m^^ I CDE-HELL UNIVERSITY LIBRAE^' I This book isn:t>^toM taken I from the Rea^^^ (© w teajUi^ Room. ._ WHEN DONE WtTltf, RETURN AT ONOE-t^ B ^HELF J%M,/0. ALBERT R. MANN LIBRARY New York State Colleges OF Agriculture and Home Economics Cornell University Cornell University Library S 511.S83 1889 "'The book of the farm; detailing the labou 3 1924 000 275 804 Cornell University Library The original of tiiis book is in tine Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924000275804 THE BOOK OF THE FAEM DIVISION II. Wherefore come on, young husbandman ! Learn the culture proper to each kind. Virgil. THE BOOK OF THE FARM DETAILING THE LABOURS OP THE FAEMEK, FAEM-STEWAED, PLOUGHMAlSr, SHEPHEED, HEDGEE, FAEM-LABOUEEE, FIELD-WOEKEE, AND CATTLE-MAlSr HENRY S^TEPHENS, F.R.S.E. CORRESPONDING MEMBER OF THE NATIONAL AND CENTRAL SOCIETY OF AGRICULTURE OF FRANCE ; OF THE AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY OF GALICIA ; OF THE AGRICULTURAL INSTITUTE OF GOBEGORETZK IN RUSSIA; OF THE ROYAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY OF SWEDEN ; OF THE ROYAL IMPROVEMENT SOCIETY OF NORWAY FOURTH EDITION REVISED, AND IN GREAT PART REWRITTEN, BY JAMES MACDONALD OF THE ' FABMINQ WORLD ' ; AUTHOR OF ' FOOD FROM THE FAR WEST ' ; JOINT AUTHOR OF 'polled cattle,' 'HEREFORD CATTLE,' ETC., ETC. IN SIX DIVISIONS DIVISION II. WILLIAM BLACKWOOD AND SONS EDINBUEGH AND LONDON MDCGCLXXXIX \^ All Rights reserved CONTENTS OF DIVISION 11. PRACTICE— WINTER {conUnued). Food and Feeding — continued. Peas for sheep 257 Lupin ' 257 Linseed 257 Preparing and using linseed . 257 Boiling linseed . . . .258 Growing flax for fibre and seed . 258 Linseed-cake 258 Storing linseed-cake . . . 259 Adulteration of cakes . . . 259 Rape-cake 259 Preparing do. for cattle . 260 Impurity of 260 Cotton-cake ..... 260 Caution in using .... 260 Uses of 260 Preparing, for feeding . . .261 Palm-nut meal . . . .261 Cocoa-cake 261 Poppy-cake 261 Locust or carob beans . . .261 Molasses or treacle .... 262 Injurious to breeding stock . . 262 Useful properties of . . . 262 For young bulls .... 262 Turnips 263 Kutritive value of . . . 263 Advantages of storing . . . 263 Economising . . . .264 Turnip-meal .... 264 Turnip-tops 265 Mangel-wurzel .... 265 Advantages of storing . . . 265 Medium v. large .... 265 Sugar-beet 265 Nutritive value of . . . 265 Beet-root pulp 266 Carrots .... 266 Carrot-tops ... . 266 Parsnips 266 Kohl-rabi .... 266 Cabbages 266 Thousand-headed kale . . . 266 Potatoes . 267 Value of, for cattle . 267 Utilising diseased . 267 For horses .... . 267 Green rape .... Furze, whins, or gorse . 267 . 268 As winter food . 268 How fed to stock . . 268 Preparing, as food . 268 Furze masticator . . 268 Composition of . . . 269 Grasses and clovers . 269 Rye-grass and timothy 269 Analyses of pastures . 270 Composition of clovers . 270 Composition of grasses . 271 Hay 272 Damaged hay 272 Hay V. artificial food . 272 Clover and meadow hay 272 Straw 273 Feeding value of . 273 Composition of different kind of 273 Straw-chaff .... 274 Preparing and storing . 274 Advantages of stored straw-chaff 274 Fermentation of straw . 275 Condi mental foods . 275 Vetches 276 How fed to stock . 276 Green maize .... 276 Sorghum 277 Lucerne 277 Sainfoin . . . . 277 Prickly comfrey . . . . 277 Sugar .... 278 Sugar V. starch 278 Fish-meal ... 278 Cod-fish soup for cattle 278 Herring-meal for do. . 278 Composition of . . . 279 Value of, as food . 279 vi CONTENTS. UtUising fish-offal • 279 Value of fat per unit . 305 Fish-guano as food ■ 279 Oil and milk-production 305 Flesh-meal . 280 Oil and beef-production 306 Feeding value of . . 280 Practical conclusions as to oUy For pigs . 280 food 306 For sheep . . 280 For cattle Albuminoid ratio . 280 . 280 Ensilage. Illustration of . 280 History of ensilage . 306 Of different foods . . 281 Introduction into Great Britain 307 Balancing foods . . 281 Progress of ensilage . 307 Eatio for different classes of stock 282 Silos 307 Hiuts on the purchase of foods . 282 Converted sUos . 307 Chemical analysis essential , 282 Lord Egerton's silo 308 Guaranteed analysis 'J 282 t 282 New silos .... 308 Purity of linseed-cake Silos above or below ground 308 Tests of cake . 283 M. Goffart's silo . 309 ilanurial value of foods . 283 Hillside silos 309 Urine . . 283 Chezelles silo 309 Solid excreta . . 283 Section of do. . . . 310 Proportion of food assimilate dand Concrete sUo 310 voided . . 283 Bentall's silo 310 Lawes's manurial tables 284 Silo with lever-pressure 310 Theoretical and realised manure Concrete slab silo 310 values . 388 Wooden silos 311 Unexhausted value of cons umed Methods of pressure 311 food .... 289 Mechanical pressure . 311 Potter's patent 311 Food Eations. Reynolds's patent Stocks's patent . 311 311 Mr Lloyd on food rations 290 Stack ensilage .... 311 What the feeder has to determ ine 290 Stacks V. silos 311 The animal's requirements Feeding standards . 290 Sweet and sour silage 312 291 Making sweet silage . 312 Composition of foods 291 Relative value of sweet and soui Precision in feeding . 292 silage .... 312 Rations for fattening oxen • 293 Temperature in silage making 312 Making up feeding rations 293 Silage thermometer 312 Rations for cows in mUk . 295 Analyses of sweet and sour silage 313 Rations for dry cows • 295 Examples of stack ensilage 314 Rations for yearling heifers • 29s Johnston's ensilage press 315 Rations for two-year-old heifei s . 295 Reynolds's method of pressure 315 Rations for heavy milkers • 295 Blunt's patent 316 Feeding rations in a herd of G uern- Pearson's roller system 316 sey cows • 297 Choice of methods 317 Eations for small and large cot ys . 298 Amount of pressure 318 The nutritive ratio . ■ 299 Chaffing for ensilage . 3i8 The nutritive ratio the ess ential Crops for silage Meadow-grass silage 318 point .... 300 318 Rations for horses . . 301 Silage and hay compared 319 A word of caution . • 303 Clover silage 319 A disturbing element • 303 Lucerne and sainfoin . 320 Tares 320 Oil as Food. Rye-grass .... Maize 320 320 Value of fat as a food constitue nt . 303 Maize v. grass silage 321 Fat in foods . • 304 Grain crops for silage . 322 Oily food decreasing milk • 304 Minor silage crops 322 Oil valuable for sheep • 304 Special silage crops 322 Source of fat • 304 Feeding value of silage . 3-3 Value of oil in food • .305 Hay V. silage 323 Albuminoid compensating for Oat silage v. roots 323 want of oil • 30s Rearing stock on silage 324 CONTENTS. VI 1 General advantages of ensilage . 325 Independence of weather in sav- ing crops 325 Increasing the productive capacity of farms 325 Advantages of silage in feeding dairy stock .... 326 Advantages of, in breeding stock . 326 Advantages of, in store stock . 326 Advantages of, in fattening stock 326 Advantages of, for farm-horses . 326 Conclusions of ensilage Commis- sioners ..... 326 Ensilage competitions . . . 327 The future of ensilage . . . 327 Pbepabation of Food. Advantages of preparing food . . 328 Washing roots 328 Frozen roots 328 Cutting turnips . . . .328 Pulping ...... 329 Economy of pulping . . . 329 Economises fodder . . . 329 Turnips as cattle food . . . 330 Nutrition in dry and green food . 330 Proportions of foods . . .331 Evidence in favour of pulping . 331 Preparing pulped mixtures . . 332 Motive power in preparing food . 333 Method of mixing food . 333 Food-preparing compartment . 333 Cooking or steaming . . . 334 Beneficial for dairy cows . . 334 Method of cooking food . . 335 Chaff-cutting .... 335 Trials of chaff-cutters . . .335 Bruising grain .... 336 Cake-breaking .... 337 Recapitulation .... 337 Systems of Feeding. Classes of stock kept . . . 338 Winter feeding of cows . . . 338 Regulating food by yield of milk 338 Bothamsted experiments . . 338 Home-grown and purchased foods 339 Keep of a cow without artificial food 340 Keep of a cow with artificial food 341 Warm mashes for cows . . 341 Composition of mashes . . 342 Winter rations for dairy cows . 343 A liberal ration .... 343 Skim-milk as food for cows . . 343 Feeding for milk-selling . . 344 Brewers' grains for cows . . 345 Silage and mangels for cows . 345 Mr Carrington's system . . 346 Milk-fever preventive . . . 346 An American example . . 347 In the Netherlands . . . 347 Mr Carrington Smith's practice . 347 In Norfolk dairies . . . 347 Cost of feeding cows . . . 348 In herds of Jersey cows . . 348 Food record in ... 348 An Irish system .... 349 Mr Richard Barter's system . 349 Ayrshire methods . . . 350 In Lord Egerton's dairy . . 350 In a Tyneside dairy . . . 350 Wintering dry and breeding cows 350 Professor M'Connell on . . 351 Putting cows dry . . .351 Injudicious to stint dry cows . 352 Caution against milk-fever . . 352 Rations for dry cows . . . 352 Feeding cows in pure-bred herds 352 Alnwick Park shorthorns . 352 Dereham Abbey shorthorns . 352 Ardfert Abbey shorthorns . 353 Polled Aberdeen-Angus herds . 353 Hereford herds . . . 353 Winter dairying . . . .354 Mr Richard Barter on . . 354 Store Cattle. Winter housing of store cattle . 354 Fresh air for cattle . . . 355 Loss from exposure . . . 355 Economy in rearing cattle . . 355 Turning over a new leaf . . 356 The first essential . . . 356 Houses for cold districts . . 356 Cattle-sheds in southern districts 357 Cattle-courts .... 357 Winter feeding of store cattle . . 357 Apportioning home-grown foods . 357 Economise turnips . . . 358 Foods to be bought or sold . . 358 Advantage in using home-grown food 358 Ages of store cattle . . . 358 Care in beginning winter feeding 358 Turnips and straw for store cattle 359 Study the animal's appetite . 359 Feed sparingly and frequently . 359 Feeding hours .... 359 Kinds of roots for store cattle . 359 Daily meals for store cattle . . 359 Southern systems of feeding store cattle 360 Pulped food for store cattle . . 360 Proportions of pulped mixtures . 360 Fattening Cattle. Fattening cattle in winter . . 361 Early maturity . . . .361 Mr Henry Evershed on . . 361 Improvement in sheep . . 361 Vlll CONTENTS. Early maturity and perfection of form Rapid fattening in Sussex Calves for early maturity Examples of rapid fattening Rapid fattening on pasture Return for rapid fattening Feeding cow and calf together Rapid fettening on a Surrey farm Rapid fattening of sheep Lamb fattening . Mr de Mornay's system of sheep feeding .... Cost and return Rapid fattening of sheep in Hamp shire Early maturity profitable Sheep on heavy land . Breeding from lambs . Weights of cattle Weights of sheep . Early maturity in Scotland . Lawes on high-pressure and pro- fitable feeding . Cheaper meat from young animals than old . Professor Wrightson's experiments Professor Stewart on early maturity A golden maxim to feeders . Methods of fattening cattle in winter . What food is to be used Fattening rations Balancing food properly Scotch feeding customs Daily allowance of turnips . Feeding hours Turnips or cake for breakfast ? Daily allowance of cake and grain The pulping system for fattening Mr D. Buttar's pulping system Pulped mixture Cost of pulping system Cost of ordinary system . Sliced roots preferred to pulp Cattle-feeding in Aberdeenshire Mr M'Combie's system . Tying cattle .... Vetches and clover for fattening cattle .... Allowance of cake, com, &c. Return for a month's keep . Mr G. Wilken's system Feeding in a polled herd Feeding in a prize herd Cattle-feeding in Easter Ross A popular Scotch " blend " . Linseed-oil and oats Cattle-feeding in England Housing of fattening cattle . Roots and green food for cattle Hereford examples Norfolk systems 362 362 362 363 364 364 364 364 36s 36s 366 366 366 367 367 367 367 368 368 369 369 369 371 371 371 371 371 372 372 372 372 373 373 373 373 374 375 375 375 376 376 376 377 377 377 377 378 378 378 379 379 379 379 379 380 380 A group of English rations . Feeding without turnips Mr Charles RandeU's system Winter feeding on fields Cattle-feeding in Ireland . History of a butcher's beast Fall in the price of beef Calf-rearing .... Wintering calves . Attention to health of stock Covered folds Grazing young cattle . Extra feeding and care in autumn Shelter in fields . Winter feeding Rest and comfort ... Cattle-rearing in Devon and Somer- set Age for feeding ... Weight of Devon steers Preparation of show cattle Preparing cattle for breeding shows "Fancy" cattle . Different types The type to cultivate . Choosing the show calf Its calfhood .... Exercise .... Rations for first winter Summer feeding . Baneful influence of sugar . Milk-fed show animals . Preparing fat-show cattle Early maturity at fat-shows . The calf for fat-shows . The bullock's first winter The "secret" of successful feeding Winter feeding and treatment Summer feeding . Cattle-cart .... HoESES IN Winter. Housing and winter management of farm-horses Dimensions of stable . Stable windows . " Hit-and-miss " window Large v. small stables . Stalls for horses . Swung bale v. travis Floors of stables . Ventilation of stables . Vitiation of air by animals . Temperature of stables . Revolution in system of feeding horses .... Hay-racks for horses . Metal mangers and racks Fire-clay mangers Harness-pegs Harness-room Binding horses 380 380 381 382 382 382 382 383 383 384 384 384 384 385 385 385 38s 386 386 386 387 387 387 387 387 387 388 388 388 388 388 389 389 389 390 390 390 391 392 392 392 392 392 393 393 393 394 395 396 397 397 397 398 398 398 399 399 CONTENTS. Boxes for horses . Foaling-box . Hay-house . Corn-chests . Measuring corn to horses Treatment of farm-horses Watering horses . Stable-brooms Morning feed of corn . Quietness at feeding-time Mid-day care of horses . Feeding outside . Hours of work Long yokings undesirable Work expected of horses Eubbing horses . Evening care of horses . Grooming horses . Brushing preferable to combing Rubbing wet or heated horses Littering horses . Working horses in winter . Exercise for horses Work for bad weather . Breeding horses . Working mares in foal . Old men and brood-mares . Weaning foals Wintering young horses Housing necessary in cold districts Exercise for young horses Handling young horses Nomenclature of horses Work for ploughmen in bad weather .... Intelligence of horses . Names for farm-horses . Feeding horses Articles of food for horses . Food requirements of horses . Eation for idle horses . Additional food for work Quick pace and food requirement Force exerted by horses Rations for degrees of work . Winter feeding of horses . Preparing food for horses Cooked food for horses . Hard food for horses Mashes for horses . Oats for horses Substitutes for oats Steamed potatoes for horses . Overdoing soft food Mixed food for horses . English methods . A group of English rations . Eation for hard-worked horses Roots for horses . Carrots Parsnips .... Furze for horses . Furze for broken- winded horses 399 399 400 400 400 401 401 402 402 402 402 402 402 402 403 403 403 403 404 404 404 405 405 405 405 405 405 406 406 406 406 406 407 407 407 408 408 408 408 409 409 409 410 410 410 410 411 411 412 412 412 412 412 413 413 413 414 414 414 414 414 415 Feeding in a Clydesdale stud . 415 Feeding young horses . . . 415 Importance of careful rearing . 416 Rations for tramway horses . . 416 Rations for ponies . . . 417 Riding and driving horses . . 417 Quantity of food . . . .417 Bulk of food .... 417 Frequency of feeding . . . 417 Littering horses . . . .418 Straw as litter . . . .418 Peat-moss litter . . . .418 Other varieties of litter . . 418 General hints 419 Exercise 419 Rest 419 Washing horses' legs . . . 419 Clipping and singeing . . . 419 Injurious to clip legs of horses . 419 Protection to skin from wet . . 420 Method in stable management . 420 Swine in Winter. Disadvantages of feeding pigs in winter 420 Early maturity in pigs . . . 420 Attention to pig-rearing . . .421 Feeding pigs 421 Feeding the sow and her litter . 42 1 Weaning pigs . . . .421 Castrating pigs .... 422 Feeding young pigs . . .422 Cocoa-nut meal for pigs . . 422 Cod-liver oil for pigs . . .422 A golden rule in pig-feeding . 422 Variety of food .... 422 Meals for pigs . . . .422 Mr James Howard's rations for pigs 422 Ball-feeding for show pigs . . 423 Feeding farrow sows . . . 423 Condimental food for pigs . . 423 Cooked food for pigs . . . 423 Kitchen " slops ' for pigs . . 423 Feeding old pigs unprofitable . 423 Green food for pigs . . . 424 Exercise for feeding pigs . . 424 Keep pigs cleanly . . . 424 Pigs in cattle-courts . . . 424 Rest for feeding pigs . . .425 Litter for pigs .... 425 Nomenclature of pigs . . . 425 Poultry in Winter. Neglect of poultry .... 426 Chickens in winter .... 426 Varieties of farm poultry . . . 426 Turkeys 427 Geese 427 Ducks 427 Catching poultry . . . .427 X CONTENTS. Common pigeoijs Wood-pigeons . Characteristics of old birds Poultry-houses Movable poultry-coops Pigeons hatching Catching pigeons " Weeding " pigeons . Daily treatment of poultry Regularity in feeding poiutry Rapid fattening of poultry Time and place for feeding Eggs in winter . Young broods in winter "Brooders" . Table poultry all the year round Pampered fowls Fattening fowls French system Fattening cages . Dressing table fowl Cramming . Nomenclature of poultry Feathers . Diseases of poultry . Catarrh Bronchitis . Roup . Indigestion . Diarrhoea Liver disease Crop-bound . Soft crop Egg-bound . Soft or shell-less eggs Leg weakness Bumble foot Scaly legs Diphtheria Lice Goose fat . Poultry farming Imports of eggs and poultry COKN AT THE STBADINS. The stackyard . Fencing the stackyard . Forming into ridges Rick-stands . Stack foundations. Formation of stacks Roofed stackyards Ground-plan of stackyards Hay-bams . English bams Threshing - mill, straw - bam, and granaries . Straw-bam . Straw-barn floor . Com-bam . Door of the com-bam Floor of the corn-bam 427 428 428 428 429 430 430 430 430 431 431 432 433 433 434 434 434 434 435 435 435 435 436 436 437 437 437 437 437 437 437 437 438 438 438 438 438 438 438 438 438 439 439 440 440 440 440 441 441 441 441 442 442 442 443 444 444 444 444 Hanging-doors in steadings . 445 Preservation of wooden floors 445 Roofs of steadiags 446 Truss-roofs .... 446 Upper bam .... 446 Conveying sheaves to the sheaf barn 446 Granaries .... 447 Precautions against vermin . 447 Threshing-machines 448 Scotch threshing-machine . 449 Saving of labour . 450 Portable threshing-machines 451 Hands required for threshing- machines .... 452 Safety-drums 453 Straw-trusser 454 Hand threshing-machines . 454 Motive power for threshing- machines .... 454 Steam-power .... 454 Water-power .... 455 Undershot water-wheels 455 Bucket water-wheel 455 Measuring the water-supply 455 MiU-dam .... 456 Forming mill-dam 457 Dimensions of the bucket-wheel 457 The arc .... 457 Construction of the wheel . 457 Overshot or breast ? 459 Trough and sluices 459 Speed of the wheel 460 The turbine . 460 The Thomson turbine . 460 The poncelet turbine . 461 Horse-power .... 462 Driving horses in threshing 462 Threshing and winnowing corn 462 Carting corn to be threshed 464 Ladders .... 464 Preparing for threshing 465 Care in feeding . 466 Irregular driving . 466 Removing straw . 467 Mows of straw . . . . 467 Carrying straw to the courts 467 Straw-screen 467 Dressing com .... 468 Corn-dressing machines 468 Modern winnowers 470 Corn-screens 472 Bam implements . 473 Riddles .... 473 Sieves ..... 474 Barn wechts or baskets 474 Bam-stool .... 474 Barn-hoe .... 475 47? Corn-shovels Barn-brooms ^1 J 475 Winnowing in olden times . • 475 Care in dressing com . 476 Measuring grain . 476 Bagging grain Hummellers Arranging sacks of corn Lifting sacks of corn . Loading a cart with sacks Corn-sacks . Weighing-machines Varieties of Corn. Wheat .... Simple classification . Colour of wheat . Classification by the ear Classifying by the grains Belation of ear and grain Vilmorin's classification Judging wheat Wheat for flour . Wheat varying with soil Weight of wheat . Number of grains in a bushel Wheat for seed . Preserving wheat in granaries Ancient practice in storing . Storing v. immediate selling Production of an acre of wheat Kernel and husk . Origin of wheat . Antiquity of wheat cultivation Limits of wheat culture Barley .... Classifying by the ear . Classifying by the grain Judging barley Yield and weight of barley Grains in a bushel Utilisation of barley . Barley-meal Malting Limits of barley culture Oats .... Classification by the grain Classification by the ear Yield and weight of oats Grains in the bushel Kernel and husk . Oatmeal Yield of meal Composition of oatmeal Oats as food for stock Antiquity of oat culture Origin of the oat . Limits of oat culture Rye. . . . Yield and weight of rye Limits of rye culture Eye-flour Beans Field-bean . Leguminous plants Yield and weight of beans Consumption of beans . CONTENTS. xi 476 Ancient superstition regarding 478 beans • 496 478 Peas .... . 497 478 Produce of peas . • 497 480 Consumption of peas • 497 480 Wheat-straw ■ 498 482 Ash of wheat-straw . 498 Wheat-chaff . • 498 Barley-straw . . 498 Ash . . . ■ 499 483 Strength of straw . • 499 483 Barley-chaff . • 499 484 Oat-straw. ■ 499 484 Ash . ■ 499 48s Oat-chaff • 499 48 s Chaff as a foot-warmer • 499 485 Rye-straw • 499 485 Bean and pea straw . . 500 486 Ash of straw . 500 486 Straw as food or litter . 500 486 Yield of straw 500 486 Ancient uses of straw . 501 486 An ancient threshing-machine . 501 487 487 487 487 Treatment op Farmyard Manure. Losses from want of care . 501 487 Forming dunghills . . 502 487 Carting out manure 502 488 Different kinds of dung for d iffer- 488 ent crops .... . 502 489 Mixing dung 502 489 Position of the dunghill 502 489 Loss of time in carting dung 504 490 Careless strewing of litte r in 490 courts .... • 504 490 How litter should be sprea d in 490 courts .... ■ 505 490 Chaffing litter • 505 490 Emptying courts of dung ■ 505 490 Turning dung 506 491 Art in forming a dunghill . 506 491 Preventing fermentation 506 492 Covering dunghills 506 492 Dung-spade .... 507 493 Manure-court 507 493 Is winter carting-out injurio as to 493 the dung 1 . . . • 507 493 Field-sheds for manure 507 494 Winter industry lessens sp ring 494 work .... 508 494 Dunghills injurious to drains . 508 494 Covered manure-pits 509 494 Fermentation in dung . 509 495 The manure-pit . 509 495 Oozing of liquid from heaps ■ 509 495 Manure-pits at steadings . sio 495 Flooring of manure-pits 510 495 Extra value of covered-court c ung 510 495 The art of " making " manure . 510 496 Well-made dung . SIO 496 The art .... 511 496 How the urine may be utilise i . 511 xu CONTENTS. Injury from "washing" . . jn Mischief from defective water- spouts 512 " Fire-fang " in manure . . 512 Different kinds of dung . . . 512 Horse and cow dung compared . 512 Pigs' dung 513 Sheep's dung . . . -513 Heat from various kinds of dung . 513 Quantities of dung from stock . 513 Liquid Manuee. Composition and character of liquid manure 514 Complex character of excreta . . 514 Conditions influencing excreta . 515 Fresh and stale urine . . . 515 Decomposition of urine . . . 515 Fixing ammonia . . . .516 Changes through decomposition . 516 Specific gravity of urine . . . 516 Composition of its saline and min- eral ingredients . . . . 516 Valuable character of liquid manure 517 Variation in its composition . . 517 Drainings from yards and dung- heaps 517 Johnston on liquid manure . . 517 Average composition of liqiiid man- iire 518 Liquid manure acts quickly . . 518 Advantages of the liquid form . 519 Utility of the water . . . 519 Disadvantages ofexcessof water . 519 Neglect of liquid manure . . 520 Eainfall and loss of liquid manure . 520 Preventing loss in liquid manure . 520 Liquid-manure tanks . . .520 Liquid-manure pump . . . 521 Dispensing with pumps . . .521 Size of tank required . . . 521 A Mid-Lothian system . . .521 Incorporating the liquid with the dung Utilisation of surplus liquid . Noteworthy attempts . Outlay greater than the return Suitable for exceptional crops Application by cart Water-carts .... Making compost with liquid manure Advantages of the compost system Amount of carting Forming a compost reservoir Irrigation with liquid manure . An Irish example Preventing loss of ammonia The problem solved in Sussex . Fresh urine injurious to vegetation Time for application Advantage of incorporating with the dung .... Town sewage Construction of liquid-manure tanks Pressure of fluids Depth the chief element Pit or well form . Disadvantage of deep tanks . Shallow tanks Covering tanks Claying Lands. Benefits of claying . Clay pits ..... Spreading the clay . Is claying soil injurious to sheep 1 Mixing soils .... Top-dressing bare heights Wheat-sowing Forming compost . Collecting sea-weed 521 522 522 522 522 523 524 525 526 526 526 526 527 527 527 527 527 528 528 528 528 528 529 529 529 529 53° 530 531 531 531 532 532 532 532 LIST OF ILLUSTKATIONS IN DIVISION 11. DOUBLE-HORSE CART AT WORK OLD STYLE PLATE I ANIMAL POETEAITS. SHORTHORN BULL (1850) HEREFORD BULL . RED POLLED BULL SOUTHDOWN RAM LINCOLN RAM 10 IS 26 30 GENEKAL ILLUSTRATIONS. WmTEn—eontirmed. no. PAGE no. 118. Furze masticator . 268 134. 119. Section of Lord Egerton's silo 135- showing its condition at the enc 136. of the third day's work 308 137. 120. Transverse section of M. de Che 138. zelles's " Grange Silo " 310 139 121. SeK -registering thermometer . 313 140. 122. Johnson's ensilage press 314 141 123. Reynolds's ensilage press 3IS 142. 124. Blunt's ensilage press . 316 143- 125. Pearson's ensUage roller system 316 144 126. Ensilage cutter and elevator . 318 MS 127. Root-washer .... 328 146. 128. Combined pulper, slicer, and finger 147. piece cutter 329 129. Root-pulper .... 332 148. 130. The "Union" bruising and grind 149 ing mill .... 332 ISO. 131- Chaff-cutter .... 333 iSi 132. Horse-gear .... 333 152 133- Steam food-preparing machinery 334 IS3 Food-steaming apparatus Chaff-cutter .... Self-feeding chaff-cutter Corn-grinding mill Hand flour or grist mill . Cattle-cart .... Stable window Stall for a work-horse stable . Stall with cast-iron hind-posts Support for manger Position of improved manger . Corn-chest for work-horses Birch broom for stables . Curry-comb, brush, foot -picker, and mane-comb . Water-brush . Common straw-fork Steel straw-fork Boiler and furnace Hand whin-bruiser Peat-breaker .... 33S 335 336 337 337 391 392 394 394 398 398 400 402 404 404 404 405 411 41S 418 XIV ILLUSTKATIONS IN DIVISION II. 154- ■155- 156. 157- 158. 159- 160. 161. 162. 163. 164. 165. 166. 167. 168. 169. 170. 171. 172. 173- 174. 175- 176. 177- 178. 179. 180. 181. 182. 183. 184. 185. 186. 187. 188. 189. 190. 191. Horse-clippers . . . . 419 192. Ring pigs' trough, to stand in a 193- court 42s 194. Poultry-house on wheels 429 195- Portable (French) poultry-house . 429 196. Shelter-coop 429 Coop and run . . . . 430 197. Old-fashioned triangular coop 430 198. Shelter-coop 430 199. Wooden rick-stand 440 200. Truss for a galvanised corrugated 201. iron roof .... 441 202. Isometrical perspective of an iron 203. roof covered stackyard 442 204. Ground-plan of a stackyard . 443 205. Section of the corn-barn floor . 445 206. Corn-barn door 445 Wooden king-post truss-roof . 446 207. Iron king-post truss-roof 446 208. Upper barn and granaries 447 Granary window and section a 209. shutter .... 447 210. Modern Scotch threshing and dress 211. ing machine 450 Section of portable threshing 212. machine .... 451 213. Portable threshing machine, show 214. ing straw-elevator 452 215. Ransome's threshing-machine 453 216. Straw-trusser attached to threshing 217. machine .... 454 218. Small threshing-machine 454 Section and elevation of a bucke 219. water-wheel 458 220. Morton's turbine . 461 221. Vertical section of horizontal tur bine 461 2.2.2. Corn-barrow - 463 223. Ladder, 1 5 feet long 464 224. Oil-can 465 225. Feeding sheaves into the threshing 226. machine of the olden type . 467 227. Elevation of the dressing-fanner 468 228. Longitudinal section of the dressing 229. fanner, with riddles and sieves 469 230. Transverse section of the dressing 231. fanner .... 470 232. Transverse section of the finishing 233- fanner or duster 470 234- Elevation of the finishing-fanner 235- duster .... 471 236. Longitudinal section of the finishing 237- fanner or duster 471 Combined winnower and bagging 238. machine .... 472 239- Old wooden wheat-riddle Old wooden barley-riddle Old wooden oat-riddle . Old wooden bean-riddle . Old wooden riddle for the roughs of wheat and corn . Wooden sieve Iron-wire sieve Triangular-meshed iron-wire sieve Wecht of skin Corn-basket of wicker-work . Barn-stool .... Barn wooden hoe . Wooden corn-scoop Winnowing corn in olden times Imperial bushel of a convenient form ..... Corn-strikes .... Measuring up corn in the c . bam ..... Bagging grain with sack-holder Simple hand-hummeller . Filled sacks on the barn-floor prO' perly arranged . Sack-lifter .... Combined sack-barrow and lifter Sack-barrow .... Balance weighing-machine Portable weighing-machine Classification of wheat by the ear Short, round, plump form, and small size of wheat . Long medium-sized form of wheat Large size and long form of wheat 4-rowed here or bigg, 6-rowed bar- ley, 2-rowed barley . Scotch here or bigg English barley Potato oat White Siberian early oat Spike of potato oat Spike of Tartarian oat . Ear of rye Grains of rye . Horse-beans . Partridge field-pea . Dung-spade . Dung-pit for four fields . Liquid-manure cart New liquid-manure cart . , Scoop for filling a water-barrel , Apparatus for discharging liquid manure , Claying of soil , Mud-hoe, harle, or claut . 473 473 473 473 473 474 474 474 474 474 474 475 475 475 476 476 477 477 478 479 479 480 480 481 482 484 485 48s 48s 489 489 489 491 491 492 492 495 495 496 497 507 508 523 523 524 525 530 532 PlLAlPffi I SMssm r-J « CO 103- IPEoATE HW iPiLATis a? !PE,i\.TE ^(2i 1^ IPIL^WIE 3© Hi til FOOD AND FEEDING. 257 ■undigested, if it does not also produce indigestion by the way." ^ Peas for Sheep. — Peas are capital food for sheep — along with linseed-cake there is perhaps no better as a concen- trated food. In a series of experiments conducted at Woburn in the winter of 1882-83, by Dr A. Voelcker, on behalf of the Eoyal Agricultural Society ,of Eng- land, pea-meal was contrasted with barley- meal and malt as food for sheep, each along with turnips, hay and straw, chaflf and linseed-cake. In summing up the re- sults, which were favourable to the pea- meal, Dr A. Voelcker says that "lin- seed-cake and pea-meal in equal propor- tions, and used at the rate of J^ lb. each per head per day, in conjunction with some hay and straw, chaff and swedes, given ad lihitimi, is a better food for young sheep than either a mixture of Hnseed-cake and barley-meal, or linseed- cake and malt." ^ Lupin. The following is an approximate anal- ysis of the seeds of lupin : — Water . 14.0 Albuminoids 33-0 Tat ... . 5.0 Starch, &c, . 33-0 Woody fibre 12.0 Mineral matter . 3-0 The seeds of the lupin contain, therefore, a larger proportion of flesh-forming sub- stances than either beans, peas, or lentils. The cultivation of the plant is quite simple, and it grows well on poor, sandy, and gravelly soils. It is cultivated ex- tensively in the northern parts of Ger- many, and it has also been partially introduced into England. The stems make excellent hay, and the seeds are found to be very superior food for sheep, lambs, and fattening wethers. They are also given to horses and cattle, mixed with oats or beans; and lupin-meal is given with milk to calves. Linseed. Linseed has not inaptly been described as the sheet-anchor of the stock-feeder. ^ Parmvimg World, June i, 1888, 429. 2 Jour. Royal Agric. Soo. Eng., xix. 430. VOL. I. He is now less dependent upon it than when he first began to use concentrated foods extensively. But although many other useful articles of food for farm live stock have been brought into notice in recent years — thanks in a large measure to the application of science to the question of economical stock- feeding — it is still true, as remarked by the late Mr E. O. Pringle, that " whether in the building up and development of the young growing animal, or the enriching of the produce of the dairy-cow, or the final preparation of the animal for the butcher, linseed is an article of the highest importance to the agriculturist." The following analysis of linseed is by Dr Anderson ; — Water .... 7-50 OU . . . . . 34.00 Albuminoids 24.44 Gum, mucilage, sugar, &c., and woody fibre 30.73 Mineral matter (ash) . 3-33 lOO.CX) There are, however, a great many varieties of Hnseed. The kinds grown in different parts of Eussia, in India, and in America, differ among themselves in the percent- ages of oil and albuminoids they contain, as well as in shape and size. The pro- portion of oil in Indian linseed is often considerably more than 40 per cent. Linseed of fine quality, weighing 52 lb. per bushel, readily yields from 1 1 to 12 gallons of oil per quarter (8 bushels), weighing 9 lb. per gallon, or about 25 per cent of its weight. Preparing and using Iiinseed as Food. — It is thus seen that linseed is an exceedingly rich food. It is not advis- able, however, to use it in its natural state, as, when so used, a considerable proportion of the seeds will be found to pass undigested. Being of a laxative na- ture, it requires to be used with caution, and in combination with other articles which have a counteracting effect. The seed is sometimes boiled in order to prepare it for use as the food of animals, but a better mode of prepara- tion is to grind it. When this is done, chafii or the husks which are separated from oats in the process of milling, should be passed through along with the linseed, as either of these articles helps 258 CATTLE m WINTER. to prevent the linseed from " clogging " the miUstones ; and besides, they absorb a portion of the oil which exudes from the seed in the grinding, and thus they be- come useful articles of food, although they are of little value in their natural state. Boiling Iiinseed. — Meal made of pure linseed may be given in combination with other kinds of food, such as bean-meal, barley-meal, Indian meal, &c., but it is also frequently prepared for use by boil- ing. When the seed is prepared in this way, it is generally steeped for some hours in hot water and then boiled, but it is very apt to burn during the process of boiling imless it is carefully watched. In order to prevent burning, it has been found better to raise the water to the boiling-point before putting in the lin- seed, instead of putting the linseed into cold water and then boiling it. When the linseed is put into boiling water, add a little cold water, and then let it again come to the boil, and allow it to remain boiling for twenty minutes, stir- ring it occasionally. This mode of pre- paring linseed has the effect of splitting the seed, and thereby rendering the operation much more effectual than it is when the skin does not burst, as is usually the case when the linseed is put first into cold water which is after- wards brought to the boiling-point. For calf-rearing no kind of food sur- passes linseed, and in conjunction with cheaper commodities, it is very largely employed for this purpose. G-rov»ing Plax for Fibre and Seed. — ^Flax is grown very extensively in the north of Ireland, but, as was pointed out by Mr R. O. Pringle, the chief object in growing flax there is — owing to the im- portance of the linen manufacture in Ireland — the production of a fine class of fibre, which is incompatible with a large crop of seed. If the value of the seed as a fattening material were incul- cated more strongly than it has been by those who advocate the extension of flax- cultivation, it is probable that flax-grow- ing would be more largely practised throughout the kingdom than it is at present. As it is, we have to depend upon foreign sources of supply for the Un- seed required for various purposes. Irish flax-growers in general are averse to sep- arate the "bolls" or seed-capsules from the plants, ajleging that when this is done the fibre is injured, and consequently they steep the flax without first removing the seed. The result is that the seed is lost ; and the loss of feeding material from this cause alone which takes place in Ireland cannot be estimated at much less than _;^Soo,ooo per annum. The prevalent idea entertained in Ire- land on this subject has been combated by Mr Charley, who is a grower of flax as well as a manufacturer. Mr Charley describes "the old-fashioned system of taking the flax to a watering-place with its valuable freight of seed unremoved," as being wanton waste of rich feeding material.^ When the " bolls " are saved, they are dried on a loft in a strong current of air, and then ground up with the outer husk or chaff. Even when the seed is ex- tracted from the bolls, the residue, or chaff, makes excellent food for nulch cows when prepared in the form of a hot mash. The boUs are also steamed along with other materials, and given as a mash to horses as well as to cattle. Linseed^ahe. Linseed-cake is the refuse part of the seed left in the process of extracting lin- seed-oil. Formerly, although most part of the oil was extracted by crushers, there always remained from lo to 12 or 14 per cent; but the machinery now employed in extracting the oil does its work so efficiently, that from a fourth to a third less oil is left. The following is an average analysis of linseed-cake of the good old type — still sometimes met with; and side by side is given an analysis of good American cake, hard pressed, and therefore low in oil but rich in albuminoids ; — High-class American English. Western. Water . 10.05 9.00 Albuminoids . 25.14 37.00 Mucilage . 36.10 34.50 Oil . "•93 7.50 Woody fibre . 9- S3 7.00 Mineral matter (ash) 7.25 5-00 It is thus apparent that linseed-cake is a highly concentrated description of food, ' Flax and its Products. FOOD AND FEEDING. 259 and is suited for the use of all kinds of farm live stock, with the exception of swine — the objection to its use in their case being that it imparts an oily flavour to the meat, and makes it soft or flabby. Horses become extremely fond of oilcake, and 3 lb. per day has been given to farm- horses with good effect. Linseed -cake is crushed into small pieces before being given to stock. The dung of cattle fed on oilcake is very rich, nearly half the weight of the ash of oilcake consisting of phosphate of lime; and one result of giving cake to cattle or sheep feeding on grass land during simimer and autumn is to im- prove the pasture, besides hastening the fattening of the animals. Storing Iiinseed-cake. — The late Dr A. Voelcker remarked — and this is a point of the very greatest importance — ^that "the nutritive value of feeding- cakes depends not merely upon their proximate composition, but likewise upon their physical condition. Like all other perishable articles of food, linseed-cake, when kept in a damp or badly ventilated place, rapidly turns mouldy, and after some time becomes unfit for feeding pur- poses." '• " Linseed-cakes should be stored in as dry a place as can be found. The floor should be a wooden one if possible. If it be of plaster or concrete it is advisable to lay some old timbers on the floor, forming a stool, and pile the cakes in stacks thereon, about 8 or 10 inches from the walls, so that a current of air could get round. The cakes, which generally measure 30 inches long and 12 inches broad and about i inch thick, should be packed in such a way that the air can get through the pile and come in contact with all the edges of the cake. "The ventilating of the store should be good, and as much air as possible allowed to get inside when the atmo- sphere is dry, but the doors and windows should be closed when it is damp. " The same remarks are applicable to cotton-cakes, but these do not keep well beyond a month or six weeks. "When good linseed-cakes, manufac- tured without the use of water, are stored in the manner thus described, they have ■' Jow, Royal Agric. Soo. Eng., ix. 3. been known to keep for 1 2 months with- out any appreciable depreciation." ^ Adulteration of CakeB. — Unfortun- ately, it has become so much the practice to adulterate cakes of all kinds in the process of manufacture, that the great- est caution is necessary in purchasing any article of the kind. Impurities also exist in the seed, varying from ij^ per cent to 70 per cent ; and these impuri- ties are sometimes added artificially. Dr Voelcker states that " occasionally barges laden with sif tings " (i. e., impurities) " are sent out a little way to sea to meet ships having on board linseed, and com- ing from one of the ports in the north. An amalgamation of the sif tings with the linseed is effected on the high sea, and the mixture, containing a greater or less quantity of sittings, is then imported, and sold as linseed 'genuine as imported.' " A good deal of so-called genuine lin- seed-cake is made from such seed. It is well to bear in mind that a guarantee which describes a cake as made from linseed 'genuine as imported,' in point of fact is no guarantee at all ; for it is well known that very dirty seed, not un- frequently containing more than half its weight of foreign weed-seeds, is freely imported into Hull and other ports." ^ Cakes may now be purchased with a guarantee as to their purity which can be relied upon; and on this point the reader is referred to the remarks under the heading of "Purity of Cattle Foods." Rape-cahe. Eape-cake, when pure, is a valuable food for cattle. The German green rape- cake is the best kind; and of a good sample of this sort, the late Dr A. "Voelck- er gave the following analysis : — Water 10.82 OU . . . . 8.72 Albuminoida 33-81 Mucilage, sugar, &o. . 28.06 Woody fibre 11.49 Mineral matter . 7.10 In "flesh-formers " — albuminoids — rape- cake is thus richer than even the best of linseed-cakes. 2 Farming World, 1888, p. 801. ^ Jour, Hoyal Agric. Sac. Eng., ix. 7. 26o CATTLE IN WINTER. It is not much, relisted by cattle at first, but if care is taken to prevent it from getting damp and mouldy they -wiU take to it by degrees. If the animals re- fuse to eat it in its fresh state by itself, the difficulty may be got over by cover- ing the cake for some time -with sawdust, chaffed straw, or any substance that wiU prevent it from becoming damp or moulded. Preparing Eape-cake for Cattle. — The cake is of course crushed, and it is of advantage to pour boiling water over the crushed cake, and allow the mixture to stand for a time before it is used. Steaming the cake along with chaffed straw is also a good mode of preparing it for cattle ; and in so preparing it bean- meal or bran is added, in the proportion of 4 lb. of cake to 2 lb. of bran or i lb. of bean-meal. With these articles, 16 lb. of chaffed straw should be blended before Decorticated. Ilndecorticated. Impurity of Indian. Rape-cake. — Dr A.Voelcker states that Indian rape-cake is generally " contaminated with so much wild mustard or charlock (Sinapis arven- sis), that it is not safe to feed animals upon it. Several actions having been tried in our law courts, in which the plaintiffs obtained verdicts for damages caused by feeding cattle upon cake which turned out to be Indian rape-cake, it is now seldom sold for feeding purposes ; but is either bought for manuring purposes, or employed for adulterating linseed-cake, or preparing mixed feeding-cakes." From ^ lb. of Indian rape-cake, Dr Voelcker obtained enough essential oil of mustard to convince him that half a cake of it, if not a smaller quantity, might kill a bullock. Even the best rape, when mixed with linseed-cake, imparts a turnip-like flavour to the latter, which of course reduces its value. Cotton-cake. This cake is made from the seeds of the cotton-plant. There are two varieties of it in use — the decorticated, from which the husks have been completely removed, and the undecorticated, which contains a considerable proportion of the dark-brown husks of the seed. The following is an average analysis of the two varieties by Dr A. Voelcker : — 9.28 11.46 I6.0S 6.07 41.25 22.94 16.45 32.52 8.92 20.99 8.05 6.02 100.00 100.00 Water . Oil . . . Albuminoids ^ Mucilage, sugar, &c. Woody fibre . Mineral matter 1 Containing nitrogen 6.58 3.67 As in the case of linseed-cake, the im- provements in the crushing machinery have reduced the percentage of oil in cot- ton-cake, so that there is now rarely more than 12 or 13 per cent of oil, and often as little as 8 or 9, in decorticated cotton-cake. The decorticated variety is of a imi- form yellow colour, while the presence of the dark-brown husks in the undecorti- cated at once indicates its nature. Caution in using Undecorticated Cotton-cake. — The undecorticated va- riety is not only less valuable than the other, but it is also apt to produce in- flammatory symptons in the animals fed upon it, and death has frequently been the result. This arises from the quan- tity of cotton which adheres to the seed, and from the harsh nature of the husk. Although undecorticated cotton-cake may be employed as food for cattle when used cautiously, it is generally safer to use the decorticated variety, which, as will be gathered from the above analysis, is also superior as a feeding material. It ought to be mentioned, however, that the undecorticated cake (often called " English," to distinguish it from the de- corticated or American cake) has, in the eyes of graziers, a certain value beyond its mere intrinsical value as a food, owing to its astringent properties, which render it very useful to obviate any scouring tendency amongst cattle or sheep when on young or luxuriant pasture. Uses of Decorticated Cotton-cake. — ^Decorticated cotton-cake is very rich, in flesh-forming matters, as well as in phosphates, or "bone-formers," and is therefore specially adapted for growing stock and cows giving milk; but for calves and lambs it is not so suitable — indeed, for these young animals it is somewhat dangerous — on account of its being too indigestible for them ; and should be given to them, if at aU, only in very small quantities. FOOD AND FEEDING. 26 r Preparing Cotton-oake for Feed- ing. — Some think it better to have the cake ground into meal than merely broken by the usual cake-crusher. If the cake is to be merely crushed, it would be useful to have this done some time, perhaps ten or fourteen days, be- fore giving it to cattle, so that it might absorb moisture, and thereby get softened and more easily digested. Manurial TT'alue of Cotton-cake. — Cotton-cake imparts an exceptionally high value to the manure of the animals fed upon it. As vidll be shown presently, in dealing with the "Manurial Value of Foods," it stands above all other foods in this respect. Palm-nut Meal. The following is an analysis by Dr A. Voelcker of a good sample of palm-nut meal : — ing properties to linseed oilcake, and considerably less in cost. Cocoa-cake. Cocoarcake is manufactured from the outer shell with fragments of the kernel of the cocoa-bean. It is a wholesome food, and cattle take to it readiljj. It is, however, inferior to pure linseed -cake, as the following analysis by Dr Voelcker will show : — Water Oil and fatty matter Albuminoids ^ . Mucilage, sugar, &o. Woody fibre Mineral matter . Containing nitrogen S-92 20.01 13-87 38.24 18.56 3-4° This meal is made from the cake which remains in pressing the oil out of the palm-nut. There are some very inferior kinds of palm-nut cake or meal in the market, and these have been used in adulterating linseed-cake — not so much lately, on account of the vigorous and commendable efforts that have been made to put down the adulteration of all feed- ing-stuffs as well as of manures. Palm-nut meal of first-rate quality may now be had, and is extensively used in rearing and fattening stock, more par- ticularly in caK-rearing. It has been found a most admirable food for calves, and for them it is prepared by being steeped in hot water for several hours, perhaps for a whole day. It is also well suited for cows in milk — increasing both the quantity and quality of the milk. It gives good results in feeding pigs, if used with such other foods as barley -meal, Indian meal, beans or peas. An equal mixture of palm-nut meal and decorti- cated cotton-cake is equivalent in feed- Water 14.9s Oil ... . 8.02 Albuminoids ^ 19.87 Woody fibre 18.26 Mucilage, sugar, &c. . 32.46 Mineral matter . 6.44 100.00 ^ Containing nitrogen 3- 18 The ordinary cocoa -nibs, as sold by grocers, are occasionally employed to supply a feeding material for young calves. This is done by boiling the nibs Over a slow fire for two or three hours — 6 or 8 quarts of water to i lb. of nibs. The nibs are then strained out, and the liquid is mixed with milk and given to calves when it is milk-warm. Poppy-cake. The following is Dr A. Voelcker's analysis of poppy-cake : — Water .... Oil Albuminoids^ Mucilage, gum, and woody fibre Mineral matter " ^ Containing nitrogen '^ Containing sand . 11.63 5-75 31-46 38-18 12.98 S-ii 7.S8 There are two varieties of poppy-cake, — one a light-coloured or whitish cake, made from white poppy ; the other a dark or brownish cake, made from com- mon poppy-seed. Poppy-cake must be used when quite fresh, as the oil is apt to become soon rancid. When fresh, it is a useful feed- ing material. Locust or Carob Beans. These are the beans or pods of the locust-tree (CeratonicL siliqua). Dr A. 262 CATTLE IN WINTER Voelcker has given the analysis of three samples of locust-meal as follows : — Ko. i. No. 2. No. 3. Water Oil. . Sngar Mucilage and digestible fibre Albuminoids! Woody fibre . . . . Mineral matter 1 Containing nitrogen . 17.H 1.19 51.42 13-75 7.50 6.01 3.02 12.61 1.08 50.30 20.13 5-87 7.14 2.87 14.22 0.96 54.07 14.41 7.72 5.88 2.74 100.00 100.00 100.00 1.20 0.94 I.2S Locust-meal contains, therefore, fuUy half its weight of sugar, but it is delScient in albuminous compounds or fiesh-formers ; consequently it should be given to stock, in combination with peas or bean-meal, or with decorticated cotton-cake. The beans are either roughly crushed or ground into meal, and either way are much liked by cattle and sheep. Molasses or Treacle. Treacle risky for Breeding Stock. — ^It is pretty generally accepted as an estabKshed truth that food excessively rich in saccharine matter, while highly valuable in the fattening of stock, is un- suitable for breeding animals, in that it tends to impair their procreative powers. About three - fourths of the weight of molasses or treacle consist of sugar, so that it lies very specially under the above condemnation. In Ms instructive paper on " The Ee- productive Powers of Domesticated Ani- mals " contributed to the Journal of the Eoyal Agricultural Society of England in 1865, Professor Tanner lays great stress upon the detrimental influence of " sugary " foods upon the reproductive powers, and considers it very doubtful if any stock which have been fed for a length of time upon food largely mixed with molasses ever regain their breeding powers. These extreme views have not been universally accepted, but there is no doubt that the general drift of the con- tentions emphasised by Professor Tanner are well founded. The whole matter depends upon the skill and care — or the want of skill and care — ^with which the article is used. XTsefol Properties of Treacle. — Treacle is a most useful, but, in the hands of the unskilled or careless breeder, a somewhat dangerous article of food. It possesses special properties of consid- erable value. Diluted with water, and sprinkled over a pulped mixture, it ren- ders the food more palatable to the stock, and its laxative characteristic makes it a useful ingredient in many food-mixtures with an opposite tendency. _ Then its own iatrinsic properties in laying on fat are very high ; and therefore, properly and carefully employed, treacle is of con- siderable service to stock-ovpners. Professor Tanner acknowledges the high fattening properties of treacle, and remarks that it has " the effect of sup- pressing these periodical returns of rest- lessness which prevent heifers feeding as well as steers;" and adds that, "whilst avoiding it for breeding animals, we may encourage its employment when cows or heifers have to be fattened." ^ Treacle for Toung Bulls. — There is no doubt that, in spite of all the warn- ings that have been given, treacle is still used extensively for breeding stock, notably in forcing young bulls and heifers into blooming condition for show or sale. We are aware that it is included in the feeding mixture for young bulls in sev- eral of the leading herds of the day ; but in almost all these cases there is a skil- ful hand at the helm, and the tasty but dangerous treacle is given sparingly and judiciously, so as to benefit the animals without impairing their fecundity. We say " almost," because, unfortunately, as we are also aware, there is too good reason to believe that in some cases harm is really being done to the breeding properties of young animals, bulls more largely than heifers, by the too liberal and imprudent use of treacle. Ho-w Treacle is used. — Treacle is often given to sickly animals mixed with bran or gruel, and it is sometimes put amongst milk for calves. Owing to its highly laxative nature, from 2 lb. to 3 lb. per day is the most that can be given with advantage even to full-grown beasts, and from ^ lb. to i lb. to a calf, according to the age of the animal. The late Dr E. Thomson of ' Jowr, Royal Agric. Soc. Eng., sec. ser., i. 267. FOOD AND FEEDING. 263 Glasgow found that about 3 lb. of mo- lasses mixed with 9 lb. of barley-meal, and given along with 25 lb. to 30 lb. of hay, kept milch cows in full milk, and did nearly as well as 12 lb. of either linseed-cake or bean-meal. A few ounces per day, diluted with hot water, and sprinkled over the dry food of horses or of fattening sheep, will be found beneficial. As already indicated, treacle-water is a most useful addition to a pulped mixture for fattening cattle. Turnips. Eoots form one of the principal ele- ments of vdnter food for cattle, and are also consumed largely by sheep, and to a much smaller extent by horses and pigs. Turnips, vsdth the swede as the chief variety, supply the largest proportion of this description of food. Variation in Nutritive Value of Boots. — The nutritive value of turnips varies with the variety, the climate, soil, and also the manures used in their culti- vation, so that any description of their constituent elements can be regarded as only an approximation to the truth, even in the case of the same kind of turnips if grown under different circumstances. All the varieties of the turnip contain a large percentage of water — namely, from 86 to 94 per cent, and from 6 to 14 per cent of dry matter. Turnips grown in some parts of the kingdom, particularly in the north of Scotland, will, with the aid merely of fresh oat-straw, be found to fatten cattle without using much artificial food of any kind ; whereas large quantities of cake and hay must be given along with the same kind of turnips to effect that object, when such turnips are grown in some other districts. Tliis is more espe- cially the case with turnips grown in the south and east of England. Advantages of Storing Turnips. — Turnips become more nutritious after they have been stored for some time than they are when taken fresh from the field. By storing they lose a proportion of the water which they naturally contain ; and there are also some chemical changes which take place in them tending to render them more nutritious. When turnips are allowed to remain in the field until the leaves begin to put forth a fresh growth, as they wiU be found to do early in spring, a decided deterioration in their quality is the result, owing to certain of their elements be- coming changed into indigestible woody fibre. Hence the necessity for storing turnips at the proper season, say in November and December. The following table gives the average composition of five varieties of turnips, as deduced by Cameron from the results of the analyses of Anderson and Voelcker : — Swedes. White Globe. Aberdeen TeUow. Purple-top Yellow. Norfolk Turnip. Water Albuminoids .... Sugar, &o Woody fibre .... Ash. 89.460 1-443 5-932 2.542 0.623 90.430 I-I43 5-457 2.342 0.628 90.578 1.802 4.622 2-349 0.649 91.200 I.I17 4-436 2.607 0.640 92.280 1-737 2.962 2.000 1. 02 1 100.000 100.000 100.000 100.000 100.000 The means of the analyses of 60 differ- ently grown roots of Fosterton hybrid turnips gave Dr Aitken^ the following results on soils at Pumpherston and Harelaw respectively : — Pumpherston. Harelaw. Water . . . 91.3 92.6 Dry matter . . 8.7 7.4 ^ Trans. High. Agric. Soc, xvi., 18 Composition of dry matter : — Albumen . . 7.7 7.5 Woody fibre . 10.8 11.7 Ash ... 5.8 6.4 Carbohydrates (sugar), &e. . . . 75.7 74.4 The mean results of 27 somewhat more detailed analyses of Aberdeen yellow turnips, grown with a great variety of manures at Carbeth, Stirlingshire, gave 264 CATTLE IN WINTER Mr David Wilson, jun., the following figures : ^ — In fresh In dry roots. matter. "Water . 91.09 Sugar . 4.72 52.94 Woody fibre 1.03 11.54 Albuminoids O.S4 6.06 Non-albuminoid nitro- gen X 6.25 0.60 6.75 Extractive matter free of nitrogen 1.36 15-23 Ash . 0.66 7.47 100.00 100.00 Variatioa in Composition of Tur- nips. — The quantity of nutritive matter in the same variety of the turnip varies — in white turnips from 8 to 13 per cent, and in the yellow turnip from irj^ to 17 per cent; so that 20 tons of yeUow may be as valuable for feeding as 30 tons of white, which is an important fact, and may account for the discrep- ancies experienced by fanners in feed- ing stock. Inasmuch as feeding-roots are essen- tially svgar crops, the sugar they contain is very valuable for meeting the respira^ tory requirements of sheep and cattle, also for fat-forming, and for milk-produc- tion. The following table, based on the experiments of Sir John Bennett Lawes and Dr Gilbert at Eothamsted, records estimates of the approximate average percentages of dry matter, and of sugar, in the kinds of roots mentioned : — Dry matter. Sugar per cent. Infresli roots. In dry matter. White turnips . Yellow turnips . Swedish turnips Mangel . percent. 8.0 9.0 II.O 12.5 percent. 3-5 to 4-5 4.0 to 5.0 6.0 to 7.0 7-5 to 8.5 per cent 44 to 56 44 to 56 55 to 64 60 to 68 A bushel of turnips weighs from 42 lb. to 45 lb. Excess of Water in Boots. — In feed- ing with roots farmers are sometimes apt to forget or overlook with how much water the feeding matter in the roots is associated. Unless an animal gets some 1 Trans. High. Agric. Soc., xviii, 1886. dry food as well as roots, it is forced, in order to obtain sufficient solid nutriment, to consume a very large quantity of water — very much more, in cold weather, than is necessary for it. This water when swallowed has to become warmed at the expense of the heat of the animal, \ which has simultaneously to be replaced by fresh heat — so that part of the sugar, &c., of the roots, instead of going to fatten the animal, is wasted in furnish- ing fuel to warm the superfluous water swallowed in the root-substance. Desirability of Economising Tur- nips. — Over and over again, in various parts of this work, prominent reference is made to the great and avoidable waste which thus takes place in the old-fash- ioned and time-honoured system of tur- nip-and-straw feeding. It is needless here to reason out the point at great length. The above statement as to the deleterious influence of the excess of cold water the animal has to swallow in a fuU meal of roots wiU suffice here for that part of the subject. It is also unnecessary to enter into any lengthened arguments to show that other reasons exist which make it very desirable that the more economical use of roots in the rearing and feeding of stock should be practised. The root crop is a very costly one to grow, and imfortunately its cultivation is attended with great risks of loss from unfavour- able weather, and fungoid and insect attacks. In dealing with the practical work of feeding the different kinds of stock, we have therefore given special attention to the question of how turnips may be most effectually and satisfactorily economised. The avoidance of this waste is the great plea in favour of giving sheep in the turnip-fields a small daily allowance of cake or com. They will then eat less of the roots, but will turn what they do eat to much better account. Turnip - meal. — Swedes have been converted into meal, to be transported anywhere for the use of cattle. They are washed, and their juice squeezed out by means of rollers; and the squeezed fibre, being dried in a kiln and chopped, is easily ground into meal by mill- stones. Professor Johnston found the composi- tion of this meal to be as follows : — FOOD AND FEEDING. 265 Undried. Dried at 212" Protein compounds 13.68 17.72 Gum . 4.14 5-36 Sugar . 48.72 59-23 Oil . I. II 1.44 Fibre and pectin 8.10 10.49 Water . 22.82 Ash . 4.27 S-S3 following as the average composition of mangel-wurzel : — 102.84 99-77 Turnip-tops. — ^As a rule, it is better to leave turnip-tops on the field, for they possess considerable manurial value, and, except when other food is scarce, will give a better return in that way than used as food. Still, they contain more nutritive matter than some would im- agine, and are useful when scattered on a green field for the use of young cattle or sheep. They should, however, be given vrith caution, for when eaten too freely they are apt to produce scour. The ash of turnip-tops contains a large quantity of phosphate of lime and potash. Mangel-wurzel. This is a most valuable root, grown extensively and with great success in England and Ireland. It needs a warm climate, and is grown in Scotland only to a very limited extent. The orange globe and long yellow kinds have been found to contain a larger amount of the respiratory or fat-forming elements than the long red variety, which agrees with the practical results obtained by the use of those varieties in feeding cattle. Advantages of Storing Mangels. — The tendency in fresh mangels to pro- duce scour when these are given to cattle is weU known to all who have used them, and so also is the fact that this property disappears after the roots have been stored for two or three months. Like good wine mangels improve by keeping, and it is desirable, as a rule, to delay the consumption of them till spring. In comparison with turnips, it has been considered that 75 lb. of mangel are equivalent in feeding value to 100 lb. of turnips ; but the two varieties vary so much in nutritive value that these proportions cannot be relied upon. The leaves of the mangel are also useful, especially for milch cows, but have a scouring tendency. The late Dr A. Voelcker gives the Water . Albuminoids Sugar . Gum, &c. . Woody fibre Ash . 87.78 I- 54 6.10 2.50 1. 12 0.96 The solid matter here shown is 12.22 per cent. In some cases, however, the proportion of solid or dry matter falls below 10 per cent — ^while in dry seasons it sometimes is as high as 16 per cent. Medium v. Iiarge Roots.— It is to be borne in mind, with reference to both turnips and mangels, that moderate-sized roots are commonly more nutritious than very large ones. The huge over-sized roots often seen at root-shows are com- monly watery, and such dry matter as they do contain is intrinsically less valu- able than in normal roots. Sugar-beet. Sugar-beet has given excellent results in the feeding of dairy-cows ; but as food for stock it is cultivated only to a very limited extent. The following is the analysis of Irish- grown sugar-beet, which Dr A. Voelcker found contained a larger proportion of sugar than English-grown roots : — Water 76.58 Albuminoids . , . 2.10 Crystallisable sugar . . 14.81 Pectin and extractive matters 0.66 Crude fibre (pulp) . . 5.01 Ash . . . . . 0.84 100.00 1 Considerable attention has been given to the cultivation of sugar-beet for the production of sugar, and the late Dr A. Voelcker published the results of some very elaborate investigations made by him as to the composition of sugar-beets grown under different circumstances. ITutritive Value of Sugar-beet. — Dr A. Voelcker considered that the farmer "will run very little risk in trying the experiment to grow sugar-beets instead of common mangels; for although he may not get so heavy a crop as he does when he plants common mangels, it has ■^ Jour. Royal Agrk. Soc. Eng., vii., sec. ser. 266 CATTLE IN WINTEE. to be bome in mind that i ton of sugar- beets is equivalent, in nutritive qualities as cattle-food, to at least i J^ ton of good common mangel." Farmyard-dung should not be used in growing sugar-beet, as it renders the roots coarse and less nutritious. From 3 to 4 cwt. of superphosphate is suffi- cient to produce an average crop. Beetroot Pulp. Beet-root pulp is the refuse left in extracting the sugary juice from the beet-root. It is much esteemed on the Continent for its fattening properties. It is, however, deficient in flesh-forming compounds, and requires the addition of some cake or meal to supply this de- ficiency. Dr A. Voelcker recommends cotton-cake for this purpose. Milch cows fed on beet-root pulp and a fair allowance of bean-meal or cotton-cake produce abundance of milk of good quality. Pigs also thrive on the pulp if they get some barley-meal or pea^meal mixed with it. Dr A. Voelcker considers beet-root pulp at 12 s. a ton a cheap and valuable food. The following analysis, as given by Voelcker, shows its average composition : — ■Water 70.0 Sugar . Albuminoids . Crude fibre, &c. Aah 2-S 24.0 2.0 Carrots. 1 00.0 The following is the analysis of the white Belgian carrot by Dr A. Voelcker : — Water . . . . 88.50 Albuminoids . . . 0.60 Fat - formers (including woody fibre) . . . 10.18 Ash 0.72 "Water 82.00 Albuminoids 1.30 Sugar, starch, &c. 7-75 "Woody fibre 8.00 Ash . 0.9S Parsnips thus contain more stajrch, but less sugar, than carrots. The starch in parsnips exists only in the external layers of the root, none whatever being found in the heart. There is nearly double the quantity of solid matter in parsnips to that in turnips ; so that i ton of pars- nips ought to go as far, as a fattening material, as 2 tons of white turnips. KoM-ToM,. The following analysis of the bulbs and tops of kohl-rabi is given by Dr Anderson : — Bulb. Top. "Water 86.74 86.68 Albuminoids 2.7s 2-37 Sugar, &c. . 8.62 8.29 "Woody fibre 0.77 1.21 Ash . 1. 12 1.45 100.00 100.00 Kohl-rabi is thus a valuable food, especially for milch cows, as it not only increases the milk, but does not impart to it any particular flavour of a disagree- able kind, such as is produced by turnips. The leaves of kohl-rabi form an excellent description of food for cattle and sheep. Cahhagei. The following analysis of the cabbage was made by Fromberg : — Water .... 93-40 Albuminoids I-7S Sugar, digestible fibre, &c. . 4-OS Ash 0.80 The carrot does not contain any ap- preciable quantity of starch, but this de- ficiency is counterbalanced by its having about 6j^ per cent of sugar. Carrots are esteemed for horses. Carrot-tops are most admirable food for cows giving milk. Parsnips. The following is the average composi- tion of the parsnip : — Cabbages are not cultivated anything like so extensively as they deserve to be. Dr A. Voelcker stated that " weight for weight, cabbages and swedes possess nearly the same nutritive value." Cab- bages are excellent food for sheep and other stock, and few other crops will give as good a return per acre. Thousand-headed hale of the cabbage variety is most valuable as a green food for sheep or cows in autumn, early vrinter, FOOD AND FEEDING. 267 or spring. Sprouting broccoli and winter greens are also cultivated for similar pur- Potatoes. The demand which exists for potatoes as human food, generally renders them too expensive to be employed largely in feed- ing animals, although as food for most kinds of stock they are valuable. Value of Potatoes for Cattle. — ^It has been stated that when potatoes can be purchased for ^£2 or jQ2, los. per ton, they will pay to be employed in feeding cattle ; but this will always depend upon circumstances which are liable to varia- tion, such as the market price of other foods, and the selling price of beef. Second and small -sized potatoes are equally useful for this purpose; and as the potato is a bulky and therefore an expensive article to send a long distance to market, those who grow potatoes to some extent in remote districts will be able to turn their crops to better account by converting the small tubers into meat than by selling the entire crop in its natural state. It is necessary to give potatoes to stock with caution, as the excess of starchy matter, unless counter- acted by other foods, may injure the health of the animals. There are many farmers who have an objection to potatoes as food for cattle. The late Mr M'Combie of Tillyfour said : "I would rather throw potatoes to the dunghiU than give them to a store bul- lock, though I would give them to my fattening bullocks." He would never give them to animals intended to be afterwards grazed. ^ Potatoes vary in composition, but the general results will be gathered from the following analyses given by Dr Ander- son : — Eegents. Skerry Blues. Flukes. Water . 76.32 76.60 74.41 Starch . 12.21 11.79 12.55 Sugar, &c. 2-7S 3-09 2.89 Albuminoids 2.37 2.06 2.18 Fibre 5-41 6.71 Ash. 0.88 0.94 0.98 100.06 99.89 99.72 The albuminoids, or flesh-forming mat- ters, it will be seen, are deficient, but there is an exceptionally high percentage of the respiratory or fat-forming elements, which constitute the largest part of the dry matter. For cattle, therefore, pota- toes should be used in combination with such other foods as cotton-cake, bean- meal, or pea-meal. Xltilising Diseased Potatoes.- — ^When the potato is attacked with disease, it is the albuminoids, or flesh-forming con- stituents, that are destroyed ; these are partially converted into ammonia and other volatile matters, and hence the offensive smell which is emitted from diseased potatoes. The starch, &c., re- mains intact, and advantage is taken of this by employing diseased potatoes in the manufacture of starch. Diseased potatoes may, for the same reason, be turned to account for feeding animals, particularly swine. In order to do this, it is necessary to thoroughly cook the potatoes either by boiling or steaming — ^the latter, when practicable, being the better way — and then pack the cooked potatoes into flour-barrels or casks, ramming them well down, and sprinkling some salt occasionally through the mass. When the barrel or cask is filled to the top, it must be closed from the air, and the potatoes wiU keep for some time fit for use. Potatoes for Horses. — Potatoes are often fed to horses, but when freely given in a raw condition, they are liable to produce colic. Water with Potatoes. — ^Water should not be given to animals fed on either raw or cooked potatoes, for some time after the meal. Green Bape. Eape in a green or growing state is usually fed off with sheep, or cut and used as soiling food for house-fed cattle. It is a nutritious and valu- able plant for these purposes, and for spring and autumn food it should be grown much more extensively than it is. Dr A. Voelcker gives the following as the composition of green rape, and it will be interesting to compare this analysis with that of tiurnips :— ^ Cattle and Cattle-Breeders, p. 13. 268 CATTLE IN WINTER Water Albuminoid Sugar, digestible fibre, &c Woody fibre . Ash. 87.050 3- 133 4.649 3.560 1.608 100.000 Furze, Whins, or Gorse. Lite many other useful and beautiful plants indigenous to this country, furze — ^in some parts called whins, in others gorge — ^is not so highly esteemed as it ought to he, perhaps on account of its being so common, and of its tendency to grow where it has not been sown and is not wanted. Nevertheless, as food for cattle, sheep, and horses, it possesses very considerable value, and for this purpose it may be grown in any part of the country with success, financially and otherwise. The sowing of furze comes into the spring work, and in the spring section of this volume information will be given as to the best means of cultivating the crop. Furze as "Winter Pood. — The chief Fig. 118. — Furze masticator. value of furze is as a green food for the winter months. It should be cut at least once every year, so that the plants may not be allowed to become too woody and hard. When sown thickly on fairly good land the shoots come up fine and juicy, growing to a length of from 2 to 2^ feet. The crop may be cut with the scythe, or with a strong mower past its best for regular harvest work — ^generally with the scythe. Preparing Furze as Food. — Before being given to stock the furze should be cut into short pieces by a strong chaff- cutter, or, better still, bruised and cut by a machine which has been specially de- signed for the purpose, aptly named the " Masticator," and made by Mackenzie & Sons, Cork. This useful machine, which may be driven by horse, water, or steam power, is shown in fig. 118. Some think it desirable to chop or masticate the furze daily as required; but others perform this work twice a- week, and find that the chop keeps well enough. How fed to Stock. — A correspondent, who has had thirty years' experience of FOOD AND FEEDING. 269 furze as food for stock, writing to the Agricultural Gazette of May 7, 1888, says : " Cut up the furze with hay for milking cows, and you will make first- quality butter, but pale — with hay for horses, but do not feed too heavily ; add 3 or 4 lb. mangels to counteract a resin the furze contains. Young stock thrive amazingly upon it. Furze-fed cattle are hard to be fattened on other food ; oaten straw, with cut furze for them." Mr R. O. Pringle stated that horses may be kept through the winter on furze without hay, and only a moderate allow- ance of oats; and the furze gives the horses a fine coat of hair. An acre of well-grown young furze, which is regu- larly cut, will keep four or five horses or cows during the winter and early spring months with very little assistance in the shape of hay or roots. For hard-working horses it should be accompanied by a liberal allowance of bruised oats or other concentrated food. Both horses and cattle take to it readily, but sheep do not eat it willingly except when there is snow on the ground. When grown as food for sheep, the crop is not cut, and in a snowstorm a few acres of young juicy furze are most valuable for sheep. Composition of Furze. — That furze should, in practice, prove to be a useful food, will not surprise any one when its composition is considered and compared with that of roots, rye-grass, and clover. The following is the analysis by Cameron of the composition of fresh furze cut in August, perennial rye-grass and common red clover being shown alongside for comparison : — ■CI,,-,. Perennial Common j-urze. i}y(,.gjass. Red Clover. Water . . 72.00 71-43 81.01 Albuminoids . 3.21 3.37 4.27 Sugar, fibre, &c. 9.38 12.99 9-i4 Woody fibre . 13-33 lo.oS 3.76 Ash . . . 2.08 2.15 1.82 100.00 Grasses and Clovers. It may seem strange, but it is never- theless true, that farmers possess less reliable knowledge as to the relative cropping and feeding value of the various grasses which cover their pastures, than as to any of the other leading crops of the farm. A good deal of fresh know- ledge as to the habits and characters of our grasses, has, no doubt, been gained in recent years, but investigations and experiments must be prosecuted much further before it can be said that we know our pastures and our hay crops as well as we do our crops of roots and grain. There are special circumstances which render the investigation of this subject very difiicult. Root and grain crops are usually matured, or almost so, before they are fed to stock, and thus it has been comparatively easy to obtain reliable information as to the average composi- tion of food-mixtures consisting of these commodities. With grasses, however, especially those which are constantly grazed, the case is difierent. They are eaten at all stages of their growth, in extreme youth, full bloom, old age, and all the intervening stages. It is well known that the nutritive properties of plants vary at different stages of the development of the plants; and it does not follow that all grasses which show a useful composition when /ully grown, are equally useful and suitable for grazing by stock in the earlier periods of their growth. Again, plants which would not stand well in an analysis of hay, may be extremely serviceable as an element in pastures to be regularly grazed. The determining of the amount of nutrition — the grazing value — possessed by the different plants which compose our pastures, sown and natural, temporary and permanent, is thus at once a matter of the greatest difficulty and the utmost importance. No subject could more worthily engage the attention or employ the resources of the leading agricultural societies ; and it is a matter, too, in which a great deal of good might be done by private experiment and investigation by farmers who have opportunities of study- ing their pastures, and watching the pro- gress of the animals which feed upon them. Composition of B-ye-grass and Tim- othy. — As indicating the differences in the composition of grasses at the various stages of growth, the following tables, arranged by Mr John Speir, will be inter- esting : 1 — ' Jour. Brit. Dairy Farm. Ass., iv. 34. 270 CATTLE IN WINTER Analysis of Eye-grasses and Timothy cut in Diefeeent Stages OF Growth and made into Hay. Stage when Mowed. Head Head In After comiDg out. well out. bloom. bloom. Pekeidjial Ete-ghass Hat — Water .... 7.0 7.0 6.6 7-9 Ast . . 8.0 7-4 7.8 6.9 Fat • . 3-3 3-3 3-S 2.4 Carbohydrates 53-6 52.7 5 J- 3 52.3 Albuminoids 10.8 10.3 8.4 7.0 Fibre .... 17.1 19. 1 22.3 23-4 Albuminoid ratio . I to 5.3 I to 5.4 I t»6.s I to 7.8 Italian Rtb-geass Hat — Water .... 7.0 8.2 5.8 7.8 Ash ... . 12.3 10.4 10.3 8.0 Fat ... . 4-S 3-S 2.1 3-6 Carbohydrates 39-1 44-7 48.7 49.6 Albuminoids 20.1 13-1 13-6 10.6 Fibre .... 16.8 19.9 19.2 20.1 Albuminoid ratio . I to 2.2 I to 3.7 I to 3.7 I to 5.0 Stage when Mowed. Head Head Early FnU Early TmoTHY Hat — invisible. visible. bloom. bloom. seed. Water .... 7.8 8.8 5.6 6.3 S-95 Ash ... . 8.0 S.8 S-7 5-3 9-9 Fat . . 4.2 3.10 3-63 3- 35 3-2 Carbohydrates 50.0 52-2 54. SS-o 47.0 Albuminoids "■5 10.8 9.6 9.2 "•3 Fibre .... 18.3 19. 1 21.4 20.5 22.4 Albuminoid ratio . I to 4.7 I to 5. 1 I to 6.0 I to 6. 3 I to 4.4 Analyses of Pastures. — The following analyses indicate the nutritive value of poor, good, and rich pastures : — JSl P-"e plte Water . 70.0 80.0 78.2 Ash. 2.1 2.0 2.2 Albuminoids 3-4 3-S 4-S Fibre 10. 1 4.0 4.0 Carbohydrates . 134 9-7 10. 1 Fat . I.O 0.8 1.0 Mr John Speir remarks that this up- land pasture, with an albuminoid ratio of I to 8.1, must be considered poor; that the grass in the second column, with an albuminoid ratio of i to 4.4, gives a very- fair feeding-power ; while that in the last column, with the high albuminoid ratio of I to 3.6, gives a food capable of feed- ing rapidly. 1 Thanks to the investigations of Dr Day, Dr Anderson, Dr Augustus Voel- cker, Mr Martin John Sutton, Dr John A. Voelcker, Mr W. Carruthers, Mr Faunce de Laune, and others, we do possess a great deal of valuable iiifonnation as to the composition and characteristics of the leading grasses in regular cultivation, when they have either become matured or attained a pretty full measure of growth. Composition of Clovers. — As, to the clovers, which occupy a prominent place in pastures as well as in hay, it will be seen from the following analyses, made of ^ Jour. Brit. Dairy Farm. Ass., iv. 23. FOOD AND FEEDING. 271 fresh plants cut in the third week of June, that they possess very high nutri- tive properties : — g 6 s 3|t PS 6^6 Water . . . 81.01 81.05 79.71 76.80 Albuminoids . 4.27 3-64 3.80 5-70 Sugar, diges- tible fibre, &c. . . . 9.14 8.82 9.03 8.67 Woody fibre . 3-76 4.91 S.38 6.32 Ash ... . 1.82 i.3« 2.08 2.51 100. CO 99.80 100.00 100.00 Alsyke clover, which is much esteemed for damp soils, and is specially suited for meadows, shows upon analysis a rather higher nutritive value than either of these varieties. In composition lucerne and sainfoin closely resemble the clovers. Composition of Grasses. — ^Mr Mar- tin John Sutton's valuable work, Per- manent and Temporary Pastures (the first edition of which was issued in 1886, the third in 1888), contains a series of analyses of the principal agricultural grasses, made specially for the purpose by Dr John A. Voelcker. These analyses are the most exhaustive and most useful of the kind yet published ; and in them, for the first time, the relative amounts of true albuminoids have been determined directly, and not, as in previously re- corded results, merely given by calcula- tion of the total nitrogen into albumin- oids. A precise and clear description of each grass accompanies the analysis, and this, with the beautifully coloured il- lustrations of grasses, and Mr Sutton's practical directions as to the formation and treatment of temporary and penna^ nent pastures, renders the work one of remarkable value. Dr J. A. Voelcker explains that each variety thus analysed was grown sepa- rately and was perfectly pure ; the sample being taken, in every instance, as nearly as possible at the time when it would have been cut for hay. And the analysis of each grass is shown in its natural state and dried at 212° Fahr. — that is, until noth- ing but the solid or dry matter remained. The following analyses of four of the grasses, taken from this volume, will indicate the great value of the work to practical farmers : — Cocksfoot. Meabow Foxtail. B-TE-OKASS. Meadow Fescue. Grass in Dried Grass in Dried Grass in Dried Grass in Dried natural at 212° natural at 212° natural at 212° natural at 212° state. Fahr. state. Fahr. state. Fahr. state. Fahr. Water .... 60.74 55.58 62.01 71.04 Soluble albuminoids ^ .25 .62 .50 1.13 .38 1. 00 Insoluble albuminoids ^ . 1.50 .3.81 2.^6 5-75 2.06 5.38 I-I3 3-88 Digestible fibre 11.30 28.78 14.22 32.01 7.98 21.01 8.91 30.77 Woody fibre . 16.24 41.36 16.42 36.96 17.71 46.62 12.51 43.19 Soluble mineral matter^ . 2.04 5.19 2.S8 5.81 2.90 7.64 1.05 3.62 Insoluble mineral matter * .91 2.32 •94 2. 1 1 .78 2.05 .64 2.21 Chlorophyll, soluble car- bohydrates, &o. , ' Containing nitrogen 7.02 17.92 7.20 16.23 6.18 16.30 4.72 16.33 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 .04 .10 .08 .18 .06 .16 2 Containing nitrogen Albuminoid nitrogen . .24 .61 .41 .92 .33 .86 .18 .62 .28 • 71 .49 1. 10 .39 1.02 Non-albuminoid nitrogen Total nitrogen ' Containing sLica . .18 .4b .30 .b7 -•38 1. 00 .18 .62 .46 1.17 •79 1.77 ■77 2.02 ■36 1.24 .35 .89 • 37 .83 .05 • .13 ■* Containing silica . .51 1.29 •52 1. 17 .32 .84 •39 1-35 2/2 CATTLE IN WINTER Eay. IiOBS in Hay-making. — ^In consider- ing the feeding value of hay it must be borne in mind that the analyses of fresh grasses cannot be relied upon as a key to the nutritive properties and value of hay made from these grasses. If hay were simply (bried grasses and clovers, then there would be no loss of nutriment and no deterioration in feeding value — water only would have passed away. But in farm practice it is impossible to secure this. In hay-making, even in the best of weather and under the most careful man- agement, there always will be some loss of feeding material. In dealing with the important subject of " hay-making " in its proper position in the work of the summer, full infor- mation will be given as to the risks in- curred in hay-making, and as to how these may be most effectually avoided or minimised. Damaged Hay. — Here it will suffice to state that in the process of making, hay may be so much spoiled as to be almost worthless as food for stock. In experiments at Rothamsted it was found that sheep would increase in weight on well-made hay alone ; but in experiments conducted by Dr A. Voelcker, and lasting three months, it was shown that, fed whoUy upon hay which had been damaged by wet weather in making, sheep actually lost in weight. This result proves at once the great importance of exercising skill and care in hay-making, and the im- prudence of attempting to maintain stock solely on damaged hay. It thus becomes apparent that, in giv- ing hay to stock, the physical condition as well as the original quality of the hay must be carefully considered; and the quantities of it and accompanying other foods regulated accordingly. Composition of Hay. — The following are average analyses of good clover and meadow hay, arranged by Professor Way:— Moisture Fatty matters Albumen, and similar nitrogenous compounds \ (flesh-forming matters) ' / Gum, sugar, mucilage, and carbohydrates,! readily converted into sugar / Indigestible woody fibre (cellulose) Mineral matter (ash) 1 Containing nitrogen C1.0VEE-HAT. Meadow-hat. 16.60 3.18 15.81 3442 22.47 7.52 Dried at 212° Fahr. 3.8i 18.96 41.27 26.95 9.01 14.61 2.56 8.44 41.07 27.16 6.16 Dried at 212° Fahr. 2.99 9.88 48.09 31.80 7-24 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 2-S3 3-03 I-3S 1.58 Hay v. Artificial Food. — Mr G. H. C. Wright, _ Sigglesthorne HaU, Hull, makes some interesting calculations as to the relative cost and value of hay and artificial foods in the feeding of stock. He says : " The analysis of good meadow- hay shows that it contains : — Flesh-formers . 8.44x2=16.88 Heat-producers . . . 43.63 60.51 The flesh-formers are considered to be worth tvrice as much as the heat-pro- ducers, therefore the value of hay may correctly be stated to be about 61 units. Hay is now selling at from ^^ to jQ^ per ton on all farms having reasonable access to a market ; it therefore costs per unit f? shillings, or is. 6d. a imit, taking jQd,, I OS. as the mean value of a ton of hay. " A mixture of decorticated cotton-cake and rice-meal shows the following analy- Flesh-formers Heat-producers 26.92x2=53.84 49.24 103.08 Multiplying the flesh-formers in the same way, we find the value of the food may FOOD AND FEEDING. 273 be taken as 103 units. A ton of rice- meal and decorticated cotton-cake, in equal proportions, costs ^^, 2s. 6d., therefore a unit of value of this food costs iS§, or rather less than is. per unit. " The manurial value of hay is set down as ^i, 9s. rod. per ton consumed, ■while the manurial value of a ton of de- corticated cotton-cake and rice -meal is estimated at about ^£'3, us. ^d. It would be necessary in practice to deduct still further from both these estimates; but still it is clearly shown that on every side the artificial food is the cheaper of the two. There can be no doubt what- ever that a certain quantity of hay, used in conjunction with artificial food, is ne- cessary ; but I maintain that the use of hay in large quantities is far more costly than a judicious mixture of artificial food used in conjunction vsdth a, smaller quan- tity of it. For dairy stock, green hay is superior to that which has heated in the stack sufficiently to turn it a dark colour. "1 Straw. The value of straw as food for stock has not yet been fully understood and appreciated by the general body of farm- ers. In recent years more prominent at- tention has been given to the subject, and much good will be done if farmers are induced to exercise greater care in the utili- sation of straw. A large quantity of straw must no doubt be used as litter for cattle and horses ; but in many cases, especially when hay is scarce and dear, it will be found advantageous to substitute, say, peat-moss as litter, and utilise the straw for feeding purposes. In any case there should be no waste — no more straw under the cattle than they can effectually con- vert into manure, and — what is still more unsightly — no loose bundles or handfuls of straw lying about the steading where no straw should be. Feeding Value of Straw. — The value of straw as a feeding material depends not only on the kind of grain to which it belongs, but also on its condition as re- gards ripeness when it is harvested, and on the land and climate where it is grown. The straw of grain which is cut just as the grain is ripe, while there still remains ' Jour. Brit. Dairy Farm. Ass,, iv. 17. VOL. I. a tinge of green in the straw, is much more nutritious than that which has been allowed to become over -ripe. Strong, coarse straw is, of course, not so much relished by cattle as that which is finer in the growth. Composition of Straw. — The follow- ing analyses of different kinds of straw are by Voelcker : ^ — No. I. Wheat Wheat Just over- ripe. ripe. Water .... 13-33 9.17 Albuminoids 2.93 2.12 Oil 1-74 0.65 Sugar, mucilage, &c. . 4.26 3.46 Woody fibre (digestible) . 19.40 54-13 S 82.26 II (indigestible) . Mineral matter 4.21 2.34 100.00 100.00 No. 2. Barley Barley dead not too ripe. ripe. Water .... 15.20 17.50 Albuminoids 4-43 5.37 Oil 1.36 I.17 Sugar, mucilage, &c. . 2.24 ) Woody fibre (digestible) . 5-97 I 71.44 11 (indigestible) . 66.54 ) Mineral matter . 4.26 4.52 100.00 100.00 No. 3. Oat-straw dried for stacking. Cut Fairly Over- green. ripe. ripe. Water . . 16.00 16.00 16.00 Albuminoids . 8.49 4.08 3.65 OU . . . 1.57 1.05 1. 25 Sugar, mucilage, &c. 16.04 10.57 3-19 ^Mef ^''^'^'^''*' h^-34 30.17 27.7s ""gLtble'"'"'" ^4-86 31-78 41-82 Mineral matter . 6.70 6.35 6.34 No. 4. Water Albuminoids Oil . Sugar, mucilage, &c. . Woody fibre (digestible) II (indigestible) Mineral matter . Bean- straw. 19.40 3-36 1.02 4.18 2-75 65.58 3-71 straw. 16.02 8.86 2.34 8.32 16.74 42.79 4-93 100.00 100.00 ^ Jour. Roy. Agric. Soc. Eng., xxii. 1862. S- 274 CATTLE IN WINTER. The above analyses justify the prefer- ence which is given to oat-straw as food for stock. Fine oat -straw, cut before the crop has become quite ripe, is rel- ished alike by cattle, sheep, and horses, and is given extensively to all, especially in the northern parts where the oat is the prevailing cereal. Indeed in many parts of Scotland good oat-straw (given with a small allowance of roots or per- haps a little cake) forms the main portion of the winter food of young store cattle and dry cows. In pea and bean straw it will be seen there are also high feeding properties; while wheat and barley straw, although less nutritive, likewise possess considerable value as food for stock. Stra-w-chaflf. — ^When straw is used as feeding material, it is given either in its natural state, as it comes from the threshing-machine, or it is cut into very short lengths by a machine constructed for the purpose, in which state it is known as straw-chaff or chaffed straw. The latter method is by far the more economical, as by it the amount of waste may be reduced to a minimum. In order to render straw-chaff more palat- able to animals, it is either moistened with treacle mixed with water, or it is employed to absorb a quantity of linseed- meal gruel. The dry chaff is also mixed with the oats given to horses, as such admixture has the effect of causing the horses to masticate their oats more fully than they might otherwise do. Then in pulped mixtures straw-chaff is very ex- tensively employed; and it has been clearly proved by experience that by the economical and careful use of cut straw and concentrated foods a greatly in- creased stock of cattle and sheep may be kept. Preparing and Storing Straw- chaff. — There is perhaps no better way of turning straw to good account than by cutting it into chaff and storing it for a few months in large quantities with a slight admixture of chaffed green food, salt, and perhaps ground cake. By this system straw remaining over from the previous winter is cut into chaff in spring or summer and stored in barns till the following winter, when it is con- sumed ; thus enabling the farmer to hold over a quantity of the fresh straw for similar treatment next spring or sum- mer. The system is pursued with great success by many farmers, and particu- larly when roots are scarce the straw- chaff thus prepared will be found most valuable. Mr Samuel Jonas, Chrishall, Saffron- Walden, carried out this plan for many years. The straw is cut into chaff as it leaves the threshing-machine by one of Maynard's chaff-cutters, which carries the chaff into the barn where it is to be stored. It is well trodden dovm and mixed, says Mr Jonas, with "about a bushel of salt to every ton, and also a certain quantity of green-stuff. Tares or rye cut green into chaff are sown by the hand as the chaff is brought in. This causes it to heat: and adding the amount of green-stuff required to give it a proper heat is the secret of the successful opera- tion of storing chaff. "Respecting the quantity of green chaff to be mixed with straw-chaff to cause a proper fermentation, I use about I cwt. to the ton of straw-chaff, and i bushel of salt (56 lb.) to the ton of chaff. But some judgment is required as to the state of the green-stuff. If it is green rye on the ear, a full cwt. is required; if very green tares, a rather less quantity will do, as the degree of fermentation depends upon the quantity of sap con- tained in it. This is done in spring and summer — ^the chaff is not used till Octo- ber and the winter months. I can thus thresh and dress the corn crops, and cut the straw into chaff, in one process, the expense of cutting and storing the same being about is. per acre: the principal additional expense is for about 4 cwt. of coal per day, and we thresh and cut from 8 to 10 acres per day." ^ Some now use pulped mangels instead of vetches or rye for mixing with the dry straw-chaff as it is being stored, and get better results therefrom. Advantages of Stored Stra-w-ohaff. — Mr Jonas states that this mode of pre- paring and preserving straw-chaff "has in two seasons, with no turnips, enabled me to winter my sheep and fold the land, leaving sufficient folding to pro- duce a good crop of barley, not from the chaff alone, but from its being the means by which I enabled my sheep to con- 1 Jowr. Soy. Agrie. Soc. Eng., vi., 1870. FOOD AND FEEDING. 275 sume ■with it large quantities of bran, malt - combs, and oilcake, sufficient to keep them in health and good condition, and to leave the land in a good state for the following crop of barley, which I could not have done by any other means. The turnips were such a failure that, the same two winters, all my fat cattle were fed without having a root to eat. I had two coppers hung in the mixing-house, ground my com, and broke my cake with an American mill. These were mixed together vrith malt -combs and boiled, and, after a certain time, were emptied, boiling -hot, into a prepared bed of very old straw-chaff : these were stirred over and mixed well together, and used for the stock in a warm state. They did well so fed, and became good fat bullocks, and paid for the expense of food and attendance, which they very seldom do." Mr Jonas prefers the chaff of wheat or oat straw, as " these may be cut with- out loss in a far greener state than is generally done ; but barley, to be of good quality, cannot fairly be cut too ripe." Fermentation of Stravr. — Straw- chaff, as prepared by Mr Jonas, formed the subject of a paper read by Dr Augustus Voelcker, who ascertained by analysis^ — i. That fermented straw-chaff (wheat) is one-fourth richer in flesh-form- ing compounds, or the materials which produce the lean fibre of meat, than ordinary wheat-straw ; 2. That fermented straw-chaff contains nearly two and a half times the amount of sugar, gum, and similar compounds, which is found in common wheat-straw ; 3. That nearly 51 per cent of the woody fibre in fer- mented straw-chaff was soluble, whilst the soluble portion of vegetable fibre in common wheat-straw does not amount to more than 26.48 per cent. Effect of Fermentation in Stravir. — Dr A. Voelcker further states that " the fermentation to which the straw is sub- mitted in Mr Jonas's plan thus has the effect of rendering the hard and dry substance which constitutes the bulk of straw more soluble and digestible than it is in its natural condition." He also notices "the extremely delicate flavour ' Jawr. Boy, Agric. Soc. Eng., vii., 1871. and the palatable condition which is con- ferred upon the straw in the process of fermentation" as another recommenda- tion. The prepared straw-chaff has " all the agreeable smell which characterises good green meadow-hay;" and the liquid produced by pouring hot water upon it "could hardly be distinguished from hay-tea." Making Fermented Straw ecLual to Hay. — Dr A. Voelcker recommended that about 2 cwt. of decorticated cotton- cake, ground into meal, should be added to I ton of fermented straw-chaff, and stated that by means of this admixture the proportion of flesh -forming com- pounds in fermented straw-chaff could be brought up to what it is in good meadow-hay. Condimental Foods. Great ingenuity and enterprise have in late years been directed to the pro- duction of " condimental cattle foods," comprising composite cakes for cattle and sheep, mixed feeding-meal for young calves and grown-up cattle, milk substitutes for calves, compounded lamb food, poultry food, and appetising spices for all kinds of farm live stock. In the early days of this industry adulteration was rampant, and exorbitant prices were the rule. The wholesome craze for analysis, and excessive competition, have banished both these evils — not perhaps com- pletely, but to a very large extent ; and now the great bulk of the vast quantity of these condimental foods made and sold in this country is not only of high quality and well adapted to their vari- ous purposes, but also moderate in price. There is no doubt that farmers have derived much beneflt by the enterprise and skill which have been employed in bringing out these prepared foods, more especially those which are designed as substitutes for milk in the rearing of calves. We shall not attempt to describe the composition and individual characteristics of these condimental foods. It may be well, however, to advise farmers never on any account to purchase any of these foods without receiving therewith a warranty as to its freedom from adul- teration, and a guaranteed analysis of its chemical composition. With this 2/6 CATTLE IN WINTER analysis before him, and a reference to what is said in this work as to the ele- ments of nutrition in cattle foods, the farmer will be able to form a tolerably correct idea as to the value of the food. A sample of the food may be analysed for a mere trifle, and if it should fall short of the guaranteed analysis, the vendor is fully responsible for the de- ficiency. Vetches. Of all green forage crops, the vetch is the most extensively grown in the United Kingdom. In almost all kinds of soils it can be grown easily, and at comparatively little expense. As will be seen from the following analyses of samples, cut at different periods of growth, it possesses high nutritive properties :^ — Before Full Bloom l)loom. 17100111. and seed. "Water . . .6.0 7.8 7.8 Ash . . . 12.0 10.6 II. 4 Fat ... 3.9 4.0 3.6 Carbohydrates . 31.9 35.7 35.4 Fibre . . . 11.2 14.0 18.5 Albuminoids . .34.8 27.6 23.1 Albuminoid ratio I to 1,0 I to 4.0 I to 1.9 Vetches cut when in full bloom, and before seeding, are much relished by all kinds of stock, and as will be again urged upon the farmers — in speaking of sowing vetches in spring — it is desirable that this crop should be grown much more extensively than it is. How Vetches are Fed to Stock. — As is shown in the analyses, vetches con- tain an exceptionally high proportion of albuminoids, and they are thus very suitable for giving to stock along with starchy foods, such as rice-meal and Indian corn-meal. For this same reason it is not desirable to give highly nitrog- enous foods, such as decorticated cotton- cake and beans, along with vetches, for then the food would be badly balanced — there would be an unprofitable, even a dangerous, excess of albuminoids. Vetches should be sown in successive patches, so as to afford a continuous supply of fresh food. When cut just before becoming fully ripe, vetches make excellent silage, and are much used for ' Jcmr. Brit. Dairy Farm. Ass., iv. 43. this purpose. Vetches are also con- sumed on the land by sheep. Green Maize. There is reason to hope that maize (Indian com) may prove a valuable ad- dition to our green forage crops. The subject of its cultivation in this country wiU be considered fuUy in later portions of this work. It will be a great gain to British farmers if it can be successfully acclimatised, for maize is capable of pro- ducing an enormous yield of succulent food, which is much relished by cattle, and which is well adapted for feeding m a fresh condition along with other foods, such as chopped hay or straw and de- corticated cotton-cake, or for converting into silage for winter feeding. Composition of Green Maize. — For use as a forage crop, maize is cut green, and before the cobs have formed. Its chemical composition in this form has been found to vary greatly. Green maize grown in France gave the following an- alysis : — Albuminoids . . . 1.22 Fat 0.25 Soluble carbohydrates . . 10.41 Sugar 0.58 Green maize is not a rich food. Its merit lies in the great quantity of palat- able succulent food it will produce per acre. It is deficient in nitrogen, but along with highly nitrogenous foods such as decorticated cotton-cake it is most suitable and acceptable to all kinds of stock. Professor James Long found that 120 lb. of green maize and 2 lb. of decor- ticated cotton-cake made an excellent food for his dairy-cows. The nutritive ratio in this mixture he shows as fol- lows :^ — Albu- -p + Carbo- minoids. hydrates. 120 lb. of maize . 1.45 0.60 12.00 2 lb. of cotton-cake 0.82 0.10 0.42 2.27 0.70 12.42 IS- 39 A sample of green maize silage from M. Goffart's silo in France, was analysed by Dr A. Voelcker, and gave the follow- ing results :^ — ^ Jow. Royal. Agric. Soc. Eng., xxiii. 132. ' Ibid., XX. 489. FOOD AND FEEDING. 277 Water 78. So Albuminous oompoundB^ 1. 12 Soluble carbohydrates 4-55 Crude fibre 13-64 Mineral matter (ash) . 1.89 100.00 1 Containing nitrogen . 0.18 Volatile acids, calculated as acetic acid . 0.07 Non -volatile acids, calcu- lated as lactic acid . . 0.06 In a dry summer, when grass is scarce, green maize, chopped and mixed with chaffed straw or hay, will be found to be a valuable food for cows or young cattle. A sprinkling of crushed decorticated cotton-cake — ij^ or 2 lb. per head — would make this a nutritive mixture for cows giving milk. Sorghwn. Sorghum saccliaratwm is a tall-growing plant, similar in appearance to maize, but finer in the stem. In warm climates it grows with great luxuriance, and when cut green, forms excellent forage for stock. It is hoped that hardy varieties of it may be raised, so that it may be successfidly cultivated in this country. As yet experiments have been confined to the south and centre of England, and so far the experience has been variable. Professor James Long has grown it very successfully at Gravelly Manor, Stevenage, Herts, and he states, after two years' experience of it, that there is no succulent food which is more reHshed by cattle, or upon which they thrive better. Green sorghum gives the following analysis : — • Water 77.0 Albuminoids 1.6 Carbohydrates 12.0 Fat . 0.3 Sorghum is exceptionally rich in sugar, and therefore Professor Long found it specially suitable for feeding along with decorticated cotton-cake. Fed alone to cows it has a tendency to cause looseness ; but 2 lb. of decorticated cotton -cake to 100 lb. of green sorghum corrected this, and made an excellent daily ration for cows in milk. The nutritive properties in this mixture Professor Long states as follows ■} — ' Jowr. Royal Agric. Soc. Eng., xxiii. 137. minoids. *"'■■ Carbo- hydrates. 100 lb. of sorghum . 2 lb. of cotton-cake 1.60 0.30 0.82 0.28 12.00 0.42 2.42 0.58 12.42 15-42 Lucerne. Lucerne is exceptionally rich in al- buminous matters, and is even more nutritious than red clover. Its analysis shows the following : — Water . Fat . Albuminoids Carbohydrates 70.00 0.82 3.82 13.60 It affords a large jfield, under favourable circumstances sometimes close on 20 tons per acre ; and is most useful when sown in a small patch near the steading, to be cut as required for consumption. Young lucerne given alone, or as the principal food, has a tendency to cause the ani- mals to become blown ; but this danger is avoided by giving it along with straw, the two being chaffed together — an ex- cellent method of turning straw to good account as food. Lucerne delights in a dry soil and dry weather, and will not give good results on wet soils or in rainy seasons. Sir John Bennett Lawes describes it as " the crop for a drought." Sainfoin. Sainfoin is a valuable plant, whether for cultivation by itself to be consumed as green food or made iuto hay, or as a leading ingredient in temporary pastures. For the latter purpose it is best adapted. It is peculiarly valuable in sheep-farming districts, and seems to sustain little or no injury by being grazed by sheep. Un- like lucerne, it has no tendency to cause blowing in cattle. As the following analysis will indicate, sainfoin is less nutritious than lucerne, and does not give nearly so large a yield per acre : — Water . . 80.0 Fat . . . 0.0 Albuminoids . 2.1 Carbohydrates 8.0 Prickly Comfrey. There is much difference of opinion as to the value of prickly comfrey as a 378 CATTLE IN WINTEK. forage crop. It is a hardy and prolific plant; and in good soil, well manured, win afford a large yield. There is pro- bably no forage -plant that has made warmer friends or more bitter enemies than prickly comfrey. It is a some- what coarse watery food, not much rel- ished by cattle at the outset, but very useful as a green food for dairy-cows. Dr Augustus Voelcker considered that prickly comfrey "has about the same feeding value as green mustard, or man- gels, or turnip-tops, or Italian rye-grass grown on irrigated lands ; " and gives its general composition as follows : ^ — later .... itrogenous organic com- pounds (flesh-formers)^ on - nitrogenous com - pounds (heat and fat producers) . [inerai matter (ash) Natural state. 90.66 2.72 4.78 1.84 100.00 Calculated dry. 0.00 29.12 51.28 19.60 100.00 ' Containing nitrogen 0.434 4.66 Sugar. The great reduction in the price of sugar naturally gave rise to the question, whether it might profitably be employed as food for stock. With the view of testing this point, Sir John Bennett Lawes, Bart., carried out some experi- ments with pigs; and the results re- ported in the Journal pf the Royal Agricultural Society of England (vol. xxi., sec. ser., p. 81) are tantamount to an answer in the negative — ^that is, un- less the price of sugar falls considerably lower still. It was then (1885) selling at from ;^io, iss. to ;£ii, 5s. per ton for feeding purposes. Sugar V. Starch. — In animal economy, sugar and starch perform similar func- tions ; and the experiments conducted by Sir John Bennett Lawes showed that, " whether for the purpose of supporting the functional actions of the body, or of ministering to the formation of increase, . . . starch and sugar have, weight for weight, values almost identical. . . . Starch and sugar, therefore, as foods, appear to be equivalent ; or, in other ' Jow. Royal Agric. Soo. Eng., vii. 388. words, a pound of one, properly used, can produce no more increase in our stock than a pound of the other." Eemarking upon the exaggerated value which had been placed upon sugar as a food for stock, Sir John Bennett Lawes states that it is nevertheless an excellent food ; and that the only question is, what price is sugar worth (in comparison with other foods) for feeding purposes 1 Sir John considers that it would not be advisable to use sugar with such foods as cereal grains, maize, rice, roots, or even meadow-hay, as all these are some- what low in nitrogen ; and to dilute the nitrogen that exists still more, by the use of sugar, would tend to waste it. On the other hand, foods containing a large amount of nitrogenous substance, such as leguminous seeds — especially lentils, tares, and beans — as well as linseed-cake, cotton-cake, and clover-hay, might be safely diluted with sugar. But for this purpose, is sugar at _;^io or jQu per ton cheaper than the other foods, those rich in starch, which are capable of performing the same functions as sugar ? Sir John thinks not. " When ordinary barley can be purchased at jQ/^ I OS. per ton, and Rangoon rice-meal at £i to ^/^ per ton, it would appear that sugar is too dear to compete with starchy foods at their present extremely low prices." Fish-meal. Cod-fish. Soup for Cattle. — For ages the frugal farmers of Norway have to some extent utilised fish-offal as food for cattle. Their custom has been to boil down the heads of cod-fish into a kind of soup, which they mix with straw or other fodder and give to cattle, and by the means of this cheap and nutritious food many Norwegian farmers have been able to maintain a much larger stock of cattle than would have been otherwise prac- ticable. Herring-meal for Cattle. — The suc- cessful results obtained from this " cod- fish soup " for cattle naturally led to further experiments of a similar kind, and from the refuse of herring a cattle-feed- ing meal of a very useful kind is being made in Christiania. Dr A. P. Aitken, chemist to the Highland and Agricultural Society, formed the opinion that this her- FOOD AND FEEDING. 279 ring-meal might prove a useful addition to our list of cattle foods; and in the spring of 1886 he procured a supply of it, and arranged with Mr John Speir, Newton Farm, Newton, Glasgow, to have the herring-meal tested as food for dairy- cows, compared with other feeding ma- terials. Mr Speir put the herring-meal to the test in two sets of experiments, the one conducted in the summer of 1886, and the other in the winter of 1887. The results are fully reported by him in the Transactions of the Highland and Agri- cultural Society. 1 CompoBition of Herring - meal. — Upon analysis, this Norwegian herring- meal was found to contain about 40 per cent of albumen, and 20 per cent of oil ; and being an animal product, there was of course, no starch. It smelt strongly of herring, and did not look as if it would be relished by cattle; while it was also feared that its fishy taste and smell might unpleasantly taint the milk and butter. After a day or two, however, the cows ate it readily enough, and no traces of injury to the flavour of the milk or butter were discovered. Value as Food. — The results of both experiments were favourable to the her- ring-meal, and Mr Speir considers that it is proved (1) that herring-meal is a useful cattle food ; (2) that it would be injudi- cious to use it largely alone ; (3) that the best results are obtained when suitably mixed with very starchy food ; (4) that it is fairly palatable, as cows take to it as readily as to most manufactured foods, linseed and condimental cakes excluded ; (5) that it appears to be easily digested ; and (6) that as far as this experience goes, it has not conveyed any fishy or other unpleasant taste to either the milk or the butter. The price of this Norwegian herring- meal in bags at Glasgow was .then (1887) ^T, I2S. 6d. per ton, but Mr Speir con- siders that before it could come into ex- tensive use in this country, its price would have to be very much reduced. Utilising Pish-ofiFal. — In view of the vast extent of the herring-fishing industry in this country, this experi- ment possesses peculiar interest. Not ' Fourth ser., xx. 112. unfrequently, on account of excessive " catches " and a consequent glut in the herring-market, large quantities of her- ring have to be returned to the sea. Now, if it could be shown that these surplus boat-loads of fish — as well as the great quantities- of fish-ofial at the curing- yards — might be converted into a palat- able and useful feeding-meal for cattle, a point of considerable national import- ance would be gained. Stock-ovmers would be benefited, and a helpful stimu- lus would be extended to the important industry of herring-fishing. FiBh.-guano as rood. — Fish-guano has become a favourite manure with many farmers in this coimtry ; yet it is contended by some scientific men that the proper use of this fish product — meal or guano — is in the first instance as a food for stock, and that the manure made by the consumption of the fish- guano will be more readily available as plant-food than is the fish-guano itself, when applied directly to the land. Fish-guanos contain from 2 to 12 per cent of oil, and this oil is not only value- less as manure, but acts injuriously in the soil by preventing the manure from rotting and yielding up its nitrogen to the crop. On the other hand, oil is a most valuable element in food, and Dr Aitken supports Weiske's suggestion that this fish meal or guano usually sold as a manure should be used in the first place as food, and that it should not be spread upon the land until it has been improved by passing through the digestive ap- paratus of farm-stock. Fish meal or guano is rich in nitrogen, which usually ranges from 5 to 10 per cent, and the phosphates in it range from 15 to 50 per cent, so that it forms an excellent ingredient in the food of young stock. As to digestibility, the fish-guano would compare favourably with the mar jority of good feeding-cakes — recent ex- periments having shown that stock digest 90 per cent of its albuminoids. In the process of fish-curing, there is considerable loss in disfigured fish ren- dered unfit for the market, and in the heads of the fish, which are chopped oflf in millions. Dr Aitken states that these two kinds of fish material, if properly dried and ground to powder, would make a food which, for cleanness and whole- 280 CATTLE IN WINTER someness, would leave nothing to be desired.^ Fhshrmeal. This is a by-product in the manufac- ture of Liebig's extract of beef, which is carried on upon an extensive scale in South America. The residue derived from that manufacture, consisting of the wholesome and nutritive fibrin of flesh, is dried and ground into a powder and sold as food for stock, under the name of Liebig's meat-meaL Feeding Value. — Dr A. P. Aitken regards this meal && a usefid kind of con- centrated food for stock, and believes that it will be more appreciated as its nutri- tive qualities become better known. It contains no starch, and consists chiefly of albumen. It should therefore be given along with starchy food. Tor Pigs. — Experiments upon pigs by Haubner and Hofmeister have shown that a pound of the flesh-meal is equal to about 3^ lb. of barley-meal in the pro- duction of live weight in feeding pigs. Professor Lehman fed four pigs on a mixture of flesh-meal and potatoes, and one upon potatoes alone. The experi- ment lasted 44 days, and gave the fol- lowing result : — Food consmued per head. Potatoes. Lot I, 422 lb. Lot 2, 415^ 11 Increase in live weight Flesh-meal. per head. 20^ lb. 52^ lb. none 25 n It is thus seen that aU the pigs consumed about the same quantity of potatoes, and that every pound of flesh-meal eaten pro- duced with the potatoes i^ lb. increase in live weight. The soluble salts being all dissolved in making the extract, the flesh -meal has very little flavour, which is rectifled by the addition of chlorides and phos- phates of soda, potash, and lime. For Sheep. — Dr Hofmeister conducted experiments with flesh-meal as food for sheep at Dresden, but the results were not so favourable. He reckoned that 4 lb. of barley -meal produced the same result as 3 lb. of flesh-meal, and as the latter was very much dearer than the former, he did not consider the flesh-meal an economical food for sheep. ^ Trams. High. Agric. Soc, xx., 1888. For Cattle. — It has been tried as food for cattle on several occasions on the Continent, and the results were on the whole satisfactory. They eat it readily enough, and it is given at the rate of from I to 3 lb. per day. Along with other food it produced favourable results both in increase of live weight and milk-produc- tion. ^ ALBUMINOID EATIO. The term "albuminoid ratio" has occasionally been used in the foregoing pages, and as it is a term which very often occurs in references to the composi- tion of foods, it is desirable that it should be briefly explained. It means the ratio or proportion which the albuminoids in any given food bear to the non-nitrogen- ous food-constituents, of the nature of fat, starch, sugar, or digestible fibre. But as fat or oil is a very much more concentrated food, regarded as a fat, heat, or force producer, than sugar or starch, we must, in order to institute any useful comparison between two articles of food, be able to translate, as it were, fat into its equivalent in sugar or starch. Sugar and starch, as already said, are practically equal in feeding value ; so that starch, sugar, and other soluble carbohy- drates — dextrine, digestible cellulose, &c. — can be set against one another, unit for unit. But oil or fat is equal in force-pro- ducing power, and therefore in feeding value, to 2 J^ times its weight of sugar or starch, so that to compare fat with sugar or starch we have to multiply ithj 2j4- The following illustration wiU serve to show how, with the assistance of this factor, the albuminoid ratio of a food is calculated. Let us take analyses of linseed - cake and rice, and compare them : — liinseed-cake. Eice. Water . 1 Albuminoids 10.00 25.00 14.00 S-30 ] Oil . ( Mucilage, starch, Woody fibre . Ash . . . &c. 12.00 36.00 10.00 7.00 0.40 78.10 1.50 0.70 100.00 Taking the linseed-cake first, 12 of oil multiplied hj 2j4 gives 30, as the starch ^ Ibid., 4th ser., xx. 109. ALBUMINOID EATIO. 281 equivalent of the oil. Adding this 30 to the 36.0 of digestible carbohydrates (mucilage, &c.), we get 66 as the starch equivalent in the linseed - cake. The " albuminoid ratio " is then as 25 to 66, or dividing 25 into 66, as i to 2.64, or, expressing it in the ordinary proportion form, 1 : 2.64. In the case of the rice we have only 0.4 of oil, which, multiplied by 2j^, gives i. This, added to 78, gives 79 as the starch equivalent of the rice. The albuminoid ratio of the rice then is as 5.3 to 78, or, dividing by 5.3, as i to 14.7, or i:i4.7._ The albuminoid ratio of average speci- mens of many of the foods in common use is as follows : — Albuminoid ratio. Cotton-cake, decorticated . „ „ undecorticated Linseed-cake Rape-cake Beans Peas Wheat-bran Malt-dust Brewers' grains Oats Barley Maize Pasture grass Clover-hay (new) Meadow-hay (medium) Barley -straw Oat-straw Vetches Swedes Turnips Mangels Potatoes i-S 2.0 2.4 1.6 2-S 3-1 5-2 3-S 3-0 6.1 7-9 9-5 5-9 7-4 9-4 19.0 22.3 9.8 9.8 10. 1 17.0 17.2 Some difficulty is presented in this branch of the subject by the considera- tion that the various constituents of one and the same food are not equally digest- ible by all animals, and a given diet may practically have a different albuminoid ratio for oxen from that which it has for sheep or for horses. Importance of properly balancing Pood. — The proper balancing of the various elements of nutrition in the food given to animals is so essential to eco- nomical feeding, that its importance can- not be too strongly or too often impressed upon farmers. This balancing, indeed, is more important than mere bulk or quantity; for by giving a ration which is rich to excess in certain elements and poor in others, there will not only be loss of valuable feeding material, but the health and progress of the animal may also be seriously impaired. For instance, the injudicious use of too concentrated food may induce fever or other serious ailments, and thus by a turn of illness destroy aU possibility of proiit. Then as to the economy of the food itself, this can be fuUy ensured only by having the mixtures of it which are given to the animals prepared so that their various in- gredients shall be present in the proper proportions. Assuming that a certain food-mixture contains an unduly large proportion of carbohydrates, the animal feeding upon it, in order to obtain the amount of nitrogenous matter its system requires, will have to consume more carbohydrates than it can assimilate. To illustrate this still further, let it be supposed — (i) that the requirements of the animal for a cer- tain time are 3 lb. of nitrogenous matter, to 15 of non-nitrogenous or carbohydrates; and (2) that the mixture of food given to it contains only 2 lb. of nitrogenous matter to 15 of carbohydrates. Now, in order to obtain the necessary 3 lb. of nitrogenous matter, the animal has thus to consume 20 lb. of carbo- hydrates. What then becomes of the extra 5 lb. of carbohydrates t The ani- mal's system cannot assimilate more than 15 lb., the other 5 passes away in the dung. And in the manure this non-nitro- genous matter is worthless, its ultimate products being carbonic acid and water. There is thus a complete loss of the 5 lb. of carbohydrates. Let the uneven pro- portions of the food be reversed, so as to have an excess of nitrogenous matter and a deficiency of carbohydrates, and the residt is a similar loss of nitrogenous matter. In this case the excess of food — ^nitrogenous matter — ^which is excreted by the animal, increases the ammonia of the manure-heap ; but it is a costly way of purchasing that valuable element of plant-food, and does not compensate for the loss hj having the food unevenly balanced. The strength of a chain depends upon the endurance of its weakest link— an often-used and serviceable illustration. It is a familiar representation of Liebig's law of minimum, which is quite as forcible in feeding as in manuring. Let there be no 282 CATTLE IN WINTER weak "1i'n1ra"in the"cliain." of ingredients composing the feeding mixture. Con- sider and measure the demands which the wants and assimilating capacity of your animals are Kkely to make upon the nitrogenous and non- nitrogenous "links" (or elements) respectively, and have each made exactly, or as nearly as possible, equal to the strain upon it. Satio for Different Classes of Stock. — ^It is important that the ratio of albu- minoids to non-albuminoids should be high in the case of the diet of young growing stock and of dairy cattle, as the former have to buUd up their muscle and bone, and the latter have to supply the albuminoids of the milk and to produce calves ; while in the case of fattening ani- mals, which assimilate comparatively lit- tle nitrogen, the ratio of albuminoids to non-albuminoids may be lower. Probably the best average ratio, tak- ing one class of animals with another, is about I of nitrogenous matter to 6 of non-nitrogenous — ^that is, an albuminoid ratio of i to 6. For young growing stock and milch cows it should, as a rule, be a little higher — perhaps i to 4 or 5, and for fattening stock a little lower — sometimes as low as i to 8. A study of the foregoing table will show which foods, by their addition or introduction into an animal's diet, tend to raise, and which to lower, the albu- minoid ratio. The desired elements of food should of course be drawn from whatever sources are for the time the cheapest. For a fuller discussion of this subject, readers may be referred to the various manuals of agricultural chemistry. HINTS ON THE PURCHASE OF FOOD. It is desirable that farmers shotild exercise great care in the purchasing of artificial foods. In times past much de- ceit was practised by unscrupulous manu- facturers and sellers of these foods, and farmers often sustained heavy losses by having adulterated and inferior material supplied to them, instead of the genuine article. Thanks mainly to the active efforts of agricultural and analytical asso- ciations, led by the courageous and com- mendable course of the Eoyal Agricul- tural Society of England in publishing the names of defaulters, these reprehensible practices have to a large extent disap- peared. StiU, in purchasing food as well as manure, the buyer should take every precaution to ensure the delivery of the genuine article. With such foods as grain, peas, and beans, farmers can, by careful examina- tion, satisfy themselves as to their purity, quality, and condition. Chemical Analysis essential. • — With cakes, meals, and other mixed foods, there is greater risk of deception, and more difficulty in detecting it. As to their general quahty and soundness, experienced farmers can, as a rule, decide by sight, touch, taste, and smell ; but without the aid of chemical analysis com- plete or sufficient certainty cannot be attained. Guaranteed Analysis. ■ — Farmers should be careful to buy aU kinds of foods upon a guaranteed analysis, and with a written guarantee that each food is " pure " of its kind as described. The guaranteed analysis should state that the food contains not less than certain per- centages of the various useful ingredients of foods, nor more than a certain per- centage of "impurities," and a written statement should be added declaring that the food is in good, sound, wholesome condition, and free from ingredients of a poisonous or deleterious nature. Most of the leading firms now habitually sell their cakes and foods upon certain guar- teed analyses. Purity of Ijinseed - cake. — Linseed- cake has perhaps been more largely adulterated than any other variety of cake. Among the commodities most frequently used for adulterating linseed- cake are rape -seed, cockle -seal, buck- wheat, and what is termed " mill-sweep- ings." Absolutely pure, linseed - cake- that is, cake containing nothing but Un- seed— is not to be had, for the seed is certain to contain some small percentage of impurity. The question then arises, what should constitute a ^^ pure linseed- cake " ? There has been considerable dis- cussion as to this, but there has been a pretty general agreement that the amount of impurity should not exceed 5 per cent. Accepting this limit, Dr John A. Voelc- ker has submitted the following as the THE MANUEIAL VALUE OF FOODS. 283 essentials for a cake being considered a pure one, viz. : — 1. That it be made from sound seed of not less than 95 per cent purity, subse- quently well screened. 2. That it contains no ingredients of a poisonous or deleterious nature. 3. That it be entirely free from sophis- tication of any kind. 4. That it contain not more than 2 per cent of sand. 5. That it be sold in good, merchant- able condition. Tests of Cake. — The late Dr Augustus Voelcker gave the following simple tests as to the quality and character of cake : — 1. Examine a bit of the cake as to its taste and smell ; observe that it is fresh, and free from any mouldiness. 2. Examine another piece vrith a com- mon pocket-lens. This examination will show whether Ijie cake is a linseed or a rape cake, inasmuch as the form of the linseed and rape-seed is widely different. Much more difficult is it to distinguish by the lens mustard from rape cake. 3. Mix in a timibler about i oz. of the cake, broken into small pieces, with 6 oz. of cold water. Good linseed-cake will form, under these circumstances, a stiff, agreeably tasting jelly, without separat- ing any water. Rape-cake will become less gelatinous, and separate a yellowish or brown rather bitter tasting liquid. Mustard - cake, likewise, will become a little gelatinous, and separate a brown liquid which possesses the characteristic taste and smell of the essential oil of mustard. Eape-cake fraudulently or naturally mixed with mustard-seed under these circumstances, will exhibit a similar behaviour to that of mustard-seed, and by the degree of pungency of taste and smell, when compared with pure mustard- cake, will afford the means of estimating approximately the amount of mustard which the cake contains. THE MANURIAL VALUE OF FOODS. In the economical feeding of farm live stock, the manurial value of the foods used forms an important consideration. In some notes written specially for this edition, Mr Bernard Dyer, F.C.S., says : The value of animal excreta as a manure has been recognised perhaps as long as we have any records of agri- culture. Chemistry teaches us that — apart from mere mechanical effects on the texture of the soil — this value is due to the pres- ence of nitrogenous and mineral com- pounds, of which latter the most import- ant are the compounds of potash and of phosphoric acid. Seeing that, directly or indirectly, all the constituents of ani- mal excreta are derived from the food it consumes, it is at once reasonable to suppose that the composition of the food must influence that of the excreta derived from it — that food, rich in nitro- gen and in phosphates, for example, should produce manure rich in these materials; and that food, comparatively poor in these respects, should produce manure comparatively poor in them. Urine.- — The urine is the richest part of animal manure, for it is the means whereby is eliminated from the animal system the waste nitrogenous materials which have undergone digestion, and served their purpose physiologically. It is rich also in soluble salts of potash and phosphoric acid Solid Excreta. — The solid excreta consist only of those materials which have passed through the animal undi- gested ; and if an animal could be fed on theoretically perfect principles, they would possess hardly any manurial value. But practically, an animal always con- sumes more nitrogenous and phosphatic food than it really digests, and the ex- cess thus consumed gives value to the solid excreta, although this value is generally small compared with that of the urine if the animal is properly fed. Proportion of Food assimilated and voided. — ^An animal in order to gain a given increase in live weight has to consume an enormously greater quantity of food than would be required to produce that increase alone, for the mere sustenance of life involves a large daily assumption of food-material. What becomes of the carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen (see the article on " Food ") that is consumed by the animal beyond what it stores up as increase, does not here concern us; but it is of essential consequence as a basis of knowledge of 284 CATTLE IN WINTEK. this branch of agricultural chemistry, that we should know what is the destina- tion of the nitrogen and of the mineral matters in the food consumed. Much attention has been devoted to this point at Kothamsted, and without going into the details of experiments too elaborate to be here quoted, it may be at once stated that careful experimental inquiry has shown that, of every lo lb. of nitrogen consumed by an animal in its food, not more than about i lb. will be stored up as increase of live weight, the remaining 9 lb. or so being voided in the manure, partly as undi- gested matter, partly as soluble nitro- genous compounds, which readily be- come converted, iirst into ammonia, and then into nitrates, when applied to the soil. Similarly, only from about one-fifth to about one-tenth of the phosphates in food are stored up by the animal, and a still smaller proportion of potash salts, the great bulk of both going to enrich the manure. The actual proportion of any of these fertilising ingredients retained in any given case will depend upon how liberally the animal is fed, and also upon whether it is a growing animal, having to build up its bony frame and muscles, or whether it is an already adult animal adding little but fat to its carcass-weight; or whether again it may be a cow having to produce its calf, and yield a flow of milk, which will make a heavier demand on the food than vsdll the mere fat^form- ing processes going on in the case of a stall-fed ox. Iiawes's Manurial Tables. — -Taking one case with another, however, it is possible to arrive at an average which shall in no case err very vddely ; and the careful experiments and calculations made at Eothamsted have furnished us with classical tables, indicative both of the original proportions of the chief fertilising ingredients contained in the various foods, and the proportions of these which vrill, on the average, be voided by animals consuming, say, a ton of any of them. The latest edition of these tables was that published by Sir John Bennett Lawes and Dr Gilbert in the Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society of England in 1885, and their importance justifies their quotation here in full. [Tables. THE MANUKIAL VALUE OF FOODS. 285 SIR J. B. LAWES'S REVISED TABLES OF COMPOSITION AND MANURIAL VALUE OP FOODS. TABLE I. — Average Composition, Peb Cent and pee Ton, op Cattle Poods. No. Foods. Per Cent. Per Ton. Dry Mftfher Mineral Phos- Phos- Nitrogen. Matter phoric Potash. Nitrogen. phoric Potash. lUUU Vd t (Ash). Acid. Acid. per per per per per lb. lb. lb. cent. cent. cent. cent. cent. I Linseed . 90.00 3.60 4.00 I.S4 1.37 80.64 34.30 30.69 2 Linseed-cake . 88.50 4-75 6.50 2.00 1.40 106.40 44.80 31.36 3 ( Decorticated 1 \ cotton-cake j 90.00 6.60 7.00 3.10 2.00 147.84 69.44 44.80 4 Palm-nut-cake 91.00 2.50 3.60 1.20 0.50 56.00 26.88 11.20 S ( Undecorticated ) t cotton-cake J 87.00 3-75 6.00 2.00 2.00 84.00 44.80 44.80 6 Cocoa-nut-cake 90.00 3.40 6.00 1.40 2.00 76.16 31.36 44.80 7 8 Eape-cake Peas 89.00 4.90 7.50 2.50 1.50 109.76 56.00 33-60 85.00 3.60 2.50 0.85 0.96 80.64 19.04 21.50 9 Beans . 85.00 4.00 3.00 1. 10 1.30 89.60 24.64 29.12 10 Lentils . 88.00 4.20 4.00 0.7s 0.70 94.08 16.80 15.68 11 12 Tares (seed) . Indian com . 84.00 4.20 2.50 0.80 0.80 94.08 17.92 17.92 88.00 1.70 T.40 0.60 0.37 38.08 13-44 8.29 13 Wheat . 85.00 1.80 1.70 0.85 0.53 40.32 19.04 11.87 14 Malt . 94.00 1.70 2.50 0.80 0.50 38.08 17.92 11.20 15 Barley . 84.00 1.6S 2.20 0-75 o-SS 36-96 16.80 12.32 16 Oats 86.00 2.00 2.80 o.6q 0.50 44.80 13.44 11.20 17 Eice-meal 1 . 90.00 1.90 7.50 (0.60) (0.37) 42-56 (13-44) (8.29) 18 19 Locust-beans ^ Malt-combs . 85.00 1.20 2.50 26.88 90.00 3-9° 8.00 2.00 2.00 87.36 44.80 44.80 20 Fine pollard . 86.00 2-45 S-So 2.90 1.46 54.88 64.96 32.70 21 Coarse pollard 86.00 2.50 6.40 3-5° 1.50 56.00 78.40 33-60 22 23 Bran Clover-hay 86.00 2.50 6.50 3-60 1-45 56.00 80.64 32.48 83.00 2.40 7.00 O.S7 1.50 53-76 12.77 33.60 24 25 Meadow-hay . Pea-straw 84.00 1.50 6.50 0.40 1.60 33.60 8.96 35-84 82.50 1. 00 S-So 0.3s 1. 00 22.40 7.84 22.40 26 Oat-straw 83.00 0.50 5- SO 0.24 I.OO 11. 2Q S.38 22.40 27 Wheat-straw . 84.00 0.4S 5.00 0.24 0.80 10.08 5.38 17.92 28 Barley-straw . 85.00 0.40 4.50 0.18 1.00 8.96 4-03 22.40 29 30 Bean-straw . Potatoes 82.50 0.90 5.00 0.30 I.OO 20.16 6.72 22.40 25.00 0.25 1.00 o.is 0.5s S.6o 3-36 12.32 31 Carrots . 14.00 0.20 0.90 0.09 0.28 4.48 2.02 6.27 32 Parsnips 16.00 0.22 1. 00 0.19 0.36 4-93 4.26 8.06 33 Swedish turnips . Mangel-wurzels 11.00 0.25 0.60 0.06 0.22 S-6o 1-34 4-93 34 12.50 0.22 1. 00 0.07 0.40 4-93 1-57 8.96 3S Yellow turnips^ . 9.00 0.20 0.65 (0.06) (Q.22) 4.48 (1-34) (4-93) 36 White turnips 8.00 0.18 0.68 0.05 0.30 4-03 1. 12 6.72 1 In the case of neither rice-meal, locust-beans, nor yellow turnips, have records of ash analyses been found. For rice-meal the same percentages of phosphoric acid and potash as in Indian corn, and for yellow turnips the same as in swedes, are provisionally adopted; but in all the Tables the assumed results are given iu For locust-beans no figure has been assumed, and the columns are left blank. 286 CATTLE IN WINTER. TABLE IL — Showing the Data, the Method, and the Re- OF Cattle Foods NiTROOEK. Fattening In- crease in Live weight (Oxen In Fattening or Sheep). In Food. Increase (at In Manure. ri Dmoription of Food. 1.27 per cent). a Food In- From Per Total remain- Nitro- gen Value of Am- to I In- crease. per ton of food. cent. Per ton. I ton of Pood. total con- sumed. ing for Man- ure. equal Am- monia. monia ated. per lb. lb. 7. lb. lb. 7. lb. lb. £ ^. d. I Linseed . S-o 44S.0 c,.6o 80.64 5.69 7.06 74.9s 91.0 256 2 Linseed-cake . 6.0 373-3 4-75 Z06.40 4-74 4-45 101.66 123.4 3 1 8 3 ( Decorticatedcotton- ) t cake i Palm-nut-cake . 6.S 344-6 6.60 147.84 4.38 2.96 143.46 174.2 4 7 1 4 7.0 320.0 2.50 56.00 4.06 7-25 51-94 63.1 1 11 7 S ( Undecorticated cot- ) I ton-cake J Cocoa-nut-cake 8.0 280.0 3-7S 84.00 3-56 4.24 80.44 97.7 2 8 10 6 8.0 280.0 3-40 76.16 3-56 4.67 72.60 88.2 2 4 I 7 8 Eape-cake Peas (10) (224) 4.90 109.76 2.84 2-59 106.92 129.8 3 4" 7.0 320.0 3.60 80.64 4.06 5-03 76.58 93-0 266 9 Beans 7.0 320.0 4.00 89.60 4.06 4-53 85.54 103.9 2 II 11 lO Lentils . 7.0 320.0 4.20 94.08 4.06 4-32 90.02 109.3 2 14 8 n 12 Tares (seed) Indian corn 7.0 320.0 4.20 94.08 4.0b 4-32 90.02 109.3 2 14 8 7.2 311. 1 1.70 38.08 .3-95 10.37 34.13 41.4 log i3 Wheat . 7.2 311. 1 1.80 40.32 3-95 9.80 36.37 44-2 121 14 Malt 7.0 320.0 1.70 38.08 4.06 10.66 34.02 41-3 108 15 Barley- 7.2 311.1 1.6^ 36.96 3-95 10.69 33-01 40.1 10 1 It) Oats 7.5 298.7 2.00 44.80 3-79 8.46 41.01 49-8 I 4 11 17 Rice-meal 7-S 298.7 1.90 42.56 3-79 8.91 38.77 47.1 I 3 6 iS 19 Locust-beans . Malt-comlDS 9.0 248.9 1.20 26.88 3.16 11.76 23.72 28.8 14 5 8.0 280.0 3-90 87.36 3.56 4.08 83.80 101.8 2 10 11 20 Fine pollard . 7-S 298.7 2-4S 54.88 3.79 6.91 51-09 62.0 I II 21 Coarse pollard . 8.0 280.0 2.50 56.00 3-56 6.35 52-44 63.7 I II 10 22 23 Bran Clover-liay 9.0 248.9 2.50 56.00 3.16 5-64 52-84 64,2 I 12 1 14.0 160.0 2.40 53-76 2.03 3-78 51-73 62.8 1 11 5 24 Meadow-hay . Pea-straw Oat-straw 15.0 149-3 i.So 33.60 1.90 5.65 31.70 38-5 19 3 16.0 140.0 1. 00 22.40 1.78 7.9s 20.62 25.0 12 6 124.4 0.50 11.20 1.58 14.11 9.62 11.7 5 10 2y 28 29 30 Wheat-straw . Barley-straw . Bean-straw Potatoes , Carrots . Parsnips . Swedish turnips Mangel -wurzels 21.0 23.0 22.0 106.7 97-4 101.8 0.4s 0.40 0.90 10.08 8.96 20.16 1.36 1.24 1.29 13-49 13-84 6.39 8.72 7.72 18.87 10.6 9-4 22.9 S 4 048 II 6 60.0 37-3 0.25 5.60 0.47 8-39 5-13 6.2 031 32 33 34 8S-7 7S-0 109. 1 96.0 26.1 29.9 20. s 23.3 0.20 0.22 0.25 0.22 4.48 4-93 S-60 4-93 0.33 0.38 0.26 0.30 7-37 7.71 4.64 6.09 4- IS 4-55 S-34 4.63 S-o 5.6 026 029 033 2 10 3S 36 Yellow turnips White turnips . 133-3 150.0 16.8 14.9 0.20 0.18 4.48 4-03 0.21 0.19 4.69 4.71 4.27 3.84 5-2 4-7 027 024 THE MANUEIAL VALUE OF FOODS. 287 SULTS OF THE ESTIMATION OF THE ORIGINAL MaNUEE ValTJE AFTER Consumption. PnoBPHOEio Acid. Potash. ■s In Fattening In Fattening In Food. Increase at In Manure. In Food. Increase at In Manure. HI (0.86 per cent). p. 1 1 per cent). Per cent. Per ton. From z ton of Total re- main- ing for Value at 3d. per lb. Per cent. Per ton. From I ton of ■3 .0 Total re- main- ing for Value at Food. £ i Man- ure. Food. ri Man- ure. lb. S 7= lb. lb. 7. lb. ». d. 7o lb. lb. 7= lb. 8. d. £ ^. d. I-S4 34.50 3-8S 11.16 30-65 7 8 1.37 30.69 0.49 1.60 30.20 6 3 2 19 S 2.00 44.80 3.21 7.17 41.59 10 5 1.40 31-36 0.41 1-31 30.95 6 5 3 18 6 3.10 69.44 2.96 4.26 66.48 16 8 2.00 44.80 0.38 0.85 44-42 9 3 5 13 1.20 25.88 2-75 10.23 24-13 6 0.50 11.20 0.35 3-13 10.85 2 3 1 19 10 2.00 44.80 2.41 S.38 42.39 10 7 2.00 44.80 0.31 0.69 44.49 5 " 3 5 4 1.40 31-36 2.41 7.68 28.95 7 3 2.00 44.80 0.31 0.69 44-49 ? 3 307 2.50 56.00 1.93 3-45 54.07 13 6 1.50 33-60 0.25 0.74 33-35 6 II 4 5 4 0.85 19.04 2-75 14.44 16.29 4 I 0.96 21.50 0.3s 1.63 21.15 4 5 2 15 1. 10 24.64 2-75 11.16 21.89 S 1.30 29.12 0.3s 1.20 28.77 6 3 3 5 0-75 16.80 2-75 16.37 14.05 3 6 0.70 15.68 0-35 2.23 15-33 3 2 3 I 4 0.80 17.92 2-7S 15.35 15.17 3 9 0.80 17.92 0-35 1.9s I7-S7 3 8 3 2 I 0.60 13-44 2.68 19.94 10.76 2 8 0.37 8.29 0-34 4.10 7-95 1 8 151 9.8s 19.04 2.68 14.08 16.36 4 I 0.53 11.87 0-34 2.86 "-S3 2 5 I 8 7 0.80 17.92 2.75 15.3s 15.17 3 9 0.50 11.20 0-35 3-13 10.85 2 3 1 6 8 0.75 16.80 2.68 15-95^ 14.12 3 S o-SS 12.32 0-34 2.7b 11.98 2 6 I 6 1 0.60 13.44 2.W 19.12 (19.12) 10.87 2 8 0.50 11.20 0-33 2.94 10.87 2 3 I 9 10 (0.60) (13-44) 2.57 (10.87) (2 8) (0-37) (8.29) 0-33 (4.00) (7.96) (I 8) (i 7 10) ... 2.14 0.27 ... 2.00 44.80 2.41 .S-38 42.39 10 7 2.00 44.80 0.31 0.69 4449 9 3 3 10 9 2.90 64.96 2.,S7 3.96 62.39 15 7 1.46 32.70 0.33 l.OI 32-37 6 9 2 13 4 3- SO 78.40 2.41 3.07 75.99 19 1.50 33-60 0.31 0.92 33-29 6 II 2 17 9 3.60 Bo. 64 2.14 2.65 78.50 19 8 1-45 32-48 0.27 0.83 32.21 6 8 2 18 5 0-S7 12.77 1.^8 10.81 "•39 2 10 I. SO 33-60 0.18 0.54 33-42 7 2 1 3 0.40 8.95 1.28 14.28 7.68 1 II 1.60 35-84 0.16 0.45 35-68 7 5 I 8 7 0.3s 7.84 1.20 15.31 6.64 I 8 1. 00 22.40 0.1s 0.67 22.25 4 8 18 10 0.24 ■;.s8 1.07 19.89 431 1 I I.OO 22.40 0.14 0.63 22.26 4 8 11 7 0.24 5-38 0.92 17.10 4.46 I I 0.80 17.92 0.12 0.67 17.80 3 8 10 1 0.18 4.03 0.84 20.84 3-19 9 I.OO 22.40 O.H 0.49 22.29 4 8 10 1 0.30 6.72 0.88 13.10 S-84 I 5 1.00 22.40 0.11 0.49 22.29 4 8 17 7 0.1S .3-.36 0.32 9.52 3-04 9 0.55 12.32 0.04 0.32 12.28 2 7 065 0.09 2.02 0.22 10.89 1.80 5 0.28 6.27 0.03 0.48 6.24 1 4 043 0.19 4.26 0.26 6.10 4.00 1 0.36 8.06 0.03 0.37 8.03 I 8 055 0.06 1-34 0.18 13.43 1.16 4 0.22 493 0.0a 0.41 4.91 1 047 ,°-°^, I- 57 0.20 12.74 1.37 4 0.40 8.96 0.03 0.34 8.93 I 10 050 (0.06) (1-34) 0.14 (10.78) (1.20) (0 4) (0.22) (4-93) 0,02 (0.34) (491) (I 0) (0 3 ") 0.05 1.12 0.13 11.61 0.99 3 0.30 b.72 0.02 0.30 6.70 I 5 040 288 CATTLE IN WINTER. In the first of these tables we have the total quantities of ingredients capable of contributing to the fertUity of the land contained in the principal varieties of foods in use on the farm, stated both as percentages and as pounds per ton. These figures represent the manurial matter that would reach the land, sup- posing that the foods were simply ground up and applied directly to the soil, with- out the intervention of the stock that consumes them. In Table 11. we have indicated to us the average destination of this fertUising matter — ^how much of it, that is to say, may be assumed to be retained by the animal increasing its weight, and how much wiU find its way into the manure. Then we have the theoretical money value of this latter portion calculated for each fertUising constituent ; and finally, we have stated what would be the total value of the manure from a ton of the food, supposing its value to be completely reahsed. To make the matter clearer, we will select an instance — say that of linseed- cake. From Table I., we learn that linseed -cake contains 88.5 per cent of dry matter, which includes 4.75 per cent of nitrogen, 2.00 of phosphoric acid, and 1.40 per cent of potash; or otherwise stated, one ton of linseed-cake contains 106.40 lb. of nitrogen, 44.80 lb. of phos- phoric acid, and 31.36 lb. of potash. From Table II., we learn that 6 lb. of linseed-cake go to make i lb. of increase in live weight, so that i ton of cake yields 373.3 lb. of increase in live weight. We also learn that of the 106.40 lb. of nitrogen in the ton of cake, 4.74 lb. are retained by the animal, while 101.66 lb. pass into the manure. This quantity of nitrogen is equal to 123.4 lb. of ammonia, which, at 6d. per lb., is equal to ^^, is. 8d. per ton. In like manner we find that of 44.8 lb. of phosphoric acid in the ton of cake, 3.21 lb. are retained by the animal, while 41.59 lb. pass into the manure, which, at 3d. per lb., would be worth los. 5d. Of 31.36 lb. of potash in the ton of cake, 0.41 lb. is retained, 30.95 lb. passing into the manure, giving at 2j^d. per lb., 6s. 5d. The three money figures added together give ;^3, i8s. 6d. as the " total original manure value " of one ton of linseed-cake. This value in the case of decorticated cotton-cake is as high as jQ$, 13s., while for maize it is but;^i, 5s. id., or for barley, ;£i, 6s. id., and for turnips it is less than 5 s. There can be no doubt that the pro- portions which these "original manure values " bear to one another, correctly represent the proportions borne to one another by the actual manurial values realisable in the field, provided that the circumstances are favourable for their comparative realisation ; though it has happened, as in the Wobum experi- ments, that practical trial has occasion- ally shown -that manure made by the use of a food like decorticated cotton- cake has done no more immediate good than manure made from a like quantity of maize. But this has no doubt been because the land was in such good heart that the maize manure was in itself suffi- cient to bring out its maximum fertility, and that the richer manure suppKed by the decorticated cotton-cake was of the nature of a superfluity. It is of course to be borne in mind that the values calculated in each case are average ones, and any given ton of lin- seed-cake, for example, may differ a good deal from another ton ; but it is only on the average quality of each kind of food that a table for general reference could well be based without becoming bewilderingly cumbersome. Theoretical and KealiBed Manure Values. — But even putting aside this consideration, there are obviously a vast number of circumstances afiecting the question of how far the theoretical value given in the tables is capable of actual realisation in the field. The nearest approach to the perfect appHcation of the whole of the manure to the crops is found in the consumption of food on the land itself, as when grazing cattle or sheep consume cake in the field. Their excreta go directly on to the land, and so the whole of the manurial matter at least reaches the soil. The other extreme is found where the food is consumed in the farmyard, and the manure badly cared for — as when it is left to he about in the open, exposed to the free and prolonged action of rain, in such a way as to allow the drainage from it to be lost. Wherever the rich drainings from dung are allowed to run to THE MANUEIAL VALUE OF FOODS. 289 waste, there is a serious loss of fertilising matter; for the most valuable part of manure is the soluble ammonia, salts, &c., which it contains. What proportion of the manurial value originally contributed to the dung really finds its way on to the land from the farmyard depends, therefore, upon individual care and management, of which no exact account can be taken in tables. Furthermore, a herd of dairy cows will rob the food of much more nitrogen and phosphoric acid than a herd of fattening oxen, since oxen, while fattening, store up but little of these materials compared with that which is required by the cows to produce a, flow of milt, and to buUd up the bodies of the young calves which they have yearly to produce. There are obviously, then, difficulties to be sur- mounted in forming an estimate of the manurial value that may fairly be as- sumed to be realisable iq any given case. As far as regards the guidance of the farmer to the prices which the various foods are worth, considered compara- tively, and as to the best foods to use in order to at once fatten his stock and best fertilise his land, the mere "original manure values" supply sufficient infor- mation ; but when the question at issue is as to the realisable unexhausted value of manure from food consumed, such complexities as we have glanced at arise and give serious trouble. Unexhausted Value of Consuined Pood. — The "county customs" which are often brought in to assess, under the pro- visions of the Agricultural Holdings Act, the compensation due to an outgoing tenant for unexhausted manurial. value for foods consumed, are in most cases absurdly fallacious, being too often based on the cost of the foods used, which has no relation whatever to their manurial value. The difficulty which the valuer who proceeds on rational principles has to face is to decide on how much of the " original manure value " is to be assumed to be still left on the farm — the " com- pensation value," as Sir John Bennett Lawes has called it. With a view to putting the matter on a broad general basis for practical pur poses, Sir John Bennett Lawes has sug- VOL. I. gested that in the case of an outgoing tenant claiming compensation for the unexhausted value of consumed food, the " original manure value " of each ton of food (as shown in Table II.) should be discounted to the extent of 50 per cent for the food , consumed within the last year. In the case of food consumed last year but one, he suggests a deduction of one-third of the allowance for last year — while for food consumed three years ago, a deduction of one-third from this sum should be made ; and so on, for whatever number of years — down, to eight — may be taken. Let us, as an instance, take again the case of linseed-cake, the " original manur- ial value " of which is ^2, i8s. 6d. For each ton of this cake consumed in the last year of tenancy, it would be assumed that a practical unexhausted value of ^i, 19s. 3d. remained on the farm, realisable by the new tenant. For a ton of cake consumed last year but one, this sum would be reduced by one- third, making ^1, 6s. 2d. If con- sumed a year previously, it would be still further reduced by a third, making 17s. 6d., and so on. In the eighth year back, the compensation would be only 2s. 4d. As a matter of fact, most farmers would, no doubt, object to paying " com- pensation values" for food used more than two or three years previously ; but the principle of compensation suggested — ^taking it as far back as maybe deemed judicious — appears to be a sound one, and one that can hardly be charged with pressing too hardly on the incoming tenant. In applying it, the valuer, if he knows his business, will be influenced by his observations taken on the farm as to the mode in which manure is treated, and as to the information available on the matter of consumption. Sir John Bennett Lawes and Dr Gilbert, in the paper already quoted from, very rightly observe : " It is pretty certain indeed that every claim for compensation vrill have to be settled on its own merits ; that the character of the soil, the cropping, the state of the land as to cleanliness, and many other points, will be taken into consideration both for and against any claim." 290 CATTLE IN WINTER FOOD RATIONS. The secret of success in economical stock-feeding lies in the perfect arrange- ment of "Food Kations "— that is, in so arranging the kinds, quantities, and proportions of the different articles of food as to ensure the maximum result at the TniniTirmm cost. To provide this it is necessary, not only that the mixed food shall contain in perfect proportions and in palatable and easily digestible form a sufficiency, and neither more nor less than a sufficiency, of aU the elements of nu- trition which the animal needs both for its own sustenance and for the produc- tion of milk, or the increase of bone and muscle, flesh and fat ; but also that the market price and feeding value of the different kinds of food be carefully con- sidered, so that these elements of nutri- tion may be drawn from the cheapest sources. In other words, economical feeding demands that the relative cost and feeding value, as well as the relative amoimts and proportions of the vari- ous articles of food, shall be carefully studied. Wliat the Feeder has to deter- mine.— What quantity of food should each animal receive per day ? What should be the composition of that daily ration — that is, what proportionate quan- tities of the various elements of nutri- tion should it contain ? In what articles of food can these elements of nutrition be provided in the required proportions at the lowest relative cost ? These are the questions which the feeder has to determine; and they should be consid- ered in the above order. The guiding conditions in regard to the first two will be the size and class of the animals and the purpose in view — whether being fed for increase in size, for breeding, for "milk production, or merely for taking on flesh and fat. The feeder, in deciding as to the third of these questions, has to con- sider the composition and market price of each article available and suitable as food. The mixture must not only be per- fect in weight and composition, but also be made up at the lowest possible cost. The Ani TTial'H RequirementB. — First, then, how are the requirements of the animal to be determined ? In consider- ing this, only the amount of dry matter required in the food need be taken into account. What water the animal wants to drink by itseK or to moisten its food may always be had free of cost. Mr F. J. Lloyd, F.C.S., contributed a paper to the Live Stock Journal Almanac, 1888, which deals with the subject of "Feed- ing nations," and which has excited a good deal of attention. As presented by Mr Lloyd, the information is so im- portant and so full of interest to stock- owners, that we venture to produce here the substance of what he wrote. As to the quantity and kinds of food required by animals, Mr Lloyd says : " By feeding animals vrith weighed quan- tities of food, the dry matter in which is known, and by weighing back that which is not consumed, we may obtain valuable information as to the quantity of food (dry food) each animal requires to main1a,ia it. If, further, we analyse the food, so as to obtain a precise know- ledge of the quantity of each constituent given, and. subsequently analyse the ex- creta to discover what quantity of each constituent the animal has utilised, we obtain, in addition to our knowledge of the qvantity of dry food necessary, a knowledge of what quality that dry food should possess. The quality is made up of three constituents — flesh-formers, heat- producers, and fat ; or, in chemical lan- guage, albuminoids, carbohydrates, and fat. Many such feeding experiments have been conducted, those in Grermany with greater care than anywhere else, and a brief resv/me of the results ob- tained is given in the following table : — [Table. FOOD KATlONS. 291 Feeding Standards. Animal. Live Weight. Food required per Day. Dry Matter, Digestible. Nutritive Ratio. Albumin- oids. Carbo- hydrates. Fat. Oxen, growing — Age, 6-12 months. II 12-18 II 11 18-24 II lb. 500 700 850 lb. 12.0 16.8 20.4 lb. 1-3 1.4 1.4 lb. 6.8 91 10.3 lb. 0.30 0.28 0.26 1-6.0 1-7.0 1-8.0 Oxen, fattening, per . First period . Second n . . . Third n . . . 1000 27.0 26.0 25.0 2-5 30 2.7 15.0 14.8 14.8 0.50 0.70 0.60 1-6.5 1-5-5 1-6.0 Cow in milk, per 1000 24.0 2.5 I2.S 0.40 1-5.4 Sheep, growing — Age, 5-8 months. 11 8-11 II 11 11-15 II 61 75 82 1-7 1-7 1..8 0.17 0.16 0.14 0.86 0.85 0.89 0.04 0.04 0.03 1-5-5 1-6.0 1-7.0 Sheep, fattening, per . First period . Second m . . . 1000 26.0 25.0 3-0 3.5 15-2 14.4 o.s 0.6 1-5-5 1-4-5 Horses at work, per . 1000 22.5 1.8 II. 2 0.60 1-7.0 Pigs, growing- Age, 3-5 months . II 5"^ '1 „ 8-12 II 100 170 250 It 5-2 0.50 0.58 0.62 2.50 3-47 4-05 i-S^o 1-6. 1 1-6.5 Pigs, fattening, per . First period . Second m . . . Third ,1 . . . 1000 36.0 31.0 23-5 5-0 4.0 2.7 27-5 24.0 17-5 '1-5 1-6.0 1-6.5 " Composition of Poods. — These being tlie wants of the animals, by what articles of food can they be most effectually and most cheaply supplied ? To be able to determine this a farmer must make him- self acquainted with the composition and relative nutritive properties of the vari- ous foods, and study these in view of market prices. Upon this important point information is given in this work in the section specially devoted to a description of foods for live stock; and the reader is commended to make him- self familiar with what is said there, be- fore attempting to arrange the feeding rations for his animals. For convenience here we present the following table given by Mr Lloyd, to show the average amount and composi- tion of the dry matter in the most com- mon foods : — [Table. 292 CATTLE IN WINTER Composition of Peinoipal Eeedinq Stuffs. Percentage Composition. Percentage Digestible. Dry Albmnin- Carbo- Fat. Albumin- Carbo- Fat Matter. oids. hydrates. oids. hydrates. Barley-meal .... 835 lo.o 639 2.S 8.0 58.9 1.7 Barley-straw . 8i!6 3-S 36.7 1-4 1-3 40.6 0-5 Bean-meal 82.4 2S-S 4S-9 1.6 23.0 50.2 1.4 Beans (green) . 11.7 2.8 S-i 0-3 2.0 5-2 0.2 Brewers' grains 22.2 4-9 II.O I.I 3-9 10.8 0.8 Cabbage . 13-7 2-5 8.1 0.7 1.8 8.2 0.4 Clover, red (green) 18.3 30 8.9 0.6 1-7 8.7 0.4 Clover, red (silage) 21.6 3-4 9-7 I.O 2.2 II. I 0.6 Clover, red (hay) 78.7 12.3 38.2 2.2 7.0 38-1 1.2 Cotton-cake . 82.3 23.6 30-S 6.1 17-S 14.9 S-5 Cotton-cake (decorticated) 81.2 38.8 I9-S 13-7 31.0 18.3 12-3 Grass meadow (green) . 18.0 3-5 9.7 0.8 2-S 9-9 0.4 Hay (meadow) 79-S 9-7 41.4 2.S S-4 41.0 1.0 Linseed-cakes . 79-0 29.5 29.9 9-9 24.8 27.5 8.9 Linseed-meal (extracted) 84.0 32.9 38.3 3-S 27.7 34.7 3-2 Maize-meal 87.0 1 0.6 69.7 S-S 9-1 67.1 4-2 Mangels . 11.2 I.I 9.1 0.1 I.I lO.O O.I Oat-straw 81.7 4.0 36.2 2.0 1-4 40.1 0.7 Peas (green) . 17.0 3-2 7.6 0.6 2.2 7-4 0-3 Pea-meal 8S.1 23.7 S4-S 3-S 20.9 55-4 2.8 Eape-cake 81.6 31.6 29.9 9-6 2S-3 23.8 7-7 Rice-meal 79-S 10.9 47.6 9.9 8.6 47-2 8.8 Swedes .... 12.0 1-3 9-S 0.1 1-3 10.6 0.1 Turnips (white) 7-3 I.I 5-2 0.1 I.I 6.1 0.1 Vetches (green) 16.2 3-S 6.6 0.6 2-S 6-7 0-3 Wheat-bran . 80.S 15.0 52.2 3-2 12.6 427 2.6 Wheat-straw . 81.1 3-0 36.9 1.2 0.8 3S-6 0.4 It is not to be supposed that the fanner can in every case have his foods ana- lysed, but as a rule he may assume, if they are fairly good of their kind, that their composition -will approximate pretty closely to the above table of averages. Want of Care and Precision in Feeding. — Now, with the knowledge thus obtained of the requirements of the animal, and the composition and market price of the various foods, the farmer will be better able to make up an economical feeding ration for his stock than if he were, as of old, simply groping in the dark, or following some antiquated rule, the " why and wherefore " of which may be totally unknown to him, and which may, as likely as not, be sharply at vari- ance with the principles of profitable stock-feeding. Remarking upon the all too prevalent haphazard system of feed- ing stock without due attention to the proper mixing of foods, Mr Lloyd makes some pertinent remarks ; and as a Httle criticism now and again is wholesome, we extract the following : " Here and there are to be found exact statements of the quantity of meal or cake, and the propor- tion of each, but generally with this re- mark — Mixed with chaff, roots, &c. How much chaff and roots ? and how much was eaten, how much wasted 1 For this information one seeks in vain. Why should they be considered ? Presumably they cost nothing — at least one would assume so, for it is seldom that their value can be found in a balance-sheet. And yet, if a scientific man's opinion is worth an3rthing upon such a matter of practice, I venture to think that it is this very chaff, roots, &c., which is the dearest food fed. And whether that opinion be right or wrong, one thing is certain, that much of the meal and cake given with them is absolutely wasted, and affords no profit, because, without knowing the exact amount of the other portions of the food, it is impossible to estimate the proper quantity of meal and cake to give." FOOD RATIONS. 293 Rations for fattening Oxen. By way of illustrating the application of the information supplied in these two tables, Mr Lloyd takes up a common ration used to fatten oxen for the butcher — viz., 84 lb. of swedes, 14 lb. hay, and 3 lb. linseed - cake, and proceeds: "As- suming the substances to have been of average composition, we find by the table of analyses that — 100 lb. swedes contain .... Therefore 84 lb. contain ( X 84 and divide by loo) 100 lb. hay contain .... Therefore 14 lb. hay contain ( x 14, divide by 'oo) 100 lb. linseed-cake contain Therefore 3 lb. contain .... Dry Matter. lb. 12.0 10.08 79-5 1 1. 130 79.0 2.37 Digestible. Albumiuoids. lb. 1-3 1.092 S-4 0.756 24.8 0.744 Carbohydrates, lb. 10.6 8.904 ■ 41.0 5-74 27. 5 0.825 Fat. lb. O.I 0.084 I.O 0.14 8.9 0.267 " We will now combine these together, and we have the following :- Digestible. Dry Matter, lb. 10.08 II. 13 2-37 In 84 lb. swedes In 14 lb. hay . In 3 lb. linseed-cake In total ration . 23. 58 Bation required as shown in table . 27.0 " It will be seen that this farmer, to- tally unknown to himself, was really giv- ing his animals a food as efficient as it could be in all respects save one — ^it did not contain quite so much dry matter as is usually necessary ; but this was due to the large quantity of roots employed, and the easy digestibility of their dry matter; whereas most substances, to afford the same amount of digestible food, would have possessed more dry matter. " There is an important lesson we learn from this example, that while the above 84 lb. swedes, . . . . 12 lb. hay . . . . 4 lb. linseed-cake Total Standard for last period of fattening "It is evident that we now comply with the standard very closely, and it is to be remembered that these standards are merely guides to be aimed at and ap- proached as nearly as possible ; but they are not hard and fast limits, which must be strictly adhered to to the third place of decimals." Albuminoids. •lb. 1.092 0.756 0.744 Carbohydrates. Fat. lb. lb. 8.904 0.084 5.740 0.140 0.825 0.267 2.592 2-5 15.469 15.0 0.491 0.5 ration was excellent for the commence- ment of fattening, it was not suited for continuance into the latter stages, when more albuminoids and fat are needed, but less carbohydrates. It is evident that these could best be supplied by the addi- tion of more linseed -cake, and, as it is not necessary to increase the total quantity of food, some portion of the swedes or hay might be withdrawn. We will with- draw 2 lb. of hay and add i lb. of lin- seed-cake; the ration would then be as follows : — ■ Digestible. Dry Matter. lb. 10.08 9-54 3.16 Albuminoids lb. 1.092 0.648 0.992 . Carbohydrates, lb. 8.904 4.920 1. 100 Fat. lb. 0.084 0.120 0.356 22.78 25.00 2.732 2.7 14.924 14.8 0.560 0.60 Making up Feeding Rations. As a second example, Mr Lloyd ex- plains how to build up a ration for a cer- tain purpose and with definite foods. He says : " We will assume that roots are scarce, and that, until the tares are fit to cut, the farmer is confined to the use of 294 CATTLE IN WINTER silage as" the only succulent food he pos- sesses; that of this he has but little, owing to the failure of his clover crop, and so must do the best to make up the rest of the ration with purchased food. " As the basis of the ration, he takes lo lb. hay, lo lb. oat-straw, and lo lb. clover-sUage. By referring to the table of analyses we find these wiU contain the following : — Digestible. lo lb. meadow-hay lo lb. oat-straw 10 lb. clover-silage Dry Matter. lb. 7- 95 8.17 2.l6 Albaminoids. Carbohydrates. Fat. lb. lb. lb. 0.54 4.10 O.IO 0.14 4.01 0.07 0.22 I. II 0.06 Total 18.28 0.90 9.22 0.23 " Now compare these figures with the ration as shown in the table, stiJl assum- ing that oxen are being fed during the first period of fattening, and each weigh- ing 1000 lb. Here it may be stated that for animals weighing more or less, the quantity they require is in proportion to their weight. " It wiU be seen that about 9 lb. more dry matter are required, and that, while the ration aheady affords nearly two- thirds of the carbohydrates, it only sup- plies one-third of the albuminoids requi- site ; hence we require at least one food 5 lb. linseed-meal extracted Add former part of ration Total . . . : " It will now be seen that nearly 5 lb. more dry matter is required, of which 4 lb. should be carbohydrates — in fact, a starchy food. Maize-meal stands first as rich in albuminoids. We can choose bean-meal, cotton-cake, linseed-cake, or pea -meal. I will take for example a substance which has recently been intro- duced into England as ' Cleveland Meal,' but which has for some years past been employed in America as ' New Process Oil Meal,' and which is given in the table of analyses as ' Linseed-meal ex- tracted.' It will serve as an example by which a farmer may judge how to employ with advantage any new food, or food new to him. Take, then, 5 lb. of this meal, it will contain the following : — Digestible. Dry Matter. Albuminoids, Carbohydrates. Fat. lb. lb. lb. lb. 420 1-39 1-73 0.16 18.28 0.90 9.22 0.23 2.29 10.9s 0-39 supplying the highest amount of digest- ible carbohydrates, and we will choose 5 lb. maize-meal, which would contain the following : — ■ Digestible. Dry Matter, lb. 5 lb. maize-meal. . . . 4.35 Adding these to the above total, we obtain 26. 83 Ration required by table . . 27.00 Albiuninoids. Carbohydrates. Fat. lb. lb. lb. 0.4s 3.36 0.21 2.74 14-31 0.60 2.50 iS-o 0.50 " Such is an example of what may be termed making the best of a bad choice of feeding stuffs, owing to the want of roots and succulent food ; and it is an example of how the farmer may make use of science to help him in his difficulties. The ration may not be a good one, looked at from aU aspects ; but this much is cer- tain, that if so prepared as to be palatable and digestible, it would supply aU the requirements of the animal. " In a similar way to the above ex- amples, it is possible to calculate out the rations for sheep, pigs, or dairy cattle." Mr Lloyd very properly assumed that those who might attempt to put his directions into practice would meet with difficulties at the outset, and so he inti- mated that, through the columns of the Live Stock Jmimal, he would be pleased to consider any questions that might be FOOD RATIONS. 295 addressed to him on the subject. The result was a plentiful crop of questions, and these, together with Mr Lloyd's re- plies, were read with much interest by stock-o^vners. Several of these queries and replies are worthy of space in this work. Rations for Cows and Toung Stock. Mr James E. Piatt, Bruntwood, Cheadle, Cheshire, submitted for Mr Lloyd's opinion the following calculations of food rations for cows and young stock, based upon Mr Lloyd's tables : — Mr Piatt's Ration for Cows m FvU MUh Digestible. Dry Matter. Albuminoids. Carbohydrates. Fat. lb. lb. lb. lb. 30 lb. grains 6.66 I.17 3-24 0.24 10 lb. ensilage 2.16 0.22 I. II 0.06 ^ lb. linseed 0.42 0.13 0.17 0.0 1 I lb. bean-flour . 0.82 0.23 0.52 0.0 1 15 lb. hay . 11.92 0.81 6.IS O.IS 3 lb. cotton-cake (undecortioated) 2.46 0.52 0.44 0.0 1 59'A lb. 24.44 3-o8 11.63 0.48 Matu m for Dry Cows. 50 lb. turnips 6.00 0.65 S-30 0.05 18 lb. oat-straw 14.70 0.25 7.21 0.12 i}4 lb. cotton-cake (decorticated) 1.21 0.46 0.27 0.18 69;^ lb. 21.91 1.36 Ration for Heifers from 6 to 12 months old. 20 lb. turnips .... 2.40 0.26 10 lb. oat-straw .... 8.17 0.14 2 lb. cotton-cake (decorticated) . . 1.62 0.62 32 lb. 12.19 I-°2 Ration for Heifers from 12 to 18 months old. 35 lb. turnips 14 lb. oat-straw l}i lb. cotton-cake (decorticated) 4.20 11.43 1.21 16.84 0.4s 0.19 0.46 no S0/2 lb. Ration for Heifers from 18 to 24 months old. 45 lb. turnips .... 54° °'5^ 16 lb. oat-straw .... 1307 0.22 I lb. cotton-cake (decorticated) . . 0.81 0.31 62 lb. 30 lb. brewers' grains 40 lb. swedes 2}4 lb. linseed gruel 2 lb. bean-flour 14 lb. hay 4 lb. cotton-cake (decorticated) 19.28 I.I I Ration Heavy MUTcers are now getting. 1. 17 6.66 4.80 3- 08 1.64 II. 13 3-24 30.55 0.52 0.50 0.46 0.7s 1.24 4.64 12.78 2.12 4.01 0.36 6.49 3-71 5.61 0.27 9-59 4-77 6.41 0.18 11.36 3-24 4.24 0.66 1.04 5-74 0.73 15.65 0.35 0.02 0.07 0.24 0.33 0.03 0.09 0.18 0.30 0.04 O.II 0.12 0.27 0.24 0.04 1.23 0.03 0.14 0.49 2.17 Mr Piatt says: "I should feel very much obliged if you would let me know whether you consider the portions and the rations generally will be right to use in my dairy. I keep about forty cows, mostly large Shorthorns, and some Guernseys. The Shorthorns are big, heavy -framed beasts, and when in full milk give very often from 20 to 24 quarts a-day. My cows are exception- 296 CATTLE IN WINTER. ally good ones, every one being a special- ly heavy milker. To keep tie newly calved ones up to such big results re- quires a large quantity of rations. Therefore, would the ration you lay down for mUch cows be sufficient in my case — I mean the proportions of dry matter, albuminoids, carbohydrates, and fat 1 You will notice I have added at the foot of the list of tables the portions and analysis of what they are now receiving. I am much troubled with cases of abor- tion, and I consider we have been over- feeding, and have not the food properly apportioned, as the dry matter, albu- minoids, carbohydrates, and fat seem ever so much higher than your table. Again, in my proposed table would 10 lb. of ensilage be enough with 30 lb. of brewers' grains ? "I should be much obliged, if not troubling you too much, if you would give me your opinion, and also give me a table for cows about half through their note — say, that have been milking five Standard ration for milch cow of 1250 lb. Mr Piatt's ration to six months, and getting on in caU again. They would want, I should think, something between the highest ration and the ration for dry cows, but with the dry matter, albuminoids, carbo- hydrates, and fat properly apportioned. Feeding dairy cows is a very delicate process, and is not at all understood by bailiffs and head-cowmen." To these questions Mr Lloyd replied : "The ration given in the table of standards is for a cow weighing 1000 lb. A ration containing 30 lb. of dry matter would therefore be sufficient for a milch cow weighing 1250 lb. Calcula- tions which I have made from the state- ments of feeding practices prove that this is practicaEy the same amount as Mr Tumbull and other feeders have found necessary. The quahty of this ration will best be studied after placing together the quantities required accord- ing to the feeding standard and the quantities which were given by Mr Piatt. Digestible. Dry Matter. 30.00 30.55 Albuminoids. Carbohydrates. 3.12 15.62 4.64 15.65 0.50 2.17 " There is a great waste here of both albuminoids and fat. The former, in fact, would have to be given to counter- act the effect of the other. " Next, as regards the new ration for cows in full mili. The proportions here are fairly well balanced, provided the linseed is not whole linseed, but " ex- tracted," or Cleveland meal. If whole linseed is referred to, the figures given in the table are inaccurate, and must be corrected according to the analysis given. At present the albuminoids are slightly too high : they might be reduced by giving two-thirds the amount of grains, the quantity suggested being, in my opinion, rather too high, makmg up the loss with starchy food. " The rations for heifers err sKghtly in an opposite direction : they are not suffi- ciently rich in albuminoids. " In applying all these tables, it must be remembered that the proportion of food must vary with the weight rather than with the age of the animal, hence, in the table of standards, the approxi- mate weights for which these are calcu- lated are stated. " It need scarcely be mentioned to a practical man like Mr Piatt that there are many points to be considered in feeding besides mere chemical composi- tion. While my paper was an endeavour to draw the attention of farmers to the chemical side of feeding, the practical needs of an animal — bulk, palatabihty, digestibility, and variety in the food — were not mentioned, as being familiar to my readers, and points upon which they were better able to judge than myself. Whether a ration of turnips, oat-straw, and cotton-cake would meet these de- mands, I must therefore leave to Mr Piatt to decide. Headers of my notes must please to remember that these points, although not mentioned, are not to be overlooked. " Next, as to a ration for cows whose milk is falling oflf and which are getting on in caK. The falling off in milk is partly due to the call of the foetus upon the cow, and hence upon her food. We FOOD EATIONS. 297 do not know exactly what this call is, but probably it will be very largely albuminoid, so that these compounds must be well maintained in the ration. The composition of the calf, and the composition of the colostrum, or food naturally prepared for its first demands, both point to this. Therefore it would not seem wise to diminish the food until shortly before calving, when other con- siderations demand a little restriction. Mr Piatt's ration for dry cows may therefore be dispensed with.'' Feeding in Sir John Lennard's Dairy. Writing to the lAve Stock Journal, Sir John F. Lennard, Bart., Wickham Court, Beckenham, Kent, says : "I shall be very much obliged if you will advise me as to the food I give my cows. I have used it for many years — about twenty. It was my own recipe, and I have never yet found a better. My cows are Guernsey, all the females descended from one cow. I have been much inter- ested in the information lately given by Mr Lloyd on this point ; and it occurs to me that I may be wrong, or, at any rate, that an improvement can be made, so as to have the proper proportion of dry matter, &c., &c. I do not sell milk, but butter. I do not use decorticated cotton- cake, as I think it too dear for its value. I may be wrong in this. "Food for cows in winter when in milk, for one day : — 4 lb. bran. 4 lb. ground oats, beana, or peas. I bushel hay-chaff (8 lb.) J bushel parsnips pulped (20 lb.) " Half of the above to be mixed in a large tub, as soon as the mixture pre- viously made has been given to the cows, pressed down, and covered to cause fer- mentation. Two tubs required. To be given morning and afternoon. " 3 lb. cotton-cake, i bushel hay-chafF, mixed and moistened, and given between the two mashes. " Some oat-straw chaff at night (4 lb. each)." In reply, Mr Lloyd says : " The above ration would contain the following con- stituents : — Digestible. 4 lb. bran . If pea-meal 4 lb. if bean-meal If oats , 16 lb. hay 20 lb. parsnips 3 lb. cotton-cake 4 lb. oat-straw 51 lb., containing — if witn pea-meal If with bean-meal If with oats Dry Organic Matter. Albuminoids. Carbohydrates. Fat. 3.22 0.50 1. 71 O.IO 3.40 0.83 2.21 O.II 3.29 0.92 2.CX5 0.05 3.32 0.36 1.73 0.19 12.72 0.86 6.56 0.16 2.20 0.32 2.24 0.04 2.46 0.52 0.44 0.16 3.26 0.05 1.60 0.03 27.26 27-15 27.18 3.08 3-17 2.61 14.76 14-55 14.28 0.60 0.54 0.68 " The albuminoid or nutritive ratio of these three rations is — ^with pea-meal i to 5.28, with bean-meal i to 5.01, with oats I to 6.12. It will be seen at once that the substitution of peas or beans by oats is not good, pea-meal and bean-meal be- ing rich in albuminoids, but not so oats. The cause of the success of this ration is evident. While it supplies ample, prob- ably more than sufficient, dry matter, the constituents are so well balanced as to be, on an average, almost identical with the standard nutritive ratio. "This further accounts for the fact that decorticated cotton-cake has not proved so beneficial as ordinary cotton- cake, because it would augment con- stituents which are already present in slight excess, and would not sufficiently augment those which are at present de- ficient. " The ration leaves little room for im- provement, except that oats must no longer be substituted for peas or beans, though I lb. oats and 3 lb. beans might with advantage be substituted for the 4 lb. beans. "The quantity of dry food is, how- ever, very large, especially for Guernseys ; and it would be well to see whether it could be gradually diminished without causing the animals to fall off in their 298 CATTLE IN" WINTEE. yield of butter. To begin with, for every twenty cows, instead of preparing twenty times these quantities, I would suggest that nineteen times the quantity be prepared. No doubt, a record of the butter, if not of the milk, is kept ; and if, after some time, there is no undue falling off in these — that is, no more than the natural decrease resulting from the lapse of time since calving — then the food may be further reduced to eighteen times this ration for twenty cows." Rations far Small and Large Cows. A correspondent, signing himself "J. D. L.," asks Mr Lloyd to tell him what quantity of hay, oats, straw, cabbage, or silage (meadow-grass) should be used in combination with a " dairy meal " having the following analysis ; Oils. Albuminoids Carbohydrates . Dry matter S per cent. 16 It 48 in order to make a perfect daUy ration for dairy cows — Jerseys and Devons — the object being to produce butter of the finest quality. "A friend of mine," he adds, "is strongly in favour of equal quantities of maize -meal and decorti- cated cotton-cake, as superior to the same 7 lb. hay 7 lb. oat-straw 28 lb. cabbage 10 lb. meal quantity of the meal; but the cowman says the meal is the best. A careful study of Mr Lloyd's tables has brought me to the conclusion that the meal is superior to the mixture in carbohydrates, but is not so good in albuminoids ; and which is of the most importance, when butter is the object in view, I don't know. The fats seem to me nearly equal. "Mr Lloyd's calculations as to the rations of a dairy cow are founded on the supposition that the cow weighs 1000 lb. I shall be greatly obliged if, in your next issue, you will tell me if I should be justified in assumiag that a Devon or Jersey cow, weighing, say, 5^00 lb., could well be kept on half the rations he describes." "Li reply to the first question," says Mr Lloyd, " I must assume that the sub- stances may be given in any quantity that we like. Generally, good results seem to be obtained when the succulent food is double the weight of the hay and straw, and the rest of the ration made up with dry food. Take, then, the following basis for the ration : 7 lb. hay, 7 lb. oat- straw, 28 lb. cabbage. The constituents would be as in the following table, and show that 10 lb. of meal would be necessary to make up the ration in dry matter : — ■ Digestible. Dry Matter. Albuminoids. Carbohydrates. Fat. 05-56 05.71 ifo 0.38 O.IO 0.50 1.60 2.87 2.80 1-47 4.80 0.07 O.0S O.II 0.80 23.90 2.58 11.94 1.03 "This, probably, would be more meal rations of 10 lb. each hay and straw, 30 than could be given profitably, so we will lb. cabbage, and 5 lb. meal. That woidd increase the quantities of the other in- contain : — gredients and give less meal. Take the 10 lb. hay 10 lb. oat-straw 30 lb. cabbage 5 lb. meal Digestible. Dry Matter. Albuminoids. Carbohydrates. Fat^ 7-95 0.54 4.10 o.io 8.17 0.14 4.01 0.07 4.11 O.S4 2.46 0.12 4.40 0.80 2.40 0.40 24.63 12.97 0.69 " It will be seen at once that this ra- ration with such a meal, it would be tion is deficient in albuminoids, hence it necessary to use a very large quantity follows that, in order to obtain a perfect of it. FOOD RATIONS. 299 "The question then arises, 'Would equal quantities of maize-meal and de- corticated cotton-cake be superior to the same quantity of the meal 1 ' The ration would then contain the following con- stituents : — Digestible. 2)4 lb. maize 2^ lb. decorticated cotton-cake . Added to hay, straw, and cabbage, giving 24.43 Dry Matter. 2.17 2.03 Albuminoids. Carbohydrates. 0.23 1.68 0.77 0.46 12.71 Fat. O.IO 0.31 0.70 "The maize and decorticated cotton- cake would therefore be superior to the meal, if ground as fine. The want of this fine grinding is usually the cause of cakes not giving such good results as they are capable of giving — Whence, j^rob- ably, the cowman's opinion and its just- ness. It is evident that the ration would be further improved by increasing the quantity of decorticated cotton-cake, so as to bring the albuminoids well up to the standard. The importance of this is pointed out in a former reply to inquiries. Albuminoids make butter. " Whether the demands of a cow .weighing 500 lb. could be met by one- half the quantity of food necessary for a 1000 lb. animal is somewhat difficult to say, and is a subject well worthy of ex- periment on the part of the admirers of Jerseys, Guernseys, and Kerrys. There are many reasons and statements made which would support the view that one- half this ration would be sufficient. But the subject may be considered from an- other standpoint. The ration of the milch cow has to satisfy two functions — to sustain the body, and to form milk. These two portions may be divided, as in the following table. To sustain the body of an animal weighing 500 lb., we might rightly assume one-half the sustenance allowance alone to be necessary ; but, in addition, we should require the quantity necessary for the supply of milk. Judg- ing from the average production of the animals exhibited at the Dairy Show for the past eight years, this may be taken as one-fifth less than the Shorthorns. "The following table gives these fig- ures, and compares the rations necessary by the two methods of calculation : — Dry Matter. Digestible. Albimiinoids. Carbohydrates Fat. Milch cow of TOGO lb. — Sustenance ration . , I7-S 0.7 8.0 CIS Milk-production ration 6.5 1.8 4-5 0.2s Milch cow of 500 lb. — J!4 sustenance ration . 8.7S 0-3S 4.0 0.075 4-5tli3 milk production allowance . S.20 1.44 3.6 0.200 Total ration . 13-95 1.79 7.6 0.27s If reckoned as half the ration of 1000 lb. animal . 12.0 I.2S 6.25 0.20 "It would be interesting to see the relative merits of these rations tried by experiment. Personally, I think the richer would give the better results." 3 lb. long hay 50 lb. mangels - T/ 11- 1. re i oat-straw, 6V' lb. I3>^ lb. chaff I j^^y_ g^ [^/* 3 lb. ground oats 3^ lb. decorticated cotton-cake Proposed ration . Model ration The Nutritive Ratio. Another correspondent asked Mr Lloyd's opinion of the following rations which he was giving to his cows : — Digestible, Dry Matter. Albuminoids. Carbohydrates. Fat.^ 2.38s 0.162 1.230 0.030 S'°°° 0.550 5.000 0.050 5.514 0.094 2.706 0.047 . 5-366 0.364 2.767 0.067 2.571 0.270 1.299 O.141 2.842 1.085 2.52s 0.640 13.642 0.430 24.278 0.765 24.000 2.500 12.500 0.400 300 CATTLE IN WINTER Mr Lloyd replies : " Upon looking at the figures of this ration, one would think that the apparently slight differ- ence between the proposed ration and the standard would have little effect. But the object of a feeding standard is to fix the relation of the albuminoids to the carbohydrates and fat quite as much as to give the absolute quantities re- quired. The correct relation of the al- buminoids to the carbohydrates, &c., is I to 5.4. This relation exists in the standard. Fat is considered to have two and a half times the value of carbo- hydrate. By multiplying the 0.4 of fat by two and a half, we obtain i.o as its equivalent. Adding this to the 12.5 of carbohydrates makes 13.5 in all, which. divided by the albuminoids, shows that for one part of albuminoid there are 5.4 parts of carbohydrates. "If we perform the same calculation with the ration quoted, the proportion of albuminoids to carbohydrates is found to be I to 6.1. Hence the proposed ration does not meet the requirements of the standard — ^it does not possess the correct " nutritive ratio." In order to make it do so, we must increase the quantity of albuminoids and simultaneously reduce the carbohydrates. A near approach to the standard would be obtained by tak- ing 5 lb. decorticated cotton-cake instead of the 3j^, and by entirely leaving out the ground oats. This would give a ration containing — Digestible. 5 lb. decorticated cotton-cake Total ration Dry Organic Matter. 4.060 22.92 Albuminoids. Carbohydrates. Fat. 1-55 0-9IS 0.618 2.72 12.418 0.809 which possesses a ratio of i to 5.3. " When a ration shows a deficiency of dry matter and excess of digestible com- pounds it is evidence of a deficiency of the poor bulky foods. This ration would allow more oat-straw to be used." The Nutritive Ratio the Essential Point. Another correspondent, "M. E. M.," asked if Mr Lloyd would "kindly say if in mixing a food ration the proportion given in the standard must be strictly followed ; dr supposing a ration to show I per cent of fat instead of 0.40, would it be considered properly balanced if the carbohydrates were reduced by 1.50 — that is, two and a half times as much as the fat is increased ? Thus : — Dry Matter. 24.0 Albu- minoids. 2-5 Carbo- hydrates. II.O Pat. Nutritive Eatio. 1.0 1 to 5.4 The nutritive ratio is preserved here, and I infer this is the essential point. " I ask this because, with my present stock of roots, hay, and straw, I have not been able to compile a ration with so little fat as 0.40. " I can only allow 10 lb. swedes, 12 lb. hay, and 10 lb. of oat-straw; to this I add 5 lb. of mixed oat-sheUings and dat-dust, which I take as equal to oat-straw, although I do not know the analysis. " I must explain I take the weight as 1250 lb. not 1000 lb., my cows being- large. " Taking this as a basis, what would Mr Lloyd recommend to make up the ration 1 "May I further ask if an excess of any constituent, say of fat, in a ration is simply wasted, or will not the cow there- by either fatten herself or produce richer milk ? From the reply to Mr Piatt, Mr Lloyd seems to say that all excess is not only waste, but requires other excess and waste to counteract it. Will he kindly explain this ? " Mr Lloyd replies : " M. E. M. is quite right in the view he takes as to the method of correcting an excess of fat by diminishing the carbohydrates, and the standard he gives would satisfy the re- quirements of the nutritive ratio, which is of primary importance. [Tor a full reply to this last question see Mr Lloyd's article on the " Value of Fat as a Food Constituent," given in this work.] Ex- cess of fat is wasted, so far as milk pro- duction is concerned; it may, however, tend to fatten the animal. In replying to Mr Piatt, I was considering simply the question of mUk production. To make excess of fat useful would necessitate the albuminoids being raised. By this means more food would be given than was neces- rOOD EATIONS. 301 sary, and hence waste. I trust these replies -will make my former answers clear. " Now, to build up a ration, taking as the basis the foods mentioned. These will contain the following : — Digestible. Dry Organic Matter. Albuminoids. Carbohydrates. Fat. 10 lb. swedes 12 lb. hay 10 lb. oat-straw . 5 lb. oat-shells and dust,^ say . 1.20 9-54 '. 4!o8 0.13 0.64 0.14 0.07 1.06 4.92 4.01 2.00 o.oi 0.01 0.07 0,03 Ration required Still required 22.99 30.00 7-01 0.98 3.12 2.14 11.99 15.62 3-63 0.12 0.50 0.38 ' I cannot state the exact composition ; the shells are very similar to straw, the dust prob- ably richer. " Thus the difference must be made up of a meal containing 3^^ parts of carbohydrates to 2 of albuminoids, and 2 parts of albuminoids in 7 of dry matter, which represents over 20 per cent of al- buminoids — consequently there are very few substances available. Bean-meal and pea-meal would contain too much carbo- hydrates, about 5 to 2. Linseed and cotton-cake too little, only 2 to 2. A mixture of both would neutralise this. Try 4 lb. pea-meal and 4 lb. decorticated cotton-cake. These would contain the following : — Digestible. Dry Organic Matter. Albuminoids. Carbohydrates. Fat. 4 lb. pea-meal 4 lb. decorticated cotton-cake Make up with }4 lb. maize 3-40 3-24 0.43 0.83 1.24 0.05 2.21 0.73 0.33 O.Il 0.49 0.02 Supplying . 7.07 2.12 3-27 0.62 Added to former ration makes 30.06 Fat equivalent 3.10 15.26 1.8s 0.74 3-1) 17.11(1 I5-S to 5-5 ratio. " These substances were the first I tried ; it would be possible to get nearer the standard by a little further altera- tion." nations for Horses. The chairman of a colliery company, employing 72 horses for pit purposes, asked if Mr Lloyd could suggest a more economical feeding ration for these horses than they were now using, which for strong thick horses of 14.2 hands high cost about 14s. per horse per week, or for the 72 horses ^2600 a-year. He adds : " I am told, at the pit, that the daily feed given to each horse is as fol- lows: — 21 lb. meadow-hay, 13 lb. oats, and 5 lb. beans; the oats and beans being crushed, and the hay chaffed. The horses are worked very hard under- 16.1 ground, and our loss by deaths, owing to colic and other ailments, brought about by the unnatural conditions under which the horses work, amounts to about _;£8oo per annum." In reply Mr Lloyd says : " There are many difficulties to be met when the feeding rations of horses come to be considered. With horses at work in the open, the chief difficulty lies in counter- acting the constant fluctuations of tem- perature; and a ration which to-day, it being warm and dry, may be all-suffi- cient, will to-morrow, if it be cold and wet, prove quite inefficient. There is, therefore, always a certain amount of loss or want in a fixed ration for horses working out of doors. The temperature of a coUiery will presumably be less liable to fluctuation, and on an average 302 CATTLE IN WINTER ■warmer. Hence there will be a smaller quantity of the heat-producing elements required. On the other hand, the work is excessive, and the muscular exertion being great, the proportion of albumin- oids or flesh-formers must be high, and it must be accompanied by a high pro- portion of oU, for it has been shown that oil has the remarkable power of dimiu- ishing muscular waste, and it is supposed that on this account the oat, being of cereals the richest in oil, has been found so beneficial for horses. Thus a food wiU be required peculiarly rich in al- buminoids. " There is another and important con- sideration. The digestion of albuminoids takes place primarily in the stomach, and what escapes the stomach undergoes di- gestion in the intestine. It appears to me that with aU animals a food rich in albuminoids tends to produce colic when those albuminoids are diflBcult of diges- tion and the main part fails to be di- gested in the stomach. For example, peas and beans are usually considered more liable to produce colic than barley or oats. And again, when animals are changed to a feed of rich clover there is, I believe, a tendency to disarrangement of the digestive organs. This view would further explain the statements made by practical men that cooking the food of horses renders them less liable to coUc, for by so doing the food becomes softer, and is more easily acted upon by the gastric juice. The food of heavily worked horses should, therefore, be easy of digestion. " Having cleared the way vsdth general principles, I will next pass to the con- sideration of the chemical aspects thereof. From experiments hitherto made, the following standard was drawn up for horses heavily worked: — Digestible. Per lOo lb. live weight Dry Organic Matter. 25.S Albuminoids. Carbohydrates. Fat. 2.8 13.4 0.8 This would have a nutritive ratio of i to 5.5. "The coUiery horses would probably require less carbohydrates and more albuminoids, with food not more bulky than the above, say — 20 lb. hay 13 lb. oats 5 lb. beans . Dry Organic Matter. Albu- minoids. Carbo- hydrates. 13.0 25.0 3.0 This would have a ratio of i to 5. "The food now being given contain approximately : — Digestible. would standard for horse of 1200 lb. Dry Organic Matter. Albuminoids. Carbohydrates. Fat. 15.90 10.79 4.12 1.08 I.S6 LIS 8.20 7.24 2.51 0.20 0.78 0.07 30.81 3°-o 3-79 3-6 17-95 15.6 i.os 0.96 "The nutritive ratio of the present ration is i to 5.4. Unless the animals weigh 1200 lb., it would appear that they are receiving too much food, and in that case the excess of food is consumed to get at the albumen they need. The ratio is probably too wide. " I would suggest that an experiment be first made with some of the horses, giving them the following ration, and the results carefully watched, to deter- mine the quantity they eat and its effect : — Digestible. Dry Organic Matter. Albuminoids. Carbohydrates. Fat IS lb. hay 11.93 0.81 6. IS CIS 10 lb. oats 8.30 1.20 S-S7 0.60 4 lb. beans . 3.29 0.92 2.01 0.06 2 lb. Cleveland meal 1.68 o-SS 0.69 0.06 25.20 3.48 14.42 0.87 VALUE OF EAT AS A FOOD CONSTITUENT. 303 " The nutritive ratio of this ration is I to 4.8. It would supply very nearly as much albumen as the present ration, and would probably be more easily digested." A Word of Gaution. As would be expected, a good deal of scepticism has been expressed as to the soundness of these precise directions sub- mitted by Mr Lloyd for the mixing of feeding rations. Mr Lloyd himself has explained clearly that the "standards" he has given are merely guides, and not to be regarded as " hard and fast limits." It is well that all new teaching should be received with caution, and carefully tested in the light of practice. It may therefore be useful to give here the fol- lowing extracts from a letter addressed by " A Scottish Farmer " to the Agricul- tural Gazette of April 30, 1888 : — "The article upon Feeding Eations, in your issue of the i6th inst., suggests the question whether there is yet a suffi- cient basis for principle — represented in this case by Mr Lloyd — dictating in such a very exact way to practice. The chemistry of manures has suffered much at the hands of its friends, and it would be a pity if the science of feeding, from which much may be expected in the future, were as much dragged by the premature theories of its professors. Ex- perience of feeding 70 to 90 buUocks for the butcher yearly has taught me that the judgment of practical feeders, as shown by the market price, is a better index of the relative feeding values of different concentrated foods, such as lin- seed-cake, rape -cake, and cotton t cake, than the ordinary chemical analyses made at present, though of course the latter have their value in detecting adulteration. Moreover, I know practi- cal men whose master -eye can fatten their cattle more quickly than I can, though my rations are probably nearer those indicated by scientific data. " It would certainly be a great gain if experienced feeders were so far educated as to enable them to see how far science 3,nd practice agree, for when they be- came interested in the subject they could lend the most valuable help in advancing the science by explaining the cause of seeming discrepancies. They would be- come wise by learning riot their own ignorance only, but also the many points about which science is at present ignor- ant in this matter. A Disturbing Element. — "Koughly speaking, the cause of the difficulty in getting sufficient reliable data on this subject is that success depends more upon knowledge of the peculiarities of the individual animal than upon a unit or two of difference in the albuminoid ratio. It is all very well to arrange the food scientifically, but every practical feeder knows that fattening oxen ofteii stick up on their food — as they say here — and you have got to change it for a little, and study the appetite and diges- tive powers of each, and the state of their bowels, &c. If the scientific far- mer is fortunate enough to get a really good cattle-man, who is interested in the animals, and manages to keep their ap- petite always fresh, he will find it wiser not to force such a man to use scientific rations weighed out to a pound for each beast daily. This is especially true in these days of pleuro, when one cannot always get a great choice of store cattle, and has sometimes to take those that have been hungered in their youth, and whose digestion ever after needs a deal of pampering. " Many scientific reasons may be given to show that it is not wise to base hard and fast rules on the German data. . . . In the meantime I do not know that any more scientific advice about feeding should be given to the farmer than this — Check your judgment and test your suc- cess by weighing your cattle as stores, and occasionally after, though of course not so frequently as to seriously disturb them." VALUE OF FAT AS A FOOD CONSTITUENT. This important point was discussed by Mr F. J. Lloyd in a paper contributed to the Journal of the British Dairy Far- mers' Association (vol. iv., part i., 1888). It is now generally understood that the three functions of food are — (i) to main- tain the heat of the animal body ; (2) to maintain or build up the flesh ; and (3) to produce fat. The question which Mr 304 CATTLE IN WINTER. Lloyd has set himself to consider is — " Out of what portion of the food and in what manner is this fat produced 1 " Formerly it was generally assumed that the fat present in the food went directly to bmld up fat in the body. Eecent scientific research, however, has driven physiologists to the conclusion that that is not the case, but that the fat in the food is entirely broken up and the fat of the animal formed anew — in other words, as expressed by Mr Lloyd, " that the fat formed in the animal body is formed by decomposition of the proto- plasm or living nitrogenous matter of the animal ; and that fat taken as food is not converted directly into fat, but, Uke other portions of food, is taken into the blood and supplies nutriment to the living protoplasm." Pat in Foods. — ^Explaining the cir- cumstances which give this subject its special importance at this time, Mr Lloyd says : " The amount of fat present in the ordinary crops of the farm raised for feeding purposes is exceedingly small : it is only in those bye-products which have to be bought by the farmer, such as linseed and cotton cakes, that oil exists in large quantities. These cakes are, however, made by those whose chief object is to extract the oU, and conse- quently of recent years, what vrith im- proved machinery and experience gained, the amount of oil which has been left in these bye-products has been gradually diminishing. By a new process — ^rapidly extending in America, and not unlikely to render in course of time the linseed- cake obsolete — oil is now being extracted with chemicals from the ground seed or meal, without pressure, leaving an ex- tracted meal, instead of, as formerly, a hard-pressed cake. Hence it behoves the farmer to ask at once. Was it the oil contained in these cakes that made them valuable ? and to what extent, if any, are they depreciated by this diminished proportion of oU ? "Had the old notion that oil in the cake went direct to form fat in the ani- mal been true, undoubtedly these cakes, when rich in oil, would have possessed great value. But we have seen that this does not take place. What is more re- markable is the fact now proved, that the direct reverse is what happens. Oily rood Secreasin? Milk. — " Ex- periments have shown that by increasing the fat in an animal's food the fat in the ttiillr is decreased; and the explanation of this has been found in the fact that fat retards and does not facilitate that decomposition of protoplasm which re- sults in the production of fat. To the dairy-farmer and to the fattener of live stock this fact is of immense importance, and proves that large quantities of oil 'm the food are objectionable; hence, in- stead of being a constituent which ma- terially enhances the value of linseed or cotton cake, it may be deemed, for their purposes, of secondary importance. Oil Valuable for Sheep. — "But if oil has this remarkable power of pre- venting a waste of the nitrogenous con- stituents of the body, it is evident that for animals like sheep, which have to wander far to get off scanty herbage their necessary food, any artificial food which contained oil would be likely to prove of greater advantage than one deficient in oU. Source of Fat. — "Then, what con- stituent in the food is it which contri- butes to this formation of fat in the animal body ? This must depend partly upon whether the fat so formed is stored up, or whether it constitutes milk, and for this reason, in the former case there seems to be less nitrogenous waste than in the latter. In milk we all know how large is the quantity of nitrogenous matter (casein) which is secreted simul- taneously with the fat. But in the building up of fat in the body, it would seem that less nitrogenous waste takes place. It has been so frequently pointed out to farmers how the food contains, and must contain, nitrogenous matter to build up the nitrogenous constituents of the body, that they wiU readily realise the necessity of supplying large quantities of this nitrogenous matter where the waste is large, as in the formation of mnk. And the well-known properties of bean-meal and pea-meal to increase the flow of milk, and to augment the fat in that milk, it is now easy to understand, seeing that these substances are among the richest in nitrogenous constituents, and so eminently adapted to meet that nitrogenous change which produces milk. "But, in the fattening of the pig, VALUE OF FAT AS A FOOD CONSTITUENT. 30s while the protoplasm of the body is producing fat there seems to be little destruction of nitrogenous matter, and hence it is possible to satisfy the wants of this protoplasm by merely supplying those elements which are being thrown off as fat. These elements are, in the language of the chemist, carbon, hydro- gen, and oxygen, and there can be no doubt that we might supply them to the protoplasm by feeding animals on oil. But fortunately they can be supplied at far less cost, and with equal efficacy, either as starch or sugar, both of which also contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxy- gen ; and hence it is that starch and sugar are the chief constituents of those foods which have from time immemorial been known to produce fat. "Value of Oil in Food. — "If, then, the conclusions that we have arrived at are correct, that oil in the food does not produce fat in the animal directly, while this fat can be equally well produced from starch and sugar, what is the value of this oil ? Every substance which is absorbed into the blood becomes, sooner or later, oxidised, and by that oxidation produces heat ; hence it is that the heat of the body is maintained. Owing to a larger quantity of carbon and hydrogen in fat requiring oxidation than there is in starch or sugar, the heat that one pound of fat will produce is more than two and a half times as great as the heat pro- duced by one pound of sugar j and so fat may be said to have two and a half times the value of sugar. " Again, nitrogenous matter also con- tains carbon, which, by its oxidation, gives rise to heat in the animal body. Having performed its chief function of supplying nitrogen, there will then be a quantity of carbon still unused and car pable of being oxidised. This quantity has been calculated, and it is found that the residual carbon in 2.5 grams of nitro- genous matter would generate by its oxi- dation about as much heat as i gram of fat. Further, it is highly probable that this residual carbon is the very portion of its food out of which the protoplasm forms fat. Albuminoids compensating for ■Want of Oil. — " But that I shall not discuss here, suffice it that for our pur- pose we may safely estimate that every VOL. I. 2.5 grams of albuminoids can replace i gram of fat ; or in other words, that in two cakes, one rich in oil and the other poor in oil — one, say, containing 10 per cent, and the other 4 per cent — the dif- ference in the amount of oil would be amply compensated by the latter contain- ing 15 per cent more albuminoids — that is, two and a half times as much as the deficiency of oil. But this excess of albuminoids would more than amply compensate for the deficiency in oil : it would add to the value of the cake by that portion of the nitrogenous matter not so utilised. Where we have linseed- cakes poor in oil, it will be invariably found that they are richer comparatively in nitrogenous matter, hence the albu- minoids will, to a certain extent, compen- sate for the loss of oil. Value of Fat per TTnit. — " We have thus seen that 2.5 grams of carbohy- drates, and 2.5 grams of albuminoids, are each equally capable of replacing i gram of fat ; and probably the true value of fat as a constituent of the food of animals will lie between these extremes. In an article written some years ago, I came to the conclusion that a fair price for the constituents of feeding-stuffs was is. per unit for carbohydrates, and 2S. per unit for albuminoids; and I then estimated the fat as worth 2S. per unit. I am now inclined to think this was a little below its real value, and that 2 s. 6d. might with advantage be taken as a more correct standard. Oil and Milk-production.— " After carefully studying the facts stated above, I do not think the dairy-farmer will in any way fear the diminishing amount of oil found in linseed-cakes. That it is not essential to milk-production may be considered as proved in theory ; and the remarkable results which have been ob- tained by the use of Cleveland meal — that is, linseed-meal from which the oil has been extracted chemically- — show that practical results confirm that view. Sev- eral of the prize-winners at the recent milking trials at the show of the British Dairy Farmers' Association had been partly fed upon this meal, and the owners of the cows so fed have one and all certified to the improvement in both the quality and the quantity of the re- sulting milk-supply. 3o6 CATTLE IN WINTER. Oil and Beef-production. — "With, however, fattening animals, such results would not be obtained without the addi- tion of large quantities of carbohydrates. For, if too large a proportion of albumin- oids be given to fat animals, it will result in a loss and not in a further gain of fat. Practical Conclusions as to Oily Food. — " The practical conclusions to be derived from this study are many and important, and some will be evident to those engaged in the feeding of dairy stock. They will see that the desire, which so many have, for cakes rich in oil is one which they can afford to dispense with ; that the feeding with linseed-meal — whole meal I refer to — ^is a mistake; and that equally good results would at- tend the use of the same meal after the oil had been extracted. And it would have a further benefit : it would admit of a certain amount of the inferior corn pro- duced on the farm and not saleable, being used with advantage as food in the place of this oil. While, lastly, I would espe- cially urge the attention of those who consider it advantageous to buy oil and mix with the food to the facts contained in this paper, for I cannot believe that one tithe the money so spent is ever recovered." ENSILAGE. The preservation of food for live stock being the sole aim and end of Ensilage, a description of this excellent modern development may appropriately enough be presented here. The feeding merits of silage, which is the product of the pro- cess of ensilage — the food preserved by the system — ^will be more easily estimated when the theory and practice of ensilage are clearly understood. And before pro- ceeding to describe the different methods of feeding cattle in winter, it is desirable to learn all that is worthy of being learned about all the kinds of food in use. Ensilage is an entirely new branch of farm practice, its development in the United Kingdom dating from 1882. In a sentence, it may be defined as the pre- servation of green food by the exclusion of air. In a modified sense the practice is an ancient one. History of Xinsilage. — From time immemorial the storage of grain in imderground pits for preservation has been practised in Eastern countries. Pliny speaks approvingly of this method as being adopted, in his time, in Thrace, Cappadocia, Barbary, and Spain. Varro indorsed his opinion of its merits, and asserted that wheat could be thus kept sweet and entire for fifty years, and millet for a century. The main object, especi- ally among nomadic tribes, was to pre- vent marauders or victorious enemies from obtaining their stores of food. In later days the practice was adopted — in Spain for example — for commercial reasons, as by its means the surplus in years of plenty and low prices could be kept for disposal in times of scarcity and high prices. In Mr H. M. Jenkins's valuable article in the Royal Agricultural Society's Journal (xx., second series, 1884) on " The Practice of Ensilage at Home and Abroad," some interesting details are given of the adop- tion of the system for the preservation of grain in France. It appears to have been in Germany that the system of ensilage was first ap- plied to the preservation of fodder crops, as distinguished from grain. So far back as 1843, Professor Johnston gave a de- tailed description of the German system of making "sour hay," in an article in the Transactions of the Highland and Agricultural Society; and extracts from the article were given in two former edi- tions of The Book of the Farm. In 1874, Professor Wrightson in his " Report on the Agriculture of Austro- Hungarian Empire," published in the Royal Agricultural Society's Journal, remarked that " the system of making ' sour hay ' is also well worth the atten- tion of English agriculturists. It is done by digging graves or trenches, 4 feet by 6 or 8 feet in depth and breadth, and cramming the green grass or green Indian com tightly down into them, covering the whole up with a foot of earth. The preservation is complete, and the wetter the fodder goes together the better. . . . This sour hay affords a capital winter fodder, and when cut out with hay spades it is found to be rich brown in colour, and very palatable to stock." Herr Reihlen, of Stuttgart, was one of the earliest ad- vocates of this method, in letters pub- ENSILAGE. 307 lished by him in 1862 and 1865. These were translated and communicated to the Journal d' Agriculture Pratique of France, by M. Vihnorin-Andrieux, in 1870. To M. Goflfart, however, unquestion- ably belongs the honour of first directing general attention to the subject. This he did by his book, Manuel de la Culture et de I'Endlage des Mais et autres four- rages verts, published in 1877. The translation and publication of this work in New York, in 1879, moved American farmers — who had, however, somewhat earlier given attention to the subject — to vigorous adoption of the system. Sev- eral accounts of their successful endeav- ours crossed the Atlantic, and served to awaken some interest among British agriculturists in the subject. Introduction into Great Britain. — But it was from France that the first real impulse came in 1882 — although before then several stray silos had been ten- tatively erected by experimenters in various parts of the country. At the Heading show, in that year, Vicomte Arthur de Chezelles — one of the largest and most prominent practitioners in France — was present, and by his de- scription aroused the curiosity and in- terest of those with whom he came in contact. In particular, Mr Kains- Jackson was impelled by his accounts to accept his invitation to see for himself what he was doing. In the autumn of that year the result of his investigations appeared in the columns of the Field and the Times,. and at once attracted widespread inter- est. Mr Kains - Jackson brought back with him — after some difficulties with the Custom-house authorities, who impound- ed the novel product on suspicion of its being some kind of tobacco — samples of ensilage, and from that time the growth of the system in this country dates. Since that period its progress has been astonishingly rapid, and its development in various directions altogether unex- pected. In 1884 the Eoyal Agricultural Society took up the subject in its journal, by the article above referred to, and the Bath and West of England Society car- ried out some interesting demonstrations in connection with their Maidstone show. Progress of Ensilage. — In 1883 the Ensilage Commission — a private but highly influential body, whose labours were indorsed by the Government, and embodied in official Blue-books — sat and collected a mass of invaluable evidence. The Agricultural Eeturns first included ensilage in their survey in 1884, and enumerated 610 silos as being in exist- ence in Great Britain. The progress of the movement is shown most concisely and vividly by the figures for the follow- ing years. In 1885 there were 11 83 silos; in 1886, 1605; and in 1887, 2694. In the last-named year there were also recorded 1362 " persons proposing to make ensilage in stacks," to which further reference will be made. Silos. A silo was originally a pit — the word being derived from the Greek o-Ipos — which, according to Liddell and Scott, is "a pit or hole sunk in the ground for keeping corn in." The word came to us through the Spanish and French, in which languages the r was naturally changed to I. Very soon, in practice, "a pit or hole " was found to be adaptable only to special soils and situations, and a large variety of receptacles for ensilage, both below and above ground, have been con- structed, which have very widely extended the original term silo. It would be impossible even to enu- merate the different descriptions of silos which have been adopted. From the most elaborately designed and expensively constructed buildings to the simplest and cheapest " converted " structure, the variety of methods adopted has been re- markable. Some idea of their diversity may be gathered from the fact that the cost per ton capacity has ranged from 8s. up to 30s. or 40s., and even 50s. Converted Silos. — In many cases old ice-houses or barns have been converted into silos at a comparatively trifling ex- pense. One or two instances may be mentioned. Mr W. J. Harris of Haliwell, Devon, made a silo out of a disused man- ure-shed. It was 35 feet long, 18 feet wide, and loj^ feet deep, with a capa- city of 130 tons. The work was sub- stantially done, a good slate roof was added, and the cost was ;^iio, or nearly 17s. per ton. On the Marquess of Bute's home farm a silo, 18 feet long, 6 feet wide, and 8 feet deep, was formed in part of a barn, by running a brick parti- 3o8 CATTLE IN WINTER tion across, and cementing the floor and walls. The cost was £io, i6s., and the capacity 17 tons, or about 12s. per ton. Lord Egerton of Tatton converted an old ice-house in his park into a sUo (fig. 119). The walls on the inside were plastered, with cement, the original entrance being blocked up, and a new entrance made at the top. The size was — diameter, 11 feet 6 inches; height to square, 12 feet 6 inches ; area, 104 square feet. A sec- tion of this silo is represented in fig. 119, which, by kind permission, we produce from the Journal of the Royal Affricwl- tural Society of England (second series, XX. 175). Mrs W. P. Paige, of Ongar, Fig. 119. — Section of Lord Egertoris silo, showing its condition at the end of the third da^s work. AAA Boxes filled with "bricks. E Arcliway from the side of the bank, by which the silo is emptied. c New brickwork. D Height at which silo was weighted and settled ; condition of grass, juicy and damp with dew. E Section of grass quite dry and top grass dead. F Height to which grass put in on 4th and 5th July had sunk to when opened on July 27. G Man-hole used for filling. adapted an old straw-bam at an expendi- ture of only I OS., which was for the con- struction of a door in one of the gable- ends, the old door being boarded up. ITew Silos. — Of the variety of spe- cially constructed silos there is no end. In many instances the first sUo erected was intended merely for experiment, and it is scarcely fair to consider such struc- tures and their cost in a practical account of the system. The judges in the silo and sUage-stack competition, instituted by the Eoyal Agricultural Society in the winter of 1885-86, found that the average cost per 50 cubic feet of six new silos in- spected by them was i8s. 6d. It may be mentioned that 50 cubic feet is commonly calculated as equivalent to i ton of silage capacity. The judges reported that " with skilful and efficient management" the cost for building a moderately large silo ought not to be more than los. per cubic foot of capacity. Silos, Above or Belovir Ground ? — The first question in making a sUo is ob- viously whether it shall be dug out or erected. Sunk silos are in many respects preferable, but the cost of excavation has to be considered. Work of this kind may be said to have a fixed rate of cost in proportion to size, because, for a pit of 10 cubic yards of capacity, it is necessary to dig out 10 cubic yards of soil ; and if it be wished to make it two, three, or ten times larger, there is two, three, or ten times the amount of work to be done. On the other hand, with a building the cost is proportionately decreased accord- ing to the size. If, for instance, the length of each wall be doubled, the capar city is quadrupled, while the cost is, of course, only twice as much. It must be borne in mind that with sunk silos it is almost invariably necessary to line them with masonry or concrete. Many instances are recorded — ^notably in America — where ENSILAGE. 309 the simple " hole in the ground " silo has been found practicable and profitable ; but for the success of this special condi- tions of soil and situation are required, which are very seldom found in this country. From returns collected by the Agricul- tural Department of the Privy Council in 1885, giving details from persons pos- sessing silos in Great Britain, it was found that 420 silos were entirely above ground, 450 partly below, and 100 al- together beneath the surface. M. Goffart's Silo.— The plan of a silo to which Lord Walsingham's ;^io prize at the Norfolk Agricultural Show in 1885 was awarded, was after the model recommended by M. Goflfart — viz., with straight sides and semicircular ends, the total length in clear being 32 feet, the width 9 feet, and the depth loj^ feet. Mr T. Potter, in his admirable book on the Construction of Silos, remarks, that to construct a silo of this description would require 76 lineal feet of walling, and contain 270 cubic feet for every foot in depth; whereas the same amount of walling would build a square silo contain- ing 333 cubic feet for every foot in depth, or a gain of about 23 per cent in capacity. In fact, there seems to be no advantage in rounding the ends of the silo, in spite of M. Goffart's high authority for the design. Mr Potter sums up a consideration of the subject from an expert point of view thus : " For all practical purposes there- fore, the site of silos, their depth in the ground, their height above ground, their length and width and general contour, whether elliptical, circular, or rectangu- lar, is a matter of convenience and local circumstances; but if the cost is to be the main point, and simplicity of con- struction the second, then a square silo, or group of silos, whose boundary-line forms a square, and the individual silos contained therein are also square, is un- doubtedly the best." Hillside SUos. — A very favourite form of silo is one constructed against a hill- side, so that it can be both filled and emptied on the level. One of the earliest and best of this kiad was that of Mr H. A. Brassey, which was utilised during the Maidstone Show of the Bath and West of England Society and Southern Counties Association in 1884, for a series of interesting operations, which were, in fact, the first in connection with any agricultural exhibition in this country. The silo was thus described by Mr K. H. Eew, assistant-secretary of the Ensilage Society, in the Journal of the Bath and West of England Society: "Taking advantage of a slope in the ground, the earth was banked up on the upper side, and a roadway cut on the lower side, so that while the top of the silo was flush with the land, the bottom was also ac- cessible to carts upon the level. The silo was subdivided into six equal compart- ments, three on each side of a central passage. All the walls, both external and internal, as well as the floor, were substantially built of concrete, and the silo formed a permanent erection of the most durable kind. . . . Each of the six compartments had an area of 12 feet X 10 feet. The uniform depth through- out was 10 feet 6 inches. Two roUing roofs of corrugated iron were placed on raUs running from side to side. Each of these covered three silos. Subsequently, however, a third roof was added for the passage, and the rails were altered to run from end to end. Each of the compart- ments had a doorway about 2 feet 6 inches x 6 feet, giving access for con- venience of cutting out the ensilage. These, of course, were bricked up before filling. The capacity of each of the com- partments — ^adopting 50 cubic feet to the ton as the standard of computation — would be theoretically about 24 tons, or a total capacity of something like 220 tons for the whole silo, including the central passage." The cost of this structure was consid- erable, being as foUows : silo, ;^i35, 9s. 6d.; weighting, £s^, 6s. 6d. ; roof, _^2oo; total, ;^392, i6s., or about 35s. per ton of capacity. The silo was, how- ever, put up without special regard to cost, being intended in the first instance for experimental purposes. Some four or five different methods of pressure were also tried, and this, of course, added to the outlay. Chezelles Silo. — One of the most famous silos is that of Vicomte Arthur de Chezelles at Boulleaume, Chaumont- en-Vexin (Oise), France (fig. 120). It is 206 feet long by 2iJ^ feet vride. 3IO CATTLE m WESTTEE. and 15 feet deep, being, it is said, the largest in the world. It is entirely be- low the level of the ground, and is con- tracted of masonry, covered with a coat- ing of cement. The waUs are about 2% feet thick at the bottom, and about Shed fou grain STRAW &c fS.oFt ? Fig. izo. — Transverse section of M. de Chezelles's ^'Grange Silo,"^ lyz foot at the top. The Vicomte com- menced with an uncovered silo, and suc- ceeded very weU by covering the top with a mass of straw. He soon " recognised the necessity" of sheltering this same straw under a roof, and by this means to make a large shed where he could place his wheat and oats instead of stacking them. The silo cost ;£i6o, and the covering £2^0 : total, ^400. In 1882 the produce of 170 acres of trifoUum, sainfoin, lucerne, tares, and artificial grasses was ensiled in this sUo. Concrete Silo. — ^In 1882 a silo was erected on the estate of Lord Ashburton at Alresford, on a very convenient plan. A very eligible situation was found on a spot where two roads ran parallel with each other, with just a suitable distance between to give ample room to build a silo, one road being level with the ad- joining farm-buildings, and the other an ascent to higher ground. A silo with three compartments, and a total capacity of about 96 tons, was substantially built ^ Jour. Soyal Agric. Soc. Eng., xx., sec. ser., 208. of concrete, with corrugated iron roof, at a cost of ;^ii3- BentaU's Silo. — Of above-ground silos that of Messrs E. & H. Bentall is a notable type. It is a rectangular building, 25 feet in height, divided by a party-wall into two equal chambers 11 feet square, each chamber being capable of containing 50 tons of silage. An opening 2 feet 6 inches in width, which commences 5 feet from the ground, and continues to the top of the silo, is left in the middle of the front wall in each chamber. Through these openings the silo is filled and emptied. A crane which swings between the two openings, and a winch standing on the ground di- rectly beneath it, constitute the necessary appliances for filling, emptjong, and weighting the silo. Dead weight in the form of basket- fuls of pebbles supply the pressure. Silo with. Lever-pressure. — Mr C. G. Johnson erected in 1883 a silo with special lever-pressure. It was bmlt of brick, with slated roof. It was 18 feet long, 10 feet wide, and 28 feet high up to the eaves, but 6 feet of this height was left for work- ing the machinery, so that the total capacity, at 50 cubic feet to the ton, would be about 80 tons. But Mr John- son's silage weighed very much more than usual, as it reached 60 lb. per cubic foot ; and at this rate, if the whole space were occupied, fully 100 tons could be put in. The total cost of the sUo and apparatus was about £t.So, of which ;^65 was for masonry, -£^0 for pressing apparatus, and the remainder for roof, &c. ; but Mr Johnson was his own en- gineer, and the cost would have been higher had a professional man been em- ployed to superintend the work. Deduct- ing jQ^o for pressing apparatus, the cost, at the same rate as in other cases, would be about 22s. per ton. Concrete Slab Silo. — ^Among special forms of silos, those made of portable concrete slabs have been a good deal used. Mr A. M. Cardwell gave in The Field the following estimate, based on his own experience, of the total cost of a concrete slab sUo, 24 feet long, 12 feet wide, and 12 feet deep, including roof, bricks for weighting, &c. : sUo, ^£2^ ; ENSILAGE. 311 fixing, ^i ; concrete floor, ^£2 ; car- ^^^S% £,'^ ! bricks for weighting, j£io ; roof, _;^io — ^total cost, ;^So. Wooden Silos. — Wooden silos have also been a good deal recommended since it was discovered that lateral pressure was practically non-existent in making silage. Messrs F. W. Eeynolds & Co. in particular brought out a serviceable form of this kind of silo, being of a cir- cular shape, and the planks jointed so as to exclude the air. Methods of Pressure. The methods of obtaining pressure in silos are as varied and numerous as the forms of the silos themselves. Dead weights — earth, stones, bricks, iron, &c. — ^were the elementary form, and are still largely used. The labour of putting on and taking off the weight is, however, obviously great, and this led to the in- troduction of mechanical appliances. Mechanical Pressure.^ — Space would fail to give an adequate idea of the many ingenious mechanical contrivances which have been adopted for pressing silage. Jacks, screw and hydraulic, have formed one of the favourite modes of obtaining pressure. In the silo of Mr John Morris, which won the prize in the silo competition of the Eoyal Agricul- tural Society of England, for instance, a screw-jack was used. Potter's Patent. — The first applica- tion of mechanical pressure for which a claim for patent rights was made, was by Mr T. Potter, who introduced the use of a hydraulic jack. A pair or more of loose transverse beams being placed across the " covering boards " on the top of the silage, the jack was applied at each end of each beam by inserting the foot into successive notches in iron up- rights fitted to the wall of the silo for the purpose. Eeynolds's Patent. — One of the ear- liest patents taken out was that of Messrs F. W. Eeynolds & Co., which has come into extended use. This consists of pairs of chains, each imbedded in the floor of the silo, and meeting over the transverse beams, where they are drawn together by means of a screw- tightener. Mr S. H. Stocks has a well-known method of screws running right through the silage, — and many others might be mentioned. Stach Ensilage. Since 1885 the system of ensilage has developed in a direction which was cer- tainly not contemplated at its introduc- tion to this country. Its whole history — not only from the earlier practices of Eastern nations, which gave the first idea of the principle, but among those who in France and America had extensively used it before it became known in Great Britain — ^implied that the making of en- silage necessitated a silo. When, however, the subject became one of carefid and scientific inquiry, it was found that there was no lateral pressure in the silo, whatever weight might be imposed. This having been realised, the idea of taking away the sides altogether — or, in other words, making a stack — followed before long. It is perhaps due to that healthy spirit of dissatisfaction which is so thoroughly British that no sooner was the practice of ensilage as carried out successfully in France and America introduced here than efforts were imme- diately commenced to improve upon it. Not content merely to accept the ex- perience of such men as M. Goffart, Vicomte Arthur de Chezelles, and Mr J. M. Bailey, and to imitate them, British agriculturists have struck out entirely new Hnes for themselves, and have, no doubt, carried the principle of ensilage very far beyond anything which these pioneers of the system contemplated. Stacks V. Silos. • — Ensilage stacks start, as wiU be generally admitted, with two points of great advantage in their favour. The first is the saving of capi- tal. The erection of a silo is an under- taking which only comparatively few tenant-farmers can seriously contemplate. But supposing they obtain the landlord's consent, so as to enable them to bring it if required under the Agricultural Hold- ings Act, and supposing also that they have the money to sink in building, there is still a second important consideration. A silo, being fixed, necessitates a great deal of cartage, and green fodder, as everybody knows, is not a cheap sub- stance to carry long distances. A stack, on the other hand, may be erected, like a hayrick, wherever the crop is, or 312 CATTLE IN WINTEE. wherever it may be most handy for cut- ting out. On the other hand, against the stacks must no doubt be placed a larger per- centage of loss, not only by reason of the waste at the sides, but also probably by evaporation. The latter loss, however, is one as to which very little accurate in- formation appears yet to exist. Sweet and Sour Silage. There is one other point which may be mentioned as between stacks and silos. It is as to sweet or sour sUage. " Sweet " and " sour " are arbitrary terms which have perhaps been somewhat abused in the ensilage controversy. Perfect silage — ^that at which aU makers should aim — is neither the one nor the other. But it may be observed that it is easier to make " sweet " silage in a stack, and " sour " silage in a silo. That is to say, in a stack the temperature rises very rapidly, and the difficulty lies often in preventing too great heat. In a silo it may be necessary to wait at intervals for the temperature to rise, and the work of fiUing has thus to be interrupted. Making Sweet Silage. — The credit of discovering and making known the process by which sweet silage may be produced belongs to Mr George Fry of Chobham. Until the results of Mr Fry's experiments were made known in 1884, the invariable custom was to apply pres- sure directly the silo was fiUed, and the product was sour silage. Mr Fry filled his sUo vfithout close packing, and de- ferred weighting the mass for two or three days, until the temperature of the silage rose to about 120° or 140° Fahr., when the top of the silo was covered and pressure applied. Mr Fry's theory is, that this temperature, about 120° Fahr., is sufficiently high to kiU the bacteria which produce acid fermentation ; and if the bacteria be thus killed, and the silo then covered and weighted, the enclosed mass of green fodder will remain sweet, and be practically preserved under the same conditions as fruits, vegetables, or meats are preserved when canned. The late Dr Augustus Voelcker at- tached great importance to Mr Fry's experiments, and remarked, that " it cer- tainly is a fact that silage, showing not more than a trace of acidity, and as sweet and almost as aromatic as weU-made hay, has been made by Mr George Fry, and could be made by anybody who would strictly adopt the directions which he gives for making sweet silage."^ Selative Value of Sweet and Sour Silage. — :Into the vexed question of sour versus sweet silage it would not be profit- able to enter at any length. The weight of evidence has certainly gone of late against the intense acidity which distin- guished some of the silage first made. The progress of " sweet " silage has, as just indicated, been greatly accelerated by the introduction of stacks. In a silo the natural form of sUage made is, imder ordinary conditions, more or less acid ; in a stack, on the other hand, the natural form is " sweet." The difierence is merely a matter of temperature during making. As a matter of practice, from 130° to 140° wiU be found, as a rule, to make first-rate silage, without any unpleasant odour, and with the food constituents of the crop as well preserved as is possi- ble. The tyro may find slight variations in dealing with different crops, in varied stages of growth, and under diverse con- ditions of weather, &c., but these experi- ence alone can properly teach him. He win find that in a silo the difficulty is usually to raise the temperature suffi- ciently, and in a stack to keep it down sufficiently. With the aid of a stack-thermometer, it is easy to ascertain exactly the rise and fall of temperature in either a silo or silage stack. An ingenious thermo- meter, designed for the purpose (Vipan & H^ly, Leicester), is represented in fig. 121. See also fig. 5. This thermometer is constructed of light steel tubing, pointed with a taper spiral and cranked handle at the other end. By turning the handle the spiral cuts its way and draws the tube into the position required. A self - registering thermometer, protected by another steel tube, is lowered or allowed to sUde to the bottom of the steel tube, and, after remaining for five minutes, raises the mercurial index to the maximum tem- perature; it is then drawn out of the tube and the exact temperature can be read off at leisure as the index remains ' Jour. Royal Agric. SocEng., xix., sec ser., 483. ENSILAGE. 313 stationary. This is a most important point, as it is not easy to ascertain by an ordinary thermometer the correct temperature, owing to the mercury run- ning back while drawing it out of the tube and reading oflf the temperature. With a silo the making of sweet silage is almost impracticable, owing to the need of interrupting operations at intervals to allow the temperature to rise. However, as has been previously remarked, dogma^ tism is not possible with regard to the best kind of silage, seeing that, with all varieties, records of admirable results are in evidence. It has, in many cases, been found that 121. — Self- registering themtotjteter. A Thermometer, shelving self -registering index. B Showing thermometer in position when lowered to the bottom of the tube. c General view of ensilage thermometer. sweet silage does not keep fresh and free from mould so long, after being cut out of the stack or silo, as do most kinds of sour silage. Analyses of Sweet and Sour Silage. — The extensive and successful experi- ments made by Mr Colin J. Mackenzie of Portmore, Eddleston, have done much to bring the merits of ensilage under the notice of Scotch farmers. He has made both sweet and sour silage very largely, and the results have been most satisfac- tory. He remarks that " the cattle pre- fer the sour to the sweet silage ; that no harm appears to occur if a silo be left without addition being made to its con- tents for many days ; and that, in spite of the great heat produced in the manu- facture of sweet silage, there does not appear to be any greater loss of moisture than in sour silage. The steam was al- ways found condensed on the upper layer of grass. The waste on the top of the silos was about equal, and did not exceed 3 inches." From sweet and sour silage made by Mr Mackenzie at his farms of Earljrpier and Harcus — from grass cut from lea which had been saved from pasturing for the purpose — Dr A. P. Aitken took samples for analysis. The silos had been filled in the autumn of 1886, and the samples were taken from the silos in the following March. They gave the following results : — Eablypier. Harcus. Sweet. Sour. Sweet. Sour. Water ...... 75.09 76.08 69-39 77-77 Solids ...... 24.91 23.92 30.61 22.23 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 Solids (dried at 212° Fahr.)— Albumen ..... 6.52 6-33 6.71 6-33 Non-albuminoid nitrogenous matter reckoned as albumen .... 4-43 3-64 2.02 2.28 Carbohydrates 44-55 46.18 46.05 47-87 Ether extract 6.20 S-9S 6. 85 6-35 Woody fibre .... 28.85 25-15 30.20 28.70 Ash 9.45 12.75 8.17 8.47 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 314 CATTLE IN WINTER. Commenting upon these analyses, Dr Aitken says that, "upon the whole, it would seem that there is very little dif- ference between sweet and sour silage; but what little difference there is, is in favour of the former." ^ Dr A. Voelcker gives the following as the analyses of two samples of sweet silage sent to him by Mr G. Fry of Chobham : — Silage from Silage from Clover and Meadow- Bye-grass. grass. Moisture . . . 75.80 74.40 Albuminous compounds 1 z.53 2.56 Sugar and other carbo- hydrates soluble in water . . .1.43 2.99 Crude vegetable fibre . 18.31 17.90 Mineral matter (ash) . 1.93 2.15 100.00 100.00 1 Containing nitrogen 0.40 0.40 Volatile acids, calcu- lated as acetic acid o.oi 0.02 Non-volatile acids, cal- 'culated as lactic acid o.oi 0.02 The following is the analysis by Dr A. Voelcker of sweet silage made by Lord Middleton, Applecross, Eoss-shire, from oats cut green and chaffed : — Water .... 74-8o Albuminous compounds ^ . 2.18 Sugar and other carbohy- drates soluble in water . 2.78 Crude vegetable fibre . 18.84 Mineral matter (ash) . . 1.40 100.00 1 Containing nitrogen . 0.35 Volatile acids, calculated as acetic acid . . 0.07 Non-volatile acids, calcu- lated as lactic acid . o.oi These analyses by Dr A, Voelcker are taken from the Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society of England, vol. zx., part ii., second series, to which he con- tributed a valuable paper upon the "Chemistry of Ensilage." Examples of Stack Ensilage. The best method of bringing the ad- vantages of the stack system under the attention of practical farmers is to quote Fig. 122. — yohftson's ensiiage press. the experience of those who are now carrying it out. This might be easily done to a great extent. It will suffice, ' Trans. Eigh. Agric. Soc, xix., 1887. however, to give one or two recent com- ENSILAGE. 31S munications from representative men who use different methods to secure similar ends. Johnson's Ensilage Press. — Mr G. M. AUender, ex-chairman of the London Farmers' Club, has extensively used en- silage made in stacks by the well-known method patented by Mr C. G. Johnson of Croft, Darlington, fig. 122. The Ayles- bury Dairy Cpmpany, of which Mr Allen- der is managing director, are sole agents in the United Kingdom for this "wire- rope" method. The method, especially in its lately improved form, has been very suxicessful in winning honours in competitions held by the Eoyal Agricul- tural Society, the Ensilage Society, and other public bodies. Writing in August 1887, Mr Allender gave the following as his experience with silage stacks : — " I consider that the ' outside ' does not exceed 2 per cent, by weight, of the stack — that is, of a 75 or 100 ton stack — neither is this ^outside' altogether waste, as our experience is, that thrown to store cattle in a yard, they pick out a good deal of it — ^indeed, very little is actually lost. I do not know of any means for preventing this small amount of 'outside,' neither do I consider that any precaution is necessary, as the loss is not greater, hy weight, than in any ordinary hayrick. Care should be taken not to allow the stack to be out or trimmed, as thereby much greater waste is caused — ^when left rough, only pulled, the ends form, as in a rick of hay, a natural coat. " Tlie advantage of the stack over the silo, I think, does not admit of argument. In the stack system the stack may be made in the field in which the crop is grown; and as a good crop of 'green stuff' will weigh from 8 to 12 tons per acre, as against 35 to 50 cwt. of hay, the haulage at a busy time of year of such a bulky crop is of great moment. In winter, when the food is required, haul- age is cheaper — further, I think the food is of better quality. " I do not say that silage is a cure for all evils, but in a wet season it enables the farmer to store a lot of useful food for the following winter, and in an ex- cessively dry season such as this, it places at his disposal a breadth of green food which otherwise he would not have provided for himself." Keynolds's Method of Pressure. — The name of Messrs F. W. Eeynolds & Co. has already been mentioned in connection with their methods of pres- sure for silos. Since the introduction of stacks they have adopted the same sys- tem of chains and screw-tightener for use in stacks as well as silos, fig. 123. Fig. 123.' — Reynolds's ensilage press. As to their experience of the stack and silo systems, they write : — ■ " We have always held, and still main- tain, that the silo is best, as it excludes the air more perfectly, thereby prevent- ing waste at the sides, and at the same time stays the excessive evaporation that goes on continually in a stack. The first cost of a silo is no doubt a great draw- back ; but the saving effected by its use is far more than the interest on the capi- tal invested. On account of this saving in first cost, we have sold probably as many sets of our patent appliances for stacks as for silos ; but our own practical experience, and the reports we have re- ceived from purchasers of our system, tend to show that the loss in a silo sel- dom exceeds 10 per cent, whilst in a stack it is always over 30 per cent. Our principal competitor once agreed vrith us that the loss in a stack was fully one-third of the weight put into it, and we have seen on his farm at least 18 inches of waste in places, or varying from this to i foot. "Mr C. S. Eoundell (late M.P.) once made some useful expermients in stack silage with our patent pressure. He put 3i6 CATTLE IN WINTER. in sixteen waggon-loads, the produce of about six acres, taking four days. After four days they cut down the sides, and added the trimmings to the top. The temperature was as follows : 3d day, 90° Fahr. ; 4th and 5th, 120°; 12th, 130°; 22d, 135°; 43d, 137°; 53d, 140°. It remained at this heat for a month, when it gradually declined to 122° during six weeks, when it was cut out. With refer- ence to the silage he remarks as follows : ' The sUage is turning out very satis- factory, only 2 or 3 inches of mouldy stuff or waste on the outsides, with 4 or 5 inches of ditto on the top. The cows and horses eat it readily, cut out and mixed with hay and chaff.' "A stack we built at our works in Blackfriars reached a temperature of 156° : this had from 6 inches to i foot of waste on the outsides, the remainder being excellent. The loss from evapora- tion, however, was considerable, and was fully one-third of the weight put in. The following is Dr A. Voelcker's anal- yses of two samples cut from different parts of the stack : — Light. Dark. Per cent. Per cent. 72.24 S9-S3 0.16 0.67 0.33 1-48 11.30 12.28 9-35 14-57 93.38 88.53" It may be mentioned that at the latest competition of the Ensilage Society the "silver medal" was won by Mr J. G. Piatt with a sample of ensilage made in a stack by Messrs Reynolds's system of pressure, the " gold medal " being won by a sample made in a silo with dead weights. Blunt's Patent. — ^A system of pres- sure very largely in use is that known as Blimt's patent (fig. 124), which is manu- factured by the Ensilage Press Company of Leicester. It combines the two prin- ciples of the screw and lever, and one main advantage claimed for it is that by its means "continuous pressure" is secured. Mr E. T. Blunt, who is a practical farmer, farming a mixed farm in the neighbourhood of Leicester, was one of the earliest adherents to the ensilage system, and has devoted a great deal of time and attention to its investigation. Pearson's Roller Process. — The suc- cess of the method of pressing silage by water-baUast rollers, patented and manu- factured by Messrs T. Pearson & Co., Moisture Acetic acid Lactic- II Digestible fibre, &c. Indigestible (woody) fibre Fig. 124. — Blunfs ensilage press. Wolverhampton, has done much to pop- ularise the practice of ensiling in open stacks. This process is illustrated in fig. 125, which is almost self-explanatory. It will be seen that the width of stack is 15 feet; the length of stack is made up of the 5-feet sections (which may be 6, making it 30 feet or more, if desired). The grass is first laid down in 12-inch thick layers (or courses), and then taken in sections of 5 feet as shown' on Nos. i and 2. The roller being 5 feet long, covers this space in roUing. The roUer has just finished the pressing of No. i {froin side to side in the direction the hoards run), and has been turned to be raised, on the two small angular blocks marked A, to No. 2 section, where the boards are being laid to receive it. No. I section, before it was pressed, was same height (or thickness) as No. 2 — ^viz., 12 inches. Other sections are added, tUl the desired length of stack is reached; the boards on No. i are then removed and relaid on the unpressed grass. The boards are 16 feet long (6 inches allowed to overlap each side of stack) and 9 inches by i^ inch thick. Strips of wood, 2 inches by 2 inches, are nailed on each end to act as "stoppers" against the roller. The 12-inch thick layers of grass are pressed to about 5 inches ; there- fore the height from No. i to No. 2 is only about 7 inches for the roller to ascend, which occupies a few seconds only. The ensilage roller is 5 feet by 2 feet diameter, made hollow and closed ENSILAGE. 317 at both ends. The material is plate- steel. There is an inlet at one end for filling with either water or sand, which gives the ballast a weight for pressure. But although the rollers are supplied in this convenient form, Messrs Pearson's patent covers the use of any description of roller or device used to press and make ensilage in silo or open stack. The roller, it will be seen, has no gearing or mechanical attachments for its movement, no frame or handle, but is simply moved by the man pushing it in front of him. A larger size is made, 5 feet by 2 J^ feet, for the strongest - stemmed grasses, bracken, &c. Messrs Pearson give the following directions for the making of sweet silage by their process: (i) You cannot press too hard to exclude all air; (2) under- pressed grass — sour silage ; (3) effectively pressed — sweet silage; (4) build stack in layers; (5) grass should be wet or damp. The roller weighs, say, 20 cwt. when filled, and is 5 ft. x 2 ft. diameter. Thus every foot is equal to 4 cwt. The roller rests or grips on every two inches of surface as it moves, and by the passage to and fro of such a weight it is obvious the amount of pressure inflicted must be great. Fig. 125. — Pearson's etisilage roller system. Messrs Pearson were the first to patent mechanical presses for ensilage stacks. They patented four systems early in 1884, two of which were illustrated and described in Silos for British Fodder Crops {Field Office, 1884). One of these was their combined wire - rope, winding-drum, and lever system, which they have since abandoned in favour of their roller process. Choice of Methods. It will thus be seen that the farmer who wishes to make silage has a wide choice of methods. The two initial questions to- decide are — 1. Silo or stack. 2. Method of pressure. On neither point is it possible to lay down a rigid rule. The first must be decided mainly by local or individual circumstances. The result is — ^with due care, equally necessary in both cases — practically the same. Silage of the best description can be obtained either by the one or the other. Neither is the method of pressure adopted, whether on silo or stack, a matter for dogmatism. Any one who sets out for the first time to make silage will have to investigate the matter for himself. For a silo he will have the choice between dead weight and various mechanical appliances ; for a stack he will be practically restricted to a very few mechanical methods. Dead weights have been used on stacks, but the diffi- culty of preventing them from slipping off, as well as the labour of lifting up 318 CATTLE IN WINTER and down, virtually preclude them from practical consideration. Amount of Pressure. — -Having de- cided for a silo or stack, and having arranged for the securing of sufficient pressure — which, by the way, cannot be safely calculated at less than a mini- mum of loo lb. per square foot on silos, and 200 lb. per square foot on stacks — ^the question arises (if it has not previ- ously arisen), what to put in it ? In many cases less weight is employed, but then the risk of making bad silage is greater. Chaffing for Ensilage. — ^In the ma- jority of cases the crop is put into the silo or silage stack in its natural lengtL In a good many cases, however, it is first cut into short pieces. This no doubt helps the success of the system, especi- pffrsS — ^ !p^ jfpX*^,|jum«Fk':j|j C4r Fig. 126. — Ensilage cutter and elevator. ally with rank material ; but it, of course, adds considerably to the expense. There are many excellent chaff-cutters made spe- cially for this purpose, one (Crowley's) being represented in fig. 126. Crops for Silage. The crops available for silage are many and diverse. It is well to bear in mind that the quality of the silage is directly dependent upon the quality of the mate- rial from which it is made. This may appear to be a simple truism, but it is by no means unnecessary to insist upon it. In the early days of the system there seemed to be a common idea that silage was silage — so to speak — ^whatever it might be made from. Thus a good many people favour the notion that coarse, useless grass, or waste substances, might be ensiled and transformed into valuable food. That such materials may be, and are, made into silage with advan- tage, is no doubt true ; but it is essential for those who use them to remember that the process of ensilage does not give them any higher feeding value, other than possibly to make them more palat- able or digestible to stock. No forma- tion of food constituents goes on in the silo or stack, and practically that which a farmer puts in, that will he — if the silage be well maxie — ^take out. It fol- lows, therefore, that those who wish for valuable silage must make it of a valu- able crop. Meadovr - grass Silage. — The crop most used in this country has been meadow-grass. At the Smithfield com- petition of the Ensilage Society for 1885, a prize was offered for the best sample of meadow-grass silage, to be decided by analysis. Thirty-seven samples were re- ceived, and all of these were duly ana- lysed by Dr John Voelcker. In the Field the thirty -seven analyses made were epitomised in a table which estab- lishes a useful standard of value. The' average percentages of the constituents of the samples were worked out as fol- lows in their natural condition, and also when dried, with the addition for com- parison of the average of fifty samples of meadow hay : — ENSILAGE. 319 Average of 37 samples of ensuage. Hay. In natural state. Dried at 212° F. Average of 50 samples. Water . Albuminoids ^ Indigestible fibre . Digestible fibre Soluble carbohydrates Volatile acids . Non-volatile acids . Mineral matter " . 71.42 3-17 9-33 10.39 2-53 0.28 0.42 2.46 11.09 32.65 8.85 ( 0.98 ( 8.61 I a 83 30-35 51-53 7.29 , 100.00 100.00 100.00 ' Containing nitrogen ^ Including silica , • 0.51 0.56 1.96 1-73 Water and Dry Pood in Silage and Hay. — The following table shows the relative quantities of water and of dry feeding substance in a ton of hay and a ton of meadow-hay silage of different de- grees of moisture — one being the average of the 37 samples above alluded to, another being the driest sample in the series (No. 26), and the third the wettest sample ( No. 27), on the supposition of the Hay . . . Driest silage (sample No. 26) Average of 37 samples Wettest silage (sample No. 27) quality being otherwise equal in all, and that the hay is worth 80s. a ton of 2240 lb. In a ton of hay, at the ordinary average of 15 per cent of water, there are 17 cwt. of dry food and 3 cwt. of water; and, at 80s. a ton, the value of the dry material is a small fraction over a halfpenny a pound. The quantities and values are as follows : — Water. Gallons. 34 49 160 191 Dry Food. lb. 1904 1748 640 334 Value. s. d. 80 O 73 6 26 n 14 O The above shows the number of gallons of water contained in a single ton of si- lage with different amounts of moisture. But if we look at the quantity of water which would have to be evaporated in order to make the respective grasses into hay instead of silage, the facts become even more striking. To turn the driest (No. 26) into hay of 15 per cent moist- ure, it would only be necessary to evapo- rate 20 gallons of water in making a ton of hay ; and except as an experiment, it seems needless to put such very dry grass into a sUo. With the average samples, however, at 71.42 per cent of moisture, there would have to be 442 gallons of water evaporated in making each ton of hay. And with the wettest sample (No. 27) 1054 gallons, or more than 4^ tons of water, would have to be evaporated for each ton of hay made. Under such conditions, haymaking is no enviable process, and one can readily appreciate the remark made by Mr D. Wood, in concluding his report from Blairmore, Argyleshire, to the Ensilage Commissioners : "If some of our scien- tific experts had just one season's experi- ence in these wet Western Highlands, they would bless the man who invented silos." Here, again, it may be remarked that there are very considerable differences in the qualities of grasses ; and correspond- ing differences will be found in them after conservation in the silo or stack. The rough " fog " of marshy grounds, or the coarse herbage of woodlands, will produce very different silage from that of good upland grass. Clover Silage.^ — Clovers make a fav- ourite crop for silage. All kinds of clover may be ensiled with advantage, and are 320 CATTLE IN WINTER. readily made into good silage. For second or third cuts of clover, as for aftermath crops of grass, many have used sUos or silage stacks who would not grow special crops for the purpose. Mr George Fry of Chobham remarks : " Tri- folvwm incamatum with us is cut in May or early in June, and is a very heavy, succulent crop. I have always found it necessary, even in sunny weather, to cut this crop in the morning and cart it to the silo in the evening. In duU weather it should be allowed to dry on the ground for at least 24 hours before it is carted." In the Ensilage Society's competition for 1886, Mr H. M. Proctor of Spalding took a prize for clover silage, and he describes his practice thus : " My en- silage was made of green clover in an open stack. On the top and outside of the stack we have some waste, eight or ten inches at least. I bought some rail- way-sleepers for the bottom and the top of the stack. Under and above them I placed transverse beams, so as to fasten the end of the fulcrum by which I re- ceived the needed pressure at one end of the stack. By the same means I secured the chains of the patent screw-press of Eeynolds at the other end of the stack. I pressed the green clover in the above way so as to prevent over-heat. " I made my ensilage stack at four times. The first cut was stacked as soon as cut, and is good. Each time I raised the stack to about 12 feet high, as high as we could conveniently Hft the green clover. The heavy pressure we put on the stack soon made it ready to raise again. The second time the clover was cut and stacked after a very heavy rain. The next morning cut as we stacked the ensilage. This is very good. The third time we raised the stack, the clover was not carted and stacked as soon as cut ; it, too, is good ensilage. The foiuth time the clover was getting old, and is not good. More waste, too. I am afraid to name the weight of a cube yard of ensi- lage, it is so very heavy. " I may briefly mention how I am using my ensilage for feeding beasts — viz., I give two beasts ensilage, mixed with chaff, bran, meal, and cake; two beasts half ensilage, half roots, mangels, chaff, bran, meal, and cake, as above ; two beasts roots, chaff, bran, meal, and cake, no ensilage. AU the beasts have the same weight of bran, meal, and cake. I have no means of weighing the animals to give an accurate test of the results of the different ways of feeding, but will give you the best I can from observation. From my short trial of ensilage used in the above way, I am of opinion my beasts have done the best on a mixture of ensi- lage and roots ; indeed, better than either aU roots or all ensilage, with chaff, com, bran, cake, &c., as stated above." Iiucerue and Sainfoin. — Lucerne has made very satisfactory silage both in France and in this country.. In 1879 M. Pomay was awarded a silver medal at the district agricultural show at Bourges for an excellent sample which he exhib- ited there. Sainfoin is another legumin- ous plant which has been ensiled with success. Tares. — ^Tares or vetches have been found somewhat difficult to make into good silage. There have perhaps been more failures with them than with almost any other crop. Nevertheless, with care they may be easUy made into valuable silage, especially if the development of acids be checked. Tares and oats have been made into some of the best silage. Bye-grass. — Rye-grass has also been made into silage, and for sewage farms the system has been of much advantage. Sewage rye-grass needs care in making, but we have seen many first-rate samples of silage from it. Maize. — Maize, cut green, has been very largely ensiled in France and America. The recent introduction of its cultivation in this country was a result of the ensilage system. In fact, many people seemed to think that it was neces- sary to grow maize to make silage. This was owing to the fact that in America, where maize is grown so extensively, the system of ensilage has been apphed most largely to it. One reason for the fact that recent attempts at the growth of maize have been successful is, that in America the area of maize-growing is being pushed gradually farther north, so that now it is possible to get seed from thence which is practically acclimatised to this country. Professor Long, in the Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society (vol. xxiii. part i.), remarks: "There is fortunately ENSILAGE. 321 now little difficulty in showing that the uncertainty of the crop is reduced to a minimum, and that its profitable nature is beyond doubt. This minimum of un- certainty relates chieiiy to the north of England, for observations extending over several years lead me to believe that south of the Trent maize germinates and grows almost as readily as the cereals common to this country." The advantage of maize as a fodder plant is beyond question, though its value lies not so much in its inherent richness, as in its abundant growth and consequent cheapness where soil and climate are suitable. It is, no doubt, de- ficient in nitrogen, and is not so nutri- tious, weight for weight, as many of the ordinary fodder crops of this country. Its chief merit, however, lies in the enor- mous weight per acre which a crop of maize wiU produce. In cold, wet seasons maize would no doubt be a risky crop in this country; and this year (1888) it has given unsat- isfactory results in several instances in the south of England. Maize v. Grass Silage. — On Lord Walsingham's estate in Norfolk maize has been largely experimented upon and grown, and his lordship's agent, Mr Henry Woods, who was one of the ear- liest and ablest advocates of ensilage, gave the following comparative statement in a pamphlet published by him : — ■ Value of One Acre of Green Maize made into I acre of maize, cut green, weighed 28 tons, and produced 26 tons of ensilage, value 26s. Sd. per ton, being one-third value of hay at ;^4perton .... £z^ 13 4 Deduct rent and tithe, cost of cul- tivation, manure, seed, cutting, carting, chaffing, filling silo, and all other expenses, including in- terest on cost of bam silo . . 14 3 10 Net value of ensiled maize per acre . . . ;,f 20 9 6 VaVue of One Acre of Grass made into Ensilage. I acre of grass weighed 1 2^ tons, and produced 12 tons of ensilage, value 26s. 8d. per ton, being one- third value of hay at ;^4 per ton ;^l6 o o Deduct rent and tithe, cost of cut- ting, carting, chaffing, filling silo, and all other expenses, including interest on cost of barn silo Net value of ensiled per acre 5 4 9 £■^0 15 3 Mr F. Sutton, F.C.S., in an analytical examination of Mr Wood's pamphlet points out that the maize is put down at the same value per ton as the grass, a conclusion which is not borne out by the chemical facts. The follovring table quoted from Silos for British Fodder Crops, a valuable and exhaustive work published at the Field office, gives the percentages of food constituents in the two crops above referred to : — Constituents. Percentage Composition. Tons per Acre. Grass Ensilage. Maize Ensilage. Grass Ensilage. Maize Ensilage. Water .... Albuminoids Carbohydrates . Woody fibre Ash 73-530 2.805 11.605 8.140 3.920 86.280 1. 149 S.186 S-075 2.310 8.82 0.34 1-39 0.98 0.47 22.43 0.30 1-35 1.32 0.60 100.000 100.000 12 tons 26 tons Among the constituents there are, says Mr Sutton, "only two classes of really nutritious matters — namely, albu- minoids or flesh-formers, and digestible carbohydrates or fat -formers." These nutritious matters are both shown to be higher in the acre of grass than in the VOL. I. acre of maize, while the chief difference in the two crops consists in the excess of water in the maize- — the extra 14 tons being wholly worthless material; yet all this is included in the account at the rate of ^1, 6s. 8d. per ton. If, however, this excess of worthless mar X 322 CATTLE IN WINTER. terial were deducted from the sum quoted above, the net value of the maize would not compare well with that of the grass. Nevertheless the culture of maize is likely to progress in this country on account of the great weight per acre — from 2p to 30 tons being not unusual, and maximum crops ranging much higher — which may be grown, and as a valuable bulky fodder crop, useful for the pro- duction of both meat and millr when supplemented by a little concentrated food, such as cotton - cake. Profes- sor Long says, "If it is true that, chemically speaking, those foods are the most valuable which approach in the nearest degree the requirements of the animals for which they are intended, both as to their constituents and their facility of digestion, then maize must, upon these grounds, be one of the most profitable crops which can be used; but how much more so is this the case when we consider the bulk it produces, the fact that it can be taken as a second crop, and the facility with which it can be cultivated ? " 1 Sorghum has been recommended for silage, and the advantages claimed for maize apply in about an equal degree to this somewhat similar crop. Grain Crops for Silage. — Cereals, and especially rye, have been largely used for silage. They are cut before they be- come fully ripe and when fuU of sap, and make first-rate silage. Minor Silage Crops. — Spurry (Sper- gula arvensis) is a crop largely ciiltivated in Germany for fodder, and it has been grown and ensiled in this country by Lord Walsingham, with marked success. Buckwheat has been tried both in France and in this country; but although it might well be grown for silage, no very favourable results have yet been recorded with it. Among other crops which may be mentioned as having been made into silage, are prickly comfrey, beetroot, Jerusalem artichoke, turnip-tops, potato- hauhns, hopbine, bracken, thistles, and gorse. Some of these, notably hopbine and bracken, have proved that substances at present valueless for feeding purposes ^ Jow. JRoyal Agrie, Soc. Eng., xxiii., sec. ser., 133. can be made available as useful food for stock in the form of silage. Special SUage Crops.— Among spe- cial crops for silage none are more worthy of note than those advocated by Mr C. G. Johnson of Croft, Darlington, and described by him in the Year -Book of the Ensilage Society. He writes there- in: — "The stack for which I was awarded first prize in Class X. was put up from S}4 acres of forage crop specially grown for ensilage. Half the field was as under, half was without the peas, their propor- tion being added to the tares and oats. I prefer that with the peas. It was spring sown, and cut when fully podded ; in fact, the oats were just begiiming to turn, but stalks still succulent. iX bushel . . . Tares. }4 « ■ ■ ■ ■ Peas. % K . . . ■ Oats. X ir . . • • Beans. 2% bushels per acre. " I intend to have 16 acres next season, and have sovsm in September : — i^ bushel . . Tares. X 11 . . • Wheat. % « . ■ . Beans. 2^ bushels per acre. " The reason of the change of mixture, of course, is that in this neighbourhood oats and peas would not stand over the winter. " I consider this crop has an important future in connection with ensilage stacking to take the place of wheat-growing and its attendant expensive roots, especially on strong land ; and am now feeding buUocks for the butcher on it alone, without cake or meal, to prove how far it will take the place of roots and hay or straw, with cake or combined, and so far have every reason to be satisfied. The above crop appears to provide the succu- lence of the roots, &c., the bulk of the hay or straw, and an even more bountiful supply of grain than is usually given in the form of cake or meal. "The stack was begun on August 11, base 19 feet by 12 feet; and stacking continued every day imtil finished, when 90 loads, computed at 25 cwt. each, had been put on. Weather dull, and several ENSILAGE. 323 very wet days, for which there was no stoppage. I have about 40 head of cattle, all ages, including fatting stock and milch cows ; also farm-horses (which latter also get nothing but ensilage); and about 40 lambing ewes — they all prefer this tares mixture to any other ensilage. They have seeds and clover and meadow- grass ensilage to vary the diet. I use no roots, straw, or hay; find ensilage in every way the better food; and am growing nothing else for next season. The above-named stack never reached a higher temperature than 145" Fahr. ; is very uniform in quality from top to bottom; and was made by my patent wire-rope and lever and ratchet press." Feeding Value of Silage. With reference to the feeding value of silage, the amount of evidence of a fav- ourable character is overwhelming. The judges for the silo and stack competition of the Eoyal Agricultural Society of Eng- land, Messrs G. W. Baker, J. K. Fowler, James Long, T. Rigby, John Wheatley, and Tom Parry, after delivering their awards, remarked that the success of the system of ensiling green crops had been incontestably proved in every district which they visited. " In every instance, cattle of all descriptions did well on the silage ; and in many instances, the opin- ion was conclusive that decidedly more stock could be carried per acre with silage than with hay." Hay V. Silage. — At Woburn, in the winter of 1886-87, twelve bullocks were carefully experimented upon — six having hay and six silage. The hay and si- lage, with water, were given ad libitum, and each bullock also received 3 lb. of decorticated cotton-cake and 5 lb. of maize-meal per day. The hay and silage were made from the same field of grass, each alternate cart-load going to the rick or the silo respectively. Altogether, 2=/3 acres of grass was made into silage, and 24/5 of grass into hay. The experi- ment began on December 16, 1886 ; and at the end of 54 days the bullocks were weighed, when it was found that the average gain of weight per head per day was, for the hay-fed bullocks 2.3 lb., and for the silage-fed bullocks 2.1 lb., giving, up to that time, an advantage of 0.2 lb. to the hay. The experiment was continued with- out alteration of any kind for 30 days longer, and on March 10, 1887, the weights were again taken. This time the result was different — the hay-fed bullocks having an average gain per head of 1.4 lb. per day, and the silage- fed bullocks having gained 1.8 lb. per day. Over the whole experiment, there- fore — i.e., during the 84 days — ^the gain per head per day stood thus : — Hay Silage 1.96 lb. 1.981b. The experiment came to an end be- cause the hay was consumed; but it is noticeable that " a little of the silage still remaining, the bullocks were kept on it for a few days longer." It would have been interesting to have known the exact amount of this surplusage, but its exists ence tends to show that grass made into silage will keep a certain number of stock longer — in other words, will " go further " — than a similar, and, indeed, somewhat larger breadth made into hay. Inasmuch as it also gave a slightly greater increase of weight, the economy of the silage would seem to be appreciable. The experiment at Woburn was corro- borated in its results by a similar experi- ment carried out on 8 Welsh bullocks at Wilmington. Here the experiment lasted 80 days, at the end of which period the 4 bullocks receiving hay had gained, on an average, 1.3 lb. per head per day, while those receiving silage had gained 1.6 lb. So far, therefore, there is conclusive evidence that good silage is equal to good hay in feeding value, which is, perhaps, more than many of its most ardent advocates would, primd facie, have ventured to claim for it. Oat Silage v. Boots. — At the Woburn experimental station some trials were in- stituted, during the winter of 1885-86, upon the relative feeding value of oat silage and roots and straw-chaff. The following were the results of two experi- ments on a couple of bullocks, during periods of 82 and 28 days respectively: — Total gain in live Daily gain weight in 82 days, per head, cwt. qv. lb. lb. Two bullocks — Oat silage , . 2 3 1 1 2 Eoots and straw-chaff i 3 25 ij^ Daily gain in favour of oat silage, % lb. 324 Two bullocks Oat silage . i o Roots and straw-chaff o 2 CATTLE IN WINTER "^Jvit^f^^frf.;! ^S:\f'^ of Leicester, pubUshed, at the end of weignt in 28 days, per head. -^ nnn • . • i .1 cwt. qr. lb. lb. January 1888, some interesting details of an experiment made by him, with 2f a view to arriving at the result of feeding a steer on silage from birth to slaughter. The account stood as fol- lows : — 21 21 Daily gain in favour of oat silage, i lb. Bearing Stock on Silage. — Mr Blunt, First month. — 1)4 gallon new milk per day, 30 days = 45 gallons at 6d. per gallon ....... Second and third months. — 2 gallons skim-milk per day, 62 days = 124 gallons at l>^d. per gallon ..... SaAGE. £1 2 o IS .£1 18 Months. lb per day. days. lb. From 3 to 6 28 92 = 2,576 M 6 to 8 ss 60 = 2,100 II 8 to 10 4'! 61 = 2.745 II 10 to 12 50 60 3,000 10,421 tons cwi;. = 4 13 qr. lb. 5 11 12 to 22 nt 'I 30s 16,775. = 7 9 3 3 Estimated cost of growing 1 acre clover, and making it into silage (3 years lay) : — Sowing ... . ;^o 2 o Seed 150 Carting manure 2 years . . 100 For 3 years Months. From I to 3 n 3 to 16 11 16 to 19 11 19 to 21 II 21 to 22 lb. per day. days. o}4 60 1 395 2 92 4 30 7 30 £2 7 LiNSBED-CAKE. lb. 30 395 184 120 210 12 238 ;<^o 15 8 for I year. 100 two cuttings, carting and stacking. 040 weighting the ensilage stack. £1 19 8 for I acre=;^2, igs. 6d. for ij4 acre. 2 19 6 cwt. qr. lb. 939 = 8 I IS at 8s. = ;^3 7 o Allow quarter for manurial value 016 9 Straw or moss litter for bedding : — ^ cwt. of moss litter per week, 96 weeks i Allow half its cost for manure 2 10 3 4 o £i ton 2 S I 4 Labour and attendance 6d. per week (no chaff-cutting), 96 weeks at 6d. . March 22, 1886, cost of calf . ■. . . Live weight, January 25, 1888 . 10 3 8 Dead weight, January 27, 1888 . S 3 16 = 8 score S lb. per quarter, at 7d. per lb. ^19 s Balance . £y, 03. 3d. balance for rent, rates, and taxes and profit on. I^ acre of land, = £/^, 133. 6d. for I acre. ^19 5 o With reference to the above, Mr Blunt writes : — "In every instance I have given the maximum amount of milk, silage, and cake; for instance, the calf was reared with the others, and the milk, at the end of the first fortnight, would be probably mixed partly new and partly skim, de- pending somewhat on the requirements of the dairy. " From inquiries I have made of deal- ers, I find it pretty generally admitted that a crop of clover mown twice will produce from 10 to 12 tons of green ENSILAGE. 32s clover to the acre." I take the lower figure, and deduct 20 per cent for loss in making it into silage. If the ensi- lage is made at a temperature not exceeding 140° Fahr., I Ijelieve the loss by fermentation will not be more than 10 per cent. The loss by waste so damaged at the sides of a stack should not be more than 5 per cent, which together makes a total of 15 per cent, so that I think an allowance of 20 per cent is a very liberal one. " The cost of cutting, carting, stacking, and weighting (this latter by my own press, which, I believe, is the cheapest), I have arrived at by actual experiment ; of course a little will depend upon the dis- tance the crop has to be carted. I need scarcely say the silage has been of the best quality — viz., the sweet and green made at a temperature of about 140°. Once I tried sweet dark -coloured si- lage, but soon found this would not do ; and once with some sour green silage, but this was not satisfactory. The silage, for the first eighteen or nineteen months, was a mixture of clover and meadow- grass ; the last three months it was prin- cipally trifolium and tares, with a slight mixture of the meadow-grass. I feel sure the quality of the meat will be first class, and I believe they will show a small profit even at 6d. per lb. " I think we may fairly conclude from the experiment (at any rate it is worth a trial on a larger scale), that the best and cheapest way to feed our stock is to keep them altogether in covered sheds or yards (never let them lose their calf flesh) : feed them during the winter on silage, straw, and cake ; and in the summer substitute the green crops for silage, as I consider this would rather lessen the expense. A few roots the last three or four months would also be an advantage. Feeding beasts always do so much better with- out water, and this can only be dispensed with by the use of a few roots." The experience of Sir John Bennett Lawes, and others, with ensilage as food, will be found referred to in the descrip- tions of difierent systems of feeding. General Advantages of Ensilage. No better evidence as to the general advantages of the system of ensilage could be adduced than is furnished in the conclusions of the Ensilage Commission already referred to. The Commission classify the advantages claimed for ensi- lage under these three heads : " i. In rendering the farmer independent of weather in saving his crops. 2. In in- creasing the productive capabilities of farms : (a) in greater weight of forage saved; (6) in greater available variety and rotation of crops ; (c) in increased .facility, for storage. 3. In connection with feeding : (a) dairy stock ; (6) breed- ing stock ; (c) store stock ; {d) fattening stock ; (e) farm-horses." Taking each of these points in order, the Commission remark upon them as follows : — " I. Independence of Weather in sav- ing Crops. — In this respect it has been abundantly proved to us that ensilage is of great economic value. In Scotland, in Ireland, and in the north and west of England, few seasons occur in which more or less difficulty is not experienced in reducing green fodder crops to a suffi- ciently dry condition for stacking in the ordinary way. This is especially the case with second crops of clover and after- math. The loss occurring through in- efiectual attempts to dry such crops, or through their inferior condition when carried, is often very considerable; and it is obvious that any system which en- ables a farmer to store these in good condition for future use must be a great saving of expense and anxiety. " 2. Advantages in increasing the Pro- ductive Capabilities of Farms : (a) In greater Weight of Forage saved. — It is obvious that unless the forage in a weighty condition be of more feeding value per acre than when saved in a less weighty form, there can be no gain to the farmer. It has been contended that the loss of weight in the process of dry- ing is simply loss of water by evaporation, and that by avoiding this nothing is saved. If such were truly the case, dry forage should give the same feeding re- sults per acre as green forage. No prac- tical farmer would contend that it does so, and the difierence is especially notice- able in the case of dairy stock. So far as we have been able to ascertain the opinion of competent men on this sub- ject, we estimate the value of green for- age well preserved in a silo at somewhat more than one-third,. weight for weight, 326 CATTLE IN WINTER of the value of tte same material made into hay under favourable conditions. The very wide difference of value between good and bad silage cannot be' too strong- ly insisted upon. It is found that grass well preserved in a silo, after deduction for loss, win yield approximately five times the weight of the same grass made into hay. We have therefore, say, five tons of silage, which, taken at one-third the value of hay per ton, yields a profit of over 60 per cent as compared with one ton of hay. If we take it at one-fourth, it stUl leaves a profit of 25 per cent. Any waste that may occur to reduce the weight of nutritious forage, whether by evaporation or by excess of chemical change, must necessarily affect this cal- culation, which is based upon the high- est degree of perfect preservation so far known to be attainable. " (6) In Available Variety and Rota- tion of Crops. — ^By the process of ensi- lage many crops can be preserved which would not otherwise be found profitable if used in the form of green forage. Eye, oats, millet, maize, barley, and even wheat, if cut about the time of attaining their full development, but before the seed begins to harden, have been suc- cessfully used as food for cattle through the medium of the silo. Such of these crops as are found to reach the required condition before the middle of June, if cut before that time, will leave the land free for a second sowing, and thus increase its capabilities of annual production, whUe maintaining the fertility of the soU. Where land is weU treated, maize, buckwheat, or, in some parts of England, also turnips, can be sown after green rye or oats are cut and carried, and thus a second crop may be secured for preserva- tion in the silo, or for consumption by sheep on the land. " (c) In Increased Fadlity for Storage. — Tnis advantage has been forcibly im- pressed upon us. It enables farmers to guard themselves against emergencies, such as frequently arise in our climate through prolonged cold in February, March, and April, causing great scarcity of food for cattle and sheep, where the supply of roots is inadequate. " 3. Advantages connected mth Feed- ing ; (a) Dairy Stock. — ^We have re- ceived the strongest evidence of the un- doubted advantage of the system for the feeding of dairy stock. The effect of dry winter food given to such stock has always been to reduce in quantity and to deteriorate in quality milk, cream, and butter, as compared with the same pro- ducts resulting from green summer food. Although the degree of perfection attain- able in summer has not been reached, it has been at least much more nearly ap- proached by ensilage than by the use of hay and other dry foods, while at the same time the objections inseparable from the employment of roots for this purpose have been overcome. A sensible improvement in the colour of butter has been especially noticed. " (6) Breeding Stock. — Green fodder preserved by ensilage has been success- fully employed in feeding sheep and cattle at the time of breeding ; and as it has been shown to increase the flow of milk, it will undoubtedly be found useful for this purpose, although the proportion of its admixture with other kinds of food must always require care and judgment. " (c) Store Stock. — ^It forms a complete and wholesome food for store stock. "(d) Fatting Stock — ^The value of this process for the purpose of forming flesh and fat has not yet perhaps been so widely demonstrated as in the case of dairy produce. At the same time the results attained show that it compares favourably with the use of roots, and, if given in proper proportions with other food, it affords a cheap substitute for the same bulk, which would otherwise be required in some different form. The advantage of its use is most apparent in the degree to which it enables a farmer profitably to consume straw-chaff, rough hay-chaff, and other dry materials, which, without admixture vrith some kind of moist food, would not be palatable or advantageous to the growth of stock. " («) Farmrhorses. — Strong as the evi- dence has been of the advantage of en- silage for keeping all stock in healthy condition, farm-horses have by no means been excepted. We have received highly satisfactory accounts from several quar- ters of the health of working teams when given a limited proportion of silage mixed with other food." In conclusion, the Commissioners state that they endeavoured to discount all ENSILAGE. 327 exaggerated estimates, as -well as to make allowance for a considerable amount of prejudice and incredulity which they met with, and they add: "After summing up the mass of evidence which has reached us, we can without hesitation affirm that it has been abundantly and conclusively proved to our satisfaction that this system of preserving green fodder crops promises great advantages to the practical farmer, and, if carried out with a reasonable amount of care and efficiency, should not only provide him with the means of insuring himself to a great extent against unfavourable seasons, and of materially improving the quantity and quality of his dairy produce, but should also enable him to increase appreciably the number of Kve stock that can be profitably kept upon any given acreage, whether of pasture or arable land, and proportionately the amount of manure available to fertilise it." The judges on the competition for _;^ioo, offered by Sir Massey Lopes, " For the best Silo in England and Wales in actual work during the winter of 1885-86 " (conducted by the Eoyal Agri- cultural Society of England), reported quite as strongly in favour of ensilage as did the Ensilage Commission. The judges who examined the silos in the northern districts of England thus sum- marise their experience : " We are of opinion that the great question of satis- factorily ensiling green crops has received ample confirmation. It has been proved to us incontestably, that its success has been manifested in every district. We have seen silos of brick, of stone, and of wood ; we have seen old barns and other bmldings converted into silos ; we have seen them sunk into the ground and built on the level; we have seen them containing 20 tons, and we have inspected others capable of containing 700 tons; we have found silos constructed at a little over ;^2o, and others at ;^4oo ; we have found them filled with aU sorts of green crops, and we have found some sour and some sweet — the latter iu by far the greater proportion ; we have seen them weighted with bricks, with stones, with slates, with sand, with earth, and also with ingenious mechanical contriv- ances; we have inspected some chaffed, and in others the fodder spread out and put in whole, — in all cases the practice was successful, and in every instance cattle of all descriptions did well on the silage, and in many instances the opin- ion was conclusive that decidedly more stock could be carried per acre with silage than with hay. ... In conclu- sion, we would say that we consider the system of ensUing will probably affect the future of agriculture on strong land, as in most instances, especially in such where it is necessary to obtain winter foods for the stock, a crop of winter- grown tares or trifolium, or other strong- growing green crops, may be sown in the autumn at little expense, and mown and put in the receptacle by the first week in June, and thus do away with the im- mense expense and great uncertainty of the cultivation and consumption of roots on such land." The judges wind up their verdict as follows : "The chief advantages of silage- making against hay-making is its com- parative independence of the weather; that the fodder is handled, while green, vidthout any risk of the tender and nutri- tious leaves being lost on the ground, as in hay-making ; that the resulting silage is succulent and palatable ; and that on purely grazing farms it is now possible to obtain a portion of the grass crop for winter in such a state as to equal the effect of summer-fed grass for the pur- poses of the dairy." The. Future of Ensilage. What the future of ensilage in this country may be it would be rash to pre- dict. Whether it may develop in the future in anything like the same ratio of progress which it has achieved during the past five years — in which case it may weU effect an agricultural revolution — or whether it has now reached the stage when all its features are before us, it may at least be urged that farmers in aU districts should carefully consider its adaptability to their circumstances. It surely behoves agriculturists in these times to cultivate an " open mind " with regard to all improvements which come before them in what Hamlet terms "a questionable shape." Ensilage has already been well questioned by all sorts and conditions of inquirers. There is ample evidence available for all who wish 328 CATTLE IN WINTER. to form an independent judgment of its merits. That it deserves from all who have not yet tried it so much of their unbiassed attention, wiU not be denied by any who have considered either its achievements or its possibilities. PREPAKATION OF FOOD FOR CATTLE. It is desirable that the best methods of preparing food for cattle, so as to ensure the best possible results in the progress of the animals, should be carefully thought out by farmers. In this, as in most other farming matters, it is impossible to lay down hard and fast rules which would be equally applicable to all cases. Certain well-known methods of preparing food for cattle wiU be explained, and farmers must decide for themselves which of these fit in most advantage- ously with their own peculiar circumstances. This much, however, is applicable to all — let the food be prepared and presented to the animals in as cleanly and palatable condition as possible. There is perhaps almost as much in " good cook- ing" for cattle as in "good cooking" for human beings. Depend upon it, the animals, be they mere calves or old cattle, will amply repay in increased progress any extra care required in presenting their food to them in a cleanly, inviting, and wholesome condition. Washing Boots. — ^Dirty roots should never be placed before cattle, either cut or uncut. Very often turnips literally covered with mud are given to cattle; yet a little consideration might surely lead the cattle-man to see that it must be bad for the animals to have to eat dirty food. In a little dry earth there may be no harm, but the filth on roots is more frequently in the form of wet muddy earth, which is well known to have a ten- dency to cause scouring, and thus seri- ously retard the progress of the animals. If, therefore, by unseasonable storing and carting, or by any other means, tur- nips should become very wet and muddy, they should, by some means or other, be washed before given to cattle. Where there is a small brook or stream at hand, it is easy to do this by turning the load of roots into a shallow pond prepared for the purpose, the roots, after being stirred so as to get clear of the mud, being thrown out of the water by a graip. A much slower method is to wash them in small quantities in a large tub or tank, the roots being thrown in and out by a graip. Several machines have been made for washing roots, one of the best of these being the Archimedean Eoot- Washer (Crosskill, Beverley) shown in fig. 127. These machines wash tur- Root-'washer. nips, potatoes, and other kinds of roots. The roots are put into the hopper, and by turning the cylinder (which is partly immersed in water) they are efiectuaUy washed; and by simply reversing the motion, the Archimedean screw delivers them at once into the basket. Large sizes are made for turnips and mangels. lYozen Boots. — It is very unwise to give frozen turnips to cattle. The ani- mals get chilled eating the cold roots, and the temperature of the body becomes so much lowered that there must be con- siderable waste of food or of condition in the a nim al in raising it to the normal degree. A speedy way of thawing tur- nips is to steep them in a pond or tank of cold water. But here, as in many other cases, prevention is better than cure. Timely storing prevents the neces- sity of having to use frozen roots. PREPAKATION OF FOOD FOR CATTLE. 32^ Cutting Turnips. — Young cattle and sheep, with tender, imperfectly developed teeth, cannot comfortably consume uncut roots, and should never be expected to do so. Fully grown cattle can quite well eat whole roots ; yet even with these it is desirable, in all cases where practi- cable, to have the roots cut before being given to them. The slicing is the most common method of cutting turnips for cattle. The slices, as a rule, vary from a half to three-fourths of an inch in thick- ness. It is bad practice to slice more turnips at one time than can be used im- mediately. In the juice which exudes from the cut surface nutritive matter passes away, and if the slices lie even for a few hours they become withered and unpalatable to the cattle. For every meal, therefore, a fresh supply should be sliced. Turnip - cutting machines are almost innumerable. The barrel and disc forms are in general use throughout the coun- try, and they both do excellent work. One of the best known is Samuelson & Co.'s Gardner's cylindrical cutter, shown in fig. 8i. Fig. 128 represents an excel- Fig. 128. — Cotnhined pttlper, siicer, and Jlnger-picce cutter. lent combined cutter made by Bamford & Sons, Uttoxeter. It is of the disc form, and is made so that by it roots may be pulped, sliced, or cut into " finger- pieces," as desired. There are large turnip-slicers for driv- ing with horse, steam, or water power ; and in very many cases the old-fashioned hand-lever slicers, with some modern im- provements, are still in use. Pulping. The pulping system consists in this. The roots are cut by machines into pulp or small chips, and mixed with cut straw, chafij or other fodder, and this mixture is given to cattle either with or without the addition of crushed cake, meal, or other concentrated food, according to the class and condition of animals receiving it. Economy of Pulping. — The pulping system is an outcome of an enforced desire to economise costly roots. That it does so has been proved beyond doubt. To be sure it increases the cost of labour somewhat, and on this account it has lately been argued that the pulping sys- tem should be discouraged, and that the animals themselves should be left to do the work that is now done for them by pulping. This, however, is superficial reasoning. The subject demands deeper consideration than is here indicated. The real question to determine is not merely whether pulping increases the labour bill or outlays of any kind, but whether it enables the farmer to turn his roots, straw, and chaff to better ac- count — in short, whether it is more profitMe than the older method of giving the roots by themselves whole or sliced. For the pulping system may be more costly aTid yet m.ore profitable. Experience has proved it to be both; and, as would therefore be expected, it is now practised very extensively through- out the country. A common expression amongst farmers who have pursued the pulping system is that it makes their roots "go a great deal further" than under the old method. That means that by this system they have been able either to curtail the extent of their risky and costly root crop, or maintain a larger stock of cattle, or perhaps part of both. Economises Fodder. — Another great virtue in the pulping system lies in the fact that in the sweetly flavoured heap of pulped roots cattle readily consume, and thrive well upon, fodder such as chaff, V7hich they would not willingly eat by itself. If judiciously and time- ously allocated, every particle of the pulped mixture will be consumed by the animals, and it thus at once becomes evident that the pulping system is an excellent economiser of fodder as well as 330 CATTLE IN WINTER. of roots. By it no particle of wholesome straw, chaff, or hay need be wasted, and every practical farmer wiU readily under- stand the advantage of this. Tiimips as Cattle Pood.- — -It has long ago been proved to demonstration that turnips in large quantities, such as were usually given before the introduc- tion of the pulping system and other improved methods of feeding, are both costly and unprofitable food for cattle. They are much more so now than ever, for through insect and fungoid attacks, and the land becoming tired or " sick " of turnips as it were, the cultivation of the crop is now attended with greater risks than prior to 1870. It has been shown in the analyses of turnips that they contain only a very small propor- tion — barely 10 per cent-— of dry or solid nutritive matter; and that as much as from 90 per cent of the bulb is made up of water. Now it becomes quite obvious that where turnips form a large proportion of the food of cattle, the animals must swallow an excessive and unnecessary quantity of water before obtaining in the watery roots a suffi- ciency of dry, solid, and nutritive food. Cattle undoubtedly require a consider- able quantity of water in some form or other, for water enters largely into the composition of their frames. Still the proportion of water in roots is far be- yond the requirements of the animal, and the absorbing of an excessive quan- tity of cold water is positively detri- mental to the progress of fattening cattle, besides being wasteful of valuable food constituents. Let it ever be remembered by farmers that in fattening or rearing stock a cer- tain portion of the food is required for the mere purpose of maiataining the heat of the animal. Anything, there- fore, which lowers the temperature of the animal's body, be it exposure to in- clement weather, or a bellyful of cold water or of raw, cold, watery roots, causes loss to the feeder, by the greater quantity of heat-giviag food which the animal must consume to enable it to raise the depressed temperature of its body, and to repair the unduly increased waste of tissue which the abnormal lowering of temperature had occasioned. Hence the importance — it should rather be said the absolute necessity, if profit- able stock-feeding is desired — of giving turnips to cattle, not in large quantities as the sole or main food as in former times, but in moderate quantities, along with a judicious mixture of other drier and more concentrated foods. On behalf of turnips it is contended that their succulent character renders them a useful and correcting accompani- ment of the hard and dry food such as hay, straw, and grain, which are usually given to cattle in winter. It is argued that turnips are a serviceable substitute for the fresh succulent grasses upon which stock subsist during sum- mer. No doubt they are so to some extent, if used within moderate limits. But on the other hand, it is asserted that, merely as the source of this nec- essary amount of succulent matter for winter feeding, turnips are by far too costly. Indeed scientific men have con- tended that " as the water in a turnip is just the same as that out of the pmnp," it would be far better — far cheaper and quite as effective — ^to give the solid food in other forms diluted with water. Practical farmers are slow to swallow this doctrine in its entirety. They cling to the belief, perhaps with some little justification, that there is in the sweetly flavoured juice of the watery turnips some peculiar virtue not possessed by the "pimip water." Nevertheless it is most desirable that farmers should have enforced upon their attention the true character of the turnip as an article of food, so that it may be used in more moderate quantities, and with greater care and better judgment than in former times. Nutrition ia Dry and Green. Food. — In this connection it will be interest- ing to read the evidence of a recognised American authority, Professor Sanborn, as to the relative feeding value of green and dry food. He refers particularly to silage, but his remarks are equally appli- cable to roots. Two extracts run thus : — " I. Is green food more nutritious than dry food ? Out of the abundance of critical data so far gained there are none at my command that show any material difference, while a cloud of trials witness to their practical equality, and to the lessened value of the green food PEEPAEATION OF FOOD FOK CATTLE. 331 in winter when fed in large quantities. For four years I fed the various root crops in weighed rations, and weighed cattle, milk, and butter, and found that a pound of digestible organic matter in roots had no more value, if as much, than the same in hay and meal, or hay alone. " 2. ' Cattle need green food in winter.' It is said to aid digestion, &c., &c., when fed in winter with dry food. It can only be said, as under No. i, that this popular view conflicts with the facts ascertained to date, both at home and abroad. By many weighings, I find that 3 pounds of water is all our American cattle care to drink in winter for each pound of organic matter eaten. Succu- lent food forces stock to warm up a double portion of water to blood-heat, and to vaporise from lungs and skin an extra amount at a great tax for nothing, as is well known. But of course a full ration of green food need not and should not be fed alone." ^ Proportions of Poods. — The con- cluding sentence in the above extract touches the kernel of the whole question. Certainly "a full ration of green food need not and should not be fed alone." What is it to be fed with ? What should be the proportion of the green food and of its accompaniment ? Herein lies the secret of the science of cattle-feeding. In detailing various methods of feeding pursued by successful farmers, which shall be done presently, certain propor- tions — certain quantities of green and dry food — will be stated. Here, in con- nection with the consideration of the pulping system, it may be said that the introduction of that system has done much good by demonstrating to farmers that the former practice of giving cattle all they could eat of watery turnips was wasteful and unprofitable, and that a new and much more excellent way of rearing and feeding stock has been opened up for them. Evidence in favour of Pulping. — There is at hand an abundance of evi- dence showing the benefits of the pulp- ing system, but the practice has become so well established that there is no need to produce all that could be said in its favour. The late Mr John Algernon Clarke described it as " decidedly a fine thing for the arable farmer who may have been wastefully expending large quantities of straw in litter — a large por- tion being now saved for use as food." He adds : " There is economy of food ; for the roots, being pulped and mixed with the chaff, render the whole mass of cut stuff very palatable to the animals, no part of the cut hay or straw, or of the chaff from the threshing-machine, being rejected. The animals are not able to separate the chaff from the pulped roots, as is the case when the roots are merely sliced by the common cutter ; neither do they waste the fodder, as when given without being cut. We can thus utilise mean and inferior hay or straw. After being mixed with the pulp for about twelve hours, a fermentation commences, and this soon renders the most mouldy hay palatable, and the animals eat with avidity that which they would otherwise reject. This fermentation to some ex- tent, I believe, softens the straw, putting it in a state to be assimilated more rapidly. The pulper is of great value, particularly upon corn farms, where large crops of straw are grown, and where there is a limited acreage of pas- ture, as by its use a larger proportion of the pastures may be grazed, the expen- sive process of hajmiaking reduced, and consequently an increased number of cattle kept. The accident of choking with large pieces of root is avoided, and hove is less frequent than under the sliced-root system."^ Mr Thomas Duckham, M.P., Baysham Court, Eoos, Hereford, relates similar experience of the merits of pulping, and adds: "Choking is utterly impossible; and I have only had one case of hove in three years, and that occurred when the mixture had not fermented. There is an advantage in mixing the meal with the chaff and pulped roots for fattening animals, as thereby they cannot separate it, and the moisture from the fermenta- tion softens the meal and ensures its thorough digestion, whereas when given in a dry state without any mixture, fre- quently a great portion passes away in the manure." Mr Thomas Buttar, Corston, Coupar- 1 Farmers' Review, Chicago, June 15, 1887. ■ Jour. Royal Agric. Sac. Eng., xiv. 242. 332 CATTLE IN WINTER Angus, placed the pulping system upon its trial alongside the old method of sliced roots, and the results were so decidedly in favour of the former that he has since used the pulper persistently and extensively. Mr Buttar found the advantage from the pulping system was more marked in rearing store cattle than in fattening. See Mr Buttar's notes on his system of fattening cattle in winter. The pulping system has been pursued with great advantage in the rearing and feeding of sheep, as well as in the case of cattle. Preparing Pulped Mixtures. — The pulping process is very simple. The pulped mixture should be prepared every day, and allowed to lie from 12 to 24 hours before being given to the animals. The fermentation which takes place in this time is entirely beneficial. It softens the fodder and cake or meal, or what- ever else there may be of dry food, sweetens the whole mass, and renders it not only more pleasant to the palate of the animal, but also more easily digested and assimilated than if the roots and dry food had been given separately. Never on any account allow the pulped mixture to lie so long as to become mouldy or sour. If made the one day and con- sumed the next the mixture should -with ordinary care be in good condition for. using. The principal ingredients in the pulped mixture will, of course, be turnips and fodder ; but there will also most likely be some crushed cake, maize-meal, or bruised Fig. 129. — Root-^-utper. grain, with a sprinkling of salt, and per- haps a small quantity of dissolved treacle sprayed over the heap. The turnips are pulped by a machine made for the pur- pose, as already explained. It may be driven either by the hand, or by horse, steam, or water power, according to the extent of the farmer's operations. The machine shown in fig. 128 is devised so as to be capable of pulping as well as shcing roots. A very good pulper is that represented in fig. 129, made by Wood- roffe & Co., Kugeley. The grain has either to be bruised or ground into meal. In former times it was no uncommon thing for farmers to give whole grain to cattle as well as to horses ; but in both cases the practice is bad, and leads to great waste of valuable food. The animal cannot fully digest and assimilate the grain unless it has first been well bruised or ground into meal. Implement -makers have lately given much attention to the devising and perfecting of machines for bruising and grinding corn, and there are now in the market many admirable machines or mills of this kind. Fig. 130 represents a mod- fcz- Fig. 130.- The " Union" bruising and grinding mill. em and very ingenious mUl which has been brought out by K. G. Morton, Errol, and which, like a certain historical article of furniture, " contrives a double debt to pay," for it either crushes fiat or grinds into meal, as may be desired, doing both perfectly and with great rapidity. The fodder may be of straw or hay or chaff. As shown in a previous section, all these possess useful feeding proper- ties, which are in this system utilised, to the fuUest extent. The straw and hay have to be cut into short pieces by specially designed machines called chaff- PEEPAEATION OF FOOD FOE CATTLE. 333 cutters. Fig. 131 represents one of the best of these very useful machines, made by Eichmond & Chandler, Manchester. The cake has to be broken into small pieces, and there are several excellent Fig. 131. — Chaj^-cutter. machines for this purpose, driven by hand or other power. See fig. 85. Motive Po-wer in Preparing rood. ■ — ^These food-preparing appliances, as already indicated, are sometimes driven by hand-power, and sometimes by other agencies. Where there is a water-sup- ply, the providing of the motive power is a simple and inexpensive matter; it may be taken by a shaft from the mill-wheel. Where steam is the motor, moderate cost is unavoidable. Where there is no water, horse-gear is usually preferred to steam, as being better adapted to moderate holdings. Several very convenient forms of horse-gear have been brought out — some for one, and others for two or more horses. Fig. 132. — Horse-gear. Fig. 132 represents a very useful form of horse-gear, made by Eichmond & Chan- dler. Method of Mixing. — Now, when the roots have been pulped, the fodder cut into chaff, the cake broken into small pieces, and the grain bruised or ground into meal, the mixing of the "pulped mixture" may proceed. The total and the relative quantities of each ingredient will have been arranged beforehand, the intention being, say, to mix in the fore- noon the entire quantity required for the cattle next day. Clean a portion of the floor in the food-preparing com- partment, and begin by lajdng down a layer of the cut fodder; follow with layers of pulped roots, meal, or cake, or both, as the case may be, and repeat layers in this order till the heap is com- plete, sprinkling a handful of salt now and again, and pouring the treacle-water over all, or amongst the layers now and again, as may be thought best. Then turn the entire heap over three or four times, taking care to have the various ingredients thoroughly intermixed. Let it lie still now tiU next morning, when the first meal will be taken from it. In Mr Buttar's case, already referred to, " the pulped mixture is made up each forenoon, and allowed to lie till next day before being used. A layer of straw is laid down first, then turnips, then cake, and, lastly, the diluted treacle. The heap is at once turned over three times, and then left untouched till close on, but never more than, twenty-four hours. In two hours, two men and a boy make up a mixture for a day's feed for over 120 head of cattle. The pulp- ing and bruising apparatuses are driven from the turbine - wheel of the thresh- ing-mill, so that there is no extra cost for the motive power." ^ In many cases for store cattle no cake or meal is added to the pulped mixture ; and, in regard to fattening stock, it is often found desirable to give only a portion of the more concentrated food, such as cake and grain, along with the pulped roots and chaffed fodder, the other portion being- retained to be given by itseK. Many animals will be found to appreciate this arrangement, and it is weU to humour them. Then, in determining the proportion of cut fodder to be introduced into the mix- ture, it is important to bear in mind that it is necessary to give an allow- ance of long straw or hay as weU, for cattle require bulky food to suit their digestive system. Pood - preparing Compartment. — Where pulping, or any of the other 1 Tram. Sigh. Agric. Soc, xiii. 4th ser., 1881. 334 CATTLE IN WINTER. modem systems of feeding are pursued, it is found convenient to have a food- preparing compartment adjoining, or part of, tie turnip - store. Adjoining this also, or in the same house practi- cally, should be the cake and meal com- partments. A handy arrangement is to have the cake and meal stores on a floor right over the food-preparing com- partment. In this floor the cake-breaker and grinding or bruising mill are situated, as also the chaff-cutter ; and the broken cake, cut fodder, and bruised grain are dropped through hoppers into the apart- ment below, where the mixing of the food takes place. This system is, of course, subject to many variations and modifications in detaU, in accordance with the peculiarities of different stead- ings, and the extent of the holding. The chief points to be aimed at, are convenience and the saving of labour, these two terms being, in this connection mainly, but not entirely, synonymous. Fig. 133 represents one of many excel- lent and convenient food-preparing sets Fig. 133. — StecLnt food-preitaring machinery. erected in farm-steadings, by Barford & Perkins, Peterborough. Provision is also made in this set for steaming the food. The small vertical engine is fixed in an outhouse or lean-to, and in addition to driving the grinding - mill, oilcake- breaker, root-pulper, and chaff-cutter, &c., it supplies steam to the two steam- ing-pans, one of which is used for roots, chaff, &c., and the other for boiling milk or compounds. The cost of a complete set of this kind is rather less than ;^i5o. Cooking or Steaming. The cooking or steaming system of preparing food for cattle is gaining in favour in certain districts of the country, and is losing ground in others. It was at one time practised to a considerable extent in fattening cattle; but for this purpose the pulping system, and other economical methods of feeding, have superseded it. In dairying districts, however, the cooking system is exten- sively pursued. Beneficial for Dairy Cows. — Dairy farmers have found that the flow of milk is increased by the high temperature of the cooked food. " They say that Fife- shire does not suit dairying, but I suspect it is that Fifeshire farmers do not know how to conduct it. Why, they do not even know how to feed their cows. They give them raw turnips and straw ; and just think of that for cows giving milk." The speaker was an Ayrshire farmer's daughter, who had been resid- ing for a time in Fifeshire, and was shocked to see the careless manner in which the farmers in " the Kingdom " attended to their cows. "And how do you feed your cows in Ayrshire ? " " Well, we steam it, and give it to them warm. Cold food, like a cold day, is bad for milking-cows." Who that has had anything to do with cows, has not ob- served a sudden falling off in the yield of milk, as the unfaUing result of the cows being exposed on a cold, wet, or stormy day ? Professor Primrose M'ConneU says, " It has been proved over and over again as the result of direct experiment and gen- PEEPAEATION OF FOOD FOE CATTLE. 335 eral practice, that cold food retards the flow of milk, while if it is warmed it pro- motes it." 1 And Mr Gilbert Murray, Elvaston Castle, Derby, states that "by far the best method of using home- grown cereals, is to steam or cook the grain." " This," he adds, " can be done at a trifling cost, rendering the food more nutritive, and entailing less exer- tion on the organs of digestion and as- similation." ^ Mr George Bryer, Mark- eaton Park, near Derby, winner of the Eoyal Agricultural Society's first prize in the Large Dairy Farm Competition in 1881, pursued the steaming system, and the judges speak well of it, remark- ing that " the steaming renders damaged hay palatable, obviates any danger from dust, and kills the seeds of all weeds that might be in the fodder." ^ Method of Cooking Food. — On a small or moderate scale food may be cooked for cows either by being boiled over a fire, or by hot water being poured over it. Steaming or cooking boilers are frequently built in a comer of the food- preparing compartment or other conveni- ent division of the steading. The food is usually cooked in the form of a mix- ture, consisting most probably of a few turnips, cut straw or hay, and chafi', a Kttle grain, or perhaps the " shorts " or " tails " from the corn-dressing machine. Some boil it and give it to the cows moist and warm. Many, however, prefer Fig. 134, — Food-steaming apparatus, simply heating the food by pouring hot water over it and giving it in a wet "sloppy" condition — this warm mash, as it is called in some parts, being alter- i^ated with other foods, such as cake i Trans. High. Agric. Soc, xix., 4th sen, 1887. 2 Live Stock Jowr. Almanac, 1886. * Jour. Royal Agric. Soe. Eng., xvii. 479. and grain and dry fodder. Apparatuses for steaming food for stock have been brought out by several leading firms, and fig. 134 represents a safe, economical, and durable apparatus, made by Eich- mond & Chandler, Manchester. Where a steam-engine is used in work- ing the threshing-mill, arrangements may be made for utilising the steam in cook- ing food for stock. Chaff-tutting. It has been well proved in practical experience that hay and straw are econo- mised by being cut into short pieces, or chopped, as it is generally termed. In the short condition fodder is not so liable to be wasted by the animals to which it Fig. T25-— Chaff-cutter. is given as food, as when it is put before them in its natural length. On the score of economy, therefore, chaff-cutting is to be commended, while it has the further advantage of rendering hay and straw more suitable for mixing with linseed- gruel, warm mashes, or with meal, cake, and roots, as in the pulping system. Modern chaff-cutters accomplish their work most admirably, and it is wonder- ful how long some of them withstand the great tear and wear they undergo. See fig. 131. Another excellent chaff- cutter, made by John Crowley & Co., Meadowhall Ironworks, near ShefSeld, is represented in fig. 135. Highland and Agricultural So- ciety's Trials of Chaff-cutters. — ^At the Highland Show at Glasgow in July 1888, a prize of ^25 was offered for "the best combination of machinery for cutting chaff as the straw is delivered from or- dinary threshing-machine, and transport- 336 CATTLE IN WINTER. ing by blower or otherwise the cut chaff for storage in bulk or in bags." Four competing machines were tested in con- nection with a threshing-machine at the farm of Bellahouston, near Glasgow, and the judges divided the prizes between two machines entered by Eobert May- nard, Whittlesford, Cambridge — ^15 for his patent portable combined sifting and bagging chaff-cutter, fitted with auto- matic feeder, and ;^io for his patent portable combined sifting and bagging chaff-cutter, which is similar to the other, but adapted for hand - feeding. The judges, in their official report, remark that the former machine, which is re- presented in fig. 136, is " simple in con- struction, and admirably adapted for the Fig. 136. — Self-feeding cJiaff-cutter. purposes required." As to the latter, they say it is " also a machine of great merit." Bruising Grain. The importance of having all kinds of grain bruised flat or ground into meal before being given as food to stock, has already been pointed out. More care is now exercised in this matter than in for- mer times ; still it is only too true that even yet farmers not unf requently permit the feeding of whole grain, especially to horses. It is a very wasteful practice, and should not be pursued on any ac- count. This for the simple and sufficient reason that the raw grain overtaxes the animal's organs of digestion and assim- ilation, and that therefore a portion of valuable nutritive matter supplied in the raw grain, perhaps even whole grains, pass through the animals and become wasted in the manure-heap. Farmers may have their grain bruised or ground for stock-feeding at any of the country meal-miUs ; or, which is much better, they may have it done at the steading by one of the many first-class little mills now made for the special purpose. About a dozen leading firms have given careful attention during the past two years to the perfecting of grist- mills for farmers, and they have succeeded so well that their mills leave little to be desired in their working. In the im- proved modem grinding-mills the stone has been supplanted by metal plates, which can be replaced at will, and which render the mill more serviceable. A combined bruising and grinding mill is PKEPAKATION OF FOOD FOR CATTLE. 337 represented in fig. 130. One of the best known grist-mills, with metal grinding surfaces, is the Eoyal First Prize Mill, which has long been made by Barford ■Com-grindiitg mill. & Perkins, Peterborough, and which is illustrated in fig. 137. As would be expected, grist-mills re- quire considerable power to work them, and this has to be supplied by steam, water, or horses. A wonderfully service- Fig. 138. — Hand flour or grist ntilL able little flour or grist mill for hand- power has lately been brought out by R. A. Lister & Co., Dursley, Gloucestershire — ^fig. 138. It can be worked by one man or two women, means being provided for attaching a second handle. VOL. I. Cahe-hrealdng. For all kinds of stock, cake, as ob- tained from the makers, has to be broken into small pieces. Where only very small quantities are used, a hammer is made to do the work ; but, except in these few cases, the cake-breaking has to be done by machines, which may be driven by hand or by other power. Fig. 85 repre- sents a machine for this jjurpose. Recapitulation. Since the foregoing was put in type, a valuable paper upon the preparation of food for stock has been published.^ Mr H. F. Moore, Frome, Somerset, sent a series of questions to about two hundred leading stock -owners throughout the country, asking them to give their ex- perience and practice as to (i) chaffing, (2) mixing, (3) cooking, and (4) steaming foods. The replies are printed at con- siderable length, and in a concise and intelligent summary Mr Moore states the conclusions that may be arrived at from the investigation. (i) There is a general consensus of opinion in favour of chaffing foods. " No less than 70 per cent show chaffing to be adopted, while in 20 per cent more it is partially adopted, and in 10 per cent only is the answer in the negative." Reference is made to the utilising of straw as food and using moss-litter for bedding, a practice pursued by forty-six of the two hundred correspondents, who indicate that " there is a saving of 55 per cent in the cost of moss-litter as com- pared with the value of straw." (2) The replies are entirely in favour of mixing foods ; but Mr Moore has found it impossible to evolve any very general rules as to what the mixture should be. (3 and 4) Experience and opinion have varied greatly as to cooked and steamed foods. Sir John Bennett Lawes points to recent experiments at Popplesdorf, which showed that the digestibUity of hay was decreased by steaming, and he adds that the digestibility of concen- trated fodder is not increased by cook- ing. StUl, several of the correspond- ents refer to certain practical advantages ' Jour. Royal Agric. Soe. Eng., xxiv., sec. ser., 447. Y 338 CATTLE IN WINTER in cooking and steaming — such as the avoidance of waste by making the most of the foods so prepaired, and by the more thorough incorporation of the various mixtures employed; in the re- storing of damaged hay, and making it more palatable for stock; and for aged or young cattle with defective teeth. Eeference was made by several farmers to the tendency of cooked and steamed food to impair the hardiness of animals ; and some gave " a very decided opinion that animals that have been fed with cooked or steamed food in covered yards do badly afterwards when grazing." In connection with this point, atten- tion may be directed to the advantages claimed for warm food in the feeding of cows giving milk. See " Winter Feeding of Cows." SYSTEMS OP FEEDING. In describing the various systems of feeding cattle, it will be convenient to deal separately with the different classes of stock. At the beginning of winter, then, there are in houses, to be fed by the cattle-man : (i) cows in calf — ^most of them still giving milk, and some dry, or almost so, according to the date of their next calving ; (2) young store cattle to be kept in good growing condition; and (3) cattle from 18 months to 3 years old to be fattened — -some in good con- dition, and intended to be sold at the Christmas markets, when beef is generally at a high price, and others only just be- ginning to be fattened, and intended to go to the " pole-axe " as they get fat, or as the tone of the markets may suggest between January and June. Calf-rearing is more fuUy identified with Spring, so that consideration of it may be conveniently left for that division. There are many calves dropped during winter — more now than formerly — ^but it will be easy to look ahead and see what is said upon " Calf-rearing " in the Spring portion of this work. WINTER FEEDING OF COWS. In the winter feeding and general treatment of cows practice varies greatly. The conditions which most largely reg- . ulate these variations are, the class or breed of cows, the purposes for which they are kept, the locality, and general systems of farming pursued. As would be expected, where dairying is the sole or dominant feature in the system of farming, the cows are fed and managed differently from what they are in mixed farming, where cows are kept chiefly to breed and rear calves, and provide milk and butter to the farmer's household. Again, even within the limits of dairying itself, there are distinctive conditions which induce different methods of feed- ing. Where the main object is the production of milk for disposal as milk, the feeding differs — unfortunately, some- times differs too much for the quality of the milk — from that considered best for butter - production. Then surrounding circumstances, such as the varieties of food which may be most easily and most cheaply grown or procured, also tend to regulate and modify the systems of feed- ing; while it is well known that food which does well with one lot of cows is often less acceptable and profitable as food for others. Thus it becomes mani- fest that there are good reasons for great variations in the systems of feeding cows. Regulating rood by Yield of Milk. — There are few points of greater import- ance in connection with the management of cows than that of maintaining the proper relation between the allowance of food and the production of milk. Un- fortunately it is very imperfectly under- stood; and it is desireable that, before proceeding to describe any . particular methods of feeding cows, we should earn- estly commend the reader to carefully peruse, and contemplate, and endeavour to bear in mind, the following remarks which Sir John Bennett Lawes, Bart., made upon this subject at the Dublin Dairy Conference in April 1886. Sir John was describing an experiment which he had been conducting at Roth- amsted, upon silage and mangels as food for dairy cows, and he says : " When so much of our attention was directed to the; weighing of the food and milk, we thought that the opportunity should be taken to ascertain whether a considerable saving might not be effected in the more costly foods by regulating the amount each week SYSTEMS OF FEEDING. 339 to the yield of milk of the previous week. In every large dairy there will be newly calved cows coming in which may yield, possibly, 5 gallons of milk per day, while others, which may be coming nearly dry, may not be yielding more than J^ a gal- lon. From an estimate of the composi- tion of milk, we calculated that it would require nearly the whole of the 4 lb. of cake and 4 lb. of bran to furnish the in- gredients contained in 3 gallons of milk. Such being the ease, we decided that while each cow yielding 3 gallons of milk per day should receive 4 lb. of cake and 4 lb. of bran, ^ lb. of each of these foods should be added or taken off for each rise or fall of 2 lb. of milk. By this means, a cow which yielded - only 2 gallons instead of 3 would have ij^ lb. less food — or, altogether, only 2j^ lb. of each food ; while a cow which yielded 4 gallons would receive 5^!^ lb. of each food. " For the last two years the whole of the milk and foods of our dairy, of from 50 to 60 cows, has been weighed daily ; and the purchased food has been regu- lated in accordance to the yield of the milk in the way I have mentioned. The mass of figures accumulated is exceedingly large, and no attempt has been made at present to prepare them for publication. There is, however, evidence of a very considerable saving of food having been effected; and it could hardly be other- wise, when we consider the vast differ- ences in the yield of milk in different cows, and the large amount of nutritive ingredients in the milk itself. "A practical farmer cannot be ex- pected to weigh all his milk and food day by day ; still he might, without any great trouble, adopt some scale by which his more costly foods could be used with economy. The engine-driver regulates his fuel to the work done by his engine : why should not the farmer regulate the food of his cow by its yield of milk- ? In these times of severe competition and low prices, more accurate methods of feeding must be introduced ; and each pound of food given to our stock must be made to do its full amount of work. Owing to the large amount of nitrogenous matter in milk, and the fluctuation which neces- sarily takes place in the yield of each cow, from the time of calving to that of dryness, there is far more scope for economy in the feeding of a milking cow than there is in the fattening of a bullock." Home-grown and Purchased Poods. — ^A prize of ^2^, offered in 1887 by Lord Vernon for the best report on " How to make the most of Home-grown Produce by the Addition of Purchased Food," brought out some very useful in- formation. The successful report, written by Mr G. H. C. Wright, Sigglesthome Hall, Hull, appears in the Journal of the British Dairy Farmers' Association, vol. iv., part I, 1888. Mr Wright is strongly in favour of the use of purchased foods along with home-grown produce, and considers that, notwithstanding the fall in the price of beef, cakes, which are cheaper now than in the memory of man, are more than ever a profitable invest- ment. He regards hnseed-cake, or cot- ton-cake, bran, rice, or brewers' grains, as the most useful artificial food for cows. Mr Wright urges the importance of keeping in view the difference in the weight of cows in arranging the quanti- ties of food for each animal. To a cow weighing 100 stones he would give ex- actly twice as much as to one of 50 stones, and to one of 70 stones two- thirds of the quantity allowed to the 100- stone cow. He states the following as the proportions of the different elements of food required by a cow weighing 70 stones: 2.50 albuminoids, 12.5 carbo- hydrates, and .40 lb. fat ; and for a 50- stone cow, 2 lb. albuminoids, 10 lb. carbo- hydrates, and .30 lb. fat. The foods which have given the best results in milk, butter, fat, or beef, are those which show an albuminoid ratio of about i to 5 or 5.5 — ^that is, i part of nitrogenous to 5 or 5 J^ parts of non-nitrogenous com- pounds. And Mr Wright also mentions that experiments and practice have shown that cattle consuming 1 2 lb. of dry matter per 100 lb. of live weight per week, will give I lb. of increase for that 12 lb. An interesting feature in Mr Wright's report are two tables of rations showing the summer and winter feeding of a cow of 1400 lb. live weight, (i) where no pur- chased foods are used, and (2) where pur- chased foods are employed. These tables are produced here, and it wiU be seen that the figures work out strongly in 340 CATTLE IN WINTER. favour of purchasing and using artificial further advantage of being able, with the foods along with the home-grown pro- help of the artificial food, which is in duce. In cost there is a balance of itseK a profitable investment, to main- _;^i, 4S. id. per cow in 44 weeks in favour tain a larger stock of cattle upon the of the artificial food, while there is the farm : — Table I. Summer Keep of a Cow without Artificial Food. Food per day. Length of time. Grass. Hay and Chopped Straw. Turnips. MeaL Diy matter, per day. Cost. Manorial value. Net cost 12 stones grass . . 3 lb. meal .... 2 stones hay (mea- dow and clover) K cwt. roots . . . 3 lb. meal .... weela. 24 24 /■JNTEB 20 20 20 8 tons. 12 Keep tons cwt. OF A C I 15 af;64 per ton. 17 tons cwt. OW WITH 3 10 at iss. per ton. ^HEN Dl 10 tons cwt. qrs. 042 At los. per stone. OUT Artif 033 T. lb. ... I31 ICIAL ] '31 M £ s. d. 3 10 1 10 GOD. 700 2 12 6 I 5 £ s. d. No allow- ance. 067 2 12 3 015 9 053 £ s. d. 3 10 I 3 5 413 5 4 7 9 I 16 9 019 9 Total .... 52 12 2 12 4 081 II 17 8 SO cows will therefore con- sume 600 130 200 20 12 Acreage required. 60 acrp-s \ 11 If 11 It II II 22 14 74 ;: |'7c acres. 1 The dry matter contained in Cakes and Com is about | of the total weight. II 11 Mangels m ^ n ti .1 II White Turnips n ^ n it ir 11 Hay II 7 " IF [Table II. SYSTEMS OF FEEDING. Table II. 341 Summer Keep or a Cow usinq Artificial Food. Food per day. Lenstli of timu. Grass. Hay and Chopped Straw. Tumlpa. Artificial Food. Coat. Manorial value. Net cost. weeks. tons. tons cwt qrs. tons cwt. qrs. tons cwt. qrs. £ .. d. £ s. d. £ s. d. 12 stones grass .... 24 12 3 10 No allow- 3 10 3 lb. cotton-cake (unde- corticated). 24 042 per ton. 126 ance. 14 6 080 3 18 Winter Keep op a Cow using Aktificial Food. stone roots . . . . % stone hay (meadow and clover). 14 stone straw .... 3 Va. rloe-meal and decor- ticated cotton-cake. 20 20 20 20 083 at ^4 per ton. 083 at^2 per ton. 17 2 at ISS. per ton. 033 at 13 1 IS 17 6 19 038 13 049 013 3 094 120 12 9 059 I stone brewers' grains or silage ad lib. 20 ^S, 2S. 6d. per ton. 17 2 at £5. los. per ton. 416 3 10 6 4 5 9 When Dry. 8 17 10 Total . 52 12 I 17 2 I 7 2 10 13 7 SO cows will therefore consume . . 600 Acreage required. 60 acres "j II II Tl . • 68 IS 4'A 11 ViigK acres. II II II . . 9315 55 II J Warm. Mashes. — Professor Primrose M'Connell, Ongar Park Hall, Ongar, Essex, already quoted as an advocate of " cooked " or warm food for dairy cows, states that twenty years' experience with " boiling," with the experience of a pre- vious generation superadded — and with results always pre-eminently satisfactory — has confirmed him in his good opinion of the " warm mash " as food for dairy cows. His herd numbers about 70 cows of the Ayrshire breed, and he directs his attention mainly to the production of milk for sale in London. He makes a contract to supply specially rich milk, and to ensure this he gives a more liberal allowance of rich food than is given by many whose principal business is milk- selling. The mash which he has used most largely is composed principally of oat-chaff or chopped straw, bran, bean- meal, and ground oats, mixed with boil- ing water, and allowed to infuse for from 6 to 12 hours. He gives a bucket- ful of this daily to each cow in place of the usual allowance of turnips, and the proportions of ingredients thus allowed to each cow are 4 lb. of chaff or chopped 342 CATTLE IN WINTER fodder, 4 lb. of bran, 2 lb. of bean-meal, 2 lb. of ground oats, and 24 lb. of water — total 36 lb. The 12 lb. of solid matter in this mixture costs about 5d. — or nearly ;^4 per ton. About 450 gallons of water are required to make a ton of this dry matter into a sloppy mass suitable for the cows, and with coals at 15 s. per ton. Professor M'Connell found that the firing required to heat this quantity of water up to boiling-point is under is., " so that the total cost of a ton of mash, plus the warm water, is just about jQ^-" Mash compared with. Turnips and Silage. — Taking the market value of turnips at los. per ton, of silage at 15s., Turnips . . Silage (%) Dry mash {)/%) .... "From these analyses it will be seen that the dry material of the mash con- tains 2 1 per cent more albuminoids than the turnips, or 13 per cent more than the ensilage ; or, in other words, the same money can buy 14 tons in the turnips, or 15 in the ensilage, and 17 in the mash. So also 20 tons of fats in the turnips, 4 in the ensilage, and 35 in the mash, all cost the same. The case is, of course, reversed with the carbohydrates ; but then these are the least valuable of the three ; two and a half parts being re- quired to equal one of fat for feeding, while for milk-production they (in the form of starch, sugar, &c.) have been shown to be of very little importance, as it is the albuminoids which are used in the body for this purpose. We find this in practice, and exemplified in the fact that maize and other starchy foods do not give good results with cows, so that a superabundance of them is not desirable. Taking only the albuminoids and fats into account, therefore, we find the mash is 28 per cent better than the turnips, and 33 per cent over the ensilage, all at the same money-value, shilling for shilling." ^ He further points out the advantage of warm food to cows, which has been explained under the heading of " Cooked Food," p. 334. Keplying to the argu- ment that warming the food entails cost, he states that in his case, where, in winter- ^ Live Stock Jowr, Almanac, 1887. and the dry mash at 80s. per ton. Pro- fessor M'Connell makes the following comparison as to the relative value of these articles as food for cows : It will be best to take the same equal money- value of each — ^that is, one ton of tur- nips, two-thirds of a ton of ensilage, and one-eighth of a ton of the dry material of the mash — and in the absence of direct experiment, take their chemical food- equivalents as a basis of calculation. One ton of swedes contains 89 per cent of water and 1 1 per cent of solids, or tabu- lated, all three will appear thus, taking the valuable ingredients only into ac- count : — Albuminoids. Fats. Carbohydrates. Ash. 1-4 0.20 7-1 0.60 I-S 0.04 9.0 1.60 1-7 0-3S 4-S 0.36 ing 70 cows, warm mash is given once a- day during one half of the winter, and twice a-day during the other half, the cost of heating (with coals at 15s. per ton) was only is. 3d. per cow for the whole winter. He adds : " Suppose we double this — surely no one will argue that 2S. 6d. is a serious item in a cow's annual cost, which averages, say, £20." It is also pointed out that in the warm mashes, by-products, such as chaflf of all kinds, tails, or dressings from grain, overheated or inferior hay which would otherwise be liable to be wasted, may. be turned into good and palatable food. Wheat, barley, and bean straw, which do not make good fodder for cows by them- selves, are very suitable for the mash when chopped. Bean-straw emits a most delightful and appetising aroma when soaked in the hot water. Mangels and Turnips for Cows. ■ — In another paper ^ Professor M'Connell gives additional information as to his experience and practice in the feeding of dairy cows in winter. He conducted an experiment extending over four weeks, with the view of testing the relative value of mangels and turnips as food for dairy cows, and he found that, weight for weight, mangels gave 6 per cent less milk and slightly less cream than tur- nips. ^ Trans. High. Agric. iSoc, xix., 4th ser.. SYSTEMS OF FEEDING. 343 "Winter Kations for Dairy Cows. ^''• —In the article last referred to, Professor ^ mixture of cut hay and straw . 20 M'Connell gives the following tables of o^nToats ::'.'. 2 rations, " taken from some in actual prac- x mixture of wheat and barley-meal 2 tice by diflferent people, ... to illustrate Linseed 2 the winter food of a cow in milk." Bran 2 Hoots 25 I. Long hay divided into two rations , 5 5 A.M. . 2 lb. decorticated cotton-cake. 77 7 M . warm mash. 8 ti .4 lb. oat-straw -Kr -km- i^i -li 12 NOON 8 lb. hay. ^^ Murray recommends the whole, ex- 3 P.M. . warm mash. cepting the hay, to be cooked or steamed, 6 n .8 lb. oat-straw. mixed with a large quantity of pure mi 1. ■ it, -u • i water, and fed in a semi-liquid state at The warm mashes m the above consist , ' , e ^^o ,. ^ o\' i, ■, f -u , ,•, , n, c 1 a temperature of 1; 1; to 60° Fahr. each of about 5 lb. chop, 2 lb. of meal ^llm.^ai. as Pood for Cows.-In (bean and oat mixed), 2 lb of bran, ^^^^^^^^ ^^ ^.^^^^^ bucketful '~ ""^ Murray commends the utiUsation of sweet skim-milk as an ingredient of mixed food u, for dairy cows. He states that in some Maize-meal .... 4 butter dairies it is difficult to dispose of Decorticated cotton-cake . 4 skim-milk, and that in some instances it Pulped roots .... 20 is being returned to the milk-suppliers Chop with pulp ... 10 a^t 2d. per imperial gallon. "At this *y ^ ' price, mixed with other foods, it is cap- s' able, when used in moderate quantities, Eape-oake .... 6 of being profitably used as an adjunct to Malt-combs .... i the food of COWS in milk. Contrasted ^°°*^ ^° with other foods, it is the cheapest that (AH cooked' together.)' can be used." Hay 9 Professor Arnold, a leading American authority, also speaks highly of the value of sweet skim-milk as a food for milk- IZ^el-i : ■ : : ?W production. He says: "AH easily di- Maize-meal . . 1 5^ gested foods which contribute to the Bran i}4 building up of flesh and the framework Linseed-cake . . . . i of the body are especially efficient in *-'^°P ■. 5' -ii,'-!, -i- ' i N ^ stimulating a flow of milk. Among the Pulped t'Smips^'with I ""^ ''^. ''■ 18 fpods of this kind are cotton-seed meal. Straw-chop . ■ ( . • 9 Imseed - meal, bran from the various Straw ad lib. cereals, and every kind of clover and . every species of peas. These foods influ- „ ,, . , ' i- J. J ence the quantity of milk by reason of Cotton-cake undecorticated . 4 xt. i.- 1. j. r n • n i. Turnips . . . . ;6 ™® i^^gi^ P^r cent 01 albuminous or flesh- Hay or straw ad lib. forming matter they contain. The com- position of skim-milk would entitle it to A Liberal Ration. — Mr Gilbert Mur- be classed with that sort of food, and its ray, Elvaston Castle, Derby, considers use as a milk-producing food proves it 28 lb. of roots per day the "extreme worthy of the position. Just as flesh limit to a dairy cow in full milk." He when used as food is perfectly adapted submits the following as an average daily to forming flesh again, the use of milk ration for a cow giving full milk in win- by milk - giving animals is perfectly ter,i which may be regarded as a liberal adapted to reconstruct milk. It is de- ration : — cidedly an albuminous product, and con- sequently contributes to swelling the ^ Jour. Brit. Dairy Farm. Ass., vol. ii., No. llOW. 2, loi. " To secure the best results, skim-milk 344 CATTLE IN WINTER. siould be fed in good condition. Its value is not destroyed by souring, but it is thereby considerably reduced. Sweet skim-milk is believed to be about 50 per cent better than sour milk as cow-feed. " It would have a special value for producing milk for cheese-making, but it also contributes to making milk rich in butter. Like all other foods rich in albumen, it does this in an indirect way. One source of fat in animal bodies lies in the destruction or waste of bodily struc- ture. The more structure there is built up, the more there is to be dissolved for the evolution of fat. Milk, like other albuminous matters, is active in building up the structure, and hence also in the production of fat, of which the newly formed milk gets a share. Feeding milk to cows also contributes to the richness of their milk by utilising the fat the butter-maker leaves in it— usually from 5 to 10 per cent of the original quantity. When fed back, cows utilise every atom of the fat, and in the course of a whole season it amounts to enough to make from 25 to 50 lb. of butter, and add to their product from 10 dols. to 20 dols. each in a season. " As a milk-producing food its value is also affected by the quality of the food used with it. Milk is a highly nitrogen- ous food, and should be fed with those that abound in unctuous matters and starch and sugar, to make it a part of a properly balanced ration. It would not be so effi- cacious fed in connection with cotton- seed and linseed-meal as corn-meal or fodder corn or sweet ensilage, or with most soiling plants except clover, which, like milk, is highly nitrogenous. When given as a part of a well-balanced ration, sweet skim-milk gives about equal results whether fed to good new milch cows or to thrifty calves or young pigs." Feeding in Milk-selling Dairies. — Feeding cows for the production of milk is a subject that demands the most care- ful study. It is illegal, and therefore punishable, to sell, or attempt to sell, milk which does not contain at least 10 per cent of solid matter. In ordinary practice it is found that liberal feeding with rich food is required to raise the percentage of solid matter very much above the standard ; and, on the other hand, it has been demonstrated in expe- rience that by using an excessive propor- tion of weak succulent foods such as brewers' grains, the flow of milk may be considerably increased, but its quality so much reduced as to bring it under the legal standard, and thus expose the seller to the risk of punishment. The milk- sellers, as a rule, therefore, endeavour to hit the happy medium. Some are able to obtain a contract to supply milk of exceptionally high quality, at a special price, and accordingly they can afford to, and indeed must, use rich food. But, generally speaking, milk-sellers get little or no benefit by supplying milk of very high quality, and naturally enough — ex- cept where they pursue the system of fattening off the cows as they become dry, when . high feeding is necessary — they aim at feeding their cows so as to produce the maximum quantity of milk of sufficient quality to reach the required standard. To do this, to go as "near the wind " as possible, and yet keep on the " respectable side " of the standard line, requires experience and good judg- ment. It is highly reprehensible, cer- tainly, to carry too far the practice of feeding for quantity, regardless of the quality of milk ; yet it is but natural and reasonable that, within proper limits, milk - sellers, as well as others, should pursue an economical system of feeding • — ^the most economical food in their case being that which will at the lowest cost produce the maximum quantity with moderate quality. Mr H. A. Howman, Halloughton, ColeshiU, Warwickshire, who from his two farms sells about 60,000 gallons of milk annually, states that in his expe- rience the best TnMh-producing foods have been silage, cabbages, roots, vetches, and brewers' grains. He does not believe that such rich artificial foods as Hnseed- cake, cotton-cake, and grain will increase the flow of milk " in proportion to their cost." He tried an experiment on four cows in the winter of 1885, with the view of testing this point. The cows were being fed with a full supply of the milk- producing foods just mentioned, and their milk was accurately measured. In addi- tion to the food formerly given, 5 lb. of meal was given to each cow per day, and again the milk was measured twice a- day for a week. The cows put on flesh SYSTEMS OF FEEDING. 345 rapidly, but they did not gain an ounce in the quantity of the milk. In this case the cows had no doubt been receiving a full allowance of food before the meal was given, so that very little increase in the flow of milk might be expected from any kind of food, be it succulent or dry. Still, the experience of Mr Howman, as an extensive milk-seller, upon the econ- omy of cake and meal in milk - produc- tion, is worthy of being recorded. Mr Howman remarks that as milk contains about 88 per cent of water and 12 per cent of total solids, it seems absurd to give dry food to produce water ! What dry food the cow requires to sustain life is supplied in sufficient quantity in the milk-producing foods spoken of.-^ Brewers' grains are the characteristic food in milk-selling dairies in or near towns — indeed wherever they can be reasonably or conveniently obtained. These grains consist of the spent malt which has yielded the saccharine extract from which beer or spirit is obtained. Mr J. C. Morton says that in town dairies "a bushel or more, sometimes two bushels, are given daily to each cow, besides which she has mangels, hay, and meal. In fact, the object. is, having pur- chased a good shorthorn cow, not only to stimulate her milk -produce to the utmost, which grains are especially sup- posed to do, but to feed her so well that she may begin to lay on flesh as soon as the season of greatest milk-produce be- gins to decline. A cow which will fat- ten, as well as yield milk abundantly, is the agent by which the cowman realises his profit. She is milked at 4 a.m., re- ceives perhaps 2 or 3 pecks of 'grains' immediately after milking is over ; then 4 or 5 lb. of hay are given, and after being cleaned out, she gets at 9 a.m. from 20 to 25 lb. of chopped mangels, and another 3 or 4 lb of hay. At i p.m. the cows are milked again, and again fed as much as before, being well watered in the course of the afternoon. Or, when they have meal and oilcake, this is given 3 or 4 lb. Brday, either with mangels or in a gruel over the grains. " In the country, where grains cannot easily be had in quantity, dependence is ^ Jowr. Brit. Bavry Farm. Ass., vol. ii., 'So. 2,15. placed on hay and mangels, with meal of barley, and bean or Indian corn, or decorticated cotton-cake ; and in summer and autumn of course, both in town and country, the dependence is largely on clover and vetches and cabbages, in addition to grains and meal." ^ Silage and Mangels for Dairy Covrs. — In the winters of 1884-85 and 1885-86 Sir John Bennett Lawes, Bart., carried out an important and instructive series of experiments, mainly with the view of testing the relative merits of silage and mangels as food for dairy cows. Sir John thus describes the ex- periments and their results : — "For 3 months we fed 20 cows on clover-silage and 20 cows upon mangels, the rest of the diet, which consisted of 4 lb. of decorticated cotton-cake, 4 lb. of bran, and 10 lb. of chaff (half hay, half straw) per day, being given equally to the lot. The daily amount allotted to the 20 cows which received clover-silage was 50 lb., and for those fed on mangels, 90 lb. The 50 lb. of silage contained about the same amount of dry food as the 90 lb. of mangels. The average amount of milk yielded per cow by those which received the silage was 25 lb. 12 oz. per day, and that of the cows which received the mangels, 27 lb. 5 oz. ; they had therefore rather the advantage of the two lots. "The cows were all weighed at the beginning and end of the experiment, and the silage cows showed the larger increase ; it was also evident to the eye that they showed more tendency to fat- ten. When the clover was finished, the cows were fed with silage made from meadow-grass, the result being, that al- though the milk did not decline, the cows began to lose weight. As regards the quality, both to the eye and the taste, the silage milk had the preference ; but careful analysis showed a slight superiority in the butter-fat of the milk yielded by the cows fed on themangels. "These experiments were carried out in the vrinter of 1884-85, and a second year's experience does not alter the general conclusions. The cows have been fed all through the winter with clover-silage and mangels — not separ- ^ Jour. Royal Agric. Soc. Eng., xiv. 405. 346 CATTLE IN WINTER ately, as was the case last year, but to- gether — and careful observation leads us to the conclusion that the addition of silage to mangels has a tendency to lay on flesh, more than would be the case if the cows were fed on mangels alone. It will be observed that the silage and ' mangels formed but a small part of the whole of the food consumed by the cows, which were large shorthorns, weighing about 1200 lb. each, and consuming daily about 25 lb. of food, calculated as dry. Of this amount the silage did not supply more than 10 or 11 lb. "A very considerable amount of the home-grown food — ^the hay, straw, roots, or silage — was consumed by the animals for what we call existence purposes, that is to say, to keep life and warmth in the body, while purchased food furnished the material to form the milk. I may say that it would be impossible to keep up anything approaching to an average yield of 3 gallons of milk per cow, over the whole number, during the winter months, without having recourse to pur- chased foods." 1 Sir John further explains that all the cows did not really receive 4 lb. each of cotton-cake and 4 lb. of bran all through the experiment. These quantities were set apart for each cow, but, as explained at the outset of this section, an attempt was made to economise food by regu- lating its amount each week by the yield of milk of the previous week, — a point specially deserving the most careful con- sideration and attention of dairy-farmers — of all, indeed, who keep cows. Silage in the Duke of Manchester's Dairy. — Silage has been extensively used as food for the cows in the Duke of Manchester's large dairies at Kim- bolton. The results have on the whole been very favourable. In the winter of 1885-86, from the opening of the silo in November till the end of May (when the silage was exhausted), the cows received daily, in two feeds, a mixture composed of 9 lb. of tail wheat and oats ground into meal, 30 lb. of cut mangels, and 44 lb. of silage each, 7 lb. of long hay being allowed in addition. With this treatment the cows gave more milk, and maintained a much higher condition than in previous years, when fed on roots, grain, and cake, at a greater cost than that entailed by the above mixture. The mixture of meal, mangels, and si- lage was allowed to lie in a heap for 12 hours before being given to the cows. The silage consisted of tares and oats sown together, which were cut, chaffed, and put into the silo at the end of July. The cows evidently relished the flavour of the silage, and rarely have we seen dairy cows in such high condition as these were in the month of April 1886, when they were all milking heavily. The cost of the above feeding, reckoning the silage at JC^ per ton, and including attendance, is estimated at rod. per head per day. Mr Carrington's System of reeding Cows.- — The late Mr Carrington, who pursued dairy - farming extensively in Staffordshire, was recognised as one of the highest English authorities of his day. In 1878 he described his system of feeding cows in vrinter as follows : "The cows are wintered on straw or hay and roots; those which have not calved are turned out for a few hours in a sheltered sound field of turf, near the homestead, every day, except when the weather is very bad. I consider the fresh air and exercise beneficial. . . . " A few days after calving I commence to give the cows from 4 to 6 lb. of cake or meal, vidth plenty of mangels and hay or cut straw. A cow in full mUk, kept on hay and roots alone, rapidly loses flesh, and her milk will neither be so abundant nor so rich in butter or curd as when extra stimulating food is sup- plied. Decorticated cotton-cake is a valu- able food for milch cows, either alone or in conjunction with maize-meal, which is very largely used for all kinds of stock in Lancashire and Cheshire, within easy reach of the Liverpool market. Pabri- nut meal (a food very rich in oil) is a valuable food where it can be mixed with chop and pulped roots; it is not, how- ever, palatable to stock unless mixed with other food."'^ Milk-fever Preventive. — In connec- tion with the above, Mr Carrington says : "To those of my cows which are in high condition I give i lb. of Epsom 1 Paper read at Dublin Dairy Con., 1886. ^ Jour. Boyal Agric. Soc. Eng,, xiv. 391. SYSTEMS OF FEEDING. 347 salts and i oz. of ginger just before calv- ing, and in some cases I give this dose twice before calving. This I consider a safeguard against milh-fever." ^ An American Example. — Mr Ed- v?ard Burnett's dairy at Deerfoot Farm, Southborough, Mass., has been regarded as one of the most successfully conducted in the United States of America. Writ- ing in 1880, Mr Burnett thus describes his system of winter feeding : " The essentials to produce the best results are good cows, good feed, regularity, cleanli- ness about the stables [cowhouses] and dairy, and a thermometer. I will give you my own method of feeding, and in so doing those dairymen who aim at quantity will realise that we are shoots ing at different targets, for with me quantity is secondary, quality being the greatest desideratum. . . . When in winter quarters I begin feeding at about 5.30 in the morning with hay, a little jag or wisp at a time, not so much but what the cows will eat it up clean. Then, after milking, the grain — from . 3 to 6 quarts, according to the cow — consisting of two parts of Indian-meal and one of shorts or bran ; or feeding entirely on ordinary cabbage (corn [Indian] and cob ground together). After this more hay, which lasts until about 9 a.m. I begin . again at 3 p.m. with a little hay, fol- lowed by roots (mangels) cut fine, a bushel being divided between three cows ; then more hay again, which lasts , them until about 6.30 p.m. I maintain that, if more shorts are fed than are necessary to counteract the heating quality and condensed richness of the corn-meal, it deteriorates the butter." ^ Feeding Dairy Covsrs in th.e Nether- lands. — The late Mr H. M. Jenkins, Secretary of the Eoyal Agricultural Society of England, in his most useful reports (in the Society's Journal) on Continental dairying, has explained the systems of management pursued by the successful and enterprising dairy-farmers of the European continent. In the methods of feeding, except as to the exclusion of turnips, there is not much variation from the systems pursued in this country. There, also, large quan- ^ Jour. Royal Agria. Soc. Eng,, xviii. 483. ^ Ibid., xix. 391. titles of distillery refuse are used as food for cows giving milk. In winter the cows are in many cases fed chiefly on hay, linseed-meal, linseed-cake, beans, and distillery refuse, some giving as much as 6 to 7 lb. of linseed-cake per day. Mr Carrington Smith's Practice. — An experienced Staffordshire farmer, Mr T. Carrington Smith, Adamston, Eugeley, says : " It is my practice to chaff all the straw used as fodder, with the addition of chaffed hay and pulped swedes. Whilst the chaffing and pulping are going on simultaneously, some rice-meal is added to the whole mass. From this heap all the dairy cows, whether dry or in milk, are fed, and they all receive also one foddering of long hay, say at 5.30 P.M. Those cows which are in milk re- ceive in addition 4 lb. of linseed or cotton- seed cake, and 2 lb. of meal. I do not attempt to weigh chaff, pulp, or long hay. The cows may be said to be fed ad libi- tum, and the proportions of straw, hay, and swedes are regulated principally by the actual qualities of the hay and straw and the quantity in store of the roots. " Cows vary so in their appetites that it seems to me almost impossible to lay down a standard ration applicable to aU. We try to fodder all in such way that there shall be no waste, and careful regard is had to apportion the constitu- ents of food used relatively to each other in such sort as to keep the evacuations in the right degree of thickness, avoiding scour on the one hand, and constipation on the other. Again, the cows not in milk during the vsdnter are turned out in the pasture for a considerable portion of the day, and therefore they supplement the fodder they receive in the sheds by the grass and foggage to be found out in the open field. In winter the first feed of chaff-mixture takes place at 6 a.m., the second at 7.30, the third, on coming in from pasture, at 3 p.m., the fourth at 4.30, the fifth (long hay) at 5.30. If the weather be severe, an additional serving of chaff-mixture is given." ^ Feeding in Iforfolk Dairies. — At Necton Hall, Swaffham, Mr K. Harvey Mason keeps a herd of well-bred red polled cattle, largely but not entirely for dairying, "therefore the health and ^ Live Stock Jour., May 13, 1887. 348 CATTLE IN WINTER. breeding of the cows has the first atten- tion." His system of feeding, and the cost of the food, are stated thus : — Cost of Feeding Oows. Each cow. From May I to September 1 8 — 20 weeks on grass . £o 2 6= £2 10 o From September 19 to October 31 — Grass . . . £0 I 6 2 bushels roots (white turnips, los. per ton) 006 7 lb. cotton-seed meal, £S, 15s. per ton . o o 4^ 7 lb. palm-nut meal, £4, 2s. 6d. per ton 003 Six weeks at £0 2 '/}4=o 15 9 From Kovember i to March 4 — 7 bushels roots, swedes and mangels, 13s. 4d. per ton . . . £0 2 4 7 lb. cotton-seed meal o o /^yi 7 lb. palm-nut meal .003 2j4 stone meadow-hay, chaffed, £4 per ton 019 Eighteen weeks at £0 4 8% = 4 4 9 From March 5 to April 30 — ■ 2/4 bushels roots, swedes and mangels . . £0 i 2^ 7 lb. palm-nut meal .003 14 lb. undecortioated cotton-cake, £4, I2s. 6d. per ton . .007 I ^ stone meadow-hay o o 10^ Eight weeks at ;^o 2 1 1 =134 Each cow, total the year . £S 13 10 "From May i to October 11 the cows were out both by night and day, and only in the house at milking-time, dur- ing which time, from September 18, they were fed as aljove. During the whole winter they were on the pasture a por- tion of every day, at which time they had the roots. Immediately on being milked, they are turned loose into a large covered yard, but whilst in it they get nothing to eat. The hay, meals, and cake are all mixed together, and given to the cows to eat while tied up in the house for milking." ^ Mr G. M. Chamberlin, Stratton Straw- less Hall, Norwich, states that during the winter months he gives his cowa (Shorthorns, Ayrshires, Jerseys, and Guernseys), according to their size and milk-product, from 3 to 3^^ bushels per day of a mixed food, consisting of man- gels, bran, surplus corn of the farm, lin- seed, malt-combs, hay and wheat chaff. Peeding in Jersey Herds. — In the leading herds of Jersey cattle in Eng- land, a very careful and systematic course of feeding is pursued. These delicate and heavily milking little cows require liberal feeding during winter. The sys- tem pursued by Mr J. F. Hall, Er- leigh Court, Beading, is a fair sample of good management. He endeavours to feed so as to increase butter productive- ness. Artificial food — i.e., ground oats, maize-meal, decorticated cotton-cake, and bran — are given in limited quantities all the year round, but forcing has never been attempted. The soil being gravel, the grass is of a light character. The cows are turned out to grass in the latter end of May, and remain out till mid- September. During the winter months they receive, in addition to artificial food, hay, carrots, and parsnips, and ensilage (meadow-grass stored in silo) ; also man- gels in late winter. The daily allow- ance of each food is given in the table annexed. Sweet ensilage is very valu- able, as it is a cheap food, easily pro- cured, and gives an excellent colour to winter butter, besides promoting the flow of milk Food Eecobd, exclitsive of Grass, 1886. Per Cow per Week. Mixed Meat Hay. Bran. Ensilage. Carrots and Parsnips. Jan. to March April to June July to September .... October to December Ih. 42 - 56 S2'A-3i 35 • 38K 38K-42 It. 56-112 56-14 "28 tush. It. 196 196 tush. I "l2 ^ Live Stooh Jour., May 13, 18S7. Ihid. SYSTEMS OF FEEDING. 349 In Lord Braybroke's herd of Jersey cows at Audley End, Essex, the winter feeding is as follows : — October. Pecks. Crushed oats . . . . ^ Wheat-germ meal . . . ^ Malt-dust .... X Straw and hay chaff and cabbage 2 On grass about nine hours each day. November to March. Crushed oats . . . . yi Wheat-germ meal • . . yi Malt-dust .... X Dried grains . . . . X Straw and hay chaff and cabbages 2 or Carrots, parsnips, or mangels . lo lb. On grass from one to four hours ea^h day, according to the weather.^ Mr Jolin Swan, Stonefield, Lincoln, feeds Ms Jersey cows in winter with, silage (made from grass, rye, buckwheat, vetches, and maize), and 2 lb. oatmeal and 2 lb. of bean-meal, or an equivalent of cotton-cake or linseed-cake and bran daily. The same quantities of these con- centrated foods are given summer and winter. ATI Irish. System. — Mr Smith Barry has a large dairy herd of cross-bred and shorthorn cows in County Cork, and the food given in winter consists of 50 lb. roots, 10 lb. hay, and 4 lb. of barley-meal and crushed oats; the roots are grated, and about 5 lb. of hay chaffed and given to the cattle in equal portions with the corn, at 6 a.m. and 4 p.m. every day ; the rest of the hay is given the last thing at night. The cows have a run over the pasture every tolerably fine day. In summer the cows are on pasture day and night, except in very hot weather, when they are kept in during the hottest part of the day and given some vetches or other soiliig. Mr Eiohard Barter's System. — At St Ann's Hill, County Cork, Mr Eichard Barter maintains a large dairy of mixed bred cows, chiefly shorthorn crosses. As far as he can he pursues winter dairying ; and his cows, when in full milk during the winter, are fed as shown in the fol- lowing table, which also indicates the cost of the ingredients of the food and the value of the manurial residue ^ : — Daily Food. Dry sub- stance. Al- bumin- oids. Fat. Carbo- hy- drates. Price per Ton. Cost of Ration. Nitro- gen. Phos- phoric Acid. Potash. lb. £ s. d. d. Hay ... 7 Gorse ... 42 Mangels . 42 6. 10.5 4-83 .67 1-33 •5 •17 •37 .042 2.87 3-35 3-44 200 12 10 (o I 8' \ per bus. 1-5 2.7 2.25 .12 .276 .074 .036 .074 .029 •13 .168 .164 Grains . . 7 1.58 .336 .098 .679 I. ■05 •03 .003 Oats and barley 6 Bran ... 2 5-19 1.72 % .24 .08 I. 3-52 I. 4 10 5 IS 2.89 1. 21 .108 .044 .04 .064 .028 .029 Total . 106 29.82 3.816 14.859 2.333 11-55 .672 .16 •273 .051 .522 .046 Equivalent of f at- IX2>^ . Albuminoid rati 0, I to Deducted for 10 quarts milk . 17.192 4-5 c -/J •512 .222 .476 Value of residue • 4Xd. Cost of ration p Value of residue 3r week per wee k 6 8X 2 SH Taking nitrogen at Phosphoric acid at Potash at • 5d- P 3d. 2^d. erlb. ^ Live Stock Jour., May 13, 1887. ' Jowr. Brit. Dairy Far. Assoc, ii. 127. 3SO CATTLE IN "WINTEK. Feeding Cows in Ayrshire. — The great development of tlie cheese industry in Ayrshire has induced the farmers in this county to give careful attention to the feeding and management of cows. In this part of the country the Ayrshire breeds hold undisputed sway. Mr An- drew Allan, Munnoch, is well known as an experienced and successful breeder of Ayrshires, and his system of feeding cows in winter and spring is as follows: The cows are allowed to go dry for about three months during winter, as is the case on most farms where cheese is made, and in that period they are fed thus : 5 A.M., oat-straw, 5 lb. each; 7 a.m., soft turnips, 20 lb. each; 7.30 a.m., oat- straw, 5 lb. or so each; 10 a.m., oat- straw, 5 lb. or so each; 11 a.m., out for exercise and water; 2 p.m., brought in- side and get oat-straw, same quantity as before; 4.30 p.m., soft turnips, 20 lb. each; 5 p.m., oat-straw, 20 lb. each; 8 P.M., oat-straw, 20 lb. each. The cows mostly calve in March and April, after which the feeding is as follows : 5 a.m., hay, 4}^ lb. each ; 7 a.m., boiled roots, with chaff or cut hay mixed with bean- meal, 2j^ lb. of meal each; 7.30 a.m., hay, 4j^ lb. each; 10 a.m., ditto; 11 A.M., put out to a court for water, and hay when brought in, same quantity as before ; 4.30 p.m., steamed or boiled roots with chaff or cut hay, and 2^ lb. of bean-meal per cow ; 5 p.m., hay, 4j^ lb. per cow, with the same quantity of hay at 8 P.M. ; then left for the night. reeding in Iiord Sgerton's Dairy. — Lord Egerton of Tatton keeps a dairy herd consisting of Dutch and shorthorn crosses. The amount of cake and corn allowed per head is 4 lb. daily ; but the quantities each cow receives depends upon her size and the milk she is giving. To a cow in full milk as much as 7 lb. daily is given both in summer and win- ter; and for the first fortnight after calving all heavy milking cows have two quarts of oatmeal-porridge, with a small quantity of skim-milk added, twice daily. The cake and corn are mixed with chopped hay and straw in winter, and with green meadow-grass or comfrey in summer. The Indian corn and peas are sent out from the mill in the form of meal, ground together in the proportion of two of Indian corn to one of peas. The cotton and linseed cakes are mixed in equal proportions. Feeding in a Tyneside Dairy. — Mr William Trotter, South Acomb, Tyne- side, states that in winter he gives 6 or 7>^ lb. of barley, or a similar quantity of equal proportions of barley and maize- meal, tvith about 2 1 lb. of hay and 42 lb. of turnips per day. The most satisfac- tory and economical mixture he had tried was made up thus : — Per ton. 2 tons of coarse barley, at ;£^3 S ° I ton best barley-meal, at 5 10 o I ton of wheat sharps, at 4 10 o I ton of oatmeal-dust, at i 10 o The cost of this mixture comes to 5j^d. for 14 lb., or ^Qt,, 13s. 4d. per ton. Mr Trotter has given up using cotton-cake as food for cows. When it was used he had often lost cows from milk-fever ; but since discarding the cotton-cake he has not lost a cow from this cause. ^ Wintering Dry and Breeding Cows. — It will be observed that the foregoing notes relate mainly to the feeding of cows where the production of milk is the chief, or at any rate a specially import- ant consideration, and where, on this account, the cows are fed with such quantities and qualities of food as are- calculated to stimulate and maintain a bountiful flow of milk. In herds in which the yield of mUk is a secondary consideration, the systems of feeding are somewhat different, and, as a rule, the rations are arranged upon a more mod- erate scale. Then, in all cases, cows are fed more sparingly when not giving milk. By far the most general practice is to feed dry cows upon oat-straw or hay and turnips or mangels. The Ayrshire system, as described above by Mr Allan, Munnoch, is fairly representative of the prevailing custom in Scotland, although there is, of course, considerable variation both in the hours of feeding and the quantities al- lowed. Formerly turnips were given to cows much too freely. Large meals of cold watery turnips are positively in- jurious to cows that are heavy in calf ; and in all respects it is better practice to feed roots sparingly to cows. From 40 to 50 or 60 Jb. of roots per day, given in. ^ Jow. Royal Agric. Soc. JBng., xxiv. 231. SYSTEMS OF FEEDING. 351 two meals, are now very general quan- tities in well-managed herds, and with plenty of good sound fodder, either oat- straw or hay, or both, the cows should thrive well and sustain no harm upon these allowances. Still dry cows may be kept in good condition with even less than 40 lb. of roots, as is often the case where the pulping system is pursued, or where recourse is had to warm mashes composed of cheap food, largely of chopped hay, straw, chalBf, and perhaps a few roots. In England, as already indi- cated, dry cows are usually kept on hay and straw and turnips and mangels, and in many cases they receive no roots of any kind. With plenty of good hay, or hay and silage, a run out daily — in fine weather, of course — free access to water, and perhaps a small allowance of bran or some other cheap food, they thrive fairly well. Professor M'Connell on Wintering Dry Cows. Writing (for this edition) upon the wintering of dry cows. Professor Prim- rose M'Connell says : — " These cows, it is assumed, have been yielding milk during the previous sum- mer, having dropped their calves some- time in the spring months, and it may also be assumed that their produce has been made into cheese or butter, or dis- posed of in some way that does not require a supply of milk to be kept up through the winter. In such cases it is usual to have the cows keeping up a flow of milk for about eight or nine months out of the twelve, not because they are not able to milk for a longer period, but because that at the appearance of winter their united yield has fallen so low as to make it less worth the trouble of manufacture, and because the quality of the produce from hand-feeding is liable to be inferior to that produced on the summer pastures. The feeding of the actually dry animals is thus in winter carried on over a period of only some three or four months. The change from pasture to this diet is gen- erally very gradual, and covers a space of at least one month, about October and the beginning of November. " As soon as the grass begins to fail in autumn on farms where roots are grown, an allowance of these — say, 28 lb. daily per head — is meted out, usually in the morning immediately after milk- ing. In this way the objectionable flavour is dissipated before the next miUdng comes round. Cabbages are generally the first to be used, followed next in order by soft turnips, then swedes, and so on according to the supply of each. Cabbages have ob- tained a pre-eminent name as food for dairy cows ; and all dairymen — especially those holding clayey land — endeavour to have a good acreage of them. " Some farmers scatter a supply of roots about the pastures, and also the tops of those being raised and pitted. This, however, cannot be called a good practice, for the reason that the animals, in place of looking after grass, will con- tinue to nibble away at the roots, and thus increase the chances of tainting the milk. Moreover, an excess of such watery food as turnip-tops often ends in an attack of scouring very difficult to cure. "As soon as the nights become cold and stormy, the animals are kept indoors, and must then, in addition to the fore- going, get a supply of oat -straw or meadow-hay as fodder — say, 4 lb. per head in the morning, and 8 lb. as the last thing at night. Where ensilage is used, it ought to take the place of roots ; and it is probable that in the near future turnips and other root crops wiU give place to ensilage for milch cows. Putting Ccws dry. — "Towards the middle of November the animals are gen- erally put dry, partly by stinting their food for a few days, and partly by refrain- ing from milking as long as the animals do not feel any distress. They usually require to be stripped out at intervals while being dried, so as to prevent the engorgement of the cavities of the udder from the coagulation of the milk, and the giving rise to mammitis, with suppura- tion and sloughing of a part. Mild cases of mammitis — called "weed," or catarrh of the udder — often arise from a chiU, and require to be treated with a mild blister, such as ammonia liniment. " It is usually not difficult to put the milk oflf the cows, and when dry they may then be turned on to a cheap and simple diet. In many cases this consists of turnips with hay or straw alone — ^mere 'maintenance diet ' — in which the animals 352, CATTLE IS WINTER. get only what keeps them living in health and no more. Stinted Feeding of Dry Cows Inju- dicious. — "Modern experience has taught us, however, that this is a mistake, and that something more ought to be added on. It must be remembered that the cow is carrying a calf, and at the time of putting dry is about the fifth or sixth month of pregnancy, when she requires al- most as much food for the development of the foetus as was necessary before for yielding milk. In addition to this, it is found that if the animal's system has been allowed to get too low before parturition, she never milks so well dur- ing the next season. In fact the sum- mer may be half over before she can be again worked up to a full-bearing state by extra food. For these reasons, it is generally a wise policy to feed the dry cows fairly well, and give a pound or two of linseed-cake daily, or some bean-meal in the mash, or whatever other concen- trated food may be at hand. Caution against Milk - fever. — "Care must be taken, however, not to overdo cows in this respect, for fear of the deadly disease known as ' milk-fever,' which is induced by overfeeding, and a too plethoric state of the body at partu- rition. Cotton - cake and Milk - fever. — Decorticated cotton-cake in particular has a bad name in this respect, its great richness in nitrogenous material produc- ing, as it were, a corresponding excess in the blood and tissues of animals con- suming it. Rations for Dry Cows.— "The fol- lowing tables vpill exemplify the methods of feeding and times adopted by farmers in different parts of the country for cows actually dry in the dead of the winter. I. 6 A.M. Straw. /2olb. pulped turnips, 10 lb. chopped straw. 12 NOON. Hay. 3 P.M. I^lb. linseed-cake. 6 II Straw. " The fodder not restricted. 7 A.M. 8 „ 12 NOON. 3 P.M. 6 ,1 straw. 56 lb. roots. Straw. 4 lb. beau-meal. Straw. "Straw ad lib., and the bean -meal made into a dough with hot water and thoroughly 'burst' before giving in a lump. S A.M. Mash. 7 " Straw. .2 NOON. Hay. 4 P.M. 2 lb. linseed-cake. 7 « Straw. " The mash in above consists of 5 lb. chop with 2 lb. of bean-meal, all soaked in boiling water 7 A.M. Straw. 8 ,1 28 lb. roots. 12 NOOK. Hay. 4 P.M. 28 lb. roots. 5 " Straw " Feeding Cows in Pure-hred Herds. In high-class herds of pure-bred stock there is, perhaps, even greater variety in the system of feeding cows than in other stocks. Some breeders always keep their stock in high condition, giving the cows in winter not only straw, hay, and roots, but also 2, 3, or 4 lb. of cake or meal, or a mixture, perhaps, of cotton- cake or linseed-cake, and bruised grain, Indian corn, or bran — feeding them as liberally, in fact, as represented in any of the .dairy herds referred to above. Alnwick Park Shorthorns. — ^In the Duke of Northumberland's valuable herd of shorthorn cattle at Alnwick Park, " the food of the cow in winter, when she is in milk, consists of hay, with an allowance of two mashes (a mixture of bran and bean and Indian meal) given night and morning; and when not in milk, it is hay and 2 or 3 lb. of bruised cake in the day. When turnips or man- gel-wurzels are plentiful, an allowance of three or four stones per diem to each cow has a most beneficial effect. An outrake in winter, where a good deal of rough herbage has been left from sum- mer, is considered almost indispensable, especially if no roots are given." ^ Dereham Abbey Shorthorns. — In one of the best-known shorthorn herds in England, that of Mr Hugh Aylmer, West Dereham Abbey, Norfolk, the cows are fed sparingly. During the summer months they get grass only ; in winter long hay, if ^ Jour. Soyal Agric. Soc. Eng., xvi. 395. SYSTEMS OF FEEDING. 353 hay happens to be plentiful; if not, cut hay and straw mixed. They have no roots, but go out to grass every day in winter. If the ground is clear of snow, they thus get a little picking of grass ; while the snow lies they have no green food, yet the air and exercise keep them in health, and they can help themselves to water ad libitum. Mr Aylmer's opinion is confirmatory of the belief that too large a proportion of turnips has a tendency to cause abortion, and he never allows his in-lamb ewes to have any.^ Ardfert Abbey Shorthorns. — In Mr W. T. Talbot-Crosbie's celebrated herd of shorthorn cattle at Ardfert Abbey, County Kerry, Ireland, a very carefiil system of feeding is pursued. " In the winter the breeding cows get nothing but straw, turnips, and water, until they calve, ex- cept for about a week before calving, when they get scalded bran. Soon after calving their warm bran-mashes are dis- continued, and they have hay, turnips, and bran wetted with cold water. If, as is sometimes the case, a calving cow has become on this ordinary keep very fat, a little linseed-oil is given to her on pulped turnips. As a rule, very Kttle, if any, medicine is given. Eegulation of the system of diet is preferred to physic. No cake is given to breeding cows ; but if, as is not usual, a yearling heifer hap- pens to be in calf, she has, if she seems to need it, a little oilcake to keep up her strength and condition. In the ordinary way the heifers live their second winter on straw and turnips." ^ Polled Aberdeen- A n gus Herds. — In Sir George Macpherson Grant's famous herd of Polled Aberdeen-Angus cattle at Ballindalloch, cows get from 40 to 50 lb. of turnips in two meals, supplemented by a mixture of about i lb. of bran, i lb. of ■ crushed oats, and i lb. of linseed-meal, in a mash of cut straw and chaff. For about three weeks before and three weeks after calving, cows get about 2 lb. of hnseed- cake per day. The overfeeding of breed- ing stock is studiously avoided, and the result is that the herd has been more than ordinarily prolific.^ Mr Hannay of Gavenwood, Banff, gives ^ Jour. Soyal Agric. Soc. Eng., xvi. 416. ^ nid., 423. ' Hist, of Polled Aherdeen-Angus Cattle, p. 386. YOL. I. nothing during winter to his Polled Aberdeen-Angus cows excepting turnips and straw, until within six weeks of their calving, when they get 3 lb. of oUcake daily, and this allowance is usually con- tinued for a month or so after calving.* Hereford Herds.^ — In the milder and richer grazing parts of England, cows spend a great deal of their time, and pick up not a little of their food, out of doors all through the winter. This is the case in many noted herds of Hereford cattle. In Mr John Hill's valuable herd of Hereford cattle at Felhampton Court, Church Stretton, Salop, the earlier calv- ing cows are put up at nights about November and fed with straw — a little hay and a few turnips if they can be spared. When they calve their food is increased, perhaps a little meal is added — to keep up the supply of the milk in winter, this is often necessary. The late calvers are wintered entirely out of doors on the pastures, where there are rough sheds. These fields are allowed to grow weU in the autumn, and get fuU of fog- gage. In the winter of 1885-86, about 50 cows were thus wintered, and had no assistance before February, when they received a little straw and rough hay drawn on to the fields in the mornings. As the cows spring for calving, they are put into the house.* At Rockview, in the fine grazing dis- trict of Killucan, Ireland, Mr R. S. Fetherstonhaugh also leaves his cows out on the pasture all winter, only taking them in just before calving. These in- stances, however, although very numer- ous, are exceptional, and are confined to first-class grazing districts. The general system is to house the cows as soon as winter sets in, and feed them upon straw, hay, and a moderate allowance of roots, or upon hay and straw alone, with plenty of fresh water, or per- haps with the addition of a little bran, cake, or bruised grain. When the weather is dry and not very cold, it is desirable to let the cows and aU store cattle have a run out in the fresh air about mid-day. When the weather is wet and stormy, or very cold, they are much better in the house. * Tbid. ^ Mist. Hereford Cattle, p. 275. z 354 CATTLE IN WINTER Winter Dairying. The various systems of dairying will be noticed fully in subsequent divisions of the work. Here it may be mention- ed that increased attention has lately been given to the production of both milk and butter in the winter months. At this season of the year fresh butter is always scarce and dear, and it is con- tended by many that the extra price ob- tained for both butter and mUk in win- ter would more than counterbalance the greater expense involved in maintaining cows in milk during the cold months of winter. Latterly the consumption of fresh milk in towns has increased vastly, and in winter the supply is rarely equal to the demand ; thus giving additional stimulus to winter dairying. This winter dairying is confined mainly to farms near railway stations and towns where the new-milk trade is followed, or where there is a good demand for fresh winter butter. The expense of maintaining the production of milk and butter in winter must be considerably higher than it would be in summer, and it could not be safely attempted except where there is a ready sale and high prices for the produce. Where this system is pursued, cows drop calves at various times throughout the year, so that there are some in full milk in the winter months as well as in other seasons. Cows giving milk in winter have to be fed liberally and kept in comfortable well-aired houses. The various methods of feeding to stimulate a full flow of milk have already been described, some of the warm rations re- commended by Professor M'Connell being specially adapted for this purpose. Mr E. Barter, St Ann's Hill, County Cork, is an enthusiastic advocate of win- ter dairying. He thinks that the extra cost it incurs in labour and food wiU be more than made up by the following advantages which he claims for the sys- tem : " (i) Cows carried through the winter, and in profit, at a season when milk and butter command the highest prices; (2) cows calving in December and January give the largest return of milk — ^for, say, ten months in milk — as they come on a second spring of milk when they get the grass at the end of April and in May, and yield during the summer nearly as well as if calving in March ; (3) the calf is reared va. time for tlie grass, and so has the whole summer to grow and mature, and, if vealed, is sold when veal is dear ; (4) a large quantity of manure is made, and the land steadily improves from the quantity of feeding stufis consumed on the farm ; (5) a market at home for most of the farm produce, and not selling grain, &c., at such prices as are now ruling ; and (6) a much better chance of commanding a higher average price through the year for milk and butter by keeping up a continuous supply." ^ WINTER HOUSING OP STORE CATTLE. The influence of locality is very great, and must be carefully considered by the successful stock-owner. In the cold re- gions of the north, even the young store cattle have to be housed throughout the entire winter. In the greater part of Ireland, and in the southern and milder parts of Great Britain, young grovnng cattle spend a good deal of the winter, when the weather is dry and favourable, on the pasture - fields. Between these two extremes of in all winter, and out all or the greater part of it, there are many gradations, which farmers must ju- diciously and carefully arrange for them- selves. So much depends upon local cir- cumstances as to climate, house and field shelter, class of cattle, supply of outdoor and indoor food, ifec, that a series of hard and fast rules cannot be laid down. Err on the Side of Shelter. — This one rule, however, we would lay down with all the emphasis and firmness that can be given to it. It is better to err on the side of caution — ^better to have the animals inside when you think they might perhaps suffer little harm hy being out, than outside when they would have been better in. How often is it the case that even a reputedly careful farmer allows his cattle to remain out on the fields when he thinks they might be as well in 1 As well in." Depend upon it, that means that the animals ought to be inside. The thought may or may ^ Jow. Brit. Dairy Far. Assoc, iii., 128. SYSTEMS OF FEEDING. 355 not be expressed — when there is thinking in the play, be it ever so little, always let the animals have the benefit of the doubt — and the shelter too ! Tresh. Air for Cattle. — Not for a moment would we depreciate the value of fresh air for cattle. Fresh air is most essential, more particularly perhaps for young growing cattle. But it is easy to provide this without exposing the cattle to excessive cold, and drenching, chilling sleet, and winter rains. Cattle certainly cannot thrive well in close, stuffy, ill-ventilated houses. But while a few farmers are so careless as to let their cattle suffer in health, and be re- tarded in progress by want of proper ventilation or fresh air, the prevailing error is entirely the other way. Iioss from Exposure to Bad "Wea- ther. — It is not in the least overstating the case to say that for every twenty shillings lost by want of ventilation in cattle - houses, there are hundreds of pounds sterling sacrificed by the expo- sure of cattle to inclement weather. If the value of property, in the shape of raw material for producing meat and dairy produce, which is lost every year through the imprudent and avoid- able exposure of cattle to inclement weather, could be accurately stated in plain figures, the vastness of the sum would astonish everybody, no one per- haps more so than the defaulting stock- owners themselves. It would certainly run into millions of pounds sterling per anmun ! For be it remembered that exposure to bad weather does more than retard the progress of cattle. It likewise incurs great waste of feeding material. While the animals are thus exposed more food is required to maintain the animal heat, not to speak of increase either in size or condition. It is a proverbial saying amongst observant if not always pains- taking farmers, that cattle will thrive better upon moderate feeding with suffi- cient shelter, than with all the food they can eat in exposure to cold and wet. " By exposure to wet or extreme cold, and by lying, through cold nights, on wet beds, cattle are not only retai-ded in pro- gress, but often thrown back in condi- tion, and perhaps permanently injured in constitution — stunted in growth, and rendered less able to turn to good account good food and judicious treatment when these are bestowed upon them. Farmers think little of having their cows or lean stock exposed to an excessive cold or wet. How great an error it is ! They would never think of so exposing animals being prepared for slaughter, because the ill effects of the exposure would thus at once become manifest. But all the same, although the loss may not be so great or so apparent, the exposure of cows and young lean stock is certain to cause dam- age to valuable property. " If the animals do not go back in condition, the cows fall off in milk, the young stock lose flesh and rate of growth, they must be consuming an excessive amount of food — because under expo- sure to cold, an abnormal amount of food is required to keep up the neces- sary standard of animal heat. So much of the food consumed goes to keep up the animal heat, the rest to promote grovrth, lay on flesh and fat, or encourage the flow of milk. The greater the cold the animals are exposed to, the more food is required for the vital functions, and, as a natural consequence, less of the food consumed becomes available for increase of size, condition, or of flow of milk. These are mere truisms, but I repeat them here, with the view of urging them upon the attention of those who are mainly concerned in the matter. It is sad to think how easy-going farmers are on these points, which so very materially affect their welfare." ^ These remarks are applicable to all classes of cattle, but they are intro- duced here because it is in the manage- ment of store cattle that the careless and injurious custom prevails most largely. Again, harm is done to cattle by exposure to excessive heat as well as to extreme cold. Fuller reference will be made to the former point, in speaking of the summer treatment of cattle. And we discuss the question of housing here, because the housing and feeding are in this particular connection quite inseparable. Economical Rearing of Cattle. — The proper housing of cattle has much to do with their economical feeding. ' Our Resources in Live Stock. J. Macdonald. 3S6 CATTLE IN WINTEE. It is perhaps not overreaching the mark very far to say that the thriving of store cattle in winter is regulated almost as much by how they are housed or shel- tered as by the system of feeding. This statement will suffice to show the young farmer that, if he vrishes his cattle to make satisfactory progress, if he desires to secure in his store cattle the greatest possible progress, at the lowest possible outlay of time and money, he must give as careful attention to shelter as to feed- ing. Unfortunately this is not always done. It cannot be said that even our best- known systems of cattle-feeding are as good as they might be, for we are always learning — constantly discovering that in some little point or other former practice was in error. But, as a rule, greater at- tention has been given to the question of feeding than to housing, and other points in the management of cattle. In very many cases, farmers who are known to be liberal and careful feeders, are lamenta^ bly negligent in providing proper shelter for the stock. More particularly does this remark apply to England and to Ireland — still more notably to those very districts in which comj)aratively little house or shed accommodation would sup- ply all the shelter that is required. Page after page might be written illus- trating the mischief that is done by the imprudent exposure of stock. The prac- tical man, however, must already be fully aware of the character and extent of the evil, and the student is assured that he need have no hesitation in accepting the truth and soundness of the general state- ments just made on the subject. Turnmg over a Ifevsr Leaf. — Now, turning our back on the errors of the past, we will endeavour to proceed with the winter feeding and management of young store cattle, upon lines and in a manner calculated, according to our pres- ent lights, to ensure the best possible re- sults with the greatest possible economy. The winter is before us, with its many moods of weather — rain, sleet, snow, bit- ing winds, and bitter frosts, interspersed with occasional bright genial glimpses, which are always welcome, sometimes deceptive. Most probably the cows and fattening stock are already assigned to their winter quarters, — for cows giving milk, and cattle being pushed on for slaughter, should be housed as soon as the weather begins to get chilly. The young store cattle are still on the fields ; but now the question of how they are to be efficiently protected from the rigours of winter must have immediate attention. The First Essential.— The matter of feeding will not be touched till that of housing or providing shelter has been satisfactorily settled. First, let us see that the young animals are provided vrith protection from the winter blasts, that they are, as it were, rendered indepen- dent of the weather — provided with quarters in which the severest storms and frosts of winter cannot reach them, or retard their progress. Let this be the first essential ; and, when it is fulfilled, we can consider the systems of feeding with the confidence that, however they are fed, the animals will be able, in spite of the character of the weather, to turn the food to the best possible account. How, then, is this winter shelter to be provided ? By various means, regulated mainly by the climate — ^by a close house with substantial wall and roof, an open wholly or partially covered court, or by a temporary-looking shed, with light side- walls and just roof enough to ensure a dry bed for the stock. Houses for Cattle in Cold Dis- tricts. — Where the winter is long and usually severe, as in the greater part of Scotland and higher parts of England and north of Ireland, substantial houses have to be provided for all kinds of cattle in winter ; but where the winter is usually mild and open, very cheap erections are quite sufficient for store cattle. In cases where close houses or courts are required, care should be taken to have them well ventilated ; for, as already stated, " stuf- fy " houses, which get filled with impure air, are very detrimental to the health and progress of cattle, while fresh air, properly admitted, is highly beneficial. The words properly admitted are empha- sised, because it is very important that live stock of all kinds should be pro- tected from draughts — that is, the cur- rents of air necessary for ventilation should not be allowed to play directly upon the animals. Let out the foul and in the fresh air by carefully placed ventilators. Depend upon it, cattle, by SYSTEMS OF FEEDING. 357 better health and increased progress, will amply repay the farmer for careful atten- tion to the matter of ventilation. Cattle-Bheds in Southern Districts. — Going at once from the one extreme to the other, from where the winter is severest to where it is mildest, we find in the latter parts simple forms of winter shelter for store cattle used with satis- factory results. Very often it is a large open court, with access to a roofed com- partment where the animals can take shelter from rain or snow, eat their food, and lie over night. Perhaps a roof is thrown over a portion of the court — a roof of sheet-iron or wood resting upon the wall of the court at one side and upon pillars at the other. The roofed compartment may be merely a " lean-to " on another building. It matters little how it is provided, and in these mild dis- tricts it need not be costly, substantial, or elaborate. Be sure that there is plenty of roofed space to protect the cattle from rain, to enable them to eat their food in comfort, and have a dry warm bed. A drenching with rain in winter is exceed- ingly injurious to cattle, and above all guard against this. Store cattle need not be kept in such a warm temperature as milking cows and fattening cattle. Keep them dry and comfortoible, and so long as comfort is secured, the young growing animals will be all the better of some open space to move about in when the weather is favourable. It is easy to discover when the animals are comfort- able; the merest tyro can teU by their appearance when they are not so. Never forget, when you see your cattle wet, cold, and shivering, that great and avoid- able waste is going on — ^waste of food and waste of time, which mean in the end considerable waste of hard cash. Cattle - courts. — Between the close byre and open court and shed there are many forms of winter shelter for store cattle. The most general is the partially covered court, which is perhaps, upon the whole, the most serviceable and ad- vantageous of all. With surrounding buildings and boundary walls the court is usually well sheltered in " a' the airts the win' can blaw " ; and with a half, two-thirds, or three-fourths of it roofed, there is ample protection from rain and snow. The finer points, as to the relative merits of feeding in boxes, stalls, wholly and partially covered courts, will be re- ferred to later on. Here enough has been said to show the desirability of exercising great care in the housing or sheltering young store cattle during winter. WINTER FEEDING OP STORE CATTLE. The variations in the systems of feed- ing young store cattle in winter are reg- ulated mainly by (i) the locality and methods of cropping and general farming pursued ; (2) the condition and time at which the animals are to be sold ; and (3) the class and character of the stock. Apportioning Home-grovsm Foods. — The farmer will have to consider and arrange at the beginning of winter what proportions of his supply of home-grown winter food, such as roots, straw, hay, silage, and grain, he is to allocate to the various kinds of stock. The jsroper al- location of the home supply of food amongst the various kinds of stock, and the careful distribution of that supply so as to make it extend evenly throughout the entire season, are points of the very greatest importance in farm management. For instance, too free use of roots or fod- der at the beginning of the winter may cut short the supply before the next grass season comes round, and the blank thus created through want of forethought may have to be filled up at disproportionate outlay by the purchase of expensive foods. At this particular time the farmer will take special note of the quantity of roots available for the young store cattle, so that he may be able to decide and explain to the cattle-man not only what daily al- lowance of roots is to be given to these store cattle, but also what kinds and pro- portions of other food will have to be pro- vided for them. Probably the supply of roots available for the store cattle may decide whether or not the pulping system is to be pursued. If the supply of roots is very abundant, possibly the farmer may think it better to give the store cattle a liberal quantity of roots in the ordinary way by themselves, than to give a larger proportion of the roots to other kinds of stock or to buy in more store 3.58 CATTLE IN WINTER. cattle. Circumstances alter cases; and the farmer must, at the beginning of every winter, consider carefully how he can turn the produce of his farm to the best possible account. Economise Turnips. — Now that the turnip-break is being curtailed, it is more probable that the supply will be scrimp than abundant. In any case, it may prudently be urged as a general principle that farmers should endeavour to econo- mise the turnip crop. It is the most costly and most risky crop in the ordi- nary rotation ; and, all things considered, it is not by any means cheap food. As a rule, therefore, farmers should be en- couraged to adopt methods which would advantageously economise the supply of roots, and render them less dependent upon the turnip-break than they have been in the past. Wliat Foods to "be Bought and ■what Sold. — ^When it has been ascer- tained what quantity of roots can be had for the store cattle, the farmer will next consider what kinds and quantities of other foods are to be given to them. Whether these other foods are to be home-grown or bought, or part of both, will depend upon the supply of such home-grown foods as straw, hay, silage, and grain, and the current market prices of these and other commodities used as food for cattle. For instance, hay may be worth more in the market than as food for store cattle, so that it may be advantageous to sell hay, and — if the home supply of straw be deficient — ^buy oat -straw or some other food. Again, "ups" and "downs" in market prices may enable the farmer to derive profit by selling grain and buying maize, cake, or other food ; or the home-grown grain may be selling so badly, and the cattle so well, that he may find it beneficial to use the grain in pushing on the live stock. Advantage in Using Home-gro'wn Food. — There is a growing tendency to use more and more of the home-grown produce as food for cattle and sheep, the great reduction in the price of grain being the chief influence in bringing this about. Other things being equal, there is an advantage in consuming in- stead of selling farm produce. It is true economy to make the produce of the farm "walk itself" to market, in the bodies of well-conditioned cattle, sheep, and swine. No Hard and Fast Rules. — Yet far- mers must not be tied by rules. They should sell their farm produce, and buy food whenever it is advantageous to do so. Thus it will be seen that if the farmer is to turn his produce to the best possible account, and rear his cattle as economi- cally and efficiently as may be, he must be able to watch the condition and tendency of market prices, as well as the quality and quantity of his own crops, with keen intelligent perception, and sound, ready, and careful judgment. Ages of Store Cattle. — Formerly there were two generations of store cattle to receive attention at the beginning of winter — namely, the calves of this and the previous year. Latterly, however, the adoption of the " early maturity " move- ment, of which more anon, has- advanced the latter, the calves of the previous year, now from eighteen to twenty months old, into the ranks oi fattening cattle. Now, therefore, the winter feeding of store cattle begins vpith mere calves, some of them eight or ten months old, others considerably younger. Late calves may be either sucking their dams or receiving milk at the beginning of winter ; but as a rule the calves will have been weaned ^from two to several months before then, and have become well accustomed to eat such foods as grass, hay, cake, and meal. Care in heginning "Winter Feeding. — ^In dealing more particularly with calf- rearing, the importance of keeping the calves progressing steadily from birth vsdll be strongly enforced. "Never let your cattle lose the caH-flesh," is sound advice to give to farmers ; and it is one which the farm-student should store up carefully in his mind. In this particular section of the work we take up the care of these young cattle at the threshold of winter. They are, as indicated, of various ages, mostly from six to nine months, and in good thriving condition. As the sup- ply of grass diminished and the evenings became chilly, the calves had been re- ceiving indoor food, such as cake, meal, vetches, grass, or hay. By degrees they are worked into their winter rations. It is well to avoid sudden changes in the feeding and treatment of cattle. Give SYSTEMS OY FEEDING. 359 small quantities of the new food at the outset, increasing the new and lessening the old, until almost imperceptibly the complete substitution has been effected. Turnips and Straw for Store Cattle. — In the colder districts the young store cattle, which may now be said to have emerged from calfhood, will be entirely dependent upon house-feeding by the time the winter has fairly set in. In the turnip-growing districts the food through- out the winter will consist mainly of turnips and oat-straw. Very many far- mers still give the young cattle all the turnips they can eat comfortably ; but as has already been indicated sufficiently, the allowance of roots is being lessened with advantage. Studythe Animal's Appetite. — Where it is intended to feed the young store cattle solely with turnips and straw, and where there is an abundance of both roots and straw, the cattle-man may decide for himself, from time to time, by carefidly watching the appetite 'and progress of the individual animals, what quantity of each kind of food is to be given to each animal. He will be care- ful not to gorge the young beasts with cold roots, for in all probability some of them, of a greedier disposition than others, would eat more turnips than would be good for them. Keep v?ithin the limit of sufficiency rather than over- step it. Do not on any account give more roots at one meal than will be eaten up cleanly without delay at that time. It is a bad, wasteful practice to have roots lying for hours before cattle. Val- uable food is thus destroyed, and the animals thrive best when they have their stated meals at fixed hours, getting no more roots at each time than will be at once consumed. The same remark ap- plies to meals and cake, but vrith straw and hay the case is different. Peed Sparingly and Fregnently. — ■ The long fodder is usually, and ought always to be, supplied in a rack suffi- ciently high to be within easy reach of the animal's head. Many good farmers think it beneficial to have a little fodder always in the rack, so that the animals can take a mouthful when they feel the desire for it. There is something to be said for this, and the fodder in the rack is not so liable to get spoiled by the animal's breath, as are roots or other food lying in a box or crib lower down. Still it vdll be found more advantageous to supply the fodder sparingly and frequently than in large quantities at a time. The fresher and sweeter it is, the more keenly wUl it be relished by the animals ; and if too much is given at a time, the cattle are apt to pull out more than they eat and waste it amongst their feet. Feeding Hours. — The most general custom where the turnip and straw sys- tem prevails is to give the roots in two meals, one in the forenoon, between 8 and lo o'clock, and another between 2 and 3 in the afternoon ; and the fodder in three meals, between 5 and 6 in the morning, between 11 and 12 in the forenoon, and between 3 and 4 in the afternoon. In some cases a fourth meal of straw is given between 6 and 8 o'clock at night. In many instances the daily allowance of turnips is divided into three meals, given at 6 a.m., 10 a.m., and 3 p.m.; and the young animals will be more contented and most likely thrive better with three small or moderate meals of roots than with the same quantity in two meals. Different Kinds of Hoots for Store Cattle. — ^At the outset, perhaps for two or three weeks, soft white tmnips are given whole, "tops and all," but if the tops are very wet and muddy, they should be given very sparingly, or, bet- ter stiU, not at all, as in that condition they will be apt to cause scour. The white turnips are succeeded by yellows, and where a large proportion of swedes is grown, these take the place of the yellow turnips perhaps as early as the second or third week in November, prob- ably not for several weeks later, accord- ing to the proportionate supplies of the two kinds of roots. It is not often that the soft white turnips need to be cut; but in every instance yellow turnips and swedes should be cut for young cattle — for all kinds of cattle, indeed, whose teeth are not fidly developed and in good order. Hoots, Cake, Meals, and Fodder for Store Cattle. — From choice or neces- sity store cattle are now being reared with much smaller allowances of turnips than in former times — say, prior to 1875. The advantages of this change have already been noticed. In certain cases 36o CATTLE IN WINTER tlie curtailment of the root-supply lias been moderate, and little or nothing in- troduced in place of that withheld, ex- cepting an increased quantity of straw or hay, and an offering of fresh pure water. The more general plan, however, has been to give, along with the lessened allowance of roots, small quantities of other more concentrated foods, such as cake, bruised grain, bean-meal, or Indian corn meal, and the usual full supply of long fodder. With two small rations of roots, from 35 to 50 lb. the two, plenty of good oat-straw or hay, and from ij^ to 3 lb. of cake or meal per day, young store cattle wiU be found to thrive admi- rably. The allowance of meal or cake is usually given early in the morning, perhaps about 6 a.m., and the roots at from 9 to 10, and about 3 p.m. ; the fodder as already stated. It is considered undesirable to give a large feed of cold roots upon an empty stomach in the morning. In other cases where still fewer roots are allowed, these are given at one time, perhaps about 10 or 11 a.m., the con- centrated food being given early in the morning and afternoon, the former meal smaller than the latter. Again, in some farms the whole of the cake or meal is given in the morning, and the roots re- served till the afternoon. It cannot be said that any one plan is best for all cases; but as a rule, at any rate where the animals run out daily, it is considered most suitable to give the turnips in the forenoon. Where the animals are able to pick up a little grass outside, they will relish a feed of cake or meal as soon as they come in, and an allowance of fodder may be reserved till later in the afternoon. Where no food is to be had outside, the animals, after a run in the fresh air and a drink of cold water, will welcome a sub- stantial ration of oat-straw or hay. Southern Systems of Feeding Store Cattle. — In the principal grazing dis- tricts of England and Ireland, and also in the south-west of Scotland, where the climate is mild, and the winters com- paratively free from frost and snow, the young store cattle are out on the pastures almost daily throughout the winter — out many a day when they ought to be in. Where there is a good deal of rough pas- ture, and where care is taken to have the animals comfortably housed at night and in wet or exceptionally cold weather, the young cattle thrive wonderfully well under this system, with but very little extra food of any kind. Most likely no roots are given, perhaps nothing but long oat-straw, or a little hay or silage, once or twice a-day. In other cases a small allowance of cake or meal, from i to 2 lb. per day, is given. Occasionally in these parts the extra food is given in racks and boxes outside. This, however, is not a good plan. Let the animals have it under a roof, with a dry place to stand upon, where they will have plenty of fresh air, but be free from draughts. It is not imcommon, indeed, to see turnips given to cattle on fields even in cold days in winter. In an exception- ally mild dry day there may be little harm in this, but, generally speaking, the practice is to be condemned. The ani- mals will turn the cold roots to better account if allowed to consume them in comfortable quarters. Pulped Pood for Store Cattle. — As already indicated, the pulping system is specially serviceable in the feeding of store cattle. It enables the farmer to turn his straw and chaff to better ac- count as food for stock than could be done otherwise. The straw of wheat and barley are not much relished by cattle when given by themselves, and cattle will not willingly eat chaff. Yet there is considerable feeding value in aU these, and in a judiciously prepared pulped mixture cattle will eat them with appre- ciation. There is not the same advan- tage in pidping good oat-straw and hay, for if given in a fresh condition, and in small quantities at a time, cattle wiU consume these in the long form with ex- ceedingly little waste. But the utilisa- tion of the less palatable kinds of fodder is an important consideration, and this, together with its great influence in econo- mising roots, commends the pulping sys- tem very strongly as a most useful agent in the rearing of store cattle. Proportions of Pulped Mixtures. — Already, in describing the pulping sys- tem, full details have been given as to the manner of preparing pulped mixtures. The proportions of roots to other foods FATTENING CATTLE IN WINTER 361 ■will, of course, depend largely upon the supply available for the store cattle. Some mix equal quantities, bushel by bushel, of pulped roots and chopped fodder ; but a much smaller proportion of roots is more general. One bushel of pulped roots is often made to serve for two, three, or even more bushels of chopped fodder, and when the allowance of roots is very small, it is desirable to add to the mixture a little crushed cake, meal, or bruised grain, perhaps from i to 2j^ lb. for each beast per day. Decorticated cotton-cake is most largely used for store cattle, but many give a mixture of this and linseed-cake or linseed-meal. The market prices should be watched care- fully, and the kind of cake or other food bought which is comparatively cheapest at the time. Many careful feeders sprinkle a little common salt over the pulped mixture, and stUl a larger number sweeten it with dissolved treacle. When it is intended to push the ani- mals from their youth, and have them fattened at an exceptionally early age, the richer and more concentrated foods are increased in quantity. FATTENING CATTLE IN WINTER. " Meat manufacture," the chief func- tion of the bovine race, is coming more and more within the domain of science. We are still, so to speak, but on the threshold of the great subject of the " science of cattle feeding." We have not kept pace with some other countries in the investigation of it, yet we do know a great deal more about early maturity, and the economical production of beef, than was known prior to 1870. There is still so much more to learn, and the spirit of inquiry has been so thoroughly aroused, that in all probability the acqui- sition of fresh knowledge within the next fifteen or twenty years will bring about greater changes in the practice of rearing and feeding cattle than have taken place in this industry during the past two decades. EAELY MATURITY. Farmers have, fortunately, learned to set a higher value than most of them seemingly did before both upon time and food. They are now turning both to better account than their forefathers did. The progress that has been made in the matter of " early maturity " — in the rearing of stock at a more rapid rate, and fattening them at an earlier age — has been very marked and gratifying. Along wdth this movement — as an essen- tial element in it, in fact — ^has come a great saving of cattle food. Apart from the question as to the influence which this early " forcing " of stock may exercise upon the constitutional stamina of the bovine race — in regard to which some misgivings are entertained by eminent authorities, and as to which something may be said at a later stage — there can be no doubt that substantial immediate benefit has resulted from it to feeders of cattle. In feeding cattle, as in most other industries, time means money. It is important, therefore, that time as well as food should be economised. Indeed, the economical use of the one involves the thrifty use of the other, and by a care- ful study of these considerations farmers have raised their system of " meat manu- facture " to a decidedly better footing. The progress of the " early maturity " movement in the south of England is traced in the following notes, contributed to this edition by Mr Henry Evershed : — Quick feeding has become the order of the day. As a certain quantity of food is necessarily required for respira- tion, the maintenance of heat, and other vital functions, a system which matures an animal for market at an early age must be based on a sound principle, since it reduces the total quantity of food required for these purposes. With the progress of farming during the past 150 years a constant advance in the early maturity of stock has been accomplished. Southdown sheep, previ- ous to the improvements of Ellman, were rarely fattened earlier than three years old. " They are now usually fat- tened," says Youatt, writing just before 1830, "after having completed their second year." Improvement in Sheep. — Mr EU- man had begun his improvements by 1790, and through his system of careful selection he moulded the Southdowus into perfect shape and form, and by 362 CATTLE IN WINTER. so doing placed them at the head of modern breeds. The early maturity of improved Hampshire Downs and Shrop- shires, and the recent improvements in Suffolk sheep, are all derived from ad- mixture with Elhnan's breed, and they are all accompanied by improved shape. Mr J. J. Colman's "Royal Newcastle," a Southdown, and the champion ram of the year (1887), is of course a perfect model. His length is great, but the extraordinary depth and thickness of the carcass make him appear a short sheep. His neck is the shortest possible, the head appearing almost to spring from the shoulders. A grand masculine head, with bright eye and fine fleece, complete the picture of this perfect meat- making creature. The judges described him in the Journal of the Royal Agri- cultural Society of England as a wonder- ful sheep, whose leg of mutton surpassed anything they had ever seen before in a one-year-old sheep. This picture is worth painting, because when "Royal Newcastle " was required on one occa- sion to prepare himself for exhibition in quicker time than usual, he clothed him- self with meat with unparalleled speed. Perfect form, then, implies aptitude in feeding. Mr Youatt speaks of "those properties of form which evince a tend- ency to arrive at early maturity of muscle and fatness." The Southdowns having been endowed with model form — ^by selection, not by in- breeding — sooner than any other breed, their earlier maturity was assured, and they were naturally used, as Youatt states, in modifying other breeds far be- yond the limits of Sussex, whose short- wooUed sheep formed the original type. Early Maturity and Perfection of rorm. — The same physiological law which connects early maturity with per- fect form, from a butcher's point of view — a parallelogram without the angles — applies to other animals besides sheep. AU the breeds have been unproved in modern times. Probably the earliest example of a perfect model of form among shorthorns was the famous bull which Mr CoUings "picked up in a lane." But there are now four or five breeds, besides the crosses between some of them, which are alike finished ex- amples of what cattle should be — in- flated parallelograms set up on fine legs, with the breast near the ground, just as they are seen at the cattle-shows. Rapid Fattening of Cattle in Sus- sex. — The earliest reported examples of the very rapid feeding of recent years in the south of England came from Sussex, not far from Mr Elhnan's parish of Glynde ; and for the sake of showing the modern date of the system, it may be here stated that the earliest account of this practice in Sussex appeared in the Journal of the, Royal Agricultural Society of England in 1878.'^ Sussex System of Feeding for Early Maturity. — The Sussex method of pre- paring bullocks for slaughter at from 15 to 20 months old does not differ materially from that pursued in other districts. The calves are weaned at birth. The new milk they at first re- ceive is soon replaced by skim -milk thickened with boiled linseed or oatmeal. They are gradually induced to feed on linseed -cake and hay. At 3 or 4 months old, up to 7 or 8 months old, their daily rations consist of 3 or 4 lb. of linseed-cake and bean-meal in equal parts, with a little hay and straw, half a bushel of roots, and a small quantity of salt. The cake and meal are gradu- ally increased, till at 12 months old they get about 6 lb. each daily. In summer their succulent food con- sists of various forage crops, such as trifolium, tares, grass, and second -cut clover. Some feeders allow the young bullocks to feed in a cool pasture during the daytime in summer. Others prefer keeping them indoors, in which case they do not quit their sheds till they are sent to the butcher. The same principle of feeding is pur- sued in all cases, and the food is gradu- ally increased, so that the beasts continu- ally outgrow it, so to speak, till they are sold for slaughter. Calves for Early Maturity. — Un- der ordinary circumstances a cow rears five calves while in milk ; and the pur- chase of well-bred calves, which are alone adapted for early fattening, is an essential part of the system here described. It is most important that the calves should be of the best possible quality. ^ "Early Fattening of Cattle," xiv. part i. FATTENING CATTLE IN WINTER. 363 Ill-bred ones are always very unprofit- able, and particularly so wlien quick feed- ing is attempted. In the larger dairy districts, calves in the season are plenti- ful, and are often sold at very low prices compared with their value elsewhere. It would be worth while, therefore, for those who rear calves for early fattening, to obtain them direct from the dairy counties, instead of buying them second- hand. They should be sent off in pas- senger trains at a week old, tied up in bags packed with straw, with the head at Kberty. Calf- rearing for Early Maturity. — The rearing of calves successfully is a knack dependent on experience and painstaking, and is so important in the business of early fattening that one or two other examples will not be out of place. A Staffordshire dairy-farmer with 100 cows, who has been successful in this department, says : — "It is my practice to rear nearly 40 of my earliest heifer calves. They are not allowed to suck their dams; they have from 4 to 8 quarts of new milk per day, according to age, for three or four weeks. They are then fed with skim-milk, thickened with boiled linseed or oatmeal, and are taught as soon as possible to eat hay and a small quantity of linseed-cake. They are allowed to run out in a grass-field in May and June, and are then generally left out altogether, with a shed to run into in very wet weather, or to avoid the heat of the sun and the teasing of flies. The wet-nursing is generally discontinued when they are about four months old. They are, how- ever, supplied with about i lb. each per day of linseed-cake all through the year. " In order to have all the milk avail- able for cheese-making, we have hitherto often fed the calves, when taken from new milk, with whey thickened with meal" But he thinks skim -milk a safer food. His i lb. of linseed -cake all through the year would, of course, not suffice for fattening bullocks. The following detailed dietary is ' a good one : 6 quarts of new milk daily for fourteen days from birth, and for the next six weeks 2 gallons of skimmed milk, warmed and mixed with J^ lb. of Unseed-cake, ^ lb. boiled linseed, and Yz lb. split beans. Examples of Bapid Feeding. — Mr Joseph Blundell of Southampton, a fre- quent prize-winner for young bullocks at the cattle-shows of the Botley and South Hants Farmers' Club, sold one of his first-prize shorthorn heifers to Mr Lunn of Southampton, 18 months 3 weeks old, weighing 98 stone (of 8 lb.) 6 lb., and his skilful treatment of the young animals is well worth recording, fie says : — " My calves are weaned at a few days old, fed with new milk at first, gradually introducing with the skim-milk, Unseed- cake, meal, and barley-meal, with a little sweet meadow-hay for a time in the rack allowed them until they can safely take to green fodder, which they get in suc- cession — first rye, second trifolium, third clover, with a portion of old mangel, then early turnips. To commence the winter they get hybrid turnips, carrots, or swedes ; and lastly mangel, until the green fodder comes in again, being sup- plied with clean fresh oat or barley straw always in the rack whilst feeding either on green fodder or roots, the portion not eaten being removed for littering the boxes daily. As soon as they begin to take green fodder, they are allowed a small portion, say 2 lb., of cake-meal per day, mixed with the old mangels, which are cut with Gardner's turnip - cutter. As soon as root-feeding commences, they get 4 lb. of cake per day, and continue to receive this quantity until they are sold at 18 to 20 months old; having, however, during the last three months, I lb. of bean or barley meal extra ; but at no time after they once take to their green food are they allowed hay, as this woidd be found to absorb the profit and injure the health of the animals also, for since I adopted the method of straw- feeding I have never had an animal hoven or unhealthy." Another excellent manager, having some good pastures, feeds as follows : "Two calves are put on each cow, and are suckled by them from March or April till July or August, when they are weaned on the rowans [leys] and get 2 J^ lb. of linseed-cake each daily. They are placed in the yards in October, and win- tered on the same quantity of cake, with one -third of a bushel of roots daily, straw and rough hay. In April or May, when 12 or 13 months old, they 364 CATTLE IN WINTER are put on a good pasture and summered, with ■zYi lb. of cake daily. In autumn they again come into the yards in ex- cellent condition, and they are then fed on s lb. of linseed-cake and i^ bushel of roots daily for three months, and finished in April or May with the addi- tion of 5 lb. of pea and barley meal." With this treatment they weighed at the neighbouring butcher's one year : May 23, a steer, 108 stone 5 lb.; a heifer, 100 stone. May 27, a steer, 117 stone I lb. May 29, a steer, 106 stone; a steer, 10 1 stone 7 lb. June 5, a steer, 97 stone I lb. June 7, a steer, 122 stone 2 lb. June 26, a heifer, 79 stone 9 lb. June 29, a steer, 115 stone 4 lb. — that is, stones of 8 11d. The heaviest of these cattle was just 105 weeks old. Rapid Fattening on Pasture. — Bul- locks are never fattened so cheaply as with the aid of good pasture. There are several methods by which early maturity may be accomplished in pastures. Irish heifers may be brought to calve in March. They suckle their calves for about five weeks to the value of ^2) o"^ £,'^ ^^^ with a little trouble they then accept good shorthorn calves as changelings. In May the heifers and calves go on the pastures, vidth 4 lb. of decorticated cot- ton-cake daily to each heifer. The calves suck through the summer and following winter till February, and in May, at 14 months or 60 weeks old, such calves have been sold (beef being then very dear) at ;^24 each. Beturn. for Rapid Fattening. — These calves had gained 8s. per week, which is almost the maximum recorded gain at that age for ordinary farm stock. On arable farms, under more costly management, when beef sold at 6s. 2d. or 6s. 4d. per stone of 8 lb., a farmer in Sussex disposed of his young animals at his sale as follows : — Guineas. Beturn per Week. s. d. 1 1 months old Shorthorn steer 16 7 13 Bteer 22 8 3 14 heifer 20 7 IS heifer 22 7 I 16 Bteer 21%. 8 4 18 steer 25 6 9 18^ steer 28 7 4 Feeding Cow and Calf together. — In rich pastures mother and calf are sometimes fattened together to great ad- vantage — that is, in cases where, from some defect or other cause, it is not in- tended that the cow should breed again. But it is occasionally done in a more systematic manner, when Devons or Herefords, or a cross between Sussex and Devon, produce their calves at two years old. These breeds are not good milkers ; but a heifer nevertheless lends a great deal of help to two calves at grass. She receives cotton-cake ad libitum, and if she calved in March, she will fatten fast on grass, and be as ripe as summer beef should be in July at 2 ^ years old. The calves will be summered on grass a second season, going to the butcher at 16 to 18 months old. It is a great ad- vantage in the fattening of young animals that they grow and fatten simultaneous- ly, and may be either sold as early as 15 months, or kept three or four months longer, according to circumstances. Rapid Feeding on a Surrey Farm. ■ — ^An agriculturist in Surrey found, in closing his year's accounts in October 1885, that he had fattened and sold 170 young bullocks dicing the year. All of them had been reared at home, and he considered that the business had been profitable. The bullocks had all been sold at market under the hammer at the average net price of _;^i7, 15s., the price of beef having averaged 5 s. 6d. per stone of 8 lb., so that the weight of the ani- mals must have been 65 stone each. Their average age was 16 months, and each bullock had returned 5 s. 3d. per week. The result had not been quite so satisfactory as in former years, when the price of beef had ranged from 5s. gd. to 7 s. per stone for choice young bul- locks. But 5s. 3d. per week is regarded by this large feeder as a good return, which leaves the manure free of cost. Some of the calves were bred on the farm, and the rest were purchased at about a week old, at prices varying from FATTENING CATTLE IN WINTEE. 36s 50s. to 60s. each. On arrival, the calves passed to the care of an excellent cattle- man, whose management was thus de- scribed by his employer : " The calf is fed on new milk, which is gradually re- duced in quantity, as this food of nature is in great demand, and must needs be used with economy. I did not question the feeders closely, hoping to do so another day, but here is a hint they gave me. They find that in substituting other food for new milk, it is better to bring the calves gradually to take the equivalent in the form of dry food. Mixing Hnseed- cake dust in the milk was tried, but apparently it occasioned scouring. We all know that hay-tea is mixed with the milk by many farmers, who can have it prepared by some careful person indoors ; and in a farmhouse kitchen, vidth a good careful Mrs Poyser to prepare the food, linseed-cake dust might prove as safe in the milk as hay-tea. But in the case be- fore us we have only cottagers for this grandmotherly sort of work, with large families, and ovidng to this the calves are managed entirely by the men, and it may be they avoid pot-boiKng on this account. At all events, they prefer teaching the calves to munch several sorts of dry food as soon as they can be induced to do so. A nice sweet piece of hay helps them greatly at an early age, and it is given to them long, instead of being cut into chaff, so that the young things may amuse themselves with nibbling and chewing it. At the time of year when the calves are allowed to run out in the pastures — that is, during seven or eight months of the year — they are never al- lowed to remain out all night. In warm weather they spend the whole day in the pastures, running out after the first meal, and remaining out till night, when they are brought in for shelter. As for their sleeping-places, the scattered homesteads of Surrey sand farms are well known for their big barns. A big barn, thatched or tiled, forms the main building of each little homestead." ^ At the date just mentioned, the price of calves had fallen to 40s. each. Good calves had been carefully selected, many of them being the offspring of large shorthorn dairy cows by a pedigree bull. ^ Field, December 26, 1885. Owing to good breed, capital condition from birth, and the warm sheds in which they were wintered, the young fattening bullocks ate comparatively little, even when nearly ripe. Nothing like the ex- travagant quantities of com given by old-fashioned feeders had been allowed. The quantity of roots had been very small, and that of straw, chaff, and the cheaper kinds of dry food proportion- ately large. In fact, many bullocks were fattened on this farm, after the drought of 1885, without any roots. It must suffice to say that mixed meals had been used, and a well-balanced ration care- fully adhered to. With regard to the quality of the beef, the young animals from this farm were always eagerly bid for at the auction-mart at Guildford ; and the feeders of older bullocks were morti- fied to find that their costly cattle, fin- ished perhaps with 10 lb. each of linseed- cake daily, were neglected in favour of the younger bullocks, especially in sum- mer, small joints suiting customers better than large ones. Eapid Feeding of Sheep. — The age of sheep has been shortened quite as much as that of bullocks. Before the time of ElLman, as already stated. South- down wethers were rarely killed till the end of their third year. They are now commonly killed at ten months and a year old, and frequently younger. Previous to 1874, comparatively few " lambs," born in the year of the show, were exhibited at the show of the Smith- field Club. In 1875, ^'^^ ^^° following years, only 76 such lambs were exhibited. In 1885, and two following years, between 70 and 80 were exhibited in each year. In December, when the show is held, the age of these sheep, called lambs, would be ten or eleven months ; and at that age, Hampshires are made up to the weight of 16, 17, and 18 stone of 8 lb. each. Iiamb Feeding, by Messrs de Mornay. — Lambs were first admitted to competition at Smithfield in 1875, through the exertions of Messrs de Mornay, of Col d'Arbres, Wallingford, who were early in the field as breeders and feeders for early maturity. In 1877 their own pen of three lambs won the first prize, and the animals weighed, when dead, 171^ stone each. At the present time Mr Alfred de Mornay, of Col 366 CATTLE IN WINTER. d'Arbres, fattens the whole of his wether lambs at from seven to nine months old. A show-wether at ten months old sealed i8j4 stone, dead weight. Mr A. de Mornay's System of Feeding Sheep. — Mr de Mornay's farm consists of 583 acres, of which only 20 acres are in permanent pasture. The rest is mainly fertile land in the upper greensand, with 80 acres on chalk. It is all admirably suited for sheep-farming. The flock, in spring, is placed on rye, consumed with roots, and after that crop they are folded on Trifoliwn, incarnatum, and on succession crops of vetches, which form the main summer food. A quantity of mangel is reserved for the summer. During the winter, the ewes eat all the barley and oat straw, and a good deal of the wheat-straw, and in years of drought they have been maintained through the winter in good health, almost entirely on dry food. A portion of the land is always in sainfoin, laid down for three or four years, and this is most valuable sheep food, both green and as hay. The following statistics, relating to the flock, are borrowed from the pamphlet, " Early Maturity of Live Stock." 1 The number of ewes lambed down in 1883 was 461. The produce of the above sold for as follows : — Ram lambs . . £Z']g 16 7 1 89 wether lambs (fat mutton from 7 to 10 months old) . 708 9 4 Draft ewes . . 641 6 6 Wool (unsold), say, 143 tods at 28s. . 200 4 o Increase of ewe flock, 22 at;^S . . no o o The number of ewes lambed down in 1884 was 483. The produce of the above sold for as follows : — -;^2S39 16 S Ram lambs 1 5 7 wether lambs (fat mutton from 7 to 10 months old) Draft ewes . Wool (unsold), say, 146 tods at 24s. . Increase of ewe flock 16 at;^S . £(>i9 18 o 503 647 I7S 4 o 80 o o 2025 9 I Gross total ;if4S6s 5 6 ^ " Early Maturity of Stock. ' ' By H. Evershed. The great difference in the result in the two years was caused by the fall in the price of mutton and wool, and the smaller number of twin lambs in the year 1884. The produce per ewe ranged from _;^5, los. 2d. in 1883 to ;^4, 3s. lod. in 1884, or an average, for the two years, of ;^4, 17 s. per annum. Each ewe paid IS. lod. per week, a sum which would allow of the profitable use of a large quantity of artificial food, by which the fertility of the soil and the yield of the crops would be much increased. Bapid Feeding of Sheep in Hamp- shire. — Very high returns from early fattening have been made in Hampshire, where an annual competition takes place among neighbouring flocks. The highest recorded prices are those of pens which have won the prizes at the local fairs. On October 23, 1882, Mr G. Judd, of Barton Stacey, Micheldever, penned 200 wether lambs, born in January, and aver- aging nine months old. They were sold "by auction at an average of 84s. each, within a fraction, for the 200, besides ;£']o won in prizes, and they brought their owner and breeder 91s. each, less the auctioneer's charge. Mutton was very dear at that time, and the lambs probably sold at 7 s. per stone, their estimated weight being 12 stone. At 9 IS., they brought their owner 2s. 4d. per week from birth; or, omitting the prize-money, they brought him nearly 2S. 2d. per week. With regard to management, Mr Judd says of these lambs, that they " were born in January, or early in February, and were weaned as soon as the water- meadows were fed oflf, about the 13th of May. They were fed on tares, sainfoin, and oilcake till July, when rape took the place of tares, and the amount of cake was gradually increased, until the daily allowance reached about ij^ lb. of oil- cake, with J4 lb. of split beans ; and during the last six weeks immediately preceding the show, turnips were substi- tuted for rape." Mr Judd's weights are not unrivalled, however ; for Mr W. Parsons, in reading a paper before the London Farmers' Club, on "Early Maturity of Live Stock," 1884, recorded that Mr East of Long- stock, Stockbridge, took the first prize at Winchester Fair that year for 100 lambs, FATTENING CATTLE IN WINTEE. 367 which were sold, by auction on the spot, at 80s., and were estimated to weigh 12^ stone. There were 500 lambs in the class, weighing not less than 1 1 stone each on the average. Early Matiirity Profitable. — These details prove that early maturity is pro- fitable. It enables us to sell the wether lambs in autumn, and consequently to increase the number of ewes, and to reserve a larger number of ewe lambs for breeding. The Hampshire and Wiltshire sheep-farms are, no doubt, particularly healthy for sheep, and adapted for carry- ing them through the summer, by means of a succession of forage crops. Sheep on Heavy Land. — But many heavy-land farms, on which a great deal of money has been lost in recent years, might, too, pay their way well under sheep breeding and fattening. One-third or more of the land should be in pasture, to carry the ewes in winter ; and in spring and summer the flock could be main- tained on mangel, trefoil, and rye-grass, clover, tares, aftermath, and early tur- nips. Few roots should be given, vsdth plenty of chaflf and corn, and the flock, whether on arable or pasture, should be frequently shifted, and well supplied with water. It is a great error to over- stock. In the Vale of Aylesbury a few ewes are kept on the rich cow pastures — ^formerly Hampshires, crossed with a Cotswold ram, or, in modern times, Oxford Downs. The lambs are sold, as lamb, at twelve and fourteen weeks old, at 45s. and 50s. each, and the ewes are fattened oflf the grass in August and Sep- tember. Little, if any, corn is given either to the ewes or lambs. By supplying corn liberally, poorer pastures may be made available for early fattening, as described above. Breeding from Xiambs. — It has been well said, that successful feeding depends upon good breeding. The sheep usually selected for early maturity are the Downs, rather than the heavier and coarser long- wooUed breeds. It is the general prac- tice in Hants to use ram lambs, and some persons attribute the habit of early maturity, in great measure, to that prac- tice. One of the most eminent of South- down prize-winners informs the writer that ram lambs produce better and bigger progeny than older sheep, and that all his prize-vrinners have been the offspring of ram lambs. Like many other breeders, he finds that ewe lambs can be profit- ably bred from. Every year he selects some of his coarser ewe lambs, and breeds from them with success. Many others might be named who have tried the same experiment, includ- ing Mr James Stratton of Chilcombe, Winchester, who has bred from 300 ewe lambs in a year ; while a breeder of the Southdowns, vrithin the writer's know- ledge, always pursued this practice with- out observing any deterioration of his flock, and his lambs were always as good as his neighbours'. Mr de Momay, however, is the most systematic experimenter in this depart- ment. His idea is to induce a habit of early breeding in the ewe lambs, by selecting the most forward and matured among them, and mating them vsdth a lamb of the same stamp. His selections are made from a flock where early maturity has been already encouraged during some years past ; and Mr de Momay has good reason to anticipate that the habit of early breeding will be established. It is, of course, indispen- sable that the young ewes should be well fed, and carefully managed; and this expense can readily be afforded, since a flock of ewes at four years' old will produce four crops of lambs instead of three, which they would yield under ordinary circumstances. Weights of Cattle. — The weights at- tained by prize animals, as shown by the reports of shows at Chicago, where the carcasses are weighed, and Smithfield, where the live weight only is taken, have no very practical bearing on our subject. We have already given some maximum weights of picked animals under ordinary feeding, and some average weights, as estimated from the price at which the animals were sold. As a mat- ter of curiosity, however, it may be stated that a Hereford at Chicago weighed 920 lb. at 350 days old, having gained 2.62 lb. daily; a Devon steer at Islington weighed 809 lb. at 388 days old, having gained daily 2.09 lb. ; but a champion shorthorn at Chicago, 1372 days old, had only gained from birth 1.74 lb. daily. Taking account of the cost of production, the Chicago Society found that the beef 368 CATTLE IN WINTEE. made by five animals in tieir second year cost 4d. per lb., in the third year it cost 6j^d. per lb. The Smithfield and Birmingham So- cieties have found, by weighing the live animals, that bullocks well fed up to about I year 8 months old have very little to show for the expense of feeding them another year. The average live weight of steers at i year 8 months old has been ii cwt. 2 qr. 19 lb., and at a year older they weighed only 15 cwt. 20 lb. The following Smithfield Club statis- tics afford similar comparisons as to live weights in a more elaborate form : — Steers under Two Years. Average gain per day in pounds in Aberdeen-Angus Cross-bred Hereford Shorthorn Devon 1879. 1. 91 2.07 2.35 1.63 2.26 2-35 2.06 2.09 1. 71 2.21 2.20 2.19 2.17 2.07 i.8i Steers vmder Three Years. Average gain per day in pounds in 1879. 1881. 1887. Aberdeen- Angus 1.62 1.99 1.90 Shorthorn 2.00 2.00 l.8q Sussex . 2.03 1. 71 1.89 Hereford 1-75 1.79 1.8s Cross-bred 1.89 2.01 1.81 Norfolk . 1.48 1.59 1. 61 Devon . 1.22 1.45 1.49 Steers over Three Years. Average gain per day in pounds m 1879. 1881. 1887. Welsh . 1.64 Cross-bred 1.78 1.74 1.61 Shorthorn 1.60 1-57 1.60 Aberdeen-Angus I-I3 1-73 i.S« Sussex . 1.64 1-53 I..0 Hereford 1.43 1.60 i.SS Norfolk . 1-47 1.37 1-43 Devon . 1.20 1.24 I-3I Highland 1. 19 1.09 1.23 ■Weights of Sheep. - - Birmingham statistics afford the following striking comparisons with regard to sheep : — First Prize. Age. Weight of each Sheep. Daily gain per Sheep since birth. Months. Weeks. lb. lb. oz. Lincolns .... 21 311 7^ Cotswolds .... 22 321 lU Shropshires .... 21 244 6^ir Oxford downs 20 3 251 6}4 Cross-breds .... 21 297 Tfi First Prize. Age. Weight of each Sheep. Daily gain of each Lamb from birth. Months. Weelis. lb. lb. oz. Lincohis .... 9 191 IlX Cotswolds .... 10 180 9ji Shropshires .... Oxford downs 9 9 I 144 197 ?,% iiy^ Hampshire downs . Cross-breds .... 10 46 246 192 iz% 9]^ Unfortunately there are no lamb classes for Southdowns or Leicesters, and no older classes for Hampshires. But these figures suffice to show that sheep make mutton most rapidly when they are under a year old. Early Maturity in Scotland. — The fattening of lambs has not been carried to such a great extent in Scotland as in England, but the fattening of cattle for slaughter under twenty months old was pursued in some parts of Scotland before even the earliest examples referred to in the preceding notes by Mr Evershed. Throughout Scotland generally, as in England, the movement for early matu- rity has made rapid progress since 1875. It is now seldom that a bullock is kept beyond its third year, and the great ma- FATTENING CATTLE IN WINTER. 369 jority are fed oflf when about two years old. A very large number of cattle go to the butcher when from 18 to 22 months old, and the proportion fattened off under two years old is steadily increasing. The systems of feeding cattle have undergone important changes to suit this more rapid fattening. It is, of course, to the more modern methods that atten- tion is here mainly directed. La^wes on High-pressure and Pro- jltable Feeding. — Sir John Bennett Lawes has been ah able and persistent advocate for early maturity. He has often pointed out, however, that the " high-pressure system of feeding " may, in the sense of economy, be overdone. He says : " Every day of an animal's life, a certain amount of food is required for sustenance purposes alone. An ani- mal which does not increase in weight is kept at a loss, as it merely turns food into manure. On the other hand, if you require to produce as much weight of beef in one year as is produced under ordinary feeding in three years, it can only be done by a large expenditure in costly foods ; and, except for show pur- poses, this very rapid fattening is not necessarily the most profitable. As the rate of increase is limited, however highly an animal is fed, much waste of food takes place under a high -pressure system of feeding; while on the other hand, an animal is unprofitable if it does not in- crease in weight every day. Between these two extremes there ought to be some point which marks the minimum cost at which a pound of beef can be pro- duced. I have once or twice tried to construct a table for my own satisfaction, but without much success." Cheaper Meat from Young Ani- mals than Old. — In the experiments of Sir John Bennett Lawes, Professor E. W. Stewart (United States), Professor Wrightson, and others, it has been clearly demonstrated that a greater consumption of food is required to form a pound of meat upon an old and heavy animal than upon a young animal of smaller size — in other words, that young meat can be manufactured at a cheaper rate than old. Referring to a statement by Professor E. W. Stewart, to the effect that every additional pound put upon an animal costs more in food than the previous VOL. I. pound of growth. Sir John Bennett Lawes says : " I quite accept the fact, and am prepared to account for it. Pro- fessor Stewart is not quite correct when he says that our investigation on the cost of the production of beef 'bears mostly on the cost of putting on weight during the fattening period.' Our early in- quiries began upon lambs, calves, and store stock, and we traced their growth and composition from birth to the store, fat, and very fat state. These experi- ments are recorded in the transactions of the Royal Society for i860. " A reference to the composition of a store and very fat sheep will show at once why every additional pound we add to the weight of an animal is more costly than the previous one. Our store sheep contained, in every 100 lb. of live weight, 39 lb. of dry substance, and 61 lb. of water. The very fat sheep contained in each 100 parts, 63 lb. dry substance, and 37 parts water. Two. store sheep, each weighing 100 lb., would contain 75 lb. dry substance and 122 lb. water. 'The very fat sheep under ex- periment weighed considerably more than double the weight of the store sheep. Taking its weight at 200 lb., it contained 74 lb. water and 126 lb. solid matter. The very fat sheep of equal weight with the two store sheep would contain 45 lb. more solid matter, almost entirely fat. Each pound of fat requires about 2^ lb. of starch, or some similar digestible non- nitrogenous substance for its production. "However, while these experiments show why the displacement of water by fat is one of the reasons why each pound added to an animal is attended with ad- ditional expense, they do not touch the question of early maturity, or the relative economy of one, two, or three year old beef." 1 Professor "Wrightson's Experi- ments. — Evidence of a similar Import is provided by the following account,' given by " H. F. M."' in the Field, of some interesting and instructive experi- ments carried out at the College of Agri- culture, Downton, by Professor Wright- son, in 1886-1887. The experiments were intended to demonstrate to the students the increase in weight per day ^ Albany Cultivator, 1886. 2 A 370 CATTLE IN WINTER. and per looo lb. of live weight, and the increase also during the various stages of fattening. The experiment lasted from April lo of 1886, through the summer and winter, and on till May 11, 1887, when the animals were sent off to the butcher. Six animals were taken, of different ages, and during the summer were grazed, having, in addition, a mixed food, consisting of chaff over which an emulsion of boiled linseed was thrown. In the winter they received a food con- sisting of the following: Mixed cotton and linseed cake (i lb; linseed), 7 lb. ; hay axL lib. ; also chaff and pulped mangel. In February this was altered, and the following richer food given : Cake (half each cotton and linseed), 7 lb. ; maize and bean meal, 4 lb. ; hay, 3 lb. ; chaff and roots, with boiled linseed mixed, 47 lb. In the middle of March the food was again made richer, when the following foods were given : Linseed-cake, 8 lb. ; maize and bean meal mixed, 4 lb. ;, hay, 8 lb. ; roots and chaff (as above), 21 lb. The results of this feeding, together with the weights and details of increase at various periods, is given in the fol- lowing table : — April 10 (weight) . May 21 (weiglit) Increase per clay . II per I0C30 lb. June 23 (weight) . Increase per day . II per 1000 lb. August 6 (weiglit) . Increase per day . II per 1000 lb. October 21 (weight) Increase per day . II per 1000 lb. November 19 (weight) Increase per day . H per 1000 lb. December 3 (weight) Increase per day . 11 per 1000 lb. December 16 (weight) Increase per day . II per 1000 lb. January 27 (weight) Increase per day . II per 1000 lb. February 16 (weight) Increase per day . II per 1000 lb. March 16 (weight) . Increase per day . If per 1000 lb. April 9 (weight) Increase per day . II per 1000 lb. May II (weight) Increase per day . II per 1000 lb. Cherry Prince. cwt. qr. lb. 417 502 2.27 lb. 4.60 lb. 600 2.46 lb. 4.191b. 627 1.501b. 2.23 lb. B 2 o 2.86 lb. 3-89 lb. 8 I 24 909 4-93 lb. 5.20 lb. 9 ° 1'A 2.56 lb. 2-53 lb- 10 I o 1.40 lb. 1.25 lb. II o 7 3.25 lb. 2.831b. II I 21 I.7S lb. 1. 41 lb. 12 3 o 4.59 lb. 3.58 lb. Snowflake. cwt. qr. lb. 302 3 3" 2.02 lb. S-So lb. 4 I IS 1. 71 lb. 3.96 lb. 4 3 26 1.60 lb. 3. 26 lb. 700 2.97 lb. 5-32 lb. 707 0.24 lb. 0.30 lb. 7 2 17 4.71 lb. S-9S lb. 7 2 23 0.46 lb. 0.53 lb. 826 2.261b. 2.62 lb. 8 3 14 1.80 lb. 1.88 lb. 920 2.50 lb. 2.53 lb- 9 2 23 0.9s lb. 0.94 lb. 10 2 6 2.75 lb. 2-53 lb- Hereford Duke. cwt. qr. lb. 3 2 26 416 1.56 lb. 3-73 lb. 4 2 24 1.31 lb. 2.72 lb. S I 10 1.67 lb. 3.16 lb. 7 o 21 2.72 lb. 4.62 lb. 713 1.34 lb. 0.42 lb. 7 2 14 2.79 lb. 3.42 lb. 7 3 10 1.85 lb. 2. 17 lb. 8 2 o 1.76 lb. 2.00 lb. 827 0.3s lb. 0.361b. 9 o 14 2.25 lb. 2.34 lb. 9 I 18 1.33 lb. 1.30 lb. 10 I o 2.63 lb. 2.49 lb. Knight of Charford. cwt. qr. lb. 217 3 o 10 2.12 lb. 8.18 lb. 329 I.S7 lb. 4-54 lb.. 4 o 25 I. 71 lb. 4.26 lb. S 3 o 2.25 lb. 4-7S lb. 6 o 10 1.31 lb. 2.03 lb. 6 I 14 2.29 lb. 3-3S lb. 6 2 24 2.92 lb. 4.09 lb. 727 2.26 lb. 3.00 lb. 7 2 20 0.65 lb. 0.76 lb. 820 3.28 lb. 3.81 lb. 839 I.S4 lb. 1.61 lb. 9 o 12 0.97 lb. 0.98 lb. Whitefaced Boan. cwt. qr. lb. 2 I 21 2 3 24 1.44 lb. 5.27 lb. 3 I 27 1.68 lb. S.06 lb. 4 o 16 1.74 lb. 4-45 lb. S 2 14 2.18 lb. 4.70 lb. S 3 19 1. 14 lb. 1.80 lb. 6 o 27 2.57 lb. 3.88 lb. 627 2.77 lb. 3.96 lb. 714 1.93 lb. 2.62 lb. 7 2 16 2.00 lb. 2.40 lb. 819 2.7s lb. 3.21 lb. 830 1.95 lb. 2.09 lb. 9 I 18 2.31 lb. 2.46 lb. White Bar. cwt. qr. lb. 217 2 3 22 1.73 lb. 6.68 lb. 3 3 3 2.66 lb. 8.06 lb. 417 1.43 lb. 3.38 lb. 5 2 21 2.03 lb. 4.20 lb. 603 1.31 lb. 2.0s lb. 6 I 10 2.50 lb. 3.70 lb. 6 I 27 1. 31 lb. 1.84 lb. 6 3 II 0.9s lb. 1.30 lb. 710 2.25 lb. 2.93 lb. 736 2.21 lb. 2.72 lb. 8 o 15 I.S4 lb. 1.76 lb. 8 3 14 2.59 lb. 2.84 lb. FATTENING CATTLE IN WINTER. 371 In explaining these results to the students, Professor Wrightson pointed out that the weights of cattle are gener- ally given as they are obtained per head. But it is evident that a bullock of 10 cwt. ought to increase more rapidly than one of 7 cwt., if the feeding of both is to be equally economic. It is therefore very instructive to calculate the increase per 100 lb., or, better still, per 1000 lb., of live weight. Calculated in this way, there is no doubt but that young stock weighing from 3 cwt. to 5 cwt. increase propor- tionately much more rapidly than heavier cattle, and it is now being stated widely that the expense of increasing the weight of cattle becomes heavier and heavier as they increase in actual weight. The above table is a powerful argu- ment in favour of the economy of early maturity. Cherry Prince, when weigh- ing 4 cwt. I qr. 7 lb., increased at the rate of 2.27 lb. per day, and of 4.6 lb. per 1000 lb. of live weight. The same bullock, when weighing 10 cwt., increased at the rate of 2.56 per day, but only at the rate of 2.53 lb. per 1000 lb. of live weight. For this to be accomplished the food had to be much richer and more expensive. Again, Snowflake, when weighing 3 cwt., increased at the rate of 2.02 lb. per day, and of 5.8 lb. per 1000 lb. of live weight. The same animal, when close upon 8 cwt. in live weight, increased at the rate of 2.26 lb. per day, but only of 2.62 lb. per 1000 lb. of live weight. The whole experiment shows that the heavier an animal gets, the more food is required to maintain the system before any can be utilised in the manufacture of beef. Professor E. "W. Ste-wart on Early- Maturity. — In his volume on Feeding Animals — one of the best works of the age— Professor E. W. Stewart (U.S.A.) lays it down as an axiom that " profitable feeding must be done before maturity." He submits numerous experiments in support of this axiom, and remarks that as the digestive and assimilative organs are in the greatest activity in the young animal, " the stock-grower must take advantage of this period to produce the best results in feeding. Careful experi- ments show a constant increase in the food required to produce a pound of live weight, as the animal increases in size and weight." A Golden Maxim to Feeders. — What has been submitted under the heading of early maturity may be fittingly summed up in the following " golden maxim " to the feeder : " Early maturity at a min- imum of expense, with a maximum of meat and manure." METHODS OF FATTENING CATTLE IN WINTER. When we enter upon the round of the farm-work at the beginning of winter, we find, as already indicated, that all the cattle being fattened for slaughter have already been comfortably housed. In what manner they may be accom- modated has been noticed under the heading of the "Housing of Cattle in Winter." What Pood is to be Used? — The question to be considered at this point is, What food should be given daily to the cattle that are being fattened ? It has been seen that in the methods of feeding breeding and milking cows and store cattle in winter, there is almost endless variety. In the winter fattening of cattle the variation of practice is quite as great. The system of cropping and the supply of home-grown food are lead- ing factors in determining the method of feeding pursued. The farmer should, of course, consider carefully the market price of the various recognised articles of food and of his own produce, and after due dehberation he will decide whether his own home-grown or purchased foods will be cheapest and most profitable. Other things being equal, he wiU give the preference to his home-grown food, for, as already pointed out, there is econ- omy in making the farm produce " walk itself to market." An important point at this time is to estimate the supply of fodder and roots, and so apportion the daily use of these as to extend them over the sea- son. Want of care in this matter may lead to inconvenience and loss towards the end of the winter or house-feeding period. Feeding Rations. ■ — The fattening cattle will most likely be at various stages in their advance towards maturity. 372 CATTLE EST WINTER. Some, already in high condition, may be intended for the Christmas markets, when winter-fed beef usually brings the max- imum price. Others, most probably younger animals, will be leaner, and may require from 4 to 6 months' feed- ing. Both classes will be accustomed to the house-feeding before winter sets in (for all fattening animals should be housed as soon as the cold nights of September begin to be felt), and both should now be liberally fed. They should not be gorged, but have as much as they can eat, given to them at fixed intervals in as palatable and tempting a form as possible, and in such quantities as will ensure that, without any food being left or wasted, the animals will be perfectly satisfied. As to the gross bulk, there may be little difference in the food given to the cattle, but the riper animals will get the richer food. As the cattle ap- proach maturity, the more concentrated foods, such as cake and grain or meal, are increased, and the bulkier commo- dities, such as roots and straw, may be slightly lessened. As to this variation of meals, no hard and fast lines can be laid down. It would be worse than useless to attempt to do so ; it would be positively unsafe. The immediate wants, the condition, progress, and appetite, of each individual animal must be carefully considered, and in accordance with these and these alone is it safe to arrange or modify the daily meals. Thus, again, it is seen that the office of cattle-man is a responsible one. The success or failure of the feeding operations is largely dependent upon him, for by careful and constant a1> tention to the adapting of the meals to the wants and capacities of the animals, he may greatly facilitate the fattening, as well as economise valuable food. Balancing Food properly. — As to the importance of having the foods properly balanced, a good deal has al- ready been said. And at this critical time, when the feeder is arranging or modifying the food to suit his fattening cattle at the different stages of their pro- gress, we would strongly urge him to consider carefully the question of mixing foods, so that the various ingredients shall be present in 1 the proportions most perfectly adapted to the requirements of the animal. See in particular the infor- mation given under the heading "Albu- minoid Ratio." Scotch Feeding Customs. As already indicated, great economy has been introduced in recent years in the use of turnips ; yet, as a rule, Scotch cattle-feeders still place much reliance upon them. On nearly all Scotch farms turnips still form a dominant or import- ant element in the rations of feeding cattle. Yellow turnips are used at the outset, and these may last for one month, two months, or longer, as the case may be. The more advanced feeders, espe- cially those intended for the Christmas market, will receive swedes as soon as practicable, perhaps about the begin- ning of November. All changes in the food should be introduced gradually. In putting cattle on roots in winter, small quantities should be given at the outset; full meals being allowed only after the animals have become accus- tomed to the new mode of treatment. Daily Allo-wanoe of Turnips. — What quantity of turnips should a feeding bullock receive daily ? This, we have seen, is a vexed question, as to which opinions of practical men have under- gone, and are still undergoing, consider- able change. Not a few still give the animals all they can comfortably con- sume in two meals daily. That would be perhaps from 8 to 12 or 14 imperial stones, according to the size of the ani- mal. We have endeavoured to show that this is improvident feeding, and that a more prudent and more profitable sys- tem is to give much smaller quantities of roots and larger proportions of other foods. The general tendency now is in the latter direction. The majority of the more successful feeders nowadays limit the daily allowance of roots to from one- half to about three-fourths of what was given in the " turnip and straw " days prior, say, to 1870. From 60 to 100 lb. per day to cattle from twenty months to three years old are now very general quantities. The smaller allowances are usually given in the pulping system, which, as we have seen, helps greatly in economising roots. Feeding Hours. — ^When cattle have FATTENING CATTLE IN "WINTER. 373 all tte turnips they can eat, or nearly so — say from 1 12 to 140 lb. — the roots may be given in three meals, about 8 a.m., early in the afternoon, and in the even- ing, the first two meals being the largest. Under this system very little, if any, cake or grain is given, seldom more than about 2 lb. a-head, till within two months or six weeks of the time of slaughter, when the allowance of roots is slightly lessened, and the quantity of cake or meal, or both, increased by degrees to perhaps from 4 to 6 lb., given in two equal meals, fore- noon and afternoon. The more general plan is to give the turnips in two meals, about 8 or 9 a.m., and from 1.30 to 3 p.m. Some give the roots as the first meal in the morning, following with oat-straw or hay, cake or meal, or both, about 11 a.m., turnips again early in the afternoon, followed by straw or hay, and cake or meal, as in the forenoon. Others think it better to give about half the daily allowance of cake and meal, say at 6 a.m., to be followed by turnips at 9 a.m., and thereafter a mod- erate supply of good oat-straw or hay; the afternoon meals coming in the same order, beginning with cake and meal at I P.M., and ending with straw and hay at 8 p.m. Others, again, give a very small feed of straw or hay as the first mouthful in the morning, say from. 6 to 7 A.M. Turnips or Cake for Breakfast? — Some experienced feeders contend that it is unsafe to give cattle a feed of cold watery turnips upon an empty stomach in the morning, yet many successful feeders have all their lives pursued the system of giving roots as the first meal, and say they have never discovered any evil effects from it. Upon the whole, the weight of experience is in favour of giv- ing a small allowance of cake and meal as the first feed in the morning. Daily Allovyance of Cake and Grain. — ^Where the allowance of turnips is re- stricted to from 80 to 100 lb. per day for cattle weighing from 6 to 8 cwt. (esti- mated dead weight), the quantity of cake and meal may vary from 4 to 8 or 10 lb. per day, beginning the winter with the smallest, and finishing off the fattening period with the largest, quantity. The concentrated food at the outset often con- sists of a mixture of decorticated cotton- cake and linseed-cake, or these two and bruised oats, peas, beans, or perhaps In- dian corn. Some lessen the proportion of cotton-cake and increase the quantities of linseed-cake and meal as the finishing- time approaches, the maximum allow- ance of concentrated food being given for a period of about six weeks at the end. Where a still smaller quantity of tur- nips is allowed, perhaps under 60 lb. per day, it is usual to give the roots either in two pulped mixtures, one in the morning and the other in the afternoon, or by themselves in one feed early in the fore- noon. In either case, with this small allowance of roots, the quantities of the more concentrated foods must be in- creased. The necessary bulk will be made up by straw or hay ; the essen- tial nutriment mainly in cake or bruised grain. The Pulping System for Feeding. — ^When the minimum quantity of tur- nips is allowed, the pulping system will be found specially serviceable. As al- ready shown, it permits of greater econ- omy of roots than can be secxired by any other method. Comparatively speak- ing, it is perhaps more useful in rearing store cattle than in fattening. The lay- ing on of flesh and fat cannot be aceom- phshed without the employment of a certain amount of rich food, which, of course, is as costly in a pulped mixture as by itself. But the pulping method turns the small allowance of roots to bet- ter account with fattening as well as with store cattle, and it is easy to add the re- quired cake or grain. With mixed foods used as in the pulping system, it is easier to ensure that the ration shall be properly balanced, with all the essential elements present in due proportion, than when turnips, cake, grain, and fodder are each given separately. It is possible, also, by careful preparation, and perhaps by a sprinkling of a little condiment or diluted treacle, to present the pulped mixture in an exceptionally palatable and inviting condition. In the fattening of stock both these points are of much importance. Mr D. Buttar's Pulping System. — Mr David Buttar, Corston, Coupar- Angus, has long been an advocate of the pulping 374 CATTLE IN WINTER. system. He pursues it not only in the rearing and feeding of cattle, but also in the feeding of sheep; and all through, the results are decidedly favourable to the system. In response to our request, Mr Buttar thus describes his system of feeding cattle : — "The class of cattle I generally feed are well -bred shorthorn and Angus crosses, numbering from 120 to 140 head. A few milch cows are kept, merely to supply the house and servants with milk. These feeding cattle are generally purchased about the month of October, and as I believe in early feeding, I buy them young, generally rising two years old, at prices ranging from ^6 to _;^io each. For the first two or three weeks they are put to some distant field of grass, till I am satisfied that they are free from disease. They are then brought into the courts during night, and get a little pulped food evening and morning, and going out to the pastures during the day. This treatment is continued till about the end of November, after which they are kept in day and night, and get during the whole winter pulped food three times a -day. The first feed is given about 5 a.m., the second between 10 and II A.M., and the third between 4 and 5 P.M. " The cattle at Corston are mostly all fed in covered courts and loose -boxes, which I prefer to stall-feeding, especially for young growing cattle. As their food by the pulping system is comparatively dry, it is absolutely necessary that they should have ready access to plenty of water, which they have in the courts at all times, as they require it. " During December the cattle are fed very sparingly, as I have found when they are first put on this kind of food they are sometimes apt to eat more than they can well digest. They therefore get only about 30 lb. a^iay of the pulped mixture during December. After the month of December, I increase the daily allowance to 45 lb., and on the first day of every month thereafter 15 lb. more are added, till by the first of March each animal is getting its full allowance of from 70 to 75 lb. daily of the pulped mixture. This mixture is made up as nearly as possible in the following pro- portions : — lb. d. One skuUful of cut straw or chaff, weighing about . . .14 Which, at 55s. a ton, would cost .... 4 One stullful of pulped turnips, weighing about . . . 5^ Which, at los. a ton, would cost .... 3 Of decorticated cotton-cake, about 4 Which, at £6, los. a ton, would cost . . . 2^2 Of molasses or locust-bean meal, about ..... lyi Which, along with 2 oz. salt, would cost ... I Altogether, per day, about . 7$)4 At a daily cost of . . 10^ These ingredients, after being carefully turned over two or three times, and well mixed together, are allowed to ferment for 24 hours or so before being used — in other words, the pulp for to-morrow's feeding is always made up to-day. "More than this allowance the cattle do not care to eat, and cattle ought never to get at any one time more than they are able to eat and to digest, otherwise they do not go with the same relish to their next feed, and consequently never do so well. About the ist of April, however, the pulped mixture is enriched by from I to 2 lb. additional Unseed-cake for every beast beiug fed. "I also at this time (ist of April) draw out generally from 80 to 100 of the best of the cattle — ^those which show a tendency to take on fat most readily — and give them, at about 8 p.m., an extra feed of from 2 to 4 lb. each of linseed- cake, grain, &c. By the month of June these are generally all prime fat, weigh- ing from 6 to 7j4 cwt. dead weight, and are then sold to the butchers at prices ranging from_;^i7 to ;^2 2. The other 40 shotts or winterings are either kept on, or sold about the beginning of May for the grass, at prices ranging from _;^i2 to ;i£^iS each. When they are kept on by myself, I put them on the best pas- ture I have, and continue to give them a daily allowance of from 4 to 5 lb. cake or other artificial food. " I am sorry I cannot give the actual weight gained by each animal every month of their feeding, as at present I have no means of weighing cattle alive, which I much regret ; but I can give the FATTENING CATTLE IN WINTER. 375 actual cost of feeding during each month, and for the whole season, by the pulping system, and also by the ordinary way of feeding with sliced turnips. I have satisfactorily tested both systems over and over again, with the result that I find the pulping system not only the most profit- able, but preferable also in other respects^ Cost of feeding a two-year-old hvMockfrom lat December to i^th June. I. — By the pulping system. 1. During December, with an allowance of 30 lb. of the pulped mixture (including straw) at the prices stated in p. 374, the cost would be 2. In January, with an allowance of 45 lb. . 3. In February, with an allowance of 60 lb. , 4. In March, with maximum allowance of 75 lb. 5. In April, with the addition of 3 lb. linseed-cake . 6. From 1st May to 15th June, with the addition of other 3 lb. cake, grain, &c. Total cost of feeding, 28 weeks, from 1st December to 15th June . . £8 Deduct from this the value of the manure, which I estimate at not less than owe third of the whole cost of feeding (just equivalent to the value of the straw eaten, and which to meet the value of the manure left is never charged for in cases where turnips are let for consumption by cattle), and which would be 2 14 2 Thus leaving as the net cost for feeding from ist December to 15th June . ;^5 ^ 4 /To 10 10 16 3 19 7 I 7 I I ir 3 2 17 b "The same cattle fed in the usual way vnth. sliced turnips require to get, by the beginning of March, not less than a skulKul of turnips three times a-day, which would be about i}4 cwt. — a fair allowance only for a two-year-old bul- lock, — and if they are to be fed off and finished by the middle of June, they must get in addition after the ist April an allowance of from 3 to 6 lb. of cake or other artificial food daily. II. — By the ordinary system. To simplify the calculation in this case, I will allow the fodder to stand against the value of the manure. Commencing, then, with a short allowance of i skull- ful of turnips a-day for the first month, the cost of feeding (exclusive of straw) during the month of December would be . In January, with an allowance of i J^ skull a-day In February, with an allowance of 2 skulls a-day In March, with the maximum allowance of 3 skulls In April, with the addition of 3 lb. cake daily From Ist May to 15th June, with the addition of other 3 lb. cake, &c. Net cost of feeding by the ordinary system Net cost of feeding by the pulping system Showing a saving per head in favour of the pulping of about " Besides this saving, there is a decided advantage gained by such great econ- omising of turnips, thus enabling one to keep more than double the number of stock that could be kept otherwise, and at less cost too. "Moreover, the manure made under the pulping system is much richer in ammonia, and of considerably more value, owing to the quantity of cake consumed in place of turnips, which is a very material point in favour of the method." It -will be noticed that in Mr Buttar's system, detailed above, the hard feeding ;^0 7 9 II b 14 I 3 3 I 8 b 2 n 6 £6 18 6 S 8 4 £1 10 2 is delayed till well into spring. When it is desired to have the animals finished earlier, the extra supply of rich food, cake, or corn, or both, will be begun sooner. With a pulped mixture, such as is described by Mr Buttar as the basis of the meals, the daily rations may be readily adapted to the purposes in view, and the capacities of the stock, by in- creasing or lessening the richer and more rapidly fattening elements. Sliced Hoots preferred to Pulp. — Mr E. Turnbull, The Mount, Wolver- hampton, gives his fattening cattle in 376 CATTLE IN "WINTER. winter sliced swedes, oat-straw, and tay chaffed, and mixed with meal, and long hay at night. He considers that cattle thrive better on sliced roots than when fed on pulped roots, and adds, " sliced roots appear to cause a better flow of saliva than pulped food, and as stalled cattle get no exercise, this is a very important consideration. The sweet juice of swedes appears to agree with fat cattle better than pulped roots that are slightly fer- mented. Fat cattle, after eating sliced roots, rest and sleep more contentedly than after a meal of pulped food." ^ This is not quite in accordance with the ex- perience of others, but feeders should hear what is said for and against the various systems, and experiment and judge for themselves. Cattle-feeding in ATaerdeensMre. — The fame of Aberdeenshire beef is world- wide. In the attainment of this the people, the land, and the cattle have each played a creditable part. To re- verse the order, the stock of cattle are of the very best class of beef-producing animals, chiefly crosses between the na- tive black polls and the shorthorn breed. Then the land is peculiarly adapted for the raising of turnips of the highest feeding value. It is well known that there are turnips and turnips, some much richer than others in feeding pro- perties. The roots grown on the well- farmed granite soils of Aberdeenshire are of exceptionally rich quality. And as to the people, the knack of how to make a bullock hard-fat would seem somehow to have become the special birthright of the Aberdeenshire farmer. He treats his land well, and he knows that in so doing he is enriching the raw materials which afterwards go to the production of his annual " crop of beeves," which form such a large portion of the revenue of his farm. Aberdeenshire cattle-men are as proverbial for their proficiency as are the Aberdeenshire cattle and the Aber- deenshire beef for their high quality. Mr M'Combie's System, of Feeding. — ^Aberdeenshire owes not a little of its reputation for cattle-feeding to the late Mr William M'Combie of Tillyfour, who was far in advance of his time as a feeder of cattle. His Httle volume. Cattle and Cattle-breeders,^ is full of useful hints to breeders and feeders of cattle. Here we cannot do more than present the fol- lowing extracts, relating particularly to his mode of winter feeding. He says : — " The practice of tying up cattle early in Aberdeenshire is now almost universal ; the success of the feeder depends upon it, for a few weeks may make a difference of several pounds. I sow annually from 12 to 1 6 acres of tares, and about the middle of June save a portion of the new grass full of red clover, and from the ist to the 2oth of August both tares and clover are fit for the cattle. I have for many years fed from 300 to 400 cattle ; and if I was not to take them up in time, I could pay no rent at all. A week's house-feeding in August, September, and October, is as good as three weeks in the dead of winter. I begin to put the cattle into the yards from the ist to the middle of August, drafting first the largest cattle intended for the great Christmas market. This drafting gives a great re- lief to the grass-parks, and leaves abun- dance to the cattle in the fields. During the months of August, September, and October, cattle do best in the yards, the byres being too hot ; but when the cold weather sets in, there is no way, where many cattle are kept, in which they will do so well as at the stall. You cannot get loose-boxes for 80 or 100 cattle on one farm. In former years I bought nearly aU my grazing cattle in Moray- shire, but now I purchase a great many in Aberdeenshire. Tying Cattle. — " Many of the Moray- shire cattle have never been tied. I adopt the following system with them : A rope is thrown over the neck of the bullock ; the other end of the rope is taken round the stake ; two men are put upon it, and overhaul the bullock to his place. When tightened up to the stall the chain is at- tached to the neck, and the beast is fast. We can tie up 50 beasts in five hours in this way. When tied, you must keep a man with a switch to keep up the bul- locks. If you did not do this you would soon have every one of them loose again. They require to be carefully watched the ^ Jour. Royal Agria. Soc. Eng., xxiv., sec. ser., 460. ' 'William Blackwood & Sons, Edinburgh and London. FATTENING CATTLE IN WINTER. 377 first night, and in three days they get quite accustomed to their confinement, except in the case of some very wild beast. I never lost a bullock by this method of tjdng up. This system is like other systems — it requires trained hands to practise it. Tares and Clover for Fattening Cattle. — " I never give feeding cattle un- ripe tares ; they must be three-parts ripe before being cut. I mix the tares -when they are sown with a third of white peas and a third of oats. When three-parts ripe, especially the white peas, they are very good feeding. Fresh clover, given along with tares, peas, &c., forms a capital mixture. I sow a proportion of yellow Aberdeen turnips early, to succeed the tares and clover. It is indispensable for the improvement of the cattle that they receive their turnips clean, dry, and fresh. " In a week or ten days after the first lot of cattle is taken up from grass, a second lot is taken up. This is a further relief to the pastures, and the cattle left in the fields thrive better. This taking up continues every week or ten days to the end of September. At this period all feeding cattle ought to be under cover that are intended to be fattened during the succeeding winter. The stronger cattle are drafted first, and the lesser ones left imtil the last cull is put imder cover. " From August tiU November a man may take care of 30 cattle very well, or a few more, if the cattle are loose ; but when the day gets short, 20 to 25 are as many as one man can feed, to do them justice, if tied up. Allowance of Cake, Corn, &o. — "I change the feeding cattle from tares and clover on to Aberdeen yellow turnips, and afterwards to swedes, if possible by the middle of October. I do not like soft turnips for feeding cattle. The cattle that I intend for the great Christ- mas market have at first from 2 lb. to 4 lb. of cake a- day by the ist of No- vember. In a week or two I increase the cake to at least 4 lb. a- day, and give a feed of bruised oats or barley, which I continue up to the 12 th or 14th of December, when they leave for the Christmas market. The cake is appor- tioned to the condition of the different animals, and some of the leanest cattle get the double of others which are riper. The cattle being tied to the stall places this quite in your power, while in the strawyard it could not be done. " The method I adopt as to using cake and corn is the following ; On the different farms where I feed the cattle, 1 put a fourth part of their number only upon cake and com at one time, and six weeks is about my limit of time for cake and corn, &c., paying the feeder, before they are to be sent to the fat market. The above does not apply to the 70 or 80 bullocks for the Christmas week. They get an extra allowance from ist November. I cannot impress this opinion too strongly on the inexperienced feeder. When the six weeks are expired they are sent away; another fourth part of the original number take their place, and get their six weeks' cake. When they leave, the other cattle in succession get the same treatment. When turnips are plentiful the system works very well. The cattle draw beautifully, week by week, from the different farms, and come out very ripe. I may mention that almost all the cattle I graze are generally kept during the previous winter upon as many tur- nips as they can eat, and are in high condition when put to grass. Return for a Month's Keep. — " In Aberdeenshire I consider that a large bullock ought to pay 25s tc 30s. a^month for keep, if he is properly treated. We often get less, and some- times a little more, owing in some mea- sure to the way in which the cattle are bought, the price of beef at the time, the season of the year the cattle are bought, and the time they are sold." Mr G. Wilken's System of Feeding. — Mr George Wilken, Waterside of Forbes, situated in the same district of Aberdeenshire as Tillyfour, also pursues a liberal system of feeding. Most of his cattle are about two and a half years old when tied up in stalls at the end of the grazing for fattening. They are already in good condition, and as soon as fully ac- customed to the winter fare they receive as many turnips as they can eat readily, getting little or no extra food until the last few weeks, when they receive from 2 to 3 lb. of cake, and from 4 to 6 lb. of oats or here, according to price. The cattle usually go off for slaughter at 378 CATTLE IN WINTER aboiit 2 years and 9 months old, when they weigh in the carcass from 7 to 8 cwt. Feeding in a Polled Herd. — Mr Anderson, WelUiouse, also in the Vale of AHord, ties up his two-year polled steers for preparation for the Christmas market about the end of August or first week of September. When two-year-old bullocks are casting their teeth they get their turnips cut, and along with the turnips 2 lb. a-day of bruised linseed, until their teeth are up so that they can again eat the turnips, either yellows or swedes. He provides an abundant sup- ply of tares, mixed with oats, peas, and beans, to feed with before turnips are ready. Such a mixed food, after the oats have come into the ear, is a very valuable diet. About the middle of September, in favourable circumstances, early turnips will be ready for use, and two diets a-day will improve the feed. Since grain has become so cheap, he uses oats or barley bruised and mixed with linseed-meal for feeding animals. The proportions are about i lb. of meal to 4 lb. of oats or barley. One feed of 4 lb. of oats or barley once a-day is given until the end of October, and after that, on to Christmas, two feeds a-day. The feeding animals get what they can eat of oat-straw, and of turnips also, until, say, a fortnight before being despatched for the Christmas market, when the tur- nips are reduced. In ordinary circum- .stances, Mr Anderson's rule in the use of turnips is, — give what the animals will eat, but do not give to purge them. In years when turnips were scarce he substi- tuted, largely, more concentrated foods ; but he states that while the animals took on a fair " chip " of fat under these, they never increased in bulk as they do when they get a plentiful supply of turnips. He sells his polled bullocks at two rising three years old, the dead weights being from 7 cwt. to 9 cwt. reeding in a Prize Herd. — One of the most successful cattle-feeders of the present day — and he is as suc- cessful in breeding as in feeding, for he breeds all he feeds — is Mr James Bruce of Inverquhomery, Longside, Aberdeenshire, whose name and cattle are well known in Smithfield circles. The success of cattle-rearing he thinks depends principally upon three things: ist, a good strain of blood, and judici- ous selection in breeding; 2d, feed the land liberally as weU as the cattle ; and 3d, a good cattle-man. In the fulfil- ment of these three conditions Aberdeen- shire certainly stands well to the front ; hence its fame for cattle-feeding. Mr Bruce himself has an exceptionally good herd of pure-bred shorthorn cattle, which he devotes almost entirely to the direct production of beef, few of his male calves being kept for breeding purposes. He " feeds " the turnip-break with from 10 to 12 loads of farmyard manure, 8 cwt. bone meal, and 4 cwt. guano. The farmyard manure is put on in autumn. From this liberal treatment he usually gets over 30 tons of swedes and 26 tons of yellow turnips per acre, and he considers that this extra manuring makes all the food grovra upon the farm richer than it would otherwise be, giving it a potency in fattening cattle which he thinks could not be imparted by manufactured feed- ing-stuffs. As will be imagined from this, Mr Bruce relies mainly upon the produce of his farm, chiefly on turnips and straw, in the feeding of his cattle; but those of his animals which are being pushed for showing or for the Christmas markets receive a good deal of cake. Cattle-feeding in Easter Koss. — ^The district of Easter Eoss has become fa- mous for the large number of "prime beeves " it sends to the London Christ- mas market. The system of feeding pursued is very liberal and carefully thought out. The majority of the cattle there fattened for the London market are put up for finishing at the end of the grazing season, when they are approaching three years old. They are well -grown cattle of first-class quality, mostly crosses between the shorthorn and Aberdeen-Angus breeds. They are well grazed, and are in good condition when housed for hard feeding. Mr John Gordon, Balmuchy, Feam, one of the largest feeders in Easter Eoss, states that when his feeding cattle are housed he starts them with 2 lb. decorti- cated cotton-cake and 2 lb. linseed-cake, gradually increasing to 3 lb. each, and then by degrees withdrawing i lb. of the cotton-cake and substituting a like quan- tity of linseed-cake. About six weeks FATTENING CATTLE IN WINTER. 379 before the animals are sent away to the London Christmas market, they get in addition to the cake 2 lb. each of bruised oats or finely ground peas or beans, very slightly moistened with water. Half the daily allowance of cake is given at 6 a.m., and a feed of cut turnips follows at 9 a.m. While the animals are eating their tur- nips the byres are cleaned out and the cattle groomed, and as soon as the tur- nips are eaten, a moderate supply of sweet oat-straw or hay is given. Mr Gordon is adverse to the use of racks for straw, as the fodder is apt to get stale in them. The cattle are then allowed per- fect rest till 1 P.M., and in the afternoon they receive cake, roots, and straw or hay as in the forenoon, with a " bite " of oat-straw or hay at 8 p.m. Mr Gordon considers it of great importance to have the feeding, grooming, and cleaning done with the regularity of clock-work, and re- marks that a cattle-man will never be a successful feeder unless he knows how to give a beast as much as it can eat and yet not a "pick" more. He must also watch the bowels of the animals care- fully, as if an animal is purging or cos- tive it cannot be doing well. A Popular Seotoli « Blend."— The following mixture of foods is largely used in the Lothians and other parts of Scot- land both for sheep and cattle — ^viz.. De- corticated cotton-cake, linseed-cake, bran, maize, ground locust-beans, and peas in equal proportions, and all mixed together. The albuminoid ratio is about correct in this mixture, while sheep and cattle con- sume it with a relish, and thrive well upon it. When oats are cheap and maize dear, the former may take the place of the latter. This mixture costs about ^^5, 15 s. per ton in Leith. Linseed - oil and Oats. — In these times of cheap oats a good many feeders rely largely upon bruised oats, moistened with a glass of linseed-oil. It is a cheap food, and gives good results. Cattle-feeding in England. In many cases English methods of cattle - feeding differ considerably from the prevailing practice in Scotland. The warmer climate and longer period of growth provide the farmer in the south of England with greater variety of winter food than can be grown to advantage upon average Scotch farms. Compara- tively fewer turnips are grown in England than in Scotland, and, as a rule, southern farmers place less reliance than northern farmers upon turnips as food for cattle. Feeding Cattle should be Housed Early. — In the south, cattle may, of course, in average seasons remain longer out on the pasture-fields in autumn than in the colder regions north of the Tweed. StiU English as well as Scotch farmers will be all the better of a reiterated word of warning upon this point. Indeed it is well known that English farmers, as a body, are not so careful as they ought to be in the winter housing of their cattle. They leave the animals too long in the fields towards the end of the grazing season, so that the cattle are not only often checked in progress, but some- times even " put back " several weeks by exposure to inclement autumn weather. Treatment of this kind is especially detrimental to cattle that are being fattened, or are about to be put up for feeding. These should be housed overnight as soon as the chilly evenings set in ; and while they may have a run out daily for some time after, it should be remembered that it is short-sighted policy to keep feeding cattle, or cattle about to be fattened, scampering over a bare pasture-field in search of sustenance. Depend upon it, it will pay far better to house them early, and put the food be- fore them in plentiful quantity and in palatable condition. Koots and Green Pood for Feed- ing Cattle. — As has been indicated, a greater quantity of green food, other than roots, is grown in England than in Scotland for cattle. This is exten- sively used in autumn and early winter before the turnips or mangels are avail- able. By many of the best feeders in England very large quantities of cake and corn are given to cattle. Mr Charles Howard, Biddenham, Bedford, feeds extensively upon grass-land during sum- mer; but any of the cattle not quite fattened on the fields are housed at the end of the grass season, and finished for the Christmas markets upon hay, hay- chaff, a small allowance of roots, and about 7 or 8 lb. of cake, with a peck of barley and bean meal mixed, per head per day. 38o CATTLE IN WINTER In the spring months mangels are ex- tensively used in feeding stock in Eng- land. Hereford Examples. — Mr George Child, Court of Noke, Hereford, has been exceptionally successful in the feed- ing of young Hereford steers, which he turns out in admirable condition for slaughter at from i8 to 20 months old. He feeds his animals liberally from their birth onwards, and in the autumn of their second year the steers get on the grass an allowance, beginning with 4 lb. daily, of cotton-cake and ground corn, wheat, barley, or oats. About the end of September they are housed, and re- ceive the best quality of hay and pulped roots, and as much linseed-cake, cotton- cake, and bruised corn as they can eat — -usually from 8 to 9 lb. per day. By Christmas they are in prime condi- tion for slaughter, and their average dead weight would then, at from 18 to 20 months old, be about 640 lb. — i.e., 8 score per quarter. The cake and corn is given in two feeds, the first thing in the morning and about 4 p.m. Many of the Hereford farmers finish off their bullocks on grass with cake or corn. With those who do fatten in the house in winter, the pulping system has attained considerable favour, and is ex- tensively pursued ; so that, with few turnips — ^from 60 to 100 lb. — and from 5 to 9 lb. of cake and corn, their steers are made prime fat at an early age. irorfolk Systems. — In Norfolk, on the other hand, with the four-course system of cropping, there is little scope for grazing, but an abundance of turnips and straw. Here, therefore, roots are extensively employed in the feeding of cattle. Cattle, for most part animals rising two years old, are purchased in autumn, and fattened during winter in courts or yards, upon turnips, straw, hay, cake, and grain. Mr Eobert Wortley, Suffield, states that these cattle are given an unlimited supply of roots all through the winter. Some people ex- pend up to ;^5 for artificial food for each animal ; others give but little. He adds that since the price of beef has fallen, he himself buys in young cattle (in the autumn) at from ]£?> to _;^i4 each. He begins selling in March, and has them all off in June, generally mak- ing about jQio per head for feeding. Each animal eats from ^2 to y£s worth of artificial food — according to the supply of home-grown food and the stock of cattle — and this artificial food consists chiefly of cake, with perhaps a quantity of home-grown com, mixed with maize and lentils ground together.^ A Group of English Eations. — From Mr H. F. Moore's interesting paper on the "Preparation of Food for Stock," 2 we cull the following notes as to the daily meals given to fattening cattle in vrinter by a number of leading English farmers : Mr H. Simmonds, Bearwood Farm, Wokingham — 6 lb. oil-cake, 2 gallons mixed meals, }^ to i bushel of roots, with hay-chaff and a little long hay; cake and meal given morning and night, with chaffed hay, roots after breakfast, and a little long hay at 8 p.m. Mr Joseph Paget of Stuffynwood, Mansfield — 4 lb. cake, 4 lb. com, 7 lb. hay, 60 lb. roots, and oat-straw ad lib. Mr John Watts, Falfield, Gloucester- shire — as much as they can eat of chaff, scalded v?ith linseed-tea, about 100 lb. of swedes, 4 lb. of meal, and 4 lb. of cake. Mr Henry Woods, Merton, Thetford, Norfolk — 6 to 8 lb. linseed-cake, i gal- lon crushed beans or peas, hay and cabbages. Mr Gilbert Murray, Elvaston, Derby — 4 lb. of meal (oats, wheat, white peas, and linseed, all ground together), 4 lb. of linseed-cake, with chaffed hay and straw, and 28 lb. of pulped roots. Feeding witliout Turnips. ■ — Mr Edwin EUis, Summersbury, Guildford, says : "I have no hard and fast rule of feeding, as I think it should be so elastic as to accommodate itseK to the farm produce of the day. I feed with good sweet barley -straw (in preference to secondary hay), oatmeal, and barley- meal, and last season (1885), when the root crop on my farm was a perfect failure, fed treacle, with chopped hay and straw, without any roots whatever. My bullocks never came on quicker or ^ Livestock Jour., Dec. 3, 1886. 2 Jour. Royal Agric. Soc. Eng., xxiv., sec. ser., 447- FATTENING CATTLE IN WINTER. 381 better, teaching me plainly that better no roots than too many."^ For feeding cattle without roots the following plan is recommended by the Farming World : " One paiKul of cut hay or straw three times a-day, mixed with bean-meal, Indian corn, meal, lin- seed-cake meal, and cotton-cake meal in equal proportion's. Four to ten lb. of the meal to each beast according to size, &c. Mix the whole day's feed, chop and meal together, in a large box. Then take i lb. of treacle for each animal and dissolve in sufficient boiling water; after which pour the sweetened liquor over the mixture of chop and meal in the box, and turn the whole over to let it mix thoroughly. Next cover up the feed in the box and let it stand twenty-four hours. Give a pailful three times a-day with a little salt. If the cattle have to be pushed very fast, they may get each 2 lb. daily of cotton and linseed cake mixed, in addition to the above feed." ^ Mr W. J. Edmonds of Southrope, Lech- lade, states that he fed his Christmas cattle very satisfactorily vsdth only one peck of roots per day and the foUovring mixture : 5 bushels of mixed hay and straw chaff, 4 or 5 lb. of oilcake, and % peck of meal (barley, bean, pea, or wheat meal), increased to 1 peck per day about six weeks after the fattening began. The oilcake and meal were boiled for about one-half or three-quarters of an hour, and thrown as a rich soup over the chafij with a little salt, about eight hours before being used. Care was taken not to let the mixture lie till it would become sour. Mr Charles Randall's System. — In Mr Joseph Darby's very useful paper on "Straw as Food for Stock," ^ the late Mr Charles Randell of Chadbury, Eves- ham, an eminent English farmer, thus describes his system of fattening cattle, and making manure vsdthout roots : — " After having heard how readily and profitably straw, aided by roots, cake, and corn, is converted into beef in Nor- folk and other root -growing counties. ^ Live Stock Jour., Dec. 3, 1886. ^ Farming World, Oct. 21, .1887. ' Jow. Moyal Agric. Soc. Eng., xiii., see. ser., 144- '. ' and the manure, essential ior the repro- duction of the means of carrying on the process preserved, you may like to know how the occupier of a clayland farm (where to attempt to grow turnips is in the opinion of some good practical far- mers in the neighbourhood a sufficient qualification for a lunatic asylum) tries to convert his straw into manure which deserves the name without serious loss. " I have 15 two-year-old steers f These with feeding, I their man- 25 railking and in-calf < ure are en- cows, I tirely un- 2 bulls, V der cover. , , , J f In small 6 two -year -old \ y^^j^_ ) shedding heifers, 15 yearlings, spouted. " These 63 animals consume daily as follows : "As much steamed chaff, one-fourth hay, three-fourths straw, as they will eat. 4 bushels Indian corn, costing . £,0 14 o i^ cwt. decorticated cotton- cake, . . . . . o 12 6 I cwt. bran . . . .056 I cwt. malt-dust . . .056 yi bushel Black Sea linseed (boiled) . . . .046 Per day £2. for purchased food only. Now this can- not pay in the shape of a direct money return, and can only be excused by esti- mating highly the value of the manure — an estimate which will be fallacious or otherwise in proportion to the extent to which the manure is protected from rain. If it be made in large open yards, with the surrounding buildings unspouted, the loss is certain; in small yards, where the open space is not — and it should never be — more than as five to two of the spouted shedding, it is questionable ; but in covered yards the cost of food may be recovered, while only one-half the htter is necessary, thus economising straw and carting ; for it is obvious that a much smaller quantity per acre of this concentrated and unwashed manure will be required for any crop. The cattle too, so protected, vsdll give a, greater increase for the food consumed. " It will frequently happen that by rigid economy in the use of hay — the most expensive food, looking at its sell- ing value, that a farmer can give to his cattle— he may be able to sell some to 382 CATTLE IN WINTER. cover in part the cost of purchased food." Winter Feeding on Fields. — Al- though the system must necessarily in- volve a heavier consumption of feeding material to maintain the animal heat, some English farmers nevertheless derive satisfactory results by fattening cattle in dry well-sheltered fields during winter. Mr Eichard Stratton, The Duffryn, New- port, Monmouth, one of the most ex- perienced cattle-feeders in the country, says : "I give feeding cattle cake and meal on grass up to 14 lb. per head per day in winter, when they do well on dry pasture, with shelter under banks and hedges. I prefer feeding in this way to either tying up or in open yards. Straw is scarce and dear here, and the system saves litter, and prevents all waste of manure. I begin in October with about 6 lb. of cake and meal, and finish off with 12 or 14 lb. in December or Janu- ary, given at 7 a.m. and 5 p.m. ; the animals going away fat when from 2 years and 6 months to 2 years and 9 months old. But my practice in feed- ing varies according to the prices of the different commodities. Sometimes I use cake, sometimes corn ; also hay or straw, according to the market prices of these. Again, as to roots, if scarce and dear, I sell them and use artificial foods; if plentiful and cheap, I consume them." Mr Stratton's farm, it should be men- tioned, is in a warm locality and well sheltered. In Ireland cattle-feeding is in many cases carried on with as much care and success as in either England or Scotland. There also, however, great loss is sus- tained through want of proper attention to comfortable housing. History of a butcher's beast. The following account of the system of rearing and feeding cattle pursued on the farm of Sheriffston, near Elgin, by Lord Provost Black, will be perused with interest: "In 1882, in order to produce the most superior cross I possibly could for a feeding stock, I decided to pro- cure the best black polled cows that could be bought for ordinary market prices, or a moderate sum above these. My intention was to cross them with a shorthorn bull of the best blood and form that were obtainable, without go- ing too far into fancy figures. I bought forty black polled one-year-olds in the neighbourhoods of Ballindalloch, Drumin, and Ad vie, at an average of about ;^i4. Twenty-four of the lot were heifers. They were all served by a son of Arthur Benedict 40986 of Gordon Castle, and all calved correctly. After their calves were weaned, I selected sixteen for keep- ing as cows, and sold eight for ;^i8o, or _;^22, I OS. each. "Several of these sixteen I have on the farm still. Some of them that missed settling in calf have been fed, sold, and replaced by daughters of those that proved of most value in producing young stock and in milking. " It is from a herd of females got up in this way that my young animals come, so far as they are bred on the farm, the sires being always pure shorthorn bulls of good form and pedigree. My first lot of calves from these came to be one-year- olds in the spring of 1884, and in the middle of April of that year I sold four of the pick of the bullocks when fourteen months old at ;^2o a-head. Of the lot, eight bullocks remained, and these were kept on till the middle of March 1885, when, at twenty-five months old or there- by, they were sold at _;^26, ss. a-head. This is an example of what was done on farms of the character of mine in this part of the country when beef was at about 74s. per cwt. In 1886 my two- year-old bullocks brought only ;£22, 3s., and in 1887 they realised only ^iB, 2s. 6d. Fall in Price of Beef. — "In tabu- lated form the results for two-year-old bullocks are as follows : — • Spring 1885 . . ;£26 S „ 1886 . 22 3 If 1887 . . 18 2 6 "Breeding and feeding were exactly the same all through, until within two months or thereby of the time of selling, when a little cake was given in the earlier year, but not in the two latter years. "I have never till this year (1887) tried the feeding of two-year-olds, or six- quarter-olds as they are called, for the Christmas market. Out of twenty-five heifers of that age ten have been finished FATTENING CATTLE IN WINTER. 383 and sold this season (1887). They girthed from 5 feet 7 inches up to 6 feet 3 inches, and were calculated to weigh a little over 5 cwt. all over. Price ;^i6 a-head. The remaining fifteen will not be fit for the butcher tiU February 1888, when they will be about two years old. Cattle of this age I have hitherto always kept on till March or April. Till this year (1887) I have not been able to bring heifers to nearly the same value as bullocks at the same age. " For feeding for the Christmas mar- ket I have generally bought from twelve to twenty two-year-old buUocks as oppor- tunity offered during the summer and early autumn. I put them into folds about the 20th of August, fed them on tares till near the end of September, and then on turnips, straw, with a little oil- cake and grain, when beef was at a pay- ing price, but with only a little bruised grain since beef came down to 60s. For this class of cattle I received, about end of November : — In 1883, £2<) 10 a-head 11 1884, 27 IS 11 11 1885, • 24 7 6 11 11 1886, • 25 5 II n 1887, 20 II Calf-rearing. — "You ask me to give you an outHne of how young stock thus brought to the market are reared and fed. About one-half of the calves of the year are suckled. Two are put to each cow, and they are not weaned till they are between six and seven months old. The other half of them are milked from the pail, and get about 4 pints each of warm milk three times a-day after they are a month old. At first they get only about a pint and a half. This is increased gradually after the first two weeks or thereby, until it come to the full quantity of 4 pints each feeding- time at the age of about four weeks. When nearing six months old their mid- day allowance is reduced by a third, a week afterwards by two-thirds, and in another week the mid-day milk is dis- continued altogether. Their morning and evening allowances begin to be lessened, and this process goes on till the milking is completely stopped at about the age of seven months, usually a little before it. "I arrange to have a park of rich second crop after hay to put the calves into as they are taken off the milk, special attention being given to having them comfortably housed at night when the weather is cold, if they have not sufficient shelter in the field. Of calves " blowing " when first put on rich clover many people are afraid, but I have never had any difficulty with it. In six years we have had only one case of it so far as I remember, and the "probe" is. always at hand, though it has never been re- quired. The cattle-man exercises the greatest care and caution in putting the calves on the clovery second crop to be- gin with only when it is dry, and in putting them on to it only at night as it is getting dark. " By the time the hay second crop is over, the barley stubbles are in good form. The barley fields have been sown out with grass, and some weeks after the stooks are taken into the stackyard, they afford a most "toothy" bite for the calves. We preserve a park specially for them, and keep them out on it as long as the weather continues passably good — often well into October. When nights are cold, however, they are taken into a fold, and get a feed of tares so long as they last. After tares are exhausted, turnips take their place — yellows, tops and aU at first. This only, however, for a few days. The calves take to the tops first. Then they think of the bulbs, and to encourage them to try to bite them, we break a few in the troughs. Soon only bulbs are given, and still a few are broken. While this education in the biting of the turnips is going on, another educating process is begun. "A httle oilcake is put into the troughs in the morning before turnips are supplied. It very speedily com- mends itself to the notice of the young- sters. They get fond of it shortly, and it is continued all through the winter until within a fortnight or thereby of the young animals being put out to grass early in May. The quantity given at first is not over i lb. each per day. It is gradually increased, but never exceeds ij^ lb. Wintering Calves. — "By the time for the complete housing of them for the winter, the calves are generally quite up to the eating both of turnips and cake. 3S4 CATTLE IN WINTER. Then the turnips are cut for them. Yellows generally last tiU past the middle of November. Swedes take their place, and they, with straw — oat-straw when it can be got — and the small allow- ance of cake in the morning, form the feeding of the calves on to the end of April, or until they go out to grass. Three times a-day turnips are supplied to them — at six and at ten in the morn- ing and forenoon, and at three in the afternoon. They get as many as they can consume, but no more. The cattle- man takes care to keep their eating capacity right. On his skill and success in this rests more than half his value. Another most important matter is punc- tuality to a minute in the hours for feed- ing, and scarcely less important is it to feed and bed-up quickly, and not disturb the fold any more till feeding-time come again, thus allowing as much time for rest as can possibly be given. Attention to Health. — "The calves have all ' setons ' put into their bris- kets in the autumn. I am not sure that this does much good, but it can do no harm ; and it is an old practice, costing little either in money or trouble. My opinion is that the health of the animals is due mainly to good constitutions to begin with, to care in protecting them from cold, to regularity in feeding, to a uniform supply of good fresh nutritive food, to good bedding, and to good ven- tilation without cold, and especially vrith- OTit draughts. Covered Folds. — " I am a recent con- vert to completely covered folds. Until last year I favoured having about one- third open in the good climate of Moray. Last year, however, I found reason to change my mind. A severe snowstorm, with very keen frost and biting cold, came on about the beginning of Decem- ber. My calves in a two-thirds covered fold looked shivery and uncomfortable. One, weaker than the others, took ill and died. A. post-mxirtem examination did not show that cold was the cause of death ; but I felt satisfied that it at least aggravated and hastened the fatal effect of other ailments. " I had the open part of the fold covered with beams laid flat across it, and brush- wood and straw laid on the top of them. Eain this did not keep out, but it shut out the wind, changed the atmosphere of the fold completely, and the calves throve twice as much afterwards. Dur- ing the past summer I have had all the folds on the farm fully covered, except a small opening in one, and see every day abundant reason for being convinced of the advantage of it. Grazing Young Cattle. — "When at the beginning of May the calves, then one-year-olds, go to grass, they are taken in at night for a short time, until the weather become warm enough for leav- ing them all the twenty-four hours in the field. No cake is given to them after about the middle of April. They fall off a little usually, for the first week or two, on the grass, but soon make it up again if care is taken to have a good, full, and fresh bite for them. I found it advan- tageous not to keep them too long in one park. A shift to pastures new they relish much. I often put a temporary fence across a field, dividing it into two, giving the cattle one-half of it first, then the other, next shifting them back to the first half again, and so on throughout the season. Plenty of fresh water is of great importance. We separate the buUocks from the heifers, and do everything pos- sible to give both plenty of fresh sweet grass — new grass to the younger stock as far as we can — aplenty of shelter, and plenty of peace and rest. lExtra Feeding and Care in Autumn. — "This goes on till August. If the fields pastured through the sum- mer become bare by that time, as they often do, some second crop after hay comes in to keep up the condition of the young stock. Failing this, sometimes tares are spread on the pastures to eke out the feeding they supply. This is the most difficult part of the year to tide over. It takes some scheming and care, frequently, to keep the one-year-olds from falling off until the usual time for putting them in on turnips in September. Many give them cake in the fields. This I have never done. Nor have I ever housed one-year-olds to be fed on tares, or cut second crop after hay. I have always kept them up in condition in the best way I can till the turnips are ready. I have succeeded thus in keeping them in the fields till about the second week of September, sometimes a little FATTENING CATTLE IN WINTER. 38s later, sometimes even into October. But whenever there is risk of falling off outside they are put in, whatever the time be, and fed in the folds. Cold nights are as bad as scarcity of keep. I never hesitate to take cattle in at night in bad weather, even though the time for complete housing has not come. Shelter in rields. — "It should be mentioned that in several of my fields the cattle have access to houses all the summer through at will. And they seek the shelter of them as often from the strong heat of the sun as from the biting of the blast. Some other fields are well sheltered with woods. A few have no shelter. From them the cattle are often taken into the folds in the evening when the nights begin to get long and the weather is cold, and even occasionally during the summer. Winter Teeding. — " Once one-year- olds — six-quarters they now are — get housed for the winter, the usual feeding of turnips and straw is begun. Yellow turnips are used till well into November. At first they are given sparingly, tops and all. Shortly the tops are taken off, and in a week or ten days cut turnips are begun. The change of feeding is made as gradual as possible. And when yoUow turnips get nearly done, one feed a-day of swedes is given, and only two of yellows. By- and-by it becomes two of swedes and one of yellows. Then it is tapered off to swedes altogether. No cake is allowed when beef is under 66s. to 70s. ; but two months or so before the time for selling, if grain is cheap, a feed of it is put into the troughs at 8 o'clock every evening — at first I J^ lb. per head, or thereby, which is increased gradually until it comes to 2 to 3 lb. a-head before the finish. When beef was 70s. and upwards, I gave cake for the last two months as well as grain — I J^ lb. a-day at the outset, increasing it to about 3 lb. It was the first feed in the morning. Best and Comfort. — "Care is taken to keep the animals well combed and clean. Skin affections are promptly treated ; and everything possible is done to let the animals enjoy, along with the feeding I have detailed, a full measure of rest and comfort. These are unsen- sational and unspeculative methods, but they have been satisfactorily successful." VOL. I. Cattle-Rearing in Devon and Somerset. Mr John Risdon, Roadwater, Wash- ford, Taunton, has favoured us with the following notes on the system of rearing and feeding cattle pursued in the counties of Devon and Somerset : — " The Devon breed of cattle prevails, and the principle generally adopted on mixed farms is to breed and feed ofi". On the hill-farms the cattle are generally sold as stores, and fattened by graziers occupying more favoured localities. Calf-rearing. — " The system of hand- feeding calves used to prevail — that is, feeding them from the paU. This has, in a great measure, been abandoned. In many instances two calves are given to one cow to be suckled, followed, possibly, by another pair or a single calf, according to circumstances. Calves are generally allowed to suck for three or four months, some breeders letting them remain with the cow until double these ages. Young- sters born in the winter are supplied with hay, roots, and either cake or corn. This is continued for some time. By some it is given up when they go to grass, by others continued throughout the summer. In the case of calves born, say, in April or May, or during the summer months, these run on the pastures with the cows, and seldom get artificial food. Feeding Store Cattle. — " Store cattle intended to be fed young should be well done. Yearhng steers get hay and roots, whilst their sisters have to be content with a feed of straw and as liberal an allowance of hay, ifec, as circumstances permit. After the first winter, or when heifers are nearly two years old, most breeders consider good sweet straw, with an allowance of roots, amply sufficient for them. Pulped V. Wliole Food. — " Much variety of opinion exists as to the ad- vantages of giving the straw and hay chaffed, mixed with pulped roots, or giving both hay and straw entire, and the roots either whole or cut with the slicer. The advocates of the latter plan contend that the cattle are enabled to select that part of the straw which they find most palatable, instead of being obliged to eat the whole. I decidedly lean to the principle of giving long straw ; and find that when well har- 2 B 386 CATTLE m WINTER vested, and served to the cattle in small quantities, there is but a very small proportion left for litter. One of the most successful exhibitors of fat cattle in this neighbourhood gives all the roots to his cattle whole, from the young calves to the specimens in pre- paration for the Smithfield Club and other shows. " Wherever practicable, it is highly desirable to give breeding animals a run on the pastures for a few hours daily, weather permitting. Extra rood on G-rass. — " The giving of artificial food to cattle when feeding on the pastures has increased very much in the last few years. Linseed-cake, or a mixture of this and cotton-cake, is much used ; the latter having a tendency to prevent the animals from running out when the grass is quick. Others condemn its use altogether, fearing it may be served in mistake to young calves, (fee, and prove injurious to them. Of course hay is given when the weather gets wet and the grass soft. Age for Feeding. — " The age at which cattle are set aside for feeding varies con- siderably. No hard and fast rule would apply to the division of West Somerset. Around Bridgewater and Pawlett there is rich alluvial soil of several feet in depth. A friend of mine told me he sank a well 15 feet deep, and the bottom soil was as good as the top. On the other extreme, we have the wilds of Exmoor, the natural home, it is said, of the wild red deer, with Dunkery Beacon 1668 feet above the level of the sea. The rich lands about Bridgewater are, from the strength of the herbage produced, quite unfit for breeding purposes. Graziers in this dis- trict prefer three-years-old steers for feed- ing; but, except on cold high farms, they are not kept till this age. The majority of the farmers in the intermediate district breed and feed their own cattle. In all cases where it is the aim to bring out steers fat, at from two to three years old, it is highly desirable to dispense with them as scavengers on the pastures ; and they should be kept steadily progressing from birth. The majority of the steers fed by the breeders are turned out fat at from two to three years old. Housing of Feeding Cattle. — ■ "Feeding cattle are, for the most part. tied up in stalls. This plan economises both space and litter. But few graziers have any option in this matter. For my own part, if roomy well-ventilated stalls are available, I should much prefer this to any other accommodation for feeding cattle for a length of time, as by this means they are enabled to lie at their ease, and can groom themselves with their tongues when necessary. For store stock I prefer small open yards, placing a few animals that agree well together in each. System of House - feeding. — " We give our breeding cattle a feed of straw or hay the first thing in the morning, about 7 A.M., in the dead of winter. Be- tween 8 and 9 they get about 20 lb. of turnips, swedes or mangels. After this they are turned on to the pastures (ex- cept in the case of young calves), the time they remain out varying according to the state of the weather and the quantity of grass on the land. On their return to the yards they get a feed of roots, and afterwards are supplied with dry food as in the morning. Should the weather be very cold or wet, a small supply of dry food is given before the roots, and a fur- ther supply is given the last thing in the evening. Both hay and straw are supplied without chaffing. Weight of Devon Steers. — "Steers are generally fed at from two to three years old. Ordinary animals in this neigh- bourhood, such as are turned out for the Christmas markets, would average from 100 to 120 stones (8 lb.) each. Of course, animals that have received extra attention for exhibition would far exceed these weights. Mr John Bult, of Kingston, near Taunton, had a Devon cow fed on hay, grass, and roots only — no cake or corn of any description — whose dead weight was 1448 lb. ; and an ox of this breed, bred and fed by Mr J. D. Han- cock, of Halse, also near Taunton, weighed 1788 lb. This one was worked in the plough until the last 12 months, was grazed on the pastures without artificial food, and was stall-fed for three months only. These two, of course, are excep- tional weights." PEEPAEATION OF SHOW CATTLE. The preparation of cattle for the show- yard is in a special sense a continuous FATTENING CATTLE IN WINTER 387 process throughout the year. It would be inconvenient to break up its treatment into the " seasonable divisions " observed in the main body of the work. It may therefore be well to introduce here what is to be said on the subject. The follow- ing notes upon the preparation of cattle for both breeding and fat stock shows are from the pen of Mr Robert Bruce, Great Smeaton, Northallerton, Yorkshire, than whom no one is better qualified to speak on the subject. Preparing Cattle for Breeding Shows. By far the largest amount of prize- money given for breeding cattle at the shows in the United Kingdom is allotted to shorthorns. In writing, therefore, as to the preparation of a young animal for the breeding shows, one naturally has a shorthorn in one's mind's eye. And here the difficulty at once crops up as to the typical animal one has in view dur- ing the process of preparation. Inutility of "Fancy " Cattle. — Every unprejudiced authority will acknowledge that too many of our shorthorn breeders have been off the track for some time past. They have, speaking generally, been persistently working against rather than with the laws of nature, and, as a natu- ral consequence, have "come off second best." Breeding from pedigree solely — ^mating cattle because their pedigrees ought to make a good blend — judging ani- mals by their herd-book names and num- bers, in place of also looking at them, as the founders of the breed did, from the point of view of their individual merit — ^too many of our modern breeders have established a type of excellence of their own, the utility of which, to put it mildly, is not recognised by more prac- tical breeders, whose aim is to produce a useful rent-paying class of cattle. Nevertheless, those breeders of the modern school often act as judges, and if one means to win, one must show cattle that will be appreciated by those judges. No matter what the ordinary rent- paying farmer may say, no matter what the butcher may say, no matter, indeed, what the millions of meat-consumers may say, the " high-class judge " of breeding animals at our great shows will accord prizes as he thinks right. Nor does it end here : the lesser lights, taking their texts from their masters in the profes- sion, preach sermons over animals in many a local show, and award prizes in a way to completely upset practical opinions". This animal was set aside on account of its hair or handle, that animal on account of its style and character, and another preferred, that by the farmer, the butcher, or the meat-consumer would be regarded as of infinitely less value. Different Types. — Nor, in the short- horn world, even amongst what may be termed the pedigree men, is there per- fect accord. We have factions, even amongst them. We have the " Bates " and the " Booth." What the Booth men like in an animal, wants style and charac- ter to a Bates man ; and what a Bates man likes, a Booth man says is of no value to an animal of the cattle kind. The Type to Cultivate. — This being so, might we not assume a middle course ? Might we not go, as many of our most successful breeders of prize shorthorns have gone, for good animals, animals that are accepted as good by the three great authorities we have mentioned above — the practical rent -paying farmer, the butcher, and the meat-consumer. What, it may here be asked, do they say ? Are they enthusiastic about hair, handle, touch, style, and character. They like hair at the season it is needed, they like handle that indicates flesh or muscle, they Hke the touch that keeps one's fingers off the bones, and they certainly know that one steer in a market can show himself when another never looks his best. What do too many of our famous breeders say 1 They want to find, even in the summer season, hair artificially kept on ; they like " handle " that indicates fat — an imsale- able product in these days ; they like full flanks and prominent briskets in prefer- ence, it would almost seem, to wide chests and well-covered ribs. Choosing the Calf. — In selecting a calf for showyard purposes, we would look well at its parents, choosing our sub- ject from strong-constitutioned, healthy, good-looking sires and dams. Calfhood of the Shovsr Animal. — In ordinary practice the calf ought to run with its dam for eight or nine months, and before being weaned it should be learned to eat cake, and perhaps bran. There can be no doubt milk is a great factor in 388 CATTLE IN WINTER. feeding for breeding shows, and many successful professional showmen depend much upon it. To make a calf that has suckled its dam, or even a nurse cow, for eight or nine months, take to mUk from a fresh nurse or drink it from a pail, is a most difficult matter. Means must there- fore be adopted at an early age to accus- tom the youngster to a change of millr. This may be done if we foster the future showyard " crack " on the pail ; and once started to drink mUk from a pail, it will continue to do so through life whenever it gets the chance. It, however, requires the greatest care and much labour to raise calves on the pail to have the same bloom as suckling calves; and consequently, when expense is not so much a consideration as the attainment of the object in view, calves are early accustomed to a change of nurse cows, and so educated, so to speak, to suck any cow. While under the ordinary practice we would wean our calves intended for show animals at eight or nine months old, those under the milk treatment would continue to get milk in addition to the other food we shall speak of. Assuming, therefore, that we have calves at nine months old — and to be a proper age for showing at our great national societies they would be at this age in the autumn — they ought to be early under shelter. Without being kept close or over-warm, they ought to have a dry comfortable crib to lie in, as, indeed, all youngsters should have. It is nothing but a waste of food to subject cattle of any age, and more especially young grow- ing stock, to outside life in our long cold nights of autumn, not to speak of winter. Exercise. — With a comfortable crib to shelter in, our young breeding animal ought to have plenty of outdoor exercise to develop its muscles, and, under such artificial training, to strengthen its con- stitution. It is of the utmost import- ance that all animals intended for breed- ing shows should walk well, and to en- sure that they do so, a considerable amount of outdoor exercise is imperative. No doubt such exercise hinders to some extent their rapid development, but no amount of bodily development vidll win in a breeding show if the animal has weak or crooked legs to walk upon. First "Winter Rations. — Two to three lb. of linseed-cake, i lb. of cotton-cake, 3 lb. of bran and 2 of barley and bean meal, with a few roots, and oat-straw ad libitum, may be put as the first winter's feed per day. To an animal full of muscle or flesh that does not get milk, i lb. of lin- seed per day, bruised and scalded with boiling water and made into a thin drink- able jelly, may be of great use ; but to many this would be over-rich in fattening properties, tending to develop unevenness of flesh, or what in showyard language is known as " bumps." After the first winter, as the animal increases in size and age, the diet ought to be increased ; but it must always be borne in mind, that in every case of cattle-feeding not one ounce more should be given than will be eaten up. Access should at all times be provided to water and salt. Summer Feeding. — In the su mm er months, animals intended for showing ought not to be subjected to too much sun and heat, and instead of grazing out during the day, if at all convenient, they ought to get a run out on a sweet pas- ture at night. Instead of roots, their winter fare, they ought to get such a supply of grass and green food as they will consume with relish ; and it will be found in practice that now and again, while on green food, a bite of good dry hay or fresh good oat-straw will be greed- ily picked up. Baneful Influence of Sugar. — ^And here we may speak of the baneful prac- tice some feeders pursue of giving sugar to breeding stock which are being pre- pared for shows. As surely as it is given in any considerable quantity, so surely wiU breeding disappointment follow. Let professional men explain this as they may, our practical experience has clearly proved that such is the case. Milk-fed Shovsr Animals. — With these observations we may leave this subject, but would say a few words upon our milk-fed animals, to be seen at our great national shows. We have tried to represent faithfully the standpoint many of our judges take as their ideas of ex- cellence ; and if our remarks are under- stood, it will at once be seen that what is required to win prizes can always be sup- pUed. Much as practical men condemn FATTENING CATTLE IN WINTER 389 what we may term a soft " handle," and much as even those same recognised breeding - show judges would, if called upon to adjudicate in a fat-stock show, deprecate such a handle, this soft unde- sirable handle does, all the same, win at the breeding shows. To ensure this soft handle, animals must almost live on milk, after nature has provided them with teeth to bite and eat instead of suck ; and living on milk they win the prizes. We do not hesitate to say, however, that the day is not far distant when what is now termed a hard handle will be looked upon as indicating sound con- stitution, and consequently muscle or flesh ; while that peculiar, soft hair and handle, now so much admired, will be avoided as an indication of tuberculosis, disease, and untimely death. Preparing Fat-sJiow Cattle. We can well remember the late Mr M'Combie of Tillyfour buying, against great opposition, a wonderful two-year- old steer at a sale when a well-known breeder and feeder was retiring from farming. The animal referred to had been well kept from birth, and no doubt had got an extra amount of good things before the sale, and when sold was really as fit in May as most showyard two- year-olds of that day would have been in December. Meeting Mr M'Combie some months after, we inquired about the steer, and the old gentleman said, " Oh, we are taking the poison out of him." Knowing that by this he meant he was keeping him on " short commons," we re- remarked that, with such treatment the steer could not be fit for showing at Christmas. "Ah," said Mr M'Combie, " he is such a good one, we can afford to wait a year or two to bring him out, as he is sure to tell a tale when he is an old one." Early Maturity at Fat - stock Shows. — ^This occurred only some twenty years ago, and yet since then, in spite of what some people say as to things in the agricultural world standing stUl, great changes have taken place. Speaking of fat shows, we would class them aU under the head of Smithfield, one of the best- managed and most instructive shows in the world. In preparing cattle for Smithfield shows nowadays, there could be no years wasted in " taking poison out of them," not even months, as, with the general approval of all practical breeders and feeders of stock, we shall soon see the classes for steers over three years old discontinued in the Smithfield prize- lists. This being the case, it is at once apparent that no time has to be lost from date of birth, if one is to bring out an animal fit to win at fat-stock shows. The Calf. — Let us then suppose we start with a calf Ukely to grow into a Smithfield winner, and point out how he should be fed and treated till he appear at Smithfield. In doing so, it must be borne in mind that one that has to be shown in the class under two, and one that is not intended to be brought out till nearly three, years old, ought to some extent to be treated differently. This, however, we shall notice as we proceed. Let us, however, hark back to the calf likely to grow into a Smithfield winner, and see if we can in some way define what this fellow should be at the outset. In the first place, he ought to be the son of good parents — parents full of flesh, and we must not mix up flesh with fat in thinking of an animal full of flesh, — and therefore with strong con- stitution. He must, even when quite young, stand well on his legs, be wide in front and behind, and yet in no way bandy-legged ; in other words, his " legs should be well outside of him." Along with this, his back should be straight and not too long, his loins strong and wide, and his breast and twists deep and full. His head vpill, to some extent, in- dicate his feeding powers,, and ought to be wide and not too long, with large ears and big placid eyes, set wide apart. The most common system in rearing such stock is to allow the calf to suck its dam for eight or nine months; but breeders are to be met with who raise their calves on the pail, so that they can continue to give the milk, which they do, throughout their whole showyard lives. There can be no doubt of the wonderful effects of milk on all animals, and more especially, as we have seen, on those in- tended for breeding shows ; but in prac- tice we have found it to be quite unnec- 390 CATTLE IN WINTEK. essary expense in preparing stock for fat shows. Given, therefore, our supposed steer calf running with his dam through his first summer on a fairly good pasture, we would recommend that towards the autumn he should have an opportunity to learn to eat cake — that is, if this habit has not been acquired before he went to grass in the spring months, when he began to need other food than his mother's milk. He should then be grad- ually weaned, being tied in a stall alongside his dam for a few weeks, allowing him to suckle her at first three times a-day, reducing it to twice, and afterwards from once every day to every other day, till his dam is dried off. By this plan of weaning fretting will be obviated, and he can then be taken away and put in a loose-box by himself, having had an opportunity to eat small quantities of meal, cake, roots, and hay when alongside his dam. A well-developed bullock at this stage — say, when he is nine to ten months old — ought to girth about 5 feet, and in practice we have for thirty years adhered to the system of keeping an exact register of each feeding animal's girth on the ist of each month. There is no surer way of knowing how stock are doing, month by month, than for those who see them daily to judge by the expansion of their girth-measurement. The Bullock's First Winter. — Now that our bullock has to depend entirely upon himself, let us put strongly and clearly our great disbelief in condiments and spices. We know we are treading on many toes, but nevertheless we have found in practice that, as a rule, those animals that need any of those condi- ments are of little good. We do not for a moment deny that many of our show- yard winners have been fed upon food seasoned with condiments, but we hold distinctly that most, if not all, of those winners would have done quite as well, with ordinary care in feeding, without them. Be this as it may, we can point to the most successful feeder of these times— a pupil of ours — ^who, through his very extensive experience of winning the champion prizes in all the fat shows of any account in England, time after time, has never used an ounce of such compounds. The " Secret " of Successful Feed- ing. — Before speaking of the kind of food the bullock should get, we would at once give, in a single sentence, the whole secret of successful feeding for the Smithfield shows. In feeding, never give an animal a chance of leaving food. This is the whole secret, and it is, to say the least, amusing to hear even practical people talking as if a successful feeder must have some secret he kept to him- self, when all the time they may very likely be using exactly the same food vrith different and less -paying results. To be a successful feeder a man must study the habits, the temperament, and constitution of the different animals un- der his care. If he do this, he will find that not two animals can be fed alike, and fed as they should be. One will take more of one description of food than another; one would eat more of a particular food than it ought to get, while others, to go on as desired, must get all they can take of the different ingredients in their bill of fare. Having determined, principally by the state of their bowels, the quantities of the different foods to be given, the great secret of the business comes in, in not giving an animal one ounce more of anything, at any time, than it eats at once, and eats with relish. The moment there is the slightest indication to sur- feiting, there ought to be a decrease of supplies. The "Winter Feeding and Treat- ment. — To return to our young bullock in his loose-box, his daily fare when once he is fairly started, say, in the autumn, when he is ten months old, should be — at 6 A.M., 2 lb. of best fresh-made linseed- cake, with a bite of good hay. At 7 A.M., he ought to have a turn in a small paddock for an hour, and at 8 get about 15 to 20 lb. of good turnips or other roots, with a small quantity of sweet oat- straw or hay. From 8 to 9 he ought to be well brushed and cleaned, particular atten- tion being given to see that his skin is kept clean. We have a very strong belief in keeping all animals clean, and have found that irritation in the skin. FATTENING CATTLE IN "WINTER. 391 arising from whatever cause, hinders thriving and feeding. All our young stock, after being put in their win- ter quarters, are dressed over with a weak solution of tobacco-juice, with lots of soft soap. A few days after this has been applied to the ordinary stock, they are caught and well curried and brushed, so that the " scurf " which the dressing raises from the skin may be removed. With cattle preparing for shows we take more pains, and wash them well with hot water and soap, followed by a cold-water douche three or four days after they have been dressed. One dressing is generally sufficient in a season; but sometimes it is necessary to repeat it in spring after an autumn dressing, with those animals that are under full pressure of feeding. During their whole feeding life we strongly recommend washing now and again, whenever their skins get at all dirty, so that after feeding they may rest quietly, undisturbed by any skin irritation. From 8.30 to 12 our bullock ought to rest undisturbed. At 12 to i he ought to get about 3 lb. of linseed-cake, with a fresh bite of hay, to be followed soon after with 15 to 20 lb. of roots. In all cases we advise the roots being put through a sheep root-cutter, as this ob- viates any risk of choking. From i till 5 he ought to be left undisturbed, and at the latter hour again get about 20 lb. of roots, with a little hay or oat-straw in his rack. At 8 p.m. he should get the principal feed of the day, consisting of, say, 2 to 3 lb. of bran and 4 lb. barley and bean meal. The meal by many is given dry, but we prefer swelling it with water at least four hours before it is given. If we add that in each loose-box the Fig. 139. — Cattle-cart. animals have access to water, while there is always a lump of rock-salt in the manger, we have defined in a general way our bullock's daily fare till the root- season is over. Summer Feeding. — ^As soon as cut grass can be obtained, if we substitute grass for roots, we then fix the summer diet. At the same time, as our bullock increases in age and size, his food should be increased, so that by the time he is two and a half years old, he may be eating, say, 7 lb. of linseed-cake, 4 lb. of bran, and 6 or 7 lb. of meal, with per- haps a little more weight of turnips. If the steer is to be exhibited under two years of age, he ought, for four months before being brought out, to get as much cake, meal, and bran as he can readily consume, while if he is to go on for an- other year, he must be kept considerably under what he could eat. At I year and 10 to 11 months old, a good buUock should girth about 7 feet 3 inches, and weigh 13^^ to 14 cvrt. At 2 years and 10 to 11 months a well- fed steer should girth about 8 feet 6 inches, and weigh from 18 to iBJ^ cwt. The best steer under three years we have ever seen weighed at 2 years and 10 months almost 20 cwt., and girthed 9 feet. Size and weight are a poor criterion by which to prove a good animal, as 392 HOESES IN WINTER. very often big ones are rough made, with lots of bone and ofial, and wanting very much on those parts of their bodies where they should carry the most valuable meat. The animal, however, to which we refer above was exceptionally good on all points where a good one should be strong. Cattle -cart. — Heavy show cattle un- able to walk comfortably are conveyed in a float or cattle-cart, such as that (Crosskill's) shown in fig. 139. HOESES IN WINTER HOUSING AND "WINTER MANAGEMENT OF FARM-HORSES. Simeusious of Stable. — The stand- ard width of well-constructed stables is 18 feet 6 inches inside the walls; and it, of course, varies in length according to the extent and requirements of the farm. The side walls should be 8 feet high, from the level of the floor to the top of the wall-plate. A low stable is very inconvenient and unhealthy. The amount of cubic space allowed to each horse varies greatly — from as Kttle as 500 or 600 to over 2000 cubic feet. Usually about 1200 to 1400 cubic feet will be enough; less than 1000 is very undesirable. The doors should be 4 feet wide. Stable "Windows. — All stables should be well lighted : the windows should be 3 feet wide, and at least 4 feet high. The upper half should be glazed with rough corrugated glass, and the lower half fitted with wood arranged to slide, so as to admit, when desired, a large current of air. All the windows should be placed in the front of the stable — that is, in the wall behind horses. A com- mon form of win- dow in stables is shown in fig. 140. The open- ing is 4j^ feet in height by 3 feet in width. The framework is composed of a dead part a, shutters 6 6 to Fig. 140. — Stolid ivindow. oi I foot in depth; 2 open on hinges, and fasten inside with a thumb -catch; and c, a glazed sash 2 feet in height, with three rows of panes. The object of this form of window is, that generally a number of small articles are thrown upon the sole of a work- horse stable window — such as short-ends, straps, &c., which are used only occa- sionally, and desired to be at hand when wanted. This confused mixture of things, which it is not easy for a farmer to overrule, especially in a busy season, prevents the shutters being opened, as it is scarcely possible to do it without first clearing the sole of every article; and rather than find another place for them, the window remains shut. " Hit-and-Miss " "Window. — ^A still better plan for the lower part of a stable window is to have it on what is known as the "hit-and-miss" arrangement. This can be provided as follows : boards 2j^ to 3 inches broad and i^ inch thick are nailed upright on the lower part of the window at intervals of 2^ to 3 inches, so that a board and an open space alternate. Another frame of simi- lar boards and open spaces is fitted over this part of the window, so as to slide in grooves backwards and forwards, and thus, when the lower part of the window is open for ventilation, the bars of the moving frame are opposite the fixed bars, and when close they cover the spaces between the fixed bars. The ven- tilation can be modified by leaving only part of the open spaces uncovered by the moving frame. A cupboard in a corner, or a press in a wall, suggests itself for containing such small articles ; but the front wall of the stable, in which it would be convenient to make a press, is occupied by the har- ness hanging against it. When a dead piece of wood, as a, is put into stable HOUSING AND WINTER MANAGEMENT OF FARM-HORSES. 393 ■windows, small articles remain on the sole, while the shutters are easily opened and shut over them. Iiarge v. Small Statoles.— Some im- agine that twelve horses are too great a number in one stable, and that two stables of six stalls each would be better. Provided the stable is properly ventilated, no injury can arise to a larger or a smaller number of horses in it ; and there are practical inconveniences in having two stables on a farm. These are, that neither the farmer nor farm-steward can personally superintend the grooming of horses in two stables; that the orders given to the ploughmen by the steward must be repeated in both stables ; and that either all the ploughmen must be collected in one of the stables to receive their orders, or, part of them not hearing the orders given to the rest, there cannot be that common understanding as to the work to be done which should exist among all classes of work-people on a farm. Stalls for Horses. — ^Another parti- cular in which most stables are impro- perly fitted up, is the narrowness of the stalls, only 5 feet 3 inches being allowed, in old-fashioned stables, for an ordinary- sized work-horse. A narrow stall is not only injurious to the horse itself, by confining it peremptorily to one posi- tion, in which it has no liberty to bite or scratch itself, should it feel so in- clined, but it materially obstructs the ploughman, in the grooming, in supply- ing the horse with food, and in putting on and off the harness. No work-horse should have a narrower stall than 6 feet from centre to centre of the travis, in order that it may stand at ease, or lie down at pleasure with comfort. This is the vsddth provided in well-constructed modern stables. The standing space in the stall should be 6 feet in length from the manger to the outside of the heel-post. The divi- sion or travis should be 7 feet high at the front, and 5 feet high at the heel. The top and bottom rails are built into the wall in front, and morticed into the heel- post, and the division boards are i}( inch thick ; and, to give greater strength, two pieces of wood, each 4 inches wide and 1)4 inch thick, with their edges tapered off, are fixed directly opposite each other on these boards, these two pieces being securely spiked together. In many stables the hind-posts of tra^ vises are of cast-iron, rotmded in front, grooved in the back as far as the travis- boards reach, and run with lead at the lower ends into stone blocks. These posts are most durable and able to with- stand the kicks of the horses, some of which are apt to strike out when groomed. When wooden posts are used, they are generally fastened at the upper ends to battens stretching across the stable from the ends of the couple-legs where there is no hay-loft, and from the joists of the flooring where there is, and sunk at the lower ends in stone blocks placed in the ground. The head-posts are often divided into two parts, which clasp the travis- boards between them, and are kept together vsdth screw-bolts and nuts, their lower ends being also sunk into stone blocks. Their upper ends are fas- tened to the battens or joists when the hind^posts are of wood. In many cases the heel-posts are simply imbedded firmly in the ground, perhaps filled into a cut- ting in a large stone. The top bar of the travis should be lined over with sheet-iron, to prevent the horses from biting the wood; and a small plate of iron should be fixed to timber hind -posts for striking the currycomb. Swung Bale v. Travis. — Some prefer swung bales to fixed partitions as divi- sions for stalls. Dr George Fleming says : " For stalls separated by parti- tions more width is required than for those divided by swung bales. For sani- tary and economical reasons bales are preferable to partitions, inasmuch as they are considerably less expensive, allow the horses more liberty to move about and get up and lie down, facilitate the circulation of air through the stable, and permit cleaning and disinfection to be more easily carried out; in case of fire there is also much less danger, while at all times the horse will be much more easily seen. The bale consists of a thick plank the length of the stall, slung from the manger in front, and from a joist or beam behind; it usually has a shorter plank suspended from its lower border towards its posterior end, and this re- ceives the kicks which the horse may feel 394 HORSES IN WINTER. inclined to give it. The bale is suspended about 2% to 3 feet from the ground." i Ploors of Stables. — The floor of all stables ' should be made hard, to resist the action of the horses' feet. That of a work-horse stable is most frequently- causewayed with small round stones, em- bedded in sand. This is a cheap but not a a Hind-posts. h b Head-posts, c c Stone blocks for head- Fig. 141. — Stall for a ivork-Iwrse stable. h Sparred bottom of hay- rack. i Ring for stall-collar. fc Com-manger. I Bar across hay-rack, m Causeway in the stall. II Stone gutter for urine. Causeway of roadway. p Two spars from batten to batten for fodder. d d Battens from wall to wall e. // Travis-boards. g g Curb-stones for travis- boards. good mode of paving. Squared blocks of whinstone (trap-rock, such as basalt, greenstone, until the stopping hour, which is usually 6 p.m. The stable has had but half litter all day, since its cleansing out in the morn- ing, and the horses have stood on the stones at mid-day. This is a good plan for purifying the stable during the day, and is not so much attended to as it deserves. Fresh straw is brought by the men from the straw-barn, and shaken up with the old litter to make the stalls comfortable for the horses to lie down upon for the night. Leaving the horses with their fodder, and shutting the stable- doors, the men retire to their homes, to whatever occupation they please, until the hour at which horses receive their suppers, which is usually 8 p.m. Supper - hour. — When 8 p.m. — the supper-hour — arrives, the steward, pro- vided with light in the lantern, fig. 117, summons the men to the stable to give the horses a grooming for the night, and their suppers. Lights hang at conveni- ent distances behind the horses, to let the men see to groom the horses. Par- affin lamps of improved and safe con-# struction are now most frequently used. Grooming Horses. — The grooming consists first in currying the horse vsdth the curry-comb 6, fig. 147, to free him of the dirt adhering to the hair, and which, being now dry, is easily removed. A wisping of straw removes the roughest of the dirt loosened by the curry-comb. The legs ought to be thor- oughly vrisped — not only to make them clean, but to dry up any moisture that may have been left in the evening. At this time the feet should be picked 404 HOESES IN WINTER. clean, by the foot-picker a, of any dirt adhering between the shoe and foot. The brush c is then used, to remove the remaining and finer portions of dust from the hair, and it is cleared from the brush by a few rasps along the curry-comb. The wisping and brushing, if done with dust, and dirt ; for finer-coated horses a good bristle-brush, supplemented by the wisp and rubber, will suffice. He re- gards the brush as the best appliance for cleaning the skin thoroughly, and he points out how essential it is, for the health of the animal, that the skin be kept clean, so that it may at all times be in a fit condition to perform its import- ant functions. Rubtiiig "Wet or Heated Horses. — If a horse comes into the stable heated or wet, it should at once be well rubbed down with a handful of straw. If it has been excessively warm, it may be well to throw a rug over it till it has regained its normal temperature. It may perhaps, after two or three hours, or sooner, break out into a cold perspiration, and if so it should again be well dried. Water-brush. — ^For washing the legs Fig- I47' —Curry-coittb, brushy foot-bicker^ and inane-coitib. some force and dexterity, with a combing of the tail and mane with the comb d, should render the horse pretty clean. But there are more ways than one of groom- ing a horse, as may be witnessed by the skimming and careless way in which some ploughmen do it. It is true that the rough coat of a farm-horse in winter is not easily cleaned, and especially in a work-stable where much dust floats about and no horse-clothes are in use; but, rough as it is, it should be clean if not deek. It is the duty of the steward or farmer to ascertain whether the groom- ing has been efficiently done. A slap of <^he hand upon the horse will soon let be known the existence of loose dust in the hair. Attendance at this time will ^ve the student an insight into the manner in which farm-horses ought to be cleaned and fed and generally treated in the stable. Brushing preferable to Combing. — The use of the iron curry-comb is dis- approved by many. Dr Fleming says it "should never, as a rule, be applied to the skin of horses." For long rough coats, he considers nothing is better than a good dandy-brush to remove dandruff, Fig. 148. — Water-brush. and heels of a horse, a water-brush, fig. 148, is very useful. Littering Horses. — The straw of the bedding is then shaken up with a stable fork, fig. 149, which is most handy for shaking up straw when about 5 feet in length, and the prongs Least dangerous for the legs of horses when blunt. The prongs terminate ina tinedriven into a looped ash shaft. This mode of mount- ing a fork is better than with socket and nail, which are apt to become loose and catch the straw. Fig. 150 is a steel-prong- ed fork, and is an ex- cellent instrument for working among straw. Com^nltr^-/ork. The horses then get their feed of bruised oats and hay or straw, after which the lights are extinguished, and the stable- TKEATMENT OF FARM-HORSES. 4PS Fig. ISO.— Steel straw-fork. doors barred and locked by the steward, who is custodier of the key. In some stables a bed is provided for a lad, that he may be present to relieve any accident or illness that may befall a horse. But where the stalls are pro- perly constructed, there is little danger of this. A Visit to the Cat- tle. — From the stable the steward takes the lantern, and, accom- panied by a few of the men, or by all — and of necessity by the cattle- man — -inspects all the courts and hammels to see if the cattle are well; and if it be moonlight, and any of the cattle on foot, apparently de- sirous of more food, the cattle-man gives them a few turnips. The byres in which cattle are feeding are also visited, and the fresh windlings of straw, laid up in reserve by the cattle- man, are now given them, any dung in the stalls drawn into the gutter, and the bedding shaken up with a fork. Cows, both the farmer's and servants', are visited and treated in like manner. BuUs, heifers in calf, and young horses, all are visited at this time, to satisfy the mind, before retiring to rest, that every creature is well and in safety. Working Horses in Winter. — ^The horses are themselves the better of being out every day; but the kind of work they should do daily must be determined by the state of the weather and soil. In wet, frosty, or snowy weather, the soil cannot be touched; and the threshing and carrying of corn to market or railway station may then be effected. In frost, the dung from the courts may be taken out to the fields in which it is proposed to make dunghills. When heavy snow falls, nothing can be done out of doors with horses, except threshing com, when the machine is impelled by horse-power. In very heavy rain neither men nor horses should be exposed to it. When fair above, however cold the air, one or another of the above outdoor works should be done by the horses. It is better for them to work at least one yoking a-day than to stand idle in the stable. Exeroise for Horses. — Work -horses soon fret when confined in the stable even for one day — on Sundays, for exam- ple ; and when the confinement is much prolonged, they even become restless. When such occasions happen, as in con- tinued snowstorms, the horses should be ridden out for some time every day, and groomed as carefully as when at work. Exercise is necessary to prevent thicken- ing of the heels, a shot of grease, or a common cold. Fat horses, unaccustomed to exercise, are liable to molten grease. Work for Bad Weather. — Such bad weather affords a favourable opportunity for cleaning harness, carts, the bushes of cart-wheels, the implement-house, any neglected place in the steading, and the roads around it. Breeding Horses. — :It is advisable for a farmer to breed his own horses. On a farm which employs 3, 4, or more pairs, two mares might easily bear foals every year, and perform their share of the work at the same time, without injury to themselves. The advantage of breeding working stock at home is that, having been bom and brought up upon the ground, they not only become natu- ralised to the products of its soil, and thrive the better upon them, but familiar- ised with every person and field upon it, and are broke into work with ease and safety. Working Mares in Foal. — Mares in foal should work together, and be driven by a steady ploughman. Their work should be confined to ploughing in vdnter and spring when big with young, for the shaking of the shafts of a cart, or going round in the horse-course, is quite unsuited to their condition. When ploughing cannot be performed, their driver should assist the other men at their carts with manual labour while his mares rest. There is nothing better for a mare in foal than to keep her at easy work till within a day or two of foaling. Complete idleness is bad for mares in foal, although some give them rest for a few days — not more than a week — before foaling. Old Men and Brood-mares.-^ — A good plan, followed by some farmers, is well adapted to elderly married ploughmen, in 4o6 HORSES IN WINTER having brood-mares and old horses under their charge, and keeping them always at home, ploughing and doing easy jobs, and never allo-wing them to go with loaded carts upon the highway. This subdivision of labour has the advan- tage that odd sorts of work are done by the old men and mares without trenching upon the time of the more eflScient teams. Weaning Toals. — Foals are usually weaned when from 5 to 6 months old. Before then the foal will have learned to eat grass, and most likely also some concentrated food such as bran, oats, or linseed-cake. Some breeders of high- class horses begin giving grain and cake to foals when they are little more than a month old, but this is the exception. It is undesirable to force the very young animals ; and if the dam has a fair supply of milk, no extra feeding will be required for either the mare or the foal (unless the mare be hard-worked, in which case she, of course, must have rich concentrated food) until six weeks or a month prior to weaning, when a little bruised oats should be given. This will help to pre- pare the mare for her full share of hard work when she is turned on to it, and will also accustom the foal to other means of subsistence than its mother's milk. When the foal is weaned it should — if the grass season is over — ^be put into a loose-box by itself, where it should receive small and frequent allowances of cut grass or other green food, and 2 or 3 lb. per day of bruised oats. Green food of some kind should be given at this time — there is nothing better than cut grass — and fresh water should always be within its reach or offered to it frequently. If it is not too late in the season, the foal may be put right into a piece of sweet grass. The Hon. E. Coke says : " When the foal is weaned, it should be put on a nice sweet pasture that has been saved purposely, and then fed once arday with a mixture of 2 lb. of boiled barley, 2 lb. bruised oats, and 2 lb. of chaff, which will cost 6d. a-day.' Wintering Young Horses. — In the south of England young horses are kept out on the fields all the year round, and in many cases do not even have a shed in which to lie overnight. The Hon. E. Coke (Derbyshire), in speaking of the wintering of his Shire bred foals, says : " I do not care much about there being a hovel or shed in the field, as my expe- rience is that the young things rarely make use of it, but will lie on the bare ground in preference. Of course it is desirable that there should be good shel- ter — either a high hedge or a plantation — on the side from whence the cold winds blow." Mr Frederick Street, Somersham, Hun- tingdon, strongly recommends, where practicable, the advisability of young animals being raised on pasture instead of in loose-boxes or warm yards. Late or delicate foals he would take inside, at least during night. He says : " I do not even care for a hovel for shelter, for how- ever severe the weather, in ninety-nine times out of a hundred you will find the foals in the open. I have never known a case of injury from eating frosted grass. By this treatment the growth of bone, muscle, and hair will be encouraged, the constitution strengthened, the elasticity of action retained, whilst the danger of getting over on their joints, or flying at the hocks, is reduced to a minimum. Nine of my earliest foals have never been under shelter other than hedges this win- ter, whilst the very late foals lie in a cool yard at night and run on a pasture in the daytime."^ Housing necessary in Cold Dis- tricts. — But in the colder districts the young as well as the adult horses have to be housed in winter, at any rate over- night. When the weather is not wet or very cold the young animals should have a run out daily, and be brought back to a dry but airy bed at night. Covered sheds afford excellent shelter for young horses in winter nights, and where these are not available, loose-boxes or hammels are preferable to stalls. Exercise for Young Horses. — It is specially important that young horses should have plenty of exercise, for this is essential for the development of strength and activity. Contrive, if possible, to let them have a run out every day ; and if they . should come in wet rub them down with a handful of straw. Handling Young Horses. — Young ^ Cart Sorses, p. 11. TEEATMENT OF FAEM-HOESES. 407 horses should be frequently handled by their attendant, ■vv;ho by his kindly hand- ling should make himself welcome and familiar amongst them. Mr E. O. Pringle says : " It is a good plan to put a plain halter upon each, the short shank of which being sometimes trodden upon, accustoms them to a check on their movements afterwards, without exciting any feeling of alarm, or any idea of re- sistance. They should also be occasion- ally tied up to the manger, which, along with a rack, is placed at the inside back- wall of the shed. It is also well that they should be accustomed to have their feet lifted, and the sole gently beaten with a wooden mallet, as this will render them more easy to handle when the time comes that they must be shod. Many people never think of training a colt till they put him to work ; but training should be commenced at the earliest stage of the animal's existence. And if this is done in a steady, quiet, careful manner, it will prevent a vast amount of serious trouble at a later period. In the treatment of the colt, as well as of the mature animal, kindness should be the ruling principle. "1 Young horses are not regularly groomed, but they will be all the better of a turn of the brush now and again. They should be rubbed with straw, if wet, and any clay or earth adhering to their hair should be removed. Colts and fillies may be kept together their first winter, but afterwards entire colts should be kept by themselves. Nomenclature of Horses. — The names given to the horse are these : The new-born is called a foal ; the male being a colt foal, the female a. filly foal. After being weaned, foals are called simply colt OT filly, according to the sex, which the colt retains until broken in for work, when he is a horse, and remains so all his life ; and the filly is changed into mare. When the colt is not castrated he is an en- tire colt, which he retains until he is fully grown or serves mares, when he is a stal- lion or entire horse; when castrated he is a gelding, and it is in this state that he is a draught-horse. A mare, when served, is said to be covered hy or stinted to a particular stallion ; and after she has ' Live Stock of the Farm, 317. borne a foal she is a hroodrmare until she ceases to bear, when she is a barren mare or eill mare; and when dry of milk she is yeld. A mare, while with young, is in foal. Stallions are sometimes worked. Work for Ploughmen in Bad "Weather. — There are various ways of employing ploughmen in winter, when the horses are laid idle from the state of the weather. Some farmers always em- ploy them to dress corn for the market. Ploughmen may be employed in thresh- ing corn with the mill, when not engaged with their horses ; but to lay horses idle for the sake of employing their drivers at barn-work is poor economy; and with the improved machinery for dressing, ele- vating, and sacking grain, there is now little hand -work in barns compared to former times. When all the roads of the farm are blown up with snow, the men may be usefully employed in cutting roads to the field of turnips where the sheep are feeding, or to that in which it is proposed to make a dunghill. Ser- vices of this sort may even be required on the highways, to the extent they pass through the farm, when it is determined to open the road for the public conveni- ence. The men may assist the shepherd to open channels in the snow among the stripped turnips, for the sheep to get at them, and in carrying hay to the ewes. In heavy falls of rain, and sudden breaking-up of snowstorms, rivulets and ditches often overflow the arable groimd on each side, to the injury of new wheat, or souring of ploughed land. It is the duty of the hedger to attend to the ditches ; but the exertions of no one man are adequate to stem a torrent of water. Small rivers, on a sudden breaking-up of frost, bring down ice, which, on accumu- lating at sharp turns in them, form dammings of water, which, finding vent over banks or embankments, destroy the soil on either side. Where such an inci- dent happens, the men should be pre- pared with proper instruments, to break and guide the shoals of ice, as a means of averting more damage. Such occupations are quite befitting the strong men ; and if the steward be on the outlook for such casualties, he may save much valuable property to his master in a severe winter. Intelligence of Horses. — The horse is an intelligent animal, and seems to 4o8 HOESES IN WINTER. delight in the society of man. It is re- marked, by those who have much to do with blood-horses, that when at liberty, and seeing two or more persons standing conversing together, they will approach, and seem to wish to listen to the conver- sation. The farm-horse will not do this ; but he is quite obedient to caU, and re- cognises his name readily from that of his companion, and will not stir when desired to move until his own name is pronounced. He discriminates between the various sorts of work he has to do, and will apply his strength or skiU in the best way, whether in the threshing-mill, the cart, or the plough. He will walk very steadily towards a feering-pole, and halt when he has reached it. He seems also to have an idea of time. We have heard a horse neigh daily about lo min- utes before the time of loosening from work in the evening, whether in summer or winter. He is capable of distinguish- ing the tones of the voice, whether spoken in anger or otherwise. Horses are fond of nearly all kinds of music. Work-horses have been known, even when at their corn, to desist eating, and listen attentively, with pricked and moving ears and steady eyes, to music on various instruments. We have seen a kilted Highlander playing the bagpipes riding on the back of a farm-horse, which . showed every sign of pleasure. The re- cognition of the sound of the bugle by a trooper, and the excitement occasioned in the hunter when the pack give tongue, are familiar instances of the power of particular sounds on horses, in recalling old associations to their memory. The horse's memory is very tenacious, as is evinced in the recognition of a stable in which he had at times been well treated. He is very susceptible of fear, and will refuse to pass into a road or a particular locality in which he had received a fright. TSaxasa Suitable for Farm-Horses. — As to the names of farm-horses, they should be short and emphatic, not exceed- ing two syllables, for long words are diffi- cult to pronounce when quick action is required. For geldings, Tom, Brisk, Jolly, Tinker, Dragon, Dobbin, Mason, Farmer, Captain ; for mares, Peg, Rose, Jess, Molly, Beauty, Mettle, Lily, seem good names. For stallions, they should be important, as Lofty, Matchem, Dia- mond, Blaze, Samson, Champion, Bold Briton, &c. FEEDING HOESES. The feeding of horses is quite as im- portant in its way as the feeding of cattle. The one is fed to perform work, the other to produce meat. In each case the performance will depend mainly upon how the matter of feeding has been at- tended to. Experience has shown ex- actly the amount of fuel a steam-engine of a certain number of horse-power will require to enable it to work up to its full capacity. Less fuel than that as- certained amount will cause a diminution of power ; more than that will certainly incur a waste of fuel, and may also prove injurious to the vital parts of the engine. The same principles apply to the feeding of horses. He who would feed his horses perfectly must know and consider not only the duties, powers, condition, and consequent food requirements of each animal, but also the composition and character of the available articles of food. It is only by properly adapting the one to the other that he can ensure the best possible results. Perfection may be beyond our reach. Let us get as near to it as possible. Articles of Food for Horses. — In the chapter on " Foods," information is given as to the composition and character of all the commodities used as food for horses. The reader is urged to study that information carefully before attempt- ing to arrange food rations for horses. Here may be enumerated the articles of food most largely used for horses — viz., hay, straw of various kinds, oats, wheat, barley, beans, Indian corn, bran, linseed, linseed - cake, turnips, mangels, carrots, parsnips, potatoes, furze (or gorse), silage, vetches, fresh grass, clover, &c. Food Requirements of Horses. It is far from easy to properly under- stand and determine the food require- ments of different horses — ^horses of vari- ous kinds, ages, conditions, and sizes, and performing different kinds of work. It is important in approaching this subject to consider carefully the functions FEEDING HORSES. 409 performed in the body by the different elements of food. As pointed out by Dr George Fleming (principal veterinary surgeon of the army), in his admirable and most instructive work, The Practical Ilm-se- Keeper,^ the non-nitrogenous ele- ments supply material for the mainten- ance of animal heat, and repair waste caused by the unceasing functions of respiration and transpiration ; the repar- ation of nervous and muscular vraste, and the function of general nutrition depend alone upon nitrogenous matter (albu- minoids) ; while the woody fibre or cel- lulose stimulates digestion, and assists in separating the richer ' particles of the food, so that the digestive juices may the more effectually play upon them ; and the ash and salines in food furnish ma- terial for renewal of the bodily frame, and assist in the elaboration of secretions. A portion of any excess (over immediate requirements) of non-nitrogenous matter consumed is stored up in the body of the horse in the form of fat, and will be re- absorbed and appropriated to maintain heat and respiration in the event of a deficiency in the supply of non-nitrogen- ous matter in the food at any time. No such safeguard is provided by the nitrog- enous (flesh and muscle forming) matter, for any excess of this given at any time passes away to the dung-heap at once. It is thus a matter of great importance for the healthy and economical feeding of horses that the utmost care should be exercised in allocating to a horse the proper quantity of nitrogenous elements (albuminoids) in food. Ration for Idle Horses. — The amount of various food elements required by a horse will, of course, vary vrith such con- ditions as the size, state, and duties of the animal. For a horse doing no work, the food, to properly maintain its bodily functions for twenty-four hours, should contain over 1 2 lb. dry matter, made up as follows : — Albuminoids . 8.36 oz. Fats 3.19 M Carbohydrates II. 4 lb. Salts . 0. 5 oz. Total food, free from water, 12.472 lb. It is calculated that this amount of food, ' Cassell & Co., Limited. SO composed, is capable of producing force equal to 27,855 foot-tons. "And if the weight of a horse," says Dr Fleming, " is estimated at 1000 lb., he would require 87.3 grains for each pound of body weight ; or the whole body would require about i-8oth part of its weight in food every twenty-four hours, the animal undergoing no toil of any kind. A pony weighing 440 lb. requires 46 grains of nitrogenous matter for each 2 lb. 3^ oz. of weight. This essential diet is sup- posed to be theoretically totally devoid of water, but in reality it would contain from 15 to 20 per cent of that fluid; so that, to allow for it, something Uke 1.87 lb. or 2.49 lb. must be added to the 12.472 lb." But this is merely a ration for the bare subsistence of a horse. To enable the horse to perform work, additional food is necessary. Additional Pood for Work. — The amount of additional food required to enable a horse to perform work and maintain its condition will dejsend upon several circumstances, such as the nature and amount of work to be done, the season of the year, condition and size and powers of the horse, &c. The mere weight of the animal is not so reliable as a guide to the quantity of food required by a horse as it is in the case of cattle. The food requirements of small horses are relatively greater than those of larger ones. Quick Pace and Pood Keqviirement. — A point of some importance is this, that there is less waste of energy and tissue — and therefore less food require- ment^ — when the labour performed is slow and prolonged than when it is brief and severe. Dr Fleming says it has been calculated that the useful work of a horse, which would be represented by 100, with a velocity of 2 miles per hour, would not be more than 51 with a ve- locity of 7j^ miles, or more than 7 with a speed oi ijj4 miles an hour. In prac- tice it has been found that the amount of food sufficient for slow work for ten hours will not suffice for more than five hours' exertion at a trot. Increased speed in work increases the demand for albuminous food. A horse working at walking-pace re- quires from 6 to 9 grains of albuminoids 410 HOESES IN WINTER. for each. 7233 foot-pounds of work per- formed ; ■while for work at a trot the requirements of albuminoids would be as much as from 15 to 24 grains for the same number of foot-pounds of energy expended. Force exerted by Horses. — In order to know how to properly adjust the quantity and composition of food, it is necessary to ascertain as nearly as pos- sible the amount of force exerted by horses in performing work, be it pulling a load or carrying a rider. With regard to this Dr Fleming says : " It may be mentioned that a one-horse engine, work- ing ten hours per day, raises 19,799,360 pounds I foot high — this being the cal- culated amount of energy expended in ten hours if it could be all at once exer- cised. But this is probably much more than a horse could exert ; a very hard day's work would in all likelihood not be more than 16,400,000 foot-pounds, which would be exercised by a horse puUing a load along at a walk for eight hours. Eight hours' slow walking, with a trac- tion force of 100 lb., is equal to 8,436,571 foot-pounds per diem. Slow farm-work is equal to 11,211,000 foot-pounds a-day. With regard to fast work, the amount of foot-pounds raised is less, for the effort required is sudden, and the waste of tissue or force is consequently greater. The actual amount of work done is less, for the reason that the animal cannot sus- tain the effort, and owing to the greater waste incurred, more food is needed." The amount of energy expended at work both at fast and slow pace must vary considerably, but Dr Fleming gives the following estimate as "fairly cor- rect " :— Foot-pounds. 11,500,000 8,500,000 A hard day's work for a horse ) at a walk would be . .\ A moderate day's work, ditto . A hard day's work for a horse \ at a trot of fast pace would > 7> 233,000 be ) A moderate day's work, ditto . 3, 500,000 Bations for Degrees of "Work. — ^The following table, showing the amount of food required by a horse under different conditions of labour — the proximate principles of the diet being stated — is given by Dr Fleming ; — • Proximate Principles. Moderate Work, lb. oz. Active Work, lb. oz. Severe Work, lb. oz. Albuminoids Fats Carbohydrates . Salts I 6 I 4 13 s I 6 I 8 10 . 7 2 T.2.% 10 1 9 Total WA 14 S'A It is necessary to explain that these are merely approximate quantities, and must not be followed blindly. In each individual case carefulness and judg- ment must be exercised; and the ap- petite, health, condition, and working powers of each animal duly considered. Winter Feeding of Horses. There is almost as much variety in the systems of feeding horses in winter as in the methods of the winter feeding of cattle. Preparing Pood for Horses. — As already stated, one great change has been introduced in the preparing of food for horses. On the best-managed farms all kinds of grain are bruised, and the larger portion of the hay and straw cut into chaff before being given to horses. As to the propriety of bruising grain there can be no question. Not an oimce of grain of any kind should be given to horses without being ground ; for when given whole, a portion of the grain is liable to pass through the animals un- digested. The husk of grain is so dense and difficult to dissolve, that if it should be given whole and escape being ground by the animal's teeth, the gastric juice acts feebly and slowly upon it, and will most likely be unable to dissolve it, so that a portion of the whole grain will pass through the animal unaltered. As to the chaffing of hay and straw, there is some difference of opinion. But there is no doubt the chaffing both econ- omises fodder and is advantageous to the horses, by assisting them to masticate their food. It should therefore be en- FEEDING HOKSES. 411 eouraged, for both these points are im- portant. Many who regularly pursue chaffing give their horses in addition small allow- ances of long hay or straw, which may be relished by the horses when they are not hard worked and have plenty of time to eat their food. The bruised grain and chaffed fodder are usually given together ; and are of course mixed in varying pro- portions according to the work being performed at the time. Beans and peas should be merely cracked or split, and not ground into flour. Care should be taken to mix the various ingredients thoroughly, so that each animal may re- ceive its due proportions of all the ele- ments. The chaffed fodder and bruised grain may be conveniently mixed in a large iron vat or box, or in a wooden box lined with sheet-iron. Cooked Food for Horses. — As to the cooking of food for horses there has been much discussion. As the standard article of food for draught-horses at hard work, raw bruised grain is generally con- sidered preferable to boiled grain ; but a night-feed once or twice, or even three times a-week, of boiled or steamed grain or bran, is found to be a useful and agreeable change. For horses at light work, cooking food may be commended on the score of economy, for a small allowance of cooked grain will render a large quantity of chaffed fodder palat- able. For horses, old or young, whose teeth and digestive systems are weak or defective, cooked food is highly advan- tageous. Mouldy hay is made safer and more palatable by being steamed, and damaged grain should in all cases be cooked. Grain that is to be boiled or steamed for horses should not be bruised, but macerated with warm water. Horses will relish a sprinkling of salt on their cooked food. Be careful to give the cooked food to horses before it begins to ferment. Fig. 151 is a common boiler for cook- ing food. The surface of a boiler is pro- tected by coarse linen being rubbed by a trowel upon the plaster above the brick- work. The cloth prevents the breaking of the plaster in using the boiler. The proper way of setting a boiler is this : When the building has proceeded so far as to have formed the ash-pit, and re- ceived the grate and dumb-plate and furnace-door, to the height of the latter, let a circular basin be built of the form of and a few inches larger than the boiler, to contain the boiler itself ; and let it be so contracted, as it comes nearer to its height, as to suspend the entire boiler within the basin by its ears ; and let a flue be built from behind, or at one side of the basin, as the case may be. Fig. 151. — Boiler atid furnace. a Cast-iron boiler 3^ ix) 4 c Damper or flue. feet diameter. d Water-cock. 6 Furnace-grate. into the chimney. The advantage of this mode of setting is, that the heat of the fire is not confined to one part of the boiler, but is diffused over the whole of its under surface ; and though the heat may not be so great at any one part, it cooks the contents more equally, and preserves the boiler from overheating and injury. Hard Food for Horses. — It seemed at one time to be considered necessary that horses doing hard work should re- ceive hard meat. Professor Dick de- scribed this as a very silly and erroneous idea. "For whatever may be the con- sistency of the food when taken into the stomach, it must, before the body can possibly derive any substantial support or benefit from it, be converted into 412 HORSES IN WINTER. chyme, — a pultaceous mass ; and this, as it passes onward from the stomach into the intestinal canal, is rendered still more fluid by the admixture of the secretions from the stomach, the Hver, and the pancreas, when it becomes of a milky appearance, and is called chyle. It is then taken into the system by the lacteals, and in this fluid, this soft state — and in this state only — mixes with the blood, and passes through the circu- lating vessels for the nourishment of the system." ^ Mashes for Horses. — ^In winter it is customary to give farm-horses a mash once or twice a-week. The mash gen- erally consists of boiled barley, oats, or beans, mixed at times with bran and seasoned with salt, and an ounce each of sulphur and nitre are sometimes added. Raw potatoes or swedes are given one time and mash another, or the potatoes and swedes are boiled with either of the grains. The articles are prepared in the stable boiler-house in the afternoon, by the cattle-man or a field-worker, and put into tubs, in which it is carried to the stable by the men, and dealt out with a shovel, for supper at night, in the troughs used to carry the corn to the horses. It should not exceed milk-warmth. The corn put into the boiler is as much as when given raw, and in its preparation swells out to a considerable bulk. The horses are exceedingly fond of mash, and when the night arrives- for its distribution, show unequivocal symptoms of impa- tience to receive it. The ingredients should be well mixed and well cooked. Oats for Horses. — The quantity of raw bruised oats given to farm-horses, when at moderate work, is not less than (often more than) 3 lippies a-day, by measure, and not by weight ; but taking horse-corn at 40 lb. per bushel, each feed will weigh 3^ lb., the daily allowance amounting to 11^ lb. ; but the lippy measure — which is a fourth part of a peck — ^when horse-corn is dealt out, is not striked, but heaped, or at least hand- waved, so that the full allowance will weigh even more than this. As horses work only seven or eight hours a-day in winter, their feeding is lessened to perhaps 2 full feeds a-day, or 7}^ lb., divided into ' Jowr. of Agric, lii. 1033. three portions — ^namely, a full feed in the morning, % a feed at mid-day, and J^ a feed at night ; and on the nights of mash the evening J^ feed of oats is not given raw, but in the mash. Substitutes for Oats. — Some small farmers withdraw the corn altogether from their horses in the depth of winter, giving them mashes of some sort instead ; whilst others give them only one feed a- day, divided at morning and noon, and a mash, or raw turnips or potatoes at night. One of the sorts of maish alluded to con- sists of barley or oat or wheat chaff, steeped for some hours in cold water in a large cistern made for the purpose, and a little light barley or oats sometimes put in, to give the appearance of corn. But a greater deception than such a mess, in Heu of corn, cannot be practised upon poor horses ; for what support can be derived from chaff steeped in cold water ? As well might the mess be mixed up at once in the manger. No doubt horses eat it, but only from hunger ; and when obliged to Hve upon it, exhibit thin ribs, pot-bellies, and long hair — characteristics which bespeak poverty of condition. Steamed Potatoes for Horses. — One season, as a mash, we tried steamed pota- toes, with salt alone, of which the horses were excessively fond, and received three times ar-week, and on which they became sleek in the skin, and fat, notwithstand- ing much heavy work. But in spring, when the long days' field-work was re- sumed, every one was affected by short> ness of wind; and not only that, but profuse perspiration was induced, so that by the end 6f seed-time they had entirely lost their condition. Still potatoes are useful food for horses, and for animals doing light or moderate work they may with satisfactory results be given steamed or boiled, along with chaffed hay and straw, and a small allowance of oats. Potatoes intended for horses should be carefully washed, as dirty food is danger- ous for them. Overdoing Soft Food. — From what we have heard eminent veterinarians say, and from what has just been stated, it would seem quite easy to overdo mashing for horses. Such soft food is well adapt- ed to the digestive organs of ruminating animals, but not for the single-stomached FEEDING HORSES. 4x3 horse, and the kind of work lie has to do. His muscular system being exercised to the utmost in field-labour in the spring, it should have nourishing, nitrogenous, ilesh- forming food to supplement the great waste of muscular energy going on every day. It is therefore a bad jsrepara- tion for spring-work to overload the horse with fat during the winter. Mixed Food for Horses. — ^For horses as well as for cattle mixed foods are gen- erally found most economical and satis- factory. Mr Gilbert Murray, Elvaston Castle, Derby, than whom there is no better authority, recommends the follow- ing — viz., r cwt. oats, i cwt. wheat, J4 cwt. white peas, and J^ cwt. linseed — all ground and mixed together. He con- siders that I cwt. of this mixture will contain about 40 per cent more nutri- ment for horses than i cwt. of oats alone, and the cost in each case would be about the same. Mr Murray has also used for an ordinary agricultural horse at regular work on the farm, 13 lb. per diem of crushed oats, 3 lb. of bran, 6 lb. of raw swedes sliced, 14 lb. of cut chaff — two- thirds hay and one-third straw — and 10 lb. wheat -straw litter; the ground oats, bran, and chaff mixed together and macerated with water. This mixture should be prepared twelve hours before being used. He found this system admi- rably adapted for the winter months, the horses being healthy and standing their work well. Among other forms of food mixtures used are these, the quantities mentioned being for one day : (i) 10 lb. of cut straw; 10 lb. of oats; 16 lb. of turnips. (2) 16 lb. of hay; 5 lb. of oats; 16 lb. of turnips. (3) 10 lb. of bruised oats; 20 lb. of hay; 12 lb. of cut straw. In the first two cases the turnips are pulped and mixed with the cut fodder twelve hours before being used. A correspondent, who has the care of about 60 horses, vsrrites as follows as to his system of feeding : " Our feeding at present is composed of the following in- gredients, — viz., hay, maize, oats, and beans, mixed in the proportions of 4 cvrt. hay, 3 cwt. maize, 2 cwt. oats, and i cwt. beans — the hay, of course, being chafied and the grain bruised. Heavy farm and cart horses, doing fuU work, get as much of this mixture as they will eat, which is about 24 lb. each daily, with a little long hay twice arday." '• English. Methods. — Referring to the systems of feeding draught - horses in England, Mr John A. Clarke says : " As a rule, the old wastful system of giving the horses hay in racks, as well as the Lincolnshire practice of feeding on oat- sheaves, cut into chaff, has gone out of favour; and the best managers cut up hay and straw, and give their horses ground corn or crushed oats, sometimes bran or pollard, with a portion of pulped roots or green tares added to the dry food. In some districts the farm-horses are grazed on the pastures in summer ; but the practice of keeping them in stables or yards the whole year round prevails in most tillage districts, and is extending." ^ In some parts of England large quan- tities of Indian corn are used for horses ; but on account of its moderate percent- age of flesh-formers (albuminoids), and excess of heat-producers (carbohydrates), it is not quite so suitable as oats to form a leading ingredient in food-mixtures for draught-horses. A Group of English Eations. — The prevailing customs of feeding draught-horses in England are shown in the following summary from replies sent by leading farmers to Mr H. F. Moore for his paper on the "Prepara- tion of Food for Stock : " « Mr H. Simmonds, Bearwood Farm, Wokingham — 2 bushels of oats, J^ bushel split peas, with 2 trusses of hay and straw chaffed per week per head when in fuU active work. Mr H. Straker, Riding Hill, North- umberland — ^when in fuU work, about 5 stones of crushed oats each per week, with long hay wd libitum, and a bran- mash with a little boiled linseed in it, twice a-week during winter, the oats being reduced greatly when the weather stops work. Mr J. Brockie, Carmarthenshire — as much as they can eat of long straw and uncut swedes, with i J^ bushel oats per week. Mr John Watts, Falfield, Gloucester- 631 ' Farming World, 1886, 276. ^ Jour. Hoyal Agric. Soc. Eng., xiv., sec. ser., Ihid.. XXIV., sec. ser., 447. 414 HORSES IN WINTER. sMre — straw-chaff with some hay, and 2 bushels of crushed oats per week. Mr John Treadwell, Upper Winchen- don, Aylesbury — hay and straw chaff, with I bushel of ground maize, J^ bushel of oats, y% peck of crushed malt per week. Mr H. Woods, Merton Metford, Nor- folk — ij^ gallon oats and hay-chaff, i stone long hay, and occasionally 2 or 3 lb. of linseed-cake. Mr T. H. Hutchinson, Manor House, Catterick, Yorkshire — chaffed oat-straw, ground oats, bran, a few roots, and i lb. linseed-cake. Mr Gilbert Murray, Elvaston, Derby — young horses, 6 to 8 lb. per day of mixed meals (oats, wheat, white peas, and lin- seed all ground together), with cut hay and straw; the meal and chaff being mixed together, and saturated with water twelve to twenty-four hours before being used. Eation for Hard-worked Horses. — From the beginning of October to end of March, hard-worked horses in Scotland are fed three times a-day. The morning feed in some cases, where high feeding is the rule, consists of from 5 to 7 lb. of bruised oats; the mid-day feed, 4 to 5 lb. of bruised oats, and 3 lb. crushed Hnseed-cake ; in the evening from 5 to 7 lb. bruised oats, and as many raw Swedish turnips, well cleaned, and given whole, as they will eat ; oat-straw being given as fodder. After the end of March, when the straw gets dry, so that horses do not relish it, it may be well to substi- tute hay for straw. These are heavy allowances of oats, from 4 to 5 lb. at each meal being more general. In spring, when farm-horses are doing hard work for ten hours a-day, many Scotch farmers give full supplies of hay instead of straw, with about i lb. of linseed added to the 4, 5, or 6 lb. of bruised oats in the morn- ing, and about i lb. of cracked beans, with two or three swedes, to the evening allowance of oats.^ Koots for Horses. — Swedes, either raw or cooked, are given largely to draught - horses. When the roots are cooked alone, from 50 to 60 lb. are put into the boiler or steaming-vat for each horse, and this gives about 35 to 45 lb. of cooked food, which should be prepared in time to allow it to become cool, but not cold, before being given to the horses in the evening. A little chaffed hay, perhaps not more than i lb. for each horse, is mixed with cooked roots, and some add about i lb. of ground oilcake, while others have about half a pound lin- seed for each animal cooked along with the roots. This warm food is given either in two meals — one when the horses come in from work in the evening, and the other &\, 8 p.m. — or in one meal at the latter hour. But the most general plan is to give the turnips to horses raw and uncut, as the last meal for the night. Mangels are given in a similar way. Roots of all kinds should be thoroughly cleaned be- fore being given to horses. Carrots. — There is no kind of root equal to carrots for horses. They are especially suitable for hunting and other horses which are hard -worked. They are given raw and usually sliced. For ordinary farm-horses, however, they are generally beyond reach on account of their cost. Carrots are easily and suc- cessfully grown in the island of Guern- sey ; but Quayle states that they are not given to horses, on account of an aUega^ tion that " when on this food their eyts are injured." Parsnips. — The same writer mentions a similar effect produced by the parsnip at a certain season of the year. "To horses," he says, " parsnips are frequently given, and have the property of making them sleek and fat ; but in working they are observed to sweat profusely. If new, and cut sufficiently small, no other ill effect results ^ — except, indeed, at one period of the year, towards the close of February, when the root begins to shoot ; if then given, both horses and horned cattle are subject, on this food, to an in- flammation in the eye, and epiphora or watery eye — in some subjects, perhaps, producing blindness." ^ The boiling of carrots or parsnips might perhaps remove this dangerous tendency. Furze for Horses. — Furze (whin or gorse) is relished by horses, and makes useful winter food for them. It is the young shoots of furze that are fed to ^ Farming World, 1888, 505. ' Quayle's Agric. Chan. Isl., 103. FEEDING HOESES. 415 . 152. — Hand •whin- bruiser. horses, and they are best when bruised by the furze " masticator." (See fig. 1 1 8). In the absence of a " masticator," the furze is cut as fine as possible by a chaff-cutter, but this does not cut and bruise it so fine as is desirable. A hand furze-brui- ser, which does its work wonderfully well, is represented in fig. 152. When fresh furze is crushed, it throws off a fine aromatic odour, which is much relished by horses. The furze is bruised every second or third day. It should not be allowed either to heat to any extent or to become dry. If it should get dry before being used, it would be well to sprinkle water over it by a garden watering-pan. The Kev. W. K. Townsend, Aghada, County Cork, stated that having " been for fifty years and more feeding my horses and cows on furze, I can say from that long experience, that it is the cheap- est and the best food for the autumn and winter months. I have had my horses, getting neither hay nor oats, in more beautiful condition (sleek as mice) than any of my neighbours', though they had costly grooms, the horses fed with the best hay, oats, and beans, and warmly clad. Mine were, perhaps, not as fit for the race-course or the hunting-field ; but for road, riding, carriage-work, or work on the land, they were most fit, though fed only on chopped furze and steamed swede turnips." ^ Draught-horses will eat from 20 to 25 lb. of crushed furze per day, but it will be as well to give smaller quantities, mixed with chaffed hay or straw and bruised oats. The furze will lend a delightful flavour to the feed, which will thereby be more than usually palatable to the horses. Eurze tends to fatten horses rather than develop flesh and muscle, so that, for hard-working horses, an allowance of other food, such as bruised oats, should accompany it. Furze for Broken -v^inded Horses. — Furze is specially suitable as fodder for broken - winded horses. Mr W. Hooper, Bandon, says : " I have been in the habit of giving furze as fodder to horses for the past fifteen years, and should be sorry to discontinue its use ; for I find horses do better on it than on hay alone, to say nothing of the sav- ing effected by it. It is not generally known what an astonishing effect furze has on a broken-winded horse. I have a mare which can do nothing but slow work (and that not without distress) when fed on hay, but as long as she is getting furze she can travel fast with ease." ^ Feeding in a Clydesdale Stud. — In the valuable stud of pure-bred Clydes- dale horses owned by Lords Arthur and Lionel Cecil of Orchardmains, Inner- leithen, a very careful system of feeding is pursued. Turnips, bran, cut hay, beans, and barley are boiled and steamed, and of this mixture each horse when at work gets haK an ordinary stable pail- ful every night at 6 p.m. Young horses and brood-mares get this once or twice a-day, according to the kind of pasture they may be going upon. The propor- tions of the boiled mixture are varied as may be suggested by the condition of the dung of the animals, a responsible man adding or withholding bran chiefly as may be thought advisable. It is con- sidered that by chaffing and mixing the chaff with oats, a great saving of corn is effected, while the horses are kept in admirable health. During the five years the above mixture has been used, there has not been a single case of gripes in this large stud of upwards of 60 horses. Feeding Young Horses. — Young grovring horses are often stinted in food. No greater mistake could be made. They ought to be fed liberally and with as much care and punctuality as the hardest-worked horse on the farm. Let them have as much good hay or oat-straw as they can eat two or three times a-day. ^ Letters on Furze, '■ Gorze, Furze, or Whins (by J. Gillitt), 25. 4i6 HOESES IN WINTER " In addition to this, one-year-olds should have 3 lb., and two-year-olds 4 lb., gradu- ally increasing as they get bigger to 5 lb. ■ — crushed oats 3 parts, i part beans, and I part linseed, mixed, when they are housed at night, and before being put out in the morning. In wet stormy days, when they are out only half an hour or so for exercise, they should have their com, &c., thrice, instead of twice arday." ^ This is liberal feeding, and less of the concentrated food, perhaps from 4 to 6 lb. per day, may suffice to keep the youngsters growing and in good condi- tion. Many think it is desirable to give young horses once or twice a-week a warm mash, consisting of boiled roots, boiled linseed or linseed - meal, mixed with bran. Young horses will thrive admirably on 3 to 4 lb. of crushed oats, and I lb. of crushed linseed-cake per day, mixed with chaffed hay or straw. Mr E. O. Pringle considered that the value of linseed for young horses is not suffi- ciently appreciated. The chief aim, of course, is to give to young horses such food as will most effectually promote the development of bone and muscle without forcing the animal into a very high condition. For this purpose, Dr Fleming says that " oats, crushed, should be the chief grain, and a small proportion of beans, split, mixed with these, the whole being scalded or boiled, if possible, and bran added to form a mash, is a good and appropriate feeding together with sound hay." ^ Mr Gilbert Murray says young horses can be success- fully wintered on a mixture of cut hay or straw, and 3 lb. per day of mixed meals. Importance of Careful Hearing. — Eeferring to the rearing of young horses, Dr Fleming says: "Nothing is more im- portant for the future wellbeing of the foal than judicious rearing during its early years, as then its constitution is most impressionable, and its develop- ment receives an impetus which ensures good muscle and bone, with perfectly formed organs ; or this is checked, and we have feebleness, insufficient growth, organs that are unsound or badly per- form their functions, and a constitution that will not endure strain, — all depend- ing upon careful or neglectful rearing. When half-starved and badly kept for the first two or three years of their lives, no amount of attention will afterwards compensate for the lost opportunity of promoting free growth and full devel- opment in the foals. " Therefore it is that the wise breeder will see to it that foals and young horses have a plentiful supply of good and proper food, sufficent exercise, and pay at- tention to their feet, limbs, and body." * Mr Frederick Street remarks that " foals require good and suitable dry food during the winter months. At no other period of life wiU they so well repay the outlay. Size will never afterwards be obtained, unless the foals are well grown when young." Mr E. O. Pringle regarded starving young stock of all kinds as a most unvidse proceeding, and especially So in the case of young horses intended for draught. Young Horses not to be Pampered. — But while young horses should be fed liberally, they should _ not be forced in feeding, or pampered in any way. Keep them in good growing condition, full of natural flesh; and, without exposing them to excessive cold or wet, let them have plenty of exercise and fresh air, so that, as far as possible, their muscular and constitutional strength and hardiness may be developed. Rations for Tramway Horses. — It may be interesting to note the daily rations given to their horses by tramway companies in the following towns : — Glasgow. Edin- burgh. Birming- ham. London, South. London Street. Liver- pool. Dublin lb. lb. lb. lb. lb. lb. lb. Oats 6 8 10 7 3 3 Maize II 4 6 7 12 12 14 Beans or peas . 4 4 I I 4 Hay "s% 14 12 II II 14 12 Straw I 2 3 Bran oX I I "oy. Total lb. 27 32 32 29 28 31 29% ^ Farming World, 1888, 505. T!ie PractifCal Horse-Keeper, 164. 5 Hid., 162. FEEDING HOKSES. 417 In the case of Edinburgh, the straw con- sists of bean and oat straw mixed. Mr John Speir remarks that, although at first sight these rations may seem very differ- ent in composition, they are nevertheless, on close chemical examination, found to be very much aUke. For instance, the albuminoid ratio in the Liverpool ration, with no oats, is i to 6.3, and the average percentage of fibre 15.3 ; while in the Birmingham ration, with 10 lb. of oats, the albuminoid ratio is i to 5.8, and the percentage of fibre 14.86. Kations for Ponies. — Ponies, from 13 to 15 hands high, working at coal- pits, are allowed 20 lb. per day of a mixture of hay, Indian corn, oats, and bran, mixed in the proportion of 4 cwt. of hay, 3 cwt. of Indian corn, 2 cwt. of oats, and i cwt. of bran — the hay being chaffed, and the grain bruised. This is about as much as they would eat, and they are always in good working order. No long hay is given, but a feed of this niixture is steamed for them once a-week, with a few roots in their season. ^ Ponies which do little or ho work of course require less food. They are often kept in good condition on hay and roots; in any case, from 4 to 6 lb. of bruised oats per day will be found sufficient. Horses of all kinds are very fond of bread, oat-cakes especially, but this, how- ever, is merely a " dainty " often given to pet animals, but not to be reckoned an article of food for horses. A drink of cold water with a few handfuls of oa1> meal into it is very refreshing to horses. Biding and Driving Horses. — Car- riage-horses are often fed more highly than is necessary or is really beneficial for their health and usefulness. If their work is light, from 8 to 10 lb. of bruised grain and 12 to 14 lb. of chaffed hay ^er diem wiU be sufficient. When the work is heavier the grain must be increased, perhaps 2 or 3 or 4 lb. per day. Hunt^ ing-horses, and all riding-horses which are kept at hard work, should be liberally fed — ^horses over 15 hands, perhaps from 15 to 16 lb. of bruised oats per day, with 10 or 12 lb. of chaffed hay; the allowance of oats for smaller horses being reduced by 2 or 3 lb. per day. A few pounds of carrots — not more than 3 lb. per day — ' Farming World, 1886, 276. VOL. I. may occasionally be given with advan- tage. For hunters, Dr Fleming recom- mends the substitution of 2 lb. of split beans for 2 lb. of the allowance of oats. Army horses usually receive 10 lb. of oats per day with 12 lb. of hay, and — for litter — 8 lb. of straw. When on severe duty, or in camp, the allowance of oats is increased to from 10 to 14 lb. per day. The hay is given uncut. Quantity of Food. — It is considered that, as a rule, an average-sized draught- horse will require about 29 lb. of food per day. Much less than that, even although it should be highly nutritious, will not be sufficient to maintain the animal in a healthy and vigorous con- dition. Eeynolds states that such a horse, when moderately worked and well housed, will consume from 29 to 34 lb. per day, of which the hay and straw should constitute about two-fifths. Bulk of rood. — It is undesirable, in ordinary cases, to attempt to feed horses mainly upon highly concentrated food. In order to enable the digestive organs to properly perform their functions, a certain considerable degree of bulk in the food is necessary. When horses are hard-worked, the morning and mid-day meals may advantageously be small in bulk — a feed of oats can be speedily eaten, and does not interfere with the breathing organs as does a bulky feed of hay or straw. But at night, in these cases, bulky food should be given. Frequency of Feeding. — Horses should be fed at least three times a-day — before 6 in the morning, about mid- day (as soon as brought in from work), and in the evening. The exact hours will depend upon local circumstances as to the work being carried out. But it is very important that precise feeding hours should be arranged, and that these should be rigidly adhered to. Punctuality in feeding is a most important consideration. Long fasts are detrimental to horses. The standard hours of farm-work seldom permit of more than three meals per day; but it would be far better for the horses if they could be fed four times a-day, at intervals of not more than four hours. Let the evening meal be the largest and bulkiest, as the horses have then plenty of time for thorough mastication. Long 4i8 HOKSES IN WINTER fasts and rapid and heavy feeding often give rise to disorder of the digestive or- gans, and care should be taken to give the animals ample time to consume their food in comfort. Improper mastication, often caused by too hurried feeding, renders the process of digestion more difficult. At long spells of work, a feed of grain, even if it should be very small, given in a nose-bag will be found very beneficial. Do not give more food of any kind at a time than the animal is likely to consume, as if any were left it would become stale and unpalatable, and prob- ably be wasted. Littering Horses. Stravr as Litter. — Horses, especially if hard -worked, should have plenty of litter. Straw is the most largely used, and is the best of all kinds of htter. Wheat-straw, being stronger and tougher, is preferable to oat, or any other variety of straw, but in many parts of the country wheat-straw is not available. The stall should be thoroughly cleared out every morning, the wetter portions of the litter sent to the manure-pit with the dung; and the drier parts, which may be fit to be used for another night's bedding, re- tained in some convenient corner — if the weather is dry, spread out near the stable, and taken in again in the evening. Litter which has been used should never, as is sometimes the case, be stored beneath or in front of the manger, as the animonia is apt to rise and injure the eyes of the horse, as well as taint its food. When litter which is too wet to be again used as bedding for horses, and not sufficiently made into manure, cannot be conveniently dried, it should be handed over to the cattle-man, who will be able to turn it to good account in the littering of cattle-courts. Greedy horses sometimes eat the straw put below them for bedding, and are liable to injury thereby. It will help to prevent this if the litter which has been previously used be placed nearest the manger, and the fresh litter kept back- wards. From 8 to 14 lb. of straw are used as litter for each horse per day. With care, 8 to 10 lb. should be quite sufficient. Peat-moss Iiitter. — The best substi- Fig. z^-i.—Peat- breaker. tute for straw as litter for horses yet introduced is " peat-moss litter " — peat- moss which has been broken and com- pressed by machinery till most of the moisture has passed away, leaving soft, spongy, fibry- looking vegetable matter. It makes cheap and comfortable bedding, absorbs and conserves the urine, and is a powerful deodoriser, keeping the stalls sweet and wholesome. It has a highly beneficial effect upon the feet of horses, keeping them cool, and encouraging the growth of strong tough hoofs. For ani- mals with tender feet it is most beneficial. It is also valuable as manure, and its use should be commended on account of the saving of straw thus effected. Peat-moss litter is now a regular article of com- merce. It is imported largely from Germany and other j)arts of the Continent, but may be had of native growth and manufacture. Peat-moss litter is rendered much more comfort- able for horses by being put through a peat-breaker such as that shown in fig. 153, niade by Bracher k Co., West- hill, Wincanton. Other Varieties of Litter.— Many other substances are used as substitutes for straw in littering horses. Among these are sawdust, fine sand, spent tan, leaves of trees, and ferns. Sawdust is often used, but by itself it does not make comfortable or desirable litter. As a padding beneath a thin layer of straw it is very useful, comfortable, and econo- mical, and may be resorted to where peat- moss litter cannot be procured at reason- able cost. Sawdust should be spread in a layer 2 or 3 inches deep, and raked daily; and the dung and wet particles removed and some fresh sawdust added. Then a thin cover of straw spread over this layer of sawdust at night will make a comfort- able bed. At least once every week the stall should be thoroughly cleaned out, and an entirely fresh layer of sawdust laid down. Horses' feet are apt to get packed with the sawdust, and this should be picked out every morning, and also every evening when the horses have been in the house aU day. Fine dry sea-sand also makes fairly FEEDING HOESES. comfortable litter. It is better to be covered by a thin layer of straw, as this keeps the sand from getting freely into the hair of the animals. Where ferns are plentiful, they may be cut and stored for use as litter in winter. Spent tan, about 6 inches deep, makes durable and useful litter. If the surface is carefully cleaned of the dung every morning, and the tan raked by an iron garden - rake, one layer will last over a month. Scatter a little gypsum over it now and again. General Hints. Exercise. — Horses that are not regu- larly at work should be exercised punc- tually every day, say, just after breakfast. In very cold weather in winter towards mid-day may be preferable. Unless idle horses have plenty of exercise given to them methodically, they are liable to contract " grease " in the legs, and be- come soft, flabby, and unfitted for active work. Horses that are entirely idle should have two hours' daily exercise. Kest. — Farmers are often not so care- ful as they ought to be in providing quietness and comfort for hard-worked horses during hours of rest. In particu- lar, during the two hours of mid-day rest horses should have as little disturbance as possible. As soon as they have been made comfortable in their stalls, and been fed, they should be left in perfect quietness. The stable-door should be shut, and no one let in to disturb the repose of the animals till their own at- tendants return to prepare for the work of the afternoon. Again, when the horses come in at night fatigued by a hard day's work, they should as soon as possible, after being fed and rubbed down, be left for quiet rest till supper-time. Washing Horses' Legs. — Horses working on wet land are apt to have their legs so besmeared with mud that nothing but washing vriU clean them. In that case the legs should be washed at night, great care being taken to dry the legs thoroughly. Washing is in itself undesirable, and should be resorted to only when absolutely necessary. Cracked and greasy heels are often caused by imperfect drying after washing or after exposure to wet and mud. Ee- ferring to this point, Dr Fleming gives a few words of warning which are weU worthy of careful attention. He sayi " It must, however, be regarded as essen- tial to proper management, that under no pretext is a horse to be left for the night until all his legs have been thor- oughly dried. Nor is this precept very difficult of execution ; a handful or two of Hght wood sawdust, rubbed for a few minutes well into the hair, will absorb all the moisture from the most hirsute legs, affording not only a sense of comfort to the animal, but preventing those unde- sirable consequences engendered by con- tinued application of cold and wet to the extremities." ^ Clipping and Singeing. — For horses which have rank coats of hair and have fast trotting work to do, clipping or singeing is found advantageous. This is seldom practised with farm - horses ; Fig. 154. — Horse-clippers. and if they are well groomed there will be little need for any interference with the length of the coat. Clipping is most generally pursued with the ranker coats, and this is done speedily and efficiently by a clipper such as those (Clarke's) rep- resented in fig. 154. Shorter coats are singed, either oil or gas being used in the singeing-lamp, the latter being preferable. Injurious to Clip Legs of Horses. — But while this system of clipping or singeing has its advantages, there is one practice often resorted to which is en- tirely mischievous and should be strictly forbidden, and that is clipping the hair from the legs of draught-horses. In con- demnation of this practice we cannot do better than quote the words of Dr Flem- ing, who ■ regards it as " highly perni- cious, " and adds : " Hair is the natural protector of the cuticle, and is especially required to warm and shield the delicate skin of the heels ; its removal from these ^ The Practical Horse-KcepePf 93. 11(20 SWINE IN WINTER. situations is certain to induce a predis- position to grease, and other equally serious consequences. If the legs are muddy on return from labour, they should be dried as far as practicable, and the adherent clay subsequently removed with a hard brush. The application of the thinnest possible film of pure neat's- foot oil to the surface of the hair of the legs will prevent the adhesion of clay, but it should only be used when abso- lutely necessary. . . . Protection to Skin from "Wet. — "A predisposition to cracked heels is engen- dered by clipping the legs and pasterns in winter : this should never be done, if possible ; but if necessary, then the skin should be protected from the action of wet and dirt by rubbing into it, before the horse leaves the stable, hard vaseline or zinc ointment. A very good protection against the action of icy cold water, or the salt slush which is so common on tramway lines in winter, is a mixture of one part of white-lead and three parts common oil, rubbed around the pasterns and the coronets by means of a brush." ^ Method in Stable Management. — Method and punctuality contribute as much to successful stable management as to success in business. Let the stable rules be arranged on a well-thought-out, workable plan, such as will, in the most effective manner possible, contribute to the comfort and usefulness of the horses. And when the rules are laid down, see that they are rigidly adhered to. Irreg- ularity in the feeding and general treat- ment of horses is most detrimental to their wellbeing. They delight in punc- tuality, order, and cleanliness. Ainong horses let all things be done quietly, kindly, and in order. They appreciate kindly treatment, and will repay such behaviour by confiding obedience. Gtood horsemen and good horses get warmly attached to each other. There is more of the " social element " about the horse, the greatest of all our quadruped friends, than the casual observer would be inclined to give him credit for. The diseases of horses will be dealt with when the routine work of the year has been gone through. SWINE IN WINTER Disadvantages of Feeding Pigs in "Winter. — It has for a long time been the custom for farmers to fatten pigs during autumn and winter rather than during summer. This is a mistaken practice, for it is well established that a feeding-pig will make a considerably greater increase in condition from a given quantity of food fed to it in cool quarters during the summer months than in cold weather. Moreover, the average price of pork in the months of July, August, and September is higher than in the winter months. Experiments have been carried out in the United States which have proved that in the very coldest weather fatting- pigs have actually made no increase in weight although fed on maize, one of our best heat-giving foods. An ingeni- ous American has drawn up a table ^ The Practical Horsc-Kecpm-, 95, 96. showing that if 3 lb. of corn be required to maintain the weight and condition of a pig when the day temperature is about 70° Fahr., 5 lb. will be needed when the thermometer stands at 20°, and 6^ lb. when at zero; a-nd as little as 2^ lb. when 100°. According to this calcula- tion, about 4 lb. more food is required for mere sustenance in the coldest of these temperatures than in the warmest. It will also be found that, by better attention and a little more food, most of these pigs which now, as a rule, are not fattened off until the autumn, might just as easily be disposed of fat at more money per stone in harvest-time, when pork usually sells more readily and at a higher price than later in the season. Early Maturity in Figs. — In no other class of stock does "early ma- turity " pay the feeder better than with pigs. Young pork commands a readier sale and higher price than old. Then SWINE IN WINTER. 421 tte saving of food is important. It is generally considered that a pig of 100 lb. weight requires about 3 lb. of corn per day simply to keep the animal machinery going — merely to supply animal heat and repair the natural waste in the body. It therefore follows, that if by judicious feeding and attention a pig can be made to realise as much at eight months old as one managed after the old-fashioned plan would at the age of twelve months, the gain in food alone must be substan- tial. And, in addition to this, there would be a saving in the cost of attend- ance and risk. Attention to Pig-rearing. — There are thus several important circumstances which favour the feeding of pigs in sum- mer and autumn rather than in winter. Economy in pig-feeding should have as careful consideration as economy in any of the more important operations of the farm, yet it is well known that, as a rule, farmers give but little thought to the management of pigs. Too often pigs are looked upon as little else than the scavengers of the farm. This is a great and unfortunate error, for with proper management pigs generally pay well. Indeed it may be doubted if any other variety of stock will give a better or quicker return for kind and judicious treatment and liberal feeding than may be obtained from a good class of pigs. The pig assuredly deserves more atten- tion from the general body of farmers than it has hitherto received. An im- portant point, we have seen, in the profit- able management of pigs is the season of the year in which the fattening is mainly carried out. Swine are more susceptible of cold than either cattle or sheep ; and, upon the whole, it is clearly desirable that farmers should aim at fattening the majority of their pigs between March and October. Litters of young pigs are troublesome and risky in winter, and are to be avoid- ed except where the delicacy of roast sucking-pig is desired at the Christmas dinner. But although the feeding of pigs should be carried. out mainly in the warmer months, there will always be less or more pig-feeding in winter — perhaps a few pigs of late litters to finish off, or it may be only two or three young porkers for home consumption during winter and spring. It may therefore be as well to deal here with the general question of feeding swine. For the information up- on this subject we are mainly indebted to Mr Sanders Spencer, Holywell Manor, St Ives, who h&s made the profitable breeding and rearing of pigs a life-study. Feeding Pigs. In writing of the treatment of farrow- ing sows, attention will be given as to the best periods of the year for the ar- rival of young pigs. By dealing here with the whole subject of pig-feeding, we are able to follow the pig to maturity, whether for slaughter or for breeding purposes. Feeding tlie Sovsr and her Litter. — It may be assumed that six is a fair number for a young sow or yilt, and ten to twelve for an aged sow, to rear at each litter. These numbers may be larger in the summer months, but it will be found most profitable not to attempt too much in pig-breeding any more than in most other things. From the time the piglets are three days to about four weeks old, the sow should be fed twice a^day with just about as much as she will clear up at once of thoroughly stirred slop, composed of three-fourth sharps, thirds, or randan, and one-fourth broad bran. By this time, or even before, the little pigs will begin to lick round the trough, and show signs of a desire to be- come less dependent on their mother for the necessaries of life. This natural want must be satisfied either by allowing the sow to have a run on the grass field or in the straw-yard for an hour or two, or, if the weather is too rough and cold, letting the little pigs into an adjoining place, and there feeding them with a little sharps, or oatmeal stirred with milk ; or a small quantity of oats, peas, or wheat vdll be thankfully received and turned to good account by the now hungry "squeakers." This system of feeding may be con- tinued until the pigs are weaned, the only variations being a gradual addition to the food given to both sow and pigs, and the warming of the milk or water with which the food for the little pigs is mixed during the cold weather. Weaning Pigs. — The little i^igs will be best left on the sow in the summer 422 SWINE IN WINTER. months until they are six or seven weeks old, and in the winter months a week or two longer. The weaning should be effected gradually, by letting the sow remain away from the pigs a little longer time each day until the flow of milk gradually ceases, and the pigs think more of the arrival of the pail than of their mother. By adopting this plan the sow's milk will be no trouble, and the sow will desire to receive the attentions of the boar within two or three days after the pigs are weaned. Castrating Pigs. — Those Kttle pigs which are not required for breeding pur- poses should be attended to when they are about five or six weeks old. This is by no means a difficult operation, but it is better to employ a competent castra- tor, especially with the sow pigs, or, as they are variously termed, hilts, elts, yilts, yelts, gilts, or gelts. Feeding Young Pigs. — After the pigs are weaned, their food should be very similar to that on which they had been previously fed, with the addition of a few more peas. As the pigs reach the age of three months, a proportion, amount- ing to one-sixth, of barley-meal may be added. This may be gradually increased until it becomes two-thirds , of the food of a five-months-old pig. Cocoa - nut Meal for Pigs. — We have of late years used a considerable quantity of cocoa-nut meal, and have found it a most economical food to use with the barley-meal. From experiments carried out at our wish, it was proved that not only was pork made at a less expense by the introduction of cocoa-nut meal to the extent of about one-eighth of the whole allowance of food, but the quality of the flesh was superior, and the appearance of the carcass much im- proved. Cod-liver Oil for Pigs. — Ovsdng to the high price charged until recently for cod-liver oil, its use for stock has been very slight ; but it may now be procured at such a reasonable price as to come within the limit of profitable foods for young growing pigs, if not for those in the fattening stage. As to its use for fattening pigs we have had no experi- ence, but we can recommend it vrith every confidence for newly weaned pigs and young stores. During this last winter (1887-88) we have given it to some two or three hundred young boars and gilts which were being reared for the spring trade, and the result was most satisfactory. A Golden Eule in Pig-feeding. — If it be desired to rear and fatten pigs at a profit, one " golden rule " must not be lost sight of — never allow the pigs to become poor. Keep them ever in a pro- gressive state, and if this is done prop- erly, they wiU be fit for the butcher a month or two earlier than is the rule, while the pork will be of better quality, and the loss from disease will be reduced to a minimum. Should iUness attack any of the pigs, they vrill thus be always fit for the knife, and realise pretty nearly their full value. "Variety of Pood. — ^Variety of food is as beneficial and as welcome to pigs as to human beings. It may not be prac- ticable to change the course of feeding to any great extent, but it will certainly be beneficial to give the fattening and even the growing pigs a mixture of meals. Meals for Pigs. — Barley-meal has been proved to be the best single food for fattening pigs, and to a great extent it is necessary for the manufacture of a high quality of meat. Maize-meal may be used somewhat largely at the commencement of the fattening, but if used extensively at the latter stage, the pork is not so saleable. Instead of maize a small quantity of bean-meal, or even better still, pea-meal, may be given with great advantage. Upon this the older pigs will thrive well, and the pork prove firm and sweet in flavour. Oatmeal will gen- erally be found too expensive for pig- feeding. It may, however, be profitably used if the pigs are required to be made ripe at an early age, and exceptionally high quality of London porket - pig desired. The use of some condiment with fattening pigs of a restless disposi- tion vpill be found of great benefit. Mr James Howard's Rations for Pigs. — Mr James Howard, of Clapham Park, Bedford, considers the following an excellent diet for fattening pigs : " Equal quantities of bean, maize, barley, and wheat meals. To three parts of this mixed meal, add one part of dan or sharps ; if it is desired to push the pigs, a little linseed-cake or spiced food may SWINE IN WINTER. 423 be added ; scald it and use it for young pigs.i Ball - feeding for Show Pigs. — " For show pigs, and others, when get- ting ripe, the practice of stuffing, or ball -feeding, is an excellent plan, and attended with good results. The plan pursued is as foUows : After each meal, mix, according to the number of pigs, a pailful or two of the mixed meal [above refeiied to] with skim or new mili, and roU it into balls the size of an egg ; have a pail with a little milk in it, so that each ball may be dipped into it before being offered to the pigs. After a few meals, they will sit on their haunches, and be fed like so many children. Each pig, after his meal of the thinner food in the trough, will eat about a gallon of the food in the balls." ^ Feeding Farro-w So-ws. — As food for farrow sows, or sows during preg- nancy. Professor James Long says : " There is nothing better than poUard or sharps, or even bran may be used with good results, if it is of nice qual- ity. If these meals are mixed with a quantity of waste and vegetable refuse from the garden, it wiU be found that the animals will thrive upon a very small quantity, for they require little food indeed for three months out of the four they are pregnant. During the fourth month, however, the feeding should be increased, as heavier claims are made upon their systems for the support of the coming family, and in order that they may not lose condition and strength, both of which vsdU be very necessary after parturition. It is an un- wise plan to feed in-pig or farrow sows upon dry meal or grain, as they put on too much flesh, which is most undesir- able when they litter, although we have bred very respectable htters from ex- ceedingly fat sows." ' Condimental Food for Pigs. — Some object to the use of condimental food for pigs; but our experience is that for fat- tening-pigs and for pigs that are newly weaned, some good well-manufactured stimulating food is of very great benefit, and is withal most profitable. ■' Jawr. Roycd Agric. Soc, Eng., xvii., sec. ser., 217. 2 Ibid. ^ Booh of the Pig, 61. Cooked Food for Pigs. — There has been considerable discussion as to whether or not the cooking or steaming of meal as food for pigs is an advan- tage. Some writers on pig management strongly recommend the practice; but Mr Sanders Spencer states that his ex- perience is decidedly against it. He has given it fair trials, and in every case where the experiment has been fairly and thoroughly carried out, it has been found unprofitable to cook or steam the meal for the pigs. In very cold weather it is advisable to mix the meal vrith tepid water, so that the food is given to the pigs at about the temperature of new milk. But a better plan even than this is to feed the pigs on dry meal, and to give the water to them in a separate trough. The pigs may be much longer in eating their food in this way, but it will be more thoroughly masticated and mixed with saliva, so that it is more fully digested ; and the pigs vidll then only consume as much water as nature and the weather render needful. There is certainly no need to warm the food in summer ; but in winter there is an undoubted benefit in having the food warmed. Experiments on this question have also been carefully carried out at differ- ent agricultural colleges in the United States of America, and in almost every case it was proved that the cooking of the food resulted in a considerable loss. Upon many farms potatoes form a large part of the food of pigs. These should be steamed or boiled, vrith per- haps some meal and a few turnips. Kitclien "Slops" for Pigs.— The "slops" of the kitchen are turned to good purpose as food for swine; but great care should be taken not to give pigs any liquid in which salt meat has been boiled or to which soda has been added. We have heard of several cases of death amongst pigs owing to their having been fed on such "slops" or boilings. These are usually given cold with other more solid food. The " pig's- pail" should always be at hand to re- ceive food-refuse from the kitchen. Skim -milk and "whey" are also ex- tensively used as food for pigs. These, of course, do not require cooking. Feeding Old Pigs Unprofitable. — 424 SWINE IN WINTEE. The fattening of old sows and boars is, as a rule, unprofitable. One cannot afford to convert good food into pork which sells at from i}4d. to 3d. per lb., and even this only when not made very fat. The importation of low-priced for- eign meat, and the great reduction in the price of lard, has rendered the manu- facture of inferior, or very fat, meat a losing game. And a word of caution here may not be out of place as to the making of the bacon pigs too heavy and too fat. The well-fed, meaty pigs of 150 lb. live weight, will realise much more per lb. than can ever be obtained for the over -fat pig of double the weight. Green Food for Pigs. — Many pig- keepers seem to forget that the pig is naturally a graminivorous animal, and that in a state of nature it lives for a great portion of the year on grass, or the roots of certain plants, which it unearths by the aid of its long snout; whilst its chief food during the remainder of the season consists of beech-mast, acorns, chestnuts, or similar tree-seeds. Those who are generally most successful in the feeding of our domesticated animals are those who study most carefully the natu- ral habits of the animals in their charge. To make pig-feeding a com23lete suc- cess, it is imperative that a certain amount of green food should be sup- plied to those pigs which are confined in close quarters. It does not appear to matter much what this vegetable food consists of, whether it be grass, clover, lucerne, beet, mangels, swedes, turnips, cabbages, or kohl-rabi. All seem to have a beneficial effect on the health and progress of the pigs ; whilst great num- bers of pigs are fattened on cooked pota- toes, and a little meal stirred with butter- milk or whey. Pigs which are not allowed their liberty should also have an occasional supply of small coal, cinders, or even a lump of earth or mould. This will greatly tend to keep the pigs in health, and cause them to settle and thrive much better. Exercise for Teeding - pigs. — It is sometimes found necessary to allow highly bred pigs a certain amount of exercise during the short time they are shut up in close quarters at the latter part of the fattening period. This diffi- culty, if it maybe so termed, is not often experienced with the common-bred pig, whose spirit of unrest forces it to take a sufficient amount of exercise to keep the various organs of the body in good work- ing order, and for the formation of that lean meat and muscle which is the natu- ral result of a free use of the locomotive powers. Keep Pigs Cleanly. — Pigs are ac- cused of dirty habits, but the fa|pt is otherwise. The accusation really ap- plies more to their caretakers, who oblige them to be dirty, than to the animals themselves. When constrained to lie amongst dirt, and eat food fit only for the dunghill, and dealt out with a grudging hand, they can be in no other than a dirty state. Let them have room, choice of clean litter, and plenty of food, and they wiU keep their litter clean, place their droppings in one corner of the court, and preserve their bodies in a wholesome state. The pig-house or pig-yard should be cleaned as regularly as the cow-house, and kept in a fresh wholesome condition. It is the duty of the cattle-man to supply the store -pigs with food, and clean out their court-yard ; and this part of his duty should be conducted with as much regularity as feeding the cattle. Whatever food or drink is obtained from the farmhouse is usually brought to their court by the dairymaid. Pigs in Cattle-courts. — Pigs often get the liberty of the large courts, amongst the cattle, where they make their litter in the open court when the weather is mild, and in the shed when cold. Though thus left at liberty, they should not be neglected of food, as is too often the case. They should be fed regularly, and in addition to other food many give them sliced turnips in troughs. Pigs, when not supplied with a sufficiency of food, will leap into the cattle-troughs and help themselves to turnips ; but this dirty practice should not be tolerated, and it can arise only from their keeper neglecting to give them food. A convenient pigs' trough, adapted for standing in the middle of a court, is represented in fig. 155. The divisions have a convexity on the upper edge, to prevent food being dashed from one com- partment into the other. This trough SWINE IN WINTER. 425 stands upon the top of the litter, is not easily overturned — the cattle cannot hurt themselves upon it, while it is easily pushed about to the most convenient spot. Eest for Feeding-pigs. — When pigs are fattening, they lie and rest and sleep a great deal, no other creature showing "love of ease" so strongly in aU their doings ; and, in truth, it is this indolence which is the best sign of their thriving condition. The opposite effects of activ- ity and indolence on the condition of animals are thus graphically contrasted by Liebig. "Excess of carbon," says he, " in the form of fat, is never seen in the Bedouin or in the Arab of the desert, who exhibits with pride to the traveller his lean, muscular, sinewy limbs, alto- gether free from fat. But in prisons and jails it appears as a pufSness in the inmates, fed as they are on a poor and scanty diet ; it appears in the sedentary females of oriental countries ; and, final- ly, it is produced under the well-known conditions of the fattening of domestic animals ; " ^ and amongst these last the pig may be instanced as the most illus- trative. Litter for Pigs. — Wheat-straw is best suited for this, especially for the breeding- Fig. 155. — Ring pigs' trough^ to stand in a court a Z> Hollow hemispherical trough, 30 inches diameter, c Eight subdivlsious within it, 9 inches high, converging and meeting at a central pillar. sow and her litter of young ones. In the cattle-courts, the pigs, of course, make litter of whatever is used for the cattle. Xometiclatwre of Pigs. The denominations of pigs are the fol- lowing : When new-born, they are called iwMng pigs, or simply pigs ; and the male is a hoar pig, the female sow pig, hilt, elt, yilt, yelt, or gilt. A castrated male, after it is weaned, is a shot or liog. Hog is the name mostly used by nat^ uralists, and very frequently by writers on agriculture ; but as it sounds so like the name given to young sheep (hogg), it is convenient to use the terms pig and swine for the sake of distinction. The term liog is derived from a Hebrew noun, signifying " to have narrow eyes," a feature exactly characteristic of the pig. A spayed female is a cut sow pig or gelt. As long as both sorts of cut pigs are small and young, they are porkers, pork- lings, or London porhet-pigs. A female that has not been cut, and before it bears young, is an open sow or hilt, Cart entrance, 32 feet high, high. h h Valleys of roof, along which 12 feet wide. e e Iron bracings supporting roof. rain-water runs to hollow c Outlet to upper barn. // Boof of galvanised iron. piUars. great capacity. Unthreshed corn is often stored in these barns, and threshed as opportunity offers. In many parts of England _ large quantities of corn are stacked in sheds roofed with iron and other material. THEESHING-MILL, STEAW-BAEN, AND GEANAEIES. In steadings where there is a built-in threshing - machine, the compartment which contains it and the straw -bam and granaries are placed conveniently to each other, so that the labour of con- veying the straw and the grain from the threshing-machine may be economised as far as possible. The building which contains the threshing-machine usually forms the centre of the back range of the steading, and often stretches out at right angles from the main wing of the steading into the stackyard, perhaps the length of the threshing-machine and the sheaf-barn, or compartment for holding the unthreshed com. But the exact po- CORN AT THE STEADING. 443 sition of the threshing-machine will vary ■with local circumstances. A common arrangement is to have the threshing-machine placed above the corn- barn, the building here being made ex- ceptionally high on purpose. The sheaf- barn is sometimes large enough to hold a small-sized stack, but as a rule it is small- er, the corn being carted from the stack as the threshing proceeds. Straw-barn. — The straw-barn is pur- posely made of the height of the upper barn, to contain a large quantity of straw, as it may be convenient in bad weather to thresh a considerable quantity of corn, when no outdoor work can be proceeded with, or when high prices induce farmers to take the corn to market. There is another good reason for giving room in the straw-barn. All sorts of straw Fig. 165. — Groittid-plan of a stackyard. a End of house containing thresh- & Gate. ing-machine. c Eoadways between the rows of stacks. d Hay-shed or bam. e Hay-stack. are not equally suited to every purpose, one sort being best suited for litter, and another for fodder. It is then desirable to have always both kinds in the barn, that the fodder-straw may not be wasted in litter, and the litter-straw given as fodder to the injury of the animals. Besides, the same sort of straw is not alike accept- able as fodder to every class of animals. Thus wheat-straw is a favourite fodder with horses, as well as oat-straw, whilst oat-straw only is acceptable to cattle. Barley-straw is used mainly for litter. It is not relished as food by stock in its whole state, but is useful food in pulped mixtures. To give room to litter and fodder straw at the same time, it is necessary to have a high-roofed barn ; and to give access to both sorts of straw, it is necessary to have a door in the straw-barn from each kind into each court. Thus four doors, two at each side near the two ends, are often found in a large straw-barn. Slit- Hke openings should be made in the side- walls, to admit air and promote ventila- tion through the straw. A skylight in the roof, at the end nearest the thresh- 444 COEN AT THE STEADING. ing-machine, is useful in giving light to those who take away and store up the straw from the threshing-machine when the doors are shut, which they should be whenever the wind happens to blow strongly against the straw from the machine. Instead of dividing straw-barn doors into two vertical leaves, as is usually done, they should be divided horizontally into an upper and lower leaf, so that the lower may be kept shut against intruders, such as pigs, whilst the upper admits both light and air into the barn. One of the doors at each end should be fur- nished vidth a good stock-lock and key and thumb-latch, and the other two fastened with a wooden hand-bar from the inside. Stravr-bam Floor. — The floor of the straw-barn is seldom flagged or cause- wayed, though it is desirable it should be. Concrete is now largely used in barn floors, and it answers the purpose admirably. Whatever substance is employed, the floor should be made firm and dry, to prevent straw moulding. Mouldy straw at the bottom superinduces through the upper mass a disagreeable odour, and imparts a taste repugnant to every ani- mal. That portion of the floor upon which the straw first alights on sliding down the straw-screen of the threshing- machine, should be strongly boarded, to resist the action of the forks when re- moving the straw. Blocks of wood, such as the roots of hardwood trees, trimmed and set on end causewaywise, into the ground, form a durable flooring for this purpose. Stone flagging would destroy the prongs of forks. The straw-barn should communicate with the chaff-house, having an opening with a shutting door, to enable those who take away the straw to see whether the chaff accumulates too high against the end of the winnowing-machine. Corn-barn. — ^This is the name usually given to the compartment underneath the sheaf-barn and threshing-machine. The corn as it is separated from the straw by the threshing-machine drops into this compartment, and before the threshing and dressing appliances were so admira- bly developed as they now are, the corn had to undergo subsequent dressing here by machines driven by hand-power. In the most improved modern threshing- machine the corn is almost perfectly dressed before it escapes from the ma- chine, and is conveyed by elevators right away into the granary, where the corn is seen for the first time after its separation from the straw. Thus the corn-barn has lost much of its former importance. The corn-barn, however, still exists, and in many cases has yet to be used for the old purposes of dressing and temporary storing of the threshed corn. Door of the Com-bam.— The door of a corn-barn is divided into upper and lower halves, and opens inwards. A more convenient method is to have it in a whole piece, and to fold back into a recess in the outer wall, over the top of which a plinth might project to throw off the rain. In this case the ribats and lintel of the doorway must be giblet- checked as deep as the thickness of the door, into which it should close flush, and be provided with a good lock and key and a thumb-latch. The object of making the door of this form is to avoid the inconvenience of opening into the barn. As to size, it should not be less in the opening than 7j^ feet in height and 2)}^ feet in width. A light half- door can be hooked on, to prevent the intrusion of animals and the wind sweep- ing along the floor. Floor of the Com-bam. — ^The floor of the corn-barn is frequently made of clay, or of a composition of ashes and lime — asphalt or concrete would be better than either; but wood is best of all — sound hard red-wood Drahm battens, ploughed and feathered, and fastened down to strong joists with Scotch floor- ing-sprigs driven through the feather- edge. A wooden floor can be depended on being constantly dry in a corn-bam ; and in a barn for the use of corn, a dry floor is indispensable. It has been sug- gested that a stone pavement, square- jointed, and laid on a bed of lime over 9 inches of broken stones — or asphalt, laid on a body of 6 inches of broken stones, covered with a bed of grout on the top of the stones — would make a dry and a more durable barn-floor than wood, and which win not rot. No doubt stone, asphalt, or concrete would be durable, and not liable to rot ; but there are ob- jections of a practical nature to these in a corn -barn, and it is certain that CORN AT THE STEADING. 445 the best stone pavement is not proof against the undermining powers of the brown rat ; whilst a wooden floor is dur- able enough, and certainly will not rot, if kept dry in the manner recommended, and illustrated in fig. i66. Floors, which are perfectly vermin - proof, are now often made of concrete, a strong plain-deal door with lock and key placed at the bottom or top of each. And there should be a bin to contain light corn for the fowls. Hanging -doors in Steadings. — As hanging-doors on a giblet-check should be adopted in all cases in steadings where doors on outside walls are likely to meet with obstructions on opening inwards, the subject deserves illustration. Fig. 167 is the inside form of a strong door. Inside of door. Recess in tlie wall. Lintel of doorway. d Giblet-check in lintel, e Giblet-check in ribats. / Light movable door. Fig. 166. — Section of the corn-barn Jioor. a a 12-inch thick stone and lime sleepers. 1) 6 Strong rough iiags to support the sleepers. c Wooden joists, 10 by 2 J6 inches, 16 inches apart, resting on ends on sleepers. d Wooden floor, level with the door-sole. i i Skifting-boards. e Stone supports of floor. / Upper bam, with roof of couples and slates. and if care is taken to have the surface made as smooth as possible, is well suited for barns. The objections to all stone pavements as a barn-floor are, that the wooden scoops for shovelling the corn pass very harshly over them — the iron nails in the shoes of the work-people wear them down, raise a dust upon them, and crush the grain — and they are hurtful to the bare hands and light implements, when used in tak- ing up the com from the floor. For true comfort ia all these respects in a barn- floor, there is nothing like wood. The walls of this bam should have hair-plaster, and the joists and flooring of its roof planed, to facilitate the re- moval of dust. The stairs to the grana- ries should enter from the corn-barn, and folded back into giblet-checks, mounted on crooks and bands. Preservation of Wooden Floors.- — The wooden floor of the corn-barn is liable to decay unless precautions are used to prevent it ; but a much more common cause of its destruction is vermin — ^rats and mice. A most effectual me- thod of preventing destruction either by vermin or damp is provided by support- ing the floor as shown in fig. 166. The earth, in the first instance, is dug out of the barn to the depth of the foundation walls, which should be 2 feet below the door -soles. In the case of building a new steading, this can be done when the foundations of the walls are taken out. The ground is then spread over with a layer of sand, sufficient to preserve steadi- ness in the strong rough flags laid upon it pointed iu good mortar. The building between the joists, to the level of the floor, should be done with squared rubble stones, and on no account should the mortar come in contact vidth the joists, as nothing des- troys timber, by superinducing the dry- 446 COKN AT THE STEADINO. rOt, more readily than the action of mor- tar. Vermin cannot possibly reach the floor but from the flags, which are nearly 2 feet under it, and the void freely admits the air, and affords room for cats or dogs to hunt the vermin. Hoofs of Steadings. — ^The roof, fig. 1 68, is very common for farm-steadings, and of strong construction, the balks or ties being notched into the couples or rafters, and its pitch above the walls is only I foot below the square. All roofs of steadings should be made of foreign timber, for strength and durability; but, unfortunately, on too many estates home timber is used, and one balk employed instead of two, the consequence of which is, that when the covering is of heavy grey or blue slates, the couples yield and the plane of the roof becomes depressed. Truss -roofs. — Another form of roof has been adopted, in the truss-roof. In Fig. i68. — Wooden king-jfost truss-roof. b h Tie-beam, c c Wall-plates. d d Rafters abutting on tie-beam, with span of i8 to 24 feet. e e Struts abutting on the straining-sill. / Straining-sill let into the tie-beam. fig. 168 is a wooden king-post truss-roof. Fig. 169 is an iron king-post truss-roof. Modifications of these truss-roofs may be made thus : In fig. 168 the struts e e may meet at /, and an iron rod pass from/ to the apex of the roof, and in fig. 169 an iron rod be placed from /A and e i. Hoof, flg. 168, is of wood, fig, 169 of iron. Upper Barn. — An upper barn, as frequently arranged, is represented in fig. 1 70. The position of the door c in this plan is not so convenient as could be de- sired. The sheaves should be so laid into the straw-barn as that when thresh- ing is going on the women employed in supplying the feeder vyith loose sheaves Fig. 169. — Iron Jcing-fiost intss-roof. d s Tie-rods, 54 inch diameter, a to 6 Rise of tie-rods, 6 inches, a to c Rise of tie-rods, 4 feet. 6 c King-bolt, ^ inch diameter. cdf eg Rafters, bedded into shoes, secured to wall-plates. & e, 6 /Struts. should be able to lift them in exactly the reverse order from that in which they had been put in — that is, the last put in sheaves should be first threshed. In any other order it is difficult, and causes much delay to draw the sheaves out of the heap. It is more convenient, therefore, to have the sheaf-door situated so that the sheaves first put in may be placed furthest from, and the last put in nearest to, the feeding-bench of the threshing- machine. The sheaf-door may be in two upright leaves, to open outwards, one to fasten with a cat-band, the other with lock and key. There should be a vsindow in the wall, or a sky-light in the roof, immediately opposite or over the feeding-bench. Conveying Sheaves to the Sheaf- ■barn. — Formerly it was the custom in some parts, where the sheaves were car- ried to the sheaf-barn from the stack by hand and not on carts, to have a gangway from the door of the upper barn. This was used as an inclined plane, upon which CORN AT THE STEADING. 447 to wieel the corn-barrows, and formed a road for the carriers of sheaves from the stackyard. This road was at all times kept hard and smooth with small broken stones, and sufficiently strong to endure the action of barrow - wheels. To pre- vent the gangway affecting the corn- barn with dampness, it was supported on a semicircular arch of masonry from the wall. This practice of carrying sheaves to the barn has now entirely disappeared. The general plan now is to employ carts in conve3dng the unthreshed com from the stacks to the threshing -mUI. In- deed, with the great speed accomplished a Upper "barn. & Site of threshing-niill. c Door, 6 feet wide, for taking in sheaves of corn. d Skylight. Fig. 170. — Upper ham atid granaries. e Hatch in floor, 3 feet by 3 feet. / Bole for air. g Opening from straw-barn, 4 feet by A straw-barn. i Wool-room. h Granary, 18 feet by 55. I Granary, 18 feet by 47. m Pigeon-house. by modern threshing-machines no other plan would, as a rule, be practicable. G-ranaries. — The roofs of the granaries in fig. 168 ascend to the slates. Their wooden floors should be made strong, to support a considerable weight of grain ; their walls made smooth with plaster; and a high skifting-board should finish the flooring. The numerous windows should admit sufficient light and air ; and a good way of affording both freely is shown in fig. 171, where the opening is 4j^ feet in length and 3 feet in height. The shutters revolve by their ends on a round pin, in holes of the side-posts of the frame, and kept parallel by a bar attached by an eye of iron, moving stiff on an iron pin passing through both the eye and bar. Another form is the " hit-and-miss " window, described on p. 392. Precautions against Vermin. — ^Rats Fig. 171. — Granary window and section o/ shutter, a Glazed sash i foot high, c Section of shutters .ind and two rows of panes. bar. 6 Venetian shutters. d Side-posts of frame. and mice being destructive and dirty vermin in steadings, and particularly so 448 CORN AT THE STEADING. in granaries, means should be used in the construction of steadings to prevent their lodgment in any particular part. Many expedients have been tried to de- stroy them in granaries, such as putting up a smooth triangular board across each corner, near the top of the waU. The vermin come down any part of the waUs to the corn at their leisure, but when disturbed run to the corners, up which they easily ascend, but are prevented gaining the top of the wall by the triangular boards, and on falling down, either on the corn or the floor, are there easily destroyed. But preventive means, in this case, are much better than destructive. If at all possible the granaries should always be kept free of vermin, so that the grain may be saved and may remain sweet and clean. The best method of prevention is, to deprive vermin of convenient places to breed in above ground, and this may be accomplished in all farm-steads by building up the tops of all the walls by beam-filling between the legs of the couples with stone and mortar — taking care to keep the mortar from contact with the timber. These places form the favourite breeding-ground of vermin in farm-steads, and should therefore be filled up with stone and mortar. The top of every wall, whether of stables, cow-houses, hammels, or other houses, should be treated in this manner; for, if one place be left them to breed in, the young fry will find access to the granaries in some way. The tops of the walls of old as well as of new farm- steads should be treated in this manner, either from the inside, or, if necessary, by removing the slates or tiles until the alteration is effected. Precaution is necessary in making beam-fillings, especially in new buildings, to leave a little space open under every couple face, to allow room for subsidence or bending of the couples after the slates are put on. Were the couples pinned firmly up with stone and lime, the stone would form hard points as fulcra, over which the couple, while subsiding with the load of slates upon it, would act as a lever, and might start the nails from the wall-plates, and push out the tops of the walls. Eats and mice breed under ground be- sides on the tops of the walls, and find access into apartments through the floor. To prevent lodgment in those places also, it will be proper to lay the strongest flag- ging and causewaying upon a bed of mortar spread over a body of 9 inches of small broken stones, around the walls of every apartment on the ground-floor where any food for them may chance to fall, in the stables, byres, boiUng-house, calves' - house, implement - house, hay- house, pig-sties, and hen-house, corn- barn, straw-barn, &c. The best means of prevention in those places are, to make the foundation of the walls 2 feet deep, and fill up the space between the walls with broken stones. This of course would entail considerable outlay, yet some regard it as money well invested. A well-laid concrete floor will efiectually resist rats, and this is not very costly. THRESHING-MACHINES. Great improvement has been efiected in recent years upon threshing-machines. The old-fashioned forms of built-in threshing-machines, at one time so ex- tensively used in Scotland, and some of which were illustrated and described in former editions of The Book of the, Farm, are now rarely met with. Machines of a much more efficient character have taken their place. The portable threshing- machine is now largely used, and is growing in favour. Still a great many farmers, especially in Scotland, prefer to have a good modern threshing-machine, built in permanently in their steadings, to be always at their hand for use when desired. These built-in machines now, as a rule, accomplish their work in a most admi- rable manner, threshing the grain at a rate formerly undreamt of, and in many cases not only at the same time dressing the grain so as to be fit for market, but conveying it into the granaries, which may be some considerable distance from the threshing-machine, and also carrying the straw to the remotest end of a long straw-barn — all this being done auto- matically, no human hand touching either grain or straw, after being fed into the drum, until each is deposited in its appointed quarters. These modem COEN AT THE STEADING. 449 built-in threshing-macMnes are of many patterns, several of which may be said to be equally efficient. Scotch Threahing-inaoliine. — A sec- tion of the threshing-mill ■wing of a modern Scotch steading is represented in fig. 172 (p. 450), showing at a glance not only the position of the threshing- machine, but also the courses of the grain and the straw until the former is dressed and carried by elevators and oscillating spout into the granary, and the latter by shakers and a travelfing web to the ex- treme end of the straw-barn. The following is a working description of this machine, as erected by Mr R. G. Morton, Errol, Perthshire : — The sheaves to be threshed are fed through the hopper a, the grain being driven from the husk by the drum b in its grated concave cc', which is regulated for the different kinds and conditions of grain, by an instant and parallel acting set -gear txI'. A large portion of grain and chaff fall through c, while the re- mainder is discharged, at a tangent, amongst the straw by the centrifugal force of the drum against the reflecting board d', then dropping upon the shakers E. The straw is tossed forward to the straw-carriers by the action of cranks on shaft F, and the patent balance throw- gear G. The grain falling through the shaker and concave gratings is gathered by the inclined planes hA, and oscillating planes jj' of first riddle K, which, by the current of air from first blast L, carries the chaff, short straws, &c., to chaff- room mm', while the good grain falls through K to plane n, from which it slides down to cross-spout 0. The light grain, the periphery, then the area of the section =2 feet ; and 2-^(7 — 3) = .S foot, or=6 inches, the hydraulic depth. And suppose the slope at the place of sec- tion to be I ^ inch on 100 feet, or 6.5 feet per mile, apply the formula — 1, 6 X. 5x6.5 = 2.3 feet, the velocity per second nearly, and the delivery will be 2.3x2=4.6 cubic feet per second, which, multiplied by 60, gives 276 cubic feet per minute. The next step is to ascertain the fall, by levelling, from the most convenient point at which the stream can be taken off, to the site where the water-wheel can be set down, and to that point in the continuar tion of the stream where the water can be discharged from the wheel, or what is called the outfall of the tail-race. If the water has to be conveyed to any consider- able distance from the point where it is diverted from the stream to the wheel, a lade must be formed for it, which should have a fall of not less than ij4 inch in 100 feet, and this is to be deducted from the entire fall. Suppose, after this deduc- tion, the clear fall be 12 feet, and that the water is to be received on a bucket-wheel whose power shall be equal to 4 horses. The rule for finding the quantity of water required per minute to produce 4 horses' power is to multiply the constant 44,000 by the horse-power, and divide the product by the product obtained by multiplying the constant, — the weight of water per cubic foot by the height of the fall. Example. — Multiply the constant . . . 44,000 By the horse-power . . 4 Which divide by the weight of water per cubic foot Multiplied by the height of the fall 62.5 12 750.0 ) 1 76000(234 cubic feet, the quantity 1500 of water required per minute to produce 4 2600 horses' power. 2250 3500 3000 The formula is this- 44,000x4 = 234 cubic feet. 62.5 X 12 The rule for finding the horse-power of any ascertained discharge of water will be found in p. 28. Mill-dam.- — If the stream does not produce this quantity, a dam must be formed by embanking or otherwise, to contain such quantity as will supply the vrheel for three or six hours, or such period as may be thought necessary. The quantity required for the wheel here sup- posed, for three hours, would be 42,120 cubic feet; but suppose the stream to supply one-foiurth part of this, the re- CORN AT THE STEADING. 457 mainder, or 31,590 feet, must be provided for in a dam, which, to contain this, at a depth not exceeding 4 feet, would Ije 88 feet square. But the constant supply of water is often much smaller than here supposed, and in such cases the dam must be proportionally larger, and also to allow for evaporation. Perming Mill-dam. — The dam may be formed either upon the course of the stream, by a stone weir thrown across it, and proper sluices formed at one side to lead off the water when required ; or, what is much better, the stream may be diverted by a low weir into an intermediate dam, which may be formed by digging and em- bankments of earth, furnished with sluice and waste-weir, and from this the lade to the wheel should be formed. The small weir on the stream, while serving to divert the water, when required, through a sluice to the dam, would, in time of floods, pass the water over the weir, the regulating sluice being shut to prevent the flooding of the dam. This last method of forming the dam is generally the most economical and convenient, besides avoid- ing the risk which attends a heavy weir upon a stream that may be subject to floods. When water is collected from drains or springs, it is received into a dam formed in any convenient situation, which must also be furnished with a waste- weir, besides the ordinary sluice, to pass off flood-waters. The position of the sluice in the dam should be so fixed as to prevent the viraek floating on the surface of thewater finding its way into the sluice, and thence to the water-wheel. To avoid this incon- venience, the sluice should not be placed at the lowest point of the dam, where it most commonly is, but at one side, at which the water will pass into the lade, while the rubbish will float past to the lowest point. Dunensions of the Bucket--wlieel. — The water-wheel should be on the bucket principle, and, for a fall such as we have supposed, 12 feet, should not be less than 14 feet diameter; the water, therefore, would be received on the breast of the wheel. Its circumference, with a diame- ter of 14 feet, wiU be 3.1416X 14 = 44 feet; its velocity, at 5 feet per second, is 44x5 = 220 feet a minute; and 234 cubic feet per minute of water spread over this gives a sectional area for the water laid upon the wheel of 234 1.06 feet; but as the bucket should not be more than half filled, this area is to be doubled = 2.12 feet; and as the breadth of the wheel may be restricted to 3 feet, then - — =.704 foot, the depth of the shrouding, equal to 8J^ inches nearly; and if the wheel is to have wooden soling, I inch should be added to this depth already found, making gyi inches. The Arc. — The arc in which the wheel is to be placed must have a width sufficient to receive the wheel with the toothed segments attached to the side of the shrouding. For a bucket-wheel it is not necessary that it be built in the arc of a circle, but simply a square chamber — one side of it being formed by the wall of the bam, the opposite side by a wall of solid masonry, at least zj^ feet thick : one end also is built up solid, while the opposite end, towards the tail- race, is either left entirely open, or, if the water is to be carried away by a tunnel, the water-way is arched over and the space above levelled in with earth. It is requisite that the walls of the wheel -arc should be built of square-dressed stone, having a breadth of bed not less than 12 inches, laid flush in mortar, and pointed vrith Roman cement. Construction of the Wheel. — Fig. 178 is a sectional elevation of the wheel. The barn-wall, and the sole of the arc or chamber, are formed of solid ashler, having an increased slope immediately under the wheel, to clear it speedily of water. The shaft, the arms, and shroud- ing are of cast-iron, the buckets and sole being of wood; and to prevent risk of fracture, the arms are cast separately from the shrouding. The width of the wheel being 3 feet, the toothed segments 4 inches broad, and they being i inch clear of the shrouding, gives a breadth over all of 3 feet 5 inches, and when in the arc there should be at least i inch of clear space on each side, free of the wall. The length of the shaft depends upon how the motion is to be taken from the water-wheel. In the case of the wheel illustrated in the sketch it is taken off by the pinion shown on the left hand, in 458 COEN AT THE STEADING. a line horizontal to tlie axis of the water- wheel. The eye-flanges, 2 feet diameter, are separate castings, to which the arms are bolted ; the flanges being first keyed firmly upon the shaft. The shrouding is cast in segments, and bolted to the arms and to each other at their joinings. On the inside of the shroud-plates are formed the grooves for securing the ends of the buckets and of the sole-boarding. The form of the buckets should be such as to afford the greatest possible space for water at the greatest possible distance from the centre of the wheel, with sufficient spa-ce for the entrance of the water and displacement of the air. In discharging the water from the wheel l^;||#^-i«^ Fig. 178. — Section and elevation of a bucket waier-viheel. ft' a' Barn-wall. V V Sole of arc. & Eye-flanges, c Arms. (I d Shrouding, e Groove for securing the buckets. //Pitch of the buckets. fg Front of bucket. g h Bottom of bucket. k Pinion. I Trough. m Spout. 7t Regulating-sluice. q Pinion. r Sluice-stem. s Friction-roller. * Cross-head. Trap-sluice. op Spout. u Connecting rod. V Crank-lever. also, the buckets should retain the water to the lowest possible point. These con- ditions are attained by making the pitch of the buckets, or their distance from lip to Hp, jyi times the depth of the shrouding ; the depth of the front of the bucket inside, equal to the pitch; and the breadth of the bottom as great as can be attained consistently with free access of the water to the bucket im- mediately preceding; this breadth, in- side, should not exceed two-fifths of the depth of the shrouding. If there is the least danger of back- water ^ — -that is, of interruption to the discharge in the tail-race — ^it is a good plan to keep the bottom of the arc high at the up-water side. This gives the water discharging at the higher points a velocity greater than 5 feet per second, and assists in driving the water away from below the lowest discharging buckets. CORN AT THE STEADING. 459 In the illustration one-haK of the slirouding-plates are removed, the better to exhibit the position of the buckets. The shrovding-plates are bolted upon the buckets and soling by bolts passing from side to side; and in order to prevent resilience in the vrheel, the arms are supported with diagonal braces. The toothed segments which operate on the pinion are bolted to the side of the shrouding through palms cast upon them for that purpose, and the true position of these segments requires that their pitch -lines should coincide with the circle of gyration of the wheel : when so placed, the resistance to the wheel's action is made to bear upon its parts, without any undue tendency to cross strains. For that reason, it is improper to place the pitch-Hue beyond the circle of gyration, which is frequently done, even upon the periphery of the water- wheel. The determination of the true place of the circle of gyration is too abstruse to be introduced here, nor is it necessary to be so minute in the small wheels, to which our attention is chiefly directed ; suffice it to say, that the pitch- line of the segment wheel should fall between one-half and two-fifths of the breadth of the shrouding, from the ex- treme edge of the wheel. Overshot or Breast ? — ^An import- ant point to decide is whether the wheel is to be worked on the overshot or breast method. Where the fall is ample but the supply of water small, or moder- ate, the overshot is the best ; where the water is fairly plentiful and the fall not so great, the breast may be most suit- able. But whether the water be de- livered over the top of the wheel or on the breast — ^that is a little below the crown of the wheel as shown in the illustration — the water should be allowed to fall through such a space as will give it a velocity equal to that of the peri- phery of the wheel when in full work. Thus, if the wheel move at the rate of 5 feet per second, the water must fall upon it through a space of not less than .4 foot ; for, by the laws of faUing bodies, the velocities acquired are as the times and whole spaces fallen through to the squares of the time. Thus the velocity acquired in i" being 32 feet, a velocity of 5 feet will be acquired by falling .156"; for 32 : i" : : 5 : .156", and i"2 : 16 : : .156"^ : .4 foot, the fall to produce a velocity of 5 feet. But this being the minimum, the fall from the trough to the wheel may be made double this result, or about 10 inches. So as to secure the proper filling of the buckets, the breast-wheel at 5 feet per second should have the pen-trough, with two or three guide -vanes set to turn the direction of the water into the bucket at a velocity of about 6 feet per second. This wiU also prevent the force of the water from opposing the wheel. For an overshot wheel at 6 feet per sec- ond at the periphery, it would be well to have the water entering the bucket at about 7 feet per second. Trough, and Sluices. — The trough which delivers the water upon the wheel should be at least 6 inches less in breadth than the wheel, to give space for the air escaping from the buckets, and to pre- vent the water dashing over at the sides ; the trough and spout convey the water to the wheel. It is convenient to have a regulating sluice, that serves to give more or less water to the wheel; and this is worked by a small shaft passing to the inside of the upper barn. The shaft carries a pinion working the rack of the sluice-stem, a small friction-roller being placed in proper bearings on the cross-head of the sluice-frame; and this apparatus is worked inside the barn by means of a lever handle upon the shaft of the pinion. As a waste-sluice, the most convenient and simple, in a mill of this kind, is the trap-sluice, which is simply a board hinged in the sole of the trough, which in opening turns up to- wards the wheel. It is made to shut close down to the level of the sole, and when so shut the water passes freely over it to the wheel. The lifting of this sluice is efiected by means of the con- necting-rod and crank-lever, the latter being fixed upon another small shaft, which passes through the wall to the interior of the barn, where it is worked in the same manner as the lade-sluice. When it is found necessary to stop the wheel, the trap is hfted, and the whole supply of water falls through the shoot, leading it to the bottom of the wheel- arc, by which it runs oflF, until the sluice 46o COEN AT THE STEADING. at the dam can be shut, which stops further supply. Speed of the Wheel. — ^The wheel here described, if it moves at the rate of 5 feet per second, will make 6^ rev- olutions per minute. The pinion-shaft will carry a spur-wheel, by which all the other parts of the machine can be put in motion. The rate of the spur-wheel de- pends on the relation of the water-wheel and its pinion. In the present case they are in the proportion of 8 to i, and as the water-wheel takes 6^ revolutions per minute, this, multiplied by 8, will give 54 to the spur-wheel. The Turbine.- — ^The turbine is much superior to the ordinary vertical wheels for utilising water-power, and it is rapidly taking their place. It is an ingenious and powerful water-engine, one of the many useful inventions we owe to the development of science. It is suitable for high or low falls, and, as a rule, can be fitted in at much less cost than the common vertical water-wheel. The power which the turbine generates can be applied very easily, and the " en- gine " can be worked at different degrees of its capacity, so that it may be adapted either to the working of the chaff-cutter, root-pulper, or grist-mill alone, or to the threshing-machine and all the smaller machines combined. The turbine makes the most both of the water and the fall. As its action is not impeded by back- water, the turbine may be placed on a level with the tail-race, and thus give the water before entering the turbine the full benefit of the entire available fall. Its small size is another advantage, and a small bed of masonry is aU that is re- quired for its foundation. Turbines re^ volve with such velocity — from 8o up to 1400 revolutions per minute — that the motion for driving machinery may be ob- tained direct from the wheel-shaft, thus saving intermediate gearing. Various types of turbines are in use in this country and elsewhere. In some, those invented by Fourneyron for ex- ample, the water is admitted to the cen- tral part of the wheel, and passes out of the circumference; in others (Jonval & Fontaine), the fiow of the water is in a direction parallel with the axis. The Thomson Turbine. — Thomson's Vortex Turbine (made by Williamson Brothers) consists of a movable wheel with radiating vanes which revolves upon a pivot, and is surrounded by an annular case closed externally, but having towards its internal circumference four curved guide passages. The water is admitted by one or more pipes to this case, and issuing through the guide passages, acts against the vanes of the wheel, which is thus forced round at a rate proportionate to the height of the fall. The water, as it expands its force, passes out below at the centre of the case. Professor Eankine ascribed the advan- tages of the Vortex or inward-flow turbine to the following points : — 1. Its discharging water near the cen- tre of the wheel. 2. The action of centrifugal force in regulating the pressure of the water vdthin the wheel. 3. The mode of varying the supply of water when required. 4. The action of centrifugal force in regulating the speed. The nature of these advantages he de- scribed as follows : — 1. The advantage of discharging the water near the centre of the wheel is of the following kind : In every form of turbine a whirling motion is given to the particles of water before they begin to drive the wheel, and the efficiency of the turbine depends on the completeness vsdth which that whirling motion is taken away from those particles during the action on the wheel. By discharging the water from a part of the wheel whose motion is comparatively slow, the prac- tical fulfilment of that condition is ren- dered more easy and certain. 2. The action of centrifugal force in the regulation of the pressure within the wheel is of the following kind. It is favourable to economy of power that the effective pressure of the water immedi- ately after entering the wheel should bear a certain definite proportion to the effec- tive pressure in the supply-chamber, not differing much in any case from one-half. The centrifugal force of the water which whirls along vnLth the vortex wheel tends to preserve at its circumference the very pressure which is most favourable to economy of power; and the centrifugal force of the two discs of water contained between the wheel and the two shields CORN AT THE STEADING. 461 or cover of tlie wheel-chamber prevents 'that pressure from making the water leak out between the wheel and the casing. 3. The action of centrifugal speed is as follows : Should the load be suddenly diminished, and the wheel begin to revolve too fast, the centrifugal force of the water whirling along with it increases and opposes the entrance of water from the supply-cham- ber ; on the other hand, should the load be suddenly increased, and the wheel begin to revolve too slowly, the centrifugal force of the water whirling along with it diminishes, and allows more water to enter from the supply-chamber; and thus sud- den variations of the load are prevented from causing exces- sive fluctuations of speed, the whirling water acting as a gov- ernor. In outward -flow tur- bines the centrifugal force of the water acts in a contrary way, and tends to increase the fluctuation of speed. In parallel-flow turbines it has no sensible action of any kind. 4. The advantage of the mode of vary- ing the supply of water to the vortex wheel by means of movable guide-blades turning about their inner ends, is of spe- cial importance, and consists in this, that Fig. 179. — Morton's turbine. how small soever the supply of water may be, the passages through which it flows are always of a smooth and con- tinuous form, and free from enlargements i^.~~Vertical section of Jiorizontal tttrhine. and from sudden contractions or throt- tlings, which causes of waste of power can never be wholly avoided when the supply is regulated by sluices or side- valves. This vortex turbine has come into ex- tensive use, and has been applied to falls ranging from 3 to 400 feet.'^ The Ponoelet Turbine. — Mr R. G. Morton, Errol, whose turbine is illus- ^ Scott's Farm Engvneering. 462 CORN AT THE STEADING. trated in figs. 179 and 180, -writes : " The poncelet turbine is a practically perfect poncelet wheel, in which the theoretical principles of perfection are fully carried out. An efficiency, obtained by experi- ments, of fully 60 per cent is claimed for the ordinary poncelet wheel. If this claim can be maintained, an efficiency of nearly 80 per cent may unquestionably be claimed for the poncelet turbine. " The mechanism of the sluice of this turbine overcomes the well-known diffi- culty experienced in others when it is desired to work at less power, or when the water-supply is variable. In the poncelet turbine the variation is produced by totally closing or fully opening the sluice orifices in pairs, one of each pair being exactly opposite the other. By this means the efficiency is constant for all discharges, from the volume passing through a single pair of sluice orifices to the maximum." Fig. 180 is a vertical section of the horizontal wheel, showing base and foot- step, guide-vanes, regulating sluice and gear. Horserpower. As already indicated, horse-power for threshing purposes is gradually giving place to water or steam power — to the latter most largely. Still it is in use on many farms, and it demands brief notice. Formerly there were two leading types of horse-wheels, knovra as under-foot and over-head. The under-foot was used chiefly where small powers are required, and the over-head on large farms where four horses and upwards were employed. But on nearly all large farms either the steam-engine or turbine water-wheel has taken the place of horse-power for thresh- ing, so that the over-head horse-wheel is now rarely seen in use. It is therefore the under-foot horse-wheel that now pre- vails, and with it the horses draw by means of trace -chains and swing -tree. The horses usually worked singly, one at each lever or beam ; but sometimes they are yoked in parrs, two horses at each lever. It is often found that horses ac- customed to go together in the plough work most willingly in the horse-wheel when yoked side by side; and in this way also a greater force may, if desired at any time, be employed than with one horse to each lever or beam. Horse-gear for one or two horses is now provided in great variety, and, as a rule, of a very convenient and serviceable description, easily fitted up or removed from one place to another. Only thresh- ing-machines of small proportions can be worked by this form of horse-gear. Its most general function on the farm is to drive the chaff-cutter, turnip-cutter, cake-breaker, and grist-mill. Driving Horses in Threshing. — To drive horses m a threshing-machine cor- rectly, is a work which tests the natural temper of the driver more than most other operations. If he is a lazy or indifferent man, he at one time will look from him, and see the horses lagging as if coming to a stand-still ; the next moment he vpiU walk along with the horses ; the nearest one then exerts himself beyond what he should. Or he will plant his back against the central shaft upon the platform with- in the wheel, which some threshing-ma- chines have, but which should never be there, and at intervals will give a loud whoop with the voice, or a crack of the whip, which will make the horses nearest him push on with a start. Lagging causes the machine to take in the sheaves with difficulty, and at every start the sheaf will be drawn through suddenly, and escape the beaters. Now, a steady driver walks the course in an opposite direction to the horses, and he thus meets every horse quietly twice in every round of the course. Irregular action of the horses injures the more complicated parts of the machine, and makes bad work in the threshing and dressing of the com. THRESHING XSD WINNOWING COEN. The first preparation for threshirig com — that is, separating the grain from the straw by the threshing - machine — is taking in the stack to be threshed, and placing it in the upper or threshing bam. Old-fashioned Com-barrov?^ Plan. — ^Formerly a common plan was to con- vey the sheaves from the stack to the sheaf-bam with a corn-barrow such as is illustrated in fig. 181. This method is scarcely ever pursued now except upon small holdings ; yet it may be interesting CORN AT THE STEADING. 463 to retain the description of the process which appeared in the third edition of this work. The person appointed to superintend the barn-work forks down the stack to be conveyed into the barn. This is the steward, or the person who superintends the field-workers. The hedger does it when there is not much field-work in win- ter. Whoever undertakes the duty, he is assisted in it by 4 field-workers. When Fig. 181. — Corn-barrow, about to take in a stack, he provides him- self with a ladder, and reaches its eaves with it ; also a long small fork, employed to pitch sheaves at leading-time to the builder of stacks; and a strong clasp- knife, which most farm-servants carry. Standing on the ladder, he, in the first place, cuts away with the knife aU the tyings of the straw-ropes at the eaves of the stack. On gaining the top, the lad- der is taken away, and he cuts away as much of the ropes as he thinks will allow him to remove the covering with the fork. The covering is then pushed down to the ground, untU the top of the stack is com- pletely bared. On the side of the stack nearest the barn, a little of the covering is spread upon the ground by the field-workers, to keep the barn-sheet off the ground, and they unfold the sheet over the spread straw, close to the bottom of the stack. As many of the sheaves first thrown down from the top of the stack upon the sheet are taken by the women, and placed side by side, with the straw ends upon the edge of the sheet, along both its sides, as will keep the sheet from being blown up by the wind, or turned up by the feet. Each barrow-load, as it arrives at the upper bam, is tilted upon the floor, and emptied at once, instead of the sheaves being lifted out of it one by one, the form of the barrow allowing this to be done. Two barrows, if the distance from the barn is not great, will bring in a stack of ordinary size in about 3 hours. The fourth worker remains in the upper barn, to pile up the sheaves as they are brought in into what are called maw!, — that is, the sheaves are placed in rows, parallel to each other, to a considerable height, vrith their butt ends outwards, the first row being piled against the wall. In casting the stack, the steward takes up the sheaves in the reverse order in which the builder had laid them at harvest-time, beginning vrith those in the centre first, and then removing those around the circumference one by one. The fork thrust into the band will generally hit the centre of gravity of the sheaves, where they are most easily lifted, and swung towards the sheet. The sheaf is about the position it assumes on being pitched by a fork, the corn end always having a tendency to drop downwards. When all the sheaves of the stack have been wheeled in, the steward takes a raie and clears the ground of loose straws of corn that may have been scattered from the stack to the bam, and puts them into the sheet, the four corners of which are then doubled in towards the middle, in- cluding within them the grain that had been shaken out by the shock given to the sheaves on being thrown down to the ground ; and the sheet, vsdth its con- tents, are carried by the women into the bam, and its contents emptied on the floor, near the feeding - board of the threshing-machine. The sheet is then shaken, and spread out upon the stackyard wall, or other airy place, to dry before being folded up to be ready for use on a similar occasion. The covering of the stack is carried away by the women to such parts of the courts and hammels as the cattle-man says require littering, in case it may become wetted vsdth rain; and the ground is raked clean. The straw -ropes which bound down the covering of the stack should be cut into short lengths before 464 CORN AT THE STEADING. being carried away in the litter, as long ropes are very troublesome to the men when filling their carts with dung on clearing out the courts. Stacks should be carried into the barn in dry weather, though a drizzling or muggy day will do little harm to the straw. Damp straw passes through the threshing-mill not only with difficulty, but is apt to mould and contract a dis- agreeable smell in the straw-barn. The ham-sheet is made of thin canvas, and should be about 12 feet square. It is useful not only for this, but many other purposes of the farm. A very convenient form of corn-harrow is in fig. 181, the construction of which is obvious : it is 6 feet ia length, and stands 2}^ feet in height to the top of the bracket. The sheaves are laid across the barrow in rows, with the corn and butt ends alternately, and they are kept from sliding off when wheeled by the slanting bracket supported by stays. In this way from 10 to 15 sheaves, according to bulk, may be wheeled away at once by a woman. Carting Corn to be Threshed. — The almost universal plan now is to cart the unthreshed corn from the stack to the threshing-mill or machine. It is more expeditious than the time-honoured bar- row-plan, and saves manual labour, which is more costly now than when the anti- quated plan just described prevailed. The corn is usually carted to the sheaf- barn as the threshing proceeds; but in many places where there is sufficient sheaf -barn accommodation, a stack is stored there at some convenient time and threshed out at another time, or at inter- vals, according to circumstances. In many cases where the threshing- machine is fed from the ground-floor, or where a cart-way can be made up to the level of the sheaf-barn on the first floor, the sheaf-door is made wide enough to admit the load of straw, which is de- posited there by a tip-cart without any further handling. Where the sheaf-door is not wide enough to admit the load, the sheaves are usually forked off the cart into the bam. Where the floor of the sheaf-barn is level with the ground out- side, the load of sheaves may be tipped at the door and carried or forked in. This is an expeditious plan when only one cart is employed in taking in the stack ; but it has this drawback, that the tipping is apt to shake out grain from the straw. Ladders. — Ladders are most useful about a farm-steading. They are best formed of tapering Norway pine spars, sawn up the middle. A useful form of ladder for farm purposes is in fig. 182, where the rounded form of the Nor- way spar, divided in two, is placed out- Fig, ^ti.— Ladder, 15 feet long. a a Spars of ladder. c Stack, b Steps of ladder. most, though it is as often placed inmost. Those spars are connected together by steps of clean ash, pushed through auger- made holes in the spars, and rendered firm by means of wedges driven into the outside ends of the steps. The steps are 9 inches apart, and 16 inches long at the bottom, and 13 inches at the top, in a ladder of 15 feet in length, which CORN AT THE STEADING. 465 is the most useful size for use in a stack- yard. To prevent the ladder from falling to pieces in consequence of the shrinking of the round steps, a small rod of iron is passed through both spars, having a head at one end and a screw and nut at the other, under the upper, middle, and lower steps, the head end keeping its hold firmly while the screw end is rendered tight by the nut. When well finished and painted, such a ladder will last many years. A couple of ladders 10 feet, a couple of 15 feet, and one of 24 feet long, will suffice for all the purposes of a farm, as also for the repairs of the steading and houses. Some dexterity is required to set a long ladder on end, as also to carry it from one place to another. To place it in a perpendicular position, its lower or heavy end is placed against any object that will prevent its slipping upon the ground; and on its light end being ele- vated arm's-length above the head, the position is kept good by another person taking one of the steps between the prongs of a long fork, by which the ladder is farther elevated, and the first person then pushes arm's-length, simul- taneously, against one step after another, until the perpendicular position is gained. A long ladder is carried a short dis- tance in this way : Set the perpendicular edge of the ladder against the right shoulder, and then take hold of a step with the right hand, and raise the ladder steadily by it a little from the ground, while, to retain the perpendicular posi- tion, grasp a step above the head firmly with the left hand, and then walk stead- ily forward. Some can carry it steadily by grasping one step with both hands, with the edge leaning against the shoul- der; and some even are so powerful in the arms as to carry a ladder by the steps at arm's-length before them, with one arm above and another below the head. A ladder may be moved on the ground a short distance, while standing in a per- pendicular position, by holding a spar in each hand at arm's-length, and then moving first one foot of the ladder in advance, and then the other, tiU the spot is gained. Along ladder is brought dovra from the perpendicular to the horizontal posi- tion, by placing it against any object which will resist its foot slipping on the VOL. I. ground, and one person with the hands stretched above the head upon the spars : the ladder will approach the horizontal position the further he steps back, while the higher part is supported by another person with a long fork. When not in use, ladders should be hung along the stackyard wall, or some other handy stone or close wooden fence ; and careful far- mers will have slanting boards fixed above the ladders in roof-like fashion to protect them from rain-water, just as the project- ing part of a roof at the " easing " pre- vents the roof-water running down the outside of the walls of a building. Long ladders are more frequently de- stroyed by being brought to the ground in a careless manner, and by being blown down by the vrind while resting against a stack, than by fair use. Preparing for Threshing.^ — Before setting on the threshing-machine, its several parts required to be oiled. Fine machinery - oil should be employed for this purpose, though too often a coarse dirty oil is used. It should be put for use into a small tin flask, having a long narrow spout (fig. 183) to reach any Fig. 183. — Oil-can. gudgeon behind a wheel. It is import- ant that the machine should be thorough- ly oiled, and it should therefore be carried out with great care, and by one acquaint- ed with the construction of the machine. When steam is employed as the mo- tive power, the fire should be kindled by the engine-man in time to get up the steam by the moment it is wanted. From half an hour to an hour may be required for this purpose, according to the state of the atmosphere. When water is the power, the sluice of the supply-dam should be drawn up to the proper height, to aUow the water time to reach the mill-wheel sluice when it is wanted. When the power is of horses, the horses are yoked in the wheel by their respective drivers, immediately after leav- ing the stable at the appointed hour of yoking; and while one of the men is left 2 G 466 CORN AT THE STEADING. in charge of driving tlie horses, the other men go to the straw-barn to take away the straw from the shakers of the mill with straw-forks, fig. 150, and fork it in mows across the breadth of the barn, which mows may be tramped down by a woman in narrow breadths— that is, where the straw is not carried away automatically, as in fig. 172. Every preparation ought to be com- pleted before the machine is started by the order of the person who is to feed the machine, and who should be a careful man of experience. The power should be applied gently at first, and no sheaf should be presented until the machine has acquired its proper momentum — the tlvreshing motion, as it is termed. Care in Feeding. — The capacity of the modern threshing-machines compels the feeder to be active at his work. The efficiency of the threshing, however, is not now so much dependent upon the care and skill of the feeder as was the case with the old-fashioned machines formerly in use. With the improved high-speed drums, the best modern machines make a perfect separation of the grain and the straw even vidth unskilled feeding, yet it is desirable that this important piece of work should be executed carefully. It may therefore be useful to read the following directions given in previous editions to feeders of machines with slow drum-movement. When the machine has attained proper speed, the feeder takes a portion only of a sheaf in both his hands, and, letting its corn-end fall before him on the f eeding-in board, spreads it vidth a disengaging mo- tion across the width of the board. His great care is, that no more is fed in than the mill can thrash easily ; that none of the corn is presented sideways, or with the straw end foremost. He thus pro- ceeds with a small quantity of corn for a few minutes, until he ascertains the capa- city of the mUl for work at the particular time, which is much affected by many cir- cumstances, and then the requisite quan- tity is fed in. The ascertainment of the capacity of the mill is necessary every time the mill is used ; for however well acquainted the feeder-in may be with it generally, and whatever power may be employed, it is not alike effective imder all circumstances. For example, the water may flow quicker or slower ; the horses move slower or faster, duUer or brisker ; and the steam be more or less easUy raised, and retain its elasticity longer or shorter one day than in another. The state of the atmosphere has a great influence on all these conditions. If water is flowing /reeZy into the supply-dam while the threshing is going on, it vrill come more quickly towards the wheel, and con- sequently maintain the threshing pace of the mill for a longer time than when it flows from a full dam until it is emptied, when the power becomes less by degrees. So vsdth horses : the state of the weather vrill oppress them one day, and they will work with languor and irregularity, do what the driver can to induce them ; while on another day they will work with an active pace throughout the yoking. Little of this variation will, of course, be felt with steam. Fig. 184 represents the feeding process in a threshing-mill of the olden type. Irregular Driving. — There are cer- tain circumstances which greatly affect the action of the machine in the foulness of its threshing. One depends — ^where horse-power is used — on the driving of the horses, in which a considerable differ- ence is felt by the feeder when one man keeps the horses at a regular pace, whilst another drives them by fits and starts. The regular motion is attained by the driver walking round the course in the coni/rary direction to the horses, in which he meets every horse twice in the course of a revolution, and which keeps the horses upon their mettle, every horse ex- pecting to be spoken to when he meets the driver. The irregular motion is pro- duced by his walking in the same direc- tion with the horses, when the horse next him makes the greatest exertion until he outstrips the man, when he slackens his pace ; and then the horse following him, on coming up to the man, exerts himself until he also passes him; and so on in succession, one horse after another. The man always walks slower than the horses ; and when he gives a crack of the whip the horses give a start, and strain the machine ; but immediately after this they relapse into the irregular motion, caused as above described. In such a style of driving, a willing horse is sure to get more to do, and a lazy one less than he COKN AT THE STEADING. 467 should, as horse-wheels are usually con- structed. The gangway, which is some- times made for the driver to walk on within the stays of the wheel, serves only to encourage in him carelessness and in- dolence. The horses receive a breathing of 15 or 20 minutes at mid-yoking in the mill. Removing Stravr. — The straw, as it is threshed, is mowed up in the straw- barn, and the movdng is done in this manner — that is, where it is not carried away automatically, as shown in fig. 172, or trussed as in fig. 176. Two persons are required to take away the straw when the threshing-machine is in mo- tion. The straw, as it falls from the shak- ers, is taken up in forkfuls, and carried to the part of the straw-barn where it is intended to be mowed up, and where a field-worker is ready to receive it and mow it up. The mowing consists of spreading the straw in a Kne, across the end or along one side of the straw-barn, in breadths or mows of 5 or 6 feet, and trampling it firmly with the feet; and when one mow has reached such a height as the roofing of the barn will easily allow, another one is made upon the floor beside it, and so on in succession, one Fig. 184. — Feeding in sheaves into ilu threshing-machine of the olden ty^e. a Sheaves mowed up from the stackyard. 7) Rake, c Refuse on floor. d Feeder-in of com. e Feeding-in board. /Field- worker loosening sheaves. gr Field-worker bringing fonvard sheaves from the mow. /» Wecht. i Broom. mow after another, in parallel order, until the stack is threshed or the barn filled. Mows of Straw. — The advantage of putting up straw in the barn in mows in preference to building it over a large portion of the barn-floor, is — that a mow receives the straw in forkfuls, which re- quire to be only spread a very little be- fore being trampled firm; whereas over a broad space the forkfuls would have to be carried to the farthest end and sides — a task which no single field-worker coidd do as fast as the men fork it. And moreover, when - the straw is to be used, each mow is easily removed by force of the arms alone, whereas straw is very difficult to be pulled asunder when built up and trampled in broad spaces. Carrying Straw to the Courts. — When a stack of litter-straw is being threshed, the cattle-man may be saved a good deal of trouble by the men or the women who are taking away the straw carrying the litter to the courts and ham- mels, should these require to be littered. In this case the straw is carried in back- loads from the shakers in short ropes, one end of which is hooked on to the bottom of the straw-screen, and the other end is held in one hand of the person who is to carry the load, while the other hand guides the straw into the rope. Those who carry assist each other on with the load in the barn. The carriers litter one court after another methodi- cally, and not at random, in which they are assisted and directed by the cattle- man, and by the field-worker who would have had to mow the straw in the barn. Straw-screen. — For the convenience of this process, as weU as many others, it 468 COKN AT THE STEADING. is better to have the end of the straw- screen, or straw-rack as it is sometimes called, cut off about 3 feet above the floor of the straw-barn, than to allow it to slope down to the floor, because, when so prolonged, its end is apt to be injured by the prongs of the forks when remov- ing the straw ; and it interferes with the bundling of straw directly from the mill, either for litter, fodder, or thatching stacks. In some machines there is no straw-screen at all, the straw falling on the floor direct from the shakers, which in modern improved machines do their work most efficiently. Bresdng Corn. In former times the threshing and dressing of grain were distinct operations performed at different times. Now they may be said to be but two parts of one operation. The modern threshing-ma- chine of the most improved type is so admirably equipped as to efficiently clean and dress the grain, as well as separate it from the straw ; also " hummelling " or Fig. 185. — Elevation of the dressing-fanner. a Fore-framing, made in halves. g Connecting-rod. b Back-frame, made single. h Bell-crank spindle, c c Side-l)oarding. i Hopper for imdressed com. d Crank on fan-spindle. IcZm Sponts for first, second, and light grain. e Arms of fans. lif V m' Sliders upon spouts for the opposite side. //Sliding-pauels on air-port. % Slot-bar for adjusting the fanner to the floor. " beating " the barley, and, as has already been explained, conveying the grain to the granary, and the straw to the ex- treme end of the straw-barn — all this in one continuous operation. StiU there are many farms on which the threshing-machines only partially dress the grain, and not a few indeed, mostly of small size, where the thresh- ing-machines do little or nothing except separate the grain and the straw. Most probably another decade or two will see these latter cases reduced to rare in- stances; but that day has not quite arrived, and in the meantime it may be interesting to many, and useful to not a few, to present here the greater portion of the detailed information given in for- mer editions as to the dressing of grain. Com - dressing Machines. ■ — Some idea may, in the first place, be given of the machines employed in dressing corn. They are often named blowers or fanners, because they blow away the filth from the corn by means of fans. When clean- ing-fanners are fixed to one spot, and are COEN AT THE STEADING. 469 connected witli elevators, they are gen- erally of large dimensions, and of more complicated construction than when made to be moved about in the barn. Fig. 185 is the elevation of a fixed fanner, long used in the country, but now con- siderably improved upon. It is 6 feet 9 inches in length, 4 feet 9 inches in height, and i foot 9 inches in breadth. Fig. 186 is a longitudinal section of the same fanner, the letters of which partly correspond with those in fig. 185. The proportions of the wheel and pinion are 41^ to I, the fan making from 212 to 220 revolutions per minute. The full complement of riddles for the riddle- frame is 6, of which 2 only can be em- ployed at one time. Their meshes are — for wheat 5 in the inch, for barley 4 in the inch, and for oats 3 in the inch. The slap-riddles are three-quarter inch, and I inch in the meshes. The sieves Fig. 186. — Lon^Uidinal section of the dressing-fanner, -with riddles and sieves. a Fore-framing, in halves. & Back-framing, single, c c Side-boarding. d d Arms of fans. e Air-port of fans. fg Space for discharge of air. g Funnel- board for the air. s t Shoe. qr s Eiddle-frame. u V Riddles, upper and lower. VI Hopper for corn, s Sluice. X Screw- winch to regulate feed. a! V Sieve-frame, e'/' Sieves, upper and lower. V W Chains supporting riddle-frame. & Stretcher - rod across fan- ners. i Toothed wheel acting on a pinion on fan-spindle, and moved by winch-handle. J posed to washing. In open courts more harm is often done by the collected rain- water from roofs being allowed, through defective water-spouts at the eaves, to rush upon the dung with considerable force, than by the direct rainfall upon the area of the dung-heap. Indeed, if all the small quantity of rain which usually falls during winter would only distribute itself pretty evenly over the season, and descend in nice gentle showers, its influence upon the dung- heap might be all for good — that is, if the neglectful farmer would only give up his careless ways and insist upon the water -spouts doing their duty. But winter rain is wilful, and too often falls in such torrents as to be perilous to the unprotected manure-heap. 512 TREATMENT OF FAEMYARD MANURE. It is thus, upon the whole, a good thing to have a roof over the manure, whether it be kept in the cattle-court or in a pit by itself. Do not attempt to convert more litter into manure than the animals, with the assistance of their own urine, can moisten and tread into " well-made " dung. Little reliance can be placed upon moisture from extraneous sources; and dung that contains any considerable quantity of straw merely rotted by rain- water cannot possess very high manurial value. Mischief from Defective "Water- spouts. — Incidental reference has been made to the neglect of water -spouts. Now this is a point seemingly small enough, yet of great importance. For be it remembered that through the ab- sence of efficient spouts around the eaves to catch and carry away the water as it falls from the roof, the benefit of the roof over the manure may, as far as concerns rainfall, be almost entirely nulli- fied. We have occasionally — even where substantial roofing had been thrown over the courts — seen the rain-water from the roofs allowed to rush upon the dung with all its concentrated force, thus doing much more harm than the same amount of rain would have done had it fallen directly and universally upon the manure. And all this mischief arose through neglect to repair a few feet of a decayed water -spout. Decayed water- spouts around the eaves of the cattle- court are like great holes in the farmer's purse, through which hard-earned coin steals imperceptibly away. For the sake of the manure we would rather have an entirely open court than tjbe best covered court in the universe and no water-spouts to carry the rush of rain-water away from the dung-heap. " Fire - fang " in Manure. — Much loss, all of which is preventible, is sus- tained through "fire-fang" in manure. Horse-dung is most liable to it, but it occurs in other kinds of manure where great neglect prevails. When stable-dung is thrown into a heap, and allowed to be- come dry, it will ferment in the centre, and if left undisturbed, vrill rapidly pass into the most rampant stage of " fire- fang," which results in great destruction of plant -food. Bundles of dry straw, buried amongst cow-dung, may also be- come centres of "fire-fang," doing harm where it is little expected. Now all this mischief is quite easily prevented. If the dung, as it is removed daily from the stable and cattle-houses, were spread evenly over the heap in layers, and well packed — tramped with cattle, perhaps, in covered courts — and moistened by having the liquid manure from the tanks pumped over it once a^ week, there would he no fire-fanged dung upon the farm. It is a simple cure, but quite efiective. By careful and constant attention to this simple method, enor- mous loss which now takes place every year would be entirely saved. Cutting litter into short lengths helps greatly in avoiding " fire-fang " and in making first- class manure. This is well pointed out by Mr Howman, whose remarks are quoted on page 231. Different hinds of Dung. Horse and Cow Dung Compared. — The dung from a cow -byre put in a covered pit, direct from the byre, vrill probably remain a long time, after the arrival of warm temperature, unsuscep- tible of fermentation; and perhaps it is from this property that cow -dung has received the character of being a cold manure ; whereas horse - dung easily fer- ments, and goes rapidly through the stages of destructive fermentation, termed " fire-fanging," and is said to be a hot manure. Both dungs mixed form a valu- able manure. The hot nature of horse- dung, and its rapidity of fermentation, are supposed partly to arise from its con- taining more nitrogenous matter than cow-dung ; but, according to the analyses by Boussingault, it would seem that it is only as long as the dung is fresh that that supposition is well founded. The analyses are : — Fresh dung. Dry dung. Cow. Horse. Cow. Horse. Water . . 90.60 75.31 Nitrogen . 0.22 0.54 2.3 2.2 Saline matter 1. 13 4.02 12.0 16.3 " From these analyses," remarks Professor Johnston, " it appears that, though recent cow-dung contains more water than horse- dung, yet the dry matter of the former is richer in nitrogen than that of the latter. Were this generally the case, it ought, one would suppose, after becoming a little TREATMENT OF FARMYAED MANURE. 513 drier, to ferment, or be as warm as horse- dung. However this may be, the two circumstances — that the nitrogen of the food is discharged chiefly in the urine, and that the cow voids a much larger quantity of urine than the horse — incline me to believe that cow-dung must gener- ally contain less nitrogen than that of the horse, and that this is really the cause of its greater coldness. The correctness of this opinion can only be tested by a series of careful analyses. At the same time it is proper to add, that the peculiar state of combination in which the nitrogen exists in two bodies, supposing the pro- portion in both to be the same, may modify very much the rapidity of the decomposition they respectively undergo in the same circumstances. " Though fermenting with such appa- rent slowness, fresh cow-dung undergoes in forty days a loss of one -fifth of its solid matter (Gazzeri). Though this re- sult was observed in Italy, yet there is sufficient loss in our climate also to make it worth the while of an economical farmer to get his cow -dung early in heaps, and to shelter it as much as pos- sible from the sun and air. Even when fed on the same' food, the dung of the horse should be richer than that of the cow, because of the large quantity of urine the latter animal is in the habit of voiding. In the short period of twenty- four hours, horse-dung heats, and begins to ■ suffer by fermentation. If left in a heap for two or three weeks, scarcely seven -tenths of its original weight will remain. Hence the propriety of early removing it from the stable, and of mix- ing it as soon as possible with some other material by which the volatile substances given off (much ammonia) may be ab- sorbed and arrested." Pigs' Dung. — " Pigs' dung is still colder and less fermentable than that of the cow. ... A specimen examined by Boussingault was found to contain per cent : — Recent. Dry. Water . . 81.00 Nitrogen 0.63 3-37 being richer in nitrogen even than horse- dung." Our experience determines pigs' dung to be hot, and excellent ; and this was also the opinion of the ancients, as the Quintilli remarked, that " the dung of hogs, being of superior goodness, is improper for corn-fields on account of its abundant heat, for it instantly burns corn grounds." ^ Sheep's Dung.- — "Sheep's dung is a rich dry manure, which ferments more readily than that of the cow, but less so than that of the horse. Boussingault found a specimen to consist of : — Water . Nitrogen Recent. 63.0 Dry. 1.99 The food of the sheep is more finely mas- ticated than that of the cow, and its dung contains a little less water, and is richer in nitrogen; hence, probably, its more rapid fermentation." ^ Heat from various kinds of Dung. — The following are the results of Jae- quin's experiments on the heat given out by dung of various kinds, and its duration : — Sheep-dung lasts 4 months, giving out a heat from 141° to 158° Horse pr n 6 m ir .r 122° II 140° Cattle II 11 8 II II n ■ 95° II 113° Tanner-bark n 6 n n 11 95° 11 104° Tree-leaves n 12 n n n 95° n 104° Pigeon-dung increases the heat of other dung. Quantities of Dung from Stock. — The following quantities of dung have been obtained from horses and oxen from given quantities of food in a given time : — A horse produces J^ of the weight of food he consumes in manure. A horse makes 12 tons of manure in a year, of superior quality to that of oxen. VOL. I. An ox fed on turnips or mangel, with 24 lb. or 28 lb. of straw, gives 150 lb. of dung and urine a-day in winter. An ox fed on turnips, corn, and hay, in seven months in winter produces 12 tons ^ Owen's Geoponika, i. 68. - Johnston's Lee. Agric. Chem., 2d edition, 821, 822. 2 K SH TEEATMENT OF FAKMYAKD MANUEE. of manure, and in summer 7 tons more. With just enough straw to keep it clean, an ox will make i ton each month ; all extra litter going to increase that quantity. An ox fed in a box produces 11 cu- bic yards of manure in four months, or 33 cubic yards in a year. An ox's dung is better than a cow's. . LIQUID MANURE. Its Composition and Character. The liquid manure of the farm consists of impure and diluted urine, comprising the oozings from manure-heaps and farm- yards, the wash from byres, stables, and piggeries, and the whole surface-drainings of a farm-steading, assumed to meet and mingle in one common stream or reservoir. In this sense, pure urine does not form ordinary liquid manure; but as it con- stitutes the source and the basis of the chief ingredients that impart to liquid manure its high fertilising properties, it is proper, in the first place, in order clearly to understand the character of the latter, to examine in some detail the composition of the urine of the different animals of the farm. The following analyses by Stoeckhardt shows the Oomposition of Urme of different Anvmals. Sheep. (Fed with hay.> Swine. (Meagre diet, chiefly potatoes.) Horses. (Hay and oats.) Cows. (Hay and potatoes.) Water .... Solid matter . Ashes Organic matter Nitrogen . Phosphoric acid. Alkalies .... Lime and magnesia . Sulphuric acid . Salt .... Silica Per cent. 86. s 3-6 9-9 1.4 0.05 2.0 0.6 0.4 0.2s trace Per cent 97-5 2-5 1.0 1-5 °-3 0.12 0.2 0.05 0.05 o-S trace Per cent. 89.0 II. 3-0 8.0 1.2 1.4 0.15 O.IS O.I 0.025 Per cent. 92.0 8.0 2.0 6.0 0.8 1.4 0.15 0.15 0.1 O.OI Complex Character of Excreta. — The soKd and fluid excrements of ani- mals form a very complicated mixture, as may be seen from the following enu- meration by Sprengel; but this renders them the more valuable a manure for vegetables : — 1. Vegetable or woody fibre. 2. Wax and resin. 3. Chlorophyll, or the green substance of leaves, partly decomposed. 4. Deposited humus. 5. A fatty and oily substance. 6. Mucus. 7. A peculiar brown colouring matter, in the solid excrement of oxen. 8. Vegetable albumen (hardened). 9. Animal gelatine. 10. Animal fibre. 11. Salivary matter. 12. Osmazone. \ Originating in the uri- 13. Hippuric acid. / nary passages. [ Originating in the uri- r nary passages. 14. Uric acid. 15. Lactic acid. 16. Benzoic acid. 17. Urea. 18. Bilious matter. 19. Bilious resin. 20. Picromel. 21. Oxides of iron and manganese, derived from vegetables. 22. Earths — silica, lime, alumina, magnesia. 23. Salts, consisting of mineral acids and bases, derived from plants and water. 24. Common salt. 25. Carburetted hydro-\ gen. Products of the 26. Phosphoretted hy- fermentation and drogen. V. putrefaction of 27- Sulphuretted hy- the food in the drogen. bodies of ani- 28. Ammonia. mals. 29. Hydrogen. !N"umerous as these substances are, it was Sprengel's opinion that many more LIQUID MANUKE. SIS miglit be discovered by carefully con- ducted chemical analyses. Conditions influencing !Excreta. — Tbe value of animal excrements as man- ure depends very much upon the age of the animals, their kind, their mode of employment, the kind and quantity of food they eat, and the nature of the water they drink. Thus : age has effect, for the excrements of a full-grown ani- mal are much better than those of young animals. The state of the animal has an effect, the manure from oxen being much better than that from cows, a great proportion of the substance of whose food goes to the production of milk ; and in Kke manner, the manure of the wether is better than that of the ewe. The kind of food has an effect; for poor and scanty food cannot supply so rich manure as nourishing and abun- dant food. The manner in which the animals are treated has an effect ; work- ing cattle afford better manure than fattening oxen, because the latter ab- stract from the food, to support their increasing flesh and fat, the same mar terials as go to produce milk in cows. The water drunk has an effect ; an ox that drinks 80 lb. of water a-day will pass more urine than a cow which drinks the same quantity, because a large pro- portion of the water she drinks goes to the formation of milk. Boussingault found that a cow which drank 132 lb. of water a-day passed 18 lb. of urine, and gave 19 lb. of milk; an ox that drank the same quantity gave 40 lb. of urine; a horse that drinks 35 lb. arday passes 3 lb. of urine — no more than a man, which fact seems remarkable; but when we consider the much greater extent of surface over the body of a horse, compared to that of a man, the insensible perspiration of the horse, it is seen, must carry off a large propor- tion of the liquid food; whereas a man drinks daily only one -tenth more than the urine he passes. Fresh, and Stale Urine. — A compari- son of the composition of cows' urine fresh, and after it has been kept a month, will show the change that takes place in it by exposure to the air : — Water in 100,000 parts by weight Urea, along with some resinous colouring matter Albumen . Mucus Benzoic acid (hippuric acid) \ v j -j-i, 4. 1. T T,».n+.;n ».rfrl . combmed with potash, V soda, and ammonia,-! I forming salts I combined with soda, lime, and magnesia, forming salts Lactic acid Carbonic acid Acetic acid Ammonia Potash Soda Sulphuric acid Phosphoric acid Chlorine . Lime Magnesia . Alumina . Oxide of iron Oxide of manganese Silica Sulphuretted hydrogen Sediment, consisting of phosphate, and carbonate of lime, and magnesia, alumina, silica, and oxide of iron and of manganese Cows' urine. Fresh. A month old. 92,624 4,000 10 190 90 516 256 205 664 554 405 70 "65 36 2 4 I 36 95.442 I.OOO 40 250 500 165 I 487 1 occurring partly 664 > in an uncom- 554 ) bined state. 338 26 272 2 22 o I 5 I 180 100,000 100,000 Decomposition of TTrine. — In winter; it has been putrefying for a month, it urine scarcely contains half the quantity contains more than as much again of of urea stated in the first column, and is ammonia as urine in a fresh state. The then, of course, of less value ; and when ammonia is derived from the decomposi- Si6 TKEATMENT OF FAEMYAED MANUEE. tion of the urea, and tlie other organic bodies containing nitrogen. The caustic ammonia remains partly dissolved in the ■water, and is the substance through which urine not properly putrefied is so apt to injure plants. If exposed long to the atmosphere, the caustic ammonia absorbs from it carbonic acid, becomes mild, and the urine may then be employed without danger as a manure for vegetation. But on urine being thus exposed to the air, part of it will escape in the form of gas, unless some substance is added to the putrefy- ing urine to neutralise the ammonia — ^to fix it, as it is usually termed. Fixing Ammonia. — This fixing of the ammonia is often done by adding water to it, which, of equal bulk to the urine, enables the diluted mass to retain four times as much ammonia — ■ that is, in every 100,000 lb. of diluted urine, 1135 lb. more of ammonia is re- tained. Another simple substance for fixing the ammonia is black vegetable mould, which supplies humic acid, and every 90 lb. of it saturates 10 lb. of ammonia; but as the best earth contains only 45 per cent of humic acid, 200 lb. of earth will be required to fix every 10 lb. of ammonia. Gypsum is now extensively used for this purpose. It may also be effected by adding sulphuric acid, at the rate of a gill of the acid to every 18 or 20 gallons of the liquid manure. This is preferable to water, as it lessens carting. Changes through. Decomposition. — It is rather important to trace the change in liquid manure occasioned by keeping. Fresh urine of cattle has a yellow colour, occasioned by a small quantity of resinous colouring matter; but on standing exposed to the air, the yellow assumes a brown, and at length a black colour, attributable to the formation of humic acid. In win- ter, urine does not possess a trace of ammonia, whereas it does in summer, thereby indicating the decomposition of urea by heat in the body before the emission of the urine. The above table shows that exposure of urine for a month to the air has the same effect of decomposing the urea as heat has in the body; and four weeks are not sufficient time to decompose all the urea, as still 0.6 remains. When exposed for three months and longer, urine loses its carbonate of ammonia, which is evaporable as well as the crude ammonia itself. In short, a six months' urine con- tains not a trace of its original urea, mucus, and albumen, and new acid combinations take place, such as the lactate, humate, sulphate, acetate of ammonia. Urine is supposed to be in a ripe state after it has putrefied in summer for five or six weeks, and in winter for eight or nine, though no absolute rule can be laid down on this point, so much depending on the evaporation of the air. The chemical rule for knowing the ripeness of urine is when it contains neither urea nor caustic ammonia, and this can be ascertained only by chemi- cal investigation. After exposure to the air a year and half, urine contahis no organic remains, and only salts and mineral bodies dis- solved in water. Specific Gravity of Urine.- — The specific gravity of the urine of the horse, according to Fourcroy and Vanquelin, varied from 1.03 to 1.05 ; according to Prout, 1.029 j ^Jid to Boussingault, 1.064.1 Composition of its Saline and Min- eral Ingredients. — The saline and min- eral ingredients of the urine of the horse, ox, sheep, and pig, consist of the follow- ing substances : — Horse. Ox. Sheep. Pig. Carbonate of lime 21.75 1.07 0.82 11 magnesia 11.26 6.93 0.46 II polish 33-12 77.28 Z2.I n soda 15.16 45-25 eUoride of sodium 6.27 0.30 32.01 53* r II potassium 12.00 little Sulphate of soda 11.03 7.72 7.0 II potash 13-30 2.98 Phosphate of soda 19.0 If lime M magnesia ■:} 0.70) - 8.8 Silica .... 0.52 0-3S 1.06 Oxide of iron and loss 0.79 0.77 .. ) The conclusion Professor Johnston comes to, in reference to the contents of this last table, is, that " the fermenting urine of our domesticated animals cannot af- ford phosphoric acid, which must be ' Thomson's Ani. Chem., 493. LIQUID MANURE. S17 conveyed to the soil by the solid ex- crements." ^ Valuable Character of Liquid Man- ure. — The analyses given show clearly whence urine derives its great manurial value. If we take the average composi- tion of the urine of the four kinds of animals, we find that thirty-five parts of the total solids in the urine contain 3.7 parts of nitrogen, or rather more than 10 per cent of the most costly substance that is purchased by farmers for man- urial purposes. Three cwts. of the solids of urine contain approximately as much nitrogen as two cvrts. of commercial ni- trate of soda, or one and a half cwt. of sulphate of ammonia. The mineral ingredients in urine must not be overlooked. In thirty-five parts of total solids, there are five parts alkalies, about one part each of salt, lime, and magnesia, and some phosphoric acid. Probably all these ingredients have some manurial value, and this is enhanced materially by the very fine state of divi- sion in which they exist. "Variation in its Composition. — Or- dinary liquid manure, however, cannot be regarded as having a composition or value precisely identical with that of any of the kinds of urine mentioned. It has indeed in the main a similar character, and its high fertilising qualities are due to the same causes. But it is a less con- centrated manure, and part of the sub- stances in it which assist in raising its analytical standard of apparent merit, are present in combinations less readUy available for the use of plants, less imme- diate in their efiects, and therefore in some degree of less intrinsic worth. It is necessarily liable to considerable varia- tion of quality, according to the circum- stances attending its production and management. The urine itself, as the analyses quoted have made manifest, alters in character with the species of animal producing it, and in some meas- ure it also varies with the nature of the food with which the animal has been supplied. But the liquid manure varies still more, according to the proportions in which each species of animal has contributed to it, and according to the nature and amount ' Johnston's Led. Agric. Chem., 2d ed., 811. of the extraneous- substances with which it has become commingled. As a rule it consists most largely of the urine of cows or other cattle, with a less quantity from horses and pigs, mixed vidth drainings from the yards and middens or man- ure-heaps, and with some parts of earth and solid excrements. Drainings from Yards and Dung- heaps.^ — Where the yards are entirely uncovered and exposed to the whole rain- fall, the drainings from yards and man- ure-heaps form by far the bulkier portion of the liquid manure. The composi- tion of this part of the mixture differs greatly from that of the original urine, not only because it is more or less diluted with rain-water, but also because of the chemical changes that have occurred dur- ing the time occupied in its passage through the bulky mass of solid litter and manure, and because it contains some of the products of the decomposi- tions that have taken place, as well in the solid as in the liquid excrements. It is obvious therefore that, in most cases, ordinary liquid manure must differ very greatly from pure urine, and that the analyses we have examined of the latter can be serviceable only in that they enable us to see clearly what are the ingredients contained in Hqnid man- ure that are of use as fertilising agents, though they must by no means be ac- cepted as showing precisely the forms and combinations in which these ingre- dients ultimately exist, nor as indicat- ing their relative proportions to its whole volume. Jolinston on Iiiquid Manure. — " The drainage of dung-heaps," says Pro- fessor Johnston — " the usual liquid man- ure of our farmyards — differs in compo- sition according to circumstances. When the urine of cattle is mixed with it in considerable quantity/, it is found to con- tain a portion of the constituents, not only of the solid and liquid excretions of the stock, but also of the straw and other vegetable matter which have fer- mented along with it. It varies in strength, however, very much with the quantity of rain or other water vsith which it is mixed, or which falls upon the dung-heaps from which it flows." The composition of two specimens of such liquid is as follows: — 5i8 TKEATMENT OF FAEMYAED MANUKE. An imperial gallon contained — Ammonia Solid organic matter Solid inorganic matter or ash Drainings of Cow-dung Farmyard manure washed by watered with rain. ' cows' urine. Grains. Grains. 9.60 21.30 200.80 77.60 268.80 518.40 479.20 617.30 Inorganic matter in a gallon consisted of — Alkaline salts ..... 207.80 420.40 Phosphate of lime and magnesia, coloured with a little phosphate of iron 25.10 44.50 Carbonate of lime 18.20 31.10 Carbonate of magnesia and loss 4-3° 3-4° Silica and a little albumen 13.40 19.00 268.80 518.40 From these facts Professor Johnston concludes, "that the liqtiid which flows from a dung-heap watered with urine is greatly richer in ammonia and in saline matter than that which flows from the solid excrements newly washed by the rain; that the liquid in both cases con- tains a considerable proportion of phos- phate of lime. This does not exist in cows' urine alone. In both cases it has been washed out of the solid dung ; and both contain also an appreciable quantity of silica not existing in urine. This is derived from the straw of the fermentiag farmyard dung, or from the grass which has passed through the digestive organs of the cow. As fermenting manure can yield in a soluble state every mineral ingredient which a plant requires, the liquid that runs from the farmyard ought to be no less carefully preserved than the pure urine of our cattle." ^ Average Composition of Liquid Manure. — It would be impossible to state with absolute accuracy the percent- age of useful substances, or even of total solids present in liquid manure, because the conditions hardly permit the selec- tion of an average sample. It will not, however, be far wrong to accept Wolfif s analysis as being fairly representative. He gives the average percentage compo- sition as follows : — Water. 98.20 Organic matter . 0.70 Ash ingredients l.IO Nitrogen 0.1S ■' Johnston's Led. Agrio. Chem., 2d ed,, 812. Potash . . . . 0.49 Phosphoric acid . . o.oi Lime .... 0.03 Magnesia . . . 0.04 Liquid Manure Acts quickly. — The value of nitrogen in manures de- pends not only on its quantity, but also on the particular combination in which it occurs. An insoluble or slowly soluble form will give Zi less immediate return, and is consequently of less value, than one in which the nitrogen acts more rapidly on plants. In this respect urine takes a high position among manures. Its nitrogen, as uric acid, hippuric acid, &c., is entirely contained in solution. It is capable of being more readily and more widely distributed through the soil than it is even in ammonia compounds, and it is at once available for the use of plants. Hence, urine is universally re- cognised in practice to be a " forcing " or quickly acting manure. It produces its full effects on the first crop to which it is applied, and its nitrogen is thus fully equal in value to that of the most expen- sive nitrogenous manures that are offered in the market. The fact that the valuable ingredients of liquid manure are contained in solu- tion in a large volume of water adds distinctly to the certainty and uniformity of their action, on such soils at least as are suitable for the reception of large quantities of liquid applications. In- deed the most striking characteristic of liquid manure, and that to which it owes its special differences from all other forms of manure, is the enormous bulk LIQUID MANUKE. 519 of water in wliich its valuable constitu- ents are contained. It is necessary at this point to consider more particularly the effects produced by this special fea- ture. They are of a twofold and contra- dictory character. Advantages of the Liquid Form. — Except -when employed in a fresh or undiluted form, burning effects seldom follow the application of liquid manure. It causes, besides, the most perfect dis- tribution of the manure ; for the water, in its slow circulation through the whole body of the soil and subsoil, conveys its valuable materials into every pore into which the tender rootlets of plants can penetrate. The important constituents of the manure, instead of being left in unequal lumps spread irregularly on the surface, or scattered in drills, from which they only become, slowly and with diffi- culty, diffused through the soil, — as may be the case with dry manures in dry seasons, — are deposited in the most min- ute state of subdivision through all parts of the soil. Indeed it is strictly accurate to say of many artificial manures, that they never can become so completely distributed through the soil, or so thoroughly mingled with its particles, as are the same sub- stances when abstracted by each little grain of earth from the liquid manure percolating in a sluggish flow through its pores, and carrying its cargo of enriching materials into those deeper layers of soil which are untouched by the common operations of tillage, but which are never- theless laid under contribution by the deeper searching roots of plants. Utility of the Water. — It is not to be overlooked that the mere water con- tained in liquid manure, which consti- tutes by far the greater portion Of its bulk, is not without a very considerable utility in those circumstances of soil and crop when its employment can be regard- ed as at all advisable. It is obvious enough that in years of drought its in- fluence must be beneficial to a degree quite beyond its usual merits, and in such a season the application of the water itself is simply invaluable. But inde- pendently of specially dry years, the water in the liquid manure in its passage through the soil produces effects that in suitable cases are of considerable import- ance. It promotes processes of oxidation, assists in the dissolution and redistribu- tion of soil constituents, brings with it some further supply of useful minerals, and contributes in itself a condition ab- solutely essential to a luxuriant plant- growth. Such are the beneficial effects produced by the water in the liquid manure. Still it is right to remind farmers that if the watering of farm crops is once begun, it must be systematically and persistently pursued till rain takes its place. Unless this is done, the latter state of these crops will be worse than the first. Disadvantages of Excess of "Water. • — But the large quantity of mere water in liquid manure must also be considered in another aspect, that has a very im- portant bearing on the whole problem of economical liquid manuring. Dry artificial manures have this not- able practical advantage, that they can be conveyed great distances, and can be applied to crops at an expenditure which is relatively low in proportion to the amount of really valuable ingredients supplied. But it is quite otherwise with liquid manure. The enormous bulk of water adds so much to the cost of handling as entirely to control the whole system and mode of using it. If we accept Wolff's average analysis, already given, we find that for two tons of solid substances added to our soils in liquid manure, we have to deal in no case with less probably than about loo tons of water, and in many cases much more. It is clear that the mere conveyance of a material of this weight and bulk must be undertaken in the face of such obstacles as to confine the area of its availableness within a very limited distance from the place of its pro- duction, and to make the question of its value turn chiefly on the readiness and cheapness with which it can be applied. Assuming even that the initial difficul- ty of spreading such a volume of liquid over a wide extent of land has been suc- cessfully overcome, it still remains to be decided how far its superior efficacy repays the greater cost involved in its application. But before proceeding to consider the profitable utilisation of liquid manure, 520 TEEATMENT OF FARMYAED MANUEE. sometliing may be said as to how it is to be conserved at farm-steadings. Neglect of Liquid Manure. — The general body of farmers are not nearly so careful as they ought to be in the preservation of liquid manure. This neglect has been commented on by writers on agriculture for generations ; and while it is readily acknowledged that great improvement has taken place in the management of liquid manure, it must at the same time be urged that, in many cases, the subject does not receive that amount of attention which it so well deserves. The loss through leakage from dung- heaps in the field is not, as a rule, very serious — that is, if the dung-heaps have been properly formed, with a covering of earth, or some other material, to prevent rain-water getting into the dung to carry away its own rich juice. But at the steadings, the losses which arise from' want of attention to liquid manure are often enormous — such as would greatly surprise the negligent farmers them- selves if only they had the actual amounts of the losses "figured out" to them. Often have we seen cattle-dung lying in heaps for weeks and weeks — perhaps even for months — as thrown from the cattle-byre, in such form as to press out its liquid contents rather than conserve them;' a rich brown liquid oozing out freely at all sides, and passing away into utter uselessness. Rainfall and Xioss of Iiiquid Manure. — The heaviest losses in liquid manure occur where the rain-water from the roofs of the adjoining buildings and the open heavens is allowed to rush on to the dung-heap in the yard, and pass through it and go where it may without let or hindrance. It may sink into a porous soil, or find its way into a passing stream, carrying with it a great deal of the very richest of the ingredients of the manure. And be it remembered that wherever there is free access and free exit, so to speak, to the rain-water to and from the dung-heap, robbery of the dung is inevitable. We have already seen (p. 231) that dung is very susceptible of damage by washing — in fact, that two- thirds of the total manurial value of a dung-heap may be carried away by rain- water passing through it as we have in- dicated. Preventing Loss in Liquid Man- ure. — Now it will readily occur to one that useful measures may be taken in two ways to prevent these losses. In the first place, by efficient water-spouts and roofed courts or dung-pits the rain- water may be prevented from reaching the dung. In the second place, arrange- ments may be made whereby any liquid escaping from the dung may be direct- ed into some safe receptacle for preser- vation until it can be advantageously utilised. Already at various points, in treating of covered courts (pp. 226-232), and of farmyard dung (pp. 501-514), we have referred to the various ways of covering cattle-courts and dung-pits, and to the advantages arising therefrom. Liquid - manure Tanks. — Here we need, therefore, consider only the second of these measures whereby the loss of liquid manure may be averted — that is, the means whereby it may be preserved for useful application. ' There are vari- ous methods by which this may be done — ^the Kquid-manure tank being the most general. Liquid-manure tanks of many sizes and designs are in use. The for- mation of drains and tanks for liquid manure, as they exist on many farms, is described on pages 223 and 224. In the cases there referred to it was not in- tended that any of the liquid should be returned to the dung, so that the tanks were not placed close to the dung-pit. Modem experience, however, incUies more and more towards placing the tanks so that when desirable the liquid (as will be presently explained) may be pumped out of them on to the manure, or into a liquid-manure cart when it is to be' carried away. It is also desirable, on the score of expense, to have the tank near the cattle-court, and thus avoid un- necessary outlay on drains to conduct the liquid manure. There are several circumstances to be taken into consideration before proceed- ing to construct a tank for liquid manure. When a tank is made deep, such as a well, the building of the lower part will require to be particularly strong, and, of course, will be so much the more expen- sive in construction. A tank should therefore be shallow, not deeper than 4 LIQUID MANUKE. S2I or 5 feet below the sole of the drains "which bring the liquid manure. It is very desirable to have the tank covered, for the sake of protection against acci- dents. The most durable covering is an arch ; and to keep the cost of that with- in bounds, the tank should be narrow, not exceeding 6 feet. The desired capa- city of a tank will thus be attainable by extending its length. A tank should neither let in nor let out liquid. To prevent its letting in water, a drain should be formed where there is the least appearance of it in oozings or a spring ; and to prevent the liquid getting out, a puddling of clay should be used, where the subsoil does not consist of tenacious boulder-clay. The clay for puddling should be well pugged, or beaten into the consistency of putty. A fall of from 6 inches to a foot is required along the floor, according to its length ; and a roomy man-hole should be made in the arch of the roof, at each end of the tank, and at the deepest end a third opening for the pumi5. Iiiqiiid-manure Pump. — The pump used in tanks is generally the chain one, in which an endless chain passes from the bottom of the tank to the height to which it is desired to raise the urine, where it passes over a pulley, constructed so as to firmly hold the chain. On the chain, every 15 or 18 inches apart, are fixed circular discs about 2 inches in diameter. The up-going side of the endless chain is inside an iron pipe, the diameter of which is sKghtly greater than that of the discs. To the pulley is affixed a crank-handle, which when turned at an ordinary speed, carries the water up the tube to the desired height. This class of pump works best with lifts under 12 feet; over that it is heavy to work. Loose straws or mud do not in any way interfere with its proper work- ing, and it lasts for many years without any renewal. Dispensing "trith Pumps. — If the configuration of the land will permit of such, tanks should always be emptied by a pipe direct from the bottom to some place on a lower level, but, high enough to run into a cart. Much labom: is thereby saved, and not a little time. Cast-iron pipes are the best for the pur- pose, as fireclay ones can rarely be made tight enough at the joints to bear the requisite pressure. Size of Tank required. — To know the size of tank required for any particu- lar case, an allowance of 1000 gallons for every cow on a dairy farm will suffice, and that number of gallons occupies 162 cubic feet. When enlarged t^nks are desired, it is better, because cheaper, to have parallel rows of narrow tanks con- tiguous to each other, than to extend the breadth or length, or increase the depth. In a series of parallel tanks, the common walls support the arches on both sides. A tank of 72 feet in length, 6 feet wide inside, and 6 feet deep below the soles of the drains, contains about 2600 cubic feet. A Mid-Lothian System. — A simple and convenient mode of collecting the liquid manure of a dairy farm — of from 130 to 170 acres, with a stock of cows from 14 to 24, with young beasts and horses — has long been practised in Mid- Lothian. Drains are formed from the byres and stables into one main drain, the mouth of which is elevated as high above the ground below it as to admit a liquid-manure barrel — a common butt, mounted on its cart — to stand under it, and receive the liquid direct into the bung-hole; and as the barrel becomes full, it is carried away, and its contents emptied on the field. The barrel contains 150 gallons, and is usually filled three times a-week. When there is an excess of liquid, in consequence of much rain, it is allowed to run into the dunghills below the drain, and after saturating them it flows into an open shallow tank, from which it irrigates at pleasure a drained moss laid down to perpetual grass. A common butt, of 150 gallons, sunk into the ground, forms a good tank for a labourer's cottage, and, retaining all liquid refuse, afibrds a ready means of manur- ing a portion of the garden. Incorporating the Liquid ■with the Dung. — We may say at once that we think the best way of utilising liquid manure is incorporation with the solid manure, and that therefore the liquid manure which finds its way into the tanks should in the first place be used in saturating the drier portions of the dung-heap — that is, in so far as it can be readily absorbed and held by the solid material. 522 TEEATMENT OF FAEMYAED MANUEE. Where this practice prevails, a con- venient arrangement is to have in each court a tank into which any liquid that escapes from the dung finds its way — a tank sunk in at the lowest point in the court, with access for the liquid manure through a grating. A pump rises up from the -tank, and once every week the cattle-man pumps the liquid back over the dung, directing it by movable spouts of various lengths on to the drier parts of the dung-heap. This is a capital plan both for the solid and the liquid man- ure, and by it the maximum quantity of first-class dung may be made. Of course the extent to which this plan may be advantageously carried out will depend largely upon the supply of litter. If there should be plenty of litter, the whole of the liquid manure may be fully and most profitably utilised in this way — that is, where the liquid manure is not increased to excess by rain-water. On the other hand, where litter is scarce and the dung therefore short in texture, it may not be able to absorb nearly all the liquid manure. Utilisation of Surplus Liquid. — There "will thus in many cases be more liquid manure than can be advantage- ously absorbed by the dung. This in- deed will rarely happen where the cattle- courts are roofed and any extraneous water prevented from reaching the dung, but it will very often occur where the greater part of the cattle-court or dung- pits is uncovered. Now the profitable preservation and utilisation of this sur- plus liquid manure are the two most important points in connection vyith what is generally known as the liquid- manure question. In reference to this economical utilisa- tion of liquid manure, some remarks well worthy of careful attention were made by Mr E. P. Wright, Lecturer on Agriculture in the Technical College, Glasgow, in a paper in the Fcwming World Year-Booh, 1889, from which we have made copious extracts. Ifote-worthy Attempts. — Mr Wright says : " It is not surprising that the problem of the economical utilisation of a manure possessing such high qualities as have been described, and which is re- garded by many as the most valuable of all manures, should have engaged the attention of some of the most enterpris- ing agriculturists of this century, and that numerous attempts should have been made to overcome the diflSculties attending its practical application. " Perhaps the most widely known in- vestigator into this question was the late Mr Mechi of Tiptree Hall; and further attempts, modelled on the practice re- commended by him, were made at Myrie Mill and Kinning Park, in South Ayr- shire. The efforts made on these farms to secure the complete and effective dis- tribution of the liquid manure by means of elaborate arrangements of pipes, con- duits, hydrants, and other machinery, were continued over a series of years, and have furnished sufiiciently conclu- sive proof that the thorough distribution and utilisation of the whole quantity of liquid manure produced on a farm is perfectly possible, and they have further shown that the expectations entertained of the effects of the liquid dressings have been in no degree exaggerated, and that by judicious applications crops of won- derful luxuriance can be successfully grown. Outlay greater than tlie Return. — " But the ultimate collapse of these sys- tems of farming has just as completely demonstrated that, however remarkable the results obtained from the use of liquid manure, the return is not suffi- cient to defray the expenditure. Mr Mechi, indeed, is said to have main- tained to the last that his practice was profitable ; but it is now almost univer- sally held that the bulk of material to be disposed of in liquid manure wholly rules the economy of its use, and that with the low average prices of the farm crops for which it is best suited, no method of utilising it can be profitable unless the outlay involved be reduced to a very low point. Any costly process of treatment must be looked on as unlikely to yield a satisfactory remuneration. Suitable for Exceptional Crops. — " It must not be forgotten, however, that this objection does not hold good when the liquid manure is employed for crops of relatively high value. Expensive me- thods of application may be justifiable for the production of certain market- gardening crops, or even some common farm crops grown in a district of high LIQUID MANURE. 523 markets ; but for ordinary farm jjractice it may be fairly concluded tbat only such modes of utilising liquid manure are commendable as involve the minimum of expenditure." Application by Cart. — In discussing the various methods of applying manure, which have been found most successful and been most largely adopted, Mr Wright says : " Perhaps the best known and most widely adopted practice is to collect the liquid manure in a central tank or reservoir, to pump the liquid at intervals into a specially constructed manure-cart, and by its means to spread the liquid over the land. The initial ex- pense is confined to the provision of a tank, of a pump, and of a manure-distrib- utor ; and the amount will vary accord- ing to the dimensions and extent of building needed, and the size of the pump and distributor. The after-cost is limited to the charge made for the man and horse required for the conveyance of the manure to the fields; and this may properly be estimated at a low rate, as such work can be done, in part at least, at odd intervals of time. "Although this plan of utilising the manure is pretty common in some dis- tricts of the country, it cannot be regarded as a very satisfac- tory one. The first expense is not inconsiderable, and the _i manner of applying the man- ure does not warrant the ex- pectation of the most favour- able results. The operations of pumping and carting such large quantities of liquid are slow, cumbrous, and troublesome, and in the press of other farm-work the dressings are apt to be given at irregular intervals, and per- haps at unsuitable times. Very often the liquid so applied is not sufficiently diluted, when it is liable to injure and destroy the vegetation. There is a constant temptation to use the manure in a strongly concentrated form, because any addition of water entails some additional difficulty, and the greater the dilution the heavier becomes the subsequent labour of pump- ing, carting, and spreading. " For these reasons, while this practice prevails somewhat widely, it has never obtained a very great popularity among farmers. Many of them, however, hold decidedly the opinion that, whatever be its other drawbacks, it has the crown- ing merit of being thoroughly profitable, and of far more than repaying the cost of application." Fig. Ill illustrates the process of fill- ing a liquid-manure cart by a pump fixed in the tank. Fig. 234 represents a Fig. 234. — Li(jui(i'jnattHre cari. liquid-manure cart (Coleman & Morton, Chelmsford), which has attached to itself a pump and pipe with which to raise the liquid out of the tank. A new and in- genious form of liquid-manure cart, in- Fig. 235. — Nevi liguid-matiure cart, vented by a farmer near AVishaw, Mr D. Macpherson, is shown in fig. 235. As the liquid escapes from the barrel of the cart it is caught by a revolving disc 524 TEEATMENT OF FAEMYAED MANUEE. (driven by a chain from the axle of the cart) with several equidistant flanges, and is sent over the ground in an even spray as shown in the figure. The trials we have witnessed with this ingenious yet simple contrivance have been very successful, and it is just possible that the invention may be found capable of more extended use than the inventor had originally in view — for instance, in watering field crops at critical periods, notably newly sown turnips in severe drought. It spreads the liquid evenly, and takes a breadth of about 30 feet at a time. "Water - carts. — The water-cart has been very long in use for the conveyance of water, when the supply of that neces- sary element for household use has been distant from the steading. A modem water-cart, with iron cylinder for the water, is represented in fig. 234. But the old form still prevails, consisting of the naked bed-frame of a cart mounted on wheels, and surmounted with a cask of a capacity suited to the demands of the establishment. The cask is furnished with a funnel, inserted in or attached immediately over the bung-hole ; and it is likewise furnished with a spigot, or with a stop-cock, inserted into that end of the cask which hangs over the back of the cart. When the water-cart has been drawn to the fountain or the pond from which water is to be conveyed, it is filled either by means of a pump, raised so high as to deliver the water which it lifts into the funnel of the cask, or the water is lifted with the hand by means of a scoop, having a helve of sufficient length to enable the workman to reach the pond on the one hand and the funnel on the other. The scoop best adapted t9 this purpose is a small wooden pitcher, fig. 236, about 8 inches in depth and 10 Fig. 236. — Scoop /or Jilting a water-barrel. inches in diameter, the helve passing through its sides in an oblique direction, and a little above its centre of gravity. Liquid manure can be conveyed into a barrel by means of such a scoop as well as water. The liquid^rrianure cart differs very little from the water-cart, except in its being provided vrith the distributing apparatus in place of the spigot ; but in large establishments the cask is super- seded by a covered rectangular cistern or tank, which takes the place of a common cart-body. For a liquid-^manure cart, a cask of 120 or 140 gallons contents will be found more economical in first cost than a rectangular tank; and as these machines can be only occasionally in operation, they will, if not very carefully attended to, become leaky while standing unoccupied. In this respect the cask will have a manifest advantage over the tank, for the tightening of a cask is an operation the most simple, by the act of driving up the hoops; while in the case of the tank becoming leaky, no means of that kind can be resorted to, and the alternative is, either soaking it in water till the wood has imbibed as much of the fluid as will expand its substance and close the leaks, or the vessel must be tightened by some more expensive process. For the more easy means of fiUing the cask, it is suspended between the shafts of the cart, and this position requires the bending of the axle to nearly a semicircle. The cart is a mere skeleton, consisting of the shafts, which for this purpose may be made of red pine, their length being about 14 feet. They are connected by a fore and hind bar, placed at such distance as will just admit the length of the cask, while the width between the shafts is suited to the diameter of it. The axle is bent downward to nearly a semicircle to receive the cask, and its length will of course be greater than the common cart- axle; even the dista,nce between the caddy-bolts, in a straight line, will be usually greater, but this will depend on the diameter of the cask. A pair of common broad cart-wheels are fitted to the axle. The cask is suspended on two straps of hoop-iron, the ends of which are bolted to the shafts, and the same bolts pass also through the ends of two lighter straps which pass over and secure the cask firmly in its place. The funnel or hopper is usually fixed upon the top of the cask over the bung- hole, or it may be inserted therein by means of an attached pipe. The dis- LIQUID MANUEE. 52s tributor may be made of sheet-copper, of cast-iron or malleable iron, or even of "wood ; the copper will be found the most durable, and it should be at least one- twentieth of an inch in thickness. The next best is the patent malleable - iron tube ; cast-iron, though sometimes used, is not to be recommended ; neither is wood desirable, from its liability to choke. The distributor should consist of a strong rectangular trough of sound wood, 7 feet or so in length, and 6 inches wide, and 6 inches deep. The discharge- pipe should be bent down at right angles, so as to deliver the contents into the trough. Along the bottom of the trough are holes to let the urine away. Immedi- ately under the discharge-pipe these holes should not be over ^ or ^ of an inch in diameter, but they should gradually in- crease up to ij^ inch as the ends are reached. This is necessary to prevent the holes, filling up with straws and sludge, while the force of the urine at the outlet keeps the smaller holes there clear. The distributing trough is gener- ally hung from the hind trams by two iron hooks, into which it slides. It is never permanently fixed; and when in use is better taken off every time the cart is emptied, and left as a mark where to begin next time — be it the same day, or next week, or month. A stop-cock is frequently put upon the stem to regulate the discharge — and for this purpose it is very beneficial, serving in a great measure to regulate the quan- tity per acre ; but for the entire setting off or on of the supply, the stem opens into a small chamber inside the cask, which chamber is closed by a flap-valve heavily loaded. This valve, when closed, stops the discharge ; and when lifted, the fluid has a free passage to the dis- tributor. The opening of the valve is effected by a small chain attached to the flap, rising to the top of the cask, where it passes over a small roUer, and onward to the fore part of the cart on the nigh side, where it hangs at hand for the carter to set off or on at pleasure. Fig. 237 is a section of part of the cask, showing the chamber and valve, which is the common leather flap or clack valve, well loaded with lead, and the chain attached to the valve passing over a roller. When the liquid-manure cart is fur- nished with a tanh, the latter can with equal facility be placed low for the con- venience of filling : thus the axle may be cranked, as in the Liverpool dray- cart, the tank resting on the cranked Fig. 237. — Apparatus /or discliar^ing liquid manure. f Stem of distributor. c c Part of cask. % Stop-cock. I Chain attached to i Chamber. the valve, fc Valve. m Boiler. part of the axle ; or the axle may re- main straight, and the tank suspended below the axle. Such a tank may be conveniently built to contain a ton of the liquid, or about 220 gallons; and the dis- tributing apparatus is the same as for the ca;Sk. The distributor, as made by ilr Crosskill of Beverley, swings upon a stud. This is a great improvement on the former construction, inasmuch as the distributor always remains in a level position, whatever may be the inclination of the ground upon which the cart has to pass over, and there- fore always distributes the liquid imi- formly; whereas, in a fixed distributor, the liquid is discharged with the greater force, and of course in greater quantity, on the lowest side, for the time being, of the uneven ground. Making Compost ■with. Liquid Manure. — In many cases the surplus liquid manure, instead of being collected into a tank is directed by a channel- in some cases open, in others covered, as it always should be — into a compost-pit. On many farms this pit is merely a con- venient hollow near the steading, but 526 TEEATMENT OF FARMYAED MANURE. where there is a good deal of surplus liquid manure it will be profitable to have a properly constructed reservoir. This pit is made a receptacle for dry rubbish, earthy or vegetable matter, such as withered weeds, waste straw, brackens, dried scrapings from open drains and roadways, or any similar material capable of absorbing the liquid manure and then forming useful dress- ing for land. The liquid manure runs into this pit, and converts the dry rub- bish into valuable compost. Referring to this system Mr R. R Wright, in the paper quoted above, says : " The liquid manure from a steading running regularly day by day on to such a body of dry material grad- ually works into it, till ultimately the waste becomes so much enriched by the constant deposition of the valuable in- gredients contained in the liquid slowly percolating through its mass, as to be converted into a manure, not inferior in its character and qualities to ordinary farmyard manure, and requiring a similar after treatment and management. Advantages of the Compost Sys- tem. — "This system appears to possess many valuable features, and to be pref- erable to that previously described. It allows of the utilisation of quantities of organic material, which otherwise might have been got rid of by burning or some other equally profitless method. It gives the farmer the command of what is practically an additional supply of farm- yard manure. It is capable of being adopted on farms in any situation, and it permits the application of the fertilis- ing substances of the manure to a greater variety of crops than can be conveniently or beneficially treated with any manure in a liquid form. "It is a cheap method, as reservoirs may be dispensed with entirely, or may be of the crudest kind, while the expense of forming conducting channels is trivial. It is particularly suitable where the liquid manure is of a strongly concen- trated character, and it is free from any of the drawbacks that attend the direct use of the liquid in such a condition. Am.ount of Carting. — " The only ob- jection that can be taken to this practice is on the ground of the amount of cart- ing required. It is to be remembered. however, that the carting of large quan- tities of dry rubbish is a comparatively easy matter, owing to its light weight; and, on the other hand, the manure pro- duced would be worthless indeed, did it not more than handsomely repay the labour of conveying it out again to the fields." Forming a Compost Reservoir. — The receptacle for the liquid - manure compost need not be costly or elaborate. It should be water-tight at the bottom and sides. Concrete or masonry would be most substantial, but it might be formed merely of earth with a coating of clay pounded into the sides and bot- tom. It may be from 2^ to 3 feet deep, and at one end should slope up to the level of the ground, so as to provide easy access and egress for carts. Irrigation -with Iiiquid Manure. — Where the configuration of the land and the system of cropping are suitable, and a stream of water available, this is an excellent method of utilising liquid man- ure. The liquid as it escapes from the steading is conducted into a small stream, which is controlled for the purpose, and which is then employed in irrigating an adjoining meadow. Mr R. P. Wright says : " This practice is less known than it ought to be. In those districts in which it is carried on, its benefits are well understood and thoroughly appreci- ated. It combines at once all the ad- vantages of water irrigation with those of ordinary manuring. It secures the employment of the liquid manure in its most highly diluted and most effective and favourable form, while the water from the stream may itself contain no inconsiderable portion of fertilising in- gredients. It allows the manure to be used on the crop, grass or hay, for which it is best suited, and on which it wiU give the largest increase. " The fullest fertilising effects are ob- tained from this system, because there are no hindrances in the way of the most regular and periodical applications of the manure, and because the thickly matting roots of the grasses do not per- mit the escape to the drains of any of the valuable substances. .It is the cheapest of methods, as there is no expense fur- ther than cutting the small channels and water-courses, and keeping them in re- LIQUID MANURE. 527 pair. No horse labour is required, and only a very slight attention is necessary to keep the whole system in good and regular working order." As will be readily understood, the cir- cumstances necessary for the success of this method of irrigation are of rare occurrence, but wherever they do exist they should be taken advantage of ; for Mr Wright adds, "I have never yet met a farmer who had given it a trial who has not had reason to be perfectly satisfied with the results." An Irish Example. — We have seen this system of irrigation with liquid manure pursued with capital results upon Mr Eichard Barter's farm, St Ann's Hill, County Cork. The liquid manure from his large herd of dairy cows, in the first place, flows over the dung-heap, and the portion which escapes therefrom is carried by a passing stream over a sloping stretch of meadow-land lying in front of the steading. The water from the drained land, at a higher level than the steading, is as far as possible utilised for this pur- pose, as well as for irrigation by itself. Preventing Loss of Ammonia. — Wherever liquid manure collects there is risk of loss by evaporation of its ammo- nia. This, however, may be prevented by sprinkling gypsum over the liquid in the tank, or on the liquid manure wher- ever it may be collected or exposed. Mr Richard Barter has the gypsum-box kept constantly in a corner in his cow-byre, and immediatelyafter the byre is cleansed, a little of the gypsum is sprinkled over the fresh dung, and on the spaces behind the cattle. The gypsum " fixes " the ammonia, and thus prevents its evapora- tion. This practice is a most commend- able one. It causes Kttle extra labour, and may save considerable loss of the most costly of aU manurial ingredients. The gypsum-box should be at every stead- ing, and its contents should be used with unfailing regularity, not only for the liquid-manure tanks but also for the dung-heap itself. The Problem solved in Sussex. — Professor Wrightson makes favourable reference to an ingenious method adopted by Mr Livesey, C.E., in his beautifully constructed cow-house at the Majrfield Dairy, Rotherfield, Sussex. So as to avoid the necessity of litter, and to effectually conserve both the solid and liquid manure, Mr Livesey had a gutter, 2 feet wide and 5 inches deep, made behind the cows. This gutter is nearly filled with dry earth sprinkled over with gypsum, and this porous matter receives both the solid and liquid excrements of the animals. Guide- rails are laid in the passage behind the gutter, and the soil is daily removed and collected in a shed adjoining. Mr Livesey regards the material thus collected as, weight for weight, three times the value of ordinary farmyard manure made in his district. 1 This system must, of course, involve a good deal of extra labour, but such ad- vantages as are claimed for it would most probably far outweigh the increased expense. The practice, it will be observed, not only utilises the whole of the liquid manure in a most eflfective manner, but also renders litter unnecessary, which is in itseK a point of great importance. Presh Urine injurious to Vegeta- tion. — If urine is applied to grass-land or to growing crops while the urea is undecomposed, or the ammonia is in a caustic state, it will destroy vegetation. When intended for direct application to crops, the liquid should therefore be al- lowed to "ripen" for some time — per- haps four or five weeks in summer, and eight or nine in winter ; or by the addi- tion of a little sulphuric acid, the caustic ammonia may be turned into a neutral salt — sulphate of ammonia — and if thus prepared, liquid manure may at any time be applied with safety. Read in this connection what is said as to the compo- sition of fresh and stale urine, and the changes the liquid manure undergoes by keeping, pp. 515, 516. But fresh urine may safely be applied to the ploughed soil at any time, in as far as the soil is concerned, although it is better received by the soil in some states than in others. Time for Application. — Early spring is considered the best season for applying the liquid manure, not only because it is then most abundant, but the ground, being all ploughed, is then also in the best state for imbibing it : and if applied to the soil just as it has flowed into the tank, much trouble will afterwards be saved in driving out the water, which must be put ''^ Agric. Gazette, 1888, p. 464. 528 TEEATMENT OF FAEMYAED MANUEE. amongst it to save the ammonia, and which in fact is better saved by the humus of the soil. Formerly winter was considered the best time for applying liquid manure; but the Eothamsted in- vestigations as to the loss of nitrates through drain-water from land not cov- ered with any crop, have shown that this was an error. See " Accumulation and Exhaustion of Fertility " in soils, on pp. 60, 61. Frozen ground will not take in liquid manure, neither will very dry ground take it in easily. Advantage of Incorporating with the Dung. — ^As Sprengel' states, "it will be obvious to every one that the urine- tanks are no such excellent arrangements as they are frequently represented to be ; and that it is in many cases more pro- fitable to pour the urine over the dung in the dung-pit, or to supply as much straw that the whole of the urine may be absorbed, for then the humic acid arising from the solid excrements will be com- bined with the ammonia formed at the same time from the urea," &c. There is this aditional advantage, that the urine, as the most efficient portion of animal excrement, being mixed with the dung, may be distributed more equally over the ground — that no manure-barrels, &c., are required — and that there is no necessity to bestow labour on the pre- paration of the urine; for the urine, if any, which is not taken up by the dung, may always be most profitably pumped back upon it again.^ To^wn Sewage. — Although the utili- sation of town sewage has some relation to that of the liquid manure of the farm, it will be convenient to discuss that wider and more intricate subject by itself. Construction of Liquid-Tnanure Tanhs. The following general remarks by Mr Slight as to the construction of tanks for liquid manure may be perused with in- terest : — " The cistern for collecting liquid man- ure in the farm-stead is apparently simple in its construction, being merely a cov- ered pond or a well ; yet serious errors are frequently committed in its formation. The first and most important considera- ^ Jour. Royal Agric. Soc. Eng., i., 455-480. tion for the formation of the cistern, i& the efi'ect of hydrostatic pressure; inat- tention to this has caused the failure of many such cisterns. The liquid we have here to deal with, like all other fluids, acts on the bottom and sides of the vessel or body that contains it with a pressure directly in proportion to the depth at which the fluid stands, without reference to either length or breadth; that is to say, suppose a cistern, whose bottom is 12 inches square, and its depth 10 feet, filled with water, every square inch in the bottom will suffer a pressure equal to the height of a column of water whose base is i inch square and 10 feet or 120 inches in height. The weight of such a column will be 4j4 lb. nearly, and this would be exerted on every square inch on the bottom, or the whole pressure on the bottom would be 625 lb., the weight of 10 cubic feet of water. Pressure of Fluids. — "There is a natural law that governs the pressure of fluids, which shows us that they press eqvally in ail directions, downward, hori- zontally, and even upwards, the last arising from the general statical law, that ' action and reaction are equal, and in opposite directions.' It follows, from these hydrostatical laws, that the lower- most portion of each side of our supposed cistern will suffer a pressure from the water equal to that which acts upon the bottom — hence, taking the lowermost inch in the height of the sides of this cistern, it wiU be pressed with a force of 52J5^ lb. or thereby, or 4^4 lb. on the square inch, and each of the four sides will suffer the same pressure. "Suppose, now, that the cistern is elongated in one direction to any number of feet, and again filled to the depth of 10 feet, the pressure on each square foot of the bottom remains the same as before, and so on in like manner does it remain the same upon the sides ; for the pressure is not altered in any direction, although the proportion of the cistern has been changed. Depth the Chief Element. — " Keep- ing this in view, it will be seen that length and breadth produce no effect on the pressures that a fiuid exerts against the vessel or body that retains it ; and that, in calculating the resistance to sus- tain such pressures, deptli is the only LIQUID MA^NTUEE. 529 element requiring to be taken into account. It is also to be kept in view, that pressure on the bottom or sides is directly as the depth : thus, if our sup- posed cistern were reduced to 5 feet in depth, the pressure on the bottom would only be one-half, or 25^ lb. on each square inch. Pit or "Well Form. — " The conclusion to be drawn from these remarks is, that a cistern in the form of a pit or well should be always avoided, unless it can be formed in a natural bed of impervious clay. When such a substratum can be attained a pit may be adopted, but not otherwise. If such has been found, and the pit dug out, it should be lined with brick, or with stone built in mortar, the bottom being first lined with the same material. When the building approaches to the surface, the wall can be gradually reduced in diameter to a small compass, leaving only an opening of 2 to 3 feet square, which is covered in at small ex- pense ; and the saving in this last item is the only apparent advantage that seems to attend the practice of pit cisterns. Disadvantage of Deep Tanks. — " Deep cisterns are liable to another in- convenience — of their becoming recipi- ents of spring or of drainage water ; and it is sometimes more difficult to keep such water out than to keep the proper liquid in, — for if springs and their origin lay at considerable heights, their hydro- static pressure may be so great as to render the prevention of access to their products a process of great difficulty. Shallo-w Tanks. — "A cistern of moderate depth, not exceeding 4 feet below the outfall of the drains, may be constructed in any situation, whether in gravel or in clay, and its length can be extended so as to afford any required capacity ; the breadth being restricted to that for which materials for covering it can be most easily obtained, which may be from 3 to 4 feet, or, if arched, it may be 6 feet. WTiatever be the stratum in which such a cistern is to be formed (un- less it be perfectly impervious clay), it should be puddled to the thickness of at least I foot with the best clay that can be procured. For this purpose, the earthy matters are to be dug out to a depth oi 1% foot lower than the in- tended sole, and to a width of 4 feet more than that proposed for the cistern. Two or three thin layers of the prepared clay are then to be compactly laid over the whole breadth of the excavation, and beaten firmly together at all points, mak- ing up the depth to i foot, and the sur- face of it brought to a uniform level. Upon this the side -walls are to bo founded, and these may be of brick 9 inches in thickness, or of flat -bedded rubble-stone 14 inches. The wall should be built in successive courses of about i foot in height, the whole being bedded in mortar; and as each course is com- pleted, the jJuddle is to be carefully laid and beaten in behind, in layers of 6 inches or thereby — the first layer being properly incorporated with the founda^ tion-puddle, and each succeeding layer with the one immediately preceding it. " To prevent the side-walls from being pushed inward by the pressure of the puddle or of the bank, tie-walls of brick or of stone should be formed at every 5 feet of the length of the cistern. These may be 9 inches of brick or 14 inches of stone, and they must have conduits formed at the level of the sole, to allow the liquid to run towards the pump. " The sole should be laid aU over with brick set on edge, or with strong pave- ment jointed — the whole having a slight declivity towards one end, where a smaU well-hole of 9 inches in depth is to be formed to receive the bottom of the pump. The brick or pavement, as the case may be, is to be bedded on the puddle, and grouted flush in the joints with mortar; and when the walls and sole are built up, they should then be pointed in every joint with Roman cement. Covering Tanks. — " The covering may be effected with strong pavement, of length sufficient' to rest on the side- walls, laid and jointed with mortar; or with rough found-stones, where such can be procured; and if neither can con- veniently be found, a beam of cast or malleable iron may be laid along the middle of the cistern resting on the tie- walls, and, with this bearer, stones of half the length will be sufficient to form a cover. A thin layer of clay may be laid over the stone covers, and upon that a coat of gravel. 2 L 530 CLAYING LANDS. Preventing Accidents. — " To pre- vent accident, it is always desirable to construct the cistern in a situation where it will be as little as possible exposed to the transit of carts ; and this may be always obtained at a small additional expense of covered drain to convey the manure from the dunghills to the cistern. The best and most secure plan, no doubt, though the most expensive, is to cover the cistern with an arch of stone or brick." CLAYING LANDS. Benefits of Claying. — This is a prac- tice often followed by excellent results. Where the surface-soil consists chiefly of shifting sand or of soft mossy matter, its agricultural value may be improved by spreading and mixing with it a layer of clay, chalk, or marl. This admixture binds the sandy material and increases its cropping capabilities. The clay or marl is usually dug from the layer below the soil with which it is to be mixed. The cost of carting the clay from any considerable distance would be so great as to render the operation unprofitable. Chalk, however, is often conveyed long distances for the purpose of beiag mixed with soil. Professor Wrightson says that thirty or forty yards of clay per acre has a wonderful effect in binding sands to- gether ; and mentions that in some coun- ties, as in Norfolk, marling is thoroughly appreciated. Marl or clay pits are open- ed in the fields, and from forty to sixty cart-loads are applied per acre. The lower chalk is the best material for chalking. Large quantities of chalk are carried upon the Thames in barges for application to the heavy soils of the London clay, and to the heavy marine clays which extend still nearer to the Essex coast. ^ Clay Pits. — This process of claying the soil, which may conveniently fill in work for several days in winter, is in some cases conducted in this manner : Within the four sides of the field to be clayed, fig. 238, two lines of pits are set out, the clay of which is to be taken. The space between the pits depends on the depth the clay lies from the surface. If to the clay is deep, the distance be- tween the pits is 1 2 yards ; if shallow, it ^ Prin. of Af/ric. Prac, p. 113. is extended to 20 yards, and varying be- tween these two extremes. When the distance has been determined on, it is marked by a plough making a furrow in each line of pits. The width of the pits depends also on the depth of the clay ; if it is 2 feet deep to the clay, the width is 7i n Fig. 238. — Claying of soil. ai c d Four sides of a field. e e Lines of pits out of which the clay is taken, fir to Z Distance, 12 yards. m Where the first surface-soil is laid down. n n Spaces of ground left untouched between the pits, m Ji Half-way hetween the lines of pits. 3 feet 3 inches, but if 6 feet and upwards, the width is 4 feet. A pit is dug in the first line, which should be begun near the upper fence. At half-way between the lines of pits, the surface-soil taken out of the first pit is laid down. The pits are made 9 feet in length. Should the clay be far down, the sides of the pit should be supported by planks, or framework of wood, to pre- vent the earth falling in, and to protect the lives of the men working in them. Lives have been lost through neglect of this precaution. CLAYING LANDS. 531 Spreading the Clay. — The clay as it is dug out is taken up with, a fork or spade by a man or boy, and thrown equally over the space on both sides of the pit in which the men are working. Two good spits of the spade generally afford the requisite quantity of clay. After one pit has been sufficiently dug out, another is formed along the line, spaces of the ground being left untouched between the pits, of sufficient strength to support the sides from curving in. The upper soil of the second pit is put into the first pit, to fill it up as far as it will go, and the clay is taken out of the second pit and spread upon the surface, in the same manner as that out of the first pit ; and so on, from pit to pit, until all the pits in the line are dug. When the first pit in the second line is begun, its surface-soil is wheeled to fill up the last pit of the first line ; and when all the pits have been dug out in the second line, the surface-soil taken out of the first pit of the first line is wheeled to fill up the last pit of the second Kne. In this manner, with every two rows of pits is the entire field spread over with the clay. The pits are levelled up after- wards with the adjoining soil by the plough. A little frost does the clay good by pulverising it, and makes it more ready to mix with the soil ; but it is better to plough the clay in soon than allow it to become too hard either by drought or frost. If the clay had to be carted upon it thus, the claying of land would be at- tended with much trouble and expense. To cover an acre of soil with only one inch deep would require i8o cubic yards of clay. Is Claying injurious to Sheep. — Mr Henry Woods, in his essay on sheep, asks, " Does clayed land materially affect the health of the ewe 1 I know the prevalent opinion is that it does, and probably it may ; but I say that it is also very much within the control of the flock-master himself. I believe that with the care and intelligence which a person may bring to bear upon the matter, it may be very much controlled; and I will give you some practical experience on this point. I have been told, time after time, that the Waterloo Farm would kill any sheep — no matter whether they were hoggets or ewes, or any other sort of sheep, they could not live upon it ; and still more unhealthy would it be if it was clayed. And as to ewes, the man would be mad who would attempt to keep them. Now that farm has been clayed very heavily ; it has been clayed, marled, and chalked. All those three materials, which are held to be injurious, have been applied ; and what has been the result ? Not that all the sheep died, but this has occurred : From Michaelmas 1861 to Michaelmas 1862, the last year we had the farm, and consequently at a time when we had to feed off turnips grown from artificial manures or clayed land, there were on the farm 306 ewes, 340 hoggets, 100 shearlings, and we had 352 lambs. Between 1861 and 1862 our loss comprised the following: 5 hoggets, 10 ewes, 3 shearlings, and 3 lambs — total 2 1, lost out of 1098 sheep, including lambs, and not a single case of abortion. . . . "Through the kindness and fairness of our excellent tenant, Mr Bunting, I am enabled to give you the result of his experience for 1863. He had 300 ewes on his farm last year, and he had not a single case of abortion ; his loss of ewes only 5. I think that is a certain proof that, under judicious management, with proper feeding, the virulence of clayed land may be very much mitigated. "This year we have 220 ewe-hoggets feeding upon clayed land, clayed at the rate of something like 100 loads per acre ; they are in the same field they have been ever since Michaelmas. I state it as a fact, that never since those ewe-lambs have been fed on those turnips has one of them aUed anything ; and they have very much improved in condition and appearance, and have been very much admired. They have, in addition to ground white turnips, j4 lb. of cake per sheep per day, and we give them a little long hay in racks. I must tell you that the land used to be light blowing sand, but I hope its blowing is stopped now." ^ Mixing Soils. — The opposite process to that described above may also, in cer- tain cases, be carried out with advantage. That is, where the surface-soil consists chiefly of stiff adhesive clay, its texture and usefulness may be increased by the admixture of a quantity of sand. ' Wood's Breed, and Manag. Sheep., 21-30. 532 CLAYING LANDS. Professor Wrightson says : " The mix- ing and moving of soils may sometimes be carried -out with benefit. Wherever clay or sandy soils exist in close proxim- ity, an interchange may be effected with good results, although the effect of clay upon sandy soils will always be more apparent than the reverse operation of adding sand to clay. Top-dressing bare Heiglits. — "The carting of soil on to bare brows is a work that may profitably occupy horses during winter. The tendency for soils to slip down hillsides, and gradually accumulate at the bottom of slopes, "is well known. Every tillage operation tends to effect this result, and in process of time the upper portion of hill becomes denuded of soil, while there may be an excess of soil at the bottom. The restoration of this soil to the upper portion of the field is a beneficial act.''^ While the detailed treatment of the work of winter may fittingly enough terminate here with volume i., there are some operations not yet noticed which receive a share of the farmer's attention in the course of the winter months. Wheat-sowing. — Wheat-sowing, espe- cially in late seasons, forms a consider- able portion of the field-work in earlier part of winter. This, however, is a con- tinuation of work begun in autumn, and may be more appropriately described in deaUng with the operations of the autumn. Forming Compost. — Similar remarks apply to the forming of composts — a subject which deserves ' more attention than is generally given to it. Every farm should have its compost-heap, and large additions should be made to it in winter. It should be remembered that by well -matured compost a substantial addition may be secured to the supply of manure made on the farm. Although winter is not the season to expect a quick fermentation to arise 1 Prim, of Agric. Prac, p. 113. among the materials composing a com- post dunghill — or midden, as it is tech- nically called in Scotland, being the cor- responding phrase to the English mixen — it is a favourable time for collecting materials from convenient places, and mixing them in proper jDro- portions. There are many materials which may be collected at the commence- ment of winter — as quicken or couch-grass of the fields, obtained while preparing the land for the green crops of last year; dry potato-haulms, scourings of ditches, weeds destroyed during summer; leaves fall- en in autumn ; moss or turf available ; and every vege- table matter whatsoever. Immediately after a rainy day, when the land is in such a state of wetness as to prevent work being done upon it, and the horses have nothing particular to do, two or three of the men should each take a mvd- hoe or harle, fig. 239, and rake the loose straws and liquid mud on all the roads around the steading to the lowest side of the roads, and out of the way of carts and people passing along; while the rest should take graips and shovels, and form the raked matter into heaps, to be led away, when it will bear lifting, to the compost-heap. The general subject of forming com- posts will be referred to in other parts of the work. Collecting Sea-w^eed. — The supplies of sea-weed are usually most abundant in winter. Farmers who have access to the sea-coast should therefore lose no oppor- tunity of laying in a store of this useful fertilising material. The value of sea- weed as manure will be explained in the chapter dealing with Manures. Fig. 23g.—Mxd- lioe, karle^ or clavt. END OP THE FIRST VOLTJME.