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Do not deface books by marks and writing. Cornell University Library The original of this book is in the Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924029317447 Cornell University Library BT741 .M12 Man's origin olin 3 1924 029 317 447 MAN'S ORIGIN, DESTINY, AND DUTY SYMBOLIC LOGIC AND ITS APPLICATIONS (4.J. i>d. net) BY HUGH MAC COLL, B.A. (Lond.) {For opinions of the Press see p. 203.) MAN'S ORIGIN, DESTINY, AND DUTY BY HUGH MAC COLL LONDON WILLIAMS & NORGATE 14 HENRIETTA STREET, COVENT GARDEN 1909 PREFACE Basing my arguments upon facts admitted by nearly all scientists, I have striven in this little volume to establish the following pro- positions : — (i) That, as regards man and all sentient animals, the soul (which I simply define as that •which feels) and the body are different entities. (2) That the soul will survive the body and, by successive transformations, will continually develop upwards. (3) That a psychic universe exists contain- ing numberless ascending orders of intelligent beings above the human ; though these are imperceptible to man's senses in the present stage of his development. (4) That the whole physical and psychic universe is maintained and directed by one infinitely powerful (according to a clear and VI PREFACE rigorous definition of the word infinite) and infinitely intelligent Being, whose will, as shown in the so-called "laws of nature," it is man's duty to study, and, within the limits of his faculties and knowledge, to obey. The question so often discussed whether the Supreme Being is a "personal," an "imper- sonal," or an " immanent " God, I leave un- touched : firstly, because I consider it irrelevant to my argument ; and, secondly, because it is scarcely possible to enter upon such a discussion without losing oneself hopelessly in a maze of verbal and metaphysical ambiguities. I am much obliged to the conductors of the Hibbert Journal for their kind permission to reprint the two papers which form the Appendix. HUGH MAC COLL. 28 Rue de Beaurepaire, boulogne-sur-mer. CONTENTS CHAP. 1. THE SOUL AND THE BODY . 2. THE SUPERHUMAN 3. THE INFINITE 4. THE FOUNDATION OF ETHICS 5. SCIENTIFIC FALLACIES . 6. MIRACLES 7. EVOLUTION AND DESIGN 8. MAN AND THE LOWER ANIMALS 9. PSEUDO-EVOLUTION 10. THE FALLACIES OF HAECKEL 11. MORALITY AND RELIGION PAGE I 28 43 69 3S 92 99 106 124 >3 2 148 APPENDIX (from the Hibbert Journal) CHANCE OR PURPOSE? WHAT AND WHERE IS THE SOUL? 164 183 MAN'S ORIGIN, DESTINY, AND DUTY CHAPTER I THE SOUL AND THE BODY Life and consciousness combined constitute the central mystery of nature. It is important, however, to remark that the two are not always found together. We can have life without consciousness ; can we have consciousness with- out life ? To many the question may seem absurd, the answer being so plainly in the negative. The plant lives, but it is not con- scious. Man, when in a profound dreamless sleep, or under the influence of chloroform, also lives, but, for the time, he is not conscious. More remarkable still, an animal deprived of a actions, such as eating, drinking, walk running, climbing or flying, with no more 1 ing of or knowledge of what it is doing th motor-car or steam-engine. The operation probably never been performed on man ; we have no reason to suppose that, if it v, man would prove an exception. These examples of life without consciousness. Car adduce any cases of consciousness without 1 To make the question intelligible, let us be c as to the meanings of our words. We car feel, we cannot have any kind of sensation, w out being conscious of it. To speak (as F Haeckel does in his "Riddle of the Universe " unconscious sensations " is to talk nonse The moment we cease to be conscious of particular sensation (say the toothache) ceases to be sensation. We cannot theref in the ordinary sense of the words, have sei tion without consciousness ; can we have c sciousness without sensation ? When a ma THE SOUL AND THE BODY 3 plunged in deep thought, as in seeking the solution of some difficult problem, he may be wholly insensible to all that passes around him ; he may neither see, hear, taste, nor smell ; he may neither feel the table on which he is leaning, nor the chair on which he is sitting ; but can he be said not to feel at all, to have no sensation of any kind ? Consistency of language and clearness of reasoning require an answer in the negative ; for, surely, thinking (of which he is intensely conscious) is itself a feeling, and should therefore be reckoned amongst our sensations. Hence, we can no more have consciousness without sensation (in the ordinary unambiguous signification of the words) than we can have sensation without con- sciousness. This linguistic convention enables us to pass over as irrelevant the metaphysical distinction between concepts and percepts ; both come under our category of sensations. Having thus cleared the ground as to language and meaning, let us go back to our starting-point. Life and consciousness, as we all know, are not necessarily inseparable : we 4 MAN'S ORIGIN, DESTINY, DUTY can have life without consciousness ; can we have consciousness without life ? If we define the Soul or Ego (in man or in the sentient lower animals) as simply that which feels, or is conscious? and, within the limits of this discussion, restrict the term life to the unconscious plant and the material animal body, the question may be put into another form. Instead of asking whether sensation or consciousness can exist without life, we may ask whether the Soul can feel without the instrumentality of the material body, brain, and nervous system. If it can, then consciousness may exist without life — that is animal life — just as life may exist without consciousness. This is the most momentous question that confronts humanity. Physiologists have shown by various experi- ments and observations that, in spite of the conflicting and illusive testimonies of some of our sensations, no part of the body, if we except the brain, ever feels ; but no physiologist has as 1 This definition, of course, implies that non-sentient animate (animals that never feel) have no souls, an inference which cuts away the whole basis of Prof. Haeckel's reasoning, discussed in Chapter X. THE SOUL AND THE BODY 5 yet brought forward any trustworthy data which would warrant the conclusion that the brain is an exception. If it is not an exception, the inference is inevitable, that the whole body, the brain included^ is a mere medium of sensory trans- mission, and is itself as insensible as the electric apparatus in wireless telegraphy. Consider the following facts : — (1) The big toe (or any other) of a man in an ordinary state of health is touched with a red-hot wire. He quickly raises his leg, utters an exclamation of pain, and the pain continues for some time after. Ask him where he feels the pain, and he will answer (probably with some emphasis) that he feels it in his big toe. (2) From some injury, temporary or per- manent, to the brain or spinal cord, the sen- sory (or afferent) nerves of a man's leg are para- lysed, while the motor (or efferent) nerves remain unaffected. Without his knowledge, the big toe of one foot is pricked with a needle, or touched with a red-hot wire. The leg is raised suddenly, as in the previous case, but this time the man utters no exclamation of pain : he does not know 6 MAN'S ORIGIN, DESTINY, DUTY that his leg has moved, and he feels no pain either in his toe or elsewhere. (3) A man's leg is amputated while he is under the influence of chloroform and wholly unconscious. When consciousness returns after the operation, the patient usually asks when the operation is going to begin. He is told that the operation is over, and that his leg is in an adjoining room. This he has great difficulty in believing. He says that he feels as if his leg still formed part of his body ; that he feels pain in his toes, and that he can move them just as before. He is not fully convinced till the sight of his eyes and the touch of his hand confirm the evidence of the doctors and their attendants. (4) A nerve is pricked or otherwise irritated somewhere along its course between the brain and the point at which the nerve meets the bodily surface. Where does the man imagine that he feels the pain ? Not at the point of irritation, not in the brain, but at the point where the nerve meets the bodily surface. For here it is that, from the nerve's comparatively THE SOUL AND THE BODY 7 unprotected position, the irritation resulting in sensation usually takes place. Bearing these facts in mind let us again ask : What is it exactly that feels ? and where is it situated ? By express definition, the sentient entity is the Soul. By express definition also the Soul, and the Soul alone, is conscious. If, as some physiologists affirm, the brain, and the brain alone, feels and is conscious, then it is clear that the brain and the Soul are synonyms — a rather startling conclusion. Let us examine our premisses. The premiss that the Soul, and the Soul alone, feels, is a pure definition and cannot therefore be called in question. The second premiss asserts that the brain, and the brain alone, feels. This is a matter of inference, founded on the facts just stated, and on others of an analogous nature. The essential points in these facts are : first, that in a certain con- dition of the brain the Soul (or Ego) feels ; and, next, that in another condition of the brain the Soul (or Ego) does not feel. Do these two facts combined warrant the conclusion that the brain and Ego are one — that the brain 8 MAN'S ORIGIN, DESTINY, DUTY feels, that the brain is conscious, that the brain thinks and reasons ? The best reply is to ask a similar question in a parallel case. In a certain condition of the atmosphere the Ego (which is the sentient entity by definition) feels warm ; in another condition of the atmo- sphere the Ego does not feel warm. Do these two facts combined warrant the conclusion that the atmosphere and the Ego are one — that the atmosphere feels, that the atmosphere is con- scious, that the atmosphere thinks and reasons ? If the inference is absurd in the second case, why should it be held valid in the first ? This is a question which those who hold that the brain is an exception to the general rule of corporal insensibility will, I think, find difficult to answer. And if the brain, as there is every reason to believe, is not an exception to the general rule of corporal insensibility, what is the inevitable conclusion ? This : that the whole body, brain included, is an automaton, with no more memory than a phonograph, and no more judgment than an inanimate calculating machine. Yet something feels ; of that each person is THE SOUL AND THE BODY ,9 absolutely sure by direct consciousness, and we arbitrarily denote that something by the word Sou/, or Ego, which we regard as synonyms. This is as legitimate a step in reasoning as our right in mathematics to denote a certain distance (known or unknown) by any symbol AB or PQ. Since then the Soul feels, and the body (the brain not excepted) does not, there is no escape from the conclusion that, in all sentient animals, the Soul and body are two separate entities. We will not enter into the wholly irrelevant question whether the Soul is material or immaterial : it may be either according to our definition of the word matter, a word which, since the time of Berkeley, has been a bone of contention both among scientists and among metaphysicians. Having thus arrived at the conclusion that the Soul and body constitute two separate en- tities, a far more important question remains. "We have seen that the animal body may exist and live without the Soul (as when the cerebrum is removed) ; can the Soul exist without the body ? I say exist, not li-ve, for by previous defi- io MAN'S ORIGIN, DESTINY, DUTY nition, the term life {within the limits of this dis- cussion) is restricted to the plant or animal body. Our definition of the Soul or Ego as " that which feels, or is conscious," does not, of course, imply that the Soul or Ego always feels or is always conscious. We have no evidence that in profound dreamless sleep, or under the full influence of chloroform, the Soul or Ego, the real person, feels or is conscious. It might perhaps be argued that the Soul (the sentient entity by definition) of a patient under chloro- form, though cut off from communication with the body and its nervous system for the time, may have other sensations through some other instrumentality elsewhere ; and that, since the two groups, or two series, of sensations generally remain distinct, the patient forgets the latter when communication is restored and he awakes. As a rule, when a hypnotised person awakes into normal consciousness, the sensations and emotions of his dream vanish instandy from his recollection, and do not return during his normal waking state. But the two cases are not quite parallel. We have evidence that a re- THE SOUL AND THE BODY u newal of the hypnotic state may renew the forgotten dream ; we have no evidence that a renewal of the insensibility, or apparent insensi- bility, caused by the chloroform resuscitates a forgotten dream, or that any such had ever existed. In the hypnotic state the Soul (or sentient entity), whatever its locality, appears to be in constant communication with some portion of the brain ; whereas in the chloroformed state, as in a profound dreamless sleep, all communi- cation seems for the time to be interrupted. Before proceeding further it will be well to briefly recapitulate. (i) By express definition, the Soul or Ego is the entity that feels, and, in its higher develop- ments, thinks and reasons. (2) Physiologists, by various convincing argu- ments, have arrived at the conclusion that no part of the body, if we except the brain, feels, thinks, or reasons ; and we have no valid reason for supposing that the brain is an exception. In other words, analogy would lead to the infer- ence that the whole body, brain and nervous system included, has in itself no more feeling, 12 MAN'S ORIGIN, DESTINY, DUTY consciousness, will, thought, or initiative than a plant, phonograph, or calculating machine, or the inanimate apparatus in wireless telegraphy. Like the last, the brain neither feels nor under- stands the sensations and intelligence which it transmits. (3) As to the position of the soul, we can say nothing. For aught we know, its position may be fixed or variable. It may, at one instant, be in the body, or near the body, and, the instant after, it may be millions of miles away from the body. The last hypothesis sounds undoubtedly startling ; but so did most of the fundamental facts both of physical and of physiological science when they were first enunciated. We need not seek far for examples. Could any- thing be more staggering at the first blush than the now universally admitted statement that the earth is very nearly spherical ? Is it not an historical fact that the early supporters of the theory found it difficult to answer the plausible objection offered by the scientists of the day, that, in that case, " people on the other side of THE SOUL AND THE BODY i A the earth " must necessarily fall off into the infinite abyss " below " them ? No less start- ling at first was the now universally accepted theory that, instead of the sun going round the earth, it is the earth that goes round the sun. And coming to comparatively recent times, did not our scientific authorities, almost without exception, ridicule the facts of hypnotism (or mesmerism) which they now universally admit ? Equally startling at first, though now a daily commonplace, were the facts of wireless tele- graphy. And what about telepathy ? Not all of our leading scientists, it is true, believe in this doctrine yet ; but many, and a fast in- creasing number, after making due allowance for the intentional fraud of some narrators and the unconscious self-deception of others, declare their belief in the reality of at least its funda- mental principle. 1 Now, the principle of tele- pathy once admitted — the principle that a human being, voluntarily or involuntarily, may, without any electrical apparatus (as in wireless telegraphy), or other visible means of com- 1 See Note on p. 29. i 4 MAN'S ORIGIN, DESTINY, DUTY munication, instantly convey a sensation to another person many miles distant — this principle, I say, being once admitted, the hypothesis that the Soul or Ego may be conscious while far away from its ever uncon- scious body, and may from a distance, while believing itself in close contact, control the ordinary movements of that body, and even influence others, becomes easily credible. What valid objection can be made to the hypothesis ? The only objection is this, that the hypothesis seems to conflict with our immediate sensations, or with the inference which we usually draw from these sensations. Is the objection valid ? Clearly not, or we should believe that the whole sky moved round our stationary earth, that the image in a mirror was a reality, and that a person telephoning from Paris was whispering close to our ear in London. Let us trace hypothetically the sequel of sensations by which the Soul or Ego might erroneously have arrived at the conclusion that it is always in immediate contact with, or forms THE SOUL AND THE BODY 15. a part of, the body, whose movements it can (within limits) control by an exertion of the will. We know that a person who is born blind from cataract, and after several years obtains the faculty of sight by removal of the cataract, has at first no knowledge of distance or per- spective. The moon appears within his reach till the extension of his arm to touch it con- vinces him of his error. Let us imagine a sentient, brain-possessing being, human or other, that has always lived alone, rooted like a plant to the same spot, with no power of voluntary motion, no experience of the outer world except through the sense of sight. Would not such a being imagine that he and the outer world formed one, and that therefore the earth, sun, and sky formed parts of him- self ? A dark cloud passing over the sun would produce in him a sensation of cold ; the reappearance of the sun would produce a sensation of warmth. Where would such a being imagine he felt cold or warm ? If he could express his thoughts in words, would he not say that he felt cold or warm in his sun, or 1 6 MAN'S ORIGIN, DESTINY, DUTY that he had a cold or warm sun, just as in ordinary language we say that we have cold or warm feet, though physiologists assure us that all real conscious feeling is in the brain. As another hypothetical illustration, imagine a disembodied soul anywhere in the universe, possessing all the human faculties of seeing, hearing, willing, thinking, etc., but without the material organs which usually accompany them. That this is no impossible conception is proved by the fact that it sometimes accompanies a certain class of nervous maladies. The sight and hearing of the patient are abnormally and even painfully acute, and he has the full power of his reason, but with all this he has the feel- ing (which, rightly or wrongly, he considers an illusion) that he no longer exists materially, that his body and the whole world of his past experiences have departed from him, or he from them, into the infinite immensities of space, from the dark centre of which, however, he can still perceive them as in a dream, projected like an image on the distant sky. Let it be par- ticularly noted that in these cases the patient, THE SOUL AND THE BODY i-f when a person of education, has the full use of his reason, and that, like the doctors who attend him, he believes all these strange and disquiet- ing psychical experiences to be pure illusions due to some abnormal and unhealthy state of the brain. That the sensations are caused by, or accompanied by, an abnormal and, as far as the health of the body is concerned, an in- jurious condition of the brain, is likely enough ; but are they in all respects illusory ? That is a question which should not be answered off- hand, as though it needed no serious thought or consideration. While a person is thus afflicted, he can see far-off minute objects really existing, and hear actually spoken far-off faint whispers, though these same far-off objects and whispers are wholly imperceptible to others near him. On these points, at least, he is under no illusion. On the contrary, he has, from the acuteness of his sensations, more trustworthy data for arriv- ing at correct conclusions than the data possessed by those not similarly afflicted. Is it quite certain that, as he and others think, his other 2 1 8 MAN'S ORIGIN, DESTINY, DUTY sensations — his sensations as to his real self, his sentient Ego, being far away from his living but non-sentient body, and from the non-sentient outer world with which he seemed previously to be in contact — may not be equally trustworthy ? Let us for the moment suppose that they are trustworthy. Let us suppose that, as a matter of fact, the real person, the sentient Ego, is a long way distant from his non-sentient body and its surroundings, and examine how far his new sensations can be harmonised with our normal experiences in the ordinary hum- drum world with which we are all familiar. Like a new-born child he suddenly receives an access of new sensations ; but, unlike the new- born child, he has also very clear recollections of the old, and the new and the old appear in some respects to clash. This conflict of the soul is, by the general testimony of patients, extremely painful : some designate it as " terrifying." This is especially the case when (as sometimes happens) it comes on sud- denly. The man is in the street, say, when the attack seizes him. All at once he feels as THE SOUL AND THE BODY 19 if he, the real person, had no weight, and had been swiftly transported far, far away, while his material body had vanished into non-existence. The recollection of his normal sensations, how- ever, convinces him that this is an illusion. By a difficult effort he wills that his hand — his seemingly weightless, immaterial hand — shall move and touch his imaginary immaterial head. This exertion of his will is immediately followed by a conflict between his new sensations and his old recollections. As if set in motion by some hidden spring, an automatic weightless hand — not his — moves up to where his bodily head should be, and gives rise there to a very faint sensation of touch or resistance. This con- vinces him that a head of some sort exists at the point of contact ; but this head, like the automatically moving hand, seems like an im- material substance, not the familiar head of his recollections. He next wills to place his imaginary, immaterial, seemingly non-existent hand before his eyes to test its existence by the sense of sight. Immediately, as if moved by some far-off, intelligent, but unperceived agent 20 MAN'S ORIGIN, DESTINY, DUTY who knew and executed his will, an automatic ghostly hand, apparently not his, and far, far away, comes within his range of vision. He exerts his will again, and nervously tries to walk. He sees the ground before him, but like an illusive image on the nether sky. He sees, but as if far off upon this nether sky, his legs and the forepart of his body. He sees the move- ments of his spectral far-off legs upon the weird ethereal ground. He reasons (rightly or wrongly) that his immediate sensations are not to be trusted ; he gets confused and un- decided ; his walk becomes uncertain ; he staggers like a drunken man, and either falls or stands still and beckons wildly and speechlessly for aid. Though an attack like this may come on suddenly, it may last an indefinite time — months, or even years, — and what is the usual result ? The patient in time gets used to his new sensations. Objects near him (not except- ing his own hands, legs, and body), when within his field of vision, appear distant as before, but after a time he acquires a fair THE SOUL AND THE BODY 21 control over the movements of his seemingly distant limbs and body ; he can walk and act almost normally like his fellow-creatures. When he recovers, the recovery is generally slow, and the feeling of far-offness then passes away gradually. A sudden or very rapid recovery, after he has got used to his new sensations and has learnt to accommodate his bodily move- ments to their promptings, brings on a transitory renewal of the conflict between present sensa- tions and recent recollections, with a recurrence, for a while, of his former uncertainty as to his bodily movements. Now, which are more trustworthy, the new sensations or the old ? — the abnormal sensations which suggest that the Soul (the sentient entity) is external to and far from the non-sentient body, or the normal sensations which suggest that the Soul is somewhere inside the body, or forms one with the body ? The fact that the new sensations are rare or abnormal, and are generally found in connection with an unhealthy condition of the brain, proves nothing, since the same unhealthy condition of the brain at 22 MAN'S ORIGIN, DESTINY, DUTY the same time increases the power and acuteness of the senses of sight and hearing. Both hypotheses are, on the generality of points, consistent with the facts of ordinary experience, but the hypothesis that the sentient Soul acts on and receives sensations through the medium of a distant and non-sentient body seems, in spite of its starding strangeness, to offer a more satisfactory explanation of certain psychological and physiological phenomena. Let us take another illustration. From an accidental or intentional blow a man's skull is fractured at a certain spot. Instant insensibility ensues. The surgeon removes the portion of the fractured skull which had been pressing on the brain, and forthwith the man recovers con- sciousness. The brain is now exposed at that particular spot and its immediate vicinity. The surgeon touches a certain point in the exposed area, and the touch is immediately followed by some bodily movement, such as a spasmodic jerk of a thumb, or a sudden closing of the right- or left-hand fingers — the kind of move- ment depending upon the position of the spot THE SOUL AND THE BODY 23 touched. The patient feels not the touch on the brain, and is astonished at the involuntary movement of his thumb or fingers. Every time that particular spot is touched, the cor- responding involuntary movement instantly follows. It follows not merely without the co-operation of the patient's will, but sometimes against his will and when he tries to prevent it. The surgeon asks the patient to repeat the movement of his own accord. He does so, but the voluntary movement is less rapid and jerky. Now let us compare the two cases. In the first case the surgeon wills the movement, and the movement follows. In the second case the patient wills the movement, and the move- ment follows. In both cases the movement is produced by an exertion of will, but with an important difference. The surgeon produces the movement by touching the patient's brain at a particular spot, and could not produce it otherwise. The patient produces the same movement by direct exertion of his own will without touching his brain. The immediate mechanical cause is undoubtedly the same in 24 MAN'S ORIGIN, DESTINY, DUTY both cases — that is to say, similar molecular changes in the brain give rise to similar bodily- movements ; but the causes of the molecular changes in the two cases are widely different. This concrete example, we may remark en passant, is worth volumes of metaphysical dis- cussions on the freedom of the will. Here the will of the patient is not free when his bodily movement is caused against his wish by the surgeon's touch upon his brain. His will is free when the movement is voluntary — that is to say, when it is preceded by the thought or feeling that he can produce it or not as he chooses. This antecedent feeling of power may, however, exist without the reality. Were the patient to try to make the movement but fail, as might happen in the event of injury to a motor or efferent nerve, could his will in that case be called free ? Clearly not, for, with the customary conventions of language, freedom implies power either to act or to abstain from action : it is inconsistent with compulsion or restraint. But when there is no compulsion or restraint, linguistic consistency requires that THE SOUL AND THE BODY 25' the will should be pronounced free. A deter- minist may, of course, quibble about words and say that as a person's will always obeys the strongest motive or combination of motives, its supposed freedom is illusory. But this mode of reasoning necessarily leads to the awkward conclusion that a man never does anything voluntarily, a paradox which looks uncommonly like a reductio ad absurdum. The following illustration will exhibit the problem and its only possible solution in a nutshell. A fond father says of his young son, " He is a brave boy ; he went to the dentist of his own free will to have an aching tooth extracted." Upon which, the son says, " I was compelled to go by the intolerable pain." To maintain that these two statements contradict each other is to play upon the unavoidable ambiguity of words when separated from their context. Common-sense will find both state- ments perfecdy intelligible and mutually con- sistent. Each accurately describes the same fact ; each expresses the same truth ; but their points of view are different. 26 MAN'S ORIGIN, DESTINY, DUTY This is, however, a digression, though not a wholly irrelevant one. The important question at present is, not Is the will free ? but, Where is the Ego or Soul that wills ? Is it in the body, or near the body, or far away from the body ? The materialist, who maintains that the brain, or any portion of the brain, such as the much- spoken-of " grey matter," is the real, sentient, thinking entity, and who nevertheless admits the dictum of physiologists that the sentient thinking entity is mistaken when it imagines it feels pain in some other part of the body, such as the leg, implicitly admits the important principle that the Soul or Ego (the sentient entity by definition) may erroneously infer that it is in close contact with the portion of the body where it supposes itself to feel, and with the bodily member which it can at will set in motion. For if the sentient entity is the brain, or is anywhere within the brain, it clearly cannot be in close and immediate contact with the leg, which seemingly feels the pain of a kick, and which instantly obeys the will or mandate of the Soul when it (the sentient entity assumed THE SOUL AND THE BODY 27' to be within the brain) angrily orders it (the distant leg) to administer a kick in return. The principle is the same whether the Soul (the conscious entity by definition) from its supposed seat in the brain forces the leg, distant some forty, fifty, or sixty inches, to obey its behest, or whether it forces it to do the same from a hypothetical external distance of as many miles, or even of as many millions of miles. The only difference is that in the former case (as in ordinary telegraphy through wires) there is a materialmedium of communication, the nerves, while in the latter the medium of communica- tion, whether the ether or some other unknown substance, is (as in wireless telegraphy) imper- ceptible to our senses. Once admit that (as biologists assert) the Soul (or sentient entity) is not in that part of the body where, by direct sensation, it supposes itself to be, and all valid objection to the hypothesis that it may be altogether external to the body (brain included), and may be even many miles, or many millions of miles, from the body, vanishes. CHAPTER II THE SUPERHUMAN So far we have been considering the hypothesis of the Soul being external to and possibly far away from its own bodily mechanism. Let us now examine the hypothesis that the soul of one person may (though faintly and on rare occasions) also influence, without any perceptible or recognised medium of communication, the body of another person, and through his body his thoughts and sensations. This latter hypo- thesis is so closely connected with the former, that anyone who accepts the one will find no difficulty in accepting the other ; and when both are accepted, the possibility of telepathy follows as a matter of course. That all the cases of telepathy we hear of should be true is, a priori, exceedingly unlikely ; that many of 28 THE SUPERHUMAN 29. those which have actually occurred should be much exaggerated was also to be expected ; but after full allowance is made for all reasonable deductions, the evidence that many remarkable events, which the telepathic theory alone can explain, have really happened is overwhelming. Note. — The following personal experience of the present writer may, I think, be fairly classed as a case of telepathy. One morning, many years ago, I was, according to a rather foolish habit, sharpening my razor on the palm of my hand, preparatory to shaving. From some cause — a sudden noise, I think — I made a false movement with the razor, with the result that it slipped and inflicted an ugly gash upon my wrist. The following morning I received a letter from my fiancee (afterwards my wife) saying that she was writing hurriedly to ask if anything had happened to me, as she had just woke from a dreadfully vivid dream, or rather vision, in which I appeared to her looking very pale, with a razor in my right hand, and with my left wrist streaming with blood. The vision must have presented itself at the very moment of the accident. No one who has seriously studied the theory of proba- bility will regard this as a mere coincidence. The theory of the externality of the Soul (or 30 MAN'S ORIGIN, DESTINY, DUTY sentient entity) in all sentient animals, and especially the theory that it can influence the thoughts and feelings of others at a distance, leads to several other consequences of far more serious import to us all than that restricted theory of telepathy which would limit the action of soul upon soul to human souls alone. Narrow must be the mental outlook of the philosopher who can detect around him in this world no evidence of a higher intelligence than the human. Far below the human he perceives numberless sentient beings capable of feeling pleasure and pain, and conscious of their own existence and that of their kind, as well as of the existence of other species which prey upon them, or on which they prey, yet completely ignorant of the existence not only of man but of many other animals inferior to him, though high above themselves in organisation. Our unimaginative philosopher sees this, and look- ing down from his own proud height, concludes that of all intelligences who or which concern themselves with terrestrial affairs the human is the highest. But on what ground does he base THE SUPERHUMAN 31 this astounding conclusion ? Only on this, that no higher beings are immediately percept- ible to man's bodily senses. On precisely the same ground many lowly organised yet sentient beings on land and in water might arrive at the conclusion that no sentient beings higher than themselves and those with which their outward senses bring them into contact exist anywhere in the universe. Is it not more reasonable to infer, by induction and analogy, that man is but a link in the ascending evolutionary chain of intelligence ? That just as numberless sentient beings below man can never, through lack of suitable organs in the present stage of their development, discern his existence, so man, through lack of suitable organs in the present stage of his development, can never obtain direct evidence through his outward senses of the infinite ascending series of higher intelli- gences above him ? If direct evidence of such is wanting, is not the indirect evidence abundant all around us ? Strange that the theory of evolution, as usually understood, should by many be regarded as hostile to this conclusion, 32 MAN'S ORIGIN, DES TINY, DUTY when, as I have shown elsewhere (see the Hibbert Journal, January 1907), the evidence which it affords is entirely in its favour. And if we admit, as by inductive logic we must, the existence of souls above the human, of the existence of an infinite ascending series of such sentient and intelligent beings, what a vista of psychic possibilities thus opens to the mind ! Whence come our thoughts ? Have they all a human origin ? Is it certain that the mechan- ism of the human brain is never set in motion and directed by a superhuman agent ? If a human soul, as many eminent scientists now believe, can instantly (by " brain waves " or otherwise) act upon another human soul, when their bodies are thousands of miles apart, where lies the difficulty of believing that a human soul can be similarly but more profoundly influenced by a superhuman soul, and from a still greater distance ? We may smile at the crude conceits of the theologians of the middle ages who endowed their angels with wings and their devils with horns, just as we may smile at the blind man's grotesque notions of the beauty THE SUPERHUMAN 33 which he has never seen, or at the deaf man's no less absurd notions of the music which he has never heard ; but both the blind and the deaf have, nevertheless, abundant evidence that their fellow - creatures, and even the brutes around them, possess marvellous faculties which nature has denied to themselves. Where theologians commonly make a mis- take is in their assumption that all superhuman beings are divisible by a hard and fast line into two great classes, the good and the evil ; that an evil spirit is never capable of goodness, nor a good spirit of wickedness. The evidence which points to the existence of a superhuman psychic universe is irresistible ; but why should we imagine that universe to consist entirely of angels and devils ? — the former always ready to render willing obedience to the Supreme Being, the latter ever striving to thwart and annoy him ? Giving the words good and evil their ordinary common-sense meaning, can we say of any man living that he is entirely good ? or that he is entirely evil ? Are not all human beings more or less of a mixture both in 34 MAN'S ORIGIN, DESTINY, DUTY thoughts and actions ? Why should it not be the same with beings that are superhuman ? Some philosophers define evil as simply the absence of good, just as darkness is simply the absence of light. The definition is neat and plausible ; but as it does not agree with the meaning usually attached to the word, it necessarily leads to ambiguity and consequent sophistry. A negative is something more than the absence of a positive. A ship is not necessarily to the south or negative side of the tropics because she is not to the north or positive side. There is another alternative, namely, that she is in the tropics. Darkness may correctly be defined as the absence of light ; but pain is something more than the mere absence of pleasure ; and, similarly, evil or wickedness is something more than the mere absence of goodness. A man's thoughts are, as a rule, neither good nor evil while deeply engrossed in a game of chess ; nor, as a rule, is his action good or bad when, from curiosity, he turns aside to read the inscription on a monument. These simple examples make it THE SUPERHUMAN 35 ' plain that, in thoughts and deeds, evil is some- thing more than the absence of good. Never- theless, though good and evil, as usually understood, are not exactly analogous to light and darkness, yet the question of finding a perfecdy satisfactory definition of either is extremely difficult. A few illustrations will show the difficulty. Is pain an evil ? Unquestionably it is for the individual^ and while it lasts. But even to the individual a temporary pain may afford a salutary lesson and so prove a real benefit in the long-run. And when we consider the general interests of a whole human community, the pain of one individual or of a few (as when criminals are severely dealt with, or when brave men willingly sacrifice themselves for their wives, children, or country) may confer a lasting benefit on the community at large. And we cannot restrict our consideration to the class of sentient beings called the human. Below these are the infrahuman ; above them are the superhuman ; and over all we are almost compelled by instinct as well 36 MAN'S ORIGIN, DESTINY, DUTY as logical consistency to infer the existence of a Supreme Being, who maintains and directs the whole. Any system of philosophy that does not accept this as its fundamental datum, is bound sooner or later to collapse from the accumulated weight of its inevitable self- contradictions. Assuming, therefore, the existence of a Su- preme Ruler, directing the evolution of the whole material and psychic universe, what qualities can we consistently ascribe to him ? Can we, in common with the majority of Christians, ascribe to him the qualities of omni- science, omnipotence, and omnibenevolence ? Can we reconcile these attributes with the existence of evil — with the frightful amount of suffering which we behold all around us, not only among our fellow-creatures but also among the inarticulate brutes below us ? Do not the strong everywhere prey upon the weak ? Are not many animals (such as the lion and the tiger) so constructed that they cannot live their daily life without making their daily victims ? And even if we restrict our reflections to our THE SUPERHUMAN 37 own kind, to the human race, whose feelings we can best understand, not only from fellow sympathy but still more from the wonderful faculty of intercommunicating knowledge of one another's thoughts and feelings through the medium of speech, do we not here also, wherever we cast our eyes, find evil always marching side by side with good, pain with pleasure, vice with virtue ? This is the per- plexing problem that ever confronts the Christian theist. How can the existence of evil of any kind, moral or physical, in the human or in the brute, be reconciled with the doctrine of an omnipotent, omniscient, and omnibenevolent Deity ? To shirk the question is moral cowardice. Nature presents us with a problem which vitally concerns our present and future welfare, and it is man's bounden duty as well as his interest to seek a solution. The agnostic would dissuade us from the search as fruitless ; the narrow dogmatist as impious ; but neither has the smallest warrant for his paralysing conclusion. Here, as in many other seeming self-contra- 38 MAN'S ORIGIN, DESTINY, DUTY dictions, we shall find on careful analysis that the difficulty is mainly verbal. We are all prone to use words in too absolute a sense without sufficient regard to context. This is especially the case in theological and philo- sophical discussions. In ordinary speech the context is hardly ever lost sight of. When, in speaking of a man, we say, " He is all-power- ful," or " He knows everything," or " His benevolence is unbounded," we don't expect anybody to accept our words literally, and nobody ever so understands them. A brief consideration will show that, on the same principle of verbal economy, we must not use words too absolutely even when speaking of the Supreme Being. No power, not even Omni- potence, can, for example, make the statement that "the circumference of a circle is greater than its diameter " false, or make true the state- ment that " the circumference is less than the diameter," or in any way violate the laws of logical consistency. How do we know that, similarly, evil, such as we know it, evil of every kind, pain and sorrow, and even moral wicked- THE SUPERHUMAN 39 ness, may not be absolutely and logically neces- sary for the full development of good — that is to say, for the gradual upward development of each individual soul through its successive stages of existence, as well as for the develop- ment upwards of the whole sentient universe ? Will it be objected that this hypothesis would virtually make God the author of evil, and man a mere puppet entirely irresponsible for his actions ? Let us not be scared by mere words, nor shrink from the logical consequences of our assumptions. The words author and evil, like many others, vary their meanings according to context. When a patient is inadvertently poisoned in a hospital, both the chemist who prepared the drug and the nurse who admin- istered it may each in a sense be called the author of the man's death ; yet only one, as a rule, is the culpable author. The direct author, the nurse, would be innocent if the poison bottle had been wrongly labelled ; while the indirect author, the chemist, would be innocent if the bottle had a duly warning label to which the nurse paid no attention. As regards the 40 MAN'S ORIGIN, DESTINY, DUTY word evil, pain, as already remarked, is always an evil while it lasts — at least from the sufferer's point of view ; but is it necessarily an evil, even to the sufferer, when his whole life is taken into account ? Do not painful operations often prolong life ? Are not judicious disciplinary punishments beneficial to the young, and some- times even to their elders ? Would the upward evolution of the higher forms of life be possible without pain ? Would a child who had never felt a burn fear a fire, or anyone who had never fallen fear a precipice ? Can a mother thwart a child's wish without inflicting the pain of dis- appointment ? And is it not a fact of common observation that unthwarted children turn out failures in after life ? Are they not too often a curse to themselves and to others ? Even among brutes, do not those animals that find the conditions of life too easy become lazy, fat, spiritless, and degenerate, and ultimately give place to those that have been trained by painful toil to provide for themselves and their little ones ? " That is all very well," it may be objected ; THE SUPERHUMAN 41 " but what about moral evil, the evil that we call wickedness, the wanton and needless tortures too frequently inflicted by the strong and power- ful upon the weak and defenceless ? Is this evil necessary for the upward development of the sentient universe ? The question cannot be shirked, and if we ascribe omnipotence, om- niscience, and omnibenevolence to the Supreme Being, there is but one possible answer. Moral evil, the evil called wickedness, is a necessary indispensable factor in the upward development of the sentient universe. On no other hypo- thesis can we reconcile the three attributes of omnipotence, omniscience, and omnibenevo- lence, which we ascribe to the Supreme Being. But let us not be disheartened. The everlast- ing continuance of evil, moral as well as physical, in the whole sentient universe, and even in each individual member, the Supreme Being alone excepted, is perfectly compatible with the hypothesis that not only the whole collectively but each individual member, even the most depraved during his terrestrial life, shall steadily and everlastingly, though with occasional pain- 42 MAN'S ORIGIN, DESTINY, DUTY ful lapses, advance upwards through successive lives towards an ever unattainable perfection. What is a brief terrestrial life, even the longest, in comparison with eternity ? Infinitely less than a second in comparison with a million years. CHAPTER III THE INFINITE Philosophers often talk of infinity in reference to time and space, but not always with clear notions of what they mean to say. Even in the exact science of mathematics we meet with some obscurity on their part. Parallel straight lines are said by mathematicians to meet at infinity, and straight lines which meet at infinity are said to be parallel. Yet the logic of common-sense says that parallel straight lines cannot meet at infinity or elsewhere without ceasing to be parallel ; and that straight lines which meet at infinity or elsewhere cannot, without self-contradiction, be called parallel. We may, however, assert without self-contra- diction that straight lines which meet at infinity (if we give an accurate self-consistent definition 43 44 MAN'S ORIGIN, DESTINY, DUTY of the word) are virtually parallel ; that is to say, that they are so nearly parallel that no possible instrument can ever detect, and no notation, however powerful, can ever arithmeti- cally express the deviation. The angle of in- clination of two such lines is infinitesimal ; it is not zero. It is well to examine this point a little more closely ; for to the confused language of the generality of mathematicians in their treatment of infinity is largely due the still obscurer language of metaphysicians in dealing with the same abstraction. Restricting ourselves to positive ratios, let H denote the positive infinity of mathematics, that is to say, a number or ratio so large that no notation can express it exactly or approximately in finite terms 1 ; and let h denote the positive infinitesimal^ that is to say, any fraction or ratio so small that no notation can express it exactly or approximately in finite terms ; 1 For example, let M denote a million. Then M M (which denotes the millionth power of a million), though inconceiv- ibly large, is not infinite, since it can be expressed in the jrdinary decimal notation by simply substituting the finite lumber 1,000,000 for M (see my paper in Mind, Oct. 1906). THE INFINITE 45 while (or zero), as usual, denotes non-existence, or the absence of ratio. Consider the six fractional forms, g, y, \, T , ^, T . The first and the fourth are infinitesimals ; the second and third are infinities ; while the fifth and the sixth are non-existent or pseudo-ratios, of which \ may be called pseudo-infinity, to distinguish it from the real infinity \. Unfortunately mathemati- cians use the symbol 00 both to denote the real infinity here denoted by ° or \, and also to denote the pseudo-infinity here denoted by i. They distinguish clearly enough between the non-existence and an infinitesimal, but they do not distinguish between the unreality 00 (when it denotes such pseudo-fractions as i, %, %, etc.) and a real infinity. For example, mathematicians erroneously assert that the tangent of a right angle is infinite, whereas it is only a pseudo-infinity. In other words, there is no such ratio, finite or infinite. A real ratio, whether finite or infinite, must have a really existent numerator and a really existent de- nominator. The so-called ratios \ and T are equally unreal ; they are not ratios at all. The 46 MAN'S ORIGIN, DESTINY, DUTY pseudo-infinity symbol oo indicates the death, as it were, of a real infinity H in passing from the positive to the negative state, or vice versa ; just as the symbol indicates the death, as it were, of the real infinitesimal h in passing from the positive to the negative state, or vice versa. For example, tan (90° — h) is a real positive infinity ; tan (90° + h) is a real negative in- finity ; while tan 90° is a pseudo-infinity, an unreal ratio which has only symbolic existence. Let us now apply these principles to the entities, real or unreal, called space and the universe. First, we have the pure space, the spatial universe, of the mathematician. This is a mere abstraction, void of everything except the ideal geometrical entities (circles, spheres, cubes, etc.) which the mathematician chooses to put into it. Is this abstract spatial universe finite or infinite ? That is a mere matter of convenience ; but convenience requires that it should be considered infinite ; otherwise we should find ourselves cramped in the develop- ment of our diagrams, and awkwardly hampered in our algebraic calculations. What shape THE INFINITE 47 should we assign to this conceptual spatial universe ? Again convenience, as well as simplicity and symmetry, requires that we should consider it spherical. Let, therefore, our conceptual spatial universe be a sphere with an infinite radius. But since, by definition, an infinite line, area, or volume is one so large in comparison with any finite unit (say a mile) that no notation can exactiy or approximately express it, we may have many infinities, H l5 H 2 , H s , etc., of which any infinity Hj may be double or half or an infinite multiple of any other infinity H 2 . We may thus have any number of infinite spaces, intersecting or not intersecting ; but it will be convenient to con- ceive of all these as enclosed in one, which may be called the universe. By this simple con- ception we obtain all the advantages of the modern non-Euclidean geometry without its illogical vagaries. Any non-Euclidean space, fourth-dimensional or other, that cannot find a place inside the spatial universe defined above, involves some self-contradiction. In the in- finite spatial universe above defined two 48 MAN'S ORIGIN, DESTINY, DUTY straight lines can not (as in some non-Euclidean systems) enclose a space. Neither can a point (as some eminent modern geometricians main- tain) move in the same straight line to an infinite distance in the positive direction, and then, without reversing its course, but always moving in the positive direction, come again as though round a circle, to the point of starting. Any non-Euclidean geometry that leads to this con- clusion leads to a clear reductio ad absurdum, and must therefore contain some fatal error in its assumptions. Will it be objected that the preceding defini- tion of the word infinite does not accord with the primary signification of the word ? — that infinite literally means boundless or endless, where- as I define the infinite as a magnitude or ratio which is not endless but is too large for accurate or approximate expression in the decimal or any other arithmetical notation ? To this I reply, firstly, that words are mere symbols which may change their meaning according to context ; secondly, that the meaning here given to the word infinite agrees with the practical results THE INFINITE 49 obtained by mathematicians, however much it may disagree with their definitions or assump- tions ; and, thirdly, that in science it is gener- ally a sound principle to prefer the definitions and assumptions that can be most easily re- conciled with the results of observation and experiment. Let us now see how far we can apply the same kind of reasoning to the concrete universe of realities : the universe which contains actual material solids, liquids, and gases, and is com- monly supposed to be filled everywhere with that wonderful entity called the ether. Is this concrete universe — the universe of matter and force, of thunder and lightning, of suns and planets, of joys and sorrows, of slow evolutions and of sudden catastrophes — is this very real and concrete universe, to which we all belong physically and psychically, finite or infinite ? We have no data for answering the question. All the phenomena of nature are consistent with either supposition. Of what shape is the real physical universe ? Again we have no data for an answer ; but, for simplicity, let us So MAN'S ORIGIN, DESTINY, DUTY suppose it spherical till we have proof of the contrary. We have then an infinite spherical universe enclosing all realities : matter, force, and the enigmatical substance called the ether. What is there beyond this universe ? There is but one logical and self-consistent answer : nothing. No matter, no ether, no force, physi- cal or psychical, no soul, no sensation, no sentient being, finite or infinite : nothing what- ever except the pure conceptual space of the mathematician. Is such a conception possible ? Why not ? Is not absolute emptiness one of our earliest conceptions ? Tell a very young child that the seemingly empty cup before him is not really empty, that it contains air, and he will wonder what you mean. Talk to him about the ether and its properties, and assuredly his bewilderment will not be diminished. The dogma held by many scientists (including Haeckel) that the infinite conceptual universe of the mathematician can contain no absolutely empty space, that it must everywhere be filled with ether, is an assumption every whit as groundless as the exploded dogma that " nature THE INFINITE 51 abhors a vacuum." In fact, it is a revival of the same superstition in another and less picturesque form. The aerial atmosphere was once thought to extend, though in an extremely attenuated form, to an infinite distance beyond the earth ; now it is known not to extend beyond a finite number of miles. Why should not the space occupied by the ether be similarly limited, or, if infinite, be infinite only in the sense (as already defined) of being too extensive for the decimal or any other arithmetical system of notation to express ? In fact, a " boundless universe," in the strict, literal, or primary sense of the words, sounds very much like a contra- diction in terms. The Latin adjective universus means all, or the whole of, and we cannot con- sistently speak of all or the whole of anything that is boundless. Except in the sense already given by definition of the word infinite, an in- finite (or boundless) universe is an unreality, like the pseudo-infinities \, -§, etc., which, as ratios, have only symbolic existence. They are ratios only in form. We may conceive of a variable universe as continually extending its 52 MAN'S ORIGIN, DESTINY, DUTY bounds ; but at any given moment its bounds exist, though no arithmetical notation can, even approximately, express their immeasurable distance. We may similarly conceive of a universal ether as continually expanding ; but there is always a blank, etherless, purely con- ceptual space beyond, to which we can ascribe whatever dimensions we please. After the infinity of real or conceptual space comes the infinity of time. This we call eternity — eternity extending backward in the past and forward in the future ; the latter positive, the former negative. Time is a much more awk- ward entity to analyse than space ; and, curi- ously enough, past or negative eternity is, for the generality of people, a much more difficult conception than future or positive eternity. There is no logical reason why this should be so ; but the fact is undoubted. All of us can grasp the idea of a thing having once come into existence continuing to exist for ever ; but not all of us can so readily conceive of a beginning- less existence, as the theist thinks of the Supreme Being, and as the atheist supposes the material THE INFINITE 53 universe. We can imagine a blank nothing- ness outside the limits of the material universe ; but a blank nothingness in time, a past negative eternity, void of all mind and matter, is almost unthinkable. More unthinkable still, if pos- sible, is the hypothesis of any reality, material or immaterial, springing suddenly and cause- lessly into existence out of an antecedent and absolute nothingness. Time, as usually con- ceived, is like a perfectly straight line stretching to infinity in opposite directions. Just as a point moving along such a straight line, always in the same direction, can never again reach its original position, so, in regard to time, an event that has once happened can never happen again in exactly the same circumstances. When we speak of an event as recurring, what we really mean is that a similar event has happened in more or less similar circumstances. But what if we compare time not to an infinite and per- fectly straight line but to a circle of infinite radius, and therefore of infinite circumference — infinite in the sense previously defined ? What would be our conclusion then ? Why, this : 54 MAN'S ORIGIN, DESTINY, DUTY all past events and circumstances would recur in the future ; the most recent in the past would be the most distant, and would be in- finitely distant, in the future ; and the most distant in the past would be the nearest in the future. As few people would care to live their past life over again, even after an infinity of ages, this supposition does not, at first sight, wear an attractive aspect ; but that is only because we fix our thoughts on an infinitesimal portion of the infinite cycle, the portion occu- pied by our remembered past life, and know nothing, because we remember nothing, of the rest. Assuming as a mere speculation this unprovable but quite conceivable hypothesis, how do we know that the joys of that infinite forgotten cycle may not have immeasurably outweighed its sorrows, and that this may not recur with every fresh revolution ? — always using the word infinite in the sense already defined. Who knows that there may not be a grain of truth after all in the old fables of the " Golden Age " and its repeated recurrence ? The " in- spiration " of the poet is not always a vain THE INFINITE 55 word. Ideas come we know not whence, and germinate in the brain we know not how. They pass from brain to brain and ripen as they pass, till they reach their full maturity in the brain of the cautious and exact scientist. Hence they finally issue to take their place in the stores of verified, stamped, and registered formulae of human knowledge — the ever ac- cumulating heritage of the ages. When we closely examine our conceptions of time and space, we find ourselves confronted by strange and perplexing paradoxes. We find everything relative, nothing absolute ; every- thing variable, nothing constant. The words great and small, long and short, lose their signifi- cance : all depends upon our arbitrary units of time and space. And that is not all. Our units themselves vary, and we never know, even approximately, how rapidly or to what extent. It is not merely that the length of our standard yard or metre varies with the tempera- ture, and that the amount of variation varies with the substance of which it is made. There is a more serious cause of uncertainty. What 56 MAN'S ORIGIN, DESTINY, DUTY if the whole visible material universe were rapidly diminishing, but all its parts (including our cities, houses, and bodies) in the same relative proportions, so that the absolute height of each person to-day would be only a half, or a third, or even a millionth or an infinitesimal part of what it was yesterday ? We should know nothing, absolutely nothing, of the change. How should we, since all our units of com- parison, our units of length, area, and volume would be all changed in proportion ? If the unit of length were reduced to one-fifth, our unit of area would be reduced to one- twenty-fifth, and our unit of volume to one- one-hundred-and-twenty-fifth ; while all other lines, areas, and volumes, though similarly reduced, would nevertheless retain their original numerical values, because they would bear the same ratios as before to their respective units of reference. For aught we know to the con- trary, the tiny material atom of to-day may thus (as regards volume) be representative of the whole material universe of to-morrow, with the sun, moon, stars, planets, men and women, the THE INFINITE 57 ' present writer and his readers, all still inside it as now, yet all unconscious of any change ; and outside this less than microscopic universe, nothing. And suppose this rapid universal shrinking to be going on continually — and we have no means of disproving the hypothesis, — what becomes finally of this mighty universe of matter ? Logical consistency requires that we should still consider it as much a reality as we consider it now ; but where is the microscope of to-day that could discover its existence ? Thus rigorously analysed, does not material space virtually vanish, leaving only the conceptual space of the mathematician, which may have any dimensions we please to assign to it ? Matter vanishes ; mind remains. A similar analysis of the conception of time will be found similarly disintegrating. For the measurement of time, as for the measurement of space, we can have no fixed constant unit. We may choose a second or a year, or any other arbitrary unit, but we can never be sure that the unit itself is constant. Indeed, we may be quite sure that it is not. We assume that the 58 MAN'S ORIGIN, DESTINY, DUTY seconds, minutes, and hours of our clocks and watches, and especially of our chronometers, are very nearly uniform : but the lengths of these are made to depend on the motions of the heavenly bodies, which are all variable. The twenty-four hours' day of our clocks and watches is the approximate average length of the variable solar day. For the purposes of daily life, as well as for scientific calculations, we find it convenient to assume that our standard units of time are, if not exactly constant, at any rate sufficiently so for all practical needs ; but philo- sophy looks deeper than this and insists on examining the logical grounds of the assumption. Suppose some distinguished scientist were to announce the discovery, and support the announcement by a complicated array of sym- bolic and abstruse mathematical reasoning, which no one else could understand, that, by a universal cosmic law, all our time units were diminishing with startling rapidity, but at a uniform rate ; that the second, minute, or hour of to-day was only half, or a tenth, or a millionth (the exact figure does not affect the principle) THE INFINITE 59* of what it was yesterday ; that consequently the motion of the earth round its axis, of all the planets round the sun, of the wheels and hands of our clocks and watches, of all machinery, of the winds and waves and rivers, of the beating of our pulse, of the blood through our veins, of our thoughts and feelings, and consequently of the molecular changes in our brain, were all thus rapidly accelerating, but all in the same proportion, so that the average duration of human life now was almost infinitesimal in com- parison with the duration of life in the time of our forefathers : who could contradict the announcement, or refute it by any valid argu- ment ? Assuming our hypothetical scientist's conclusion, would not the days, weeks, months, and years, and the duration of our lives, appear to us of the same lengths as they do now ? Suppose it were objected that such a terrific spinning of the universe would generate such inconceivable heat and other destructive forces that life, as we know it now, would be impossible. Our hypothetical scientist might reply that the very causes which produced this universal 5o MAN'S ORIGIN, DESTINY, DUTY icceleration so modified all other units of spaces md of forces, positive and negative, that all scientific formulae retained their present and past validity, and would forever do so. As this imaginary conclusion would be in no way opposed to human experience, nor involve any logical inconsistency, there would be no means of disproving it. True, the opposite hypothesis, namely, that our units of time were rapidly enlarging, and that all cosmic motions were consequently getting daily and hourly slower, would also be in no way inconsistent either with logic or human experience, and would therefore be equally incapable of being refuted. We are thus in complete darkness about the matter. We have every reason to believe that our units of time and space, like everything else in the universe, are subject to continual varia- tion, but as to the amount or direction of the total or average variation we know absolutely nothing. Nor does it greatly matter. We know that though our magnitudes — the primary numerators and denominators of our ratios — may vary indefinitely without our ever suspecting it, THE INFINITE 61 ' this variation in no way implies variation in the ratios themselves, which in some things are absolutely, and in others very nearly, constant. The ratio of the circumference of a circle or sphere to its diameter, for example, is absolutely constant and approximately 3-1416, whatever be the size of the circle or sphere at the moment, and whether it be finite, infinite, or infinitesimal. This ratio remains, and must necessarily remain, constant, whether the sphere be our infinite conceptual universe, or the sun, or the earth, or a marble, or an atom. On the other hand, the ratios representing the respective densities of gold, silver, iron, and copper, at ordinary temperatures, remain very nearly but not altogether constant. This is not, as in the preceding case, a matter of necessary logical inference, but a conclusion founded on experi- ment and observation. Let us now examine the conception of time from another standpoint. It sometimes happens that a person becomes suddenly unconscious, and this unconsciousness may last, according to the cause, from a few minutes or hours to several 52 MAN'S ORIGIN, DESTINY, DUTY days, and, in a few rare cases, even years. When :onsciousness returns, it sometimes does so with the same suddenness as it departed, the person actually completing a sentence interrupted by the attack some time previously. If, on suddenly coming to, the person finds himself in the same surroundings as when he suddenly went off, he does not suspect that he has been unconscious at all. To him the blank interval is virtually non-existent. Now, imagine something analogous to happen to our whole universe, sentient and non-sentient. Suddenly all the laws of nature are suspended. All motion ceases. Gravitation is no more. Newton's laws of motion hold no longer. A falling stone stops in mid air. A cannon-ball arrests its flight. The winds cease to blow. The rising and falling waves stop as if suddenly sculptured on a sea of ice. Sudden stillness and silence everywhere. A bounding tiger is arrested in the act of springing on a deer, his paw uplifted to strike, his body extended in air. The preacher in his pulpit stops in the middle of the word firstly ; the orator in parliament in THE INFINITE 6 3 the middle of the word closure. Every heart stops ; the blood-flow is arrested in every vein. The brain functions no longer. All thought, all feeling ceases. Love and anger, passion and jealousy, are no more. Our universe still exists (if existence it may be called) as dead matter ; but its life has departed. Then, after a hundred years (as in the well-known fable), or a thousand years, or a million years, its life returns as suddenly as it left it. The earth resumes its revolution on its axis ; the planets resume their course round the sun ; motion rebegins every- where. The falling stone finishes its descent. The cannon-ball finishes its flight and hits its mark. The waves resume their motion and roaring. The tiger's paw strikes the deer. The heart resumes its beating ; the brain func- tions as before. The preacher continues his sermon ; the parliamentary orator his angry protest against the closure. Everything goes on as if nothing had happened ; nobody knows or suspects that anything has happened — that the life of the whole universe has been arrested for a million or more years. 64 MAN'S ORIGIN, DESTINY, DUTY Now, from the strictly logical standpoint, how should this hypothetical suspension of all the laws of our universe, physical and psychical, be regarded ? What about our scientific formulae ? As regards all formulae bearing on the question of time in general, and age in particular, would they not be more simply workable as well as more reliable in their appli- cation, if we considered the whole period of cosmic suspension, however long, as non- existent ? Suppose, for example, the period of suspension to have been 1,235,713 years. Would it not be very awkward to have to date our letters 1,237,621 instead of 1908, and more awkward still to speak of an infant at the breast as being 1,235,713 years of age? And how many bankers would be willing, or would be able if willing, to pay the amount of interest that would have become due after more than a million years ? Think also of the complication it would introduce into our nautical almanacs, as well as into all astronomical calculations of time ! Confusion and perplexity would meet us everywhere. The only possible solution THE INFINITE 65 from the practical standpoint is the one that would be unconsciously adopted : everybody would regard the whole period of suspension as non-existent, as absolute zero. The conception of time is so bound up with the conception of motion that when the latter vanishes the former seems to vanish with it. It is true that we can form an idea of time with- out seeing anything moving, as when we are lying with shut eyes in our bed at night ; but even then we have the consciousness of motion or succession in our ideas. When that con- sciousness ceases, we go off into a dreamless sleep, and our consciousness of time ceases also. Watch a man in a profound sleep. To all appearance he is wholly unconscious. Wake him suddenly. As a rule, he remembers noth- ing of any dream, if ever he had one. Now, either he dreamt nothing and felt nothing while he slept, or he dreamt and felt and immediately forgot all about it on waking. On the first hypothesis, if we stick to our definition of the Soul as " that which feels," the definition cannot carry with it the implication that the Soul 5 66 MAN'S ORIGIN, DESTINY, DUTY always feels, that it is never unconscious. The definition will only imply that the Soul is some- times conscious — that it is conscious while awake, and generally unconscious while asleep. On the second hypothesis, we may, without self- contradiction, suppose that the Soul, whether asleep or awake, is always conscious of the actual present, but cannot always recall the past. This does not imply that the forgotten dream or actuality has left no permanent impression on the brain, but only that the Soul cannot at the moment find that impression — or rather, cannot find its successive counterparts on the ever-changing molecules of the brain. Now, bearing in mind the infinite unknown possibilities of nature, it is perfectly conceivable, and it will simplify our reasoning to make the supposition, that the Soul, though invisible and imponderable, and therefore immaterial, is nevertheless composed of some substance different both from ordinary matter and from the hypothetical ether, and may thus have a spatial form, on some part of which is perman- ently registered (as on the human brain) a record THE INFINITE 67 of its whole past. And carrying the hypothesis further, we may suppose that when the animal body dissolves at death into its material con- stituents, the Soul carries on that record, or the useful portion of it, into its new existence. And again, carrying the hypothesis further, in- definitely further, we may suppose these succes- sive metamorphoses to go on forever into higher and higher spheres of existence, experience, and ever-increasing knowledge. The material body and other successive instruments of education, material or immaterial, would thus successively rise and pass, be born and die, while the Soul, the only permanent substance, would remain. It may, of course, be objected that this is a mere hypothesis built upon rather insufficient data. True ; but to how many scientific hypo- theses may not the same objection apply ? What about the hypothetical ether, upon whose assumed properties scientists have built so many serviceable formulae and theories ? Are not these supposed properties notoriously difficult to reconcile ? Some of them help to explain one class of phenomena ; others help to explain 68 MAN'S ORIGIN, DESTINY, DUTY another class ; others help to explain a third class, and so on ; but the awkward part of the ethereal hypothesis is that the properties them- selves seem utterly incompatible. The supposed property X perfectly explains the phenomenon A, but seems inconsistent with the phenomenon B ; while the supposed property Y perfectly explains the phenomenon B, but seems incon- sistent with the phenomenon A. Under the stress of these real or seeming inconsistencies, some eminent scientists have been driven to define matter as "holes in the ether" ! That is to say, what we supposed solid and real becomes a vacuum, a non-existence ; what, on the other hand, we supposed to be a vacuum, an im- material entity, becomes the only material reality. Now, if we have not yet sufficient data for solidly establishing the hypothesis here suggested as to the past history and future destiny of the Soul, at anyrate the properties here attributed to the Soul are not mutually incompatible ; nor are they logically incon- sistent with any psychic or physical phenomena of which science has as yet taken account. CHAPTER IV THE FOUNDATION OF ETHICS Let us now turn our attention to the bearing of the preceding principles on the practical question of ethics. We assume the following as highly probable from induction and analogy, apart from all consideration of historical evidence as regards the truth of any system of religion that claims miraculous divine revelation : Firstly, that just as we know that numberless orders of sentient, conscious, and, to very per- ceptible though varying degrees, intelligent animals exist below man, which are absolutely ignorant of his existence, because in the present stage of their development they are destitute of the faculties, organs, or environment by which they might become aware of it, so 69 70 MAN'S ORIGIN, DESTINY, DUTY numberless other orders of sentient and intel- ligent beings exist above man of whose higher lives he knows nothing, because, in the present stage of his development, he is destitute of the organs, faculties, and environment which would enable him to perceive them. Secondly, that the higher orders of beings imperceptible to man's senses in the present stage of his development, and superior to him in intelligence, have, nevertheless, like him, their virtues and their vices, their good and their evil qualities, but that, in the long-run, as they develop upwards, their good qualities in- crease and strengthen, while their evil qualities diminish, until the latter, though never wholly absent, become negligible in comparison. Thirdly, that, just as man, through his superior intelligence, acquires power and mastery (though within limits) over the sentient animals below him, so the beings above him, through their superior faculties and intelligence, acquire power and mastery (though within limits) over him, as well as over the sentient animals below him. THE FOUNDATION OF ETHICS 71 Fourthly, that just as man will be held responsible, and more and more responsible as he develops, for his conduct both towards his fellow-beings and towards the sentient animals below him, so the intelligent beings above him will be held responsible, and more and more responsible as they develop, not only for their conduct towards those of their own order, but also for the influence they exert over man and over all the other sentient beings below them. Fifthly and lastly, that the whole sentient and non-sentient universe is controlled and directed either by One Supreme Being, or else by two or more Supreme Beings whose thoughts and actions are always so closely in unison that they may virtually be regarded as One. On these reasonable assumptions (which do not, so far as I can see, conflict with the essential principles of true Christianity) a workable system of ethics may be erected. The basis is broad and frankly theistic. An atheistic system founded on avowedly human authority alone will never command the respect of the average man. The final authority must be, I do not 72 MAN'S ORIGIN, DESTINY, DUTY say supernatural, but superhuman. The word supernatural sounds like a contradiction in terms. Nature includes the whole universe, the psychic and the physical, the seen and the unseen, the known and the unknown, so that whatever is supernatural must be non-existent. But the superhuman is quite another thing. The word represents an ascending series of sentient and intelligent beings, culminating in one Supreme Ruler over all. His and his alone must be the final authority ; to him and him alone must be the final appeal. What he approves must, by express definition, be right ; what he disapproves must, by express definition, be wrong. No other definition of right and wrong can resist the disintegrating effect of close logical analysis ; no other can stand the strain of evil human passions and inborn selfishness. No restraining power on earth can equal that of the full conviction, when the full conviction exists, that an invisible superhuman eye (not neces- sarily God's alone) is watching every deed, and that a superhuman intelligence (not necessarily God's alone) can instantly read the impressions THE FOUNDATION OF ETHICS 73 communicated by the Soul's thoughts to the material human brain. The brain, it is true, changes continually, but the old particles as they pass transmit the received impressions to the new, and these again to their successors ; and so on as long as the connection between the Soul and the material body lasts. And after ? Well, the Soul's exact destiny after the death of the body we know not ; the data for any clear and confident inference are at present wanting ; but from the slender data we possess we may con- sider it highly probable that the Soul starts in a new environment with a new instrument of education (not necessarily another material terrestrial body) suited to its capacity and to the stage already reached in its development. That the Soul in its new existence should remember every detail of its past, far from being profitable, would probably be a hindrance to its upward progress. The clear recollection of the butterfly (assuming the recollection to exist) of its caterpillar life would hardly aid it in its new winged life as it flits from flower to 74 MAN'S ORIGIN, DESTINY, DUTY flower ; yet some vague impression or dim recollection of its former life may have originated the instinct that impels it subse- quently to seek a cabbage leaf and not a flower for the deposition of its eggs. This question of the degree of memory which the Soul carries from life to life as it develops upwards has another bearing which must not be overlooked. It might be objected that to begin a new life without any recollec- tion of the past would be virtually to become a different person ; that the successive thoughts and recollections — the " stream of conscious- ness," as it is picturesquely but not very accurately called by some psychologists — is the real person. But this is to confuse the agent with the action, or the sufferer with the suffering. The Soul, by express definition, is " that which feels " ; it is not the feeling. In its higher developments, it is " that which thinks" or the "thinker" ; it is not the thought or the succession of thoughts. The comparison of man's personality to a flowing river is not very appropriate. Our thoughts, it is true, succeed THE FOUNDATION OF ETHICS 75 each other through the brain somewhat as different masses of water succeed each other in their flow through the same channel ; but here the analogy, such as it is, ends. The water is matter, our thoughts are not. There is nothing in a flowing river analogous to memory or to consciousness. The river never flows back- wards ; it never flows twice over the same ground ; it never feels that it flows at all. There is nothing in a flowing river analogous to will or spontaneity. It cannot by conscious effort arrest its own flow or turn its current in another direction. But the Ego, the Soul, the real Person, can often arrest the flow of his thoughts and turn their current into any channel he pleases. Analogies are often useful as figures of speech, as starters of trains of thoughts, but they become treacherous guides when followed too far. Any system of psychology that leads to the conclusion of some professors, that " the thoughts themselves are the thinkers " leads to a self-destructive reductio ad absurdum. There must be fallacy somewhere, though it may not be easy to put the finger on the exact spot. It 76 MAN'S ORIGIN, DESTINY, DUTY is as much a contradiction in terms to say that " the thoughts themselves are the thinkers " as to say that an effect is its own cause. There is strong evidence that no part of the material body, not even the brain, feels or thinks ; yet we know by direct consciousness that something feels and thinks, and we call that something Soul. We will now revert to the all-important question of ethics. By express definition we call what the Supreme Ruler approves right, and what he disapproves wrong ; but then the question at once arises, How are we to know what the Supreme Ruler approves and what he disapproves ? To the generality of Christians or Mahomedans this question, of course, presents no difficulty : the former will refer us to the Bible, the latter to the Koran. But since the former do not accept the authority of the Koran, nor the latter that of the Bible, and since many sincere Christians and Mahom- edans do not fully and unreservedly accept either, while no small number of theists believe in no divinely revealed or inspired code of THE FOUNDATION OF ETHICS 77 morality whatever, it will be convenient here to reason, as far as possible, from data which all theists, Christian and non-Christian, hold in common. Now, all theists, Christian and non-Christian, will, I think, accept the following as at least probable : — (1) God wills that man should, in his own interests, study the phenomena, psychic and physical, both of the world around him and of his own soul or personality. (2) These phenomena may be regarded in one sense as God's language to reveal his purpose and his will — a language which it is man's duty to study, and which he will under- stand more and more as the years roll on. As one generation succeeds another, each passes on the knowledge which it has acquired to the generations which follow. (3) Man learns this divine cosmic language as the child learns its mother's tongue, by observation, experiment, and slow, inductive reasoning. Like the child, man (who, figura- tively speaking, has not yet quite emerged 78 MAN'S ORIGIN, DESTINY, DUTY from the childish stage) makes many mistakes at first : he misunderstands, he misapplies, and, wilfully or through error, he disobeys. With the man, as with the child, the result is gener- ally punishment and suffering ; and with the man, as with the child, the punishment and suffering are for his ultimate good, though he does not see it at the time, and may see it never. To the child the minutes appear like hours or days, and the distress of the moment looms large and terrible ; but what is its duration in comparison with that of the average human life ? Similarly, what is the suffering of this fleeting terrestrial life, however terrible it may feel to the sufferer at the time, in com- parison with the sum total of the joys and sorrows of the Soul after an infinity of years in its evolutionary progress from life to life, from higher to higher ? How few of the distresses of the young child (if any) remain in the memory of the fully developed man ! As the man (while still retaining his personality) completely forgets his infancy, so the Soul may, to its advantage, completely forget in its future THE FOUNDATION OF ETHICS 79 developments the comparatively gross and in- significant joys and sorrows of its early stages of existence. (4) God's will generally works itself out through what we call natural laws, and, to all appearance, automatically. Immediate, direct, or miraculous interference with these laws, though there is no logical reason against it, nor any proof that it never occurs, must be so exceedingly rare that we have no right ever to expect it. When a doctor, minister of the gospel, or other philanthropist visits a poor sick person suffering from a dangerous and infectious disease, he has no more grounds to hope for miraculous protection in his work of mercy than an assassin has any grounds to fear a miraculous arrest of the bullet which he wickedly aims at his victim's heart. But in both cases, by another and a higher law, the good deed and the bad deed with their motives will automatically leave their impress on the Soul and advance or retard its upward de- velopment. (5) In many sentient animals, by evolution- 80 MAN'S ORIGIN, DESTINY, DUTY ary development or otherwise, God has planted an instinct of self-preservation. As we ascend the scale of development, we find, in addition to this instinct, another which impels the mother to defend her young — often to her own destruction. Higher still in the scale, we find the social instinct which impels animals of the same kind to unite for mutual defence or support, or both, as in the case of rooks, beavers, wolves, buffaloes and wild horses. In even these animal associations, we may already perceive the germs of the virtues of unselfish courage and self-sacrifice in behalf of the general community, which we admire, and rightly, when we see them displayed in the best and noblest of our kind. Here at least, in the slow development of this instinct from its lowest germs, we have a clear indication of God's will and purpose, and of our duty to act in conformity thereto. God wills that every individual should seek to preserve his own life so long as that life can aid in the development of the race or community to which he belongs, but that he should, at any moment, be ready to THE FOUNDATION OF ETHICS 81 sacrifice himself — his comfort, ease, pleasure, or even life — when the safety or welfare of others requires it. And his reward ? Here in this life he should look for none ; nor should he calculate upon receiving any special reward in the life which is to follow. Every duty rightly performed or attempted advances automatically, and every duty neglected automatically retards, the upward progress of the Soul. In this way virtue ultimately brings its own reward, and vice its own punishment. So far we have been discussing the question of ethics wholly from the human point of view ; but, it may be asked, why leave the lower sentient animals out of account ? Have they nothing to do with the question of ethics ? Not many men think they do wrong when they eat beef or mutton, or when they shoot deer, hares, or partridges for food or sport, or, briefly, when they sacrifice in any way the lower animals to their need, greed, or pleasure. But are they willing to accord the same ethical right or liberty to the sentient animals below them ? If it is right of the huntsman to kill 82 MAN'S ORIGIN, DESTINY, DUTY and eat the deer, it must be equally right of the tiger to kill and eat the huntsman. On these points the question of morality becomes complicated and perplexing. If killing for the sake of food be permissible to man at all, where are we to stop ? Can we even draw the line at cannibalism ? The civilised man shudders at the very thought ; the savage, far from shudder- ing, eats his slaughtered foe with keen enjoy- ment and without the smallest compunction. If the killing be justifiable, as in self-defence it would be, where is the sin of the eating ? The sentient soul of the slaughtered man, now cut off from all communication with the non- sentient body, feels no longer ; the body, which, according to our theory, had never felt even when alive, assuredly does not feel now when cut up, roasted, and eaten. If to do right is, by express definition, to do as God wishes, and to do wrong is to act in opposition to his will, where, with no book before us but the open book of nature, are we to look for guidance here ? What is God's purpose in regard to animals which, like the carnivora, are so con- THE FOUNDATION OF ETHICS 83 strutted that they cannot live their daily life without making their daily victims ? It is but a part of the old, old problem, the old question, Why does evil, why does suffering, exist at all ? On the assumption of an omnipotent, omniscient, and omnibenevolent God there can be but one answer. Evil and suffering exist because, for each sentient unit above or below the human, experience of evil and suffering, within limits, in the present stage of his development, is necessary for his progress upwards and for his future capacity to perform his allotted part in carrying out God's mysterious purpose in the infinite succession of lives to follow. Happi- ness for happiness, and suffering for suffering, are the animals of prey better off, even in the present stage of their existence, than their victims ? Their victims usually die quickly ; a swift paralysing stroke, and all is over. The animal of prey, when it does not in its turn become a victim to a stronger, generally dies a more lingering death, either from disease, when in the prime of life, or else afterwards from hunger, when the weakness of old age renders 84 MAN'S ORIGIN, DESTINY, DUTY it more and more difficult for it to catch its prey. In a future, distant stage of their develop- ment the lion may literally lie down with the lamb, the killer with his victim ; but by then the souls which impelled and controlled their bodies will have undergone many transforma- tions, and will have no recollections of the past. As lion and lamb they will no longer exist. Whether in their first future life they are re- incarnated in other material forms, or pass at once into immaterial conditions at present unknown to science, we cannot say. But we may be quite sure that, sooner or later, as they develop upwards, they will pass into the im- material condition, though not necessarily or probably on the same lines of ascent as we of the human race. CHAPTER V SCIENTIFIC FALLACIES Scientists are too apt to conclude that the substances existing, and the forces operating, in our universe are few in number and expressible in simple formulae. No grounds exist for such a conclusion. The probabilities are entirely the other way. It is virtually certain that the un- known immaterial substances acted on in the universe are infinite in number, and the un- known forces acting on them, though imper- ceptible to man's senses, infinite in number also. Let it be clearly understood that an immaterial substance, as we here use the term, a substance with properties different from those of ordinary matter, and different also from those ascribed to the ether, is not a mere abstraction, like a thought or idea, which has no form and occupies Ss 86 MAN'S ORIGIN, DESTINY, DUTY no position in space or in the material universe. Substances perceptible to our senses, and capable of being weighed and measured, we call material substances. Substances imperceptible to our senses, and incapable of being weighed and measured, though not necessarily formless, we call immaterial substances. We may take it as certain — since no man out of Bedlam can con- ceive himself omniscient — that the latter out- number the former as the infinite outnumbers the finite. We may take it as equally certain that the unknown forces imperceptible to man's direct senses, of whose existence he has not the remotest suspicion, whose modes of operation are widely different from those of electricity, magnetism, attraction, or any other force of which human science has hitherto taken account, or of which human science can ever take account, also outnumber the forces now known, or that will ever be known, as the infinite outnumbers the finite. The sooner scientists get rid of the superstitious dogma called the " uniformity of nature " the better it will be for science. The dictum that " nature SCIENTIFIC FALLACIES 87 is uniform " is no more reliable than the dictum that " history repeats itself." Of both it may be said that they are approximately true when, and only when, the conditions are favourable. That and nothing more. Similar causes are generally, but by no means invariably, followed by similar effects. This is a matter of observa- tion, and beyond this modest statement logic forbids us to advance. And for a very good reason. The same causes never recur in exactly the same conditions. Hence, nature can never be absolutely uniform, nor can history ever exactly repeat itself. Too much reliance on the supposed uniformity or repetition has led to many false inferences in science, and to many disasters in the history of nations. Let us suppose that a little boy finds himself for the first time in his life near a pool of clear water, and that he amuses himself by throwing in stones one after another. 1 He observes that every stone that he throws in sinks to the bottom. Relying on the supposed uniformity 1 See the author's third paper on " Symbolic Logic " in the Athenaum, No. 3959. 88 MAN'S ORIGIN, DESTINY, DUTY of nature, he thence quickly infers that "all stones thrown into water sink." Presently, he throws in a stone which happens to be a pumice- stone, and to his astonishment he finds that it does not sink. The supposed " law " is broken ; nature, he finds, is not uniform. Why ? Simply because the conditions are changed. The particles composing the pumice-stone are less closely packed than in the others, so that its specific gravity is less than that of water. Hence, the stone does not sink. Should the clear pool happen to be in the crater of an extinct volcano, all the stones around might be pumice-stones, and then the little boy might inductively conclude, as a " law of nature," that " all stones float." The two laws of nature thus inductively inferred from seemingly invari- able sequences are mutually destructive, and both are erroneous. It is not true that all stones sink, nor is it true that all stones float. The validity of each law depends upon the accompanying conditions. Each law will hold on condition that the law of gravitation and other laws of nature hold also ; but not other- SCIENTIFIC FALLACIES 89 wise. When these more general laws are taken for granted, the law that governs the sinking or floating of a body thrown into a liquid (like a stone into water) follows as a logical conse- quence. But there is one condition without which no law of nature is valid — not even the law of gravitation. That condition is that the law is in accordance with the will of God. This last statement requires serious considera- tion ; so we shall examine it closely. In former years, when a man died suddenly from no apparent illness, and no one was suspected of having caused his death, the jury at the coroner's inquest usually gave the verdict that he had died " by God's will," or " by the visitation of God." Nowadays, when there is any un- certainty as to the cause of death, the body is subjected to autopsy, and the cause almost invariably discovered. We commonly say the cause, and we think of it as one ; but in all cases of causation, we shall find on close inspec- tion that a cause is never single. There are always other causes or conditions which precede or accompany the cause, and without which 9o MAN'S ORIGIN, DESTINY, DUTY this special cause would either not have come into existence or would have been inoperative. A man with a weak heart runs to catch a train and suddenly drops dead. The immediate cause of death, let us suppose, was the sudden strain upon the heart. But if the heart had not been weak this sudden strain would not have caused death. If the man had not run he would not have strained his heart. If he had started in good time he would not have been obliged to run. If he had not overslept himself, or if something else had not happened, he would have started in time. If he had not been addicted to various excesses in his youth, or had had more vigorous parents and ancestors, his heart would not have been weak. And so on ad infinitum. The weakness of the heart, the causes of the weakness, the rapid running and its preceding causes, etc., were all operating factors in producing the final catastrophe. All these factors work automatically and in accord- ance with various laws of nature. A few of them are known ; the vast majority are unknown. We have no grounds whatever for supposing SCIENTIFIC FALLACIES 91 that the Deity by a special or direct exertion of his will causes the man's death, any more than he causes any other accidental evil or misfortune. We have no grounds for suppos- ing that, in the ordinary circumstances of life, God, by a direct or exceptional exertion of his will, causes any terrestrial event whatever, good or evil. None the less, science, logic, and linguistic consistency force the reason to assume God's will as an ever-present factor, and the most important factor, in the infinite chain or assemblage of causes which auto- matically and by prescribed laws bring about every event that happens. For since his will is the primary cause of the laws themselves, of the general laws and of the derivative laws which are their consequences, it follows that his will is also the primary cause of all the events, good and evil, humanly designed or accidental, to which the laws give rise. CHAPTER VI MIRACLES It might be supposed that this reasoning strikes at the credibility of miracles, which enter so largely into all religions. This would be a serious error. If we give the word miracle its primary and simplest meaning, our argu- ment leaves the question of probability as regards any special miracle untouched. In its original sense a miracle is simply an event that strikes us with wonder. Of such miracles science is full. Fifty or sixty years ago an audible conversation between two persons, the one in London, the other in Paris, would have been regarded, and properly regarded, as a miracle. When it first occurred it was a miracle. Why is it not regarded as a miracle now ? Simply because it is now an event of daily oc- 92 MIRACLES 93 currence. We are used to it, and therefore no longer wonder at it. Within limits, and by the assumption of several natural laws, the miracle can be explained. In this sense many con- juring tricks are real miracles to the observers who witness without understanding them, though they may be no miracles to the con- juror himself. But neither their performer nor the educated amongst their spectators re- gard those miracles as violations of the laws of nature. On the contrary, the conjuror relies on the laws of nature as indispensable conditions of his performance, and the educated spectators are convinced that however unin- telligible and perplexing the phenomena may appear at the time, a natural explanation in conformity with those laws is possible. In the middle ages, and even in more recent times, a cinematograph performance, seen for the first time without warning or explanation, would have been regarded, not unjustly, as a miracle ; and the performer would have been con- demned, but most unjusdy, to the flames as a wicked sorcerer who had purchased his 94 MAN'S ORIGIN, DESTINY, DUTY supernatural powers by the sale of his soul to Satan. Now, what is the essential difference between the preceding miracles and those attributed, truly or falsely, to the priests and prophets of modern or ancient religions ? It must be frankly owned that there is no essential or logical difference whatever. It is true that the former can, as a rule, be partially, but never quite fully, explained, and that the latter, as a rule, can not. But those who believe in the latter, be they Christian, Mahomedan, or Pagan, may reply with irrefutable logic that the miracles recorded in the special writings which they hold as sacred might be explained also if we knew all the laws of nature, but that, as the most learned scientist knows only an infinitesimal portion of those laws, the fact of the present inexplicability of some of the miracles of their religion should be no bar to their acceptance when they rest upon unimpeachable evidence. Here, however, lies the crux of the whole matter. As regards any special inexplicable miracle, of whatever nature, ancient or modern, comes the MIRACLES 95 question : Is the evidence in its favour unim- peachable ? Does the evidence outweigh its antecedent improbability ? The miracles of science (those of the telephone, wireless tele- graphy, etc.) were as improbable antecedently as the generality of those recorded in the sacred writings of any religion ; but the evidence in favour of the former is so overwhelming that disbelief, even to those who have never wit- nessed or experienced them, is scarcely possible. Can this be asserted of the miracles recorded in any of the authoritative books of any religion now believed in ? He will be a bold man who can unhesitatingly give an affirmative answer. The inability to do this does not, of course, disprove either the miracles or the dogmas of the religion in question ; but the fact that anything approaching irrefutable evidence is unattainable should make theists of all de- nominations, Catholics and Protestants, Jews and Mahomedans, humble, cautious, and mutually forbearing. On many points the most devout theist, be he Jew, Christian, or Mahom- edan, must declare himself an agnostic. How 96 MAN'S ORIGIN, DESTINY, DUTY can it be otherwise, since the unknown is infinite and the known infinitesimal in comparison ? For this reason all of us should be humble and undogmatic truth-seekers, and employ the few small grains of truth which we have the good fortune to light upon in the service of our fellow-creatures, and as aids to further advance. Thus, slowly but surely, by diligent study of God's works and manner of working, as exem- plified in the so-called " laws of nature," psychic and physical, we learn God's purpose as regards the human race, and how best to discharge the small part allotted to ourselves in carrying that purpose to its destined accomplishment. It might also be supposed that the doctrine that God leaves his laws to carry out his purpose automatically without any direct inter- ference with their working, implies the conclu- sion that prayer to God is useless. No error could be greater. Does it follow that because God does not turn aside the current of events in relation to the man and to the man's profit, the man's relations to the events is not altered MIRACLES 97 lutomatically and to his profit by the very act )f praying ? How often it happens that when i man prays earnestly for strength to meet a severe trial before him, he rises from his knees mother man. The strength comes ; the trial s met and overcome. No miracle is wrought ; but the man's prayer is, nevertheless, answered. No law of nature is violated. On the contrary, the act of prayer has set in motion a psychic law designed for the benefit of the soul, as the instinctive taking of wholesome food sets in motion a physiological law designed for the health of the body. God wills that we should seek guidance in prayer ; but he offers no promise that he will by direct interference with his laws prevent us from taking a wrong course ind suffering for our error. In the long-run, man learns wisdom by his errors and from the suffering which they usually entail. Suffering is necessary for man's progress even in this life ; why should not suffering in this life be similarly necessary for his progress in the suc- :essive lives which are to follow ? The child bas usually many unpleasant falls before he 7 98 MAN'S ORIGIN, DESTINY, DUTY learns to walk. If his father always carried him he would never learn to walk at all. It does not at all follow that in a future life man should have an exact memory of his preceding life in order to benefit by the experience gained in that preceding life. "When a child has quite learnt to walk and run, so that his muscles instinctively obey his will, he no longer re- members the joys and sorrows caused by his successes and failures while that muscular in- stinct was in process of formation. None the less the joys and sorrows were necessary for the development of the instinct. CHAPTER VII EVOLUTION AND DESIGN Let us now turn aside for a while from the main drift of our discussion to consider those peculiar faculties of man which have given him such an immense superiority over all other terrestrial animals. What are those faculties ? and whence came they ? Many confident writers, but superficial thinkers, seem to imagine that to all such questions they have only to jerk out the word evolution, after which all further explanation becomes superfluous. Within the last few years this word has been applied in such widely different senses that it may now mean anything or nothing. In the Darwinian theory it simply means that the offspring resemble their parents and immediate ancestors in bodily structure, organs, instincts, etc., but 99 ioo MAN'S ORIGIN, DESTINY, DUTY always with more or less variations or differ- ences, some of which help them in the struggle of life, while others are detrimental. Those born with the useful variations generally sur- vive and transmit them to their offspring, while those born with the detrimental variations tend to go down in the struggle from generation to generation, and finally disappear. According to this principle of evolution, animals gradually adapt themselves to their environment, and when some of them emigrate to new environ- ments with different climates and other condi- tions of life, these emigrants gradually adapt themselves similarly to their respective new conditions, and thus, in process of time, gen- erate new varieties of the original stock, which ultimately, on the same principle of develop- ment, become entirely different species. As one important factor in the gradual changes which animals undergo in successive generations, this Darwinian evolution seems reasonable enough ; but to speak of it as the sole cause of, or even as the most important factor in, the development of animals, or of such marvellous EVOLUTION AND DESIGN 101 organs as the human eye or the human brain, from some primary inorganic non - sentient matter, betrays an extraordinary ignorance of the first principles of probability. Every mathematician who has studied the theory of local probability and averages will admit, and even tyros in mathematics can prove by actual experiment, though the experiment would in general be long and laborious, that chance, working within the limits of prescribed conditions, can be made to evolve with almost perfect accuracy in every detail, foreseen, de- signed, and predetermined figures of various forms, sizes, and shadings. 1 The advanced mathematician who prescribes the laws or condi- tions, which the random points constituting the future shaded figure must not transgress, knows beforehand almost every detail of this figure as regards size, shape, and distribution of shading ; but the mathematical tyro who laboriously carries out the random, or seemingly random, process 1 For a fuller development of this argument see the author's paper "Chance or Purpose," reprinted from the Hibbert Journal, in the Appendix. 102 MAN'S ORIGIN, DESTINY, DUTY by which the figure is slowly evolved, point by point, from an apparent chaos into its final foreordained form and shading, may foresee nothing of this final and (to him) astonishing result. If two mathematical tyros carry out the random pointing independently, and the process be continued long enough, they will finally evolve two figures almost exactly alike in size, shape, and shading — provided, of course, the random points of which they are composed be subjected to the same restrictions as to laws and limits. Now, is not this a fair illustration of the theory of evolution as Darwin understood it ? Here chance, working within the restrictions of prescribed laws, accurately carries out a human purpose. Why should not chance similarly working within prescribed laws, accurately carry out a divine purpose ? No comparison can, of course, be drawn between the two methods as regards the scales of operation and the orders of intelligence at work, as no nameable numerical ratio exists between the finite and the infinite ; but the principle is the same in both. In both EVOLUTION AND DESIGN 103 we behold random (or seemingly random) operations carrying out faithfully and accurately (by means of, and within the restrictions of, prescribed laws) the deliberate purpose of a foreseeing intelligence, and in neither could chance alone, without the restricting laws imposed by the foreseeing intelligence, produce anything but wild disorder and confusion. The one dominating factor in the divine and natural, as in the human and artificial, process of evolution, the factor without which the other causal factors would never have come into operation, is an intelligent foreseeing will. To attempt to explain the marvellous organs and animals (especially man and the human brain) slowly evolved by natural causes without assuming the existence of a mighty, silent, and foreseeing will behind them, is to attempt the impossible. To explain any event by referring it to some " natural law " of which it is a particular case, is only another way of saying that in exactly similar circumstances the event has always been seen to happen. This is hardly an explanation. And if the law to which we are referred be io 4 MAN'S ORIGIN, DESTINY, DUTY found to be itself only a particular case of a more general law, we are not a whit more advanced. The same difficulty remains. We only assert as before that similar events always happen in similar circumstances ; which sounds uncommonly like asserting, by way of explana- tion, that they happen because they happen. When we look into the matter closely we shall find that what generally wants an explana- tion is not the natural law but the real or apparent exception. We are used to the law and take it as a matter of course ; we are startled and astonished by the exception. Simple people who do not bother their heads with science or philosophy would consider that the fall of an unsupported stone required no explanation. " Of course it must fall," they would say ; " what else would you have it do ? Don't unsupported stones always fall ? " To such people, and indeed to most people, the law of gravitation, as they understand it, presents no difficulty. But when a person for the first time sees a piece of iron fly up and attach itself to a magnet, he is greatly surprised EVOLUTION AND DESIGN 105 ind wants an explanation. He wants an ex- slanation not of the familiar law but of the anexpected exception. Is the phenomenon in exception ? The pedantic scientist may -eply that it is not : that the earth attracts :he iron as usual, though at close quarters :he attraction of the magnet is stronger. But svhat is this if not to assert that the unknown :ause or causes which produce the class of phenomena which we collectively designate as the " law of gravitation " never fail to produce those phenomena except when some other cause ov causes render the gravitation cause ineffective ? In other words, the law of gravitation (like most laws of nature) is subject to exceptions. It only holds conditionally, and, as already stated, there is one condition without which it would not hold at all. That condition is that, like all other natural laws, it must be in conformity with the will of the Supreme Ruler of the psychic and physical universe. CHAPTER VIII MAN AND THE LOWER ANIMALS All the preceding considerations bear upon the question which we seek to answer, namely, What are and whence came the peculiar faculties which give man such an immense superiority over all other animals ? The fact that he does possess this immense superiority, which gives him a unique and dominating position among terrestrial animals, is sufficiently remarkable in itself. Many animals far surpass him in size and strength, in the keenness of their sight, hearing, and other senses ; and several, such as the anthropoid apes, approach him closely in outward form and bodily structure ; but in mental calibre the difference between the lowest human savage and the highest animal of any other species is a chasm which no evolutionary 1 06 IAN AND THE LOWER ANIMALS 107 leory hitherto enunciated can adequately cplain. It is not merely a difference of ;gree ; it is a difference of kind. 1 Man, Dwever low his type, possesses one faculty of hich no other animal, not even the highest je, shows the most elementary rudiment. For ant of a better name, let us call it the faculty f symbolisation. Man can exchange ideas with is fellows by means of a complicated system f sounds or symbols. In conjunction with thers of his kind he can develop, and always oes develop, a conventional language ; and, in is individual capacity, he can learn to speak nd employ intelligently any language already leveloped. It is not the mere power of rticulation. The parrot and several other lirds can pronounce words and phrases with onsiderable accuracy, but they never employ hose words or phrases intelligently. They mitate the human voice just as they imitate the newing of a cat, the clucking of a hen, or the nurmuring of a brook, without the smallest uspicion that the human sounds, any more 1 See Note at the end of this chapter. 108 MAN'S ORIGIN, DESTINY, DUTY than the others, represent any particular meaning. Bigoted evolutionists who imagine that every- thing in the universe can be explained by their pet theory, have asserted that as regards inborn inherited mental faculties a wider difference exists between a human low-type savage (such as an Australian black) and a Darwin or Newton than exists between the savage and an anthro- poid ape. 1 Never was there a more reckless assertion, nor one more easily disproved. Take a normal healthy Australian black child, and let him be brought up in any civilised com- munity with all the educational advantages enjoyed by white children of the same age. The experiment has been repeatedly made, and with this invariable result : the black child not only learns to speak and write the language of the civilised community with ease and accuracy, he also learns all the other subjects of the school or college curriculum, and not in- 1 Among those who maintain this view we may reckon Prof. Haeckel. See his Riddle of the Universe (Mr M'Cabe's translation, page 65). IAN AND THE LOWER ANIMALS 109 equently beats his white competitors in the xaminations. Now, take the young of any anthropoid ape -a chimpanzee, ourang-outang, or gorilla, and ibmit it to the same test. If brought up in ngland, will he learn to speak or understand nglish ? If brought up in France, will he arn to speak or understand French ? Can he 2 taught to read or write ? Can he be taught ) grasp the simplest abstract idea or reasoning, ach as " If the man A is bigger than the man , and the man B bigger than the man C, then le man A is bigger than the man C " ? Can du even get him to understand the meaning E the simple statement " A is bigger than B," r of the statement " An ass is bigger than a it " ? Like a dog, horse, or elephant, an ithropoid ape can be taught to understand a mmand, such as " Fetch that white ball," just ; he understands the caress of his master's ind or the menacing crack of his master's hip, because he has observed that reward sually follows one tentative action, and unishment another ; but I much question no MAN'S ORIGIN, DESTINY, DUTY whether he can be taught to understand the meaning of any simple affirmative or negative statement, such as " The ball is white," or " The ball is not white," since mere statements involving no command do not usually supply any motive for action. In any case, no evidence has ever been adduced that any anthropoid ape or other non-human animal possesses the simplest power of symbolisation — of inventing fresh sounds or symbols, and thus developing a conventional language, without which abstract ideas and reasoning would be forever impossible. Yet this power of symbolisation is a faculty which every type of humanity, however low in the scale of development, has been proved to possess. What, then, becomes of the astounding assertion that there is a greater inborn inherited mental difference between a Darwin or a Newton and a low-type savage than between such a savage and an anthropoid ape ? By proper educational training from his childhood an Australian black can be taught to read and understand Newton's Principia. No anthropoid ape can be taught to read or understand the dAN AND THE LOWER ANIMALS 1 1 1 implest sentence in the simplest childish book. This is a hard fact which no extreme and incompromising evolutionist can get over, ivolution, though a factor, is by no means the nost important factor in animal development. \. mighty foreseeing purpose always prescribes he laws which determine the curve and limit he area of the evolutionary operations. It is true that apes, like many other animals, :an communicate their simple needs, wishes, md emotions to others of their kind by in- stinctive cries or gestures ; but that is a very iifferent thing. In the case of all non-human mimals such emotional cries are inherited and nstinctive ; they are never learnt or acquired. ^. hen that has never known any other mother :han an inanimate incubator, and has never leard another hen call her chickens, will, never- :heless, when she has chicks of her own, summon :hem to her with the same peculiar " cluck " is do all other hens in similar circumstances. The human child acquires his mother's tongue slowly, tentatively, and with difficulty, guessing it the meanings of words and phrases by a ii2 MAN'S ORIGIN, DESTINY, DUTY species of inductive reasoning, just as it would acquire any other language. The hen, on the contrary, employs her clucking language (as she eats and drinks) instinctively, and exactly as her many ancestors had done before her. And so with all other non-human animals. There is another point in which the languages of birds and brutes differ from the human languages of to-day. With birds and brutes (as probably with primitive man) each separate sound or symbol is a complete statement — subject and predicate being, as it were, rolled into one. The warning " caw " of a sentinel rook is a datum expressly given to the rest that they may therefrom conclude that danger of some kind is at hand. The rook may have seen a man coming with a gun, or several men coming with guns, or a boy coming with a catapult, or an Indian coming with a bow and arrow. The simple " caw " cannot inform the other rooks which of these, if any, is the correct conclusion ; but it informs them that danger of some kind is approaching, and that is enough. Away they fly, and the sentinel also. /IAN AND THE LOWER ANIMALS 113 A human sentinel, whether belonging to a ivilised or to a savage community, can give luch more accurate information. If near nough to those over whose safety he watches, e can, through the medium of their common peech, inform them not only that some danger pproaches, but what kind. It may be a lion, ir a pack of hungry wolves, or a hostile tribe if neighbouring savages ; but whatever it be, ie can, by suitable combinations of conventional rords, acquaint his fellows with the exact nature f the danger. The more or less complicated tatement or statements which he makes have his in common with the simple " caw " of the 00k : that they constitute data from which those earned are expected to draw the proper con- lusions. Each proposition or sentence forms datum, and the more abundant the data the uller and the more accurate the conclusions rawn, or, in other words, the information onveyed. If the human sentinel be too far away for udible speech, but not quite out of sight, he an still give more or less accurate information ii4 MAN'S ORIGIN, DESTINY, DUTY by a conventional code of visible symbols. The principle is the same ; the only difference is that the one conventional system of language appeals to the ear, the other to the eye. Both have to be learnt. Each tribe slowly develops its own system, and each member of the tribe learns it when young from his mother, or from others who are already acquainted with it. No trustworthy evidence has ever been adduced that any species of birds or beasts, simian or non-simian, has ever developed a conventional code of representative sounds or symbols of this nature. Man alone possesses the faculty ; and no species of animals, however man-like in bodily structure and in appearance, that does not possess it can rightly be classed as human. Now let us trace primitive, prehistoric man far back in imagination to the time when, like the other animals around him, his language consisted of simple, independent, unrelated elementary sounds, each a complete statement in itself (a subject and predicate, as it were, rolled into one) and conveying its own separate information. Wherein, at that distant period, MAN AND THE LOWER ANIMALS 115 :onsisted his superiority over other animals ? [t consisted in this : that then, as now, his language was not instinctive and inherited. 7/ was of Ms own formation. The first real man [or woman) was the first of human or human- like shape and structure who possessed the faculty not merely of speech but of conscious speech-development — the faculty of represent- ing ideas (in order to remind himself or give information to others) by arbitrary sounds or symbols. Whether any hitherto undiscovered organ corresponding to this faculty exists any- where in the human brain, is a question which does not now concern us. It in no way affects our argument. The first of human form who barked a tree or erected a heap of stones or other simple monument that he might after- wards remember by its suggestion where he had buried or otherwise hidden a provision of food for himself and family, performed therein in act which (whatever may have been the material constitution of his brain) stamps him at once as human. He possessed the faculties both of symbolisation and of introspection. n6 MAN'S ORIGIN, DESTINY, DUTY The barked tree or stone monument (like a knotted handkerchief in modern times) was a symbol or datum invented in order to give information to himself — in other words, in order to revive his memory — of the spot where he had hidden his provision. The late Prof. Max-Muller, in his Lectures on the Science of Language, (p. 356), arrives, by the method of comparative philology, at the conclusion that all languages were originally composed of uninflected roots, every one of which, he says, "expresses a general, not an individual idea," and that " every name, if we analyse it, contains a predicate by which the object to which the name applies was known." After a careful examination of his weighty and interesting arguments, I think this conclusion should be somewhat modified. Instead of saying that every name or root "contains a predicate by which the object to which the name applies was known," it would be more accurate, I think, to say that every root " was originally a predication, or statement, which, whenever uttered, always referred to one and MAN AND THE LOWER ANIMALS 117 the same thing, or else to something similar." That is to say, the root was neither the subject nor the predicate of the statement ; it did duty for the combination : it was the statement itself. Further on, the same eminent philologist says that " The fact that every word is originally a predicate, that names, though signs of indivi- dual conceptions, are all, without exception, derived from general ideas, is one of the most important discoveries in the science of language." This conclusion would also, I think, be more accurately expressed as follows : " The fact that every word was originally a predication or statement, which, like the cries of the lower animals, first conveyed information either about a personal wish or emotion, or else about some external object, and which was afterwards employed to give similar information about similar objects, is one of the most important discoveries in the science of language." 1 Prof. Max-Mtiller justly points out (as 1 Speculations on the origin and evolution of human language will be found in my Symbolic Logic and its Applications. n8 MAN'S ORIGIN, DESTINY, DUTY Locke had done before him) that no non-human animal is capable of abstraction or the forma- tion of abstract ideas ; but the mental difference between man and the lower animals is far more fundamental than this. Not only is no non- human animal capable of forming abstract ideas : no animal below man can even express the simplest relation between two concrete things ; nor can any non-human animal ever be made to grasp the meaning of the simplest proposition that expresses such a relation. A dog or an ape may grasp the idea suggested by the word rabbit, and possibly also — though I doubt it — that suggested by the word runs ; but can a dog or ape grasp the meaning of the simple proposition " the rabbit runs " ? A parrot may recognise its own name, Polly, and may grasp the idea suggested by the word nuts, and on hearing the words " Polly, nuts," it may vaguely feel from long experience that its attention is being invited by the first word, and from long experience, it may infer from the second that it is going to receive some nuts ; but will a parrot understand the meaning of MAN AND THE LOWER ANIMALS 1 19 any simple proposition, such as " Polly likes nuts," or " Polly cracks nuts," or " Polly eats nuts " ? It can easily pronounce these pro- positions ; but does it ever really understand any of them, whether pronounced by itself or by its mistress ? Most persons who have given serious study to the mental capacities of dogs, apes, or parrots, would answer the question un- hesitatingly in the negative. A dog or an ape can be taught without much difficulty to obey an order, such as " Bob, shut the door," or " Bob, open the door," and he can be taught to distinguish between the two orders ; but it would require very strong evidence to convince me that either a dog or an ape, or any other non-human animal, can be taught to understand the meaning of such a simple proposition as " Bob has shut the door," or " Bob has opened the door." Assuming, however — and it is a big assumption — that the intelligence of a dog, ape, or other inferior animal can be educated up to this point, it would still be far below the point at which it could grasp the meaning of a classification, and therefore, a fortiori, below the 120 MAN'S ORIGIN, DESTINY, DUTY point at which it could grasp the meaning of an abstraction. Where is the non-human animal to be found that can understand the classifying proposition, "The parrot is a bird," or any propositions containing such abstract words as truth, error, hunger, thirst, etc. ? If any animal of non-human form can be found exhibiting this degree of intelligence, that animal — be its form that of an ape, parrot, horse, ass, or elephant — is, for the time, under the influence of a human or superhuman soul. When that influence ceases, the animal's soul resumes the control of its own brain and nervous system, and its intelligence will then revert to its normal type. How litde a speaking bird can grasp the meaning of the words it utters, may be gathered from an amusing incident which the present writer witnessed rather more than thirty years ago. While I was at a friend's house a young lad belonging to the house brought in a large cage containing a raven which he had just re- ceived as a present. The raven, he assured us, could pronounce some words with remarkable MAN AND THE LOWER ANIMALS 121 distinctness ; but his efforts to make it speak just then proved unavailing. Under the belief that the bird felt lonely and unhappy in his new surroundings and might be glad of a companion, he went and fetched a jackdaw which he had in another cage. As soon as the raven cast his eyes upon the newcomer he immediately flung away his apathy, began agitating his wings, and showed other signs of excitement ; but the nature of his emotions we could not from these data with certainty divine. His evident agitation might indicate pleasure at the prospect of having a companion to relieve his solitude, or it might indicate anger and jealousy at the advent of a rival and intruder. Presently, the raven opened his beak and dis- tinctly pronounced the welcoming words, " Dear boy." This was decidedly startling. It gave us all a high idea not only of the raven's in- telligence but also of his kindliness of heart. We no longer doubted that the jackdaw would receive a most friendly welcome ; so the lad at once opened the door of the raven's cage, introduced the jackdaw, and then closed the 122 MAN'S ORIGIN, DESTINY, DUTY door upon the pair. But the denouement was not quite what we had expected. The door of the cage was hardly closed when the raven furiously attacked the new arrival, and, adding mockery to injury, he accompanied every second or third blow of his beak with the caressing words which had before deceived us : " Dear boy " — " Dear boy." To prevent a fatal ending to this dramatic yet somewhat comic spectacle, the young owner of the birds quickly re-opened the door of the raven's cage and removed the poor jackdaw from his ferocious onslaughts. Now, it is clear as clear can be that this ill- tempered raven had not the remotest conception of the meanings of the words in which he vented his anger. Like the " Never more " of Poe's raven, they probably constituted " his only stock and store." To his mind, if they had any meaning at all, they simply meant " I hate you " ; but it is far more probable — it may be regarded as certain — that they represented no meaning at all to him, and never had done. How they came to replace his natural and instinctive cry of anger it is not easy to say. MAN AND THE LOWER ANIMALS 123 Perhaps they had been learnt with pain and difficulty, and were therefore associated with irritating recollections. But, however that may be, it is evident that not the faintest glimmer of their real signification had ever entered the raven's head. Note.— Some of the lower animals are capable of feeling (though not of expressing) the elementary in- ductive inference expressed by A:C, or AB:C. That is to say, a non-human animal may observe and remember that the event A, or the combination of events A and B, is always followed by the event C, though he cannot by means of any sounds or signs communicate this knowledge to another animal of his species. But no terrestrial animal except man is cap- able either of understanding or expressing the abstract and deductive reasoning expressed by the formula (A:B) (B:C):(A:C), which asserts that if A implies B, and B implies C, then A implies C. It is evident even to the eye that the reasoning expressed by this formula is of a different order from that symbolised by AB:C. In the complex implication (A:B) (B:C): (A:C), the conclusion (A:C) follows necessarily from the premisses (A:B) and (B:C) ; in the simple implica- tion (AB:C) the conclusion C does not necessarily follow from the premisses A and B. CHAPTER IX PSEUDO-EVOLUTION Let it be understood that in thus drawing attention to the immense distance between the highest order of intelligence among the lower animals and the lowest order (unaccompanied by cerebral disease or abnormal malformation) among human beings, I am in no way attacking the theory of evolution, the truth of which, within fair and modest limits, I admit. But nowadays this theory is being pushed to such absurd lengths, that in the general interests of science, and even in the interests of the theory itself, it is high time to protest against its exaggerations. Otherwise, there will assuredly be a reaction. Indeed, there are signs that it has already begun. The outrageous pretentions of those who would explain every phenomenon 124 PSEUDO-EVOLUTION 125 in the universe, and even the universe itself, on evolutionary principles, have provoked the an- tagonism of some scientists, and not the least distinguished, who reply with natural impatience and some show of reason that " evolution ex- plains nothing whatever." This is true in a sense. Evolution alone explains nothing what- ever ; but within due limits, and taken in conjunction with other and far more important factors, it helps us to obtain clearer notions of the progressive steps in plant and animal develop- ment — so far as their material structure is con- cerned. As regards the directing forces which constrain the original cells and seeds to take those steps — which constrain some to develop into oaks, others into cabbages, some into fishes or reptiles, others into dogs, horses, cows, or human beings, — the theory of evolution affords no explanation whatever. Upon those infinitely more important points the most advanced biologist is at present as ignorant as the infant at its mother's breast. To speak of the " principle of evolution " as a sufficient ex- planation of plant and animal development is 126 MAN'S ORIGIN, DESTINY, DUTY like speaking of the " principle of revolution " as a sufficient explanation of calico weaving in a cotton factory. The word revolution is certainly applicable to the observed facts. The wheels unquestionably all turn round. Nobody can deny that. But can this be called an explana- tion ? Does a mere statement of the facts, or even an elaborate and detailed description of them, constitute an explanation ? The question has yet to be answered, " Why do the wheels turn round ? What causes the revolution ? " Suppose the " revolutionist " (using the word for the moment in a somewhat novel sense for the sake of the analogy) were to point by way of explanation to the system of cogs by which the motion of one wheel is transmitted to another, or to a series of others, could that be accepted as a final and sufficient explanation ? Would not a great many more questions have to be answered before the mind could rest satisfied and seek no further ? How came the wheels to have cogs ? How came the wheels and their cogs into existence at all ? Whence came the force that set them in motion, and kept them PSEUDO-EVOLUTION 127 n motion ? Was the final result, the neatly raven calico, foreseen and the whole machinery >ut together and set in motion expressly to >roduce it ? The most uncompromising atheist vill not deny that it was — that in this case, at inyrate, any explanation that leaves out the nost important factor of all, the factor of in- elligent design, is ludicrously inadequate. The :ogs will show how the wheel A sets in motion he wheel B, the wheel B the wheel C, and so >n ; the levers will explain another part of the implicated operation ; and so on, till we arrive it the most important of all the unconscious actors, namely, the expansive force of steam, is this the terminus of our search through the :hain of causation ? Here may we stop and :onclude that we have reached the original cause it last ? Clearly not ; we must proceed further. The originating cause was not the expansive : orce of steam, but the intelligent human mind :hat constrained that force and many others to minister to the final object which it had in view —the production of calico. (See Chapter VII.) To this argument — the essential principle 128 MAN'S ORIGIN, DESTINY, DUTY of which is as old as the hills — the extreme and bigoted evolutionist, who is ready to examine the claims of almost any hypothesis as a possi- ble factor of explanation provided it does not contain the hated assumption of superhuman design, usually replies that the cases are not parallel, and he points out some obvious differences between them. But the curious thing is that the most striking of these differ- ences all tell against him. Instead of invali- dating they strengthen, and strengthen im- mensely, the old argument of superhuman design. Which indicates the higher intelli- gence, the construction of complicated machines which produce automatically — or in a large measure automatically — certain results required of them, or the construction of infinitely more complicated machines, which not only produce automatically the results required of them but also combine to produce other similar machines of equal complexity and often superior to themselves in effectiveness ? The machines constructed by nature — the living animals which reproduce their kind — do this and many PSEUDO-EVOLUTION 129 )ther things still more wonderful which need lot here be described. Yet the extreme and )igoted evolutionist infers a high intelligence ls the cause of the humanly constructed and nferior machines, and no intelligence at all as he cause of the naturally evolved and infinitely superior machines ! The preceding discussion may seem but ittle connected with the question from which t sprung, the question of ethics ; but the rrelevance is only apparent. No stable system jf ethics can be constructed on mere human luthority. The final authority must be super- luman, and this superhuman authority cannot se effectively appealed to till the educated and aneducated alike are firmly convinced that it •eally exists. Once this conviction is established, ir (shall we say ?) re-established, in the hearts if all classes, the construction of a suitable tiuman code of morality for the varying circum- stances of each successive age becomes com- paratively easy. And how is this universal :onviction to be brought about ? In the same way as the conviction was brought about, first 130 MAN'S ORIGIN, DESTINY, DUTY among the educated classes, and then more or less among the uneducated, that the apparent daily revolution of the whole sky round the earth is caused by the real revolution of the earth round its own axis ; that the sun which warms our globe is, nevertheless, many millions of miles away from it ; that sunlight, exercise, cleanliness, and fresh air, as well as food and drink, are necessary for health ; that mosquitoes and even ordinary flies may inoculate us with the germs of fatal diseases ; and so on, with many other truths of which our ancestors were perfectly ignorant, but which are matters of common knowledge and acceptance now. And what are the obstacles to this firm conviction that a Superhuman Power, whose will, so far as we can understand it, must be consulted, really exists ? The first obstacle, to-day as in the past, is the fact that this Supreme Power does not choose to make himself manifest to our senses, and that he seldom, if ever, inter- feres with the established course of nature either in our favour or against us. I have already dealt with this difficulty and endeavoured to PSEUDO-EVOLUTION 131 show how this seeming indifference to evil and suffering may be reconciled with the main attributes which the generality of theistic religions agree in ascribing to the Supreme Being. The next great obstacle is the exag- gerated importance attached by modern writers to Darwin's theory of evolution as an explana- tory factor in the study of animal development. The fallacies — not of the true and modest theory itself, but of its pretentious counterfeits — have so infected general literature that a writer who would found a code of ethics on any superhuman authority, or defend a code already so founded, must often deviate from the general line of his argument in order to meet the current objections of atheistic evolu- tionists. For could these objections be proved valid, the very basis of his ethical system would necessarily be undermined. They are not valid, but they are so widespread and assume such varied forms (though essentially the same in principle) that a writer who wishes to convince the general mass of readers must keep them continually in view. CHAPTER X THE FALLACIES OF HAECKEL I have dwelt upon the immense gap which separates man intellectually from all other animals (the anthropoid apes included), not because the recognition or non-recognition of this gap in any way affects my general argu- ment, but because the unique position which man's intellectual superiority (however that superiority may have arisen) gives him among terrestrial animals is in itself a remarkable fact which, it is natural to suppose, has some special purpose behind it. Extreme and prejudiced evolutionists, for obvious reasons, do their utmost to minimise the significance of the fact, and, in their eager search for " missing links," seek to bridge over the chasm ; but in this they overlook another important fact, namely, 132 THE FALLACIES OF HAECKEL 133 that the intellectual difference between man and any anthropoid ape is far wider than the difference in brain and bodily structure can account for. The bodily difference, though clear and unmistakable, is comparatively slight ; the mental difference is enormous ; and it is precisely this mental contrast between the human and the simian, combined with the physical resemblance, which the bigoted pseudo- evolutionist will find it hard to explain. The theory of evolution affords a partial and limited — extremely limited — explanation of bodily development. Of the origin and development of mind — of feeling, consciousness, thought, etc. — it affords no real explanation whatever. Attempts at such explanation have, of course, been made, notably by Prof. Haeckel ; but the self-contradictions of the many unwarrantable hypotheses which the German professor drags in by the neck and shoulders when solid facts are absent, show plainly that, despite his ability as a close observer of biological phenomena, his acquaintance with the mathematical theory of probability, or even with the elementary 134 MAN'S ORIGIN, DESTINY, DUTY principles on which that theory is founded, is of the scantiest. No one who had given any- serious study to probability, or to the modern system of logic founded on it, could possibly have committed himself to such a tissue of absurdities as are to be found in Haeckel's astounding description of the " Embryology of the Soul," in the eighth chapter of his Riddle of the Universe. The learned professor seems never to suspect that for a valid conclusion of any kind solid data of some sort are absolutely necessary. Without data we have no problem before us — not even a problem in probability. If, for example, we are asked the probability of gold existing on the planet Neptune, what can the theory of probability reply ? It will reply that it has no data on which to found a cal- culation. The required chance may have any value between unity (representing certainty) and zero (representing impossibility) ; no nearer limits of the chance are at present obtainable. 1 But in analogous cases Haeckel 1 In my Symbolic Logic and its Applications I have shown (as Dr Venn had done before me in his masterly work on THE FALLACIES OF HAECKEL 135 would boldly lay down some imaginary hypotheses, from which, as if they were actually observed facts, he would prove or disprove what he had previously decided to believe, or to disbelieve. Let me quote the following : — " I. Each human individual, like every other higher animal, is a single simple cell at the commencement of his existence. "II. This 'stem cell' (cytula) is formed in the same manner in all cases — that is, by the blending or copulation of two separate cells of diverse origin, the female ovum and the male spermatozoon. " III. Each of these sexual cells has its own ' cell- soul ' — that is, each is distinguished by a peculiar form of sensation and movement. " IV. At the moment of conception or impregna- tion, not only the protoplasm and the nuclei of the two sexual cells coalesce, but also their ' cell-souls ' ; in other words, the potential energies which are latent in both, and inseparable from the matter of the protoplasm, unite for the formation of a new potential energy, the 1 germ-soul ' of the newly constructed stem-cell. "V. Consequently, each personality owes his The Logic of Chance) the fallacy of the subjective theory of probability which values a chance at one-half when (as here) there are no data for a calculation. 136 MAN'S ORIGIN, DESTINY, DUTY bodily and spiritual qualities to both parents ; by heredity the nucleus of the ovum contributes a portion of the maternal features, while the nucleus of the spermatozoon brings a part of the father's characteristics." Passing over I. and II. with the simple remark that the statements contained in them are wanting in precision and clearness, let us confine our attention for a moment to III. Haeckel here asserts that each sexual cell has its own " cell-soul " (whatever that may mean) and is distinguished by a peculiar form of sensation and movement. Now, the "movement" is a matter of observation, and as such may be taken for granted ; but what about the " sensation " ? That must be a matter of infer- ence, and where are Prof. Haeckel's data ? Is there any evidence that animals destitute of, or not known to possess, a brain or nervous system ever feel ? Because a cell is observed to move, does it follow that it feels ? Does motion imply feeling ? * Do the waves of the 1 A striking example of automatic and apparently, but not really, conscious movement is given in (2) p. 5. See also the opening paragraph in Chapter I. THE FALLACIES OF HAECKEL 137 sea feel ? Does a ticking watch feel ? Does i needle feel when it springs up and attaches tself to a magnet ? Does a flowing river feel ? Does the blood feel as it circulates through our arteries and veins ? Does the heart feel which propels it day and night, when we are asleep ind when we are awake, when we are conscious ind when we are unconscious ? If all these questions must be answered in the negative, we must again respectfully request Prof. Haeckel to produce his data. He tells us that each human individual was a single simple cell at the commencement of his existence, and that then he experienced " a peculiar form of sensation." This must, by implication, have also been the experience of Prof. Haeckel himself when he started life as " a single simple cell " ; but does he really remember now that " peculiar form of sensation " which he experi- enced then ? If so, his memory must be indeed phenomenal. But if his memory cannot go quite so far back as that, what grounds has he for believing that during his single simple cell life he felt anything at all ? None what- 138 MAN'S ORIGIN, DESTINY, DUTY ever ; otherwise, he would be only too ready to let us know what they are. So much for No. III. Let us now examine No. IV. Prof. Haeckel informs us of the exact moment when the two souls of the two sexual cells " coalesce " into one ; or, " in other words," when " the potential energies which are latent in both .... unite for the formation of a new potential energy." Oh ! the terrible power of big sonorous words without meaning ! Does it help us to get a clearer idea of his meaning of the word " cell-soul " to call it a "potential energy," or to speak of it as "latent in the cell" ? I have diligently sought to find a clear definition by Prof. Haeckel of the word soul in his long account of its evolution ; but my search has been in vain. The nearest approach to a definition which I have come across is the following : — " We consider the psyche to be merely a collective idea of all the psychic functions of protoplasm." Putting this into simple English, it becomes : — THE FALLACIES OF HAECKEL 139 "We consider the soul to be merely a collective idea of all the soul-ish functions of protoplasm." We might with as much sense define a cloud as " merely a collective idea of all the cloudy functions of the atmosphere." Again, may we not exclaim " Oh ! the terrible power of big sonorous words without meaning ! " ? What is a " collective idea " ? Who or what has the collective idea ? The material protoplasm ? Or we who think about it ? If the former, does Prof. Haeckel seriously mean to say that protoplasm has a " collective idea " (whatever " collective idea " may mean) about itself ? If the latter, how can our " collective idea " be the soul of anything else, whether protoplasm or not ? How grand and philosophic the most arrant nonsense can be made to look when wrapped up in fine technical imposing language ! Little need be said about V. It contains a simple truth known to everybody, namely, that children generally resemble their parents physically and (though to a less extent) mentally ; but how that resemblance is brought i 4 o MAN'S ORIGIN, DESTINY, DUTY about, physically or mentally, Prof. Haeckel knows no more now than he did when, in his pre-natal days, he was a simple " stem-cell " or "cytula." To call the unknown process " heredity " is a pure device to hide our universal ignorance of its whole nature ; while to pretend to know anything about the exact parts played in the development by the nuclei of the ovum and spermatozoon is to pretend to knowledge which every candid biologist will emphatically disclaim. It may be thought that I am giving undue prominence to Prof. Haeckel and his wild speculations. If I had only to consider the intrinsic force of Prof. Haeckel's reasoning, this would be true enough ; but the general defer- ence paid to Haeckel's dicta on biological ques- tions — a deference which may be merited when he restricts himself to the simple description of observed phenomena — gives his dogmatic utter- ances on knotty speculative and philosophical questions, clearly beyond his grasp, an influence which they would not otherwise possess. That that influence has been great on the semi-edu- THE FALLACIES OF HAECKEL 141 :ated masses is manifest from the enormous sale of his pretentious and often self-contra- iictory work, The Riddle of the Universe. And not on the semi-educated masses alone. It is anfortunately the fact that the great majority }f even the educated classes, including many who, as regards the mere possession of varied md extensive knowledge, may be called highly educated, like to have all deep and troublesome thinking done for them. These, like the half- sducated masses below them, are as a rule ready to accord implicit belief to any pronouncement, however absurd, provided it comes from the ips or from the pen of some distinguished scientist. Now, distinguished scientists are sometimes mere specialists in some narrow scientific domain ; and when this is the case, their opinions on matters outside that domain are generally worth no more, and are often worth much less, than the opinions of an ordinarily educated man who is not too lazy to think for himself. This is a truth which some noisy dogmatic scientists and their credulous admirers are loth to admit. The calm and 142 MAN'S ORIGIN, DESTINY, DUTY patient investigators — the Newtons, the Dar- wins, the Pasteurs, etc. — to whom science owes its most important and epoch-making discoveries, are usually — I may almost say invariably — modest and undogmatic. These do not write or speak much — they have no time, — but the little they say is to the point, and the result of long and laborious thought and experiment. When they write for non-specialists, they do not (like Haeckel and his kind) seek to impose their doctrines upon them by an awe-inspiring display of big bristling technicalities. They appeal straight to their reason in the simple lucid language which every educated man can understand. I have already given some examples of Prof. Haeckel's numerous glaring fallacies. The following will show the animus with which he writes — the evident pleasure with which he tramples on the feelings of those who presume to differ from him. " Much more widespread, and still much respected, is the view which ascribes a gaseous nature to the substance of the soul. The comparison of human THE FALLACIES OF HAECKEL 143 breath with the wind is a very old one. . . . After a time this ' living breath ' was identified with the ' vital force,' and finally it came to be regarded as the soul itself. . . . Experimental physics has succeeded, during the last decade of the century, in reducing all gaseous bodies to a liquid — most of them, also, to a solid — con- dition. ... If, then, the substance of the soul were really gaseous, it should be possible to liquefy it by the application of a high pressure at a low temperature. We could then catch the soul as it is c breathed out ' at the moment of death, condense it, and exhibit it in a bottle as 'immortal fluid' (Fluidum animee immor- tal/). By a further lowering of temperature and increase of pressure it might be possible to solidify it — to produce ' soul-snow.' The experiment has not yet succeeded." Now, passing over, for the moment, the false fundamental statement that a widespread opinion exists that the soul is of a gaseous nature — I have never come across a single theist (Jew, Christian, or Mahomedan) who holds such an opinion, — what are we to think of the mentaliti of a writer who, at an age verging upon seventy, could stoop to elaborate the preceding coarse mockery, deliberately send it to be printed, and carefully correct the proofs, i 4 4 MAN'S ORIGIN, DESTINY, DUTY under the idea that he had invented something exquisitely humorous ? And the utter heart- lessness of it all ! Is it possible that Prof. Haeckel, during his long life, has never stood at the death-bed, and witnessed the sad and solemn passing away, of someone near and dear to him ? — a wife, a mother, a sister, a daughter ? Surely, surely not, or he could never have found it in his heart to joke laboriously about catching her soul at the moment of death, condensing it first into a liquid (Fluidum animte immortale), then into a solid (" soul- snow "), with the final insipid and unfeeling gibe that " the experiment has not yet suc- ceeded." In the like mocking vein, Prof. Haeckel de- scribes the Christian God as a " gaseous Being," because his worshippers speak of him as an invisible " spirit." Let us now examine the logic of this pseudo-scientific foolery. Will it be believed that it all rests on the tacit assumption that a right which all scientists claim and freely use — none more so than Prof. Haeckel — should, on no account, be accorded to Christians, or to THE FALLACIES OF HAECKEL 145 any other believers in the existence of any intelligent superhuman Being or Beings ? And what is the right ? Simply the right to use a word derived from a foreign root in a sense different from the primary signification of that root. The word ether is derived from the Greek aiOyp, which meant the upper or purer air, and thence the clear sky or abode of the gods. The ether of the ancients was, therefore, like the familiar air of to-day, clearly of a gaseous nature. But (according to Haeckel) the ether of to-day, to which, observe, 1 he ascribes " sensation and will (though naturally of the lowest grade) "...." is neither gaseous, as some conceive, nor solid, as others suppose ; the best idea of it " — I am quoting Haeckel — " can be formed by comparison with an extremely attenuated, elastic, and light jelly." And (again according to Haeckel) the vibration of this wonderful modern ether " is the ultimate cause of all phenomena," mental and physical : of sensation, thought, and intellect ; of love, 1 See Mr M'Cabe's translation (p. 78) of Haeckel's Riddle of the Universe. IO 146 MAN'S ORIGIN, DESTINY, DUTY hatred, vice, and virtue, as well as of the revolutions of the heavenly bodies. Thus, Prof. Haeckel applies the word ether, which originally designated something that unquestion- ably is of a gaseous nature, to another widely different substance which, by his own express admission, is not of a gaseous nature. But will he allow the same linguistic freedom of applica- tion to the Christian with regard to the word spirit, derived from the Latin spiritus, which also meant air, but air in motion, a breeze, etc. ? May not the Christian, or theist, using the same linguistic freedom, similarly apply the word spirit to designate, not (as originally) the air in motion, but a mighty, conscious, intelli- gent Being, whose existence we infer from his marvellous works, though he does not manifest himself to us in visible form by direct action upon our optic nerves ? " By no means," says Prof. Haeckel in effect, though here I am not, of course, quoting his exact words ; " that linguistic right is a privilege reserved for atheists. For a Christian to believe in the existence of a conscious, intelligent, invisible THE FALLACIES OF HAECKEL 147 spirit is to believe in the existence of a con- scious, intelligent, gaseous being, which is absurd. But for an atheist to believe in the existence of a jelly-like, semi-conscious, stupid, invisible ether, " endowed with sensation and will (though naturally of the lowest grade)," whose incessant vibration , as the " ultimate cause of all phenomena," slowly evolves human brains, and through these, without in the least knowing why or wherefore, builds houses, bridges, steam-engines, and hundreds of other things still more ingenious — ah ! that is a very different matter ; that is real science." With this characteristic specimen of Prof. Haeckel's style of argumentation, we will for the present leave him. CHAPTER XI MORALITY AND RELIGION Are the two independent ? Can we have mor- ality without religion ? Can we have religion without morality ? The answers must depend on the meanings which we attach to the words. It is certain that many persons live what most people would consider, and justly consider, useful and irreproachable lives, who neverthe- less cannot, in the ordinary sense of the words, be called religious ; who never attend any place of worship, who believe in no binding dogma ; who, in the matter of speculative theology, are frankly but not aggressively agnostic. On the other hand, it is no less certain that many persons who, in the general acceptation of the word, are intensely religious, who are regular attendants at church or chapel, and who would 148 MORALITY AND RELIGION 149 consider it a grievous sin to disbelieve any of the dogmas or neglect any of the prescribed ordinances of their religion, are, with all this religion, very far indeed from leading irreproach- able lives even from the world's easy standard of morality. Does it therefore follow, because a person may be moral without being religious, and religious (in the ordinary sense of the word) without being moral, that religion and morality are mutually independent ? That would be a conclusion inconsistent not only with logic but with common-sense and experience. The belief that an invisible Being or Beings take note of all we do, and can even read our most secret thoughts, must affect our conduct either for good or evil. It is evident a priori, and history abundantly proves it. Whether such a belief advances or retards the moral and intellectual development of humanity, depends upon the nature of the belief. A religion that inculcates a belief in the existence of malignant and immoral invisible powers, held in no restraint by fear of a superior Being or Beings of an opposite nature, must necessarily exercise an evil influ- ISO MAN'S ORIGIN, DESTINY, DUTY ence on those who accept its dogmas. People cannot well develop a higher code of morality than that attributed to the gods whom they worship. If the gods are represented as taking delight in witnessing pain and suffering, it is small wonder that their worshippers seek to propitiate them by bloody rites and sacrifices. When the gods are represented as fierce, cruel, and vindictive, we generally find that ferocity, cruelty, and vindictiveness are held as virtues by their devotees. Examples of the deplorable effects of such beliefs are found in the savage fetish worshippers of Africa, and also, though to a less extent, among the Eastern peoples who have accepted the impurer forms of Buddhism. These last believe in the existence of good as well as of evil spirits ; but they regard the latter as the only spirits to be feared and propitiated, the former being too much absorbed in the abstract contemplation of virtue and knowledge to greatly trouble themselves about the con- crete joys and sorrows of poor humanity. Morality, science, and civilisation are hardly ever spontaneous growths among people who MORALITY AND RELIGION 151 are brought up from childhood under the blighting influence of a religion of this kind. Fear is the great governing motive, and it is to this that their rulers, who often belong to an alien and more civilised race, usually appeal. Such people, as a rule, can neither understand nor appreciate the softer virtues. Force they respect and are ready to obey ; clemency and generosity they despise as signs of weakness or cowardice. In the same category of demoralising beliefs must be placed the absurd polytheism of the ancient Greeks and Romans. True, the classi- cal gods and goddesses were generally supposed in a vague sort of way to disapprove of human crimes — murder, theft, adultery, etc. — and to punish such crimes either in this life or in a pale, shadowy kind of life hereafter ; but as those gods and goddesses were represented as often thwarting each other's designs, and as being themselves, even the best of them, any- thing but immaculate patterns of morality, the evil influence of the Greek and Roman poly- theism upon the morals of the masses far out- 152 MAN'S ORIGIN, DESTINY, DUTY weighed its influence for good. In the eyes of the Olympian deities, theft, treachery, and murder were often venial crimes which might be atoned for by a suitable sacrifice, such as the slaughter of a sheep, goat, or heifer ; but woe to the man, woman, or child who broke or injured a deity's representative statue or image, even when the injury was purely accidental. The real thinkers — the enlightened states- men, philosophers, and inventors, to whom was due the material progress of the nations of antiquity — were no believers in the gross religions of their day, though they were gener- ally very careful not to say so openly. In the intimacy of private intercourse, and in their writings, they were less reserved, and some of their acute and daring speculations have come down to us ; but the dangers of frank out- spokenness were great, as was shown by the tragic fate of Socrates. In striking contrast to the polytheism of the Greeks, Romans, and other nations was the monotheism of the Hebrews. Instead of con- flicting gods and goddesses, with human MORALITY AND RELIGION 153 passions, good and evil, who often took op- posite sides in the wars of terrestrial nation- alities, this singular people worshipped one supreme and holy Being, Jehovah, who was the creator and sustainer of the whole universe. With logical consistency they held that whatever was done in accordance with Jehovah's will and in obedience to his commands, was good ; and that whatever was done in opposition to his will or commands was evil. These two antithetic words were not, of course, formally defined in text-book fashion ; but they were tacitly understood to have this meaning. Philosophically this was a great advance upon the crude and degrading polytheism of the surrounding nations, with their revolting human sacrifices to Baal, Moloch, and other divinities — sacrifices in which the screaming victims were often burnt to death in brazen cages. It is true that the ordinance of sacrifice formed also part of the Hebrew religion ; but the only sacrifices were those of certain animals, strictly limited in kind, and they were never to be accompanied by torture. There was no pain 154 MAN'S ORIGIN, DESTINY, DUTY or suffering. One blow of the priest's axe, and instant death, or at least unconsciousness, followed. We read, indeed, that God com- manded Abraham to sacrifice his only son Isaac ; but we also read that this was but to try his faith and obedience, and that God, at the last moment, did not allow the sacrifice to be accom- plished. This incident, like others recorded in the Old Testament, shows that the ancient Hebrews did not always regard their Jehovah as omniscient. An omniscient Deity would have read Abraham's most secret thoughts, present, past, and to come, and would have required no experimental test in confirmation of his knowledge. Another human sacrifice was that of Jephthah's daughter, sacrificed in fulfilment of her father's rash and foolish vow ; but we are not told that God approved either of the vow or of the sacrifice. The belief in one supreme, directing, all- powerful, and beneficent Being constitutes the best philosophical basis for a practical code of morality ; but the efficacy of the code depends less upon the basis than upon the super- MORALITY AND RELIGION 155 structure. The superstructure of the Hebraic religion was the Mosaic law, and especially the ten commandments said to have been delivered direcdy to Moses by Jehovah himself on Mount Sinai, with the awe-inspiring accompaniment of thunder and lightning. The scene described was indeed well calculated to strike terror into the crowd of Israelites below, who had been forbidden on pain of death even to touch the foot of the sacred mountain. Their favoured leader Moses alone had received permission to ascend to its summit and there enter the thick dark cloud from which proceeded the lightning flashes and the terrible thundering voice of the Almighty. Now, what was this law or religion which the Israelites believed to have been communi- cated direcdy to Moses by Jehovah himself, and in a manner so impressive ? The rites, ceremonies, ablutions, etc., required of the people were numerous and not always easy to carry out. Many which may seem puerile on the surface will be found, when examined closely, to have had a hygienic object. The thinkers 156 MAN'S ORIGIN, DESTINY, DUTY among the Israelites, as probably also among the Egyptians, whose science, we are told, was well known to Moses, had no doubt observed that a close connection existed between dirt and pestilence, though they may have been wholly unacquainted with the modern microbean theory of diseases. What more natural for believers in one Supreme Being than to infer that their holy Jehovah strongly objected to impurity of all kinds, bodily and material as well as mental and spiritual, and that the pestil- ence which they observed to attack the impure was a manifestation of his displeasure ? The inference was hasty, no doubt, and will not stand the test of a close logical examination ; but, with all its error, does it not also contain an element of truth ? The laws of Nature are inexorable, and what is " Nature " but another name for " God " ? As regards suffering, Nature draws no distinction in this life, nor perhaps hereafter, between the ignorant and the guilty. Ignorance of Nature's laws and errors of judgment bring their punishment no less surely than deliberate crime. This is MORALITY AND RELIGION 157 Nature's way of teaching ; and Nature, as already stated, is but another name for God — God as manifested in the working of his laws. God's teaching through the operations of his laws is slow, sure, and thorough — the exact opposite of that of the modern crammer. He allows men to commit errors, and he allows them to commit crimes (which are the most grievous of errors) in order that the discomforts and sufferings which those errors and crimes sooner or later entail, here or hereafter, may in the long-run purify their souls and accelerate their progress upwards. As regards the duties of men to one another the Mosaic laws did not, on essential points, differ greatly from the laws of the civilised nations of to-day ; but the punishments for their violation were generally more Draconic. Probably the circumstances of the time re- quired this. Laws must be adapted to exist- ing conditions, and when the conditions change, it often becomes necessary to change the laws also. On one important point the Hebrew religion 158 MAX'S ORIGIN, DESTINY, DUTY — at anyrate in its early stages, as exhibited in the Pentateuch — was defective. Secret crime, beyond the power of man to discover and punish, was believed to be known to the all- seeing eyes of Jehovah, who would punish it sooner or later in this world. There was no hint of a future punishment in a life hereafter. With many, no doubt, the fear of a possible or probable divine punishment in this life acted as a deterrent ; but many others must have observed that this punishment did not by any means always follow. They saw that the wicked often enjoyed a life-long prosperity, and died peacefully at an advanced age, while the good and upright were often afflicted with a life-long adversity, and a painful mortal disease at their life's close. This was perplexing, and must have seriously diminished both the confid- ence of the Israelites in their Jehovah's justice and their dread of his displeasure. The Christian religion as expounded in the New Testament contains all the advantages, from the standpoint of morality, of the ancient Hebrew religion without the disadvantages just MORALITY AND RELIGION 159 stated. Christ warned his disciples that in this world they were to expect no reward for well- doing, but rather the reverse ; that the reward of the good and the punishment of the wicked would be hereafter. More important still, from the ethical standpoint, was his continual insist- ence on inward rather than outward purity ; that if men kept their thoughts pure, the temptation to impurity of action would either not arise or would be spurned and vanquished. His disciples were not to return evil for evil, but good for evil. " Ye have heard," says the great teacher, in his Sermon on the Mount, " that it hath been said, Thou shalt love thy neighbour, and hate thine enemy ; but I say unto you, Love your enemies, bless them that curse you, do good to them that hate you, and pray for them that despitefully use you and persecute you." Noble words, and nobly carried out in his own case by him who uttered them. And in what circumstances were they carried out ? In the horrible agony of the crucifixion. " Lord forgive them," said the dying Jesus, speaking of his torturers, " Lord 160 MAN'S ORIGIN, DESTINY, DUTY forgive them, for they know not what they do." When we consider the humble social position of its founder, and especially his cruel and disgraceful death before the eyes of an approv- ing crowd of his fellow-countrymen, the rapid spread of Christianity after his death, with the consequent rapid extinction of all the pagan religions with which it came into contact, is by far the greatest marvel in history. The subse- quent spread of Mahomedanism in the East is no true parallel. Mahomedanism was forced upon the vanquished at the sword's point ; the religion of Jesus made its way to the heart by the gentle force of persuasion and by an appeal to the nobler instincts of humanity : instincts which may lie a long time dormant, but are never wholly extinct. And what has been the effect of Christianity upon the nations which have embraced it ? Few, indeed, even among the most prejudiced anti-Christians, will deny that the effect has been beneficial. We have only to compare the present condition of Christian nations with that MORALITY AND RELIGION 161 of the nations not Christian. That atrocious crimes have been perpetrated in the name of Christianity by bigoted or hypocritical rulers and by fanatical crowds, is perfectly true ; but those crimes were committed, not in obedience to Christ's precepts, but in direct violation of the whole spirit of his teaching. If it were a mere question of choosing a religion whose moral precepts recommend themselves instinctively to our conscience, the Christian religion as Jesus taught it, and as epitomised in his Sermon on the Mount, would be an ideal religion. This is a truth which the generality of agnostics, and even of atheists, are perfectly willing to admit. But, unfortunately, the difficulty of the present day is in another direction. In the minds of nine persons out of ten, the Christian religion is so bound up with the miracles ascribed to Jesus, and especially with the crowning miracle of his resurrection, that if they lose their faith in these, they lose their faith in all. Without the miracles, they consider that the whole body of Christian doctrines, with the morality founded ii 1 62 MAN'S ORIGIN, DESTINY, DUTY thereon, must lack divine authority. Now, deplore it as we may, it is an almost univers- ally admitted fact that among all classes belief in the biblical miracles, those of the New Testament not excepted, is fast declining. In these circumstances, the question becomes exceedingly important : can the fundamental and essential doctrines of the Christian religion be established independently of and without any appeal to these miracles ? It would be an immense relief to many anxious hearts if this question could be answered in the affirmative ; and the main object of these essays is to show that this is possible. The essential doctrines of the Christian religion, and of theistic religions in general, the doctrines on which alone a dur- able, logical, and satisfactory code of morality can be founded, are three in number. They are : firstly, the existence of a world of intelli- gent superhuman beings, imperceptible to man's bodily senses in the present stage of his develop- ment ; secondly, the survival of the Soul after the death of the Body ; and thirdly, the exist- ence of One Supreme Being (or of more than MORALITY AND RELIGION 163 one, always thinking and acting in unison) whose will it is man's duty and interest to carry out to the best of his lights and to the best of his ability. On these three fundamental doctrines all the leading theistic religions are in complete agreement, however widely they may differ on other points ; and these fundamental articles of their common creed may, in the present some- what sceptical age, be proved more convincingly by appealing to the modern evidence afforded by undeniable experiments and observations in psychology, physiology, and other branches of science, than by appealing to miracles recorded by ancient writers, the convincing value of whose testimony, however great originally, must necessarily diminish with the lapse of time. APPENDIX CHANCE OR PURPOSE? {From the Hibbert Journal, January 1907) The central fallacy in all atheistical explanations of the phenomena of our universe is the tacit assumption that chance and design are antagonistic terms ; that the presence of either factor in the evolutionary develop- ment of mind or matter necessarily implies the absence of the other. Without this assumption the reasoning of the modern atheist falls to pieces. Yet the assump- tion is absolutely false, as the following simple ex- periment in mathematical probability will show. Take two fixed points, A and B, five or six inches apart, on a sheet of foolscap paper. Then take at a random distance from A, not greater than eight inches, and in a random direction, a very great number of minute pencil points, but all subject (though otherwise taken at random) to one inexorable " law " or restriction, namely, that for every point P 164 APPENDIX 165 the sum of the distances AP and BP shall never exceed eight inches. Points not satisfying this condition are to be rejected ; points satisfying it are to be retained. It requires but little knowledge of the mathematical theories of probability and averages to forecast the final result with extreme accuracy, if the random process be continued long enough. It will be a shaded ellipse of predetermined known form and calculable distribution of shading. The darkness of the shading in the vicinity of any point P (measured by the number of minute points that fall there) will be inversely as the distance of P from A. At first the figure in its embryonic stage will appear as a confused assemblage of irregularly scattered small points. By degrees, as the process goes on, the points will be found to thicken round the point A, and be wider apart as their distance from A increases ; while none will be found to fall beyond a certain elliptical though previously untraced boundary. Finally, the exact form and shading predetermined and foreseen will be obtained. Similarly, other geometrical figures, of far more complicated forms and shading, may thus be evolved randomly — that is to say, randomly (as in natural evolution) within certain prescribed limits of variation — although the exact forms and shading have been accurately foreseen by the mathematician to whom the laws, limits, and results owe their real origin and existence. Blind chance (as in natural 1 66 MAN'S ORIGIN, DESTINY, DUTY evolution) is the apparent automatic cause ; but the real though invisible cause (also as in natural evolution) is intelligent and foreseeing design. This illustration shows plainly, though in the form of a parable, that the theory of evolution, instead of undermining the old argument of design, as atheists suppose, enormously strengthens it. The analogy is a close one. Chance and design are both at work. The more complicated the geometrical figure to be evolved, the higher the intelligence needed for laying down the necessary laws and conditions for its seemingly chance evolution. The process of evolu- tion in the case of the figure is very slow ; in nature it is infinitely slower. The random points that con- form with the imposed conditions, and therefore help in the evolution, are retained ; those that do not are rejected. The advance of the figure towards perfection is not continuous. Sometimes there is temporary retrogression. Points will occasionally persist in falling just where they seem least needed, and obstinately avoid the spots where they seem in- dispensable ; but, in the long-run, the law of averages always asserts itself, and the figure advances slowly and surely, if not always steadily, towards its foreseen and predestined form and shading. Making allow- ance for the wide difference of circumstances, does not this typify closely what we observe in the gradual evolution, physically and morally, of the individual APPENDIX 167 and of the race ? In one respect, indeed, the analogy may be found even too close — too painfully suggestive of the sad realities of nature. The Creator here typified does not at first sight resemble the loving father of Christian theology. To all appearance he is a Creator who leaves his laws to work automatically, and gives no heed to the pain, discomfort, or de- struction which their chance combinations bring upon many of the individual units required for the accom- plishment of his purpose. If his purpose requires the evolution of the lamb and the dove on the one hand, it also seems to require the evolution of the wolf and the eagle on the other. " Nature red in tooth and claw " seems an ever-present factor in the cosmic process. Is it a necessary factor ? And can this factor be reconciled with the attributes of justice and bene- volence which we would not willingly withhold from the Creator of the human brains and human souls in which those ideas originated ? And what about the wolves, tigers, and demons of humanity, and the un- speakable horrors which they sometimes inflict upon the weak, the innocent, and the defenceless ? Are these necessary for the divine purpose ? And can they be reconciled with the three great attributes of the Christian Deity — omniscience, omnipotence, and infinite benevolence ? Can that purpose be infinitely benevolent that employs such terrible means for its accomplishment ? These are hard questions, but they 1 68 MAN'S ORIGIN, DESTINY, DUTY must be faced and answered before we can have a religion that will satisfy both the logical demands of the intellect and the yearning aspirations of the human heart. Is such a religion possible ? I think it is ; but it must be built upon assumptions, some of which cannot easily be harmonised with the tenets of any existing theistic religion. These assumptions are the following : — 1. Just as life descends below the human in numberless gradations of intelligence and conscious- ness, down to the senseless plant, and then still lower to its final limit in inorganic matter ; so also life ascends above the human through higher forms of consciousness and intelligence in infinite gradations, till we reach that Supreme Power, or combination of Powers, from whom all others proceed, and on whom all others depend. 2. Just as in the numberless living conscious forms below the human many perceive not, and never, in the present stage of their development, can perceive, because they possess not the requisite faculties for perceiving, that higher conscious beings, such as birds, quadrupeds, and man, exist above them ; so man perceives not, and, through want of adequate faculties, never, in the present stage of his development, can perceive, that he is but a link in the ascending and descending series. But that which man cannot per- ceive directly through his outward senses he is capable APPENDIX 169 of learning indirectly by the exercise of his slowly developing reason — a faculty which was given him expressly that he might so apply it. 3. It is man's duty, as the experience of ages has proved it to be his interest, to study the divine language, that is to say, the phenomena past and present of the world around him, in conjunction with his own inner thoughts and feelings, and therefrom, so far as his faculties permit him, to learn the purpose of the Supreme Will, and, having learnt it, to carry out his own small share in its development to the best of his lights and to the best of his abilities. 4. All forms of life, or at least of conscious life, life capable of feeling pain and pleasure, are in a state of transition, and are destined at death to pass into a higher life, with higher pleasures, higher pains. That higher life, too, will end and will be succeeded by a still higher, and so on for ever. In each successive life pain and pleasure, evil and good, must for ever coexist until its end, and so must the struggle for existence. For the struggle is necessary for the development, and the struggle would be impossible without the incentives of pain and pleasure — pain at the failure, pleasure at the success. The idea of a perpetual, never-ending happiness in a future life, without struggle and without pain, is an unwholesome dream, beautiful but paralysing, like that of the opium- eater. i7Q MAN'S ORIGIN, DESTINY, DUTY 5. Though each transition is from a lower to a higher life, with other pleasures, other pains, it does not necessarily follow that each successive life is happier than its predecessor. That may well depend upon the training received in the life gone by. But though there may be occasional retrogressions, temporary triumphs of evil over good, the general progress will be upwards, ever upwards, towards an eternally receding limit. For each and in each individual the evil and the good must for ever coexist, because they will be for ever necessary ; but for each and in each the evil in proportion to the good will eventually diminish, and the good in proportion to the evil will increase. And for each, sooner or later, the good will take the lead in the eternal race upwards, and, having gained it, will keep it and increase it. 6. Omniscience may logically be attributed to the Supreme Power, but omnipotence only within limits. The laws of logical consistency cannot be altered even by omnipotence, and, for aught we know to the con- trary, the highest happiness may be logically impossible without the preliminary pain and struggle. Must we then affirm that the Supreme Power is the author of evil? Could not his omniscience and omnipotence combined have foreseen and prevented it ? Could he not have devised a world teeming with life and happi- ness, and eternally free from that terrible alloy called evil ? The answer is No, if that world, as is probable, APPENDIX 171 vould be an inconsistency to an omniscient mind, :hough apparently possible to ours. And sin and crime ? Were these also foreseen and predetermined ? Assum- ng an omniscient and all-powerful will, there is no :scape from the answer, They were. Are these con- sistent with infinite benevolence ? Assuming them to be necessary for the development of each sentient unit upwards towards eventual and increasing goodness, the seeming inconsistency disappears. For we cannot draw 1 hard and fast line between crime and other evils. The criminal, like the virtuous, is more or less the out- come of heredity, education, and surroundings. Should criminals on that account be held irresponsible and exempted from all punishment ? If we knew of any means, such as a surgical operation on the brain, where- by they could be rendered useful members of society, yes ; but, as we know of no such means at present, society has a right to protect itself by the only effec- tive method with which it is at present acquainted, and that is their punishment, even to the extreme penalty, when necessary, of death. On the assump- tion of future successive lives, the laws of nature — the laws of that higher nature which we instinc- tively divine but cannot perceive — will automatically effect hereafter the moral cure which we find an im- possibility now. The preceding speculations are admittedly but in- stinctive gropings in the dark — mere hypotheses which, 172 MAN'S ORIGIN, DESTINY, DUTY in the actual state of our knowledge, can neither be proved nor disproved. This is a time of transition, and the data for either proof or disproof are at present wanting. The phenomena of the world around us, and not least, as already shown, the facts upon which the theory of evolution is based, point unmistakably to some superhuman intelligent Power or Powers imper- ceptible to our senses ; but beyond this we cannot, on purely logical ground, advance. Nevertheless, instinct counts for something even in the pursuit after truth. T'here is such a thing as scientific instinct. Our brains are not always entirely at our own disposal. Some conscious Power different from our personal ego, yet still more different from the unconscious vibrating hypothetical ether (which the German professor Haeckel, without the smallest warrant from facts, science, or logic, affirms to be the ultimate cause of all mental no less than of all physical phenomena), often directs the general tendency of our thoughts towards some great discovery long before the discovery takes a distinct and definable form, and still longer before its reality can be established on a firm scientific basis. And it is not alone the individual brain that feels the influence of this directing power ; it often acts upon many brains at once, so that they make the same discovery independently and almostsimultaneously. Those who can detect no evidence of superhuman design in nature will, of course, scout the idea of a APPENDIX 173 scientific instinct preceding, beckoning, and partly guiding the conscious workings of the reason ; but those who do perceive this evidence and can appreciate its significance will find the idea perfectly natural. Even atheists must admit, in spite of Professor Haeckel's coarse and shallow mockery about a "gaseous" being, that an invisible superhuman in- telligence is at least conceivable, that it involves no self-contradiction, no conflict of incompatible concepts. Can we say as much for the Professor's rival hypo- thesis of the " vibrating ether," which he confidently affirms to be " the ultimate cause of all phenomena " ? Let the reader judge. Here are the Professor's words : 1 "The consistency of ether is also peculiar on our hypo- thesis, and different from that of ponderable matter. It is neither gaseous, as some conceive, nor solid, as others sup- pose ; the best idea of it can be formed by comparison with an extremely attenuated, elastic, and light jelly." Further on, the Professor says that this jelly-like ether " is in eternal motion ; and this specific movement of ether {it is immaterial whether we conceive it as vibration, strain, condensation, etc.), in reciprocal action with mass- movement (or gravitation), is the ultimate cause of all phenomena" 1 See Mr M'Cabe's English translation of Haeckel's Riddle of the Universe. 174 MAN'S ORIGIN, DESTINY, DUTY One quotation more, and I have done : " The two fundamental forms of substance, ponderable matter and ether, are not dead, and only moved by extrinsic force, but they are endowed with sensation and will (though, naturally, of the lowest grade) ; they experience an inclina- tion for condensation, a dislike of strain ; they strive after the one and struggle against the other." The words which I have put into italics dispense with all serious comments. So this is the creed of the great apostle of "Monism," as modern atheists have chosen to call their new religion ! The Ultimate Cause, the real creator and sustainer of all phenomena, mental and physical, the phenomenon of human intelligence included, is no intelligent Deity or Deities. It is nothing at all analogous to, much less surpassing, the intelligence of man. It is simply an immense attenuated, yet all-powerful, eternally vibrating jelly ! And this strange jelly-god is endowed with sensation and will, " though, naturally, of the lowest grade ! " Alas ! alas ! what wild nonsense some eminent specialists can write when they venture beyond the narrow limits of their own familiar domain ! If Professor Haeckel had possessed even an elementary knowledge of the first principles of modern logic and mathematical probability, he would have been able to distinguish between relevant and irrelevant data ; he would have known that an explanation of a mystery x in terms of still greater mysteries y, z, etc., is no APPENDIX 175 explanation at all ; he would have been more modest and less dogmatic as well as less offensively aggressive in his language ; and, lastly, he would have restricted his researches to matters really within his competence, and left the forever insoluble " riddle of the universe " alone. There is a dangerous illusion abroad, which, in the interests of all honest truth-seekers, it is high time to signalise. Many people appear to be under the impression that mankind can nowadays be divided into two mutually exclusive classes, respectively represented by the all-knowing " scientist " on the one hand, and the poor, ignorant " man-in-the-street " on the other. Now, there is absolutely no line of demarcation. Science is simply knowledge ; neither more nor less. Hence it follows that, if astronomy, geology, and biology are real sciences, no less real are the sciences of teaching, tailoring, and boot-making. Let the man-in-the-street take courage. He, too, is a scientist, and has been more or less so since his childhood up- wards. If his more highly esteemed colleagues are better equipped by special training and education for certain lines of research, he is better equipped by special training and education for others. For certain transcendental lines of research we are all equally unfitted. As regards the ultimate solution of any of the many riddles proposed by the inscrutable sphinx called Nature, such as the real origin of life, of con- 176 MAN'S ORIGIN, DESTINY, DUTY sciousness, of intelligence, or, in brief, of anything, the man-in-the-street and Professor Haeckel are pretty much on the same level — the level of absolute dataless ignorance. Nevertheless, there is a slight difference. The former is under no illusion ; he knows that the "riddle of the universe" is utterly beyond his capacity. The latter is a victim of a certain malady which elsewhere x I have ventured to call symbolatry. He mistakes the symbol, the name, the mere catchword, for a reality. Hence it is that he imagines himself well-nigh omniscient — the real brain, so to speak, of his own jelly-god. He is quite confident that he has found the real key to the great " riddle of the universe," whereas, in reality, his ignorance of this transcendental problem is as profound as that of his humbler colleague. Once admit the existence of an invisible intelligent creative Power, or combination of Powers, and the customary arguments against the possibility of a future life fall to the ground. These arguments turn almost wholly on the connection between the brain and the conscious ego of our personality, and especially upon the observed connection between certain portions of our brain and special mental processes. A certain portion of the brain is injured ; thereupon a correspond- ing injury is inflicted on the mind — not on the mind 1 Mind, New Series, No. 55, p. 397. APPENDIX 177 as a whole, but on some special faculty, leaving the other faculties untouched. Therefore, says the atheist, the mind, the conscious soul or ego, is not one and indivisible. Its separate faculties are separately connected with separate portions of the material brain. Slice off these portions one by one, and one by one you slice off the separate faculties of the ego also, till finally there is nothing left. Now, let us examine closely this assertion that our conscious soul or ego is inseparably connected with the brain, and that therefore with our death this ego passes wholly out of existence. The first question that presents itself is this : with what brain is our ego so intimately connected ? the brain that is ours now, or the brain that was ours a year ago ? For, from the material standpoint, the two are wholly different. The material brain with which our ego did its think- ing a year ago has already passed clean away, and has been replaced by fresh material particles, forming a new brain, with which it does its thinking now. Yet does not the ego itself endure, and remember much of the thinking which it performed with the aid of the brain that is no more ? If the atheist admits this, he surrenders his whole position. An ego that uses up one brain after another, or that passes from brain to brain as they succeed each other, from the birth of the first to the death of the last, cannot be said to be in- separably connected with any one of the series. 12 178 MAN'S ORIGIN, DESTINY, DUTY Either the ego of our personality and consciousness changes continually with the changing brain, so that every fresh brain has a fresh ego ; or else this ego remains constant while the brain changes. Consider the consequences of the first alternative. Let us suppose that a murderer has been apprehended, found guilty, and condemned to death for a crime committed more than a year ago. Is not this a clear injustice? The really responsible ego has passed away with the brain that planned the crime ; the present ego and the present brain should not be held responsible for a crime committed before they came into existence. But where is the barrister who would venture to take this line of argument in addressing the jury ? And there is another difficulty. How is it that the ego of to-day knows so much — it is hardly logical to say remembers so much — of the thoughts, sayings, and doings of the ego that is no more ? Is it by some kind of brain tradition ? May we suppose that each expiring cell transmits its experience by some kind of protoplasmic language to its successor, and that the so-called memory of the present ego is but the sum-total of these transmissions from cell to cell through suc- cessive generations ? Even if this unprovable supposi- tion were true, it would be in no way inconsistent with the assumption of an ego separate from, yet working through, the instrumentality of the changing brain. Dataless hypotheses of this kind which can APPENDIX 179 leither be proved nor disproved may be imagined vithout limit. Let us take an example at least as )lausible on the other side. Is there anything incon- :eivable in the hypothesis that, when the body perishes ind dissolves into its constituent elements, there •emains intact a small particle, a molecule or even a ingle atom, of brain-matter upon which is imprinted is in a microscopic cinematograph, the whole record )f the dead man's past ? Or in the further supposi- :ion that this invisible particle may afterwards develop nto essentially the same ego, though changed in :xternals, with a remembrance more or less vague, >r more or less accurate, of his previous existence ? rlave we not analogous though not identical phen- >mena in that infinitesimal portion of nature which ;omes within the ken of our observation even in this leering life ? Among animals, not excepting man, loes not the germ-developed offspring inherit to a ;reat extent the propensities and capacities of its >arents, if not their actual recollection of past events ? ■low little the most advanced biologist or physiologist eally knows of the mysteries of life and consciousness ! r or aught we can prove to the contrary, the real mmary moving, thinking agent may be millions of niles away from the human machinery which it sets n motion. Where data are wholly wanting, science hould modestly avow ignorance. Without data cience has no problem before it, not even a problem i8o MAN'S ORIGIN, DESTINY, DUTY in probability. For without data not only are we unable to decide whether a proposed hypothesis is true or false ; we are unable even to assign any approxi- mate limits to its probability, to the chances for or against it. Conclusions drawn from direct sensation are often deceptive. A man suffering from gout feels a pain in his toes. " He is mistaken," says the physiologist ; "the seat of all sensation is the brain. For does not a man whose leg has been amputated also imagine that he feels pain in his toes and that he can move them, though these same toes no longer form part of his body ? whereas these sensations cease when pressure is applied to a certain portion of the brain." But why not carry the principle further? Is it quite certain that all sensation is in the brain — or in the material body at all ? If, in spite of the direct evidence of our sensations, we draw a wrong inference when we locate a certain feeling in our toes, may we not also be wrong when, trusting to the indirect evi- dence of our sensations and to our fallible reason, we locate that feeling or any other in the brain, or, for the matter of that, in any fixed position anywhere, whether in the body or out of it ? Granted that com- plete destruction of the body, or a mortal injury to some vital part of it, apparently destroys for the time all visible evidence of the existence of the conscious ego with which it had been associated : what, after all, APPENDIX 181 does this prove ? In wireless telegraphy also, does not the destruction of the receiving apparatus, or any injury to it, destroy all evidence of the existence of the living, conscious, human, but invisible agent who had acted on it from afar ? Yet this living, conscious, human, but invisible agent still exists, although, for the time, he can no longer transmit his message. May not the real human ego also be, in a similar manner, far away from the material body on which it operates ? Speculation, even the wildest, is free when data are wanting. And it is a remarkable and sugges- tive fact that some of these wild, dataless, but not logically inconsistent speculations, as if they owed their origin to some inexplicable prophetic instinct, are subsequently verified. We hear it sometimes asserted that not an inch of the ground wrested from religion by science is ever afterwards abandoned. This is a rhetorical and far from accurate way of stating the real facts. It is quite true that the truth-seekers of the past, whatever may have been the subject of inquiry, made grievous mistakes ; but may not the same be said of the living truth-seekers (scientists as well as theologians) of to-day ? And is it not morally certain that sooner or later it will be said with more or less accuracy of the truth-seekers of the future ? If the theists of the past, be they monotheists, polytheists, or pantheists, have made mistakes, have not the other scientists of 1 82 MAN'S ORIGIN, DESTINY, DUTY the past, be they astronomers, biologists, or geologists, made mistakes also ? And is confident dogmatism, based on no data, quite extinct in any branch of science among the scientists now living ? Between honest truth-seeking religion and honest truth-seeking science there need never be any conflict. On the contrary, if, profiting by their past errors, they unite as truth-seekers under one banner, each may power- fully support the other. But there must be no finality or baseless dogmatism on either side. True religion, founded on pure Theism, must, like science, be pro- gressive, and adapt its tenets to changing conditions and new discoveries. Science, accepting the same pure Theism, must, like true religion, tread softly and reverently, and regard nature as a divine book which it is man's privilege and bounden duty to study. Religion, as the pioneer, must ever supply the instinc- tive faith and sure though vague and indefinable aspiration. Science, with its more exact methods and instruments of research, must move slowly and warily in the direction indicated, verifying here, correcting there, and leaving untouched the ground for which its methods and instruments are as yet, and it may be for ever, unsuited. APPENDIX 183 WHAT AND WHERE IS THE SOUL? (From the Hibbert Journal, October 1907) Assuming as proved the old doctrine of teleology, or divine origin of the laws of the universe, 1 I propose here, within the limits of my faculties and data, to examine the nature, the position, and the durability of the soul. But as the word soul carries different meanings to different minds, I must start with a definition. It is one which many will, I fear, consider both arbitrary and paradoxical ; but I do not think it will be found wanting either in clearness or precision. The soul, then, I define as simply that which feels. To prevent all ambiguity, it is necessary also to state that, whenever the context does not clearly show the contrary, I regard the words feeling, sensation, and consciousness as virtual synonyms. By express definition, therefore, the soul alone feels, has sensation, and is conscious ; and anything that never feels, that is always insensible or unconscious, is not entitled to the name of soul. Like the plant or animal body, it may be spoken of as alive or dead, but not as soul. I do not assert that the soul is never un- conscious ; my definition does not necessarily imply that ; I only assert that it is not always unconscious. 1 See the author's paper, "Chance or Purpose?" in the Hibbert Journal, January 1907. i8 4 MAN'S ORIGIN, DESTINY, DUTY Precision of language also requires that the soul should not be spoken of as if it were a mere abstrac- tion. Though it feels, it is not a feeling ; though it is conscious, it is not a consciousness. Consciousness, our own individual personal con- sciousness, is the one fundamental datum, the only reality, of which we are absolutely sure. All other entities may be divided into two classes ; first, those whose reality we infer inductively, and therefore not always with certainty, by a comparison of our various sensations (or modes of consciousness) ; and, next, those which are pure unrealities, and have therefore only symbolic existence. Matter, in its three conditions of solid, liquid, and gas, belongs to the former ; round squares, flat spheres, and the " un- conscious sensations " of Professor Haeckel belong to the latter. I place Haeckel's " unconscious sensa- tions " in the latter class, because the moment sensation (in the ordinary acceptation of the word) becomes unconscious, that moment it ceases to be sensation. In the same category of self-contradictory unrealities must be placed the professor's " unconscious will " and " unconscious memory," with several other juggling catchwords which, so far as I can remember, he nowhere attempts to define. As a specimen of his reckless distortion of language, take the following : — "As everybody knows, the new-born infant has no con- sciousness. Preyer has shown that it is only developed after APPENDIX 185 the child has begun to speak ; for a long lime it speaks of itself in the third person " (Haeckel's Riddle of the Universe, p. 66). The italics are mine. Preyer, it appears, has shown, what no sane mother will admit, that until the child has ceased to say " Baby eat," or " Tommy eat," and has learnt to say " I eat," or " Me eat," it has no consciousness ! Yet, on the very preceding page, we read that — " The consciousness of the highest apes, dogs, elephants, etc., differs from that of man in degree only, not in kind." Thus, consciousness is denied to the human child until it has ceased to speak of itself in the third person, and has learnt the use of the pronouns / and Me ; yet the same faculty is accorded freely to the ape, the dog, and the elephant ; none of which (or of whom) has as yet (I believe) reached this stage of linguistic development ! And mark the graceful ease with which the learned professor, by means of the same word-jugglery, turns an awkward corner in the following passage : — " In any case the ontogenesis of consciousness makes it perfectly clear that it is not an 'immaterial entity,' but a physiological function of the brain, and that it is, conse- quently, no exception to the general law of substance." Is it really so " perfectly clear " ? To any simple unsophisticated understanding, what is perfectly clear is surely the exact opposite. Is Professor Haeckel 1 86 MAN'S ORIGIN, DESTINY, DUTY prepared to assert that consciousness is a solid, a liquid, or a gas ? Can he even affirm that it is the ether — his vibrating, jelly-like ether ? Hardly. He distinctly says that the ether is the cause of conscious- ness, and even a child can see that a cause cannot be its own effect. If consciousness, then, is neither ponderable matter, nor (as Professor Haeckel considers the ether) imponderable matter, clearly, by the simple logic of common-sense, it cannot be matter at all. In other words, it must be an " immaterial entity." The assertion that consciousness is a " physiological function of the brain and .... consequently no exception to the general law of substance," is a mere rhetorical flourish which dissolves into nonsense when subjected to logical analysis. Here we are told that consciousness is a function of the brain, and on page 1 the brain is called " the instrument of consciousness and all the higher functions of the mind." The emphasis on instrument in this quotation is mine. It is difficult to get at the professor's meaning. Does he mean that the brain is an instrument employed by some agent in producing consciousness, or that the brain is an instrument employed by the agent consciousness in producing something else ? In either case, who, what, and where is the agent that employs the brain as an instrument ? And for what purpose ? Agents who employ instruments have usually some object in view. APPENDIX 187* Again, in what sense does Professor Haeckel use the word function in the last quotation ? He probably means — though the meaning is far from evident — that just as we say that the eye sees and the ear hears, so we may say that the brain feels and thinks. But physiologists say, and say truly, that this is merely elliptical language — convenient, but not strictly accurate. The eye and the ear, they say, are mere organs or instruments of transmission, which of them- selves neither see nor hear. So far we are all agreed. But some scientists go further. The brain, they say, is the ultimate recipient of the impressions caused by the vibrations of the air and ether ; hence it is the brain, and the brain alone, that hears and sees. Ah ! here let us pause — let us pause long and think slowly ; for upon this point real science has not yet said her last word — nor her first. Scientists — especi- ally those of Professor Haeckel's type — are sometimes in too great a hurry, and, when investigating the ways of nature, a little too fond of such words as final and ultimate. On what grounds do they base their con- clusion that the brain is the real terminus of the sensory medium of transmission, and therefore the sole seat of thought and sensation ? I briefly touched upon this point in my former paper ; but the exceed- ing importance of the question at issue justifies its reopening. We all know that a chloroformed patient whose leg has just been amputated commonly asks, 1 88 MAN'S ORIGIN, DESTINY, DUTY on awaking, when the operation is going to begin. He has the illusive sensation that his leg still forms part of his body, that he feels pain in it, and that he can move its toes, just as usual. We also know that if the trunk of a nerve be irritated anywhere along its course, the pain is referred by immediate conscious- ness — not to the point of irritation, but to the ex- tremity where the nerve reaches the bodily surface. From these data, physiologists conclude that the eye, the ear, the nerves, etc., are mere channels or instru- ments of transmission, and are themselves as insensible as the wire which conveys the entity which we call electricity. But why do they exclude the brain from the category of insensible channels or instruments which we usually find in some mysterious connection with our sensations ? I accept the facts, the actually observed experiences, related by physiologists and biolo- gists^even those related by experimentalists who, like Professor Haeckel, are plainly, though not knowingly or wilfully, prejudiced ; but some of the inferences which they draw from their observations seem to me wholly unwarranted. Let us first examine the language in which these conclusions are commonly expressed. Many years' study of symbolic logic has taught me the importance of analysing the signification, not so much of separate words, or other symbols, as of the more or less complex statements which they express. The mere word, and sometimes the complete gram- APPENDIX 189 matical proposition, when considered apart from context, may be meaningless or misleading. When we say that the brain, and not the nerves, is the real seat or abode of all consciousness, what do we really mean ? Usually only this : that something (we know not what — call it force or energy — the name is a mere arbitrary symbol) travels from the extremity of a nerve to its terminus in the brain, and there either becomes or produces what we call consciousness. But why there rather than elsewhere ? The physiologist follows the trail of the mystery from the extremity of the nerve (where our deluded senses assured us it both originated and remained), and all along its course, till he finally reaches the brain, and there — he loses the scent. Does it necessarily or even probably follow that the brain, the ever-changing brain, is the real abode of consciousness — of the soul or ego that feels ? Does not the ether, with its infinite possibilities (as shown in wireless tele- graphy) lie beyond ? When the hound follows the trail of the fox till it loses the scent on reaching a running stream, does either hound or huntsman jump to the con- clusion that the stream is its real abode ? Does not the possibility remain that it may have somewhere crossed the stream, and that its trail should be sought for and followed up afresh on the other side ? Do not the phenomena of wireless telegraphy make it plain that certain mechanisms, wonderfully suggestive of the nervous system, can be operated upon by conscious 190 MAN'S ORIGIN, DESTINY, DUTY egos from afar, and by these made to transmit thoughts and sensations which the mechanisms themselves neither feel nor understand ? The following experiment is suggestive. In the two compartments of a stereoscope place the photo- graphs of two persons, clearly distinguishable but resembling each other as regards sex, size, dress, and the direction in which they appear to be looking. If we look first with one eye and then with the other, we shall alternately see two clearly distinct persons, as in the separate photographs. But if we look with both eyes simultaneously, we only see one person — a third person distinct from each. Now, two distinct pictures of two different persons are undoubtedly sent through the two eyes into the two separate hemispheres of the brain. In what hemisphere of the brain is the third picture which results from the combination of the two others ? Can we with certainty affirm that it is in the brain at all? In what hemi- sphere is the conscious soul or ego (or sentient entity, call it what we will) that sees, or thinks it sees, the combination ? Is it in the brain at all ? Is it matter or non-matter ? What physiologist, or biologist, or psychologist can give a satisfactory answer to each and all of these questions ? Conflicting hypotheses can be suggested in unlimited numbers, all more or less plaus- ible, and all, with our present data, incapable either of proof or disproof. How quick some scientists are to APPENDIX 191 ascribe limits to the limitless resources of nature ! And how forgetful they are of the exceedingly narrow limits — the literally infinitesimal dimensions — of the human faculties ! Can any of these hot-headed theorists, in his calm moments of sanity, imagine for a single moment that the infinite modes of operation of the infinite number of unknown agents in the infinite universe, of which he forms but an infinitesimal part, can ever be reduced by him or by anyone else to one simple little formula ? Formula are often of the greatest utility ; indeed, in many fields of research, we could hardly advance a step without them ; but we should not forget that they are all founded on mere linguistic or symbolic conventions, more or less arbitrary and of our own fabrication. Serviceable and reliable in their own domain, they become treacherous guides when trusted beyond the proper boundaries of their application. The besetting danger of modern science is symbolatry — a blind belief in the efficacy of mere formulae. The moment a supposed scientific " law " has been expressed in a formula, it is too hastily assumed to have acquired validity from that fact alone. Hence, when we find a controversialist appealing now to the " law " x, then to the " law " y, then to the " law " z, and so on, we should be on our guard and carefully scrutinise his language. In nine cases out of ten, a close searching analysis will detect some lurking fallacy in his argument. Either the " law " appealed 192 MAN'S ORIGIN, DESTINY, DUTY to dissolves into mist, or it turns out to be wholly irrelevant to the question at issue. This is especially the case with Professor Haeckel's " law of substance," to which he continually appeals as a universal solvent of all difficulties, just as if the mere combination of these three words sufficed to explain everything. In simple truth, his so-called " law of substance " explains nothing whatever — least of all consciousness, which he truly calls " the central mystery of psychology." He makes the remarkable admission that " the only source of our knowledge of consciousness is that faculty itself" — an admission which (though he fails to see it) stultifies his whole reasoning. For if consciousness is the fundamental datum on which all inference must be based, must not his "law of substance," whatever it may mean, be also an inference from the datum consciousness ? Thus, the professor first deduces the " law of substance " as conclusion from the phenomena of consciousness as data ; then he deduces the phen- omena of consciousness, his first data, as a conclusion from his first conclusion, the "law of substance." Could there be a more glaring petitio principii, apart from ali question as to the meaning or validity of this " law of substance " ? There is no getting out of this circle. By no process of reasoning can we ex- plain the mystery of consciousness, because we must necessarily assume that mystery as the very basis of our argument. In the present stage of our develop- APPENDIX 193 nent, and with our exceedingly limited faculties, all )ur attempts to get at the back of consciousness must se as futile as the attempts of a kitten to seek at the jack of the mirror the embodiment of the feline image which the hard glass seems to place beyond the reach sf its paws in front. Is the soul, the ego, the sentient entity, the thing chat feels and (in its higher developments) thinks and •easons, matter or non-matter ? The question does lot admit of an intelligible answer till we agree as to :he meaning of the word or symbol matter. Many (rears ago, that acutest of philosophers, Berkeley, jffaced the supposed fixed boundary between the material and the immaterial, and now it has become a mere question of definition. Each philosophic writer may arbitrarily fix the line of demarcation where he :>r she pleases. But, so far, the question of its exact position, the question whether the soul, the entity that feels, is matter or non-matter, in no way affects my argument. Its validity remains whether the soul be considered material or immaterial. Physiologists assert, and probably with truth, that :very thought, every sensation, is accompanied by some change in the substance of the brain ; and this s supposed in some way to support the atheist's :ontention that the brain and the soul (or ego) are dentical, or, at anyrate, inseparable, so that the altimate dissolution of the former necessarily leads to 13 194 MAN'S ORIGIN, DESTINY, DUTY the extinction of the latter also. But surely the con- clusion that legitimately follows from the premisses is the exact opposite. Not only changes take place in the material substance of the brain, but, as I said in my former paper, this substance is passing away continually, so that the same conscious thinking ego may be said to work with absolutely different brains at different periods of its existence. If the brain itself is the real ego, the real conscious thinker, how is it that the brain of to-day knows so much of the ideas evolved by the wholly different brain of ten, twenty, or even sixty years ago ? The old man of seventy has usually many clear memories of his sayings and doings, of his thoughts and feelings, when a little lad of ten. He has only to make an effort of the will, and the past of long, long ago stands up ghost- like before him. In what compartment of his present brain had those images lain sleeping? In which hemisphere ? In both, or in neither ? And how came the images imprinted on the childish brain of ten to be passed on, in innumerable transmissions, through many successive brains till they reached their last edition on the aged brain of seventy — or rather on the new brain of the aged man of seventy ? Finally, and most important question of all, where is that inexplicable entity which consciously and deliberately wills to re-see, re-hear, and re-feel its memories of long ago ? Is it not the same entity — APPENDIX *95 so far as any entity in the universe can be regarded as constant — that, with a different brain, first saw, heard, and felt the actualities of which the memories have been transmitted to the brain with which it sees, hears, and feels other actualities to-day ? While the material brain changes, it — the seeing, hearing, feel- ing, thinking soul remains. When did it first come into existence ? With the first awaking of the infant's feeling or consciousness before or after birth ? I doubt it. When will it pass out of existence ? With the death of the man or woman into whom that infant has developed ? I doubt it still more. On the one hand, by careful comparison of the conflicting separate testimonies of our separate senses, we obtain irrefragable evidence that not a particle of the material body of the infant, of the child, or of the grown-up man or woman, if we except the b'-a'n, ever feels ; and, on the other hand, we have not the slightest data on which to ground the inference that the brain is an exception. All analogy, on the contrary, seems to point the other way — to the conclusion that the brain, like the eye, the ear, and all other parts of the bodv, is a mere insensible link in a chain of sensory trans- mission. Yet, since feeling or consciousness is admittedly an ultimate fact of nature incapable of analysis, something — an intangible something which here I call soul — does unquestionably feel. Where is that something ? In the body or out of it ? No- 196 MAN'S ORIGIN, DESTINY, DUTY body knows. We are completely in the dark. Science has absolutely no data at present from which to draw an inference, and, until some relevant data are forthcoming, true science must remain silent. The priests of pseudo-science, like those of the pseudo-religions of old, answer boldly and confidently enough, and, like their predecessors, deceive the people by false dogmas, which, sooner or later, the light of true science will banish into the land of detected myths and unrealities. Meanwhile, philosophy may legitimately send forth her truth-searching feelers in all directions, and, in the territories as yet unclaimed by science, weave as many hypotheses as she pleases. All of these may ultimately prove false ; but one of her guesses may, by some lucky chance, hit the mark and strike out an illuminating spark which, to the ever- watchful eye of science, may point out the true path of research. Among many suppositions at present unprovable, but also irrefutable, let me suggest the following : — ""The material body, including the brain and the whole nervous system, is a mere medium or instru- ment of sensory transmission, and is itself as insensible as the material apparatus in wireless telegraphy. The soul or ego, which, by definition, is the entity that feels, and, in its higher developments, thinks and reasons, bears some relation to the body analogous to, though different from, that which the invisible human APPENDIX 197 manipulator bears to the unconscious electrical apparatus through which he sends, and through which he receives, communications. The position of the soul or ego, whether in the body, or near the body, or millions of miles away from the body, may be left an open question. With the educative memories of its successive past existences and past experiences gone for the time, or perhaps for ever, as exact memories, but remaining as serviceable instincts, the ego receives a new instrument of education in the shape of a living, growing, but insensible and unconscious infant body, a body which inherits in the germ some of the qualities and some of the defects of its many ancestors, human and prehuman. This body its guardian the ego loses sooner or later, in childhood through illness or accident, or in old age through decay. Then it receives another instrument of education, whether human or superhuman may depend upon the ego's fitness and development. This, in due course or through accident, it loses in its turn, after which it receives another, and so on for ever — always rising in the long-run (though not always steadily and continu- ously) from higher to higher, and from better to better. If we thus regard the body as an unconscious auto- maton, with its machinery and operations partially, but by no means wholly, under the control of the conscious soul or ego, we obtain simpler explanations 198 MAN'S ORIGIN, DESTINY, DUTY than those commonly given of several puzzling mental phenomena — the phenomenon of ordinary vision among others. The explanation of this phenomenon given by the generality of physiologists is not convincing. They say that though two impressions or pictures of the same single external object pass through the two eyes into the two hemispheres of the brain, the mind, from habit and experience, "unconsciously judges" that they represent but one object. To begin with, an "unconscious judgment" (like Haeckel's "un- conscious feeling," " unconscious will," " unconscious memory," etc.) is a self-contradiction. 1 We might as well speak of the " unconscious memory " of a phono- graph, or the " unconscious judgment" of an inanimate calculating machine. When judgment becomes un- conscious it ceases to be judgment. And, apart from this objection to a misleading expression, the explana- tion breaks down in the case of the stereoscope, already touched upon. Here there are in reality two external objects, and the mind, by a comparison of conflicting sensations, judges, not " unconsciously," but consciously and correctly, not that the two images which enter the two cerebral hemispheres proceed from one external object, as in ordinary vision, but 1 Even the usually lucid and logical physiologist, Huxley, has recourse to the self-contradictory assumption of " uncon- scious reasoning " in his not altogether successful attempt to explain the paradox of the stereoscope. APPENDIX 199 that — in spite of the fact that it is conscious of seeing but one picture — they, in reality, proceed from two. It is surely inconsistent to affirm that the mind un- consciously and wrongly infers one thing, yet con- sciously and correctly, and at the same time, infers the exact opposite. The inconsistency is especially glaring when the two photographs represent different persons, and the combined image seen is that of a third but non-existent person. The many memories of past judgments and experiences may indeed affect by degrees the material constitution of the insensible medium of transmission, the brain, and ultimately render it suitable for merging the two images into one ; but, when this change has taken place, then the conscious soul or ego sees but one image. It is not at all a case of judging, whether correctly or incor- rectly. The ego is conscious of but one sensation, the one image before it ; but it also, at the same time, remembers that there are two photographs of two different persons in the stereoscope, and it cor- rectly judges that these conjointly are the cause of the one illusive image or optic sensation which seems to represent a third and non-existent person who combines the features of the two that really exist. Where does the combination take place ? And where s the ego that sees it ? To neither question can icience as yet give a convincing answer. But accept- ng the in no way inconsistent hypothesis of a feeling 200 MAN'S ORIGIN, DESTINY, DUTY soul or ego outside and, it may be, far distant from its non-sentient body, we may imagine many plausible answers. For example, the two real images on the two hemispheres of the brain may, through the vibra- tions of the ether, or of one of the millions of other natural media really existent though unknown to us, send forth innumerable pairs of undulations in all directions, which, from the adapted conditions gradu- ally effected in the constitution of the brain, meet at innumerable foci, where they form as many fresh combined images, one of which must perforce reach the sentient ego, wherever in the universe that ego happens at that moment to be. Of course, this hypothesis cannot, with our present data, be proved ; but the analogies in its favour are many. The assumption of an unconscious automatic brain and body partially controlled by, and in its turn reacting upon, a conscious mind, soul, or ego, would harmonise well with some of the phenomena described under such names as subconsciousness, unconscious cerebration, somnambulism, hypnotism, telepathy, dual personality, etc. ; but any discussion of these would unduly lengthen this paper. One suggestive simile, however, may be given as an index to the general line of explanation. Before a man succeeds in moving a heavy waggon on a line of rails, he is conscious of strain and effort ; but once the waggon is well in motion, it will proceed some distance without his aid. APPENDIX 201 le may turn his back upon it and leave it, yet the nconscious waggon will still go on and will not stop ntil the force first consciously imparted to it has been pent. The same principle applies to a wound-up iratch, to many automatically working machines, and i the unconscious human brain. The mind or ego (but teither the brain nor the fingers) of a piano-player is onscious while he is learning to play a difficult sonata ly heart. But once the piece is thoroughly learnt, he conscious mind need only give the first impulse. The unconscious brain and fingers — the whole com- ilicated mechanism of the unconscious nervous system — once set in motion, will automatically play the vhole sonata while the conscious mind, the real ego, s thinking of something else. Where is this conscious ;go ? When science can satisfactorily answer this juestion, man will have made a stride in advance ivhich will place him as far above his present position is that position is above that of the inarticulate brutes iround him. Meanwhile, science looks wistfully forward, patiently bides her time, and is silent. PRINTED BY NEILL AND CO., LTD., EDINBURGH. SYMBOLIC LOGIC AND ITS APPLICATIONS (45. 6d. net) By HUGH MAC COLL, B.A. (Lond.) • " It is much to be hoped that this book will be widely read. ... 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I.-X. already issued at various prices. ROYAL DUBLIN SOCIETY. Transactions and Proceedings. Issued irregularly at various prices. 14 Henrietta Street, Covent Garden, London, W.C. INDEX UNDER AUTHORS & TITLES Abhidhanaratnamala. Aufrecht, 33. Acland, Sir C. T. D. Anglican Liberalism, 12. Acts of the Apostles. Adolf Harnack, 12. Addis, W. E. Hebrew Religion, 11. ,#£neidea. James Henry, 56. African Tick Fever, 50. Agricultural Chemical Analysis. Wiley, 54. Alcyonium. Vide L.M.B.C, Memoirs, 48. Allin, Rev. Thos. Universalism Asserted, 14. Alviella, Count Goblet D'. Contemporary Evolution of Religious Thought, 14. Alviella, Count Goblet D'. Idea of God, 13. Americans, The. Hugo Miinsterberg, 22. Analysis of Ores. F. C. Phillips, 51. Analysis of Theology. E. G. Figg, 17. Ancient Arabian Poetry. C. J. Lyall, 34. Ancient Assyria, Religion of. Sayce, 14. Ancient World, Wall Maps of the, 57. Anglican Liberalism, 12. Annett, H. E. Malarial Expedition, Nigeria,49. Annotated Catechism, 14. Annotated Texts. Goethe, 30. Antedon. Vide L.M.B.C. Memoirs, 48. Anthems. Rev. R. Crompton Jones, 20. Anti-Malaria Measures. Rubert Boyce, 44. Antiqua Mater. Edwin Johnson, 20. Anunda. Vide L.M.B.C. Memoirs, 48. Apocalypse. Bleek, 7, Apologetic of the New Test. E. F. Scott, 12. Apostle Paul, the, Lectures on. Pfleiderer, 13. Apostolic Age, The. Carl von Weizsacker, 6. Arabian Poetry, Ancient, 34. Arenicola. Vide L.M.B.C. Memoirs, 48. Argument of Adaptation. Rev. G. Henslow, 18. Aristotelian Society, Proceedings of, 29. Army Series of French and German Novels, 38. Ascidia. Johnstone, L.M.B.C. Memoirs, 47. Ashworth, J. H. Arenicola, 48. Assyrian Dictionary. Norris, 35. Assyrian Language, A Concise Dictionary of. W. Muss-Arnolt, 35. Assyriology, Essay on. George Evans, 34. Astigmatic Letters. Dr. Pray, 51. Alhanasius of Alexandria, Canons of, 37. Atlas Antiquus, Kiepert's, 57. Atonement, Doctrine of the. Sabatier, 10. At-one-ment, The. Rev. G- Henslow, 18. Aufrecht, Dr. T. Abhidhanaratnamala, 33. Auf Verlornem Posten. Dewall, 38. Autobiography. Herbert Spencer, 30. Avebury, Lord. Prehistoric Times, 55. Avesti, Pahlavi. Persian Studies, 33. Babel and Bible. Friedrich Delitzsch, 9. Bacon, Roger, The " Opus Majus" of, 28. Bad Air and Bad Health. Herbert and Wager, 56. Ball, Sir Robert S. Cunningham Memoir, 45. Ballads. F. von Schiller, 41. Bases of Religious Belief. C. B. Upton, 14, 26. Bastian, H. C. Studies in Heterogenesis, 44. Baur. Church History, 7 ; Paul, 7. Bayldon, Rev. G. Icelandic Grammar, 38. Beard, Rev. Dr. C. Universal Christ, 15 ; Reformation of the Sixteenth Century, 13. Beeby, Rev. C. E. Doctrine and Principles, 15. Beet, Prof. J. A. Child and Religion, 10, Beginnings of Christianity. Paul Wernle, 4. Beliefs about the Bible. M. J. Savage, 24. Benedict, F. E. Organic Analysis, 44. Bergey, D. G. Practical Hygiene, 44. Bernstein and Kirsch. SyriacChrestomathy, 33. Bible. Translated by Samuel Sharpe, 15. Bible, Beliefs about, Savage, 24 ; Bible Plants, Henslow, 18 ; Bible Problems, Prof. T. K. Cheyne, 10 ; How to Teach the, Rev. A. F. Mitchell, 21. Biblical Hebrew, Introduction to. Rev. Jas. Kennedy, 20, 34. Biltz, Henry. Methods of Determining Mole- cular Weights, 44. Biology, Principles of. Herbert Spencer, 30. Blackburn, Helen. Women's Suffrage, 55. Bleek. Apocalypse, 7. Boielle, Jas. French Composition, 40; Hugo, Les Miserables, 39 ; Notre Dame, 40. Bolton. History of the Thermometer, 44. Book of Prayer. Crompton Jones, 20. Books of the New Testament. Von Soden, 11. Bousset, Wilhelm. Jesus, n. Boyce, Rubert. Anti-Malarial Measures, 49; Yellow Fever Prophylaxis, 44, 50 ; Sanita- tion at Bathurst, Conakry and Freetown, 49. Breinl, A. Animal Reactions of the Spiro- chseta of Tick Fever, 50; Specific Nature of the Spirochseta of Tick Fever, 50. Bremond, Henri. Mystery of Newman, 15. Brewster, H. B. The Prison, 28; The Statu- ette and the Background, 28 ; Anarchy and Law, 28. British Fisheries. J. Johnstone, 47. Broadbent, Rev. T. B. Sermons, 15. Brown, Robert. Semitic Influence, Origin of the Primitive Constellations, 55 ; Gladstone as I Knew Him, 55. Bruce, Alex. Topographical Atlas of the Spinal Cord, 44. Buddha. Prof. H. Oldenberg, 35. Burkitt, Prof. F. C. Anglican Liberalism, 12. Calculus, Differential and Integral. Harnack, Caldecott, Dr. A. Anglican Liberalism, 12. Campbell, Rev. Canon Colin. First Three Gospels in Greek, 15. Cancer. Vide L.M.B.C. Memoirs, 48. Cancer and other Tumours. Chas. Creighton,44. Canonical Books of the Old Testament, 2. Cape Dutch. J. F. Van Oordt, 41. Cape Dutch, Werner's Elementary Lessons in, 42. Cardium. Vide L.M.B.C. Memoirs, 48. Carlyle, Rev. A. J. Anglican Liberalism, 12. Casey, John. Cunningham Memoirs, 45. Catalogue of the London Library, 56. Cath Ruis Na Rig For Boinn. E. Hogan, 39. Celtic Heathendom. Prof. J. Rhys, 14. Celtic Studies. Sullivan, 41. Centenary History of South Place Society. Moncure D. Conway, 16. Chadwick, Antedon, 48 ; Echinus, 48. _ Chaldee Language, Manual of. Turpie, 37. 62 INDEX— Continued. Channing's Complete Works, 15. Chants^ and Anthems, 20; Chants, Psalms and Canticles. Crompton Jones, 20. Character of the Fourth Gospel. Rev. John James Tayler, 25. Chemical Dynamics, Studies in. J. H. Van't Hoff, 46. Chemistry for Beginners. Edward Hart, 46. Chemistry of Pottery. Langenbeck, 47. Cheyne, Prof. T. K. Bible Problems, 10. Child and Religion, The, 10. Chondrus. Vide L.M.B.C. Memoirs, 48. Christ no Product of Evolution. Rev. G. Henslow, 19. Christian Creed, Our, 15. Christian Life, Ethics of the, 2. Christian Life in the Primitive Church. Dob- schiitz, 3. Christian Religion, Fundamental Truths of the. R. Seeberg, 12. Christianity, Beginnings of. Wernle, 4. Christianity in Talmud and Midrash. R. Travers Herford, 19. Christianity? What is. Adolf Harnack, 5. Chromium, Production of. Max Leblanc, 47. Church History. Baur, 7. Schubert, 3. Clark, H. H. Anti- Malaria Measures at Bath- urst, 44. Closet Prayers. Dr. Sadler, 24. Codium. Vide L.M.B.C. Memoirs, 48. Coit, Dr. Stanton. Idealism and State Church, 16 ; Book of Common Prayer, 16. Cole, Frank J. Pleuronectes, 48. Collins, F. H. Epitome of Synthetic Philo- sophy, 28. Coming Church. Dr. John Hunter, 19. Commentary on the Book of Job. Ewald, 7 ; Commentary on the Book of Job. Wright and Hirsch, 27 ; Commentary on the Old Testament. Ewald, 7 ; Commentary on the Psalms. Ewald, 7 ; Protestant, 8,^ 24. Common Prayer for Christian Worship, 16. Communion with God. Herrmann, 5, 11. Conductivity of Liquids, 54. Confessions of St. Augustine. Harnack, 17. Contemporary Evolution of Religious Thought. Count Goblet D'Alviella, 14. Contes Militaires. Daudet, 38. Conway, Moncure D. Centenary History, 16. Cornill, Carl. Introduction to the Old Testa- ment, 2. Cosmology of the Rigveda. H. W. Wallis, 37. Creighton, Chas. Cancer and other Tumours, 44 ; Tuberculosis, 45. Crucifixion Mystery. J. Vickers, 26. Cuneiform Inscriptions, The. Schrader, 8. Cunningham Memoirs, 45. Cunningham, D. J., M.D. Lumbar Curve in Man and the Apes, 45; Surface Anatomy of the Cerebral Hemispheres. Cunningham Memoir, 45. Cussans, Margaret. Gammarus, 48. Daniel and its Critics; Daniel and his Pro- phecies. Rev. C. H. H. Wright, 27. Darbishire, Otto V. Chondrus, 48. Daudet, A. Contes Militaires, 38. Davids, T. W. Rhys. Indian Buddhism, 13. Davis, J. R. Ainsworth. Patella, 48. Dawning Faith. H. Rix, 23. Delbos, L. Nautical Terms, 39. Delectus Veterum. Theodor Noldeke, 35. Delitzsch, Friedrich. Babel and Bible, 9; Hebrew Language, 33. Democracy and Character. Canon Stephen, 25. Denmark in the Early Iron Age. C. Engel- hardt, 56. De Profundis Clamavi. Dr. John Hunter, 19. Descriptive Sociology. Herbert Spencer, 31. Development of the Periodic Law. Venable, 54. Dewall, Johannes v., Auf Verlornem Posten and Nazzarena Danti, 38. Dietrichson, L. Monumenta Orcadica, 56. Differential and Integral Calculus, The. Axel Harnack, 46. Dillmann, A. Ethiopic Grammar, 33. Dipavamsa, The. Edited by Oldenberg, 33. Dirge of Coheleth. Rev. C. Taylor, 25. Dobschiitz, Ernst von. Christian Life in the Primitive Church, 3, 16. Doctrineand Principles. Rev. C. E. Beeby, 15. Dogma, History of. Harnack, 18. Drey, S. A Theory of Life, 32. Driver, S. R. Mosheh ben Shesheth, 16. Drummond, Dr. Jas. Character and Author- ship of the Fourth Gospel, 16 ; Philo Judasus, 28 ; Via, Veritas, Vita, 13. Durham, H. E. Yellow Fever Expedition to Para, 49. Duiham, J. E., and Myers, Walter. Report of the Yellow Fever Expedition to Para, 45. Dutton, J. E. Vide Memoirs of Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, 49, 50. Dutton. J., and Todd. Vide Memoirs of Liver- pool School of Tropical Mediciae, 45, 49, 50. Early Hebrew Story. John P. Peters, 10. Early Christian Conception. Pfleiderer, 10. Ecclesiastical Institutions of Holland. Rev. P. H. Wicksteed, 26. Echinus. Vide L.M.B.C. Memoirs, 48. Echoes of Holy Thoughts, 17. Education. Spencer, 31 ; Lodge, School Reform, 40. Egyptian Grammar, Erman's, 33. Electric Furnace. H. Moisson, 50. Electrolysis of Water. V. Engelhardt, 46. Electrolytic Laboratories. Nissenson, 50. ElementaryOrganic Analysis. F.E. Benedict^. Engelhardt, C. Denmark in Iron Age, 56. Engelhardt, V. Electrolysis of Water, 46. Engineering Chemistry. T. B. Stillman, 53. England and Germany. Erich Marcks, 58. English Culture, Rise of. E. Johnson, 57. English -Danish Dictionary. S. Rosing, 41. English-Icelandic Dictionary. Zoega, 43. Enoch, Book of. C. Gill, 17. Epitome of Synthetic Philosophy. Collins, 28. Epizootic Lymphangitis. Capt. Pallin, 51. Erman's Egyptian Grammar, 33. Erzahlungen. Hofer, 38. Espin, Rev. T., M.A. The Red Stars, 45. Essays on the Social Gospel. Harnack and Herrmann, 11. INDEX— Continued. 63 Essays. Herbert Spencer, 31. Ethica. Prof. Simon Laurie, 28. Ethical Import of Darwinism. Schurman, 29. Ethics, Data of. Herbert Spencer, 31. Ethics, Early Christian. Prof. Scullard, 24. Ethics, Principles of. Herbert Spencer, 30. Ethiopic Grammar. A. Dillmann, 33. Eucken, Prof. Life of the Spirit, 12. Eugene's Grammar of French Language, 39. Evans, A. Anti-Malaria Measures at Bath- urst, etc., 44. Evans, George. Essay on Assyriology, 34. Evolution, A New Aspect of. Formby, 17. Evolution, Christ no Product of, 19. Evolution of Christianity. C. Gill, 17. Evolution of Knowledge. R. S. Perrin, 22. Evolution of Religion, The. L. R. Farnell, 1 1 . Ewald. Commentary on Job, 7 ; Commentary on the Old Testament, 7 ; Commentary on the Psalms, 7. Facts and Comments. Herbert Spencer, 31. Faith and Morals. W. Herrmann, 10. Faizullah-Bhai, Shaikh, B.D. A Moslem Present ; Pre-Islamitic Arabic Poetry, 34. Farnell, L. R. The Evolution of Religion, n. Fertilizers. Vide Wiley's Agricultural Analysis, 54- Figg, E. G. Analysis of Theology, 17. First Principles. Herbert Spencer, 30. First Three Gospels in Greek. Rev. Canon Colin Campbell, 15. Flinders Petrie Papyri. Cunn. Memoirs, 34. Formby, Rev. C. W. Re-Creation, 17. Four Gospels as Historical Records, 17. Fourth Gospel, Character and Authorship of, 16. Frankfurter, Dr. O. Handbook of Pali, 34. Free Catholic Church. Rev. J. M. Thomas, 26. Freezing Point, The, Jones, 47. French Composition. Jas. Boielle, 39. French History, First Steps in. F. F. Roget, 41. French Language, Grammar of. Eugene, 39. Fuerst, Dr. Jul. Hebrew and Chaldee Lexi- con, 34. Gammarus. Vide L.M.B.C. Memoirs, 48. Gardner, Prof. Percy. Anglican Liberalism, 12. General Language of the Incas of Peru, 40. Genesis, Book of, in Hebrew Text. Rev. C. H. H. Wright, 27. Genesis, Hebrew Text, 34. Geometry, Analytical, Elements of. Hardy, 46. German Idioms, Short Guide to. Weiss, 42. German Literature, A Short Sketch of. V. Phillipps, B.A., 41. German, Systematic Conversational Exercises in. T. H. Weiss, 42. Gibson, R. J. Harvey. Codium, 48. Giles, Lt.-Col. Anti-Malarial Measures in Sekondi, etc., 49. Gill, C. Book of Enoch ; Evolution of Chris- tianity, 17. Gladstone as I Knew Him. Robert Brown, 55. Glimpses of Tennyson. A. G. Weld, 59. Goethe, W. v. Annotated Texts, 39. Goldammer, H. The Kindergarten, 56. Gospels in Greek, First Three, 15. Greek Ideas, Lectures on. Re v. Dr. Hatch, 13. Greek, Modern, A Course of. Zompolides, 43. Greek New Testament, 6. Green, Rev. A. A. Child and Religion, 10. Gulistan, The (Rose Garden) of Shaik Sadi ot Shiraz, 36. Gymnastics, Medical Indoor. Dr. Schreber, 52. Haddon, A. C. Decorative Art of British Guinea, Cunningham Memoir, 45. Hagmann, J. G., Ph.D. Reform in Primary Education, 39. Handley, Rev- H. Anglican Liberalism, 12. Hantzsch, A. Elements of Stereochemistry, 46. Hardy. Elements of Analytical Geometry, 46 Infinitesimals and Limits, 46. Harnack, Adolf. Acts of the Apostles, 12 History of Dogma, 4 ; Letter to the (t Preus sische Jahrbucher," 18 ; Luke the Physician 12; Mission and Expansion of Christianity, 3; Monasticism, 17; The Sayings of Jesus ; 12 ; What is Christianity? 5, 10. Harnack, Adolf, and Herrmann, W. Essays on the Social Gospel, n. Harnack and his Oxford Critics. Saunders, 24. Harnack, Axel. Differential and Integral Calculus, 46. Harrison, A. Women's Industries, 56. Hart, Edward, Ph.D. Chemistry for Begin- ners, 46 ; Second Year Chemistry, 46. Hatch, Rev. Dr. Lectures on Greek Ideas, 13. Haughton, Rev. Samuel, M.A., M.D. New Researches on Sun-Heat, 45. Hausrath. History of the New Test. Times, 7. Head, Sir Edmund, translated by. Viga Glums Saga, 42. Hebrew and Chaldee Lexicon. Dr. Fuerst, 34. Hebrew Language, The. F. Delitzsch, 33. Hebrew, New School of Poets, 35. Hebrew Religion. W. E. Addis, n. Hebrew Story. Peters, 10. Hebrew Texts, r8. Henry, Jas. ./Eneidea, 56. Henslow, Rev. G. The Argument of Adapta- tion, 18; The At-one-ment, 18; Christ no Product of Evolution, ig ; Spiritual Teach- ings of Bible Plants, 18 ; Spiritual Teaching of Christ's Life, ig; The Vulgate, 19. Henson, Rev. Canon Hensley. Child and Religion, 10. Herbert, Hon. A. Sacrifice of Education, 56. Herbert, Hon. A., and Wager, H. Bad Air and Bad Health, 56. Herdman, Prof. W. A. Ascidia, 47. Herford, R. Travers, B.A. Christianity in Talmud and Midrash, ip. Herrmann, W. Communion, 5, n; Faith and Morals, 10. Herrmann and Harnack. Essays on the Social Gospel, 11. Heterogenesis, Studies in. H. Bastian, 44. Hewitt, C. Gordon. Ligia, 48. Hibbert Journal, The, 19. Hibbert, Lectures, The, 13, 14. Hickson, Sydney J. Alcyonium, 48. Hill, Rev. Dr. G. Child and Religion, 10. Hindu Chemistry. Prof. P. C. Ray, 51. 6 4 I N D EX— Continued. Hirsch, Dr. S. A., and W. Aldis Wright, edited by. Commentary on Job, 27. History of the Church. Hans von Schubert, 3. History of Dogma. Adolf Harnack, 4. History of Jesus of Nazara. Keim, 7. History of the Hebrews. R. Kittel, 5. History of the Literature of the O.T. Kautzsch, 20. History of the New Test. Times. Hausrath, 7. Hodgson, S. H. Philosophy and Experience, 28 ; Reorganisation of Philosophy, 28. Hoerning, Dr. R. The Karaite MSS., 19. Hofer, E. Erzahlungen, 58. Hoff, J. H. Van't. Chemical Dynamics, 46. Hogan, E. Catb Ruis Na Rig For Boinn, 39 ; Latin Lives, 39 ; Irish Nennius, 39. Horner, G. Statutes, The, of the Apostles, 36. Horse, Life-SizeModelsof. J.T.ShareJones,47J the, Surgical Anatomy of, 47. Horton, Dr. R. Child and Religion, 10. Howe, J. L. Inorganic Chemistry, 46. How to Teach the Bible. Mitchell, at. Hugo, Victor. Les Miserables, 39; Notre Dame, 40. Human Sternum, The. A. M. Paterson, 51. Human Tick Fever, Nature of. J. E. Dutton and J. L. Todd, 46. Hunter, Dr. John. De Profundus Clamavi, 19; The Coming Church, 19. Hygiene, Handbook of. Bergey, 44. Hymns of Duty and Faith. Jones, 20. Icelandic Grammar. Rev. G. Bayldon, 38. Idea of God. Alviella, Count Goblet D f , 13. Imms, A. D. Anurida, 48. Incarnate Purpose, The. Percival, 22. Indian Buddhism. Rhys Davids, 13. Individualism and Collectivism. Dr. C. W. Saleeby, 29. Indoor Gymnastics, Medical, 52. Industrial Remuneration, Methods of. D. F- Schloss, 58. Infinitesimals and Limits. Hardy, 46. Inflammation Idea. W. H. Ransom, 51. Influence of Rome on Christianity. Renan, 13. Inorganic Chemistry. J. L. Howe, 46. Inorganic Qualitative Chemical Analysis. Leavenworth, 47. Introduction to the Greek New Test. Nestle, 6. Introduction to the Old Test. Cornill, 2. Irish Nennius, The. E. Hogan, 39. Isaiahj Hebrew Text, 34. Ismaiha, Malarial Measures at. Boyce, 49. Jesus of Nazara. Keim, 7. Jesus. Wilhelm Bousset, 11. Jesus, Sayings of. Harnack, 18. Jesus, The Real. Vickers, 26. Job, Book of. G. H. Bateson Wright, 27. Job, Book of. Rabbinic Commentary on, 37. Job. Hebrew Text, 34. Johnson, Edwin, M.A. Antiqua Mater, 20; English Culture, 20; Rise of Christendom, rg. Johnstone, J. British Fisheries, 47 ; Cardium, 48. Jones, Prof. Henry. Child and Religion, 10. Jones, Rev. J. C. Child and Religion, 10. Jones, Rev. R. Crompton. Hymns of Duty and Faith, 20 ; Chants, Psalms and Canticles, 20 ; Anthems, 20 ; The Chants and Anthems, 20; A Book ot Prayer, 20. Jones, J. T. Share. Life-Size Models of the Horse, 47 ; Surgical Anatomy of the Horse, 47* Jones. The Freezing Point, 47. Journal of the Federated Malay States, 60. Journal of the Linnean Society. Botany and Zoology, 47, 60 . Journal of the Quekett Microscopical Club, 47) °°' „ . Journal of the Royal Microscopical Society, 47, 60. Justice. Herbert Spencer, 31. Kantian Ethics. J. G. Schurman, 29. Karaite MSS. Dr. R. Hoerning, 19. Kautzsch, E. History of the Literature of the Old Testament, 20. Keim. History of Jesus of Nazara, 7. Kennedy, Rev. Jas. Introduction to Biblical Hebrew, 34; Hebrew Synonyms, 34. Kiepert's New Atlas Antiquus, 57. Kiepert's Wall-Maps of the Ancient World, 57. Kindergarten, The. H- Goldammer, 56. Kittel, R. History of the Hebrews, 5. Knight, edited by. Essays on Spinoza, 32, Knowledge, Evolution of. Perrin, 22. Kuenen, Dr. A. National Religions and Uni- versal Religion, 13 ; Religion of Israel, 8. Laboratory Experiments. Noyes and Mulli- ken, 51. Ladd, Prof. G. T. Child and Religion, 10. Lake, Kirsopp. Resurrection, 12. Landolt, Hans. Optical Rotating Power, 47. Langenbeck. The Chemistry of Pottery, 47. Latin Lives of the Saints. E. Hogan, 30. Laurie, Prof. Simon. Ethica, 28 ; Meta- physica Nova et Vetusta, 28. Lea, Henry Chas. Sacerdotal Celibacy, 21. Leabhar Breac, 40. Leabhar Na H-Uidhri, 40. Leavenworth, Prof. W. S. Inorganic Quali- tative Chemical Analysis, 47. Leblanc, Dr. Max. The Production of Chromium, 47. Le Coup de Pistolet. Merime*, 38. Lepeophtheirus and Lernea. Vide L.M.B.C. Memoirs, 48. Letter to the " Preussische Jahrbucher." Adolf Harnack, 18. Lettsom, W. N., trans, by. Nibelungenlied, 40. Liberal Christianity. Jean Rdville, 10. Life and Matter. Sir O. Lodge, 21. Life of the Spirit, The. Eucken, 12. Lilja. Edited by E. Magnusson, 40. Lilley, Rev. A. L. Anglican Liberalism, 12. Lineus. Vide L.M.B.C. Memoirs, 48. Linnean Society of London, Journals of, 60. Liverpool, A History of. Mtiir, 58. Liverpool Marine Biology Committee Memoirs, I.— XVI., 47. I N D EX— Continued. 65 Liverpool, Municipal Government in. Muir and Piatt, 58. Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine Memoirs, 49. Lobstein, Paul. Virgin Birth of Christ, 9. Lodge, Sir O. Life and Matter, 21 ; School Teaching and School Reform, 40. Logarithmic Tables. Sang, 52 ; Schroen, 53. London Library, Catalogue of, 56. Long, J. H. A Text-book of Urine Analysis, 48. Luke the Physician. Adolf Harnack, 12. Lyall, C. J., M.A- Ancient Arabian Poetry, 34- Macan, R. W. The Resurrection of Jesus Christ, 21. Machberoth Ithiel. Thos. Chenery, 35. Mackay, R- W. Rise and Progress of Chris- tianity, 21. Mackenzie, Malcolm. Social and Political Dynamics, 28. Magnusson, edited by. Lilja, 40. Mahabharata, Index to. S. Sorensen, 36. Mahaffy, J P., D.D. Flinders Petrie Papyri. Cunningham Memoirs, 45. Malaria Expedition to Nigeria, Report of. Annett, Dutton, and Elliott, 44. Man versus the State. Herbert Spencer, 31. Maori, Lessons in. Right Rev. W. L. Williams, 43. Maori, New and Complete Manual of, 40. Marchant, James. Theories of the Resurrec- tion, 21. Marcks, Erich. England and Germany, 58. Markham, Sir Clements, K.C.B. Vocabularies of the Incas of Peru, 40. Martineau, Rev. Dr. James. Modern Materialism, 21 ; Relation between Ethics and Religion, 21. Mason, Prof. W. P. Notes on Qualitative Analysis, 48. Massoretic Text. Rev. Dr. J. Taylor, 25. Masterman, C. F. G. Child and Religion, 10. Meade, R. K., Portland Cement, 48. Mediaeval Thought, History of. R. Lane Poole, 22. Memoirs of the Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, 4g, 50. Menegoz, E. Religion and Theology, 21. Mercer, Right Rev. J. Edward, D.D. Soul of Progress, 21. Merimee, Prosper. Le Coup de Pistolet, 38. Metallic Objects, Production of. Dr. W. Pfanhauser, 51. Metallurgy. Wysor, 54. Metaphysica Nova et Vetusta. Prof. Simon Laurie, 28. Midrasb, Christianity in. Herford, 19. Milanda Panho, The. Edited by V. Trenckner. 35. Mission and Expansion of Christianity. Adolf Harnack, 3. Mitchell, Rev. A. F. How to Teach the Bible, 21. Modern Materialism. Rev. Dr. James Martineau, 21. 5 Moisson, Henri. Electric Furnace, 50. Molecular Weights, Methods of Determining. Henry Biltz, 44. Monasticism. Adolf Harnack, 17. Montefiore, C. G. Religion of the Ancient Hebrews, 13. Monumenta Orcadica. L. Dietrichson, 56. Moorhouse Lectures. Vide Mercer's Soul of Progress, 21 ; Stephen, Democracy and Character, 25. Morrison, Dr. W. D. Anglican Liberalism, 12. Mosheh ben Shesheth. S. R. Driver. Edited by, 16. Moslem Present. Faizullah-Bhai, Shaikh, B.D., 34. Muir and Piatt. History of Municipal Government in Liverpool, 58. Muir, Prof. Ramsay. History of Liverpool, 58. Munsterberg, Hugo. The Americans, 22. Muss-Arnolt, W. A Concise Dictionary of the Assyrian Language, 35. My Struggle for Light. R. Wimmer, 9. Mystery of Newman. Henri Bremond, 15. National Idealism and State Church, 16 : and the Book of Common Prayer, 16. National Religions and Universal Religion. Dr. A. Kuenen, 13. Native Religions of Mexico and Peru. Dr. A. Reville, 14. Naturalism and Religion. Dr. Rudolf Otto, 22. Nautical Terms. L. Delbos, 39. Nestle. Introduction to the Greek New Test., 6. New Hebrew School of Poets. Edited by H. Brody and K. Albrecht, 35. Newstead, R. Another New Dermanyssid Acarid, 50; Newstead, R., and J. L. Todd. A New Dermanyssid Acarid, 50. New Zealand Language, Dictionary of. Rt. Rev. W. L. Williams, 42. Nibelungenlied. Trans. W, L. Lettsom, 40. t Nissenson. Arrangements of Electrolytic Laboratories, 50. Noldeke, Theodor. Delectus Veterum, 35 ; Syriac Grammar, 35. Norris, E. Assyrian Dictionary, 35. Norseman in the Orkneys. Dietrichson, 56. Noyes, A. A. Organic Chemistry, 51. Noyes, A. A., and Milliken, Samuel. Labora- tory Experiments, 51. O'Grady, Standish, H. Silva Gadelica, 41. Old and New Certainty of the Gospel. Alex. Robinson, 23. Oldenberg, Dr. H., edited by. Dipavamsa, The, 33 ; Vinaya Pitakam, 37. Old French, Introduction to. F. F. Roget, 41. Oordt, J. F. Van, B.A. Cape Dutch, 41. Ophthalmic Test Types. Snellen's, 53. Optical Rotating Power. Hans Landolt, 47. " Opus Majus" of Roger Bacon, 28. Organic Chemistry. A. A. Noyes, 51. Otia Merseiana, 58. Otto, Rudolf. Naturalism and Religion, n. Outlines of Church History. Von Schubert, 3. Outlines of Psychology. Wilhelm Wundt, 32. 66 INDEX— Continued. Pali, Handbook of. Dr. O. Frankfurter, 34. Pali Miscellany. V. Trenckner, 35 Pallin, Capt. W. A. A Treatise on Epizootic Lymphangitis, 51. Parker, W. K., F.R.S. Morphology of the Duck Tribe and the Auk Tribe, 45. Patella. Vide L.M.B.C. Memoirs, 48. Paterson, A. M. The Human Sternum, 51. Paul. Baur, 7 ; Pfleiderer, 13; Weinel, 3. Paulinism. Pfleiderer, 8. Pearson, Joseph. Cancer, 48. Peddie, R. A. Printing at Brescia, 58. Percival, G. H. The Incarnate Purpose, 22. Perrin, R. S. Evolution of Knowledge, 22. Persian Language, A Grammar of. J. T. Plaits, 36. Peters, Dr. John P. Early Hebrew Story, 10. Pfanhauser, Dr. W. Production of Metallic Objects, 51. Pfleiderer, Otto. Early Christian Conception, 10; Lectures on Apostle Paul, 13 ; Paulinism, 8 ; Philosophy of Religion, 8 ; Primitive Christianity, 2. Phillips, F. C. Analysis of Ores, 51. Phillipps, V., B.A. Short Sketch of German Literature, 41. Philo Judaeus. Dr. Drummond, 16. Philosophy and Experience. Hodgson, 28. Philosophy of Religion. Pfleiderer, 8. Piddington, H. Sailors' Horn Book, 51. Pikler, Jul. Psychology of the Belief in Objective Existence, 29. Platts, J. T. A Grammar of the Persian Language, 36. Pleuronectes. Vide L.M.B.C. Memoirs, 48. Pocket Flora of Edinburgh. C. O. Sonntag, 53. Poole, Reg. Lane. History of Mediaeval Thought, 22. Portland Cement. Meade, 48. Pray, Dr. Astigmatic Letters, 51. Prayers for Christian Worship. Sadler, 24. Prehistoric Times. Lord Avebury, 55. Pre-Islamitic Arabic Poetry. Shaikh Faizul- lah-Bhai, B.D., 34. Primitive Christianity. Otto Pfleiderer, 2. Primitive Constellations, Origin of. Robt. Brown, 55. Printing at Brescia. R. A. Peddie, 58. Prison, The. H. B. Brewster, 28. Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society, 29. Proceedings of the Optical Convention, 51. Prolegomena. Reville, 8. Protestant Commentary on the New Testa- ment, 8, 23. Psalms, Hebrew Text, 34. Psychology of the Belief in Objective Exist- ence. Jul. Pikler, 29. Psychology, Principles of, Spencer, 30; Out- lines of, Wundt, 32. Punnett, R. C. Lineus, 48. Qualitative Analysis, Notes on. Prof. W. P. Mason, 48. Ransom, W. H. The Inflammation Idea, 51. Rapport sur l'Expedition au Congo. Dutton and Todd, 45. Rashdall, Dr. Hastings. Anglican Liberalism, 12. Ray, Prof. P. C. Hindu Chemistry, 51. Real Jesus, The. J. Vickers, 26. Reasons for Dissenting from the Philosophy of M. Comte. Herbert Spencer, 31. Re-Creation. Rev. C. W. Formby, 17. Reform in Primary Education. J. G. Hag- mann, 39. Reformation of the Sixteenth Century. Rev. Dr. C. Beard, 15. Rejoinder to Prof. Weismann, 31. Relation between Ethics and Religion. Rev. Dr. James Martineau, 21. Religion and Modern Culture. Sabatier, 10. Religion and Theology. E. M6negoz, 21. Religion of Ancient Egypt. Renouf, 14. Religion of the Ancient Hebrews. C. G. Montefiore, 13. Religion of Israel. Kuenen, 8. Religions of Ancient Babylonia and Assyria. Prof. A. H. Sayce, 36. Religions of Authority and the Spirit. Auguste Sabatier, 3. Renan, E. Influence of Rome on Christianity, 13- Renouf, P. L. Religion of Ancient Egypt, 14. Reorganisation of Philosophy. Hodgson, 28. Report of Malarial Expedition to Nigeria, 44. Report of the Yellow Fever Expedition to Para, 1900. Durham and Myers, 49. Reports on the Sanitation and Anti-Malarial Measures at Bathurst, 44. Reports of Thompson- Yates Laboratories, 52. Resurrection of Jesus Christ. Lake, 20 ; R. W. Macan, 21 ; Marchant, 21. Reville, Dr. A. Native Religions of Mexico and Peru, 14. Reville. Prolegomena, 8. Reville, Jean. Liberal Christianity, 10. Rhys, Prof. J. Celtic Heathendom, 14. Rise and Progress of Christianity. R. W. Mackay, 21. Rise of Christendom. Edwin Johnson, 19. Rise of English Culture. Edwin Johnson, 20. Rix, Herbert. Dawning Faith, 22 ; Tent and Testament, 22. Robinson, Alex. Old and New Certainty of the Gospel, 23 ; Study of the Saviour, 23. Roget, F. F. First Steps in French History, 41 ; Introduction to Old French, 41. Rosing, S. English-Danish Dictionary, 41. Ross, R. Campaign against Mosquitos in Sierra Leone, 49 ; Malaria at Ismailia and Suez, 49 ; Malarial Expedition to Sierra Leone, 49 ; Malarial Fever, 49. Royal Astronomical Society. Memoirs and Monthly Notices, 60. Royal Dublin Society. Transactions and Proceedings, 60. Royal Irish Academy. Transactions and Proceedings, 60. Royal Society of Edinburgh. Transactions of, 60. Runcorn Research Laboratories. Parasite of Tick Fever, 50. INDEX— Continued. 67 Runes, The. Geo. Stephens, 58. Runic Monuments, Old Northern. Geo. Stephens, 58. Ruth, Book of, in Hebrew Text. Rev. C. H. H. Wright, 27. Sabatier, Auguste. Doctrine of the Atone- ment, 10; Religions of Authority and the Spirit, 3. Sacerdotal Celibacy. Henry Chas. Lea, 21. Sacrifice of Education. Hon. A. Herbert, 56. Sadi. The Gulistan (Rose Garden) of Shaik Sadi of Shiraz, 36. Sadler, Rev. Dr. Closet Prayers, 24 ; Prayers for Christian Worship, 24. Sailors' Horn Book. H. Piddington, 51. Saleeby, C. W. Individualism and Collec- tivism, 29. Sang's Logarithms, 52. Sanitary Conditions of Cape Coast Town. Taylor, M. L., 49. Sanitation and And - Malarial Measures. Lt.-Col. Giles, 46. Saunders, T. B. Harnack and his Critics, 24. Savage, M. J. Beliefs about the Bible, 24. Sayce, Prof. A. H. Religion of Ancient Assyria, 14. Sayings of Jesus, The. Adolf Harnack, 12. Schiller. Ballads, 41. Schloss, D. F. Methods of Industrial Re- munerationj 58. School Teaching and School Reform. Sir O. Lodge, 40. Schrader. The Cuneiform Inscriptions, 8. Schreber, D. G. M. Medical Indoor Gym- nastics, 52. Schroen, L. Seven-Figure Logarithms, 53. Schubert, Hansvon. History of the Church, 3. Schurman, J. Gould. Ethical Import of Darwinism, 29 ; Kantian Ethics, 29. Scott, Andrew. Lepeophtheirus and Lernea, 48. Scott, E. F. Apologetic of the New Test., 12. Scripture, Edward W., Ph.D. Studies from the Yale Psychological Laboratory, 29. Second Year Chemistry. Edward Hart, 46. Seeberg, R. Fundamental Truths of the Christian Religion, 12. Seger. Collected Writings, 53. Semitic Influence. Robt. Brown, 55. Seven-Figure Logarithms. L. Schroen, 53. Severus, Patriarch of Antioch. Letters of, 25. Sharpe, Samuel. Bible, translated by, 15. Shearman, A. T. Symbolic Logic, 29. Shihab Al Din. Futuh Al-Habashah. Ed. by S. Strong, 36. Short History of the Hebrew Text. T. H. Weir, 16. Sierra Leone, Campaign against Mosquitoes in. Ross and Taylor, 49. Sierra Leone, The Malarial Expedition to, 1899. Ross, Annett, and Austen, 49. Silva Gadelica. Standish H. O'Grady, 41. Sleeping Sickness, Distribution and Spread of, 50. Smith, Martin R. What I Have Taught My Children, 25. Snellen's Ophthalmic Test Types, 53. Snyder, Harry, Soils and Fertilisers, 53. Social and Political Dynamics. Malcolm Mackenzie, 28. Social Gospel, Essays on the, 11. Social Statics. Herbert Spencer, 31. Sociology, Principles of. Herbert Spencer, 30. Sociology, Study of. Herbert Spencer, 31. Soden, H. von, D.D. Books of the New Testament, n. Soils and Fertilisers. Snyder, 53. Soils. Vide Wiley's Agricultural Analysis, 54. Sonntag, C. O. A Pocket Flora of Edin- burgh, 53. Sorensen, S. Index to the Mahabharata, 36. Soul of Progress. Bishop Mercer, 21. Spanish Dictionary, Larger. Velasquez, 42. Spencer, Herbert. Drey on Herbert Spencer's Theory of Religion and Morality, 32. Spencer, Herbert. An Autobiography, 30 ; A System of Synthetic Philosophy, 30 ; De- scriptive Sociology, Nos. 1-8, 31 ; Works by, 30-32 ; Theory of Religion and Morality, 32. Spinal Cord, Topographical Atlas of. Alex. Bruce, M.A., etc., 44. Spinoza. Edited by Prof. Knight, 32. SpiritualTeachingofChrist'sLife, Henslow, 18. Statuette, The, and the Background. H. B. Brewster, 28. Statutes, The, of the Apostles. G. Horner, 25 > 36. Stephen, Canon. Democracy and Character, 25. Stephens, Geo. Bugge's Studies on Northern Mythology Examined, 58 ; Old Northern Runic Monuments, 58 ; The Runes, 58. Stephens, J. W. W. Study of Malaria, 53. Stephens, Thos., B.A., Editor. The Child and Religion, 10. Stephens and R. Newstead. Anatomy of the Proboscis of Biting Flies, 50. Stereochemistry, Elements of. Hantzsch, 46. Stewart, Rev. C. R. S. Anglican Liberalism, 12. Stillman, T. B. Engineering Chemistry, 53. Storms. Piddington, 51. Strong, S. Arthur, ed. by. Shihab Al Din, 36. Study of the Saviour. Alex. Robinson, 23. Studies on Northern Mythology. Geo. Stephens, 58. Studies from the Yale Psychological Laboratory. Edward W. Scripture, Ph.D., 29. Sullivan, W. K. Celtic Studies, 41. Surgical Anatomy of the Horse. J. T. Share Jones, 47. Symbolic Logic. A. T. Shearman, 29. Synthetic Philosophy, Epitome of. F. H. Collins, 32. Syriac Chrestomathy. Bernstein and Kirsch, 33- Syriac Grammar. Theodor Noldeke, 35. System of Synthetic Philosophy. Herbert Spencer, 30. Tayler, Rev. John James. Character of the Fourth Gospel, 25. Taylor, Rev. C. Dirge of Coheleth, The, 25. Taylor, Rev. Dr. J. Massoretic Text, 25. 63 INDEX— Continued. Taylor. Sanitary Conditions of Cape Coast Town, 49. Ten Services and Psalms and Canticles, 25. Ten Services of Public Prayer, 25-26. Tennant, Rev. F. R. Child and Religion, 10. Tent and Testament. Herbert Rix, 23. Testament, Old. Canonical Books of, 2 ; Re- ligions of, 11; Cuneiform Inscriptions, 24; Hebrew Text, Weir, 26 ; Literature, 20. Testament, The New, Critical Notes on. C. Tischendorf, 26, 27. Testament Times, New. Acts of the Apostles, 12; Apologetic of, 12; Books of the, n ; Commentary, Protestant, 8 ; History of, 7 ; LukethePhysician, 12; Textual Criticism, 6; Test Types. Pray, 51 ; Snellen, 53. Text and Translation Society, Works by, 36. Theories of Anarchy and of Law. H. B. Brewster, 28. Theories of the Resurrection of Jesus Christ. James Marchant, 21. Thermometer, History of the. Bolton, 44. Thomas, Rev. J. M. L. A Free Catholic Church, 26. Thomas and Breinl. Trypanosomiasis and Sleeping Sickness, 50. Thornton, Rev. J. J. Child and Religion, 10. Tischendorf, C. The New Testament, 26. Todd Lectures Series, 41, 42. Tower, O. F. Conductivity of Liquids, 54. Transactions of the Royal Dublin Society, 54. Transactions of the Royal Irish Academy, 54. Transactions of the Royal Societyof Edinburgh, 54- Trenckner, V. Pah Miscellany, 35. Trypanosomiasis Expedition to Senegambia. J. E. Dutton and J. L. Todd, 45, 49. Turpie, Dr. D. M'C. Manual of the Chaldee Language, 37. Universal Christ. Rev. Dr. C. Beard, 15. Universalism Asserted. Rev. Thos. Allin, 14. Upton, Rev.C. B. Bases of Religious Belief, 14. Urine Analysis, A Text-Book of. Long, 48. Vaillante, Vincent, 38. Various Fragments. Herbert Spencer, 31. Vega. Logarithmic Tables, 54. Veiled Figure, The, 59. Velasquez. Larger Spanish Dictionary, 42. Venable, T. C. Development of the Periodic Law, 54 J Study of Atom, 54. Via, Veritas, Vita. Dr. Drummond, 13. Vickers, J. The Real Jesus, 26; The Cruci- fixion Mystery, 26. Viga Glums Saga. Sir E. Head, 42. Vinaya Pitakam. Dr. Oldenberg, 37. Vincent, Jacques. Vaillante, 3S. Virgin Birth of Christ. Paul Lobstein, 9- Vulgate, The. Henslow, 19. Vynne and Blackburn. Women under the Factory Acts, 59. Wallis, H. W. Cosmology of the Rigveda, 37. Was Israel ever in Egypt? G. H. B. W right, 27. Weir, T. H. Short History of the Hebrew Text, 26. Weisse, T. H. Elements of German, 42 ; Short Guide to German Idioms, 42 ; Systematic Conversational Exercises in German, 42. Weizsacker, Carl von. The Apostolic Age, 6. Weld, A. G. Glimpses of Tennyson, 59. Werner's Elementary Lessons in Cape Dutch, 42. Wernle, Paul. Beginnings of Christianity, ^ What I Have Taught my Children. Martin R. Smith, 25. What is Christianity ? Adolf Harnack, 5, 10. Wicksteed, Rev. P. H. Ecclesiastical Institu- tions of Holland, 26. Wiley, Harvey W. Agricultural Chemical Analysis, 54. Wilkinson, Rev. J. R. Anglican Liberalism, 12. Williams, Right. Rev. W. L., D.C.L. Diction- ary of the New Zealand Language, 4a. Williams, Right Rev. W. L., D.C.L. Lessons in Maori, 42. Wimmer, R. My Struggle for Light, 9. Women under the Factory Acts. Vynne and Blackburn, 59. Women's Industries. A. Harrison, 56. Women's Suffrage. Helen Blackburn, 5s- Woods, Dr. H. G. Anglican Liberalism, 12. Wright, Rev. C. H. H. Book of Genesis in Hebrew Text, 27 ; Book of Ruth in Hebrew Text, 27 ; Daniel and its Critics, 27 ; Daniel and his Prophecies, 27 ; Light from Egyptian Papyri, 37. Wright, G. H. Bateson. Book of Job, 27; Was Israel ever in Egypt ? 27. Wright, \V., and Dr. Hirsch, edited by. Com- mentary on the Book of Job, 27. Wundt, Wilhelm. Outlines of Psychology. 32. Wysor. Metallurgy, 54. Yale Psychological Laboratory, Studies from, Yellow Book of Lecan, 43. Yellow Fever Expedition, Report of. Durham and Myers, 45. Yellow Fever Prophylaxis. Rubert Boyce, 44. Zoega, G. T. English- Icelandic Dictionary, 43. Zompolides, Dr. D. A Course of Modern Greek, 43. PRINTED BY NEILL AND CO*. LTD., EDINBURGH.