arV 
 17043 
 
 V.1 
 
 TEACHER'S GUIDE: 
 
 COMrANIOX TO 
 
 iartl^okmefo's grahjmg-^ooh S0.2. 
 
 FOR TEACHEKS AND STUDENTS USING BAKTHOLOMEWS 
 DEA WING-BOOKS. 
 
 W. N. BARTHOLOMEW, 
 
 PROFESSOK OF DKAWIHa IN THB BHOMSB HIUH AHD BOSTON HOKtLil, SCHOOb 
 
 KEW YORK: 
 
 WOOLWORTH, AIlSTSWORTn AND COMPANY. 
 
 18 70. 
 

 THE GIFT OF 
 
 
 f>i'^j^j 
 
 
 
arV17043 
 Teacher's guide : 
 
 Cornell University Library 
 
 3 1924 031 312 451 
 olin.anx 
 
Cornell University 
 Library 
 
 The original of tiiis book is in 
 tine Cornell University Library. 
 
 There are no known copyright restrictions in 
 the United States on the use of the text. 
 
 http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924031312451 
 
TEACHER'S GUIDE: 
 
 COMFANIOK TO 
 
 iart|^0l0mtfo's gml»iiT0-go0h IJ0.2. 
 
 FOE TEACHEKS AND STUDENTS USING BARTHOLOMEW'S 
 DKAWING-BOOKS. 
 
 BY 
 
 W. N. gAr.TIIOLOlIE-W, 
 
 i-ROFrSSOTI OV CP.ATVTOO I>r THE ESTOLISH HIGH ASD EOSTOS ITOEKAL SOHOOIi 
 
 NEW YORK: 
 
 WOOLWOETH, AINSWOKTH, AND COMPANY, 
 
 1870. 
 
i ! 
 
 
 Entered, according to Act of Congfess, in the year i86S, bf 
 AlZ WILLIAM N. BARTHOLOMEW, 
 
 In the Clerk's Office of the Diitrict Court of the District of Massachusettgk 
 
INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. 
 
 The power to draw with ease and accuracy is the result 
 of education. One great impediment to a more general 
 acquisition of this power is the mistaken belief that pecu- 
 liar faculties are required. Now and then one is found 
 who ■ makes great attainment with comparatively little 
 effort ; but do we not find this to be the case in all stud- 
 ies? Is there one in which all are equally successful? 
 Those powers of miud necessary to success in drawing 
 are just as uniformly distributed as are those powers 
 necessary to success in any other study; and we may 
 reasonably expect as uniform results in it. That this is 
 not the case, is owing, not to a general want of capacity 
 on the part of the pupils, but to poor teaching. Drawing 
 is not usually so well* taught as other studies. The com- 
 mon practice is, almost at the start, to set the pupils to 
 copying pictures — something pretty — long before they 
 have mastered the alphabet of the art. And even this is 
 done without the least study of the examples to be drawn : 
 their attention is never called to a careful investigation 
 of the means used to express the ideas conveyed, and the 
 reasons for their adoption are not given. The pupils 
 
 8 
 
4 TEACBER'S GUIDE. 
 
 are told to make^ a copy of the original. The drawing is 
 produced as an end, not as a means to an end. When the 
 work is completed, the only thing gained is the picture : 
 the pupil is just as ignorant as when he commenced. When 
 we have as good teaching in drawing as in other studies, we 
 shall have as good results following it. 
 
 Drawing is a language. In teaching the child to speak, 
 the first thing is to discipline the ear to hear, the mind to 
 recognize, and the tongue to utter, certain sounds and their 
 combinations. In teaching drawing, a course analogous to 
 this should he pursued. The eye should first be disciplined 
 to see, the mind to recognize, and the hand to draw, liaes 
 of any given length, in any required position, and bearing 
 any given relation to each other. This is the first step : 
 and, until this is accomplished, it is unwise to take the 
 next one ; it can only result in failure. 
 
 My object in preparing this book, which is intended to 
 be used in connection with the drawing-book, has been to 
 present, to those who may be called upon to take charge of 
 a class, a system of teaching based on the idea that drawing 
 is a study, and that it can be taught. I have thought that 
 the book would be more generally useful if I assumed that 
 those who may use it have never given their attention to 
 the study. I have, therefore, even in the drawing of sim- 
 ple lines, been careful to state the exact thing to be done, to 
 explain fully just how it is to be done, and to give a reason 
 for the course pursued. 
 
 Many suppose, that, in order to be successful as a teacher 
 of drawing, one must be skilful in the use of the pencil. 
 
INTROBVCTOST. 5 
 
 This is an error. Good teaching does not depend upon this 
 qualification. The important thing is, that the teacher 
 should know exactly what is to be done in any given case, 
 an& be able to state just how it should he done, with aU the 
 why's and wherefore's connected with it. If the teacher is 
 well qualified in this particular, he can teach well, whether 
 he can draw well, or not. To gain this knowledge, there is 
 no better way than to take the drawing-book used by the 
 pupils, and, guided by the instruction given in the Manual, 
 draw the examples in advance of the pupils from day to 
 day. By adopting this course, the inexperienced teacher 
 will not only become better acquainted with the examples 
 to be drawn than he can be if he were to spend the same 
 amount of time in any other way, but he will improve him- 
 self in the art. The difficulties which he will meet with in 
 producing a correct drawing will enable him to direct others 
 much better tha<p he possibly could had he not, in his own 
 experience, met the very difficulties which they must en- 
 counter. "So one, whatever his qualifications, should at- 
 tempt to conduct an exercise without making some prepara- 
 tion for the work. This is just as important for those who 
 can draw well as it is for those who never handled a pencil. 
 It is not possible for one, who has not made the example to 
 be drawn a study, to teach his pupils as they ought to be 
 taught. 
 
 The teacher, having prepared himself for his work, should 
 see that his pupils are prepared for theirs, before they at- 
 tempt its execution; It should be borne in mind, that cor- 
 rect execution depends upon ^ clear perception of the thing 
 
6 TEAOBMUS GUIDE. 
 
 to be. done, and ra perfect acquaintaacewith the means of 
 doing it. In taking up an example, after the necessary 
 instruction has been given, the class should be thoroughly 
 questioned on those points to which their.attention has be6n 
 ■called. Their answers will show whether they are ready for 
 their work, or not. With each " Lesson/' we have given a 
 series of questions and answers; but the. teacher will under- 
 stand, of course, that what we have gi^en must be taken as 
 a suggestion, and not as a thing to be literally followed. In 
 preparing a series of. questions, no one, can anticipate what 
 may be required to .ascertain the. Jinowledge possessed by 
 the pupils, or what may be necessary to lead them to a clear 
 understanding of the truths of which they may have a glim- 
 mering idea. 
 
 In teaching drawijig, the., blackboard is indispensable. 
 Before the drawiag exercise begins, the example which is to 
 engage the attention .of. the class should be drawn upon the 
 hoard, of sufficient size to be distLnctly seen by all in the 
 room;; and each prominent point in the drawing should be 
 lettered as in the copy. The teacher will find a drawing 
 of this kind of great value in imparting instruction to the 
 class ; and it will be exceedingly useful as a means of de- 
 termining what they know and what they do not know. 
 , Pupils in the same class must be ke^t together. All 
 shoidd be at work on the same subject at the same time. 
 The advantages of class instruction over individual instruc- 
 tion are just as great in drawing as in any other study ; 
 and, the teacher should avail himself of these advantages for 
 his own benefi.t as well as that of his class. When all are 
 
INTRODUCTORT. 7 
 
 at work on the same -eiample, all need the same instruction, 
 and the teacher wUl have time to give full and explicit 
 directions, — time to examine the class to see if the infor- 
 mation imparted has been received, understood, and acted 
 upon, which would be impossible if all were not engaged on 
 the same work at the same time. 
 
 So far as it is practicable in these early lessons, every 
 point that is made and every line that is drawn should be 
 dictated. If allowed to draw at will, the greater number of 
 the class will be very likely to do so without thought ; the 
 exercise will be of little or no profit to them ; and the results 
 produced will be such as to exhaust the patience of the 
 teacher far more than the effort that may be required to 
 guide thci class. Try the experiment ; and, if you are satis- 
 fied with nothing short of the best results, ydu will adopt 
 our suggestion. In case a lesson is lost through the absence 
 of the pupU, or. from any other cause, require the pupil to 
 make it up in season for the next exercisej 6x let the work 
 be omitted altogether. On no account let the pupils of the 
 class be separated in their work. 
 
 In drawing an example, the lines may be dictated by the 
 teacher or by the pupils. Suppose it is to be done by the 
 pupils. After all necessary instruction has been given, and 
 the class are ready to commence drawing, let the teacher 
 call upon the class, or on some member of the class, to state 
 the first thing to be done, and tell how it should be done. 
 If all is correct, let the teacher draw on the board as in- 
 structed, and call upon the pupils to criticise his work 
 when done. Then let the same thing be done by the class 
 
8 TEACBER'S GUIDE. 
 
 in their books. The teacher then asks for further instruc- 
 tion, What is the next thing to he done ? and how is it to be 
 done? If rightly directed, let him do the work, call for 
 criticism, and then let the pupUs do what has been done by 
 the teacher. In this way, let the work proceed to the end ; 
 the teacher in his drawing preceding the pupils in theirs 
 by a single line. 
 
 One word as to rapidity of execution. Require the pupils 
 to take all the time that may be necessary to do their work 
 as well as it can be done by them. Let them learn to draw 
 accurately before they are permitted to attempt rapidity of 
 execution. 
 
 Afber what has been said, it is, perhaps, needless for us 
 to add, that the teacher cannot give his attention to other 
 matters during the hour devoted to drawing, and at the 
 same time be feithfiil to his class. His pupils need con- 
 stant care and attention ; and this is especially true in these 
 elementary lessons. 
 
GENEKAL INSTEUCTIOAS AND EEIAEKS. 
 
 The selectioli of a suitable pencil is a matter of the first 
 importance. It is a common practice to provide the begin- 
 ner in drawing with poor pencils; because they are sup- 
 posed to be economical, and are thought to answer his pur- 
 pose just as well as those of a superior quality. This is all 
 a mistake. In the first place, a poor pencil is more expen- 
 sive than a good one ; and, in the second place, it wiU not 
 serve his purpose as well. The lead of a poor pencil is 
 easily broken in sharpening, and, in using, the point breaks 
 under a slight pressure ; and, again, it constantly needs 
 cutting, to ■ get rid of the particles of grit with which the 
 lead is fiUed. One good pencil wiU outlast several poor 
 ones. A poor pencil is dear at any price. The lead of a 
 poor pencil lacks clearness, brilliancy, and strength of color: 
 drawings produced witfe it always have a dirty, muddy look. 
 The lead being filled with grit, it frequently cuts the sur- 
 face of the paper ; and the line produced is uneven, it being 
 broader and darker in some parts than in others. And then, 
 again, owing to its unevenness of temper, the same amount 
 of pressure,, in different cases, wili produce different results. 
 
10 TEACHER'S GUIDE. 
 
 When we consider that a good pencil costs but a few cents 
 more than a poor one, and that it is impossible to produce 
 a satisfactory drawing with the latter, it would seem that no 
 one can long hesitate which of the two to purchase. 
 
 In my own practice, I have used the Eagle Pencil for 
 some years pasfc-; and, having found, it uniformly superior 
 in quality, I have no hesitation in saying that it will fully 
 meet the wants of the pupil ; and I take pleasure in recom- 
 mending it, believing it to be, quality considered, the cheap- 
 est pencil in the market. • 
 
 Although there is a long list of pencils manufactured, of 
 different degrees of hardness, the draughtsman really needs 
 but two or three of the number in order to accomplish any 
 thing that he is called upon to do with the pencil. For 
 simple outline, and for all work such as is found in Books 1 
 and 2, use the H pencil, or its equivalent, No. 3.- The let- 
 tered pencils are superior in quality to the numbered. 
 
 If the pupils are quite young, it is advisable, at first cer- 
 tainly, for the teacher to keep and mend the pencils. The 
 pencils used for drawing should be kept exclusively for this 
 purpose. , 
 
 In sharpening a pencil for outline drawing, the wood 
 should be cut back an inch, at least, from the point ; the 
 taper should be regular, and the point fine. Many suppose, 
 that, in order to make a broad line, the pencU must be blunt. 
 This is a mistake. A broad line may be made with a finely- 
 pointed pencil as readily as with a blunt one. When it is 
 required to make a broad line, hold the pencil in the hand 
 as in drawing, and on a piece of waste-paper grind down 
 
INSTRUCTIONS. 11 
 
 the point slightly. This ■will leave a flat surface on one 
 side, so that a broad line may be made with it, and at the 
 same time the pencil will ' be so pointed that the eye can 
 readily see the exact point of its contact with the paper, 
 which cannot be done if a blunt point is used, as is often 
 recommended. 
 
 A short pencil should never be used in drawing, as it 
 cramps the hand to hold it. When, with the fingers in 
 their proper position, the pencil is not long enough to allow 
 the upper past to rest on that part of the hand noar the 
 knuckle-joint of the first finger, it should be laid aside for 
 other purposes, or spliced out in some way for drawing. 
 For this purpose, I make use of a light metallic tube, about 
 the size of a lead-pencil, designed for a pen-holder. 
 
 Every pupil should be provided with a piece of rubber. 
 That known as the " Diamond Rubber " is especially recom- 
 mended. The form of this eraser makes it exceedingly voir 
 uaLle to the draughtsman. It is diamond-shaped. The 
 angles being acute, if it is desired to erase a line lying in 
 close proximity to others, it can easily be dolie without in 
 the least endangering those which are to be preserved. The 
 quality of this rubber is excellent ; and its peculiar form 
 adds very much to its value. 
 
 Beginners are inclined to use the eraser too freely, and 
 they need to be cautioned against this error. It should 
 never .be used when it is possible to avoid it ; and, to guard 
 against the necessity, the utmost care must be exercised in 
 drawing, and some discretion used as to the time when the 
 rubber should be applied. It is always best to let all incoP- 
 
12 TEACHER'S GUIDE. 
 
 jject lines remain tintil their Temoyal becomes an absolute 
 Hecessity. Wheneyer a line is to be erased, protect those 
 parts of the drawing lying near the line to be removed by 
 covering them with a piece of stiff writing-paper before ap- 
 jilying the rubber. 
 
 When the pupil is engaged in drawing, the lower side of 
 the book should be placed parallel with the front side of the 
 desk, and distant from it at least one-half iihe width of the 
 book. The pupil should face the desk, with the body erect, 
 and the head inclined slightly forward ; the lelft hand should 
 be placed upon the upper part of the leaf oa which the 
 drawing is to be made, so as to press it firmly on those be- 
 neath. 
 
 The pencil should be held with an easy grip, between the 
 first and second fingers and th.e thumb, keeping the fingers 
 and the thumb nearly straight : the third and little fingers 
 may be turned in towards the palm of the hand a little more 
 than the others. The wrist, the side of the hand, and the 
 side of the little fingsr, should rest firmly on the desk. 
 With the hand placed, and the pencil held, ia this way, lines 
 may be drawn with freedom in any required direction ; which 
 cannot be done if the pencil is held and the hand is placed 
 as is usual in writing. 
 
 Before drawing a line, points should be placed to indi- 
 cate where the line is to begin and where it is to terminate. 
 By adopting this plan, many errors may be avoided. One 
 gets a clear mental perception of the line before it is drawn ; 
 and, if it is wrong, the error is discovered in time to correct 
 it. In drawing a line, the motion of the hand should be 
 
INSTRUCTIONS. 13 
 
 either from the wrist, elbow, or shoulder, according to the 
 length of the line to be drawn. The fore-arm should 
 always be held as near as possible at right angles with the 
 line to be drawn. The dots marking the extremities of 
 lines should be made as light as is consistent with distinot- 
 ness. 
 
 The numerals connected with the examples, in all cases, 
 indicate the order in which the lines near which they are 
 placed should be drawn. The letters are used as a matter 
 of conyenience in referring to lines and points. In no case, 
 should the letters or numerals be copied by the pupUs, as 
 they detract very much from the beauty of the drawing. 
 
 In drawing lines, the pupil must be taught to depend upon 
 the eye and hand alone. In no case should they be per- 
 mitted to use a ruler, or other instrument, for this purpose. 
 It is the prime object of these initiatory lessons to discipline 
 the eye and hand ; and, if instruments are used to assist in 
 execution, this end is certain to be defeated. 
 
 PupUs should not be allowed to measure except by special 
 permission; and, when the measure is used, it should be 
 for the sole purpose of determining the correctness of work 
 already executed. 
 
 It is recommended that the teacher keep the drawing- 
 books in his possession. During the interval between the 
 lessons, each book should be examined ; and at the begin- 
 ning of the next lesson the attention of the class should be 
 directed to the most prominent errors discovered. In doing 
 this, illustrate on the board. Something may be learned 
 from failure as weU as from success. 
 
14 TEACHER'S GUIDE. 
 
 It is intended that each example in the copy-book should 
 be drawn twice : first on the left half of the page, and then 
 on the right. It may not, however, always be desirable to 
 make the second drawing immediately after the first : this 
 might in some cases be tedious. Avoid making the study 
 irksome. If it is necessary to delay for a while the second 
 drawing, in any case, to guard against this, let it be done. 
 
INSTRUCTIONS 
 
 iUPPEETAINme TO THE EXAMPLES IN BOOK II. 
 
 LESSON I 
 
 The lines forming Exaniples 1 and 2 of this lesson are 
 inclined lines, sometimes called oblique lines. 
 
 What is an inclined line-? 
 
 A line which is neither horizontal nor vertical is an in- 
 clined line. 
 
 What means are used to ascertain the inclination of a 
 Una? 
 
 The inclination of a line is determined by comparing it 
 with a horizontal or a vertical line, or with both. In Ex. 
 1, the inclination of the line BC is compared with the lines 
 AB and AC. ' The line AB gives the distance of the end 
 B below the level of C, and the line AC the distance of the 
 end C on the right of B. These two points determine the 
 inclination of the line. 
 
 Where lines are tised to assist in drawing other lines, hy 
 what name are they known ? 
 They are called guide-lines, 
 
 u 
 
16 TEACHER'S GUIDE. 
 
 This method of ascertaining the exact slope of a' line is 
 not confined to drawing from examples. In drawing from 
 objects or from Nature, the same means are employed. 
 Where these lines are not found in connection with the line 
 to he drawn, a pencil held up before the eye answers the 
 purpose. To the practical draughtsman, the mind supplies 
 these lines : they are mentally before him ; and, while he 
 draws the line apparently without recourse to any such ex- 
 pedient, he in reality employs the very means here used. 
 
 Ex. 1. Compared with AB, what is the length of AG ? 
 
 What, then, is the distance of B below the level of C, 
 compared with the distance ofG on the right of 3? 
 
 How should we proceed in drawing the line BC ? 
 
 Krst determine how far the point C is below the top of 
 the page, and place a very light dot on the paper, somewhere 
 on the left of C to indicate its distance below the top of the 
 page ; next determine how far the point B is from the, left 
 side of the page, and place a dot about where it is thought 
 the point B should be placed. Then place a point for A, 
 on a level with the point first placed, and vertically over the 
 one last placed ; next consider how far the peint B is below 
 the level of A, place a point for B, and draw AB. Then 
 place a point for C on a level with A, and at a distance from 
 A equal to the measure of the line representing AB, and then 
 draw BC. 
 
 In drawing an inclined line, it is not indispensable that 
 the guide-lines should be drawn. What is wanted, inprae- 
 
INSTRUCTIOirS. ♦ 17 
 
 ticcil drawing, is to secure the points correspouding to B, A, 
 and C ; and this may be done just as well without drawing 
 the lines as by drawing them. In these initiatory lessons, 
 however, it is best to require the pupils, for a while at least, 
 to draw all lines used as guide-lines. 
 
 The teacher must see that the purpose of these lines is 
 understood by the class, and that the pupils can, without 
 assistance, use them in drawing any given line. Draw on 
 the hoard a number of lines, varying in length and inclina- 
 tion, and call upon one or more of the pupils to go to the 
 board, and make a drawing of them ; the pupil supplying 
 the auxiliary lines in the copy, as well as in his drawing of 
 it. If this can be done successfully by the class, they are 
 prepared to go on with the lesson ; but, if they cannot do 
 this, all that they may do in their books, if allowed to go 
 on, wUl be a mere mechanical imitation of the example. 
 This is not drawing, it is copying ; and little good will it 
 do them. This method of determining the inclination of a 
 line is a very easy thing, even for a child, to understand, 
 and yet it is a very important thing to know ; and it is 
 hoped that the teacher will practise the class as proposed 
 until it is evident they understand the use of these lines, 
 and can apply their knowledge in drawing any given line. 
 
 Should the line BO he drawn with an upward or with a 
 downward strohe ? 
 
 This line may be drawn either way with ease, but per- 
 haps most conveniently with an upward stroke. In either 
 
18 ^TEACHER'S GUIDE. 
 
 case, the arm should be placed on the desk so as to bring 
 the fore-arm as nearly as possible at right angles to the 
 Une. 
 
 Almost all inclined lines can be drawn more easily and 
 accurately with a downward than with an upward stroke. 
 Suppose that it was required te draw a line from D (see 
 Ex. 4), or from any point between D and E, through P, the 
 line could be drawn with more freedom with an upward 
 than with a downward stroke ; but, if it was required to 
 draw a line from any other point in the sides of the square 
 through P, it could be done more conveniently and more 
 correctly with a downward stroke. 
 
 It will be impossible to give particular directions as to 
 how every line should be drawn in these lessons : neither 
 is it necessary. Guided by this general statement, the 
 teacher will find no difficulty in directing the class how aay 
 given line should be drawn. 
 
 In placing points to mark the extremities and divisions 
 of lines, they should in all cases be made very light. All 
 that is necessary is a dot just large enough and dark enough 
 to be visible. 
 
 What relation do the lines BO, HJ, and the remaining 
 lines in this example, bear to each other ? 
 
 Sow are their extremities situated with regard to each 
 other ? 
 
 What is the distance between the extremities B and H, 
 compared with the measure of the line AB ? 
 
INSTRUCTIONS. 19 
 
 Are all lines in this example equally distant from each 
 other ? 
 
 Having drawn BC, how are you to proceed in drawing 
 the remaining lines ? 
 
 The lines are to be drawn in the order indicated hy the 
 numerals. In drawing HJ, first place the point H directly 
 under B, and as far from it as one-fourth the measure of 
 AB ; next place the point J directly under C, and as far 
 from it as H is from B ; and then connect these points. All 
 other lines are to be drawn as suggested by the drawing of 
 HJ. 
 
 When drawin'g inclined lines, the pupil is often tempted 
 to turn the book so as to bring the line to be drawn into a 
 horizontal position : this should not be allowed. If per- 
 mitted to do this, his drawing will not be as correct as it 
 otherwise would be, for the reason that it is simply impos- 
 sible for any one to judge as correctly of the position of 
 points and lines, and of their relation to each other, with 
 the book turned, as he can with the book placed as recom- 
 mended. 
 
 In drawing the examples of this lesson, especial care 
 should be taken to have the pupils place their drawings on 
 the page, with respect to each other, as they are placed in 
 the copy. If this is neglected, even though the drawing of 
 each example be perfect, the general appearance of the 
 whole will be any thing but pleasing. 
 
20 TEACHER'S GUIDE. 
 
 One great element of beauty in a design consists in the 
 proper arrangement of all the parts : each part may be well 
 drawn ; but, if the parts are unskilfully arranged, the draw- 
 ing fails to please. The most simple thing may be made to 
 delight the eye if this principle is observed. Even a few 
 straight lines, having no real connection with each other, 
 may be so grouped as to be attractive. 
 
 Neither the numerals, nor the letters connected with the 
 examples, should, in any case, be copied. They disfigure 
 the drawing, and are only allowed in the copy on account 
 of the assistance they render in indicating the order in 
 which the lines are to be drawn, and in' designating the 
 particular lines referred to in giving instruction. 
 
 It is hoped that the teacher wiU adopt the suggestion 
 made in the introductory remarks, and dictate the lines as 
 they are drawn. If, however, this is not thought advisable, 
 he should at least be careful to see that they are drawn in 
 accordance with the instructions given. That they should 
 be thus drawn is a matter of importance, as the course 
 pointed out is the most convenient one, and the one most 
 likely to seciire correctness and neatness of execution. 
 
 Ex. 2. TVhat is the distance between the points C and D, 
 compared with AC ? 
 
 What is tlie length of DE, compared with AC ? 
 Wliat is the. length ofEE, compared with DE ? 
 
INSTRUCTIONS. 21 
 
 Sow are you to proceed in mahing a drawi.Lg of the line 
 DF? 
 
 First place the point D on a level with C, and as far 
 from it as one-half the measure of AC ; next place the point 
 E on a level with D, and as far from it as C is from A, and 
 then draw DE ; next place the point E directly under E, 
 and as far from it as D is from E, and draw EF, and then 
 DE. 
 
 How are you to proceed in drawing the remaining lines 
 in this example ? 
 
 Eirst place the point S directly under T>, and on a level 
 with J ; next place the point T directly under E, and as far 
 from it as S is from D ; and then connect these points. In 
 drawing the remaining lines, proceed as in drawing ST. 
 
 In making th* second d.rawing of these examples, if 
 thought advisable by the teacher, the pupils may be re- 
 quired to change the inclination of the lines. In case a 
 change is made in this respect, the page will present the 
 best appearance if it is done either by increasing or dimin- 
 ishing the length of the lines corresponding to AB, Ex. 1 ; 
 making them, for example, one-third or one-fourth longer 
 or shorter than AB; It must be understood, however, that, 
 if any change is made in one group of lines, a corresponding 
 change must be made in the other : otherwise the harmony 
 that now exists between them will be disturbed, and the 
 general appearance of the page materially injured. 
 
 Ex. 3. The figure forming this example is called a triaitr 
 gle. 
 
22 TEACHER'S GUIDE. 
 
 What is a triangle ? 
 
 A triangle is a plane figure, having three sides. 
 
 Wliat name is given to every plane figure having hu' 
 three sides ? 
 
 What is the higliest point in a triangle called ? 
 
 It is called its vertex. 
 
 What letter marks the vertex of this triangle ? 
 
 The letter A. 
 
 What is the lower side of a triangle called ? 
 
 It is called its hase. 
 
 Name the hase of this triangle. 
 
 CD is its base. 
 
 Mow high is the vertex of this triangle aLove its hase, 
 compared with the measure of its hase ? 
 
 Its height is equal to one-half the measure of its base. 
 
 Over what point in the hase is the vertex? 
 
 It is over the middle point of the base. 
 
 What is the rneasure of the side CA, compared with the 
 side AD? 
 
 The sides are equal. 
 
 Wliat relation does the hase of this triangle hear to the 
 point P in Ex. 1, and Z in Ex. 2 ? 
 
 It is on a level with these points, and its extremities are 
 equally distant from them. 
 
 How should you proceed in drawing this example ? 
 
 Pirst determine the proper place on the page for the 
 point C, and there place a dot; next consider where the 
 point D should be placed, and make a dot to represent this 
 extremity of the line. Then draw CD ; next place a point 
 
INSTRUCTIONS. 23 
 
 as . B in the middle of CD, and, vertically ov^r it, place a 
 point as A, at a distance from B equal to the measure of 
 CB. Then draw AB, AD, and AC, in the order named. 
 
 Ex. 4. The lines AC and DB, in this example, are called 
 diagonals. 
 
 Wliat is a diagonal ? 
 
 A diagonal is a straight line connecting the vertices of 
 any two angles in a plane figure that are not adjacent. 
 
 Let the teacher draw on the board a polygon having 
 more than foiir sides, and further illustrate the meaning of 
 the term by drawing its diagonals. 
 
 At what point in a square do its diagonals cross ? 
 
 How, then, maij the middle point in a square he deter- 
 mined ? 
 
 How is this example to he drawn ? 
 
 l"irst determine the proper place on the page for the point 
 A^ and then place this point ; next, keeping in mind the 
 length of the side AB, place the point B directly under A, 
 and then draw AB ; next place the point C on a level with 
 
 A, and as far from A as B is from A, and then draw AC ; 
 n'ext place the point D directly under C, and on a level with 
 
 B, and draw CD, and then BD ; next draw AD ; then 
 place the point P in- the diagonal AD, and on a line with 
 the points B and C ; and, finally, draw BC. 
 
 In drawing any square in the position of that in this 
 example, proceed as here instructed. Hereafter we shall 
 not point out in detail the course to be taken in drawing 
 
2i TEACHER'S GUIDE. 
 
 this figure. »rhe teacher, however, should require the pupils 
 to do this, until fully satisfied they are perfectly familiar 
 ■with the course to bo pursued. 
 
 Ex. 5. 7s the figure TOL J, in this example, a square ? 
 
 Why ? 
 
 Where in the sides of the outer square are the points F, 
 0, L, and J ? 
 
 Kow is this example to he drawn ? 
 
 Pirst draw the square ENKH ; then place points in the 
 middle of each of its sides ; next draw the sides of the 
 square FOL J, in the order indicated by the numerals. 
 
 LESSON n. 
 
 We begin in this lesson the drawing of a series of 
 ornamental forms. That these examples are pleasing to 
 the eye is owing mainly to the regularity of their parts 
 as to size and form, and to the balanced relation of the 
 parts to each other. The attention of the class should be 
 called to this fact, and its truth should be made apparent. 
 For this purpose, take Ex. 1 of this lesson as a subject, 
 and draw it on the board, making the triangles to differ 
 somewhat in size and form, and place the smaller triangles 
 within the larger ones irregularly ; or let the triangles be 
 of the same size and form, and simply throw them out of 
 balance ; and the truth of the statement will be obvious. 
 
INSTIiUOTIONS. 25 
 
 A knowledge of this fact will add to the interest of the 
 exercise ; and more care is . likely to be taken on the part 
 of the pupils to secure these results, if their importance is 
 known. And not only this : it will give them some insight 
 into the principles of the art they are practising. With a 
 knowledge of this fact, they may themselves attempt the 
 design of simple ornamental forms with some hope of suc- 
 cess. Without it, they would work in the dark, with no 
 prospect of securing a desirable result. After a little study 
 and practice in drawing these examples, the pupils should 
 be encouraged to make an effort in the way of design. In 
 doing this, it will be of assistance, to them to cut out of stiff 
 paper a number of squares and triangles, and then arrange 
 them as fancy may suggest ; and, when a pleasing form is 
 obtained, it may be copied. Suppose half a dozen squares 
 be cut, one inch or two inches on a side ; make double that 
 number of half the size, and an equal number one-fourth 
 the size. With these pieces of paper a great variety of 
 forms may be made. And then if, in addition to these, tri- 
 angles be made by cutting a number of squares of the same 
 size into quarters diagonally, the number of forms that may 
 be produced will be greatly augmented. The number of 
 ornamental figures that may be made by the pupils may be 
 increased to an indefinite extent, by cutting the square in 
 ways that will suggest themselves to the teacher. It will 
 be an interesting and a useful exercise to allow the pupils 
 to draw their successful designs on the board. 
 
 The aid derived from the square used as a guide in draw- 
 
26 TEACHER'S GUIDE. 
 
 ing these examples should be pointed out to the class. It 
 is a great help in securing accuracy. ,If the most apt pupil 
 in the class were to attempt to draw any one of them' -with- 
 out the aid of the square, he would find great difficulty; aad 
 it is most likely that he would fail in producing any thing 
 like an accurate drawing of it. 
 
 Ex. 1. WJiat figures were tised in maJcing this example ? 
 
 What is the object of the square ABCD ? 
 
 Are the lines forming this square to he mude light, or 
 heavy ? 
 
 Should all guide-lines be made very light? 
 
 Why? 
 
 Where in the square is the point J? 
 
 Where in the sides of the square are the points S and L, 
 and the points corresponding to them? 
 
 Are the sides of the triangles "N, 0, P, and B, parallel to 
 the sides of the triangles enclosing them ? 
 
 Is the space between the outlines of the large and smaU 
 triangles of the same width at every point? 
 
 What is the width of the space compared with the line 
 EH? 
 
 jffow is this example to be drawn ? 
 
 First draw the square ABCD ; then place points dividing 
 each of its sides into four equal parts ; next place the point 
 J in the centre of the square ; then draw the inclined lines 
 completing the general outline of the figure, in the order 
 indicated by the numerals ; next draw the triangles N, 0, 
 P, and E, in the order here named ; then erase as much of 
 
INSTRUCTIONS. 27 
 
 the outline of the square as is indicpite.d by the dotted liuea 
 in the example ; and, finally, add the shade-lines. 
 
 In placing the point J in the centre of the square, the 
 pupil shomd be guided by the points forming the extremi- 
 ties of the lines passing through J. This point must be on 
 a liae with the points S and K, L and K, E and F, H and 
 I. If it cannot be so placed as to be on a line with these 
 points, it follows that an error has been made in placing 
 the points dividing the sides of the square. Before pro- 
 ceeding further, the error should be corrected : otherwise the 
 figure wUl be distorted, and the equilibrium of the parts 
 destroyed. 
 
 In drawing these examples, the pupils are instructed to 
 draw the lines forming them in a given order. Now, it is 
 not enough that they be told to pursue a certain course in 
 drawing their lines : they must know the reasons which led 
 to its adoption, in order that they may work intelligently, 
 and, in the end, be able wisely to direct their own efforts. 
 
 In making the outline of any figure, and in drawing its 
 detail, we should, as far as possible, so proceed that neither 
 the pencil nor the hand wUl obstruct the view of what has 
 been drawn, as the work proceeds. Speaking in general 
 terms, we may say this end is secured by beginning at the 
 upper left-hand corner of the drawing, and working gradu- 
 ally towards the lower right-hand comer. By adopting 
 this course, we have an opportunity of forming correct judg- 
 
28 TEA-CHER'S GUIDE. 
 
 ments. To pursue an opposite course would, in many in- 
 stances, deprive us of the means of doing this. It jvas in 
 view of this fact that the order in which the triangles N, 0, 
 P, and R should be drawn was determined. It should goy- 
 em the pupil in deciding upon the course to pursue in draw- 
 ing the lines forming the small triangles, and it should 
 guide him in every case when he may be left to decide for 
 himself what course to take' in drawing his lines. 
 
 In determining the order in Tvhich the lines composing 
 a figure should be drawn, there is another point to be con- 
 sidered. If there are certain lines in the drawing difficult 
 to execute, crossing, or lying in close proximity to, others 
 less difficult to make, the former, when practicable, should 
 be drawn first. By taking this course, if failures are made, 
 and it becomes necessary to erase a line, it can be done with 
 less injury to the drawing than would otherwise be the case. 
 As an illustration, take the inclined lines in this example. 
 The line EF, owing to its position, is the most difficult line 
 to draw ; and therefore the pupil will be more likely to fail 
 on this line than on the others. By taking this line first, 
 if a failure is made, it can be erased without injury to the 
 drawing, which would not be the case if the other lines were 
 drawn first. In that event, every line it crossed would be 
 likely to be more or less damaged, making it necessary to 
 patch them up. 
 
 On these matters the class should be thoroughly informed. 
 When this has been done, some one should be called upon 
 to point out the lines in the order in which tliey should be 
 
INSTRUCTIONS. ^ 29 
 
 drawn, and state the reasons for the course adopted. That 
 the class may receive the full benefit to be derived from this 
 exercise, a drawing of the figure, large enough to be disr 
 tinctly seen from all parts of the room, should be made upon 
 the board previous to the beginning of the exercise. 
 
 A drawing of this description, properly lettered, should 
 always be ready on the board at the beginning of every 
 exercise in which a new example is taken up for study. 
 This wiU not only be found useful in giving instruction, 
 but, after instruction has been given, it may be used to 
 show how much of the knowledge imparted has been re- 
 tained by the class. If they cannot go to the board and 
 point out just what is to be done, in every particular, and 
 tell exactly how it is to be done, it is evident they need 
 further information, or need to be informed again. 
 
 To give prominence to the figures, and that they may be 
 readily recognized, the guide-lines in. all cases are dotted. 
 In drawing these lines, they should be made continuous and 
 very light, so that such parts' as are not wanted may be ' 
 easily erased. 
 
 Pupils need to be frequently cautioned against the too 
 free use of rubber. If proper care is exercised in drawing, 
 they will seldom have occasion to use it. When it must be 
 applied, require them to place a piece of writing-paper over 
 that part of the drawing likely to be injured by it. If a 
 piece about this size and form <i^^^ be cut out of the paper, 
 it wni prove more serviceable as a protection in many cases. 
 
30 TEACHER'S GUIDE. 
 
 In using it, place the paper on the drawing so that the line 
 to be erased shall be the only line seen through the open- 
 ing. If the paper is held firmly on the book while the 
 rubber is used, there can be no chance of injury to other 
 lines. 
 
 In putting the shade-lines into a drawing, proceed so as 
 to avoid all danger of allowing the hand to come in contact 
 with any of these lines, as a light touch firom it wiU be quite 
 likely to smut the drawing. 
 
 ■ Ex. 2. What is the object of the square ABCD in this 
 example ? 
 
 Is it necessary that the lines forming the square be made 
 very light ? Wliy ? 
 
 Where, in the sides of this square, are the points E, F, H, 
 and I? 
 
 Where, in the diagonals EH and EI, are the points N , J, 
 K, awcZL?. 
 
 Where, in the sides of the square NJKL, are the points 
 X, 0, P, K, S, T, U, and V ? 
 
 How is this example to he drawn ? 
 
 Draw the square ABCD, and then place the points E, E, 
 H, and I, in the centres of its sides ; next draw the lines 
 forming the square EFHI, in the order indicated by the 
 numerals ; then draw the diagonals EH and EI, and in 
 them place the points N, J, K, and L, at a distance from 
 their extremities equal to one-eighth their measure ; next 
 draw the square NJKL, and then erase the diagonals EH 
 
INSTRUCTIONS. 31 
 
 and FI ; next place points dividing each side of the square 
 • NJKL into three equal parts, and then draw the lines con- 
 necting these points in the order indicated by the numerals ; 
 next draw the lines lying near and parallel to the sides of 
 the square EFHI ; then erase the outline of the square 
 ABCD, and, finally, add the shade-lines. 
 
 WJiCt should govern you in deciding upon the order in 
 which shade-lines should he drawn ? 
 
 In what order do you think the shade-lines should he 
 drawn in this example ? 
 
 What should govern you in deciding upon the order in 
 which you should draw the lines lying near and parallel to 
 the outline of the figure? 
 
 In what order should these lines he drawn ? 
 
 LESSON III. 
 
 Ex. 1. Where, in the sides AB and DC of the square, 
 are the points E and E ? 
 Where, in the sides AD and BC, are the points K and 
 W, P, a?M^ H ? 
 
 In placing a point, as K, distant from A one-fourth of 
 AD, do you first place a point in the middle of AD, and 
 then place K half-way hetween this point and A ? or do you 
 place the point as near as you can Judge without doing 
 this? 
 
 The former course should be adopted. 
 
32 TEACHER' 8 GUIDE. 
 
 What is the distcmce from E to I, compa/red with the 
 distance from E fo E? 
 
 How is this example to he drawn ? 
 
 Draw the square ABCD ; then place points dividing its 
 vertical sides into four equal parts, and its horizontal sides 
 into two equal parts ; then, beginning with KE, draw the 
 lines forming .the triangles KPE and WEH, in the order 
 indicated by the numerals ; next place the point E so as to 
 divide TJ into equal parts, and then place the point I on a 
 line with E and E, and midway between them ; then, in 
 the angles K, W, E, H, and P, place points corresponding 
 to I ; next erase aU lines that do not form a part of the fig- , 
 Tire ; theny beginning at the upper part of the figure, draw 
 the lines lying parallel to the outline on the left side, and 
 then take those on the right ; finally, strengthen all lines 
 that may require it, and add the shade-lines. 
 
 In drawing the lines lying parallel to the outline, why 
 should we begin at the upper part of the figure ? and why 
 draw those on tlie left before those on the right ? 
 
 We should begin at the upper part of the figure, and work 
 downward, in order that we may see what we have done as 
 our work progresses ; and, for the. same reason, we should _ 
 draw the lines on the left before drawing those on the right ; 
 and in addition to this, by taking this course, the hand is 
 kept from coming in contact with the drawing. 
 
 Point out these lines in tlie order in which you intend to 
 draw them, and state where you would begin, and where end, 
 each line. 
 
 Point out the shade-lines in the order in which you m- 
 tend to draw them. 
 
INSTRUCTIONS. ■ 33 
 
 « 
 
 Ex. 2. Do the points L, J, and K, in the upper side of 
 this figure, divide the side AB of the square into four equal 
 parts ? 
 
 Do the points corresponding to these in the other sides of 
 the figure divide the other sides of the square in the same 
 manner ? 
 
 What is the distance from J to T, compgured with the 
 distance from, TtoY? 
 
 Sow is this example to he drawn ? 
 
 Draw the square ABCD ; next place the points that di- 
 vide its sides into four equal parts, and then, in the order 
 indicated by the numerals, draw the lines connecting these 
 points ; next place the point T on a line with J and V, and 
 midway between them ; next erase all lines corresponding 
 to the dotted lines in the example ; then, beginning at T, 
 draw the lines lying parallel to the outline on the left ; then, 
 starting again at T, draw the lines lying parallel to the out- 
 line on the right side of the figure, and then, starting at the 
 lower left-hand corner, draw those lying parallel to its lower 
 side; next strengthen all lines requiring it, and, finally, 
 add the shade-lines. 
 
 After the class has been instructed how to proceed in 
 drawing the example, call upon the pupils- to point out the 
 lines in the order in which they are to be drawn, stating, at 
 the same time, where they would begin, and where end, each 
 line. In doing this, use the drawing on the board. After 
 this has been done, call upon the pupils to state where they 
 would begin, and how they would proceed, in drawing the 
 
34 TEACHER' B GUIDE. 
 
 * 
 
 shade-lines. This should be done not only in this but in 
 every example. There can be no readier, no surer way than 
 this, by which the teacher can find out the points upon 
 which the pupils need to be further instructed, if further in- 
 struction is necessary, before they are qualified to proceed to 
 drawing. 
 
 LESSON IV. 
 
 Let the examples in this lesson be carefully studied, and 
 the pupils thoroughly questioned. 
 
 Ex. 1. Sow is this example to be dravm ? 
 
 First draw CD, and then place the point in the middle 
 of this line ; next place the points A and B on a level with 
 0, and at a distance from it equal the measure of CO, and 
 then draw AB ; next place the point E on a line with A 
 and C, and midway between these points, and then draw EO. 
 In drawing the remaining lines, proceed as suggested by the 
 instruction given in drawing EO, drawing the lines in the 
 order indicated by .the numerals. When the lines have 
 been drawn, place the point K ill the middle of CO, and 
 then place the point L in the middle of CK. In like man- 
 ner, place the points in the lines AO, OB, and OD. 
 
 Ex. 2. It will be observed that the main lines in this ex- 
 ample are in all respects lik§ those given in Ex. 1 ; and it 
 will also be observed that the same arrangement of lines 
 has been adhered to in the minor parts of the figure. 
 
IN8TEUOTI0N8. 35 
 
 How is this example to he drawn ? 
 
 I'irst draw the main lines, and place the points dividing 
 the lines as instructed in Ex. 1 ; then, through the point 
 corresponding to L, Ex. 1, draw the horizontal line UV, and 
 then the inclined lines passing through this point. In pla- 
 cing the points for the extremities of these lines, proceed as 
 in drawing the main lines of the figure ; next, through the 
 point corresponding to N, draw the vertical and then the 
 inclined lines passing through this point, and then, in the 
 same order, draw the lines passing through the point cor- 
 responding to E. ; next, through the point corresponding to 
 T, draw the line as instructed in drawing those at the up- 
 per part of the figure ; finally, guided hy the lines already 
 drawn, add the lines required to complete the figure. 
 
 Ex. 3. How is this example to he drawn ? 
 
 Draw KB and CD, as instructed in drawing the lines cor- 
 responding to them in Ex. 1 ; then place the point B, and 
 draw EO so as to make EO equal AO, and the angle EGA 
 equal EOC. Having drawn EO, draw the lines OE, OH, 
 and JO, in the order named, making them equal to AO, and 
 so that all of the angles will be equal ; next place points, as 
 shown in the drawing, to mark the middle point of each line 
 now drawn ; then place the point V, and draw VO equal 
 KO, and so that the angle VOC shall equal VOE; and, 
 when this has been done, draw the remaining lines, making 
 them equal to VO, and so draw them that aU of the angles 
 shall be equal. 
 
 It will be noticed that the points A, H, D, and the like, 
 
36 TEACHER'S GUIDE. 
 
 in this example, are equally distant from 0, and that they 
 are equally distant from each other. These points may be 
 connected so as to form a^ regular octagon. 
 
 In case it is required to draw an octagon without the aid 
 of instruments, this is the most ready way to determine the 
 eight prominent points in the figure. 
 
 Ex. 4. Sow is this example to he drawn ? 
 
 Proceed as in Ex. 3, omitting the lines corresponding to 
 VO ; then, beginning at the point A, draw the detail on the 
 left half of the figure ; and then, starting again at A, draw 
 that on the right. Before drawing these lines, carefully 
 observe their direction. Take those starting at A, for ex- 
 ample, and it will be seen that one line points towards J, 
 and that the other points towards E. 
 
 After this example has been drawn, instead of drawing it 
 again on the right half of the page, a new figure may be 
 formed, in this way : proceed as in Ex. 3, and then draw 
 lines connecting the points A and L, L and E, E and V ; 
 other points corresponding to these. 
 
 LESSON V. 
 
 In this lesson, we begin the study of curved lines. 
 
 Wliat is a curved line ? 
 
 A curved line is one whose direction is changed at evoiy 
 point. Any line that is not straight, nor composed of 
 straight lines, is a curved line. 
 
mSTBUCTIONS. 37 
 
 What means are used to ascertain the ewimature of a 
 line? 
 
 The linfi is compared' with a straight line. In Ex. 1, the 
 curved line ADB is compared with the- straight line ABi 
 
 Curved lines axe more difficult to draw than straight lines. 
 It requires no great keenness of perception to'see' that aline 
 is straight ,". but it does require a sharp eye- tO' detect, at a 
 glance, the exact sweep of a curve : and no greater mistake 
 can be made than to assume that the pupil must see this 
 because the line is before his eyes. Study alone will give 
 the eye that keenness of perception necessary to enable him 
 to do it. The common practice' of allowing the pupil to 
 proceed at once to» drawing, without first making the ex- 
 ample a study, is why so much time is spent in learning to 
 draw. Pupils are permitted to- draw too much ; and they 
 are required to study too little. It is an absurdity to sup- 
 pose that any one can accurately represent a form of which 
 he has no) definite knowledge ; and yet, in utter disregard 
 of this self-evident truth, pupils are usually permitted to 
 spend all the- time devoted to drawing in attempting to do 
 it. The great majority seem ta act on the supposition that 
 the power to- draw resides in the hand, and not in the head. 
 The hasnd needs discipline ; but the eyC) the organ through 
 which the mind receives its knowledge of form, needs it a 
 great deal more, in the great majority of cases. As a rule, 
 there need be little anxiety that the hand will be found in- 
 conajpetent to perform all thait the mind has the knowledge 
 to direct. 
 
38 TEACEER'3 GUIDE. 
 
 On taking up a new example, call tlie attention of the 
 class to every line in it ; taking each line in its turn, ques- 
 tion them in regard to all the facts connected with it ; point 
 out what they fail to notice, and, before they are allowed to 
 put their pencils to paper, be sure that they have an accu- 
 rate knowledge of the form to be represented, and that they 
 understand what course to take in making the drawing. 
 
 Unless there is more than usual care exercised in drawing 
 these examples, they will be very likely to be wanting in 
 accuracy. The importance of requiring of the pupils all 
 that it is reasonable to expect of them in this respect cannot 
 be too strongly urged upon the teacher. A form something 
 like the original is not enough. It should be as near like 
 it as it is possible for the pupil to make it. 
 
 A curved lino should not be drawn by making a series of 
 dots ; neither should it be made in little pieces. By this 
 we do not mean that all lines should be drawn from begin- 
 ning to end without taking the pencil from the paper. The 
 idea that we wish to convey is, that each stroke should be 
 as long as it can be conveniently made, aU things consid- 
 ered. 
 
 In drawing these examples, let all lines be made very 
 light at first, — just dark enough to bo clearly visible; and 
 let each stroke of the pencil, whether it be good or bad, 
 remain until en accurate outline has been secured : then ■ 
 the true lines should be strengthened ; and, when this has 
 been done, the false should be removed. A false stroke has 
 
INSTRUCTIONS. 39 
 
 its use : it serves as a guide to a correct one. With the false 
 liue before him, the pupil wiU be the better able to judge 
 where the true line should be. 
 
 It is a common notion that all lines should be drawn 
 firmly, and at once. It is said that Giotto once drew the 
 outline of a circle with one stroke of his pencil. Whether 
 this story is true or false, one thing is certain, — Giotto is 
 the only man that ever had the credit of doing it. Where 
 strict accuracy is required, the professional draughtsman, in 
 .drawing any form bounded by curved lines, always makes 
 more or less false strokes ; and this induces him to first 
 sketch in the outline faintly, as we have recommended. 
 This is the common practice where accuracy is demanded ; 
 and now, since this is so, is it not folly to ask a child, with 
 hand and eye untrained, to attempt what those skilled in 
 art cannot do ? 
 
 In drawing a curved line, the motion of the hand should 
 be sufficiently slow to allow the mind ample time to judge 
 of its accuracy as the pencil moves from point to point. It 
 is the mind that considers and determines the sweep of the 
 curve, and the mind must guide and prompt the hand in 
 drawing it. A bold and dashing line with the beginner is 
 always a reckless line. 
 
 Before attempting to draw a curved line, care should be 
 taken to have the hand and arm properly placed. If there 
 is a failure here, the line cannot be drawn with ease, and 
 therefore it'is not likely to be well drawn. When the hand 
 is on the paper, before making each stroke, go through the 
 motion of drawing the line ; and, if it cannot be made with 
 
40 TEACHER'S QVIDE. 
 
 ease, chaBge the position of tLe hand or arm, as may be 
 necessary to secure the desired result. , 
 
 Ex. 1. What is the purpose of the Une AB in this eoo- 
 ample ? 
 
 Is the curve in this line the same in all its parts ? 
 
 Are the points A and B on the same level ? 
 
 What point in the line is at the greatest distance from 
 AB? 
 
 The point D is over what point in the line AB ? 
 
 Where in the line AB is the point C ? 
 
 What is the purpose of the line DC ? 
 
 Compared with AC, what is the distance between the 
 points D and C ? 
 
 How is this example to be drawn ? 
 
 Draw the guide-line AB ; then place the point C in its 
 ■centre, and at this point erect the perpendicular CD, equal 
 in length to one-third of AC ; then, starting at D, draw the 
 curve to A, and then, starting again at D, continue the line 
 toB. 
 
 Preparatory to drawing the line ADB, practise the hand 
 on the movement necessary in making it. Hold the point 
 of the pencil over D, in the example, very near, but not 
 quite touching, the paper ; then, with a steady motion of 
 the hand, — the motion being from the wrist, — carry the 
 pencil over the line to A, following it accurately. In doing 
 this, it is quite likely that many of the class will find that 
 they did not have either the hand or arm properly placed in 
 order to draw the line with ease. Let this exercise be re 
 
INSTRUCTIONS. 41 
 
 peated a reasonable nmnter of times, that the hand may 
 become somewhat accustomed to the motion required in 
 drawing the line ; and then, before drawing DB, pursue a 
 similar course with that part of the line. 
 
 Ex. 2. This example is the reverse of Ex, 1. Question 
 the pupils as in that example, before they are permitted to 
 draw the line. 
 , How is this example to he drawn ? 
 
 Draw the guide-line EF, and place Ihe point H in its 
 centre ; next draw HJ ; then, beginning at E, draw that 
 part of the line between E and J ;.and then, starting at F, 
 complete the line. 
 
 In drawing the line from E to J, move the book a little 
 farther to the left than usual, and place the elbow on the 
 desk, so as to bring the thumb on a line with the guide-line 
 EF. In drawing the part JF, let the book be placed as 
 usual, and let the elbow be near the side. 
 
 Exs. 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8. To guide the class in drawing 
 these examples, no further instruction is needed. 
 
 Exs. 9 AND 10. These examples, it will be observed, are 
 but a combination of Exs. 1 and 2. They afford an illustra- 
 tion of the line known as Hogarth's line of beauty. 
 
 How should these examples he drawn ? 
 
 In Ex. 9, draw the guide-line AB ; then place the points 
 F, C, and K, dividing it into four equal parts ; next draw 
 the perpendiculars DF and KJ ; then, beginning at the 
 
42 TEACHER'S GUIDE. 
 
 point A> draw the curves aa instructed in Exs.>l and 2. 
 Ex. 10 should be drawn iii like manner. 
 . Ex. 11; How should tkis example he drawn ? 
 
 Draw the lines AB and CD, :making their extremities 
 equally distant from V. Place the point E in the middle 
 of AV, and.then place the point X in the middle of AF. 
 Through the. point F draw. EH, perpendicular- to AV, mak-. 
 ing the part EF and the part FH equal FX, and then draw- 
 JL, E.T, and NP, as suggested by the drawing of EH. In 
 drawing ihe curved 'lines, proceed as indicated iy the. nu- 
 merals. 
 
 LESSON VI. 
 
 ■ The figures forming the examples in this lesson are called 
 oiroles. 
 
 Wlmt is a circle ? 
 "A circle is a plane figure bounded by a curved line, every 
 point of whieh is equally distant fix)m the central point in 
 the figure. 
 
 What is the curved line bounding the figure called? 
 
 This line is called the oircumferenee of the circle. 
 
 What is any part of the droumferenee of a circle called ? 
 
 Any part of the circumference is called an arc. 
 
 What is a diameter of a circle ? 
 
 Any straight line passing through the centre of a circle, 
 having its-extremities in the circumference, is called a di- 
 ameter. 
 
INSTRUCTIONS. 43 
 
 What is a radius of a circle ? 
 
 A.11Y straight line drawa from the centre to the circum- 
 ference of a circle is called a radius. 
 
 Ex. 1. How is, this example to he drawn ? 
 
 Draw the diameters AC and BD, making their extremi- 
 ties, A, B, C, and D, equally distant from E ; next draw 
 the guide-lines forming the, square ABCD, and then place 
 a point in the middle of each of these lines. Then fix in 
 the mind the distance between the points E and K, and 
 place the point E; next hold the point of the pencil over 
 B, and, with the hand resting. on the book, go through the 
 motion of drawing the line from B to A. You may find 
 that you have not placed your hand right, or that your arm 
 is not in a position to enable you to draw the line with ease. 
 When you are satisfied that you cannot improve the posi- 
 tion of the hand^ or arm, draw the line from B to A, making 
 it very light. Before proceeding farther with the outline, 
 carefully examine what has been done. If, on examination, 
 the line is , found to be wrong in any particular, correct it. 
 It may be necessary to draw many lines before the correct 
 one is obtained ; but, no matter how many may be made, 
 let aU remain until a perfect outline of the figure is secured. 
 When a correct drawing of this part of the, outline, has been 
 made, then place the point H, and draw the arc AHD ; and, 
 in doing this, pursue a course simUar to that recommended 
 in drawing the arc AFB. While drawing this line, let the 
 eye occasionally take in all that has been drawn of the out- 
 line, that you may be the more certain of keeping the sweep 
 
44 TEACHER'S GUIDE. 
 
 of the line the same throughout. When the outline has 
 heeu drawn to D, begin at B, and complete the circle, pur- 
 suing a course similar to that recommended in drawing 
 BPAHD. After the outline has been struck out in this 
 way, carefully examine it, holding the book upright, so that 
 you may look perpendicularly upon the plane of the paper, 
 and at some little distance from the eye, so that the entire 
 outline of the figure may be distinctly seen at one view. 
 If found to be imperfect in any of its paxts, alter the hne, 
 and, when it is supposed to be correct, slightly strengthen 
 the true line ; then, using the rubber lightly, erase all but 
 the outline (and, in doing this, no especial care need be ex- 
 ercised to avoid touching this line ; for, since it is stronger 
 than the others, it wiU be visible after they have disap- 
 peared) ; and, when this has been done, strengthen the out- 
 line. 
 
 To avoid repetition, let it be understood hereafter, that, 
 when a correct outline of any figure has been secured, the 
 true lines are to be slightly strengthened, guide-lines and 
 all lines incorrectly drawn are to be erased, and then the 
 outline is to be again strengthened, as here recommended. 
 
 Exs. 2 AND 3. It is intended that these examples should 
 be drawn without the aid of guide-lines, other than those 
 given. The drawing of Ex. 1 will suggest where to begin, 
 and how to proceed, in drawing these figures. 
 
INSTRUCTIONS. 45 
 
 LESSON Til. 
 
 Ex. 1. Sow is this example to he drawn ? 
 
 Draw the guide-lines AB, CD, EF, and HJ, in the order 
 named, and place the points K, N", P, and in the middle 
 of the lines AV, CV, VB, and VD. It will be observed 
 that the- lines corresponding to EV equal KV, one-half of 
 AV. In drawing, the curved lines, proceed as indicated by 
 the numerals. 
 
 Ex. 2. How is this example to be drawn ? 
 
 Draw the guide-lines AB and CD. Place the points L, 
 N, P, and 0, dividing the lines AK, GK, KB, and KD 
 into equal parts, and then place the points E, E, J, and H, 
 dividing LK, NK, KP, and KO into equal parts. By this 
 arrangement, we locate four prominent points in each of 
 the curved lines forming the figure. Having placed the 
 points named, draw the curved lines passing through them 
 in the order indicated by the numerals. 
 
 LESSON Tin. 
 
 Ex. 1. How is this example to he drawn ? 
 
 Draw the guide-lines AB and CD, and then place points 
 dividing AO, CO, OB, and OD into three equal parts. 
 Then draw all lines corresponding to HP, JK, and NL, and 
 
46 TEACHER'S GUIDE. 
 
 finally draw the curved lines, beginning at tlie upper part 
 of the figure. 
 
 Ex. 2. JEow ifS this example to he drawn ? 
 
 Draw the guide-lines forming the square ABCD, and 
 place points dividing each side into four equal parts ; then 
 draw FO and SK. Place points dividing each half of FO 
 and SK into four equal parts, and then draw the lines cor- 
 responding to EU and HU ; then those for the curved liaes 
 in the centre of the figure, and finally draw the curved lines, 
 drawing the larger curves fijst. 
 
 LESSON IX. 
 
 The figures forming the examples in this lesson are called 
 ellipses. . , 
 
 No definition of this figure can be given that will convey 
 to the mind of the pupil so clear an idea of its form as he 
 may obtain fi:om a careful study of the figure itself. 
 
 In directing the attention of the class to the peculiarities 
 of this figure, it is very desirable that a drawing of it be 
 made on the board. Then, by pointing to that part of the 
 outline to which the instruction refers, there can be no mis- 
 understanding in regard to the particular part referred to, 
 which would be very likely to be the case if the example in 
 the book were used for this purpose. 
 
INSTSUCTIONS. 47 
 
 • 
 
 Ex. 1. What is the length of BD, the short diameter of 
 the ellipse, compared with AC, its long diameter ? 
 
 Starting at B, describe the curve of the arc BFA as cor- 
 rectly and as minutely as you can. 
 
 Is the arc BHC exactly like the are BFA ? 
 
 Is the outline of the lower half of the figure exactly like 
 that of the upper half? 
 
 How is this example to be drawn ? 
 
 Draw the diame.ters, and then draw the guide-lines ; next 
 place the point F to mark the point in the arc AFB, that 
 is, at the greatest distance from the guide-line AB, and then 
 draw the arc AFB ; then, pursuing a similar course, draw 
 the arc AKD ; next draw BHC, and then C JD. 
 
 Ex. 2. Hmo is this example to be drawn ? 
 
 First draw the guide-line AB ; then place the point J in 
 the middle of this line, and then place the point C so as to 
 divide JB into equal parts. Guided by AB, draw the guide- 
 lines DE and FH ; and then, without the aid of other 
 guide-lines, draw the two ellipses. Before the outline is 
 strengthened, the guide-lines, and such parts of the ellipses 
 as do not form a part of the figure, should be erased. 
 
 LSSSON X. 
 
 The figure given in Ex. 1 is called an oval. 
 What is an oval ? 
 
48 TEACHER'S GUIDE. 
 
 An oval is a plane figure, resembling in shape the longi- 
 tudinal section of an egg. 
 
 Ex. 1. Is the arc BAD, in this example, exactly like the 
 arc BCD ? 
 
 What points in these arcs are at the greatest distance 
 from the line BD ? 
 'Is the line AG perpendicular to BD ? 
 
 Compared with EB, what is the distance from E io A, 
 andfr.om'E to 0? 
 
 What is the distance from B to E, compared with BD ? 
 
 What part of the outline is like the arc of a circle ? 
 
 Compare the arc AJDG with the arc BAD in Les. ix., 
 Ex. 1, and point out the difference- between them. 
 
 Sow is this example to he drawn ? 
 
 Draw the line BD, and place points dividing it into three 
 equal parts ; then place the points A and C on a level with 
 E, and distant from it equal to the measure of BE, and then 
 draw AC ; next draw the guide-lines ; then draw that part 
 of the outline lying above AC, and in doing this proceed as 
 in drawing a circle ; then draw the part lying below AC, 
 drawing AD and then CD. 
 
 In the examples that follow in this lesson, the Vase forms 
 the subject. The oval, or egg form, is more frequently em- 
 ployed than any other in the construction of this class of 
 ornaments. The figure is an ornament of itself. It is full 
 of beauty ; and so apparent is this, that even the dullest 
 eye sees something to admire in the sweep of its outline. 
 
INSTRUCTIONS. 49 
 
 The vase has three principal parts, known as the body, 
 the foot, and the neek. The opening at the top of the yase 
 is called its mouth. The body is that part lying between 
 the lines CD and FI ; the part below the body is the foot ; 
 the part above, the nect. 
 
 That a vase may be beautiful, there is no fixed length 
 that its parts must have as compared with each other : still, 
 if all of its members be of equal length, the law of variety 
 is violated, and the vase is not beautiful. Variety is an 
 essential element of beauty. Speaking in general- terms, 
 we may say that the body may be Ibnger or shorter than 
 the neck ; but the foot, at njost, should not n^uch exceed 
 one-third the length of the body ; and, to satisfy the laws 
 of stability, the breadth of this member should correspond 
 to the breadth and height of the other members. If the 
 neck is short, the mouth should be large ; and if it be long, 
 the mouth should be small. Guided by these suggestions, 
 it may be a useful and a pleasant exercise for the pupils in 
 their leisure moments to exercise their inventive powers in 
 attempting to produce forms unlike those given in these 
 examples. For the body of the vase, any one of the primary 
 forms given in the previous lessons is appropriate. 
 
 Ex. 2. Compared with the body, what is the length of 
 the neek? and what is the length of the foot of this vase ? 
 
 Does the line AB pass through the centre of the vase ? 
 
 What is the distance of K from A, compared with the 
 length of the neck ? 
 
 What is the distance of 0, the nearest point in the out- 
 
 4 
 
60 TEACHER '8 GUIDE. 
 
 line of the neck, to the guide-line AB, compared with the 
 length of the neck ? 
 
 What is the distance of C from E, compared with tJie 
 length of the body ? 
 
 What is the distance of F from J, compared with the 
 length of the foot? 
 
 What is the distance from N to B, compared with the 
 length of foot ? 
 
 Is the right side of the vase exactly like the left side? 
 
 S(fw is this vase to he drawn ? 
 
 Draw the guide-line AB, and place points in the line, 
 dividing it into five equal parts ; then place the points K 
 and L on a level with A, and at a distance from it equal to 
 the measure of AE, and then draw KL; next place the 
 points C and D on a level with E, and at a distance from it 
 equal to one-half the measure of E J, and then draw CD ; 
 then draw the guide-lines C J and D J ; next place the points 
 F and I on a level with J, and at a distance from it equal 
 to one-fourth the measure of JB, and then draw FI ; next 
 place the points N and K on a level with B, and at a dis- 
 tance from it equal to the measure of JB, and draw NK. 
 Beginning at the top of the vase, draw the line lying near 
 and parallel to KL, and then draw the curved lines con- 
 necting the extremities of these lines ; next place the point 
 P in the centre of AE, and then place the point on a level 
 with P, and at a distance from it equal to the distance of 
 P from A, and then draw the curved line forming the out- 
 line of the left side of the neck ; then, in like manner, draw 
 the outline of the right side of the neck ; next draw the 
 
INSTRUCTIONS. 51 
 
 curyetj line forming the outline of the left side of the hody, 
 and then draw that on the right. In drawing the foot, 
 proceed as suggested by the course adopted in drawing the 
 neck. 
 
 Ex. 3. Having drawn the vase in Ex. 2 as directed, the 
 proper course to pursue in drawing this example will at 
 once suggest itself to the teacher. Before the pupils are 
 allowed to draw the vase, question them thoroughly in re- 
 gard to all the facts connected with it. 
 
 LESSON' XI. 
 
 Ex. 1 represents a leaf of the chestnut ; Ex. 2, a leaf of a 
 plant called the arrow-head ; Ex. 3, a leaf of the German 
 ivy ; Ex, 4, a leaf of the English ivy ; Ex. 5, a leaf of the 
 geranium. 
 
 In drawing a leaf, first make a light single line to repre- 
 sent the vein which runs from the stem of the leaf to its 
 apex ; then, where there are other prominent veins, as in 
 the ivy and in the geranium, sketch them in, in the same 
 manner ; then, guided by these lines, sketch very lightly 
 the main outline of the leaf, paying no regard to the minor 
 detail ; and, when this has been done, give the outline its 
 true character ; finally, carefully draw the large veins, then 
 add the smaller veins and the shade, if any is to be given 
 to the drawing. 
 
52 TEACHER'S GUIDE. 
 
 After these examples have been drawn, let the pupils 
 draw from actual leaves, care being taken to select those 
 of simple foim. 
 
 LESSON yTT. 
 
 Ex. 1. The leaves represented in this example are those 
 of the rose. Represent the stem by a simple line, and then 
 proceed as instructed in the previous lesson. 
 
 Ex. 2. First sketch the main leaf and stock ; then, by a 
 single line, represent the branch leading from the main 
 stock ; then draw the leaves connected with it, and complete 
 the outline of the branch ;'add the tendrils, then the blos- 
 som and the fruit, and finally the minor detail of the parts. 
 
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