ALBERT R. MANN LIBRARY New York State Colleges OF Agriculture and Home Economics Cornell University Cornell University Library S 676.M38 1913 Farm appljances; a practical manual, 3 1924 003 360 397 Cornell University Library The original of tliis book is in tine Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924003360397 FARM APPLIANCES A PRACTICAL MANUAL. EDITED BY GEORGE A. MARTIN. ITEARLT TWO HUNDEED AND FIFTY ILI PSTKATIONa, NSW TOBK; ORANGE JUDD COMPANY, 1913 Entered, acconung to Act of Congress, in the year 1887, by the O. JTjUD CO., la the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington. Printed in U. S. A. INTEODUCTION. Inventive talent has completely revolutionized the processes of farming. The work which required the labor of many, under primitive methods, is now better done by one person with the aid of improved appliances. To explain and illustrate some of the most practical and easily made appliances is the object of this volume. They are such as secure greater comfort to domestic animals, provide supplies of wholesome water, economize labor and assist in dispatching much of the importani; work on the farm. The hints and suggestions herein contained are the result of practical experience. It is believed that every farmer, gardener, householder, in fact every one interested in labor-saving contrivances, will find very much of in<;ere«t and value in this volume. 13) TABLE OF CONTENTS. CHAPTER I. Backs, Mangers, Stanchions and Troughs 7- 34 Racks and Feed-Boxes for Horses ; Covered Horse Manger ; Feeding Trough and Hay-Shute : Device for Box-Stall ; Feed Box for Extra Stall ; Vai-ious Cattle Stanchions ; Feeding Crib for Pork Producing Sections ; Sheep-Eack and Feed Box ; A Barrel Eaek; Improve- ments in Pig Troughs ; A Plank Trough ; A Protected Trough ; Troughs for the Pasture ; Improved Grain Bin : Straw Baler ; Watering Troughs for Stock ; A Guarded Horse Ti-ough ; Box for Watering PaUs ; Home-Made Heating Vat. Chapter II. Vehicles, Rollers, Harrows and Markers 35- 56 A Cart for Breaking Colts ; A Home-Made Cart ; Ap- paratus for Lifting a Wagon-Body ; Jack for Wagon Box ; Serviceable wagon Jacks ; Adjustable Wagon Seat; Lubricating Axles ; A Light Sleigh or "Jumper": A Substantial Sled ; A Dump Sled ; A Ti-iple Land Roller ; A Cheaper Tijple Roller ; A Double Land Roller ; Stalk Leveler ; Useful Clod Crusher ; A Brush Harrow ; An Improved Han-ow Frame ; Land Markers ; Combined Marker and Clod-Crusher ; A Land Leveler. Chvptek III. Small Tools and Appliances 57- 83 Bag Holders : Handling Potatoes j Grindstones and Frames ; Tool Holder ; How to Repair a Grindstone ; A Wooden Manger Fork ; Home-Made and Useful Chaff Forks ; Stable Scraper and Broom : A Straw or Hay Hook ; Fork for Handling Stones ; Salt Box for Stock ; Safety Single-Tree ; Root Pulpers and Cutters ; Root Washers ; Clamps and Stool for Repairing Harness ; A Box Saw-Horse ; Long Saw-Bueks ; How to Tie a Bag; A Home-Made Rake Head ; Woflnng Building Stone ; Block for Sand-Paper. Chapter IV. Appliances for the Bam, Pasture and Dairy -.. 83- 97 Convenient Stable Ventilator ; Light needed in Bams ; Lanterns in the Barn ; Safety Stick for Mai'e's Halter ; To Keep a Horse from Jumping ; Coupling Horses in the Pasture ; A Simple Tether ; Chain Cattle Tie ; An Unpatented CaU-Feeder ; Two Kinds of Milking Stools ; Vat for Deep-Setting Milli;; Home-Made Butter Worker ; A Convenience for Fly Time ; Reins for Driving Oxen ; Vat for Dipping Sheep ; Sheep-Shearing Bench ; Ear Tag Punch for i&rldng Animpi i : Sewing up Wounds in Animals. (^) YI TABLE OF CONTENTS. Chapter V. Wells, Pumps, Cisterns and Filters — 97-121 Windlass and Tilting Bucket ; WeU-Curb or Staves ; Hemlocli for WeU-Curbs ; Securing the Well-Bucket ; Curb with a Bucket Shelf ; Covered WeU-Cuibs ; Im- pure Water in WeUs ; Hook for Cleaning Wells ; A Non-Freezing Pump : Agitation of Air in Wells ; Deep- ening Wells ; Digging a Well ; How to Build a Cistern ; Water in the Barnyard ; Wooden Water Pipes ; Filters for FamUy Use ; Connecting Cisterns ; Build and Dimen- sion of Cisterns ; Cisterns with Filtere. Chapter VI. Appliances for Handling Hay and Cora Fodder 121-143 Kevolring Horse Eake ; Caie of Mowing Machines ; Sweep for Gathering Hay ; Hauling Hay or Stalks ; Der- rick for Stacking ; Hay Carrier for Horse Fork ; Hay Barracks ; Supports for Stacks ; Home-Made Hay Press ; Twisting Hay and Straw ; Standard for Com Shocks ; Ventilator for Stacks ; Bench for Husking ; Corn-StaJk Band ; Convenient Fodder Carrier. Chapteb "vn. Stump-PuUers, Derricks and Slings 144-154 Stump-Pullers ; Derricks for Farm Use ; Slings for Hoisting Heavy Objects ; Deniek for a Cellar ; Lever Apparatus for Lifting ; A Home-Made Horse-Power. Chapter VIII. Preparing and Handling Fertilizers-- ._ 154-165 Hauling Barnyard Manure ; Implement for Fining Manure ; Muck and Peat ; How to Burn Lime ; Value of Gas Lime ; Burning Clay and Sods ; Converting Stiaw into Manure; Manure fiom Mail and Shells; Making Fertilizer from Bones. Chapter IX. Appliances for the Garden an((l Orchard-- --- 165-184 Paper Plant Protector ; Muslin-Covered Plant Screen ; Protected Plant Label ; Poles for Beans and other Climbers ; Potting Strawberry Plants ; Stand for Berry Baskets ; Tube for Watering Plants ; Movable Trellis for Grapes ; Tool for Cutting Edgings ; Substitute for Pea Brush ; Trellis for Tomatoes ; Tools for Killing Weeds ; Various Fruit Pickers ; Fmit Ladders ; Japan- ese Pruning Saw j Rabbits and Jlice in the Orchai'd ; Implements Used m Cranberry Cultui-e. Chapter X. Appliances for Slaughtering Hogs and Curing the Meat 184-19? Sticking Hogs ; A Better Way ; Heating the Water for Scalding; Scalding Tubs arid Vats; Hanging and Cleaning the Hogs ; Packing Pork. FARM APPLIANCES. CHAPTEE I. RACKS, MANGERS, STANCHIONS AND TROUGHS. RACKS AND FEED BOXES FOR HORSES. There are various forms of racks, mangers and feed- boxes for horses. One of the worst devices is the old- Fig. 1. — PEEDINO BACK FOB HOESES. fashioned hay-rack, extending from the manger high above the head of the horses, which are compelled to reach up for their hay. This is a most unnatural posi- tion for a horse, which does not, when out of the stable, take its food like a girafEe from trees, but from the ground. Aside from this, a high rack causes the double peril of getting dust into the lungs and other objects into the eyes of the horses. The above en- (7) 8 FARM APPLIANCES. graving shows an arrangement for hay and cut feed, or dry grain, which prevents waste, and is very convenient for the horse and its owner. The manger extends across the whole stall (a single one) and is reached through a falling door in the feeding passage. The hay box goes to the bottom, and has a barred door, through which the waste chaff may be removed, if it does not work out. The feed-box is protected by a barred cover, made of half-inch round iron, having spaces through which the horse can feed; but the bars prevent him from throwing out the feed or grain, in the attempt to pick out the best. The halter is run through a hole in the top of the manger, or a ring bolt in the side of the stall, and has a block of wood at the end, by the weight of which it is kept drawn tight, leaving no slack for the horse to get entangled with. When the horses are fed, the feeding door is shut and fastened by a button. COVERED HORSE MANGES. Horses will get their heads to the bottom of the hay Fig. 8. — IMPROVED HOBSE JUNGEK, manger if they can, and will often throw the hay out, if not prevented. The illustration, figure 2, is taken RACKS, MAKGERS, STAH'CHIOS'S, ETC. ! from a stable, in which such annoyance is easily and simply prevented. A rack of iron rods, or of wood, is made and hinged to the top of the manger in front, so that it may be thrown up and over the front when the manger is filled, and then turned down upon the hay. The bars or rods are just far enough apart for the horse to get his nose through to the hay, but of course, he can- not get his head through. Iron is better than wood, be- cause the horse cannot gnaw upon it. The bottom of every manger shotild be slatted, to let the hay seed and dust fall through — thus averting a frequent source of cough and heaves in horses. FEEDING TROUGH AlfD HAT SHUTE. To prevent waste of grain and hay, the trough and hay manger may be made as shown in the engravings here Fig. 3. — ^FEED BOX FOB OATS. Kg. 4. — ^HAT FEED BOX. given. The grain box (Ggure 3) is fixed in the front of the stall, a part of it projecting through the partition, into the feed passage, where there is a lifting hinged cover. The trough, of course, opens into the stall. In 10 FARM APPLIAXCES. the center of the trough there is an upright division, open only for an inch or two, through which the grain or meal slides down little by little into the front division^ The hay shute is shown at figure 4. It comes from the floor above, where it has a hiaged cover, which, if de- sired, is left open for ventilation. It increases in width downwards, to prevent the hay from lodging. The front is provided with small iron bars, to prevent the horse from pulling out the hay and thus causing loss. The bottom should be slatted, to allow the escape of dust. DEVICE FOB BOX STALL. For valuable animals it is best to have loose box-stalls. A range of such stalls can be built very cheaply, and as Fig. 5. — FEED BOX AND HAT KACK IN BOX STALL. the occupants need not be fastened, they can be quickly let out of the building in case of fire. The feeding arrangement for such stalls is shown at figure 5. It consists of a hay-rack in the corner, with a feed box near it. At the front of the feed box there is a falling door in the partition, through which, when it is half let down in a sloping position, the feed of grain, or the cut feed, may be placed in the box. The same arrangement may be used for the hay-rack, if the front is boarded up to the top ; but if it is boarded only for five feet, the hay may be lifted over the top of it from the feeding passage. KAC^Oj ilANGEBS, STANCHIONS, ETC. 11 FEED-BOX FOR EXTEA STALIi. There are times when the arrival of friends or other event calls for an extra stall. To provide for such emergencies, a feed box, and the way to use it, are shown in the engravings, figures 6 and 7. The trough, figure 6, is useful anywhere, it being a " fencetrough" or feed box. "Upright pieces with mortises are made of inch stuff, and nailed on each side of the passage-way. Two by three-iuch bars are used, entering into mortises on one side and dropping into slots on the other, the middle bar being keyed in. The upper bar is kept in Kg. 6. — ^FENCE FEED BOX, plae } by a swinging key put on the partition with a stout screw , and given a little play, so that it will drop by its own weight into its proper position. The feed box is made as in figure 6, with elongated sides extending through and beyond the rails or bars, with notches to re- ceive the bars as indicated, made by nailing the pieces at the extreme ends across from side to side, as shown. Thtj box being put on the lowest bar, close to the end of it. "vnd the middle bar being placed in position and keyed, 12 PAKM APPLIANCES. secures it. When the box is not in use, it is kept in the harness closet Tith the two lower ba:'s. The top bar is Fig. 7. — STALL IN PASSA.GE-WAT. generally left in place, to prevent horses, that might get loose, going into the carriage house. VAEIOUS CATTLE STANCHIONS. In the engraving figure 8, one of the stanchions is shown open, and the other two closed. The pieces d, e, f, g, and h, are immovable, a, i, c, being the movable stanchions. The device consists of three strips, two inches wide, and three quarter inch thick, fastened to one upright piece by means of two bolts, d and h; the length of the strip is regulated by the distance between the stanchions. Bolts are also used at a and c, the bolt RACKS, MANQKRS, STANCHIONS, ETC. 13 at c paaaing through a small hlock, two inches thick, which assists in moving the upright piece. A similar block, e, is also placed on the movable stanchion, upon which the block at c rests when the stanchion is closed. The fastening/, and the piece c, are so arranged as to fall in place at the same time. It will be seen that the animal not only fastens herself in place, but she is doublv secured by the pieces / and c. (The block at e may be omitted if desired, and the device be used with the Rg. 8. — sELr-oLosnjG cattle stanohiok. fastening /only). A badly hooked cow is often the re- sult of careless hired men, and such carelessness is obvi- ated by the use of the above arrangement. A cow takes her place in the open stanchion, and in trying to get at the feed below, presses against the lever a, brings c to place, and closes the stanchion. The engraving, figure 9, shows how every farmer who uses stanchions can arrange to close all the cows in at the same time. The two-inch strip g, is planed on all tiides, and made to move easily in the loops e, d, which are of heavy galvanized iron, bent below so as to allow the strip to slide, and are attached to the immovable stanchions by screws. The hard wood pins a, b, c, ex- tend about two inches through, so as to catch the mova- ble stanchions. A lever is fixed at h, and attached to the movable strip. This device is comparatively inexpensive. 14 FAEM APPLIAlfCES. and can be attached to all kinds of movable stanchionSj generally used for fastening cows. Even after it is pi:t on the stanchions, it need not be used unless desired. It has the advantage in being separate from every stanchion. One, two, or more animals may be closed in by hand and the balance with this device. It in no way interfere* Fig. 9. — ^DEVICE FOB CLOSrSd CATTLE STAJJCHIOITS. with the necks of the cows, and saves a great many steps. If a person reaches over m front of the cows, to close them in by hand, he is in danger of being struck in the face with a horn. The above device removes this dan- ger. It is simple and cheap. The use of permanent neck-chains, locked on around the necks of breeding animals and young blooded stock, affords an excellent means of fastening the animals in their stalls. A chain and snap are attached to the stall, by which, the snap being caught into the ring of the neck chain, the animals are fastened. A better way is shown in the accompanying sketch of a cow stable. Two round stanchions are placed three feet apart for each stall, and are the only indications of subdivisions or stalls in the stable. A chain about eighteen inches long RACKS MAKGEKS, STANCHION'S, ETC. 15 having a snap at one end, is attached by a ring to each stanchion. Both chains are made fast to the ring in the "necklace," and should have very little slack. If the stanchions are of hard wood, and smooth, the rings will elide easily up and down, but should not come within a Fig. 10. — CHAIN aX'iT£M STANCHION. foot of the floor. The cows will have free motion of the head to either side, can lie down and get up easily, but ha^e very little motion forward and back, hence will keep on the platform and keep clean, They are besides kept perfectly devoted each to her own affairs, as she cannot reach over to either neighbor, to quarrel or to steal her forage. The chief objection to the stanchion comes from its rigidity and vice-like grip, and any improvement in it should be in the direction of comfort to the animal, rath- er than in handier ways of fastening. The accompany- ing engraving shows how +h'? ritrid plan of the neck latches can be in part avoided. The greatest discomfort 15 FAKM APPLIANCES. to stock, when stanchioned, comes when lying down. When standing, there is freedom of movement, but when the animal is down and attempts to rise, it is held fast. Stanchions made as here shown, avoid this. The neck- latches a, b, are not fastened at the bottom, but pass through the side block c, which rests on the lower stringer. By making this side block about eight inches shortei than the space between the uprights d and c, a swinging motion is obtained that gives considerable freedom. The bolt through the neck latch a, in the upper stringer. tn. ITl fW «ii HI Fig. 11. — STAUCHION FOE DAIET COWS. should not be screwed up snug, but leave the latch a chance to play. It is usually the plan to set stanchions in a perpendicular position, and if the upper stringer is pitched over against the manger about eight inches, a great gain is made in the ease afforded the animal when it gets up, as its shoulder by this plan does not strike squarely against the latches, and avoids the necessity of "hitching back," to clear the stanchions, and thus pre- vents the extra strain and exertion often noticed in per- fectly rigid, and upright stanchions. BACKS, MA.NQERS, STANCHIONS, ETC. 17 FEEDING CRIB FOE POKK-PRODUCING SECTIONS. To construct the crib shown in the illustration, four forked posts are set in the ground at the corners of a nine foot square. In the forks are placed stout poles and on these are laid the floor and is built the crib. The posts make the pen high enough for the swine to pass under it ; hence, any corn that falls through it is eaten. The feeding floor is laid under and around the pen. In the greatest pork producing sections, nearly all the hogs are fattened from October Ist to January 1st, the com Fig. 13. — OBIB POB rBEajDlG LOT. being fed to the hogs as it is husked. In the pen shown fifty to one hundred bushels can be thrown — enough to feed for two or three days — when it is desired to do other work. It is an easy matter to throw the corn from the crib to the feeding floor, and as the corn will nerer re- main in the crib longer than a week, no roof is required. Set the posts solidly in the ground, for if the weight of the com should cause the crib to fall, it would kill any fat hogs that might be under it. The hogs cannot pos- sibly get into this crib. Eats cannot infest it. The mate- rials exist on nearly every farm, and any farmer can maka this crib and in a short tima 18 FAEM APPLIANCES. SHEEP BACK AND PEED-BOX. It is often inconvenient to go among the sheep in feed- ing them, and there is always trouble from scattering hay or feed about the enclosure or from the animals getting out by the open doors or gates. Figure 13 shows how to feed from outside. The boarding of ths pen for about eighteen inches in width, and about six J?ig. 13. — FEED-BOX FOE SHEEP. inches from the floor is removed, leaving the bottom board in place. Then upright slats are nailed across this aperture inside the fold, allowing twenty to twenty-four inches for each sheep. The slats should be nailed so that an opening eight inches wide is left in the centre of this space for the sheep to thrust their heads through. If much narrower they will rub the wool off their necks. A tight feed-box with flat bottom and upright sides is made of boards, and placed on the floor outside of and against the slats, and fastened in place. A horizontal swing door, two feet wide and the length of the feed trough, is attached with hinges to the outside upper edge of the feed box. Chains keep it from falling below a KACKS, MAKGEES, STANCHION'S, ETC. 19 proper angle, and a button at the top secures it when closed. The swing door will keep the hay always in reach. With this arrangement one can feed either hay, turnips or grain without going among the sheep, distrib- nting it much more easily than when they are crowding found him. He can also clean out the rack and feed boy conveniently from the outside. The sheep cannot crowc each other when eating. When they are through eating, or when the rack is not in use, it may be closed up, shut- ting off drafts or keeping out dogs. It is desirable to have such an arrangement open under a shed, building or other protected spot, which can generally be provided. It will be found that sheep waste much less ' fodder and feed than when fed off the ground. The feed trough may be changed so as to come inside the fold, and the rack Kg. 14. — ^BAEEEL BACK. made so the sheep can put only their noses throi'g)' '>at it makes the trough inconvenient to reach, and will ^o^.d to increase the waste of hay and grain in feeding. A BARREL RACK. The illustration, f gure 14, shows a rack for feeding hay or straw to calves or sheep. Procure a crockery cask 20 PAKM APPLIANCES. and cnt two tlutds of the staves, making holes froip ■which the feed can be obtained. If calves are to feed from it, the holes are made slightly larger than for sheep. The animals feeding from this rack waste no food, and the strong cannot so easily drive the weak from it, as from the ordinary rack or manger. Lambs or calves are> disposed to fight over their food, and it may be necessary to drive a stake about a foot from the hogshead and op- posite the whole staves ; this wiU effectually prevent the weaker ones being driven from their feed. The rack is easily filled, and the fodder, hay or straw may be fed from it without waste ; and if moistened bran or meal are mixed with it, forming a complete ration, it may be fed in an economical manner, and be easily reached. mPEOVEMENTS IK PIG TROUGHS. One of the simplest troughs is shown in figure 15. The end pieces may be as long on one side as on the other, or Tig. 15.— SntPLB PIG TBOUGH. long on one side and shorter on the other, so that the pigs cannot turn the trough over. They may have cross- pieces fastened in strongly every two feet, to make it less easy for the pigs to stand in the trough, and the trough may stand in the open lot or in positions near the fence. Where the hogs are confined in pens, a trough is set in the pen aa §howti in figure 16. This is a fixture BACKS, MANGERS, STANCHIONS, ETC. 2X must be strongly made, and be set at the bottonv, on a level with the floor of the pen. A pig of one hrcwued Fig. 16. — TBOTTQH INSIDE OP PEN. pounds weight cannot stand in the trough; the lafcier caii. be cleaned out and the feed can be put into it frim the Fig. 17. — GOOD FOBM OP PIO TKOUGH. outside. A good form of trough is shown in figure 17. 22 FARII APPLIANCES. Here the swinging shutter keeps the pigs away from the trough, or admits them to it, at the will of the attendant, and the trough may be conveniently cleaned out or filled, without any interference by the ravenous herd. Figure 18, shows an improved shutter for the trough last de- scribed. The improvement consists of strong bent irons Rg. 18. — ^IMPBOVED TROUGH WITH SHDTTEB. securely screwed or bolted to the swinging shutter on the inside above the trough, so that a strong pig can neither get into the trough, nor push others away, and get the lion's sliare. Assuming that ground, soaked or cookec' food can only be fed out of troughs with advantage, tha, pigs will eat and digest well a great deal more cooked food than they will raw, and that the more food a pig eats and digests the more profit there is in feeding him, it is easy to see the importance of good pig troughs. The engraving, figure 19, represents a good trough tot I'ig. 19. — DOUBLE FEEDING TROUGH FOB PISS. pigs. The sides of the trough are firmly nailed to the end boards. An upright beard, which runs lengthwise BACKS, MANGEKS, STANCHIOIfS, ETC. 23 of the trough, divides it into two parts, and keeps the pigs from getting into the trough. Strips, four inches wide, nailed to the edges of the trough, divide the length into spaces for each pig to feed in, and prevent one pig from crowding the next one. There must always be more spaces provided than there are pigs to feed, in order to avoid fighting among the animals. These troughs may be made of various lengths, according to the num- ber of pigs to be fed. A PLANK TEO0SH. The common V-shaped trough, as ordinarily construct- ed, is a short-lived affair. How it may be strengthened and made durable is shown in the engraving, figure 20. The Fig. 20. — DUBABI/E TBOtrOH. trowgh is made of two-inch pine planks, one six and the other eight inches wide, the end-pieces two inches longer than the extreme width of the trough. Side-pieces of inch pine are nailed at each end, with the upper edge flush and level with the top edge of the ends. A strip of inch pine is nailed from the inside edges of the trough to the outside edges of the end-pieces. When the upper strips become worn, they can be quickly replaced, and there is a hog-trough that will stand very rough usage. The trough should be put together with large wood screws, as these hold better than nails. Place white lead on the joints before fastening the trough together, to 24 FAEM APPLIANCES. prevent leakage. Good tar, applied hot, will answer the same purpose. Some farmers paint the entire trough with hot pitch or tar^ which acts as a preserratire. A PEOTECTED TBOTTQH. Pouring the slop into a trough, with forty hogs crowd- ing and squealing about, is behind the times. When the Fig. 21.— DEVICE FOB FEBDINO HOGS. slop is thrown into a trough, which passes through the fence to that from which the hogs drink, the stronger ones will crowd together at the conducting trough and get most of the slop. And about every other day a new conducting trough must be made, as the hogs will break it up in crowding for the slop. K it is made to terminate so high that they will not do this, when the slop is poured in, the biggest hog wQl get directly under it, and the slop, striking on his head and shoulders, will be deflected off to the ground. These evils are avoided by having a separate pen for the trough, filling it, and then letting the hogs in. But it costs something to have BACKS, MANGEES, STANCHIOKS, ETC. 25 an extra pen, and often the space cannot be conveniently made use of. This device, shown in figure 21, is a rack or screen, made so it will revolve on pins driven through the end- pieces and into the posts, as shown by the dotted line. The trough should be just long enough to fit in between the posts, where it is firmly secured. The most of the trough projects into the hog-yard, leaving merely enough projecting on the other side, to allow of the slop being poured in readily. The illustration represents the frame as it is when the pigs are feeding, and should be hooked into place until they are through. Before pouring in the slop, reverse the rack, so it covers the trough, the extra weight of slats on the hog-yard side keeping it in place until the trough is filled, when the rack is raised and hooked into place, giving the pigs access to their food. TROUGHS FOE THE PASTUEE. Figure 22, shows a closing trough, nailed against a fence, that is very convenient for feeding bran, oats, corn. Fig. 22.— FENCE TKOtJGH. etc., to COWS, calves, sheep and horses. The bottom is made three inches wide, and the outer side stands away from the other, both beins: set on the bottom. The end pieces of the trough are hinged to the side next to the 26 FAKM APPLIANCES. fence, and the outer side is hinged at the hottom. Strips of leather answer for hinges. A bolt, or strap, passing through the trough at each end allows the outer side to come back just enough to receive the end-pieces, which are held in place by a pin passed through a hole bored vertically through the outer comer of each, and down into the slanting side. To fold the trough up, remove Fig. 23. — A LOW TBOTIGH. these pins, and fold the end-pieces inward, bring the outer side up against these, and secure it in place wth a strap. This trough is very convenient along the side of a shed, as it can be folded up out of the way. Another closing trough is shown in figure 23. The triangular end-pieces are held in place by cleats on each side. It is Fi^r. 24. — CONTENTENT GBAIM BIN. not necessary to fasten the sides together, but they may be hinged at the bottom. To close the trough, the end- EACKS, MANGERS, STANCHIONS, ETC. 37 pieces are taken out and laid against one side, whilb the other side is closed against them. The sides are kept from spreading apart, when the trough is open, by the notches cut in the cross-pieces, upon which the trough rests. These cross-pieces rest upon large blocks. IMPROVED GRAIN BIN. A very convenient grain -bin is illustrated in figure 34. The lid or top is raised as usual ; then, when desirable, the front top board, which is hinged at the bottom, and hooked inside at the top, is unlocked and let down. This gives convenient access to the bin both in filling and in emptying — enabling one to take out the last remnants of grain or meal. STRAW BALER. Good, clean oat straw finds a ready market in cities for filling beds, and other purposes. But its quality and Kg. 25. — BOX FOE EALINO STRAW. texture are greatly impaired by baling in powerful hay presses, and it is much better, therefore, put up by the aid of a hand press, which preserves the fibre of the straw unimpaired. Figure 25 shows the box and the method 28 PAEM APPLIAKCES. of construction. The binding cords are laid cross-wise of the box, resting upon the bottom, as seen in figure 25, and the ends extending through the notches, B, B, B, as shown in figure 26. A small forkful of straw is tlxen Rg. 26. — MODE OP ABBASGINO THE COBD. placed at each end, and one in the middle, and so on, until the box is filled and the straw packed down com- pactly. The cords are then brought together around the bundle and securely fastened. WATERING TROUGHS FOE STOCK. A good substantial water trough is an absolute neces- sity on every farm, and we here give illustrations of sev- eral useful forms. Figure 27 shows one made of planks or boards. The sides should be of one piece, and also the ends and bottom if possible. If made of two pieces each, joint the edges and join them with dowel pins, using the best white lead between the joints before driving the pieces together snugly. The end pieces should be let into the sides about half an inch, and both the sides and ends should be slightly sloping, so that the form secures free- BACKS, MANGEKS, STANCHIOIfS, ETC. 29 dom from danger of bursting in winter. In putting to- gether, always use white lead on the joints. Use no nails, but draw the parts together with stout iron rods, having large heads on one end and screw threads on the Kg. 27. — A. PI/ANK WATER TROtTOH. other. When this is done, make the bottom edge true, coat well with white lead and securely fasten on with large wood screws. Give the trough a couple of coats of good paint, and when dry, the trough is ready for use. A convenient size is as follows, all inside measurements at the top : six feet long, fourteen to sixteen inches wide and twelve inches deep. This form of trough will be found useful where water is continually running from water logs, and is designed to prevent freezing and overflow. At one end, as in figure ms Hg. as. — ^WATERING TROUGH. 28, a board is fitted across the trough, and goes to within about one inch of the bottom. The water mnst flow under this to reach the outlet. This portion of the trough has a cover with a hinge. It will he seen that 30 FAEM APPLIAIfCES. with this construction no straw or rubbish can get into this covered portion to clog the outlet, and thus cause overHow. This protection is usually suflBcient in the winter to prevent the outlet from freezing. But a plug is inserted in the bottom of the trough, which can be taken out when the trough needs cleaning, or in very se- vere weather. Farmers who have never used a covered water trough, and who have not been able to keep the water free from leaves and mud in summer, and to prevent the trough Kg. 29. — COTEKED WATEB THOUGH. becoming filled with snow and ice, will be glad of the illustration (figure 29) of a covered trough, which can be used on both sides. It should stand in the middle of a yard, and the best way of supplying it is by a pipe car- ried underground from a pump. It is supported on crossed posts set in the ground and pinned together. The trough has a central division, upon the top of which the covers rest. When in use, the covers are let down, and when not in use they rest upon the dividing plank, as shown by the dotted lines, and as soon as the stock is watered, the plug is drawn to let the water off. This non-freezing trough should be made two feet deep, eighteen inches wide, and fourteen feet long, and constructed out of two-inch oak plank. Figure 30 is a sectional side view of the trough. Over it is fitted a double cover, with four-inch space, which extends to within fourteen inches of the outer end. This part is SACKS, MAKGEES, STAKCHIOITS, ETC. 31 covered wi th a single hinged cover, which can be raised and fastened up. The trough rests on the ground, and a bank of earth three feet wide is raised around it even Fig. 30. — SECTIONAL VIEW OF TROUGH. with the top. At the open end of the trough this bank is eighteen inches thick, aud is held up with boards as shown in figure 30. Over all, except the open end, is placed a layer of chaff a foot deep. On the north, west, and south of the well and trough is a tight board fence, one end and side of which are shown in figure 31. Fig. 31.— THE TEOTJGH AUD SUEROUNDINQg. Across the open end, just back of the opening in the trough, barbed wires are stretched across to keep stock off the well and trough. Under the end of the trough nearest the well is placed a drain, made of fence boards, 32 FAEM APPLIANCES. leading to lower gronnd. Over this drain is a hole in the bottom of the trough, closed by a ping, which extends throagh the cover as seen in figure 30, and by which the trough may be emptied into the drain. The trough is filled in the morning, and the natural warmth of so Biuch water having so small a surface exposed, prevents it from freezing during the day, even in the coldest weather. At nighl. the open end is closed. In summer the water in this trough is always cool, and vastly snpe- nor for live stock to that standing in open troughs. A GUAEDED HORSE TROUGH. Chickens have a way of leaving their drinking pens and "fountains," and seeking the more abundant and fresher water of the horse trough. It is all very well so long as Fig. 32. — FLOATCfG BOABD IN HORSB THOUGH. the trough is overflowing, but when the water is low, tliey lose their balance, faU in and drown. Figure 32 shows a board which floats at one end in the water, and rests at the other upon the end of the trough, being held in place by a twenty-penny nail driven through it. The board, being two inches narrower than the trough, floats freely, and there are no more drowned chickens, for, if they fall in, they can get out again unassisted. KACKS, MAXGEES, STANCHION'S, ETC. 33 BOX FOE WATEEING PAILS. Figure 33 shows an arrangement for keeping the pails used for watering the horse and cow, assuming that many keep but one or two cows or horses, and that the water is carried to them, from being filled with snow in winter, and from standing in the hot sun in the summer. This plan, as shown in the illustration, is as follows ; Have a box standing near the well pump. The size Fig. 33. — BOX FOB WATERING PAILS. of the box for a single pail should be about sixteen inches square, or twenty inches would be no disadran- tage. Have a coyer fastened on with either leather or strap hinges ; the latter can be bought cheaply at the hardware store, and are better than leather ones. For two pails, the box should be two and one-half or three feet long. In this way, the pails are always in place and much trouble and annoyance is avoided. The best way to arrange the cover is, to have a strip of board some two or three inches in width to go across the top of the box, forming part of the covering, to which the hinges can be securely fastened. Use a smaller box in the hen-house. HOME-MABE HEATIlfG VAT. Vats or tanks with wooden sides and metallic bottom, have long been used for heating and evaporating fluids. Figure 34 shows an improved method of construe- 34 FABir APPLIANCES. tion, whicli giyes greater strength and simplifies the matter of securing water-tight joints. The sides are of pine, two inches thick, ten inches wide, and six feet long. The lower angles are rouaded off, as shown in the engraving. Four laches from each end grooves are cut half an inch deep and two inches wide. Into these are fitted and nailed two pieces of pine, two hy eight inches, and twenty-five inches long. They are flush with the top, leaving a space of two inches at the bottom. Two rods of half-inch round iron, each with a head at one end and a screw-thread and bolt at the other, are in- serted through holes made for the purpose, near the top Kg. 34. — ^VAT FOB HEATISG WATEE. of the cross-pieces and screwed firmly in place. The bottom is of galvanized iron, seven feet eight inches long and twenty-eight inches wide. This is fastened by a double row of three-penny nails to the lower edge of the side pieces, extending around the curves to the top. If desired, it may be cut long enough to turn over at the top, and nailed to the upper edge of the wooden cross- pieces. This would give sufiBcient strength without the iron brace-rods. This vat is set upon an arch of biick or stone two feet wide, so that the wooden sides will project over it. For scalding hogs, a scraping bench is erected close to one side of the vat, and level with the top. CHAPTER II. VEFICLES, ROLLERS, HARROWS AND MARKERS. A CAET FOR BKEAKING COLTS. Most colts, if taken young enough, and gently, though firmly handled, can be driyen as soon as they can be made to know what is wanted of them. ]Jfow and then a spirited fellow feels his oats, or is rery nervous about the harness, and still more about the wagon, or cart, and rears, and kicks, and pulls side-ways, trips himself up, and goes down in spite our best efforts to prevent it. For such a good, strong breaking-rig is essential. The cart, figure 35, is home-made, except the wheels; for these a pair of strong wagon wheels — either front or hind — will do. The shafts are a pair of seasoned hickory poles, extending about two feet behind the wheels. They are bolted upon the axle-tree, and underneath these is a lighter pair of poles, attached to the shaft in front, and bolted also to the axle-tree by the same clamps that are used to hold the shafts. These extend back as braces, and are mortised into pieces, which are themselves mor- tised into the shaft-poles near the end. The object of this arrangement is to keep a colt from rearing. The ends of these pieces will bear upon the ground, the mo- i-:ent he lifts himself up. The same result would be ac- complished by having the poles extend far out behind, but this makes turning exceedingly awkward, so that rigs of this kind can only be comfortably used in an open lot. The box, or body of the vehicle, is made with reference to strength, so that it cannot easily be kicked to pieces, nor broken by overturning or being run away with. A strong plank is bolted to the poles in front; uprights, and (35) 36 FABM APPLIAK^CES. cro3s-boards of three-quarter-inch spruce, form the dash- board, which is well braced. The back and seat are omilarlj attached. It is important that the seat should be so placed that the driver may at will throw his full weight forward, to bring the bearing of the shafts upon the saddle, or backward, to lift up on the girth or belly- VEHICLES, ROLLERS, HARROWS AND MARKERS. 37 band. The harness should always be sufficiently strong, and before using the breaking-cart, the colt must be well harness-broken. A HOME-MADE CAET. Figure 36 shows a serviceable farm cart, which can be made by any one who understands the use of a saw and hammer. The sides of the box, which is six feet long and four feet wide, are of plank a foot wide, the bottom of inch boards ; the end-board is fastened with hooks, so that it can be readily removed when loading the cart. Kg. 36. — ^HOME-MADE CABT. The wheels are those of an old, worn-out reaper, and the axle consists of a piece of gas-pipe, large enough to fit the hub of the wheels. Pins put in holes drilled through the ends of the axle, keep the wheels in their places. The axle is fastened to the wagon by wooden blocks, hollowed out to proper shape ; these blocks are firmly screwed to the side-pieces. The thills pass through the front board and are bolted to the sides of the box. A single- tree is fastened to a cross-piece bolted to the thills close io the box. Such a cart is very convenient on every farm, and being low, it is easily loaded. 38 FAEM APPLIANCES. APPAEATUS FOE lIFTIlfG A WAQOK-BODT. To lift a heavy wagon-body from its truck is tedious work, if to be done by main force only. The nse of pul- leys facilitates the operation materially, but not as much as the apparatus shown in figure 37. It is simple, very convenient, and may be easily made by any farmer handy with tools, b, in the engraving, is a wooden rol- ler, about three inches in diameter, and resting on the Fig. 37. — APPABATUS POE HOISTENG A WAOON-BODT. joists a, which are orer the wagon in its shed. ; these slope from top to bottom edge backwards, forty-five degrees, so as to draw over the rough ground, and break clods by pressing on them. These runners are let into the cross-pieces one inch, aad are fastened together by large screws. A. strip of two by four is halved down on the runners in the front, for a draw-bar. The tongue is fitted with hooks, which are attached to rings on the draw-bar, so that it can be removed when the sled is turned over to be used as a cloi-crusher. A LAND LEVELEB. For preparing land for grass seeding, or for corn-plant- ing, the three plank leveler and clod-crusher is usefuL Fig. 62.— LAND LBVEI.EB. The planks are held together by a chain, and both with large washers, which pass through links. If short pieces of heavy chain are fastened to the holes in the rear plank they will mark sufficiently plain for corn or potato planting. CHAPTER III. SMALL TOOLS AND APPLIANCES. BAG HOLDEKS. There is an endless yariety of devices for holding a bag upright, with the mouth open. One of the simplest, figure 63, consists of a piece of hickory or white oak bent into a half-circle, and the ends passed through a Fig. 63. — CHEAP BAG HOLDEB. somewhat larger rod of the same kind of wood, and wedged fast. A screw is driven into each end of the rod, and filed to a point. To use it, the mouth of the bag is put through the half circle, and the edge is turned down over the holder, and over the sharp points, which hold it firmly. The bag is then held while it is filled, or it may be hung upon two hooks, or the holder may be fitted in a frame on a stand, so that one can use it with- out any help to hold the bags. A very good form is shown in figure 64 for farmers who sack their grain in the granary, one side of , the room being used as a passage-way. It is swung by staples to the posts, and can be changed readily from one post to another by having staples arranged in each post. Three- quarter inch round iron is used, all in one piece, the rod (57) 58 FAEM APPLIANCES. being bent or welded to make tbe circular shaped open- ing for the hopper. The hopper is made of common sheet iron, funnel-shaped, turned and wired on the upper Hg. 64.— GBiNABT BAG HOLDEB. side to add to its strength and to reduce the sharpness of the edge. Four small hooks can be riveted to the hopper, to attach the sack when filling it. Whea not in use, the holder can be swung back out of the way. If desired, the hopper can be permanently attached to the iron rim or holder by a couple of small rivets passing Fig. 65.— A BETTBB BAQ HOLDEB. through both. This will prevent the hopper from being displaced by the weight of the bag. The holder illustrated in figure 65, has the advantage SMALL TOOLS AKD APPLIANCES. 59 of being built almost wholly of wood, and can be made by any ingenious farmer. It can also be adjusted to vari- ous heights by moving it up or down a notch. The back is of inch board, about one foot wide and of any desired length, from fifteen to thirty inches. The arms are an inch thick and an inch and a half wide, fastened by screws into the notches in the back and supported by wire rods which may be held by screws through the flat- tened ends, or may pass through the back and arms and clinch. The cross-piece is of tough wood, three-fourths Hg. 66. — PORTABLE SACK HOLDEB. of an inch square. For holding the bag there is one hook on the back piece, two on each arm, and one under the cross-piece. The whole is supported on two strong spikes driven into the wall of the barn or other building, and projecting far enough to fit the notches on the side. The bag holder shown at figure 66, is portable and may be taken wherever it is to be used. The sack to be filled is brought up inside of the frame and turned over and hooked on the underside of it. The hooks are put here because they are not in the way and the sack is not torn by Lhe weight of the grain, as would be the case if the 60 TAEir APPLIAKCES. hooks were put on the top of the frame. The frame must be somewhat smaller than the sack. The sack can be filled to the top of the frame, as the part drawn over will be enough to tie by. The material nsed is inch stuff. The length of the legs must be such that when the sack is put on the hooks the bottom will rest on the floor. Another form of portable holder, shown in figure 67, is so compact and light that it can be carried into the "Fig. 67. — ^A SIMPLE BAG HOLDEB. field if desired. The apparatus consists simply of three light poles about six feet long, and loosely fastened to- gether at one end with a small carriage bolt, and three screw-hooks at the proper height for holding the bag when stretched out, as seen in the illustration. HAKDLIXG POTATOES. Potatoes are best stored in a dry, cool cellar, where the temperature can be kept by ventilation at about forty de- grees. The floor should be of planks, raised three inches from the ground, and laid with one-inch spaces between them for ventilation. The bins should be about eight SMALL TOOLS AKD APPLIANCES. 61 feet long, four feet wide and deep, made of loose-barred partitions (figure 68), wired together at the corners. A bin of this size will hold one hundred bushels, and with such a one it is very easy to know precisely how much the crop amounts to. The box shown at figure 69 will be found a great con- venience in gathering and storing the potatoes. It is made eighteen inches long, fifteen inches deep in the clear at the sides, and ten inches wide, all inside measure- ments ; thus holding two thousand and seven hundred XL 'i I II i 5 Kg. 68. — TAITEL 01' POTATO BIN. Mg. 69. — SLATTED BOX FOB POTATOES. cubic inches, or thirteen cubic inches (about two good- sized potatoes) over a heaped bushel, which is two thou- sand and six hundred and eighty-seven inches. These boxes can be set one upon another, and then have a space left between the potatoes, and are thus well adapted for use in storing a part of the crop, or a small quantity for domestic use. The barred sides and bottom secure abun- dant ventilation. The bins in the cellar should have a space of four inches between the end and the wall, and between the sides ; this is easily made by placing a short rail between them, or a piece of four by four scantling, and this will relieve the sides from the bulging pressure of the potatoes. It is advisable to have a well-built root cellar, or a cellar under the barn, for storing potatoes ; a house cellar should never be used for this purpose. 62 FAllM APPLIAKCES. GEINDSTONES AND FEAMES. A grlbJstone, to do good service, should be at least three feei in diameter and two and one-half to three inches in thickness, having a bevel on each side of the face for grinding on. It should be quite free from hard spots of ii-on pyrites, which are injurious to tools, al- though they may be taken out with a sharp-pointed punch. If it is not centered truly it will work out of shape and soon require tracing up. It should run as fast Fig. 70. — GREiDSTONi; SET. as possible, as it does its work better and more quickly. To prevent it from throwing water, a piece of bagging should be fastened to a staple fixed across the frame on each end (as shown in figure 70), but not so close as to grind it out ; this will catch the excess of water and yet keep bhe stone wet enough and clean it. The stone should be kept in the shade and never in water, which softens it and makes one side wear faster than the other. The water box should have a hole in it to let out the water and keep the stone dry when not in use. In grind- ing, it should mostly turn from the tool, and if used otherwise, great care should be taken by the one who holds the tool, not to gouge the stone. Figure 71 shows a novel style of frame for a grind- stone. The frame proper consists of the iron part or bearing of a reaper reel. The arms to which the reel SMALL TOOLS A.ND APPLIANCES. 63 sticks were fastened, are all broken ofE but one. To this one the crank is bolted, as seen in figure 71. Four holes are drilled through the rim of the reel-wheel, to which Fig. 71. — okindstom; fbamb. is bolted a hard wood board one inch thick, and haying a square hole half way through, in which the center block fits. A bolt passes through a board block to a «trip of iron, which may be bent to form a crank for Kg. 72. — 0EOBB-3E0TION. Fig. 73. — centbb block. foot-power. A cross-section of tlie stone as hung is shown in figure 72 ; the center block and board to which it is fastened are seen in figure 73. This frame should 1?^ bolted to a post or tree. 64 FARM APPLIANCES. TOOL HOLDEE. Many a boy, and his father as well, who has toiled over the grindstone to sharpen tools, will be pleased with tne device shown in figure 74, for giving a smooth, even edge to tools, which can be held by the hands, while the stone is turned by a treadle or a horse-power. It is a triangle of wooden bars, put together as shown, having a sharp pin at the point, a clamp for holding the tool at the center, and holes at the sides for tying an axle helve with cords, to keep it firm. The grindstone is near a wall or a post. Fig. 74. — TOOL HOLDEB. Kg. 75. — PA AT AGED AUB BEPATBED GEINDSTONE. and the pin is pushed into this to hold the frame. Tiv2 frame is then held in its proper position by the hands, and if held firmly, will grind an even bevel on any tool. A scythe, or a cutting-bar of a mower or reaper, or a chisel, can thus be ground perfectly and with little labor. HOVr TO EEPAIE A GEIKDSTONE. Usually a grindstone is worn out of level, and very irregularly. This is scarcely to be avoided when such a large variety of tools, including scythes, mower sections, axes, hoes, and many other tools are ground. After or» dinary use, those who are not careful to preserve the stone SMALL TOOLS AND APPLIAKCES. 65 true, with smooth and slightly rounded face, the stone appears as at a, in figure 75. It is then beyond the power of the owner to repair the damage, unless he is an expert mechanic, when he takes a piece of old stove- plate and grinds the stone down to a slightly rounded or beveled face,, like that shown at t. The best way to do this is to take a spade or a shovel, and turning it back upwards, to grind it sharp against the turning of the stone. This will bring the stone into the right shape, and in sharpening the spade, do a useful job at the same time. A WOODEN MANGEB FOEK. The common method of pitching fodder into mangers (nth a steel-tined fork, is often accompanied with harm Kg. 78. — i. MAJJGBB FOBE. to animals. They will crowd around the rack or man* ger, and frequently receive an accidental thrust in the head or body with the sharp fork. Not infrequently an eye is lost, and with a horse this is a serious matter. The wooden manger fork shown in figure 76 avoids this danger. It is made of a piece of hickory or oak six feet long, an inch and a half wide, and an inch thick. Four feet of its length is shaped round for a handle. The other end is sawed or split into three equal parts, to within a few inches of the rounded portion, where an iron band is placed. The " tines" are spread apart, and beld in position by a wooden brace placed between thes^. 66 PAEM APPLIANCES. The tines are rounded, smoothed, and slightly sharpened at their points. HOME-MADE AND USEFUL CHAFF FOKKS. Figure 77 represents a home-made fork with tines about two feet long, and having a spread of twenty inches. The teeth are straight above, and curved towards the point. They are fastened by screws to the three-inch Fig. 77. — LABGE CHATF FOBS. Fig. 78. — SIMPLE CHAPF FOBS. hard-wood head, and strengthened by an iron rod near the head, and by a round wooden rod, which passes through them and to which they are tacked fast. The head is strengthened by a similar piece of oak or ash, half an inch thick, screwed upon its edge, and through which the handle passes. This is of ash or hickory, large enough around to give the hand a good hold, and is fas- tened by wiring to the top side of the head. Such a fork may be made quite light, and the six tines being SMALL TOOLS AND APPLIANCES. 67 only four inches apart, ■will handle either chaff or light straw to good advantage. We give, by way of comparison, a simple chafE fork, figure 78, made by first binding and then carefully splitting a single piece of hickory or ash, handles and tines being formed of the same stick. A ring-ferule or band of wire is placed at the point beyond which the splits may not go, and after the splits are made, the tines are spread apart by wedge- shaped pieces of wood. These forks are easily made and are the very best stable forks that can be used. There is no danger of pricking horses or cattle with them, and if one be carelessly left in the stable, or falls down, neither man nor beast is likely to be hurt. STABLE SCRAPER AND BROOM. The manure gutter is easily cleaned out with the scraper and broom shown below. The scraper, figure 79, is made Fig. 79. Fig. 80. to fit the width of the gutter, and brings the manure to the trap-door. The broom, figure 80, is then used to sweep the waste matter from the floors into the gutter. 68 FAEM APPLIANCES. and from the gutters into the trap-doors, leaving the floor clean and clear for a new supply of litter. A STEAW OB HAT HOOK. A convenient hook for pulling straw or hay out of i stack for distribution amon sheep or cattle, is shown it. figure 81. It consists of a s ut pole pointed at one end ; a sHt is cut through it and i look is pivoted as shown in Fig. 81. — STKAW OE HAT HOOK. the engraving, so that it will be pushed hack when it is thrust into the stack, and drawn forward, when it is pulled out. A strong cord helps to strengthen the hook, "When the hook is pulled out of the stack, it brings a quantity of straw or hay with it. FORK FOE HANDLING STONES. The fork, figure 82, for lifting stones will prevent many a back-ache. It should have four prongs, which are Fig. 83. curved so as to hold the stones, and a strong handle. By a knack in giving a quick jerk, a heavy stone can be lifted and thrown into a wagon, and without stooping. Having used one of these contrivances to pick up stones, we can speak with knowledge of its usefulness. It v SMALL TOOLS AND APPLIANCES. 69 made of prongs of horse-shoe iron, welded to a heavier cross-bar, which has two strong straps to receiye the handle. SALT BOX FOB STOCK. Salt should be given regularly to horses, cattle, and sheep, but it is rarely so given, because a supply is not kept handy for use. The box shown in figure 83 may Fig. 83. ^e hung in a stable or shed, or to a tree or post in the pasture. The salt is protected from the rain, and if re- plenished when necessary, the stock will be supplied with it regularly. SAFETY SINGLE-TEEE. In plowing among fruit trees or in corn, single-trees having the traces arranged the usual way, will do much injury to the trees or corn. There is a method in ar- ranging the traces which will avoid all this, as can be seen in the illustration, figure 84, A knot is made on 70 PARM APPLIANCES. the ead of the trace rope, when the rope is passed through the hole made for the pui-pose, and brought around in the grooved end of the single-tree. To prevent the rope from getting out of place, it is wired or tied with strong cord. If the tree is struck by the end of the singlu-tree, thus guarded, it slides off without doing much injury. If the trees are young and small, with smooth and tender Kg. 84. — SAI^TT SmGLE-TEEB. bark, it is well to wrap the end of the traces, for about eighteen inches from the single-tree, with old cloth, to prevent the rough, twisted rope from chafing the trees. Always use a shorter single-tree in plowing and culti- fcivating an orchard than in ordinary plowing, and also use a small horse or mule to do the work, as this allows of more thorough work, and with less liability of injury to the low branches or the trunks of the trees. EOOT PULPEES AND CUTTERS. Those who feed beets, turnips, carrots and other roots, find it necessary to reduce them by some cheaper method than cut- ting by hand with a knife. An excellent machine for pulping roots is shown in figure 85. It may be made by any carpenter in two days, at a cost of about six dollars. The plan of the machine Fig.85.-BooT pm.PEB. ig gj^,g^ -^ the engraving. It is simply a square or oblong box, with a spiked cylinder SMALL TOOLS AND APPLIANCES. 71 fitted in it, the cylinder having a square gudgeon at one end, to which a handle is fitted. To save expense the heavy wheel and handle attached, of a fodder cutter, may be taken off and used on the root pulper, as the two will rarely be used ab the same time. The cylinder is closely studded with sharp, chisel-pointed spikes. These teeth are made of one-quarter inch square bar iron, and are three inches long; the sharp edges are worked out on an anvil, and are chilled by immersion in Fig. 86. — ^HOME-MADE EOOT-OUTTEK. Fig. 87. — EOOT-OTTTTEB SLIDB. cold salt water when red hot, the other end being cut with a screw thread. To secure strength, and to make the machine work with more ease, the cutters are screwed in so far as to leave only half an inch or a little more projecting. A still cheaper form is illustrated in figure 86. At A is seen the hopper which is without a bot- tom. The slide, figure 87, contains a two-edged knife, and runs in the grooves, G G, in the top of the frame, close to the bottom of the hopper. If ear the bottom of the frame is a roller, R, into which is fitted the handle, H, This IS connected with the slide by the rod, R, The 73 FAElt APPLIANCES. knife should be about four inches wide and one-quarter inch thick, be placed diagonally in the slide, leaving half an inch space between it and the bottom of the slide. When using the apparatus all that is necessary is to move the handle to and from the hopper. It works easily and quickly, is durable, and with fair usuage is not likely to get out of order. A ready way of chopping a ^3/ few roots, is to use a spade ground to a sharp edge, and a box in which the roots are quickly reduced to slices. A basket of turnips crip- ples, can be sliced in this way in one minute. For a larger quantity, a chopper may be made as in the engraving, figure 88. It has two long blades, and the roots are hashed up rapidly, and all danger of choking is avoided. A common cast-iron winged gudgeon, having steel strips riveted on the edges, answers as well as one forged out by a blacksmith, at Kg. 88. BOOT several times its cost. The roots, so cut, may be mixed with meal, and fed to the cows. Apples are excellent for dairy cows when fed in this way, and largely increase the flow of milk, besides being healthy for them. BOOT WASHESS. A convenient washer for potatoes and roots, consists of a kerosene barrel hung in a frame, as shown in figure 89, on next page. Two openings are made in one side of the barrel — a large one, two staves wide, and a small one only one inch wide. The pieces cut out are used for lidSj both of which are fastened with hinges and but- tons, and are made to fit tight by having thick cloth tacked around their edges. A bushel of potatoes or roots are placed in the barrel, with two or three buckets SMALL TOOLS ASt) APPLIANCES. W of water, the lids are closed and buttoned, and the barrel is slowly turned. If they are very dirty, open the small aperture, and by turning the barrel back and forth allow the water and mud to run out. Add clean water and Kg. 89. — ^EOOT WASHES. turn again. They will soon be cleansed, when the largo aperture may be opened, and the roots or tubers emptied into a basket. The fastenings at each end of the barrel can be made by any blacksmith, and they should be bolted on with one-quarter or three-eighths inch bolts. With this simple contrivance a man can wash a large Fig. 90. — ^VEGETABLE WASHEE. quantity of roots in a day without catching cold or a chill. If kept out of the sun, such a contrivance will last a lifetime. In figure 90 is shown a potato and vegetable washer for household use. The ends of the H FAEM APPLIANCES. cylinders are cut out of incli board and are twelve inches in diameter. The shaft runs through and has collars, to which the ends of the cylinders are fastened to hold them firm. Strong, tinned wires are fastened from end to end, as seen in the engraving. Five of these are fastened together, and form the lid to the aperture through which articles are admitted. The end of the lid is fastened by means of a loop, which springs over a but- ton. The vegetables to be washed are placed in the cyl- inder, the box is half filled with water, and by turning Fig. 91. — TTJB POK WASHES. the cnnk, or by moving it back and forth, they are quick] V cleansed. Narrow wooden slats may he used in- stead of wire, if desired. An ordinary tub, or a half bar- rel, arranged as seen in figure 91, may be used instead of the box. CLAMPS AND STOOL FOK KEPAIKINQ HARNESS. The device shown in figure 93 combines a stool and a clamp for holding harness work. The bench or stool, i, of any desired size, is supported by two legs near one end. The other end is held up by the foot of the long claw, extending to a convenient height for the operator. A shorter claw, c, is fastened to it by a cross-piece, p, about SMALL TOOLS ANB APPLIAKCES. 'TH an inch thick and three inches wide, passing through a slot in the jaws, in which it works easily but firmly on two iron pins, a little more than half-way up from the bench. In the lower end of the short jaw an eccentric works on a pivot and against a projection on the larger Fig. 92. — A HAKNESS STOOL AOTJ CLAMP. Fig. 93. HARNESS HOLDER. jaw. Depressing the handle to this eccentric or cam, closes the jaws at the top with all the force desired. A simple holder without the stool is shown in figure 93. Two staves of a flour barrel are sawed off at a con- venient length for holding between the knees, while sit- ting on a chair. The sawed ends of the pieces are se- curely nailed to the opposite sides of a block of wood. A hole is cut through the middle of one side piece, in which a lever is placed for opening and closing the holder. The lever may be readily made of such shape that it will always remain in the hole, ready for use. f6 JAEil AFPLIAKCES. The curves of the staves will famish sufficient spring to hold the harness. A BOX SAW-HOESB, The novel saw-horse shown in figure 94 is made of a dry-goods boK, of inch pine boards, thirteen inches long, eighteen inches wide, and twenty-four iuches in height. Upon the outside of one end are nailed two cleats, and on the inner side three cleats, the position of which i^ Pig. 94. — NOVEL SAW-HOBSE. shown in figure 94. The curved lever above the box is intended to do the hard work usually imposed upon the sawyer's left knee, viz., holding the stick sawed in place. The necessary pressure of the lever is effected by means of the treadle and the small rope or sash cord connecting the two. The lever should be so attached to the side of the box that the loose or curved end rests upon the stick, held in place by it, about midway between the center and left diagonal cleats. The treadle should extend, when horizontal, eight inches beyond the left side of the box. In using the horse, raise the lever with the left hand. with the right place the stick to be sawed so that the point where it is to be cut ia over the U ; the lever is dropped or pulled down upon the stick ; the left foot is placed upon the treadle ; a slight pressure will hold the stick securely. The sawyer, thus using both limbs for support, and standing nearly erect, will find wood sawing SMALL TOOLS AND APPLIANCES. 77 an easy thougli vigorous exercise, quite exempt from many of the old-time aches and pains. If the horse is to be used in a wood-house — a room having a floor — it is well to secure it by screws to the floor ; if out of doors, it may be ballasted with a few bricks or stones, or be fas- tened to a frame. LONG SAW-BUCKS. In cutting fire-wood from long timber or sawing lum- ber, it is convenient to have a long savv-horse. Two patterns are illustrated herewith. To make the one shown in figure 95,an oak stick averaging half a foot in Fig. 95. — A LONG SAW-BUCK. diameter, was selected from the wood pile, and apiece five foot long cut ofE. Two one-and-a-half-inch auger holes were bored near each end, not quite opposite each other, to avoid weakening the timber at one point, and Fig. 96. — A LIGHTER H0R9B. foui strong sticks from the same wood pile wore driven m for legs — a little under two feet long, and standing well slanting outward. Six one-inch auger holes were bored in the top, and spht-out pegs, eight or ten :nehes 78 FAEM APPLIANCES. long, were driven in, in a position to firmly hold the wood to be sawed. The two pegs of each pair are not directly opposite, but separated far enough for the saw-cut to run down between them. Of the first pair one is four inches from the end, and the other seven inches back. The second pair is fifteen inches back of these, and the othei in the farther end of the horse, these last answering as a support to the long end of the wood to be cut, the other two pairs being used as the saw-horse. When a stick is reduced to five feet or so in length, it is drawn forward and wholly supported on the two pairs of pins nearest together. The other horse, shown in figure 96, consists of an ordi- nary saw-horse having a block nailed across its legs on one side, forming a rest for the end of a long stick, which at the other end is fastened into half a saw-horse, a. The piece to be sawed is laid on the three rests thus formed, the end to be sawed being placed at a. As each length is sawed off, a is shoved toward 5, the proper dis- tance. It will be seen that this saw-horse can be length- ened out or shortened up, to suit the length of the stick. HOW TO TIE A BAG. Figure 97 shows a simple and easily made bag-tl« which effectually prevents any slipping, if properly ad- Flg. 97.— BAG TIB. justed. Take any strong cord about eighteen inches long and double it as herewith seen, passing the ends through, making a loop around the mouth of the bag. Now pull as tightly as possible ; then take an end of the SMALL TOOLS AND APPLIANCES. 79 string in each hand and pull again in opposite directions ; pass the string completely around, make a knot, and double or single bow-knot, and the work is done. A very- little experience will make one expert, and he can then make sure the bag will not come untied. A HOME-MADE EAKE HEAD. Figure 98 shows the end view of a hand-rake with the tooth inserted. The head-block should be made of green hickory, free from knots and curls, while the rake-teeth must be of dry, well-seasoned oak or hickory, and having grooved places in them, as is seen in the illustration. The teeth are rounded and are driven snugly into the green head-piece, which latter, in drying, will hold the seasoned teeth so firmly as to effectually prevent them from ever com- ing out. In fact, so tightly will they be held, that they can scarcely be driven out when the head-block has become thor- oughly seasoned, the shrinkage of the green wood acting as a permanent vise. The same principle might be utilized in other small im- plements. Fig. 98. — A DtTK ABLE BAKE. ■WORKING BUILDING STONE. Stone is the most durable and the cheapest building material where it is plentiful on the farm. By a little manngement the stone can be brought to a convenient shape for use. 1'lie tdols voquirod, shown in figure 99, are : a chipping hammer, a \\cd:je and steel feathers, a 80 FAEM APPLIAlfCES. striking hammer, drill and a bar for opening cracks in the stone. The clipping hammer has a broad, sharp edge, and acts as a chisel for dressing the faces ; and the sharp edges of the rectangular head, two by four inches, serre ^1^ Fig. 99. — TOOLS FOB STONE WOEK. to dress down the edges and corners of the stones. The wedge is three by one and a half inches, and the feathers are plates of steel as wide as the wedge, which they serve to protect. The striking hammer is three inches square, and six inches long, with a beveled edge around the face. The drill is of one and a quarter inch octagonal steel, and is eighteen inches long, or if there be two, one is twelve inches long. The bar is four and a half feet long, and has a sharp-edged steel point for striking into cracks and splitting the stone, which it is usually easy to Fig. 100.— BREAKING A T.ARGE STONE. do. A large stone is broken by drilling a few holes in it with a one-inch drill, and chipping a rrroove across the face along the line of holes, as shown in figure 100. Small round wedges, with small feathers, are placed in each bole, and they are struck oue after the other, in rotation. SMALL TOOLS AKD APPLIANCES. 81 By this method very large blocks are split with an even face. A small stone is easily split by chipping grooves across it, and then repeatedly striking along upon the groove with the face of the hammer. BLOCK FOB SAKD-PAPEB. Sand-paper is put up by the manufacturers in quires of sheets nine by eleven inches in size. As used by many workmen, nearly a fourth of each sheet is wasted by folding and crumpling over improperly shaped blocks. A convenient block, figure 101, which permits the use Fig. 101. of all the sand-paper, is here described. Make a wedge-shaped piece of hard wood, one and a half inch thick, three inches wide, and five and one-quarter inches long, tapering from the head to a sharp edge. Cut a V- shaped hollow across the head. Fit a piece three inches Fig. 102. long, of hard-wood, exactly to this hollow. Insert in the head a wood or porcelain drawer knob seven-eighths of an inch in diameter, fastening it securely by a long screw. Cut a sheet of sand-paper into three equal parts, three 82 FAEM APPLIAKCES. by eleven inches. Fold one-fourtli of an inch at each end of a strip of sand-paper, and slip under the head-piece by loosening the screiv. Tightening it will hold the paper fast and smooth for work. A common wood screw may be used in place of the knob, but is not as conTcnient, af it must be turned by a screw-driver. OHAPTEE IV. APPLIANCES FOR THE BAEN, PASTURE AND DAIEY. C0irVEIfIE3,'CE9. bale is bonnd with a strong cord, pieces of which ste, placed on the bottom and others on the top, as shown in Hg. 160. — END TEEW OP HAT PB£SS. ,i,j,,.i, ',.1 i; ,n l/lli.l'fhW li\^ \\ 111/ mil I VI ^ J Pig. 161. — ^MOVABLE BOTTOM. figure 159, and the ends are fastened when the bale is pressed as tightly as possible. It is then reduced to two HANDLING HAT AlTD CORN FODBEB. 1.35 and one-half feet in thickness, and eight of these bales will make a ton. The hay is easily transported in wagons when baled, and the press can be moved from one mea- dow to another as the hay is cut and pressed, or it will Fig. 163.— HAT BALE. be more convenient at times to drive the cattle to the hay rather than move the hay to the cattle. Figure 160 shows the end view of the press, figure 161, the movable bottom, and figure 162, the pressed bale. When the iron can be procured without great expense, it might be well to use the pulleys and slotted wheels as here shown, but otherwise these parts may be made of wood. TWISTING HAT AND STRAW. The machine figures 163 to 167, consists of two two-by four bars, nine feet long, figure 163, straight and true, and of even thickness and width. They are bolted to- gether at each end, and separated by a block four inches square and two inches thick, at one end a, and a piece of two-by-four stufE, three feet long, at b. A pulley is let at c, about thirty-nine mches from the end a. Fig- 136 FARM AVPLIAJTCES. nre 164 shows frame of back end {A, figare 167), a being a piece of two-by-four, four feet long; b, i, two uprights, one-by-four, six feet long; c, a two-by-four, three feet long ; d, a one-by-four, three feet long ; they are firmly Fig. 163. — THE BA£S, OB WATS. nailed together as shown, the upper edge of c, being half way up from bottom. Figure 165 is the same as figure 164, except the lower piece a is only three feet long. The five converging pieces are of some springy wood. They are attached by screws, three to the upper cross-pieces and two to the middle one, and prevent the hay going too fast out of the rack. Figure 166 shows a " follower" (/", figure 164), a being two-by-four, twelve inches long, b, two-by-four, twenty-six inches long, framed or halved on a J c is a brace of one-inch board ; d, d, two pieces of board, the lower one eight inches wide, six inches long, a d Fig. 164. Fig. 165. a Fig. 166. the upper twelve inches wide, sixteen inches long ; they are firmly attached to b by nails and screws as shown, and the brace c is then nailed in place. The " twister " is made of seven-sixteenths round iron, nine inches long HANDLING HiT AND CORN FODDER. 137 from crank to hook, five inch crank, three and a half inch handle. The hook is turned so as to have a twist like a corkscrew, so that it will woik in and catch the hay up of itself ; two washers are put on that fit the rod snugly and four inches apart, by placing shaft in a vice ; a nick with a cold chisel on each side of shaft on outside of each washer, will keep them in place. This is made fast upon a piece of two-by-four, twelTe inches long, the upper end grooved out so that the shaft will set in about half way, then beveled off as shown ; the shaft is fastened in place by a couple of strips of hoop 1 c c 1 / A- 1 1 a ^ w" " A 1 1 B Fig. 167. — THE COMPLETE MACHINE (STBAW-TWISTEK). iron, bent over it and nailed or screwed in place ; two strips are screwed on the sides, and a piece of board on the bottom end, as shown, leaving space between the two so that it will work freely on the ways, figure 163, when in place as shown in figure 167. Figure 167 shows the machine complete, A being figure 164, B, figure 165, in their places, c, showing boarding of rack, the edges of which show in figure 164 and 165 ; it is nailed to the upper piece and to the ways. Wis a weight to bring the follower, figure 166, forward as fast as hay is used out, and keeps the hay firm and in its place against the wooden springs; the weight may be a stone, or box filled with iron or scraps. In use, draw the follower back, and run the 138 TAEir APPLIAXCES. pin, /, in hole bored through ways and follower, fill in the rack from top with hay, just mowed or slightly damp, pressing it in snugly, then draw out pin f, slide carriage g up to rack ; by turning crank the hook will catch up a lock of the hay, then keep turning and drawing carriage away at the same time, and it will twist out a rope of hay, this is doubled, and ends fastened hy crowding through loops. If you can get some drawer rollers to set in the follower and on the carriage, it will work much easier. n Ir^ U U Jn ^^ n , :; U □~ , Mg. 168. WESTPHAT.TAN STEAW-TWISTEB. Kg. 169. Figures 168 and 169 show a form of straw-twister, which has long been in use in Westphalia, Germany. A board of hard wood, half an inch thick, four and a half inches wide artd five feet long, is shaped as in figure 168, \nd has an inch hole in the center. A piece of the same l' ifi, five inches square, also with an inch hole (a in the HANDLIKG HAT AKD CORN FODDER. 139 engravings), is attached to the large piece by means of long wooden pins, and stands three inches from it, the holes in the two exactly corresponding. A shaft of hard wood, I, figure 169, is square at the end, where the crank c, is attached, and round where it passes through the two holes. This shaft is held in place by the pins, d, d, which should be so set as to allow it to turn freely. An- other wooden pin, e, passes through the shaft and pro- jects an inch and a half on each side. In making the rope, two men are required. The straw having been slightly moistened by sprinkling from a watering can, one takes a bunch and fastens it to the pin e. The other operator takes the machine with his left hand, at t, fig- ure 168, and with the lower end against his foot, turns the crank ; he gradually moves away from the other, pushing the machine along with his foot, while keeping the crank in motion, and the other supplies straw as re- quired. The latter sits upon a low stool, and his right hand should be protected by a stout leather glove or a piece of leather. "When the rope is about a hundred feet long, or it becomes difficult to turn the crank, it is rolled into a ball, and a new one begun. The rope is finally made into balls of convenient size. STANDAfiD FOR CORN SHOCKS. The best standard is made by bending four hills to- gether — two diagonal hills being lapped and twisted to- gether. But to such a standard it can be objected, that a knife must be carried along to cut the stalks loose when the fodder is brought in from the fields, and that these stalks cannot be stood straight in the rick. Some prefer a movable wooden standard, of which a very good sort is shown in figure 170. A light pole, twelve or fifteen feet long, is provided with two upright supports ; holes are 140 farm: appliakces. bored through the pole about five feet from one end, and through the ends of the uprights, and a bolt passed through the holes and secured by a nut. The holes should be so large that the uprights can be spread a foot apart at the bottom. Midway between the uprights and the end of the pole, another hole is bored, through which a cross-bar is put. In the four angles formed by Kg. 170. — rODDES COBN STASDABD. the intersection of the pole and the cross-bar, the fodder is set. When the shock reaches out to the support, the cross-bar is pulled out, and the pole can be removed. Some prefer to have the supports and cross-bar near to- gether, about four feet from the pole. The shock is built around the supports. When done, the cross-bar is palled out, and as the pole is removed, the supports are brought close together, and do not hinder. VEXTILATOE FOE STACKS. A large quantity of corn fodder is spoiled for want of proper care in drying and stacking. It is not easy to hit the happy mean, between the sufficient drying of the stalks, and the over-drying of the leaves. But it can be done perfectly in the stack, by the use of the ventilator, figure 171. This consists of three or four poles or bars, fastened together with cross-slats, and made to fit one upon another. Such a ventilator, which may be four or six feet long, is set on the foundation for the stack, and HAJTDLING HAT AND CORN FODDER. 141 passes upwards through it, leaving a perfect chimney and air passage in the center of the fodder. More than Fig. 171. — VENTILATOK FOB STACK. one can be used if desired. These ventilators are useful in stacks of hay or grain, which may be a little damp. BENCH FOR HUSKING. Figure 173 represents a very comfortable and light husking stool ; it is made long and wide enough to hold Fig. 172. — HUSKING STOOL. a sheaf of stalk, and is provided with a seat, or may have one on both sides, if desired. If one can procure 112 FARjr APPLIA^TCES. some crooks of cedar or other light wood, such as is nsed in rustic work, they will serve very well for the ends. The seats may be removed when the stools are not required, and may then serve for benches in the dairy or for household purposes. COBJf-STALK BAOT). stalks altogether dry or altogether green are not to be selected, as tbev will break when it is attempted to twist them. Long, slender stalks are desirable. The first stalk is broken at a right angle about two feet from the but ; the but is then forced into the shock as far as the break, when the remainder of the stalk is passed Fig. 173. — COKS-STAI^ BASS. around the shock, breaking it carefully every eight or ten inches, until the tassel point is almost reached. Then another stalk is inserted in the shock. The top of the first stalk is broken every three inches between the thumb and fingers, and twisted around the second stalk, which is then broken and passed around the shock as in HANDLING HAT AJy^D COKN FODDER. 143 the case of the first one. This is contimied until the last stalk reaches the first one, when it is secured by twisting it as in the case of the others, or by drawing it down between the shock and the first stalk, just in front of the break, forming a loop below, through which a piece of stalk, two feet long, is passed and driven into the shock. In figure 173 is shown the appearance of the band as it would be, if the shook could be removed after the band is completed. CONTEiriEH^T FODDER CARRIES. On farms where the corn-stalks are left in the field to be carted to the yard as wanted, the use of a convenient carrier saves much work and time. Such a one is shown Fig. 174. — FODDEB CAEKIEE. in figure 174 It consists of the front wheels, axle, bol- ster and pole of a common farm-wagon, with the ends of two poles, or a common cord-wood rack fastened to the bolster. The other ends of the poles drag on the ground. A cross-piece, three feet long, is securely fastened to the poles about three feet from their lower ends, and two up- right stakes, four or five feet long, complete the arrange- ment of this farm convenience. OHAPrEE Til. STUMP-PULLERS, DEEEICKS AND SLINGa STUMP-PULLEBS. Figure 175 shows a very powerful machine for pulling stumps. The woodwork is made of well-seasoned oak, the winding shaft being eight inches in diameter and five feet long. The lower block, in which it revolves, is six- teen inches square and three inches thick, having a hole cut just large enough to receive the winding shaft, and is fastened securely to the middle brace at the bottom. To prevent the splitting of the winding shaft, two stout iron bands are shrunk immediately above and below where the lever or sweep is inserted. An old gear-wheel, with the spokes knocked out, is fastened to the top cross-piece or head-block, to receive the traveling ratchet attached to the shaft. The upright pieces of the frame are of two by eight inch oak, three and a haK feet high ; the top cross» piece or head-block two by sixteen inch oak, narrowing to twelve inches at the ends, and three feet long. The frame is set on runners four feet long, two by ten inch oak, so the implement can be quickly moved from place to place ; the entire frame is mortised together. The anchor is of one-inch round iron, and attached as shown in the illus- tration, and a strong iron pulley-block is used on the opposite side. In pulling large stumps, a chain is more reliable than a rope. A single horse furnishes the motive power at the end of the lever or sweep, which is ten feet long. Figure 176 shows a cheaper and lighter stump-puller. The only expense is for the chain, links of one and a half to two inch tough iron, or tough-tempered steel ; ring, ten to twelve inches in diameter, and the hook, ail of (144) STUMP-PULLEES, DEKKICKS, SLIKQS. 145 i46 FAEM APPLIAJJCES. which any blacksmith can make. The point of the hook must be formed so that it will strike in toward the heart of the stump and not tear loose on partially decayed wood. The lever may be twelve to twenty feet long, its size de- pending on the quality of the wood and the force to han- Kg. 176. — A SIMPLE STUMP-PTTLLEB. die it. A lever twenty feet long on a stump two feet in diameter, would exert a force of ten tons for each one thousand pounds of direct pull by the team. Though many durable, long-rooted stumps would not yield to this, the large majority of ordinary stumps, after decay- ing a year or two, can thus be cleared out, with most of the roots. Figure lYY shows a stump-puller used in New Zealand. The thread of the screw works both ways and gradually draws each chain nearer the center, where the screw is Fig. 177. — ITEW ZEALiltD STCMP-PUliLEB. turned by a moTable bar. One end of the chain is fast- ened around one stump, and the other around a second ; then when the screw is turned, whichever stump is the less firm in the ground is bound to be pulled out. The screw is readily worked by a man, though it will, as a rule, require two persons to work it on heavy land. STUMP-PULLERS, DEEKICKS, SLINGS.' 147 DERKICKS FOE FA3M. XjSE. Where there is much handling of heavy barrels or sacks, one man, with some Simple, mechanical contriy- ance, can easily do the work of two or three, working by main strength. A boon) derrick, figure 178, hung high, so that the weight ahall be lifted from the ground ordi- narily, when the derrick swings horizontally, is very con- venient. A post is banded, and has a strong dowel at each end. The lower dowel is set in a stone fixed in the ground, close to the buUding where it is to be used, the Kg. 178.— A BOOM DEBEICK. Tig. 179. — ETE-BOLT. upper one in a strong oak cleat, bolted to the building. At the height of about five or six feet from the ground, an eye-bolt passes through the post, and another is fixed at the top. The boom is fastened to the lower eye-bolt by a three-quarter inch hooked iron, attached as shown in figure 179, while the other end of the boom has a band with two eyes. This boom is a spar or pole, stiff enough to bear the strain without doubling up or breaking, and may be ten or fifteen feet long. The end of the boom is raised or lowered by a pair of single pulleys, or by a 118 FAHil APPLIAXCES. double block tackle, which ttUI exert much greater pow- er. When the weight is lifted, as out of a cellar-way, it may be swung around over a wagon and lowered into it. A couTsnient derrick for raising slaughtered animals, for suspending heavy hogs in scalding, and dressing beeves, and for sundry other purposes, can be cheaply and quick- ly made thus : Take three scantlings two by six inches, and fourteen feet long, or any other desired length and strength. Bound poles will answer, by hewing flat on two sides a small portion of the upper ends. Bore cor- responding holes in the top of each, and insert a strong iron bolt, with large head on one end, and large nut and screw on the other. Let the bolt fit loosely, to allow a little play. These pieces can fold together for storage, and be raised to any desired height short of perpendicu- lar. Bore a series of small holes along the upper sides of two poles, for movable iron pins, or larger ones for wooden pins. These may be fastened m, or better, have two loose pins for moving to higher or lower holes. By placing the feet of these two poles against firmly driven stakes, and drawing the third and rear pole inward, the center will be elevated with considerable force, the power required decreasing as the timbers approach a perpendic- ular, when a beef carcass, for instance, is nearly lifted from the ground, and hangs more heavily. If desired or necessary, horse power can be apphed by using a rope with a clevis or otherwise, attaching it to a double-tree ot to a whiffletree. A single horse will be sufficient for raising a large carcass by means of this tripod derrick. SLINGS FOR HOISTING HEAVY OBJECTS. When one has bags to hoist by a block, or simply by a fall, from the barn floor to the loft, rope or chain slinga are almost essential. The simplest sling to operate is STUMP-PULLERS, DEKEICKS, SLINGS. 149 formed on the end of the fall-rope, as shown in figure 180. This consists simply of an oak stick, half an inch Fig. 181.— CHAIN-SLINQ. thick, two inches wide and six inches long, having two three-quarter inch holes bored, one near each end. Through one of these the end of the rope passes, then it Fig. 182.— ENDLESS KOPE-SLING. is drawn through the other and knotted strongly. The mouth of the bag being caught in the bight of the loop, 150 FAKiT APPLIANCES. it may be safely hoisted, for the greater the weight the tighter will be the hold. Xext to this, and still more conTenient, is the chain- sling, figure 181. The fall-rope is terminated by a chain with twisted links, which ends in a ring, and so a loop is made to take the bag, or simply the bag's mouth. Like the rope-sling, it will hold fast all the bags that it can be made to surround. For hoisting many bags at a time, nothing is more convenient and safe than an end- less rope, figure 182, cut eighteen to twenty feet long, and the ends spliced together. This is laid upon the floor, forming a long, narrow loop ; the bags are laid upon it, resting evenly on both side ropes, then the ends are brought together, one is passed through the other, so as to act like a noose, and hooked over the fall-rope, which should terminate in a strong hook, as shown in the engraving. DEEBICK POB A CBLLAB. The carrier shown in figure 183 is similar to those used for hay, but more simple in construction. Four iron wheels are attached with bolts, which serve as axles, to two-by-four-inch oak blocks. The connecting bars hold- insr the blocks together are made of old wagon-wheel tire, and joined together below the carrier by a cross-bar of the same material, bearing a hook. The track is made of a bent two-by-four-inch scantling, to each side of which are bolted oak strips one inch thick, forming a roadway for the wheels. To the outer end of the track is fastened a pulley, over which passes the rope attached to the carrier. When the lead runs into the cellar the rope moves along in the groove under the track. la re- moving heavy articles from the cellar, the end of the rope IS attached to a windlass, set a short distance from the STUMP-PULLEKS, DERRICKS, SLINGS. 151 cellar door. When not in use, the carrier may be taken down and laid aside out of the way. This device has :. 183. — ^A CEIXAB OABBIEB. been used in a cellar, where four hundred bushels of apples and potatoes were stored, and the owner would not part with it, if he could not obtain another. With it one man can place a hundred barrels of apples in a cellar, or remove them, as easily as he could as many pecks with his hands alone. LEVER APPARATUS FOR LIFTIlfG. The implement shown in figure 184 is very useful for many purposes on the farm. Mortise a post of three by Fig. 184. — CONVENIENT LIFTINO APPABATUS. three-inch stuff into a piece of two-inch plank. In the top of this saw a slot, one and a half inch wide, to re- 152 FAEM APPLIANCES. oeiye the lever of the same thickness, four inches vide, and with the short arm, three feet long, and the long arm, six feet long. To the long arm is fastened a piece of chain^ and to the short arm another piece, provided with a hook at the free end. Having the long arm of the lever twice as long as the short arm, one can easily lift a weight twice his own. It is surprising how often there is use for this. It can he used to lift sacks of grain into the wagon ; logs on the sled or saw-horse ; the bed off the wagon ; the mower over an obstruction when putting Kg. 185.— ntPBOVED IXFTISa appabatus. it in the barn ; and for some other things nearly every other day. By making the chain on the short lever long enough, it can be passed around a log or sack, and hooked very quickly. The improvement shown in figure 185 consists in having the long arm of the lever longer and the short arm a very little shorter, giving a greater advantage. As the short arm of the lever is brought up, the free end of the chain is shortened; hence, it will lift the weight a greater height. With the first device one can lift a weight only three feet conveniently. A HOME-MADE HOKSE-POWEK;. The worst disposition which can be made of a worn-out farm machine of any kind, is to lay it up by the fence in STUMP-PULLERS, DEEEICKS, SLINGS. 151 the dooryard or barnyard, to be an eyesore for years, and a possible source of danger to domestic animals, or even to persons passing hastily or carelessly near it. The better plan is to take the machine to pieces, set aside any unsound or broken wood for fuel, sell whatever iron is not likely to be useful in its present shape, and carefully store away in a suitable place the remaining parts, ■whether of wood or iron, particularly bolts, gearing, etc. With a little ingenuity, and perhaps a slight outlay of money, wheels and shafts from disabled reapers, mowera or other machines may be put together to form a light horse-power, which will be found very serviceable in driving feed-cutter, corn-sheller, or farm-mill. In the construction of a horse-power certain general principles must be kept in mind, otherwise failure, more or less complete, will be the result. The difEerent parts must be suflSciently strong to bear the strain to which they will be subjected ; the bearings need to be true, and the whole so securely braced and held together, that any slipping of cogs will be impossible. The rate of spee^ must be from seventy-two to one hundred and sixty rev- olutions of the cutting-box shaft for every one of tha horse, the first being rather low for a six-foot, and tha second rather high for an eight-foot sweep. Since some portion of the force employed is always lost through friction, the fewer wheels to secure the required speed and direction, the better. Hard- wood boxes are cheaper and are more easily adjusted than those made of metal, and, if they are kept properly greased, last, perhaps, quite as long. An excellent portable-power can be made by taking a bevel-gearing from an old discarded brick-machine, a pair of spur-wheels from an ancient reaper, two or three shafts and a band-wheel from other sources — all odds and ends picked up cheaply here and there — arranging them to suit the purpose, and fitting all but the band- 154 PAEM APPLIAKCES. wheel and one shaft in a stout frame. The odd shaft extends from the end of the frame some distance, and carries the band-wheel at its further end, above which a feed-cutter stands on a loft, and is run by a belt. From a pulley on the same shaft, power is conveyed to a grind- stone and corn-sheller, which require a much lower rate of speed than the cutter. The crown wheel has fifty- four cogs, its pinion, eighteen; the spur-wheel has sev- enty-two cogs, its pinion, fifteen; the band-wheel is thir- ty-six inches in diameter, and the pulleys on the cutting box, six inches. The number of revolutions of the cut- ter-shaft to cue of the horse are, therefore, eighty-six and two-fifths. A six-inch leather belt will seldom or never slip; a four-inch belt is quite too light. Two horses, at- tached to this power, cut cornstalks very rapidly. The crown-wheel has a tendency to rise and allow the cogs to slip. It must be kept down by friction wheels placed above the rim, or by a collar on the axle, working against the underside of the upper cross-piece, which, in turn, must be kept in place by a bolt or rod at each end, run- ning up through the bed-piece, and secured at the top by means of a broad washer and stout nut. CHAPTEE VIII. PREPARING AND HANDLING FERTILIZERS. HAULING BARNTAED MAXUEE. "When hauling manure it is usual to drop it in heaps, and leave it to be spread by a man who follows soon after. There are several methods of dumping the manure, but the most satisfactory is to use a manure hook, as shown PREPARING AND HANDLING FERTILIZERS. 155 in figure 186. The bottom of the sled or wagon should be formed of loose planks, each with its end shaved Fig. 186. — A MAimsE hook. down to form handles. The side and end pieces of the box, though closely fitting, are not fastened together, so that they can be removed one at a time. One side or an end board is first taken out, and with a manure hook a suflScient amount of the load removed for the first heap. The manner of unloading the manure from the box Fig. 187. — A MASUEE WAGON BOX. above described, is shown in figure 187. The other side and ends are afterwards taken off, and finally the bottom 156 FAEM APPTJANCES. pieces are raised and the sled or wagon is soon emptied. In dropping the heaps, they should be left, as nearly as may be, in straight rows, and of a size and distance apart determined by the amount of manure to be spread. If they are placed regularly one rod from another each way, and eight heaps are made from a load, there will be twenty loads per acre. In spreading such heaps the manure is thrown eight feet each way, and the whole ground is covered. It is important that the spreading be done in a careful and thorough manner, each portion of the surface getting its proper share of the manure. It is important also that aU lumps be broken up. IMPLEMEKT FOE FliTIKG MAKUEE. It is often desirable to have fine manure for use in hills and drills ; and it is also at times necessary, when artificial fertilizers are lumpy, to pulverize them for use. A tool for this purpose is shown in figure 188. This is Fig. 188. — ^mPLEMEU TS fob FDTING MANUIiE. especially useful in preparing the mixture of poultry manure and plaster. The implement is made of a piece of three-inch hard-wood plank, twelve inches wide, sawed and cut across into notches, and surrounded on three sides as shown, with a strip of sheet iron, or broad hoop-iron band. It is rubbed back and forth over the manure on a floor, and can be used as a shovel, by rais- ing the handle, for turning over and mixing the mass. PREPAEISG AND JAXJllXJ JTiSliriLIZBRS. 157 MUCK AND PEAT. IVesh muck contains valuable plant-food, but usually in an unavailable form. There are many instances where muck, applied to land, has proved positively injurious. Muck needs to be exposed to the action of the frost, rain and sun, or, as it is termed, " weathered," for a season, before it is fit to be used as a fertilizer. Even after it has thus been subjected lo the elements, it is usually best to employ the finely divided muck as au absorbent of liquid manure in the stable or shed, or even the barn- yard. In this way the food elements are brought into a better state for the plants to feed upon. If the "weathered" muck and manure can be composted to- gether for a time, a still more valuable fertilizer is ob- tained. When one has peat or muck in any form upon his farm, it should, of course, be dug when the water is low in the swamps, and the task of getting out muck may Fig. 189.— A BOAT FOK GETTING OUT MUCK. aid essentially the work of reclaiming the swamps. Thus the main ditch may be dug the width of a cart track. By making a narrow preliminary ditch to carry off the water and dry the ground, a horse and cart may be brought into the ditch and the muck carted directly ofE to dry ground, where it can dry, and perhaps be exposed to a winter's freezing and thawing, before using in the 158 FARM APPLIANCES. compost heaps or barn-yard. In all such ditching we must begin at the lowest end of the ditch, so that there shall always be a free outlet for the water. A boat, to be used in removing muck from the bed through a water channel to a hill-side, is shown in figure 189. It is of pine boards, nailed firmly to side planks, braced by a cross plank at the middle. If made nine feet long, four feet wide, and sixteen inches deep, it will float a ton of muck. A runner is placed under each side, so that the boat can be drawn upon the land. A hook or eye should be placed on each side, and others at one end, by which the boat may be drawn. While floating, the boat is moved by handspikes. The place where the muck is heaped to dry, should be as near as possible to the bed from which it is dug. The muck may be very peaty, or the material really may be peat — that is, consisting almost entirely of vege- table matter and ash — whereas muck, as tlie word is ap- plied in the United States, is used to mean such as would be of little or no value as fuel, from the amount of soil or sand or calcareous matter in it ; but it is useful as manure. The peaty mucks are greatly benefited by being treated with lime — in fact it is only by acting upon them with lime or ashes that they can be made rapidly fit for composts or for application to the land. The old rule to slake stone-lime with strong brine, adding only brine enough to dry-slake the lime, is a very good one. Such lime may be depended upon for the best results when composted with muck. HOW TO BURN LIMB. The application of lime improves the mechanical tex- ture of heavy soils, and this will frequently compensate for its use, if the lime can be obtained cheaply. In many PREPAEING AND HAKDLIN^G FERTILIZERS. 159 localities, the farmer can bum the lime he needs, and thus obtain it at a much less cost than the market price. It is not necessary to build a kiln of masonry. The cheapest kiln is made by digging an excayation in a bank, as shown in figure 190. If much lime is to be burned, it will pay to line this excavation with brick, and place an iron grating across near the bottom, beneath which the fire is made. AVhether the kiln is so made, or constructed only in a temporary manner, it must be banked up in front with earth, after the limestone is placed in it. Where the iron grating is used, it should RdSLiSSSSRl Fig. 190. — ^A LIME KILSr. project out in front as far as the bank of earth v, ill per- mit, while under it is used a sheet iron door, to close the furnace and regulate the draft. A platform is built just above the projection of the grating, to support the earth banked against the rock. The top of the heap is covered with earth, leaving a hole in the center for a chimney. "When the kiln is only temporary, an arch of large rocks takes the place of the iron grating, and the sides of the kiln are lined, as the rocks are laid in, with large stones instead of brick. It will take four or five days, with a good fire, to burn the kiln sufiiciently. Lime may also be burned by piling the stones in a 160 FAEM APPLIAirCES. conical heap above ground. Large stones are used to make an arch under the heap, and the cavity below fhe arch is filled with fuel. Immediately above the arch is placed a layer of dry wood, then a layer of lime-stones, next a layer of wood, and so on until the heap is completed. The stones are laid rather loosely, and the entire heap is covered with earth to the depth of at least a foot, to re- tain the heat, leaving an opening at the top for the es- cape' of smoke. It will pay to insert a short sheet-iron chimney in this opening, to increase the draft, as a hot fire is needed. The draft is regulated by opening or closing the doorway under the arch. Do not disturb the heap until it is perfectly cool, and if the lime is not to be used at once, it should be protected from rain by a roof, and from surface water by erecting a low bank about it. Where limestone boulders can be gathered in sufficient quantities, the cost of lime will be very little, and even when the rock must be quarried, burning lime will frequently yield handsome returns when the weather does not admit of regular farm work. TALUE OF GAS LIME. Gas lime, as its name indicates, is a product of gas works. Quick lime is spread in large boxes, called puri- fiers ; the gas passes through these, and coming in con- tact with the lime is deprived of its impurities, especially the sulphur it contains. When the lime ceases to act, it is thrown out and replaced by a fresh supply. Gas lime smells strongly of sulphur, and contains the sulphides of ammonia and of lime. These are fatal to plant life, and before it can be used as a fertilizer, the lime must be ex- posed to the air for some weeks. When unpleasant odors are no longer perceptible, the gas lime may be used in the same manner as ordinary lime, It stiU consists PEEPAKIIfG AND HANDLING FBKTILIZEES. 161 largely of quick lime, and contains more or less sulphate of lime (gypsum or plaster), formed by the conversion of the dangerous sulphide into sulphate of lime. It may be used after exposure to mix with muck, but cannot safely be used in its fresh state. It is an easy matter to expose it before adding it to the muck, and thus be on the safe side. BURNING CLAY AND SODS. Burning clay for manurial purposes, is an old fashion, which deserves renewed notice and practice. Along wita the clay or wi\,h ordinary soil or swamp muck, may be mingled coarse sods, the scrapings of road-side ditchps, Fig. 191. — BTTRNISG CLAT AND SODS. the mossy surface and hard tussocks of swamp meadows, rough " waste wood," coarse weeds, and other similar matters which slowly decay, and are of no value until they are decomposed. These combustible matters are placed in small heaps over an old meadov/, which needs renewal, or any other piece of land. The rough waste matters being gathered, placed, and covered with earth, so that they will burn slowly, in the manner shown in figure 191; care being taken to so arrange them, as to distribute the heat all through the mass and the earth with which it is covered. These heaps are fired and left to bum slowly for several days, when the dust and ashes 163 FAEM APPLIANCES. are spread over the surface. The lime and potash thus made available, both from the waste material and the earth covering, fnmish considerable fertilizing matter. COHTEETING STEAW INTO MANURE. In the West the object is to feed one-third of the straw stack, and convert the balance into manure as rapidly as possible. The straw trampled under foot by the cattle will not thoroughly rot within a year, if left to itself. To rot and fine, it must be stirred about, and the swine can be made to do this work. If the hogs are fed on the straw twice a week, they will move the entire mass, unless quite deep, rooting after stray grains. If their noses do not get to the bottom of the heap, sharpen a heavy stake and prod it through the straw ; then withdraw it and drop shelled corn or oats into the hole. In this way a hole can be made every few feet over the pile, and the hogs will turn the manure thoroughly. A hog's snout is a very cheap and effective manure hook. The hogs must not be allowed to lie on the rotting straw, as this is al- most sure to produce disease among them. They become too warm, and then when they come into the open air contract colds, catarrhal or pulmonary diseases. If the hogs are used as above recommended, straw can be con- verted into well rotted and fined manure within six months ; and if the straw stack is put on level ground, not much will be lost during this rapid conversion. "When from twelve to eighteen months are required for the rotting of the manure — and this time will be required when deep masses are not disturbed — and the straw is on a side hill, not a little of the value of the manure is lost by being washed down hilL PKEPARING ANB HANDLING FEKTILIZEES. 163 MAKUEE FROM MAEL AND SHELLS. Marl is quite abundant in some localities, and in others oyster shells can be had for the hauling. These may be profitably burned into lime for use as a fertilizer. Inre- gaa"d to this use of lime, it should be remembered that the "Eig. 192. — ^PIT FOK BURNIlfG MAKL. larger part of the ash of agricultural plants consists of Ume, and that it is thus an indispensable plant food. It is rarely used without benefit, but is most usef al when applied in a caustic state, or when it is freshly burned. Enquiries are often made about burning m.irl and shells. An easy way of doing this is in piles, commonly called "pits," made as shown in figure 193. A level spot is chosen, and a quantity of small wood is spread over it, either in a square, or better, in a circle. Two or three double rows of stones, covered with other flat stones, are laid as at a, a, to form flues. A layer of shells or marl is thrown upon the fuel, and other alternate layers are added, until a conical heap is made. Chimneys of small ■wood or chips are made over the flues as the heap is built, and carried to the top. MAKING FEETILIZEE EEOM BONES. It is well enough known that bone, when ground fine, makes one of the best and cheapest manures, especially on lands long in use. The needs of farmers with abund- ant capital are well enough mot in the commercial fcrtil- 164 FAEil APPLIAIfCES. izers. With the Experiment Stations to analyze the samples, there is not much danger of adulteration. The high price of this comminuted bone, two cents a pound and upward, deters many farmers from using it on a large scale, even where there is no doubt that the invest- ment would pay. In a limited way, the small farmer has the means within his reach, of reducing several bar- rels of bones to a fine powder every year. A solution of potash wiU reduce bone to a fine condition, and make it available for plant food. Most farmers still use wood for fuel, and the ashes from the fifteen or twenty cords used in a year, if saved, would reduce all the bones ordi- narily within reach of the farmer. The old-fashioned leach that used to stand at almost every farmer's back- door for soap-making, was a good contrivance for reducing the bones. But any tight, strong cask or box, will an- swer quite as well for this purpose. Water poured upon the ashes makes a lye, or solution of potash, strong enough to decompose the bones. The casks should stand under cover, so that the quantity of water applied to the bone and ashes will be under control. The time it will take to reduce the bone to a powder, will depend upon the amount of potash in the ashes, and attention be- stowed upon the process. It is essential that the ashes and bone should be closely packed in the mass, and that they be kept in a moist state, adding water' as it evapo- rates from the surface. The finer the bone before it is packed in the ashes, the sooner will it be reduced. The process can be hastened by putting into the mass a few pounds of common potash. But this is only necessary to save time. Ashes from hickory or any other hard wood contain sufficient potash to decompose the bone. When the mass is soft enough to break down with a spade or shovel, it can be mixed with land plaster, dried peat, or loam, to make it convenient for handling. It is a con- centrated fertilizer, to be used with discretion iu the hill, APPLTAKCES FOE GAEDEN AKD ORCHAED. 165 or applied as a top dressing to growing crops in the gar- den or field. We are quite sure that any one who uses this preparation of bone and wood ashes, and sees the vig- orous push it gives to garden and other crops, will be likely to continue it. But many farmers near seaports and railroad stations, use coal mainly for fuel, and will have to resort to a hand or horse-mill to use up the waste bones. Smidl mills are extensively used by poultry-men, for crushing oyster shells as well as bone, and the ma- chine can be adjusted to break the bone coarsely for hen feed. The oil and gelatine of the bones have an alimen- tary value, and, turned into eggs, pay much better than when used as a fertilizer for the soil. CHAPTEK IX. APPLIANCES FOR THE GARDEN AND ORCHARD. PAPEE PLA^fT PEOTECTOE. The most effectual means for protecting young melon and cucumber plants against some of their injurious Fig. 193. — ^PATTBBN FOE PLAKT PKOTEOTOB. enemies, is to inclose the young vines in bottomless boxes of some kind. Various more or less expensive and elabor- ate forms have been invented and are offered for sale. The principal objection to most of these is their cost. 166 FARM APPLIAXCES. Figures 193 and 194 represent a deYice whicli is free from this objection. It consists simply of a piece of card-board Fig. 194.— PLANT PKOTECTOK. or stiff paper of any kind, as seen in figure 193. When the ends are brought together, and the slits, indicated in the engraving, made to interlock, a cone, as seen in figure 194, is produced which, when put around a plant, furnishes as complete a protector against insects as the most expensive device. MUSLIN-COTEEED PLAOT? SCEEEN". To make the device, figure 195, take four strips, one-half inch thick and one inch wide, and twelve Fig. 193.— PLANT PROTECTOB. inches long ; bore a hole in one end of these, through which pass a wire, the ends of which are twisted APFIIAKCES von GARDEN AKD ORCHARD. 167 together, but not so tightly as to prevent the op- posite ends of the pieces from being spread apart from eight inches to a foot, making a tent-shaped frame. Cheap muslin is tacked on the frame, spreading the pieces before doing so. The muslin should be brought down to within about two inches of the ends of the sticks, so as to allow them to be run into the ground that distance, when in use. When not in use, the protectors can be closed up and take but little room, and if properly cared for, they will last several seasons. PROTECTED PLiNT LABEL. Various devices to prevent the washing ofE of the names written on plant labels have been invented from time to Tig. 196. — IMPEOTED PLANT LABEL. time. A novel one is shown in figure 196. It con- sists in fastening, with a small screw, a short piece of label over the name, as seen at Mj a c^ross-section of the 168 FAElt APPLIANCES. label is shown at N, and at P the cover is partly raised. This arrangement may be applied to any size of labels. The great diflBculty with wooden labels is not that the name becomes obliterated, but that the portion in the ground decays. This may be avoided by using Locust, which is expensive. POLES FOR BEANS AND OTHER CLIMBERS. White birches and alders, so commonly used for bean poles, are about the poorest, for they last only one season at the best, and sometimes break off at the surface of the ground and let down the beautiful pyramid of green be- fore the pods are ripe. White Cedar from the swamps is durable, and the rough bark enables the vines to climb without any help from strings, but these are not al- ways accessible. Red Cedar is much more widely distri- buted, and on the whole makes the best bean pole. The wood is as durable as the "White Cedar, and young trees, from which poles are made, grow quite stout at the ground, and, if well set, will resist very strong winds. A set of these poles will last for a generation. For bean poles, all the side branches are trimmed off, but for a support for ornamental climbers, these may be left on. A Cedar, six or eight feet high, with the branches gradually short- ened from below upwards, makes an excellent support for ornamental vines. One of these, covered with a clematis, or other showy cUmbsr, makes a pyramid of great beauty. It is well to prepare a supply of poles for beans and other plants before the work is pressing. POTTING STRAWBERRY PLANTS. Figure 197 shows a simple method of turning old tin cans into contrivances for potting strawberries. Unsolder APPLIANCES EOS QAnDEH AND OECHABD. 169 the cans, and cut into pieces of about three by seven inches. Turn back one quarter of an inch of each end, so that when the strips are bent around, they will clasp together, as shown in the engraving. In potting, the contrivance is placed on the bed near the runner, and pressed into the ground with the sole of the foot. The sharp edges allow it to Fig. 197; push through the soil easily. A runner PLANT poTTEE. jg pi^^cd lu thc ccnteT of the cylinder, and held by a stick or stone, which also serves to mark the place. When the plants are well rooted, the tin pots are taken up, unclasped, and the ball of earth placed in the new bed provided for it. STAND FOR BERKT BASKETS. During the berry picking season much time is lost in the field, thr ?t!gh the lack of a suitable box or stand for Fjg. 198. — BEBET PICKING STAND. transferring the filled baskets to the packing house. Figure 198 illustrates a very convenient and simple stand for this purpose. It may be made to contain either nine, twelve, sixteen, or twenty baskets, as may be desired The handle is made of a barrel hoop nailed firmly to the 170 FAEa AtPUANCES. Bides. Suitable legs are attached to the stand to raise it from the ground. TUBE FOE WATEEINQ PLAITTS. Pigure 199 shows an implement for watering garden plants. It is a tin tube, one-half inch in diameter, eight ^^^^ inches long, perforated near the bottom, and ^^^^^ with a conical end. The upper end, b, is in ^ W^ the form of a funnel. In using this device, insert the conical end of the tube in the ground as near the plant as convenient, without dis- turbing the roots, and turn the water into the funnel. The water will pass out into the soil through the perforations at the bottom. The soil is not baked on the surface when watered in this manner, and the operation is Fig. 199. 'v^ery quickly done. Any local tinsmith can make the tube at a slight expense. A small flower pot is sometimes sunk in the soil near the plant, and the water, when poured into it, will gradually soak away. MOVABLE TEELLIS FOE GEAPBS. A grape trellis, possessing several good points, is shown in figure 200. The wooden posts, which need not be fastened together, are of 3 by 4 stuff. If leant against each other, their own weight and that of the vines wiU hold them in place. They are joined by smooth galvaiv- ized fencing wire. The posts must be braced inside, as seen in the illustration. If it is desired to lay down the vines in the fall, the staples can be drawn and the wirft'? pulled out, greatly simplifying the work. The trellis bfcing double, a row of vines may be planted on each sid«. Another point in its favor is that it allows the picker to APPllANCES POa aARDEK AND OECHAED. 171 get at the bunches on the under sides of the vines easily and without disturbing the vines. The trellis is as cheap as any, is strong and durable, and does not require the 200. — MOVABLE GHAPE TKELLIS. digging of holes, while it may be taken out of the way when the vines are laid down, and stored under shelter in a small space until needed again. TOOL FOE CUTTING EDGINGS. i No grass-plot, walk, or flower-bed, set in turf, is complete, unless its edges are kept neatly trimmed. The work may be done with a sharpened spade, but it is better to use a regular edging-tool. An old hoe can be taken to the blacksmith, who will straighten out the shank, and round off the corners of the blade with a file, and the tool is an excellent sod-trimmer, and very light to handle. For cutting sods, this makes much easier work than the spade, though that is needed for lifting the turf when cut. Using a board as a guide, the cut- ting will be rapidly done. Fig. 201. 172 FARM APPLIANCES. SUBSTITUTE FOK PEA BRUSH. The best substitute for pea brusb is a trellis of galvan- ized iron wire. The peas are sown in double rows, six inches apart. A post, six inches in diameter, is set firmly at each end of the row ; it may be round, set three feet in the ground, and of a bight suited to the variety of pea. As soon as the vines are large enough, the wire is made fast to the post, about six inches from the ground, carried to and passed around the post at the other end, and back to the starting point. Here it is made fast; it may be cut off, but still better, two or three turns are taken around the post and another double wire stretched about eight inches above the first, and so on until as many wires as needed are put in place. No. 18 wire, which measures 150 feet to the pound, is suitable. If over 200 feet long, a similar post should be set mid-way of the row. Stakes (plasterers' laths will answer) are set every ten or fifteen feet along the row, to keep the wires from sagging. These have notches cut in them, in which the wires rest ; or the wires may be attached to them by means of staples or cord. When no longer needed, the wire is wound up on a reel, and, with the posts, stored away for another year. Pea-growers for market allow the vines to lie upon the ground, and claim that the crop is not enough larger when brushed, to pay the cost of cutting and placing the sticks. In the garden, neatness, and especially the greater ease of picking, make it necessary to use brush, or a substitute. The chief precaution to be observed is, to have the wires of this trellis so near together that the vines can reach them as soon as a support is needed. TKELLIS FOE TOMATOES. A tomato trellis, which never fails to give satisfaction, is shown in figures 20/5 and 203. The standards or legs APPLIANCES FOB GAKDBir AND ORCHAED. 173 are made of one by one and a half inch stuff, three feet long, and tapering slightly toward the top. The slats are selected lath. Figure 203 is an end view of the trellis in position ; figure 203 shows the trellis folded. Wires Fig. 203. — END VIEW OP TEELLIS. extend across the top of the trellis, and when in position, they loop over the ends of the stands, and hold it at the proper width. The standards are fastened together where they cross with one-quarter inch bolts, two inches long. Two lengths of the trellis are sufficient for three tomato plants. It may be placed in position when the plants have attained a hight of six or eight inches. At the end n m I Fig. 203. — THE TEELLIS FOLDED. of each season, after the crop is gathered, the trellises are taken up, given a coat of paint or crude petroleum, folded and packed away in a dry place. This form of trellis has the advantages of strength, lightness and portability. 174 FAEM APPLIAJfCES. TOOLS FOE KILLING WEEOss. Weeds are easily killed when they are first seen, and more easily still, before they are seen at alL A heary rake is better than a hoe for this work, and will do more in ten minutes, than can be done with a hoe in an hour, Aa implement made as in figure Mi, will do this work ol Fig. 204. — K/HTR FOE TTEEDlNff. weeding in an excellent manner. This is made of a heavy rake head, with a handle attached as shown, and furnished with a number of teeth placed about an inch apart. The teeth may be made of forty-penny nails, or one-quarter inch round iron, the weight of which will bury them in the soil without any effort. It is much more easy to work with this implement, than with a lighter rake. The beds may be cleaned close to the plants, and it should be used as soon as the weeds begin to appear. For killing perennial weeds, a spud is a convenient im- plement with which to cut off the roots below the surface. Fig. 205.— SPUD FOB KILLING WEEDS. A good spud may be made from a carpenter's chisel of large size. This should be attached to a handle sufficiently long to allow it to be used without stooping. By thrust- ing this diagonally against the root, that may be cut oS as far below the surface as desired. Some weeds, how- APPLIANCES FOR GAKDES^ AND ORCHARD. 175 ever, sucli as dandelion, plantain, etc., are not killed by merely cutting them, but need the application of some destructive liquid to make complete work. In England, oil of vitroil (sulphuric acid) is used for this purpose, but that is dangerous to handle, and must be kept in glass. Strong brine or coal-oil is sometimes applied to the roots to destroy them. We give an illustration of a vessel foi the application of liquids, which is attached to the spud, and allows the cutting and kilUng to be done at one operation. Figure 205 shows the spud, a, with its attach- ment, a tin vessel with a tapering nozzle and holding about a quart, at S. At c, is a valve, which covers a small air-hole, against which it is pressed by a spring, and which may be raised by the cord, e. After cutting the root, a pull of the cord will raise the valve, allow air to enter the vessel, and a small quantity of the liquid will pass out and come in contact with the root. VARIOUS FBXTIT PICKERS. A good picker is shown m figures 206, 207 and 208. Figure 206 is the picker. The pieces, a and h, are iron, shaped as seen in the cut. They work on a rivet, and are fastened securely to the end of the pole. Holes are punched through a and i, and stiff wires inserted, form- ing a cage for the fruit. The toothed end of piece h is sharp, and sbdes over the end of a, which may be sharp or not. A small hole is bored through the pole and a notch cut m the front edge for a small pulley, d. A strong cord is attached to the lower end of i, and passe? through the hole over the pulley, and down the pole through screw-eyes placed a short distance apart. Figure 207 is a section of the lower end of the pole. Eighteen inches from the end, the pole is squared for about fifteen inchea. Over this squared portion is fitted a sUding-box Missing Page APPLIAirCBS FOR GARDEN ASTD ORCHARD. 177 easily. The cage of the picker should be large enough to contain the largest apple, and enough wires may be attached to hold the smallest. The jaws should not be over one-eighth of an inch thick, flattened on the inside, to prevent bruising the ripe fruit. They may be wrapped with cloth, if thought necessary. A cheap and simple picker may be made by bending a Fig. 209. Kg. 210. Fig. 311. stiff wire into the form of a circle six inches in diameter, with one side of the circle prolonged three inches into a V-shaped projection. Upon this wire sew a cloth bag a foot or so deep, and fasten it on to a pole by the end opposite the V-shaped extremity. This V-shaped projec- tion will serve as a comer, in which to catch the apple and pull it off, allowing it to fall into the bag. An excel- 178 FAEM APPLIAN-CES. lent picker, as shown in figure 210, can be made from stiff wire by a tinner. The span across the top should be about six inches, and the depth from eight to ten inches. The wires should not be more than a half-inch apart at their tips. The wires being more or less flexible, the apple is apt to draw through them, if they are not close together. Care should also be taken to have the im- plement made as light as possible. A bungling mechanic will probably use too much solder. Another good picker is pictured in figure 209. It is light, durable and pleasant to handle. When, however, an apple, being very short stemmed, lies close to a limb, it is much more easily removed by the former device than by this. A simple, flattened hook, with a thin, almost cutting edge, secured on the end of a pole, figure 211, is often handy for pulling off stray apples. This is the best implement for thinning apples. FBtrrr laddees. The construction is easily understood from tne engrar- ing. The method of using deep fruit baskets with a hook attached is also shown in figure 112. The use of a com- mon grain bag as a receptacle for picking fruit has some important advantages. One side of the mouth of the bag is tied to the corresponding comer at the bottom, first put- ting an apple in the corner to hold the string from slip- ping off. The bag is then hung over the shoulder with the mouth in front. The picker has both hands free and can empty the bag by lowering it into the barrel, without bruising the fruit. Another form is shown in figure 213. To make it, select a chestnut pole, eighteen feet long, or of the denired length. At about four feet from the top, or smaller end of the pole, nq,il on a band of hoop iron, to prevent eplit- APPLIANCES FOR GARDEN- AND ORCHiRD. 179 tiitg, and rip up the pole in the center as far as the band. The halves of the pole are spread apart three and a half feot at the base, and secured. The places for the rungs are then laid out, and the holes bored ; those for the lower rungs should be one and three-eighths inch, the tipper one inch ; drive them in place and wedge fast. Fig. 212.— A HAJTOT PETJIT LADDEB. Fig. 213. — ^FBUIT LADDEB. The distance between the rungs is usually a foot ; when farther apart, they are fatiguing in use. A ladder of this kind, on account of its small width above, is easily thrust in among the branches, without breaking them, and is more convenient to use on large trees, than those of the ordinary shapes. 180 FAEM APPLIANCES. JAPANESE PBUNIITG SAW. The Japanese use a pull saw instead of a push saw. One of these is quite handy, especially for pruning. The teeth are like those of a rip saw, reversed, and cut when the saw is puUed towards one. One of these saws, made Fig. 214. — PEUSXNG SAW. as shown in figure 214, and fixed to a pole of convenient size, will be found very useful in cutting branches of tall trees, as in pulling there is no tendency to bend the saw or the pole. BABBITS AND inCE IN THE OECHAED. Not the least of the enemies of young orchard trees is the rabbit. He will not injure the trees in summer, when he has an abundance of succulent food ; but in winter the tender bark is to him a dainty that he will partake of, if it is not made distasteful to him, or he is not kept away. Making the snow into a solid mound about the tree will keep away mice, but not rabbits, though it IS often said it would. The rabbits will get on the mound and nibble away. Besides, we don't have snow half the time during the winter. The best way ib to make the bark distasteful to the rabbit. He likes neither blood, nor grease, nor the odor of flesh. When you butcher, take the waste parts of the animals, and with these parts rub the trunks as far up as the rabbits can reach. The rabbits never nibble a tree so treated, while the grease or blood remains. 11 the rabbits "bark" a tree, the first thing to be done {g to examine the extent of the injury. Frequently it is APPLIANCES FOB GARDE2S' AND OECHABD. 181 not SO bad as it looks, and the inner bark is not entirely removed. If this coYers even a fourth -of the wounded portion, and connects the bark above the wound with that below it, the chances are that the wound will heal, if dry- in J c m be prevented. The ordinary grafting wax, applied ou o.d, worn cotton cloth, or on paper, as used in graft ing, should be applied over the injured portion. This, especially on quite small trees, will prevent all evaporation. Another application is the old grafting clay, made by Fig. 215. — MANNBR OF DTSEKTINCt THE CIONS. thoroughly mixing and beating together stifE clay with half as much cow manure. Apply this over the wound quite thickly, and fasten it in place by wrapping with an old cloth and tying with strings. If the inner bark is completely gone, nothing remains but to bridge over the wound with cions, and thus restore the communication be- tween the roots and top. The cions may be taken from the same tree, if they can be spared, or those from another of the same kind will answer as well. The methods of cut- 182 PARM APPLIANCES. ting the cions and inserting them are so plainly shown in figure 215 that description is nnneceseary. A small chisel may be used to aid in setting the cions. This method of cutting the ends is better than making the slope on the opposite side. If the wound is low enough, it may be covered with a mound of earth ; if not, employ one of the methods suggested above. IMPLEMENTS USED LN CBANBERBY CULTTTBE. A torfing axe, shown figure 216, consists of a thin steel blade, hatchet-faced, and about six inches square. Fig. 316. — TDBFING ATTR , This blade is made fast to a stout hickory handle, some two feet and a half long, in the same manner as a common wood axe. In expert hands, this axe does wonderful Kg. 217.— HAULDTO BAKE. execution upon the tough, interlacing roots, with which the surface of the bog is filled. A hoe, shaped like a grubbing hoe, is the implement used for grading. Every farmer knows what that is ; but the grading hoe, figure 218, should be made of the APPLIANCES FOE GARDEN^ AND OECHAED. 183 best steel, and ground to an edge like an axe — the object bemg to cut all the fine roots to pieces, and get out such Fig 218. — GRADING HOE. of them as escaped when the trees, stumps, shoots, and larger wood were removed. Kg. 819. — SPBEADER. The sand is spread by means of a " Spreader," figure 219, made of a piece of one-inch white oak board. Fig. 220. — ^MABKEB. about fifteen inches long by three inches wide, and fas- tened to a handle. 184 FAEM APPTJAXGES. A "Marker," shown in figure 220, is made of apiece of two by four inch joist, about nine feet long, having teeth eighteen inches apart, and a handle the length of a rake-handle. The teeth are eight inches long, made of white oak, driven through holes bored in the joist for the purpose. The implement is made similar to a common rake with teeth far apart, and the whole made stronger to stand harder usage, by having stays running from the handle to the head, which holds the teeth. CHAPTEE X APPLIANCES FOR SLAUGHTERING HOGS AND CURINQ THE MEAT. STICKING HOGS. The usual method of killing hogs on the farm is to thrust a sticking knife into the throat, severing the large veins. It requires experience, nerve, and skill to do this properly. The hog should be thrown on its back, and held there by an assistant, while the operator gives the fatal thrust. With a keen double-edged knife in his right hand, he feels with his left for the proper place to insert the knife. Having found it, he sticks in the knife, aiming directly toward the base of the tail. If properly done, the large veins are severed, and the hog soon bleeds to death. If the knife veers to either side, a gash is made in one shoulder, the death is slow and painful, and the blood settles in the flesh. A BETTER WAT. With a view to avoiding all mishaps, saving pain, and leaving the operator free to sever the veins without em- barrassment from the squealing and struggling victim, the SLAUGHTERING HOGS AKD CURIXQ MEAT. 185 design called "The Stunner," figure 221 has been in- vented. It fits over the head of the intended victim, as seen in figures 222 and 223, and a sharp blow on the plate over the forehead drives the pin into the brain. ■Fig. 221. THE STUNNER. Kg. 222. Fig. 223. THE STUNNEB ADJUSTED. causing insensibility instantly, and death will not be long delayed. The use of such a mask is made compul- sory in many countries of Europe. Such a contrivance is not only convenient, but humane, and appeals to the better nature of every man who is under the necessity of killing a dumb beast. As soon as the animal is struck, the throat is cut to insure free bleeding. HEATING THE WATER FOR SCALDISTG. For heating scalding water and rendering lard, when one has not kettles or cauldrons ready to set in brick or stone, a simple method is to put down two forked stakes firmly, as shown in figure 234, lay in them a pole to sup- port the kettles, and build a wood fire around them on the ground. A more elaborate arrangement is shown in figure 225, which serves not only to heat the water, but as a scalding tub as well. It is made of two-inch- 186 FARM APPLIAiTCES. pine boards, six feet long, and two feet wide, ronnded at the ends. A heavy plate of sheet iron is nailed with rod naUs on the bottom and ends. Let the iron project Fig. 234. — ^HKATTSG THE WATBB. abont one inch on each side. The ends, being ronnded, will prevent the fire from burning the wood- work. They also make it handier for dipping sheep, scalding hogs, or Kg. iSS. — BS^Ttsa AUD SCALDrSG TAT. for taking out the boiled food. The box is set on two walls eighteen inches high, and the hind end of the brick-work is built into a short chimney. SCALDING TUBS AND VATS. Various devices are employed for scalding hogs, with- out lifting them by main force. For heavy hogs one SLAUGHTBEING HOGS ASD CUEING MEAT. 187 may ase three strong poles, fastened at the top with a log chain, which supports a simple tackle, figure 226. A very good arrangement is shown in figure 237. A sled is made firm with driven stakes, and covered with planks or boards. At the rear end the scalding cask is set in the ground, its upper edge on a level with the platform," and inclined as much as it can be and hold suflScient water. A large, long hog is scalded one end at a time. The more the cask is inclined, the easier will be the lifting. Fig. 226. — TACKLE FOS HEA.VT H0Q3. A modification of the above device is shown in figure 228. A lever is rigged like a well sweep, using a crotohed stick for the post, and a strong pole for the sweep, a white oak stick — such as every farmer who can do so, should have laid up to season. The iron rod on which the sweep moves must be strong and stiff. A trace chain is attached to the upper end, and if the end of the chaiii 188 FARM AIPLIAlfCES. hci3 a Ting instead of a took, it will be quite convenient. In use, a table is improvised, unless a strong one for tha purpose is at hand, and this is set near the barrel. A noose is made with the chain about the leg of the pig. Fig. 327. — SCAZDEfG CASK O^T A SLED. and he is soused in, going entirely under water, lifted out when the bristles start easily, and laid upon the table, while another is made ready. Figure 229 shows a more permanent arrangement. It is a trough of plank, with a sheet iron bottom, which can be set oTer a temporary fire-place made in the ground. Fig. 228. — SCALDING PIGS IS A HOGSHBAD. The Tat may be six feet long, three feet wide, and two and one-half feet deep, so as to be large enough for a good-sized hog. Three ropes are fastened on one side, for the purpose of rolling the hog over into the vat, and SLAUGHTEEIITG HOGS AlfD CUEING MEAT. 189 rolling it out on the other side when it is scalded. A number of slanting cross-pieces are fitted in, crossing each other, so as to form a hollow bed in which the car- cass lies, with the ropes under it, by which it can b6 Fig. 229 — SCAiDING VAT. jnoTed and drawn out. These cross-pieces protect the eheet-iron bottom, and keep the carcass from resting upon it. A large, narrow fir,e-place is built up m the ground, with stoned sides, and the trough is set over it. A stove-pipe is fitted atone end, audroom is made at the front by which wood may be supplied to the fire, to heat the water. A sloping table is fitted at one side for the purpose of rolling up the carcass, when too large to han- dle otherwise, by means of the rope previously mentioned. On the other side is a frame made of hollowed boards set on edge, upon which the hog is scraped and cleaned. The right temperature for scalding a hog is one hundred and eighty degrees; and with a thermometer there need be no fear of overscalding, or a failure from the lack of Fig. 330. — A GAMBKEI,. sufficient heat ; while the water can be kept at the right temperature by regulating the fuel under the vat. If a spot of hair is obstinate, cover it with some of the removed hair, and dip on hot water. Always pull out hair and 190 FARM APPLIAKCES. bristles, sharing any off leaves unpleasant stabs in the skin. Gambrels should be provided of different lengths, if the hogs vary much in size, like figure 330, or in other convenient shapes. These should be of hickory or other tough wood, for safety, and to be so small as to require ]ittle gashing of the legs to receive them. HANGING AND CLEANING THE HOGS. Figure 231 shows a very cheap and convenient device for hanging either hogs or beeves. The device is in shape much like an old fashioned "saw-buck," with the lower rounds between the legs omitted. The legs, of which Fig. 231. — BAISING A SLAUGHTERED AMIUAL. there are two pairs, should be about ten feet long, and set bracing, in the manner shown in the engraving. The two pairs of legs are held together by an inch iron rod, flve or six feet in length, provided with threads at both SLAUGHTERING HOGS AND CURING MEAT. 191 ends. The whole is made secure by means of two pairs of nuts, which fasten the legs to the connecting iron rod. A straight and smooth wooden roller rests in the forks tnade by the crossing of the legs, and one end projects about sixteen inches. In this two auger holes are bored, in which levers may be inserted for turning the roller. The rope, by means of which the carcass is raised, passes over the roller in such a way that in turning, by means of the levers, the animal is raised free from the ground. When suflSciently elevated, the roller is fastened by one of the levers to the nearest leg. Skill and practice are needed to take out the intestines beatly, without cutting or breaking them and soiling the flesh. Run the knife lightly down, marking the belly straight, cut to the bone between the thighs, and in front of the ribs and below, and split the rear bones with an axe carefully, not to cut beyond them ; open the abdomen by running the hand or two fingers behind the knife with its edge turned outward. Little use of the knife is required to loosen the entrails. The fingers, rightly used, will do most of the severing. Small strong strings, cut in proper lengths, should be always at hand to quickly tie the severed ends of any small intestines cut or broken by chance. An expert will catch the entire offal in a large tin pan or wooden vessel, holding it between himself and the hog. Unskilled operators, and those opening very large hogs, need an assistant to hold this. The entrails, and then the liver, heart, etc., being all removed, thoroughly rinse out any blood or filth that may have escaped inside. Spread the cut edges apart by inserting a short stick between them, to admit free circulation of cool air. "When dripping is over, or the hanging posts are wanted for other carcasses, remove the dressed ones, and hang them in a cool cellar or other safe place, until the whole flesh is thoroughly cooled through. Removing the Iftrd from the long intestines recjuirea expertness that 193 FAEM APPLIANCES. can only be learned by practice. The fingers do most of this cleaner, safer and better than a knife. A light feed the night before killing leaves the intestines less distended and less likely to be broken. PACKING POEK. ;. Pack closely in the barrel, first rubbing salt veil in^p all exposed ends of bones, and sprinkle well between each layer, nsing no brine until forty-eight hours after, and then let the brine be strong enough to bear an egg. After six weeks take out the hams and bacon and hang in the smoke-house. When warm weather brings danger of flies, smoke a week with hickory chips, avoiding heating the air much. If one has a dark, close smoke-house, as the writer has, the meat can hang in all the summer ; otherwise pack in boxes, putting layers of sweet, dry hay between. Long experience has convinced me that this method of packing is preferable to packing in dry salt or ashes. Much lard is injured or spoiled by overheating and burning some portions ; the smallest quantity scorched gives a bad flavor to the whole. A bucket of water in the rendering kettle prevents this, if the fire is kept from rising too hi/jh around the sides. The water is easily separated at the bottom, if not slowly evaporated off dur- ing the rendering. Cutting the leaf, etc., fine with a sharp hatchet or cleaver, facilitates the free extraction of the lard.