture, reference will now be made to the occurrence of spinal curvatures among garment' workers. A large number of such defects were noted among the workers examined. It was a rather rare circum- stance to encounter a spine completely straight. The following table shows the types of spinal curvature met with, the frequency and the extent of such defects: Table 41. — Spinal defects of male and female garment workers. Male workers. Female workers. Summary. Defect or disease. 1 1 Fh o 1 o 1 S o 1 o i 1 1 -a 1^ o :-i i Kyphosis: Slight : 148 2 3 10 2 3 3 70 4 4 1 ...... 2 22 2 1 1 2 4 2 3 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 249 8 9 12 5 4 6 11.9 .38 .43 .57 .24 .19 .29 3 3 1 1 1 0.3 .3 .1 .1 .1 252 Moderate 11 1 -•-- 10 Kypho-scoliosis: Slight 13 1 6 Marked 4 Lordosis: Slight 1 6 Moderate Marked 1 227 6 7 1 718 16 22 .05 34.4 .77 1.05 1 Scoliosis: Slight 336 6 14 106 2 1 19 2 19 11 18 2 1 34 6 52 8 1 5.2 .8 .1 770 24 Marked 23 Total 527 323 137 27 22 14 28 42 1,050 70 1,120 68 It will be seen from this table that there were 1,050 cases of spinal curvatures of all kinds among males and 205 among females, a total of 1,255 cases. Of these 872 were slight degrees of scoliosis, 14 shght degrees of kyphosis, and 24 slight cases of lordosis. Of marked cases of spinal curvatures of various kinds there were 42, of which 36 were in males and 6 in females. Nevertheless, small degrees of spinal curvature are not without result upon the well-being of the individual. They are, as a rule, indicative of faulty poise, an index of muscular and ligamentous strain improperly distributed in the past. While, in many instances, no effects are felt by the individual, in others lumbar pains are a source of discomfort and disability, owing to undue strain beiag thrown upon one set of sacro-ihac ligaments by reason of the spinal cm^ature. Effects of faulty posture upon the health of the individual. — ^The bad effects of a faulty posture upon the individual are well known. The fundamental physical error conunitted, in habitually maintaining an incorrect posture, lies in fact that the principal strain of poising the body does not fall upon the trunk muscles, where it properly belongs, but upon bones, ligaments, and articular surfaces. WhUe, in muscular physiques, the most impressive development is that of the shoulder girdle and extremities, the really important muscular development, in such physiques, is that of the abdominal and back muscles. These muscles, when correctly developed and used, so poise the trunk that the weight is balanced over the extremities with a min- imum of strain on the bodily framework. When, on the other hand, the task of maintaining the upright position is thrown, not upon the muscles, where this properly belongs, but upon bones and ligaments, a vicious circle is created. The trunk muscles, through disuse, or atrophy, fail to develop thus throwing progressively increasing strain upon the skeletal structures. These in turn gradually yield under the strain, so that, as time passes, the vicious posture is intensified. Besides the lowered metabolism caused by the lessened demand, through disuse, of an important part of the muscular system (the trunk muscles), we see other evil effects upon health resulting from vicious postures. Effects upon the respiratory system. — The drooping shoulders and bowed back deprive the intercostal muscles of their "point d'appui," so that respiration becomes mainly diaphragmatic. The chest, more or less immobihzed by the defective posture, prevents the free expansion of the lungs, so that the volume of air displaced at each respiration is relatively small. Another condition also interfering 69 with the expansion of the lungs is the diminished intra-abdominal space and the resulting increased intra-abdominal pressure, which is discussed later. This makes for lowered oxygenation and ra,te of respiratory exchange, thus diminishing the metabolic change. The bones of the thorax, held more or less motionless for long periods, tend, by early calcification of the costal cartilages and by weakness, through disuse of the intercostal muscles, to become a rigid framework, the active area of the lungs being correspondingly diminished. Undoubtedly, we have here a condition interfering with the proper nutrition of the lungs, creating places of minor resistance, favoring the development of chronic pulmonary affec- tions, such as emphysema and chronic bronchitis, and, last but not least, tuberculosis. So much then for the effects of faulty postures upon the respiratory organs. We have still to consider the effects of faulty posture upon the other organs of the body. Effects of had posture upon tJie abdominal organs. — ^Though the abdominal organs are connected to the body wall by various liga- mentary structures, the frequent occurrence of displacements of .these organs shows that these Ugaments of themselves are incom- petent to maintain the viscera in their correct relative positions. The agency in keeping the intra-abdominal structures in place is the tonus of the abdominal muscles, aided, to a certain extent, by atmospheric pressure. Inasmuch as the abdominal, like the pleural, is a closed cavity, all its internal structures are in close contact with their neighbors and with the abdominal walls, of which the mobile portions are accu- rately applied to the contours of the contained organs, and foUow changes in the volurae of the hollow viscera. The tendency which the abdominal organs have to press against the belly wall gives rise to the "intra-abdominal pressure" which is resisted by the tonus of the abdominal muscles. Now the effects of bad postural habits upon the abdominal con- tents are twofold. In the first place the substitution of an anterio- posterior bowing of the spine, for the normal spinal cm-ves, together with the greater task thrown upon the diaphragm by reason of the relative immobility of the thorax during respiration, tends to decrease the amount of intra-abdominal space. As a consequence, the intra- abdominal pressure is increased and the contained viscera tend to press more strongly against the abdominal wall. The points of origin and attachment of the abdominal muscles being brought nearer together by reason of the bowed posture, these muscles no longer can resist so effectively the increased intra-abdominal pressure by means of their natural tonus. Secondly, the continuous adoption of faulty postures, throwing the strain of maintaining the balance more upon bones and ligaments 70 than upon muscle, makes for deficient development or atropty through disuse of the abdominal muscles. These then are stretched and lose theh normal tonus by reason of the mcreased intra-abdominal pressure. As the hollow viscera will always expand to fill completely the abdommal space, we have here a condition of progressively increasmg intra-abdommal pressure, which tends to stretch stiJl more the under- developed or weakened abdominal muscles. In this way the beUy walls become more and more relaxed, so that the viscera, instead of being supported by elastic muscle, are retained in place chiefly by then- attachments. These yield slowly to the strain, and general descent of the abdominal viscera takes place. In subjects with good fat-making abilities deposits of fat in the omentum frequently act as pads to fill up increased abdominal space furnished by relaxed belly walls, so that descent of the viscera is more or less prevented. We get, then, the protuberant and pendu- lous abdomen. The lack of normal abdominal muscle tonus, due to faulty posture, besides directly favoring the ultimate prolapse of the abdominal organs, has an evil influence in still other ways. The stomach and intestines drawing more and more upon their attachments find their circulation interfered with; sharp angles and kinks are formed in the intestinal coils, thus favoring local accumulations of gas and retarding the onward passage, by peristalsis, of the intestinal contents. In this way chronic constipation and various types of indigestion are invited, all of which have a compromising efl'ect upon the health of the individual. Relation of posture to Jiernia. — Excluding the case of congenital hernias it is evident that the defective state of development of the abdominal muscles, resulting from bad postm-al habits, combined with the increased intra-abdominal pressure, may predispose to hernia either because the abdominal wall gives way gradually or ruptures by reason of some sudden muscular strain. No less than 152 male garment workers, or 7.8 per cent of those examined, were found affected with hernias of various kinds. Nine- teen additional individuals, or approximately another 1 per cent, were foimd who had undergone operations in the past few years for the radical cure of hernia. In marked contradistinction to the relative frequency of hernia among male workers was its comparative rarity among females, but two of the female workers examined suffering from hernia. Visceroptosis. — Fifty-four cases of marked visceroptosis among men and 21 cases among women were encountered in the examination, the percentage of mcidence bemg 2.6 per cent for men and 2.1 for women. Sixteen of these subjects, eight men and eight women, had 71 nephroptosis as well, the condition causing marked discomfort and disabihty. In all the cases of visceroptosis observed the posture was obviously defective. Relation of posture ),o flat and weaTc feet. — A stiU further relation of faulty posture to the causation of bodily defects Hes in the genesis of weak plantar arches and flat feet. We must consider that the dis- placement of the bones of the feet, resulting in weak arches and flat feet, are not due so much to congenital weakness of the foot structures as to the prolonged action of faulty weight bearing on the feet. Poor bodily development is, of course, often a factor in the genesis of weak feet, for with defective musculature the posture is only too often apt to be faulty. A very large number of garment workers were found with weak arches or flat feet. The total number of male workers with this defect was 599, or 29 per cent, while in the case of females the number was 208, or 20.8 per cent. In 185 instances the defect was sHght, in 482 cases it was moderate, and in 140 cases it was severe. Among males the highest percentage of weak or of flat feet in the large groups of workers was found among finishers with 31.4 per cent. Operators came next with 31 per cent and pressers last with an inci- dence of 24.5 per cent. Among females the highest incidence was found in miscellaneous workers with 26.4 per cent, followed by finish- ers with 22 per cent and operators with 18.1 per cent. It should be stated, however, in this connection that, although the number of feet which from an anatomical standpoint were weak or flat was very large, the number of subjects complaining of symptoms was not high, about 91.4 per cent of males with weak or flat feet not complaining, while 8.6 per cent suffered from symptoms. Among females the percentage of those having weak or flat feet complaining of symptoms was considerably higher, 53, or 25. 5 per cent, complain- ing of symptoms. It is thought that the high-heeled shoes worn by the majority of female workers, with the consequent faidty weight distribution, were partly responsible, at least for the greater percentage of females having flat or weak feet, who complained of symptoms. Although pressers, as a class, showed the lowest percentage of flat feet among the male workers examined, this is to be expected, as sub- jects with painful flat feet would ordinarily be deterred from foUow- ing this occupation by reason of the standing posture it entails. Op- erators and finishers, on the otheT hand, would have their efficiency much less compromised by this condition because of their sedentary postures. Yet the severest cases of flat feet were met with among pressers, as is well shown by figure 13, which gives an example of an extreme case of this deformity encountered in a presser. This subject states that at present he has no pain in his feet, the process of disintegration of 72 the plantar arch having reached its end, but that walking is difficult. In the past, however, he suffered severely. Effect of faulty shoes.— The effects of faulty posture in causing flat feet is stiE further increased by defects in the construction of shoes. While the shoes worn by garment workers as a class differed in no way from those worn by the general population, except that some of them with painful feet had gone to large expense in the purchase of so-caJled orthopedic models, the frequent occurrence of flat feet among gar- ment workers called added attention to the frequency with^ whicli shoes as ordinarily sold in shoe stores violate the correct principles of weight bearing! The defects commonly observed were those which tend to throw the weight to the inner side of the sole and heel, crowd the toes, and prevent the proper expansion of the foot as the body weight is transferred to its ball ia walking. Habitual working posture of operators. — Before leaving the discus- sion of posture some description of the habitual posture of operators at work should be of interest. The chairs provided in shops for the use of operators and finishers are, as a rule, of the ordinary kitchen variety, with saddle, wooden seats. In some instances chairs were not provided, the workers sitting upon an upended box or a rough stool constructed of box lumber. No instances of seats adjustable to height were observed. Operators, as a class, sit "on the tips of their spines"; that is, the spine is bowed into an antero-posterior curve. Inasmuch as an individual who sits all day naturally seeks to bear his weight upon the ischial tuberosities, the operator sits on the extreme edge of his chair, so as to bring his weight upon the tuberosities in question, when leaning forward over his work. It is plain that if the spine is bent in an antero-posterior curve, one must sit on the edge of a chair in order conveniently to bear the weight upon the ischial tuberosities and not on softer and more sensi- tive structures in the forward leaning position. The antero-posterior curvature of the spine adopted so tUts the pelvis that, unless a posi- tion is taken upon the edge of the chair, the weight will not be fuUy borne upon the tuberosities. On the other hand, if one sits well back in a chair, the back must be kept flat and the spine straight in order to poise the body upon the ischial tuberosities when one leans forward. In addition to the general effects upon the body of faulty postures which have been previously discussed, a curious local effect of sitting upon the edge of chairs was frequently noted in the case of operators. The concentration of the body weight on the relatively small area overlying the tuberosities produced local changes in the skui. A number of operators were observed with marked thickening and often pigmentation of the skin over the tuberosities. In thin subjects, in several instances, actual callosities were present. Public Health Bulletin 71. PLATS IV. 1 1 \ 4 '- %. 'A.. 1 i , i H. / \ pjf- ^^HBi^ k & 1 Im Fig. 13. Fig. U. Fig. 15. Example of severe flat feet in a presser. Examples of bad and of good posture in youths of the same age (17 years) just entering the garment trades. Fig. 16. — Example of extreme neglect of oral hygiene in a garment worker (subject 28 years old). 73 The garment trades as factors in producing faulty postures. — It seemed plain, from the results of the examination, that, while the garment trades in themselves did not necessarily induce faulty postures, pro- vided the postural habits of the worker were origiaaUy correct, occu- pation in the garment trades had a strong tendency to intensify incorrect postural habits. The observation that garment workers who, in their youth, had received postural training diiring military service, for instance, were able to resist the evil postural tendencies of a sedentary occupation throughout an industrial lifetime is, in itself, proof that engage- ment in such occupations need not, per se, cause faulty postural habits. On the other hand, the effect of the trade upon individuals entering the industry with incorrect postural habits ah-eady formed seemed to be marked. The following two photographs (Plate IV, figs. 14 and 15) seem to be of interest in this connection. Here are two youths, each of the same age, each just entering the garment trades. In the first youth (fig. 14) the protruding abdomen with its tense lower segment, the projecting shoulder blades, forward inclination of the head, relaxed and slender musculature, aU indicate a subject with such defective postural habits that he is certain to be adversely affected by a sedentary occupation continued through the years. The other subject (fig. 15), in spite of a slight scoliosis, presents a vigorous musculature for his age (17 years). The scapulse are flat, the posture active, the erector spinse muscles well marked. While, through ignorance or carelessness, he may later lapse into a faulty posture, with its attendant iU efl^ects, there is strong ground for hope that his naturally vigorous physique will steer him clear of this error. No such expectation can be enter- tained with respect to the first youth (fig. 14) unless his present bad posture be corrected by training, before osseous and ligamentary 3hanges shall have rendered his postural defects irremediable. Defective teeth and pyorrhea alveolaris. — In estimating the state of dentition of the workers examined the following notation was em- ployed in collecting this data. The total number of teeth, sound and imsound, present in the mouth of the individual were counted and this number made the denominator of a fraction the numerator of which was the number of effective teeth present. Teeth badly decayed, loose, or wanting in opponents were regarded as ineffective teeth. Thus the notation -^ in regard to the state of dentition of an individual would indicate that while a total of 23 teeth of aU degrees of efiiciency were present in the mouth only 17 of them were of use to their possessor. The number of persons suffering from defective teeth among garment workers was very large, most of the defects being the result of the neglect of oral hygiene. Fig. 16 (Plate IV), a photograph of a subject 28 years old, is an extreme example of such neglect. 74 The teeth were found to be grossly defective in 27 per cent of the men and 24.7 per cent of the women, observations as to the state of the teeth having been made in 1,911 instances in the case of males and 955 instances in the case of females. The total number of teeth present in the mouths of 1,911 males was 51,329 or an average of 26.81 teeth to each person. The total number of teeth present in the mouths of 955 female workers was 27,034, the average number to each female worker being 28.32. Examining now the number of effective teeth, the total number of such teeth present, for males was 47,076 or an average of 24.63 to each person, while, for females this total was 25,999 or an average of 27.21 effective teeth to each female worker. The deficiency from normal efficiency was, therefore, 7.37 teeth for males and 4.79 teeth for females. It is seen that on the whole, the teeth of males were more defective than those of females, a result readily accounted for by the greater average age of males, and hence, a longer period of action for the results of the neglect of oral hygiene. Incidence of pyorrhea. — A large number of cases of pyorrhea alveolaris were also encountered, 480, or 25.7 per cent, of the males and 158, or 16.7 per cent, of the females being so affected. The diagnosis of this affection was based upon the presence of one or more of the following conditions: Loose teeth, presence of pus pockets under the gingival margin, congested, cyanotic and easily bleeding gums, deposits of tartar beneath the gum border, marked recession of the gums. Recent studies have shown, apart from the indigestion caused hy imperfect mastication, the pain, discomfort, and gradual loss of the teeth caused by chronic pyorrhea, that this condition is an important focus of systemic infection. Many observations have now been made of the apparent association of obscure joint affections, neuritic pauis and similar conditions with oral sepsis, great improvement ia these conditions having occurred when an existing pyorrhea Avas treated, Be this as it may, it can not be denied that the presence of pyorrhea in the mouth of an individual constitutes a continuous focus for bacterial infection, which constantly accompanies the individual con- cerned. While the invasion of the body by hostile germs derived from this source may be put off, perhaps indefinitely, by reason of high natural resistance of the body to infection, the converse is too often the case and infection of the body results. Apart from this danger, the early destruction of the teeth, the attendant pain and the malassimilation consequent upon diseases of the teeth may, undoubtedly, greatly lessen physical efficiency and he productive of iU health, so that pyorrhea, viewed from any stand- point, must ever be regarded as an important enemy to individual health and efficiency. It was evident, from the examinations that garment workers, as a class, were but little acquainted with the principles of oral hygiene' 75 Instances of the regular use of a dentifrice and the tooth brush were seldom, encountered. On the other hand many workers were met with who had spent considerable sums of money for dental work. Thus among females, 13.7 per cent of the workers had crowned teeth, the total number of crowns present being 603 or an average of 4.6 crowns to the worker with crowned teeth. It should be noted, however, that the kind of dental work done consisted for the most part in crown and bridge work or the supplying of artificial dentures. Prophylactic fiUings were conspicuous by their rarity. In other words large sums had been expended for prosthetic work, when the consistent maintenance of the mouth in a cleanly condition combined with the use of a smaller number of relatively inexpensive and timely fillings might have preserved the teeth in much greater efficiency at a lower cost. A great deal of the dental work seen among garment workers was evidently done by poorly qualified dental practitioners. Many badly fitting crowns, artificial teeth on saddles without proper support, poorly buttressed bridges and the like were observed, so that, in some instances the last state of the mouth was worse than the first. Defective vision. — With the exception of the work of the pressors, the garment industry makes exacting demands upon the eyes of the workers. The eyes are used under such conditions that eye strain may easily develop. The necessity for accurate vision is also such that refractive errors should be corrected so as to give maximum acuity of vision and ease in using the eyes. In the course of this examination all that was attempted was to determine the visual acuity, in the ordinary way, by means of test types, and, when glasses were worn, to estimate the improvement in vision resulting from the glasses. The test cards were hung in well-lighted parts of the offices, the daylight illumination upon them, by photometric measurement, being never below 29 foot-candles. The visual acuity was tested in the case of 1,924 males and 982 females, a total of 2,906 persons. Of this number but 743 (502 males and 241 females) had normal vision in both eyes or a little over 25 per cent of the total number tested. In 498 cases (341 males, 157 females), or a little over 17 per cent, the vision was normal in one eye but defective in the other, while in 1,665 instances (1,081 male, 584 female), or about 57 per cent, the vision of both eyes was defec- tive. Among males, tailors with 13 per cent having normal vision in both eyes showed the lowest percentage of those having normal virion. The percentage of those having normal vision in both eyes in the remaining groups was as follows: Finishers, 19 per cent; 76 pressors, 24 per cent; operators, 29.1 per cent; miscellaneous workers, 30.4 per cent; cutters, 34.1 per cent. Among females the percentages, by groups, of those having normal vision was as follows: Finishers, 26 per cent; operators, 25.8 per cent; and miscellaneous workers, 28.6 per cent. Generally speaking the percentage of those having normal vision was in inverse proportion to the age, the groups with the highest average age having the lowest percentage of normal vision. Considering now the racidence of subnormal vision in both eyes among males, 64.6 per cent of the finishers, 64 per cent of the tailors, 58.7 per cent of the pressors, 52.7 per cent of the operators, 48 per cent of the miscellaneous workers, and 44.6 per cent of the cutters had defective vision in both eyes. Among females the percentage incidence of defective vision ia both eyes was as follows: Finishers, 69 per cent; operators, 57.7 per cent; miscellaneous workers, 67.1 per cent. From observations in workshops the impression was gained that the work of the finishers entailed greater strain upon the eyes than that of other workers, while the work of pressors made the least demand. It wOl be shown later in the report that the finisher had often to work xmder unsatisfactory Oluminating conditions. It is significant that the highest percentage of defective vision was encotmtered in the class of workers who made the greatest use of their eyes. The following tables show the degree of vision present in the defective eyes of the workers examined: Table 42. — Degree of defective vision, male garment workers. IN 341 WORKERS WITH ONE DEFECTIVE EYE. Vision less than- Eyes. Per cent. Vision less than- Eyes. Fer cent. 20/25 20/30 20/10 20/SO 20/70 S2 143 53 1« 17 24.00 42.00 15.5 4.7 5.0 20/100 20/200 Below 20/200 Blind 3.5 2.3 2.0 0.9 IN 1,081 WORKERS WITH BOTH EYES DEFECTIVE. Vision less than— Right eye. Per cent. I.elt eye. Per cent. 20/25 127 342 216 86 111 96 86 12 5 11.72 31.6 20.0 8.0 10.3 8.9 8.0 1.1 .45 Ill 331 219 108 109 99 87 12 5 10.3 30.6 20.2 10.0 10.1 9.1 S.0 1.1 .46 20/30 20/W 20/50 20/70 20/100 20/200 Belo\v20;20U Blind ." 7,7 Table 43. — Degree of defective vision, female garment workers. VISION OF DEFECTIVE EYE WITH ONE EYE LESS THAN 20/20 (157). Vision less than— Number. Per cent. Vision less than— Number. Per cent. 20/25 1 130 12 4 6 .64 82.8 7.6 2.5 3.8 20/100 2 1 1 1 7 20/30 20/200 20/40 Light only 64 Total 20/70 157 VISION OF THOSE HAVING VISION LESS THAN 20/20, BOTH EYES (584). Vision less than — Eight eye. Per cent. Left eye. Per cent. 20/25 20/30 20/40 20/50 20/70 20/100 20/200 20/200 Fingers only. Total.. 276 106 39 76 32 32 14 1.64 47.2 18.2 6.2 13.0 6.5 5.5 2.4 6 264 123 49 65 25 37 14 1 1.03 45.2 21.1 8.4 11.1 4.3 6.3 2.4 .17 584 It will be seen from these tables that when the vision in one eye only was defective the deficiency was not great, being between 20/30 and 20/40 in 66 per cent of the males and 91 per cent of the females. When the vision was defective in both eyes it was between 20/25 and 20/30 in approximately 11 per cent of the instances for males and 1.54 per cent of the females; between 20/30 and 20/40 in 31.6 per cent of the males and 47.2 per cent of the females, while in about 58 per cent of the instances for males and 51 per cent for the females with both eyes defective the vision was less than 20/40. In occupations such as the garment trades, with their exacting demands upon the eye, even small visual defects merit attention. With gross visual defects, the eye makes no effort at compensation by accomodative efforts. Under such circumstances, the fact that his vision is defective may be so obvious to the worker that he seeks reHef in glasses. When small refractive errors are present the worker finds that by concentration he sees well enough for practical purposes, but his efforts to compensate for the refractive error by accommodative efforts lead readily to eye strain with its attendant symptoms. Use of glasses among garment workers. — In spite of the large number of workers with defective vision, relatively few had made an attempt to improve their vision by the use of glasses. Only 254 persons, 132 males and 122 females, or about 11.7 per cent out of a total of 2,163 male and female persons with defective vision, wore glasses. Of these 254 persons wearing glasses, in only 51 cases or about 20 per 78 cent was the visual defect whoUy corrected by the glasses worn. Partial correction of the visual defect was present in 163 cases, or about 64 per cent of those wearing glasses, while in 36 cases, or about 14.4 per cent, the glasses worn either did not improve the vision or made it worse. In 4 cases, or 1 .58 per cent, glasses had been procured but were not worn. Compared with the total number having defec- tive vision these percentages become smaller yet, those with defective vision having their defect fully corrected by glasses being but 2.35 per cent, those with the defect partly corrected bemg 7.5 per cent, and those wearing glasses without improvement being 1.67 per cent. A part, at least, of the poor results derived from the use of glasses among garment workers arose from the fact that too often the glasses were prescribed by opticians or poorly qualified practitioners. In other instances the type of visual error was such that partial correction was the best that could be secured. It is evideat from the foregoiag that a large proportion of garment workers suffer from visual defects, whUe the use of correcting glasses is very much less than it should be, considermg the number requiring their use. It is also evident, with the exception of pressers, that the occupation is one making exacting demands upon the eyes, the corol- lary being that eyes of these workers should be used tmder conditions promotiQg visual ease and acuity. It is needless to say that the use of properly fitted glasses to correct even small visual defects is, for eye workers, an important part of the hygiene of the eye. Menstrual disorders. — A considerable proportion of the female workers examined suffered from menstrual disorders. Four, or 0.4 per cent, suffered from amenorrhea not due to the menopause. Men- struation was delayed in 10, or 1 per cent; irregular menstruation was present in 22, or 2.2 per cent; monorrhagia was present in 31, or 3.1 per cent; while 202, or 20.2 per cent, suffered from dysmenorrhea. Nervous affections. — Attention has been called by Schwab ^ to tlie high rate of prevalence of neurasthenia among garment workers. Data upon this point are therefore of interest. Among 3,086 indi- viduals there were 239 cases of nervous affections, of which 207 were in males and 32 in females, a rate of prevalence for each sex of approxi- mately 10 per cent and 3.2 per cent, respectively. The following table gives the nature of these affections and the number of each sex affected. In some instances the disease or condition causing the symptoms co\Lld not be determiaed, for which reason only the symp- toms present are included ia the list: 1 Schwab, S. I.: Neurasthenia Among Garment Workers. American Labor Legislation Review, New York, 19n, vor. 1, pp. 27-33. 79 Table 44. — Nervous affections in garment workers. Disease. Females. Anesthesia of skia of chest Atrophy, muscular, progressive Atrophy, muscles of legs (hyst. paralysis) - Defective speech (stuttering) Dermographia Epilepsy Hysteria Impotence Metatarsalgia, Morion's Migraine Neurasthenia Neurasthenia, sexual Neuritis Occupational pains Paralysis agitahs Paralysis oj facial nerve Paralysis of recurrent laryngeal nei-ve Paraplegia Premature-ejaculation , Psychasthenia Reynaud's disease Spasm of leg, muscular Tabes dorsalis Urticaria Total. 1 "i 32 In addition to those just tabulated there were a considerably larger number who presented no definite condition which could be diagnosed, but gave a strong impression of being predisposed to neuropathic affections. Of the nervous affections encountered neurasthenia was by far the most prevalent, 89 male workers presenting well-marked cliaical pictures of neurasthenia. In addition to these, 5 presented marked symptoms of psychasthenia, thus making a total of 94. Among females the number subject to neurasthenia was but 8. Among males, pressers (who constituted approximately one-third of those examined) had only about 10 per cent of the total nxunber of cases of neurasthenia, while over 89 per cent of the cases found were in the operator and finisher groups. Now, apart from the nature of their work, which entails considerable muscular exertion in the stand- ing posture, the chief economic difference between pressers, operators, and finishers lies in the fact that while pressers are paid on a weekly basis the latter two classes are paid by the piece. Although aU garment workers are more or less subject to the sea- sonal fluctuation in activity which characterizes the garment trades, the earnings of operators and finishers are influenced to a large degree by personal skiU and celerity, a condition not present in the case of week workers. There are two factors, generally speakiag, which tend to cause overstrain among pieceworkers in the garment trades, hence especially operative for operators and finishers. First, the temptation to overspeed for the purpose of earning high wages when work is brisk, followed by a period of inactivity in the slack season, during which time is afforded for introspection, consideration of the future, worry as to whether work wiU be forthcomiag during 80 the next season, depression over the present bad season, and simaar concepts. While, undoubtedly, in the case of pressors these thoughts must also be present to a certain extent, pressers, on the whole, seem to be a stoHd and rather philosophical group of workers. ^ Oper- ators, on the other hand, who to be successful must exhibit skiU, speed, and concentration, are likely to be more intelligent and of a high-strung, imagiuative temperament, whUe in the case of finishers, though as a class inferior to operators in intelligence, the high per- centage of married workers, combined with their low rate of pay and the generally large families dependent upon them, must produce a strong uicentive to overspeed during the busy season, which, followed by the reaction of the idle period, may well be productive of stress and strain. Occupational pains. — Next to neurasthenic and psychasthenic con- ditions, the condition about to be described, for want of a better term, under the name of "occupational" pains, seemed the most common nervous affection observed. These were present in 2.73 per cent of the workers examined. This condition consisted briefly of pain or discomfort usually referred to one or all of the following locar tions : First, a sensation of numbness and tingling over the seventh cervical vertebra, radiating thence upward to the occiput; second, an aching pain in the shoulder girdle just below and internal to the acromial end of the clavicles; third, pains and aching between the shoulder blades; and, fourth, an indefinite pain just below the tip of the sternum. No physical signs could be found, in most cases, to account for these pains. In six cases it was thought that an osteo- arthritis of the spine in the region of the seventh cervical and first or second dorsal vertebrae might be present. At least, the spinous proc- esses seemed unduly prominent in this situation, and there seemed to be some thickening of the overlying structure. No pain, however, was present on pressure or percussion. In the opinion of the writer, these pains were postural in character and were the result of tense, continuous work in a faulty position. Nose and throat affections. — The great frequency with which patho- logical conditions of the nose and throat are encountered among garment workers has already been mentioned in connection with defects of the hearing. Deflected nasal septum was encountered 253 times, or in 10.4 per cent of the males and 3.6 per cent of the females; hypertrophy of the tonsils 472 times, or in 12.8 per cent of males and 20.4 per cent of females; pharyngitis and nasopharyngitis 480 times, or in 18.2 per cent of males and 9.9 per cent of females; while atrophic or hypertrophic rhinitis was present 810 times, or in 29.3 per cent of males and 19.8 per cent of females. It can not be said that the gar- ment trades, per se, were responsible for the great frequency of these affections, as they were encountered without reference, apparently, 81 to the length of time the worker had been engaged in the industry. Moreover, the state of developnaent of the palate and dental arches and the lack of development of the nasal chambers showed, in many- instances, that the condition had existed from childhood. It must be remembered that the large majority of the workers had always been city dwellers, hence doubtless exposed from birth to the influence of crowded and congested quarters, said to favor the occur- rence of chronic catarrhal conditions of the nose and throat. _With such conditions so common among garment workers, the relation of their occupation to the causation and course of chronic nose and throat affections becomes of interest. Conditions of tem- perature and relative humidity are important meteorological factors in their effects upon the respiratory passages. Thus, the great major- ity of garment workers who suffered from chronic nasal affections stated that these, as a rule, were much better in the summer than in the winter. Undue dryness of the air of interiors, due to insufficient humidifi- cation, is one of the conditions present, as a rule, in the winter in American homes, schools, and office buildings which is said to aggra- vate existing nasal and throat affections. The average condition of temperature and relative humidity in the winter in shops of the garment trades is, therefore, of importance with respect to the preva- lence of chronic catarrhs of the nose and throat among garment workers. As this investigation took place during the summer, it was of course impossible to make direct observations on these points in the cold weather. The results of some 300 observations as to temperatures and relative humidities in workshops of the women's garment industry made during the sununer show that, while in many instances the tem- peratures in workshops were higher than outdoor temperatures the relative humidities were, on the whole, but slightly different from those of the exterior. Kogers,^ however, in an investigation of the ventilation of cloak and suit shops in 1911, during the months of Feb- ruary, March, and the first part of April, made 447 observations of the dry and wet bulb temperatures in workshops of the cloak and suit trades as follows: Modern loft buildings, with steam heat, 244 obser- vations; old type loft buildings, heated by stoves, 138 observations; converted tenement houses, stove heat, 30 observations; converted dwellings, stove heat, 23 observations; cellar shops, stove heat, 12 observations. These temperatures have been averaged by the writer and the average relative humidities determined with the results as set forth in the table following. ' Ventilation of Cloak and Suit Shops, Special Report by C. T. Rogers, M. D., medical factory inspector, Department of Labor, New Yorl;: City, First Annual Report of the Joint Board of Sanitary Control, p. 73. 95485°— Bull. 71—15 6 82 Table 45.— Average dry and wet hull temperatures and relative humidities in shops oj the garment trade. [Based on Rogers's data.] Type of shop and time of year. Num- ber of shops. Number of obser- vations. Type of heating. Average dry-bulb tempera- ture. Average wet-bulb tempera- ture. Average depres- sion. Average relative humid- ity. Modern loft building, February- April. Old-type loft building, February- April. Converted tenement, March-April Converted dwelling, March- April . 44 43 8 7 3 244 138 30 23 13 Ste a m- heat. Stoves.. ...do.... ...do.... ...do.... °F. 64.34 ' 61.2 61.9 64.52 64.0 °F. 63.35 52.3 52.3 56.4 52.3 Degree. 10.74 8.9 9.6 8.12 11.7 Per cent. 60 64 52 60 62.3 10.5 447 63.2 54.4 9.8 62 It will be seen from this table that the average dry-bulb temperature in 105 shops was 63.2° F., and the average wet-bulb temperature was 53.4° F. This corresponds to an average relative humidity of 52 per cent. This is by no means low and is probably well in excess of the average relative humidity prevalent in many dwellings during the winter months. Indeed there are a number of sources of moisture in workshops not operative in the home. A certain amount of water vapor is derived from the combustion of gas in gas jets and pressing irons; a number of filled fire buckets are present in various locations; moisture is generated from damp pressing cloths and also exhaled from the workers. All of these tend to keep the air fairly moist. It is also seen from the table that, while the relative humidities are not low, the dry-bulb temperatures are by no means high. In fact in some shops heated by stoves the dry-bulb temperatures were too low, being below 60° F. in a number of instances. Under such circumstances catarrhal conditions might be made worse in sedentary workers, coldness of the hands and feet tending to cause congestion of the nasal mucous membranes. While the average relative humidity from Rogers's data was found to be over 50 per cent, his figures were examined further for the occur- rence of low relative humidities. The following table shows for 427 observations the distributions of the relative humidities observed : Table 46. — Distribution of relative humidities, shops of the garment trades. [Rogers's data.] Relative humidity (per cent). Number of instances. Per cent. Relative humidity (per cent). Number oJ instances. Percent, 14 to 19 4 8 17 29 44 42 46 54 42 0.93 1.86 3.99 6.8 10.3 9.82 10.76 12.65 9.82 60 to 64 66 39 22 21 3 1 1 13.10 9.13 5.15 4.91 .71 .23 .23 20to24 65 to 69 25 to 29 70 to 74 30 to 34 35 to39 80 to 84 40 to 44 45 to 49 90 to 94 60 to 54 Total 65 to 69 427 83 It will be seen from that table that the relative humidity was below 50 per cent in 190 cases, or 44.5 per cent; below 45 per cent in 144 instances, or 33.75 per cent; below 40 per cent in 102 instances, or 23.9 per cent; and below 30 per cent in only 29 cases, or 6.8 per cent. It would seem, therefore, so far as the observations of others are concerned, considered only from the standpoint of relative humidity, the air of clothing shops is by no means so deficient in moisture as one might be led to suppose. Suspended matter in the air. ^— There is, however, another condition, inseparable from the garment trade that is capable of having an untoward effect upon the mucous membranes of the nose and throat. The constant handling of woolen materials gives rise to a certain amount of small fuzzy particles or "fly" which may be present to a considerable extent in the air of workshops in this industry. It is probable that the vibration of the machines, extending to the floor, is also a factor in preventing these particles from settling. The amount of suspended matter in the air is likewise dependent, to a certain extent, upon the prevailing styles. When these are such as to call for the use of loosely woven, soft fabrics the amount of "fly" is apt to be greater than when hard, closely woven materials are in demand. The effect of such soft, woolly materials upon the atmosphere of workshops was well illustrated, during the course of making photo- metric measurements in shops of the trade. In one instance, where a number of cloaks were being made up of imitation fur (a very woolly material), it was frequently necessary to wipe off the test plate of the photometer because the accumulation of woolen particles upon its surface interfered with the accuracy of the measurements. The nasopharyngeal affections noted among garment workers seem to be a source of considerable annoyance to them. They fre- quently visit dispensaries on account of these conditions. Seventy- five males and fifty-two female workers reported to the examiners that they had undergone nasopharyngeal operations for the relief of such conditions. Trachoma. — ^In view of the fact that trachoma is prevalent in those parts of Europe from which the majority of garment workers come, because recent investigations of the Public Health Service have shown this disease to be very prevalent in certain sections of the United States, and finally, because the figures published by investigators in the New York City Department of Health show that the disease is not infrequent in the New York City pubhc schools, special care was taken to determine the prevalence of trachoma among the garment workers examined. The eyelids of each individual were everted and the superior and inferior cul-de-sac inspected. 84 As a result of this inspection, eight cases of active trachoma were found among males and none among females. This is a rate of preva- lence, for the numbers examined, of 2.6 cases per 1,000, a rate of prevalence, which, according to Boldt, must be regarded as rather low. In addition to this six males and two females were observed who showed the lesions of a previous attack of trachoma, but the disease was at present cured. It would seem, as a result of the examination, that the measures employed by the PubUc Health Service to prevent the landing of ahens suffering from trachoma have been reasonably effective. ' Tuberculosis. — ^Tuberculosis is undoubtedly the most important and serious disease from which garment workers suffer. There were 74 cases of tuberculosis found among the workers examined, of which 65 were among the males and 9 among females. This corresponds to arate of prevalence for each sex of 3.11 per cent and 0.9 per cent, respectively. Tuberculosis was, therefore, found to be over three times as prevalent among the males as among the females. Of the 74 cases of tuberculosis, 68 were cases of pulmonary tuberculosis, 4 cases of tubercle of lymph glands, 1 of tubercle of the larynx, and 1 of tubercle of the testicle. In addition to the cases of active tuberculosis there were 29 per- sons, 22 male and 7 female, who, from their previous history and the physical signs present, had formerly suffered from tuberculosis, the process being arrested at the time of the examination. In 29 addi- tional cases, 20 male and 9 female, tubercle of the lungs was suspected, but no positive diagnosis could be made. It should be stated that in the case of those definitely stated to be tuberculous, in a number of instances the diagnosis was made as the result of several examinations of the subject who returned to the ofl&ce for this purpose. In other instances the disease was so well advanced that the diagnosis was obvious. It would seem that tuberculosis was unduly prevalent among gar- ment workers, especially among males. The rate of prevalence among these is nearly ten times that of the United States Army, for instance, and in the case of females the rate of prevalence is nearly three times. Among males, finishers and pressers showed the highest incidence of tuberculosis, with a percentage of incidence of 4.64 and 3.76 per cent, respectively. In operators, the mcidence was 2.38 per cent; in tailors, 1.85 per cent; in cutters, 2.09 per cent. Among females the rate of prevalence was as follows: Finishers, 1.61 per cent; operators, 0.8 per cent; miscellaneous workers, 0.53 per cent. The disease was, therefore, the most prevalent in the groups earning the lowest wages and havmg the greatest number of persons depend- ent upon them. 85 It is perhaps significant that among males these groups had the largest average families, the smallest average number of rooms in their homes, and, consequently, the greatest average number of occu- pants per room. These groups also had the highest percentage of persons with bad postures. It is thought that the incidence of this disease, as determined by the examination, may have been artificially raised, in that some of the workers, suspecting their condition, came to be examined for the purpose of finding out whether they were the subjects of tuberculosis. On the other hand, in a number of instances the worker was ignorant of his condition, having been aware, on being questioned, only of a gradual failure of health. It seems reasonable to suppose that the great difference in the preva- lence of the disease among males and females may be due to the following causes: The males followed the garment trades as a per^ manent means of livelihood, whereas in the case of females occupa- tion in the industry seemed temporary. The average age of the males exceeded that of the females by 10 years, and the average time in the industry was nearly 10 years, about twice that of the females. In addition some 75 per cent of the males were married, whereas but 13 per cent of the females were married or had been married. This means that the males had others dependent upon them in the majority of instances, while the females were able to devote in all probability a greater proportion of their earnings to themselves. In the case of the males, therefore, there may be pos- tulated peculiar elements of stress and responsibihty which were not operative for females. In their effort to provide for those dependent upon them the males would be more likely to reduce their personal expenditures for necessaries to a minimum, and in this way a dimin- ished resistance to the disease woidd be produced through an insuffi- cient diet and inadequate clothing. In addition to this, the neces- sity for earning the greatest possible wage in order to tide over the duU season would, especially in the case of pieceworkers, lead to imusual exertion, so that in the case of males we have an added ele- ment of overstrain which in itself would predispose to acquiring tuberculous infection by diminishing vital resistance. Valvular disease of the Tieart. — ^Valvular disease of the heart was fairly common among garment workers, 60 cases being observed, of which 37 were among males and 23 among females. The rate of prevalence was 1.79 per cent and 2.3 per cent among males and females, respectively. In the majority of instances good compensa- tion was present, the subject being unaware that his heart was affected. Owing to the sedentary nature of the garment industry the effect of this trade upon valvular lesions is unimportant. With proper 86 care a majority of garment workers with well-compensated valvular defects might escape material shortenmg of their period of efficiency- while engaging in their particular industry. In view of the fact, however, that many of the workers affected with valvular disease of the heart were unaware of the condition, it is evident that knowledge on their part of their defect is desirable so that by practicing the proper precautions as to personal care and hygiene, the compensation of the defect might be maintained and its breaking down avoided through unnecessary muscular stress and neglect of personal hygiene. It follows that all garment workers in whom valvular defects were found in the course of the examination were informed of their condition and proper advice furnished them. Varicose veins. — ^Eighty-five of the workers examined, 62 males and 23 females, suffered from varicose veins of the legs. The inci- dence was 3 per cent in males and 2.3 per cent in females. .Forty- five, or about 72 per cent, of the cases among males occurred in pressers, the actual incidence among this group being 6 per cent, as compared to an incidence of 1.2 per cent in the remaining workers. Among females, on the other hand, the maximum incidence was among finishers, 5.3 per cent. Female finishers were, however, older by two years on the average than other female workers and contained a greater proportion of married women (10 per cent). Many of the varicose veins among females were the result of previous pregnancies. Among ma,les varicose veins were five times as prevalent among pressers, who work standing, as among the sedentary workers. The accompanying photograph (Plate V, fig. 17) shows the type of varicosities frequently encountered: Venereal diseases. — ^In view of the fact that considerable attention has been recently paid to the incidence of venereal disease in the gen- eral popiilation, and that a number of societies have been formed to combat its prevalence, it was evident that data as to the preva- lence of venereal diseases among garment workers would be of value. Previous venereal history was accordingly obtained in the case of 650 male workers, viz, 275 operators, 185 pressers, 54 finishers, 12 cutters, 12 tailors, and 8 miscellaneous workers. These willingly furnished the information. From these histories it appears that 411, or 75 per cent, denied ever having suffered from any venereal disease, while 139 stated that in the past they had suffered from such diseases. The disease was stated to be gonorrhea in 122, or 87 per cent; soft chancre in 15, or 10.8 per cent; and syphilis in 2, or 1.4 per cent, of the cases. Gonorrhea, stiU active, was found in 16 out of the 139 cases admitting a previous venereal infection. In addition to two subjects admitting a previous syphUitic infection who, at the time of the examination. Public Health Bulletin 71. Fig. 17. — Varicose veins In a presser (average severity). 87 were suffering from locomotor ataxia, two cases of active syphilis were observed, one showing a partially healed primary lesion and recent secondaries, the other with a rupial eruption. Results of Hood tests. — In order to ascertain the rate of prevalence of syphilis by serological methods, 259 specimens of blood were obtained and tested by the Wassermann reaction, at the Hygienic Laboratory, Washington, D. C, for the presence of syphiHtic anti- bodies. While, as a rule, blood specimens were obtained from those admitting previous venereal infection of some kind, an effort was made to have the group furnishing blood specimens as nearly repre- sentative as possible of the general group examined. It should be stated, however, ia the case of blood specimens obtained from persons with a previous venereal history, that in no case of those admitting previous gonorrheal infection only was the Wassermann reaction positive. Syphilitic antibodies were present in 3, or 1.16 per cent, of the sera examined and absent in the remainder. One of these 3 cases was the instance above referred to with the secondary eruption, one was a case of locomotor ataxia, and one subject who gave a positive reaction denied previous infection. While gonorrheal infection, therefore, was not tmcommon among male garment workers, it is seen that syphilis is apparently rare. THE SUBJECTIVE STATE OF HEALTH OJP GARMENT WORKEES. The subjective state of health of garment workers was hardly satis- factory. Each person examined was questioned as to his previous and present , state of health, and asked to state any complaints he might have as to his well-being. Nine hundred and thirty-five indi- viduals, or 30.3 per cent, had no fault to find with their present state of health, while 2,157, or 69.7 per cent, complained of not feeling perfectly weU. Among males, 1 ,400, or 67. 1 per cent, had complaints, while 686, or 32.9 per cent, had none. Among females there were 751, or 75.1 per cent, with complaints, while 249, or 24.9 per cent, said that they felt well. The table following gives the character of the complaints made by males and females, the number of each kind of complaint, and the percentages for each sex and for all examined. 88 Table 47. — Complaints of garment workers. Complaint. Fo- Total. Per cent. Males. Fe- males. Agoraphobia Amnesia Anosmia Anorexia Anxiety Asthmatic attacks Backache Bad taste in mouth Belching Bloody stools Bulimia Capricious appetite Chilly sensations Choking sensations Cold extremities Constipation Constriction in chest Constriction in throat Cough Cramps, abdominal Cramps of legs Creaking of joints Crying spells Deafness Deficient erections Difficulty in swallowing Difficulty in urination Diraness of vision Discomfort, abdominal Discomfort in chest Discomfort, epigastric Distension, abdominal Distress, precordial Diarrhea Dizziness Dryness of mouth Dryness of nose Dryness of throat Dysmenorrhea Dyspnoea on exertion Epistaxis Excitability Fainting Fever Formication Frequent colds Frequent nocturnal emissions . Frequent sighing Frequent urination Furunculosis Globus hystericus Hallucinations Headaches, frequent Headache, occasional Heartburn Hemeralopia Hemoptysis (all grades) Hoarseness •. Hot flushes Hyperesthesia of scalp Hysterical attacks Impotence Incontinence of urine Indigestion Insomnia Irritability Irritation of throat Lassitude Loss of weight Mental confusion Mental depression Meteorism Muscae volitantes Nasal obstruction Nausea "Nervousness" Neuralgia Night sweats 2 1 1 119 2 12 67 13 4 1 7 1 466 4 2 229 21 1 1 62 2 1 2 6 4 15 9 2 14 1 1 1 207 62 16 2 14 33 105 2 5 200 242 39 14 58 2 1 1 176 4 12 95 43 26 6 1 14 2 7 6 734 4 3 250 26 S 1 1 26 7 1 1 19 17 1 15 10 32 10 129 1 2 9 200 94 2 7 11 6 5 64 9 2 20 1 6 1 449 111 30 2 14 44 2 1 9 15 2 62 104 23 1 100 89 2 22 2 2 116 27 78 8 25 0.1 .05 .05 5.7 5.7 .1 .2 .68 3.21 2.8 .62 2.0 .43 1.7 .29 .1 .19 1.0 .05 .1 .33 .05 .4 22.4 26.8 .192 .95 .1 10.9 2.1 1.0 .5 .05 .4 .049 .1 .91 .7 .33 .049 .049 .43 1.0 .815 .049 .54 .4 .33 .3 .96 1.2 .48 1.1 10.5 .049 .2 .i92 .5 20.0 2.97 3.2 .96 .049 .6 .196 .9 .287 .192 .1 .72 4.9 .43 .196 .67 .6 .049 .049 .5 .049 9.9 24.2 2.96 3.9 .705 1.4 .096 .67 1.58 1.1 .2 .049 .9 .72 .049 .1 1.77 2.5 4.01 2.0 .287 1.7 .049 2.3 6.8 4.25 .096 .72 .7 .096 .096 3.93 3.4 .193 2.3 2.92 1.7 .193 .4 1.195 89 Table 47. — -Complaints of garment worlcers — Continued. Males. Fe- males. Total. Per cent. Complaint. Males. Pe- males. Total. 1 11 11 2 21 1 15 i 21 9" 1 is' 3" 72 4 u" 6 2" i" 1 14 39' 1 14 g i' 1 ib' 4 35 5 i' ■ ■ f ■ ■ ■ i' 3' 6' 2 ii' i' 7 1 12 11 '2 42 1 24 1 6 199 1 4 128 12 1 51 23 1 1 3 2 6 9 6 4 27 4 4 121 48 19 5 6 1 1 47 35 2 6 1 1 1 1 28 12 53 2 4 1 17 12 1 8 6 1 1 2 12 2 6 1 21 3 3 3 2 2 12 5 1 2 19 2 13 0.049 .525 .525 .096 1.1 .049 .72 '".'287' 8.2 .049 .049 2.68 .383 .049 1.77 .86 .049 .049 .144 .096 .193 .43 .239 .147 .62 .193 .193 3.92 2.25 .24 .24 .277 .049 .049 1.87 1.67 .049 .24 .049 .049 .049 .049 .872 .383 .872 .096 .193 .049 . .575 .675 '"."393' .287 .049 .049 .096 .526 "".'ui' .049 .72 .144 .049 .144 .096 .096 .049 .239 .049 .049 .675 .096 .622 "■'o.'i' 2.1 .'9' .1 '"'i.'s' .'3' 7.2 .4 ' i.'4' .5 .'2' .i' .1 1.4 ""s.'g" .1 1.4 '.8 .'i .1 ""i"' .4 3.6 .'5 .'i .'i' .2 .3 .'e' ."i' .7 • 032 Numbness of extremities .388 ..^56 .066 Pain: Abdominal 1.36 .032 .775 Bearing do'wn ■ .032 6 171 1 1 56 8 1 37 18 1 1 3 2 4 9 5 3 13 4 4 82 47 5 5 6 1 1 39 36 1 5 1 1 1 1 18 8 18 2 4 1 12 12 .194 Chest 6.45 .032 .129 4.15 .389 .032 Feet 1.65 General indefinite , . .794 .032 .032 < Hand .097 Heel .065 .194 .291 .194 Iliac fossa- Left .13 Eight .875 .13 ICnees ' .13 3.92 5.51 .615 Neck .162 Nose .194 .032 .032 1.52 1.13 Side, left .065 .194 Tendo Achilles .032 .032 Throat .032 Wrist.. .032 .906 .389 1.73 .065 .13 Pressure in head - .032 .55 Pruritus .389 Pruritus vulvae .032 Iie*nireitation of food 8 6 1 1 2 11 2 3 1 15 3 1 3 2 2 1 5 1 1 12 2 13 .259 ■R.nrming RR,rR .194 Salivation.. . .032 Sensation: .032 Pricking in throat .066 .389 .066 .194 .032 Sore throat .68 Stiflfeiess of hands.. .09S Swelling of— AnSes .098 Feet .m Glands of neck .065 .065 .032 .162 .032 .065 .615 .065 Tremor .42 90 Table 47. — Complaints of garment workers — Continued. Males. Fe- males. Total. Per cent. Complaint. Males. Fe- males. Total. 1 46' 1 13 1 177 9 1 45 "6.' 622' .049 6.67 .43 .049 2.15 0.1 i 0.032 Vomiting . - 13 1 137 9 1 45 .422 .03z Weakness, general 5.74 Weakness of— .29 Heart .032 Legs 1.45 Total 2,360 686 1,400 1,77.5 249 751 4, 135 935 2,151 32.9 67.1 24.9 75.1 30.3 Having complaints 60.7 1.69 2.36 1.92 From this table it appears that there were 4,135 complaints of all kinds, 2,360 by men and 1,775 by women. The average number of complaints to each person complaining was 1.69 complaints for males and 2.36 complaints for women. The most frequent complaint was pain of some kind (626 complaints of pain on the part of men, 229 for women) followed by complaints of constipation (22.4 per cent of men and 26.8 per cent of women), dysmenorrhea (20.2 per cent of women), frequent headaches (10 per cent of men and 24.2 per cent of women)', weakness (5.74 per cent of both sexes). SUMMARY OF THE INVESTIGATION AS TO THE HEALTH OF GARMENT WORKERS. This investigation as to health of garment workers was undertaken at the request and with the cooperation of the Joint Board of Sani- tary Control of the Cloak, Suit and Skirt, and Dress and Waist Trades of New York City. It constitutes the first of a series of studies to be made, as facilities permit, by the Public Health Service, as to the health of workers and the prevalence of occupational diseases in various important industries. The persons whose condition of health was examined in this investigation were workers in the cloak and suit and dress and waist industries in which approximately 86,000 individuals are employed in New York City. Of these, about 49,000 are employed in the cloak, suit, and skirt industry and 37,000 in the dress and waist industry. Eighty-seven per cent of the workers are males in the cloak and suit trades, while 77 per cent are females in the dress and waist trades. The scope of the investigation, so far as the health of the workers was concerned, consisted in the careful physical examination of some 3,000 persons, 2,000 males and 1,000 females, with a view to recording phys- ical data, the incidence of defects and diseases, the present subjective 91 state of health, and certain social data. The investigation met with the approval of the unions of these industries, who assisted in dissem- inating information among the workers as to the scope and purpose of the investigation. Special offices were used for conduct of the examinations. In addition to the inquiry as to the state of health of workers in these industries, collateral investigations were made as to the hygienic conditions of illumination in workshops of the trades, the effect upon the atmosphere of workshops of the general sanitary conditions in shops of the trades, studies of the environment of workers outside the shop. The results of the survey as to conditions of illumination appear and are summarized in the second portion of this report. The results of„the other investigations will be the subjects of subsequent reports. Summary of the observations as to the physical status and health of garment worlcers. — One thousand females and a httle over two thou- sand males were exammed. Practically all the males were workers in the cloak, suit, and skirt trades, while some 86 per cent of the females were engaged in the dress and waist trades. The type of physical examination made was thorough, 45 to 50 minutes being spent upon each individual. Besides collecting certain social and economic data, observations were made as to height, weight, circumference of chest, abdominal circumference, vital capacity, strength of grip, evidence of protection by vaccination against smallpox, pelvic measurements (in females) , the systolic and diastolic blood pressure, the pulse rate, the percentage of hemoglobin. In addition the present physical status was carefully investigated, due note being made of defects and diseases present. In males the urine was also examined for the presence of albumen and sugar, and in 259 instances blood specimens were tested for the presence of syphilitic antibodies. Male workers in the cloak and suit trades are divisible into the following groups: Cutters, who cut out the material; operators, who sew the garments together on electrically driven sewing machines; fimshers, who apply the finishing touches by hand; pressers, who press the garments; and miscellaneous workers engaged in various other operations, such as buttonhole making, draping, and the like. Females were classified into but three groups of workers, i. e., operators, finishers, and miscellaneous workers. Their duties are sunilar to the corresponding groups in the cloak and suit trades. There were two main differences in these groups of workers, one economic and the other postural. Operators and finishers are piece- workers, while pressers and many miscellaneous workers are paid by the week. The economic distinction is important as the garment trades present great seasonal fluctuations in activity, work being 92 brisk in the spring and fall and slack in the winter and summer months. This tempts pieceworkers to overdrive themselves during the busy season, from which there is a corresponding reaction ia the dull season. The postural differences consist in that, while operators and fin- ishers work sitting, pressers and cutters work standing. Among females the proportion of those who sit is much greater than among males, because pressers, who form a large proportion of male workers, are few among females, and cutters are always males. Social and pliysical data of garment workers. — The followuig table presents, in condensed form, the social and physical data derived from the examination of these workers: Table 48. — Summary of social and physical data of garment workers. ^ Malei. Female. Number of workers examined: 976 720 280 64 48 23 C25 186 Tailors 189 Total 2,091 1,000 per cent. - Nativity: Russia SO. 4 15.2 3.09 .2 1.11 96.6 3.08L 74.1 do...- 10.1 Italy do.... 7.0 United States . . - do.... 4.2 do.... 4.0 Race: do.... 88.8 Italian ...do.... 7.7 do.... ~ 1.8 Polish do.... .19 .5 other races , do.... 1.1 Length of time in the United sa,t9s^ Length of time in special occupation. No previous occupations Previous occupations years.. do percent.. do... 9.25 9.2 23.3 77.7 73.9 3.21 2.7 15.82 $666.00 $362.00 $486.00 $748.00 $720.00 $893.00 $611.00 5.35 3.9S i!^ 50.1 36.9 11,0 19.3 52.1 28.0 44.8 2.7 52.5 32.29 65.46 141.21 35.27 36.57 34.82 1.75 6.41 4.63 71.2 28.8 do..-. 7.1 Average number of children bom to married garment workers 1.82 Averapp. TiiTTTihpr nf chilHrp.n n.lh'ft nt timp nf fivamiTiatinTi 1.36 24.8 Average annual earnings: $445.00 Pressers . . $294.00 Tailors. Cutters $445.00 General average, all workers $376.00 5.78 Average number of rooms in homes of garment workers 4.26 Average number of rooms used as bed roums, garment workers . . . 2.M 1.35 do do do Occasional users of alcohol do do Habitual smokers do do Nonsmokers do 22.* Average height (in shoes for males; stocking feet, females) Average weight (in shoes and trousers males; sheet only, females) .... Circumference of chest: inches.. pounds.. 60.3 119.9 31.99 At inspiration do 33.24 do 31.88 Average expansion of chest do.... 1.38 93 Table 48. — Summary of social and physical data of garment workers — Continued. Male. Female. Average vital capacity cubic inches. Average abdominal circumference inches. Average strength of grip: Righthand kilos. Left hand do. . . Evidence of protection against smallpox, good vaccination scars per cent. Previous attacks of smallpox do. . . Not protected by vaccination or previous attack do. . . Average pulse rate Average percentage of hemoglobin (Tallquist scale) per cent. Average systolic blood pressure millimeters Average diastolic blood pressure do. . Average pulse pressure do. . Physical development: Good per cent Fair do. . Poor do.. Nutrition: Good do.. Fair do.. Poor do.. 225.3 32.42 30.82 33.6 16 31 13 92.1 90.7 2.9 1.6 5.0 7.7 76.8 78.8 86.89 77.8 125.66 11.3.39 S4.53 79.92 41.13 33.4 29.5 66.2 44.6 27.5 25.9 0.3 51.0 62.1 33.5 2S.9 15.5 9.0 It was found, as a class, that pressers among males had the most robust physiques and stolid temperaments. Operators are more alert and intelligent but are likely to be high strung, imaginative, and nervous. Finishers, as a class, have the worst physiques and lowest earning capacity, this class being the only one among garment workers in which males compete, more or less directly, with females. The physical superiority of pressers was marked. This is because their occupation requires considerable muscular exertion in a standing posture, thus confirming previous observations as to the better physical development of standing as compared to sedentary workers. The inferiority, from a physical standpoint, of finishers is accounted for by the fact that their work is the lowest paid in the garment trades and requires the fewest physical attributes. The physically inferior, therefore, naturally gravitate to this kind of work. Females presented no striking differences of physique in their several groups. One interesting point brought out by the investigation was the fact that while in the case of females occupation in the garment trades was apparently provisional, with the prospect of marriage and home making in the background, among males the industry was entered as a permanent means of livelihood. This is shown by the low average age of the women (22 years, as compared to 32 years for males), their shorter average time in the industry (4.6 years, as compared to 9.25 years for males), the low percentage of married females (7 per cent, as compared to 75 per cent for males), and other evidence tending to show that the large majority of females were members of fanulies in which they were not the chief breadwinners. The sense of personal responsibility arising from the knowledge of others dependent upon them was, therefore, very much greater in 94 the case of males. This relative lack of responsibility tended to cause a much greater degree of vivacity and cheerfuhiess among women. Defects and diseases of garment workers. — The incidence of defects and diseases was noted in the case of 3,086 workers (2,086 males and 1,000 females). As a result there were recorded 13,457 defects and diseases of all kinds, of which 9,541 were in males and 3,916 in females. This gives an average of 4.36 defects and diseases to each individual. It should be stated, however, by reason of the practice of noting all defects and diseases present, that in many instances the defects were of a minor character, interfering neither with health nor ©fl&ciency. On the other hand, many of them exercised a deleterious influence on the subject. Only about 2 per cent of those examined were found free from defects or disease. The examination showed no vocational diseases peculiar to garment workers. Nevertheless, it was evident that the effect of sedentary occupations, such as the women's garment industries, was to intensify the bad effects upon health and efficiency of certain defects or diseases or to produce them in predisposed individuals. Tuberculosis was undoubtedly the most important disease among garment workers. Three and eleven hundredths per cent of the males examined and nine-tenths of 1 per cent of the females were found to be tuberculous. This is a rate of prevalence for females of nearly . three times and among males nearly ten times that of this disease among soldiers in the United States Army, for instance. It is thought, however, that the rate of prevalence may have been artificially raised from the circumstance that garment workers who suspected their con- dition upon hearing of the examination presented themselves for the purpose of ascertaining whether they were suffering from tuberculo- sis. On the other hand, in many instances the subject was unaware of his condition, having been conscious only of gradual impairment- of health. Be this as it may, tuberculosis is unduly prevalent among garment workers, especially among males. Factors influencing the greater prevalence in males are apparently their greater averagj ige, longer average time in the industry, the high percentage di sales with f amihes dependent upon them, thus leading to self-denia (* i the part of the breadwinner in the matter of adequate food v.ml clothing, responsibility and worry as to future prospects, and, finally, the added element of overspeeding in the busy season (operative especially for pieceworkers) in the endeavor to earn high wages for themselves and their families in order to tide over the slack season. Tuberculosis was most prevalent among the poorest paid of the workers (pressors and finishers) . It is also significant that these two groups occupied domiciles with the fewest average number of roonss 95 among garment workers. As their families contained on the average the greatest number of individuals, the average number of persons to the room was also higher. The percentage of those having faulty postures was also greatest among finishers and, next to these, pressers. Faulty posture, neglect of personal hygiene, and the presence of suspended matter ("fly") in the air of shops must also be regarded as predisposing factors to tuberculosis in the garpient trades. Apart from tuberculosis, the most common defects and diseases among garment workers were, in order of frequence for both sexes combined, defective vision (69 per cent), faulty posture (50 per cent of males), chronic nose and throat affections (26.2 per cent), defective teeth (26 per cent), and pyorrhea aleveolaris (20 per cent), weak and flat feet (26 per cent), chronic constipation (23.7 per cent), dysmenor- rhea (females, 20.2 per cent), hypertrophied tonsils (15.3 per cent), defective hearing (10 per cent), nervous affections (7.75 per cent). In connection with the high percentage suffering from defective vision only 11^ per cent of those whose eyesight was subnormal wore glasses. Only 2.35 per cent of those with defective vision had glasses fuUy correcting the defect; in 7.5 per cent the defect was partly cor- rected and was not improved or made worse by the glasses in 1.67 per cent. Part of the poor results from the use of glasses among garment workers arose from the fact that the glasses had been pre- scribed by opticians or by poorly qualified medical practitioners. In other instances the type of visual error was such that partial correc- tion was the best that could be secured. With the exception of pressers, garment workers should be classed as eye workers, as the occupation makes great demands upon the visual organs. Finishers, on the whole, had the worst vision. Even minor visual defects are of importance in the garment trades. When the defect "^s gross, the worker makes no effortjto compensate for it through accommodation. With minor defects accommodative efforts are made to compensate for the error, so that eyestrain may develop; An important part of the hygiene of the eye, for eye work- ers, is the correction, by proper glasses, of even small degrees of visual errors. A faulty posture was extremely common among garment workers, especially males. Among females the use of the corset and the greater consciousness of the personal appearance had an effect in diminishing the percentage of faulty postures. The bad effects upon health of faulty postures are well known, as they predispose to pul- monary affections, including tuberculosis, hernia, displacement of the abdominal organs, digestive troubles, weak and flat feet, habitual constipation. The effect of occupation in the garment trades was to intensify bad postural habits. That the industry per se need not be respon- 96 sible for faulty posture was shown by the good effects upon the indi- vidual of previous military training in European armies or of phys- ical exercise. In many such instances the posture remained excel- lent, and the influence of the previous training was prolonged. Chronic nose and throat affections were next in order of frequency. That the garment trades were not directly responsible for these con- ditions was shown by the fact that they were often observed without reference to the time the subject had engaged in the occupation. Moreover, from the condition of the mouth, nose, and throat, it was frequently evident that the condition had existed from chUdhood. Most of the workers so afl^cted stated that they were better in the summer than in the winter. An examination, however, of the data as to temperatures and relative humidities of workshops during Feb- ruary, March, and April, based upon Rogers's observations, showed that, as a rule, the average temperatures and relative humidities of workshops in the garment trades were by no means such as to fos- ter, to any great extent, the prevalence of chronic catarrhal condi- tions of the nose and throat. On the other hand, the presence of a considerable amount of sus- pended matter in the air of workshops, in the shape of "fly" from woolen materials, may well be a factor in aggravating existing nasal affections. The circumstance should be taken into account, in explanation of the frequency of catarrhal affections of garment workers, that these workers for the most part have always been city dwellers, and hence exposed, from birth, to the influence of crowded and congested quar- ters, which are said to be factors in the production of chronic nose and throat affections. Defective teeth and pyorrhea were very frequent among garment workers. The average number of effective teeth in the mouths of male workers was 24.63 and in females was 27.21. The deficiency from normal efficiency was therefore 7.37 teeth for males and 4.79 teeth for females. In addition, 26 per cent of males and 16.7 per cent of females suffered from pyorrhea. This disease is an impor- tant enemy of individual efficiency. Not only is health impaired by the attendant pain and discomfort, the malassimilation due to imper- fect mastication, and the resulting digestive troubles, but pyorrhea, as shown by recent studies, must be considered an important source of systemic infection with pathogenic bacteria. Garment workers also suffered severely from habitual constipation, which affected 23.7 per cent of all examined. This does not include a larger number complaining of irregularities of a less chronic char- acter. The prevalence of this affection seemed to be due to faulty postural habits, dietetic errors — a sedentary occupation — ^but princi- pally to neglect on the part of the workers to form habits of daily defecation. 97 Hearing was found to bfe impaired in a considerable proportion (10 per cent) of the workers examined. No doubt much of this was due to the extension of chronic inflammations of the nasopharynx to the middle ear. Industrial noise, however, probably played some part in producing impairment, as the loud vibratory noises of electrically driven sewing machines may well have a deleterious effect upon the hearing after exposure for long periods. Nervous affections were common among garment workers. The most frequent of these was neurasthenia, which affected, principally, pieceworkers among the males. A much larger number, who had no definite neurosis, seemed predisposed to neuropathic affections. It would seem that, of all conditions in the garment trades, the one most favoring predisposition to neuroses is the marked seasonal fluc- tuation in activity of the trade. During the busy season there is the constant overdriving of himself by the worker in the endeavor to earn sufiicient to tide himself and his family over the duU season, which, in its turn, affords abundant leisure for introspection, gloomy imaginings, worry over the future, and similar painful thoughts, which are well known to favor the development of psychoneuroses. The prevalence of venereal diseases among garment workers was investigated in the case of males only. Two hundred and fifty-nine blood specimens were tested for the presence of syphilitic antibodies. Of these three gave a positive reaction, indicating a prevalence of syphilis of a little over 1 per cent. Of 550 male workers in whom the previous venereal history was ascertained, 122, or 22 per cent, stated that they had previously suffered from gonorrhea. That the general condition of health of garment workers was by no means satisfactory is shown by the large number of those exam- ined who had subjective complaints to make about the state of their health. About 70 per cent of all examined had such complaints, while the remaining 30 per cent stated that they felt well. Thus, over two-thirds of those examined did not feel perfectly well. Pain of some kind was the most frequent complaint; digestive disturbances, such as dyspepsia and constipation, came next. Some 10 per cent of males and 25 per cent of women complained of frequent head- aches. Nine per cent of males and 4 per cent of females complained of weakness, general, or of the extremities. CONCLUSIONS. 1. Among male garment workers, pressers have the most robust physiques. The physical inferiority of finishers to pressers was marked. Operators stood in physique midway between pressers- and finishers. The superiority of the physique of pressers is due to the more active character of their occupation and the standing 95485°— Bull. 71—15 7 98 posture at their work. Among females no striking physical dififer- ences were observed in the various classes of workers. 2. The degree of physical development among garment workers is fair only. Among maleSj/especially, a good state of the nutrition if far more common than a good state of the development. Owing to inactivity, a tendency to overweight develops with increasing years. The average expansion of the chest of both males and females is not high. / 3. The chief difference between male and female workers in these industries seems to lie,in the fact that male workers take up the trade as a permanent means of Uvelihood, whereas in females, occupation in the industry seems to be more or less provisional. 4. Garment workers, as a class, exhibit a large ntunber of defects and diseases, only about 2 per cent being free from defects. That these defects or diseases are of such character as to interfere with individual efficiency is shown by the large nmnber of workers (over two-thirds) who do not feel perfectly well. 5. Tuberculosis is undoubtedly the most serious disease prevalent among garment workers, being over three times as prevalent among males as among females. That the disease is unduly prevalent among these workers is shown by the fact that among the females examined it is about three times and among males nearly ten times as common as among soldiers in the Federal Army. 6. The disease is most prevalent, both in males and females, in the poorest paid class of garment workers, i. e., finishers. This is in conformity with a weU-known economic law in regard to the prevar lence of tuberculosis, the tuberculosis rate being roughty in inverse ratio to the income. Besides lower earning capacity, other disadvantageous economic conditions tend to cause greater prevalence of tuberculosis among workers in the finisher groups. These are more subject to over- crowding in the home tban other workers, because of a lower average of rooms in their domiciles and a larger average number of members in the family. 7. A postural influence may be discerned as affecting the prevar lence of tuberculosis, finishers (among males) showing the greatest percentage of faulty postures. 8. The gatoient industries themselves favor the prevalence of tuberculosis imthe followmg waya (a) By inten^fying bad posture^ habits.'i (6) Possibly )s^ reason of thd preserfce of suspended matter (woolen "fly") in\;the air of workshWs. \ (c) By reason of \the low rate of metabolism induced by the inac- tivity of a sedentary*, occupation. 99 9. The proneness of garment workers to affections of the respira-\ tory tract is shown by the percentage of workers who suffer from emphysema of the lungs, chronic bronchitis, and chronic catarrhal conditions of the nasopharynx. 10. Nevertheless, apart from the possible effects of suspended matter in the air of workshops in favoring respiratory disease (a variable factor according to the shop and the materials used), there were no vocational diseases peculiar to the garment trades. Occupa- tion in these trades, however, seemed to intensify the bad effects upon health of certain defects and diseases, such as faulty postures, digestive affections, and the like. 11. Apart from tuberculosis, the chief defects and diseases from which garment workers suffer are: Defective vision, faulty posture, flat feet, chronic catarrhal affections of the rhinopharynx, defective teeth and pyorrhea, digestive troubles, and nervous affections. 12. A large part of the -^mplaints of garment workers is due to the existence of one-or more of the conditions just enumerated. 13. The great prevalence of subnormal vision among garment workers is a matter of importance as the garment industries make exacting demands upon the eyes. 14. The number of workers who wear glasses is relatively low compared to the number needing them. 15. In trades such as the garment industry the correction of small visual errors is of importance in order to prevent the development of symptoms of eye strain. 16. Faulty postures are extremely common among garment workers. They tend to increase the prevalence of respiratory and intestinal diseases, visceroptosis, hernia, flat and weak feet, and similar defects and diseases. The effect of occupation in the gar- ment trades is to intensify bad postural habits. 17. Bad postures are pot necessarily induced by occupation in the garment industries provided the individual enters the trade with a correct carriage. The goo(rie|5ects of previous military or of physical training were marked and prolonged in the maintenance of good pos- tural habits. 18. Chronic catarrhal affections of the nose and throat are very prevalent among garment workers. These are the cause of con- siderable discomfort to the workers, causing them to seek relief at dispensaries. A number of those examined had undergone opera- tions for the relief of such conditions. 19. The garment trades, in themselves, did not seem directly responsible for the existence of these conditions as, in many instances, they had apparently existed from childhood. The great prevalence of these diseases may be partly accounted for from the fact that the 100 great majority of garment workers have been city dwellers from birth and, presiunably, always exposed to the crowded and congested conditions said to favor the genesis of chronic nasopharyngeal affections. 20. An\ examination- of data as to temperattires and relative humidities\in wotkshoj^s of the garment trades during February, March, andVipril ahowefl no reason to suppose that the prevalence of catarrhal abactions was>,f avored by incorrect temperatures or rela- tive himiidities in such workshops. 21. The presence of s\jspended matter^" fly") in the air of work- shops wouM^ wheikpreserili,. tend to aggravate chronic nasopharyngeal affections. 22. Defective teeth and pyorrhea were common among garment workers. They were the cause of pain, discomfort, and ill-health due to imperfect mastication and subsequent malassimUation. The presence of oral sepsis, due to defective teeth and pyorrhea, must also be regarded as an important source of systemic infection. 23. Habitual constipation affected many workers, male and female. Dietetic errors, a sedentary occupation, faulty postures, all were etiological factors. The chief cause, however, of this condition was the neglect to form regular habits of defecation. 24. Defective hearing was common. The majority of these cases are doubtless due to extension to the middle ear of chronic catarrhal affections of the nose and throat. Continued exposure, however, to the vibratory noise made by sewing machines in workshops, doubt- less has an effect in damaging the hearing. 25. Nervous affections, particularly neurasthenia, are common among garment workers, especially males. Pieceworkers are mainly affected. The element m the garment trades thought to be particularly active as an etiological factor, consists in the characteristc fluctuation in seasonal activity of the industry. This fluctuation seems to be operative in the following way: During the busy season pieceworkers overdrive themselves in order to earn a high wage to provide for themselves and their famiUes during the dull season. When this sets in a reaction takes place, feverish energy being replaced by introspection, forebodings over the future, and similar painful mental states known to favor the genesis of neuroses. 26. The prevalence of syphUis, as shown by the previous histories, and the results of the Wasserman test, was decidedly low. 27. On the whole, a large part of .the defects and diseases of gar- ment workers arise from ignorance or neglect of personal hygiene. A proper regard of these principles on the part of the workers would go far in nullifying the bad effects of a sedentary indoor occupation upon the health. 101 RECOMMENDATIONS. In view of the foregoing it is evident that physical defects and ill health, resulting from the neglect or ignorance of personal hygiene, seem to be important factors in the reduction of efficiency of garment workers. The effects of occupation in these trades upon the individual pre- sent great variations, depending upon whether the worker enters the trade with a weU-developed body and good hygienic and postural habits or the reverse. That the possession of such habits is of ines- timable benefit to the individual was emphasized by the investigation. In spite of the fact that the attempt to increase the knowledge of busy workers as to the principles of personal hygiene is not likely to be followed by results commensurate with the effort expended, it is nevertheless strongly urged that the Joint Board of Sanitary Control amplify and extend the efforts it has made in the past to increase the knowledge of workers as to personal hygiene. It is particularly rec- ommended that in the future stress be laid upon the following points: (a) The necessity for the correction of visual defects. (6) The necessity for the formation of correct postural habits. (c) The necessity for attention to oral hygiene, particularly in regard to the consistent daily use of, the tooth brush and proper dentifrices and the use of prophylactic, fillings for cavities as they appear. \ The tendency of garment workers to neglect their mouths until crown and bridge work or artificial dentures are necessary is noti only a cause of much needless expense, but the results are far inferior-' to filliags when these are put in in time. (d) An effort should be made to reduce the amount of habitual constipation among garment workers by disseminating information as to the cause and means of prevention of this affection. (e) Attention should be directed toward the ehmination of "fly" from the air of workshops. Dry sweeping should be rigidly sup- pressed. Floors should be constructed, so far as practicable, with tight joints, smooth surfaces, and coated with some dust-retaining oil. Suction cleaning is desirable where practicable. The vibration of machines, transmitted to floors, should be reduced by means of blocks of rubber or similar damping substances beneath machine supports. ( The attachment of small suction nozzles or similar dust-exhausting devices at the knives of cutting machines is worth considering, as these machines undoubtedly produce considerable "fly," especially when heavy woolen materials are cut. (/) The spread of communicable diseases in workshops should be guarded against by more rigid enforcement of the regulations 102 against promiscuous spitting, the use of the common drinking cup, the common towel; numerous evasions of these regulations having been noticed in shops of the trade. The high rate of prevalence of tuberculosis among garment workers makes the consistent enforce- ment of such regulations imperative. ig) While from observations it would appear that the conditions of temperature and relative humidity are fairly satisfactory in clothing shops, the dry bulb temperatures, as pointed out by Eogers, are apt to be too low in winter. An effort should be made in workshops of the garment trades, during the season when artificial heat must be employed, to have the temperature maintained between 62° F. and 70° F. The relative humidity should never exceed 65 per cent, nor be lower than 35 per cent. From 48 to 52 per cent is the optimum. (h) Owing to the great number of faulty postures among workers, the fatigue arising from sitting on seats improperly supporting the body and similar conditions, an effort should be made to promote the use in the garment trades of adjustable seats with backs. (i) In view of the efficient organization of garment workers, and the relative ease with which information can be disseminated among them, the suggestion is made that the trades establish a special dis- pensary for garment workers, convenient to the clothing district, where special attention wiU be paid to the correction of ocular de- fects, dental prophylaxis, and diseases of the respiratory and digestive tracts. ij) In regard to the treatment of tuberculosis, the extension of the establishment of sick benefit funds as inaugurated at present in some of the locals of the cloak, suit, and skirt makers union is recommended. For tuberculous workers who are able to work, open-air shops might be established. (Tc) The Joint Board of Sanitary Control is also urged to extend its system of physical examinations, so that all workers who apply may receive an opinion as to their physical condition and proper advice be furnished them. The advantages to be derived from such periodical examinations in maintaining a permanent condition of good health should be made generally known among the workers. (Z) The Joint Board of Sanitary Control should do all in its power to impress upon educational authorities the vital necessity for the physical supervision of school children and their efficient instruction in the principles of personal hygiene. It seems evident that the remedies just suggested for the present unsatisfactory condition of the health of garment workers can never be substitutes for the prophylaxis resulting from an ingrained knowl- edge of the practical application of the principles of personal hygiene derived from a public-school education, in which such instruction is a fundamental part. In other words, the proper time for forming 103 correct postural, oral, and intestinal habits is not after a worker has entered a given occupation, but is an important part of the training of the period of growth and development. This investigation has only emphasized the fact that instruction in such matters is quite asy important for the individual as learning to read and write. Present courses in instruction in hygiene in public schools should therefore be amplified so as to constitute an integral and important, iastead of subsidiary and incidental part in the school curriculum. There is also necessity for systems of physioal supervision of school children which really supervise and cause to) be removed physical impediments to healthful development. / Postural training is also of vital importa^ifce. Children should re- ceive postural training in the schools of such fundamental thorough- ness that the effects of this training, updn leaving school, would be manifest throughout their lives. Greater facilities for correcting defective dental conditions are also/ urgently needed. The Joint Board of Sanitary Control should urge, so far as in it lies, an increase in the facilities of school dental clinics. PART II. THE HYGIENIC CONDITIONS OF ILLUMINATION IN WORK- SHOPS OF THE WOMEN'S GARMENT INDUSTRY. By J. W. ScHBEESCHEWSKY, Surgeon, United States Public Health Service, and D. H. Tuck, Assistant Physicist, United States Public Health Service. In view of the fact that a large part of the industrial operations in the women's garment trades involve the close and continuous use of the eyes, the illuminating conditions which prevail in the workshops of the industry become highly important from the standpoint of in- dustrial hygiene. The necessity for adequate and correct illumina- tion on the various working planes becomes the more apparent from the consideration of the data in relation to the vision of garment workers contained in the foregoing portion of this report. These data show that only a little over 25 per cent of the workers whose visual acuity was tested had normal vision in both eyes. While the hygienic conditions of illumination are always of im- portance in aU workshops, offices, schools, and pubhc buUdings, they become doubly so when the work to be illuminated requires a closer and more constant use of the eyes than reading, for example, and when the group of workers involved are prone to visual defects. Therefore, 'when the Surgeon General of the Public Health Service was requested by the Joint Board of Sanitary Control to include in the investigations made by the service, the hygenic conditions of illu- mination in the workshops of the trades, the importance of this phase of prevalent working conditions was fully recognized. General scope of the investigation. — ^The scope of this part of the in- vestigation embraced the following points : 1. The making and collection of a number of physical and photo- metric measurements in a representative group of workshops of the cloak, suit and skirt, and dress and waist industries, sufficient to com- pute the average of prevailing conditions of niumination upon work- ing planes. 2. An inquiry as to whether the basic principles of illumination were adhered to in the workshops of the industry. (105) 106 3. If departures from sucti principles were found to be prevalent, the formulation of recommendations necessary to place the illumi- nation of workrooms in these industries upon a good hygienic and economic basis. Acknowledgments. — ^Acknowledgments are due and are hereby made to Dr. George M. Price, director of the Joint Board of Sanitary Control of . the Cloak, Suit and Skirt, and Dress and Waist Trades of New York City, whose cooperation faciHtated entry into workshops for the collection of these data and to the Director of the Bureau of Standards, Washington, D. C, for calibration of apparatus used and for determination of the distribution curves of combinations of lamps and reflectors commonly used in the workshops of the women's gar- ment industries. GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF NATURAL AND ARTIFICUL ILLUMINATION. Before proceeding to the presentation and discussion of the data collected brief reference should be made to the considerations involved in natiiral and artificial illumination of workshops. NATURAL ILLTJMINATION. As openings in the walls of buildings are the only means at omx dis- posal for lighting an interior by dayhght, the degree of dayhght illumi- nation of a room depends primarily upon the area of the openings, or window area. Because of this, it may be thought that, in order to secm-e adequate illumination of an interior it is merely necessary to specify a minimum ratio of window area to floor area for any class of building. For factories, the ratios of 1 to 4 or 5 and for office build- ings, 1 to 7 or 1 to 10, have been advocated for this ratio. While these ratios are useful in the general design of buildings, they do not give necessarily a true measure of the illumination which will be available, because of the variability of other factors presently to be discussed. Sources of daylight. — We may distinguish primary, secondary, and tertiary sources of daylight illumination. Secofidary sources. — While the primary source of daylight lUumiQa- tion is, of course, the sim, we depend, for daylight illumination, upon the hght reflected from the sky, rather than that of the sun. The sky, therefore, is the great secondary source of natural illumination. Intrinsic hrilliance of the sTcy. — An important factor in the adequacy of natural illumination is the intrinsic brilliance of the sky. This varies greatly under different meteorological conditions. According to a series of measurements of intrinsic sky brilliance made in 1897 by the American Lucifer Prism Co.,* we may divide 1 Lectures on mumJnatmg Engineering, Johns Hopkins University, Hopkins Press 1911 Vol II PP. 661-652. . , ■ .i-r 107 weather conditions affecting the intrinsic brilliancy of the sky injfco fiTe classes, as follows: 1. Nimbus clouds, no blue sky, no sun, storm present or near. 2. Cloudless sky, either clear blue or hazy. 3. Blue predominating, clouds generally cirrus. 4. Clouds, predominating, generally cumulus. 5. Overcast, no blue. The following chart shows the variation of intrinsic sky briUiance, in candle power per square foot of sky for these five meteoroloigcal conditions :' < (,00 ? ^ 1 / ^ Soo 12 / '2 / 1 / ■^CO / 5 1 / 500 u / 5 y Zoo /' too Class c r SHY 7 z. a 4- 6 Fig. 1.— Variations in sky brilliance according to cloud conditions (Lectures on Illuminating Engineering, Johns Hopkins University, Hopkins Press, 1911, Vol. II, pp. 651-652). It is seen from this chart that the intrinsic briUiance of the sky is greatest when no blue is visible. The important part played by sky brilhance in the illumination of interiors has resulted in the recommendation by investigators of illumination that, for certain classes of buildings, such as schools, the solid angle subtended by the visible sky shall not be less than a prescribed number of square degrees in order to secure adequate iQumination. The data in relation to the soHd angle subtended by the visible sky at any working plane, however, must be accompanied by data giving the angle of elevation of the sky above the reference plane in order to give a true index of the resulting illumination. ' Lectures on Illuminating Engineering, Johns Hopkins University, Hopkins Press, 1911, Vol. II, pp. 651-662. 108 STcy angle. — The mimber of stations within a room from' which open sky may be visible, is primarily dependent upon the sky angle of the room. The sky angle of a room is understood ia this report to be the angle formed between the vertical waU of the building and a line drawn from the top of the nearest building to the top of the window. The sky angle is, therefore, dependent upon the vertical dimensions of windows, the distance of windows from opposite buildings, the height of neighboring buildings, and the story in which rooms are situated. (For the method used for determining the sky angle of workrooms see Appendix A.) The following figure (fig. 2) is typical of the relation of loft build- ings occupied by the cloak, suit, and skirt, and dress and waist industries of New York City to the sky and adjacent structures: Hoof Fig. 2.— Typical relation of lott buildings in the Women's Garment Industries, New York City, to the sky and adjacent structures. It is evident, from the figure, that on the upper floors there may be free access afforded to the Ught from the sky, whereas such direct light may be partially or completely cut off from the lower floors. It is frequently the case that the angle of incidence of the hght from the sky is nearly or actually the critical angle, so that the incident Ught is practically all reflected from the surface of the vsdndow glass instead of being transmitted by it. 109 It is under such conditions that the use of prism or of factory ribbed glass, with the corrugations on the exterior surface is of great benefit by reason of the change these produce in the angle of iacidence, thus permitting a large portion of the fight to be refracted into the interior. The assistance deriTed from the use of such window glass is weU shown in the case of the lower floors of the bufiding shown in figure 2. Effects of window glass. — ^The type of window glass used and its condition of cleanliness affect the amount of fight transmitted. Plain, clear glass is generaUy assumed to transmit about 90 per cent of the incident light for angles of incidence of less than 30°. When this angle is larger the percentage of transmitted fight rapidly falls off because of increased reflection. The foUowing chart (fig. 3) shows the characteristic transmission .curve for light incident upon plain glass for angles of incidence between 0° and 90°.i on', 15' so- ^"^ < i \ 5 s \ ls' \ 4 \ 0' Pt ft CENT OF LfGHT TR. \NsnnTEL \ \ ( z 4 b 8 ° too ■Fig. 3. — Transmission curve of glass for light according to angle of incidence (Lectures on Illuminating Engineering, Johns Hopkins University, Hopkins Press, 1911, Vol. II, p. 651-652). In the case of factory wire glass, the transmission, for equal angles of incidence wiU be less than for plain glass, both because of the imbedded wire, and the inferior translucency of the glass. In the case of rough or frosted glass, the transnussion is also less for equal smaU angles of incidence, but for large angles, the trans- mission is greater provided the fight fafi on the roughened surface. Ribbed and prismatic glasses should only be used when the angle of incidence is large or when the light is to be redirected, as the smaUer transmission coefficient of sucfi glasses renders their use disadvan- tageous where the angle of incidence is smaU. ' Lectures on Illuminating Engineering Johns Hopkins University, Hopkins Press, 1911, Vol. II, pp. 651-652. 110 Effects of cleanliness. — Besides the conditions aflfecting the day- light illumination just enumerated it is evident that the condition of cleanliness of the window surfaces exercises a marked influence upon the amount of light transmitted. Dirtiness of windows may reduce by as much as 50 per cent the amount of light which is capable of being transmitted by the opening. Tertiary sources of illumination. — Besides the light from the sun and sky there are certain tertiary sources of daylight illumination. These are the Hght reflected from the surfaces of neighboring buildings and street surfaces. While necessarily of lower intrinsic briUiancy than the source by which they are illuminated, such tertiary sources, are, nevertheless, important factors in the daylight illumination of interiors, especially on the lower floors of loft buildings, some of which receive no direct hght from the sky. Interiors of this type are entirely dependent on tertiary sources for their light. The degree of Ulumination obtained in such interiors varies, of course, with the intrinsic brilliancy of the tertiary sources. The briUiance of tertiary sources is, approximately, that of the sky less the amount of light absorbed by the tertiary surface. Thus, other things being equal, the amount of Ulumination available is dependent upon the coefficient of reflection of the tertiary sources. Distribution of illumination. — For correct illumination of interiors it is not sufficient merely to deliver an adequate Ught flux to the interior. This light must be distributed over working planes as uniformly as possible and in such manner that the illumination will not fall too rapidly as we proceed from the windows to the center of the room. While it is the province of the architect to provide for adequate access of light, it is the duty of the illuminating engineer, so to arrange manufacturing equipment in workshops, that the available fllumination shall fall on working planes from a proper direction, that the distribution curve of illumination shall have a gradient suitable to the various industrial processes in question, and that machines, fittings, and stock shall be so disposed as not to cause extensive local shadows. The color and finish of walls and trim is also of much importance, as they have an effect on the illumination in the same manner as the color and surfaces of adjacent or opposite buildings. Summary of the -principles of daylight illumination. — The basic prin- ciples of daylight illumination may be summarized as follows: 1. The amount of hght admitted to the interior should be as large as possible. 2. The light should reach the center of the room. 3. The distribution of the light upon workmg planes should be as uniform as possible. 4. The light should fall upon working planes from a proper direc- tion. Ill 5. The walls and trim of the room should be of such color and sur- face as to absorb but httle of the incident hght. 6. Manufacturing and other equipment should be so disposed as to avoid casting extensive local shadows. ARTIFICIAL ILLUMINATION. Artificial illumination must be provided whenever the daylight illumination falls short of the requirements for good vision or when conditions are such that it must be depended upon as the sole source of light. Since natural illumination is the kind best suited to our visual needs, the problem of artificial illumination consists in approxi- mating daylight conditions as closely as possible. One of the chief difficulties in approximating natural by artificial illumination lies in the fact that while the source of dayhght is the sky, a large surface of comparatively low intrinsic brilliance, artificial sources are practically point som-ces, and, consequently, when efiicient, of very high intriasic brilliance. It is the problem of producing similar lighting effects from sources so widely different which has engaged the attention of so many workers. Were it not for the wide range of adaptability of the eye to various luminous intensities its solution would, indeed, be most difficult. We have, however, certain generally acknowledged working prin- ciples which are briefiy as follows: 1. The illumination should be adequate for the work to be illumi- nated. 2. Umformity of distribution is a great desideratum. 3. The color of the light should be adapted to the nature of work performed. 4. Glare effects should be eliminated. 5. Troublesome shadows are to be avoided. Intensity of illumination. — The intensity of illumination required is a variable quantity governed by a number of factors. These fac- tors, themselves, are variable, and some are incapable of exact esti- mation. The following are the more important; (a) The location of the light sources with reference to working planes. (6) The chromatic composition of the light. (c) The degree of contrast between the illumination of the working plane and that of the other parts of the room. {d) The color and reflection coefficient of the walls, ceilings, trim, and floors. (e) The amount of reflection from the machinery, equipment, or material used in the industrial operation, and the state of the surfaces involved. (/) The condition of the eyes of the worker. So far as the cloak, suit and skirt, and dress and waist industries are concerned, many of these factors are identical in practically aU 112 the shops. Thus, because of similar arrangement of processes in loft buildings the degree of contrast between the illumination of a par- ticular working plane and that of other portions of the room is of the same order of magnitude. The color and reflection coefficient of walls, ceiling, and trim are also similar. The amount of reflection from parts of machinery is practically the same for similar apparatus. While it is difficult to specify a minimum illumination which shall be adequate for any particular class of work, it is practicable to specify that, to constitute favorable conditions, the illumination required for certain operations shall not fall below a certain minimum, due consideration being taken of the reflection coefficient (albedo) of the material worked upon. In view of the exacting conditions under which the eyes are used in the women's garment industry, conditions, which, on the whole require better illumination than mere reading, it has been assumed, that to secure adequate illumination, the inten- sity upon working planes should not fall below 5 foot-candles, when light materials are worked upon and 7 foot-candles when the materials are dark. Reasons for minimum standard of 5 foot-candles. — It is perhaps per- tinent, at this point, to say a few words about the reasons for fixing the minimum requirements of illumination in the garment industries at 5 foot-candles, in view of the fact that it is possible to see to read with intensities as low as one-half foot-candles. In a summary of the Interim Keport on Daylight Illumination of Schools, issued in England by a joint committee,^ the statement appears that, during most of the school hours, a place sufficiently lighted for school work will probably yield photometric readings of at least 5 to 10 foot-candles. Now, the use of the eyes in schoolroom work involves the viewing of surfaces such as a printed page, in which contrasts in brightness are great. In the garment industries, on the other hand, the surfaces viewed afford no such contrasts. The reflection coefficient of the material is often low, the thread or other "findings" match the material in color. The testimony of those who do needlework is, from personal statements, to the effect that "they can see to read when they can not see to sew." It would seem, therefore, that the minimum standard of 5 foot- candles recommended is conservative, in view of the nature of the work in the garment industry. WhUe seeiag is possible with lower intensities, a further disadvantage of such low intensities, as pointed out by Fitz,^ lies in the fact that the pupillary aperture is dilated at low illuminations. Hence a greater area of the optical surfaces of the eye are uncovered. This has the effect of intensifying the optical defects of cornea and lens, thereby incurring the danger of eye strain, even in apparently normal eyes. 1 Ulumlnating Engineering, London, July, 1914, p. 363. 2 Fitz, G. W.: Practical Methods for Testing Natural Uluminatlou. Transactions, IV International Congress of School Hygiene, Buffalo, N. Y., 1913, Vol. II, p. 396. 113 By reason of the frequence of visual defects among garment work- ers, the disadvantage of low intensities of illumination is further emphasized. Distribution. — It is not sufficient to have an adequate flux of hght upon the working plane. The flux must be so distributed that the contrast between adjacent portions of the working planes wiU not be noticeable. Besides this, the contrast between the illumination of working planes and that of the surroundings should not be excessive. Distribution causing alternate areas of light and darkness should be avoided so far as practicable. Adherence to the principle that artificial illumination should approximate dayhght illumination re- quires that, while shadows are necessary and unavoidable, such shadows should be in true relation to the objects casting them and that, furthermore, there should be sufficient diffused light to permit seeing clearly into shadows. Glare. — The prevention of glare effects in artfficial illumination is important, as these are prone to occur owing to the point character and high intrinsic brilliance of artificial sources. For easy vision, the object one desires to see should be the bright- est in the visual field. This arises from the fact that the eye adapts itself to the intrinsic brilliance of the brightest object in the field of vision. When some object other than the object to be viewed is the' brightest in the visual field, glare is said to be present. The amount of glare is influenced by two factors: (a) The angle of glare, and (6) the difference in intrinsic brilliance between the intrud- ing object and the one to be viewed. Angle of glare. — ^The angle of glare is the angle formed by a line connecting the eye of the observer and the intruding object and a similar line drawn from the object to be viewed, when the eye is fixed upon the latter. It is evident that glare wfll not be present when the angle of glare is greater than the visual angle in that particular direction. As the angle of glare diminishes, the intruding object approaches the center of the visual field. With constant angles of glare the degree of obscuration of vision produced by an intruding object, such as a hght source in the field of vision, is a function of the difference in intrinsic brilliance between the intruding object and the object to be viewed. Shadows. — We have become so accustomed to shadows that we appreciate but Httle their importance. Yet their presence is essen- tial to vision. Proper shadows enable us to perceive the sohdity of objects and to judge of their relative shape and sizes. Shadow pro- duction by artificial iUummation should approximate that of day- light— i. e., the Hght should be especially directed toward working 95485°— Bull. 71—15 8 114 planes, yet at the same time should emanate from a sufficient num- ber of sources to produce shadows giving true appreciation of the contours of objects. A perfectly diffuse light, emanating from all directions, would be highly objectionable, because by lack of shadows vision would then become very difficult. There should be, never- theless, sufficient diffusion to permit seeing clearly into shadows, and yet to cause shadows to have the proper density. Troublesome shadows are those which do not assist in defining the contours of objects, which tend to exaggerate their size or distort their shape and moving shadows. Light sources which make a small angle with the horizontal to the object viewed produce elongated shadows, which cause the exag- geration and distortion above referred to. Swinging hght sources cause moving shadows and alter the original light distribution. Color of light. — It is obvious that the color of artificial light used in industries requiring color discrimination should approximate that of dayhght. The following table shows a comparison of the color components of ordinary light sources, as determined by Ives,^ the composition of dayhght being taken as: Red, 100; green, 100; blue, 100. Table 1. — Color composition of ordinary light sources as compared to average daylight (Ives). Source. Bed. Green. Blue. Average daylight Sunlight, 2 to 6 p. m Welsbacn: One-fourth per cent cerium Three-fourths per cent cerium Tungsten (li watts per mean horizontal candle) Nemst Acetylene plane Gem (2.5 watts per mean horizontal candle) Carbon (3.1 watts per mean horizontal candle). . Flat flame, gas 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 91 65 51.5 50 48 45 40 100 66 14.5 12.1 11.3 10.4 8.3 7.4 5.8 It is seen, from this table that, of the ordinary artfficial sources, the Welsbach mantle with one-fourth per cent cerium resembles average daylight the closest in its chromatic composition followed by the three-fourths per cent cerium Welsbach mantle. Of the incandescent electric lamps the tungsten light gives the closest approximation. One great defect in all our present available incandescent artificial sources is the relative preponderance of red over blue. This is disadvantageous because of the lack of coequal stimulation of the red, green and blue sensations of the retina, and because it seems probable that blue component of light is more efficient in stimulating complete adaption to existing luminous intensities than red. 1 Ives, Herbert E.: Color Composition of Light Sources, Transactions ol The lUuminating Engineer- ing Society, November, 1908. Public Health Bulletin 71. PLATE VI. Fig. 4. — Sharp-Millar photometer. .,^.. . .-.-. , -..^ s. u . „ '^ T cj e_ Fig. 5. — Side elevation and plan of Sharp-Millar photometer. Fig. 6.— Storage battery, voltmeter, regulating resistance, and leads in bo 116 DETAILS OF INSPECTION. Description of apparatus used in measurements. — ^AU photometric measurements were made with a Sharp-Millar standard size photo- meter. This instrument is designed particularly with a view to a wide range of usefulness, to convenience in handling, and to accuracy in results. A view of the instrument is shown in the following figure 4 (Plate VI) and a plan and elevation in figure 5. This photometer is of the equality of brightness type. The moving part is the secondary standard lamp which illuminates a piece of ground glass on the right-hand side of the photometric device. The photometric device is a modification of a Lummer-Brodhun prism which brings rays from opposite directions into the sight tube by the addition of another totally reflecting surface. Photometric settings are made by matching the brightness of the milk glass cap on the elbow tube with that of the ground glass which is Oluminated by the working standard lamp. There is a 45° cap at the angle of the elbow tube. In one side of this cap is a mirror used in reflecting the trans- mitted rays from the test cap to the photometric device. In the other side of the cap is a diffusely reflecting surface used for measuring intensity. By removing the test cap a detached test plate can be used. The photometer can be used for measuring illumination, intensity, and intrinsic brilliance. Neutral glass absorption screens are used to increase the range of the instrument and glass color screens are used to match the color of the light to be measured with that of the second- ary standard lamp. Current to the secondary standard, is supplied from a 6-volt storage battery and the drop of potential across the lamp is main- tained by reference to a voltmeter. The storage battery and voltmeter are contained in a box shown in figure 6. The apparatus was calibrated by the Bureau of Standards. Initial inspection. — ^An initial inspection, covering 94 shops in the cloak, suit and skirt, and dress and waist industries, was made with the following objects: (a) The selection of a group of shops representing typical flluminating conditions in the industries; (b) the formulation of an outline of procedure, permitting the most thorough photometric survey consistent with the time allotted to the inquiry; (c) to become famihar with industrial conditions peculiar to the trade having a bearing more or less direct on conditions of illumination. As a result of this preliminary inspection it was found that a fair idea of prevailing illuminating conditions might be obtained by making a complete photometric survey of 34 shops. Seven of these shops were in the neighborhood of Houston Street west of Broadway, 6 between Houston and Nineteenth Streets, 19 between Nineteenth and Thirty-eighth Streets, and two in the East Side. 116 Photometric survey. — The photometric survey of the shops selected included the foUowing points: Industry, name of shop, location, state of weather, hour, floor of buHdiag, dimensions of shop, orientation, type of window glass and condition of cleanliness, window area, opposite buUdings, sky-angle, number of employees, number of working planes, outside iUumiaation, illumination of working planes; character, whether natural, artificial, or combined; dimen- sions of working planes; location, character, number, and condition of artificial sources; types of reflectors used, albedo of walls, albedo of material, illumination on stairways and approaches. In every instance plans of the shops were made showing the location of the working planes, windows, artificial light units and similar data. In addition to this fuU notes were made as to any particular condition present affecting the illumination. For a full illustration of the methods employed ia collecting these data reference should be made to Appendix B of this report, which contains a reproduction of the survey of shop No. 15. A complete tabulation of all the data secured will be found ia Appendix C. DISCUSSION OF RESULTS. In discussing the results of the investigation which are set forth ia detail in the tables contained in Appendix C, the points taken up are not necessarily reviewed in the order of their importance because the various factors affecting the Ulumination of an interior have so many interdependent relations that it is not always possible to weight them according to relative importance. An endeavor has been made to have the discussion follow as nearly as possible the order of the results as arranged in the tables in Appendix C. Measure of precision of observations. — ^A very high order of precision was naturally not attainable under the conditions under which the investigation had to be made. Nevertheless, it is thought that the error in the case of constants is not over 1 per cent, that of the variables more than 10 per cent. Whfle the survey included 34 shops, the tables include observations in a much larger number of workrooms, because several of the firms occupied more than one floor. In computing totals, averages, and percentages, the total number of workrooms, and in some cases the total number of working planes, and not the total number of firms, is considered. Orientation of windows. — The loft buildings in which workshops of the women's garment industries are housed, in New York City, axe, for the most part, situated upon numbered streets. It follows that the greater number of the windows have a northern or a southern exposure. From Table 1 (Appendix C), it is seen that there are almost twice as many windows with north or with south as there are 117 with east or west exposures. Loft buildings on numbered streets, i. e., streets running east and west, usually have windows with these orientations opening on an- shafts. Consequently such windows, as a rule, supply but httle illumination to the interior. Generally speakmg, in workshops of the women's garment industry the windows in the front and rear of loft buildings are those to be rehed upon for dayhght illumination. Window glass. — The glass used in workshops of the women's gar- ment trades is usually of one of the following varieties: Plain window glass, factory wireglass,plateglass. With small sky angles such glasses can transmit but a small fraction of the incident light from the sky. Condition of glass. — The condition of the window glass leaves much to be desired. In 7.5 per cent of the shops the glass was very dirty, in 54.7 per cent it was dirty, in 22.6 per cent it was fairly clean, and clean m only 15.1 per cent of the shops. The glass was considered to be very dirty when it was impossible to define objects seen through it, dirty when a considerable amount of dirt was present, but objects seen through the glass could be stiU defraed, fairly clean when just enough dirt was present to be noticeable, and clean when recently SJcy-angles of workroom windows. — The sky-angle was found to vary widely according to the floor on which the workroom was located as well as for any given floor. This latter variation was due to irregu- larity in the height of opposite builduigs and buildings in which workrooms were located. Generally speaking the sky-angle increased with successive floors, workrooms on upper floors having the largest sky-angles. Front and rear windows were far more numerous than side win- dows. On lower floors the sky-angles of front and rear windows were, as a rule, greater than those of side windows but on shops on upper floors large sky-angles were often present for side windows as well. The following table gives the distribution of sky angle values for 512 front and rear windows and 171 side windows: Table 2- -Distribution of sky-angle values of windows. Workrooms of the garment industries, New York City. women' s Sky angle. Front and rear windows. Side windows. Number. Per cent. Number. Per cent. 0° to 9.9°. 168 7 13 32 16 89 44 27 126 30.83 1.37 2.54 6.25 3.12 17.41 8.69 6.27 24.62 74 6 43.22 10° to 19.9°.. 3.55 20° to 29.9° 30°to39.9°... 40° to 49.9°. 60° to 69.9°.. 60° to 69.9°. 70° to 79.9°. . 32 69 18.71 80°to90° 34.52 Total. S12 100.0 171 100.0 118 From this table it is seen that the sky-angle in the case of front and rear windows was less than 10° in 30.83 per cent and less than 60° in 61.52 per cent of the cases. There is a wide range of variation in the sky-angles of front and rear windows. In the case of side windows, however, the sky-angle was either low or high, windows with intermediate values being absent. It is clear both from the numbers of each class of windows and the sky-angle value that the front and rear windows were chiefly relied on in the workrooms surveyed for iUumiaation. As the sky-angle of a window is a measure of the direct sky illumi- nation on the window wall of a building, it follows that, with dimin- ishing sky-angle a progressively greater amoimt of the dayUght illumination of an interior must be derived from reflection from tertiary sources, such as street siu^aces and the walls of opposite buildings. Floors on wMch worJcsJiops are located. — Of interest in connection with the sky-angle is the distribution of the workshops surveyed according to the floors on which they were located. The following table shows this distribution by floors : Table 3. — Distribution by floors of shops surveyed in the women's garment trades, New Yorh City. Location by floor. Number of work- rooms. Per cent of work- rooms. Location by floor. Number of work- rooms. Per cent of work- rooms. 2 1 6 12 7 8 4 1 4.35 2.18 13.03 26.10 15.20 17.37 8.70 2.18 Eighth floor 2 4.35 First floor Ninth floor Tenth floor 1 1 1 2.18 2.18 Fourth floor . Twelfth floor 2.18 Total 45 100.00 Note. — The discrepancy in the number of workshops (34) in the group surveyed and the number of workshops in this table arises from the fact that some arms occupied more than one floor. It is seen that location on the third floor was most frequent, fol- lowed by the fifth, fourth, and second, in order named. Approx- imately 72 per cent of the shops surveyed were located on these floors. Floor area-mndow area ratio. — ^The average ratio of floor area to window area in the shops covered by the survey was found to be 10.6:1. The maximmn ratio was 30:1, the minimum 3.4:1. The average ratio found is too high to permit good results in the natural illumination of these shops. As previously stated, for satisfactory dayUght illumination this ratio should be in the neighborhood of 5:1. Effective window area. — The average floor area-window area ratio as given above must be still further increased, as this does not corre- spond to the effective window area. In a large nimiber of work- 119 shops in the women's garment trades the front of the loft is occupied by offices, showrooms, and stock rooms. These departments are separated by partitions from the remainder of the loft. It is also a common practice to separate the cutting department from the rest of the workshop by partitions frequently reaching the ceiling. A large part of the total window area is cut off from the workrooms by these partitions. The windows so cut off are almost invariably those having the largest sky angles. Owing to these circumstances the average ratio of effective window area to total window area was found to be 0.82, with a maximum of 1 and a minimum of 0.49. The above-mentioned conditions have the effect of raising the floor area-effective window area ratio to 12.9:1, with a maximum of 36.6:1 and a minimum of 4.1:1. Albedo (reflection coefficient) of walls and ceilings. — ^The interior walls of 80.5 per cent of the workshops were white. The finish was usually plaster or alabastine with a mat surface. The following table shows the albedo of the walls of the various shops in the survey: Table 4. — Albedo of walls and ceiling, workshops of women's garment trades, New Yorh City, N. Y. Albedo. Walls having albedo between. Per cent. Ceiling having albedo between. Per cent. 90-SO 13 9 8 1 1 1 33.4 23.1 20.5 2.56 2.66 2.56 13 6 6 2 1 44.8 79-70 20.7 69-60 20.7 5W0 5.90 49-40 3.45 39-30 . . . . 29-20 19-10 6 15.4 1 3.45 Total .' 39 100 29 100 Eeference to this table shows that 33.4 per cent of the walls meas- ured reflected 80 per cent or over of the incident light and that 44.8 per cent of the ceilings had a similar albedo. The average albedo of the walls was 65 per cent; that of the ceilings 73 per cent. When the wails were colored the albedo was naturally much lower than that of white walls. The ceilings of 69.6 per cent of the shops were white, the finish, for the most part, being mat alabastine on plaster. Reference to Table 1 (Appendix C) shows that walls and ceilings with an alabastine surface have the highest albedo, with whitewash and white paiut next in order in percentage of light reflected. Albedo of material worked upon. — The amount of light reflected by the material worked upon is of importance ia determining what con- stitutes adequate illumination for any industrial process. When the 120 reflection coefficient of the material is low more light is needed. This is especially true in the garment trades as the materials worked upon are spread out so as almost or entirely to cover the working plane. The albedo of the materials used was determined in the case of a large number of samples. The following table gives the approximate albedo of some of the materials commonly worked with in the shops surveyed: Table 5. — Albedo of materials commonly worked upon in worhshops of the women's garment trades, New York City. Material. Albedo. Material. Albedo. Per cent 0.37 1.7 1.9 2.2 2.3 2.3 2.9 Black silk and mercerized cotton Fer cent. 4.5 Navy blue woolen cloth (light) Tango cloth, woolen or cotton , Light brown paper patterns 14 3 Green, Russian (dark), woolen or cotton. 35 1 White cloth 1 65.9 1 The albedo of white cloth depends largely upon its thiclmess, together with the color o( the surface upon which it is placed. The albedo given is for a double thickness of cloth lying on a golden-oak colored surface. As shown by the table the albedo of the materials varies over a wide range. In general, it may be stated that the albedo of material used in the cloak, suit, and skirt workshops is the lowest; that in dress workshops the next, and that in waist workshops the highest in order. WorKng planes. — Photometric measurements were taken at the following working-planes which cover practically all the stations at which work is carried on in the women's garment industries: Cutting tables, pressing tables, sewing machines, buttonhole machines, finishing tables, basting tables. A complete tabulation of the data secured appear in Appendix C, under corresponding headings. In all, photometric measurements were taken on 69 cutting tables employing 150 cutters, 47 pressing tables on which 228 pressing boards were moimted, 95 banks of sewing machines containing 851 machines, 20 buttonhole machines, 131 finishing tables employing 610 finishers and 43 basting tables which are used as required by operators. In addition to this the general illumination of shops and of stair- ways was measured. In view of the fact, shown in the preceding portion of this report, that workers in the garment industries are divisible into certain groups according to then- work, conditions of illumination at the various stations just enumerated wiU affect only that particular group of workers performing the type of work in question. It is, therefore. 121 necessary at the risk of some repetition to discuss the data presented in this report in relation to each of the groups of working planes mentioned. Extent of artificial illumination. — In no shops surveyed was entire reliance placed upon artificial sources for illumiuation. All shops, however, were equipped with means for artificial Hghttng. Under certaia conditions such as at the close of wiater days and for overtime work the artificial lighting system becomes the only source of hght. It was frequently the case under usual working conditions while at some of the stations the daylight ilhmiination was adequate; at others in the same shop additional light had to be supplied from artificial sources. The foUowing table gives the percentages of the workrooms meas- ured, ia which under usual working conditions working planes were illuminated (a) by daylight alone and {h) by combiaed artificial and day Ught. It should be stated that owing to the sunamer season of the year in which these measurements were made, in the winter, the per- centage of stations using artificial hght would undoubtedly be increased. Table 6. — Percentage of shops in which worhing planes were illuminated by daylight and by combined artificial and day light. Working plane. Number of work- rooms or work- ing planes. Daylight alone. Artificial light and daylight. Number. Per cent. Number. Per cent. Cutting tables 69 tables 56 30 42 14 36 27 81.2 79.0 95.5 93.3 97.3 71.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 13 8 2 1 1 11 18 8 38 workrooms 44 workrooms 15 workrooms 37 workrooms 38tables 21 4.5 6.7 2.7 Basting tables 29.0 DESIGNING DEPABTMENTS. 13 tables Design pressing tables 6 tables Design finisbing tables 6 tables - . - Artificial light was used habitually throughout the day at some working plane in 23 per cent of the workrooms surveyed. ILLUMINATION OP CUTTING TABLES. Cutters are an important group of workers in the women's garment industries. Much of the fit and style of the finished product depends upon the accuracy of their work. Minor degrees of carelessness on their part are sufficient to produce waste of valuable material. The necessity for laying out patterns upon dark materials, determining the right side of fabrics presenting but little differences in their inner 122 and outer siirfaces, following guide marks over checked, or particol- ored fabrics, 'all demand close attention and vigilance on tlie part of the worker. Not only do poor illuminating conditions at cuttiag tables react adversely upon the worker, but they are likely to be a source of considerable loss to the employer owing to mistakes arismg from imperfect Ulumination of the material worked upon. Arrangement of tables. — Cutting tables were variously located in shops according to whether daylight, artificial light, or combined artificial and natural illumination was adopted. There were 3 general arrangements of cutting tables, as follows, which give different characteristics so far as dayhght illumination is concerned: (1) Tables situated in close proximity and perpendicular to a window; (2) tables situated in close proximity and parallel to windows; (3) tables not in close proximity to windows and, for the sake of convenience, said to be in the center of the shop. The distribution of cutting tables according to this classification was as follows: Perpendicular to windows, 46.1 per cent; parallel to windows, 21 per cent; center of shop, 32.9 per cent. As cutting tables are long, over 30 feet on the average, it is evident that their location either perpendicular or parallel to windows wiU markedly affect the illumination of the table. The following figures show the respective characteristic dayhght illumination gradients for cutting tables perpendicular to windows, parallel to windows, and centrally located: FiQ. 7.— Characteristic illumination gradient, cutting table, in proximity to and perpendicular to windows. 123 Fig. 8.— Characteristic illiuninatiou gradient, cutting table parallel to window. ^ee >• pfo m£^t ei\d. of f^ Mf\ —g' Jo /V 20 2.S io sV -»<> ts So ■rx bo Fig. 9.— Characteristic illumination gradient, cutting table in center of shop. An inspection of these figures shows how rapidly the illumination falls off as the distance from the window increases in the case of tables perpendicular to windows. In the parallel arrangement the illumination increases and diminishes according to the relative position of the station to the window. In the case of cutting tables, centrally disposed, only a small por- tion of the light received comes directly from the window. Such tables are iUuminated by the Hght reflected from tertiary sources, such as walls and ceihngs. This makes for a more even distribution of the light than in the case of tables by windows, but, as shown in the instance on the chart, the illumination is hkely to be inadequate. 124 In the case of tables placed perpendicular to the windows, while the illumination at the window end is adequate, the distribution is poor, owing to rapid fall of the gradient as the distance from the window increases. The absolute value of illumination on the most distant parts of the table was in most cases adequate. The distribution of the illumination on cutting tables placed parallel to windows is not uniform, as shown in the chart, but in general the absolute values of the illumination on all parts of the table were adequate. The average illumination on 46.7 per cent of the tables perpendicu- lar to the windows was below 5 foot-candles, or the minimum to insure favorable working conditions. On tables parallel to the windows the Ulumination was below this minimum on 43.7 per cent and on tables centrally located 96 per cent. Artificial illumination was used in the case of 16.7 per cent of tables perpendicular to windows, on 12.5 per cent of tables parallel to windows, and on 25 per cent of center tables. From a consideration of the distribution curves alone, of the illumi- nation on cutting tables, it would seem that, generally speaking, location of the table near and parallel to windows would be the most advantageous. Such an arrangement, however, is disad- vantageous for cutters facing the windows, as they are then subject to glare from the window, which would have the effect of reducing visual acuity, especially when working with dark materials. Artificial illumination of cutting tables. — Where artificial dlumina/- tion was used (approximately 17 per cent of the tables) the relative position of tables to windows made but httle difference. The general methods found employed was that of local illumination. This method requires the use of units consisting of lamps and reflectors of correct size and distribution characteristics, together with sym- metrical suspension over the table of the units at such height as to give the best results with respect to economy, uniformity of dis- tribution, and avoidance of glare. It is evident, however, from the study of Tables 1 and 2 (Appendix C) that with but few exceptions there had been little effort made to conform with these requirements. The most usual error made in the workshops surveyed was the use of units consisting of lamps and reflectors not suited to each other. Thus 100-watt tungsten Ughts were frequently combined with reflectors designed for 40 or 60 watt lamps. It is needless to say that not only does the use of lamps larger than those for which the reflector is designed reduce greatly the efiiciency of distribution of the reflector, but glare effects are usually caused by the projecting portion of the lamp. 125 Distribution. — Where electricity was employed, the average num- ber of outlets to each cutting table was found to be 2.7. As the average wattage of each outlet was 93.5 watts and the average dimensions of cutting tables were 30.6 by 5.5 feet, the average watts per square foot of table area was 1.49. Ordinarily tliis is sufficient to secure adequate illumination, provided units are properly located and reflectors are suited to the lamps employed. Owing, however, to faulty combinations of lamps and reflectors, the illumi- nation was found to be generally inadequate, being below 5 foot- candles on 69.3 per cent of the cutting tables iUuminated by elec- tricity. Gas illumiination. — Gas was used in the artificial iUumination of 3 or 23 per cent of the cutting tables artificially illuminated. Flat- flame burners were used once, Welsbach burners once, and a com- bination of both once. The illumination fell below 5 foot-candles in all three instances of cutting tables iUuminated by gas. Although all the shops surveyed are supplied with electric current for driving machines, gas was used under the impression that "it was cheaper than electricity." This is true when properly designed Welsbach burners are employed and maintained. When units of the flat-flame type,, however, are used gas costs twice as much, basing the cost of gas at 90 cents per 1,000 cubic feet, and electricity at 10 cents per kilowatt hour, using tungsten lamps. Glare. — Glare effects were present from 87.2 per cent of the lamps in use at artificially illuminated cutting tables. This high percentage is due to the following circumstances: 1. The low average angle of glare of 47°. 2. The use of reflectors which in 66 per cent of the instances where they were employed were too small for the lamps, so that portions of the filament projected beyond the edge of the reflector. 3. The fact that 31.7 per cent of the reflectors used were of the shallow saucer type. 4. The use of bare lamps in 29 per cent of the instances. Such conditions combined with small glare-angles produce marked glare effects. General comment on the iUumination of cutting tables. — The follow- ing table shows the prevaihng intensities of illumination on 69 cut- ting tables for which this data was compiled. 126 Table 7. — Prevailing intensity of illumination (by tables) on cutting tables, women' t garment industries, New York City. Average. Maximum, Minimum. Foot-candles. P. Ill ill 9 S . II It 1 Per cent; combined daylight and day- light and artificial light. 11 Ah ^ P^ 5^ a II p Per cent; combined daylight and day- light and artificial light. II if il II. Ill f Per cent; combined daylight and day- light and artificial light. •»■§, ii Ah ^ Below 0.01 0.01-0.099 0.1-0.99 . . 1 7 16 6 7 6 8 7 10 1 1 2 1 6 3 1 1.45 10.14 23.20 8.70 10.14 8.70 11.61 10.14 14.47 1.45 7.7 15.3 7.7 38.5 23.1 7.7 7 6 10 4 4 12 8 11 8 1 2 3 4 10.14 7,25 14.47 5.80 5.80 17.4 11.60 15.94 11.60 7.7 15.3 23.1 23.1 30.8 4 27 18 6 4 4 5 I 1 6 4 1 1 6,80 39,10 26,10 8,70 5.80 5.80 7.25 1.45 17.7 46.1 30.8 7.7 7.7 1-1 99 . 2-2.99 3-3.99 4-4.99 5-9.99. . 10-19.99 20-49.99 SO and over Total.... 69 13 100.0 100.0 69 13 100.0 100.0 69 13 100.0 100.0 Tables on which illumi- nation was under 5 foot- candles Tables with ar- tificial light in which il- lumination waa under 5 43 12 162.3 '92.3 30 6 1 43.5 146.1 59 13 185.5 1100.0 ■ Per cent. This table shows the percentage distribution of intensities of illu- mination by cutting tables. The average illumination on 62.3 per cent of the cutting tables was below 5 foot-candles. The average illumination produced by a combination of dayhght and artificial light was below 5 foot-candles on 92.3 per cent of the tables lighted in this way. Variations in uniformity of distribution are also indicated by the fact that the minimum illumination on 85 per cent of the cut- tiag tables was less than 5 foot-candles. Indeed, on some cutting tablest he lack of uniformity in distribution was such that the illumi- nation might be 50 to 60 times greater at one station than at another. PRESSING BOARDS. Illumination data were secured in the case of 47 tables on which 228 pressing boards were mounted. The work of pressers, as the name in- dicates, consists in pressing garments as required. The work makes less demand upon the eyes than the other processes concerned in the manufacture of garments. While the illumination necessary to this class of work should be adequate, the necessity for optimum conditions is not so urgent as is the case with workers who use their eyes under the exacting demands made by other types of work in the women's gar- ment industry. 127 Intensities of illumination. — The following table shows the prevail- ing intensities of illumination on pressing boards as shown by the measurements : Table 8. — Prevailing intensities of illumination {by boards) on 175 pressing boards. niumination in foot-candles. 0.01- 0.099 Per cent. 0.1- 0.99 Per cent. 1-1.99 Per cent. 2-2.99 Per cent. 41 23.4 18 10.3 22 0.521 1.38 2.54 Illumination in foot-candles. 3-3.9d Per cent. 4-4.99 Per cent. Total. Per cent. 5-9.99 Per cent. Number of boards 11 6.3 9 5.2 101 57.7 37 21 7 Average foot-candles on board 3.39 4.48 1.78 6.64 Illumination in foot-candles. 10- 19.99 Per cent. 20- 49.99 Per cent. 50 and over. Per cent. Total. Per cent. 16 9.1 16 9.2 5 2.9 175 100 Average foot-candles on board 13.8 35.4 91.6 9.56 From this table it is seen that the average illumination on 57.7 per cent of the pressing boards was below 5 foot-candles. Where com- biaed artificial and natural lighting was used (31 per cent of the pressing tables) the illumination was below 5 foot-candles on 75 per cent of the pressing boards. Minimum illuminations of less than 5 foot-candles on pressing boards were present in 79 per cent of the shops using daylight alone for their illumination, and in aU the shops where combined artificial and day light were used. Artificial illumination. — ^Artificial illumination was used habitually at 15 out of 47 pressing tables measured, or 31 per cent. Of these electricity was used in 14 instances and gas (flat flame) once. The same faults in regard to improper distribution of units, use of incor- rect combinations of reflectors and lamps, or the use of bare lamps discussed in the case of cutting tables, were common in the artificial illumination of pressiag tables. Glare effects. — So far as daylight was concerned 15 per cent of the pressiag tables were located adjacent and parallel to windows. Press- ers facing the window would be subject to glare from this source which, however, would not interfere with their work to the same extent as it would in operations requiriag a closer use of the eyes. In the case of tables artificially lighted glare effects were present from 90.5 per cent of the units which were in operating condition. The causes of glare effects were the same as for cutting tables. 128 While with the pressor m his usual ironing position, looking down at the board, the average glare angle was 84°, this angle is decreased to about 25° to 30° whenever the presser is engaged in other opera- tions than ironing. Of the reflectors employed, 62.3 per cent were of the shallow saucer type affording no protection from glare. Of the total number of reflectors used, 83.6 per cent were used in com- bination with lamps so large that the incandescent filament projected beyond the edge of the reflector. The average height of suspension of the units from the floor was 6.4 feet. The average height of pressors is 5.5 feet. There was, therefore, only a difference of 0.9 of a foot between the average height of suspension of the units and that of the workers. As the units were usually suspended over the center line of the tables, which averaged 5.6 feet in width, the combination of naked lamps with low suspension can produce striking violations of hygienic principles in illumination by reason of glare. Thus, in one instance the light was furnished by a naked 250-watt tungsten lamp suspended over the center line at a distance of but 6 feet from the floor to the socket. As this lamp is about 10 inches in length, the brightest part of the filament was nearly in line with and close to the workers' eyes whenever their position was erect. It is needless to say that the glare effect from a source of such high intrinsic brilliancy, placed in proximity to the eye of the worker is highly injurious to vision. Comment on distribution of artificial ligTit on pressing tables. — ^The average length of pressing tables is 14.8 feet, their average width 5.6 feet. The average number of boards per table was foimd to be 4.8, their average length 3.2 feet. As it was customary to arrange the pressing boards on opposite sides of the table there were, thus, 2.4 boards to each linear 14.8 feet of table. The average number of outlets per table was 2.1 and consequently 0.44 outlets for each board- For xmiform distribution of hght there shoiild be 0.5 outlets per board. As there were several tables included in the measurements on which there were but a single row of boards and others in which the double row arrangement was incompletely carried out, the average number of 0.44 outlets per board does not actually approach the theoretical requirements so nearly as seems to be the case. The average ratio of table area to board area is 6.3 : 1. There is thus a considerable amoimt of waste space which must be lighted in order to illuminate pressing boards. The average watts expended per square foot of pressing boards was 17.4, while for the table this was 2.7. This figure could be materially reduced by lowering the ratio of table area to board area which is needlessly high. Gas illumination. — Although gas was habitually used in the case of only one of the tables surveyed, provision for illumination with gaa 129 was made at 18 per cent of all the boards. Of such boards the flat gas flame was the illumination provision in 67.4 per cent of the instances. SEWING MACHINES. Operators are numerically the largest class of garment workers. Being pieceworkers, their ability to earn a high wage depends to a great extent upon the skill and celerity of their movements. The sewing machines are electrically driven and operate at a high rate of speed. Accuracy in following the outline of patterns and in sewing seams straight are essential in the work of the operator, as much of the quaUty of fit and style of the garments depends on care in these particulars. The work, therefore, demands concen- tration. The need for vigUantly watching the flying needle point calls for good lighting conditions, absence of moving shadows, to- gether with freedom from shadows and maximum illumination at the needle point. Illumination data were secured on 95 banks of sewing machines containing 851 sewing machines. The necessity for trying to pro- vide good niuminating conditions for machines is recognized by shop owners, hence no banks of machines were found centrally located, all being situated in proximity to windows, either perpendiciilar or parallel to them. Seventy-four and eight-tenths per cent of the banks of machines measured were perpendicular to windows and 25.2 per cent were parallel to them. The most usual arrangement of machines was, therefore, perpendicular to the windows. Operators sit at opposite sides of machine tables, the machines being driven either from a shaft running below the table or by individual electric drive. The machines are staggered so that operators on opposite sides of the table do not interfere with each other. Perpendicular arrangement of machines. — While, so far as freedom from glare effects is concerned the arrangement of machines perpen- dicular to windows is preferable, it has the disadvantage, however, of rapid fall in illumination gradient, so that the daylight illumination on a long bank of machines perpendicular to a window will, in many instances, be inadequate. With short banks, however, this is not the case. The deficiency can be supplemented in the case of long banks by auxiliary artificial illumination. 95485°— Bull. 71—15 ^9 130 The following chart shows the rapid fall in the gradient of Uluminar tion on machines placed perpendicular to windows: 2. 3 ^ s MACH. No. rio. 10. — Fall in Ulummation gradient on Bewing-maoliine banks placed perpendicular to window. Parallel arrangement of machines. — When machines are placed parallel to windows the illumination is more favorable for operators with their backs to the windows. Those facing the windows have their visual acuity reduced by glare effects. As shown in the fol- lowing chart the distribution of illumiaation is fluctuating according to the position of the machine either opposite a window or wall space. This arrangement also requires considerable aisle space between the machines and the window wall. Inasmuch as machines are usually located in the backs of shops (the front being occupied by showrooms and offices), the sky angle at the rear is usually small because of narrow alleys, courtyards, and tall buildings. Reflection from the walls of opposite buildings, therefore, plays a considerable part in the natural illumination of the machines. It is the common practice of operators sitting with their backs to windows to pile garments on the window sills. In this way useful portions of windows are obstructed, with the result of a considerable reduction 131 of the available illumination. In the perpendicular arrangement of machines, operators have no access to the window siUs for this purpose. < .■ 7 I ^' ^CHIN 3HOt No- tALLE.1 /s 7t> 7-J IE Vy/i ^oow. ■ 6 8 5 1^ / \ / \ / \ \ y / \ y } i \ 1 Z 3 "* ^^ I^ACH. No. Fig. 11. — niumination gradient of sewiog-maohLie banks parallel to windows. Prevailing intensities of illumination on macTiines. — The following table shows the prevaihng intensities of illumination on machines, by shops : Table 9. — Prevailing intensities of illumination upon sewing machines (by shops), woman's garment industries, New York City. Average. Maximum. Minimum. ■^a rt ■2 '3 ■g-a ^ N" r> t^o •3 j3 nfl a .y fnS SI ^n3 s .Sf^ i^ Foot-candles. II 11 1 T3 « iii r-t 1 ■§3 d c3 bo §■03 S f 1 p. Ill g ■3 , 1 o S « (U o PN H Ik o p< H fL^ Below 0.01. 5 11.37 n 4 9.11 3 13 6.81 29.51 0.01-0.099 0.1-0.99 1-1.99 4 2 2 1 6 10 11 5 9.11 4.S5 4.55 2.27 fS.eo 22.70 25.00 6.85 1 1 'so.'o' 50.0 1 2 8 4 11 14 2.27 4.55 18.15 9.10 25.00 31.82 1 1 50.0 50.0 4 3 1 4 5 7 4 19.11 6.82 2.27 9.11 11.36 15.90 9.11 1 1 2-2.99... 3-3.99 4-4.99 50.0 8-9.99... 10-19.99 20-49.99 50.0 50 and over Total 44 100.00 2 100.0 44 100.0 2 100.0 44 100.0 2 100.0 Shops in which illumination was under 5 foot-candles . . - 14 31.85 7 16.93 29 63.63 1 50.0 Shopwith artificial lightwhlch 1 50.0 . 132 From this table it appears that in 68.2 per cent of the shops the illumination on machines at the needle plane was 5 foot-candles or over. In 31.8 per cent of the shops the average illumination on machines at the needle plane was below 5 foot-candles. Turning now to the average prevailing illumination on individual machines, the following table gives these data: Table 10. — Prevailing intensities of illumination on machines {by machines), women's garment industries, New York City. Ulumiaation ia foot-candles. 0.01- 0.099 Per cent. 0.1- 0.99 Per cent. 1- 1.99 Per cent. 2- 2.99 Per cent. 3- 3.99 Per cent. 4- 4.99 Per cent. 4 0.93 67 15.5 44 10.2 27 6.26 27 6.26 23 6.32 Average illumination in 0.08S 3.512 1.39 2.40 3.36 4.41 Ulumlnation in foot- candles. 5 9.99 Per cent. 10- 19.99 Per cent. 20- 49.99 Per cent. 50 and over. Per cent. Total. Per cent. Number of maclilnes 58 13.41 67 15.5 80 18.51 35 8.12 432 100 Average illumination in 7.12 13..'; SI. 9 76.4 IB 1 Number of machines on which the illumination was below 5 foot-candles, 192, equals 44.47 per cent. Average illumination on 192 machines on which the illumination was below 5 foot-candles, 1.83 foot- candles. It is seen by this table that on 55.5 per cent of the machines the iUumuiation was 5 foot-candles or above. On 44.5 per cent of the machines the illumination was below 5 foot-candles, the average beiag 1.8 foot-candles. Distribution of daylight iUumination on machines. — From a study of the illumination gradient curves for typical banks of machiaes it is seen that banks arranged perpendicular to wiadows with from 6 to 8 machines to a bank have on the whole a better illumination distri- bution than banks of machiaes parallel to wiadows. For longer banks this does not hold good on account of the rapid fall in iUimiination as distance from the wiadow increases. . Artificial illumination. — While means for artificial illumination of machines are always provided, ia only two of the worlishops surveyed was such illumiaation habitually used to supplement daylight. The same statement apphes, however, to machiaes as to other working planes, namely, that during the winter and at overtime work it will be necessary to use artificial hght more frequently than during the season when this survey was made. The question of artificial illu- mination of machines is consequently of greater importaace than would be iadicated by the actual number of shops surveyed found habitually using artificial illumination in the hghtiag of machines. The methods in general use in the workshops surveyed, therefore, merit discussion. 133 General methods for artificial illumination of macMnes in worTc- shops. — ^The general metliod employed is that of intense local illumi- nation. Two such, methods are usual: (1) Lamps arranged along the center line of machine tables, spaced from 4 to 8 feet from centers; (2) lamps arranged in double rows along machine tables spaced 4 feet on centers. The first method, center line location, is employed by 61.5 per cent of the shops surveyed, and the second, double row location, in 37.8 per cent of the shops. Neither of these methods can be rehed upon satisfactorily to Ulu- minate sewing machines. Owiag to the construction of machiaes and the necessity for concentration of illumination and for absence of shadows at the needle point, there is but one practical way of meeting these exacting requirements, namely, the installation of one unit for each machine. Such unit should be firmly fixed so that it wiU not vary from its correct position. It should be so placed that shadows of the various machine parts will not fall on the needle plane. It should consist of a suitable lamp and a reflector which wUl protect the eyes of the .worker from glare effects. Such units should be of durable construction, readily accessible for cleansing and renewal to persons to whom this duty is assigned and so secured that operators have no control over them except to light or extinguish them. Reflectors used. — From Table 14, Appendix C, it wiU be seen that 97 per cent of the reflectors used were of the deep-bowl type, the saucer type, so common at other working planes, constituting but 3 per cent. It would seem that shopowners by reason of the types of reflector selected reahzed the importance of protecting the eyes of workers from glare in the case of machine operators. Unfortunately many of these reflectors were installed in the days of 16 candlepower carbon lights. Since the introduction of tungsten lights, the fact that these give more light for less money has brought about the general replacement of carbon lamps by lamps of this type. Now, 16.9 per cent of all lamps installed at machines were 100-watb and 20.3 per cent were large size, 60-watt tungstens. As a consequence the reflec- tors designed for carbon lamps were too small for lamps of this kind, so that the efliciency of distribution of the reflectors was reduced and glare effects were present whenever the lamps were Ht. Glare effects. — As 25.2 per cent of the banks of machines were dis- posed parallel to windows, operators facing windows were subject to varying glare effects. So far as artificial illmnination is concerned glare effects were present in the case of 69.2 per cent of the units which would light. The average glare angle was 72°. This was subject to a decrease of from 40° to 50° when the operator made machine or cloth adjust- ments. In calculating the angle of glare given it was assiuned that the average height of the eye above the needle plane was 12 inches. The average height of suspension of the units above the machine table was 2.1 feet. While only 3 per cent of the reflectors used were of the shallow-saucer type, the use of 60 and 100 watt tungsten lamps in bowl reflectors designed for 16 candlepower carbon lights is a promi- nent cause for glare effects whenever it becomes necessary to use artificial illumination. FINISHING TABLES. Finishers, as their name imphes, add the finishing touches to gar- ments received from the operators. The tables at which they work serve only to hold supplies (buttons, needles, thread, and the like), the work being held ia the lap. Photometric measurements were taken on 131 finishing tables employing 610 finishers. All finisMng work is handwork. On the whole it appears to involve greater strain upon the vision than the duties of the other workers in this iadustry. Hence the necessity for adequate illumination. Arrangement of finishing tables. — As was the case with cutters and pressors, three general types of arrangement of finishing tables were found, perpendicular and close to windows, parallel and close to win- dows, and centrally located. Their location was distributed as fol- lows: Perpendiciilar to windows, 32.1 per cent; paraUel to windows, 8.4 per cent; centrally located, 59.5 per cent. The illumination gra- dients with respect to these positions had naturally the characteristics previously explained. Prevailing intensities of illumination on finisMng tables. — ^The fol- lowing table shows the prevailing intensities of iUumuiation on fin- ishing tables by spaces occupied by one finisher: Table 11. — Prevailing intensities of illumination on finishing tables (by unit spaces), women's garment industries, New York City. Com- bined daylieht and Daylight Foot-candles. Per cent. andartifl- Percent. daylight oial light. and artifi- cial light. 0.1-0.99 19 11.25 1-1. 99 21 12 43 1 12.5 2-2.99 3-3.99 11 6 51 1 12.5 4-4. 99 13 7.70 2 25 85 50.32 4 60.0 6-9.99 , 35 19 11 19 20.70 11.25 6.51 11.25 3 1 32.5 10-19.99 12 6 20-49.99 60 and above Total 169 100.00 8 135 From this table it is seen that the illumination was below 5 foot- candles at 50.32 per cent of the stations at which finishers worked. It is thus seen that a little over one-half the working stations of finishers the iUmnination fell below the minimum required for favorable conditions. In view of the demands finishing work makes upon the eyes, it is especially important, in the case of finishers, to insure them adequate conditions of iUumination. Artificial iUumination. — At the time of the survey artificial iUu- mination was habitually employed at finishing tables in but one of the 34 garment factories surveyed. As is' the case at other working planes, means for artificial illumination is provided. We must also assume, that owing to the season of the year at which the survey was made that, during the winter months resort must frequently be had to artificial lighting. The means for artificial lighting of fin- ishing tables was electric in 24 or 66.7 per cent, Welsbach gaslights in 3 or 8.36 per cent, flat-flame gas burners in 4 or 11.2 per cent, combination of Welsbach and flat-flame gaslights in 1 or 2.8 per cent, and in 4 or 11.2 per cent of the cases there was no provision made for artificial light. Intense local lighting was the general method employed, the units being suspended over the center line of the table. Befiectors used. — ^The type of reflectors used varied considerably. From Table 13, Appendix C, it is seen that 67.5 per cent of the reflec- tors used were of the deep bowl or cone type and 37.5 per cent of the shallow saucer type; 35.6 per cent of the total number of units used in the artificial iUumiQation of finishing tables consisted of naked lamps. Where reflectors were used, the mistake, so frequently men- tioned in foregoing pages, of using lamps too large for the reflectors, was, besides the use of naked lamps, a common source of glare effects. Drop-cord suspension was employed at 68.3 per cent of the finishing tables, aU such instaUations being provided with means for adjusting the height. At the remaining 31.7 per cent of the finishing tables fixed suspension units were instaUed. The use of adjustable drop-light suspension is objectionable in that it permits alterations in the distribution of the unit at the wiU of workers who are naturally not versed in the requirements for a correct distribution of light and prevention of glare. In many instances the result of adjustments on the part of the workers had lowered the efficiency of distribution of the reflector and the angle of glare. Glare effects. — Eight and four-tenths per cent of the finishing tables were located parallel to windows, with the usual result of sub- jecting workers facing the window to varying glare effects. Glare 13tj effects were produced in the case of 97.7 per cent of artificial sources wMcL, were in operating condition. The causes for this large percentage of glare effects were those already alluded to, namely, an average angle of glare of 95°, which would be decreased by approximately 50° whenever the worlier looked up from his lap to select supplies from the table, the use of bare lamps or flat-flame gas burners, saucer reflectors, and lamps too large for reflectors. BASTING TABLES. Basting tables are large tables used by macnme operators on which to baste garments. Because of the large stitches, temporary character of the work, and the fact that the tables are used only a part of the time, they are generally placed in the most unfavorable parts of the shop so far as daylight is concerned. Daylight alone was used on 29, or 67.5 per cent, of the basting tables included in the siu^ey, and combined artificial and daylight illumination on 14, or 32.5 per cent. The following table gives the prevailing intensities observed: Table 12. — Prevailing intensities of illumination on basting tables, women's garment industries, New Yorh City. Average. Maximum. MiTn'mnm i>. *! >i >, ,f H ^ ■oS ■a •oS •3 ■a 01 Tl 61) I— 1 ■nH N:: ■.i t^- ■3 s=; 9 Foot-candles. 3l •a So 11 1 ■a) 28.71 q 14 35.92 6 2-2.99 : s 19.01 ? 14.28 5 22.50 7 16 3-3.99 3 7.15 ?, 14.28 9 12.50 n '>: S.12 1 7.16 4-4.99 1 2.38 1 7 16 \ 2 50 1 7.16 35.72 3 n 7.68 3 n 21.40 6-9.99 S 11.90 4 28.57 fi 12.50 10-19.99 n ^ 7 50 2 n 14.29 n 20^9.99 1 2. 38 50 and over 1 2.38 Total 42 100.0 14 100.0 40 100.0 14 100.0 39 100.0 14 100.0 Tables on whiohillumination was less than 6 foot^iandles. 3S 83.43 11 71.43 32 80.00 7 49.99 39 100.0 14 lonn^ Tables with artiflcial light on whichillumination waslesa than 6 foo1>candles 11 71.43 7 49.99 14 Eeference to this table shows that on 83.4 per cent of the basting tables the average illumination was below 5 foot-candles. At tables where combined artificial and daylight illumination was employed the illumination fell below 5 foot-candles in 71.4 per cent of the 137 instances. We thus see that the illumination of basting tables is very generally inadequate. Yet there are cogent reasons for the adequate illumination of basting tables. While the work done at these tables is of a temporary character, and the stitches large, the accurate adjustment of the pieces of cloth to each other and the distinguishing of the right side of the material (not always easy) are important. Guide marks, placed by the cut- ter ia colored chalk, must be consulted. These are often hard to see because of the use of checked or particolored material or because the marks become dim on account of handling. The location of basting tables away from machines causes loss of time in passing from one station to the other. Additional time is lost because the operator, passing from the relatively weU-hghted machine to the darker basting table, must wait for his eye to become dark-adapted before he can see well. This is a process which takes a longer time than the reverse process, i. e., adaption to high from low intensities. Artificial illumination. — Sixteen per cent of the basting tables had no provisions for local lighting. Hence they depended upon general illu- minatiag provisions. In the remainder, in which such facilities were present, in the case of 23 per cent of the light sources, the f acOities were fm-ther reduced by reason of missiag or burned-out lamps. In gen- eral, where artificial lighting facilities were present, local illumination was used, adjustable drop-cord suspension being employed on 98.4 per cent of the tables having artificial lighting facUities. The average watts per square foot of table surface was 3.15. Under favorable circumstances this is sufficient to produce the necessary illumination, but the improper selection and location of lamps and reflectors greatly reduced the efficiency of utilization. Reflectors. — No reflectors were employed on 42.4 per cent of the units. When present 41.2 per cent were of the deep bowl or cone type and 58.8 per cent of the shallow saucer type. The usual fault of fitting reflectors with lamps too large was present ia many instances. Glare effects. — No basting tables were so located that workers were subject to daylight glare effects. On the other hand, glare effects were present in the case of 94 per cent of the artificial sources em- ployed, the reasons for glare production being the same as those previously described. BUTTONHOLE MACHINES. Because their location is so generally disadvantageous, some refer- ence should be made to buttonhole machines, although they form but a relatively small part of the shop equipment. In fact, small shops often do not go to the expense of purchasing a buttonhole machine, 138 sending such work out to regular buttonhole shops or employing a buttonhole maker furnishing his own machiae, as occasion serves. As buttonhole shops require but little floor space many of these are located in basements. Shop No. 28 (Table 7, Appendix C) is a typical example of such a shop. Location. — The space reserved for buttonhole machines m work- rooms is usually that left after the other equipment has been installed. In one shop, however, the buttonhole machine was included in the bank of sewing machines. Though 73.3 per cent of buttonhole ma- chines were located near a window, in many instances, such window opened on an air shaft so that the sky angle was practically zero. Prevailing intensities of illumination on 'buttonhole machines. — The illumination, at the needle point on 55 per cent of the buttonhole machines was below 5 foot-candles, in 15 per cent of the machines it was below' 0.1 foot-candle. The operation which requires close visual attention in buttonhole machines is the correct location of the buttonhole. When this has once been fixed the renaainder of the operation is more or less automatically executed by the machiae. Shadows, or low illumination cause considerable diSiculty in dis- tinguishing the marks showing the location of buttonholes. Artificial illumination. — ^The artificial illumination of buttonhole machines was usually provided for by adjustable drop-cord suspen- sion, the operator arranging the imit according to his taste and main- taining it in position by means of tape secured to the machine. Reflectors. — Fifty-three and eight-tenths per cent of the lamps used at buttonhole machines were bare. When reflectors were used, 80 per cent were of the conical and 20 per cent of the shallow saucer type. Distribution. — ^Adjustable drop cord suspension was used at 92.3 per cent of the machines. The location was such that at all the machines, shadows were cast by machine parts upon the work to a greater or less extent. Glare effects. — Glare efl^ects were present in 81.8 per cent of th^ machines by reason of the usual causes. DESIGN DEPARTMENTS. The design departments of workshops, as their name indicates, are the departments where sample garments are made up. As finish and workmanship of samples are important factors in the sale of finished garments, much care is exercised in their production, garment work- ers engaged in making samples being the most skilled in the various groups. The bearing of good fighting conditions upon ease and accu- racy in work seems to be well recognized by garment manufacturers in that care is taken to provide, in design departments, the greatest measure of illumination possible in the workshop under consideration. In all the shops visited the design department was located in the 139 most desirable portion of the shop from the standpoint of daylight illumuiation. As a result illuminating conditions in design departments were on the whole much superior to the conditions prevailiug in the rest of the shop. Thus, in no case, (at the season in which this survey was made) was it necessary to make use of artificial illumination at any of the working planes in design departments. Working planes in design departments.— The working planes in design departments are similar to those in the rest of the shop. They consist usually of a cutting table, 1 to 6 machines, a finishing table, and a pressing board. AU these planes are either parallel or perpen- dicular to windows. Artificial illumination. — While, because of superior daylight illumi- nation, the need for artificial illumination arises with much less frequency ia design departments, facilities are generally provided for such illumuiation. The methods employed in design departments for furnishing arti- ficial hght are similar to those previously noted in regard to the artificial iUumiaation of workshops and show a similar disregard of basic illuminating principles. From the evident desire of manu- facturers to furnish workers in design departments with the best light available the conclusion is justified that the departures from correct principles previously noted spring from lack of knowledge and not from negligence to comply with these priaciples. Cflare effects. — Glare was present in the case of workers facing windows at none of the machiaes, at 37.5 per cent of design cutting tables, 83.4 per cent of design finishing tables, and 50 per cent of design pressing tables. Glare effects from artificial lights would be caused in aU cases where naked lamps or lamps too big for the reflector, suspended in the ordinary visual field, were used. On examining the artificial lighting installations of design rooms for glare, glare effects were present at all the various working planes, from lamps in operating condition, with the exception of machines where glare was present in 70 per cent of the instances. A counter- vailing circumstance was the fact that conditions requiring the use of artificial lights are not so frequent in design as in other shop departments. On the other hand, whenever these conditions did arise, glare effects from the artificial Hght units were present in the large majority of instances. This merely emphasizes the observation made over and over again in the course of the survey that, in providing artificial illumination, manufacturers, while often generous in the amount provided, paid but scant attention to proper distribution and protection of the workers' eyes from glare effects. 140 Prevailing intensities of iUumiTMtion in design departments. — The average intensities of illumination in design departments fell below 5 foot-candles on the various working planes in the following per- centage of cases: Machines, 6.2 per cent; cutting tables, 37.5 per cent; finishing tables, 16.1 per cent; pressing boards, 37.5 per cent. With the exception of cutting tables, the average intensities of iUumi- nation in design departments were decidedly superior to those pre- vaOing in the rest of the shop. ILLUMINATION OF STAIRWAYS. The proper illumination of stairways is necessary in order to prevent accidents, facihtate egress in the case of emergencies, and to prevent accumulations of dirt. Necessity for the provision of adequate illu- mination of stairways is recognized in section 81, paragraph 3, of the Laws Relating to Labor, Factories and Mercantile Establishments, Department of Labor, New York State, which says in part: The halls and stairs leading to the workrooms shall be properly and adequately lighted, and a proper and adequate light shall be kept burning by the owner or lessee in the public hallways near the stairs, upon the entrance floor and upon other floors on every workday in the year, from the time when the building is open for use in the morning until time it is closed in the evening, except at times when the influx of natural light shall make artificial light unnecessary. Windows. — Table 12, Appendix C, shows the illumination condi- tions met with in the halls and stairs of shops examined. Of the stairs examined, 32.4 per cent had windows opening at the floor landings. ^ Color of walls, ceiling, and stairs.— The walls of the stairs and land- ings were black, dark brown, or dark buff in 67.5 per cent of the stairs and 32.5 per cent were white. The ceilings over the stairs and land- ings were black, dark brown, or dark buff in 51.4 per cent of the stairs and 48.6 per cent were white. The stairs and railings were of a dark color in 97.3 per cent of those examined, 2.7 per cent being finished with aluminum paint. The albedo of dark colored walls, ceiling, and stairs is low, being about 5 to 10 per cent. Consequently 90 to 95 per cent of the light falling on such walls is absorbed. It is therefore desirable that the stairs and railing be finished so that their albedo shall be high (70 to 85 per cent). Artificial ligTits. — Of the stairs examined 89.2 per cent had lights of some kind at the floor landings and 10.8 per cent had no lights. Of the 89.2 per cent of the stairs which had hghts 25.6 per cent of the units would not light. Of the units used 23.3 per cent were of the flat-flame gas type without shade or reflector, 63.3 per cent were gem electric units, and 13.4 per cent were tungsten electric units. Reflectors. — Of the total number of units used 10.8 per cent were equipped with shades of the semi-ornamental type, and 89.2 per cent 141 of the units were unshaded lamps. The shades used were useless as reflectors and only served to shade the lamp from the eyes of those using the stairs. The usual error of employing lamps too large for shades was also in evidence. Location of units. — The common practice is to locate imits at floor landings or at turns in stairs or at both. The units were suspended by fixed wall brackets at an average height of 6 feet from the floor. Table 13. — Prevailing intensities of illumination on stairs (by stairs). Average. Maxinniin , Minimum. Foot-camdles. ^3 d ^ bo §■03 i ti f 1 ■if 'a ■S.-a .IL III o « ^ ^ 11 -4-:>-H m &1 |i §■33 O I 3 & 1 1 0.0O1-O.0O99 6 14 8 2 1 1 3 2 1 13.5 37.8 21.7 6.4 2.7 2.7 8-.! 5.4 2.7 3 7 5 2 1 16.7 38.8 27.85 11.1 5.55 2 1 1 1 1 1 28.6 14.3 14.3 14.3 14.3 14.2 1 1 1 ' 0' 33.3 33.4 33.3 2 1 1 2 1 28.6 14.3 14.3 28.6 14.2 1 1 1 0.01-0.049 0.05-OO99 33 3 0.1-0.99 1-199 . .. 2-4,99 5-9 99 Q 10-19.99 20-49.99 SO and over Total 37 100.0 18 100.0 7 100.0 3 100.0 7 100.0 3 100.0 Total on which illumination ., was less than 0.1 loot-candle. B«rs with artificial light Wow 0.1 foot-candle 27 73.0 3 42.8 4 59.2 15 83.35 1 33.3 2 66.6 lUumination. — T£ encountered on the daylight was relied average values of ij per cent of the inst which artificial illu average iUuminatioi foot-candles in 55.5 Illuminating cone shops containing 45 dustry in New Yor on the following wo mountuig 228 pres taining 851 machin ible sta up lumi ance mins lof per iitio WO] bCi rkinj sing es, 2 13 st u-s, b an fo matic s be] ition less cent ns w rkroo ty- ^plai boai bu low J I r i )n ow Wi (ha 5U] are ms Th les ds, tto s the stairs llumi 3f be 0.05 IS us n 0.1 MMA inve , typ e ave : 69 95 nhol dis . C nati low foot ed i foo lRY. stiga ical rage cutti ban] 3 m< tribu >f the on 7 0.1 f -can< ?3.4 t-can ited of th iUui ngt£ iS of ichin tioi )se 3r oot ile. jer die n . e -5 nin ibh se es. 1 of 1 stair )er c -cane Of cen , anc i gro vome atior 5S,- 47 wing 131 jhe 1 s on ent lie, £ tho J ha( less up ( n's { 1 wa pre ma finis [lumi whi had md i se st i an > tha )f 34 jarm s me ssing chine hing nal ch aci n I lirs ac1 n ( W( ent asu ta] s c tal ion the jual )1.3 on jual ).05 )rk- in- red )les .on- jles 142 ■with places for 610 finishers, and 42 basting tables. The results of the investigation may be summarized as follows: Extent of artificial illumination. — ^All the shops visited utilized day- light illumination. At 23 per cent of the shops auxUiary artificial illumination at some working plane had to be depended upon habit- ually. The merasurements were made during the stmuner; therefore the average illumination found represented maximum seasonal illu- mination values. During the winter the average illumination at many of the planes would be lower and, owing to short winter days and the necessity for overtime at night, the artificial UlununatioE of working planes would be more frequent. Floor areor^ndow area ratio. — The average ratio of floor area to window area was found to be 10.6 :1 . The effective floor area- window area ratio was stOl higher than this, being 12.6 to 1 because of the use, in many shops, of partitions cutting off window space. The efficiency of windows was often stiU further reduced (a) by reason of small sky angles, hence high angle of incidence of light; (6) failure to use prismatic or factory-ribbed glass with windows having the above-mentioned characteristics; (c) dirty windows; (d) obstructions in windows encroaching on their area, such as piles of garments, or wooden latticework used for burglar protection systems. Illumination found at working 'planes. — ^Illumination measured under actual working conditions in the shops surveyed was as f oIlo\fSt Table 14. — Illumination found at woriing places. Working plane. lUumina- tion ade- quate. Ulumina- tion inade- quate. Cutting tables Machines Basting tables Finishmg tables Pressing boards Buttonhole machines DESIGNING DEPAETMENTS. Design cutting tables Design machines Design finishing tables Design pressing boards Stairs General average Per cent. 37.7 55.5 16.6 49.7 42.3 45.0 62.5 62.5 27.0 Percent. 62,3 44.5 83.4 50.3 57.7 56.0 37.6 6.2 16.7 37.5 73.0 These coniputations are based iipon the requirement that aU work- ing planes (with the exception of stairways in regard to which an illumination of 0.1 foot-candle was deemed adequate) should have a minimum average illumination of 5 foot-candles tb insure favor- able conditions in an industry making such demands upon the eye as the women's garment industry. 143 In practice, in shops with good Ulumiiiatioii, this miaimum was often exceeded, average dayhght illumination of ten times the mini- mum being observed on working planes in a number of instances. It is seen that a Httle over one-half of all the working planes measured fell below the minimum requirements for adequate illu- mination. On the other hand the illumination in design departments of garment workshops where sample garments are made was much better than the illuminating conditions prevaOing in the rest of the shop. The above table shows that the illuminating facUities pro- vided for making sample garments are generally good, with the exception of some glare effects from facing windows. Workers on this type of garment were placed by shop owners under the best illuminatiag conditions afforded by the workshop in question. Location of working planes. — Forty-five per cent of all working planes were perpendicular to windows, 17 per cent were parallel to windows, and 38 per cent were centrally located. The illumination on working plan6s perpendicular to windows falls off rapidly as distance from the windows increases. On working planes parallel to windows workers facing the windows are subject to glare. On centrally located working planes the dayhght illumina- tion is apt to be inadequate. On the whole the illumination was found to be most satisfactory upon working planes perpendicular to windows, provided such planes were not too long. Lack of uniformity in distribution. — ^Lack of uniformity in distribu- tion of illumination was a frequent defect noted. Variations of 50 or 60 times in the intensity of the illumination on long working planes was not infrequently encotmtered. Artificial illumination.— The location of working planes from the standpoint of artificial iUimunation was immaterial. The general method found employed was that of local illumination. The most common arrangement of units was that of adjustable drop-cord sus- pension over the center line of working planes. Fifty-four per cent of the total number of artificial units were arranged in this manner. Reflectors.— The reflectors in use could be grouped in two general classes, bowl or cone, and shallow saucer reflectors. Sixty-nine per cent of all reflectors were bowl or cone, and 31 per cent were of the shallow saucer type. Thirty-eight and two-tenths per cent of aU the artificial sources were bare without shade or reflector. The primary artificial Kght sources most commonly used were as follows: 100-watt tungsten (clear), 31 per cent; 60-watt tungsten (clear, large bulb), 22.6 per cent; flat-flame gas (6 cubic feet per tour), 19.2 per cent; 50-watt "Gem" (clear), 14.4 per cent. 144 Distribution. — ^The distribution of artificial iUumination on working planes was decidedly poor as shown by the high value of ratios of maximum to minimum illumination in the specific tables of iUumiaa- tion values (Appendix C). It was common practice to have the hghtiag units so arranged that the workers could vary their position at will. There was a large range of variations found between the theoretical and the actual position of units relative to working planes. Troublesome moving shadows were common, due to drop-cord lamp suspension. Such imits placed in workrooms located on upper floors of loft buildings tend to swing because of swayiag movements of the buildiag. Glare effects. — Glare efiPects from dayhght sources were present at all working planes (17 per cent) parallel to windows. Of the total number of artificial light sources in working condition 82 per cent produced glare effects. The causes for this high percentage of glare effects were as follows: 1. Use of bare lamps. 2. Use of reflectors designed for smaller lamps. 3. Improper reflectors. 4. Low mean angle of glare. Common defects noted. — ^The following is a list of prevailing defects noted which produced inadequate illumiaation or glare effects: 1. Poor arrangement of working planes relative to windows. 2. Reduction of effective window area (average reduction, 18 per cent) by the use of opaque partitions, 3. Use of plain glass windows with high angles of incidence. 4. Dirty window glass (very dirty, 7.6 per cent; dirty, 54 per cent; fairly clean, 22.6 per cent; clean, 15.1 per cent). 5. Obstruction of windows by piles of garments or latticework burglar alarms. 6. Use of clear, unshaded lamps (38.2 per cent) . 7. Use of saucer and disk types of reflectors for local iUunmiation (31 per cent). 8. Use of lighting imits and reflectors imsuited to each other (e. g., lamps too large for reflectors). 9. Dirty reflectors and lamps. 10. Too high or too low suspension of units. 11. Lamps suspended with adjustable drop cords for local iUumina- tion (71.3 per cent). 12. Lamps missing, burned out, blackened, short circuited. 13. Use of a few large instead of a greater number of smaller units for local Olumination. 14. Lack of uniformity in the distribution of illumination upon working planes. 145 CONCLUSIONS. 1. Adequate provisions for illuroiaation are particularly necessary in the women's garment industries, (a) because of th.e exaotiag visual demands of the occupation; (6) because of the presence of a large number of visual defects ia workers in this industry (vide Part I). 2. Photometric measurements made during the summer of 1914 in a group of 34 typical workshops show that the illununation was in- adequate in the case of a little over one-half the working planes measured. 3. Departures from correct principles in illumination were common in shops. The effects of such departures are to produce: (a) Inade- quate illumination; (b) glare effects; (c) lack of uniformity in dis- tribution of illununation; {d) troublesome shadows. RECOMMENDATIONS. The recommendations which may be made are of two classes, (1) those to improve the dayhght illumination of workshops and (2) those to improve the artificial illumination. IMPROVEMENT OF DAYLIGHT ILLUMHSTATION. Selection of shop. — In selecting a loft for a garment factory in New York City, the following points should be considered: 1. The building should be on a numbered street (streets having a general east and west direction). 2. Preference should be given to upper floors, as the sky angle increases as the height from the street. The floor at which optimum conditions obtain is, of course, dependent upon the neighboring sky line. 3. Opposite buildings should be light in color. This is especially important when the workroom must be situated upon a lower floor. 4. The ratio of floor area to window area should not be greater than 10:1. Less than this is desirable. 5. With large sky angles plain window glass may be used. With small angles, the use of prism or factory ribbed glass is recommended. Care should be taken to install such glass according to manufacturers' direction. 6. The ceiling height should be the greatest available. Windows should reach to within a few inches of the cefling. For equal window areas, taU windows give the best Ulumination. 7. Walls and ceiling should be finished with a white, mat surface. 8. Trim and doors should be light in color. 9. Stairs should, so far as practicable, have a window at each land- ing, or in default of this have adequate artificial illumination so 95485°— BuU. 71—15 -10 146 shaded that glare from lamps will not obscure vision. Walls and ceilings of stairs should be finished with white mat surface. Hand rails and risers of stairs should be painted with aluminum paint. Arrangement of worlcing planes. — Owing to the fact that working planes in garment workshops may be arranged peripherally, leaving the center of the shop for other purposes, attention to the location and disposition of such planes may effect considerable improTement in existing conditions even if the fl.oor area, window-area ratio, is large. With respect to the necessity for providing optimum illumi- nating conditions, working planes should be weighted in the following order: 2. Cutting tables. 3. Basting tables. 4. Pressing tables. Arrangement of machines. — Daylight from overhead would be the ideal method for illuminating machines and finishing tables. Oppor- tunity for such lighting methods, however, will be seldom, if ever, encountered in New York. We have, therefore, to choose between the arrangement of machines perpendicular or parallel to windows. Both methods have their disadvantages, especially so long as opera- tors sit on opposite sides of machine tables. The disadvantages of the perpendicular arrangement consist in the rapid f aU of illumination as the distance from the window increases, and the fact that if the direction of the hght is an optimum for one operator it is not so Hkely to be so for the worker on the opposite side. The parallel arrange- ment of machines is defective because of the fall of the illumination gradient on machines opposite wall space, the fact that, operators, with backs to the windows, are in their own Hght and because operar tors facing windows are subject to glare effects. On the whole the arrangement of machines perpendicular to windows is to be preferred. The number of machines in a bank should be limited to 6 or 8. This arrangement has the further advantage that for equal areas the num- ber of machines can be shghtly- increased. FinisUng tables. — ^The lightmg facihties afforded should, for fin- ishing tables, bo on a par with those for machines. Finishing tables should be placed in proximity and perpendicular to windows. The practice of placing long lines of tables end to end should be avoided because, generally speaking, such arrangement tends to great varia- tions in uniformity of illumination. Cutting tables. — Cutting tables should not exceed in dimensions the minimum space requirements of two cutters working on opposite sides. The use of the unnecessarily long tables frequently observed 147 renders tmifonnity in their illumination, by daylight almost impos- sible with existing conditions. Cutting tables should be placed per- pendicular to and in proximity to windows whenever practicable. Pressing tables. — When practicable, pressing tables, also, should be placed in proximity and perpendicular to windows. If window space be not available they should be placed parallel to and in hne with finishing tables at the minimum distance consistent with exist- ing aisle regulations. Basting tables. — Basting tables should, in general, be placed close to and parallel with machine banks. Design departments. — But Httle can be said about improving the iUuniination of design departments as these usually have the best iUumination available in shops. Glare effects from facing windows should be avoided. The working planes should conform in arrange- ment to the respective locations already described. Show rooms and offices. — While it is desirable that showrooms and offices should occupy positions commanding a view of the street, convenient to the loft entrance, care should be taken in the location and construction of partitions that these do not cut off any more of the available window area than is commensurate with the importance of these departments. Central portion of shop. — ^The central portion of the shop should be used for stock only. With small sky angles it is advisable to fit the upper sashes of windows with prismatic glass, care being taken to have the corrugations horizontal and on the exterior surface of the window. A considerable proportion of the incident light wiU thus be centrally directed. Partitions. — Partitions should not be used except when absolutely necessary. When needed they should be constructed of translucent material with a high coefficient of transmission. ARTIFICIAL LIGHTING. 'General iUumination. — The entire shop should have a system of general artificial lighting adequate to insure an illumination of not less than 1 foot-candle over the entire floor area. Machines and finishing tables. — ^Machines and finishing tables should have such additional local Olumination as to insure a minimum light- ing on working planes of 5 foot-candles with light and 7 for dark material. Gutting, basting, and pressing tables. — The general iUumuiation should be increased in the vicinity of cutting, basting, and pressing tables to insure a minimum of 5 and 7 foot-candles, respectively, for light and dark materials. 148 Design rooms. — The general and local illumination of design rooms should conform to the above-mentioned standards. Offices and showrooms. — In offices and showrooms it is usually desired to have the lighting present a more or less artistic effect. The method of lighting should be that of general illumination, either direct, semi-indirect, or indirect. A minimum illumination should be secured of not less than 4 foot-candles on working planes in offices and on the floors of showrooms. Character of lighting units — General illumination. — Satisfactory units for the general illumination of shops would consist of tungsten or gas-mantle lamps provided with deep-bowl reflectors having exten- sive distributing characteristics. The units should be suspended as nearly as possible to the ceiling in such relative positions as to insure a minimum distribution of 1 effective lumen over each square foot of floor area. Machines and finishing tables. — The additional local illumination of machines and finishing tables may be advantageously secured by the use of tungsten or gas-mantle lamps and opaque reflectors with intensive distributing characteristics of the deep-bowl or cone type. Fixed suspension should be used. The height of suspension will depend upon the distribution characteristics of the reflector used. For machines the spacing should be 1 unit for each machine. For flnishing tables the height of suspension and the number of units should be such as to provide a minimum of 5 and 7 effective lumens per square foot, respectively, for light and dark materials. It should be remembered, in this connection, that in finishing opera- tions the working plane extends frotn the table outward upon the lap of the worker, or approximately 1.5 feet beyond the edge of table, the average width of the standard finishing table being 12 inches. Local illumination of cutting, lasting, and -pressing tables. — ^The local lighting units for cutting, basting, and pressing tables may be made up of tungsten or gas-mantle lamps with deep-bowl prismatic reflec- tors of glass with intensive distributing characteristics. The height of suspension and spacing should be such as to produce a distribu- tion of 5 and 7 effective lumens for light and dark materials, respec- tively, per square foot of table area. Glare effects. — It is important to avoid all glare effects, for not only do these make seeing difficult but they are injurious to the eyes. Glare is present from any light soxirce, under ordinary working conditions, when it is in the field of vision and is of greater intrinsic brilliance than the object to be viewed. It follows that in the local illumination of workshops bare lamps or reflectors of the shal- low-saucer type should never be used. Prismatic reflectors should be of the deep-bowl type and suspended at such heights as to cause 149 the units to become practically concealed sources. Opaque deep- bowl or cone reflectors axe always to be used for local illumination when the height of suspension is such that the unit will be within the ordinary field of vision. AH reflectors are made for use with a particular size of lamp. This specific size shoidd always be used with the refiector. The use of larger lamps produces glare from the projecting portions and alters the distribution characteristics of the combination; the use of lamps smaller than that for which the reflector is designed constitutes an ' uneconomical unit, which may produce inadequate illumination and alter the distribution characteristics of the reflector. APPENDIXES. APPENDIX A. METHOD OF DETERMINING THE SKY ANGLE AND ANGLE OF GLARE. In Tiew of the part played by the sky-angle value in producmg good natural iUumination, as well as the action of glare effects in reducing visual acuity, producing discomfort in seeing and ocular fatigue, cuts showing the respective methods for determining sky angles and angles of glare are herewith appended. Fig. 1.— Method of determining sky angle of a room. Slcy angle. — The sky angle is determined as follows: Let ^= height of eye of observer from floor. Let (Z = distance of observer from window. Let a = height of lower part of window from floor. Let ■«?= height of window. (151) 152 When the observer is in such, a position that a line from the eye intersects the top of the window and the top of the roof of the opposite buildings, 6 =sky angle. e =90°-^i. O K i Fig. 2. — Method of determining angle of glare for cutting and basting tables. Angle of glare. — ^The angle of glare is determined as foUows for cutting and basting tables: Let c= height of the eye of the cutter from the floor. Let T= height of the table top from the floor. Let W= width of the table. Let L = height of lamp above table. Let D= horizontal distance of lamp from edge of table. Let Di= horizontal distance of edge of table from eye. 0j=n[iiniinum angle of glare. 153 ^2= maximum angle of glare. e,=180°-tan-i ^+^1 ^a = tan-^^^ L-(c-T) ^1 = ^2- < d- -> T d- h"\) k I Fio. 3. — Method of determining angle of glare at sewing machines. The angle of glare at sewing machines is determined as foUows: Let Z= height of lamp filament from table top. it. Let (? = horizontal distance of lamp filament from eye. Let e= height of eye from top of table. Let m= horizontal distance of eye to needle point. ^5i = the angle of glare. d, = 180°-ta.n-^J— l- ^3 = tan-i^ e 154 In installations of double rows of machines with double rows of lamps the minimum angle of glare wiU at times be caused by the lamp of the opposite machine. FiQ. 4. — ^Method of determiTiing angle of glare at pressing tables. The angle of glare at pressing tables is determined as follows: Let L = height of lamp from top of boards. Let E= height of eye from floor. Let T= height of top of table from floor. Let B = height of top of boards from table top. Let D= horizontal distance of lamp from eye. Let A = horizontal distance of eye from inside edge of board. (?i = angle of glare. ^, = 180°-tan-i D L-[E-(T+B)] e^ = tan-i -^-{T+^) e,=-e,-e. 155 Fig. S. — Method of determining angle of glare at finishing tables. The angle of glare at the finishing tables is determined as foUows: Let L= height of lamp from top of table. Let E= height of eye from floor. Let T = height of top of table from floor. Let D= horizontal distance of lamp from eye. Let W= horizontal distance of work from eye. Let P= vertical distance from floor to place of work. ^1 = angle of glare. e, = 180°-tani ^3 = tan' W E-P D L-E APPENDIX B. A SAMPLE PHOTOMETRIC SURVEY (WORKSHOP NO. 15). 199JIS iji^I-AV 9i «0 (156) 157 IndvMry. — Cloaks and suits. Weather. — Clear. Date.~3^AJ 20, 1914. Name of shop. — Location. — West Twenty-sixth Street. Witidow area. — N. No. 3. 2 panes each, each pane 3' 3" B. x 3' 9" H., J" window glass, clean. S. No. 4. 2 panes each, each pane 3' 4" B. x 3' 4" H., win- dow glass, clean. E. 0. W. No. 5. 2 panes each, each pane 3' 1" B. x 2' 8" H., frosted wire glass, dirty. Opposite iuildings. — N. White. S. Light gray. E. W. Eed. Slcy angle. — N. a = 3" d=2' 9". S. No sky. E. No sky. W. No sky. Height of ceiling. — 10.25 feet. Walls. — White alabastine. Ceiling. — White alabastine. i^o?-.— Fifth. Number of employees. — Operators 12 Finishers 12 Cutters 2 Pressers 4 Total 30 Working plane data. — Plane. Length. Width. Height. Lamps Lamps n.g. Ker. neight. Cutting.. 20' fi"... 12' 10". 6x4'.... 17' 8"... J/ 7' 5' 10". i' 31".... 1' 34".... {i-:::: 30".... 30J"... 31".... 2100wt... }2100wt... 12 50 wg... 3100wt... 3 100 wt... HM60... HM60... CIO HM60... HM60... 2' 6"- Pressing Machines 27". Pasting.. 0.42'; avg., 2'. Finishing... table). 4' 6". 158 lUumiTUttion. — Outside illumination, clear, but sun not on plate. Attactied. test plate. Dark and yeUow glass on test side of photom- eter. Secondary standard voltage 1.60 volts (3 p. m.). dygt. 2.00 1.94 1.94 1. 96 Average. Machines. — Second column lights on. Detached test plate. Sta. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. ygt. lygt. ygt. ygt. ygt. lygt. lygt. lygt. ygt. ygt. ygt. lygt. 2.71 6.60 2.75 10.50 1.13 2.28 0.955 2.21 1.75 17.0 8.60 2.32 2.69 6.40 2.88 9.52 .99 3.45 .955 2.19 1.78 16.0 7.62 2.31 5.40 13.00 5.63 20.02 2.12 5.73 1.910 4.40 3.53 33.0 16.22 4.63 Avg. 2. 70 6. 50 2. 82 10. 01 1. 06 2. 86 . 955 2. 20 1. 76 16. 5 8. 11 2. 32 Outside illumination. — Clear but sun not on plate. Attached test plate. Dark and yeUow glass on test side of photometer secondary standard voltage = 1.60 volts (3.20 p. m.). 4.32 4.00 4.00 12.32 4. 11 Average. Pressing table illumination. — No Ughts on detached test plate. sta. 12 3 ygt. ygt. ygt. 10. 2 9. 18 14. 2 10. 3 9. 40 14. 20. 5 18. 58 28. 2 Av. 10. 25 9. 29 14. 1 Finishing table illumination. — Detached test plate. No hghts on. sta. 1 2 3 ygt. ygt. ygt. 5. 32 1. 50 2. 80 5. 20 1. 51 2. 80 10. 52 3. 01 5. 60 Av. 5.26 1.50 2.80 159 Basting talle illumination. — Second colunm lights on. Detached plate. a. 1 ygt. 1.10 ygt. 1.39 ygt. 0.878 ! » ygt. 1.18 ygt. 0.868 3 * ygt. 1.28 1.05 1.37 .910 1.22 .852 1.35 2.15 2.76 1.788 2.40 1.720 2.63 Avg. 1.08 1.38 .894 1.20 .860 1.32 Cutting tahle illumination. — Second colunm lights on. Detached plate. Sta. 1 Igo. ygt. 2.95 2.89 2 Igo. ygt. 3.92 4.08 8.00 4.00 3 Igo. ygt. 4.10 4.28 8.38 4.19 4 Igc. ygt. 3.92 3.75 7.67 3.83 lygt. 0.688 .668 Igc. ygt. 3.70 4.20 7.92 3.96 5 lygt. 0.760 .740 5.84 1.356 1.500 . 2.92 .678 .750 Albedo of walls. — Walls good. E ygt. Attached plate, b ygt. 3. 29 3. 28 3. 36 3. 42 3. 45 3. 22 10. 10 9. 93 3. 37 3. 31 Illumination on stairs. — Drop ceiling, white, walls maroon, steps maroon. One 50-watt Gem o. k. in wire cage at door 8 feet up. Attached plate. Igc. ygt. 2.21 2.18 4.39 2.20 Bemarks. — The basting table is next to the pahng fence which forms the partition of the cutting room. Where the hghts of the cutting room are on, the surface of the basting table has alternate light and dark bands thrown upon it. The basting table readings marked * were taken in the- light places while the others were ia the dark places. 160 The cutter does not use the Ughts over the cutting table, although it is very dark there. I understand that the owner of the shop is penurious and objects to employees using electric light in the day time. Twenty-four samples of cloth were taken from this shop for albedo measurements. Each observation is the mental average of two photometer settings. COMPUTATION OF RESTILTS OF SXIRVET. Window area — N. 3x2x3.25 x3.75' = 73.2 sq. ft. S. 4x2x3.33'x3.33' =88.8 sq. ft. E. O W. 5x2x3.08'x2.67' = 82.3 sq.ft. Total, 244.3 sq.ft. Floor area.— = 85'x31' = 2,636 sq. ft. Ratio floor area — window area — =10.8 Slcy angle N. — .ei=tan-l ^'^"ayf ~^^ -tan-l 1.91 01=62.4°. e =90°-9 = 27.6°. Machines — Angle of glare ^2 = 180° -tan • 6'2 = 180°-45° = 135 ^2 = 180° - tan-i ~-^ = 180° - tan-^l. 3 3 = tan-1 -^ = tan-^ .583 1_^ 12 ^3 = 30.2° ^1 = ^2 - O3 = 105° Average. ^2 = 180° - tan-i^^Z:^ = 180° - tan-i - 1.72 ^2 = 60° ^3 = 30.2° (?i = 60° - 30° = 30° minimum. 161 Mwmination data — Machines. — dygt = multiplying factor of 165 with attached plate, ygt = multiplying factor of 0.486 with detached plate, lygt = multiplying factor of 6.17 with detached plate. IlluminaUon daylight. Illummation daylight and artilicial light. Foot-caniles. Foot-candles. 1.31 40.1 1.37 4.9 0.52 17.6 5.89 .85 13.6 3.42 8.0 14.3 13.36 98.5 Average 16. 5 Average 2.22 Max. 5. 89 Max. 40. 1 Min. 0. 52 Min. 4.9 Pressing tables — Angle of glare. — 2 91 6', = 180°-tan-» ^3 = tan~S 2.25 -(5.25 -2) = 180°-tan-i-48. 6.25-2.92 d =89°-23.2° = 66°. Illumination in foot-candles. — 4.97 4.51 6.85 = tan-^429 = 23.2°. 16.33 5. 44 Average foot-candles. 4. 51 Minimum foot-candles. 6. 85 Maximum foot-candles. Finishing tables — Angle of glare. — ^, = 180°-tan-- ^,,_(3^^^_2g8) (?2 = 145 6*3 = 45° d =100° MuminMion in foot-candles. — 2.56 9.26 17.30 = 180°-tan-^700 29.12 9. 71 Average. 17. 30 Maximum. 2. 66 Minimum. 95485°— Ball. Tl— 15 11 162 Basting table — Angle of glare. — Lights from cutting table. ^, = 180°-tan-i- ^ 2.97 /63 30.5\ \\2 12 ) = 92°. 12 12 0'=92°-43.6° = 48.4°. lUumination in foot-candles.- Daylight. ■ Daylight and artiflcial light. Footrcandles. 0.525 .434 .417 Footrcxmdles. 0.672 .584 .642 1.376 1.898 . 459 Average. . 525 Maximum. . 417 Minimum. . 633 Average. . 672 Maximum. . 584 Minimum. Cutting table — Angle of glare. — 6i, = 180°-tan-i — 3.5 ?3=.tan-'2;^ = --(§-1) = tan-i2.89 = 71°. = 91.3°. e =91.3-71=20°. Illumination in foot-candles.- — ^Lgc ygt is a multiplying factor of 0.038 for the detached plate. Daylight. Daylight and artificial light. Foot^aridles. 0.111 .152 .159 .146 .150 Foot^atidles. 4.18 4.62 8.80 4. 40 Average. 4. 62 Maximum. 4. 18 Minimum. .718 . 144 Average. . 159 Maximum. . Ill Minimum. 163 Albedo of walls and ceiling. — Ceiling is approximately the same as the walls. 7rb_ ?r X 144 X 3.31 X .0004 ™~ E 3.37 X. 210 =-8^7 The factor .0004 is that given by the Bureau of Standards for in- trinsic brilliancy in candle-power per square inch. The factor .210 is that given by the Bureau of Standards for foot-candles using the detached test plate. lUumination on stairs in foot-candles. — 2 20 -^X. 079 = .0396. .44 The albedo of the cloth samples was measured at the Hygienic Laboratory and is given in Table 1, Appendix C. The method of measurement was the same as that for measuring the albedo of the vraUs and ceHing. Outside illumination.— 3.00 p. m. 1.96 X 165 = 323 foot-candles. 3.20 p. m. 4.11 X 165 = 679 foot-candles. APPENDIX C. TABULATION OF DATA SECURED IN PHOTOMETRIC SURVEY OP A GROUP OF 34 WORKSHOPS TYPICAL OF THE WOMEN'S GARMENT INDUSTRY, NEW YORK CITY, N. Y. GLOSSARY OF ABBREVIATIONS IN TABLES. Arrangemeiit of working planes; X-w= perpendicular to window. II -w=parallel to window. C= center. Arrangement of lamps: CL=centerlirie fixed. Ar=aisle fixed. CLD=centerline drop. DD= double rows drop. DF=- double rows fixed. DA= double rows adjustable. AD= aisle drop. ED=ofl center drop. EF=ofl center fixed. EEFLECTOK NOTATION. (See Appendix E.) C!olor of walls of stairs: Br= brown, dark. Bl= black. ■W=wliite. Ed=red, dark. Bf=buf!. Al= aluminum fiaish, G=gray, dark. Floor: Ba= basement. Finish of walls and ceiling: Ma= mat alabastine. Mw=wliitewasli. P= paint. Window glass: W= J-inch window glass. P= J-tuoh plate glass. Window glass — Continued. WC= factory clear fire wire glass. FW= frost factory fire wire glass. E= ribbed prismatic glass. WR= factory wire fire ribbed glas Condition of glass: VD=Tery dirty. D=dirty. F=fair. C= clean. Color of opposite buildings: R=red. Gl= light gray. Gd=dark gray. W=white. Color of walls and ceiling: W= white. D=drab. G=gray. Gr= green. Grd=green, dark. Bd=dark brown. Material of walls and ceiling: P=plaster. S=steel. B= brick. W=wood. Industry: C= coats. S= suits. D= dress. W= waists. M— maateaux. Bh= buttonhole. (164) Table No. 1. — General data. Number of window!!. Window arpa. Sky angle. Type of gla.«s. Opposite buildings. 1 ■fell 1 1 i S "s ■a 1 s i ¥ Is ITS m Colcr. Material. Finish. Number of— Albedo, per cent. ^ Remarks. Shop No. H & a m M ^ a od W ^ Z OQ H ^ ii OQ h' ^ 1^' 03 ^ i 1 d ^ 'd > i s CO a A ^ 6 1 1 1 3 3 5 4 S n 5 5 5 4 5 U 2 2 2 6 G 3 3 G 5 1 I 1 1 4 3 4 4 3 3 3 C 6 6 3 3 4 6 2 6 6 1 3 4 4 6 2 6 6 6 6 2 ll 8 3 4 6 13 15 lo 15 5 5 T) 7 7 6 6 3 3 6 7 7 9 11 6 5 6 6 8 4 8 8 8 8 3 4 3 4 8 8 13 4 5 14 15 n 8 8 8 6 4 5 5 4 4 7 10 10 8 7 7 7 8 8 7 3 7 7 7 7 4 4 1 2 4 3 4 5 7 7 12 80.4 96.6 121 154 69.5 73.4 143 110 17.6 78 79 68 17.5 85 60.5 72.5 W.... W.... W.... W.... W.... P WO... WC... WC... n w.... WR... WR... WC... rw... FW... FW... FW... FW... w.... W.... w.... w.... w.... FW... FW... FW... w.... w.... w.... w.... w.... w.... w.... WC... WC... WC... WC... WC... WC... w.... w.... w.... FW... FW... FW... WC... FW... FW... FW... FW... W.... W.... w.... w.... w.... w.... w.... FW... w.... w.... w.... w.... p WC... w.... w.... p w.... w.... w.... w w.... w.... w.... w.... w.... w.... FW... FW... w.... w.... FW... FW... FW... FW... W.... W.... W.... w.... \v.... w.... w.... w.... w.... w.... FW... w.... w.... w R... R... R... R... R... R... R . vn Feet. 82.5 80 SO 80 80 SO 90 ;co ;oo !C0 ICS so so 80 80 80 88 88 84.25 85 87.5 100 100 105 80 78 78 86 86 63.5 63.5 63.5 63.5 63.5 63.6 61.25 87 25.5 22 23 48.5 S7 83 197.76 100 100 Feel. 22.1 28 38 38 32 44.6 40 100 80 80 80 46.5 46.6 46.6 46.5 46.5 38.5 38.5 30.66 31 47.5 50 50 67 07.5 47 47 47 47 45 23 45 45 45 45 22 22 11.6 14.6 22 24.25 24 47.75 48 48 ICO Feet. 10 U 11.5 11.5 11.5 10 11 11.5 10.7 10.7 11 11.2 11.2 11.2 12 12 9.5 9.C5 10. 2.-) 10.25 12. 25 11. 2r 11.20 11 11.5 w 11.25 11.25 9.4 0.4 9.4 9.4 0.4 9.4 9 9.5 8.5 8.5 12 10 10.6 11.5 11.25 11.25 11.5 Sq.ft 1,822 2,060 3,040 3,040 2,560 3,560 3,600 10,000 8,000 7,360 7,800 3,340 3,3'0 3,340 3,570 3,400 2,450 3,000 2,370 2,k;6 3,5SS 4,852 4,S52 11,100 6,120 3,386 3,3:0 3,726 3,726 3,110 1,450 3,110 3,110 3,110 3,110 1,195 1,736 293 319 506 059 1,946 3,6CS 9,420 4,800 9,700 Sq.ft. 150 170 263 284 251 274.2 625 679.5 950.0 813 737 434 434 4C6 404 342 2S5 234 191. 4 214 430.3 406.5 311.5 781 391 298 ■317.2 588 5.SS 403.8 183.3 403.8 387 387 387 170 139.2 9.8 19.6 148.6 123 210 441 891 401 679 12.2 12.1 11.8 11.6 10.2 13.0 6.8 14.7 8.4 9.0 10.6 7.7 7.7 7.2 8.8 9.9 8.6 13.1 12.4 10.8 8.2 12.0 15.6 14.2 15.8 11.4 10.7 6.34 6.34 7.72 7.9 7.72 8.04 8.04 8.04 7.03 12.6 30 16.3 3.42 7.8 9.3 8.24 13.6 12.0 14.4 0.488 .813 .732 .563 1.00 .630 .912 .706 .641 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 l.W) 1.00 .780 .871 .536 .01') .800 .731 .651 .713 .694 .559 .H.J3 .097 .805 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 .579 1.00 1.00 1.00 .805 .806 .679 1.00 .466 .710 W.. w.. w.. w.. w.. w.. w.. w.. w.. w.. w.. w.. w.. w.. w.. w.. w.. w.. w.. w.. w.. w.. w.. w.. w.. w.. w.. w.. w.. D... D... p... n... D... D... w.. w.. w.. w.. Grd. W.. W.. W.. W.. W.. W.. w.. w.. w.. w.. w.. D... w.. W.. W.. W.. W.. w.. w.. w.. w.. w.. D... I)... W.. W.. W.. w.. w.. w.. w.. w.. w.. w.. w.. G... a... (}... B... G... 0... Or.. 0... Or.. Gr.. W.. W.. W.. W.. W.. W.. D... P... P... P... P... P... P... P... P... P... P... P... P... P... P... P... P... P... P... P... P.. . P... P... I'.. . P... P... P... P... P... B... B... B... B... B... B... P... P... B... B... B... P... P... P... P... V... P... r... p... p... p... p... p. .. p... p... p... p... p... p... p... p... s.... s.... p... p... p... p... p... p... p... p... p... p... p... s.... s...> s.... w.. s.... s.... s.... s.... s.... s.... p... s p... p... p... p... s.... i:a.... Mw... Ma.... Mw... Ma.... Mw. . . Ma.... Ma.... Ma.... Ma.... Ma.... Ma.... Ma.... Ma.... Ma.... Ma.... Ma.... Ma.... Ma. . . . Ma.... Ma.... Ma.... Ma.... Ma.... Ma. . . . Ma.... Ma.... Ma.... Ma.... P P P P P P Ma.... Ma.... Mw... Mw... Paper. Ma.... P Ma.... Ma.... Ma.... Ma.... Ma.... Mw... Ma.... Mw... Ma.... Mw... Ma.... Ma.... Ma.... Ma. . . . Ma.... Ma.... Ma.... Ma.... Ma.... Ma.... P P Ma.... Ma.... Ma.... Ma.... Ma.... Ma.... Ma.... Ma.... Ma.... Ma.... Ma.... P P P P P P P P P P Ma.... P Ma.... Ma.... Ma.... Ma.... P 1 1 1 1 1 3 4 4 4 4 3 3 3 2 2 1 1 1 1 2 3 3 5 3 3 3 3 3 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 3 3 1 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 1 1 2 2 2 1 1 2 1 2 2 2 1 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 1 1 1 1 3 3 3 3 3 3 1 1 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 4 70 59 49 68 84 72 90 80 62 82 70 69 49 68 84 72 90 80 82 82 2-73 4 ■6.'6U" "'i-82' 1-82 1-82 2-3 2-3 2-3 2-19 2-19 2-4 2^ 0.3-2 0.2-22 2-6 2-39 ■2^i5' '4i46' 3 5 6 4 3 4 2 3 4 5 5 10 11 12 2 3 5 6 4 5 2 4 2 8 3 5 8 3 8 2 3 4 6 6 7 3 3 B. n. 1 3 3 3 4 5 2 C,,S. C s 2 3 VD vn VD F Ttf- 4 R... 'g'i'.'.' 0... Gl.. Gl.. Gl.. Gl.. Gl.. Gd.. Gd.. Gd.. Gl.. Gl.. W.. w.. w.. w.. w.. Gd.. Oil.. 01.. Gl.. Gl.. Gl.. Gl.. 01.. R... R... R... R... R... R... R... 01.. 0... 0... 0... R... R... w.. R... 0... R... 0... 0... Gl.. R... n... \/.. Gl.. Gl.. Gl.. Gl.. Gl.. Gl.. Gl.. 01.. Gl.. W.. Gl.. Gl.. 01.. W.. Gl.. 01.. 01.. Gl.. R... R... R... R... R... R... R... W.. W.. W.. R... R... R... W.. W.. W.. R,Od c S 100.8 "2J3'"' 270 436 353 4.'i2 146 146 113 131 119 126 90 73.2 73.2 230.6 163 163 224 181.3 85 85 164 164 196.4 98.4 196.4 151.4 151.4 151.4 57 46.6 144.2 "334"' 461 410 2S5 154 154 146 153 147 09.0 68.7 S9 88.8 149.7 148.6 148.6 145 163 184 184 184 184 132.2 56.7 132.2 132.3 132.3 132.3 113 78.0 9.8 19.6 126 72 73.7 2.!3. 7 239 239 410 66 56 Q, 6 122 403 162.2 '69.' 5' 60.6 50 35.6 35 "re"' 90 90 p WC... WC... WC... WC... WC... WC... w.... w.... WR... WR... FW... W.... FW... P P W.... FW... W.... W.... W.... W.... W.... w.... w.... w.... w.... w.... p w.... w.... w.... FW... W.... FW... P P P P R... Gl.. 0... 0... 0... 0... R... R... R... Gl.. Gl.. R... R... 0... 0... 0... 0... 0... R... W.. W.. W.. Gl.. Gl.. R... R... R... R... R... R... 0... 0... 0... 0... R... 0... R... Gl.. W.. W.. 0... Gl.. 0... R... Gl.. Gl.. 0... Gl.. Gl.. Gl.. Gl.. Gl.. 0... 0... W.. R... R... R... 0... Gl.. 0... Gl.. Gl.. Gl.. Gl.. R... R... R... R... R... R... 0... Gl.. 0... 0... 0... 0... 0... 01.. Gd.. Gd.. Gd.. Q 7 f.8 64.5 74.3 80.5 53 " "6' 90 00 D C s 8 D c's' 9a F C In showroom N sky angle is C s 8b 9c . c C s 10a .57.8 57.8 97 48 45 90 75.0 76 76 no C7 31 '29.'2' 82.3 46 95 c c Illuniination not measured. . c's' 10b 7t.6 83 73.6 73.6 77 S2.5 "'6' 22 64 81.5 51.5 53 30 28 34 50.5 ""6' 41.6 67 85. 5 87 47.6 57.5 .W.S 27 87.2 81.5 85 89.6 38 54 cis! c s lO'^ c F.. 85 79 80 63 82 88 85 67 85 86 73 85 79 80 63 82 88 86 67 86 86 73 Ua c;s! c s lib F 12 els! c,s. c,s. 13 F D W-D,C... N-C, D... P-C,D.... D... 14 15 c s. la Office and showroom, all FW dirty. c,s. c,s. c. c s 17. 18 19 267 46.7 19.4 19.4 163 163 18.9 18.3 13.9 47 47 47 145 9.6 28.8 77 77 60.3 18.8 56.3 56.3 66.3 66.3 82.5 78.6 D 20 W-F,D... W-P,D... D Sky angle will soon be as now building is gomg up. do Md. W. M. C S 21 81 78 Ti 81 76 73 22 23 W-F,D... W-F,D... D 24 f>' 25a 0.1-9 0.1-9 0.1-9 0.1-9 0.1-9 0.1-9 "'3^5' Ofllco and showroom; illu- mination not measured. c. c. 25b ■ "'o' 67 D 17.2 17.2 17.2 17.2 17.2 90 76 "' 76-18 39 77 66 83 'i7.'2' '66' ' ■ 68 26n D 25d D 0. 25e '96 " '96' " '66'" '66'" 53 63 66 80 90 60.5 1) 2Sf 28 D D 118 square feet of skylight.. . c. c.a. D. Bh. D. D. c,s. C,8. c S. D. D. D. 27 14.6 F 2R D 29a X) 29b 22.6 n 30 61 81.0 15S 236 "2i5"' 43 63 ""6" D 'ss'" 2 "'2^75' 2-75 2-32 81 55.3 19.7 18 18 19.7 108 144 64 79 90 " "6' 85 90 D . . 32 n F 33a 33b F 67 64 « 34 D One-half of south windows sky angle— 0. Total 121 146 261 266 2,036 2,398 6,114 0,644 83.4 44.5 10.6 3,840 3S1 10.6 30.0 3.4 .825 1.00 .486 65 73 ' ■ ' * .. .. 95485°— Bull. 71—15. (To face page 164.) No. 1 Table No. 2.— Cutting-table data. 8c.. 9c.. 9c.. 9c.. 9c... 9c... lOb.. 10b., 10b.. 10b.. 10b., lla.. 11a.. lla.. lla., 12— 13. 14. 15. 16. 16. 17. 18. 18. 19. 19. 19. 19. 19. 19. 19. 19. 19. 20.. 21.., 22.., 2.3.., 23.., 23.., 24... 2oc.. 25c.. 25c.. 2oc.. 25d., 25(1. , 25(1., 25(i., 2od., 25d.. 26... 27... 29... 30... 31... 32... 33a.. 33a.. 33a.. 33a.. 34... 34... 34... S3 Feet. 25 •a Feet. 28 6.40 35.3 3.25 15.6 5.75 22.4 6 23.9 6.17 2,3.3 5.83 55 6.67 16.7 3.12 57 6.50 57 6.59 57 6.50 67 36 36 43 43 43 37.4 29.8 40.5 23.0 26.0 26 30.5 32.75 36.0 24.7 20.5 26.2 24.7 36 20 24 32 42 42 21 21 21 21 32.8 32.8 35 21 24 36.2 16 12 20 20 24.2 41.5 22 11 20 17 40.7 19.2 26 63 22.8 20.8 27.8 14.8 10.8 23.8 31.8 24 22 .8.2 8.2 72 72 33 30.62 6.50 3.20 3.20 5.83 5.92 6.25 5.91 3.25 5.50 5.60 6 5.60 6.70 5.25 4.92 6.67 7.0 6.58 6.50 6 6.17 6.17 2. .58 5.08 5.08 5.08 5.08 4.83 4.83 6.17 3.33 3.17 0.83 4.83 4.83 7.42 6.25 6.42 4.75 3.42 5.50 6.42 4.83 6.17 6.58 6.17 6 3.42 6 6 6 6.50 6.67 3.17 3.42 3.42 Inches. 46 32 33 35 35 33 33 33 35 35 35 35 33 33 34 33 34 33 33 34 34 34 34 34 33 35 34 32 32 34 33 33 35 34 34 34 34 34 33 33 36 35 33 34 32 32 35 32 31 36 36 32 33 33 32 31 33 35 31 34 35 34 34 31 33 34 32 32 32 32 33.6 Sq.ft. 169 179 115 89.6 134 147 136 367 52.1 370 370 370 370 115 115 251 255 269 221 97 223 126 156 143 204 172 177 165 143 172 160 216 123 148 82.5 210 210 107 107 107 107 107 158 80 76 24S 112 72 96.6 96.6 180 259 141 52.2 6S.4 93.5 261 92.6 160 348 138 124 95.0 88.5 65.1 143 191 144 143 322 163 246 246 198 s 169.2 l-C. 1-W. 1-W. l-C. 1-W. 1-W. l-C. 1-W. f-c. 1-W., Il-W . l-C. 1-W. 1-W. 1-W. 1-W. 1-W. 1-W. 1-W. 1-W. 1-W. ll-c. 1-W.. 1-W.. Il-W . 1-W.. 1-W.. t-w.. c 1-W.. l-C... 1-W.. l-C... l-C... t-c... 1-W.. 1-W.. 1-W.. 1-W.. 1-W.. l-C... 1-C... 1-W.. 1-W.. 1-W.. IW... f-w . . 1-W.. 1-W.. -w.. ■l~w. 1-W. 1-W. -w.. -W.. -w.. -w.. -w.. -c... 1-W. 1-W.. ;:-c... 1-c... 1-W.., l-C... w... I-c... l-C..., l-C... 1-W.. 1-W.. 1:^:::: l-C..., I .a /6 c \13 flOO-watt.. \i50-watt.. 100-watt.. cubic feet... cubic feet. , ..do ....do 6 cubic feet. . . ....do , 13 cubic feet., 100-watt ....do ....do ....do ..-.do ...do f....do t60-watt 100-watt do do do do do /150-watt \....do ..do 1400-watt \13 cubic feet.. /100-watt \60-watt do 100-watt -.-.do 60-watt 100-watt -...do 60-watt ..-.do 100-watt /---.do \60-watt 100-watt /.-.-do \60-watt /100-watt \60-watt 100-watt ....do /60-watt \100-watt ....do r....do \60-watt 100-watt .-..do 60-watt 2.69 100-watt do 13 cubic feet.. /100-watt \60-watt 100-watt 150-watt 250-watt do do 109- watt do 60-watt 100-watt 250-watt do 100-watt 3,3 cubic feet. 6 cubic feet... 100-watt do do do 50-watt /....do \100-watt ■50-watt 100-watt '50-watt 100-watt 50-watt Flat flame . Gas arc. . .- do do Flat flame. do Gas arc. . .. Tungsten . . '.'.'.'.'.do'.'.'.'.'. do do -do }....do... do. . . do... do... do... do... do... L Tungsten . do.-.. }....do.... do |-...do.... do }....do.... ■ do.. ....do.. •Arc Tungsten . Carbon do. Tungsten . '-'.'.'.'.do'.'.'.'. do.... do.... do do.... do.... • do. ....do. 100 100 100 100 100 100 50 75 50 60 100 100 100 100 25 60 66. f 50 .do.. .do., .do.. Tungsten. . do Gas arc. . .. VTungsten . . do do do do do do do do do do do do Reflex Flat flame. Tungsten . . do do do Gem. do.... Tungsten . Gem Tungsten. Gem Tmigstea. Gem 83.5 100 100 50 100 100 50 100 33.3 33.3 100 33.3 66.6 100 60 100 66.6 66.6 100 100 50 100 100 100 100 100 66.6 50 100 100 50 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 75 100 100 80 i} 71.5 I 80 i XE60. XE60. C17- . . C17... C17... C17. . . C17... C17... E9.... E9 E9.... E9.... niieo. , HM60., HM60. HM60. 82 UM60., HM60. , HM40., (-9^.., HM60. HM60. rg F9.... Fg F9.... F9.... F9.... Fy.... F9.... F9.... F9.... 0.... 0.... CIO. CIO. 0.... HM60 HMOO.CIO. B12 D18 D18 D18 D18 D18 D18 D18 D18 t8 IIM60 C8 C8.. D14. C8.... H9673. 95485'— Bull. 71—16. (To face page 16 4.) No. 2 .78 Feci. 3.0 4.7 2.8 2.9 4.5 2.7 5.6 5.6 3.7 3.7 3.7 3.7 3.7 3.7 6.75 5.75 5. 75 5.75 3.67 3.67 3.88 5.34 4.75 7 3.22 1.17 4 2.5 3 3 4 4.5 4.5 7 7 7 7 7 7 2.75 2.75 2.67 2. 58 4.17 2.83 2.25 2.75 3., S3 3.83 3 3.50 4 4 4 4 4 3.58 1.92 3.5 2.83 2.33 2.67 .67 2 4.5 2.67 3.94 P. S 0.735 .818 1.92 .810 1.08 1.35 1.03 2.61 2 61 .457 .457 .457 .457 .4,57 2 92 2 78 1.92 210 1.51 0.34 .605 1.40 .349 .625 1.39 .488 .S12 3.64 1.24 2.38 1.50 1.50 2 80 2.43 9.35 1.26 1.65 1.85 2.00 2.02 1.79 1.65 2.07 1.67 .985 1.77 4.80 1.46 .766 1.08 3.12 1.26 .723 2.26 3.07 2.10 1.57 .695 .350 .934 1.96 1.01 1.49 0.112 .073 .226 .134 .179 .088 . 0332 .232 .184 CLF.. CLF.. AF... CLF.. CLF., CLF.. CLD.. CLD., CLD., CLD. CLD. CLD. CLD-, CLD., CLD- AD.., AD.., AD.., AD.. AD.. CLD. CLD. CLD. CLD. AF.. CLD. CLD. CLD- CLD. CLD. CLD. CLD. CLD- CLD- CLD- CLD. CLD. CLD. CLD. CLD. CLD. CLD. CLD. CLD. CLD. CLD. Deg. 42 31 57 30 32 56 27 64 102 43 43 43 12.0 16.4 32.2 6.2 CLD. DD.. CLF. CLD. CLD. CLD. CLF. CLF. CLF. CLF. CLF. CLP. CLF. CLF. CLF. CLP. CLF. CLP. CLD. CLD. CLD. EF.. CLD. CLD. CLD. CLD. CLD. > OS 0ST3 12 1.6 2.6 4.6 8.1 23.4 2.1 1.3 17.6 36.4 37.7 1.8 1.1 1.6 9^. 2.2 4.9 25.0 14.5 27.0 31.2 2.1 3.1 47.2 31.7 68 72 2,4 1.3 5.6 1.0 163 2.9 305 1.4 .76 1.8 20, 16.6 21.1 30.1 20.7 4.7 5.1 16.8 1.2 .05 5.0 2.1 20.0 .28 .28 1.8 8.7 1,7 1,0 3,9 3,7 20,6 31,1 62,7 27,0 8.5 9.6 48 2 6 .10 16.2 3.4 03 .90 6.0 14.0 .44 2.8 17.8 a ~ .33 0.5 .76 2.3 1.2 .9 6,0 1,0 1,0 11,5 3,2 .65 LI .65 2.3 .11 X.3 1.6 .50 .11 .06 7.0 1,5 .40 2.2 1,0 3,5 5,0 3,4 .82 .90 ,35 ,30 22,0 1,2 .55 .80 .70 13,0 11.2 4,0 1.3 2 9 3,4 1,4 3,2 5.2 4.9 3.7 3.5 3,0 8,3 1.3 .70 S2 0.2," 12.9 2 7 4.2 11.0 2.8 10.0 7.8 6.6 4.6 4.6 4.5 14.3 1.7 1.0 5.4 3.4 11.7 '"i'.'l 1.9 14,0 1,5 1.6 .65 .10 .01 .096 1.0 .70 ,09 1.4 2.3 .10 1,2 2,4 .90 7.3 3,8 10,2 5.6 .US 111 1,6 .2 .1 .4 3.S 2.8 2.5 1.6 2.1 1.7 .79 .33 3.4 1.3 1.3 17.0 .54 1.5 .30 1.6 Remarks Lights in aisle. Opal globe. Lights between aisles of tables. /Maximum, 4.25 feet: minimum, 2.66 \ feet. Maximum, 4.16 feet; minimum, 3.50 feet. Thompson inclosed 220V arc lamp. /Maximum, 4.67 feet; minimum 1 83 \ feet. Maximum, 5 feet; miniiiiiira, 0,5 feet Opal globe. Height to reflector. (->paliue globes. Shades made of paper. Maximum, 3 feet; minimum, 1 foot. Maximum, 6 feet; minimum, 3 feet. Do. 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SO-watt . ...do.... 6cu.ft.. 50-watt.. /30-watt . \5D-watt . 30-watt.. 1 30-watt. . 100-watt. 40-watt.. 6cu.lt.. ...do.... 50-watt.. ...do-... 40-watt.. '■mSiima. i^% ■ivao J9d 8 ii§§s§ i s§l°is§i°i§s°°°°°ii •ajonno JO jaqrariH »H O O O i-H tH rH i-H tH i-l 01 N .-H rH .-H .-( W .-H .H (N fH .-H rt r-1 f-l tH f-H i-H rH i-H 5 'SJtBlS SSSSSSSSSS m SSSSSmSSStftf^SSSp^p^SS •sStnxi^O ,SS^'^S'S'^(5(S^ s s^'^^s^^'sss^mS'ss^'^^^ -SIIBjii. (Sfi^'^SS^'fflfiS S SSwS(5^^'Sm§§mmSS^'^^&^" •M. O^OOOOOOOO O OOOOOtH-hOOOOOOi-COOOOO •a •s •N oo ■on doqs c^ c ■^ id« r- « « a s l€ i 5 1 1 ci 1 c^ c^ •a «: « 2 a g s ?: u 180 o a H 1 1 d s i a 1 •lOOM CO <£5 « CO CO CO ■«' ■uoii -BAj9sqo Snunp tro sjuSii O O --l"0 O M CO 'jqSiljtBp 'saipttBD-jooj in ninraimin noi}i3mranni '}ti3iij£bp 's9ipnB0-}OOj in irimnixBin uoRBmninni •^il3il moTji-jj^ puB 'iqSiijC^p ' 's9ipnED-»ooj ni 93BJ8AB noBBtntanni 8 d 11 do m ranraimra noi^^mranni •W3iI'*^«P 'S9tpm5o-}OOj ui nxnniixBin tior:^Bnimiii|i ■}tl3ii^Bp 'S9ipireo-iooj ni e3«a9AB noijEmranm do do •joog 9AoqB ^qSraH OiOO ooo coded ■sdra^l JO noTjBoOT; o o S ■sdraBi 9TCq JO j9qnmN i-l .-( iH (MO •jo^09U9i JO ed^x ooo o„ ■sdniBi JO 9dix 1 E C •sdniB[ JO 9zig 1 11 •}il3ii niAi jmn »ii90 raj «■=! °S§ •sj9ijtio JO j9qTnnN tH ,H l-H O tH 3,290 do...'. 2 297 Do do do do Foggy, clear Clear, hazy do 316 308 Do 264 1,160 Do 1,980 1,490 July 10, 1914 731 Hazy, clear 752 Do 1,040 Foggy 1,210 Do Clear, foggy do 1,490 2,190 1,020 do do do 799 Do 669 Do 1,620 Do do 1,060 Do Rain, nimbus Clear 472 July 15 1914 1,450 do 1,120 July 16, 1914 9.20 a.m.... 10.40a. m... 2.15 p.m.... 3.10 p. m 3.30 p.m.... 4p. m 1.30 p. m 2.20 p. m do Clear, cumulus do do Eain, nimbus Clear, cumulus Clear 517 I 2,990 Do. 546 400 Do. 248 Do 1,068 Julv 17 IQIi 2,410 do 990 Do 3 p. m do 824 1 p. m do 615 Do 2.05 p. m do 276 do 323 Do 3.30 p. m do 680 1 Sun and sty. 2 Small (0) sky angle. 182 Table 13. — Outdoor illuminations, women's garment industries, New Yorh City — Contd. Date. Shop No. Time. Weather. Outside illumi- nation. July 21, 1914. Do Do Do Do July 22, 1914. Do July 23, 1914. Do Do July 24, 1914. Do July 25, 1914. July 28, 1914. Do Do Do Do Do July 29, 1914. Do Do Do Do July 30, 1914. Do Do Do Do Do Do Do Aug. 6,1914. Do Do Do Do Do Do Aug. 7, 1914. Do Aug. 10, 1914 Do Do Do Do Do Aug. 12, 1914 Do Aug. 14, 1914 Do Do Aug. 26, 1914 Do 16 16 16 16 16 16 17 18 18 18 19 19 19 20 20 20 20 20 20 23 23 24 24 24 21 21 21 21 22 22 22 22 27 27 28 29 29 30 31 26 26 25b 25d 250 25f 25e 25e 32 32 33a 33a 33b 34 34 10.30 a.m. 3.30 p.m.. 3.45 p. m. . 4.10 p.m.. 4.40 p. m. . 12.30 p. m. 2.15 p.m.. 12.05 p.m. 2.10 p.m.. 2.35 p.m.. 1.20 p.m.. 12.40 p.m. 2.10 p.m.. 9.30 a. m.. 10 a. m 10.40 a.m.. 11.15 a.m.. 12 m 1.40 p. m.., 9.40 a.m.., 10.25 a. m.. 12m 3.50 p.m... 4.30 p.m... 9.2Sa. m... 10.05 a.m.. 10.45 a.m.. 11.16 a.m.. 2.15 p.m... 2.30 p.m.., 3.10 p.m... 3.35 p.m... 10 a. m 10.30 a.m.. 11.25 a.m.. 11.45 a.m.. 12.45 p.m.. 2p. m 3.30 p.m.., 9.45 a.m... 11a. m 10 a. m 10.45 a.m.. 11.15 a.m.. 12m Ip. m 1.20p.m... 10 a. m 10.46 a.m.. 10.30 a.m.. 12m 3p.m 9.20 a.m... 12.12 p.m.. caear. ; do. do. do Thunderstorm, nimbus. Clear, cumulus do Overcast Clear, cumulus Clear. Cumulus, overcast Overcast do do do do do do do Sun and alternate overcast. Clear, cumulus do Overcast Overcast, rain. Overcast do do do do Nimbus, overcast. do do Overcast do do do do Light fog. Light fog and smoke. Clear do do do do do do Overcast Hazy,clear -do Clear do do Overcast Slight overcast 655 416 2,060 711 1,730 940 1,765 2,040 1,750 434 970 715 264 297 157 2,220 560 850 442 267 505 368 418 392 344 412 545 719 1,270 1,600 675 515 683 1,464 847 904 1,040 295 385 976 726 1 4,880 920 1,730 • Sun and sky. These values of outdoor illumination were taken on horizontal planes just outside the windows of the shops. In many instances the outdoor Olumiaation, as measured, was of a low order when com- pared with that which would be produced from an unrestricted sky area with similar meteorological conditions. This observed reduc- tion in outside illumination was due to the obstruction presented to an unrestricted sky by the neighboring buildings. Thus, high ad- jacent buUdings and narrow streets and alleys lower the Ulumiaa- tion on a horizontal plane at the window fronts, as compared with its unrestricted value. 183 5 p.ct. 44.7 17.0 38.3 o 8 S2SgSSgg?SSg 2 i-H TT O l^ 1-, ^ ^ <:i <:i o s CD(NO»M COifflC^O dd"W'dcoc4dc4(Ndd c J>^CMtH Tf i ssgs CQ a; oo„eooomo coo .h o o o OpQ CO t* cc eo OM M dcd eg o I oooo ^ O0i0"*00.-<0«.-I0 l^ O o o o oooo m 1 .Omt> O 8 OOecOOO-^NOOO i-( o o o S5 ^SS '^ o 1 rHCOOO ^(OiOTli lO OOCOOOOIOCSIOOO irH o O O - CO.-HOO ■sll o o o OOOOOOOOOOO O O O O o d o oooo d gcocoo «3 OOi-iOOi-iOWOOO O o o o '^ OIMOO "(DM o d o OOOOOt-OMOOO o o o o CO M o 1 ot^oo CD CO ^-""° to OOOOONO.-IOOO o o o o CO owoo In o 8 OOOOOOOOOOO o o o o odd o I oooo CD 00000w*i0000 o o o o o TjHoo Oi w ec o ■(PU5 CO s WOO.-I CM Ui 1 o § c CD COiQ COOOcD Od CC ES g « d CO o 1 cOOOO gO^OOOrH O g GOOl CO ,p .-( -^ o g OWM ^ !>«-<»< t--*oeo -CONOO O rH O O i-tCO CO r-lOJCOO 11 «^OOi ■ CD^CJ o 1 d t-^ -^logoi lo d CO d o 1 to ClOiOOOlj^gjO®'^'^* ^ ^ '^ "^ i cocou^o II = :l ^5 il:: ||g|,9|| 1 EH in i c 0- g s S d fl fl a „-» b£ bo bo en CO CO eg Sfl+i d a d bpbj;5f " » MOM I c L 1 Ph c 3 3 o p 184 ^ssssasssssssss o «d5o g o ■*« w* 00 £ . 'irHc5eoio-<*lco-«"rHOod.-io(NO s OSO ■T*< n< i-H Mco CO g 03 ■8 lOCOiOCniOIMOC^cOi-HtDcDOWS ^^ M rt-TfiOrH g-H CO o 1 s ^^ {M ^ _^oooooooooooo o oo o o o oo ■i ^- ^ s s 8 8 m ^OOOOOOOOONOOOiO CO oo O o o oo CO eo .OOOOCOOOOOCOOOOO o r-o o o o or- ^ ^ I> 0^ °° "= .doooOi-ioooor-oooo eq 1-HO ;:1 O O OtH CO ^ .oooooooooooooo o oo o o o oo ^ &c - l"1 a; ° ° ^OOOOOOi-IOOCilOOOO lO 1 Oco M o o oo 10 ^ .oooooooocoooooo o oo r- o o oco l-ay J - s ^ go <)o iii 1 i M ^' 185 a eo o ooc lO >. t* o o o M 'O g 0) tH o OCO CO ! lO o o o P4 s 1 Fig. 2. — Eearrangement of working planes shown in Fig. 1 to secure better illumination. Reference to the figure shows that all the working planes are in areas where they will receive daylight illumination of at least 5 foot- candles. It is evident that the owner of the workshop is paying for a considerable area of useless floor space. APPENDIX E. REFLECTORS. Reflectors for local iUumination. — The basic requirements for reflectors to be used for intense local iUumiaation are as foUows (Plates VII-IX): 1 . No part of tbe luminous source should be visible to the worker for any normal position of the head at the working plane. 2. A large proportion of the available flux of light from the source should be imiformly distributed by the reflector over the working plane. The total output of light (which is measured in lumens) beiag a fixed quantity for any particular source, it follows that the illu- mination of any working plane lit by the source in question will be proportional to the number of effective lumens from the source con- centrated on the plane by the reflector. Reflectors permitting much flux from the source to wander in other directions will not be efl&cient in local illumination. Samples of the reflectors commonly used for local illumination ia the shops surveyed were secured. Their respective distribution curves in combination with light sources of the types usually employed in workshops of the garment trades were determined by the Bureau of Standards, Washington, D. C. The foUowing flgures (flgs. 1 to 1 1) show the types of reflectors for which the distribution curves were determined, and figures 12 to 39 show the distribution results obtained. (188) Public Health Bulletin 71. PLATE VII. FiC 1 .—Type of reflector D-10, 12, 14, IG. Fig, 2.— Type of reflector OB. Fig. 3.— Type of reflector F-9. Fii;. 4.— Type of reflectors C-8and C-10. Fig. 5.— Type of reflector H M-40, H M-60, S-1 1 . Public Health Bulletin 71. PLATE V!ll. Fig. 6.— Type of reflector H-9673, XE-60. FiL;. 7.— Type nf reflertor, one-half tin. Fi^. 8.— Type of reflector B-12 Fig. 9.— Type of reflector, fancy. Public Health Bulletin 71. Fig. 10. — Reflex gas i.'urip. Fig. 11. — Four-mantle gas "arc" lamp. 189 Fig. 12.— Distribution curve o£ reflector D-lo and 50-watt gem lamp. 190 Fig. 13. — Distribution curve ot reflector D-10 and 100-watt tungstsn lamp. 191 Fig. 14.— Distribution curve of reflector D-12 and 50-watt gem lamp. 192 Fig. 16. — Distribution curve of reflector D-12 and 100-watt tungsten lamp. 193 ('Fig. 16.— Distribution curve ot reflector D-14 and 50-watt gem lamp.; 95485°— Bull. 71—15 13 194 yz^ ^p ^^ ^^^^^^^ ^^^^P m ^^j^2^S^;;5M*j^^St5-i-= ilffllggj^^^^:;^:^^ ^B m 5^^^^^^^^ ^B w^mM$^ ^^^^^^^^ Ml T 1 i 1 thS^m^^^^^^^ ■ 1 i. II jt H 1 1 ^;^NXV$c5s>/Cv> ^^^^^^^== ^^^^^^^^ ^^^^m ^ i B [5==^^^^^^^ ^B Fia. 17.— Distribution curve ot reflector D-14 and 100-watt tungsten lamp. 195 Fro. 18.— Distribution curve of reflector F-9 and 60-watt tungsten lamp (small bulb). 196 W0. i 1 w ^ ^^^^g ^^^^^^^^ i ^ i ^^ ^^B ^^^^^^^^^^ ^^^^^^^ ^^^B — -F^^^^^^^^^^^^'^Wl^x'wWvvo^ ^^^^^^p ^^^^5^^^ ^^ ^ ^g~^ it-V^ Y^^3^ ffO ^ ^■/?Y-////,^^yyOi^6^ ^^^^^^^^^sfe ^^^^^^^^^§ Mfc^^^^E6«^r;pSa8e ^^^^^^^^p= ;^^^^^^^^t = uumm 1 ■ 1 1 1 1 I 1 H /^ ^ 1 1 1 ^wSS^^K^^S:iM^SS>^SSiii vv§^$^K?S^£ ^^^^1 ^^^B ^^H ^^^^^^^^^c$^ ^^^^B ^^^^^^^' — ^^^^^^ ^^H 5S^^^^^^^^^^ Fig. 19.— Distribution curve o£ reflector F-9 and 60-watt tungsten lamp (large bulb.) 197 Fig. 20.— Distribution curve of reflector F-9 and 100-watt tungsten lamp. 198 FiQ. 21.— Distribution curve ot reflector C-8 and 50-watt gem lamp. 199 FliJ. 22.— Distribution curve of reflector C-8 and 60-watt tungsten lamp (large bulb). 2UU FlQ. 23.— Distribution curve of reflector C-8 and 100-watt tungsten lamp. 201 Fig. 24.— Distribution curve of reflector C-10 and 40-watt tungsten lamp. 202 ^P i i i 1 1 H ^^^ ^^^^^^=^ ^^^^ ^^m^m^^. ^^^^^^v^^ '^^^^^ss?\^^^«55?^v>^^^^^^N i/////7//////-///>V/A; W^M^^M E^S^^^^^^; '^o/V'VVC^O?\^^^v-^^4— ^ TIT- 1 i 1 1 ■1 I ■ 1 1 1 ^^^^^^^ ^B e-^^^^^P ^d^^^^^^^ "ini— ^3r'::3-^^^ ^^^^^^ ^^>r -^ S:S !S;^ & 5>:f-Crr/^^ 1 ^^^^^^ :^ :a^ ^gs^^^ Fig. 25.— Distribution curve ot reflector C-10 and 60-watt tungsten lamp (large bulb). 203 Fig. 26.— Distribution curve o£ reflector C-10 and 60-watt tungsten lamp (large bulb). 204 Fig. 27.— Distribution curve of rofleclor C-10 and 100-watt tungsten lamp. 205 Fie. 28.— Distribution curve of reflector HM-60 and 60-watt txmgsten lamp (large hvlb). 206 Fig. 29.— Distribution curve of reflector HM-60 and 100-watt tungsten lamp. 207 Fig. ^0.— Distribution curve of reflector HM-60 and 150-watt tungsten lamp. 208 Fig. 31.— Distribution curve of reflector HM-40 and 60-watt tungsten lamp (large bulb). 209 Fig. 32.— Distribution curve of reflector HM-40 and 100-watt tungsten lamp. 95485°— BuU. 71—15 14 210 Fig. 33.— Distribution curve ot reflector D-16 and 100-watt tungsten lamp. 211 Fig. 34.— Distribution curve of reflector D-16 and 250-watt tungsten lamp. 212 Fig. 35.— Distribution curve ot reflector H-9673 and SO-watt gem lamp. 213 Fig. 36.— Distribution curve of reflector H-9673 and 100-watt tungsten lamp. 214 Fig. 37. Distribution curve of reflector i tien and 50-watt gem lamp. 215 o P»essuMe Z.S" CONSUMPT/ON cu.Fr. 3.3/ Jo. 40.7 Lm Z5S.S J^ bS.&Ln? 432..S Jo S4:JL-m 68S.O Zo/veO'-6o' Hater. G/>s CP. ZI.9 RenDiNcs 3Y WeisbachCo- Mantle Standard Accessor 44 z FR. Globe Lamp fitEFLEX Fig. 38.— Distribution curve of opaline globe reflex lamp. 216 CoNsuMprioN cu.ft. /+.37 Jr> /72.3 Lm /OSZ.b J^-f5ZS Lin 27IJ .-I- >/o J0Z.4Lin dSOO.O 7.0NE CP-bO' |^^ ■■''■■' ^ # Z'*^^" '-■- ':<*'iP*' ''■-'*-% s • Fig. 4.— Bare lamps used in the illumination of machines. Deep bowl or cone reflectors should be used. Public Health Bulletin 71. PLATE XII. Fig. 5. — Finishing tables. Lamps project below reflectors. The daylight illumination was good. Fig. 5.— Finishing tables, shop No. 10c. Artificial light provided by fishtail gas burners. These let down when in use. Public Health Bulletin 71. PLATE XIII. Fig. 7. — Illumination of pressing table. Projectingfilaments and bare lamp. Fig. 8. — Illumination of pressing tables, shop No. 8. Shallow saucer reflectors permit glare effects from exposed lamps. Public Health Bulletin 71. PLATE XIV. Fig. 9. — Illumination of pressing tables, siiop No. 12. Gas arc in clear globe an J low suspended fishtail burners produce glare effects. Pig, 10. — Pressing table, shop No. 1 1 , with opal extensive bowl type reflectors, 250 watt tungsten lamps. The illumination was good. The lamps are well out of the visual field of the worker. 221 connection with 8-iach conical tin reflectors. The lamps used were ten 60-watt Tungsten bulb 8-24^ aarge bulb), two 100-watt Tungsten, and one.50-watt Gem. The average height of suspension was 1.71 feet with an average angle of glare of 84° when the attention was concentrated on the work in the laps of the finishers. Photograph No. 6, shop No. 10c, shows a typical arrangement of two finishing tables centrally located with respect to the windows. The daylight iUumuiation was measured at 2.45 p. m. on July 14. The sky was overcast with 90 per cent nimbus clouds and the sky angle was 82°. The illumination was 3.2 foot-candles average, 5.8 foot-candles maximum, and 2.4 foot-candles minimum. The windows faced north on Twenty-sixth Street. The opposite buildiags were light gray in color. This shop was on the tweUth floor. There were 4 flat flame 6 cubic feet per hour gas lamps over each table. These lights were provided with an elbow joint and were swung up when not in use. These lamps when in working position were at an average height of 0.33 foot from the table top giving an angle of glare of 50° with the eye fixed on the work held in the lap. This angle became practically zero when the head was raised. Photograph No. 7, shop No. 18, shows a typical arrangement of centrally located pressing tables. The daylight iUumuiation was measured at 2.35 p. m. on July 23. The sky was clear and no clouds present. The sky angle was approximately 0°. The average illum- ination was 0.32 foot-candle with a maximum of 0.67 foot-candle and a minimum of 0.11 foot-candle. The windows faced north on an alley. The opposite buildings were dark gray in color. The shop was on the second floor. There were 3 outlets for artificial lights all of which would light. The units consisted of 60-watt Tungsten lamps S-24 J bulbs fitted with lO-iach conical tin reflectors. The average height of suspension was 5 feet with an average angle of glare of 115°, when the attention was concentrated on the pressing boards. Artificial illumination was not used at the time of measurement. It was, however, measured and the values found to be 2.4 foot-candles average, 4.2 foot-candles maximum, and 1.1 foot-candles minimum for the combined daylight and artificial light. Photograph No. 9, shop No. 12, shows a typical arrangement of a pressing table located perpendicular to a window. The day-light illumination was measured at 3.10 p. m. on July 16. The sky was dear with no clouds. The sky angle was 73.5°. The average illum- ination 6.1 foot-candles with a maximum of 20.5 foot-candles, and a mmimum of 0.65 foot-candle. The window faced on an air shaft and the opposite buildings were red brick. The shop was on the fifth floor. 222 Artificial illumination was supplied by one 4-mantle gas arc with 13 cubic feet per hour consumption and six flat flame 6 cubic feet per hour gas lamps. At the time of measurement the mantles on the gas arc were broken and it was not in use. The average height of suspension of the flat flame lamps was 2.2 feet with an angle of glare of 65°. Photograph No. 10, shop No. 11, shows a fairly good artificial light- ing arrangement for tables located perpendicular to windows- of approximately 0° sky angle. The shop was on the third floor. Two units were employed for the artificial illumination of the table. These units were made up of 250-watt Tungsten lamps ia Nubolux No. 560, 11-inch diameter reflectors. The height of sus- pension was 3.4 feet with an angle of glare of 79°. Artificial illumina- tion was used constantly on the pressing tables. Its effect, com- bined with that of the daylight, was to produce an illumination of 7 foot-candles average, 15.2 foot-candles maximum, and 1.2 foot- candles minimum. APPENDIX G. EXTRACTS FROM NOTES ON ILLUMINATING DEFECTS FOUND IN SHOPS. The following extracts from notes of working conditions found during the survey will serve to give an idea of the more common faults observed: NOTES ON SPECIFIC SHOPS. Shop No. If.. — The flat-flame gas lamps in many cases had fouled and broken tips, distorting the shape of the flames. When gas mantles on the gas arc lamps are broken with resulting low efliciency in operation, the mantles are not replaced as long as there is any remaining. Four-burner gas arcs were in use with from one to three mantles broken off. Shop No. 9. — In this shop an electrician is employed to keep the electrical apparatus in repair. The reflectors and lamps are dirty, sockets are broken, lamps are burned out and blackened, and lamps of dimension too large for the reflectors are in use. In order to Ulustrate to the electrician in charge the gain in iflumination that could be made by keeping the lamps and reflectors clean, fllumination measurements were made, in his presence, using a C-10 reflector and a 60-watt smaU-bulb tungsten lamp. From measurements with the reflector and lamp dirty and with the same reflector and lamp washed dean an increase of 27.5 per cent in iflumination was found. Shop No. 13. — AU lamps in this shop were without reflectors. A 50-watt bare carbon lamp over the owner's desk gave an iflumination of 2.9 foot-candles. With a suitable reflector fitted to the lamp the illumination measured 9 foot-candles. This test was made in the presence of the owner of the shop and iUustrated to him the economy effected by the use of proper reflectors. There are several unused dress racks in this shop made of ^-inch iron pipe. The base of these racks is constructed of black iron pipes paraUel to the floor. There is head room of 6 feet. Employees have stumbled over these pipes and have been hurt several times. The illumination measured here was 0.95 foot-candle. If the iflumination was raised at this place accidents might be avoided. Shop No. IB. — In this shop the basting table is placed against the partition which separates the cutting room from the rest of the shop. The partition is made up of slats 2 inches wide. There are no lights over the basting table. When the lights in the cutting room are burning, alternate strips of shade and shadow are produced on the basting table whose brightness ratio is 1:4. The lamps in the cutting room are suspended by drop cords. When these swing, the strips of shade and shadow move along the basting table. (223) 224 tt STiof No. 16. — ^In this shop a thunder shower came up at 4.30 p. m., and on working planes where the electric lamps were missing or burned out, the illumination was decreased from 106.5 foot-candles before the storm to 2.5 foot-candles during the storm. Attention of the shop owner was called to this condition and the necessity of maintaining lamps and equipment in good condition explained. STio'p No. 17. — In this shop the owner has recently moved in. He has been at considerable expense in instaUing conveniences and sanitary appUaaces. Knowing nothing of proper illuminating methods, he employed a local electrician to design and install his illumination. The electrician placed fixtures similar to those in common use in the garment trade. As he was not familiar with the meanings of the terms "distribution" and "glare," the lighting arrangement is very unsatisfactory. Slio^p No. 23. — This shop employs electric irons on the pressing table. Fifty-watt bare Gem lamps are used as pilot lamps. The lamps cause glare effects because they are placed along the center line of the table at the height of the eye. They should be placed outside of the field of vision. Sliof No. SO. — ^In'this shop ribbed glass is used in the windows. The ribs are perpendicular instead of being parallel to the floor, as they should be, in order to refract hght to the interior. STiop No. SSa. — Complaint was entered to the Joint Board of Sanitary Control by the operators to the effect that the Ulumiaation was inadequate. Upon investigation it was found that the illumi- nation on 72.5 per cent of the machines was below 5 foot-candles, the average being 2 foot-candles. The lights on the machines were 6 cubic feet per hour flat-flame gas burners equipped with wire baskets. The material being worked upon varied in albedo from 1.81 to 75.3 per cent. The material frequently came in contact with the wire baskets and gathered soot from the smoky flame of the lights. The lamps were poorly spaced. The angle of glare at the needle was 82° and was decreased to 0° when the operator looked up from the needle to make cloth and machine adjustments. Shop No. 34- — In this shop the north windows are blocked by the waUs of a new budding 4 feet from the windows. In the part of the shop iUuminated from these windows there are 22 machines, 2 cut- ting tables, 2 flnishing tables, and 1 pressing table. There is no systematic artificial lighting arrangement. Bare tungsten and Gem lamps are scattered about with no regard to distribution. Shop No. 11a. — In this shop one window of the cutting room is equipped with factory-ribbed glass. Measurements were made to determine the gain in illumination made by using the ribbed glass. At 15 feet from the window the illumination was 22.2 per cent greater for the factory-ribbed glass than for J-inch window glass. The sky angle was 8.5°. o DATE DUE SEPl 1966 ^^^ M:Z^^^f^ ^:.gQT-?-^'-7^^^..t^;^ ^^ GAYLORD IINTEO IN U S.A. Cornell University Library HD7269.C61U62 Studies in vocational diseases. 3 1924 002 289 209