M't QJorttell HniowBitg ICihrarg THE GIFT OF C o-r-w^dXto-n., DATE DUE jamHi«H9i iBiiiMMaMa JITHy" nr-r utu- :: ;a/2lii mmi t^MlfV s V — . GAYLOF D PRINTED INU.S. A. _ Cornell University Library D 523.U58 War cyclopedia: 3 1924 027 858 079 Cornell University Library The original of tliis book is in tine Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924027858079 WAR CYCLOPEDIA A HANDBOOK FOR READY REFERENCE ON THE GREAT WAR ISSUED BY The Committee on Pubuc Information THE SECRETARY OF STATE THE SECRETARY OF WAR THE SECRETARY OF THE NAVY GEORGE CREEL Price I 25 Cents WASHINGTON IQOVERNMENT PRINTINQ OFFICE I I9II Your Government is Willing to Send You WITHOUT CHARGE Any Two of the Pamphlets Listed Here, With Exceptions Noted Committee on Public Information. (Established by Order of the President, Aprii 14, 1917, Washington, D. C.) SERIES No. 1. WAK INFORMATION. (Red, White, and Blue Covers.) 1. How the War Came to America. Contents: A brief introduction reviewing the policy of the United States vfith reference to the Monroe Doctrine, freedom of the seas, and international arbitration ; develop- ment of our policy reviewed and explained from August, 1914, to April, 1917 ; Appendix ; the President's address to the Senate, January 22, 1917, his war message to Congress, April 2, 1917, his Flag Day address at Washington, June 14, 1917. 32 pages. (Translations: German, Polish, Bohemian, Italian, Spanish, Swedish, Portuguese. 48 pages.) Note. — For Numbers 2 and 3, described below, a contribution of 15 cents each, Is required. All other booklets are free. 2. National Service Handbook. (A reference work for libraries, schools, clubs, and other organizations.) (Price, 15 cents.) Contents: Description of all civic and military organiza- tions directly or indirectly connected with war work, point- ing out how and where every individual can help. Maps, Army and Navy insignia, diagrams. 246 pages. 3. The Battle line of Democracy. (Price, 15 cents.) Contents: The best collection of patriotic prose and poetry. Authors and statesmen of America and all the countries now associated with us in the war have expressed the highest aspirations of their people. 134 pages. 4. President's Flag Day Speech with Evidence of Germany's Flans. Contents: The President's speech with the facts to which he alludes explained by carefully selected notes, giving the proofs of German purposes and intrigues. These notes PBESENT AN OVERWHELMING AKSENAI, OF FACTS, all gathered from original sources. 32 pages. (Continued on page 3 of cover.) WAR CYCLOPEDIA A HANDBOOK FOR READY REFERENCE ON THE GREAT WAR Edited by^_/ FREDERIC L' PAXSON I University of Wisconsin EDWARD S. CORWIN SAMUEL B. HARDING Princeton University Indiana University "/ have found that the particular thing you have to surrender to is facts" —PRESIDENT WILSON WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1918 First Edition. Issued in January, 1918. FOREWORD. Throughout the United States to-day thousands of Americans in civil life are doing their part to win the war. They come from all professions and from every trade. From the office, from the school, from the editorial room, and from the platform they are sending out their message of truth and democracy. Their desire for service Is complete ; their chance to find easily the facts they need is limited. It is to provide them with a body of information, simply arranged and clearly stated, that this War Cyclopedia has been prepared. Other handbooks have been and will be made by other agen- cies ; all will serve their end, for this war is not to be won by an established doctrine nor by an official theory, but by an enlightened opinion based upon the truth. The facts of history and life are the only arsenal to which Americans need resort in order to defend their cause. The deeper their study, the firmer becomes their conviction. The War Cyclopedia repre- sents an effort to arrange in simple form the facts most needed. Persons have been left out except so far as biographical notes are absolutely Indispensable ; a knowledge of American public men in particular has been taken for granted. The map (at the end of the book) makes clear the German plans and con- quests. The Chronology (see p. 311) includes only outstanding events, but even a selected list of dates should prove helpful. The preparation of this handbook has been supervised by Guy Stanton Ford, director of the Division of Civic and Educa- tional Cooperation of the Committee on Public Information. The editing has been done by Frederic L. Paxson, Edward S. Corwin, and Samuel B. Harding, with the assistance of Katharine J. Gallagher, Ellis P. Oberholtzer, Bernadotte E. Schmitt, and Mason W. Tyler. The editors have drawn freely upon the time and the patriotic good will of a large number of special writers from all parts of the country. This book has been prepared under pressure and within a brief time, and if errors of detail appear notification of those to Mr. Ford, with a view to cor- rection in subsequent printings, will be appreciated. The declaration of war against Austria-Hungary fixes the limit of the Cyclopedia in its present form. Geoege Ceebl, Chairman. CONTRIBUTORS. The following persons have contributed to the making of the War Cyclopedia : Frank M. Anderson, James F. Baldwin, Charles A. Beard, Carl Becker, Beverley W. Bond, William K. Boyd, Philip M. Brown, Neil Carothers, William S. Carpen- ter, Edward S. Oorwin, Arthur Lyon Cross, W. F. Dodd, John A. Fairlie, Sidney B. Fay, Carl Russell Fish, Emerson D. Fite, F. Stuart Fitzpatriek, Howard Florance, Katharine J. Gal- lagher, Samuel B. Harding, Samuel N. Harper, Gerard C. Hen- derson, J. Franklin Jameson, Edward H. Krehbiel, August C. Krey, Laurence M. Larson, Waldo G. Leland, Samuel McCune Lindsay, William E. Lingelbach, Dana C. Munro, Wallace Note: stein, Ellis P. Oberholtzer, J. I. Osborne, Frederic L. Paxson, Bernadotte E. Schmitt, George C. Sellery, Charles Seymour, Augustus H. SheaTer, A. M. Simons, St. George L. Sioussat, J. Russell Smith, Elmer E. StoU, David F. Swenson, Mason W. Tyler, Robert M. Wenley, Francis G. Wickware, George Grafton Wilson, Arthur N. Young, Otto M. Young. 6 WAR CYCLOPEDIA. Acts of Congress. The authority for national -defense rests upon acts of Congress, and especially upon the national defense act of June 3, 1916, which provided for an increase in the Regu- lar Army and its reorganization on efficient lines as to General StafE and reserves, suggested by the experience of Europe. Fol- lowing the declaration of war on April 6, 1917, Congress passed and the President approved: (1) The deficiency appropriation bill, carrying an extraordinary item " for the national security and defense — to be expended at the discretion of the President." The sum was $100,000,000. (2) The bond act authorizing loans not to exceed $7,000,000,000 in bonds and certificates, under whose provisions the sale of the Liberty Loans was con- cluded. (3) Authority was given the President to take over enemy vessels found in the ports or waters of the United States. (4) The selective service act became a law on May 18. Under its provisions the Regular Army was expanded to its maximum strength, arrangements were made for bringing the National Guard Into Federal service, for registering all men be- tween the ages of 21 and 30 inclusive, and for training the first divisions of the National Army. (5) The war appropriation act of June 15 carried total credits of $3,281,094,541.60, and there had already been made on March 2, 1917, a special naval appro- priation of $535,000,000. (6) The espionage act conferred upon the President the power of placing an embargo on exports. (7) $640,000,000 were appropriated for the construction and estab- lishment of an aircraft arm of the military service. (8) The priority act, giving the President power to direct freight trans- portation to meet the necessities of national defense, was passed on August 6. (9) The food and fuel control bill for guarding the economic interests of Government and people under stress of war conditions was approved on August 10. (10) A second bond act authorizing $13,538,945,460 in bonds and certificates; (11) A great war revenue bill. (12) An act to regulate trading with the enemy. (13) A law for soldiers' and sailors' insurance. " To speak of it as an epoch-making session is a common- place," said the New York Nation (Sept. 20, 1917) ; its work forms " a mass of legislation which for bulk and comprehensive- ness, for the great issues involved and the enormous figures dealt with, for its drastic innovations and its effects on the mul- tifarious phases of national life stands without a rival." " I pre- sume to say that no other parliamentary body in so short a time 7 8 WAR CYCLOPEDIA. ever passed so great a volume of well-considered and prophetic legislation as has our present Congress in the past five months." (Secretary Laue, at Atlantic City, Sept. 18, 1917.) See the various acts by title. Consult No. 10 in War Information Series published by Committee on Public Information. Agadir Incident. See Morocco Question. Adjutant General. An officer who keeps the records, orders, and correspondence of the Army. He. serves under the direc- tion of the Secretary of War and of the Chief of Staff. Through him and over his name instructions and regulations of the War Department are sent forward to military officers and troops. He is at once a secretary and archivist to the Secretary of War! Agricultural Credit. Refers to loans made to farmers for use in the purchase of land and the cultivation of the soil. Con- ditions of isolation and economic disadvantage have forced the American farmer to pay exorbitant rates of interest or to go without credit. These high rates have burdened him and hin- dered the production of food and materials. To secure a lessen- ing of these charges the Federal farm loan act was passed in 1916. Under this act there are 12 Federal Land Banks in the country, empowered to lend funds and sell bonds. Farmers in any locality can form a farm loan association, the members of which secure loans by mortgaging their farm property. The as- sociation gives the mortgages to the land bank in exchange for the funds. The bank secures funds by selling bonds to the public with the mortgages as security. Under this system, already in operation, capital is gradually flowing from the money cen- ters to the basic industry of agriculture. Any reliable farmer can obtain needed funds on reasonable terms — repayment in 5 to 40 years— and at low rates of interest — 6 per cent or less. On October 1, 1917, loans had been approved amounting to some $64,000,000 ; and about $200,000,000 of loans were in sight. See Farm Loans; Federal Reserve Act. Aim of United States. " The purposes of the United States in this war are known to the whole world, to every people to whom the truth has been permitted to come. They do not need to be stated again. We seek no material advantage of any kind. We believe that the intolerable wrongs done in this war by the furious and brutal power of the Imperial German Gov- ernment ought to be repaired, but not at the expense of the sovereignty of any people— rather a vindication of the sover- eignty both of those that are weak and of those that are strong. Punitive damages, the dismembership of empires, the establishment of selfish and exclusive economic leagues, we deem inexpedient and in the end worse than futile, no proper basis for a peace of any kind, least of all for an enduring peace. That must be based upon justice and fairness and the common rights of mankind." (American reply to the peace overtures of the Pope.) See America, Creed of; War Aims of the. United States. Aircraft. See Aviation; Artillery. Aisne. A French river flowing through Soissons, tributary to the Oise. The Germans occupied strong positions north of WAR CTCLOPEDIA. « the Aisne after their retreat from the Marne in September, 1914. September 12-28, 1914, the Allied forces succeeded in par- tially dislodging the Germans from these positions. Some of the most bitter fighting of 1917 has taken place in this vicinity. See " Sindentiurg Line"; Chemin des Dames. Albania. Albania, a former province of Turkey, was made an independent State after the Balkan Wars and was given a Ger- man prince, William of Wied, who, however, failed to make good his right to rule. It is situated on the eastern coast of the Adriatic. Italian forces occupied the southern part of Albania in 1915. In January, 1916, the Austro-German-Bulga- rian forces, proceeding from their conquest of Serbia and Monte- negro, overran the country as far south as Avlona, which was held by the Italians. On June 3, 1917, the general in charge of the Italian forces proclaimed Albania an independent country under Italian protection. See Balkan Wars; Italia Irredenta. Albert I (18 75— ) . King of the Belgians, succeeding to the throne December 23, 1909, in succession to his uncle, Leopold II. Becoming heir apparent at the age of 17 by the death of his elder brother, he passed through the educational steps regularly marked out for Belgian royalty — the military school, extensive travels, participatiop as member of the Senate in national politics. At the time of his accession he was regarded with general favor as an earnest student, unquestionably devoted to the welfare of his country, although the Socialists at this time did not hesitate to attack monarchical institutions with vigor and bitterness. On the question of foreign affairs he was ap- proached by the Kaiser in November, 1913, at which time Wil- liam II seems to have exerted enormous but unavailing pressure upon him in the hope of persuading him to permit the eventual violation of Belgian neutrality by Germany. It was largely be- cause of his determination that Belgium must abide by her prom- ise to maintain — if necessary, by force — her absolute neutrality that the country played the heroic part known to the world in the summer of 1914. Since then the fortitude and patience with which he has directed the efforts of the small Belgian army to win back their territory has won for Albert the admiration of the world and made him the idol of his people. See Belgium. Alcohol in War Time. France and Italy have abolished absinthe. Eussia has prohibited vodka, with the result, it is said, that savings-bank deposits increased to twenty times what they were in the year before the war, while pawnbrokers' loans have fallen off one-half. England has forbidden the furthei use, in brewing or distilling, of either barley or corn suitable foi food purposes, and the Provinces of Canada have placed most of the Dominion " under fairly effective prohibition, both as regards distilled and fermented liquors." In this country the story is much the same. Even before the United States declared war half the States had ranged themselves in the " dry " column, and Con- gress had stopped the transportation of liquor into such States. Since our entrance into the war Congress has prohibited, during its continuance, the manufacture of distilled liquors, has put ex- isting stocks of these at the Government's command, has given 10 WAR CY(3L0PEDIA. the President the power to suspend the manufacture of beer and wine, and has forbidden the sale of alcoholic beverages to men in uniform. The Civil "War apparently checked a widespread prohibition movement ; this war is operating quite differently. Aside from the temperance movement, the explanation is to be found in the decreasing dependence of the Government on excise taxes, in the use to-day of alcohol in the manufacture of high explosives, and in the need of conserving food supplies. Algeciras Conference. See Morocco Question. Alien Draft. On September 12, 1917, Senator Chamberlain, of Oregon, reported a resolution to the Senate proposing that all friendly aliens in this country be made liable to draft for military service, and all nationals of Germany and her allies to draft for noncombatant work. The conscription in the case of friendly aliens would be subject to the approval of the diplo- matic representatives of the several countries whose nationals would be involved. Senator Chamberlain estimated that such a measure would call 1,275,000 men to the American colors, not counting 81,000 enemy aliens. Aliens claiming exemption through treaty or on general grounds of international law would be allowed 90 days in which to leave the country. The bill pro- ceeds on the principle that those who receive the protection of a government should be liable for its defense. The State Department pointed out that International difficulties might result from the passing of such a bill, but undertook to negotiate for its acceptance by our associates in the war. These negotia- tions have now (December 1) been successful, and the measure will probably be enacted early in the approaching session. See Selective Service. Allen Enemies. Residents or sojourners in a country who are citizens or subjects of a hostile State. Their legal position is accurately indicated by the assurance addressed by the Presi- dent to alien enemies in the United States in his proclamation of April 6, 1917, that so long as they refrained from acts of hostility toward the United States and obeyed the laws they should " be undisturbed in the peaceful pursuit of their lives and occupa- tions and be accorded the consideration due to all peaceful and law-abiding persons, except so far as restrictions may be neces- sary for their own protection and for the safety of the United States." See Trading ivith the Enemy Act. Alien Enemies, Restrictions upon. These are prescribed by the President in his proclamations of April 6 and November 16, by virtue of authority conferred upon him by paragraphs 4067- 4070 of the Revised Statutes. By the earlier proclamation alien enemies are forbidden to have in their possession any firearms, ammunition, explosives, wireless apparatus or parts thereof ; or to approach within one-half mile of any fort, camp, arsenal, air- craft station, naval vessel, navy yard, or munitions factory ; or to write, print, or publish any attack upon the Government of the United States, Congress, or any person in the service of the United States, or upon any measure of the Government ; or to abet any hostile acts against the United States, or to give its enemies information or aid and comfort. Alien enemies trans- WAR CYCLOPEDIA. 11 gressing those restrictions are liable to summary arrest and to removal to any place designated by the President. Finally, no alien enemy may either leave or enter the United States except under restrictions to be prescribed by the President. The sup- plementary proclamation of November 16 forbids alien enemies to " enter or be found within " the District of Columbia or the Panama Canal Zone; or vcithin 100 yards of any canal, wharf, pier, dry dock, warehouse, elevator, railroad terminal, etc. ; or to be found on the waters within 3 miles of the shore line of the United States, or on any of the Great Lakes, except on public ferries ; or to ascend in any airplane, balloon, etc. It also provides for the registration and issuance of registration cards to all alien enemies, with prohibition of change of abode or travel except on permission ; and for monthly, weekly, or other periodical report to Federal, State, or local authorities as may be specified. Subsequent instructions to water-front operators provided for cooperation with United States troops in guarding docks, piers, warehouses, etc. See Alien Property Custodians- Passports. Alien Groups in America. " The men who speak alien sym- pathies are . . . the spokesmen of small groups whom it is high time that the Nation should call to a reckoning, . . . For us there is but one choice. We have made it. Woe be to that man or group of men that seeks to stand in our way in this day of high resolution, when every principle we hold dearest Is to be vindicated and made secure for the salvation of the nations. We are ready to plead at the bar of history, and our flag shall wear a new luster. Once more we shall make good with our lives and fortunes the great faith to which we were born, and a new glory shall shine in the face of our people. . . . You can not dedicate yourself to America unless you become in every respect . . . Americans. You can not become Americans If you think of yourselves in groups. America does not think in groups.'' (President Wilson, May 10, 1915.) Alien Property Custodian. An official created by the trad- ing with the enemy act, with power to require, at his discretion, any property held within the United States for or on behalf of an " enemy " or " ally of enemy," to be transferred to him, and to hold the same as trustee till the end of the war. The primary purpose of the measure is to prevent the property of the enemy from being used in the service of the enemy and to safeguard well-disposed enemy aliens from having their property thus abused. It also puts it in the power of the Government to requi- sition easily such property when it may require the same for the prosecution of the war, or even to confiscate it should Ger- many confiscate the property of Americans held in Germany. The provisions of the act apply to patents, debts, and ready money, and the latter Is expected to be invested in Liberty Bonds. It should be added that German subjects and the sub- jects of her allies, resident in the United States, do not from the mere fact of their nationality fall within the operation of the act. Mr. A. Mitchell Palmer is custodian. See Domicile; frading with the Enemy Act. 12 WAR CYCLOPEDIA. Allies. France, Russia, and Great Britain, bound together not by formal alliance but by informal understanding, or entente, received the name Allies or Entente Allies early in the war, and the term Allies has continued :n use since then. In its popular use, however, the word embraces all the enemies of the Central Powers. More narrowly it includes only the signers of the pact of London, September 5, 1917, in which the Allies pledged them- selves against making a separate peace. Italy and Japan later joined this alliance. The United States has made no alliance with any of its associates and is not bound by any agreements, nor has it any aim but to " make the world safe for democracy." See War, Dates of Declaration of. Alsace-Iiorraine. Alsace-Lorraine is roughly the territory bounded by the Rhine on the east, the Vosges Mountains on the west, Luxemburg on the north, and Switzerland on the south. The soil is fertile and Lorraine is rich in excellent iron ore. The total area Is 5,604 square miles and the population in 1910 was 1,874,014. Both Alsace and Lorraine originally lay within the Holy Roman Empire, but the former was acquired by France in Louis XIV's time, and the latter during the reign of Louis XV. After the Franco-Prussian War Germany took the prov- inces as a part of the price of peace, despite the protest of the inhabitants. They were at once erected into an imperial terri- tory (Reichsland) , directly subject to the German Emperor and the Federal Council. The so-called constitution of 1911 did not improve the strained relations between the provinces and the Government, which throughout has been unable to reconcile a large portion of the inhabitants or to prevent them from show- ing their attachment to France on every occasion. Germaniz- ing of the population has been only partially successful despite the bringing in of German settlers and the adoption of such restrictive measures as that of limiting instruction in the French language in the public schools to one hour a week. At least one German scholar. Prof. Otf ried Nippold, formerly of the University of Berlin and now of Berne, confesses (Germany's failure in the following words : " When one looks back into the history of Europe during the last 40 years, it seems inconceivable that any- one can be unwilling to admit that the annexation of Alsace- Lorraine was a political mistake," and " that the Germans have shown themselves incompetent in their government of the people of Alsace-Lorraine." See Zabern Affair. Ambassadors and Ministers of the United States to Powers at War with Germany. Belgium, Brand Whitlock ; Brazil, Edwin V. Morgan; China, Paul S. Reinsch; Cuba, William E. Gonzales ; France, William G. Sharp ; Great Britain, Walter H. Page ; Greece, Garrett Droppers ; Guatemala, William H. Lea veil; Italy, Thomas Nelson Page; Japan, Roland S. Morris ; Panama, William J. Price ; Portugal, Thomas H. Birch ; Roumania, Charles J. Vopicka; Russia, David R. Francis; Serbia, H. Percival Dodge (special agent) ; Siam, George P. Ingersoll. Ambassadors and Ministers in Washington of Powers at War with Germany. Belgium, M. E. de Cartier de Marchienne ; WAR CYCLOPEDIA. 13 Brazil, Senhor Domlclo da Gama ; China, Dr. V. K. Wellington Koo ; Cuba, Dr. Carlos de Cespedes ; France, M. Jules Jusserand ; Great Britain, Sir Cecil Spring-Rice; Greece, M. A. Vouros (charge) ; Guatemala, SeHor Don Joaquin Mendez ; Italy, Count Macchi di Cellere ; Japan, Mr. Aimaro Sato ; Panama, Senor Don Belisario Porras ; Portugal, Viscount d'Alte ; Russia, Prof. Boris Bakhmeteff; Serbia, Mr. Lloubomir Michailovitch ; Siam, Phya Prabha Karavongse. Ambulance Companies. These will be used to supplement and assist organizations of the Regular Army engaged In the transportation of sick and wounded to base hospitals, and from base hospitals to other hospitals in the home country. The personnel may be used to man ambulance trains, hospital trains, hospital ships, and other agencies for sick transport by land and water, or for the establishment of emergency hospitals. Bach company consists of 5 officers and 86 men, and such other per- sonnel as may be approved by the Secretary of War. Persons who enroll in a Red Cross ambulance company agree to serve in the Medical Department of the Army. For further information see Red Cross Circular 146. America, Creed of. " These, therefore, are the things we stand for, whether in war or in peace: (1) That all nations are equally interested in the peace of the world and in the political stability of free peoples and equally responsible for their maintenance; (2) that the essential principle of peace is the actual equality of nations in all matters of right or privi- lege; (3) that governments derive their just powers from the consent of the governed, and that no other powers should be supported by the common thought, purpose, or power of the family of nations; (4) that the seas should be equally free and safe for the use of all peoples, under rules set up by common agreement and consent, and that, so far as practicable, they should be accessible to all upon equal terms ; ( 5 ) that national armaments should be limited to the necessities of national order and domestic safety ; (6) that the community of interest and of power upon which peace must henceforth depend imposes upon each nation the duty of seeing to it that all influences proceed- ing from its own citizens meant to encourage or assist revolution in other states should be sternly and effectually suppressed and prevented." (President Wilson, second inaugural, Mar. 5, 1917.) See Aim of United States; Permanent Peace; War Aims of the United States. "America First." " I look forward to the necessity in every political agitation in the years . . . immediately at hand of calling upon every man to declare himself, where he stands. Is it America first, or is it not? ... I would not be afraid upon the test of 'America first ' to take a census of all the foreign-born citizens of the United States." (President Wilson, to the D. A. R., Washington, Nov. 11, 1915.) America Threatened. "The Emperor was standing," says James W. Gerard, writing of an interview on October 22, 1915, " so naturally I stood also ; and according to his habit . . . 14 WAR CYCLOPEDIA. he stood very close to me and talked very earnestly. ... He showed, however, great bitterness against the United States and repeatedly said, ' America had better look out after this war ' ; and ' I shall stand no nonsense from America after the war.' ... I was so fearful in reporting the dangerous part of this interview, on account of the many spies not only in mf own embassy but also in the State Department, that 1 sent but a very few words in a roundabout way by courier direct to the President." (My Four Tears in Germany, 1917, pp. 251- 253.) Bee"DerTag"—Whenf American Alliance of Labor and Democracy. A patriotic organization of labor leaders that held a meeting in Minneapolis. September, 1917. To Mr. Samuel Gompers, its president, Presi- dent Wilson wrote : " The cause you and your fellow patriots up- hold is one with the cause we are defending with arms. While our soldiers and sailors are doing their manful work to hold back reaction in its most brutal and aggressive form, we must oppose at home the organized and individual efforts of those dangerous elements who hide disloyalty behind a screen of specious and evasive phrases. I have read with real pride the names of the men and women who are to take part in the Minneapolis con- ference. Not one but has a record of devoted service to funda- mental democracy ; not one but has fought the long, hard fight for equal justice, braving every bitterness, that the humblest life might know a larger measure of happiness." The annual convention of the Federation of Labor, in November, 1917, in- dorsed the movement by a vote of 21,579 to 402. See Battle Line of Democracy ; Lalior and War; Labor Committee. American Ambulance Corps. Shortly after the outbreak of the war there was organized in connection with the American hospital at Neullly, near Paris, a fleet of motor ambulances for the transport of wounded from the front. Depending entirely on voluntary contributions, the scheme appealed strongly to Ameri- cans, who contributed generously, and the first " section " soon expanded into a corps which was given a definite place in the French army. The ambulances are manned chiefly by Ameri- can college men, who agree to serve not less than six months. The drivers have repeatedly distinguished themselves and have received the highest decorations of the French service. When the United States entered the war the members of the corps were available for the fighting services and have displayed the Stars and Stripes on the western front. See Lafayette Esca- drille. American Ambulance Hospital. A hospital organized at the outbreak of the war in Europe by the American colony in Paris and housed in a college building at Neuilly, near Paris. It was, in July, 1917, turned over to the Medical Corps of the United States Army as Military Hospital No. 1. American Federation of Labor. The American Federation of Labor, formed in 1881, is a federation, or union, in the com- mon interests of labor, composed of 109 national and interna- tional unions, each of which maintains its own individual ex- WAR CYCLOPEDIA. 15 istence, while giving up certain powers to the common head. The Knights of Labor, who had sought to merge all the separate unions into one national organization, gave way before the fed- eration movement in the years 1885-1890. Only a few impor- tant national unions, such as the four railroad brotherhoods, and the national window-glass workers, are not affiliated with the federation. The paid-up membership of the federation is now approximately 2,070,000. Its headquarters are in Washington, D. C, Its president is Samuel Gompers, its secretary Frank Morrison, and Its official organ the American Fedcratiomst. By a vote of 21,579 to 402 the Federation, In its annual convention In November, 1917, Indorsed the course of its officers In placing the needs of the Nation before aU other considerations In ques- tions Involving the worklngman's part in a vigorous prosecution of tbe war against Germany. See American Alliance of Labor and Democracy; Labor and the War; Labor Committee. Americanism. "Americanism consists in utterly believing in the principles of America and putting them first as above any- thing that may come into competition with them." (President Wilson, at West Point, June 13, 1916.) American Peace Society. This society was founded in 1828 by William Ladd and incorporated various organizations going back to 1815 ; it was reorganized in 1911. The program of the society calls for the organization of the nations of the world with a court and an international legislature. The decrees of this tribunal are to supplant armed force in the settlement of international disputes. The headquarters of the society are in the Colorado Building, Washington, D. C. See League to Enforce Peace; Pertnanent Peace. "Ancona," Austrian Pledge. An Italian steamship from Genoa with Americans on board, which was shelled and torpedoed by an Austro-Hungarlan submarine in November, 1915, before the crew and passengers had been put in a place of safety or even given sufficient time to leave the vessel. After two protests by Secretary Lansing, the Austro-Hungarlan Government ac- knowledged " that hostile private ships, in so far as they do not flee or offer resistance, may not be destroyed without the persons on board having been placed in safety," and agreed to Indem- nify the American sufferers. See " Sussex " Pledge. Anglo-Japanese Alliance. Japan entered the war because of a treaty with Great Britain, concluded In 1902. The original alliance preceded the Russo-Japanese war and made possible the exclusion of other powers from that conflict. It was a de- fensive alliance protecting the existing situation in Korea and Manchuria and stipulating that in case either of the contract- ing powers should be involved in war with any single power the other should maintain benevolent neutrality, and if attacked by two powers, the other should come to its aid. In 1905 the alliance was further extended to provide for the defense of British interests in India and Afghanistan as well, while Eng- land agreed to give Japan a free hand in Korea. In. 1911 It was again modified by the agreement that Great Britain should 16 WAR CYCLOPEDIA. not be bound to aid Japan against any power with whom she had a ti-eaty of arbitration — thus excluding the United States as a possible enemy. The alliance has been extended to 1921. Anthrax. See Roumania, German Treachery in. Anti-aircraft Guns. These are of various types, ranging from a light machine gun up to batteries of 3-inch, and in London, it is believed, of 6-inch guns, for defense against Zeppelins and other German aircraft. Shrapnel is the most effective am- munition. Bursting, it throws its bullets in all directions. When these reach the petrol tanks or other vital parts of the machine, it falls and is destroyed, often burning in Its descent. German anti-aircraft guns on the western front have brought down Allied machines flying at a height of 10,000 or 12,000 feet. Allied artillery of this kind is equally effective. Often machines escape with the wings riddled with shrapnel but without the tank being punctured or the propelling or steering gear disabled. Balloons are more vulnerable in that they present a larger sur- face to be aimed at. Observation balloons are attacked by fire bombs dropped from aeroplanes overhead or by rockets and incendiary bullets. See Aviation; Zeppelins. Anti-Annexationists in Germany. Although a large part of those who write and speak and control newspapers in Germany favor the annexation of alien territories, there are those in Ger- many who are strongly opposed to such annexations, probably most of the Social-Democrats, despised by the junkers, con- demned again and again by the Kaiser, and allowed no part in the Government ; they really represent nearly half the people of Germany. These persons do not wish a " Greater Germany " at the expense of their neighbors, but they get little hearing. Outside of the Social-Democrats, few important people — and no important newspapers save the Berlin TageUatt — have ven- tured to oppose annexations. While the petitions of the six great industrial and agricultural associations and the petitions of the intellectuals, which have urged enormous additions of territory, have been given wide circulation, the petitions to the contrary have been suppressed and the organizations behind them discouraged. See entries under, Peace Terms, German; Delbriick-Dernburg Petition; Liehknecht on German War Policy. Anti-submarine Devices. See Submarines. Antwerp. Antwerp is a Belgian city on the Scheldt River, and is one of the strongest fortifications in Europe. After the fall of Brussels the entire Belgian defense centered about Antwerp. On September 28, 1914, the Germans opened fire upon the outer forts. On October 5 the Belgian Army began to withdraw from the city, and the Germans occupied it on October 9, 1914. The Pan-Germans have long coveted Antwerp. One of them says : " Somebody coined the phrase ' Berlin- Bagdad.' Why shall we not say 'Antwerp-Bagdad ' ? I consider it utterly impossible that we should ever hand back Antwerp to the mad ministers of King Albert." See Berlin to Bagdad; "Drang nach Osten"; Pan-German. Anzac. A composite word used to designate the colonial troops engaged in the Gallipoli campaign. It is made by taking WAR CYCLOPEDIA. 17 the initial letters of the words Australian-New Zealand Army Corps. See OallipoU. "Appam." The Appam, a British merchant vessel, was cap- tured by the German cruiser Mowe on January 15, 1916, and was brought by a German crew into Newport News, Va. The Ger- man Government claimed that under certain provisions of the treaty of 1799 between Prussia and the United States, carried over into the treaty of 1828, the vessel might remain as long as it pleased in American waters. Secretary Lansing held that inasmuch as the provisions in question were contrary to general principles of international law, they must be strictly construed, and that they did not give a German prize the right to enter American ports unattended by the capturing vessel. The same view was adopted by Judge Waddell, of the United States Dis- trict Court, and, on appeal, by the Supreme Court (Mar. 6, 1917). See Prussian Treaties with the United States. Arabia. With French and British aid the Arabs in Mecca and the region thereabouts declared their independence of Tur- key in 1916, and in November, 1916, asked the United States to recognize Arabia as a free nation. The Arabs are a freedom- loving people, intensely opposed to the Turkish rule. Their im- portance is due to their strategic position with reference to Suez, Bagdad, and the Persian Gulf. "Arabic." A White Star liner, torpedoed by a German sub- marine on August 19, 1915, while on a voyage to New York. The attack, which occurred near the scene of the Lusitania tragedy, was without warning, and the vessel sank within 10 minutes, with resultant loss of 54 lives, including 3 Americans. The German Government at first asserted that the Arabic had attempted to ram the submarine but later waived this conten- tion. While the case was in discussion between the two Governments, Count von Bernstorff, on September 1, gave a pledge for his Government that "liners will not be sunk by our [German] submarines without warning and without safety of the lives of noncombatants, provided that the liners do not try to escape or offer resistance." This pledge was given in ostensible answer to the third Lusitania note and without reference to the Arabic sinking, which, however, was adjusted under it. In a second note, dated October 5, the German ambassador notified the State Department that his Government " regretted and disavowed " the sinking of the Arabic, which " was undertaken against the instructions issued to the com- mander," and was " prepared to pay an indemnity for the American lives " lost. See " Sussex " Ultimatum; "Ancona " Pledge; " Frye, William P." Arbitration. The first Hague Convention of 1907 says : "Akt. XXXVII. International arbitration has for its object the settlement of differences between States by judges of their own choice and on the basis of respect for law. Recourse to arbitration implies an engagement to submit in good faith to the award. 15963°— 18 2 18 WAR CYCLOPEDIA. "Abt. XXXVIII. In questions of a legal nature, and espe- cially in the interpretation or application of international con- ventions, arbitration is recognized by the contracting powers as the most efCective, and at the same time the most equitable, means of settling disputes which diplomacy has failed to settle." The United States has been party to scores of arbitrations in the past century, the most notable being the one by which the "Alabama claims " controversy was settled with Great Britain. See Hague Tribunal; Peace Treaties. Arbitration, German Attitude. "Arbitration treaties must be peculiarly detrimental to an aspiring people which has not yet reached its political and national zenith and is bent on expanding its power in order to play its part honorably in the civilized world. Every arbitration court must originate in a certain political status; it must regard this as legally consti- tuted and must treat any alterations, however necessary, to which the whole of the contracting parties do not agree as an encroachment. In this way every progressive change Is arrested and a legal position created which may easily conflict with the actual turn of afCairs and may check the expansion of the young and vigorous state in favor of one which is sinking in the scale of civilization." (F. von Bernhardi, Oermany and the Next War, 1912, p. 32.) Andrew D. White, late ambassador to Ger- many, says in his Autobiography (1905, II, p. 265), May 24, 1899 : " Meeting Count Mtinster Ichairman of the German dele- gation] who, after M. de Staal, is very generally considered the most Important personage here, we discussed the subject of arbitration. To my great regret, I found him entirely op- posed to it, or, at least, entirely opposed to any well-developed plan. He did not say that he would oppose a moderate plan for voluntary arbitration, but he insisted that arbitration must be injurious to Germany ; that Oermany is prepared for war as no other country is or can be; that she can mobilize her army in JO days; and that neither France, Russia, nor any other power can do this. Arbitration, he said, would simply give rival powers time to put themselves in readiness, and would therefore be a great disadvantage to Germany." Mr. Henry White, reporting to the State Department in 1899 upon the Hague Convention, said : " I had learned from a high imperial official before I left Berlin that the Emperor considered arbitra- tion as derogatory to his sovereignty, and I was also well aware, from his conversation, that he was by no means in love with the conference idea." Though this attitude was later modified In appearance. It was so in appearance only, with the result that Germany remains the one considerable power with which the United States has never succeeded in getting an arbitration treaty. See Disarmament, German Attitude; German Military Autocracy : Peace Overtures ; War, German View. Argentine Republic. Federal republic of southern South America. Its capital is Buenos Aires. The area is 1,153,417 square miles, and the population in 1915 was 7,973,257. Presi- dent Hip61ito Irigoyen was elected October 12, 1916, and is the WAR CYCLOPEDIA. 19 first Radical to fill that office. Argentina has preserved its neutrality despite the excitement created when the German am- bassador was caught advising that Argentine vessels be let alone or sunk withoul; leaving a trace. See "Spurlos Versenkt." Armed Merchantmen, Legal Status. " The enemy merchant ship has the right of defense against belligerent attaclj, and this right it can exercise against visit, for this indeed is the first act of capture. The attacljed merchant ship can, indeed, itself seize the overpowered warship as a prize." (Dr. Hans Weh- berg, a German authority on international law, quoted in Amer- ican Journal of International Law, Oct. 1916, p. 871.) As a corollary of this right, an enemy merchant ship may, of course, arm for purely defensive purposes, without prejudice to its status as a merchant vessel either in neutral harbors or on the high seas. This is the position which our Government tools at the outset of the war. Early in 1916, however, it approached both belligerents with the proposition that enemy merchantmen should forego their defensive right on condition that belligerent submarines should in all cases exercise visit and search pre- liminary to capture. This effort at compromise failing, our Government returned to its original stand on the established principles of law. The test of defensive armament is the use to which it is put, not its size. See McLemore Resolution; Re- sistance, Right of. Armed Neutrality adopted toward Germany. On February 26, 1917, President Wilson went before Congress and asked authority " to supply our merchant ships with defensive arms, should that become necessary, and with the means of using them, and to employ any other Instrumentalities or methods that may be necessary and adequate to protect our ships and our people In their legitimate and peaceful pursuits on the seas." A bill introduced to meet this request passed the House, but failed in the Senate on account of the termination of the ses- sion on March 4. Eight days later the Secretary of State in- formed the embassies and legations in Washington that in view of the renewal by Germany of unrestricted submarine warfare the United States had determined to place on all American merchant vessels sailing through the barred areas an armed guard for the protection of the vessels and the lives of the persons on board. No encounter appear^ to have occurred between an armed American merchant vessel and a German submarine previous to the declaration of a state of war between the United States and Germany. See McLemore Resolution; United States, Neutrality, 191Jf-17; War Zones. Armenian Massacres. The name given to the organized attempts made by the Turks on at least three occasions to ex- tirpate Armenians living in Asia Minor. The first series of massacres occurred In 1895-96, and appears to have had the aid of the Turkish Government. Again in 1909 outbreaks occurred at Adana, in Syria, and its vicinity, having at least the con- nivance of the Turkish Government. The third, and probably the worst, outbreak occurred in 1915, after Turkey entered the 20 WAR CYCLOPEDIA. war as Germany's ally. Thousands of the Armenian population of Asia Minor were either killed on the spot or else deported into the most inhospitable spots in the Ottoman Empire, there to die of starvation, exposure, and exhaustion. The total number of those who have lost their lives is not exactly known, but is large enough to brand such procedure as one of the most shamelessly brutal race massacres of all time. That re- ligious differences or economic disturbances — the Armenians are the small capitalists of Asia Minor — are not responsible is proved by the fact that in normal times Armenian and Turk work together without grave friction. It would appear that the de- sire to eliminate an alien race and to destroy any possible allies for a Russian advance in Asia Minor are at the bottom of the affair ; that it is the Government and not the average Turk who is responsible. Germany could have stopped the massacres by a word, but she withheld that word. For German testimony to Turkish atrocities in Armenia and responsibility of the Ger- man Government therefor, see the book by a former German army officer and war correspondent, Dr. Harry Stiirmer, Two Years in Constantinople (trans., 1917). Army. The Army of the United States consists (Dec. 1, 1917) of 1,360,000 men, excluding various small supplementary bodies. Of these the Regular Army includes 360,000, the former National Guard about 500,000, and the National Army about 500,000. Further forces will be drawn by volunteering, or by selection from the list of 9,659,382 men between ages 21 and 30, inclusive, who registered on June 5, 1917, under the act of May 18, 1917. The whole force is now in the service of the United States, and may be used at home or abroad. See National Army; National Guard; Regular Army. Army Corps. The largest complete tactical and administra- tive unit in an army, which is composed of two or more corps. The corps is the appropriate command of a lieutenant general. In the United States service an army corps is formed by com- bining two or more divisions, under orders given by the Presi- dent when he deems such a formation necessary. Such a -corps may consist of corps headquarters, 6 complete divisions, and spe- cial corps troops, including 1 pioneer regiment of Infantry, 2 regiments of cavalry, 1 antiaircraft machine-gun battalion, 1 antiaircraft Artillery battalion, 1 trench mortar battalion, 1 field battalion. Signal Corps, 1 telegraph battalion, 1 aero wing, 1 regiment of Engineers, 1 pontoon train, 1 corps Artillery park, 1 remount depot, 1 veterinary hospital, 1 bakery company, 1 supply train, 1 troop transport train. In addition, 1 Artillery brigade, 1 sanitary train, and 1 corps Engineer park may be formed from detachments from the divisional organizations. Its approximate strength is 185,000 officers and men. See Division. Army Organization. There are three principal fighting arms of the service— Infantry, Field Artillery, and Cavalry. The Infantry is organized in regiments of ten companies, brigades of two regiments each, and divisions of two brigades each. WAK CYCLOPEDIA. 21 The divisions of tlie Kegular Army are numbered 1-25; those of the National Guard, 26-75; and those of the National Army, 76 — . The fighting forces are served by the Staff, vchose principal divisions are Quartermaster Corps, Ordnance, Medical Corps, Signal Corps, Engineer Corps. The General Staff, con- trolling and directing the whole establishment, under the Presi- dent and the Secretary of War, has a War College and an Intel- ligence Bureau. Army Service Schools. At Fort Leavenworth, Kans., a group of advanced schools for the instruction of selected officers in the problems of line, staff, signal, engineer, field and medical service. Army War College. A school in Washington to which se- lected officers (captains and above) are sent to study the higher problems of war, and to work upon detailed plans of national defense. It was first organized in 1901, after the Spanish War, and our present military system is largely based upon its leadership. See General Staff. Arras. An Important city of northern France, the key to the German military positions from Cambrai to the sea. It was used in the German retreat to the " Hindenburg line." In the spring of 1917 the British prepared for an offensive north of Arras Instead of planning to continue the battle of the Somme as the Germans had expected. The objectives of this offensive were A''imy Ridge, which controls the plains of Douai to the east, and the city of Lens, the great coal center of northern France. The Canadians captured Vimy Ridge on April 9, in a series of attacks up the valley of the Scarpe, and in June the British lines almost completely surrounded Lens. See " Hinden- hiirg Line " ; Somme. Articles of War. The rules enacted by Congress providing for the system of military discipline and punishment in the Army, corresponding to the annual mutiny act in Great Britain. The latest form of the Articles of War will be found in the Army appropriation act of 1916. Artillery. This war differs from previous wars chiefly in the enormous increase in the use of artillery,, a fact due partly to the immense manufacturing resources of the coun- tries at war, which enable them to produce great numbers of guns and great quantities of ammunition. It is due also to the new methods of directing gunfire from airplanes. It is evident that a gun can not be accurately aimed at an object the exact location of which is unknown. The airplane, however, is able to bring back or to signal back this information sometimes by wireless, so that the artillery may now be used with great effect. The size of the guns and the force of the explosive shells fired from them have also been largely increased. Field Artil- lery is the Artillery which accompanies the Army in the field, as distinguished from the Coast Artillery, which is permanently mounted in emplacements in the coast forts. Field Artillery is divided into Light, Horse, Heavy, and Mountain Artillery. The Light Artillery Is armed with 3-inch guns, and the majority of 22 WAR CYCLOPEDIA. the men are not mounted, while the Horse Artillery usually ac- companies Cavalry and the entire personnel is mounted. The Heavy Artillery is armed with guns above 3-inch caliber, in- cluding 6-inch guns and howitzers.. Mountain Artillery is car- ried usually on pack mules, and is for use in difficult and moun- tainous country. See Battery; Battalion; Brigade; Regiment. Asquith, Herbert Henry (1852— ). British states- man, Home Secretary in Gladstone's last ministry, Chancellor of the Exchequer in 1905, and Prime Minister in 1908. His attitude toward foreign affairs was characterized by the Liberal imperialism of Lord Rosebery; in domestic politics, while out of sympathy with the extreme Radicals, he advocated social reform, home rule for Ireland, the democratization of the elec- toral system, and especially restrictions upon the legislative veto of the House of Lords. The Parliament act of 1911, by which the House of Lords lost its power to stop legislation passed by the Commons, will give Mr. Asquith a place in his- tory. The opening of war with Germany proved that his efforts for better relations with that nation had been wasted'. In 1915 he estabished a coalition cabinet. But the Dardanelles failure and the Mesopotamian fiasco put his Government on the de- fensive. The opposition of certain powerful newspapers, the unwillingness of Mr. Lloyd George to support him further, and the' widespread feeling that his Government was not sufficiently energetic forced his resignation on December 5, 1916. See Coali- tion Cabinet. Assassination. Even that rather grim publication, the Ger-I man War Book, condemns recourse to assassination as a method] of warfare. To the same effect is the following provision from] Article XXIII of the Hague Regulations : " It is especially for- bidden ... to kill or wound treacherously individuals belong- ing to the hostile nation or army." However, in the political testament of the late military governor of Belgium, which was recently made public by Gen. von Bissing's friend, Herr Bac- meister, a member of the Reichstag, there Is a direct hint that Albert of Belgium ought to be dethroned and done away with. ' " Machiavelli," the document then proceeds, " says that when one wants to annex a State It is advisable to get rid of its sovereign even by murdering him." This citation of Machiavelli, who wrote 400 years ago, illustrates a type of current German military morality. The testament is given in extenso in the Times (London) History of the War, pt. 156, p. 478. Its authenticity Is supported by a letter of von Bissing to Dr. Stresemann, a member of the Reichstag, Jan. 14, 1917. See Forbidden Methods of Warfare. Atrocities. The first months of the war witnessed the in- auguration by Germany of a policy of terror in the invaded districts of Belgium and France, evidently premeditated and designed to facilitate the control of conquered territory. Vil- lages and towns were burned, wounded soldiers massacred, non- combatants shot or maimed, women outraged, and children tor- tured by the soldiery. Allegations of similar practices on the WAR CYCLOPEDIA. 23 part of the Eussians in East Prussia were made by the Germans. The truth of the stories told of German atrocities in France was attested by a French ofBcial report, issued in the spring of 1915. On May 12, 1915, a British commission headed by Lord Bryce publislied a report on Belgian atrocities, which convinced those hitherto incredulous that the stories of German cruelty were correct. Studies made by Prof. Reiss, of the University of Lau- sanne, in October and November, 1914, and issued in a later report, show that the Austrian armies In Serbia were guilty of the same atrocities which characterized German behavior in Bel- gium. Another Bryce report gives accurate details of the massacres of Armenians at the hands of the Turks, until July, 1916. See Family Rights and Honor; " Prightfulness " ; Oerman War Practices; War, German Buthlessness. Australia. A federal commonwealth, of six States, lying in the south Pacific. Area, 2,974,581 square miles. Population, 4,951,073 (1915). The capital is at present Sydney, in New South Wales, but a new federal city is under construction. ^Aus- tralia is a self-governing dominion of the British Crown, and like Canada promptly threw in its lot with the mother country. Australian troops won undying fame at Gallipoli and in France, and Australian naval forces captured several German colonies in the Pacific. In spite of much agitation, Australia has not adopted conscription. See Price Fixing in Australia. Austria-Hungary. Austria-Hungary is a dual monarchy comprising the Austrian Empire, which includes the ancient kingdom of Bohemia, the Hungarian kingdom, and the territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Its area is 261,241 square miles, supporting, in 1916, a population of 52,500,000. The capital of Austria is Vienna, that of Hungary Budapest. The Emperor- King is assisted In his direction of the common affairs of the two monarchies by three ministries (Foreign Affairs, Finance, and War) and an Imperial Court of Audit. The joint ministries are subject to " interpellation " by and are somewhat responsible to the " Delegations," which are elected by the respective parlia- ments of Austria and Hungary. These delegations sit separately, though they perform Identical functions. They convene alter- nately in the two capitals ; and in case of disagreement hold a joint session, in which, without debate, the question is deter- mined by a vote. The present ruler, who was the Archduke Charles Francis Joseph, succeeded Francis Joseph I on Novem- ber 22, 1916, as Charles I of Austria and IV of Hungary. The constitutional arrangements of Austria are so contrived as to permit the Germans, who are greatly in the minority, to dominate the Czechs, Poles, Ruthenes, Slovenes, and Dalmatians, who are all Slavs, and the Italians as well ; while in Hungary the Croa- tians, Slovaks, and Roumanians, as well as the Magyar lower classes, are at the mercy of the Magyar aristocracy. Austria- Hungary declared war on Serbia July 28, 1914; on Russia, August^, 1914; on Montenegro, August 9, 1914; and on Bel- gium, August 28, 1914. See Francis Joseph; Magyarimtion; Slavs. 24 WAR CYCLOPEDIA. Austria-Hungary, President Recommends War. In his annual message, December 4, 1917, President Wilson said : " One very embarrassing obstacle that stands in our way is that we are at war with Germany, but not with her allies. I therefore very earnestly recommend that the Congress immedi- ately declare the United States in a state of war with Austria- Hungary. Does it seem strange to you that this should be the conclusion of the argument I have just addressed to you? It is not. It is in fact the inevilable logic of what I have said. Austria-Hungary is for the time being not her own mistress, but simply the vassal of the German Government. We must face the facts as they are and act upon them without sentiment in this stern business. The Government of Austria-Hungary is not acting upon its own initiative or in response to the wishes and feelings of its own peoples, but as the instrument of another nation. We must meet its force with our own and regard the Central Powers as but one. The war can be successfully con- ducted in no other way. The same logic would lead also to a declaration of war against Turkey and Bulgaria. They also are the tools of Germany. But they are mere tools and do not yet stand in the direct path of our necessary action. We shall go wherever the necessities of this war carry us, but it seems to me that we should go only where immediate and practical consider- ations lead us and not heed any others." ( See War, Declaration against Austria-Hungary.) Austrian Ultimatum to Serbia. See Serbia, Austrian Ulti- matum. Austria and Serbia, 1913. It was suspected by many that the Austrian note of 1914 was the result of a long-contemplated policy of aggression in the Balkan peninsula. Bosnia and Herzegovina had been annexed in 1908 and now Serbia was to follow. This suspicion was changed to certainty by the disclosure with which Signer Giolitti, formerly prime minister of Italy, startled the Chamber of Deputies in December, 1914. As early as August 9, 1913, Austria communicated to Germany and Italy her intention of acting against Serbia, and asked for the cooperation of her partners in the Triple Alliance. Italy replied that as the alliance was purely defensive and the action contemplated was plainly aggressive, she could not give the policy her support. She further expressed the hope that Germany would dissuade Austria from so dangerous a venture. See Seriia, Austrian Ultimatum; Triple Alliance. Autocracy. Autocracy is a government by a supreme ruler accountable to no earthly power. It is of the' essence of this form of government that the lives, liberties, and, indeed, all interests of " common " men should be at the virtual disposal of another will without opportunity of effective appeal. The mon- arch enjoys a monopoly of rights — he is above the law. On the other hand, the people enjoy but a single right — the right to obey. Accordingly, from the democratic standpoint, there is little difference between autocracy and usurpation — usurpation of the rights inherent in human nature. Speaking at Konigs- WAK CYCLOPEDIA. 25 berg In 1910, William II said: "Looking upon myself as tlie instrument of the Lord, regardless of the views and the opinions of the hour, I go on my way." At another time he used the following words : " There is but one master in this country ; 'it is I, and I will tolerate no other." He has also been very fond of quoting the old Roman adage, making it read : " The will of the king is the highest law." See Kaiserism; William II. Autonomy. Self-government for local matters, attended by subordination in foreign relations. The idea, which is well illustrated by the position of Australia and Canada, the great self-governing Commonwealths of the British Empire, may prove to be useful in finally defining the position of such countries as Poland, in relation to Russia, and of Bohemia, in relation to Austria-Hungary. Aviation. A vast new arm of military service which has undergone a most remarkable development during the present war. The combined British and French air squadrons, it was recently stated, have been increased since the war began from 1,700 to more than 20,000 machines, with a personnel of 200,000 men. England did not possess more than 200 qualified aviators at the outbreak of hostilities. Aircraft in use include airplanes, the German Zeppelins, other dirigibles, and the observation kite balloons. The Allies at the beginning were surprised to see sausage-shaped bags anchored behind the German lines at alti- tudes reaching up to 5,000 feet. These were in position to report upon troop movements of the enemy and to guide the artillery. But the main line of development has been in the manufacture and use of airplanes. These are monoplanes, biplanes, and triplanes. They are of various types, sizes, and makes, designed for all kinds of uses. Principally they are for reconnoissance, for direction of artillery fire, for scouting and chasing, and for bombardment. The reconnoissance machines often carry cameras, and from them detailed photographs of ground to be attacked are made and returned to headquarters. They afterwards direct the fire of the guns. The scout plane precedes and feels the way for other planes. The chaser is to pursue the enemy and to protect aerial movements. The planes for bombardment of enemy positions or troop masses carry bombs. All war planes are armed, the principal reliance being upon machine guns, with which to wound and precipitate enemy machines to the earth. Airplanes carry from 1 to 12 men, and will doubtless soon exceed this. Some of the chasers are built to fly at the rate of 150 miles an hour. One has recently risen to a height of 15,000 feet in seven and one-half minutes. In any recent battle on the west front, as at Messines Ridge, there have been first, near the earth, a squadron of fighting planes, armed with guns for attacking troops in the trenches, transports, etc. ; at a height of 3,000 to 5,000 feet a division of machines for dropping bombs into the enemy lines ; and above, at a height of 15,000 or 20,000 feet, fast one-man machines for en- gaging planes sent out by the enemy to attack the bombers from overhead. The aircraft organization of an army is not improp- 26 WAR CYCLOPEDIA. erly called its "winged cavalry." Without airplanes artillery under present systems of warfare is practically helpless. See Liberty motor. B, Backward Nations. The term applied to nations requiring foreign capital for their economic development, but unable to guarantee full protection to such capital when it is invested within their limits, with the result that they become the prey of creditor States. Instances of such " backward nations " are Morocco and Turkey. The modern tendency in the case of these nations is to open them to the capital of all nations on an equal footing and to make such tutelage as may be necessary international, rather than that of single nations. The first of these two policies is indicated by the so-called " open-door policy " of the United States by which it was laid down that trade opportunity should be open to the capital of all nations without discrimination. The second policy was attempted by the conference of Algeciras, in 1906, but owing to lack of sup- port at the time proved a failure. See Morocco; Turkey. Bagdad. Bagdad controls much of the trade of Mesopotamia and Arabia, and is the strategic center for the region between Constantinople and the Persian Gulf. It is the terminus of a railroad from Constantinople projected before the war and hur- ried to completion since 1914. It was the objective of the Rus- sian and British campaign of 1915-16 which was temporarily abandoned after the fall of Kut-el-Amara in April, 1916. In January, 1917, the British began a new advance up the Tigris. On March 11 Gen. Maude entered Bagdad. The continuation of the advance from the city caused a Turkish retreat into Mesopotamia, whither they were pursued by the Russians from Persia. A junction of the British and Russian forces on April 4 was followed by a British drive up the Bagdad Railway to Samara, and the British occupation of the Euphrates Valley. Operations in this theater were retarded by the Bussiadi revolu- tion. See Constantinople ; Kut-el-Amara ; Mesopotamia. Bagdad Railway. See " Berlin to Bagdad " ; Turkey. Balance of Power. The theory that no State or group of States must be allowed to become so strong as to menace the liberties of other States. In accordance with this principle, which is expressive of the mutual rivalries and fears of dynasties, the States of Europe were wont, especially in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, to range themselves in two opposing alliances, one headed by Austria, the other by France. At its best, as in the wars against Louis XIV, the principle safeguarded the independence of the smaller St.ites, but in the days of its deterioration it sometimes, as in the case of the partition of Poland, led to their destruction. Certainly, to-day its use- fulness is outgrown. A diplomacy which accepted the demo- cratic principle that governments rest upon the consent of the governed would leave no room for dynastic and imperialistic rivalries, but would appeal to the belief that the underlying WAR CYCLOPEDIA. 27 interests of the great mass of men are friendly and cooperative. Such a diplomacy, the feasibility of which is proved by the his- toric policy of the United States tovi'ard the other nations of the Western Hemisphere, could unite the world in what the Presi- dent has called " a community of power " to defend the general peace and promote the common civilization. See Aims of United States; America, Creed of; Monroe Doctrine; Parir Americanism ; Permanent Peace, American Flan; War Alms of the United States. Balfour, Arthur James (1848— ). British statesman, at present Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs. He entered Par- liament in 1874, held several cabinet positions, and became head of the Conservative party and Premier in July, 1902. He re- signed in December, 1905, just before a crushing defeat of his party at the hands of the Liberals in the elections of January, 1906. His leadership of the party in opposition was disliked, and he later resigned this leadership to Mr. Bonar Law. When the coalition cabinet was formed in May, 1915, Mr. Balfour became head of the admiralty, and in December, 1916, relin- quished this for the post of Secretary of State for Foreign Af- fairs, succeeding Viscount Grey of Fallodon. In this capacity he headed the British mission to the United States in the spring of 1917. See Missions to the United States. Balkan Problem. This is the genetal title around which are collected a number of special problems arising In or having refer- ence to the Balkan States. These are: (1) problems of nation- ality, such as the Bulgarian claim to Macedonia and the Rou- manian claim to Transylvania; (2) economic problems such as Serbia's desire for an outlet to the sea and the Austrian desire to dominate the Vardar valley and the road to Saloniki ; (3) the European problem of the changes in the balance of power as affected by the shifts in the Balkans and the attendant strength- ening of the influence of Russia on one hand or of the Central Powers on the other. See "Mittel-Europa" ; Pan-Germanism; Pan-Slavism. Balkan Wars. Fought in 1912-13. By showing the strength of Bulgaria and the other Balkan States, they aroused the fears of Austria and the cupidity of Germany; The first, involving Turkey on one side and Greece, Bulgaria, Serbia, and Montenegro on the other, grew out of Turkish misrule in Macedonia, a territory inhabited by Greeks, Bulgars, and Serbs. In six weeks the Turks were driven back to within 25 miles of Constantinople ; an armistice was promptly concluded, and a treaty of peace was signed in London on May 30, 1913. By that instrument, which was concluded under pressure of the powers, Turkey lost most of her European possessions. Un- fortunately the victors quarreled among themselves. On June 29, 1913, Bulgaria treacherously attacked her Serbian and Greek allies in the hope of securing possession of Macedonia. She was not successful, and when Eoumania attacked her in the rear, she was forced to sign the treaty of Bucharest, Au- gust 10, which awarded her only a small strip along the Aegean 28 WAR CYCLOPEDIA. and forced her to cede territory to Roumania. Hence she has joined the Central Powers in order to recover the lands lost to Greece, Serbia, and Roumania. The HohenzoUern affiliations of several of the Balkan rulers helped to make their lands pawns in Germany's game. The Balkan wars disrupted the Balkan league, which might have been strong enough to pre- vent European intervention in the Balkans. See Pan-German- ism; Pan-Slavism; Serbia. " Baralong " Affair. The British cruiser Baralong is alleged to have sunk a German submarine while the latter was in the act of sinking the British cargo steamer Nicosian, on August 19, 1915, and to have shot the commander and crew after they had offered to surrender and were struggling in the water. Affidavits to prove this allegation were presented to the British Government by the German Government through the United States as intermediary, and the demand made that the British Government proceed against the captain and crew of the Baralong for murder. The British Government in an- swer proposed that the affair be investigated by an impartial tribunal of American naval officers, along with three other in- cidents, in one of which a German destroyer was alleged on the day of the Baralong affair to have fired upon a British submarine stranded on the Danish coast, and upon its crew when they attempted to swim ashore. The German Govern- ment declined the proposal. See "Belgian Prince"; " Spurlos Versenkt " Applied. Barbed-wire Entanglements. These are but one of many ancient or mediseval principles revived for use in the present war, as e. g., the steel helmet, the hand grenade, the trench peri- scope of lineage as early as the sixteenth century, the trench itself, the mine and countermine, the flooded spaces which sug- gest the ancient moat, and the concealed pits with spikes at the bottom for men to fall into. The barbed-wire entanglement is merely the abatis revived. That was made of trees with their boughs cut off and sharpened. The entanglement is of wire with protruding points, run back and forth over ground to be defended. The wire is sometimes electrified. Barrage. A new word in the military vocabulary — specifi- cally, the act of barring by artillery flre. By exact measure- ments a line of guns is brought to bear upon a certain terrain. The fire creates a complete screen of projectiles. Behind it a body of troops is safe; through It no enemy can advance. By moving the barrage line forward ("creeping" barrage) a de- tachment can advance with a minimum of casualties. It is con- trolled by observers at the front who find ranges and direct artil- lery flre by telephone or wireless, and it demolishes, in front of the attacking force, wire entanglements, trenches, and "pill- boxes." Base Hospitals. Base hospitals receive the wounded from the front, treat their wounds, and then pass them on to perma- nent hospitals in the rear. Shortly after the beginning of the war in Europe the American Red Cross proceeded to organize WAR CYCLOPEDIA. 29 base hospital units in connection with medical centers. Each of these base hospitals has a staff of 22 physicians, 2 dentists, 65 Red Cross nurses, and 150 enlisted men of the Army Medical Corps. Before war was declared 26 of these units had been formed, while the total number of units ready for service is now much larger. Each unit purchased equipment for 500 beds and stored It away for use in war time. It costs on an average $75,000 to equip a base hospital with beds, blankets, sterilizers, operating tables, tents, dental outfits, automobiles, and kitchens. Base of Naval Operations. Article V of the Thirteenth Hague Convention (concerning the rights and duties of nevitral powers in naval war) reads: "Belligerents are forbidden to use neutral ports and waters as a base of naval operations against their adversaries, and in particular to erect wireless telegraphy stations or any apparatus for the purpose of communicating with the belligerent forces on land or sea." Germany has frequently violated the provisions of this article. Officials of the Ham- burg-American Line, Including the managing director. Dr. Buenz, former German consul and once minister to Mexico, undertook, under the direction of Capt. Boy-Ed, naval at- tach6 of the German Embassy, to coal and provision German raiders at sea. On the morning of July 31, 1914, the day before Germany declared war on Russia and two days before she invaded France, Buenz received a telegram asking whether he was ready, and answered, " Yes." Accordingly the Thor sailed from New York August 3, the Bencind and the Lorenzo two days later, and the next day the Fram and the Somerstad. ." What did you consider your obligation to the United States? " Dr. Buenz was asked. " I didn't give it much thought," he re- plied. Ships sailed from other ports, including Norfolk and New Orleans ; and the same autumn, under the direction of Capt. Boy-Ed and the German consulate at San Francisco, the Sacra- mento and Mazatlan carried supplies to German war vessels in the Pacific. Dr. Buenz was convicted and sent to tlie peijiten- tiary. It was proved that false manifests and clearance papers were sworn to and that over $2,000,000 had been spent. It was proved also that Buenz was acting under an agreement reached in the autumn of 1913 between his line and the German Gov- ernment. In time of peace Germany had prepared to violate our neutrality in the event of war. See Wireless Stations. Battalion. An organization of two, or more, generally four companies in the Infantry, Engineers, and Signal Corps, and of two or more batteries In the Field Artillery. Two or more Coast Artillery companies are usually organized into provi- sional battalions for other than Coast Artillery formations. The total strength of a complete Infantry battalion in t^e United States service is 26 officers and 1,000 men; of a ma- chine-gun battalion of 3 companies 20 officers and 550 men, and of 4 companies 26 officers and 728 men; of a battalion of light artillery 17 officers and 579 men; of heavy field artillery 12 officers and 456 men; of a field signal battalion 14 officers and 248 men ; and of an Engineer battalion 20 officers and 753 30 WAS CrCIiOPEDIA, men. A trench mortar battalion has 17 officers and 747 men. In the present war the Importance of the battalion has been greatly increased. See Company; Regiment. Battery. The smallest administrative and tactical unit in the Field Artillery. A 3-inch gun battery (light artillery) has 5 officers and 193 men; a heavy field artillery (6-inch) has 5 officers and 228 men. The term "battery" includes both the personnel and matgriel. It is also used to designate a Coast Artillery emplacement, the guns mounted therein, and the ma- teriel and supplies necessary for their service. Two batteries of heavy Field Artillery and three batteries of light usually make up a battalion, under command of a major. See Artil- lery; Battalion; Regiment. Battle Cruiser. A new type of war vessel provided for in recent naval construction programs. It combines the power of the battleship of the dreadnaught class with much of the speed and handiness in action of the cruiser. See Dreadnaught; Cruiser. "Battle Line of Democracy." President Wilson writes: " No one who is not blind can fail to see that the battle line of democracy for America stretches to-day from the fields of Flan- ders to every house and workshop where toiling, upward-striving men and women are counting the treasures of right and justice and liberty, which are being threatened by our present enemies. It has not been a matter of surprise to me that the leaders in certain groups have sought to ignore our grievances against the men who have equally misled the German people. Their in- sistence that a nation whose rights have been grossly violated, whose citizens have been foully murdered under their own flag, whose neighbors have been invited to join in making conquest of its territory, whose patience In pressing the claims of justice and humanity has been met with the most shameful policy of truculence and treachery, their insistence that a nation so out- raged does not know its own mind, that it has not comprehensible reason for defending itself, or for joining with all its might in maintaining a free future for itself and its ideals, is of a piece with their deafness to the oft-repeated statement of our national purposes." (Letter to American Alliance of Labor and Democ- racy, September, 1917.) Battle liine of Democracy. Title of a collection of prose and poetry of the great war, selected especially for home and school use and public recitation. Published at 15 cents a copy by the Committee on Public Information, Washington, D. C. Battleship. A large war vessel capable of steaming on the high' seas, completely protected by heavy armor, i, e., steel plates secured to its side and over important parts as a guard against gunfire, and carrying a heavy armament of guns. The first American battleship in the new Navy was the Indiana, commissioned in 1895. See Dreadnaught; Battle Cruiser; Navy, " New." Beatty, Admiral Sir David (1871- ). Commander of the Grand Fleet of the British Navy, in succession to Sir John WAR CYCLOPEDIA. 31 R. Jelllcoe. He was present at and played a gallant part in the battle of Jutland in 1916, as commander of the First Battle Cruiser Squadron. In 1901 he married a daughter of Marshall Field, of Chicago. Beef. Receipts of cattle at the seven leading markets in- creased 2.4 per cent for the first seven months of 1917 over a corresponding period in 1916, vyhich vpas a record year to that date. The domestic and foreign demand for beef has increased more rapidly than the available supply, and importations, mostly from Canada and Argentina, have steadily decreased since 1914. Exports of beef in all meat forms during 1916-17 amounted to 303,451,493 pounds, worth $49,971,660. This was an in- crease in the exports of canned beef over figures for 1916, but the exports of fresh, piclded, and other cured beef were forced to decline. Increased demand and other factors have caused a steady rise in prices. At wholesale, fresh beef has risen from $0,135 per pound in 1914 to $0.21 in November, 1917. Retail prices have increased from $0.27 per pound for sirloin in 1914 to about $0.35 in November, 1917. An equitable distribution of our beef supply so that we may win the war demands Increased exportation to our associates and a decrease in our enormous per capita domestic consumption, particularly of veal. See FooA Economy Campaigns ; Meat Supply. " Belgian Prince." A British cargo steamer, attacked by a German submarine in the vicinity of the Irish coast on July 31, 1917, while on a voyage from Liverpool to Philadelphia. Accord- ing to the affidavit of William Snell, an American cook, the crew were ordered from their lifeboats to the deck of the submarine and compelled to' lay aside their life preservers ; then, after run- ning along on the surface for about 15 miles, the vessel sub- merged, drowning 48 men. Snell himself had concealed his life preserver under his mackintosh, and in this way was able to remain afloat till picked up by a British patrol boat. Two British sailors have made afiidavits in confirmation of Snell's story. These three are the only known survivors from the steamer. See "Baralong"; " Spurlos Tersenkt." Belgium. Belgium is a neutralized constitutional monarchy, hereditary in the house of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, having its capital at Brussels,«and containing an area of 11,371 square miles, and a population in 1912 of 7,571,387. The present ruler is King Albert I. He succeeded his uncle, Leopold II, taking the oath of office on December 23, 1909. The reigning queen is Eliza- beth, a princess of Bavaria. Belgium stood in the way of a German invasion of France from the northeast, and the Ger- mans in 1914 made good the boast of Otto R. Tannenberg in 1911 that, " The Germans know the road from Belle Alliance [Waterloo] to Paris quite as well as that from Metz and Strass- burg." See Albert I. Belgium, Commission for Belief in. An organization hur- riedly built up at the outbreak of the war, under the direction of Mr. Herbert C. Hoover, for the purpose of relieving suffering and destitution in the invaded districts of Belgium and northern 32 WAR CYCLOPEDIA. France. It was financed by British, Belgian, and French sub- sidies, and by private contributions, many of which came from the United States. Since June 1, 1917, the United States has advanced $12,500,000 a month to carry it on. Belgium, Deportations. Almost immediately upon the in- vasion of Belgium the German army authorities, in pursuance of their system of terrorization, shipped to Germany consid- erable groups of the population. On October 12, 1915, a gen- eral order was issued by the German military government in Belgium providing that persons who should " refuse work suitable to their occupation and in the execution- of which the military administration is interested" should be subject to one year's imprisonment or to deportation to Germany. Numer- ous sentences, both of men and women, were imposed under this order. The wholesale deportation of Belgian workmen to Germany, however, which was begun October 3, 1916, proceeded • on different grounds ; for, having first stripped large sections of the country of machinery and raw material, the military authorities now came forward with the plea that it was neces- sary to send labor in pursuit of its indispensable adjuncts. The deportation movement began at Ghent and Bruges and spread rapidly. It is still being carried on (October, 1917). The number of workmen deported to date is variously esti- mated at beween one and three hundred thousand. " The rage, the terror, and despair excited by this measure all over Bel- gium," Brand Whitlock reported to the Secretary of State, in January, 1917, " were beyond anything we had witnessed since the day the Germans poured into Brussels. ... I am con- stantly in receipt of reports from all over Belgium that tend to bear out the stories ... of brutality and cruelty. ... In tearing away from nearly every humble home in the land a hus- band and a father or a son and brother, they [the Germans] have lighted a fire of hatred that will never go out. ... [It is] one of those deeds that make one despair of the future of the human race, a deed coldly planned, studiously matured, and de- liberately and systematically executed, a deed so cruel that Ger- man soldiers are said to have wept in its execution and so mon- strous that even German officers are now said to be ashamed." Poland and the occupied parts of France have experienced simi- lar treatment. See Belgium, Economic Destruction; Family Rights and Honor. Belgium, Estates Destroyed. The Belgian Government has recently issued a map showing the location of 43,000 estates in Belgium destroyed by German orders. Some of these have been burned as a result of bombardments and at least 20,000 on the ground of reprisals for alleged acts of hostility on the part of the civil population. (See New York Times, Oct. 22, 1917.) Belgium, Economic Destruction. The Hague Regulations, Article XLVI, say "Private property can not be confiscated." This regulation has been violated by the Germans in Belgium in conformity with the Rathenau plan, devised at the very outset of the war. Dr. Walter Rathenau, president of a great German WAK CYCLOPEDIA. 33 electric company, proposed, in August, 1914, a compreliensive program for tlie mobilization and organization of tlie economic resources of tlie German Empire. Special stress was laid upon the necessity of obtaining raw materials, partly by purchase in neutral countries and partly by the seizure of all stores In the conquered lands. A. new bureau, with 36 subdivisions, was created to carry out this plan, under the direction of the Min- istry of War. As soon as Belgium was occupied this bureau began its work. By 66 separate decrees In less than two years the Germans have seized thousands of machines, countless ma- chine tools, lathes, oils and fats, chemical and mineral products, wool, linen, jute, cotton, thread of all kinds, rubber, automobiles, locomotives, motors, horses and other animals, hides, and many other products, completely stripping Belgium. The ultimate pur- pose of these seizures Is disclosed in a speech of Herr Beumer in the Prussian Diet last February : "Anybody who knows the present state of things in Belgian industry will agree with me that it must take at least some years — assuming that Belgium is independent at all — before Belgium can even think of com- peting with us in the world market. And anybody who has traveled, as I have done, through the occupied districts of France will agree with me that so much damage has been done to indus- trial property that no one need be a prophet in order to say that it will take more than 10 years before we need think of France as a competitor or of the reestablishment of French industry." See Contrihutions ; Requisitions; German War Practices. Belgium, Neutralization of. Belgium is so situated that its owner, if a powerful State, might endanger the safety of Eng- land, France, or Germany, and dominate the Rhine and the English Channel. Largely because of this a special treaty, signed April 19, 1839, by Austria, France, Great Britain, Prussia, and Russia, as well as Belgium, guaranteed that Belgium should " form an independent and perpetually neutral State. It shall be bound to observe such neutrality toward all other States." On August 9, 1870, Prussia reaffirmed its " fixed determination to respect the neutrality of Belgium so long as the same shall be respected by France," and agreed with Great Britain " for the [joint] defense of the same" in case it should be violated by France. Despite these guaranties Germany made military plans to attack France by way of Belgium, and after 1906 began to construct strategic railways to the Belgian frontier, and the fears of the Belgians as well as of the French were aroused. But the German Chancellor, when questioned in the Reichstag, reiterated Germany's determination to abide by her solemn promise, and positive assurances were given the Belgian Gov- ernment, as late as 1913, that Germany would respect the neutrality she had guaranteed. See Neutralized States. Belgium, Violation of. Notwithstanding her agreement to respect Belgian neutrality, Germany on August 2, 1914, de- manded of the Belgian Government a free passage through to France. That this was a violation of law and right we have on high authority — the German Chancellor. In his speech to the 15963°— 18 3 34 WAR CYCLOPEDIA. Reichstag on August 4, 1914, he said : " We are now in a state of necessity (Notwehr) and necessity {Not) knows no law. Our troops have occupied Luxemburg and perhaps have already entered Belgian territory. Gentlemen, that is a breach of inter- national law. It is true that the F^rench Government declared at Brussels that France would respect Belgian neutrality as long as her adversary respected it. We knew, however, that France stood ready for an invasion. France could wait ; we could not. A French attack on our flank on the lower Rhine might have been disastrous. Thus we were forced to ignore the rightful protests of the Governments of Luxemburg and Belgium. The wrong — I speak openly — the wrong we thereby commit we will try to make good as soon as our military aims have been at- tained. He who is menaced as we are and is fighting for his highest possession can only consider how he Is to hack his way through (durchhaucn) ." Nothing more need be said. See " Kreigs-Raison" ; " Notwendigkeit" ; War, German Rutliless- ness. Belgium's Woe. "And there where lives were not taken, and there where the stones of buildings were not thrown down, what anguish unrevealed ! Families hitherto living at ease, now in bitter want ; all commerce at an end, all careers ruined ; indus- try at a standstill ; thousands upon thousands of workingmen without employment ; working women, shop girls, humble ser- vant girls without the means of earning their bread ; and poor souls forlorn on the bed of sickness and fever crying, ' O Lord, how long, how long? ' . . . God will save Belgium, my brethren; you can not doubt it. Nay, rather, He is saving her. . . . Which of us would have the heart to cancel this last page of our na- tional history? Which of us does not exult in the brightness of the glory of this shattered nation? When in her throes she brings forth heroes, our mother country gives her own energy to the blood of those sons of hers. Let us acknowledge that we needed a lesson in patriotism. . . . For down within us all is something deeper than personal interests, than personal kin- ships, than party feeling, and this is the need and the will to devote ourselves to that more general interest which Rome termed the public thing. Res publica. And this profound will within us is patriotism." (Cardinal Mercier, pastoral letter, Christmas, 1914.) Belgrade. Belgrade, the capital of Serbia, commands the Danube River at the Austro-Serbian frontier. It was shelled by the Austrlans as early as July 29, 1914, withstanding, however, all attacks until December. December 1 the Serbians evacuated the city. The Austrlans entered on December 2, being forced to conduct the bombardment from across the Danube, and reduce the city to ruins. The rally of the Serbians on December 5 enabled them to reoccupy Belgrade, December 13, 1914. The final fall of Belgrade took place on October 9, 1915. Belligerent. A State or ii community which is party to 'a legally recognized war. For convenience, one party to a war Is often spoken of as " belligerent " and the other as " enemy." WAR CYCLOPEDIA. 35 The term " belligerent " Is also used synonymously with " com- batant." Benedict XV (Giacomo della Ohiesa) (1854- ) . Pope since the death of Plus X in 1914. He was formerly cardinal archbishop of Bologna. He early expressed his horror at the mutilation of the cathedral of Rheims, and later endeavored to lead the warring nations to peace. See Peace Overtures; Rheims. Berchtold, Count Leopold (1863— ). Austro-Hun- garian Minister of Foreign Affairs, 1912-1915. As the statesman who signed the Austrian ultimatum to Serbia, he was nominally responsible for the outbreak of the war. See Potsdam Confer- ence; SerHa, Austrian Ultimatum. " Berlin to Bagdad." The grandiose scheme of German poli- ticians, bankers, and merchants for the economic and political control of Central Europe and Western Asia. Soon after the Berlin Congress of 1878 the foundations of German military in- fluence in Turkey were begun by Gen. von der Goltz, who was invited to Constantinople by Abdul Hamid to re- organize the Turkish army. In 1889 and again In 1898 Wil- liam II visited Turkey, on the latter occasion declaring at the grave of Saladin: "The 300,000,000 Mohammedans that are scattered through the world may rest assured that the Ger- man Emperor will eternally be their friend." Shortly afterwards a German railway company secured from the Sultan very favor- able concessions and financial assistance for extending a railway from Haidar Pasha (on the Bosporus opposite Constantinople) to Bagdad. This railway would thus virtually connect Bagdad by way of Constantinople, Sofia, and Vienna with Berlin. The length of the Bagdad Railway was estimated at 1,740 miles. At the outbreak of war in 1914 the tunnel sections under the Taurus Mountains and the desert sections eastward from Aleppo to the railheads which had been pushed forward from Bagdad were still unfinished. The Germans had hoped to extend the railway to the Persian Gulf, but England's in- sistence on a share in the control of this extension, by which the Germans might threaten India, held up the German negotia- tions with Turkey. An agreement with Great Britain reached in 1914 was nullified by the outbreak of the war. See Conquest and Kultur; "Drang nach Osten" ; Goltsi, von der; Kiel Canal; " Mittel-Europa " ; Pan-Germanism; Turkey, Ger- man Influence in. " Berlin to Bagdad," German View. Dr. Rohrbach, in his Deutschland unter den Weltvolkcrn, characterized the develop- ment of Germany toward Constantinople as " the greatest politi- cal end which the present or the next generation can desire." The Alldeutsche Blatter, the organ of the Pan-Germans, said on December 8, 1895, that the German interests demanded as a minimum that Asiatic Turkey should be placed under a German suzerainty. The most advantageous way would be to connect Mesopotamia and Syria and place the whole of the Sultan's dominion under German protection (summarized by the author of The Pan-German Doctrine, 1904, p. 216). Consequently, as 36 WAR CYCLOPEDIA. remarked Prof. Spiethoff, of the German University at Prague (as quoted in the Round Table, March, 1917), "the establish- ment of a sphere of economic influence from the North Sea to the Persian Gulf has been for nearly two decades the silent, unspoken aim of German foreign policy. Our diplomacy in recent years . . . only becomes intelligible when regarded as part of a consistent Eastern design. ... A secure future for Germany is to be reached along this line and no other." See Conquest and Kultur. " Berlin to Bagdad," Political Purpose. The Germans before the war, were fain to represent the Bagdad railway, which was the spinal cord of their Berlin-Bagdad vision, as pri- marily an economic enterprise for the regeneration of Asia Minor and Mesopotamia. But such was not the view held in Germany, " The Bagdad line," said the Alldeutsohe Blatter on December 17, 1899, " can become of vast political importance " to Germany. How vast was shown by Karl Radek in the Neue Zeit for June 2, 1911: "The Bagdad railway being a blow at the interests of English imperialism, Turkey could entrust Its construction only to the German company, because she knew that Germany's army and navy stood behind her, which fact makes it appear to England and Russia inadvisable to exert too sensitive a pressure upon Turkey." Prof. R. Mangelsdorf saw even greater possibilities : " To some extent, indeed, Tur- key's construction of a railway system Is a threat to England, for it means that an attack on the most vulnerable part of the body of England's world empire, namely Egypt, comes well within the bounds of possibility " {Akademisehe Blatter, June 1, 1911). And, said Dr. Paul Rohrbach, summing up the gains to Turkey of collaboration with Germany, " Egypt is a prize which for Turkey would be well worth the risk of taking sides with Germany in a war with England." (Die Bagdadbahn, 1911, p. 19.) See "Drang nach Oaten " ; Pan-Germarism, etc. Bernhardt, Friedrich von (1849— ). German general who achieved political prominence through his volume Germany and the Next ll'ar (1911). In this he sets forth with frank cynicism the advantages, the necessity, and the inevitability of a war between Germany and England. Very briefly sum- marized, his argument is as follows : Germany can acquire that " place in the sun " which is her due only by a war of aggression, because the powers of the Triple Entente — Russia, France, and England — each and all endowed with vast colonial possessions which they can not adequately use, have been surrounding Ger- many with a ring of iron. When this war comes it must be waged ruthlessly and " frightfully," with the object of destroy- ing the balance of power in Europe and without regard to treaties or vested rights. The neutrality of Belgium need not be observed. " In one way or another we must square our ac- count with France if we wish for a free hand in our interna- tional policy." Fqr Germany the question is either "world power or downfall." War, moreover, is a biological necessity in the life of nations and by war is secured the survival of the WAR CYCLOPEDIA. 37 fittest — a kind of political neo-Darwinism which has been much' in vogue in Germany in recent years. The war has shown that Bernhardi's Ideas had taken a much stronger hold on the Ger- man mentality than had been usually supposed. While his book was too expensive to be widely read by common people, it had, nevertheless, gone through eight editions before the war. It exercised great influence on the upper and middle classes. " Do you know, my friends nearly ran me out of the country for that. They said, ' You have let the cat out of the bag.' " (Bernhardi to A. C. Walcott, in German War Practices, p. 13.) See " Kriegs- Raison".; Militarism; Nietzsche; Prussianisin ; Treitschke; War, German View; " World Power or Dotonfall." Bernstorff, Count J. H. von (1862— ). German am- bassador to the United States, 1908-1917. He was absent from his post at the outbreak of the war, but returned at once not merely to perform his official duties but to direct the vast German propa- ganda. His activity in this latter connection was long suspected by public opinion, but little definite was known until the publica- tion by the Committee on Public Information of an analysis of the von Igel papers. The State Department announced in Sep- tember, 1917, that it possessed ample evidence to prove Count von BernstorfC's previous knowledge of the Zimmermann note. On January 22 he asked the German Foreign Office for $50,000 with which to try to influence Congress; and he was under instruction to stimulate strikes and sabotage in American fac- tories. He was handed his passports on February 3, 1917. Since his return to Germany he has been appointed ambassador to Turkey in succession to Dr. von Ktihlmann, who became Foreign Minister. See Dumha; Igel, von. Papers of; Intrigue; Sabotage; Zimmermann Note. Bernstorff, Intrigues of, against Canadian Pacific Rail- way. The German Government, through Secretary Zimmermann, cabled directions to Bernstorff for " energetic action in regard to the proposed destruction of the Canadian Pacific railway at several points." Capt. Boehm had been given detailed in- structions as to the method to pursue. The general staff named three men in the United States " suitable for carrying out sabotage," one of whom was the now notorious Jeremiah O'Leary, editor of Bull. By this revelation Bernstorff was proved to have been engaged in intrigues against American neu- trality, which he had specifically denied again and again. Bethmann Hollweg, Dr. Theobald von (1856- ). Former German Chancellor. The son of a famous Prussian Liberal politician, he passed through the grades of the Prussian bureaucracy to the Ministry of the Interior. In July, 1909, he succeeded Prince Bulow as Imperial Chancellor, and held office exactly eight years. Before the war Bethmann Hollweg posed as a Liberal, although his utterances revealed his unswerving devotion to the Prussian ideal. He seems to have desired an entente with Great Britain and had, apparently, achieved it in 1914, when, as he lamented, the war shattered his plans. As chancellor he must, of course, bear the responsibility for 38 WAR CYCLOPEDIA. the outbreak of the war; but there is reason to believe that has own better judgment was overborne by the military party. His confession that Germany's violation of Belgium was a " wrong," the reference to the Belgian treaty as " a scrap of paper," and the admission that Germany's pledges In the Sussex case to the United States had not been in good faith, provide an index to the caliber of the man. In German politics he tried to hold the balance between the Pan-Germans and the Socialists, refusing to commit himself to any definite peace program, but his majority was destroyed in July, 1917, when the Center, or Catholic, party suddenly allied itself with the Socialists in favor of a peace without annexations or indemnities. But although Bethmann resigned nominally because he had lost the confidence of the Reichstag, it may be assumed, in light of the past, that he had forfeited the confidence of the Emperor and the military party. See Belgium, Violation of;. " Scrap of Paper " ; " Sussex " Pledge. Bismarck Archipelago. A German colony, consisting of islands in the Pacific Ocean ; taken September, 1914, by an Australian force. Bissing, General Moritz F. Preiherr von (1844—1917). German military governor of Belgium, 1914-1916, and respon- sible, under the higher German authorities, for the scheme of reprisals and deportations that have horrified the world. To one of Mr. Hoover's aids he spoke of the time when the system of relief would break down : " Starvation will grip these people in 30 to 60 days. Starvation is a compelling force, and we would use that force to compel the Belgian working- men, many of them very skilled, to go into Germany to re- place the Germans, so that they could go to the front and fight against the English and the French; the weak remain- ing — the old and the young — we would concentrate opposite the firing line, and put firing squads back of them, and force them through that line so that the English and French could take care of their own people." Gen. von Bissing favored the reten- tion of Belgium by Germany, and sought to disrupt Belgian unity by dividing the Flemings and Walloons into separate administrative districts. He died early in 1917. See Assassina- tion; Belgium, Deportations; Cavell; Ghent University. Blacklist, American. On December 4, 1917, the War Trade Board made public a list (which is obtainable upon application to the board) of more than 1,600 German-controlled banks and industries in South America, Cuba, and Mexico which are ac- cused of aiding and fomenting uprisings and spreading propa- ganda and otherwise aiding the Central Powers. Henceforth all shipments from the United States to these concerns will be stopped entirely, and imports from them will be allowed to enter the United States only to liquidate American-held debts. In the list are included the great banks, manufactories, and public utilities of Argentina, representing the most powerful and dan- gerous combination of German capital in Latin America. See Blacklist, British; German Intrigue against American Peace; Trading with the Enemy Act. WAR CYCLOPEDIA. 39 Blacklist, British. By an act passed December 23, 1915, Parliament enabled the King to prohibit by proclamation all persons resident in tl^e United Kingdom from trading with any persons or firms outside the kingdom " wherever by reason of the enemy nationality or enemy association of such persons " or firms " it appears . . . expedient to do so." A little later the British Government published a list of American firms with which British firms, especially steamship companies, were for- bidden to do business. Our Government's protest against the breach of comity, rather than the illegality of this measure, was vigorous ( see Acting Secretary of State Polk's note of July 26, 1916), and it was followed by the passage by Congress of an act (approved Sept. 18) enabling the President to "refuse clear- ances to belligerent vessels observing it." The blacklist rests upon essentially the same principle as our own embargo upon trade with certain neutrals. This is the principle that a nation at war has the right to prevent its citizens from engaging in commercial activities which are of benefit to Its enemies. See Alien Property Custodian; Neutral Rationing; Trading with the Enemy Act. Black Sea Neutrality. The treaty of Paris, signed in 18.56 at the close of the Crimean War, forbade to all war vessels. In- cluding those of Russia and Turkey, the use of the Black Sea ; prohibited the maintenance of arsenals on its shores ; and de- clared its waters free to the ships of all nations. Russia was allowed to maintain armed vessels of light draft, merely in order to police her own shores. The primary object of the powers in tiius neutralizing the Black Sea was to protect the Turkish Empire from a naval attack by Russia. Russia naturally chafed under these restrictions, and in 1870 Alexander II repudiated that section of the treaty of Paris which prohibited a naval force in the Black Sea. March, 1871, a conference of the powers held in London consented to this action, but by a reaffirmation of the Sultan's right to close the Dardanelles and the Bosphorus to war vessels they greatly reduced the value of the fleet which Russia subsequently developed in the Black Sea. During the present war this fleet has proved of much assistance in the Rus- sian campaigns against Turkey. See Congress of Berlin; Coiv- stantinople. Blockade. A right, long recognized in international law, per- mitting a belligerent to station vessels before the ports of his enemy and intercept all trade ; but it must be effective to be bind- ing, and must constitute a real closing of the ports. The use of this right most familiar to American citizens is that which was made by the Union Government against the Southern Confeder- acy during the Civil War. The South depended in a large meas- ure for the sinews of war upon the shipment of cotton to England and the importation of supplies in exchange. If the South could have continued its European trade without Interruption, the Civil War would have been prolonged indefinitely, and perhaps the Union cause would have been lost. But by stationing Union war- .ships and cutters along the southern seacoast — that is, by block- 40 WAR CYCLOPEDIA. adlng all southern ports and stopping nearly all trade abroad, the Government at Washington was able to starve out the Confed- eracy. Great Britain admitted the right of our Government to do this, though it ruined her cotton industry and threw thou- sands of her citizens into poverty and bankruptcy. The blockade is not only a long recognized and universally accepted right, but it is one of the most painless and effective ways of bringing an enemy to terms. See Continuous Voyage, Doctrine of; Embargo, British. Board of Inventions. The Naval Consulting Board tendered its services to the Council of National Defense to act as a board of inventions or in any other capacity which might be of use to the Government during the war. This tender was accepted by reso- lution of the council February 15, 1917. See Council of National Defense. " Boche." The term commonly used by the French soldiers to designate the Germans. The origin of the term as used in this way is disputed. It was used before the war as the equivalent of German. It was so used by the Paris printers to designate their German assistants. It was probably used also in the Franco- Prussian War in 1870, for Zola, in his novel La Deb&cle, a story dealing with the war, puts the term in the mouths of French sol- diers to designate the Germans. The term ce boche was used, before the Franco-Prussian war at least, as equivalent to " that chump," and tSte de boche is given by French dictionaries of slang as equivalent to " wooden-pate " or " blockhead." It is perhaps for this reason that some French scholars derive the present use of boche from caboche, a French word meaning head. Bohemia. A division of Austria, with an area of 20,065 square miles and a population (1910) of 6,769,548, of whom the overwhelming majority is Czech. Bohemia was formerly an in- dependent kingdom, which passed to the Hapsburgs in 1526; but its independent political organization was suppressed in 1620 and has never been restored, despite a promise from the late Francis Joseph. Owing to their inability to secure conces- sions from the Vienna Government, the Czechs have shown out- spoken sympathy with the Allies, as evidenced by the desertion of Bohemian regiments, and they look to the Allies to secure for them, If not absolute independence, at least a measure of auton- omy. See Magyarigation ; Slav. Bolivia. Bolivia is a Republic of South America containing an area of 514,690 square miles and a population estimated in 1915 at 2,492,377. Its capital is La Paz. President Jos§ Gutigrrez began his term in 1917. Bolivia severed diplomatic relations with Germany on April 13, 1917. Bolsheviki. A Russian word meaning " belonging to the majority " ; originally the left or radical wing of the Russian Socialist Democratic Party. In 1905, at the time when the split in the party occurred, the radicals, led by Nikolai Lenine, were in the majority, or Bolshinstvo, and hence called themselves Maximalists or Bolsheviki, meaning the majority faction. The moderates, similarly, are called Minimalists or Mensheviki. The WAR CYCLOPEDIA. 41 Social Democratic Party is composed mainly of industrial workers. The otlier great Socialist party of Russia, the Social Revolutionary Party, is made up chiefly of peasants. In this party also a division occurred into a more and a less radical wing, and in the summer of 1917 the more radical faction, find- ing themselves in agreement with Lenine on all points except agrarian policy, adopted the name Bolsheviki, and began to work for the most part in alliance with their radical brethren of the Social Democratic Party against the moderates, or Minimalists, of both old parties. See Lenine, Nikolai; Russian Revolution. Bombardment. This matter is dealt with in The Hague Regulations as follows : "Art. XXV. The attack or bombardment, by whatever means, of towns, villages, dwellings, or buildings which are undefended is prohibited. "Akt. XXVI. The ofBcer in command of an attacking force must, before commencing a bombardment, except in cases of assault, do all in his power to warn the authorities. "Aet. XXVII. In sieges and bombardments all necessary steps must be taken to spare, as far as possible, buildings dedicated to religion, art, science, or charitable purposes, historic monu- ments, hospitals, and places where the sick and wounded are collected, provided they are not being used at the time for mili- tary purposes. It is the duty of the besieged to indicate the presence of such buildings or places by distinctive and visible signs, which shall be notified to the enemy beforehand." In addition, the ninth Convention forbids " the bombardment by naval forces of undefended ports, towns, villages, dwellings, or buildings." The second of the above provisions is condemned by the German War Book as " completely inconsistent with war," and all of them are inconsistent with war as waged by Ger- many. In December, 1914, German war vessels bombarded Scarborough and other English seaside resorts and killed several women and children, and since then German Zeppelins and airplanes have bombarded both towns and countryside pro- miscuously and without any pretense of preliminary warning. On the occasion of the air raid of June 13, 1917, on the densely populated and poorer sections of London, 97 people were killed and 437 were injured, of whom all were noncombatants anil 120 were young children. See Explosives from Aircraft; Scar- iorough. Bond Acts. Congress has passed two acts authorizing the borrowing of large sums of money for purposes connected with the war. (1) On April 24, 1917, the first bond act authorized the Secretary of the Treasury to borrow $5,000,000,000 on bonds bearing not more than 3J per cent interest, in addition to $2,000,000,000 on certificates of indebtedness at the same rate in order to cover immediate expenses of Government. Under this law the first Liberty Loan of 1917 was sold to the extent of $2,000,000,000. (2) On September 24, 1917, Congress passed the second bond act, authorizing bonds to the extent of $7,538,945,460 at not more than 4 per cent interest, in addition 42 WAR CYCLOPEDIA. to $2,000,000,000 In war savings certificates and $4,000,000,000 in short term notes. The second Liberty Loan of 1917 was issued under this act in October, 1917. It called for $3,000,- 000,000 as a minimum or $5,000,000,000 as a maximum ; and the returns indicate an oversubscription of the minimum by more than 50 per cent, the exact subscriptions being $4,617,532,300. Both of these acts authorized loans to other nations " engaged in war with the enemies of the United States." See Liberty Loans; Loans to Allies; War Savings Certificates. Bonds, United States. The United States Government issues bonds In two forms: (1) bearer bonds with interest coupons attached, commonly called coupon bonds; (2) bonds registered both as to principal and Interest. Liberty Loan bonds are issued in both bearer and coupon forms. (1) A bearer or coupon bond is payable to the bearer, the holder, the title passing by de- livery. The Treasury Department does not require proof of ownership when such bonds are presented for payment or exchange, the holder thereof being recognized. Such bonds may be bought and sold without formality and without indorse- ments of any kind. (2) A registered bond is payable only to its owner or his order, and can be transferred only by being properly indorsed and assigned by the owner. The bond has inscribed on the face of it the name of the owner or payee, and such fact is recorded on the books of the Treasury Depart- ment against the particu'lar bond indicated. The change in ownership of a registered bond is effected by the original payee indorsing and assigning the bond, using the form on the back thereof in accordance with the regulations of the Treasury Department. See " Pay as You Oo " War; War Finance, Loans, and Taxes. Boselli, Paolo. Premier of Italy from the fall of the Salan- dra ministry in June, 1916, until his resignation after the early Austro-German successes against Italy in late October, 1917. Bosnia-Herzegovina. The two southernmost provinces of Austria-Hungary, situated in the northwest part of the Balkan Peninsula. Originally part of the Turkish Empire, they were placed under Austrian administration by the Congress of Berlin, and in 1908 were definitely annexed by Austria, contrary to the agreement made at that Congress. Together they cover about 19,700 square miles with a population of 2,000,000. The great majority of the inhabitants are Slav and wish to join with the neighboring and racially allied kingdom of Serbia. This feeling has resulted in numerous attempts on the lives of Austrian officials, together with a more or less open state of insurrection on the part of the people, which Austrian oflicials have claimed was aided and abetted by Serbia. Finally, after the assassination of the Archduke Francis Ferdinand, at Serajevo, the Bosnian capital, Austria-Hungary addressed to Serbia the ultimatum which brought about the present war. See " Kingdom of the Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes." Bay-Ed, Capt. Karl. Late naval attache of the German embassy in Washington. He was dismissed by our Government on December 4, 1915, for " improper activity in naval matters." See I gel, von. Papers of; Intrigue. WAR CYCLOPEDIA. 43 Brazil. The United States of Brazil Is a federal republic with its capital at Rio de Janeiro. It has an area of 3,280,900 square miles and a population estimated in 1913 at 24,308,000. Its present President is Wencelas B. P. Gomez, who was in- augurated on November 15, 1914. There is a large measure of autonomy in the several States of Brazil, each having its elective governor and legislature: On October 26, 1917, Brazil declared war upon Germany, after having " revoked her neutrality " on April 10, 1917. " The Republic thus recognized the fact," the Brazilian ambassador wrote, " that one of the belligerents is a constituent part of the American continent, and that we are bound to that belligerent by traditional friendship and the same sentiment in the defense of the vital interests of America and the accepted principles of law." On December 5, the Brazilian Government published a decree authorizing the signing of an agreement with the French Government by which the latter is to take over 30 former German ships, held since the beginning of the European war in Brazilian waters. See Cuba; Ouatemala ; Panama. Briand, Aristide (1862— ). French statesman, who has several times been Prime Minister. He began his career as a Socialist, but when invested with power and responsibility took a more conservative direction. His most notable achievement was the application of the law separating church and state, in which he displayed both tact and firmness. In 1909 he suppressed a railway strike by calling the strikers to the colors, in spite of which he remains perhaps the leading member of the Socialist- Radical party. During the war M. Briand was Prime Minister from October 30, 1915, to March 17, 1917. Bribery, Treachery, and Crime. See Forbidden Metlwds of Warfare; Intrigue. Bi'igade. An Infantry brigade is a tactical organization com- manded by a brigadier general, and is made up of brigade head- quarters, two Infantry regiments, and a machine-gun battalion, with a total strength of 232 officers and 8,210 men, of which 17 officers and 202 men are noncombatants, i. e., the chaplain and the Medical Corps. A brigade of Field Artillery consists of brigade headquarters, two regiments of light artillery, one regi- ment of heavy artillery, and a trench mortar battery, with 72 guns, 12 trench mortars, and the necessary transportation, sup- plies, etc. It has a total strength of 185 officers and 4,781 men. A Cavalry brigade is composed of headquarters and three Cav- alry regiments, and has a strength of approximately 181 officers and 4,575 men. See Regiment; Division. British Empire. A vast aggregation of lands and peoples ex- tending all over the world. The total area is 12,755,844 square miles, the population ( estimated ) 439,959,000. Not over 60.000,000 of the population are white, and the bulk of these are found in the United Kingdom. The sovereign is King George V. The task of organizing, defending, and governing these enormous territories Is probably the most important political problem of the day, which is complicated by the autonomy of the self-governing 44 WAR CYCLOPEDIA. Dominions (Canada, Newfoundland, Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa) and the preponderance and wealth of the mother country. The Germans were obsessed with the Idea that the British Empire was decaying and its scattered elements would seize an early opportunity to revolt or secede. The German plan to destroy England as the one great obstacle to their domi- nating both sea and land has rallied- the scattered dominions to great voluntary exertions and sacrifices in behalf of England. The possession of numerous islands furnishes the British fleet with bases of operations everywhere which have proved of great value in the war. British Imperial Federation. A movement within the British Empire looking to the establishment of a closer union between the various members of the Empire and possibly later the establishment of joint sovereignty in certain fields of im- perial life. The basis of the movement is the " imperial con- ference," meeting every few years and attended by the premiers and some representatives from the self-governing colonies, to- gether with representatives from some Crown colonies and from the British Government. Together with this has been formed a " committee of imperial defense " to provide for im- perial necessities in this field. The functions of these two agencies are only advisory, and their acts are not necessarily binding on the British or colonial Governments, although in practice they are usually accepted. Many advocates of im- perial federation go yet further and advocate the establish- ment of a common executive and legislative, holding sov- ereignty In the fields of foreign policy, defense, and imperial trade and finance. The current opinion in the larger British colonies now seems to be running against this idea, many be- lieving that in the present war the free and flexible connection at present existing has demonstrated its ability to stand the heaviest of strains. Gen. Jan Smuts has recently given elo- quent expression to this idea. See Irish Convention. British Imperial War Conference. In March, 1917, the premiers of all the self-governing Dominions of the British Em- pire, except Australia, met in London with the British war cabinet to discuss the problems of- the Empire. In five resolu- tions the conference recommended: (1) an imperial conference should be held every year, consisting of the premiers of the United Kingdom and of the Dominions and of representatives of India ; (2) a special conference should be summoned for discuss- ing the constitutional arrangements of the Empire ; (3) the treat- ment of Indians in other parts of the Empire should be settled on the basis of reciprocity ; (4) the Admiralty should prepare an adequate scheme of naval defense and consider the produc- tion of the necessary supplies within the Empire; (5) special encouragement should be given to the development of the re- sources of the Empire. See British Empire; Imperial Federa- tion; Interallied Supreme War Council. British Navy. The British Navy has for more than a century been the largest and most powerful in the world, its size made WAR CYCLOPEDIA. 45 necessary by the island position of Britain, and the scattered dominions of the British Empire. Its modern development dates from the naval defense act of 1889, which adopted the principle that the British Navy must be as strong as the fleets of the next two naval powers together. Under the pressure of German competition, this standard had to be abandoned after 1909. Nevertheless, at the opening of the war, the British fleet comprised 46 battleships, built and building, of the dreadnaught class, 40 older battleships, 125 cruisers, 237 torpedo craft, and 99 submarines. Large additions have been made since 1914, and despite losses, the fleet remains the most powerful fighting force afloat. See Navy. Brusilov, Gen. Alexis A. Russian general, formerly com- mander in chief of the Russian armies. He was born in the Caucasus some 60 years ago. When the war broke out he was in command of one of the Russian armies in the invasion of Austria. After the removal of the Grand Duke Nicholas he was placed in command of the southwestern army, and was in charge of the Russian drive in the summer of 1916, which cost the Austrians 500,000 men. He accepted the revolution of 1917, and was soon after made commander in chief of all the Russian armies. He was in charge of the Russian drive of July, 1917, but when the Russian armies broke down he resigned because of the military disorganization. Brussels. Brussels is the capital of Belgium. It was evacu- ated by the Belgian Government August 19, 1914. German forces occupied the city on August 20, levying a war tax upon the in- habitants on August 21. It has become the center of German administration for Belgium. See Bissing, Gen. von. Bucharest. The capital of Roumania ; it was threatened by Mackensen's advance in the Dobrudja in November, 1916, and the advance of Falkenhayn from Transylvania. On December 6 the Germans took possession of the city. See Boumania, Ger- man Treachery in. Bucharest, Treaty of. See Balkan Wars. Bulgaria. A constitutional monarchy situated in the Balkans with its capital at Sofia. Its area has been altered by gains and losses in the recent Balkan wars, and is estimated for 1913 at 114,017 square kilometers (approximately 45,000 square miles), while its population at that time was 4,711,917. In 1908 Bulgaria repudiated certain restrictions imposed by the Congress of Berlin and became ag Independent monarchy. Prince Ferdi- nand assuming the title of Czar. Like Serbia, Bulgaria is an essential link in the Berlin to Bagdad enterprise. On October 14, 1914, Bulgaria declared war upon Serbia and thus became an ally of the Central Powers. See Ballcan Wars; Congress of Berlin; Ferdinand I. Billow, Prince Bernhard von ( 1849— ) . German statesman ; Chancellor of the Empire, 1900-1909 ; ambassador to Italy, 1914-15. Since his failure to keep Italy out of the war, he has lived in Switzerland and is intimately associated with the German peace propaganda issuing from that country. 46 WAK CYCLOPEDIA. His book Imperial Germany (1913) is an excellent presentation of the moderate Prussian point of view. Bundesrat. The laws that govern the German Empire are made by two bodies — the Bundesrat and the Reichstag. The Bundesrat is a kind of diplomatic assembly. It represents the rulers of the 25 States of which the Empire consists, being com- posed of delegates appointed by the rulers. The States of Ger- many are not represented equally in the Bundesrat. Of 61 members, Prussia has 17, and the 3 votes allotted to Alsace- Lorraine since 1911 are "instructed" by the Emperor. Thus Prussia has 20, Bavaria has 6, Saxony and Wiirttemberg 4 each, others 3 or 2, and 17 of the States have only 1 apiece. Inasmuch as each State delegation votes as a unit as the ruler orders, the Bundesrat is in reality an assembly of the sovereigns of Germany, responsible only to themselves. It is the most im- portant element of the legislature, as most legislation begins in it; and every bill passed by the Beichstag is, after that, sub- mitted to it for ratification or rejection. Thus the princes of Germany have an absolute veto upon the only popular element in the Government, the Reichstag. Representing the princes of Germany, the Bundesrat is a thoroughly monarchial institution, a bulwark of the monarchial order. The proceedings of this princely assembly are secret. See German Constitution; Land- tag; Reichstag. " Business as Usual." This slogan originated in England in the early days of the war. It sprang from a desire to lessen the hardships of the great business disturbance that followed the outbreak of hostilities. It soon appeared, however, that business could not be " as usual." The call to arms brought men from the workbench, the desk, the farm. Great muni- tion factories were established to manufacture equipment for the army and navy. Railways, mines, and other industries of military importance gradually passed under governmental con- trol. The new and serious matter of waging the war became the main business of the country. Germany has taught the world that a nation engaged in modern warfare must organize for war. The productive capacity of a nation is limited. In time of war this productive capacity must be largely directed to cer- tain definite ends, which are not those sought in the piping times of peace. Modern warfare is Impossible without severe reor- ganization of industry. We can not eat our cake and have it too. If we have " business as usual," we can not wage successful war. And if we wish to fight Germany with all our force we can not have " business as usual." The evidence that business can not be as usual is seen in the readjustments on every hand ; perhaps most notably in the stock and bond market, where the shrinkages in prices and in real values due to war conditions, taxation, etc., indicate a loss in excess of the value of the $2,000,000,000 (estimated) worth of the bonds of warring countries, Including Germany, held In this country. If business men and bankers had been unpatriotic enough to want business to go on as usual, at the cost of na- WAK CYCLOPEDIA. 47 tional honor, they would have preferred the sure profits of peace and the safety of their fortunes and families. The Ger- man Government, which had calculated the profits of war at the cost of human lives and untold suffering, while calling the Eng- lish " a nation of shopkeepers " and Americans " dollar-hunting Yankees," has found both nations abandoning wealth and for- tune to defend their ideals and the hopes of mankind. See Cost of War; Economy; Luxury in War Time; Profiteering; "Rich Man's War, Poor Man's Fight." " Business as Usual," Attitude of American Business. At Atlantic City, on September 23, 1917, the Convention of American Business Men resolved as follows : " It is the spirit of American business that however fundamental may be the change in the relation of Government to business, the Government should have the power during the period of the war to control prices and the distribution of production for public and private needs to whatever extent may be necessary for our great national purpose." See Council of National Defense; Profiteer- ing. Byng, Gen. Sir Julian (1862 ) . Commander of the British Third Army, which delivered the surprise attack toward Cambrai on November 20, 1917, and succeeding days. Gen. Byng is a younger son of the Earl of StrafEord. He served with distinction in the Sudan expedition in 1884 and in the South African War. He was at the Dardanelles and was made lieu- tenant general and placed in command of a corps just before the withdrawal. He commanded the Canadian corps at the Bat- tle of the Somme and in the capture of Vimey Ridge in the Battle of Arras. His early military experience was as a cavalry leader. See Cambrai. C. Cabinet, United States. On December 1, 1917, the Cabinet was as follows : Secretary of State, Robert Lansing ; Secretary of the Treasury, William Gibbs McAdoo ; Secretary of War, Newton Diehl Baker ; Attorney General, Thomas Watt Gregpry ; Secretary of the Navy, Josephus Daniels ; Secretary of the In- terior, Franklin Knight Lane ; Secretary of Agriculture, David Franklin Houston ; Secretary of Commerce, William Cox Red- field ; Secretary of Labor, William Bauchop Wilson. Cabinet System. A system of government which originated in England, the essential feature of which is the union of the supreme direction in both legislation and administration in a ministry taken from the legislature. Other features of the sys- tem as it existed before the war in Great Britain are the follow- ing: (1) the members of the cabinet, all of whom are ministers and usually heads of departments — though not all ministers are members of the cabinet — are members of the party which controls a majority in the House of Commons; (2) the solidarity of the cabinet is realized through the Prime Minister, who selects his colleagues and mediates between them and the monarch; (3) if the cabinet is outvoted in the House on an important measure, it 48 WAR CTCI.OPEDIA. must either resign at once or ask the King to dissolve Parliament and call a new election, a request which is always granted. The smooth working of the cabinet system in England is secured by the unquestioned right of Parliament to control the Crown, the equally unquestioned predominance of the House of Commons over the House of Lords, and the two-party system. In France a modified form of the system operates on a basis of equal re- sponsibility to both chambers. See Coalition Cabinet; War Cabinet. " Cadets." The Constitutional Democratic party of Russia; so called from the initial letters of the party name. See Lvov; Milyukov; Russian Revolution of 1911. Cadorna, Gen. Liuigi Count. Commander in chief of the Ital- ian armies until he was replaced in November, 1917, by Gen. Diaz. A native of the extreme northern part of Italy, the borderland of Lake Maggiore, between Lombardy and Piedmont, he is a son of the Gen. Count Cadorna who entered Rome with the Italian troops In 1870 and gave the city as a capital to Victor Emmanuel. Cambrai. A town of 21,791 Inhabitants (1906) in northern France, 37 miles south and a little east of Lille. Old fortifica- tions had been leveled before the outbreak of the present war, but the city possesses great military importance as the converging point of four railways and numerous highways. The Germans made it a great distributing center for the armies along the Hindenburg line and also along the Aisne. It was a link in the great chain of supply stations — Laon, St. Quentin, Cambrai, Douai, Lille — in front of which the Germans took their stand after the retreat from the Marne. It was the objective of the drive begun by Gen. Byng on November 20, 1917. By the use of several hundred " tanks " the wire entanglements and outposts along a front of 32 miles were demolished without artillery preparation and an advance of 5 or 6 miles scored, one of the greatest victories on the western front, bringing Cambrai and its railroads under fire of the British guns. Sub- sequent counter attacks by the Germans have reduced the Brit- ish gains by approximately a quarter. See Byng, Oen. ; " Hin- denburg Line." Camouflage. Tlie French word for a military art that has assumed new Importance in the present war as a result of the effort to conceal fortifications, ships, guns, trenches, etc., from the observation of hostile aircraft. It consists In painting ob- jects of war so that they may blend readily into the landscape and thus be lost to view or in concealing them by screens or false work, or even in " faking " fortifications or " Quaker " guns. A special contingent of camouflage is being organized by the AVar Department, and a private society of artists, the American Camouflage, has an oflice at 215 West Fifty-seventh Street, New York City. See Smoke Screen. Canada, Dominion of. A self-governing British colony occu- pying, with the exception of Alaska, the northern half of North America. Area, 3,729,665 square miles; population (1911), WA^ CYCLOPEDIA. 49 7,206,643. Its government is federal in form, closely modeled on that of Great Britain. Tlie executive is nominally a Governor General, appointed by the Crown ; actually, a cabinet responsible to the Dominion Parliament. The present Premier is Sir Robert Borden. The legislature consists of two chambers, the Senate of 87 members appointed for life by the Governor General — that is the cabinet — and a House of Commons of 221 members, elected by manhood suffrage. The Senate is limited in power, can not originate a money bill. In 1914 Canada voluntarily accepted her responsibilities as a member of the British Empire, and by September 1, 1916, had 334,969 men under arms, of whom 210,394 had already been sent to Europe, where they have made a par- ticularly good record. Canada subsequently passed a universal- service act. See British Imperial Federation. Canada, War Election. A general election was held in Canada on December 17, with a special war franchise, including (1) All citizens over 21, except conscientious objectors to mili- tary service, persons born in an enemy country who have been naturalized within 15 years, and persons speaking the mother tongue of any enemy country if naturalized within 15 years ; (2) all soldiers in the Canadian forces; (3) all Canadians serv- ing in the British forces ; (4) wives, widows, mothers, and sisters over 21 of soldiers serving overseas; and (5) nurses and other women officially connected with the over-seas forces. The Borden Government, which had enacted universal service and actively supported the war, was victorious. Canned Fish. In 1917 there were 335 canneries reported for fish, the greatest number being in Alaska, which has 67, in Wash- ington, which has 65, and in Maine, which has 60. Estimates are not available for the general output. The salmon paclt is esti- mated at 9,500,000 cases. Prices of canned salmon rose sharply. Salmon that sold on the Pacific coast at the end of the year's pack in 1916 for $1.75 per dozen cans and was quoted on the coast at $2.60 wholesale, under control of the Food Administra- tion was reduced to $2.35. Cheaper grades of salmon have risen even higher, as the grade which sold at 90 cents per dozen on the coast in 1916 is now selling for from $1.65 to $1.75 per dozen. Canned Vegetables. In 1916-17 there were reported 502 fac- tories for canning corn, 309 for peas, and 1,903 for tomatoes. The output of canned sweet corn for 1917 is estimated at 10,802,000 cases, of peas at nearly 10,000,000 cases, and of tomatoes 12,500,000 cases. The figures for all are materially higher than the output in 1916. The canners have contracted to sell the wholesalers this year's pack in No. 2 cans, standard grade, as follows (per dozen cans): peas, $1.10; corn, $0.90; tomatoes, $1.10. This is a wholesale price of from 74 to 9J cents per can. There is, according to the Food Administration, " no excuse for the extortionate prices being asked in some markets." Exports of canned vegetables have increased steadily throughout the war, reaching a value of $4,765,136 in 1917, as compared with $2,529,694 in 1916, and $1,898,840 in 1915. 15963°— 18 4 50 WAR CYCLOPEPIA. Cantonments. These are camps, usually with wooden build- ings, constructed for the use of the National Guard and the Na- tional Army while their various units are being prepared for service abroad. Most of them are In the South, where the win- ter climate is mild enough to permit some of the men to live under canvas. In the North, barracks and other buildings have been constructed with such amazing speed that though begun only in June they were being occupied in September. Suitable sites first were to be secured. The ground was leveled, water supply and drainage systems were Installed, roads and railways were built, lavatories, baths, kitchens, bakeries, refrigerating plants, laundries, hospitals, mess and lodging halls have been made ready by thousands upon thousands of engineers and mechanics gathered together In the neighborhood of the camps. Each cantonment has become a city complete within itself. That In Maryland, Gamp Meade, is properly called " the .second largest city " in the State. See Officers' Training Camps. Cantonments, List. The cantonments are located at — Place. Name. Designation. Alexandria, La American Lake, Wash Annapolis Junoiion, Md Anniston, Ala Atlanta, Ga Augusta, Ga Ayer, Mass Battle Creek, Mich Charlotte, N. C Chilllcothe, Ohio Columbia, S. C Deming, N. Mex Des Moines, Iowa Fort Riley, Kans Fort Sill, Okla Fort Worth, Tex Greenville, S. C Eattiesburg, Miss Houston, Tex Linda Vista, Cal Little Rock, Ark Louisville, Ky Macon, Ga Mineola, Long Island, N. Y.- Montgomery, Ala Palo Alto, Cal Petersburg, Va Bockford, 111 San Antonio, Tex Spartanburg, S. C Waco, Tex Wrightstown, N. .1 Yaphank, Long Island, N. Y. Camp Beauregard Camp Lewis Camp Meade Camp McClellan Camp Gordon Camp Hancock Camp Devens Camp Custer Camp Greene Camp Sherman Camp Jackson Camp Cody Camp Dodge Camp Funston Camp Doniphan Camp Bowie Camp Sevier Camp Shelby Camp Logan Camp Kearny Camp Pike Camp Zachary Taylor. Camp Wheeler *Camp Mills Camp Sheridan Camp Fremont Camp Lee Camp Grant Camp Travis Camp Wadsworth Camp MacArthur Camp Dix Camp Upton National Guard. National Army. Do. National Guard. National Army National Guard. National Army. Do. National Guard. National Army. Do. National Guard. National Army. Do. National Guard. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. National Army. Do. Do. National Guard. Do. Do. National Army. Do. Do. National Guard. Do. National Army. Do. * Abandoned for winter use, December, 1917. Cantonments, Classiflcation of Recruits in. A personnel organization has been established in each of the 16 National Army cantonments. The previous occupation, education, and preference for service of every man are recorded on individual cards, which are then filed and analyzed at the divisional per- sonnel office in each cantonment. An analysis as to the entire 687,000 men of the first increment can readily be made from these records. The function of an army is to fight, and most of the men, irrespective of previous occupations, will be in the infantry and artillery. Nevertheless, the specialization of mod- WAR CYCLOPEDIA. 51 ern war requires large numbers of skilled men adapted for tech- nical units and special branches of the service. In this work the War Department is having the assistance of a body of civilian experts organized under the name " Committee on Classiflcation of Personnel in the Army " and including a number of profes- sional employment managers loaned to the Government by large industrial and business concerns. See Selective Service, Second Draft. Capture and Adjudication. Belligerent war vessels have the right to capture on the high seas or in enemy waters all enemy merchant vessels, and all neutral merchant vessels which are suspected of carrying contraband, of Intending to break through the blockade of an enemy port or ports, or of being employed in the enemy's service. But the mere act of cap- ture does not determine the question of the ownership of the prize, or, in case it is a neutral vessel, its participation in ille- gal acts. These matters are, in the normal course of affairs, left to be adjudicated by a belligerent prize court. German submarine warfare has entirely set aside this important safe- guard of neutral rights. See Prize Courts; Prises, Destruc- tion of. Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. The en- dowment was established by Andrew Carnegie on December 14, 1910, with a fund of $10,000,000. The income is administered by a board of directors for " hastening the abolition of inter- national war." Recognizing that the cause of the United States is the cause of peace, the endowment has placed all its resources at the service of the Government. The headquarters of the en- dowment are at 2 .Jackson Place, Washington, D. C. Caroline Island^ A widely scattered archipelago in the Pa- cific, east of the Philippines and north of New Guinea. Taken from Germany by Japan in October, 1914; the last of the German possessions in the South Seas. Carso Plateau. A large plateau of mountainous formation near the head of the Adriatic and on the coast road from the Isonzo to Trieste. The Italians began a new offensive in this region late in May, 1917. Its initial success promised to clear the entire front from Tolmino to the sea. The Russian failure permitted the withdrawal of Austrian troops for the reenforce- ment of their armies on the Carso, and the Italian operations were strongly opposed. A renewed Austro-German drive began in this region in October, 1917, and at this writing has pressed the Italians back to the Piave River. See Isonzo; Gorizia. Casualties, Low Death Rate from. See War, Low Death Rate. Caucasus. The mountainous district east of the Black Sea, dividing Russia from Asia Minor. In December, 1914, Enver Pasha attempted an invasion of Transcaucasia in order to divert the Russians from their invasion of Germany and Austria. On January 3-4, 1915, this effort was completely defeated with great loss. Later in 1915 the Russians began a successful advance under the Grand Duke Nicholas in this theater, with objectives 52 WAR CYCLOPEDIA. in Persia and Armenia. This attained considerable success, but was checked as a result of Allied reverses on other fronts and by the revolution which broke out in Russia in March, 1917. See Enver Pasha; Erzerum. Cavalry. Soldiers organized and armed with the rifle, pistol, and saber, mounted on horses, and trained to fight either on foot or on horseback. An arm of the military service of great im- portance in past wars, but of less value when battles take on the form of struggles for the possession of trenches, forts, and other fixed positions. In no war has so little use been made of cav- alry as in the pres'ent one, barring its earlier stages. The • troop is the smallest administrative unit of the Cavalry ; four troops form a squadron, and three squadrons, with headquar- ters, supply and machine-gun troops, form a regiment. Captains command troops ; majors, squadrons ; and a colonel, the regi- ment. Cavell, Edith, Execution of. This occurred at 2 a. m. of October 13, 1915, in pursuance of sentence passed by the German military court at Brussels, the charge against her being that she had assisted English and Belgian young men, who had come under her care as nurse, to cross the frontier into Holland. Miss Cavell had spent her whole life in alleviating the sufferings of others; the death penalty had not before this been infiicted for the offense with which she was charged. In view of both of these facts, Mr. Whitlock, American minister to Belgium, and his first secretary, Mr. Hugh Gibson, did all that they could from the beginning to prevent the horror of her execution. Baron von der Lancken was at this time civil governor of Bel- gium, and it was to him that the Americans addressed their pleas. Mr. Gibson has recently retold the story from his diary kept at the time. At 8.30 of the evening preceding the execu- tion he learned that Miss Cavell was to be shot during the night. Though he could scarcely credit the report in view of von der Lancken's repeated assurances that he should be kept informed of all developments, he at once set out with the Spanish min- ister for the governor's headquarters. " When we got to the Political Department," Mr. Gibson writes, " we found that Baron von der Lancken and all the members of his staff had gone out to spend the evening at one of the disreputable little theaters which have sprung up here for the entertainment of the Germans. He came in about 10.30, followed shortly by Count Harrach and Baron von Falkenhausen, members of his staff. I briefly explained the situation as we understood it and presented "the note from the minister transmitting the appeal for clemency. Lancken read the note aloud in our presence, showing no feeling aside from cynical annoyance at something — probably our having discovered the intentions of the German authorities." At first von der Lancken denied that the sentence was to be carried out in the course of the night. Then he ad- mitted it, and the intercessors for Miss Cavell set to work upon him. They reminded him of the burning of Louvain and the sinking of the Lusitania and told him that " this murder vnU rank with those two affairs and stir all civilized countries with WAR CYCLOPEDIA. 53 horror and disgust," whereupon Count Harrach Interrupted with the remark that his only regret was that they did not have " three or four old English women to shoot." Mr. Gibson asked von der Lancken to telephone the Kaiser, but the request was refused. Then he recounted the many services which the American legation had rendered the Germans, but all without avail. " We did not stop," Mr. Gibson continues, " until mid- night, when it was only too clear that there was no hope." He concludes : " The day brought forth another loathsome fact In connection with the case. It seems the sentence on Miss Cavell was not pronounced In open court. Her executioners, appar- ently In the hope of concealing their Intentions from us, went into her cell and there, behind locked doors, pronounced sen- tence upon her. It Is all a piece with the other things they have done." (Hugh Gibson, A Journal from Our Legation in Bel- gium, 1917.) The German Government now has the effrontery to put upon the same basis the execution of Miss Cavell and the recent execution by France of Mata-Hari, danger, prostitute, and pro- fessional spy. See Fryatt; War, Oerman Ruthlessness. Censorship Board. An administrative board created under the trading with the enemy act, consisting of representatives of the Secretaries of War and Navy, the Postmaster General, the War Trade Board, and the chairman of the Committee on Public Information. It controls, under this act, communication by mail, cable, radio, or vessel between the United States and for- eign countries. See Mails, Exclusion from. Central Powers. The name commonly applied to the group of countries fighting in alliance with Germany, and Including Germany, Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria, and Turkey. They con- trol and dominate central Europe from the North Sea to Con- stantinople, and their influence penetrates Asia to the edge of Mesopotamia. They aim to control also the shores of the Per- sian Gulf. See "Berlin to Bagdad"; Entente Allies; " Mittel- Europa"; Pari^Germanism ; Triple Alliance. Cettinje. The capital of Montenegro, which fell before the Austrian Armies November 13, 1915. Charles I (1887— ). The Archduke Charles Francis Joseph became Charles I, Emperor of Austria and King of Hungary, upon the death of his great-uncle. Emperor Francis Joseph, on November 21, 1916. He Is the eldest son of the late Emperor's nephew. Otto, the younger .brother of the Archduke Francis Ferdinand, murdered at Serajevo on June 28, 1914. Charles I married, in 1911, Princess Zita, of the Bourbon House of Parma, and has two sons. He received a democratic education in the public schools of Vienna, which shocked sticklers at etiquette of the Viennese Court, but which has secured him much popularity with his subjects. It also appears to have impressed upon his mind the Importance of constitu- tional government and democratic reforms for Austria. His first public utterance as Emperor ■ made a very favorable im- pression In the constitutional countries of Europe by his 54 WAR CYCLOPEDIA. apparent sincerity and by his expressed determination to ob- serve tlie forms of constitutional rule. He was much less under the influence of Berlin and William II than was his predecessor, Francis Joseph, in recent years, but during the war Austria had already fallen so completely under the military control of Germany and is so helpless without continued German assist- ance that it is difficult for the new Emperor-King to follow an independent policy. It is believed that he favored peace in the early part of 1915, before Italy entered the war, and it appears at present (November, 1917) that he is much more anxious for peace and ready to make concessions than his German ally. Chauvinism. Originally a French term (chauvinisme) , de- rived from Nicolas Chauvin, a soldier in the army of Napoleon, who was ridiculed by his comrades for his demonstrative and unreasoning patriotism. After the fall of Napoleon the term chauvinisme was applied in ridicule to the old soldiers who still professed an idolatrous admiration for the Emperor. In Coi- gniard's play, La cooarde tricolore (1831), one of the characters, Chauvin, exaggerated the character of the original Chauvin ; and from this time the term chauvimsme came to be commonly ap- plied to anyone exhibiting a blind and unreasoning patriotism or an excessive enthusiasm for national ascendancy. The English equivalent of the word Is " jingoism." But the French term cTiazt- rinisme has been anglicized into " chauvinism," and it now has a somewhat broader meaning than " jingoism." It is sometimes applied to one who exhibits an unreasoning loyalty to any cause or any leader. " I am an American, but I do not believe that any of us loves a blustering nationality . . . with a chip on its shoulder . . . with its elbows out and its swagger on." (Presi- dent Wilson, at West Point, June 13, 1916. ) See Prussicmism. Chemical Industries. The war has produced a marked efCect upon the chemical industries of the United States. Reliance upon foreign countries (especially Germany) has been rendered difficult, and extensive experimentation was begun in all lines in 1914, which resulted, as early as 1916, in distinct progress. Many of the large munitions factories are maintaining extensive plants for the manufacture of chemicals which they intend to develop into permanent industries after the war. No figures are available as to the present production of chemicals. The capital represented at the New York Exposition of Chemical Industries in 1916 was said to amount to $2,750,006,0(X), and investments have been increased during 1917. In no case have imports In chemicals equaled the figures before the war. Statistics, how- ever, are of little value in regard to this class of goods, as con- stant development produces new commodities and changing con- ditions render comparisons impossible. The United States has developed so rapidly that it is not only able to supply the home market along some lines, but it has also been able to export. The value of chemical exports has increased from $46,380,986 in 1914-15, to $124,478,474 in 1915-16, and $187,846,351 in 1916-17. See War Chemistry. WAR CYCLOPEDIA. 55 Chemln des Dames. A road along a crest of hills overlook- ing the valley of the AUlette River in northern France. Here the Germans retained a foothold after the battle of the Aisne. The French offensive north of Rheims in the summer of 1917 included attacks on the town of Craonne and the Ohemin des Dames. The French success at the Chemin des Dames in June furnished some of the most desperate fighting of the war. German counter attacks against the ridge in July outrivaled their attacks at Ver- dun. They failed to dislodge the French from their advantage, and at the present moment (November, 1917) the Germans are retiring all along this sector. See Aisne. Chief of the General Staff. The principal officer of the General Staff, designated by the President from the major gen- erals in the Army. The present Chief of the General Staff Is Maj. Gen. Tasker H. Bliss, who will retire under the age limit on December 31, 1917. His assistant is Maj. Gen. John Biddle. See General Staff. Child Welfare. A department of the Woman's Committee of the Council of National Defense, of which Miss Julia Lathrop is national chairman. It is directly" connected with the Chil- dren's Bureau of the United States Department of Labor. The aim of this department is to safeguard the character and the education of the youth of the United States during the war by helping to piake the Federal child-labor law effective; by aiding* teachers and superintendents of schools in the care and welfare of children ; by visiting, through its State organizations, school authorities and labor officials and cooperating with them in an effort to keep children under 14 in schools, decently clothed, and well nourished. Chile. A South American republic with an area of 292,419 square miles. The estimated population in 1914 was 3,596,541. Santiago, the capital, is its largest city. The President is Juan Luis Sanfuentes, who was elected in 1915. Chile is neutral in the European war, and German commercial interests there are large. China. China assumed a republican government on February 12, 1912, with the overthrow of the infant Emperor, Pu-Yi, the last of the Manchu dynasty. The area of the Republic is 4,278,143 square miles and the population was estimated by a household census in 1910 at 329,617,750. Pekin is the capital. Yuan Shih Kai acted as Provisional President, assisted by a council of state, until the new constitution was proclaimed on May 1, 1914, when he became first President. Later he at- tempted to convert the Republic into an empire, but failed. His death, in June, 1916, brought the Vice President Li Yuan-hung into the Presidency. On March 14, 1917, after a cabinet crisis over the foreign situation, China severed diplomatic relations with Germany, and on August 14, 1917, declared war against the Central Powers. See Japanese-American Agreement. Chinese Kepnblic, Achievements. " Since 1911 . . . China has developed the huge educative organization of a dally press. She has freed herself from the incalculable deadweight of 56 WAE CYCLOPEDIA. opium. In the political sphere in every province she has trained local assemblies, and she has drawn ofE the best of their mem- bers into two sessions of a national Parliament, the latter of which, convened last November, has met almost continuously down to the present crisis. . . . China had planned, and had almost ready for promulgation this summer, the fundamental law of her new constitution. ... In the -world of finance for three successive years she paid ofC every foreign obligation out of her own resources. . . . She has had almost five years' tussle with the banking monopoly of the world's powers, and . . . the discount of her bonds has been hardly ever greater than that of Japan's, and has usually been less. Twice she has decisively overcome an attempt of her own conservatives to restore a monarchy. . . . This is the record of the Chinese Republic." (TJie Nation, Sept. 20, 1917.) Citizenship. Citizenship, partial or complete, Is an essential condition of the right to vote and hold office ; entitles its holder to the protection of the Government abroad ; and subjects him to the duty of military service. By the fourteenth amendment " all persons born or naturalized in the United States and sub- ject to the jurisdiction thereof are citizens of the United States and of the State wherein they reside." See Declaration of In- tention; Dual Citizenship; Naturalization. Civilian BeUef . " Battle-field relief will be effected through Red Cross agencies operating under the supervision of the War Department, but civilian relief will present a field of increasing opportunity in which the Red Cross organization is especially adapted to serve, and I am hopeful that our people will realize that there is probably no other agency with which they can associate themselves which can respond so effectively and uni- versally to allay suffering and relieve distress. (President Wil- son.)" See Bed, Gross. Civilian Tasks. " These, then, are things we must do and do well besides fighting — the things without which mere fighting would be fruitless ; we must supply abundant food for our- selves, our armies, and our seamen, not only, but also for a large part of the nations with whom we have common cause, in whose support and by. whose side we shall be fighting. We must supply ships by the hundreds out of our shipyards to carry to the other side of the sea, submarines or no submarines, what will every day be needed there, and abundant materials out of our fields and our mines and our factories with which not only to cloak and equip our own forces on land and sea, but also to clothe and support our people for whom the gallant fellows under arms can no longer work; to help clothe and equip the armies with which we are cooperating in Europe and to keep the looms and manufactories there In raw materials; coal to keep the fires going in the ships at sea and in the furnaces of hundreds of factories across the sea; steel out of which to make arms and ammunition both here and there; rails for worn-out railways back of the fighting fronts; loco- motives and rolling stock to take the places of those every day WAE CYCLOPEDIA. 57 going to pieces; mules, horses, cattle, for labor and for mili- tary service; everything with which the people in England, France, Italy, and Russia have normally supplied themselves, but can not now afford the men, the materials, or the machinery to make." (President Wilson, proclamation of Apr. 16, 1917.) See National Service Handbook ; Service Reserve. Civil Bights. The rights of life, liberty, and property, as distinguished from the political rights of citizenship, such as voting. They are protected by the Constitution from undue or arbitrary limitation by governmental power. See Freedom of Press; War Powers, C16menceau, Georges (1841— ). A French statesman of strong personality. For several years he was a resident of America as a school-teacher in Connecticut, but returned to France in 1869. He entered political life after the war of 1870-71. He has in the past written on American affairs for the French press. Owing to his great power as a debater, he has always been one of the most influential members of the Chamber of Deputies. He has probably made and unmade more ministries than any other Frenchman of recent history. He was the editor of L'Homme lAbre, an Influential French newspaper, which for a time he styled L'Homme EnchaAni be- cause of censorship difficulties. He became Prime Minister on November 17, 1917, with a program calling for a vigorous prose- cution of the war, a rigid suppression of treasonable intrigue, and a more liberal policy as to political censorship of the press. Claims Commissions. In time of war, and sometimes in peace, one nation or its citizens receive injuries at the hands of another. Some such injuries are acknowledged to be per- missiljle, others to be unlawful, and others still are held by one nation to be lawful. and by the other not. In the latter case the injustice must be endured, or avenged by war, or settled by treaty. If it is settled by treaty, the compensation may be agreed upon in the document. More often the treaty provides a commission to determine the legality of the action com- plained of, or the amount of compensation, or both. The ap- pointment and procedure of such commissions are arranged by treaty. The United States has been a party to many such agreements and has received and paid large sums as the result of their decisions. Should the attempt to establish an interna- tional court at The Hague succeed, such special commissions would no longer be necessary. Coal and Iron as Cause of War. Germany now holds all the important coal fields in Europe outside of England. She had valuable deposits in Silesia and Westphalia ; she gained more in Alsace-Lorraine by the war of 1870. Her advance upon Paris in 1914 Included the capture, in the first few weeks of the war, of the principal coal fields in Belgium and northern France. In iron also Germany gained by her western invasions. By the addition of Alsace-Lorraine to Germany, France was dealt a severe economic blow. It has been the desire of the Ger- man chauvinists to complete her downfall, to profit yet more 58 WAE CYCLOPEDIA. greatly at her expense, by further annexations, especially the basin of Briey on the Lorraine frontier. France since 1870 has been producing hardly two-thirds of the coal needed by her industries. Germany has had more than she could use. She lacked only iron and further gateways to the sea, which she set out to secure on her march to the west in August, 1914. " The security of the German Empire in a future war," declare the German Industrial Associations in an official manifesto, "re- quires, therefore, imperatively the ownership of all mines of iron ore, including the fortresses of Longwy and Verdun which are necessary to defend the region. . . . [Otherwise] the German furnaces of Luxemburg would be paralyzed in a few hours." See Imperialism; " Mittel-Europa" ; Pan-Germamsm. Coal, How to Save. An excellent guide for householders in saving coal is issued by the Bureau of Mines, Washington, D. C. Write for pamphlet No. 97, " Saving Fuel in Heating a House." See Coal Supply; Fuel Control. CoaUtion Cabinet, British. In May, 1915, the British Liberal ministry, under Mr. Asquith, In power at the outbreak of the war, resigned, and a coalition cabinet of all parties was formed, under Mr. Asquith. A liberal majority was retained, but such eminent Conservatives as Lord Lansdowne, Lord Cur- zon, Lord Selborne, Mr. Balfour, Mr. Bonar Law, Mr. Chamber- lain, and others received posts, as did several members of the Labor party. With certain changes, this ministry lasted till December 5, 1916, when Mr. Asquith resigned, carrying with him practically all the Liberals except Mr. Lloyd George, who became the new Prime Minister. The fundamental concept of Mr. Asquith's policy was to demonstrate the unity of the nation in the Government. See Asquith; Lloyd George; IFor Cabinet. Coal Production Committee. A committee of the Council of National Defense organized April 21, 1917, under the chair- manship of Mr. F. S. Peabody, president of the Peabody Coal Co., of Chicago, and having in its membership both prominent coal operators and leaders of the United Mine Workers of America. It cooperates through its State and local committees with the State councils of defense and other State agencies in furnishing when requested information and assistance. In addition to State agencies the committee cooperates with the United States Fuel Administration, the Bureau of Mines and Geological Survey of the Department of the Interior, and the Committee on Trans- portation of the Council of National Defense. See Fuel Admin- istrator. Coal Supply. The coal output of the United States for 1916 was 597,500,000 net tons, which was an increase over that of 1915. The demand for coal during 1916 in industry, transporta- tion, exportation, and private consumption increased so rapidly that an apparent shortage resulted at the beginning of 1917, due largely to the inability of the railroads to deliver orders. Speculation, together with this shortage In transportation, pro- duced a material increase in coal prices throughout 1917. The Federal Trade Commission found that the total anthracite WAR CYCLOPEDIA. 59 shipments to September 1, 1917, had been 51,405,341 tons, as compared with 44,368,340.tons for a corresponding period in 1916. Exportations of anthracite for the year ending in June, 1917, were 4,641,138 tons, an Increase of more than 700,000 tons over the exports of 1916. Exports of bituminous were 19,628,048 tons. Consumption by the railroads, in production of colie, and for munitions and other manufacturing plants, according to dgures given out November 15, 1917, by the Fuel Administrator, increased consumption by at least 100.000,000 tons, while the production of bituminous and anthracite together was increased only by 50,- 000,000 tons. The result was an estimated shortage of 50,000,000 tons in the coal supply for 1917, to be made good by further in- crease of production and by greater economy In use. See Fuel Control. Coast Artillery. The Coast Artillery Is for defensive use. Nearly all Of the guns as yet are fixed in forts, though it is desired to make some of them mobile for removal at need to unfortified harbors and unprotected beaches. The modern scheme for defense of our coast begins with the report of the Endlcott board in 1886. There are three principal districts, the North Atlantic running from Maine to Sandy Hook, N. J., the South Atlantic from the Delaware River to Texas, the Pacific coast from San Diego up to Puget Sound. There are forts also in the Philippines, in Hawaii, and at Panama. Under the na- tional defense act of June 3, 1916, for the reorganization of the Army this branch of the service calls for about 30,000 men. See Artillery. Combatants. The Hague Regulations respecting the Laws and Customs of War on Land provide : "Article I. The laws, rights, and duties of war apply not only to armies but also to militia and volunteer corps fulfilling the following conditions: (1) to be commanded by a person respon- sible for his subordinates; (2) to have a fixed distinctive em- blem recognizable at a distance; (3) to carry arms openly; and (4) to conduct their operations In accordance with the laws and customs of war. In countries where militia or volunteer corps constitute the army, or form part of It, they are included under the denomination ' army.' " This provision was ratified by Germany, but she has failed to observe it; e. g., she has refused to recognize the members of the Garde Civique of Brussels as legitimate combatants. Commandeer. See Eminent Domain. Commercial Economy Board. A subordinate agency of the Council of National Defense established March 24, 1917. The work of the Commercial Economy Board Is to secure economy in the use of men and materials in commercial business to aid in carrying on the war. In this connection it is conducting a cam- paign to reduce deliveries of department stores (to one per day) and to cut down the abuse of the returned-goods privi- lege. A. W. Shaw, chairman of the board, says : " "Women espe- cially have responded willingly to the request to use more fore- thought in ordering, to avoid asking expensive special deliveries. 60 WAR CYCLOPEDIA. and otherwise accommodate themselves to the changes. The most important result from an economic standpoint has been the saving in productive effort." Committee on Public Information. The committee was established by executive order of the President April 14, 1917, and consists of the Secretaries of State, War, and Navy, with Mr. George Creel as civilian chairman. It furnishes an official channel for information concerning the purposes and conduct of the war and cooperates with the newspapers both in publishing information about army and naval matters that should be known by our own people and in suppressing those facts which would aid the enemy. The committee now conducts (1) a division of news which supervises and distributes news "re- leases" from the civil and military departments; (2) a daily Official Bulletin; (3) a division of civic and educational coopera- tion which prepares and circulates the Red, White, and Blue and the War Information pamphlets; (4) Four Minute Men who speak in moving-picture theaters; (5) public speaking in which the more extensive speaking campaigns are coordinated; (6) syndicate features; (7) a division of films; (8) a division of pictures; (9) a division of foreign language papers; (10) a division of distribution ; (11) woman's war work ; (12) division of reference; (13) art; (14) advertising; (15) foreign educa- 'tional work; and (16) business management. The committee aids and encourages all agencies engaged in the patriotic support of the national cause. See Conquest and Kultur; Four Minute Men; German War Practices; Official Bulletin; Red, While, and Blue Series; War Information Series. Community Canning. Cooperative public kitchens for com- munity canning were urged by the woman's committee as a follow-up suggestion to the Instructions of the Department of Agriculture and the Food Administration regarding the preser- vation of perishable foods. These canning centers were in schools, churches, private homes, or In buildings temporarily erected for the purpose on a public commons or on college or public school grounds. Committees were placed in charge of the canning centers to whom surplus foods were sent by gardeners, housekeepers, and market houses. The canned products in most cases were held for winter use, and will probably be sold at a minimum price or distributed through an existing philanthropic agency. See Canned Vegetables. Community Pines and Penalties. Article L of The Hague Regulations : " No general penalty, pecuniary or otherwise, shall be inflicted upon the population on account of the acts of individuals for which they can not be regarded as jointly and severally responsible." The purpose of this article was to rule out definitively a common practice of the German mili- tary authorities in the Franco-Prussian war. The article was ratified by Germany, but it has been repeatedly violated by German commanders in the present war. Thus, on September 19, 1914, the German commander in chief in Belgium, Gen. von Billow, assessed a fine of 500,000 francs upon the 1,500 WAR CYCLOPEDIA. 61 Inhabitants of the war-ruined village of Sissone because Bome- body had strewn glass at intervals along a road near the place for the distance of 1 kilometer. In the event that the fine was not paid, not only Sissone but the village of Marchais and the' neighboring property of the Prince of Monaco were all to be destroyed. A more terrifying instance of Gen. von Biilow'? practice in this respect is furnished by the following extract from a proclamation of his which was posted up in Li6ge on August 22, 1914 : " The inhabitants of the town of Andenne, after having protested their peaceful intentions, treacherously surprised our troops. It is with my full consent that the general in command has had the whole place burned, and that about a hundred people have been shot." What was done at Andenne was repeated at a score of other places. See Family Rights and Honor; German War Praotices. Company. The smallest administrative unit in the Infantry, Engineers, Signal Corps, and Coast Artillery. The Quarter- master Corps and Medical Corps also have special units desig- nated as companies, such as truck companies, field hospital companies, etc. A company is the proper command of a cap- tain, and its strength in the difCerent arms of the service varies from 250 in an Infantry rifle company to 75 in the Signal Corps. In the Infantry and Coast Artillery 4 companies, with battalion headquarters, make a battalion ; in the Engineers, Signal Corps, Quartermaster Corps, and Medical Department, companies are organized into battalions when necessary, such number of com- panies being used as will most efficiently combine for the special work for which the troops are intended. See Battalion; Regi- ment. Concert of Europe. The term long applied to the European powers acting as a unit. It has remained more of an ideal than a reality. In 1815 a concert of Europe was established after the congress of Vienna, but it was a concert of princes and not of peoples and broke up through the desire of the peoples of Europe to settle their own problems in their own way. In late years the ideal of the concert of Europe seems to be gaining in force. It appears to have been the end toward which Sir Edward Grey (now Viscount Grey) was working between 1905 and 1914, and it was adopted and transformed into a world concert by President Wilson in his speech of Janu- ary 22, 1917. An attempt to formulate such a concert — perhaps in its modern form of the League to Enforce Peace — will prob- ably be made at the close of the present war. In the past, the concert of Europe has been founded on the assumption by the six great powers of a right to adjust all question of European interest. The future success of the idea demands the inclusion of all nations on a basis of equality. See Permanent Peace. Congress. The legislative branch of the United States Na- tional Government. It consists of a House of Representatives, now composed of 435 Members, apportioned among the States on the basis of population, and elected by districts for terms of two years; and a Senate of 2 Members from each State, now 62 WAR CYCLOPEDIA. elected at large by popular vote for terms of six years, one-third of the Members being elected every second year. The House of Representatives elects its own Speaker; the Vice President is ex offldo the presiding officer of the Senate. Congress does not, like the British Parliament, have unlimited authority; but it has povyer to make laws on subjects enumerated in broad terms in the Constitution. See Acts of Congress. Congress, ImpUed Powers of. The enumeration of Con- gress's powers in Article I, section 8, of the Constitution, con- cludes with what has been called "the sweeping clause": " Congress shall have power to make all laws which shall 6e necessary and proper for carrying into execution the forego- ing powers, and all other' powers vested by this Constitution in the Government of the United States, or in any department or offlcer thereof." Interpreting this clause in the famous case of McCuUoch V. Maryland, Chief Justice Marshall said : " This provision is made in a Constitution intended to endure for ages to come, and consequently to be adapted to the various crises of human affairs. . . . Let the end be legitimate, let it be within the scope of the Constitution, and all means which are appropriate, which are plainly adapted to that end, which are not prohibited, but consist with the letter and spirit of the Constitution, are constitutional." (4 Wheaton, 413, 420.) This interpretation has never been overruled. See Due Process of Law; Police Power; President; War Powers. Congress of Berlin. Met under the presidency of Bismarck at Berlin in 1878 to settle questions which had arisen out of the Russian defeat of the Turks in the war of 1877-78. It had been the (iesire of Russia to erect a strong Slav State, Bulgaria, out of land taken from Turkey, leaving the latter little in Europe except Constantinople. But England opposed this plan from the fear of Russian control at Constantinople, and Austria, desiring Balkan land for herself and fearing a strong Russia, added her protest. Bismarck mediated between these two par- ties in such a way that Russian plans for Bulgaria were check- mated, while Austria secured a loose control of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Much of the land intended for Bulgaria was given back to Turkey, whose misgovernment there was destined to cause trouble in the future. Russia felt that Bismarck and Germany had left her in the lurch, and this contributed to break up the old Russo-German friendship and later led to the Franco- Russian alliance. See Balkan Wars; "Corridor"; Triple Entente. "Conquest and Kultur." Title of a pamphlet issued and distributed free by the Committee on Public Information, the nature of which is indicated by the subtitle, "Aims of the Ger- mans in their own words." In 16 sections it gives the German views and plans on the following topics : The Mission of Ger- many, World Power or Downfall, The Worship of Power, War as a Part of the Divine Order, War as the Sole Arbiter, Eco- nomic Necessity of Expansion, Germany the Ruler of Middle Europe, Expansion to the Southeast, Subordination of Prance, WAR CYCLOPEDIA. 63 Sea Power and Colonial Expansion, The Lost Teutonic Tribes, Dispossessing the Conquered, The Pan-German Party, Pan- Germanism and America, Pretexts for War, The Coming War, The Program of Annexations. A map In colors shows the Pan- German plan In Europe and Asia. Conscription. See Draft; Selective Service. Constantine I (1868- ). Abdicated King of the Hel- lenes,- 1913-1917. He married Sophia, sister of the German Emperor, and, partly because of her Influence, attempted to manipulate Greek policy during the war In the Interest of Ger- many. On June 11, 1917, he wasforced to abdicate by the protect- ing powers. Great Britain, France, and Russia, who justified their action on three facts: (1) Greece had been created a kingdom In 1830 through their intervention; (2) they had placed the present dynasty on the throne in 1863; (3) they had guaran- teed a constitutional government. King Constantine had failed In his duty as a constitutional sovereign ; he had twice dis- missed M. Venlzelos as premier, although that statesman pos- sessed the confidence of Parliament ; he had Ignored the treaty of alliance with Serbia, which pledged Greece to support Serbia with all her military forces. In June, 1916, he allowed the Bulgarians, the hereditary enemies of Greece but the allies of Germany, to seize Port Rupel and the port of Kavalla ; In December he countenanced an ambush of French marines in Athens. After the Russian revolution, the protecting powers ordered the withdrawal of King Constantine and the crown prince. The new King, Alexander, second son of Constantine, Invited M. Venlzelos to resume office and consented to the reas- sembling of the Parliament, illegally dissolved in 1915. See SaloniM; Venizelos. Constantinople. The strategic key to the commerce of Europe and Asia, the capital of Turkey, and, everything consid- ered, the city with the best location in the world. Its population, 1,200,000, Is about half Mohammedan ; the other half Includes large numbers of races and religions — Europeans, Armenians, Catholics, Jews, Greek Christians, etc. When the disruption of Turkey began in the nineteenth century Russia hoped to win Constantinople, for the bulk of her exports pass through the straits that It commands, and to transform the Black Sea into a Russian naval lake. But after the rise of the German Empire German diplomats perceived the Importance of controlling Con- stantinople both In order to cut Russian communications with the Mediterranean and also to insure to Germany a clear road into Asia Minor, which would be of Inestimable value from the eco- nomic point of view and which would threaten British domina- tion in Egypt and India. In 1899 German capitalists began the Bagdad railway, which was to link Hamburg with the Persian Gulf, and developed an understanding with Turkey, reorganizing the Turkish army and exercising strict supervision over her politi- cal affairs. Her grip on Constantinople, thus secured, has tight- ened during the war, and so long as it lasts German predominance in the Near East Is assured. In March, 1915, Great Britain and 64 WAR CTCLOPEDIA. France gave their consent to a Russian possession of Constanti- nople at the conclusion of the war, but the Provisional Govern- ment of the Russian Republic has renounced this ambition. Many publicists favor an internationalization of the city. See " Berlin to Bagdad "; " Corridor "; Turkey. Constitution. The Constitution of the United States con- sisted, in its original form, of 7 articles, to vs^hich have since been added 17 articles of amendment. The first 3 articles deal, respectively, with the powers and organization of Congress, the presidency, and the national judiciary. Article V prescribes the various methods by which the .Constitution may be amended. Article VI states the important principle of the supremacy of the National Government within its field over conflicting State pow- ers. Of the amendments the first 10 are restrictive of the Na- tional Government, while the 14th imposes important limita- tions on State power. Of the two recently adopted amend- ments, the 16th authorizes an income tax and the 17th provides for the popular election of Senators. In contrast to the British constitution, our Constitution is written and is not amendable by ordinary legislative processes. See items under Congress. Continuous Transport, Doctrine of. A variant of the doc- trine of continuous voyage, which is applicable in certain cases of contraband carriage. By it a belligerent is allowed to cap- ture on the high seas or in enemy waters articles absolutely contrahand which are in process of shipment by neutral traders to the enemy, even though such articles are bound immediately for a neutral port and in order to reach the enemy country would have to pass on the last stage of the journey through neutral territory. Continuous Voyage, Doctrine of. A principle of maritime law developed by British prize courts during the Napoleonic wars and further extended by the United States courts during the Civil War. By the British-American practice a vessel in- tending a breach of blockade becomes liable to capture imme- diately upon leaving home waters whatever its immediate des- tination. During the Civil War British blockade runners sought to avoid some of the risks of capture by consigning their cargoes to British West Indian ports, notably Nassau, and then trans- shipping them to blockaded ports of the South, the ex- pectation being that the goods in question and the vessels carrying them would not be subject to capture on the first lap of the voyage. This expectation, however, . was promptly de- feated by the declaration of the American prize courts that In such cases the intermediate destination was not the real destina- tion, and that the voyage from British ports to southern ports was to be deemed a continuous one. Recently the British em- bargo upon neutral trade with Germany has been founded upon an extension of these rules. Contraband. Goods of warlike use, neutral trade in which, with the enemy, may be intercepted by the belligerent either on the high seas or in enemy's waters and suitably penalized. It is, or at least used to be, of two sorts — (1) abso- WAK CYCLOPEDIA. 65 lute contraband, which comprises, generally speaking, ar- ticles of predominantly warlike use, such as munitions; and (2) conditional contraband, which includes articles of double use, like foodstuffs. The carriage of the former to the enemy country Is attended by the risk of confisca- tion both of cargo and vessel ; that of the latter, only when it is shown to be destined for the enemy forces or Govern- ment. The practical difficulty of distinguishing between the civil population of the great belligerents in the present war and their armed forces has rendered the distinction between the two kinds of contraband very precarious ; and the science of chemistry has worked to the same end. Thus raw cotton, which the Declaration of London listed in 1909 with articles never contraband, to-day furnishes the basis of the highest ex- plosives, and has in consequence been declared absolutely contra- band by Great Britain and France. See Declaration of London; Embargo, British; Freedom of the Seas. Contributious. Article XLIX of The Hague Regulations says : " If, besides . . taxes . . . the occupant levies other money contributions in the occupied territory, this shall only be for the needs of the army or of the administration of such terri- tory." In December, 1870, a per capita assessment was levied by the Prussians upon the occupied portions of France in order to break the spirit of resistance of the people ; and to-day in Belgium contributions have been assessed in violation of the above rule. During the first month of the war 710,000,000 francs of contributions had been assessed against Belgian and northern French towns. By Gen. von Bissing's order of December 10, 1914, a contribution of 480,000,000 francs was levied upon the nine occupied provinces of Belgium, to be paid in 12 monthly In- stallments, and in November, 1915, the time during which this tribute was to run, was extended indefinitely. Thus the annual tax burden of the Belgian people has been nearly doubled, for of course the regular taxes are still collected — even from exiles, where this is possible. Furthermore, private bank deposits have been looted. In September, 1916, the Belgian Government formally protested at Washington against an enforced loan then being levied upon Belgian banks for 1,000,000,000 francs. The German White Book, entitled The Belgian People's War, con- tains an elaborate defense of German spoliations in Belgium which inferentially admits the principal charges. See Belgium; Pillage; German War Practices; Requisitions. Convoy. In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries certain of the continental nations sought to establish the doctrine that neutral merchantmen under the convoy, of public vessels of their own nationality should be exempt from belligerent search, the commander of the convoy giving his word that the vessels in his charge were not engaged in forbidden trade. Great Britain has always resisted the doctrine and American opinion has been divided. The Declaration of London accepted it ; but as that is not law, the question again rests on its former footing. The German Imperial Government, in its answer to our Govern- 15963°— 18 5 66 WAR CrCLOPEDIA. ment's protest against the German war-zone decree, recom- mended a convoy for American vessels entering the zone without contraband aboard, but naturally the suggestion was not ac- cepted. See Declaration of London; Declaration of Paris; Freedom of the Seas; War Zones. Copenhagen. The capital and chief port of Denmark, and a center for neutral trade with Germany. Population (1911), 559,398. It is one of the leading ports of the Baltic, but its com- merce, like that of other neutral ports, has suffered severely as a result of the war. In 1913 there entered the port 12,021 steam- ships and 9,572 sailing vessels, but in 1916 this number had fallen to 8,604 steamships and 6,441 sailing vessels. The trade of the port is likely to be still further afEected as a result of the entry of the United States into the war. Copper. Copper has special importance because of its use in munitions, and among the earliest measures of the war was the securing of a special price upon it for Government pur- chases. The greater part of the world's copper is pro- duced in the United States. The output in 1916 broke all pre- vious records, reaching 1,941,900,586 pounds, which was an increase of 307,696,138 pounds over the output of 1915 and of nearly 400,000,000 pounds over that of 1914. The figures for 1917 will show a marked increase over the high production of 1916. Exportation in all forms has increased enormously in the last year. The war demand did not appear sufficiently early in 1914 to affect exportation and, in fact, the exports were lower than in the preceding year. Exports were also low in 1915. For the fiscal year 191.5-16 there were 711,342,146 pounds of copper (pigs, ingots, bars, etc.) exported, and in 1916-17 this figure jumped to 1,021,501,398 pounds. " Copperheads," Lincoln on. " Must I shoot a simple- minded boy who deserts, while I must not touch a hair of a wily agitator who induces him to desert?" President Lincoln asked. It will be remembered that he also ordered Vallandig- ham, the leader of the Copperheads, to be sent South, instead of being shot. See Lincoln, Second Inaugural; Peace Terms, Lin- coln's Yieio of ; IT'or Poioers, Lincoln on. Oorfn. An island in the Adriatic off the coast of Greece where the Serbian army was reorganized in 1915-16. The terri- tory has been Venetian, British, and (since 1864) Greek. Its area is 275 square miles and its population 99,571. Since 1915 if has been used by the allied forces as a station. Corn. The corn crop of the United States for 1917 is esti- mated, on December 11, at 3,159,494,000 bushels, the acreage under corn being 119,755,000. The canners contracted for the yield of 221,238 acres, which is an increase over their demand in 1916. The general consumption of corn for 1917 has already greatly exceeded the average, being largely stimulated by governmental efforts to release wheat for ex- portation. The average price of corn per bushel for 1916 was 79 cents. The price has risen rapidly and continuously during 1917, having reached $1.75 on September 1. Corn exports for WAR CYCLOPEDIA. 67 the fiscal year 1916-17 were 64,720,742 bushels, an overwhelm- ingly large proportion of this being sent to Great Britain and Canada. Illinois promises to lead the corn States with a yield of 420,189,000. Iowa Is next with 417,346,000 bushels, and is followed by Missouri with 232,255,000, and Nebraska with 227,802,000. " Corridor." A term much used by German writers to justify the taking for economic or political purposes of territory to which the conquering State has neither historical title nor claim. In November, 1912, during the Balkan wars, Serbian troops marched across Albania to' the Adriatic, in order to secure for their country a " window " on the sea. At one time Eussia was suspected of desiring a strip of western Persia, which would give her access to the Persian Gulf. At present the Germans regard Serbia, which they have conquered, as their " corridor " to Constantinople, while their allies, the Bulgarians, proclaim that they must secure the northeastern corner of Serbia, or the valley of the Morava, as a link with Hungary. "Room ; they must make room. The western and southern Slavs — or we ! Since we are the stronger, the choice will not be difficult. We must quit our modest waiting at the door." (Tan- nenberg, in Gross-Deutschland, 1911.) The demand advanced by the Pan-Germans for the retention of Belgium rests on the theory that Germany can thereby obtain easier access to the Atlantic and a better chance to threaten British supremacy in the Channel. See " Berlin to Bagdad " ; Pan-Oernvanism; " Place in the Sun." Cost of the War. The true cost of a war is the sum total of human energy past and present which is expended while it is being waged. By " past human energy '.' is meant especially the productive capital of the country, like ships, machinery, rail- roads, etc. When a nation has only sufficient energy to do the immediate fighting demanded by a war, and to produce the muni- tions, food, and clothing required by society during its continu- ance, depletion results. Moreover, the present war has been de- structive directly of certain kinds of productive capital — ships, for instance. What, then, is the moral of these facts? It is economy and serviceable effort. A group of people can only be doing a certain number of things at the same time. Let those, then, be the right things, the things that tell. For that side will emerge victorious from the war which also emerges strongest and with its productive wealth least depleted. See "Business as Usual"; Economy; Luxury in War Time; "Pay as You Go " War; " Rich Man's War, Poor Man's Fight." Cotton Supply. Cotton has become contraband because of its use in the manufacture of explosives. It is estimated (De- cember) that the American cotton crop is 10,949,000 bales (of 478 pounds) in 1917. This is below the figures for 1916, when the yield was 11,363,915 bales, and is distinctly below the average", which is 14,200,000 bales. The price of cotton for 1917 broke all records, reaching an average of 19.6 cents per pound. The price has risen during 1917, standing at 27.7 cents per 68 WAK CYCLOPEDIA. pound on -December 1. The world's consumption of cotton, which reached 21,011,000 bales in 1916, has been increased by the extension of the war. The United States exported during the year ending June, 1917, 5,947,165 bales of raw cotton, the heaviest consumers being Great Britain, which took 2,793,388 bales, and France, which took 1,023,127 bales. Italy, Japan, and Spain have also purchased heavily. Oouncll of National Defense. In August, 1916, Congress established a Council of National Defense " for the coordination of industries and resources for the national security and wel- fare." The council proper consists of the six Secretaries of War, Navy, Interior, Agriculture, Commerce, and Labor. The act also provided for an Advisory Commission to be nominated by the council and appointed by the President and for such subordinate bodies as the council saw fit to organize " for Its assistance in special Investigations." The members of the Ad- visory Commission are : Daniel Willard, chairman, Transportation and Communi- cation ; Howard E. Coffin, Munitions and Manufacturing (Including standardization) and Industrial Relations; Julius Rosen wald, Supplies (including clothing), etc.; Bernard M. Baruch, Raw Materials, Minerals, and Metals ; Dr. Hollis Godfrey, Engineering and Education ; Samuel Gompers, Labor," including conservation of health and welfare of workers; Dr. Franklin Martin, Medicine and Surgery, including general sanitation. The Advisory Commission played an Important r61e in mo- bilizing the industrial and professional energies of the country. Much of its work has now been absorbed by the War Industries Board or transferred to the Council of National Defense. For the subordinate agencies of the Council of National De- fense, see Board of Inventions; Coal Production Committee; Commercial Economy Board; Engineering and Education Com- mittee; Gas and. Electric Service Committee ; Highways Trans- port Committee; Inland Waters Transportation Committee; Laior Committee; Medical Section; National Research Council; Shipping Committee; State Cooperation Section; Statistics Divi- sion; Transportation and Communication Committee; War In- dustries Board; Woman's Committee. Councils of Workmen's and Soldiers' Delegates. Such councils existed in several places in Russia in 1905 and were remembered when the present revolution came. The Petrograd Council was organized even before the Provisional Government was formed and asserted Itself because workmen and the garri- son of Petrograd bore the brunt of the few days of fighting dur- ing the first weeks of the revolution. The councH's program for reorganizing the army was in large measure responsible for the breakdown of military discipline. The Petrograd Council was soon supplemented by delegates from other councils, and this enlarged council launched the campaign for the publica- tion of treaties, and for a general peace at the earliest possible moment, ^hus forcing the resignation of Professor Milyukov, WAR CYCLOPEDIA. 69 the Foreign Minister. Then an All Russian Congress of Coun- cils of Workmen's and Soldiers' Delegates held a joint session to discuss vast and radical economic reforms. The proposals of this Congress, on the whole reasonable as a program for the future, greatly hampered the Provisional Government occu- pied with organizing the country for the prosecution of the war in the present. The Galician disasters showed the great danger of such a course, which was threatening to destroy the fruits of the revolution. The Congress adjourned in July, leaving a permanent executive committee, to which the Socialist minis- ters of the coalition cabinet were held responsible. The execu- tive committee supported the Kerensky government until the Kornilov affair, when, under the influence of the Bolsheviki, it began to take a more radical line again. But the provisional council, which emerged from the democratic congress held the last days of September, tended to supersede the executive com- mittees. The newly elected municipal governments were tend- ing to replace the Councils of Workmen's and Soldiers' Dele- gates when the Bolsheviki uprising of November, 1917, occurred. See Bolsheviki; Kerensky; Lemne; Maximalists ; Russian Revo- lution. Courts-martial. Courts consisting of commissioned military or naval officers summoned to try oifenses against the Articles of War, such as desertion, mutiny, etc. The jurisdiction of such courts may, in the United States, always be inquired into by civil courts, and a person held under their rules discharged if jurisdiction is wanting (137 XJ. S., 147). See Articles of War. Croatia. A province of Hungary, to which is joined Slavonia. Area, 16,421 square miles ; population, 2,602,544 ; capital, Agram or Zagreb. The people are Slav and hate their Magyar masters, for the autonomy granted in 1868 has received scant respect from the Hungarian Government. The local constitu- tion was suppressed in 1912, nor have the 40 Croatian deputies who sit in the Budapest Parliament been able to ameliorate the lot of their people. Apparently the Croats would consider in- corporation in a Greater Serbia. See Magyarization; Kingdom of the Seris, Croats, and Slovenes. Cronholm, Mexican Adventures of. In a letter dated March 8, 1916, which has been made public by the State Department, the German minister to Mexico, Herr von Eckhart, wrote the German chancellor, asking him to reward Herr Folke Cron- holm, the Swedish chargg d'affaires in Mexico City, for his serviceability in Germany's behalf. " He is," the letter ran, " the only diplomat through whom information from the hostile camp can be obtained. Moreover, he acts as intermediary for official intercourse between the legation and your excellency." Herr von Eckhart recommended, however, that Herr Cronholm's reward, which was to be some sort of decoration, be kept secret till the close of the war in order to avoid suspicion. See Mexico, German Intrigues in; Intrigue; " Spurlos Versenkt." Cruiser. In general, a cruiser is a protected naval vessel which steams at a high rate of speed. She has sufficient space 70 WAR CYCLOPEDIA. for stores and fuel to go great distances without having to visit port to take on supplies. There are battle cruisers, armored cruisers, and light cruisers, varying In the amount of armor on their sides, the armament vehich they carry, their displacement, and their traveling speed. Cuba. A republic in the West Indies on the island of the same name, with its capital at Havana. The area of the republic is 44,215 square miles, and an estimate made in 1914 gives the population as 2,471,531. The president is Gen. Mario Garcia Menocal. On April 7, 1917, Cuba entered the war against the Central Allies as a " duty to the United States " on " an occasion like the present, in which the United States is defend- ing the principles of human liberty, of international justice and of honor, and the security of free and independent nations, which see their rights and most vital interests threatened," and as a measure of protection against the insurrection in Cuba inspired by German agents. She at once took over four large German steamers which were lying in her harbors, and on August 21, 1917, transferred them to the United States, declining all com- pensation. See Brazil; Guatemala; Panama. Cuba, " Piatt Amendment." The relations between the United States and Cuba are defined in an amendment to the Army act of 1901, offered by Senator O. H. Piatt, of Connecticut. This provided for the withdrawal of the American forces from Cuba so soon as a government was established in that island under a con- stitution stipulating (1) that Cuba was never to enter into any treaty tending to impair her independence or affording any for- eign power lodgment within her territory ; (2) that the public debt should be limited according to the ordinary revenue; and (3) that the United States should have the right to intervene " for the preservation of Cuban Independence, the maintenance of a government adequate for the protection of life, property, and in- dividual liberty." On June 12, 1901, the convention sitting at Havana embodied these provisions in the constitution then in process of being drawn up. In September, 1906, a reoccupation of the island took place in accordance with the third of the above provisions, and continued till January, 1909. See Sphere of Influence; United States' Carihbean Interests; Virgin Islands. " Cushing." An American steamer which was bombarded by a German aeroplane on April 28, 1915, while on its way to Rotterdam. No lives were lost, and the vessel was not sunk. In answer to our Government's protest the German Govern- ment stated that it was far from " the intention of ordering attacks by submarines or flyers on neutral vessels in the zone which have not been guilty of any hostile act." It accordingly pleaded " mistake," due to lack of distinctive markings on the vessel, and recognized its pecuniary liability for the damage done. Cuxhaven. The fortified port of Hamburg, situated at the mouth of the Elbe, directly opposite the west end of the Kiel Canal, and used in the present war as a German naval base. See Kiel Canal. WAK CYCLOPEDIA. 71 Cyprus. An island in tlie eastern Mediterranean. Area, 3,584 square miles; population, 209,286. Formerly a possession of the Turiss, it was acquired in 1878 by England, who ffelt it would he of service in defense of the Suez Canal and the road to India. These considerations have lost their strength since the British occupation of Egypt, and at the same time a movement has set in among the population, three-quarters of whom are Greek, for union with Greece. See Sues Canal. Czernin, Count V. zu Chudenitz (1857— ). Austrian Minister of Foreign Affairs. He comes of an old Bohemian Czech family, entered the diplomatic service, and at the out- breali of war was Austrian minister to Eoumania. When his attempts to prevent Roumania from entering the war proved futile, he returned to Austria and in December, 1916, was made Minister of Foreign Aifalrs and president of the Joint Council of Ministers. Of late his efforts have been directed to bringing about a peace based on no annexations and no indemnities, working in alliance with the Center party in Ger- many and its leader, Mathias Erzberger. He is also the advo- cate of better treatment for the Slavic nationalities within the Empire. His projects have aroused the fear and hostility of the Pan-Germans, who claim that he is interfering with the scheme of Middle Europe. See Erzberger; " Mittel-Europa " ; Pan-Oermanism. " Dacia." A vessel belonging, before the outbreak of the European war, to the Hamburg-American Line, and habitually engaged in trade between German ports and ports of the Gulf of Mexico. At the time of the declaration of war it was on its way to Port Arthur, Tex., where, after arrival, it remained until its purchase by Edward Breitung, of Marquette, Mich., the fol- lowing December. The vessel was then transferred to Ameri- can registry, loaded with cotton, and dispatched to Bremen. On February 27, 1915, the French auxiliary cruiser Europe met the Dacia at the entrance of the English Channel and took her in charge. The French prize council decided that the transfer had been illegal and invalid and so held her good prize. See Ship Registry; Ship Transfer in Time of War. Dalmatia. A province of Austria, lying along the Adriatic. Area, 4,956 square miles. Population, 660,336. The bulk of the population is southern Slav, but the towns on the coast are Italian. As portions of the inhabitants aspire to annexation to Greater Serbia and Greater Italy, respectively, the disposition of the region will present a thorny problem in the discussion of peace terms. Dardanelles. The straits which separate the Gallipoli Pen- insula from Asia Minor and which form the western approach by water to Constantinople. In parts they are extremely nar- row, and because of strong fortifications are almost impassable for an attacking fleet. In February and March, 1915, a Franco- 72 WAR CYCLOPEDIA. British squadron carried on a bombardment and, after silencing (he forts at the mouth of the straits, proceeded up to the nar- rows. In April an expeditionary force of British and French troops was landed on the shores of the Gallipoli Peninsula. The Turks, warned of their danger, had made good use of the terrain, which was exceedingly well fitted for purposes of defense. Be- hind good fortifications the Turk is an excellent fighter and the advance of the expeditionary force was checked decisively. Its losses were heavy, and in January, 1916, the attack on the Dardanelles was abandoned. The troops were skillfully re- embarked and most of them sent to Saloniki. See Bagdad; Gallipoli; Saloniki. " Daylight Saving." This movement plans " to set the clock ahead " one hour from May 1 to October 1. Thus an hour of sunlight is substituted at one end of the day for an hour of artificial light at the other. Benjamin Franklin originated the idea, but the modern proposal came first from William Willett, an Englishman, who in 1907 published a pamphlet entitled Waste oj Daylight. Germany adopted the measure in 1916. Within a short time Holland, Austria, Turkey, England, France, Nor- way, Sweden, Denmark, Italy, Switzerland, Spain, Portugal, and parts of Canada, together with a few cities in the United States, followed. Death Rate from Casualties. See War, Low Death Rate. Declaration of Intention. This is the official term for the oath which an alien takes two years prior to his admission to citizenship, declaring his bona fide intention of becoming a citizen of the United States and of renouncing all allegiance and fidelity to any foreign prince or State. It is on the occasion of declaring his Intention that an alien receives his " first papers," which en- title him to the protection of the Government when abroad for a limited period and with certain exceptions. See Citizenship; Naturalisation ; " Windier." Declaration of Liondon. In the winter of 1908-09 a confer- ence of the leading maritime powers was held In London with the object of fixing the principles of prize law for the government of the international prize court which had been agreed upon at The Hague Conference of 1907. The work of the conference was a declaration consisting of 71 articles " embodying a code of rules regulating the rights of neutrals and belligerents with respect to neutral commerce." At the outbreak of the present war the declaration had not yet been ratified by a sufficient num- ber of belligerent powers to be reckoned a part of the accepted law of nations. Inasmuch, however, as it was distinctly favor- able to neutrals, President Wilson approached both sides with the suggestion that they indicate their adherence to it. Ger- many, the weaker naval power, professed willingness ; England, to whom the real sacrifice was proposed, stipulated conditions, and so the suggestion fell through. In point of fact, the declara- tion was already somewhat out of date. Thus cotton, to-day a constituent of high explosives, is listed by it as nsver contra- band. Our Government has stated repeatedly that it does not WAE CYCLOPEDIA. 73 regard the declaration as in force. See Freedom of the Seas; Navalism. Declaration of Paris. Was issued by the Congress of Paris in 1856, at the close of the Crimean War. It laid down the fol- lowing epoch-making principles of maritime law: (1) priva- teering is and remains abolished; (2) the neutral flag covers enemy goods, with the exception of contraband; (3) with the same exception, neutral goods under an enemy's flag are not subject to capture; (4) blockades to be' binding must be effec- tive. The declaration was signed by all the powers represented at the congress : England, France, Russia, Sardinia, Turkey, and Prussia ; and most other powers have since signed. The United States refused to sign been use, having a small Navy, it felt that, with private enemy property still subject to cap- ture, it might find it necessary in case of war with a maritime power to resort to privateering. However, it has in practice always observed the declaration and treated it as binding law. In 1898 the United States and Spain, neither of them a signatory, observed the rules. See Blockade; "Free Ships, Free Goods"; Paper Blockade. Declarations of War. See War, Declarations of, against Oermany. " De facto," " de jure." " In fact " ; " In law ". or " of right." The recognition of new governments is apt to pass through two stages. At first the new government is recognized as the " de facto " government of the country ; and then, when it becomes clearly able to discharge the duties of a member of the family of nations and appears to be receiving the general allegiance of those supposed to be subject to it, it is recognized as a " de jure " sovereign. The United States recognized the Provisional Government of Russia on March 22, 1917, as the de facto Government of that country. On September 15, 1917, the Carranza Government, hitherto recognized as the de facto Government of aiexico, was accorded recognition as the de jure Government. See Mexico; Recognition. Delbriick-Dernburg Petition. In July, 1915, there was pre- sented to Chancellor Bethmann HoUweg a petition against the " incorporation or annexation of politically independent peo- ples." In general the petition urged that it was unwise for Ger- many to attempt the absorption of bitterly hostile peoples. The petition nevertheless declared for a peace that secured the " strategic needs " and " political and economic interests " of the nation, i. e., such annexations as were absolutely necessary. Among the 141 signers of this document were men who prefer colonial expansion, as Delbriick, or southeastern gains to an- nexation of near neighbors. Among the distinguished names on this document were M. Foerster, Rohrbach, von Schmoller, von Siemens, Troeltsch, and Theodor Wolff. See German Oov- emment. Moral Bankruptcy of. Democracy as a Social System. " The beauty [of democ- racy] ... Is that you do not know where the man is going to come from, and you do not care, so he is the rigjit man. 74 WAR CrCLOPEDIA. You do not know whether he will come from the avenue or the alley. . . . The humblest hovel . . . may produce your great- est man. A very humble hovel did produce one of your greatest men." (President ^Yilson, at Pittsburgh Y.M.C.A., Oct. 24, 1914. ) Democracy as a System of Government. " The people of a democracy are not related to their rulers as subjects are related to a Government. They are themselves the sovereign au- thority." (President Wilson, at Arlington, June 4, 1914.) " The Government is merely an attempt to express the con- science of everybody, the average conscience of the Nation, in rules that everybody is commanded to obey." (American Elec- trical Railway Association, Washington, Jan. 29, 1915.) Democracy, the best Preventive of AVar. " Democracy is the best preventive of such jealousies and suspicions and secret intrigues as produce wars among nations, where small groups control rather than the great body of public opinion." (Presi- dent Wilson, interview in the New York World, Nov. 5, 1916.) Democracy, A AVorld Safe for. " We are accepting this challenge of hostile purpose because we know that in such a Government, following such methods, we can never have a friend ; and that In the presence of its organized power, always lying In wait to accomplish we know not what purpose, there can be no assured security for the democratic Governments of the world. We are now about to accept the gage of battle with this natural foe to liberty, and shall, if necessary, spend the whole force of the Nation to check and nullify its preten- sions and its power. We are glad now that we see the facts with no veil of false pretense about them, to fight thus for the ultimate peace of the world and for the liberation of its peoples, the German peoples included ; for the rights of nations, great and small, and the privilege of men everywhere to choose their way of life and of obedience. The world must ie made safe for democracy. Its peace must be planted upon the tested foundations of political liberty. We have no selfish ends to serve. We desire no conquests, no dominion. We seek no in- demnities for ourselves, no material compensation for the sacri- fices we shall freely make. We are but one of the champions of the rights of mankind. We shall be satisfied when those rights have been made as secure as the faith and the freedom of nations can make them. . . . But the right is more precious than peace, and we shall fight for the things which we have always 'carried nearest our hearts — for democracy, for the right of those who submit to authority to have a voice in their own Governments, for the rights and liberties of small nations, for a universal dominion of right by such a concert of free people as shall bring peace and safety to all nations and make the world itself at last free." (President Wilson, to Congress, Apr. 2, 1917.) Denmark. Denmark, by virtue of her location, commands the waterways connecting the Baltic and the North Sea. It is a constitutional monarchy. Copenhagen is its capital. The total area, according to the census of 1911, was 15,586 square miles. WAR CYCLOPEDIA. 75 and the population at that time was 2,775,076. The reigning King, Christian X, ascended the throne on May 15, 1912. The Queen is Alexandrine, Duchess of Mecklenburg. See Kiel Canal; Bohleswig-Holsiein. Denmark, Neutral Problems. Denmark declared her neu- trality at the outbreak of the war, and has never shown any serious intention of departing from this policy. The great bulk of the population appears to favor the cause of the Allies, but her military inferiority in the face of Germany will prevent Denmark entering the war. In addition, she has seemingly avoided any serious entanglement with Germany over submarine warfare, although she protested against the German decision of February, 1917, to wage unlimited submarine warfare. Trade questions are her greatest difficulty with the Allies; she is a great producer of foodstuffs, and these are largely exchanged for German goods, notably coal. In order to prevent imports from the Allied nations reaching Germany or taking the place of home-produced goods exported into Germany, Denmark has, with other neutrals, been rationed by the Allies. See Neutrals; Rationing; Trade with Germany; " Willy and, Nicky Corre- spondence." Deportations. See Belgium, Deportations. Dernbnrg, Bernhard (1865- ) . Head of the German propaganda in America in the first year of the war. He spent a number of apprentice years in a banking house in New York, and after his return to Germany was connected with the Deutsche Bank, the Darmstadter Bank, and various other great financial and industrial concerns. In 1907 he became German Secretary for the Colonies ; greater things were expected of him in the way of a businesslike administration of the colonies than he* succeeded in accomplishing. In 1913 he was made a member of the Prussian Herrenhaus. Ostensibly as a private citizen he lived in America from the beginning of the war to June, 1915, when a wave of indignation over his defense of the sinking of the Lusitania convinced him, or his Government, that his influ- ence in America, if it had ever existed, was ended, and he sailed for Germany on a Scandinavian liner. See Delhriiclc-Dernhiirg Petition. " Der Tag." For many years a favorite toast in the Ger- man army and navy was Der Tag — the day when war would come. " Not as weak-willed blunderers have we undertaken the fearful risk of this war. We wanted it ; because we had to wish it and could wish it. May the Teuton devil throttle those whiners whose pleas for excuses make us ludicrous in these hours of lofty experience. We do not stand, and shall not place ourselves before the court of Europe. . . . Ger- many strikes. If it conquers new realms for its genius, the priesthood of all the gods will sing songs of praise to the good war. . . . We are waging this war not in order to punish those who have sinned, nor in order to free enslaved peoples, and thereafter to comfort ourselves with the unselfish and useless consciousness of our own righteousness. We wage it from the 76 WAE CTCLOPEDIA. lofty point of view and with the conviction that Germany, as a result of her achievements, and in proportion to them, is justi- fied in asking, and must obtain, wider room on earth for devel- opment and for working out the possibilities that are In her. The powers from whom she forced her ascendancy, in spite of themselves, still live, and some of them have recovered from the weakening she gave them. . . . Now strikes the hour of Germany's rising power. ... To be unassailable — to exchange the soul of a Viking for that of a New Yorker, that of the quick pike for that of the lazy carp whose fat back grows moss- covered in a dangerless pond — that must never become the wish of a German." (Article by Maximilian Harden, translated in the New Tork Times, Dec. 6, 1914. Also in New York Times Current History, III, p. 130.) " Der Tag" — When? Not long after the Spanish War a German diplomat, von Gotzen, told an American Army officer: "About 1.5 years from now my country mil start her great war. She will be in Paris in about two months after the commence- ment of hostilities. Her move on Paris will be but a step to her real object — the crushing of England. Everything will move like clockwork. We will be prepared and others will not be prepared. I speak of this because of the connection which it will have with your own country. Some months after we finish our work in Europe we will take New York and probably Washington and hold them for some time. We will put your country in its place with reference to Germany. We do not purpose to tahe any of your territory, but we do intend to take a billion or more dollars from New York and other places." (Testimony of Maj. N. A. Bailey to Dr. W. T. Hornaday, in a letter from Dr. Hornaday in New York Tribune, Aug. 11, 1915.) See America Threatened; Manila Bay; Spa/nish-American War, German Attitude. Destroyers. Large torpedo craft of from 350 to 1,100 tons displacement. They have greater freeboard and higher speed than the torpedo boats, which they were devised to destroy. In the present war they have proved to be one of the best means for fighting submarines. Destruction. Article XXIII of The Hague Regulations con- tains the following provision : " It is especially forbidden . . . to destroy or seize the enemy's property unless such destruc- tion or seizure be imperatively demanded by the necessities ot war." In the recent retreat of the Germans to the " Hindenburg line " schools, churches, municipal buildings, with their irre- placeable records, historical monuments which had survived a score of wars, were all ruthlessly and systematically destroyed ; private property was ravaged, wells filled with dung, cross- roads blown up, orchards cut down or girdled. An eyewitness writes i " With field glasses I could see far In on either side of every road for miles and miles ; every farm is burned, fields destroyed, every garden and every bush uprooted, every tree sawed off close to the bottom. It was a terrible sight and seemed almost worse than the destruction of men. Those thousands of trees prone upon the earth, their branches waving in the wind, seemed undergoing death agonies before our eyes." WAR CYCLOPEDIA. 77 Such is the German view of what is " imperatively " demanded by the necessities of war. See Belgium, Economic Destruction of; Louvain; " Fright fulness " ; Rheims. Detention. The action of a belligerent in keeping in port, pending their examination, neutral vessels and their cargoes which he has intercepted on the high seas on suspicion of their being involved in forbidden trade with the enemy. Previously the examination of such cargoes and vessels was usually car- ried out at sea, but the British Government, early in the pres- ent war, introduced the practice described above on a large scale, and so provoked protest by the neutral United States. The British Government defended the innovation on the ground that examination at sea had been rendered' impracticable (1) by the great size of ocean carriers to-day and (2) by the submarine menace. It has shown itself liberal in compensating neutral ^owners for losses resulting from detentions. See Blockade; Embargo, British; Visit and Search. " Deutschland." An unarmed German merchant submarine about 300 feet long, and carrying a cargo of about 800 tons. In 1916 it twice sailed from Germany to the United States and returned. Each crossing of the Atlantic took from 16 to 22 days. The German cargo was reported to consist chiefly of dyestufEs; the American cargo of rubber and nickel. For several months German sympathizers built high hopes on the Deutschland, be- lieving that it would prove to be only the first of a large number of German submarine freight boats and that the Allied blockade of Germany would thereby be broken. But no other such vessel ever reached an American port, although the sailing of a com- panion vessel, the Bremen, was reported. See Dyestuffs; War Chemistry. "Deutschland iiber AUes." The refrain of a popular Ger- man song that has acquired a new and sinister meaning since 1914. If it meant only the supreme love of the loyal German for his fatherland it would embody a virtue ; its vice and menace lie in the belief among many Germans that their Germany is to dominate the world, that they have a destiny that warrants them in forcing other nations to submit to their will. See Kultur; Militarism; Pan^Germanism,. Diaz, Gen. Commander in chief of the Italian armies since November 8, 1917, when Gen. Cadorna was removed from command and made Italian military representative on Supreme War Council of the Allies. Diaz is a native of southern Italy, and had spent many years on the Italian General Staff. He served with distinction in the Libyan War as a colonel. Diplomacy. The normal, peaceful intercourse of States, as carried on through certain recognized agencies and in accord- ance with k certain conventionalized etiquette. Also, the whole system of State relationships which has been thus created. " The peace of the world must depend upon a new and more wholesome diplomacy." (President Wilson, before the League to Enforce Peace, Washington, May 27, 1916.) See Balance of Power; German Diplomacy; President, Diplomatic Powers; Secret Treaties Revealed by Russia. 78 WAR CYCLOPEDIA. Diplomatic " Books." At the outbreak of the war the European Grovermnents published their diplomatic correspond- ence in pamphlets with covers of various colors, according to long-established usage. Hence the terms often met with in discussions of the war, British Blue Book, French Yellow Booh, etc. Collected editions of the documents have been published by the British Government, Collected Diplomatic Documents relating to the Outbreak of the European "War, and by the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, Diplomatic Docu- ments Relative to the Outbreak of the European War. Our State Department has issued several White Books containing correspondence with the belligerent Governments before we entered the war. Diplomatic Immunity. Diplomatic agents, their places of residence, the members of their households, and their efCects are, generally speaking, free from the control of the country to which the agent is accredited. The Inviolability of the per- son of the agent himself is one of the most ancient, as well as most indispensable, rules of Intercourse among civilized States. Yet on the occasion of the breach of relations between Germany and our country the German Imperial Government did not hesitate to delay the departure of Mr. Gerard from Berlin, and to threaten to detain Americans generally unless he should sign a renewal and extension of certain articles of the Prussian treaties. At the same time he writes : " Our telegraph privileges were cut off. I was not even allowed to send telegrams to the American consuls throughout Germany giving them instruc- tions. Mail was also cut off, and the telephone. My servants were not even permitted to go to the near-by hotel to telephone." (J. W. Gerard My Four Years in Germany, pp. 378, 383.) The Germans sought to justify themselves by alleging a rumor that von BernstorfC was being mistreated in America ; and when this rumor was refuted by authentic information, and after Mr. Gerard had refused decisively to have anything to do with the proposed treaty, these annoyances were discontinued. So at the end of the episode- it was the Germans who had trans- gressed the rules of International conduct and not we Americans. See German Diplomacy ; Prussian Treaties. Disarmament. The idea of disarmament is not new ; a hundred years ago, at the Congress of Vienna, men hoped that the nations would lay down their arms and live in peace. There was no formal action at the time, but in practice all European Governments greatly reduced their military estab- lishments. After the wars, however, of Italian and German unification (1859-1871) conscription was generally adopted in Europe, only to be found a burden and a danger. Accordingly in 1898 the Czar of Russia invited the nations represented at his capital to a conference for the discussion of disarmament. The conference met at The Hague in 1899, but, although much was done to promote the cause of peace, disarmament was ruled out by the resolute opposition of Germany, whose dele- gates boasted that armaments were not a burden but a privi- WAR CYCLOPEDIA. 79 lege, and that Germany could increase her expenditures In- definitely. The conference therefore could only resolve that " the restrlttlon of military charges ... is extremely desirable." As the time for the second conference drew near the German Emperor declared to Edward VII, of England, that he would go to war rather than allow the question of disarmament to be discussed. At this conference in 1907, however, it was resolved that " the governments should resume the serious examination of this question." In the years immediately preceding the present war. Great Britain endeavored to effect by agreement with Ger- many some limitation of naval programs, but again the same opposition was encountered. The dlfHculties of disarmament are undoubtedly great, the matter can not be solved by a mere resolution ; but no progress toward a lasting peace can be made until all nations are agreed in principle to disarm. As President Wilson has said, " There can be no sense of safety and equality if great preponderating armaments are henceforth to continue here and there to be built up and maintained." (Jan. 22, 1917.) See Conquest and ICultur. Disarmament, German Attitude. " Gentlemen, if the Great Powers wish to come to an understanding in regard to a gen- eral international disarmament, they will first have to come to an agreement in regard to the respective rank to which the different nations may lay claim, as compared with each other. An order of precedence, so to speak, would have to be drawn up, and each single nation would have to be entered, according to its allotted number, together with the sphere of influence that is to be accorded to It,. in some such way, perhaps, as in the case of the industrial syndicates. I must decline, gentlemen, to draw up such a list or to submit it to an international tribunal. . . . Gentlemen, whoever considers the question of a general disarma- ment objectively and seriously and follows It up to its last conse- quences must come to the conviction that it can not be solved so long as human beings are human beings and so long as States are States." (Chancellor von Bethmann-HoUweg, Kelchstag, Mar. 30, 1911. ) "Any agitation In Germany in favor of disarma- ment is absolutely unpardonable. . . . Germany is, among all the powers, the only one which possesses not only sufficient men but also sufficient gold to increase armaments on land and sea to an extraordinary degree. Germany, however, Is at the same time the nation that needs this increase of armaments the most. We stand not at the end, but at the beginning of a great develop- ment." (Hans Delbruck, Erinnerungen, quoted in German/y's War Mama, 1914, pp. 256, 260.) See Arbitration; Conquest and Kultur; German Military Autocracy ; Militarism or Disarma- ment; William II. Division. The Infantry division is complete in itself, having Infantry, Cavalry, Artillery, Engineers, Signal and Quarter- master Corps troops, medical and sanitary troops, and all neces- sary supplies, materiel, and transportation, with the head- quarters personnel, enabling It to act independently of any other organization. It is the command of a major, general. 80 WAK CYCLOPEDIA. The Infantry division of the United States Army Is now com- posed of division headquarters, two Infantry brigades, each of two regiments of Infantry and one machine-gun battalion, one Field Artillery brigade (having two regiments of light and one of heavy Field Artillery and one trench mortar battery), one divisional machine-gun battalion, one regiment of Engi- neers, one Field Signal battalion, headquarters train, and mili- tary police, and Engineer, ammunition, supply, and sanitary trains. The division has a total strength of 887 officers and 26,265 enlisted men. The Cavalry division at the beginning of the present war included headquarters and three brigades of Cavalry, with horse artillery, mounted Engineers, train, etc., and its total strength was 711 officers and 17,537 men. This organization will. In all probability, be somewhat changed to meet present conditions. See Battalion; Brigade; Company; Corps; Regiment. Dobrudja. A Danubian province of Roumania bordering upon Bulgaria. It is low and swampy and controls the southern bank of the Danube at Its marsh. It was left undefended against Mackensen's forces when Roumania entered the war. Dobrudja was overrun by German, Austrian, Bulgarian, and Turkish forces in November and December, 1916. Domicile. Legal residence; the place of one's permanent abode. In English and American practice domicile is Important in determining the enemy character, and this Is the test which is primarily adopted in the recent trading with the enemy act. See Alien Property Custodian; Naturalization; Trading with the Enemy Act. Draft. A military draft is based upon the universal liability to service of all male citizens and permanent residents. The principle Is as old and as universal as government. The French Revolution revived and systematized universal liability to serv- ice, which became the foundation of military power on the con- tinent of Europe in the nineteenth century, the liability being extended from service in a national emergency to service in time of peace, on the theory that if one is liable to serve one is also bound to receive the training necessary for useful service. In the United States Washington desired the draft in the Revolution, and Madison was intending to employ it in 1815, when the close of war rendered It unnecessary. In the Civil War it was resorted to by both Union and Confederate Govern- ments. Lincoln first applied it in 1862, at that time calling upon the governors, without special legislation, to use their constitutional power to draft within the several States. In 1863 Congress provided for a national draft, which was applied throughout the war. The draft has taken many forms. The ages between which there is liability to service are traditionally 16 to 60. In a modern State all persons between the stipulated age could not be employed, and so from the total a certain number is drafted. All systems attempt to equalize the burden between the various communities by calling for the same pro- portion or quota from each. Should this number be chosen by lot, we would have a simple draft system. In all cases, how- WAR CYCLOPEDIA. 81 ever, the attempt is made to draw first the most fit or those who can best be spared. Any such system is a selective draft, though the principles upon which the selection is made vary. Any draft is a conscription, though in common usage conscrip- tion Is usually applied to an elaborate and generally to a per- manent system, as contrasted with use for an emergency only. See Selective Service. . Draft, Constitutionality of. The notion is sometimes ad- vanced that the- draft conflicts with the thirteenth amendment to the Constitution. This idea is sufficiently met by the fol- lowing passage from a recent decision of the Supreme Court: " The thirteenth amendment declares that neither slavery nor involuntary servitude shall exist. This amendment was adopted with reference to conditions existing since the foundation of our Government, and the term involuntary servitude was in- tended to cover those forms of compulsory labor akin to African slavery, which in practical operation would tend to produce like undesirable results. It introduced no novel doctrine with respect of services always treated as exceptional, and certainly was not intended to interdict enforcement of those duties which individuals owe to the State, such as services in the Army, Militia, on the jury, etc. The great purpose in view was liberty under the protection of effective government, not the destruc- tion of the latter by depriving it of essential powers." (Butler V. Perry, 240 U. S., 328, 332-333). It may be added that the Civil War draft and the thirteenth amendment came from Congress at practically the same time. See War Powers. " Drang nach Osten." A German phrase meaning " push toward the east." It originally signified the eastward movement of the Germans from the eleventh to the fifteenth centuries, by which they conquered or dispossessed the thinly settled Slavs be- yond the Blhe and along the southern shores of the Baltic. In recent years Drang nacJi Osten has been used to designate the extension of German power and influence to the southeast, espe- cially in Asiatic Turkey. It is brought about through the political friendship of Germany and Turkey, through the settle- ment of Germans, and especially through the activities of Ger- man banks, trade, and railways. In the case of Austria-Hun- gary, Germany's ally, the Drang nacJi Osten has taken the form of an attempt to extend Austrian influence over the Balkan States, especially in the control of their foreign relations ; of late years it has manifested an economic turn, looking to the control of the Danube Valley and the Vardar Valley in Mace- donia and its outlet at Saloniki, which would secure outlets for Austrian trade to the Black Sea and to the JEgean. For this reason every effort has been made to keep Serbia in economic dependence on Austria by depriving her of an independent outlet to the sea. In general, Drang nach Osten is the expression of those economic and political policies of the Central Powers which led them to precipitate the European war in August, 1914. See "Berlin to Bagdad"; Conquest and Kultur; "Corridor" ; Constantinople; " Mittel-Europa." 15963°— 18 6 82 WAR CYCLOPEDIA. " Dreadnanght." A British battleship, first of a new type of heavy battleship, designed under direction of Admiral Sir John Fisher and launched in 1906. The size and power of this' type forced upon all maritime nations a revision of their naval programs, while Germany was forced also to undertake the enlargement of her Kiel Canal in order to accommodate such vessels. The opening of the widened and deepened Kiel Canal was celebrated .July 1, 1914. Dual Citizenship. Native citizenship may be determined by either of two principles: The jus soli, which makes place of birth the test, and the jtt-s sanguvms, which makes parentage the test. The former is illustrated by the fourteenth amendment, which declares that " all persons born ... in the United States . . . are citizens of the United States." The latter is illustrated by section 1993 of the Revised Statutes, which provides that " all children . . . born out of the limits . . . of the United States whose fathers . . . may be, at the time of their birth, citizens thereof, are declared to be citizens of the United States." Thus the United States claims allegiance by both titles, and so do other States. Hence conflicts arise. In the recent case of Lelong the State Department ruled that a person who was born in the United States of a native French father was a person of " dual nationality " and liable, if he voluntarily entered the jurisdiction of France, to be held for military service in that country. There is a growing tendency on the part of States to avoid conflicts of this character by allow- ing the State having actual jurisdiction in the case of a person of dual nationality to claim his allegiance, on the ground that such person has voluntarily chosen his domicile. But treaty provisions sometimes modify this tendency. See Naturalisation. Dual Citizenship, German Law. The German Imperial and State citizenship law of July 23, 1913, often called the Delbrtlck law, provides that " a former German who has not taken up his residence in Germany may, on application, be naturalized by the State [of Germany] of which he was formerly a citizen . . . the same applies to one who is descended from a German or has been adopted as a child of such." In other words, Germans who have been naturalized in the United States and their children may acquire citizenship in the Father- land without leaving the United States or affording our Govern- ment any indication that they owe allegiance to Germany. The same law further states (sec. 25) that "Citizenship is not lost by one who, before acquiring foreign citizenship, has secured, on application, the written consent of the competent authorities of his home State to retain his citizenship." It would be impossible for a German applicant for citizenship in the United States to avail himself of this section without perjury. See Naturaliza- tion, Oath of; Dumha, Recall of. Due Process of Law. When people can find no better reason for not wishing to obey an act of Congress they say that it de- prives them of " liberty and property without due process of law." The fact of the matter is, however, that the "due WAR CYCLOPEDIA. 83 process " clause of the fifth amendment was never meant to prevent Congress from passing all lavs^s " necessary and proper " for carrying Into execution its powers and the powers of the other organs of the Government. For as the Supreme Court has said more than once, the Constitution does not contradict itself by granting Congress power in one section and then taking it away in another. See Congress, Implied Powers of; War Powers. " Dugout." (1) A term applied at the beginning of the war to retired British officers who were " dug out " of their retire- ment and were set to drilling recruits. (2) An underground resi- dence or barracks built in connection with the trench system as a refuge for reserve trench troops during a bombardment. See " Pill-boxes." Dumba, Recall of. Dr. Constantin Dumba was Austro-Hun- garian ambassador to the United States until recalled at the request of Secretary Lansing. In a letter to the Austrian Min- ister of Foreign Affairs, dated August 20, 1915, Dr. Dumba recom- mended " most warmly " to the favorable consideration of the Austro-Hungarian foreign office " proposals with respect to the preparation of disturbances in the Bethlehem Schwab's steel and munitions factory, as well as in the Middle West." He felt that " we could, if not entirely prevent the production of war material in Bethlehem and in the Middle West, at any rate strongly disor- ganize It and hold it up for months." This letter was intrusted to an American newspaper correspondent named Archibald, who was just setting out for Europe under the protection of an American passport. Archibald's vessel was held up at Falmouth, England, and his papers seized, and their contents cabled to the United States. On September 8 Secretary Lansing instructed Ambassador Penfleld at Vienna to demand Dr. Dumba's recall, and his demand was soon acceded to by Vienna. Dr. Dumba's own apology was that he was merely endeavoring to dissuade Austro-Hungarian subjects from engaging in an employment which would involve them " in treason against their own coun- try " ; that is to say, he assumed that Austria might continue to regulate the conduct of her subjects after they had come to the United States to reside. His employment of an American citizen, with an American passport, as a messenger was, of course, an at- tempt to impose upon the good faith of countries with which the United States was at peace. It is kno%vn to-day that BernstorfE was equally guilty with Dumba in fomenting riot and disorder in American industries. His escape at the time from detection is explained by Dumba thus : " Count von BernstorfE took the posi- tion that these slanders required no answer and had the happy inspiration to refuse any explanation." See German Intrigue; Passports; Sabotage. Dum-Dum. The location of an ammunition factory in India, at which, about 1897, there was invented a bullet with a soft nose, which expanded upon meeting resistance and produced a spe- cially destructive wound. The use of bullets of dum-dum type, as well as explosive bullets, was forbidden by The Hague treaty. 84 WAR CYCLOPEDIA. Both belligerents, in 1914, complained to the United States that the enemy was using dum-dum bullets ; probably without great warrant on either side, for the regulation bullet at close range often flattens, producing wounds of the dum-dum type. E. Economic Conference at Paris. Representatives of the Entente Powers met in Paris June 14-17, 1916. Their labors resulted in the recommendation to the Entente governments of three classes of measures: (1) Measures to be put Into effect at once for the stoppage of trade with enemy countries and the ousting of enemy firms from allied territory. (2) Measures to be put into effect during the period immediately following the war and calculated to reestablish business and commerce in the Entente countries by a unified effort at restor- ing that which the war should have destroyed by giving the allied countries a prior claim on their own resources and by preventing "dumping." (3) Measures of a more permanent character, and intended to make the allied countries independent economically not only of the Central Powers but in great part the rest of the world as well. It is these last recommendations of the conference which have been described as planning " war after the war." It may be said in their defense, however, that at the time they were put forth similar plans were under con- sideration by the Central Powers, and their design was to meet threat with threat. It is perfectly clear both from the Presi- dent's answer to the Pope and its reception by Entente states- men that the present Allies plan no " war after the war." Economy. In war time, an elementary duty of patriotism. Private expenditure controls the use of capital and labor. The man who Insists upon having his usual pleasures and luxuries while his country is struggling to uphold Its best traditions and Ideals is simply contributing to make the struggle so much the harder by bidding against the Government for the services of which the latter has desperate need. On the other hand, the man who saves and buys Liberty Bonds with his savings does not only " his bit," but two bits. He makes it easier for the Government to obtain the help It has to pay for, and he assists It to pay for such help. See "Business as Usual"; Lnixury in War Time; "Pay as you go" War; War Finance, Loans and Taxes. Education in War Time. No educational institution ought to slacken its work. " It would seriously Impair America's pros- pect of success in this war if the supply of highly trained men were unnecessarily diminished. There will be a need for a larger number of persons expert In the various fields of applied science than ever before," says the President. See Medical Stu- dents. Egypt. A territory in northeast Africa, occupying the valley of the Nile and embracing the Suez Canal. Area, 400,000 square miles, of which only 10,000 are cultivated. Population, about 9,000,000. Egypt was formerly an autonomous province of WAR CYCLOPEDIA. 85 Turkey, but in 1882 it was " occupied " by Great Britain as a sequel to tlie rebellion of Arabi Pasha. The Khedive was allowed to retain his throne, but he had to depend on his British " advisers.'; Since 1882 Egypt has been steadily brought forward in culture and in prosperity; a revolt in the Sudan, to the south of Egypt, was put down and that district placed under Anglo-Egyptian control. Measures have been taken to regulate the overflow of the Nile, on which the agricultural prosperity of Egypt depends, and the hitherto not infrequent famines made practically impossible. At the outbreak of the European war the Khedive, Abbas II, plotted with the Turkish Government to oust the British ; whereupon the latter deposed him, proclaimed Egypt a British protectorate, and appointed his uncle, Hussein Kamil, Sultan. An attack by the Turks against the Suez Canal and Egypt early in 1915 was easily repulsed. The control of the canal is essential to the British because of their Indian Empire. See Hussein Kamil; Suez Canal. Embargo. Formerly defined as consisting in the detention of ships and goods within the port of the State resorting to it. It was ordinarily a measure of reprisal and might be either (1) pacific, when the detention was confined to the States' own vessels ; or (2) hostile, when it was extended to the goods and ships of another State. To-day the term has come to have a larger signification. Embargo, American. See Espionage Act; Export Licenses; Neutral Rationing. Embargo, British. On March 1, 1915, the British Govern- ment informed the principal neutral powers that, in view of Ger- man violation of international law, it and the French Govern- ment would " hold themselves free to detain and take into port ships carrying goods of presumed enemy destination, ownership, or origin," and added that it was " not intended to confiscate such vessels or cargoes unless they would otherwise be liable to condemnation." Ten days later an Order in Council put this program into effect. Originally, the " embargo," as it came to be called, was defended simply as a retaliatory measure. Very soon, however, the foreign office began to characterize it as a " block- ade," although it is clearly a new application of the blockade principle, especially as it interferes with commerce through neu- tral ports. The question of the effect of the embargo on the war has been much discussed. Without doubt it has contributed to make Germany's task much more difficult, and especially in the matter of the manufacture of high explosives. Recent devel- opments, especially the entry of the United States into the war, have strengthened the embargo. See Blockade; Continuous Voy- age; Continuous Transport ; Ultimate Destination; War Chemis- try, High Explosives. "Emden." A German cruiser which ran a spectacular course as a commerce raider from August 11 to November 10, 1914, under command of Lieut. Capt. von Mttller. After its de- struction by the Australian cruiser Sydney, an officer and a few of the crew escaped in small boats across the Indian Ocean and Bed Sea and reached Germany by way of Damascus and Turkey. 86 WAR CYCLOPEDIA. Emergency Fleet Corporation. See Ship Corporation. Eminent Domain. The power of a government to appro- priate for the public use any private property, whether of citizen or alien, friend or foe, that chances to be situated within its ter- ritorial jurisdiction. When this power is exercised for war purposes, the act is usually called " requisitioning." The Gov- ernment of the United States possesses, of course, the power of eminent domain as an auxiliary of its granted powers, among which is the power of waging war. By the fifth amendment a just compensation must be rendered for all property so taken; a requirement, however, which does not apply when property is seized or destroyed in meeting a sudden emergency, such as the advance of an enemy. See Alien Property Custodian; Shipping, Interned German. " Encirclement, Policy of." A name applied in Germany to the policy of agreements with France and Russia, pursued by England between 1904 and 1909 under the leadership of Edward VII of England. The Germans claim that this policy aimed at hampering Germany and concealed designs for future aggres- sion. The British reply that it was purely -defensive; and no definite facts have been brought forward by Germany to the contrary, while it Is clear that only the German practice of mak- ing abrupt demands on threat of war made the Triple Entente possible. During this period (1904-1909) England made sev- eral attempts to better relations with Germany, only to have these attempts repulsed in Berlin. See Grey, Viscount; Triple Entente. Enemy Alien. See Alien Enemy; Alien Property Custodian. Engineering and Education Committee. A committee of the Advisory Commission of the Council of National Defense, " to develop a comprehensive policy and a fundamental method for the most effective use of engineering and education in the United States during' the period of the war and in preparation for the period following the war." In this connection the committee has undertaken a number of investigations. Engineer Corps'. A large body of officers with a chief of engineers at its head controlling several regiments of troops performing a distinct and important class of military duties. In time of peace they are engaged largely in tasks in connection with lighthouses, rivers, harbors, and forts. In war they have vaster work to do, as in connection with the survey of grounds for camps and military defenses, the erection of buildings, the installation of power plants, and water supply and sewerage systems, the construction of roads, bridges, and railways. In modern warfare the engineer is one of the most vital factors in bringing a military operation to a successful end. Special regiments of engineers have been recruited in the United States to rebuild the railroads of France. Enlisted Reserve Corps. Authorized by act of June 3, 1916, for the purpose of securing reserves of enlisted men, between the ages of 18 and 45, for the Medical Department, Quarter- master Corps, Engineer Corps, Ordnance Department, and WAR CYCLOPEDIA. 87 Signal Corps. They Include men skilled in various trades and having technical knowledge of various kinds of business. See Offloers' Reserve Corps; Regular Army Reserve. "Entangling Alliances." (1) "He [Washington] warned us against entangling alliances. I shall never myself consent to an entangling alliance, but would to a disentangling alliance." (President Wilson, at Arlington, May 30, 1916.) (2) Washing- ton's advice " does not mean that we are to avoid the entangle- ments of the world, for we are part of the world, and nothing that concerns the whole world can be indifEerent to us." (At Omaha, Oct. 5, 1916.) (3) " I am proposing that all nations avoid entangling alliances which would draw them into compe- titions of power. . . . There is no entangling alliance in a concert of power. When all unite to act in the same sense and with the same purpose, all act in the common interest and are free to live their own lives under a common protection." (Ad- dress before the Senate, Jan. 22, 1917.) It should be remem- bered that Washington did not object to " temporary alliances for extraordinary emergencies," and that his sympathies were with movements for human freedom. See United States, Isola- tion. Entente. A French word of which a literal translation is " understanding," used of international arrangements less bind- ing than formal alliances. See Allies; Triple Entente. Enver Pasha. The Turkish leader on whom Germany seems most to rely to keep Turkey under her control. In 1908 he was one of the leaders of the Young Turks in the revolution. He was appointed military attachS at Berlin in 1909, where he entered into close relations with German statesmen. In 1911 he organized Turkish, resistance to the Italian invasion of Tripoli. In 1913 he headed a coup d'4tat which gave his party control of the Turkish Government, a control that they still retain. In 1914 he handled the Turkish end of the plot which involved Turkey in the war on the German side. He is also a strong advocate of Turkish nationalism and an aggressive policy abroad. See Turkey. Equality of Nations. " The essential principle of peace is the actual equality of nations in all matters of right or privi- lege." (President Wilson, second inaugural. Mar. 5, 1917.) Contrast with this the German view : "A small State has a right to existence only In proportion to its power of resistance. . . . Not all the treaties in the world can alter the fact that the weak is always the prey of the strong so soon as the latter finds it worth while to act on this principle." (Prof. Adolf Lasson, Das Kultur Meal und der Krieg. ) See America, Greed of. Erzberger, Mathias (1875— ). A member of the Ger- man Reichstag and leader of the Center party (i. e., the Catholic party). In July, 1917, after a visit to Switzerland and Austria on which journey he is said to have had interviews with Count Czernin and Prince von Billow he made a sensational speech in the Reichstag urging the conclusion of peace on the basis of no annexations and no indemnities. He has brought the Center 88 WAR CYCLOPEDIA. party into opposition to the policies advocated by Chancellor Michaelis, thus assuring for the moment, at least, an opposition majority in the Reichstag. See Bethmarm Hollweg. Erzerum. A strongly fortified city of Armenia from which roads radiate in all directions throughout Asiatic Turkey. It fell before the Russians under the Grand Duke Nicholas, Feb- ruary 16, 1916. Its capture opened strategic possibilities for cooperation with Russian armies in Persia and with the British shut up in Kut-el-Amara, and put an end to the projected Turkish invasion of Egypt. See Gaiwasiis; Kut-el-Amara. Espionage Act. One of the most important pieces of legisla- tion of the present Congress was approved June 15, 1917. It forbids the obtaining of information respecting the national defense or the instrumentalities thereof " with intent or reason to believe " that such Information " is to be used to the injury of the United States or to the advantage of any foreign nation " ; also the communication of any documentary information relat- ing to the national defense to any foreign Government or agent thereof, the latter offense being punishable with death. The same act gives the President absolute control over the movement of all vessels, foreign or domestic, in the territorial waters of the United States, with the right to take possession of them ; pen- alizes severely any attempt to injure vessels within American waters, or to interrupt foreign or domestic commerce, by the use of fire or explosives; authorizes the withholding of clear- ance from vessels suspected of carrying supplies or information to belligerent nations and the seizure of arms and ammunition intended for shipment in violation of law. It strengthens the neutrality laws of the United States, adds safeguards to pre- vent, the abuse of passports and the counterfeiting of the Gov- ernment seal, extends the use of search warrants, and imposes new restrictions upon the use of the mails. Finally, it gives the President power to prohibit, by proclamation, exportations to any or all countries, except at such times and under such regu- lations as he may fix, and to deny clearance to any vessel, do- mestic or foreign, carrying such goods. Few more sweeping measures have ever found their way to the national statute book. See Trading with the Enemy Act. Essen. An industrial town in the midst of iron and coal fields in the Rhineland in Prussia. It is situated at a point some 27 miles from Dtisseldorf. It is the seat of the Krupp iron and steel works, the largest in Europe. See Knipp. Excess Profits. The war stimulates some industries, such as iron, steel, shipbuilding, and munitions-making, giving them un- usual profits. These profits are doubly suitable for heavy taxa- tion during the war, for two reasons: (1) they are an available source of wealth ; (2) the profits arising from the war should in social equity be completely returned to its support, for the idea of one part of a nation profiting by a war from which the other parts derive nothing, and for which still others make great sacrifices, is abhorrent to the concept of deVnocracy in which each should share burdens and advantages alike. England is raising huge revenues from excess profits taxes, and the act of October 3, WAR OYCLOPEDIA. 89 1917, Imitates this policy. The English war excess profits tax is 80 pel- cent (less certain allowances and deductions). The rate in the United States ranges from 20 to 60 per cent. But the American basis for figuring the tax is different from the English. We tax all business profits above a moderate percent- age, no matter whether these profits arise from the war or not. This is in addition to the income tax. The English tax Is strictly excess war profits tax, the excess profits being the ad- vance over an average of the three years before the war which were, as it happens, good business years in England. Our nomi- nally lower rate on a higher basis is expected to yield fully as much as the English higher rate on a lower basis of figuring the excess war profits. See Profiteering ; " Rich Man's War, Poor Man's Fight" ; " War Baby"; War Taxes. Executive Orders and Proclamations. In time of war the authority of the executive branch of government is greatly in- creased, in part by the exercise of constitutional powers un- used in time of peace, and in part by the definite grant of new powers by legislation. This situation is indicated by the great increase in the number and importance of executive orders and proclamations issued by the President. Among those issued during the present war may be noted those establishing defensive sea areas, providing for a system of export licenses, establishing food regulations, and for proceedings under the selective mili- tary service act. See Acts of Congress; Espionage Act; Foo4 Control Act; Trading with the Enemy Act. Exemption, Appeals. The following statement, issued by Provost Marshal Gen. Crowder, explains the regulations govern- ing the appeal of claims for exemption from Selective Service : The local board has jurisdiction in all cases except those in- volving employment in agriculture or industry. An individual who thinks his case has been unfairly handled by the local board may appeal to the congressional district board. He may also make appeal to the governor. The district board has jurisdiction in all cases involving employment in agriculture or industry. Prom the decision of the district board, appeal may be made to the governor or the President. The district board also has juris- diction In cases appealed from the local board. The decision of the district board on cases appealed from the local board is final, except that appeal may be further taken to the governor. In these cases there is no appeal to the President. If a local or dis- trict board is in doubt as to the disposition of a particular case, it may apply to the governor for a ruling. If the governor can not answer the question, he will seek advice from Washington. Any individual who believes that the law has been erroneously interpreted by a local or district board has the right of appeal to the governor. Appeal to the President may be taken only in those cases in which claims for exemption or discharge are based on employment in agriculture or industry, and in these cases the appeal must be made through the district board, as no individual representation wiU be considered. See Selective Service. 90 WAR CYCLOPEDIA. Explosives from Aircraft. The Fourteenth Hague Conven- tion of 1907 provides: "The contracting powers agree to pro- hibit, for a period extending to the close of the third peace con- ference, the discharge of projectiles and explosives from balloons and by other methods of a similar nature." Germany did not ratify this convention and obviously has not considered herself bound by it. However, according to excellent authority, ■ " it was generally conceded at the conference that balloons must not be allowed to attack undefended places, but it was thought that this was sufficiently provided for by the words 'by any means whatever ' now inserted in article 25 of The Hague Regu- lations." In fact, September 3, 1914, Count von BernstorfE de- clared in a letter to the Secretary of State that " in the course of the present war nothing has been done by the German army contrary to the laws that obtain among civilized States in warfare. Any act of the nature described [killing innocent women and children by throwing bombs] would be contrary to the traditions of the German people in. arms. Any statement to the contrary I can only brand as a brazen fabrication." For acts proving such practices by the Germans see Bombardment. Export Control. " There will, of course, be no prohibition of exports. The normal course of trade will be interfered with as little as possible, and, so far as possible, only its abnormal course directed," said the President in his proclamation of July 9, 1917, under act of June 5. A license system was at this time established to control exports (1) "in such a way that they will go first and by preference where they are most needed," (2) " to see to it that the peoples associated with us in the war get as generous a proportion as possible of our surplus," and (3) "to supply the neutral nations ... as nearly in proportion to their need as the amount to be divided permits." See Espion- age Act; Export Council; Export Licenses; Netherlands, Neu- tral Problems of; Neutral Rationing; Sweden, Neutral Problems of; War Trade. Export Council. This council was formed as a result of proclamation by the President on June 22, 1917. It consists of the Secretaries of State, Agriculture, and Commerce, and the Food Controller. Its functions are: (1) To study the export situation and to guide exports " in such a way that they will go first where they are most needed and most immediately needed, and to withhold them. If necessary, where they can best be spared"; (2) Its duties were further extended by the proclama- tion of July 9, 1917, giving It the power to absolutely control, by means of granting licenses, export trade in certain enumer- ated articles. The task of granting these licenses was later con- ferred upon a specially organized subordinate board of export licenses and was, still later, rearranged under the trading with the enemy act. Exports. The United States has become the great storehouse and producer for the allied nations. Total exports of domestic merchandise from the United States reached a value of $6,230,- 769,395 for the year ending in June, 1917, as compared with WAR CYCLOPEDIA. 91 $4,272,177,579 in 1916 and $2,716,178,465 in 1915. The excess of exports over imports was $3,634,450,905, while in 1916 the excess of exports was $2,135,599,375, and this in turn was an increase over the excess in 1915. The general increase has not kept pace with the enormous increase of exports in certain arti- cles. A sharp increase in the most Important articles of export took place in 1916, and the figures for 1917 show a general but not a startling increase upon those of the preceding year. In many cases, as in coal, a slight increase in quantity exported has brought a material increase in value, due to the high prices of 1917. In such cases as wheat, cotton, cotton cloth, fertilizer, and tobacco an actual decrease in quantity exported has brought a distinct increase in value. A decrease in both quantity and value is seen in the export of aeroplanes, animals, fish, hay. hides and skins, India rubber, and wool. The decrease of wool is probably due to the British embargo. The most marked in- crease is seen in aluminum products, copper and its manufac- tures, which show an enormous increase from $99,558,030 in 1915 to $173,946,226 in 1916 and $322,284,174 in 1917; explo- sives, increasing from $41,476,188 in 1915 to $467,081,928 in 1916 and $802,789,437 in 1917; iron and steel and its manu- factures. Increasing from $225,861,387 in 1915 to $621,237,972 in 1916 and $1,129,341,616 in 1917. Exports of meat and dairy products have been almost doubled in the last year, and bread- stuffs generally have increased in both volume and value. Zinc also shows a material increase. Within the larger classifica- tions the greatest increase is seen in articles partially manufac- tured for future use in manufacture, but more noticeably still in completely manufactured articles of use In the war. F. " Falaba." A British steamer which was sunk by a German submarine on March 25, 1915, with resultant loss of 111 lives, some of them women, and one, Leon C. Thresher, the first American citizen to lose his life in consequence of German submarine warfare. The case was aggravated by the fact that the sinking occurred after the vessel had come to a full stop and the passengers £ind crew had had but 10 minutes to take to their boats. In justification the German Government alleged that the Falaba had at first attempted flight and had continued sending up rockets for aid after stopping. In answer, our Gov- ernment stated the rule that only " forcible resistance or con- tinued efforts to escape " could legitimately forfeit the lives of those aboard a merchantman. The discussion of the case soon became merged with that of the Lusitania sinking. Falkenhayn, Gen. Erich von (1861- ). German Minister of War at the opening of hostilities ; on the resignation of von Moltke he was made chief of the General Staffl. After the failure of the Verdun offensive and the successful beginning of the Anglo-French offensive on the Somme, he was deprived of this oflice and was placed in command of an army to cooperate with von Mackensen's Danube army in the Roumanian cam- 92 WAR CYCLOPEDIA. paign of the autumn of 1916. Later he commanded German and Turkish forces in Asia. Von Falkenhayn has been regarded as belonging to the party of the Orown Prince, the extreme military party of the court. Falkland Islands. A British colony composed of a group of islands in the south Atlantic. Here the German fleet under von Spee was broken up by a British fleet December 8, 1914; the Dresden, which escaped, was destroyed on March 22, 1915. Family Honor and Rights of liife and Property. Article XL VI of The Hague Regulations provides : " Family honor and rights, the lives of persons and private property, as well as religious convictions and practice, must be respected. Private property can not be confiscated." The evidence is overwhelming that the German soldiery, in the opening days of the war, out- raged the elementary human rights recognized in this article, and that they were often encouraged to do so by their com- manders, as part and parcel of the policy of " frightfulness." The following are extracts from the diaries of German soldiers of this period : " The inhabitants fled through the village. It was horrible. Blood was plastered on all the houses, and as for the faces of the dead, they were hideous. They were all buried at once, to the number of 60. Among them were many old men and women, and one woman about to be delivered. . . . There were three children who had huddled close to one another and had died together." " We got into the property of a well-to-do inhabitant, by a breach efllected in the rear, and we occupied the house. . . . There was the body of the owner on the floor. Inside our men destroyed everything, like vandals. . . . Out- side, in the country, the sight of the villagers who had been shot defies all description. The volley had almost decapitated some of them." " There, as the Belgians had fired on German soldiers, we at once pillaged the goods station. . . . The safe was gutted and [its contents] divided among the men. All se- curities were torn up." (Bgdier, Oerman Atrocities, pp. 7, 11, 21.) See Atrocities; "Frightfulness" ; German War Practices; Noncombatants ; War, Oerman Ruthlessness. ' Farm Loans. See Agricultural Credit. Favoritism (alleged) to the Allies. "The markets of this country are open upon equal terms to all the world, to every nation, belligerent or neutral. ... If any American citizens . . . feel that this administration is acting in a way injurious to the cause of [Germany and Austria-Hungary] . . . this feel- ing results from the fact that on the high seas the German and Austro-Hungarian power is thus far inferior to the British. It is the business of a belligerent operating on the high seas, not the duty of a neutral, to prevent contraband from reaching an enemy." (W. J. Bryan, Secretary of State, to Senator W. J. Stone, Jan. 20, 1915. ) See Munitions Trade. Federal Reserve Act. The Federal Reserve act, 1913, substi- tuted for the national banking system a new banking structure which provides (1) an elastic bank-note issue and (2) a com- bination of banking resources, thereby preventing the panics WAE CYCLOPEDIA. 93 inevitable under the defective provisions of the old law. It divides the country into 12 districts. In each district there is a Federal reserve bank whose capital is furnished by the " member banks," comprising all the national banks (and some of the State banksJl within the district. The primary function of the Fed- eral reserve banks, is to hold the reserves of the member banks and to issue Federal reserve notes. Any member bank may de- posit its commercial paper — notes and bills discounted for cus- tomers — and receive in exchange reserve notes. The essence of the system is-the consolidation of the country's banking re- sources in such a way that credit and currency will be available wherever and whenever needed. Under the successful operation of the act the Federal reserve banks are coming to hold the bulk of the country's gold in 12 centers, where it is utilized as a re- serve for the Nation's credit and a bulwark against any crisis which the war may bring. Federal Trade Commission. A commission of five members, appointed by the President for a term of seven years. It was created by Congress in 1914 to increase the Government's super- vision and control over corporations. Its powers extend to all corporations engaged in interstate commerce except banks and common carriers. Its special functions are to prevent unfair methods of competition and the formation of monopolies, to recommend the form of readjustment of business violating anti- trust laws, to supervise compliance by corporations with court decrees, and in general to aid the Government in enforcing the Sherman Act, the Clayton Act, and other statutes governing cor- porations. The commission has wide powers to take testimony, examine books, prescribe reports, and investigate the organiza- tion and operation of corporations and to compel corporations to desist from illegal practices, such as price discriminations, exclu- sive contracts, and illegal combinations. The war has given the powers of the commission added Importance, since its investiga- tions of the prices and costs of production of steel, coal, oil, and other necessities are fundamental in the determination of the prices which the Government will pay for munitions and sup- plies. Ferdinand I (1861— ). Czar of Bulgaria. He was the younger son of the Prince of Saxe-Coburg, and in 1887 was elected by the Bulgarians to be their prince. During the next years his policy was aimed at two things — (1) to promote the well-being of Bulgaria, and (2) to create an army strong enough to make Bulgaria the leading State in the Balkans. In both of these aims he was highly successful ; in 1912 Bulgaria was a prosperous State, and in the first Balkan war the Bul- garian army proved its worth. Acting under Austrian inspira- tion he led his country into the second Balkan war (1913), in which Bulgaria suffered heavy losses, and in the attempt to re- cover these losses he brought Bulgaria into the present war on the side of the Central Powers in October, 1915. Wily, clever, and unscrupulous — he is known as the " Balkan Fox " — he seems a little too clever, and the good of his policy before 1912 seems 94 WAR CYCLOPEDIA. to have been almost undone by his subsequent mistakes. See Balkan Wars. Ferdinand I (1865— ). King of Roumania ; succeeded his uncle Charles I on October 11, 1914. A member of the Catholic branch of the German Hohenzollerns. Unlike his prede- cessor, who aimed to keep on good term's- with the Central Powers, Ferdinand I favored closer relations with Russia. Finland. A Grand Duchy belonging to the Russian Empire with a population of 3,231,995 (1913). It was obtained from Sweden in 1809 and granted a constitution which vested the grand ducal sovereignty in the Czar of Russia but preserved the autonomy of the state. Since 1899 the Russian Government — i. e., the old Imperial Government — has sought to break down Finnish autonomy, and much friction has resulted, for the Finns are not a Slavic people and have developed a strong national feeling. Since the Russian revolution the Diet has proclaimed the independence of Finland, but the Russian Provisional Gov- ernment insists that the question must be reserved for the de- cision of a constituent assembly representing all parts of Russia. First Papers. See Declaration of Intention. Fishing Craft, Immunity of. The Eleventh Hague Conven- tion (concerning certain restrictions with regard to the exer- cise of the right of capture in naval war) provides in its third article as follows : " Vessels used exclusively for fishing along the coast or small boats employed in local trade are exempt from capture, as well as their appliances, rigging, tackle, and cargo." Germany has observed this regulation by sinking such vessels Instead of capturing them. Norwegian, Dutch, and English fishermen have been slaughtered without mercy while engaged in their peaceful occupation. Flag Day Address. President Wilson reviewed the causes forcing the United States into the war in a speech on Flag Day, June 14, 1917. This speech, as well as his war message of April 2, 1917, has been published with notes and explanations by the Committee on Public Information, and may be obtained free from the committee at 10 Jackson Place, Washington, D. C. Foch, Gen. Ferdinand (1851- ). Joint hero, with JofCre, of the battle of the Marne. Foch commanded' the French center and started the Germans on their retreat by a daring and impetuous attack. After the Marne he was in general command of the French and British armies that fought the battle of Ypres and saved the Channel ports. He was recently made the French military representative on the Supreme War Council of the Allies. Gen. Joffre styled him " the greatest strategist in France." Pood Administration, Woman's. A department of the woman's committee of the Council of National Defense which works in cooperation with the United States Food Administra- tion and serves as a channel through which instructions and suggestions are transmitted from the United States Food Ad- ministration to the State divisions of the woman's committee. WAK CYCLOPEDIA. 95 Food and Fuel Control Act. Passed August 10, 1917. As applied to food control only, the law prohibits, with respect to necessaries, wasting, destroying, hoarding, limiting of produc- tion, restricting of supply or distribution, manipulating of sup- ply, monopolizing, and exacting of excessive prices; requires licenses of traders and dealers ; permits the Government to seize hoarded supplies ; and authorizes the President to rectuisltion supplies for the Army and Navy ; to buy and sell wheat, flour, meal, and beans ; to requisition and operate any packing house or factory ; to prevent injurious speculation and regulate the ex- changes ; and to purchase foods, fertilizers, and farm implements and sell them to producers. The President was authorized to choose such persons as he sees fit to carry out the purpose of the law. The object of the law is not to beat down food prices to an uneconomic level, but to protect both producer and con- sumer, the producer against speculation, manipulation, and un- fair middlemen's contracts that would deprive him of a fair return, the consumer against artificial scarcity, speculative cor- ners, monopoly prices, and the exactions of extortionate dealers. With this in view, the act guarantees to the producer of wheat a minimum price of $2 per bushel for the 1918 crop. See Wheat ; Meat. As regards fuel control, the act authorizes the President, if in his discretion it is necessary for an efficient prosecution of the war, to fix the price of coal and coke, and to establish rules for the regulation of their production, distribution, and storage. If, In the opinion of the President, any producer or dealer fails to conform to such prices or regulations, he is authorized to requisition the plant, business, and appurtenances of the pro- ducer or dealer, and to operate them during the period of the war. See Fuel Control. Food Control Act, Enforcement. The act was imme- diately put into eiTect by H. O. Hoover as Food Administrator, and far-reaching benefits have resulted. The effort to increase food economy has taken the form of a systematic campaign to enlist every housewife in the movement to stop waste In the home, to prepare foods economically, and to adopt simpler and more wholesome daily menus. Wide publicity has been given the movement. Government literature on food use has been widely distributed, and the cooperation of influential organiza- tions of women has been secured. Dealing in futures on the grain exchanges has been suspended through voluntary regula- tion and grain elevators and flour mills have been brought under the control of the Government and transactions by irregular dealers have been forbidden. A committee of 12 represent- atives of the public and the producers, headed by H. A. Garfield, has set the price of the 1917 crop of wheat at $2.20 per bushel. These measures have been aided by the President's taking over the absolute control of all exports of food, thereby preventing the export of food to neutral countries for eventual enemy consumption. In August the Food Administration Grain Corporation, with its $50,000,000 of stock owned by the Govern- 96 WAR CYCLOPEDIA. ment, was organized to buy and sell wheat and rye, and the Government is in a position to take over the entire grain crop of 1917. Finally, under the President's proclamation of October 8, about 20 important and inclusive classes of foods have been brought under Federal control and virtually the whole machinery of their manufacture and distribution made answerable to Fed- eral pressure. All food brokers, commission men, wholesalers, jobbers, warehousemen, importers, and grain-elevator men not previously licensed are required to take out licenses, in most cases without reference to the size of their business. Manufac- turers of these foods must be licensed, and only those meat packers, canners, millers, egg packers, ginners, etc., who do a very small business are exempt. All retailers whose gross sales of food exceed $100,000 yearly are licensed. In practical opera- tion the plan will affect smaller retailers also, for it is explicitly provided by Mr. Hoover that no licensee shall " knowingly sell any food commodity to any person who shall, after this regula- tion goes into effect, violate the provisions " of the food control act. " The benefits the public has reaped from national control over wheat and' sugar," says the Nation, " are patent " ; and it continues : " With licensing, voluntary agreement, and coopera- tion given immensely broader scope, we may hope for substan- tial reductions in some foods and for full protection against any reflection in extortionate prices of a shortage in others." See Price Fixing in Australia. Food Control, Constitutionality. Even in time of peace businesses " affected with a public interest " are subject to regu- lation as to the prices they may exact for their services. Nor is there any hard and fast line separating such businesses from all others. Said the Supreme Court recently, in reviewing its own decisions on this point : " They demonstrate that a busi- ness, by circumstances and its nature, may rise from private to be a public concern, and be subject, in consequence, to govern- mental regulation" (233 V. S., 389, 411). And as Justice Hughes has put it : " The extraordinary circumstances of war may bring particular businesses and enterprises clearly into the category of those which are affected with a public interest and which demand immediate and thoroughgoing public regulation." Such regulations must, of course, be reasonable; that is, they must be reasonably calculated to promote the carrying on of the war. In short they must be " necessary and proper " in the broad sense which the Supreme Court has given to that term. See Civil Bights; Congress, Implied Powers of; Due Process of Law. Food Economy Campaigns. The Food Administrator di- rected his Federal food commissioners in the States to begin on October 28, 1917, a second campaign for the enrollment of women for food conservation through the pledge-card system. This new campaign was to supplement the earlier campaign for the enrollment of women, which was undertaken by the State councils of defense, working primarily through State divisions of the woman's committee of the Council of National Defense, and WAR CYCLOPEDIA. 97 Which was terminated on September 5. The first campaign was as successful as the circumstances allowed, but a large number of women were not touched thereby. The energetic prosecu- tion of the campaigns and the cooperation of hotels and res- taurants in making practically universal a " meatless " and a " wheatless " day each week will go far to effect the saving of food necessary to win the war. Enlistment in these cam- paigns and steady observance of the directions of those in com- mand of the conservation and mobilization of the Nation's food supply are absolutely vital to the winning of the war. It is still true that, as in Napoleon's day, " armies travel on their stomach," only to-day war has made the army coextensive with the nation. Italy can not fight, France can not fight, England can not fight, America can not fight, unless the na- tion behind the army is fed and kept up to working pitch. Our normal quantity of exports will not keep our associates on the battle line until our armies come. We must send more. This can only be done by saving from consumption. The man who buys because he has money and wastes because he can afford to is helping the enemy. Everyone must save by reduc- ing our excessive wasteful consumption as a Nation. Otherwise the war may be lost before we have fought a battle. Enlist in the food campaign and then obey orders like a good soldier. " Sacrifice and service must come from every class, every pro- fession, every party, every race, every creed, every section. This is not a banker's war or a farmer's war or a manufac- turer's war or a laboring man's war — it is a war for every straight-out American whether our flag be his by birth or by adoption. We are to-day a Nation in arms and we must fight and farm, mine and manufacture, conserve food and fuel, save and spend to the one common purpose." (President Wilson to Northwestern loyalty meeting, Nov. 17, 1917. ) -Food Economy Will Aid France. The tremendous signifi- cance of the food-conservation campaign in America is empha- sized by the following statement of the United States Food Administration (Nov. 19, 1917) : " Using the production of 1913 as a basis, the 1917 wheat crop of France is short 53.3 per cent, or 176,000,000 bushels; the potato crop is short 33.1 per cent, or 165,000,000 bushels; the sugar-beet crop is short 67.9 per cent, or 148,000,000 bushels; the number of cattle has declined 16.5 per cent, or 2,435,000 head ; the number of sheep has declined 36.6 per cent, or 5,535,000 head ; the number of hogs has been lessened 40.2 per cent, or 2,825,000 head." Food Production and Home Economics. A department of the Woman's Committee of the Council of National Defense which cooperates directly with the United States Department of Agriculture and through its State divisions with the State agricultural colleges. The cooperation is chiefly by means of the agricultural and home-economics service, the director of which is located at the State agricultural college. The work is closely connected with food production, conservation, and can- ning, and home demonstration clubs. 15963°— 18 7 98 WAR CYCLOPEDIA. Forbidden Methods of Warfare, German View. Article XXII of The Hague Eegulations reads: "The right of bel- ligerents to adopt means of injuring the enemy is not unlim- ited." To this the German War Book answers : " What is per- missible includes every means of war, without which the object of the war can not be obtained. ... All means which modern Invention affords, including the most dangerous and most massive means of destruction, may be utilized." Furthermore, *' bribery of enemies' subjects, acceptance of offers of treachery, utilization of discontented elements in the population, sup- port of pretenders and the like are permissible ; indeed, interna- tional law is in no way opposed to the exploitation of the crimes of third parties." (Morgan's translation, p. 85.) Clearly, Ger- many's crimes in the present war do not lack on the side of cold, deliberate intent. See " Frightfulness " ; " Kriegs-Rai- son"; " Notwendigkeit " ; War, German Ruthlessness. Forbidden Weapons. Article XXIII of The Hague Regula- tions contains the following provision : " It is especially for- bidden ... to employ arms, projectiles, or material calculated to cause unnecessary suffering." Nevertheless Germany early in the present war introduced poison gas and liquid flame projec- tors. See Gas Warfare; Roumania, German Treachery in. Forced Labor. See Belgium, Deportations; Military In- formation; unitary Operations ; Requisitions. Foreign Exchange. This is the rate at which sums of owed In one country may be paid in another. It is determined by the relative nominal value of the standard coins 'of the coun- tries and by the special conditions locally affecting them, such as balance of trade, inflation, redemption. The rates of for- eign exchange in September, 1917, were as follows : Coins. Nominal value in coin of United States. Present value in coin of United States. ■ Present premium (+) or dis- count (— ). Great Britain (pound sterling) France (fraac) Russia (ruble) Holload (gulder) $4.86 .193 .512 .402 S4.76 .173 .18 .-42 Per cent. - 2.1 -11 -65 -1-4.4 Foreign IJanguage Press. See Press. Foreign Legion. A well-known name in the military history of France. The French army, which established Maximilian on a throne in Mexico, had its Foreign Legion. The legion has seen much service in Morocco, and some of its peculiar methods are the result of this. In the present war it is a body of men drawn from every quarter of the globe, who, in love of military glory and with sympathy for the ideals which the Allies are holding before them, have volunteered their services to France. These "soldiers of fortune," from our mountains and plains, from the Canadian northwest, from the Aus- tralian bush, from Africa, the South American States, and every WAR CYCLOPEDIA. 99 corner of Europe, have performed the most daring feats on the battle front, in Flanders and France, since the beginning of the war. Their deeds and achievements will form material for song and story for generations to come. See Lafayette Escadrille. " Fonr Minute " Men. A nation-wide organization of vol- unteer speakers who make brief addresses in motion-picture theaters under Government authority. There are now (Novem- ber, 1917) over 15,000 " Four Minute Men," and the organization is growing rapidly. They speak on subjects assigned from week to week by headquarters, which is at 10 Jackson Place, Wash- ington, D. C. In a letter dated Ivlovember 9, 1917, President Wilson said : " May I not express my very real interest in the vigorous and intelligent work your organization is doing in con- nection with the Committee on Public Information? It is surely a matter worthy of sincere appreciation that a body of thought- ful citizens, with the hearty cooperation of the managers of mov- ing-picture theaters, are engaged in the presentation and dis- cussion of the purposes and measures of these critical days. Men and nations are at their worst or at their best in any great struggle. The spoken word may light the fires of passion and unreason or it may inspire to highest action and noblest sacrifice a nation of freemen. Upon you Four-Minute Men, who are charged with a special duty and enjoy a special privilege in the command of your audiences, will rest in a considerable degree the task of arousing and informing the great body of our people so that when the record of these days is complete we shall read page for page with the deeds of army and navy the story of the unity, the spirit of sacrifice, the unceasing labors, the high courage of the men and women at home who held unbroken the inner lines. My best wishes and continuing interest are with you in your work as part of the reserve officers corps in a na- tion thrice armed because through your efforts it knows better the justice of its cause and the value of what it defends." See Committee on Public Information. France. The present French Republic was proclaimed on September 4, 1870. A century earlier, however, France espoused the cause of democracy. She was the friend and. ally of the United States in the struggle for independence, and in her own great revolution abolished what was left of feudalism and gave Europe that charter of free government — the Declaration of the Rights of Man, The first French Republic was established in 1792, but it was unable to maintain itself against the reaction- ary forces of the age. After the overthrow of Napoleon, how- ever, progress toward complete control of the Government has been fairly consistent. France stands to-day one of the most democratic nations of the world, fighting under great disadvan- tages for her existence. At the very beginning of the war the Germans seized the territory of northeastern France, in which are located not only about 90 per cent of her coal and iron, but also her most productive industries. France has an area of 207,129 square miles, with a population in 1911 of 39,607,509. The capital, Paris, had 2,888,110. The Government consists of 100 WAK CYCLOPEDIA. a Senate and Chamber of Deputies, elected by the people, and a President choSen for seven years by the houses sitting jointly. M. Poincare has been President since 1913. As a partner of Eussia in the dual alliance, which later expanded into the Triple Entente, she became involved in the great war at the very begin- ning. To her reply that she would stand by her agreements Germany responded by a declaration of war on August 3, 1914. Francis Joseph (1830-1916). The late Emperor of Austria and King of Hungary. He came to the throne on Decem- ber 2, 1848, when the polyglot lands of the Hapsburg monarchy were on the point of dissolution. His task during his entire reign was essentially dynastic, the holding together of his domin- ions. Under his rule the Austrian Provinces in Italy, except Trentino and Trieste, were lost to the new Kingdom of Italy (1859-1866) and Austrian influence in Germany was destroyed by Prussia in the war of 1866. But in his task of holding to- gether the Austrian dominions proper he secured a relative suc- cess. Hungary was pacified by the agreement of 1867, which granted autonomy in local matters and an equal share in the government of the monarchy. The other races were played ofE against each other, and a kind of unstable equilibrium preserved. Opinions differ as to the njitive ability of Francis Joseph, but it would at least appear that long study of men had given him great fitness in dealing with the peculiar problems of Aus- tria-Hungary. But viewed largely, the reign was disastrous. His alliance with Germany in 1879, extended in 1882 into the Triple Alliance, while restoring somewhat the prestige of Austria, brought her more and more under the influence of Berlin. With German approval, Francis Joseph sought to extend his Influence in the Balkans, and allowed himself to become the instrument of German aggression in 1914. But on his death, after two years of war, Austria had fallen largely under German control and become the subordinate partner in the German scheme for the domination of central Europe. His private life was a pilgrimage of sorrow. His wife was murdered by an anarchist, his son perished in an obscure affair, and lastly his nephew and heir was murdered at Serajevo in 1914. See Austria-Hungary ; Serajevo. Franco-German Rivalry. The cause of the rivalry between France and Germany may be summed up under two heads: (1) the causes arising out of the war of 1870-71, the irritation aroused In France by the stupid misgovernment of Alsace- Lorraine by Germany, and the desire to recover these lost prov- inces; (2) the clash of interests arising out of the French colo- nial expansion in Africa, which, although at first aided by Germany in a desire to distract French attention from Alsace- Lorraine, was in later years opposed and hampered by Germany in a desire to secure, if possible, part of this territory for itself. The manifesto of the German professors (June, 1915) demands that " for the sake of our own existence we must ruthlessly weaken her [France] both politically and economically, and must improve our military and strategical position with regard to her. For this purpose in our opinion it Is necessary radically WAR CYCLOPEDIA. 101 to Improve our whole western front from Belfort to the coast. Part of the north French Channel coast we must acquire, If possible, in order to be strategically safer as regards England and to secure better access to the ocean." The commercial and trade expansion of Germany does not seem to have aroused hostility in France, although there was a growing feeling that some measures should be taken against the permeation of France by German commercial agents, who, according to Ger- man law, could be naturalized in France and still keep their German citizenship. See Alsace-Lorrwine ; Belgium, Economic Destruction; Morocco. Francs Tlreurs. Bodies of French irregulars, or guerrillas, who, during the Franco-Prussian War, acted independently of military command and were distinguished as regards dress only by a blue blouse, a badge, and sometimes a cap. The Prussians refused to consider them legitimate combatants, laying down the impossible and absurd requirements, first, that every pris- oner of war should prove himself a French soldier by showing that he had been borne in the lists of a military corps and had been called out by an order emanating from legal authority and addressed to him personally ; and, secondly, that such prisoner should have worn an emblem or distinctive mark clearly distin- guishable at rifle distance. For the status of francs tireurs to-day, see Combatants ; Levies en Masse; Fryatt. Freedom of the Press. The first amendment to the Consti- tution forbids Congress to make any law " abridging the freedom of speech or of the press." Laws directly regulative of the press may take either of two forms : They may establish a censorship in advance of publication or they may penalize certain kinds of publications. Congress may establish a censorship of the press in war time if circumstances render such a measure " necessary and proper." For Congress has the power to pass all laws that are " necessary and proper " to prosecute successfully a war which it has declared ; and the subjection of the press to the powers given Congress by the Constitution can hardly be said to abridge the freedom there recognized. Also, of course. Con- gress may penalize publications which are calculated to stir up sedition, to obstruct the carrying out of the laws, or to " give aid and comfort to the enemy " (which is treason). Freedom of the press in war time rests, therefore, largely with the discretion of Congress. The considerations which should weigh with it in exercising this discretion are, moreover, fairly clear. Ours is a " government by discussion." Yet discussion has for its objective a decision, and when the majority has registered its decision in accordance with the forms prescribed by the Consti- tution and the laws it has a right to act thereon. As Elihu Boot said recently in Chicago : "A democracy which can not accept its own decisions, made in accordance with its own laws, but must keep on endlessly discussing the question already de- cided, has failed in the fundamental requirements of self-gov- ernment ; and if the decision is to make war, the failure to ex- hibit capacity for self-government by action will inevitably re- sult in the loss of the right of self-government." In meeting 102 WAR CYCLOPEDIA. the problems raised by war, government has frequently to take rather stringent measures. But it seems extremely unlikely, to say the least, that any widespread conviction of the American people could long be denied effective expression. Certainly this has never happened so far. See Mails, Exclusion from. Freedom of the Seas. The doctrine of "freedom of the seas" was first propounded by Grotius in his Mare lAberum, which took for its text the sentence from the Roman Insti- tutes, "The air, running water, the sea — are common to all." Selden answered with his Mare Clausum, which defended the pretensions of England over the waters surrounding the British Isles. The issue between Grotius and Selden may be regarded as settled by the present doctrine regarding the marine league, 1. e., that the jurisdiction of a State extends three miles beyond the coast line, and no farther. The next stage in the develop- ment of this concept took place in the eighteenth century, when continental antagonism to British sea power produced the doc- trine that "free Ships make free goods." This doctrine was backed by the armed neutralities of 1780 and 1800, and was finally incorporated, in great part, into international law by the Declaration of Paris, 1856, which also abolished privateering. Meantime a third meaning had come to be fastened to " freedom of the seas," the idea that private property should be immune from capture on the high seas in war time unless it was contra- band or intended for a blockaded port. Of this notion the United States has always been the^ peculiar champion, the last time being at the second Hague conference, where our views were backed by Austria-Hungary, Germany, and Italy, and op- posed by Great Britain, France, Russia, and Japan. But see the following articles; also Declaration of London; Marine League; N'avalism. Freedom of the Seas, American. " So far as practicable every great people should be assured a direct outlet to the great highways of the seas. Where this can not be done by the cession of territory, it can no doubt be done by the neutraliza- tion of direct rights of way under the general guarantee which will assure the peace of itself. . . . And the paths of the sea must alike in law and in fact be free. The freedom of the seas is the sine qua non of peace, equality, and cooperation. ... It is a problem closely connected with the limitation of naval armaments and the cooperation of the navies of the world In keeping the seas at once free and safe. And the question of limiting naval armaments opens the wider and perhaps more difficult question of the limitation of armies and of all programs of military preparation. . . . There can be no sense of safety and equality if great preponderating armaments are henceforth to continue here and there to be built up and maintained." (President Wilson, to the Senate, Jan. 22, 1917.) Freedom of the Seas, British. In the course of the nine- teenth century, Great Britain has made notable concessions to this idea. She has abandoned nonbelligerent visit and search ; she has sacrificed the old doctrine of indelible allegiance — " Once an Englishman, always an Englishman " — which sup- WAR CYCLOPEDIA. 103 ported her earlier policy of impressment ; she has accepted the' principle of " free ships, free goods " ; she has placed her com- mercial policy on a free-trade basis ; she claims, for the most part, no special advantage in the ports of her colonies. Again, it was she who issued the invitations for the London naval con- ference of 1908-09, her delegates to which pursued a course of action which forbids the idea that she then designed an ofEensive use of her sea power. During the present war, England has widely extended the belligerent rights of blockade; but this is in retaliation for Germany's inhuman use of the submarine. In general, England's position may be stated in this way : Being so near the Continent she can not afford to regard the problem of sea power as separable from the problem of land power. To decrease the striking power of her navy without a corresponding limitation of the huge standing armies of the Continent would be merely to surrender continental independence — and ultimately her own — to the most powerful and ruthless State. See Naval- ism. Freedom of the Seas, German. Germany has sought to represent herself In the present war as the champion of " free- dom of the seas." Her contention is that England's naval supremacy enables her always to hold over the head of a rival the threat of wiping out its overseas trade. Germany's effort has consequently been, according to her spokesman, to establish a balance of power on the seas similar to that which exists on land. Unfortunately, the net result of her effort before the war was to stimulate among the principal nations of the world, a most expensive and wasteful contest in the building of war vessels, while since the outbreak of the war her endeavor to hold her own against England on the water has led to the gross- est inhumanity on her part, and to general anarchy on the ocean. The concept of a balance of power at sea is, in fact, unworkable. On the land, power is attended by the responsibility for good order over definite areas ; but the sea can not be thus appro- priated. The only sensible alternative to British control of the seas, which after all has been for a hundred years a singularly benign control, is internationalization of the seas. See Lusi- tania; Submarine Warfare. Freedom of the Seas, German View Illustrated. The Ger- man ambassador, whose country professes to be fighting for the " freedom of the seas," informed the State Department on Janu- ary 31, 1917, that American passenger steamers would be per- mitted to continue sailings to England thereafter on the follow- ing conditions: "{a) The port of destination is Falmouth. (6) Sailing to or coming from that port, course to be taken via the Scilly Islands and a point 50° N. to 20° W. (c) The steamers are marked in the following way, which must not be allowed to other vessels in American ports : On ship's hull and superstruc- ture three vertical stripes, 1 meter wide, each to be painted alternately white and red. Each mast should show a large flag checkered white and red and the stern the American na- tional flag. Care should be taken that, during dark, national 104 WAB CYCLOPEDIA. flag and painted marks are easily recognizable from a distance, and that the boats are well lighted throughout, (d) One steamer a week sails in each direction with arrival at Falmouth on Wednesday, (e) The United States Government guarantees that no contraband (according to German contraband list) is carried by those steamers." See also " Spurlos Versenkt " ; War Zone, German. Freedom of Speech. See Freedom of the Press. "Free Ships, Free Goods." The doctrine that all noncon- traband goods on board a neutral vessel should be considered ex- empt from belligerent capture was originally brought forward in the seventeenth century by the Dutch, who were the great car- riers of Europe. To-day it is embodied in the Declaration of Paris (1856). See Declaration of Paris; Contraband. French, Field Marshal Vlsconnt (1852— ). Sir John, now Viscount French, commanded with skill the British expedi- tionary force in Belgium and France from the outbreak of the war until he was replaced in 1915 by Sir Douglas Haig. He was chief of the imperial general staff in 1912-14. He commanded the cavalry division in the South African War, when his name came to be widely known. His title is Viscount French of Tpres, in testimony of his services in that battle by which the Germans were frustrated in their design to reach Calais. " Frightfulmess." The name given to the German method of warfare whereby they make war terrible in the hope of winning victory through fear. The German word is Schrecklichkeit. As appUed by the German military caste it does not mean the occa- sional and incidental horrors attached to warfare, but deliberate, systematic, and calculated terror conceived and ordered for the purpose of striking mortal fear into the hearts of foemen. It seems to have been first applied by the Germans in Belgium in the early days of the war when the German army lay between the French and English on the south and the Belgian forces on the north with a hostile population intermingled. Out of all the confused and contradictory stories of those days has come the clear proof that the German military authorities, unwilling to face like men the dangers of the situation they had themselves created, with studied design shot and hanged hundreds of Bel- gians, those innocent of all offense as well as those who had theatened or injured German soldiers. Towns were leveled to the ground, wide districts were laid waste, on the plea that Ger- man soldiers were being shot by snipers. An example wUl illus- trate : " In the night of August 18-19 [1914] the vUlage of Saint- Maurice was punished for having fired on German soldiers by being burnt to the ground by the German troops. . . . The vil- lage was surrounded, men posted about a yard from one an- other, so that no one could get out. Then the Uhlans set fire to it, house by house. Neither man, woman, nor child could escape ; only the greater part of the live stock was carried off, as that could be used. Anyone who ventured to come out was shot down. All the inhabitants left in the village were burnt with the houses." (From the diary of Private Karl Scheufele, of the WAR CYCLOPEDIA. 105 Third Bavarian Regiment of Landwehr Infantry.) See Family Honor; Forbidden Methods of Warfare, Oerman View; German War Code; German War Practices; " Kriegs-Raison" ; " Not- wendigkeit " ; War, Oerman Ruthlessness. Fryatt, Capt., Execution of. On June 23, 1916, the British steamship Brussels, Oapt. Fryatt, was captured by German war- ships. On July 27 Capt. Fryatt was condemned to death by a German court-martial at Bruges, and shot the same day, for having attempted on March 20, 1915, to ram the German sub- marine 17-33. The German Government has sought to justify its action on this occasion by asserting that the U-boat in ques- tion was merely signaling the Brussels to stop, and that " there- fore Capt. Fryatt did not merely attempt to save the lives of his crew, because they were not endangered." It has also made much of the fact that Fryatt was rewarded by the British Government for his action. The latter circumstance seems scarcely In point, and what would have happened to the Brussels had it heeded VSS's signal to stop is hardly matter for con- jecture. Capt. Fryatt was entirely within his rights, and his execution as a franc tireur wa.s an outrage upon law and human- ity, for, as a distinguished German authority on international law has written : " The enemy merchant ship has . . . the right of self-defense against enemy attack, and this right it can exer- cise against visit; for this is indeed the first act of capture." Another aspect of the case brought out by Ambassador Gerard in his recent volume {My Four Years in Germany, 1917) is also instructive. When he learned that Fryatt had been sent to Bruges for trial Mr. Gerard sent two formal notes to the German Foreign Office demanding the right to see him and employ counsel for him. The Foreign Office, Mr. Gerard narrates, " informed me that they had backed up these requests and I believe them, but the answer of the German Admiralty to my notes was to cause the trial to proceed the morning after . . . and to shoot Fryatt before noon of the same day." See Cavell, Edith. " Frye, WiUlam P." An American vessel, sunk, in defiance of treaties and law, by the German raider Pring Eitel Fried- rich January 28, 1915, while carrying a cargo of wheat to the British Isles. The United States Government promptly pro- tested against the sinking, urging that it was in violation of the treaties of 1799 and 1828 with Prussia, and presented a claim for the value of the ship. The German Government acknowledged its liability under the treaties, but contended that the sinking of the ship was legal if its value in money was paid. An agreement was finally reached, providing that the question whether there had been a violation of international law should be referred for decision to The Hague tribunal. In the course of the correspondence the German Government agreed that while the arbitration was pending (1) it would not sink American vessels unless loaded with " absolute contra- band " ; also (2) that when vessels were sunk, "all possible care must be taken for the security of the crew and passen- 106 WAR CYCLOPEDIA. gers " ; and (3) that " the persons found on board of a vessel may not be ordered into her lifeboats except when the general conditions — that is to say, the condition of the sea — and the neighborhood of the coasts afford absolute certainty that the boats will reach the nearest port." This agreement was repudi- ated by Germany January 31, 1917, and became another " scrap of paper " torn up when it suited German convenience. See Prussian Treaties; "Sussex" Pledge. Fuel Administrator. Under the food and fuel act of August 10, 1917, Harry A. Garfield, president of Williams College, was appointed Fuel Administrator on August 23, to exercise the powers conferred by the act upon the President. He is assisted by J. P. White, formerly president of the United Mine Workers of America. See Coal; Pood and Fuel Control Act. Fuel Control. Homes, cities, factories, ships, and canton- ments in the United States must have coal. Canada, Cuba, South America, and some of our associates look to the United States for coal. To solve the many problems of fuel control (including fuel oil and natural gases) President H. A. Garfield, of Williams College, was on August 23 appointed Fuel Administrator of the United States under the terms of the food and fuel control act (" Lever Act ") of August 10, 1917. The fuel question has three parts : Production, distribution, conservation. Prices must be considered in all three of these parts. The Fuel Administrator is undertaking to bring produc- tion up to the highest possible level, and the bureau of fuel conservation acting under him is trying to cut down fuel con- Bumption. Specifically, production is being increased by the following: (1) Sending an appeal to all mine owners and miners to use every effort to help the Nation in this time of need. (2) Giving a considerable increase in pay per ton to the workers of the mines. On October 6 an agreement was reached which will result in an increase to miners of 50 per cent, and to the best-paid laborers of 78 per cent, over the wages of April 1, 1914. To reduce the number of idle days to a minimum a penalty of $1 per day for the period of strikes is imposed on employees, and employers are required to pay $1 per day fine for each worker if a lockout occurs. It is estimated that if all the miners in the country were working eight hours per day five days a week there would be no coal shortage even in view of the unusual faeeds of the country. (3) Supplying the mines with cars enough to take up the production. (4) Fixing a selling price for coal at mines which is high enough to stimulate production. -(5) Di- recting the attention of operators of mines to section 25 of the food and fuel control act, which authorizes the Government to requisition and operate plants if necessary. Fuel consumption is being reduced by (1) an appeal to every citizen to use a minimum of coal and light made from coal (electricity and gas) ; (2) limiting the number of hours during which electric signs may burn; (3) Introducing coal-saving de- vices into factories — possible only in a limited way — and educat- ing firemen and householders to fire with less coal. House- WAR CYCLOPEDIA. 107 holders should read " Saving Fuel in Heating a House," pam- phlet No. 97 of the Bureau of Mines, Washington, D. C. To control distribution the administrator has to know how much, when, and where fuel is needed. To collect this informa- tion he has appointed in every State or group of States a fuel administrator. An estimate is made of the needs of each State over and above its present supply on hand. The amount still to be provided is determined and an account opened with the State administrator. He can draw on the stock allotted him as he determines the need, but he must not overdraw his year's allowance. The State administrator appoints county and city committees to keep him informed concerning local needs and supplies. State agents have not been chosen from men finan- cially interested in coal, but are, in the main, business men fro.m other fields. They are appointed without political reference and in many cases serve without pay, though with a paid clerical staff. All the New England States are administered from one central ofiice, but there is a separate fuel administrator for each of the other States. The task of distribution is complicated by the fact that much of the coal now being mined or in bunkers is under contract. This means that insistent needs can be supplied only from coal produced but not under contract. All coal operators, producing and jobbing companies, or sales agents are required to report the extent of contracts and production or receipt of coal. By this means free or " uncontracted coal " can be located and be made subject to the orders of the Fuel Administrator for dis- tribution on request of the State administrator. Figures given out by the Fuel Administrator on November 15 indicate a fuel shortage of 50,000,000 tons for 1917. Of the meas- ures to be taken to meet this situation Dr. Garfield said : " The fuel administration is determined that war industries, public utilities, and domestic consumers shall be supplied. To this end the fuel administration expects the cooperation of every coal user in the country. The fuel administration will use all of its authority to prevent the waste of fuel and the unnecessary use of coal. Domestic users will be urged to conserve their supplies. Wherever the unnecessary use of coal in industry threatens to embarrass war industry the fuel administration will see that the war needs are filled. All activities which are unnecessary to the maintenance of the military or economic efficiency will have to give way by curtailment to the necessities of war, and this must be accomplished without undue curtailment of the domestic supply. This policy is expected to relieve not only the demand for coal but a part of the enormous pressure on the transportation facilities of the country." See Coal Supply; Food and Fuel Control Act; Priority Act. G. Galicia. Acquired by Austria in the eighteenth century as her share of the partition of Poland by Russia, Prussia, and Austria. It is the largest of the Austrian Crown lands ; the 108 WAR CTCLOPEDIA. population (8,022,126) is about evenly divided between Poles (west) and Ruthenes (east) ; It was the region of the first Rus- sian drive into Austria, which, beginning September 1, 1914, captured Lemberg on September 5, and swept across Galicia to the edge of the Hungarian plains. The Russians were almost completely expelled from the district by Mackensen's advance in May-June, 1915, and the Austro-German invasion of Russia which followed. The Russians returned to the invasion of Galicia under Brusilov in 1916, penetrating as far as Halicz, where they were halted by internal afEairs in Russia. A third drive in Galicia was begun in July, 1917, and rapid gains were made July 11-July 20; but this campaign was brought to a speedy end by the civil and military disorganization of Russia. See Russian Revolution of 1917. GaUlpoli. A narrow peninsula north of the Dardanelles and the strategic key thereto. After the failure, with heavy losses, of a purely naval demonstration. Allied forces were landed in April, 1915, in an attempt to force the straits. The landing was accomplished only at terrible cost. On April 28, the Allied troops commenced to advance. On May 11 they were able to begin siege operations against the entrenched Turco-German forces, but these failed of success, as did a flanking attack at Suvla Bay in August. The campaign was abandoned in January, 1916. See Aneac; Dardanelles. Gas and Electric Service Committee. A committee organ- ized at the suggestion of Mr. Howard E. Coffin, member of the Advisory Commission of the Council of National Defense, de- voting its attention to the public-utilities problem in relation to war needs. Mr. John W. Lleb, vice president of the New York Edison Co., is chairman of the committee. Its vice chairman is Mr. William H. Gartley, vice president of the Equitable Illumi- nating Gas Light Co., Philadelphia. Gas Warfare. During the engagement near Ypres, April 22, 1915, the German army introduced poisonous or asphyxiating gases, a " method of warfare up to now never employed by na- tions sufficiently civilized to consider themselves bound by in- ternational agreements." These gases were generated in bombs, grenades, and other apparatus, and allowed to drift with suit- able winds into the allied trenches. A week earlier, says Gen. French, the Germans had falsely announced that the British were using asphyxiating gases as a weapon of war. Later, the use of gas in explosive shells became general, the Allies having been forced in self-defense to adopt the new weapon. See For- bidden Weapons. General Staff. The General Staff of the Army of the United States is an outgrowth of our War with Spain in 1898. A com- mittee of the Senate of the United States investigated condi- tions and found that " there was lacking in the general adminis- tration of the War Department that which was essential to the highest efficiency and discipline of the Army." The need of a superior coordinating body being seen. Congress in 1903, organ- ized the General Staff to render professional aid to the Secre- WAR CTCLOPEDIA. 109 tary of War and to act as his agent in many important matters. Its principal duties are to prepare plans for the national defense and for the mobilization of the military forces in time of war, to investigate and report in all questions affecting the efficiency of the Army, and its state of preparation for military opera- tions ; to render professional assistance to the Secretary of War and to commanding officers so as to coordinate their action ; and, under the direction of the President or the Secretary of War, to exercise supervision over all troops of the line and of the vari- ous administrative military bureaus of the Department of War. See Staff; Army War College; Navy War College. Geneva Conventions. See Red Cross; Hague arvd Geneva Conventions. George V (1865— ). The present King of Great Britain, Ireland, and the British lands beyond the seas. He came to the throne at the death of his father, Edward VII, In 1910. He represents, even to a greater degree than his father, the British idea of a constitutional monarch. German Army Act, 1913. The legislation of the German Empire provided for a standing army of 1 per cent of the popu- lation, and for 40 years this proportion was not exceeded. But in May, 1912, the Reichstag passed a law which increased the peace strength of the army to more than 700,000 men, the popu- lation being about 66,000,000, and this was only a beginning. The following year, when the Government could point to the collapse of Turkey as a compelling reason for action, a new measure was carried which fixed the peace strength of the German Army at 866,000, and provided for certain deficiencies in matSriel. As strililng as the army increase was the nonrecurring property tax of $225,000,000, and the hasty tripling of the war treasure stored at Spandau. Nevertheless, in spite of this extraordinary expansion, in spite of the Chancellor's open reference to the com- ing struggle between Germanism and Slavism, few observers realized that this was the last step of the military party in its preparation for the long-desired war. France, Russia, and Bel- gium, however, took the precaution of increasing their own armies. Thus the action of one power compelled action by the others, and the vicious circle could be broken only by war, which would and did come when one power felt that the moment of highest relative efficiency had arrived. German Army Act of 1913, Reasons for. How Germany manipulated public opinion for war purposes is revealed in the memorandum of the German Government on the strengthening of the German Army (Berlin, Mar. 19, 1913; French Yellow Booh, Carnegie edition, 1915, I, p. 512) : " Our new army law is only an extension of the military education of the German nation. Our ancestors of 1813 made greater sacrifices. It is our sacred duty to sharpen the sword that has been put into our hands and to hold ,it ready for defense as well as for offense. We must allow the idea to sink into the minds of our people that our armaments are an answer to the armaments and policy of the French. We must accustom them to think that an 110 WAR CTCIXJPEDIA. offensive. war on our part is a necessity, in order to combat the provocations of our adversaries. We must act with prudence so as not to arouse suspicion and to avoid the crises v?hich might injure our economic existence. We must so manage matters that, under the heavy weight of powerful armaments, considerable sac- rifices, and strained political relations, the precipitation of war would be considered as a relief, because after it would come decades of peace and prosperity, as after 1870." See Arbitra- tion, German, Attitude; Disarmament, German Attitude; Pan- Germans Promote War in 1913. German Colonies. Germany's colonial possessions, before she was shorn of them by the war, had an area of more than 1,000,000 square miles. In Africa she had the Kamerun In West Africa, with an area of 191,000 square miles and a population of 4,500,000, German Bast Africa of above 400,000 square miles and a population of 6,850,000, and German Southwest Africa of 320,000 square miles and a population of 200,000. Her colonial policy everywhere has been expen- sive to her and unsuccessful. It has been repressive and cruel. Her civil and military officials in charge of the destinies of her colonists have been martinets, the natural product of her militarist system of government at home. Even German emi- grants have preferred to settle in the British colonies. In one year, 1904, Germany's expenditures on her colonies amounted to upward of $31,000,000, while her trade with them reached a total value of about a third of tjiis sum. See Caroline Islands; German East Africa; German Southwest Africa; Kaiser Wil- helmsland; Kamerun; Samoa; Togo. German Constitution. The constitution of the Empire can not be amended without the consent of one man, William II. Reichstag committees may discuss and propose amendments to their hearts' content. After they have obtained the consent of the Reichstag a rocky road opens out broadly ahead of them. For they must have the approval of the Bundesrat, which is appointed by the reigning princes of Germany, and is obliged to vote as they direct. No amendment can pass the Bundesrat if 14 votes out of the 61 are cast against it. Of these 61, Prus- sia controls 20. The Prussian votes are cast as the King of Prussia directs. If every individual in Germany except this one, and including the other kings and dukes, wanted a change in the constitution they could not get it, except by revolution, if William II said " No ! " See Autocracy; Bundesrat; Kaiser- ism; Landtag; Reichstag. German Diplomacy. See Bethmann Bollweg ;, Bernstorff; Bemstorff, Intrigues of; Cronholm, Mexican Adventures of; " Frye, William P."; German Government, Bad Faith of; Ger- man Government, Moral Bankruptcy of; German Intrigue, etc.; Intrigue; Mexico, German Intrigue in; Parole; Prussian Treor ties; Roumania, German Treachery in; Sabotage; "Scrap of Paper"; " Spurlos Versenkt"; "Sussex" Pledge; "Willy" and "Nicky" Correspondence; Zimmermann Note. German East Africa. Attacked by British forces in 1914 and 1915 with little result. In 1916 Gen. Jan Christian Smuts WAR CYCLOPEDIA. Ill with an army from British South Africa, In cooperation with Belgian forces, took the chief German city, Labora, and most of the colony. The conquest is now (December 1, 1917) completed. German Economic Conditions, 1916-17. "During the past winter in Germany I saw indications on every hand point- ing to the gradual but Increasing economic exhaustion of Ger- many. The food situation has reached the stage of serious pri- vation, but not of actual starvation — ^It is but one of a host of con- tributing factors. Even more significant was the obvious de- terioration of rolling stock and machinery, the great scarcity of leather, of woolen, cotton, and linen wearing apparel ; of copper, tin, lubricating oils, glycerin, and nitrates ; and the coal shortage prevailing throughout Germany from the middle of January until March of this year. Furthermore, the depletion in numbers of Germany's total male fighting population seems to be proceeding slowly but surely. Last December I gath- ered first-hand Information on the casualties sufEered by the Bavarian villages of Volkach-am-Maln and KoUitzheim. It showed that Volkach, with a population of 2,000, had lost 38 dead (prisoners or missing not Included) and KoUitzheim, with a population of 600, had 15 dead between August, 1914, and December, 1916." (John R. Knipfing, Ohio State University, Nov. 13, 1917.) See German Man Power; War Loans, German. German Empire. The German Empire is composed of 25 States and the Reichsland (Alsace-Lorraine). The imperial capital is Berlin. The area of the Empire is 208,825.2 square miles. The population at the outbreak of the war was 67,810,000. The separate States have a measure of local self-government. William II ascended the throne June 15, 1888. Count G. F. von Hertling, formerly Bavarian Premier, succeeded to the post of Chancellor in November, 1917 ; his Immediate predecessor was Dr. George Michaelis, formerly Prussian Minister of Finance, who succeeded Theobald von Bethmann HoUweg on July 14, 1917. Representing herself as menaced by Russia and France, Germany began the world war August 1, 1914, by a declaration of war against Russia, followed on August 3 by a declaration against France. Subsequent declarations were issued against Belgium, August 4, 1914 ; Portugal, March 9, 1916 ; Roumania, September 14, 1916. See Reichstag; Bundesrat; Ger- m.an Constitution. German Finance. See War Loans, German. German Government, Breach with. The United States Government broke ofC diplomatic relations with Germany on February 3, 1917, following the proclamation by Germany of a zone around England, France, Italy, and in the Mediterranean, thus renewing unrestrained submarine warfare in violation of the pledge given in the Sussex case. Secretary Lansing an- nounced that " this Government has no alternative consistent with the dignity and honor of the United States but to take the course which it explicitly announced in its note of April 18, 1916, It would take in the event that the Imperial Government did not declare and effect an abandonment of the methods of 112 WAE CTOIiOPBDIA. submarine warfare then employed and to which the Imperial Government now purpose again to resort." See Submarine Warfare; "Sussex," etc.; United States, Neutrality 1914-1917; War, Declaration of against Oermany. German Government, Bad raith of. "We can not take the word of the present rulers of Germany as a guarantee of anything that Is to endure, unless explicitly supported by such conclusive evidence of the will and purpose of the German people themselves as the other peoples of the world would be justified in accepting. Without such guarantees, treaties of set- tlement, agreements for disarmament, covenants to set up arbi- tration in the place of force, territorial adjustments, reconsti- tutions of small nations, if made with the German Government, no man, no nation could now depend on. We must await some new evidence of the purposes of the great peoples of the Central Powers. God grant it may be given soon, and in a way to re- store the confidence of all peoples . every where in the faith of nations and the possibility of a covenanted peace." (American reply to the Pope, Aug. 27, 1917.) See German Diplomacy. German Government, Moral Bankruptcy of. Certain Ger- man leaders are beginning to realize the handicap to German policy created by their Government's bad faith. In Deutsche Politik for September 28, Dr. Bernhard Dernburg, who for a time was the Kaiser's personal agent in the United States, exhorts his countrymen to get back to " steadfastness and righteousness " If they wish to " break the home front of our enemies " and pro- mote an agitation for peace among the Entente nations. " Our lies," says he, " are coarse and improbable, our ambiguity is piti- ful simplicity, and our intrigues are without salt and vrithout grace. The history of the war proves this by a hundred ex- amples. That is the very least that must be said of our employ- ment of these immoral weapons, which are foreign to our char- acter." See Denrilck-Dernburg Petition. German Insurance Companies in United States. These were forbidden by the President's proclamation, July 13, 1917, to write new marine and war-risk insurance, either as direct insurers or reinsurers. Existing contracts were suspended for the duration of the war, except that insurance on vessels at risk on the date of the proclamation was to continue in force until the arrival of the vessel at its destination, or for 30 days in case of contracts for time. The funds of the companies, which were not to be transmitted out of the United States nor used as the basis of credit within or without the United States for the benefit of the enemy or its allies, were made subject to the rules and regulations of insurance inspection in the States in which the principal officer of a company might be located. A subsequent order, issued by the Secretary of the Treasury on November 27, 1917, under the trading with the enemy act, directs that " enemy and ally of enemy marine, fire, and casualty insur- ance companies shall not be allowed to do business as going concerns," and " the liquidation of these companies under Amer- ican management," Life insurance companies, however, "for WAR CYCLOPEDIA. 113 the present will be allowed to continue existing contracts." See Trading with the Enemy Act. German Intrigue against American Peace. On July 8, 1915, indictments for conspiracy against the peace of the United States were brought in the Federal court at San Francisco against 98 persons, including German consuls and consuls gen- eral. At the same time the following statement was made by the Federal district attorney, Mr. John W. Preston : " For more than a year prior to the outbreak of the European war certain Hindus in San Francisco and certain Germans were preparing openly for war with England. At the outbreak of the war Hindu lead- ers, members of the German consulate here, and attaches of the German Government began to form plans to foment revolu- tion in India for the purpose of freeing India and aiding Ger- mans in their military operations. . . . [This work] had the personal attention of Alfred Zimmermann, German Secretary of Foreign AfEairs. . . . The operations of the plotters in the United States were directed from Berlin. The conspiracy took the form of various military enterprises. Arms and ammuni- tion in large quantities were purchased with German money. Men were recruited and sent to India." Three of the most prominent of the defendants were Lieut. Wilhelm von Brincken, former military attach^ of the German consulate general in San Francisco ; George Rodiek, former German consul at Honolulu ; and H. A. Schroeder, who succeeded Rodiek at Honolulu. On December 5, 1917, these three pleaded guilty to the indictmeuts against them. Lieut, von Brincken said by way of explanation : " I think we can serve our country best by pleading guilty and avoiding further exposures in court proceedings. The less said about the cases the better it will be for Germany." The von Igel papers show further that German agents in the United States gave financial aid to the Irish revolution and supported the separatist movement in Quebec. They also spent $600,000 on Huerta's abortive attempt in 1915 to start from this country a revolution in Mexico. See Base of Naval Operations ; Igel, voUr Papers of; Intrigue; Sabotage; Sinn Fein. German Intrigue in the United States. " One of the things that have served to convince us that the Prussian autocracy was not and co.uld never be our friend is that from the very outset of the present war it has filled our unsuspecting communities, and even our oflBces of government, with spies and set criminal intrigues everywhere afoot against our national unity of coun- sel, our peace within and without, our industries, and our com- merce. Indeed, it is now evident that its spies were here even before the war began, and it is unhappily not a matter of con- jecture, but a fact proved in our courts of justice, that the in- trigues which have more than once come perilously near to dis- turbing the peace and dislocating the industries of the country have been carried on at the instigation, with the support, and even under the personal directions of official agents of the Im- perial Government accredited to the Government of the United States." (President Wilson, before Congress, Apr. 2, 1917.) In 15963°— 18 8 114 WAR CTCLOPEDIA. addition to entries below see account by the Committee on Public Information reprinted in New York Times Current His- tory, November, 1917, under the title "Revelations of German Plots." See Spies; Zimmermann Note. German Intrigue, Tools. ( 1 ) Konig, the head of the Ham- burg-American secret service, who was active in passport frauds, who induced Gustave Stahl to perjure himself and declare the iMsitania armed, and who plotted the destruction of the Wel- land Canal, has, in his work- as a spy, passed under 13 aliases in this country and Canada. Capts. Boy-Ed, von Papen, von Kintelen, Tauscher, and von Igel were all directly connected with the German Government itself. There is now in the pos- session of the United States Government a check made out to Konig and signed by von Papen, identified by number in a secret report of the German bureau of investigation as being used to procure $150 for the payment of a bomb maker, who was to plant explosives, disguised as coal in the bunkers of the merchant vessels clearing from the port of New York. Boy-Ed, Dr. Blinz, the German ex-minister to Mexico, the German consul at San Francisco, and officials of the Hamburg-American and North German Lloyd steamship lines evaded customs regulations and coaled and victualed German raiders at sea ; von Papen and von Igel supervised the making of the incendiary bombs on the Priedrich der Grosse, then in New York Harbor, and stowed them away on outgoing ships ; von Rintelen financed Labor's National Peace Council, which tried to corrupt legislators and labor leaders. A lesser light of this galaxy was Robert Fay, who in- vented an explosive contrivance which he tied to the rudder posts of vessels. By his confession, and that of his partner in murder, the money came from the German secret police. German Intrigue, Tools. (2) Among these were David Lamar and Henry Martin, who, in the pay of Capt. von Rintelen, organized and managed the so-called Labor's Na- tional I^eace Council, which sought to bring about strikes, an embargo on munitions, and a boycott of banks which subscribed to the Anglo-French loan. A check for $5,000 to J. F. J. Archi- bald for " propaganda work," and a receipt from Edwin Emer- son, the war correspondent, for $1,000 " traveling expenses " were among the documents found in Wolf von Igel's posses- sion. Others bearing English names have been persuaded to take leading places in similar organizations which concealed their origin and real purpose. The American Embargo Confer- ence arose out of the ashes of Labor's Peace Council, and its president was American, though the funds were not. Others tampered with were journalists who lent themselves to the German propaganda, and who went so far as to serve as couriers between the Teutonic embassies in Washington and the Governments in Vienna and Berlin. A check of $5,000 was dis- covered which Count von BernstorfC had sent to Marcus Braun, editor of Fair Play. And a letter was discovered which George Sylvester Viereck, editor of the Fatherland, had sent to Privy Councilor Albert, the German agent, arranging for a monthly subsidy of $1,750, to be delivered to him through the hands of WAR CYCLOPEDIA. 115 intermediaries — ^women, whose names he abbreviates "to pre- vent any possible inquiry." There is a record of $3,000 paid through the German embassy to finance the lecture tour of Miss Ray Beveridge, an American artist, who was further to be sup- plied with German war pictures. See Igel^ von, Papers of. German Man Power. In September, 1917, Germany had, ac- cording to the estimate of the French Government, 6,100,000 men in military service on the front lines or behind them ; had lost as killed, disabled, or prisoners, 4,000,000 ; and had in hospitals 500,000 more, making a grand total of 10,600,000 men who have been used in war. According to the same estimate Germany has had 14,000,000 men available since 1914 and including the class of 1920 (now in their seventeenth year). In the 3,400,000 men of military age not yet in the army are included those physically unfit and those indispensable in her industries. German Military Autocracy, Plan of. " Their plan was to throw a broad belt of German military power and political con- trol across the very center of Europe and beyond the Mediter- ranean into the heart of Asia ; and Austria-Hungary was to be as much their tool and pawn as Serbia or Bulgaria or Turkey or the ponderous States of the East. Austria-Hungary, indeed, was to become part of the central German Empire, absorbed and dominated by the same forces and influences that had originally cemented the German States themselves. The dream had Its heart at Berlin. It could have had a heart nowhere else. It rejected the idea of solidarity of race entirely. The choice of peoples played no part in it at all. It contemplated binding together racial and political units which could be kept together only by force — Czechs, Magyars, Croats, Serbs, Rou- manians, Turks, Armenians — the proud States of Bohemia and Hungary, the stout little Commonwealths of the Balkans, the indomitable Turks, the subtile peoples of the East. These peoples did not wish to be united. They ardently desired to direct their own affairs, would be satisfied only by undisputed independence. They could be kept quiet only by the presence or the constant threat of armed men. They would live under a common power only by sheer compulsion and await the day of revolution. But the German military statesmen had reckoned with all that and were ready to deal with it in their own way." (President Wilson, Flag Day Address, Washington, June 14, 1917.) Paul de Lagarde, who died in 1891, wrote in his Deutsche Schriften: " We must create a Central Europe which will guar- antee the peace of the entire Continent from the moment when it shall have driven the Russians from the Black Sea and the Slavs from the south and shall have conquered large tracts to the east of our frontiers for German colonization. We can not let loose esD abrupto the war which will create this Central Europe. All we can do is to accustom our people to the thought that this war must come." See Flag Day Address; "MitteU Europa." German Military Autocracy, Propaganda for War. " The evidence submitted in this book amounts to an irrefutable proof that a systematic stimulation of the war spirit is going on. 116 WAR CYCLOPEDIA. based on the one hand on the Pan-German League and on the other on the agitation of the Defense Association. . . . These men do not only occasionally incite people to war, but they systematically inculcate a desire for war in the minds of the German people. Not only in the sense that they ought to be prepared for war and ready for all eventualities, but in the much more far-reaching sense that they want war. War is represented not merely as a possibility that might arise, but as a necessity that must come about, and the sooner the better. In the opinion of these instigators, the German nation needs a war ; a long-continued peace seems regrettable to them just because it is a peace, no matter whether there is any rea- son for war or not; and therefore, in case of need, one must simply strive to bring it about. . . . Erom this dogma [that war must come] it is only a small step to the next chauvinistic principle, so dear to the heart of our soldier politicians, who are languishing for war — the fundamental principle of the aggressive or preventive war. If it be true that war is to come, then let it come at the moment which is most favorable to our- selves. In other words, strike when it is most convenient. . . . The truth is that, to them, war is quite a normal institu- tion of international intercourse and not in any way a means of settling great international conflicts — not a means to be resorted to only in case of great necessity." (Prof. Otfried Nip- pold, Der Deutsche Chauvinismus, 1913, pp. 113-117.) See Arbi- tration; Conquest and, Kultur; Disarmament; Lieiknecht; Pan- Germans urge War in 1913. German Military Antocracy, Responsibility for the Pres- ent War. " The object of this war is to deliver the free peoples of the world from the menace and the actual power of a vast military establishment controlled by an irresponsible govern- ment, which, having secretly planned to dominate the world, proceeded to carry the plan out without regard either to the sacred obligations of treaty or the long-established practices and long-cherished principles of international action and honor ; which chose its own time for the war ; delivered its blow fiercely and suddenly; stopped at no barrier either of law or of mercy ; swept a whole continent within the tide of blood — not the blood of soldiers only, but the blood of innocent women and children also, and of the helpless poor; and now stands balked, but not defeated, the enemy of four-fifths of the world. This power is not the German people. It is the ruthless master of the German people. It is no business of ours how that great people came under its control or submitted with temporary zest to the domination of its purpose; but it is our business to see to it that the history of the rest of the world is no longer left to its handling." (American reply to the Pope, Aug. 27, 1917.) See "Der Tag"; "Place in the Sun"; War, German View; War, Responsibility for in lOlJf. German Military Autocracy, Spirit. " The war was begun by the military masters of Germany, who proved to be also the masters of Austria-Hungary. These men have never regarded WAR CYCLOPEDIA. 117 nations as peoples, men, women, and children of like blood and frame as themselves, for whom governments existed and in whom governments had their life. They have regarded them merely as serviceable organizations which they could by force or intrigue bend or corrupt to their own purpose. They have re- garded the smaller States, in particular, and the peoples who could be overwhelmed by force, as their natural tools and instru- ments of domination." (President Wilson, Flag Day Address, June 14, 1917.) See Mohilimation Controversy; "Potsdam Con- ference " ; etc. German Military Dominance. " Look how things stand. Austria is at their [the German military autocracy's] mercy. It has acted not upon its own initiative or upon the choice of its own people but at Berlin's dictation ever since the war began. Its people now desire peace, but can not have it until leave is granted from Berlin. The so-called Central Powers are in fact but a single power. Serbia is at its mercy, should its hands be but for a moment freed. Bulgaria has consented to its will, and Roumania is overrun. The Turkish armies, which Germans trained, are serving Germany, certainly not themselves, and the guns of German warships lying in the harbor at Constantinople remind Turkish statesmen every day that they have no choice but to take their orders from Berlin. From Hamburg to the Persian Gulf the net is spread. That Government has other valuable pawns in its hands besides those I have mentioned. It still holds a valuable part of France, though with slowly relax- ing grasp, and practically the whole of Belgium. Its armies press close upon Russia and overrun Poland at their will." (President Wilson, Flag Day Address, June 14, 1917.) See " No Annexations, no Indemnities"; "Status quo ante Bellum" ; " Vti Possidetis." German Navy. The German fleet is the creation of William II and his minister, Admiral von Tirpitz. The aim has been to construct a fleet " so strong that a war with Germany would involve, even for the most powerful adversary [Great Britain], the danger of risking his own position as a power " (Memoran- dum of 1900). Laws passed 1898-1912 provided for a fleet of 61 dreadnaughts, with the necessary auxiliary craft. At the outbreak of the war the German fleet comprised 28 dread- naughts built and building, 20 older battleships, 55 cruisers, 154 torpedo craft, and 45 submarines. Since 1914 some capital ships have been constructed, but the main emphasis has been laid on submarines, concerning which no authentic figures are available. See British Navy; Jutland; Kiel Canal; Tirpitz. German Peace Intrigue, Method. " Do you now under- stand the new intrigue, the intrigue for peace, and why. the mas- ters of Germany do not hesitate to use any agency that promises to efEect their purpose — the deceit of the nations? Their present particular aim is to deceive all those who throughout the world stand for the rights of peoples and the self-government of nations ; for they see what immense strength the forces of justice and of liberalism are gathering out of this war. They are em- 118 WAK CYCLOPEDIA. ploying liberals in their enterprise. They are using men, in Ger- many and without, as their spokesmen whom they have hitherto despised and oppressed, using them for their own destructioni— socialists, the leaders of labor, the thinkers they have hitherto sought to silence. Let them once succeed and these men, now their tools, will be ground to powder beneath the weight of the great military empire they will have set up ; the revolutionists in Russia will be cut oft from all succor or cooperation in western Europe, and a counter revolution fostered and sup- ported ; Germany herself will lose her chance of freedom ; and all Europe will arm for the next, the final struggle. The sinister intrigue is being no less actively conducted in this country than in Russia and in every country in Europe to which the agents and dupes of the Imperial German Government can get access. That Government has many spokesmen here, in places high and low. They have learned discretion. They keep within the law. It is opinion they utter now, not sedition. They proclaim the liberal purposes of their masters; declare this a foreign war which can touch America with no danger to either her lands or her institutions ; set England at the center of the stage and talk of her ambition to assert economic dominion throughout the world ; appeal to our ancient tradition of isolation in the politics of the nations ; and seek to undermine the Government with false professions of loyalty to its principles. But they will make no headway. The false betray themselves always in every ac- cent. It is only friends and partisans of the German Govern- ment, whom we have already identified, who utter these thinly disguised disloyalties. The facts are patent to all the world . . . that this is a people's war, a war for freedom and justice and self-government amongst all the nations of . the world . . . and with us rests the choice to break through all , these hypocrisies and patent cheats and masks of brute force and help set the world free, or else stand aside and let it be dominated a long age through by sheer weight of arms and the arbitrary choices of self -constituted masters, by the nation which can maintain the biggest armies and the most irresistible arma- ments." (President Wilson, Flag Day Address, Washington, June 14, 1917.) See Flag Day Address; Stockholm Conference. German Peace Intrigue, Motive. " The military masters under whom Germany is bleeding see very clearly to what point fate has brought them. If they fall back or are forced back an inch, their power both abroad and at home will fall to pieces like a house of cards. It is their power at home they are think- ing about now more than their power abroad. It is that power which is trembling under their very feet, and deep fear has en- tered their hearts. They have but one chance to perpetuate their military power or even their controlling political influence. If they can secure peace now with the immense advantages still in their hands which they have up to this pojnt apparently gained, they will have justified themselves before the German people ; they will have gained by force what they promised to gain by It — an immense expansion of German power, an immense WAR CTCLOPEDIA. 119 enlargement of German Industrial and commercial opportunities. Their prestige will be secure, and with their prestige their po- litical power. If they fall, their people will thrust them aside ; a government accountable to the people themselves will be set up in Germany, as it has been in England, In the United States, In France, and in all the great countries of the modern time except Germany. If they succeed, they are safe and Germany and the world are undone; if they fail, Germany is saved and the world will be at peace. If they succeed, America will fall within the menace. We and all the rest of the world must re- main armed, as they will remain, and must make ready for the next step In their aggression ; if they fail, the world may unite for peace and Germany may be of the union." (President' Wil- son, Flag Day Address, June 14, 1917.) See Flag Day Address. German Peace Intrigue, Neact Move in. " The great crisis of the war will come when the Italian operation is over and on the strength of her success Germany makes a final effort to per- suade the nations that are fighting her to lay down their arms and leave her in possession of parts of what she has won Every German influence and agency in the world will be at work, and are already at work, trying to convince the world, first, . that Germany is invincible and second that peace must be immediate. If Germany were invincible, no German or German agent would be talking peace If this peace offensive can be repelled the decision of the war will come with no long delay." (Frank H. Simonds in the New Tork Triiune, Nov. 18, 1917.) German People versus German Government, 1913. The following is an extract from a report submitted a year before the war by M. Cambon, the French ambassador in Berlin, to the French Government : " The forces [of peace] consist of the fol- lowing elements : The bulk of the workmen, artisans, and peas- ants, who are peace loving by instinct. Those members of the nobility detached from military interests and engaged in busi- ness, . . . who are suSiciently enlightened to realize the dis- astrous political and social consequences of war, even if suc- cessful. Numerous manufacturers, merchants, and financiers In a moderate way of business, to whom war, even if successful, would mean bankruptcy . . . Poles, Inhabitants of Alsace-Lor- raine and Schleswig-Holstein, conquered but not assimilated, and sullenly hostile to Prussian policy. There are about 7,000,000 of these annexed Germans. Finally, the governments and the governing classes in the large southern States — Saxony, Ba- varia, Wiirttemberg, and the Grand Duchy of Baden — are di- vided by these two opinions: An unsuccessful war would com- promise the federation from which they have derived great eco- nomic advantages ; a successful war would only profit Prussia and prussianization, against which they have diflSculty in de- fending their political independence and administrative auton- omy. These classes of people, either consciously or instinctively, prefer peace to war ; but they are only a sort of makeweight in political matters, with limited influence on public opinion, or 120 WAR CYCLOPEDIA. they are silent social forces, passive and defenseless against the infection of a wave of warlike feeling." (French Yellow Book, No. 5.) See Liebknecht; Pan-.Germanism. German People versus German Government, 1917. "We have no quarrel with the German people. We have no feeling toward them but one of sympathy and friendship. It was not upon their impulse that their Government acted in entering the war. It was not with their previous knowledge or approval. It was a war determined upon as wars used to be determined in the old unhappy days when peoples were nowhere consulted by their rulers, and wars were provoked and waged in the interest of dynasties or of little groups of ambitious men who were accustomed to use their fellow men as pawns and tools. ... It will be all the easier for us to conduct ourselves as belligerents in a high spirit of right and fairness because we act without animus, not with enmity, toward a people or with the desire to bring any injury or disadvantage upon them, but only in armed opposition to an irresponsible Govern- ment which has thrown aside all considerations of humanity and of right and is running amuck. We are, let me say again, the sincere friends of the German people and shall desire nothing so much as the early reestablishment of intimate rela- tions of mutual advantage between us, however hard it may be for them for the time being to believe that this is spoken from our hearts. We have borne with their present Government through all these bitter months because of that friendship, exer- cising a patience and forbearance which would otherwise have been impossible." (President Wilson, to Congress, Apr. 2, 1917.) German Political Parties. In Germany there are no great political parties outside of the Social Democrats and the Cen- ter (Catholic) party. This very fact probably enhances the autocratic power, for every Reichstag majority is a party coali- tion, with the autocracy as the mediating power. The main parties are : (1) The Conservatives, or Agrarians ; strong in the agricultural districts of north Germany, united behind auto- cratic government, militarism, and imperialism; (2) the Center party, formed from the Catholics of south Germany and the Rhine Valley, without a fixed political program, but steadily favorable to the Church and the south German interest; (3) the National Liberals, made up of the manufacturing interests, mainly in the Rhine Valley, willing to back autocracy as long as autocracy aids business, and inclined to be imperialistic ; (4) the Progressives, radical liberals who wish better terms for the laboring classes and are, in general, inclined to favor a strong policy abroad; (5) the Social Democrats, a party of the labor- ing classes, who would control the Reichstag, if it were not for the obsolete system of districting. They favor a policy of peace abroad, and of social reforms within. See Bethmann Sollweg; Landtag; Liebknecht; Newspapers, German; Reichstag. German Propaganda in Italy. The Oiornale d'ltalia of No- vember 14, 1916, contains an obviously official reply to the pro- German propagandists in Italy who were attempting to discredit WAR CYCLOPEDIA. 121 England. The Qiomale writes : " Indeed, there has been no- ticeable in Italy for some time past a closely woven and subtle intrigue working to Incite public opinion against Great Britain." Four principal charges or " themes " are put forward: (1) It is England who is prolonging the war in order to have time to exhaust Germany, without caring whether Italy, France, and' Russia are exhausted also; (2) Italy has put herself in the power of England in order to escape from the influence of Ger- many; (3) England is "exploiting" her allies by leaving on their shoulders the whole weight of the war; (4) England is making usurious profits upon the money she lends and the goods she supplies to her allies. All this has a familiar sound to American readers. As the (Momale adds, "We have to deal with a vast system of propaganda, of which the object is to diminish faith in the Allies among the people of each allied country." The interallied council of war (Nov., 1917) was in- tended in part to set at rest such sinister rumors. German Southwest Africa. A German colony in southwest Africa, with an area of 322,450 square miles and a population, white and native, of 94,386. An uprising of two native tribes, the Hereros and Witbois, in 1904 and 1905 led to the dispatch of several expeditions to German Southwest Africa. The cam- paign in 1904 cost upward of $10,000,000. In 1905 the expendi- tures were" in excess of $15,000,000. Natives, including women and children, were impounded and most cruelly treated by the military. Before the uprising was quelled another broke out in East Africa. From German Southwest Africa the Ger- mans promoted the Boer rebellion of September, 1914. The colony was reduced by South African forces under Gen. Botha in 1915. See German colonies; Poison; South Africa, Union of. German " War Book." The name commonly given to the manual of military law issued to German officers under the title Kriegsbrauch i-m LandJcriege, which has been translated as The War Book of the German General Staff (1915). It is character- ized by a deliberate and systematic repudiation, on the ground of " necessity," of the principles of civilized warfare gradually adopted by most nations and embodied in The Hague Conven- tions. In the eyes of its authors, the book is a protest against " humanitarian considerations," " sentimentality and flabby emotion." The judgment of a sober critic, " It is the first time in the history of mankind that a creed so revolting has been de- liberately formulated by a great civilized State," is severe, but unfortunately true. See "Frightfulness" ; "Kriegs-Raison " ; Notwendigkeit ; German War Practices. German War Code. Pamphlet distributed free by the Com- mittee on Public Information; describes the German mili- tary law. German War Practices. A pamphlet issued and distributed free by the Committee on Public Information describing the sys- tematic military mistreatment of civilians in Belgium' and Northern France. See Red, White, and Blue Series. Germs, Poisonous. See Roumama, German Treachery in. 122 WAR CYCLOPEDIA. Ghent, University of. In an effort to divide public opinion in Belgium by setting the Flemish part against the Walloon (French), the German governor general, von Bissing, decreed that the University of Ghent should (1915) become a Flemish institution, offering great favors to those who vcould retain their professorships after such a change and punishing those vs^ho resisted coercion, notably the distinguished scholars Paul Fredericq and Henri Pirenne, who were sent to prison and then exiled to Germany. The experiment has met with little success. See Bissing, von, "Goeben." The German cruisers Goeben and Breslau took refuge in the Dardanelles at the outbreak of the war. Instead of interning these fugitive ships in accordance with international law, the Turkish Government, already in alliance with Germany by a secret treaty of August 4, 1914 (now revealed in a Greek White Book), pretended to buy them. By order of the German admiral, the Goehen bombarded Russian Black Sea ports without provocation, without warning, without previous authorization of the Ottoman Government. See Turkey, Treaties with Germany. Gold. The United States now possesses twice as much gold as the country with the next largest store. The value of other forms of money depends on their redeemability in gold. Prices the world over vary with the quantity of money in circulation, and the enormous production of gold in the last 20 years has been a factor in forcing the level of prices to unprecedented heights. Extraordinary purchases by the allied nations since the outbreak of the war have poured gold into the United States. From August, 1914, to the middle of 1917 the United States received more than $1,000,000,000 more gold than she exported. At the present time the total stock of gold in the country is more than $2,500,000,000. Little seen in circulation, this stock of gold is the foundation and the reserve for all the other forms of our currency. It is held largely in the vaults of the Federal reserve banks, the Government, and the com- mercial banks, where It makes possible the credit structure which maintains industry in the United States, supports the Government, and furnishes to our associates the funds necessary to the successful prosecution of the war. See Federal Reserve Act. GoHz, General Kolmar von der. German soldier and author on military affairs. In 1883, after some years of service in the German army, he was "farmed out" by his Government to Turkey, where he did much to reorganize the Turkish army. In 1908 he returned to Turkey, where he spent two years in building up the Turkish army after the Young Turk revolution. When disaster overtook the Turks in the Balkan wars two years after his departure, von der Goltz received no small blame for the failure of his pupils. This is probably unjust, for the failure seems due to causes over which von der Goltz had no control. He returned to Germany in 1910, became field marshal and, after the outbreak of war and the invasion of Belgium, military governor of the latter country. After the entry of WAR CYCLOPEDIA. 123 Turkey into the war, he went to Constantinople to direct the Turkish armies and died, while at the Turkish front, April 19, 1916. See Turkey; Young Turks. Good Offices. Article II of The Hague Convention of 1907 for the Pacific Settlement of International Disputes, reads : " In case of serious disagreement or dispute, before an appeal to arms, the contracting powers agree to have recourse, as far as circum- stances allow,- to the good offices ... of one or more friendly powers." Article III : " Independently of this recourse, the con- tracting powers deem it expedient and desirable that one or more powers strangers to the dispute should on their own Initiative and as far as circumstances may allow ofCer their good offices . . . to the States at variance. Powers strangers to the dispute have the right to offer good offices . . . even during the course of hostili- ties. The exercise of this right can never be regarded by either of the parties in dispute as an unfriendly act." By this means President Roosevelt in 1905 paved the way for the opening of peace negotiations between Russia and Japan, and in August, 1914, President Wilson made a standing offer of " good offices " to the European .powers at war. Gorizia. Gorizia or Gorz is a city on the Oarso Plateau on the coast route from Italy to Trieste. It was captured by the Italians August 9, 1916, and evacuated when the German-Aus- trian advance in November, 1917, made it untenable. See Carso Plateau. Grains. The final estimates (in December, 1917) of the De- partment of Agriculture give the yield in bushels of the five lead- ing cereals as follows : Crops. Production. Estimate lor 1917. 1916 Wheat 650,828,000 3,159,494,000 1,587,286,000 208,975,000 60,145,000 636,318,000 2,566,927,000 1,251,837,000 182,309,000 48,862,000 Corn Oats Barley Eye Total 5,666,728,000 4,686,253,000 The crop of the five principal cereals is here seen to be 980,- 475,000 bushels larger than that of 1916. This is due to the policy of the Department of Agriculture and the farmers of the country and of the volunteer gardeners who have aided to ex- tend the crops as a patriotic duty. The substitution in home consumption of corn, oats, barley, and rye is urged in order to liberate wheat for exportation. Grand Fleet. The term applied to the main battle squadrons of the British navy stationed in the North Sea. See Beatty, Sir David; JelUooe, Sir John; Jutland Battle. Great Britain. The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland is a constitutional and parliamentary monarchy with its capital at London. Its total land and water area is 121,331 square miles, and its population in 1914 was 46,089,249. King 124 WAR CYCLOPEDIA. George V began his reign May 6, 1910. The Queen is Mary, formerly Princess of Teck. The Liberal ministry under Mr. H. H. Asquith, in office since 1905, was in power at the outbreak of the war. Mr. Asquith formed a coalition ministry May 25, 1915, which lasted until December 5, 1916. On December 7 David Lloyd George, Secretary of State for War since Earl Kitchener's death, June 5, became Premier. Great Britain declared war against Germany on August 4, 1914, after the former had vio- lated the neutrality of Belgium ; against Austria on August 12, 1914; against Turkey on November 5, 1914; and against Bul- garia on October 15, 1915. See Cabinet System.; Coalition Cabi- net; Munitions Ministry; War Cabinet. Greece. A constitutional monarchy occupying the southern part of the Balkan Peninsula. The total area is estimated at 46,345 square miles and the population at 4,698,599. Athens is the capital. Constantine I, the reigning King at the out- break of the war, succeeded to the throne on March 18, 1913. The Queen was Sophia, a sister of Emperor William II. The pro- German sympathies of the royal family caused great embarrass- ment to Greece, for M. Venizelos, the premier, and the bulk of the population wished Greece to join the Allies and fulfill its treaty obligations to Serbia. In October, 1915, the King dis- missed the Premier and appointed a succession of pro-German ministers, who succeeded in keeping Greece neutral. When, on September 28, 1916, a provisional government, with Entente sympathies, was established at Salonikl by M. Venizelos, the unity of Greece was seriously compromised, nor was it restored till the enforced abdication of King Constantine on June 12, 1917, and the subsequent return of M. Venizelos to Athens. Greece formally entered the war against Germany and Bulgaria on July 2, 1917. See Balkan Wars; Ccmstantine I; Macedorua; Salonilci; TenAzelos, E. K. Grey, Viscount, of FaUodon (Sir Edward) (1862- ). British Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs at the out- break of the war. A Liberal in politics, he entered Parlia- ment in 1885, was undersecretary for Foreign Affairs, 1892-1895, and in 1905 became Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs in the Liberal cabinet. When he became director of British foreign policy England was shifting her policy of isolation with regard to continental affairs to one of participation in them and of defense against Germany's constant attempts to expand at the expense of other nations. The fact that Grey continued this policy, that he strengthened the entente with France, and negotiated one with Russia, has laid him open to the charge of aggressive designs against Germany. There seems to be no basis for this charge. If, in 1911, he supported France against German designs in Morocco, he repeatedly, and especially in 1912, when Lord Hal- dane was sent on a mission to Berlin, left open a door for recon- ciliation and good terms with the German Empire. He did everything in his power to bring to an end the Anglo-German naval rivalry, and in 1914 he negotiated a treaty over the Bagdad railway which Germans regarded as in every way WAR CYCIiOPEDIA. 125 satisfactory. An Idealist and an advocate of internationalism In Europe, lie strove during the Balkan wars to provide a set- tlement that should be just and satisfactory, and the failure of this settlement was due to Austro-German imperialism and not to his efforts. His attempts to preserve peace in 1914 are treated below. In 1915 he tried, with M. Sazonov, to revive the Balkan League, and after the failure of this project and the collapse of Roumania, he left the cabinet in December, 1916. He was raised to the peerage in 1916. See "Encirclement"; Triple Entente. Grey and British Policy in 1914. It is one of the stock arguments of the Germans that Sir Edward Grey, in 1914, gave the support of England to France and Russia and thereby en- couraged them to commence the war. There is no evidence to support this assertion. The British statesman proposed or eh- couraged the following methods of settling the Serbian diflaculty without war: (1) arbitration; (2) mediation and settlement of the difficulty by four less interested powers— England, France, Germany, and Italy ; (3) direct negotiations between Austria and Russia. Germany's reply to the first was that it was " unim- portant " ; the second it " accepted in principle " — a meaning- less phrase ; the third it accepted and then destroyed all chance of its success by its ultimatum to Russia. As to the policy pursued by Sir Edward Grey after war had broken out be- tween Germany and Russia, the only ground on which it can be attacked is on the theory that England might have looked on while her friends were being destroyed by Germany. Sir Ed- ward Grey refused to follow this policy ; hence the Germans de- clare he caused the war. See Oerman Military Autocracy; Nicholas II, Efforts to Maintain Peace; "Potsdam Conference." Guatemala. Guatemala is a republic of Central America. Its area is approximately 48,290 square miles, and its popula- tion in 1913 was 2,119,165. The city of Guatemala Is the capi- tal. The President is Manuel Estrada Cabrera, whose term of office will expire in 1923. On April 28, 1917, Guatemala severed diplomatic relations with Germany, announcing this to the United States as follows : " Guatemala from the first has adhered to and supported the attitude of the United States In the defense of the rights of nations, the liberty of the seas, and of International justice, and has always considered Itself in unity with your great Nation in the lofty principles which It has so wisely proclaimed for the good of humanity." See Brazil; Cuba; Panama. " Gulf light." An American oil steamer, which was tor- pedoed and sunk without warning off the Scilly Islands on May 7, 1915, the day of the Lusitania sinking, with resultant loss of three lives, all Americans. The case was settled on the same principles as that of the Gushing. See " Gushing." H. Habeas Coppns. The writ of habeas corpus is an ancient legal means still used to protect the citizen from illegal Im- prisonment. The writ orders that the body of the person de- 126 WAR CYCLOPEDIA. tained be produced in court at a certain time. Tlien if the de- tention be found to be without legal warrant, the writ further secures the victim's release. By Article I, section 9, paragraph 2, of the Constitution it is provided that the privilege of the writ " shall not be suspended unless when, in cases of rebellion or invasion, the public safety may require it." During the first half of the Civil War President Lincoln repeatedly suspended the writ without authorization by Congress, but it seems the better view that such authorization is requisite. The suspension of the privilege of the writ does not of itself justify other arrests than those already warranted by law, but if such arrests take place the fact is placed temporarily beyond judicial inquiry and remedy. Hague and Geneva Conventions, German Violations. See Assassinations; Base of Operations; Belgium, Deportations; Bel- gium, Economic Destruction; Bomhardment ; Com,batants ; Com- munity Fines and Penalties; Contrihuitons; Destruction; Ex- plosives from Aircraft; Family Honor and Rights; Pishing Craft; Flag of Truce; Forbidden Methods of Warfare; Forbid- den Weapons; German " War Book "; Germs; Hospitals; Hospi- tal Ships; Hostages; Levies en Masse; Military Information; Military Operations ; Mines; Neutral Territory; Pillage; Poison; Prisoners of War; Private Property; Quarter; Requisitions; State Property; Works of Art. Hague Conferences. With a view to securing concerted ac- tion in respect to the maintenance of peace and the ameliora- tion of war on land and sea, and also, if possible, an agreement looking to a gradual reduction of military and naval arma- ments, a conference of delegates met at The Hague on May 18, 1899, in response to the invitation of the Czar of Russia. A second conference, called, upon the suggestion of the President of the United States, by the Czar of Russia, met at The Hague on .Tune 15, 1907, and adjourned on October 19 following, hav- ing adopted 13 important international conventions. See Hague Conventions ; Hague Tribunal. Hague Conventions. They are as follows: I. A convention for the pacific settlement of international conflicts, being an amendment of the corresponding agreement of July 29, 1899. II. A convention relative to the recovery of contractual debts. III. A convention relative to the opening of hostilities. IV. A convention concerning the laws and customs of war on land. V. A convention concerning the rights and duties of neutral States and Individuals In land warfare. VI. A convention regarding the treatment of the enemy's merchant ships at the outbreak of hostilities. VII. A convention regarding the transformation of merchant ships into vessels of war. VIII. A convention in re- gard to the placing of submarine mines. IX. A convention con- cerning the bombardment of undefended towns by naval forces. X. A convention for the adaptation of the principles of the Geneva convention to maritime warfare. XI. A convention im- posing certain restrictions upon the right of capture in maritime war. XII. A convention providing for the establishment of an WAR CYCLOPEDIA. 127 international prize court. XIII. A convention defining the rights and duties of neutral States in maritime war. See Hague Tribunal. Hague Regulations. The " Hague Regulations respecting the laws and customs of war " comprise the annex to the Fourth Hague Convention of 1907. Most of the citations in this volume are to these regulations. By article III of the con- vention of which they are a part, " a belligerent party which violates the provisions of the said regulations shall, if the case demands, be liable to pay compensation. It shall be responsible for all acts committed by persons forming part of its armed forces." See Hague and Geneva Conventions, Oerman Viola- tions. Hague Tribunal. A permanent court of arbitration; has its seat at The Hague and is " competent for all arbitrations, un- less the parties agree to institute a special tribunal." Strictly speaking, it is not a court but a panel of judges from which a court may be composed. Bach signatory power selects four persons, at the most, whose tenure is six years and whose ap- pointments are renewable ; and when it is desired to have re- course to arbitration under The Hague convention, a special tribunal is selected from this list. The members of the court enjoy diplomatic immunities. The United States was the first power to submit a case to The Hague court. This was the Pius Fund case, with Mexico. See Arbitration; Peace Treaties. Haig, Field Marshal Sir Douglas ( 186 1— ) . Com- mander in chief of the British forces in France and Flanders, to which position he succeeded when Sir John French was recalled for other duties in 1915. He was employed for many years in the cavalry arm of the British service, reaching the rank of major general in 1904, lieutenant general in 1910, and general in 1914. He was at Khartum with Kitchener, fought for three years in the South African war, and saw extended service in India before coming to his present high command in December, 1915. He was created field marshal after the battle of the Somme in 1916. See Cambrai; " Sindenburg Line." Haiti. A negro republic of the West Indies with an area of approximately 11,072 square miles. Its population in 1912 was estimated at 2,500,000. Its capital is Port au Prince. On June' 17, 1917, Haiti severed diplomatic relations with Ger- many. Hangar. The shed in which airplanes or Zeppelins are kept when not in use. Some are built so that they may revolve, thus allowing easier use in veering winds. Harden, Maximilian. A free-thinking, free-speaking Ger- man journalist, editor of Die Zukunft. He frequently attacked the Government and was disciplined for it; but like other Ger- mans he gloried until recently in the national policy. In the summer of 1917 his paper was suppressed. In November he was released and given freedom to resume publication. See "Der Tag." 128 WAK CTCLOPEDIA. Health and Recreation. A department of the woman's com- mittee of the Council of National Defense for the safeguarding of moral and spiritual forces in training centers, cooperating with the Raymond B. Fosdick committee of the United States War Department. See Trmning Camp Activities; Y. M. C. A. Hegemony. Hegemony, from the Greek " hegemonia," meant originally the leadership of one city-state, such as Athens or Sparta, In a group of federated or loosely united States. In recent years it has been used to designate (1) the dominant position which Bismarck secured for the Kingdom of Prussia over the other States of Germany by the wars of 1864, 1866, and 1870, resulting in the establishment of the German Em- pire. (2) It is also used to designate the ambitious ideal of the Pan-German party by which Germany would weaken France, England, and Russia, and secure for herself the dominant posi- tion in Europe and eventually in the world. It would be secured through her influence over Austria-Hungary, by her political domination of Turkey and the Balkan States, and by her acquisi- tion of colonies throughout the world. These colonies would pro- vide a place for Germany's overflow of population, supply her with needed raw materials, and aiford her markets for her manufactures. If Germany emerged victorious from the present war, she would clearly enjoy the hegemony of Europe. See German Military Dominance. Hegemony, German Ambition. " The Strongest Germanic State on the Continent must take over the hegemony ; the smaller ones must sacrifice as much of their independence and their language as is necessary to the permanent insurance of a new imperial unity. The question of whether military force would become requisite is secondary ; but it is essential that the State which aspires to the hegemony should have at its disposal sufficient intellectual, economic, and military power to reach this end and hold it fast. Which State would it be? It can be only the German Empire, which is now in search of more terri- tory. . . . The natural pressure of this new German Em- pire will be so great that, wUly-nllly, the surrounding little Germanic States (Holland, Belgium, Switzerland, Denmark), will have to attach themselves to it under conditions which we set." (Joseph L. Reimer, Ein pangermanisches Deutschland, 1905, pp. 119-120.) Helgoland. A small island about one-fifth of a square mile in area with a population of 2,307 (1900). It belonged to Eng- land up to 1800, when it was ceded to Germany in exchange for territories in Africa. The German Government at once started on the task of fortifying the island, and it is now a very Im- portant feature in the defense of the German coasts. The har- bors are not of sufficient size to admit battleships but it makes an ideal station for small cruisers and torpedo craft. The strength of the defenses, supported by mines, has discouraged thus far any attempt by England to reduce It, although an im- portant naval engagement was fought near it in August, 1914. It commands the entrance to the Kiel Canal. See Cuxhaven; Kiel Canal; Wilhelmshaven. WAR CYCLOPEDIA. 129 Hereros. A native tribe of German Southwest Africa, whose insurrection in 1904-5 was put down with great cruelty. See German Southwest Africa. Hertling, Count Geo. V. von (1843- ). Chancellor of the German Empire after November 1, 1917, in succession to Dr. Georg Michaelis. He was for years a professor in Munich and a member of the Bavarian Chamber ; since 1912 he had been Prime Minister of Bavaria. In politics he belongs to the con- servative wing of the Center or Clerical party and has opposed the extension of parliamentary government in Germany. He is said, ho\vever, to be more flexible in his views than many Ger- man leaders and to be opposed to the annexation program of the Pan-Germans. Whether this is his real position or only an interpretation circulated to make the outside world more trust- ful can not be determined at present. He has also been hailed as recognizing parliamentary rule because he consulted a few leaders of the Reichstag, but appointments under him have, so far, indicated no change of policy. Herzegovina. See Bosnia-Herzegovina. High Seas Fleet. A name given to large number of vessels of various classes gathered together for a definite offensive or defensive purpose. It will include dreadnaughts, battleships, and cruisers, with a protecting force of torpedo boats and de- stroyers serving as outrunners. A fleet is a general term ap- plied to a mass in the navy, as an army is a mass for service on land. " High seas fleet " is the official designation of the main German naval force. Highways Transport Committee. A subdivision of the Council of National Defense, created on November 2, 1917. The purpose of the committee is to assist railroads and other means of transportation in the movement of supplies during the war and to work with the highway authorities to maintain public roads in shape for use. Hindenburg, Field Marshal Paul von (1847— ). Chief of the general staff of the German Army since 1916. Be- fore the war he was noted chiefly for his extensive knowledge of the Mazurian Lakes in East Prussia. When the Russians in- vaded that province in August, 1914, Hindenburg was called from retirement, and by brilliant strategy destroyed their army at Tannenberg. That victory made him the idol of Germany, and led the Kaiser to create him field marshal. The following summer he drove the Russians out of Poland. After the failure before Verdun and on the Somme, which reflected little credit on Gen. von Falkenhayn, that general was deposed as chief of the general staff and Hindenburg put in his place (1916). As Hin- denburg had always contended that the war must be won in the east, it occasioned no surprise when the German armies were sent against Roumania ; but since then there has been no serious Ger- man offensive in the east. Whether this Is due to political rea- sons or to a shortage of men is not clear, though probably both causes have contributed. Hindenburg's chief exploit as chief of staff has been the retreat from the Somme in March, 1917, a 15963°— 18 ^9 130 WAR CYCLOPEDIA. maneuver which made an end to the battle of the Somme but did not prevent the British from undertaking Immense opera- tions in Flanders. It is often asserted that Hindenburg is not so great a general as his assistant, LudendorfC, the first quarter- master general. " Hindenburg liine." The German preparation for a re- newal of the Somme battle in 1917 was a " strategic retreat " to the " Hindenburg line," a new and carefully prepared line of defense which had supposedly been rendered Impregnable. The line is assumed to have been through Laon, La F6re, St. Quentin, Cambrai, and Lille, joining the old line at Vimy Ridge north of Arras. The retreat on a front extending from Arras to the Aisne was intended to frustrate the Allied plans for their spring offensive, and was carried out with an orgy of destruction in March, 1917. The Allied pursuit overtook the retreat. La Fere was rendered useless by French successes. St. Quentin was eliminated from the line in April, and the Germans have failed to establish their impregnable defense. See Byng; Cam- brai; Destruction; "Pill-boxes"; Vimy Ridge. Historical Service, National Board for. A voluntary com- mittee of historians, created at a conference in Washington in April, 1917, and sitting thereafter, without pay, to aid in pre- serving the records of the war, to stimulate history teaching, and to give aid to various departments of Government. J. T. Shotwell, chairman ; C. H. Hull, vice chairman ; W. G. Leland, secretary. Address, 1133 Woodward Building, Washington. " Holy War." When Turkey entered the war the Sultan in his capacity of Caliph of the Mohammedan world, issued a fetva to the faithful of Islam, calling them to a " holy war " against the unbelievers. The object was to disturb the loyalty of the Mohammedans owing allegiance to Great Britain, France, and Russia. These people, however, paid little attention to the summons, and Mohammedan troops have fought against Turkey in Mesopotamia and against Germany in Europe and Africa. See Pan-Islamism. Honduras. A Central American republic containing 44,374 square miles. Its capital is Tegucigalpa. In 1913 the popula- tion was stated as 592,675. Honduras broke ofE diplomatic re- lations with Germany on May 17, 1917. Honor, Word of. For German violations, see Parole. Hospitals. Article VI of the Geneva convention of 1906, which in essence repeats Article I of the convention of 1864, says: "Movable sanitary formations (that is, those which are intended to accompany armies in the field ) and the fixed estab- lishments belonging to the sanitary service shall be respected and protected by the belligerents." The badge of immunity of such establishments is the Red Cross. A recent communication from the Roumanian Minister of the Interior to our Government states: "Because of the action of Germany and her allies, it has been found advisable to remove the Bed Cross conspicuously painted on the top of the hospital buildings, because it served as a special mark for the bombs, etc., from aeroplanes." In WAR CTCLOPEDIA. 131 a recent German attack on an American base hospital in France four American soldiers were killed and several wounded/ See Bed Cross. Hospital Ships. The Tenth Hague Convention of 1907 (for the adaptation to naval war of the principles of the Geneva convention) contains the following provision : "Article I. Military hospital ships — ^that is to say, ships constructed or assigned by States especially and solely with a view to assisting the wounded, sick, and shipwrecked, the names of which have been communicated to the belligerent powers at the commence- ment or during the course of hostilities, and in any case before they are employed — shall be respected and can not be captured while hostilities last." Germany ratified this convention. Nevertheless, on January 29 of the present year she issued an order to the effect that from that day on all hospital ships marked with the Red Cross should be considered as vessels of war and attacked and sunk as such within a prescribed zone in the Channel and North Sea. Her claim was that Great Britain had used such vessels to convey munitions; but the remedy for such an abuse is provided in the convention itself, in the following terms : " The belligerents will have the right to control and visit them . . . and put a commissioner on board." Moreover, of the hospital ships which were forthwith sunk by German submarines, the Asturia, the Gloucester Castle, the Donegal, and Lanfranc, the last two were headed for Eng- land with wounded men aboard, and it is unlikely that they were conveying munitions away from the seat of war. The fact of the matter is that this policy was decided upon in contem- plation of the renewal of ruthless submarine warfare, the German Government foreseeing that hospital ships would neces- sarily suffer with all others. Owing to the continuance of these crimes, the British and French Governments at last. noti- fied the German Admiralty that In future a contingent of Ger- man prisoners would be carried on every hospital ship. This step, together with the intervention of the King of Spain, has recently caused Germany to give a renewed pledge to observe the Geneva Convention, but doubtless unfortunate " accidents " will still occur. Hostages. In 1870 the Germans, then in occupation of cer- tain portions of France, required that trains " be accompanied by well-known and respected persons inhabiting . . . localities in the neighborhood of the lines," and that such persons " be placed on the engine, so that in every accident caused by the hostility of the inhabitants, their compatriots will be the first to suffer." The German War Book admits that this measure was con- demned by " every writer outside Germany " but defends It as " having proved completely successful," and worse measures have been resorted to in the present war by the German military authorities in Belgium. The following is an extract from a proclamation by Baron von der Goltz, which was posted up in Brussels on October 5, 1914 : " In future all persons near the spot where such acts have taken place [i. e. destruction of railway 132 WAR CTCLOPEDIA. lines or telegraph wires], no matter whether guilty or not, shall be punished without mercy. With this end in view, hostages have been brought from all placies near railway lines exposed to such attacks, and at the first attempt to destroy railway lines, telegraph or telephone lines, they will be immediately shot." See Community Pines and Penalties; German War Practices; Noncombatants. Humanity, Rights of. " I am thinking, not only of the rights of Americans to go and come about their proper business by way of the sea, but also of something much deeper, much more funda- mental than that. I am thinking of those rights of humanity without which there is no civilization. My theme is of those great principles of compassion and of protection which mankind has sought to throw about human lives, the lives of noncom- batants, the lives of men who are peacefully at work keeping the industrial processes of the world CLuick and vital, the lives of women and children and of those who supply the labor which ministers to their sustenance." (President Wilson, to Con- gress, Feb. 26, 1917.) " Hun." A term of reproach leveled at the Germans by their enemies since the war begEin. It seems to have been first associated by William II with his army as a term of praise. When he addressed his troops about to sail for China, at Bremer- haven, July 27, 1900, he was reported by the local daily, the Norddeutsche Zeituiig, on the following day as saying : " When you come upon the enemy ... no quarter will be given. No prisoners will be taken. ... As the Huns under their King, Attila, a thousand years ago, made a name for themselves which is still mighty in tradition and story, so may the name of German in China be kept alive through you in such wise that no Chinese will ever again attempt even to look askance at a German." The oflicial report of this speech left out some of these words, those least creditable, but did not give a complete text. Already on July 29, 1900, the Socialist daily, Yorwdrts, de- nounced this " editing " of the Kaiser's real utterance, and declared he had actually held the Huns up to emulation and imitation. For many years the German Socialists used the word " Hun " in attacking the militarists, and to-day the term is frequently adopted by the press of the countries at war with Germany. See " Place in the Sun " ; William II. Hungary. See Austria-Hungary; Pan^Oermanism; Pan- Slavism,; Magyarization. Hussein Kamil (1854—1917). Sultan of Egypt since De- cember 19, 1914. Son of the Khedive Ismail (1863-1879). He was appointed Sultan after the deposition of Abbas II, who had intrigued with Turkey to drive the British from Egypt. He died October 9, 1914. Hydroplanes. Hydroplanes, generally coming to be called sea planes, are aeroplanes which will both fly and float and can ascend from or alight on the water. They are important nnval auxiliaries. Early in 1915 the German ambassador filed claim with the State Department that certain hydroplanes being WAR CTCLOPEDIA. 133 built at the Curtis plant at Hammondsport, N. Y., for some of the belligerent Governments were war vessels, that ac- cordingly the United States Government should stop their delivery under Article VIII of the Thirteenth Hague Conven- tion. The State Department rejected the contention, citing the imperial prize ordinance of the Germian Government itself ( Sept. 30, 1909), where "airships and flying machines" are classified as conditional contraband. See Aviation. Hyphenated American. A naturalized citizen of the United States who acts or forms opinions on American matters in order to serve the country of his birth. " Some Americans need hyphens in their names because only part of them came over." (President Wilson, Washington, May 17, 1914.) "I believe that the majority of those men whose lineage is directly de- rived from the nations now at war are just as loyal to the flag of the United States as any native citizen of this land ! " (President Wilson, Flag Day address, Washington, June 14, 1916. ) See Alien; Dual Citizenship. Igel, von, Papers of. In April, 1916, secret-service men raided the " advertising office " of Wolf von Igel in New York. He claimed to be on German territory, because of a connection vplth the G'^rman embassy, and defied the officers to shoot him, saying wai would result. They did not shoot, but they seized his papers — damning evidences of a direct chain between the German embassy and plotters who would bomb munition ships, who would upset Ireland ; checks that showed embassy payments to Teuton helpers, such as foreign-language newspaper editors; documents that convicted the Teutons of fomenting the Sir Roger Casement Irish rebellion ; along with offers from Americans to do dastardly work, such as blasting munitions plants. From the von Igel papers, in the posses- sion of the Government for a year and a half, can be pieced together a story stranger and more startling than fiction, showing that Germany through her embassy in America was concerned with : Destruction of lives and property in merchant vessels on the high seas ; violation of the laws of the United States ; Irish revolutionary plots against Great Britain ; foment- ing ill feeling against the United States in Mexico ; subornation of American writers and lecturers ; financing of propaganda ; maintenance of a spy system under the guise of a commercial investigation bureau ; subsidizing a bureau to stir up labor troubles in munitions plants ; the bomb industry and other related activities. See Intrigue. Immigration. The first wave of immigration was mainly English, along the Atlantic seaboard, 1607 to about 1640. The second, chiefiy Irish and Scotch with some Germans, settled In the " back country " of New York, Pennsylvania, Virginia, and the Carolinas, from about 1720 to the American Revolution, and has been estimated at 500,000 in number. " These," says 134 WAR CYCLOPEDIA. Lecky, the English historian, " ultimately bore the chief part in the War of Independence." The present wave began about 1820, when 8,000 arrived, chiefly from northern Europe ; 23,000 came in 1830 and 84,000 in 1840. The potato famine in Ireland in 1846, the German revolution in 1848, and the dis- covery of gold in California increased the numbers ; and 370,000 arrived in 1850 and 425,000 in 1854, mostly Irish and Germans, with some English. The Civil War and the panic of 1873 caused a reduction, but with good times the number reached 800,000 in 1882, while the 1,000,000 mark was reached in 1905, 1906, 1907, 1910, 1913, and 1914. The European war reduced it to 325,000 in 1915. The southern countries of Europe are now the chief sources of immigration. There are at present 13,000,000 foreign born in the country and 18,000,000 more with parents born abroad, one-third of the whole country. The city with the largest percentage of foreign born is Fall River, Mass., with 42.7 per cent ; Lowell, Mass., is second, with 40.9 per cent ; New York, third, with 40.8, or 1,944,357; Boston fourth, Pater- son, N. J., fifth, Chicago sixth, and Bridgeport (Conn.), seventh. Imperialism, The New. Formerly imperialism was a move- ment aimed at the acquisition of colonial possessions by a State. Of late years it has taken a different development and now appears to aim at the acquisition by the capitalists of one State of the rights to loan money, build and operate railroads, work mines, and conduct any natural or trade monopoly of a profit- able nature within the limits of another State. The authoriza- tions to conduct these monopolies are granted by the Govern- ment of the second State and are styled " concessions." This Government is supposed to retain its full sovereignty ; actually it is more or less under the tutelage of the powers whose na- tionals hold the concessions. In case these concessions are threatened by internal outbreak, governmental action on the part of the State granting the concession, or interference by other powers, the power whose nationals hold them may inter- vene for their protection. The new imperialism is especially provocative of war, because in the scramble for concessions many are granted overlapping or coinciding with each other, thus giving rise to dispute between their holders and involv- ing the governments whose nationals make up these groups. See Morocco; Bagdad; Backward Nations. Income of the Government. The total Income of the United States Government from all sources for the four fiscal years 1912-1916, inclusive, was as follows : year ending June 30 — 1912 5691, 778, 465 1913 724, 111, 230 1914 734, §73, 167 1915 g97, 910, 828 1916 779^ 664, 552 The receipts from customs in 1916 were $213,185,845, $100,- 000.000 less than in 1912; from internal revenue, $512,702,029, nearly $200,000,000 more than in 1912. See War Taxes. WAR CXCLOPEDIA. 135 Income Tax. An internal revenue tax levied upon net in- comes of persons or corporations. This form of tax was used during tlie Civil War, but was declared unconstitutional by the Supreme Court in 1894. A corporation income tax was included in the I'ayne-Aldrich tariff of 1909, and an amendment to the Constitution authorizing a tax on private incomes was ratified in 1913. In 1913 a tax on private incomes was passed by Congress, and this has since been increased as a war measure. The high- est rate on large Incomes levied by any European country is the English, with a maximum rate of 43 per cent, as compared with 67 per cent, the maximum rate in the United States. On the other hand, the English income tax bears heavier upon the lower part of income scale in the tax lists, e.g. incomes of $3,000, $5,000, $10,000, and $15,000 pay in England 14 per cent, 16 per cent, 20 per cent, and 25 per cent, respectively, and in the United States the corresponding incomes pay two-thirds of 1 per cent, IJ per cent, 31 pep cent, and about 5 per cent. Eng- lish incomes bear, of course, no State income taxes such as are levied here in addition to the Federal tax. See " Rich Man's War, Poor Man's Fight"; War Tax on Excess Profits; etc. India. An empire in southern Asia, belonging to the British Crown. Area, 1,802,629 square miles. Population, 315,156,396 (1911). The King-Emperor is George V, who proclaimed his accession at a durbar held at Delhi, the capital, in December, 1911. The people are of many races, speak a variety of languages, and adhere to lialf a dozen religions. British rule, which binds the whole together, extends over 61 per cent of the territory and 78 per cent of the population ; the rest is divided among more than 700 native princes, who are allowed a fairly complete au- tonomy in domestic affairs. The government is administered by a Viceroy, assisted by various councils and responsible to the Secretary of State for India in England. In the present war India and her native princes have contributed money and troops to the common cause, and with few exceptions have played their part with loyalty and enthusiasm. Indian soldiers have fought gallantly in France, Mesopotamia, and Africa. Industrial Workers of the World. The I. W. W., a radical labor organization formed in 1904, has its headquarters in Chi- cago under William D. Haywood as general secretary-treasurer and Joseph J. Ettor as assistant secretary and general organizer. There were 15,000 members in 1915, mainly in the West. Its platform denounces the trade-unions for pitting one set of work- ers against another, and calls for the union of all workers into one common organization and the abolition of capitalism and of the wage system. Its weapons are the strilce, arson, and sabotage, which last term involves the impairment of industry through destruction of machinery, " mistakes," slackening the pace of workers, etc. Its representatives have conducted bitter strikes in Lawrence, Mass., Paterson, N. J., and in various places in the West. On September 5, 1917, its headquarters and vari- ous branches were raided by the Government and many docu- ments seized as evidence of a conspiracy to lessen the output of 136 WAR CYCLOPEDIA. supplies needed for the war. The organization claims to have adopted the best features of socialism, anarchism, and syndical- ism. (See Atlantic Monthly, November, 1917.). A Detroit branch, the Workers' International Industrial Union, does not advocate violence. See Sabotage. Infantry. Soldiers trained and organized to fight on foot. It is the most important of the three arms, and constitutes the bulk of our own and the military forces of other countries. The national defense act of 1916 provided for 64 regiments of In- fantry in the Regular Army of the United States. Since that act was passed the act of May 18, 1917, authorized the Presi- dent to increase the personnel of the Army, but the number of regiments in the Regular Establishment can not be changed. An Infantry regiment, according to the new Tables of Organiza- tion, has a strength of 103 officers and 3,652 enlisted men. See Battalion; Brigade; Company; Division; Regiment. Inland Waters Transportation Committee. A subordinate agency of the Council of National Defense established June 8, 1917. Gen. W. M. Black, Chief of Engineers, United States Army, is chairman of the committee. Lieut. Col. C. Keller, Corps of Engineers, United States Army, is its secretary. The committee makes use of the local offices of the Engineer Corps and cooperates with State officials in its work of considering how waterways may be coordinated with other transportation systems from the standpoint of national defense. The policy of the committee is to develop existing water systems rather than to attempt to cut into new channels. Attention has been con- centrated upon the Mississippi River system and the Atlantic system. Insurance. See War Risk Insurance; German Insurance Com-panies. Interallied Supreme War Council. In order to secure greater unity of operation on the western front, England, France, and Italy drew up in November, 1917, an agreement, in which the United States promptly concurred, to establish a permanent council for the purpose of watching over, and in part directing, the general conduct of the war. The agreement was made under the pressure of conditions brought about by the invasion of Italy and the defection of the Lenine government in Russia, and provided for a council to meet normally at Versailles at least once in each month. The council was to be composed of the Prime Minister and a member of the cabinet of each of the powers engaged on the western front. The first meeting was held in the latter part of November. America was represented by Col. E. M. House and Gen. Tasker H. Bliss. In addition to its political representatives, each power delegates an army ofli- cer of high rank to act as technical adviser. These military representatives comprise a sort of Allied general staff. Unlike the supreme council, the military staff is to be active all the time. The officers appointed by the several powers are Gens. Foch for France, Wilson for England, Cadorna for Italy, and Bliss for the United States. Provision has also been made for WAR CYCLOPEDIA. 137 an Allied naval staff, on which the representative of the United States is Admiral Benson. At the time that the war council vcas holding its first meeting there was convened in Paris an interallied conference of all the nations that are in the war against Germany to consider political and economic questions. The war council assures a great improvement in centralization of power and coordination of operation. Intern. To detain and render harmless. When the military forces of a belligerent enter the territory of a neutral State, it is the latter's duty to intern them for the remaining period of the war. The same rule applies to belligerent naval forces after they have remained in neutral waters beyond a limited period. The German auxiliary cruiser Prinz Eitel Friedrich was in- terned' at Newport News, Va., in March, 1915, and the Kronprins Wilhelm at Norfolk the following month. The German and Austrian merchantmen which remained in our harbors from the beginning of the war till they were taken over by the Govern- ment were not, strictly speaking, interned. They were free to leave port at any time with commercial cargoes. Subjects or citizens of an enemy State residing within the limits of its jurisdiction may be interned by any Government, and this prac- tice has been widely followed by all belligerents in the present war. See Parole; Prizes in Neutral Ports; War Vessels, Bel- ligerent. International Law. The body of rules accepted or observed by independent States in their relations with one another. When a new State enters the family of nations it consents to be bound by the then existing rules of international law, the fun- damental assumption of which is the equality of States. If Germany is victorious in the present war, international law would seem likely to undergo a fundamental transformation. From being the rule of conduct of equals it would become, in part at least, a direction from a superior to inferiors ; the family of nations would have become a hierarchy of nations, with Ger- many at the apes. See German Diplomacy; Hague and Geneva Conventions ; German Violations; Segemony ; Recognition. International Law, Sanction of. The law to which we are subject in our everyday relations may rely for its enforcement, when other means fail, upon the policeman. But no such supe- rior power exists over the members of the family of nations to back up international law. It must therefore rely for its en- forcement exclusively either upon the accord between its man- dates and the interests of States, or upon the pressure which can be brought to bear upon opposing States by the opinion of other States, upon the readiness of Individual States to redress their wrongs under it by means of force. Yet this situation of international law does not necessarily furnish reason for despair of its future. Even municipal law is not enforcible unless it has back of it public opinion. Again, municipal law has itself been an outgrowth from self-help. Yet again, in recent years notable steps have been taken toward the creation of interna- tional agencies for enforcing the law of nations, such as The 138 WAR CTCLOPEDIA. Hague Tribunal and the International Prize Court, while the proposed League to Enforce Peace would go even further. Finally, however, the present coalition against Germany, com- prising 17 nations and incorporating three-quarters of the popu- lation of the globe, is to be regarded as an effort to bring to bar the German Government, the greatest criminal that the family of nations has produced. See United States, Isolation. International Peace, Duty of the People of the United States. Their duty " is nothing less than this : To add their authority and their power to the authority and force of other nations to guarantee peace and justice throughout the world." (President Wilson before the Senate, Jan. 22, 1917.) See America, Creed. International Unions. Since 1850 a considerable number of such organizations have been formed. The most important are the Universal Telegraphic Union, founded in 1865 ; the Uni- versal Postal Union, which was created nine years later ; the European Union of Railway Freight Transportation, which was formed in 1890 ; the Union for the Protection of Industrial Property (patents, trade-marks, etc.), which dates from 1883; and The Hague Union of 1886 for the Protection of Works of Art and Literature. Intervention. An Interference by a nation in the affairs of another without the intention of waging war. It is commonly defended as a police measure by the intervening power, but Is often followed by war, and may always be regarded by the second power as an act of war. One of the greatest needs in in- ternational law is a court to whose inquiries and orders any nation must respond, thus compelling a proper consideration of the sort of grievance that produces interventions. Intrigue. By intrigue and spies, in time of peace as well as war, Germany has habitually tried to secure secretly the aims she could not attain openly. This system was described by President Wilson in his letter to the Provisional Government of Russia (May 26, 1917) as follows: "Government after Gov- ernment has, by their [the German ruling classes'] influence, without open conquest of its territory, been linked together in a net of intrigue directed against, nothing less than the peace and liberty of the world. The meshes of that intrigue must be broken, but can not be broken unless wrongs already done are undone; and adequate measures must be taken to prevent It from ever again being rewoven or repaired." See Bernstorff, Intrigues of; Dumba; German Intrigue; Igel, von, Papers of; Liebknecht on German War Policy; Papen; Propaganda, Ger- man; Rumors, Malicious and. Disloyal; Sabotage; Spies; " Spurlos Versenkt"; Zimmermann Note. Intrigue and Peace. " The test, therefore, of every plan of peace is this: Is it based upon the faith of all the peoples in- volved or merely upon the word of an ambitious and intriguing Government, on the one hand, and of k group of free peoples, on the other? This is a test which goes to the root of the matter, and it is the test which must be applied." (American reply to WAR CYCLOPEDIA. 139 the peace overtures of the Pope.) See Aim of the United States; Why are We at War* Irish Convention. In 1917, by act of Parliament, the rela- tions of Ireland to the British Empire v^ere submitted to a con- vention sitting in Dublin and including representatives of every shade of Irish opinion from the Sinn Fein to the Ulster Union- ists. The Government has pledged itself to foUovsf the recom- mendations of the Irish upon their own local affairs. The president of the convention (which was still in session in No- vember, 1917) was Sir Horace Plunkett, well known in both Ireland and America as an active worker for Irish economic and agricultural development. Irish Home Knle. The government of Ireland has never satisfied either the Irish or the English. In protest against it, as well as against the conditions of life from which the Irish have suffered, there have been repeated political, educational, and revolutionary movements. The modern history of the prob- lem begins about 1880, with Charles Stewart Parnell, as spokes- man for the Irish, demanding reform of land tenure and, finally, home rule. William E. Gladstone was the first great British statesman to accept the idea of home rule, but no measure to accomplish it was passed until 1914, and this law, suspended for the duration of the war, is likely to be superseded by the work of the present Irish convention. The fundamental difficulty in adjusting a basis for home rule is the existence of two groups in Ireland which have been mutually distrustful : (1) The Irish, who are mostly Catholic, and generally live in the country ; and (2) the Protestant Ulstermen, who are mostly of British blood, live in northern Ireland, own property, and direct the city life and manufactures. Irish Parties. Among the many phases of opinion in Ireland, four groups stand out: (1) The Ulster Unionists in northern Ireland, who demand close connections with England, and who fear the control of Ireland by the Irish; (2) the Irish National- ists, who comprise the bulk of the population, and have long maintained a compact group of representatives in Parliament, desiring home rule but supporting the present war under the leadership of John Redmond; (3) a middle and apparently growing group, drawing away from both of these, and desiring a friendly accommodation of differences; and (4) the Sinn Fein, who are extreme nationalists, demanding immediate inde- pendence even at the cost of revolution or German victory. See Sirm Fein. Iron and Steel. Modern warfare is largely a matter of en- gineering and manufacture, with iron and steel at the founda- tion of every enterprise, for guns, railroads, machinery, and bridges. The amount of iron ore mined in 1916 and the first months of 1917 is the highest on record. It is estimated that exportation for 1917 will reach a valuation of ,$1,100,000,000, as against $251,000,000 in the opening year of the war. An In- vestigation into the iron and steel industries by the Federal Trade Commission with a view to fixing the prices the Govern- 140 WAR CYCLOPEDIA. ment must pay (according to the agreement of July iS) was completed August 20, 1917. It recommended a continuous In- vestigation into the cost of steel during the war, and the ascer- taining of the actual cost of each Government order. The Gov- ernment has no legal authority to fix iron and steel prices for the general trade. See Priority. Isolation, Policy of. See United States, Isolation. Isouzo. A river on the frontier between Italy and Austria. A few miles southeast of it, In Austria, is Trieste, the natural objective for Italian operations in this theater. The crossing of the Isonzo by Italians began on May 27, 1915. On June 11 they occupied Gradlsca, 6 miles southwest of Gorlzia, and in July began the struggle for the Carso Plateau on the coast road to Trieste. Gorlzia was not captured until August 9, 1916. The great Italian offensive of August, 1917, on all fronts advanced the Italian' gains on the Isonzo area, and led to a renewed Austria-German counterdrive in October. At this writing (No- vember, 1917), this counterdrive has swept away the Italian gains of the past two years. See Carso Plateau. Italia Irredenta. The term means unredeemed Italy. After 1861, when the present Kingdom of Italy was established, the Papal States, Venetia, the district around Trieste, and the dis- trict around Trent, were still — although inhabited mainly or in part by Italians — not parts of the Kingdom. Venetia and the Papal States were annexed in 1866 and 1870. This process of winning Italy from foreign control came to be called redeeming Ita,ly, and after 1870 the term " Italia irredenta " was applied to Trieste and the Trentino, these being territories still " unre- deemed." Popular secret societies, whose object was to advo- cate the winning back of unredeemed Italy, were formed shortly after the congress of Berlin (1878), from which the Italian rep- resentative returned with " clean " but empty hands. Advo- cates of this policy were called irredentists, and the policy itself was known as Irredentlsm. Irredentism declined after Italy joined Austria and Germany in the Triple Alliance (1882), but has steadily gained in force since 1908, when Austria, backed by Germany, annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina without consulting Italy, and contrary to her interests and in violation of the treaty of Berlin (1878). Italy. Italy is a constitutional and parliamentary monarchy. Its area of 110,688 square miles supported a population in 1915 of 36,120,118. Rome is the capital. The reigning King, Victor Emmanuel III, came to the throne on July 29, 1900. The Queen is Elena, a princess of Montenegro. On May 23, 1915, Italy declared war against Austria, and on August 20, 1915, against Turkey; a declaration of war was issued against Bul- garia on October 19, 1915, and against Germany on August 27, 1916. The Salandra ministry, which was in office at the out- break of the European war, gave place on June 19, 1916, to a new ministry under Signer Boselll, and this in turn has recently (November, 1917) yielded place to one under Signer Orlando. See Triple Alliance. WAR CYCLOPEDIA. 141 J. •Tagow, Gottlieb von (1863- ). German Foreign Minis- ter, 1913-1916. During the negotiations preceding the war he repeatedly declared that he had no previous knowledge of the Austrian ultimatum to Serbia, but he seems subsequently to have admitted that he had seen the note 14 hours before its presenta- tion at Belgrade. See Potsdam Conference. Japan. The Japanese Empire consists of four large and numerous small islands in eastern Asia. The area of the large islands is approximately 137,093 square miles. The population in 1913 was 53,362,682. Tokyo is the ctipital. The Emperor Is Yoshihito, who has reigned since July 30, 1912. Japan, loyal to the Anglo-Japanese alliance, issued a declaration of war against Germany on August 23, 1914. See Kiaochow. Japanese-American Agreement. On November 2, 1917, Vis- count Ishii for Japan and Secretary Lansing for the United States exchanged notes clarifying the policy of the United States and Japan regarding China. In a statement announcing the agreement Secretary Lansing spoke of the attitude of constraint and doubt fostered by a campaign of falsehood adroitly and secretly carried out by the Germans, and declared that through the frankness and cordiality of the Japanese commissioners this propaganda of years had been undone in a few days. The main points of the agreement were as follows : " The Governments of the United States and Japan recognize that territorial propin- quity creates special relations between countries, and conse- quently the Government of the United States recognizes that Japan has special interests in China, particularly in the part to which her possessions are contiguous. The territorial sover- eignty of Chinaj nevertheless, remains unimpaired, and the Government of the United States has every confidence in the repeated assurances of the Japanese Government that, while geographical position gives Japan such special interests, they have no desire to discriminate against the trade of other na- tions. . . . Moreover, they mutually declare that they are op- posed to the acquisition by any Government of any special rights or privileges that would affect the independence or terri- torial integrity of China, or that would deny to the subjects or citizens of any country the full enjoyment of equal opportunities in the commerce and industries of China." The Chinese Gov- ernment has issued a statement that it can not be bound by agreements concerning it entered into by other powers. See China; " Open Door" Policy; Sphere of Influence. Jaurfes, Jean Leon. Born, 1859, in Castres ; became a lecturer at the University of Toulouse and went into politics as a moderate Socialist. Elected to the Chamber of Deputies, he became a great force and held posts in several cabinets. He wished to see capitalism abolished, but regarded many Marxian theories as impracticable. On many occasions he acted as unofficial arbitrator in great strikes. He was regarded as the most eminent Socialist in France, if not in the world. He was 142 WAR CTCLOPEDIA. editor and part author of the 12-volume Socialist history of France since 1789. During the years 1912-1914 he took part In the revival of French patriotism, although urging his country- men to be cautious. On July 31, 1914, just after he had re- turned from an International Socialist conference meeting at Brussels to protest against war, he was assassinated by a demented French nationalist. Jellicoe, Admiral Sir John K. (1859— ). The first figure in British naval management during the present war. He had seen service In all' parts of the world, and at the out- break of hostilities In August, 1914, was appointed commander in chief of the " grand fleet." The responsibility for the ar- rangements which have so effectually " bottled up " the German navy and rendered it powerless for offensive action almost from the first day was his. When succeeded by Sir David Beatty, in 1916, he became First Sea Lord at the Admiralty, in which capacity he is responsible for the direction of the entire British naval forces. Jerusalem. Fall of. See Palestine. Joffre, Gen. Joseph Jacques C6saire (1853- ). Late commander in chief of the French armies. He entered the army as a second lieutenant during the Franco-Prussian War of 1870-71, commanding a battery In the siege of Paris. He later served with distinction in the French colonies in Asia and Africa. Appointed chief of the general staff of the French army in 1911, he assumed active command at the outbreak of the war, and his fame became world-wide when he stopped the German advance upon Paris at the battle of the Marne. On his recent visit to America as the head of the French mission he aroused popular sympathies as no other Frenchman has done since Lafayette's last visit In 1825. He was succeeded In active supreme command at the end of 19i6, after two and a half years of the most arduous responsibility, by Gen. Nivelle, whose reputation was made in the defense of Verdun, but who was soon superseded by Gen. Pgtain. Gen. Joffre was made marshal of France, and is now chief military advisor to the French Government. Judge Advocate General. This officer stands at the head of the legal bureau of the War Department. He is attorney for the Secretary of War. He must know civil and military law and direct procedure in accordance therewith. Courts-martial, courts of inquiry, and military commissions are under his gen- eral direction. Jugo-Slavs. See Slav; Ukraine. Junker. A member of a noble Prussian family, who belongs to the landed aristocracy, and, as a rule, adopts the profession of arms and enters the caste circle of the officer corps. Thanks to the survival of feudalism In the organization of German society, the term has acquired a broader significance. Hence as used commonly to-day it Indicates a narrow-minded, ar- rogant, and, often, bellicose member of the aristocracy. Since 1862, when, under the leadership of Bismarck, the aristo- WAR CYCLOPEDIA, 143 cratic party came into political power, the term has been applied to those who hold reactionary views, because they desire to preserve intact the exclusive social, military, and political privileges belonging traditionally to the " well born.'' Junkerism and junkerdom indicate the policies and the cus- tomary round of ideas, judgments, and prejudices characteristic of the junker class. They have been and still are of great in- fluence, for they have afCected Prussian domestic policies by their organized efforts to preserve and protect large landed estates ; they have molded German social life by their assump- tion of complete superiority to the ordinary man, especially to the man who engages in trade or manufactures, while the Prus- sian officer corps has taken its distinctive tone from their haughty aloofness from the civilian population. See Autocracy ; Kaiserism; Militarism. Jutland Battle, May 31, 1916. The most important naval battle of the war between the German high seas fleet, under Admirals Hipper and Scheer, and the British grand fleet, under Admirals Jellicoe and Beatty. Much of the engagement was fought in the mist and after dark, while the opposing statements of losses leave their exact extent in doubt. The Germans pre- maturely celebrated a victory with a school holiday, but their fleet retired to port and has not since ventured out to challenge the British fleet. K. Kaiser Wllhelmsland. A German colony in the northeastern part of New Guinea ; taken from Germany by Australian troops In September, 1914. Kaiserism. Kaiserism implies that the State as swayed by the monarch is supreme and is, therefore, by its very nature, relieved from the moral obligations incumbent upon private in- dividuals. Accordingly, if the State — i. e., the Kaiser and his officials — affirm anything to be for its interest, other considera- tions, even the most sacred, are obliterated, and, beyond all else, the inviolability of human personality, whether in an individual or in a free people, is set at naught. Should any person or any group object, the penalty is spiritual or material destruction, or both. One need not go further than the declarations of the German Emperor himself for a definition of the doctrine of Kaiserism : " Only one is ma&ter in this country. That is I. Who opposes me I shall crush to pieces. All of you have only one will, and that is my will ; there is only one law, and that is my law." See Autocracy; "Hun." Kamernn. A German colony in Africa north of the Congo River ; taken by Anglo-Belgian-French forces in February, 1916, and held by France and Great Britain jointly. Kerensky, Alesxander P. (1881— ). Russian Premier, July-November, 1917. A lawyer, who had distinguished himself by defending workmen, political offenders, and Jews, he entered the Duma in 1912 as deputy for Saratov, and mercilessly attacked the old regime. As leader of the Socialist Labor party he was naturally prominent in the revolution of March, 144 WAR CYCLOPEDIA. 1917 ; indeed, it was he who gave the signal for the Duma to continue its sitting when the Czar ordered its dissolu- tion. Made Minister of Justice in the Provisional Govern- ment, he abolished the death penalty, only to restore it, at least for the front-line troops, when, as Minister of War, he perceived the utter collapse of discipline in the army. On July 22 Kerensky became Premier, in succession to Prince Lvov, and put forth herculean efforts to adjust differences be- tween the various political parties, to reorganize the fighting forces, and nullify the intrigues of the Germans for a separate peace. He was generally regarded as the one man who could save Russia, not so much because of his particular program — for he was after all a party leader — ^but because his Integrity and energy inspired general confidence. His power was chal- lenged in September, 1917, by Gen. Kornilov, who wishetl a sterner administration, and in November, 1917, by the Bolshe- vilji, who sought an immediate peace and the application of the principles of radical socalism to questions of property in land and industry. The latter movement resulted in the downfall of Kerensky's Government. See Bolsheviki; Lenine; Kornilov; Russian Revolution; Trotzky. Kiaochow. In 1897 the German fleet seized the land on both sides of Kiaochow Bay, China, to secure reparation for the mur- der of two German missionaries. It was afterwards arranged that the bay and the land adjacent should be leased to Germany for 99 years. The area leased was about 117 square miles. The port is Tsingtau, which was strongly fortified by Germany. It was besieged by Japan in the present war and was taken on November 10, 1914. Kiel Canal. The naval ambitions of Germany are obstructed by the fact that Denmark can control her outlet from the Baltic to the North Sea. Hence Denmark is uneasy, and hence, also, the Kiel or Kaiser Wilhelm Canal, opened In 1895, which con- nects the German harbor and naval base at Kiel, on the Baltic, with the North Sea at the mouth of the Elbe. The width and depth of the canal, determined originally by the size of the largest German battleships, was not sufficient to admit the ves- sels of the dreadnaught type, hence the canal was widened and deepened and was reopened on a scale able to accommodate the greatest modern ships on July 1, 1914. This widening of the canal was one of the measures pushed by Germany in prepara- tion for the war she had been arming for before 1914. See Guic- Jiaven; Helgoland; "Potsdam conference" ; Wilhelmshaven; Zeebriigge. Kienthal Conference. Early In 1916 there was held a Socialist " International " Conference at Kienthal, Switzer- land, in which a few members of the French Chamber of Depu- ties and the editor of the German paper Voriciirts and Herr Fleissmann of the Reichstag took part. The proceedings were secret, but the French deputies have since shown themselves favorable to peace. The French Socialist party declared in May, 1916, that it had not authorized any members to act as delegates. WAR CYCLOPEDIA. 145 " Kingdom of the Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes." The name selected for a new European State proposed to be formed out of the kingdoms of Serbia and Montenegro and the Austro- Hungarian provinces of Oroatia-Slavonia, Carinthia, and Bosnia- Herzegovina. Despite certain local .differences of religion and historical tradition, the inhabitants of the entire region consti- tute one people, the southern, or Jugo-Slav, and have of late years become distinctly conscious of the fact. On July 27, 1917, representatives from the Austrian provinces and the Prime Min- ister of Serbia, M. Pasitch, signed an agreement at Corfu for the constitution of the new State under the rule of the King of Serbia. Since the territory involved is at present occupied by the Central Powers, the realization of this plan depends upon the outcome of the war. See Bosnia-Herzegovina; Croatia; "Drang nach Osten"; Magyarization ; Pan-Slavism. Kitchener, Earl, of Khartum (1850-1916). England's greatest figure in the war in its first years. His principal services to his country prior to the outbreak of hostilities with the German Empire were performed in Egypt and South Africa. His reconquest of the Sudan caused .him to be raised to the peerage as Baron Kitchener of Khartum, a name chosen in recognition of his services in leading the expedition up the Nile to that place ; he also received the thanks of Parliament and a money grant of £30,000. Lord Kitchener played a distin- guished part in the South African War, being commander in chief in 1900-1902 ; subsequently for some years he commanded in India. He became a viscount in 1902 and an earl in 1914. His military rank had become lieutenant general in 1899, general in 1902, and field marshal in 1909. In 1914 the nation turned to Earl Kitchener with one accord as its greatest and most com- petent military leader. He became Secretary of State for AVar. He foresaw the difficult character and the duration of the con- flict, and successfully called into being the formidable forces in the field long known as " Kitchener's army." He went down at sea on H. M. S. Hampshire when that vessel was destroyed off the Orkney Islands by a German mine or a torpedo on June 5, 1916, while bound for Archangel on a special mission to Russia. A legend is current that he still lives, in captivity in Germany. Knights of Columbus. The Knights of Columbus represent the Catholic communicants, who will constitute perhaps 35 per cent of the new army. While this society is a fraternal organization, it will sustain exactly the same relation to the military training camps as is sustained by the Young Men's Christian Association, and will hold no meetings to which all the troops in the camp are not invited, regardless of religious or other preference. A representative has just been sent to France to initiate among the American soldiers activities sim- ilar to those undertaken in the training camps at home. The work is in charge of a Committee on War Activities, 730 Wood- ward Building, Washington, D. C. Kola Bay. A Russian port of the Arctic Ocean, to which a new railway has been constructed since the outbreak of the war, 15963°— 18 10 146 WAR CYCLOPEDIA. in or(Jer that Russia may import supplies more freely from western Europe and America. Its nearness to the Gulf Stream makes it accessible for a longer period than Archangel. Owing to the blokade of the Baltic by the German fleet, these ports are Russia's only means of direct communication with the Allies. Kornilov, Gen. L. G. Siberian Cossack general. At the out- break of the war he commanded one of the armies in the invasion of Galicia. During the later Russian retreat from Galicia he was captured by the Austrians, but managed to escape. When the revolution broke out in March, 1917, he was appointed command- ant at Petrograd, from which he was detailed to the southwest- ern army under Brusilov, and commanded one of the armies in the advance of July, 1917. After Brusilov's resignation he was made commander in chief of the Russian army, and inaugurated a series of strong military measures against traitors and slackers in the army. In September, dissatisfied with the attitude of the Provisional Government, he began a march on Petrograd with the object of establishing a dictatorship. But the movement collapsed, and Gen. Kornilov was held for trial as a rebel. The whole affair, however, is still shrouded in great obscurity ; there seems to have been a misunderstanding between the general and Premier Kerensky, and it is fairly clear that Kornilov aimed simply at restoring dicipline in the army and had no intention of organizing a revolution in favor of the deposed Czar. See Russian Revolution. " Kriegs-Baison." The German term for military necessity, which in the German view always prevails over any rules of civilized warfare in case of conflict. In the words of the German War Booh, " What is permissible includes every means of war without which the object of the war can not be obtained." With this should be compared the principle stated in the Ameri- can code, that only such measures may be adopted against the enemy as " are lawful according to the modern laws and customs of war." This, also, is the British and French doctrine. See " Prightfulness " ; Hague and Geneva Conventions, Qer- man Violations; " Notwendigkeit" ; War, German View. Krupp, Alfred ( 18 12— 1887) . Head of the great iron and steel manufacturing establishments in Essen, Prussia. He and his son Frederick Alfred Krupp, who died in 1902, were constantly used by the German Imperial Government in the development of its plans for world mastery. Munitions of war of improved types have been invented and manufactured in the Krupp plants, which, from the Essen district, have branched out into other places. Already In 1902 the various Krupp works employed 43,100 persons, 24,000 being in and around Essen. The younger Krupp's heir was a daughter, Bertha, now for some years the principal owner, whence the name " Big Bertha " which is applied to a type of large shell hurled from a heavy German gun against the British lines in Flanders. Kiihlmann, Richard von (1873- ). German Foreign Minister. As councillor of the German embassy in London he Is believed to have advised Berlin that Great Britain would not WAR CTCLOPEDIA. 147 enter a European war. When his prediction was falsified he was trsinsferred to Holland and later was ambassador to Turkey. With the change of government in Germany in 1917 Dr. von Kuhlmann was promoted to the Foreign Office. " Kultur." Kultur Indicates the whole mass of customs, con- ventions, usages, laws, institutions, and language from which the Prussian people derives its outlook, and in which it ex- presses the dominant characteristic differences distinguishing it from other peoples. A Kulturmensch (culture-man) is not primarily a distinctive individual but the exponent of self- conscious national tendencies. Accordingly, Kultur has , come to indicate (since about 1880) the type of civilization for which Germany now stands sponsor, thanks mainly to the leadership of Prussia. And we have abundant German authority for Its precise implications. The Kaiser has himself struck the key- note of Kultur. " Great ideals have become for us Germans a permanent possession, while other nations have lost them. The German nation is now the only people left which Is called upon to protect, cultivate, and promote these grand ideals." These grand ideals peculiar to Germany are, as stated by one scholar, (1) national egotism, founded upon (2) obedience, induced by (a) a disciplined bureaucratic autocracy, (6) a disciplinary division into social classes wherein every man finds his place, and (c) a disciplinary system of professionalized instruction which produces multitudes of " efficients " who labor in every conceivable line of activity ; the whole scheme is completely justified by (3) material success and (4) military power ; (5) on account of these successes, Germany has the right to force this system upon other peoples, who are either to be Germanized by " penetration " or compelled to become economic vassals of Germany ; that is, tools to be used for her " world supremacy." " Kultnr " versus Civilization. (1) " Must Kultur rear its domes over mountains of corpses, oceans of tears, and the death rattle of the conquered? Yes, it must. . . . The might of the conqueror is the highest law before which the conquered must bow." (Karl A. Kuhn, in Die wahren Vrsachen des Kriegs, 1914, p. 11.) (2) "Civilization does not rest upon war. Tt rests upon peace, . . . upon those things which men achieve by cooperation and mutual interest." (President Wilson, National Service School, Washington, May 6, 1916.) " Knltur," Mission of. " Do not let us forget the civilizing task which the decrees of Providence have assigned to us. Just as Prussia was destined to be the nucleus of Germany, so the regenerated Germany shall be the nucleus of a future empire of the west. And in order that no one shall be left in doubt, we proclaim from henceforth that our continental nation has a right to the sea, not only to the North Sea, but to the Mediter- ranean and the Atlantic. Hence we intend to absorb one after another all the provinces which neighbor on Prussia. We shall successively annex Denmark, Holland, Belgium, northern Swit- zerland, then Trieste and Venice, finally northern France, from 148 WAR CXCIiOPBDIA. the Sambre to the Loire. This program we fearlessly pronounce. It Is not the work of a madman. The empire we intend to found will be no Utopia. We have ready to hand the means of found- ing it and no coalition in the world can stop us." (Bronsart von Schellendorf, quoted by H. A. L. Fisher in The War, Its Causes and Issues, London, 1914, p. 16.) See Conquest and Kultur; William II. Kut-el-Amara. A city in Mesopotomia about 100 miles be- low Bagdad, occupied by the British in November, 1915, during an unsuccessful advance upon Bagdad. The British force under Gen. Townshend was besieged for 143 days. In spite of a Rus- sian column proceeding from Erzerum to Kermanshah looking toward a junction with the British at Bagdad or Kut, and in spite of a British relief force moving upon Kut from the south. Gen. Townshend was starved into surrender April 28-29, 1916. The city was reoccupied by the British under Gen. Maude, February 24, 1917. L. Labor Committee. On April 2, 1917, Mr. Samuel Gompers, member of the Advisory Commission, under authority of a reso- lution passed by the Council of National Defense February 13, 1917, which divided the Advisory Commission into seven com- mittees, one of which was on Labor, called a meeting of labor representatives and employers at Washington. It became clear that on tlie issue of national defense a remarkable unity of pur- pose had developed among these numerous diverse groups, which it would be possible to utilize to practical ends through the formation of a Committee on Labor. A strong disposition was manifest to avoid the unfortunate industrial experiences of England in the opening months of the war. A permanent organi- zation was formed and an executive committee named of U members. Eight national committees have been appointed, of which those whose plans are furthest advanced are the Com- mittees in Relation to Wages and Hours, Mediation and Con- ciliation, Women in Industry, and Welfare Work, the latter in- cluding Safety, Sanitation, Industrial Training, and kindred subjects. The principle upon which these features of welfare work is based, in the committee's assigned task, is that the health, welfare, and efficiency of the workers in the vital in- dustries upon which all else depends are fundamental resources which should be conserved in the interest of national defense. See American Alliance of Laior and Democracy. Labor and the War. The attitude of labor is significantly shown by the vote of 21,579 to 402 by which the American Federation of Labor on November 19, 1917, indorsed the patriotic course of its head, Mr. Gompers, in unreservedly supporting the active prosecution of the war. Similarly the attitude of the Government toward labor Is seen in the letter which President Wilson wrote in September, 1917, to Mr. Gompers : " With all my heart I want them [the friends of labor] to feel that their devotion to country is in no wise a betrayal of prin- ciple and that in serving America to-day they are serving WAR CYCLOPEDIA. 149 their cause no less faithfully than in the past. I myself have ' had sympathy with the fears of the workers of the United States, for the tendency of war is toward reaction, and too often military necessities have been made an excuse for destruction of laboriously erected industrial and social standards. These fears, happily, have proved to be baseless. With quickened sympathies and appreciation, with a new sense of invasive and insidious dangers of oppression, our people have not only held every inch of ground that has been won by years of struggle but have added to the gains of the twentieth century along every line of human betterment. Questions of wages and hours of labor and industrial readjustment have found a solu- tion which gives to the toiler a new dignity and a new sense of social and economic security. I beg you to feel that my support has not been lacking and that the Government has not failed at any point in granting every just request advanced by you and your associates in the name of the American workers." A more extended statement of the Government's attitude toward labor is to be found in President Wilson's address to the Federation of Labor on November 12, 1917. See Americcm Alliance of Lalior and Democracy; "Battle Line of Democracy " ; Business as Usual, Attitude of American Business; "Rich Man's War, Poor Man's Fight." Lafayette Escadrille. A body of young American aviators who, in memory of Lafayette's services to the United States during our War for Independence, volunteered to aid France. Before we had yet declared hostilities upon Germany it was stated that they had brought down 30 enemy aircraft. The pilots use Nieuport machines. They were the first to raise the Stars and Stripes on the western front in April, 1917, upon re- ceiving news of our entry into the war. See Aviation. Liandtag. Prussia has, since 1850, had a constitution and a Parliament, or Landtag, which consists of the House of Lords and the House of Deputies. Most of the bills passed by it have been proposed by the Government. The House of Lords is domi- nated by the landowning nobility, the " junkers," and is subject to the unrestricted power of the monarch to create peers. It has a veto upon all legislation, and the King also has an abso- lute veto. The House of Deputies is chosen by the people. Every male Prussian who has attained his twenty-fifth year has the vote. The voters are divided in each electoral district into three classes, according to wealth. The result is that a very few rich men are set apart by themselves, and the less rich by themselves, aijd the poor by themselves. Each of these groups, voting separately and orally, elects an equal number of delegates to a convention, which chooses the delegates of that district. In 1908 there were 293,000 voters in the first class, 1,065,240 in the second, .6,324,079 in the third. The reform of the fran- chise for the Prussian House of Deputies is one of the principal political questions agitating Germany to-day and is the sine qua non of a democratic Germany since Prussia dominates in Ger- many. See Bundesrat ; Reichstag. 150 WAR CYCLOPEDIA. Iiansdowne Iietter. In a letter to the Daily Telegraph of London for November 30, 1917, the Marquis of Lansdowrief, Minister of Foreign Affairs in former Unionist governments and minister vs'lthout portfolio in the Asquith coalition cabinet of 1915, declared himself in favor of a revision of the Allies' ■wa.T aims, lest the prolongation of the war " lead to the ruin of the world." He believed the Allies should make it clear that they did not propose to crush Germany nor to take from her her commercial opportunities, and that they were willing to examine the problems connected with the " freedom of the seas." Lord Lansdowne was silent on the possibility of German control over southeastern Europe. His letter was treated as the individual utterance of a war-weary Tory. Latin America, German Aims in. " While Englishmen and Yankees are everywhere disliked on account of their sharp and reserved manner, the French were, until the seventies, the unri- valed leaders and patterns of these people [the South Americans] in their progress toward a higher culture ; but now through their want of numbers and through their swift decline into universal corruption they have forfeited much of their leadership. Would that the Germans might be called through their talents to be the intellectual economic and political leaders of these peoples. . . . If the Germans do not accomplish their mission, then sooner or later, in consequence of political or financial bankruptcy, the na- tives of Spanish and Portuguese America wiU be subdued and despoiled by the United States." (Johannes Unold, Das Deutsch- tum in Chile, 1899, p. 65. ) " Germany takes under her protection the Republics of Argentina, Chile, Uruguay, and Paraguay, the southern third of Bolivia, as much as belongs to the basin of the Rio de la Plata and the southern part of Brazil, where Germans predominate. . . . [German South America] will procure for us in the temperate zone a territory for colonization where our emi- grants will be able to settle as agriculturists. Chile and Argen- tina will keep their language and autonomy, but we should insist upon the teaching of German In the schools as a second language. Southern Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay are the countries for German culture. German should there be the national lan- guage." (O. R. Tannenberg, Orossdeutschland : die Arheit des SOten Jahrhunderts, 1911, pp. 250, 265.) See Conquest and Kultur; Monroe Doctrine; Pam^Americamsm. Latin America, President Wilson on. In his address at Mobile on October 27, 1913, President Wilson outlined his attitude toward the countries of Latin America. Referring to the burdens Imposed upon the governments of the States by concessions granted to foreign capitalists, he pointed out that too often their domestic affairs came under the domina- tion of foreign interests. To emancipate them from these con- ditions ought to be the first aim of the United States. Mr. Wilson declared : " I want to take this occasion to say that the United States will never again seek one additional foot of territory by conquest. She will devote herself to showing WAR CYCLOPEDIA. 151 that she knows how to make honorable and fruitful use of the territory she has, and she must regard it as one of the duties of friendship to see that from no quarter are material Interests made superior to human liberty and national opportunity." The Monroe doctrine thus attains a new importance. The people of all nations are free to make investments in any part of the Americas, provided only they do not make them so that they, as investors, may become advance agents of foreign aggres- sion. It is against these more subtle forms of acquisition that the United States protests. See Aims of United States; Monroe Doctrine; Pan- Americanism. Laws of War. See Forhidden Methods; German War Prac- tices; Hague Conventions; " Kriegs-Raison." Iieague for National Unity. This organization, estab- lished in October, 1917, announces as its purpose " to create a medium through which loyal Americans of all classes, actions, creeds, and parties can give expression to the fundamental pur- poses of the United States to carry on to a successful conclusion this new war for the Independence of America and for the preservation of democratic institutions and the vindication of the basic principles of humanity." Cardinal Gibbons, of the Roman Catholic Church, and Frank Mason, of the Federal Council of the Churches of Christ are honorary chairmen. Theo- dore Vail, president of the Western Union, is chairman, and Samuel Gompers, president of the American Federation of Labor, vice chairman. The league has its headquarters in New York City. On its executive committee are W; K. Wilcox, chair- man Republican National Committee, and Vance McCormick, chairman Democratic National Committee. League to Enforce Peace. An organization which seeks to substitute judicial and quasi-judicial methods in the settlement of international disputes in place of war. The following plat- form was adopted at the organization meeting held in Independ- ence Hall, Philadelphia, June 17, 1915 : " We believe it to be de- sirable for the United States to join a league of nations binding the signatories to the following: (1) All justiciable questions arising between the signatory povyers, not settled by nego- tiation, shall, subject to the limitations of treaties, be sub- mitted to a judicial tribunal. ... (2) All other questions arising between the signatories and not settled by negotiation shall be submitted to a council of conciliation for hearing, con- sideration, and recommendation. (3) The signatory powers shall jointly use forthwith both their economic and military forces against any one of their number that goes to war, or commits acts of hostility, against another of the signatories before any question arising shall be submitted as provided in the foregoing. (4) Conferences between the signatory pow- ers shall be held from time to time to formulate and codify rules of international law, which, unless some signatory shall signify its dissent within a stated period, shall thereafter govern in the decisions of the judicial tribunal mentioned in Article 1." President of the League, Hon. William H. Taft. 152 WAR CYCLOPEDIA. Iieagne to Enforce Peace, America's Duty. " When the great present war is over, it will be the duty of America to join with the other nations of the world in some kind of a league for the maintenance of peace." (President Wilson, at Indianapolis, Oct. 12, 1916.) "I believe that the people of the United States are ready to become partners in any alliance of nations that would guarantee public right above selfish ag- gression." (President Wilson, Memorial Day speech, Arlington, May 30, 1916.) licague to Enforce Peace, Foreign Attitude. Among for- eign statesmen who have given the league's program some degree of indorsement are Viscount Bryce, former British am- bassador to the United States ; Viscount Grey, late British Sec- retary of State for Foreign AfEairs ; Mr. Balfour, former British Premier and now Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs ; Prof. Milyukov, first Foreign Minister of the Russian Provisional Government ; M. Kerensky, Russian Premier ; Viscount Motono, Japanese Foreign Minister ; and Dr. von Bethmann HoUweg, former German Chancellor. See Arbitration; Peace Treaties; Permanent Peace. I/eather and Skins. The production of leather and skins has been greatly stimulated by the war. The foreign demand for American unmanufactured leather has been enormous. In- crease is seen particularly in the exports of patent and sole leathers and of kid, although the British demand for American kid fell in 1917. Total exports in unmanufactured leather have risen during the war from $66,220,116 in 1914H5 to $80,073,887 in 1915-16 and $108,607,085 in 1916-17. The supply for the leather industries of this country has been obtained in some de- gree from imports. Leather imports in all unmanufactured forms jumped from $10,874,722 in 1914-15 to $20,111,666 in 1916-17. The greatest demand has been for goatskin from Great Britain and India, and for harness and saddle leather, particularly from Canada. Leather manufacture has had a large domestic activity, although the market was heavily over- bought in 1916, which left trade dormant early in 1917. Im- ports in this class of goods have, naturally, declined. The entrance of the United States in the war ^vill strongly affect the industry. " Leelanaw." An American steamer, which was sunk by a German submarine in the " war zone " on July 25, 1915, while proceeding with a cargo of flax from Archangel to Belfast. The vessel was flying the American flag at the time ; the crew were permitted to leave the ship and save their effects; the subma- rine towed their boats toward the Orkney Islands till another steamer was sighted. The case stands on all fours with that of the Frye, the vessel being entitled to protection under the Prussian treaties. Leniberg. Lemberg is the capital of Galicia, occupied by the Russians in their first Galician drive, September 5, 1914, and retaken by the Austro-Germans after a prolonged battle, on June 22, 1915, when von Mackensen's troops entered the city. WAS CYCLOPEDIA. 153 Xenine, Nikolai (1870?- ). The chief leader of the Russian .Bolsheviki ; his real name is Vladmir Utulyanov. In the early 'nineties Lenine, already well known as the author of several works of an extreme tendency on economic subjects, be- came a leader of the radical Social Democrats of Russia. Elected to the second Duma after the revolution of 1905, he was soon exiled. At the outbreak of the present war he was in Cracow (Austrian Poland), where he was soon interned as an enemy alien but was released and allowed to join the colony of radical Russians in Switzerland. In April, 1917, through the collusion of the German Government, he reached Petrograd, where he began to preach immediate peace and general confis- cation of property. He was the leader of the first Bolsheviki rising in Petrograd in July, 1917. After that movement was put down he remained in hiding, part of the time probably in Finland, but was in constant correspondence with the Bol- sheviki. In November, 1917, he headed a successful uprising of the Bolsheviki in Petrograd. The following summary of Lenine's views on government is based on a pamphlet written by him and presented in the form of a catechism (here condensed) in the New York Times (supplement), November 18, 1917: We represent the class-conseioua proletaries, hired laborers, and the poorer portion of the rural population. . . . We stand for socialism. The workmen's councils must at once take the necessary practical steps for the realization of the socialistic program. They must immediately take over the control of the banks and capitalistic syndicates, with a view to nationalizing them ; that is, making them the property of the whole people. . . We advocate a republic of councils of workmen, soldiers, peasants, etc. All the power must belong to them. . Does the State need a police force of the usual type and a standing army? Not at all. The people must be made synonymous with the army and militia. The capitalists must pay the workmen for their service In the militia. Should the army officers be elected by the sol- diers? Yes. Furthermore, every step of the officers and generals must be verified by special deputies from the soldiers. Should the soldiers oust their superiors without authority? Yes. This ig useful and necessary in every respect. The soldiers only obey and respect the authorities they elect. We are emphatically against this imperial- istic war and the bourgeoise governments conducting it, our own Pro- visional Government included. . . . We are against annexations. All the promises of the capitalistic governments to renounce annexations are false. . . . Should the peasants immediately take possession of the private lands ? Yes ; the land must be seized immediately. Strict order should be established through the agency of the councils of peasants' deputies. The production of bread and meat should be in- creased, for the soldiers must be better fed. The damaging of cattle, implements, etc., can not be allowed. It is necessary to organize the poor peasants and the agricultural laborers. Should the fraternization at the front be encouraged? Yes. This is both useful and necessary. It is absolutely necessary immediately to encourage attempts at fraterniz- ing between the soldiers of the two belligerent sides. What color is our flag? Red, for the red flag is the flag of the universal proletarian revolution. See Bolsheviki; Russian Revolution of 1917; Trotzlcy, Leon. Levies en Masse. The Hague Regulations of 1907 contain the following provision on this point : " Art. II. The inhabitants of a territory which has not been occupied, who, on the approach of the enemy, spontaneously take up arms to resist the In- 154 WAR CYCLOPEDIA. vading troops without having had time to organize themselves in accordance with Article I, shall be regarded as belligerents, if they carry arms openly and if they respect the laws and cuSf toms of war." Germany ratified this provision. None the less, during the opening days of the war she treated all Belgians, other than the regular Belgian Army, who resisted the advance of her forces through that country as franc tireurs and executed them at once. As Germany maintained an overwhelming regular military force, it has been her object to prevent by terrorization the citizens of other and neighboring countries from using its citizens for defense when the well-prepared German armies should make a sudden invasion. See Combat- ants; Francs Tireurs. Ijiberia. Liberia is a negro republic of western Africa. Its area is about 35,000 square miles, and its population is between one and two millions. The capital is Monrovia. Liberia de- clared war against Germany on August 4, 1917. Liberty Loans of 1917. The name applied to two great loans placed among the American people by popular sub- scription, under the bond acts of May 24 and September 24, 1917. The first Liberty Loan of $2,000,000,000 at Si per cent dates from June 15 and was taken by more than 4,000,000 subscribers; the second Liberty Loan, calling for $3,000,000,000 as a minimum or $5,000,000,000 as a'maxirnum, at 4 per cent, dates from November 15, 1917; the minimum figures for this were oversubscribed by 54 per cent. Bonds of the earlier issue at the lower rate may be converted (before May 15, 1918) into bonds of the later issue, at the option of the owner ; and this provision of convertibility will be applied to any future loans at higher rates. See Bond Act; War Finance. Liberty Motor. An aviation engine specially designed for war service in battle planes. To two well-known engineers was set the task of designing it on June 3. Manufacturers surren- dered their trade secrets and patents ; other engineers were brought to Washington to criticize. Draftsmen and designers worked day and night. Parts for the first engine were made in 12 different factories and were assembled on July 3 ; the finished motor was tested on Independence Day, when the patriotic team- work was justified. The engine has been tested, formally ac- cepted, and deliveries begun. Libraries at Training Camps. The American Library Asso- ciation has undertaken to establish library facilities at each National Guard and National Army encampment. The buildings of the Young Men's Christian Association and the Knights of Co- lumbus in the several camps will be used as distributing centers, and the association will erect other buildings from funds now being raised. The importance of this work is very great, and the public is urged not only to donate books and magazines, which may be left at local libraries, but to subscribe to the general fund through Frank P. Hill, 26 Brevoort Place, Brooklyn, N. Y. Liebknecht, Karl (1871— ). German socialist, leader of the present minority of German Socialists protesting against WAR CYCLOPEDIA. 155 the war. He is the son of Wilhelm Liebknecht, one of the founders of modern Socialism. He entered the Reichs'tag In 1912, where he became Iinown for his opposition to the Govern- ment. In August, 1914, he voted in the party caucus against sustaining the Government's demands of war credits, but in the Reichstag he voted with the majority to do so, in accordance with the Socialist theory that party members should vote as a unit. . In December, 1914, he openly voted against further military credits, declaring that the war was not one of defense on Germany's part. From that time on he has consistently opposed the war and the German Government. On January 13, 1916, he was expelled from the Socialist Party by the majority members for refusing to vote with them, and in May, 1916, he was arrested and sentenced to four years and one month of penal servitude for an alleged inflammatory apeech delivered May 1, 1916. It is not his first experience of German prisons, for he was sentenced to eight months in a military prison in 1907 on the charge of high treason for having written an anti- militaristic pamphlet. liiebknecht on German war policy. A printed leaflet (with- out indication of place of printing or name of printer, but com- ing to us from a neutral country ) sets forth under date of May 3, 1916, in the form of a letter to the imperial military tribunal at Berlin, Liebknecht's denunciation of German war policy, as part of his defense : The German Government Is in its social and historical character an instrument for the crushing down and exploitation of the laboring classes ; at home and abroad it serves the interests of junkerism, of capitalism, and of imperialism. The German Government is the reckless champion of expansion in world politics, the most ardent worker in the competition of armaments, and accordingly one of the most powerful influences in developing the causes of the present war. The German Government contrived the war jointly in concert with the Austrian Government, and so burdened itself with the greatest responsibility for the immediate outbreak of the war. The German Government brought on the war under cover of deception practiced upon the common people and even upon the Reichstag (note the suppression of the ultimatum to Belgium, the promulgation of the German White Book, the elimination of the Czar's dispatch of July 29, 1914, etc.), and it sought by wicked means to keep up the war spirit among the people. The German Government wages the war by methods which, judged even by standards till now conventional, are monstrous. Note, for example, the sudden attack upon Belgium and Luxemburg ; poison gas, since adopted by all the belligerents ; but most outrageous of all, the Zeppelin bombings, inspired with the purpose of annihilating every living person, combatant or noncombatant, over large areas ; the sub- marine war on commerce ; the torpedoing of the Lusitania, etc. ; the system of taking hostages and levying contributions, especially at the outset in Belgium ; the systematic exactions from Ukrainian, Georgian, Courland, Polish, Irish, Mohammedan, and other prisoners of war in the German prison camps, of treasonable war service, and of treasonable espionage for the Central Powers ; the contract between Under Secre- tary of State Zimmermann and Sir Roger Casement in December, 1914,- for the organization, equipment, and training of the " Irish brigade," made up of Imprisoned British soldiers in the German prison camps ; the attempts under threats of forced internment to compel enemy alien 156 WAR CYCLOPEDIA. civilians found in Germany to perform treasonable war service against their «wn country, etc. " Necessity knows no law." The German Government has, through the establishment of martial law, greatly Increased the political lawlessness and economic exploita- tion of the people ; it refuses all serious political and social reforms, while it seeks to hold the people docile for the Imperialistic war policy, through rhetorical phrases about equal rights of all parties, about alleged discontinuation of political and social class discriminations, about an alleged new order and direction of afEairs, and the like. The German Government has failed, out of deference to agrarian and capitalistic interests, to care for the economic welfare of the popu- lation during the war, and so has prepared the way for a revolutionary • uprising of the people and for general distress. The German Government holds fast even yet to Its war aims of conquest, and thereby constitutes the chief obstacle in the way of imme- diate peace negotiations upon the fundamental principle of renunciation of annexations and of all sorts of oppressions. It stifles through the maintenance — in itself Illegal — of martial law, censorship, etc., public knowledge of embarrassing facts and socialistic criticism of its pro- cedure. The German Government thereby discloses its system of specious legality and sham nationality as a system of actual force, of genuine hostility to the people, and of guilty conscience as regards the masses. lii^ge. A strongly fortified city on the Belgian frontier. It was attacljecl by tlie Germans August 4, 3914, and entered on August 7. The resistance of Ligge and consequent delay of the German invasion was of inestimable value to the French forces, and it surprised and infuriated the German military command. liincoln, Second Inaugural. " With malice toward none, with charity for all, with firmness in the right, as God gives us to see the right, let us strive on to finish the work we are in ; to bind up the Nation's wounds ; to care for him who shall have borne the battle, and for his widow, and his orphan — to do all which may achieve and cherish a just and lasting peace among ourselves and with all nations." See Peace Terms, Lincoln's Vieiv of. liloyd George, David (1863- ) . The present British Premier. He entered Parliament in 1890. He drew public at- tention by his vigorous opposition to the Boer War, which he denounced in public meetings at no little personal risk. Never- theless he entered the Liberal Cabinet of 1905, and in 1908 be- came Chancellor of the Exchequer. His first budget proposed a heavy tax on unoccupied land and was forced through the House of Lords only by the threat of the creation of new peers. He later championed the cause of social reforms, being the chief advocate of measures such as workingmen's insurance. Although an advocate of better relations with Germany up to 1914, after the outbreak of war he stood for a vigorous prosecution of hos- tilities. In May, 1915, he was given the diiflcult task of directing the munitions production, in which labor difficulties had arisen. For this task a new department, the Ministry of Munitions, was created. As Minister of Munitions Lloyd George was a great success, and when Asquith resigned in December, 1916, he be- came Premier. See Asquith; Coalition Cabinet; Munitions Min- istry; War Cabinet. Loans to Allies. Before the United States entered the war the Allied powers bought in the United States large amounts WAR CTCLOPEDIA. 157 of food, clothing, machinery, and munitions, paying for the same either in cash shipped across the ocean or in funils bor- rowed in America. Our entry gave us a special interest in having their needs promptly met ; to which end Congress has authorized the Secretary of the Treasury to loan to nations " at war with the enemies of the United States " a sum of $7,000,000,000. These sums are lent as needed, upon deposit with the United States of their own securities by the Allied nations. Up to December IS, 1917, the following credits had been granted to the various Allied nations : Great Britain : $1, 860, 000, 000 France 1, 130, 000, 000 Italy 500, 000, 000 Russia 323, 000, 000 Belgium 67, 900, 000 Serbia 3, 000, 000 Total 3, 882, 900, 000 See Bond Act; Foreign Exchange; Gold. liondon, Declaratioa of. See Declaration of London. Iiondon, Pact of. See Pact of London. Lorraine. See Alsace-Lorraine. liouvain. A Belgian city in the line of the German advance against France. Here was the greatest university. of Belgium, one of the most renowned centers of Koman Catholic erudition. The university and its library, rich in treasures that can never be replaced, were deliberately burned by the German army on August 26, 1914, on the charge that citizens of Louvain had intended to attack the invading troops. This has never been proved ; Belgians have specifically denied it. Even were it true, the destruction of a great library and the punishment of the innocent in order to terrorize the guilty could not be defended on any known ground. " In this dear city of Louvain, perpetu- ally in my thoughts, the magnificent church, of St. Peter will never recover its former splendor. The ancient college of St. Ives, the art schools, the consular and commercial schools of the university the old markets, our rich library, with its col- lections, its unique and unpublished manuscripts, its gallery of great portraits, . . . which preserved ... a noble tradition — all this accumulation of intellectual, of historic, and of artistic riches, the fruits of the labors of five centuries — all is in the dust." (Cardinal Mercier, pastoral letter.) See Belgium; " Frightfulness " ; Kheims; etc. Ijouvain, Character of German Investigator. Dr. Franz Ivers, who presided at the German judicial investigation to determine whether any criminal responsibility for the burning of Louvain could be imputed to any German soldier and, if so, which German soldiers were guilty, reported, in the words of Minister Brand Whitlock (dispatch of Sept. 12, 1917, to the State Department) : " That the Germans were in nowise to blame for what occurred at Louvain and that they were wholly justified in doing what they did." Mr. Whitlock continues : " The inquiry at Louvain was wholly unilateral. No Belgians and no neutrals were allowed to follow the progress of the hear- 158 WAK CTCLOPEDIA. ing. Certain Belgians volunteered to testify, among them nota- bilities of the city of Louvain, but their testimony, even when heard, vi^as not published in the M'hite Book; in short the report in our American phrase was a whitewash. ... It is not wholly uninteresting in this connection to know that Feldkriegsgerlchts- rat Ivers has since been tried and convicted before the criminal courts of Berlin on a charge of attempted blackmail and of hav- ing used his legal functions for the purpose of extorting money from the mother of a man then serving in the army, whose wife was suing him for divorce; that for this he has been sent to prison, and that in sentencing him the' judge who presided at the trial said that from the evidence it had been shown that the ac- cused Ivers was without moral sense or judgment." " liusitania." About 2 p. m., on May 7, 1915, the great Cunard liner Lusitania, on a voyage from New York, with 1,918 persons on board, was sunk without notice by the German sub- marine V~S9, 10 miles off Old Head of Kinsale. The vessel went down 21 minutes after tlie attack, with resultant loss of 1,154 lives, including men, women, and children, of whom 114 were Americans. The Berlin Government at first asserted that the Lusitania was, " of course, armed " ; and German agents in New Tork procured testimony, which was subsequently proved in court to have been perjured, to bolster up this falsehood. In further justification, the German Government adduced the fact that ^he Lusitania was carrying ammunition, which, it said, was " destined for the destruction of brave German soldiers." This contention our Government rightl y -swept aside as " irrelevant." The essence of the Lusitania case was stated by our Government in its note of June 9, as follows : " Whatever be the other facts regarding the Lusitania, the principal fact is that a great steamer, primarily and chiefly a conveyance for passengers, and carrying more than a thousand souls who had no part or lot in the conduct of the war, was sunk without so much as a chal- lenge or a warning, and that men, women, and children were sent to their death in circumstances unparalleled in modern war- fare." See Armed Merchantmen; " Fright fulness"; Liebknecht on German War Policy; Munitions; Freedom of the Seas; Sub- marine Warfare. "Lusitania" Notes. There were three notes written to Germany upon the Lusitania sinking. In the first, dated May 13, 1915, occurs the expression, " The Imperial German Govern- ment will not expect the Government of the United States to omit any word or any act," and the contention is advanced that it is impossible to conduct submarine warfare against commerce conformably with international law. In the second, dated June 9, occurs the statement that " the Government of the United States is contending for something much greater than mere rights of property or privileges of commerce. It is contending for nothing less high and sacred than the rights of humanity." In the third note, which is dated July 21, it is asserted that " the events of the past two months have clearly indicated that it is possible and practicable to conduct . . . submarine operations . . . within the so-called war zone in substantial accord with WAR CYCLOPEDIA. 159 the accepted practices of regulated warfare." This note closes with the statement that " the repetition " of certain acts " must be regarded by the Government of the United States, when they affect American citizens, as deliberately unfriendly." " Iiusitania" Warning. On May 1, 1915, the day on which the Lnsitania sailed on her last voyage, various New York morn- ing papers contained the following advertisement : Notice. — Travelers intending to embark on the Atlantic voyage are reminded that a state of war exists between Germany and lier allies and Great Britain and her allies ; that the zone of war includes the waters adjacent to the British Isles ; that in accordance with formal notice given by the Imperial German Government, vessels flying the flag of Great Britain, or of any of her allies, are liable to destruction in those waters ; and that travelers sailing in the war zone on ships of Great Britain or her allies do so at their own risk.— Imperial Gbkman Bm- BASST, Washington, D. C, April 22, 1915. (New York Times, May 1, 1916.) The LusUarna sailed on her last voyage at 12.20 noon of the day on which this extraordinary notice of intended murder was published. In its first Lusitania note (May 13, 1915) our State Department referred to " the surprising irregularity of a com- munication from the Imperial German Embassy at Washington addressed to the people of the United States through the news- papers," and it continued, " no warning that an unlawful and inhumane act will be committed can possibly be accepted as an excuse or palliation for that act." Ijuxburg Incident. See " Spurlos Versenkt." Xnxemburg. A tiny State lying between France, Belgium, and Germany, which in 1814 was formed into a grand duchy under the King of the Netherlands and in 1867 was made inde- pendent and like Belgium neutralized by a conference of the powers. When, in 1914, Germany demanded free passage through Belgium for her armies she made the same demand upon Luxem- burg ; the verbal protest of the Grand Duchess was in vain, for the grand duchy possessed absolutely no means of defense against the invading German forces. Since 1914, although the form of the Luxemburg political organization has been maintained, the State has in fact been, administered by the German military authorities. Luxemburg, Rosa. A German Socialist who was tried in 1914 (before the war broke out) for uttering at a public meeting the following words : " Innumerable tragedies are enacted in the German barracks day after day, but the groans of the par- ticipants rarely reach our ears." At her trial she explained that she meant by " tragedies " " every abuse of a soldiei', of course particularly such as lead to suicide, desertion, or such as have similar consequences." The German Government accused her of insulting all the officers, noncommissioned officers, and all persons attached to the Prussian army. Her attorney offered to prove the correctness of her statement by nearly 1,000 cases of brutal treatment of common soldiers by officers. The trial was suddenly stopped, but the Social Democratic newspapers con- tinued, up indeed to the day of the war, to expose the abuses of power by German militarists. See Zabern Affair, 160 WAR CXCLOPEDIA. Luxury in War Time. It is the duty of every patriotic citi- izen to curtail luxury while the country is at war, for the war itself is now the one great necessity which should take the place of all others. So far as we can meet the cost of the war by cutting down our demand for the pleasurable things of life, we can pay for the war without making inroads upon more im- portant interests. It should also be remembered that a demand for luxuries can only be met by somebody's laboring to produce them ; that is to say, at the cost of services of which, very likely, the Government has need. Obviously we should avoid competing against the Government in this way. Besides, one desires to feel that he is sacrificing something for the country he loves. See "Business as Usual " ; Cost of War; Economy; Food Ecrmomy Campaigns. Livov, Prince George E. First Premier in the Provisional Government of Russia, March-July, 1917. He had long been prominent in the zemstvos, local organizations corresponding roughly to our boards of county commissioners. During the war he organized a national council of zemstvo representatives which took over much of the work of supplying the Russian armies, and in that capacity achieved a great success and won public confidence. He was the natural head of a government which had been formed to prosecute the war to a finish. He resigned in July because he was unwilling to concede the demand lor autonomy put forward by the Ukraine, and was succeeded by A. F. Kerensky. See Ukraine; Russian Revolution of Idll. M. Mcliemore Resolution. In 1916 Germany announced that she would treat any enemy merchant ships bearing arms as ships of war ; but both Great Britain and the United States main- tained that merchant vessels may arm themselves for defensive purposes only, and that they may not be lawfully attacked. A resolution was introduced by a member of Congress, Mr. Jeff: McLemore, of Texas, warning Americans not to travel upon any armed merchant ship, lest they lose their lives and provoke a war. This was tabled March 7, 1916, by a vote of 276 to 152, after President Wilson had Indicated his earnest opposition to it on the ground that neutral subjects have a clear right to safe travel on a merchant vessel of a belligerent, even though this ship is defensively armed. " The President," said Representa- tive Pou, "demands of these warring nations that they shall not murder Americans without warning." See Armed Merchant Ships. Macedonia. A former division of Turkey in Europe between the Balkans and the Aegean Sea. After 1878 it became the storm center of the agitation against Turkish misrule and in 1912 conditions in Macedonia served as a principal cause of the first Balkan war. In the settlement after the second Balkan war the major part of Macedonia fell to the share of Greece and Serbia. Military operations took place in Serbian Macedonia when the country was captured by the Germans in the fall WAR CYCLOPEDIA. 161 and winter of 1915. Greek Macedonia was entered by the Allies in the fortification of Saloniki. An offensive from Greek Macedon;a, begun in August, 1916, accomplished little ; but the Serbians, operating to the west, recaptured Monastir from the Bulgarians in November, 1916. The forces of the Greek Pro- visional Government cooperated with the Allies in the fighting in Macedonia in the fall of 1916 and spring and summer of 1917. The importance of Macedonia lies in the fact that it is inhabited by many races, and the desire to possess it is a chief cause of contention between the Balkan States. See Balkan Wars; Bulgaria; Saloniki. Machiavellianism. A term descriptive of unscrupulous di- plomacy and politics, derived from Niccold Machiavelli (1469- 1527), Florentine statesman, historian, and essayist. In The Prince, written about 1513, Machiavelli set forth the selfish principles by which successful princes might secure glory and power for themselves at the expense of others. Its keynote, based on the assumption that men are by nature deceitful and yield only to force or motives of self-interest, is thus expressed in the eighteenth chapter : "A wise ruler can not, nor ought he to, keep faith when such observance may be turned against him, and when the reasons which caused him to pledge it no longer exist." The point of view here expressed has always been known as " Machiavellianism,'' although it was not Machia- velli's own creation but merely an accurate reflection of the views of the time. Its best exponent in the eighteenth century was Frederick the Great of Prussia. The Prussian military au- tocracy has revived and expressed its spirit in such books as Gen. Bernhardi's Germawy and the Next War. At the present day this viewpoint is known as Realpolitik. But with the advent of popular ideals in diplomacy with popular sanction behind them, Machiavellianism and RealpoUtik will tend to become less and less the guide of statesmen. See Assassination ; Ger- man Diplomacy; Intrigue; "Place in the Sun"; " Bebus sic stantibus " ; " Scrap of Paper." Machine Gun Company. The machine-gun company in the United States Army has 6 officers and 172 men. It consists of the headquarters (3 officers and 21 men), three platoons (each with 1 officer and 46 men), and a train (13 men). Its arma- ment is 12 machine guns of heavy type and 4 spare guns. The present war has seen a great increase in the number and use of machine guns, in trench fighting, armored motor cars, air- craft, etc., and a multiplication of types, including light guns portable by one man (the Lewis gun). Mackensen, Field Marshal August von (1849- ). At the beginning of the war he commanded the Seventeenth German Army Corps, stationed at Danzig. He established a rep- utation as an aggressive and hard-hitting fighter in the autumn campaign of 1914 in Poland. Next year he was in immediate command of the forces that defeated the Russians on the Dona- jec, and drove them out of Galicia and Poland. He was later placed in command of the Army of the Danube, which overran 15963°— 18 11 162 WAR CYCLOPEDIA. Serbia, and cooperated with the army of Gen. Falkenhayn in the conquest of the greater portion of Roumania. In the fall of 1917 he took command of the German and Austrian armies on the Isonzo front, and conducted the drive into Italy. His record of successes is so far unbroken. Magyarization. The term applied to the attempts of the Hungarian Government and nation to suppress the non-Magyar elements in the Kingdom of Hungary, i. e., the Slovaks, Croats, and Roumanians. Although equal rights were supposedly guar- anteed to all races in Hungary by the law of nationalities of 1868, fraud and intimidation have been used in the elections to such an extent that these non-Magyar elements have been virtually deprived of voting rights. All educational institutions have been brought under Magyar control and the use of other than the Magyar language rigorously suppressed wherever possible. The economic development of the non-Magyar peoples has been interfered with greatly. The result had been an underground feeling of discontent and revolt among these nationalities and a desire, if possible, to escape from the Hungarian yoke. See Croatia; " Kingdom, of the Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes "; Pan- Slavism; Transylvania. Mails, British Interference with. The Eleventh Hague Con- vention declares that " the postal correspondence of neutrals or belligerents, whether official or private in character, found on board a neutral or enemy ship is inviolable," but adds that this inviolability " does not exempt a neutral mail ship from the laws and customs of maritime war respecting neutral mer- chant ships in general." The British have interfered with the over-seas correspondence both of enemies and neutrals at dis- cretion since the beginning of the war, with results that illus- trate how the Germans have used mail for conveying contra- band. To take a couple of instances : The Dutch mail steamer Zaandyjk on a single trip was found to have in bags supposed to contain nothing but correspondence some 368 parcels of goods, many of them contraband. Again, the Tubantia on one occa- sion had 174i pounds of India rubber and 101 pounds of Para, highest grade — all contraband — in its mail pouches. The British practice of detaining correspondence till it has been looked over by the censor is irritating, but it seems preferable to the Ger- man practice of sinking at sight ships, passengers, and cargo. Mails, Exclusion from_ ( 1) . Even in time of peace Congress has the power to forbid "the dissemination of matter con- demned by its judgment, through the governmental agencies which it controls." (143 U. S., 110.) In exercise of this power Congress has forbidden the sending through the mails of any newspaper, etc., " containing any advertisement of any lottery " ; also obscene writings; also "matter of a character tending to incite arson, murder, or assassination"; also in certain cases publications containing liquor advertisements. Likewise, Con- gress has broad power in laying down the terms upon which newspapers may enjoy " second-class " privileges. (Lewis Pub- lishing Co. V. Morgan, 229 U. S., 288.) Finally, Congress may WAR CYCLOPEDIA. 163 leave the enforcement of its measures In this field to the Post- master General, whose determination of the facts in each case, if arrived at fairly, will be binding on the courts. Mails, Exclusion from ( 2 ) . The espionage act declares every letter, writing, picture, newspaper, book, or other publica- tion which is in violation of the provisions of the act or which con- tains any matter " advocating or urging treason, insurrection, or forcible resistance to any law of the United States " to be " non- mailable,'" and imposes severe penalties upon anyone who shall attempt to use the mails for the transmission of such matter. The trading with the enemy act makes " nonmailable " any printed matter " respecting the Governnlent of the United States or of any nation engaged in the present war, its policies, inter- national relations, the state or conduct of the war " which is in a foreign language and of which a full and accurate translation has not been filed with the postmaster at the place of publica- tion. But the President may issue permits licensing the dis- tribution of publications in foreign languages free from this restriction, such permits being revocable at any time. The same act also forbids any person, firm, or corporation to transport or distribute any matter which either it or the espionage act desig- nates " nonmailable." The scope of these provisions has since been made more definite by a statement of the Postmaster Gen- eral, in whom the business of enforcing them is vested. " We shall take care," said he, " not to let criticism which is per- sonally or politically offensive to the administration affect our action. But if newspapers go so far as to impugn the motives of the Government and thus encourage insubordination, they will be dealt with severely. For instance, papers may not say that the Government is controlled by Wall Street or munition manufacturers, or any other special interests. Publications of any news calculated to urge the people to violate law would be considered grounds for drastic action. We will not tolerate campaigns against conscription, enlistments, sale of securities, or revenue collections. We will not permit the publication or circulation of anything hampering the war's prosecution or attacking improperly our allies." (Statement of October 9, 1917.) See Censorship Board; Freedom of the Press. Manila Bay, Dewey and Diedrichs at. Immediately upon taking possession of Manila Bay, May 1, 1898, Admiral Dewey established a strict blockade. Men-of-war of various nationally ties soon appeared, but all except the German forces observed the proprieties of the situation with the utmost nicety. The Ger- man squadron, under Vice Admiral von Diedrichs, soon consisted of five men-of-war, two of which had a heavier displacement than any of the American vessels, besides a transport with 1,400 extra men on board. In calling on the German commander Admiral Dewey mildly suggested that the former's force was somewhat disproportionate to German interests in the Philip- pines, there being but one German commercial house in Manila. Von Diedrichs answered : " I am here by order of the Kaiser, sir." From the first the Germans conducted themselves with their customary bumptiousness and bad manners, committing 164 WAR CYCLOPEDIA. repeated breaches of international and naval etiquette. Finally, Ihey undertook to disregard tlie blockade itself and to land supplies. Dewey, who had thus far contained himself in pa- tience, now sent his flag lieutenant, Brumby, to present his compliments to Diedrichs and to inform him of his " extraor- dinary disregard of the usual courtesies of naval intercourse." The German commander thereafter treated the Americans with some show of consideration. (John D. Long, The New American Navy, II, 111-112.) See America Threatened; " Der Tag," When?; Monroe Doctrine, German Attitude; Spanish- American War, German Attitude. Marine Corps. An independent branch of the military serv- ice of the United States, used in garrisoning navy yards and naval stations at home and in performing many duties beyond the seas ; landing, for instance, in case of disturbance in foreign countries to protect American interests and to guard our em- bassies and legations. It serves generally under the direction of the Secretary of the Navy. But the corps may be detached by order of the President for service with the Army. The au- thorized strength of the corps at the beginning of the year 1917 was about 15,000 men. Marine Iieague. The distance from shore over which, by a well-recognized rule of international law, a State is entitled to exercise jurisdiction. The rule, which was originally based on the fact that a cannon shot carried 3 miles, is not strictly applied in the case of arms of tlie sea, like the Delaware and Chesa- peake Bays. These are regarded by the United States as a part of its territorial dominion. The jurisdiction which a State may exercise over the waters within a marine league of its shores is limited by the right of innocent passage; that is, the right of foreign vessels to pass through these waters if they conduct themselves peaceably. Marne. A French river north and east of Paris flowing into the Seine. On September 3, 1914, the Germans crossed the Marne in their drive toward Paris. On September 6 the French and British forces, under Gen. Joffre and Gen. Sir John French, checked the German invasion and drove the Teutons back across the ri^er in a four-day battle. The battle of the Marne turned the tide of the German invasion and, with the exception of the thrust toward Calais and the desperate attempt to capture Verdun, reduced the German campaign in the west to defense and devastation. Marx, Karl (1818—1883). A German of Jewish ancestry, who is commonly regarded as the founder of collectl' s'; social- ism. Being expelled from Prussia, after living in Paris and Brussels he settled in London, where his home became a center for fellow exiles. His Communist Manifesto, published a few days before the wave of revolutions which swept over Europe in 1848, made him the leader and eventual head of the Interna- tional Workingmen's Association. This. " International " had an active existence from 1864 onward in uniting the restless proletariat of Europe against capitalism, but it became infected WAR CTCLOPEDIA, 165 With anarchism, and was silenced by the patriotic spirit engen- dered by the Franco-Prussian War; It has since been revived and is prominent in peace propaganda to-day. Marx also pub- lished in 1859 the first volume of his great historical and theo- retical work, Capital. It teaches that all history has been a class struggle of patrician against plebs, of noble against serf, of capitalist against worklngman. In the past the upper class has won. But in the class struggle of the future, as the rich grow richer and fewer, and the poor grow poorer, more nu- merous and more discontented, the poor will triumph and seize into their hands all the instruments of production. This doc- trine became the basis of " historical," of " revolutionary " socialism, in contrast to the earlier middle-class Utopian so- cialism of men like Owen and Fourier. Marx is thus the main inspiration of the Social Democratic Party in Germany and of Socialist parties in most other countries. Some leading so- cialists to-day, however, recognize that some of the Marxian doctrines are out of date and need revision ; the ablest of these " revisionists " Is Eduard Bernstein. See German Political Par- ties; Liebknecht. Maximalists. See Bcdsheviki. Mazurian Lakes. A series of lakes in East Prussia, which was invaded by the Eussians in August, 1914. The Russian ad- vance was checked at Tannenberg August 26-31. In January, 1915, the invasion was resumed, the Russian armies crossing the lake region while the waters were frozen. In February the Germans prepared their resistance, screening their concentra- tion behind the lakes. Learning of these preparations, on Febru- ary 4 the Russians began a retreat. The Germans advanced upon the retreating Russians on February 7 and succeeded in harrassing but not preventing a retreat to positions beyond the Niemen. Materiel. A French word commonly used to describe the whole body of tools and commodities used in war. Maubeuge. Maubeuge is a French town just south of the Belgian boundary. It was captured by the Germans September 7, 1914, after an investment of 12 days. Meat Supply. The world's meat supply has been depleted during the European war. European herds have been decreased by 28,000,000 cattle, 32,000.000 hogs, and 54,000,000 sheep. The supply of cattle on hand in the United States in January, 1917, was reported to be larger than in 1913, the receipts of animals at the nine most important western markets having been higher in 1916 than in any preceding year. For 1917 (to Sept. 1) the receipts of cattle were 2.4 per cent greater than receipts for a corresponding period in 1916. Hogs and sheep, on the other hand, decreased 65.7 per cent and 37.1 per. cent. Slaugh- terings have increased each year, and the available meat sup- ply can be seen to be moderately increasing, but only at a dangerous expense to the herds. The demand meanwhile has increased in leaps and bounds. Exports in meat and dairy products jumped from $220,051,847 in 1914-15 to $290,899,680 166 WAS CYCLOPEDIA. in 1915, and to $404,143,751 in 1916-17. Some of this Increase in value is due to increased prices obtainable in the last two years. For the successful prosecution of the war the volume as well as the value of exports must be enlarged or a real shortage of meats and fats is likely to result. Mediation. See Good Offices. Medical Department. In the United States Army this de- partment Is composed of the Medical Corps (surgeons, etc., regularly commissioned), the Dental Corps, the Veterinary Corps, the Nurse Corps, and an enlisted force, which may be enlarged to meet the advancing needs of the service. The inocu- lation of individuals in the fighting forces against disease and the sanitation of their camps are matters for its solicitude as well as the care of the sick. The wounded from accident or battle are gathered into field and base hospitals for treatment and care. The ambulance service, by which the injured are brought to the hospitals, also falls within the province of this department of military administration. See Red Cross. Medical Section. A subordinate agency of the Council of National Defense, established December 12, 1916, which, under the leadership of Dr. Franklin Martin, member of the Advisory Commission, and Dr. F. F. Simpson, chief of the medical section, has been of invaluable service to the Army and Navy medical services in the securement of oflicers and nurses. Through its general medical board it has mobilized the medical profession so that to-day it is possible within 24 hours to get in touch with officials of nearly every State and county medical society in the United States. Through the medium of this board also have been established close cooperative relations with the Sur- geons Gteneral of the Army and the Navy and the United States Public Health Service. Its work of standardization has in- cluded not only the standardization of instruments and supplies, but the substituting of instruments for those which had been previously furnished by Germany. Through its State and county committee organization the medical section currently stimulates the interest and support of the medical profession for the purposes of the war and assists in efforts to safeguard the home interests of doctors in military service. Medical Students and Internes. Because of the importance of keeping up the supply of physicians, medical students in their " second year in any well-recognized medical school," as well as more advanced students and hospital internes, may be discharged from immediate service under the draft in the National Army upon enlisting In the Enlisted Reserve Corps of the Medical Department. " Melting Pot." A name given to the United States because its historic policy has been to keep open doors to the oppressed peoples of all nations and to merge those who accept its hospi- tality into one nation of common language and common political ideals. "America is not made out of a single stock. Here we have a great melting pot." (President Wilson, Music Hall speech, Cincinnati, Oct. 26, 1916.) "Here in America we have WAK CTCLOPEDIA. 167 tried to set the example of bringing all the world together upon terms of liberty and . . . peace. . . . America has been a sort of prophetic sample of mankind." (President Wilson, at Char- lotte, N. C, May 20, 1916.) "A nation made up out of the world should understand the world." (President Wilson to the New Citizens Alliance, Chicago, Oct. 19, 1916.) See Immigra- tian; NaUiralization. Merchant Marine, United States. The merchant marine of the United States comprised 26,943 vessels of 7,928,688 gross tons on June 30, 1914. By June 30, 1915, tonnage had been Increased 460,741 gross tons, the largest annual increase to that date. Foreign tonnage meanwhile increased faster than total tonnage, rising from 1,076,152 in 1914 to 1,871,543 gross tons in 1915. In 1916 the total tonnage was 8,469,649, an increase of 80,220 gross tons. Foreign tonnage in 1916 had increased to 2,191,715 gross tons, more than doubling the figures of 1914, an unprecedented growth in maritime history. The entrance of the United States into the war has greatly affected the merchant marine. Figures for the fiscal year 1916-17 are misleading. They show a total of 26,234 vessels of 8,803,745 gross tons, a tonnage increase for the year of 334,096, whereas the confis- cated German ships alone give an increase of about 620,000 gross tons. Repairs were not sufficiently advanced to permit the inclusion of more than a small per cent of this increase by June 30. An increase of at least 540,000 gross tons should be added to the ofiicial figures to represent shipping under repair. The results show 1916-17 to be a phenomenal year in the his- tory of the merchant marine. See Ship Corporation ; Shipping; Ship Registry; Shipping Board; Submarine Warfare, British Losses; Submarine Warfare, Neutral Losses. Mercier, DesirS Josepli, Cardinal (1851— ). Arch- bishop of Malines in Belgium, cardinal, Belgian patriot. He was professor of philosophy at Malines and at Rome, became arch- bishop of Malines in 1906, cardinal 1907. When the Germans in- vaded Belgium he drew world HOtice by his patriotic labors and magnificent courage, his pastoral letter of Christmas, 1914, being a flaming indictment of Germany and an appeal for patience and patriotism on the part of all Belgians. For this he was forbidden by the German authorities to leave his epis- copal residence, an act which drew on Germany the protest of the Pope. Since 1914 Cardinal Mercier has been tireless and fearless in his efforts to call attention to the pitiful state of. Belgium. Every effort has been made by the Germans to prevent his words from being heard, but thus far these efliorts have been unavailing. See Belgium; Belgium's Woe. Mesopotamia. A region in western Asia, formed of the val- leys of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers (the word means "be- tween the rivers " ) . Its area is 143,250 square miles. Some cen- turies ago the whole country was the abode of a flourishing civilization, reflected in the Arabian Nights. Under the blight of Turkish rule the population has sunk to perhaps 2,000,000, and the country is a vast waste. Bagdad, the capital, is, how- 168 WAR CYCLOPEDIA. ever, the center of a large trade, and there are valuable oil wells assumed considerable importance because of the Bagdad rail- way and the rivalry of Great Britain and Germany. As a result of the British occupation, effected gradually during the war, the people, who are Arabs, have been delivered from their Turkish masters, and the "Berlin to Bagdad" project has received a severe blow. See Bagdad; " Berlin to Bagdad; " Kut-el-Amara. Mexico. Mexico is a federal republic south of the United States. The capital is officially Mexico City, but the de facto Government proclaimed Queretaro the capital on February 14, 1916. Mexico contains 767,258 square miles, and a population In 1910 of 15,160,369. Gen. Venustiano Carranza, formerly the constitutionalist leader, has been recognized as the lawful head of the Government under a new constitution, adopted In 1916. The official .policy in regard to the European war is one of neutrality. See "De Facto," " de Jure"; Latin America, Presi- dent Wilson on; " Watchful Waiting." Meidco, German Intrigues in. In January, 1915, German agents began intriguing with Gen. Huerta, an unsuccessful claimant to the Mexican presidency. When Huerta sailed from Spain to New York, von Rintelen, a German of high rank and friend of the Crown Prince, met him there. Huerta proposed an invasion of Mexico. Von Rintelen agreed to furnish him arms, ammunition, and possibly German reservists. It was hoped to start trouble in Mexico and then unite Mexico against the United States. Such a war would tie up the oil wells at Tampico, from which the British navy draws supplies, and would keep the United States so busy that it could not allow the exportation of arms to Europe. It would further compel the United States to keep hands ofE in Europe. Huerta started west, pretending to visit the San Francisco Exposition, but when he turned south toward El Paso he was arrested by United States Government agents. Since that time there has been a series of plots by Germans to stir up trouble for us in Mexico. Several Mexican newspapers are said to be in the pay of the German Government, and the German propaganda has been very active in every way. See Gronholm, Mexican Adventures of; Zimmermann Note. 3Iichaelis, Dr. Georg ( 1857— ). German Chancellor in July-November, 1917, in succession to Dr. von Bethmann Holl- weg. Before the war he was Prussian undersecretary of finance, and later added the duties of food controller, in which post he achieved a very fair success. He seems to have been chosen at the last moment by the intervention of Gens. Hindenburg and LudendorfE. He failed to satisfy any faction by his policy of ambiguity and trimming. Middle Europe. See " Mittel-Europa." Militarism. Broadly, a policy which maintains huge stand- ing armies for purposes of aggression. More narrowly, a sys- tem of government in which the military power is not account- able to the civil power. In Germany the Emperor, by definition and profession a soldier, is commander in chief of the army and navy, and his tenure is for life. In the United States the WAR CYCLOPEDIA. 169 President, a civilian and holding office for four years, is com- mander In chief. Under the constitution of Prussia, whose con- tingent comprehends the greater part of the German army, the Emperor-King may apply to the support of the army the amount last voted by the Diet, from year to year indefinitely. The German soldier takes an oath to support the Kaiser and not as in other lands the constitution. Under the United States Con- stitution no appropriation can be voted by Congress itself for more than two years. In Germany, finally, the military authori- ties are accountable for their acts only to military tribunals, while in this country all authorities are ultimately answerable to the ordinary courts. The militaristic character of the Ger- man system is vividly illustrated by the Zabern incident. See Junkerism; Luxembourg, Rosa; Zabem. Militarism or Disarmament. Dr. Eduard David, one of the leaders of the Social-Democratic Party in Germany, in the Reichstag, March 16, 1910, exposed the militaristic policies of the Imperial Government : "At the interparliamentary confer- ence in London in 1906, in which, as you know, members of this house took part, Mr. Campbell Bannerman once more set forth the whole matter, and that conference resolved unanimously to submit the question of the limitation of armaments to the sec- ond conference at The Hague. And after all this — these words are meant for those gentlemen who formed that resolution — you ranged yourselves on the side of Billow's policy, which amounted to this, that the question of the limitation of armaments was being prevented from being discussed, and that the British Gov- ernment was disavowed. On April 30, 1907 . . . you backed up Prince Bulow in this house, when he carried this policy against the Liberal English Government. Nevertheless, the Liberal English Government persevered in its efforts to further the matter. I need only remind you that Mr. Lloyd George and others . . . tried once more to take the matter up with the German Government. . . . You will have to bear these facts in mind in order to understand what has happened in England. The Liberal Government has taken a stand on this question during all these years, had pledged its authority, and had taken the lead by practical proposals. It was disavowed by Germany. . . . And now the Liberal party finds itself compelled, in orddr not to be swept out of power under the influence of the ' German terror,' to make this tremendous increase of the navy a plank of its own platform. This is what we have achieved." See Arbi- tration; Conquest and Kultur; Disarmament. Militarism, the Spirit of. " The spirit of militarism is the opposite of the civilian spirit, the citizen spirit. In a country where militarism prevails the military man looks down upon the civilian, regards him as intended for his, the military man's, support . . . and just as long as America is America that spirit and point of view is impossible with us." (President Wilson, at West Point, June 13, 1916.) Military Academy. The United States Military Academy at West Point was established by act of Congress in 1802. In 1843 Congress provided that the corps of cadets at the academy 170 WAR CTCIiOPEDIA. should consist of 1 from each congressional district, 1 from each Territory, 1 from the District of Columbia, and 10 from the United States at large, all to be appointed by the President of the United States. Under this plan, as expanded from time to time, the number of authorized cadetships in 1915 was 706, but in that year 79 cadetships were unfilled. The act of May 4, 1916, authorizes an increase of cadetships to 1,332, and provides that the increase shall take place in four annual increments as nearly equal as practicable. Hereafter 2 are to be appointed from each congressional district, 2 from each Territory, 4 from each State at large, and 80 from the United States at large. More important still, the President is authorized to appoint cadets from among the enlisted men of the United States Army and the National Guard, the total number so selected not to exceed 180 at any one time. Until 1915 every person before admission to West Point was required to stand physical and mental examinations. Since 1915 a candidate may be admitted without mental examination upon presentation of a certificate showing adequate preparatory training. Military Govemment. Military government is the govern- ment maintained by the belligerent occupant of a conquered region. It rests upon the will of the commander in chief, whose discretion, within the limits set by international law, may super- sede the laws ordinarily in force in the occupied district. See Bissing. Military Information. Article XLIV of The Hague Regula- tions reads : "A belligerent is forbidden to force the inhabitants of territory occupied by it to furnish information about the army of the other belligerent or about its means of defense." Germany declined to ratify this rule, of which the German War Book remarks : " However much it may ruffle human feel- ing to compel a man to do harm to his own fatherland, and indirectly to fight his own troops, none the less no army operat- ing in an enemy's country will altogether renounce this expe- dient." See Military Operations ; Requisitions. Military Occnpation. " Territory is considered occupied when it is actually placed under the authority of the hostile army. The occupation applies only to the territory where such authority is established and can be exercised," says The Hague Regulations, Article XLII. Military occupation does not ex- tinguish the rights of the ousted sovereignty, but only sus- pends them during the period of occupancy. Accordingly, by Article XLV of the regulations " It is forbidden to compel the population of an occupied territory to take an oath [of alle- giance] to the hostile power." In Poland, however, Germany has proceeded as If Russia's rights were at an end. See Bissing; Poland, Autonomy. Military Operations. Article XXIII of The Hague Regula- tions contains the following provision: "A belligerent is like- wise forbidden to compel the nationals of the hostile party to take part in the operations of war directed against their own country, even if they were in the belligerents' service before the WAR CYCLOPEDIA. 171 commencement of the war." Commenting upon this rule, the German War Boole warns against a too broad view of " mili- tary operations," and cites with approval the action of the Ger- man civil commissioner, Renard, who, on one occasion in the Franco-Prussian War, " in order to compel labor for the neces- sary repair of a bridge," threatened to shoot some recalcitrant workers. This, says the German War Book, " was in accord- ance with the actual laws of war ; the main thing was that it attained its object." Article XXIII has been systematically violated by the German authorities in Belgium. See Requisi- Military Resources of the United States. These are ex- pressed in man power and in material terms. The population of the country in 1915 was probably 100,000,000. There are more than 20,000,000 men in the United States between the ages of 18 and 45 years. It is computed that at least one-half of these would be available for active military service. Perhaps 600,000 more youths of fighting capacity would come of age each year if the war were prolonged. It was estimated at the outbreak of the war in 1914 that the United States had $1,887,270,664 in gold, approximately $19 per capita. On October 1, 1916, this total had been so increased that it was more than $26 per capita. We had silver and paper in circulation equal to $15.50 per capita. Our total stock of money when we declared war on Germany was about $4,200,000,000, or $42 per capita. The taxable wealth of the country was set down in 1914 at $187,739,071,090, about $19.65 per person, making us the richest people in the world. The resources of the United States — agricultural, mineral, and manufacturing — founded upon our native supplies are immense and are capable of vast and rapid expansion. See Gold; War Taxes. Militia. In the second amendment of the Constitution of the United States it Is said that " a well-regulated militia " Is " nec- essary to the security of a free State." Until lately each State of the Union followed Its own rules concerning the establishr ment and management of its own troops. In general the disci- pline was loose and service haphazard, little designed to produce valuable fighting units when they were called upon for Federal use. But by the Dick law of 1903 Congress pledged certain money grants to the State military organizations on condition that they should make themselves more efficient. In the national defense act of 1916 Congress went further and provision was made for federalizing the militia of the several States and draft- ing it into the general service. Constructively now all able- bodied male citizens and " declarants " more than 18 years and not more than 45 years of age are militiamen. These are divided into the National Guard, the Naval Militia, and the unorganized militia. Militia enlistment, however, remains voluntary. See National Defense Act; National Chiard; Naval Militia. MUyukov, Pavel Nikolaievich (1859- ). Prof. Milyu- kov has long enjoyed an international reputation as a scholar, particularly in history, and as one of the most persistent and 172 WAR CYCLOPEDIA. boldest friends of Russian liberty. He was a member of the faculty of Moscow University in the early nineties. He was banished for his political views and came to the University of Chicago, where he lectured on Russian history. Later he re- turned to Moscow, but was taken from his classroom and given two years of exile to Siberia, where he wrote his History of Rus- sian Culture. On his return to western Europe he taught for a time in the university at Sofia. He defied the Russian Govern- ment by removing to Petrograd and was imprisoned for six months. On his release he made his second journey to America and filled out four years of service as professor in the University of Chicago. When the revolution of 1905 broke out he returned to Petrograd. He was prevented by the Government from sit- ting in the first and second dumas, but served in the third and fourth. As leader of the Constitutional Democrats, he assumed general leadership of all the more liberal factions. In Novem- ber, 1916, he attacked Prime Minister Stiirmer with such success that the latter resigned. After the revolution of March, 1917, Milyukov strove to establish a "government on the English or the American model. As Minister of Foreign Affairs he com- mitted himself to a policy of pursuing the war to complete vic- tory, and to carrying out the Imperial Government's plans to se- cure Constantinople and Armenia for Russia as fruits of the war. These views were obnoxious to the Socialists, who forced Milyukov's resignation from the Government in May, 1917. See Constantinople; Russian Revolution of 1917. Mines, Marine. An underwater explosive device used for the injury of shipping at sea; of two types, (1) automatic, which explodes upon contact, and may be either anchored or drifting, and (2) controlled, which can be exploded only by ac- tion at the keyboard of the control station. The first article of the Eighth Hague Convention of 1907 reads : " It is forbidden : (1) To lay unanchored automatic contact mines, except when they are so constructed as to become harmless one hour at most after the person who laid them ceases to control them ; (2) to lay anchored automatic contact mines which do not become harmless as soon as they have broken loose from their moor- ings; (3) to use torpedoes which do not become harmless when they have missed their mark." From the outset of the war Germany has repeatedly sown mines along her own coasts and over portions of the North Sea in violation of these provisions, and in February, 1915, the American vessels Evelyn and Carii were blown up because, as stated by BernstorfE, they proceeded " contrary to the directions " of the German admiralty and without a German pilot. Recently German mines have been encountered in the Bay of Biscay. See Forlidden Methods of Warfare; Forbidden Weapons; Poison. Mine Sweepers. Vessels engaged in detecting and removing mines laid by the enemy. Ordinarily two small vessels patrol the mined area abreast, dragging a wire cable with an end on each vessel. The mines are caught or swept by the cable and are then destroyed. See Trawlers. WAR CYCLOPEDIA. 173 Minimalists. Also called Mensheviki ; the more moderate faction of Russian Socialists. See Bolsheviki. Missions to the United States. After the United States en- tered the war, the various Governments associated with us dis- patched missions to this country for the dual purpose of estab- lishing contact with our Government and of explaining to Ameri- can public opinion the issues of the war .as understood abroad. The first to arrive were the British, headed by Mr. Arthur James Balfour, Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs, and the French, headed by M. Viviani, vice president of the Council of Ministers, and Marshal JofCre, former commander in chief of the French armies. They were received with great enthusiasm, and laid the foundations for effective cooperation by the United States with the Allied Governments in the prosecution of the war. Later missions arrived from Russia, Italy, Belgium, Roumania, and Japan. Many of the missions traveled extensively in the United States and issued strong appeals to naturalized Ameri- cans from their respective countries to support the country of their adoption in the war. " Mittel-Europa." The title of a book by Friedrich Nau- mann (English translation. Central Europe), and the expression of an idea. The idea is the consolidation of the German Empire, the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy, and the Balkan States into a single economic unit, which might be exploited by Germany in the interests of German commerce and German militarism. Nau- mann's book, written in 1915, revealed to the general public the magnitude of the scheme and its dangers to the non-Teutonic world. He argues that the political schism of Europe will con- tinue after the war in an economic sense, and that Germany must protect herself by a close union, first with Austria-Hungary, and next with other contiguous States. "And over all these ; over the Germans, French, Danes, and Poles in. the German Em- pire; over the Magyars, Germans, Roumanians, Slovaks, Croats, and Serbs in Hungary ; over the Germans, Czechs, Slovaks, Poles, and southern Slavs in Austria, let us imagine once again the controlling concept of Mid-Europe. Mid- Europe will have a German nucleus, will voluntarily use the German language, which is known all over the world and is already the language of intercourse within central Europe, but must from the outset display toleration and flexibility in regard to all the neighboring languages that are associated with it." See "Berlin to Bagdad"; "Conquest and Kultur"; Constanti- nople; "Corridor"; "Flag Day Address"; Oerman Military Autocracy, Plan of; Oerman Military Dominance ; Netherlands, Oerman View of. " 3Iittel-Europa " Realized. In 1917 "Mittel-Europa" is an accomplished fact, militarily speaking. Unless Germany is defeated she will emerge from the war the political and economic master of the territory stretching from Hamburg to Mesopo- tamia. To preserve these conquests is the object of her in- trigues for peace. ( See map at end. ) Germany has Montenegro, Albania, Serbia, most of Roumania, 260,000 square kilometers of 174 WAR CYCLOPEDIA. Russia, nearly all of Belgium, 20,000 square kilometers of France, making 500,000 square kilometers of conquered territory. In this territory she has " scientifically enslaved " 42,000,000 human beings, a large number of whom are forced to labor for her. She has siezed the war material and the railroads; she has siezed and taken away animals, grains, potatoes, sugar, alcohol, metals of many kinds, oils, textile fabrics, motors, machinery, rolling mills, electrical engines, looms, etc. She has helped her- self to the personal property of the inhabitants — tapestries, rugs, pictures, jewels, securities, etc. By her system of loans to her allies sh« has brought Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria, and Turkey absolutely under her control. These countries owe Germany not only the money advanced to them but enormous sums for war material as yet unpaid for. This control means that she will have a monopoly in exploiting the great resources of the Balkan States and Asia Minor. Further, her position in Middle Europe and Constantinople will force the economic subordinations of Russia, whose resources she will exploit. " Germany has really wrung from the war present and future profits which can be computed only in hundreds of Millions of francs. This war there- fore has brought Germany boundless material gain such as no war in history has ever brought to one people." " German victory and the fruition of her most Important war advantages depend directly in the maintenance of Central Pan- Germany, made up of Germany, Austria-Hungary, Serbia, Bul- garia, and Turkey. Now, this maintenance is based on two prime conditions: (1) The continuance of Serbia's state of sub- jection to Austria-Hungary. (2) The preservation of the new economic and military lines of communication between Berlin on the one side and Vienna, Budapest, Sofia, and Constantinople on the other. . . . Finally, if the present order of things is preserved, Germany can maintain the Hamburg-Bagdad line. This would be assured by the adoption of the formula ' peace without indemnities and annexations.' " (Cheradame, in Atlan- tic Monthly, November, 1917.) Mobile Speech. See Latin America, President WUson on. Mobilization. The act of bringing together men, matSriel, and -all other military paraphernalia for instant use in war. Careful usage distinguishes between " mobilization " and " mili- tary preparations," though it is hard at times to draw the line. Mobilization was accomplished with unexampled facility in Europe, especially by the Central Powers, in 1914. In the words of Hermann Bahr, " when we saw the miracle of this mobiliza- tion — all Germany's military manhood packed in railway trains rolling through the land, day by day and night after night, never a minute late and never a question for which the right answer was not ready and waiting — when we saw all this, we were nor astonished, because it was no miracle ; it was nothing other than a natural result of a thousand years of work and preparation ; it was the net profit of the whole of German history." It was upon her careful preparations and ability to mobilize quickly that Germany counted in an attack on Russia and France. The WAK CYCLOPEDIA. 175 latest evidence Indicates that in the weeks before the war she had covertly gathered and located troops in such a way that mobilization was under way before the formal order went out. See Cantonments. Mobilization Controversy. A great deal is made by German advocates of testimony given in the trial of Gen. Soukhomlinov, in September, 1917, which shows (it is alleged) that the Rus- sian mobilization order was signed by the Czar either on July 29 or 30, whereas German mobilization was not ordered until August 1. But articles by the author of / Accuse, in the Zurich Freie Zeitung for September 22, and October 24, 1917, show : (1) That Russian mobilization was brought about by the refusal of Germany to transmit to Austria conciliatory proposals made on July 80 by the Russian Foreign Minister ; (2) that Germany had actually been mobilizing for a long time (see evidence in Das Verhrechen by the above author ; also an article in Nineteenth Century for June, 1917) ; (3) that Russia's, general mobilization was not considered as a cause for war by Austria, seeing that Vienna had resumed the negotiations with Petrograd on Au- gust 1 ; (4) that the Wolff news agency in its account of the Soukhomlinov trial changed the date of the Russian mobiliza- tion and falsified a text establishing the culpability of Germany by substituting the word " Czar " for " Germany." See Pots- dam Conference; Sngonov's Efforts to Maintain Peace; Souk- homlinov; War, Responsibility for, in 1914- Mohammed V ( 1844— ) . Sultan of Turkey since April 27, 1909, when he succeeded his deposed brother Abdul Hamid II. He had lived in retirement for more than 30 years, and since his accession to the throne has been a supple instru- ment in the hands of the Young Turks. See Enver Pasha; Young Turks. Monastir. A Serbian city on the frontier between Serbia and Greece. Anglo-French forces were unable to prevent the evacua- tion of Monastir in December, 1915. On November 19, 1916, the city was reconquered from the Bulgarians by the Serbians. Monroe Doctrine. A statement of principles made in the famous message of December 2, 1823. The occasion of the utter- ance was the threat by the so-called Holy Alliance to interfere forcibly in South America with a view to reseating Spain in control of her former colonies there. President Monroe, point- ing to the fact that it was a principle of American policy not to intermeddle in European affairs, gave warning that any attempt by the monarchies of Europe " to extend their system to any portion of this hemisphere " would be considered by the United States " as dangerous to our peace and safety." This warning fell in line with British policy, which was then directed by Canning, and so proved efficacious. In a later section of the same message the proposition was also advanced that the Ameri- 176 WAE CYCLOPEDIA. can Continent was no longer subject to colonization. This clause of the doctrine was the work of Monroe's Secretary of State, J. Q. Adams, and its occasion was furnished by the fear that Russia was planning to set up a colony at San Francisco, then the property of Spain, whose natural heir on the North American Continent, Adams held, was the United States. It is this clause of the doctrine that has furnished much of the basis for its subsequent development. Monroe Doctrine, German Attitude. In 1902 Germany united with Great Britain and Italy to collect by force certain claims against Venezuela. President Roosevelt demanded and finally, after threatening to dispatch Admiral Dewey to the scene of action, obtained a statement that she would not per- manently occupy Venezuelan territory. Of this statement one of our most experienced and trusted publicists, an avowed friend of Germany, remarked at the time that, while he believed " it was and will remain true for some time to come, I can not, in view of the spirit now evidently dominant in the mind of the Em- peror and among many who stand near him, express any belief that such assurances will remain trustworthy for any great length of time after Germany shall have developed a fleet larger than that of the United States." He accordingly cautioned the United States " to' bear In mind probabilities and possibilities as to the future conduct of Germany, and therefore increase gradu- ally our naval strength." Bismarck pronounced the Monroe doctrine " an international impertinence," and this is still the German view. Said the Alldeutsche Blatter of January 17, 1903 : " The Monroe doctrine can not be justified. It remains . . . what we Europeans almost universally consider it, an imperti- nence." Dr. Zorn, one of the most conservative of German au- thorities on international" affairs, concluded an article in Die Woche of September 13, 1913, with these words : " Considered in all its phases, the Monroe doctrine is in the end seen to be a question of might only and not of right." The German Govern- ment's efforts to check American influence in the Latin American States have of recent years been frequent and direct; the en- couragement of German emigration to certain regions, the sending of agents to maintain close contact, presentation of German flags in behalf of the Kaiser, the placing of the German Evangelical Churches in certain South American countries under the Prussian State church, annual grants for educational pur- poses from the Imperial treasury at Berlin, and the like. The " Lodge resolution," which was adopted by the Senate in 1912, had in view the activities of certain German corporations in Latin America, as well as the episode that immediately occa- sioned it ; nor can there be much doubt that it was secret Inter- ference by Germany at Copenhagen that thwarted the sale of the Danish West Indies to the United States in 1903. See " Con- quest and KuUur." Monroe Doctrine, " Lodge Resolution." In view of a report that a Japanese corporation, closely connected with the Japanese Government, was negotiating with the Mexican Government for a territorial concession off Magdelena Bay, in WAR CYCLOPEDIA. 177 Lower California, the Senate, in 1912, adopted the following resolution, which was offered by Senator Lodge, of Massachu- setts : "Resolved, That when any harbor or other place in the American Continent is so situated that the occupation thereof for naval or military purposes might threaten the communica- tions or the safety of the United States, the Government of the United States could not see without grave concern the posses- sion of such harbor or other place by any corporation or asso- ciation which has such a relation to another Government, not American, as to give that Government practical power or control for naval or military purposes." See Japanese-American Agree- ment. Monroe Doctrine To-day. The great idea underlying the Monroe doctrine is still vital to-day. Said President Wil- son in his address to the Senate of January 22, 1917, in which he sought to define the bases of a permanent peace : " I am pro- posing, as it were, that the nations should with one accord adopt the doctrine of President Monroe as the doctrine of the woi'ld ; that no nation should seek to extend its policy over any other nation or people, but that every people should be left free to determine its own policy, its own way of development, unhin- dered, unthreatened, unafraid, the little along with the great and powerful." Other phases of the original doctrine are less in accord with the modern situation of the United States and that of its Latin American neighbors. " What affects mankind is inevitably our affair, as well as the affair of the nations of Europe and of Asia." (President Wilson to the League to Enforce Peace, Washington, May 27, 1916,) "In the day in whose light we now stand . . . there is no claim of guardian- ship . . . but a full and honorable association as of partners between ourselves and our neighbors in the interests of Amer- ica.'" (To Congress, Dec. 7, 1915.) See Aims of United States; Balance of Potcer; Equality of Nations; Pan-Americanism ; Per- manent Peace. Mons. Mons is a city of southern Belgium from which the Anglo-French forces were forced to retreat on August 23, 1914. Heavy fighting, constituting the battle of Mons, took place August 23-27. The Allied retreat continued until September 4, forcing the French and British armies from a position about Mons to one south of Meaux. Montenegro. Montenegro is a small Balkan monarchy over- thrown by the German invasion of 1915. The area before the war was 3,506 square miles and the population was approxi- mately 435,000. Its official capital is Cettinje. Nicholas I is the reigning monarch. He has taken refuge in France since the Austrian troops overran his kingdom in February, 1916, and the Government has been transferred to Bordeaux. Morality of Nations, American versus Prussian. (1) " The foundation of our national policy will be laid in the pure and immutable principles of private morality, and the preeminence of free government be exemplified by all the attributes which can win the affections of its citizens and command the respect 15963°— 18 12 178 WAR CYCLOPEDIA. of the world." (George Washington, first inaugural, Apr. 30, 1789.) "We are at the beginning of an age in which It will be insisted that the same standards of conduct and of respon- sibility for wrong done shall be observed among nations and their governments that are observed among the individual citi- zens of civilized States." (President Wilson, before Congress, Apr. 2, 1917.) (2) "The question of right is an affair of min- isters. . . It is time to consider it in secret, for the orders to my troops have been given." " Take what you can ; you are never wrong unless you are obliged to give back." (Frederick the Great, in 1740, in justification of his seizure of Silesia.) See America, Creed of; Belgium, Violation of; German Diplomacy; German Government, Moral-Bankruptcy of; " Notwendigkeit." Moratorium. In order to save the credit of Individuals who might be called upon to repay all their loans unexpectedly most of the European countries declared at the opening of the war a moratorium, or period of delay. tJntil this period had elapsed no debts could be collected by legal process. At the time of the Civil War some of the States authorized moratoriums for the benefit of their citizens who were entering the service of the United States, and their action was sustained by the courts in the face of the constitutional prohibition against laws " im- pairing the obligation of contracts." The power of the Na- tional Government to do the same thing as a " necessary and proper " war measure Is, of course, not open to question. The civil rights bill, under consideration in the last session of Con- gress, proposed to relieve the soldier of judgments taken against him by default when it is impossible for him to appear in court ; to set aside the statute of limitations, so that debts owing him can not be outlawed because of his inability to take legal steps; to prevent the eviction of his family during his absence for failure to pay rent, the foreclosure of mortgages against him, and the lapsing of his life insurance policies ; and some such measure will probably be enacted by Congress. As Judge Advocate General Crowder has recently said: *' This is but simple right and justice. Surely the law will not be permitted to work a destruction of the soldier's civil rights while he is away on the battle line fighting that our very law and institutions may be preserved. The law can not assail one who has risked his life that it might live." See Due Process of Law. Morocco. A State formerly independent, now mostly French, on the west of North Africa, bounded by Algeria, the Mediter- ranean, the Atlantic, and the Sahara. The area has been esti- mated at about 350,000 square miles. It is said to be one of the African territories richest in resources ; horses and cattle are reared in great quantities and are exported to European mar- kets. The soil has great agricultural possibilities and the min- eral wealth is believed to be very great. Morocco Question. Owing to its great natural resources Morocco has long been recognized as a profitable field for the investment of European capital. On that account, no doubt, WAR CTCLOPEDIA. 179 and because of the weakness of its Government, Intervention by foreign powers has been frequent. Because of the heavy invest- ment of French capital and because the prevailing anarchy in Morocco threatened French interests in Algeria, France came to be regarded as having special interests in Morocco. In 1904, when France gained the assent of Britain and the cooperation of Spain in her Moroccan policy, Germany said nothing, and Chancellor von Billow declared that Germany's interests in Morocco were purely economic. But in 1905 Germany demanded a reconsideration of Moroccan afEairs, and forced France, against the will of her Minister of Foreign AfCairs, Delcass^ (who resigned in consequence), to come to the conference at Algeclras. That conference discussed placing Morocco under international tutelage, but, because France was the only power in a position to undertake the necessary task of repressing Moroccan anarchy, France was left in charge, subject to certain Spanish rights, and continued her work. Germany seemed satisfied, and von Bulow said that Germany had no political interests in Morocco. In 1909 Germany and France came to an agreement, by which France granted equality of treatment to German merchants and Germany recognized the political interests of France. But in 1911, when France made disorders in Morocco an occasion for penetrating farther into the interior, and when German mer- chants complained that they were not getting equality of treat- ment, Germany for a second time reopened the question, by sending the gunboat Panther to Agadir, on the west coast of Africa, as if to establish a port there and tap the hinterland, although she had no economic interests in that part of the country. France protested vigorously and Britain supported France, an act which the Germans regarded as one of pure interference. Matters came very close to war. Germany, how- ever, surprised at the extent to which England and France were ready to make common cause, and not yet ready to force war upon so formidable a combination, recalled her gunboat, and accepted compensation in the French Congo. Her withdrawal, although by no means emptyhanded, was looked upon by many Germans as a humiliation, and German periodicals showed great bitterness. The Pan-Germans refused to regard the Moroccan question as closed. Britain, they said, has taken Egypt, now France has Morocco; what do we get? From this time it was a growing belief among Germans that Germany would have to fight the Entente powers. See " Conquest and Eultur"; " Open Door" Policy. Morocco Question, German View. " Morocco is easily worth a big war, or even several. At best — and even prudent Germany is getting to be convinced of this — ^war Is only postponed and not abandoned. Is such a postponement to our advantage? . . . They say we must wait for a better moment. Walt for the deepening of the Kiel Canal, for our navy laws to take full effect. It is not exactly diplomatic to announce publicly to one's adversaries, ' To go to war now does not tempt us, but three years hence we shall let loose a world war.' ... No; 180 WAR CYCLOPEDIA. if a war Is really planned, not a word of it must be spoken ; one's designs must be enveloped in profound mystery ; then brusquely, all of a sudden, jump on tbe enemy like a robber in the darkness." (Albrecht Wirth, Unsere ausaere Politik, 1912, pp. 35-36.) German policy followed the line here recommended. Motor Transport. A vast new agent of war due to the de- velopment of the gas engine as a method of propelling vehicles. The ground behind a fighting front is to-day filled with auto tracks and concrete roads ; with tractors moving material and supplies; with cars carrying up reserves of men; and with ambulances bringing back the wounded. New heavy-service motor trucks, .with a special Liberty motor designed for the purpose, have already been delivered in Washington. The British use the term " lorry " for the motor truck ; the Ifrench call the whole motor service camion. See Liberty Motor; Petro- leum. Munitions Ministry, British. A new executive department of the British Government, established in June, 1915, to provide munitions of war for the conduct of military operations during the present war. The principal officer is the Minister of Muni- tions. The ministry has taken over the former Government ordnance factories, has established about a hundred new fac- tories for the manufacture of guns, shells, and other muni- tions, and exercises detailed control over large numbers of establishments manufacturing munitions supplies for the Gov- ernment. The ministry has been given vast powers to acquire property, to control the management of plants, to limit profits, to regulate the conditions of labor, and also to regulate many other matters which may afEect the efficient production of munitions. Special committees have been appointed for par- ticular problems, notably that on the health of munitions workers. An extensive series of munitions tribunals have been set up to settle labor disputes and complaints of violations of the regulations of the ministry. See Lloyd George; Priority; War Industries Board. Munitions Trade. Trade in munitions is permitted in inter- national law, notwithstanding which the German Government on December 15, 1914, and April 4, 1915, protested against the supply of such commodities on a large scale by American firms to the Entente Allies. The Austro-Hungarian Government like- wise presented a vigorous protest on June 29, 1915. They ad- mitted that " under the general principles of international law no exception can be taken to neutral States letting war materials go to Germany's enemies from or through neutral territory." But it was claimed that it was contrary to the spirit of true neu- trality to permit trade In munitions of war on so large a scale for the sole benefit of one side of the contest. Secretary Lansing in his reply of August 12 observed that this view would impose upon every nation a duty to sit in judgment on the progress of the war and to restrict its commercial intercourse with a bellig- erent whose naval successes prevented the neutral from trade with the enemy. He concluded his reply to the Austro-Hungarian Government as follows : " The principles of international law, the WAK CYCLOPEDIA, 181 practice of nations, the national safety of the United States and other nations without great military and naval establish- ments, the prevention of increased armies and navies, the adop- tion of peaceful methods for adjustment of international dif- ferences, and, finally, neutrality itself are opposed to the prohi- bition by a neutral nation of the exportation of arms, ammuni- tion, or other munitions of war to belligerent powers during the progress of the war." See Contraband of War. Mutton.. Receipts of sheep at the western markets from the beginning of the year to September 1, 1917, show a decrease of 37.1 per cent from the receipts for a corresponding period in 1916. The supply of frozen mutton in storage on July 1, 1917, was 60 per cent larger than on July 1, 1916. Exports for the past fiscal year have fallen from 5,552,918 pounds in 1915-16 to 3,195,576 pounds in 1916-17. The pressure of demand upon the supply of mutton is somewhat less heavy than in the cases of beef and pork. The Food Administration has urged the use of mutton, where meat must be used, whenever it is found possible to do so, although the supply of mutton as well as that of other meats must be conserved for military uses and for an increased exportation to our associates. See Beef; Pork; Meat Supply. N. Namur. A fortified city of central Belgium situated on the Meuse, 36 miles southeast of Brussels. Trusting in the defenses of Namur, the Allied forces had taken a position on the Namur- Charleroi-Mons line in August, 1914. The fall of Namur on August 22 caused the retirement from this line and opened the way for the battle of Mons. M^ational Army. The largest element in the Army of the United States, consisting of those young men selected for national service under the act of May 18, 1917. Of these, 687,000 were drawn for immediate service and ordered to canton- ments for training September 5, 1917. President Wilson's mes- sage to the men selected for service was as follows : " The eyes of all the world will be upon you, because you are in some special sense the soldiers of freedom. Let it be your pride, therefore, to show all men everywhere not only what good sol- diers you are but also what good men you are, keeping your- selves fit and straight in everything and pure and clean through and through. Let us set for ourselves a standard so high that it will be a glory to live up to it, and then let us live up to it and add a new laurel to the crown of America. My affectionate confidence goes with you in every battle and every tent. God keep and guide you ! " See Registration; Selective Service. Hational Defense Act. Passed June 3, 1916, " for making further and more effectual provision for the national de- fense. . . ." This act, which was the result of long public agitation, administrative study, and congressional discussion, amounted to a recodification of a large part of the laws re- lating to the Army and the addition of several new features. 182 WAR CYCLOPEDIA. It provided that the Army of the United States should con- sist of the Regular Army, Volunteer Army, Officers' Reserve Corps, Enlisted Reserve Corps, National Guard while in the service of the United States, and such other land forces as are now or may hereafter be authorized by law. The General Staff was retained. Such changes of organization or of proportion of troops as were provided for were obvious results of new con- ditions. See Officers' Reserve Corps; Reserve Officers' Training Corps. National Guard. The Organized Militia, or National Guard, as maintained by the States for local protection in time of peace, was made subject to draft into the national service by the national defense act of June 3, 1916. On August 5, 1917, the whole National Guard, 450,000 men, was drafted into Federal service and ordered to 16 cantonments. National Guard Federalized. The National Guard was " federalized " by section 76 of the national defense act In these words : " When Congress shall have authorized the use ... of forces ... in excess of those of the Regular Army . . . the President . . . may draft into the military service of the United States . . . any or all members of the National Guard," who shall thereupon " stand discharged from the militia." This provision has been challeneged as interfering with " the in- herent right of the States " to maintain a militia, and in this connection the Second Amendment is cited. But the pur- pose of this amendment is merely to assert " the right of the people to keep and bear arms," and the term " free State " used therein is plainly to be taken in a broad or generic sense. Sec- tion 76 is simply a selective-draft measure, and so within the power of Congress " to raise and support armies." Furthermore, if the National Guard is made up of " troops " in the sense of Article I, section 10, of the Constitution, no State may keep such an organization " without the consent of Congress." See Draft, Constitutionality ; Militia, War Powers. Nationality. The doctrine of nationality in its most radical form teaches that a people desiring to become a State, whether because of a common tradition, common usages, a common blood, or economic bonds, is entitled to realize its aspirations. This doctrine had tremendous influence on the course of political history throughout the last century, as is seen from the unifi- cation of Italy and of Germany and the independence of Greece, Belgium, Norway, and the Danubian States. It also appears in the agitations for independence or autonomy of Poland, Finland, Bohemia, Ireland, and other small racial or linguistic units. It is coming to be felt, however, that certain limitations need to be set to this doctrine, especially where it conflicts with the economic interests of a larger number than its realization would serve, or with international peace. One of the difficult prob- lems of the readjustment after the war will be the establish- ment of a sound working arrangement between the interests of the smaller nationalistic unit and the claims of the larger economic groups. See Autonomy; British Imperial Federation. WAR CYCLOPEDIA. 183 National Research Council. The National Research Council, at the request of the Council of National Defense, is acting as the science and research agency of the council. For the purpose of maintaining active relations with the director of the Council of National Defense, the National Research Council has ap- pointed a committee of three men, Dr. Robert A. Millilian, Uni- versity of Chicago ; Dr. S. W. Stratton, Director of the Bureau of Standards; Dr. Charles D. Walcott, Secretary of the Smith- .sonian Institution. National Security Iieague. A nonpolitical, nonpartisan league of American men and women to promote patriotic education and universal military training and service. Its committee on patriotism through education has issued a Eundbook of the War for Public Speakers and a series of leaflets. National Service Handbook. A book of 246 pages pre- pared for reference use by persons engaged in various branches of patriotic work. It contains material upon agencies of do- mestic welfare, war relief, finance, industry, and agriculture, food supply, medical service, military and naval service. It is for free distribution and may be obtained upon application to the Committee on Public Information, 10 Jackson Place, Wash- ington, D. C. See Red, White, and Blue Series. Naturalization. The process by which a State confers its citizenship or nationality upon a foreigner. In the United States it confers all the privileges of citizenship, except eligi- bility to the Presidency. Under the present law naturalization must be preceded by a residence of at least five years in this country on the part of the applicant, and a " declaration of in- tention " two years before the application for naturalization. The applicant must also be able to speak English and to write his own name. See Citizenship; Declaration of Intention. Naturalization, Oath of. ?y the act of June 29, 1906, an applicant for admission to citizensliip must " declare on oatli in open court that he will support the Constitution of the United States, and that he absolutely and entirely renounces and ab- jures all allegiance and fidelity to any foreign prince, potentate^ State, or sovereignty, and particularly by name, to the prince, potentate, State, or sovereignty of which he was before a citizen or subject; that he will support and defend the Constitution and laws of the United States against all enemies, foreign and do- mestic, and bear full faith and allegiance to the same." See Dual Citizenship. Naturalization of Germans in America. By treaty of Feb- ruary 22,' 1868, citizens of the North German Confederation, who became naturalized " citizens of the United States of Amer- ica and shall have resided within the United States five years shall be held by the North German Confederation to be Ameri- can citizens, and shall be treated as such. . . . The declara- tion of an intention to become a citizen . . . has not the efCect of naturalization." The German Imperial Government has always held this treaty to be binding upon itself as the successor of the North German Confederation. See, however, Dual Citizenship, German Law; Hyphenated Americans. 184 WAR CYCLOPEDIA. Naval Academy. Established at Annapolis In 1845, while George Bancroft, the historian, was Secretary of the Navy. It began on a small scale, by executive order ; and Congress gradu- ally provided it with buildings and funds. Its graduates enter the Navy with commissions as ensigns. By the act of February 15, 1916, three midshipmen may be appointed each year to the academy for each Senator, Representative, and Delegate in Con- gress; while, by a later act of the same year, the number of annual appointments at large was made 15, that from among enlisted men of the Navy 25, and the appointment of 4 Filipinos was authorized. Finally, by the act of April 25, 1917, the ap- pointment of one additional midshipman for each Senator, Rep- resentative, and Delegate in Congress is authorized for the year 1917-18. At the present time the possible maximum enrollment of the academy is about 2,200. The selection of candidates for nomination from any State, Territory, or congressional district is entirely in the hands of the member of Congress entitled to the appointment, but these appointments are now made upon the basis of competitive examination. A person securing such ap- pointment must stand rigid physical and mental examinations before being admitted to the academy. Naval Auxiliaries of the Red Cross. In all communities where Red Cross chapters are organized ladies who desire to work especially for the Navy are organized as an auxiliary of the Red Cross. The action of the war council of the Red Cross in establishing this division of activities was taken in compli- ance with the wishes of Secretary of the Navy Daniels, which reenf orced the statement of the President that " recent experi- ence has made it more clear than ever a multiplicity of relief agencies tends to bring about confusion, duplication, delay, and waste." Navalism. One of the stock arguments of the defenders of Germany is that the overdevelopment of their army (militarism) is no worse than the overdevelopment of England's navy (navalism). In the first place, it must be pointed out that this argument comes with ill grace from Germany, who endeavored to Inflict on the world a double dose of navalism and militarism. A power which builds up an army to dominate the European Continent and a navy strong enough to hold England in check is aiming at world power, and its argument against England's countermeasures is beside the point. And it may be pointed out that a great navy is far safer for the peace of the world than a large army, for a navy is not a good offensive weapon, except in conjunction with a strong army, and that army England never had until forced to create it in the present war. See Freedom of the Seas. Naval MiUtia. An arm of the State militia recognized by the national defense act of 1916. At the' outbreak of war with Ger- many this body was brought Into the national service and became the National Naval Volunteers. Its present strength (Dec. 3, 1917) is 852 officers and 17,000 men, exclusive of the Marine Corps branch, which includes 32 officers and 700 men. WAR OTCIOPEDJA. X85 Of this entire force tliere are to-day fewer tlian 150 officers and 1,000 men ashore. Naval Reserve. Is subdivided into four classes of men, eligible and fitted for special duties in time of war : The B"'leet Naval Reserve, now (Dec. 3, 1917) numbering 2,190 men, is made up of those who have received naval training and whose war-duty assignment would naturally be on vessels of the fleet. Enrollment in the Fleet Naval Reserve is for a period of four years, but in time of peace a member may be discharged upon request In time of war a member of the fleet reserve is obligated to serve throughout the war. The Naval Auxiliary Reserve, now numbering 8,921 men, is composed of seafaring men with experience on merchant ships. These men are or- dered to duty on auxiliary vessels of the Navy. To be eligible as an officer in this class the applicant must have had not less than two years' experience as a watch officer on a lake or ocean- going vessel and possess the other usual qualifications. The Naval Coast Defense Reserve, now numbering 36,891, is com- posed of citizens of the United States whose technical and practical education has been such as peculiarly to fit them for the many positions in navy yards, administrative offices on patrol vessels, and various other branches of the Navy at sea and ashore. A great number of college men, fishermen, old sailors, and men with business experience are enrolled in this branch of the Naval Reserve Force. The Naval Reserve Flying Corps, with 1,244 enrollments, is composed of qualified aviators, or persons skilled in the design, operation, or building of air- craft. An officer of this class must be a qualified aviator, though he need not be a licensed air pilot. Thus the total reserve com- prises about 50,000 men. IVaval War College. An advanced institution, located at Newport, R. I., for the training of selected Navy officers in the study of problems of naval warfare and the development of plans for naval operations. While detailed here as instructor in 1886 Capt. A. T. Mahan composed his masterly book on The Influence of Sea Power upon History. Navy. The relative size in tons of the naval forces of the principal nations of the world on July 1, 1914, at the outbreak of the war, was as follows : Great Britain 2, 158, 250 Germany 951, 713 United States 774, 353 France 665,748 Japan 519, 640 Italy 285, 460 Russia 270, 861 Austria-Hungary 221, 526 Our Navy, on July 1, 1914, included these completed ships in service: Eight dreadnaught battleships, 22 predreadnaughts, 25 cruisers, 51 torpedo-boat destroyers, 13 torpedo boats, and 30 submarines. We had at that date a naval strength of 66,273 officers and enlisted men. " On September 1, 1917," said Secre- tary Daniels, " there were 232,930 men in the naval service, including the Marine Corps, and there are three times as many ships in commission to-day," he continued, " as there were six months ago ; and ships and more ships, from enlarged and ever enlarging shipyards, are coming to afford a place upon naval 186 WAR CTCIiOPEDIA. craft for the thousands of patriotic young men who have crowded into the Navy." The American navy to-day has more ships and more men in it than the British navy had at the out- set of the war. Navy, "Nevr." A name given to the Navy of the United States which began to be developed in 1883. The movement marked the abandonment of the old ships of the Civil War period in favor of a policy designed to place this country on the water in some degree abreast with the European powers. But the progress was more than slow from the standpoint of all students of naval subjects. Three cruisers of 3,500 tons were begun in 1883, two battleships of 6,498 tons in 1886, and three of 10,288 tons in 1890. Only five more were authorized and in hand prior to the outbreak of the Spanish War in 1898 ; not one larger than 11,500 tons. Tugs, ferryboats, and all kinds of craft were purchased to meet this national emergency. The Navy personnel in 1898 was only 13,000. The experience in that war had its value from 1898 to 1914, inclusive; 33 battleships were authorized by Congress to be added to the fleet, and from 1906 to 1914, 52 torpedo boats and destroyers and 48 subma- rines of A, B, C, D, etc., types according to tonnage. " Congress [in 1916] took a radical and a forward step on its naval program. It abandoned the plan of a yearly authori- zation of new ships, and adopted a three-year building program. Shortly thereafter it increased the naval appropriation from an average of former years of $145,000,000 to $312,888,060.25, and since the 1st of August, 1916, has appropriated for the support and increase of the Navy $1,344,184,896, while estimates pending before Congress carry an addition of nearly $600,000,000. The aggregate appropriation in a little more than a year, to make effective and impregnable the Nation's first arm of defense; is, including pending estimates, nearly $2,000,000,000." (Secretary Daniels. ) " Jfebraskan." An American steamer which was torpedoed but not sunk by a German submarine in the " war zone " on May 25, 1915. According to the statement of the German Gov- ernment the commander of the submarine " was obliged to as- sume, from his wide experience . . . that only English steamers . . . traversed the war area without flags and markings," and that as soon as the vessel had hoisted the American flag the at- tack had been discontinued. The German Government treated it as " an unfortunate accident," for which the German Govern- ment expressed its " regret " and declared ■ its " readiness to make compensation." No self-respecting nation could long tol- erate having its rights on the free seas left to the judgment or whim of a German commander, even though he had " wide expe- rience " in torpedoing unsuspecting vessels. See War Zone, German. Netherlands. The Netherlands, or Holland, is a constitu- tional monarchy west of Germany. Its capital is The Hague. The monarchy has an area of 12,587 square miles, sustaining a population in 1914 of 6,339,854. The sovereign. Queen Wil- WAK CYCLOPEDIA. 187 helmina, who succeeded to the throne under the regency of her mother in 1890, began her independent reign In 1898. The Prince Consort is Henry, Prince of Mecklenburg-Schwerln, whom she married In 1901. The Netherlands Government de- clared neutrality at the opening of the war. Netherlands, German View of. " If Central Europe wishes to become a world power, it will have to find its way to the shores of the Indian Ocean, and that way is through Bag- dad. Once it has gained a footing on that sea, it will also be able to defend those precious possessions which Holland, in order not to lose them, will have to intrust to the protection of Middle Europe — the Dutch Indies. Holland has no longer any choice in this new era, when the map of the world is being remade, and when States are being gathered together into vast empires. She will either have to save her colonies and her independence by joining the Middle European federation (which does not mean the German Empire) , or she will lose both. This war will da away with the small ' neutral ' States, and at the end of this whole development, for the accomplishment of which more wars than one may prove necessary, there will be only large federated States left, which is in accordance with the character and the tendencies of our times and is also demanded by the fact that the small countries can maintain themselves alongside of those gigantic States only by joining forces them- selves." (Karl von Winterstetten, Nordkap-Bagdad, das polit- ische Programm des Krieges, 1914, p. 23. ) See " Mittel-Europa." Netherlands, Neutral Problems. Neutrality in the war was imposed on the Netherlands by the division of sentiment be- tween the Allies and the Central Powers, by the natural desire to escape the horrors of war, and by economic necessity ; for Hol- land's economic life rests largely on her trade with Germany on her eastern boundary and with England across the North Sea. Her position has been difficult since the outbreak of the war. It soon became evident that imports to Holland were being reexported to Germany, and England thereupon began to exert pressure. The Dutch people, desirous of remaining neu- tral, faced destruction of their commerce on one side, military ravishment by Germany on the other. The Netherlands Over- seas Trust was accordingly formed in September, 1914, to meet the danger. It is a private corporation, under Government sanction, representing the leading business interests of Holland. It has exclusive supervision of all imports, and guarantees to the allies that no imports shall reach Germany. Importers violating the agreement are punished. Holland is free to sell her own products to Germany, with the exception of military necessities. Despite government prohibitions, however, a vast amount of smuggling has occurred, and it has recently been shown that, thanks to the large supplies of food, especially fats, imported from the United States, Holland has been able to ex- port to Germany, from her own products, immense quantities of the commodities most needed in Germany. The United States has been obliged to take control of all exports from this country 188 WAR CTCIiOPBDIA. to Holland, and will allow no exports until the present system is changed. The situation is complicated by the fact that Hol- land is dependent on Germany for her supply of coal. See Em- largo; Neutral Rationing; Overseas Trusts; War Trade Board. Neutral Duties. The duties of a neutral State toward the parties to an existing war. They are defined in the fifth and thirteenth conventions adopted by The Hague Conference of 1907 and are mostly duties of abstention and prevention. A neutral State may not permit either belligerent t(J enlist troops in its territory. It may not, as a State, make a loan or gift of supplies or money to either belligerent. It may not permit the use of its territory by either belligerent as a base for fitting out warlike expeditions or as a military or naval base. On the other hand, the trading rights of a neutral's citizens, on the high seas, still remain, subject only to the legitimate measures of the war ring parties for the prevention of contraband carriage and unneutral service, and for the maintenance of blockades. See Neutrality Laws of the United States. Neutral Exports. A phase of the question of neutral trade with enemy countries. It is for our interest, as far as possible, to secure that neutral export shall be to ourselves and our associ- ates and not to enemy countries. That a large trade is carried on between the Central Powers and certain neutrals seems proved from State Department statistics, which show that Germany has imported from Sweden in two years 9,000,000 tons of iron ore, 250,000 tons of pig iron, 15,000 tons of ferrosilicon and ferro- manganese for making shells, together with large ctuantities of copper, sulphur, zinc, etc. Holland and Switzerland have been supplying foodstufCs. Some of this trade is payment for neces- sary German supplies, such as coal, and can be stopped if we supply these articles. If an absolute cessation of this trade can not be obtained, we are at least able, by the system of trade licenses, to make sure that no American goods are reexported, either directly or indirectly, into Germany, or are used to supply domestic deficiencies resulting from export of home products to enemy countries. See War Trade Board. Neutral Imports. Another phase of the question of neutral trade with enemy countries. It may take the form of (1) import directly from enemy countries or (2) imports from ourselves and our associates for reimport to Germany. The first question Is probably the most difficult. Certain neutrals — such as Switzer- land in the case of coal — are in dire need of certain supplies which can be furnished by enemy countries. But these supplies must be paid for in gold, which assists the enemy's credit, or in goods, which are useful to the prosecution of the war. To stop this we may either supply the necessary goods ourselves or adopt a punitive restriction of the neutrals' supplies. The second ques- tion seems to be caused by the embargo and the system of trade licenses. Neutrals have objected that this system of " ration- ing " them will hamper their economic life, if it does not lead, in some cases, to the actual starvation of their population. They declare that the increase in their imports from America is due WAR CYCLOPEDIA. 189 to the cessation of importation from Germany. State Depart- ment figures show, however, that Sweden has imported large stores of iron ore from the United States, while exporting 9,000,000 tons to Germany, and that neutrals have imported 90,000,000 pounds of American cotton in excess of their needs. See Espionage Act; Neutral Rationing; War Trade Board. jVeutrality. The legal position of a State not party to an existing war. The tremendous scale of the present war has raised the question whether neutrality is longer a feasible rSle. " I believe that the business of neutrality is over, not because I want it to be over, but I mean this, that war now has such a scale that the position of neutrals sooner or later becomes in- tolerable." (President Wilson, to Women's City Club, Cincin- nati, Oct. 26, 1916.) See Isolation, End of the Policy of; Per- manent Peace. Neutrality Laws of the United States. The act of 1794 was renewed in 1797 and superseded in 1818 by the statute which is still in force. In brief, this act provides: (1) That no citizen of the United States shall accept a commission against a friendly State; (2) that no person shall, within the United States, enlist for service against a friendly State or obtain an- other to do so; (3) that no person shall, within the United States, " fit out and arm or procure to be fitted out and armed," or augment the armament of, any vessel meant to cruise against a friendly State; (4) that no person shall, within the United States, " begin or set on foot " any military enterprise against a friendly State. Besides its punitive provisions, the act con- fers large powers on the President to anticipate and prevent its violation. Also, the collectors of customs are authorized tn detain any vessel manifestly built for warlike purposes and about to depart the United States with munitions and men on board for probable service against a friendly State. By a joint resolution, approved March 4, 1915, the President is further empowered to prevent clearance of " any vessel, American or foreign, which he has reasonable cause to believe to be about to carry fuel, arms, ammunition, men, or supplies to any war- ship or tender or supply ship of a belligerent nation." See Espionage Act. Neutralized State. A State which has been guaranteed im- munity from invasion upon condition that it wage no wars be- yond its boundaries. Switzerland is such a State ; Belgium and Luxemburg formerly were — ^until their immunity was incon- venient to Germany's machtpolitilc. " Let no one . . . say that small States can have a national life of their own . . . any day may see the end of their existence, in spite of all treaties to the contrary. . . . There are no ethical friendships between States . . ." declared a member of the Reichstag, Dr. Kerschensteiner, in 1916. An extension of the principle of neutralization is proposed by President Wilson as a part of his plan for a permanent peace. See Belgium, NeutraUmation of; Equality of Nations; Freedom of the Seas, American View; League to Enforce Peace. 190 WAE CYCLOPEDIA. Neutral Bationing. The term applied to the method by which a certain amount of supplies are apportioned out to various neutral nations. This amount is (1) not to be so great as to leave ourselves or our associates unsupplied with any necessary articles, and (2) merely enough for the direct needs of the neutral in question, and (3) must not be used to supply defi- ciencies due to exportation into Germany of any article pro- duced in the neutral country. Holland, for instance, must not import foodstuffs to supply any deficiency due to sending home- produced foodstuffs into Germany. In the words of President Wilson, we must "assure ourselves that neutrals are husband- ing their own resources and that our supplies will not become available, either directly or indirectly, to feed the enemy." See Espionage Act; Neutral Exports; Neutral Imports. Neutral Bights. The rights which are claimable at inter- national law by a neutral State as against the warlike activities of belligerents. For the most part they can be classified as the right to territorial integrity and the right to trade, the latter of which is limited by the correlative right of the belligerent to maintain blockade, and to prevent contraband trade with his enemy. During the present war Germany has outraged the rights of the United States in both these respects — the right to territorial integrity by the activities of its spies, the right of trade by its submarine warfare. See Blacklist; Embargo; Intrigue; Passports; Submarine Wa/rfare, etc. Neutral Territory Inviolable. The Fifth Hague Convention of 1907 (respecting the rights and duties of neutral powers in case of war on land) contains the following provisions : , "Abticle I. The territory of neutral powers is Inviolable. "Abt. II. Belligerents are forbidden to move troops or convoys of either munitions of war or supplies across the territory of a neutral power." Germany ratified this convention. Her observance of it is to be seen in the case of Belgium and Luxemburg. See Belgium, Neutralization of; l/usoemhurg. Newspapers, EngUsh. The London Times (Conservative or Unionist), owned by Lord Northcliife, demands relentless prosecution of the war. The same attitude is taken by two more popular NorthclifCe dailies, the Daily Mail and the Evening News. The Daily Telegraph, a business man's paper, is more moderate than the Tvmes, but believes in a war to victory, a position similar to that of the Morning Post, an organ of upper- class opinion. The Westmiaister Gazette (London) and the Manchester Guardian, great Liberal organs, both support the war, but wish (especially the latter) to have a clearer statement of its aims. The Pall Mall Gazette and the St. James Gazette, Unionist afternoon papers, are thoroughgoing supporters of the Government's policy. The same may be said of the Daily Ex- press (Unionist) and the Cftrowefe (Liberal). The Daily News (Liberal) and the Star (radical) support the war but look toward the possibility of peace in the ways suggested by Lord Lansdovme. Among weeklies the Saturday Review (ultra- Conservative) wishes war to complete military victory, and the WAK CYCLOPEDIA. 191 Spectator (Conservative) more moderate, nevertheless strongly supports the Government; the Nption (Liberal and radical) welcomes Lord Lansdowne's letter, as does the New Statesman (Socialist), though less cordially. See Lansdowne Letter. Newspapers, French. The number of newspapers in France is enormous; every shade of political opinion, every separate interest has its own press. Many newspapers exist for but a short time and have but slight influence. While the provincial press, especially in Kouen, Havre, Bordeaux, Lyons, Marseilles, etc., includes many influential papers, the papers of Paris, with their enormous circulation (some of them print more than a million copies) exercise the greatest influence, not only upon public opinion but more especially upon the Government itself. The most influential and representative Paris papers are the following : Le Temps, republican, generally considered the ablest of French papers, devoting much space to international affairs, appealing to the more intelligent part of the population. Le JouTTMl des Debats, of the same general character as the Temps, with perhaps more attention to literary matters. Le Figaro, devoted' to literature and society, moderate republican, anti- Semite in the Dreyfus affair, clerical leaning. Le Matin, one of the most enterprising of French newspapers, with great facili- ties for gathering news, republican, generally supporting the ministry in power ; it has devoted more attention to the United States than any other French paper, and its editor in chief, Stephanne La^uzanne, has been a frequent visitor here. Le Journal, Le Petit Journal, and Le Petit Parisien, are popular newspapers, each having a very large circulation. They are republican, but not devoted to the exclusive interests of any party. The editor of Le Journal was involved in the Bolo affair, a German financial move for peace, in 1917. L'Ectio de Paris is a moderate republican paper much read by those out of sympathy with the radical wing ; it is the most literary of the popular papers. L'Somme Libre (for a time before November, 1917, called L'Homme Enchain^, because of censorship difficul- ties), is the organ of 016menceau and is radical Kepublican. L'Sumanit6, the Socialist organ, was edited by JaurSs up to the time of his assassination at the outbreak of the war. L' Action Frangaise, clerical, and (before the war) monarchist. Newspapers, German. Norddeutsche Allgemeine Zeititng (Berlin), contains official reports of Reichstag and Diet speeches, and directly inspired articles. KoVnische Zeitung, semiofficial in foreign matters. LokaV-Aneeiger (Berlin), formerly a Krupp organ, reactionary and jingoistic. Deutsche Tageszeitung (Ber- lin), noisily Pan-German and agrarian. Kreum-Zeitung (Neue Preussische Zeitung), stiflly Conservative, Junker, and anti- Catholic. Die Post (Berlin), organ of the Prussian Free Con- servatives. Staatsbiirgerzeitung, Pan-German and anti-Semitic. Berliner Neueste Nachrichten and RhevrUsch-TVestfalische Zeit- ung are ostensibly National-Liberal, but in reality controlled by the Krupps. JSamburger Nachrichten, extremely jingoistic and anti-British. Dusseldorfer Oeneral-Aneeiger, National-Liberal 192 WAR CYCLOPEDIA. and jingoistic. Munchener Neueste Nachriohten, Bavarian paper, supports towns against the agrarian interests. Magdel)urger Zeiiung supports the Center (Catholic) and the Left (Social- Democrats). Leipziger Tageblatt, moderately Liberal. Berliner Borsen-Zeitung, Liberal and moderate, was apposed to breach with the United States. Germarda (Berlin) , organ of the Center Party, identified with Erzberger and a moderate peace pol- icy. Kolnische Volksseitung, thoroughly jingoistic and opposed to popular government. Vossische Zeitung, progressive in inter- nal politics, on the whole opposed to annexations, advocates Reichstag control. Weser Zeitung (Bremen), formerly well- known Liberal paper, now Pan-German. Frarbkfurt&r Zeitung, advocates parliamentary system, moderate. Berliner TageUatt, Radical and in favor of an understanding with Great Britain. The following are the principal Socialist organs: Vorwdrts, Cliemniteer Vblkstimme, Karlsruhe Volksfreund, Bremer Burger- Zeitung. Newspapers, Knssian. The following description of the leading newspapers of Russia was issued by the Committee for Correct Information about New Russia (in London) shortly before the revolution of November, 1917 : "Vestnih Vremennago Pravitel'stva is a reconstruction of the Pravitel'stvennyi Yest- nik. It is semiofficial, but makes no official publications. Izvestyi a Soveta Rolioeikh i Soldatskikh Deputatov is the offi- cial organ of the C. W. S. D. (Council of Workmen's and Sol- diers' Delegates) and expresses the Socialist Revolutionary and minimalist Social Democratic opinions which prevail In that body. Owing to constant changes of editorship. It sometimes contains articles which are not wholly consonant with official opinions of the C. W. S. D. Novoie Vremya is a nationalist organ which advocates cooperation with the allies, a Russian offensive, and the prosecution of the war to a victorious end. In home politics it supports the Provisional Government and contends against anarchy. The editorial staff has changed con- siderably since the revolution. Mr. MenshikofC, Mr. Stolypin, and others have left and the paper has taken up a more liberal attitude. Vetcherncif Vremya upholds the same views as the Novoie Vremya, but It is slightly more democratic and has a tendency toward nationalist demagogy and political Pan- Slavism. It makes war on maximalism, internationalism, and anarchy, and advocates a Russian offensive. It is widely read in Petrograd, in the provinces, and in military circles, aird aims at becoming the leading military paper. Retch is a Cadet (Constitutional Democrat) organ. Milyukov directs its for- eign policy. Sovremennoie Slovo puts forward the same opin- ions as the Retch, in a cheap form, for popular consumption. Svodnyi Narod is a popular Cadet paper widely read by all classes in Petrograd and the provinces. Birzeyvia Vedomosti is a moderate liberal paper which tries to be nonparty and pro- gressive. On interior politics it courts popularity by taking a more radical attitude than the Cadet organs, advocating a Russian offensive and war in harmony with the Allies, and WAR CYCLOPEDIA. 193 protesting against internationalism, maximalism, and anarchy. The evening edition of this paper has the greater circulation. Russkaia Volya Is a liberal and progressive organ, with a dema- gogic flavor, which is conducting a vigorous campaign against internationalism and anarchy. It is more on the Left than the Cadets and aims at becoming the Republican Radical Demo- cratic organ. The articles by Leon Andreiev, in a patriotic spirit, have a great vogue. It stands out for war and for har- mony with the allies. To socialists it is the most detested of the bourgeois papers because of its excessive and indiscrimi- nating polemics. Den is the organ of the minimalist Social- Democrats. Edinsvo is the organ of Plekhanov, and prints an article by him every day. It represents the opinion of a group of Social-Democrats who recognize the need of fighting to a finish. Volya Naroda is the organ of an influential group of Socialist-Revolutionaries who have separated from their follow workers of the Delo Naroda on the question of foreign policy and the war. They protest against anarchy and uphold army discipline, a Russian offensive, and perfect concordance with the aUies. Lieut. Lebedev, of the French Army, a political exile who has recently returned to Russia, and Mr. Savinkov, who used to be the head of the Socialist-Revolutionary terrorist organization, are both on the editorial staff. Delo Naroda has only just come out and, as yet, has little circulation. It is the principal organ of the Socialist Revolutionaries, and is edited by Mr. Tchevnov. In foreign politics it is international- ist and wants peace without annexations or indemnities ; but it has lately spoken in favor of a Russian offensive, provided that a general peace is made as soon as possible. In home politics it supports the program of the Socialist Revolutionaries, regards the course of events in Russia optimistically, and conducts a vigorous campaign against Milyukov and the Cadets. Zem- Ua i Volya, like the Delo Narodo, is an organ of the Socialist Revolutionaries. It is written for the villagers, among whom it has a large circulation, and principally deals with agrarian questions. Izvestyia Soveta Kre-itianstikh Deputatov has re- cently been started to voice the opinions of the AU-Russian Union of Peasants, in which Socialist Revolutionaries and minimalist Social Democrats predominate. Rabotchaia Oazeta is the organ of the minimalist Social Democrats. It has inter- nationalist tendencies, desires peace without annexations or in- demnities, and inveighs against all the bourgeois Governments in Europe. It takes up a polemical attitude against the maxi- malists and their paper, the Pravda. Novaiazizn Zizn is a great internationalist paper of the minimalist Socialists, edited by Maxim Gorky. It is antibourgeois, stands for peace with- out annexations or indemnities, and is well Informed on foreign politics, especially with regard to Germany and Austria, by foreign Socialists. It has a wide circulation. Pravda is the organ of the maximalists or the extreme Left and publishes articles by Lenine. In home policy it advocates the transfer- ence of authority to the C. W. S. D. and an immediate social 15963°— 18 13 194 WAR CTCLOPEDIA. revolution, and Is against the Socialists joining the Goveri^ ment. It opposes army discipliae, the Russian ofCensive, and the prosecution of the war, approves of fraternization, though It will not admit that it desires a separate peace. It is always especially sharp against the Allies. Soldatskoie Slwo Is a sol- diers' paper with Cadet politics. Soldatskaia Mysl, edited by officers and privates, is a Republican Democratic paper, In favor of army discipline and the prosecution of the war. Soldatskaia Pravda follows the lines of the Pravda. Epokha and the Svoiodnaia Mysl are moderate liberal papers appearing every Monday."" Bolsheviki suppression of opposing papers, and an order conferring on the organs of their own party a monopoly of advertising, have produced changes in the newspaper situation in Russia that are impossible to describe at the present time. See Bolsheviki; Lenine; Russian Revolution of 1917. New Zealand. A self-governing dominion of the British Crown, consisting of two islands in the South Pacific. Area, 104,751 square miles. Population, 1,095,994 (1914). The capital is Aukland. New Zealand entered the war by the side of Great Britain, and her troops have greatly distinguished them- selves at Gallipoli and in France, while a naval expedition cap- tured the German Samoan Islands. Nicaragua. Nicaragua is a Republic of Central America, with its capital at Managua. It has an area of 49,552 square miles and a population estimated in 1910 at 600,000. The President, Emiliano Chamorro, was elected in 1916. His term will expire in 1920. Nicaragua broke off diplomatic relations with Germany on May 18, 1917. Nicholas 11 (1868— ). Former Czar of Russia. He ascended the throne October 20, 1894, and married Alexandra, Princess of Hesse, the same year. Nicholas inaugurated his reign by a rigorous repression of all liberal movements and then embarked on a policy of adventure in the Far Bast, which ended in the war with Japan (1904r-5) and the defeat of Russia. During the war a revolutionary movement manifested itself at home, which, culminating in the general strike of October, 1905, forced the Czar to grant a constitution. But Nicholas dis- trusted the liberals and gave the bureaucracy a free hand in crushing the revolution. On the outbreak of the European war the Czar proclaimed the solidarity of throne and people, thereby securing a considerable measure of popularity ; but once again he relied too exclusively on the bureaucracy, with disastrous results, for these reactionaries soon lost interest In the war, and when the Czar refused to displace them he \7as compelled by the revolutionaries to abdicate, March 15, 1917. Nicholas II was undoubtedly patriotic, at times he was swayed by noble humanitarian sentiments, which notably led to the calling of the first Hague conference, but he was weak willed, vacillating, unreliable, superstitious ; also he depended too much on his wife, who was under the influence of the monk Rasputin, and whose German sympathies were prejudicial to Russia. The WAR CYCLOPEDIA, 195 late Czar and his family have been transported to Tobolsk, Siberia. See Rasputin. Nicholas II, Efforts to Maintain Peace. On July 29, 1914, Ozar Nicholas sent the Kaiser the following telegram from Tsarskoe Selo : " To H. M. the Kaiser of Germany : Thanks for your telegram, which is conciliatory and friendly, whereas the official message presented to-day by your ambassador to my min- ister was conveyed in a very different tone. I beg you to explain this divergency. It wonld be right to give over the Austro-Ser- bian problem to The Hague Tribunal. I trust in your wisdom and friendship. — ^Nicholas." Not only did the Kaiser not answer that telegram but he suppressed it. And in the official German White Book, giving the documents about the war, this, the last telegram of the Czar, has disappeared. The reason subse- quently given by the German officials for suppressing the tele- gram was that it was not interesting. Americans, however, are apt to think that the Czar's proposal to submit the whole Austro-Serbian problem to The Hague Tribunal was very inter- esting. The fact that the German Government was interested in war may explain such tampering with the records. See Grey and British Policy in 1914; Mobilisation Controversy ; "Potsdam Conference"; ^erhia, Austrian Ultimatum; Wil- liam II. Nietzsche, Friedericb Wilhelm (1844—1900). German philosopher, who emphasized his Polish ancestry; became pro.- fessor of classical philology at Basel, 1869. Ill health caused his resignation, 1879. He was comparatively well untU 1888, but his vigorous mind broke down and he became hopelessly insane in 1889. His intellectual career presents four phases, and this undoubtedly has led to misunderstanding of his position: (1) He is one of the severest critics of contemporary German culture; (2) later (1877-1880) he is rationalistic, recalling Montaigne; (3) yet later (1881-82) his forecasts of the superman and of the attack on Christianity as a religion of slaves appear; (4) in 1883, with the publication of Thus Spake Zarathustra, he formu- lated the ideas which are said to have seduced Germany. They are the superman, master morality (the morality of superior persons, who ought to enforce it)., antichrist, and the will to power. Nevertheless, so late as 1888 he also remains the most caustic protestant against materialized Germany, and thus his possible relation to the doctrines which produced the spirit of ruthless conquest in Germany is obscure. This much may be said: Nietzsche insists that individuals of higher culture must assert themselves for tlie sake of civilization. They must adopt an anarchistic attitude toward conventional notions and customs, particularly toward the exclusive national State, of which Ger- many is the great example. Their right to do this is nothing less than a sacred duty. In short, he is an egotistic aristocrat. This teaching seems to have been torn from its context by popu- larizing or political writers and to have been patched on to a wild theory of Teutonic race superiority, stolen from Gobineau by the notorious Teutonized Houston Stewart ChambOTlaln. In 196 WAR CTCLOPEDIA. form, probably with little reference to its original setting, it was incorporated in imperial, junker, and Prussian self-glorification. The process was facilitated unquestionably by the fact that Nietzsche, so far from being a systematic thinker, is rather a prophetic mystic, of the type familiar to English readers in cer- tain works of Thomas Carlyle. See "Kultur "; Pan-Germanism. Nish. A city of central Serbia, a junction town on the rail- way to Constantinople, and the northern terminus of the Saloniki-Nish railway. The possession of Nish was vital to the Teutonic powers to open the Belgrade-Nish-Sofia-Constan- tinople railway. The fall of Nish, November 5, 1915, enabled the enemy to overrun Serbia and consolidate his own lines of communieation. Nivelle, Gen. Robert. A distinguished French general who succeeded Joffre as commander in chief in December, 1916, and relinquished the post a few months later to Gen. Petain. He was a colonel of an artillery regiment in the battle of the Marne at the beginning of this war. By conspicuous gallantry he turned the tide at the Ourcq River and distinguished himself in subsequent engagements. He was called to Verdun in March, 1916, in the midst of the Crown Prince's " drive " on that strong- hold. It has been said that he was " the hea-rt and soul " of the French resistance in subsequent months. " No Annexations, no Indemnities." The peace formula of Philip Scheidemann and the majority of German Socialists, a^id subsequently ado'pted by the Council of Workmen's and Soldiers' Deputies in Petrograd, who, however, made an all-important addition, " the right of all nations to determine their own des- tiny." A peace on the German basis, and that of the manipu- lators of the Stockholm conference, would probably ignore the Russian qualification. It would mean a restoration of the status quo ante helium, concerning which President Wilson has said : " It was the status quo ante out of which this iniquitous war issued forth, the power of the Imperial German Govern- ment within the Empire and its widespread influence and domination outside of that Empire. That status must be altered in such fashion as to prevent any such hideous thing from ever happeni-ng again." It is, indeed, quite clear that -a Europe restored to the organization of 1914 would leave France weakened, Italy threatened, Russia disorganized, Belgium, Ser- bia, and Roumania ravished, and -the German military group free to organize another war ; it would leave Poles and Bohemi- ans and Croats under German and Magyar domination. The Council of Workmen's and Soldiers' Deputies did not wish such a peace any more than President Wilson, but it did protest against the continuation of the war for the annexation of peoples against their will or for imperialistic ends. The minority Ger- man Socialists also adopted the Russian formula, but it was not acceptable to the majority and was the last thing desired by the German Government, whose ambition has been a peace of annexations and indemnities. See Councils of Workmen's and Socialists' Deputies; Lenine; Stockholm Conference. WAR CTCLOPEDIA. 197 " No Annexations, no Indemnities," German Attitude, 1914—1916. In a carefully documented work, which fully supports his contention, S. Grumbach, a Swiss writer, says: " No one can deny that the German popular press has come out for annexations [1914^1916], and not in any covert way, but most openly. In the Reichstag,, as in public meetings, there has been the cry for annexations. In books and brochures beyond number there has been the same demand. The central com- mittees and the bureaus of all the middle-class parties have urged the policy of annexations and have set forth the reasons in resolutions which have received the widest publicity. News- papers in the south of Germany, in the north, in the east, the west, and in central Germany ; men from every Province have called for annexations, not only politicians, but also men of science, writers, and physicians, have made public declarations in favor of annexations." (L'Allemagne Annewioniste, 1917, pp. 4, 5.) See " Mittel-Enropa " ; ParirGermanism. Noncombatants.' In the narrower sense, nonflghting ele- ments of an army, like the medical service; in the broader and more usual sense, persons not connected with the military or naval service. The German attitude to the noncombatant ele- ments of an enemy population is indicated by the following pas- sage from the Oerman War Book: "A war conducted with energy can not be directed merely against the combatants of the enemy State and the positions they occupy, but it will and must in like manner seek to destroy the total intellectual and material resources of the latter. Humanitarian claims, such as the pro- tection of men and their goods, can be taken into considera- tion, in so far as the nature and object of the war permit." For Germany's application of these monstrous principles, see Bel- gium; " Frightfulness " ; Hague and Geneva Conventions, Oer- man Violations. Northcliffe, Lord (Alfred Harmsworth) 1865— ). British journalist ; owner of the London Times and other news- papers. Since the beginning of 1917 head of the various British war missions in the United States. Norway. A constitutional monarchy in the western portion of the Scandinavian Peninsula. Its capital is Christiania. The land area is 119,549 square miles. The estimated popula- tion in 1912 was 2,391,782. Haakon IV was elected King of Norway on November 18, 1905, at the time of the separation of Norway from Sweden. In spite of enormous commercial losses and domestic intrigues, Norway has adhered to a policy of neutrality throughout the war. Norway, Neutral Problems. Of all the neutral powers, with the possible exception of Holland, Norway's shipping ap- pears to have suffered most from German submarines. In addi- tion, Norway has little trade with Germany and therefore block- ade disputes with the Allies have not been frequent. These two considerations, joined with the strong democratic feeling in Nor- way, have brought almost all the Norwegian people to the side of the Allies. The only possible chance for dispute lies in ques- 198 WAR CYCLOPEDIA. tions of " rationing," for Norway is in vital need of certain com- modities, especially foodstuffs, cotton, and coal. See Neutral Exports; Neutral Imports; Neutral Rationing. " Notwendigkeit." A German word, meaning "necessity." When the German Gen. von Emmlch entered Belgium he issued a proclamation stating that German troops were compelled to cross the frontier, but explained, "They are constrained to do so by sheer necessity, the neutrality of Belgium having already been violated by French officers who have been through Belgian territory in a motor car, on their way into Germany." A member of the German supplementary general staff, Gen. von Freytag- Lorringhoven, a high authority on military problems, has since admitted that the French did not violate the neutrality of Bel- gium, and not only had no intention of doing so, but did not anticipate such a step on the part of Germany. When the Ger- man Chancellor admitted to the Reichstag, in his famous speech of August 4,' that Germany had done a wrong to Belgium and had committed " a breach of international- law," he justified it on the ground that " necessity knows no law." When the Pan- Germans urge the retention of Belgium and other annexations east and west, 'it is on the ground of " necessity." " That which appears to the French to be the brutal harshness of the con- queror was really nothing but national necessity to the Ger- mans," wrote the former Chancellor von Billow, in justifying the annexation of Alsace-Lorraine and in urging further an- nexations at the cost of France. German junker " necessity " knows no right, no law, no mercy, no limit except that imposed by a superior force. See " FrigMfulness " ; German War Code; " Kriegs-Raison." O. Officers' Reserve Corps. A corps of the Regular Army es- tablished by the national defense act of 1916, in answer to ob- vious needs and suggested by European example. It is for the purpose, as stated in the law, " of securing a reserve of offlcers available for service as temporary officers in the Regular Army, as officers of the Quartermaster Corps and other staff corps and departments, as officers for recruit rendezvous and depots, and as officers of volunteers." These reserves, covering every branch of the service, are made subject to duty only in time of war. The number admitted to the corps may not exceed the number of officers of corresponding grades in the Regular Army, with the exception that an unlimited number may be appointed to the lowest authorized grade for use by promotion at need. Officers' Training Camps. Announcement was made two weeks after the declaration of war of the institution of 16 camps in various parts of the country for the training of officers for the new Army. These camps opened on May 15, 1917, with about 40,000 men enrolled. After the first camps had closed, in August, some 20,000 men were enrolled in the 9 camps of the second series. A third series of camps will open in January, 1918. During their three months of in- struction men in the camps have been paid at the rate of WAR CYCLOPEDIA. 199 $100 per month. In establishing and managing these camps machinery was utilized which had been created in connection with preparedness camps operated at Plattsburg, N. T., and elsewhere in 1915 and 1916. By order of the Secretary of War, November 8, the minimum age for admission to such camps was reduced from 21 years to 20 years and 9 months. The camps of the first series were located at Plattsburg Bar- racks, N. T. ; Fort Myer, Va. ; Fort Oglethorpe, Ga. ; Fort Mc- Pherson, Ga. ; Fort Benjamin Harrison, Ind. ; Fort Logan H. Boots, Ark. ; Fort Eiley, Kans. ; Leon Springy, Tex. ; Presidio of San Francisco, Cal. ; Madison Barracks, N. Y. ; Fort Niagara, N. Y. ; Fort Sheridan, 111. ; Fort Snelling, Minn. Camps of the second series were located at the first nine of these posts. At Plattsburg Barracks, Fort Benjamin Harrison, and Fort Sheri- dan double camps of the first series were situated. See Platts- burg. Official Bulletin. A daily periodical issued since May 10, 1917, by the Committee on Public Information, containing news of the Government activities in order "to assure the full and legal printing of the ofiicial announcements of Government heads in connection with Government business." It is sent free to newspapers and postmasters and sold to others at $5 a year. Okuma, Count Shigenobu ( 1838— ) . Japanese states- man, founder and leader of the Progressive party, who was Prime Minister at the outbreak of the war. He caused Japan to fulfill the obligation of the British alliance, and later, after the fall of Kiaochow, presented to China a series of demands which the latter found unacceptable. After considerable nego- tiation a compromise was reached which gave dissatisfaction in Japan, and in October, 1916, Count Okuma resigned in favor of Count Terauchi. Count Okuma does not belong to one of the great clans ; he has always given great attention to the internal development of Japan, and Waseda University is his own crea- tion. He has also written much and edited Fifty Years of New Japan. "Open-Door" Policy. The name given to the American policy in China and the Orient by John Hay, as Secretary of State, after the Boxer uprising of 1900. His view, to which all of the powers concerned in China finally adhered, was that no exclusive privilege should be sought or acquired by any single nation, but that whatever was granted to one must be allowed to all other powers upon similar terms. American commer- cial treaties had long been based upon this principle through the well-known "most-favored-nation" clause. See "Hun"; Japanese-American Agreement; Kiaoohow. Order in Council. A decree issued, in form, by the King of England in his privy council, but in fact by the British cabinet, regulating matters which are left by law to the discretion of the Government. It resembles closely an Executive order in the United States. By such an Order in Council the embargo upon trade with Germany was declared on March 15, 1915, in reply to the German war-zone order of February 4, 1915. The United 200 WAR CTCLOPEDIA. States protested against this order on March 30, 1915. See Embargo, British; "Zamora." Ordnance Department. The most of what is not supplied to the Army by the Quartermaster's Department comes to it through the Ordnance Department. These are the two main channels through which is received what is necessary for the prosecution of a war. The Quartermaster General subsists and attends to the material wants of the soldier; the Chief of Ordnance furnishes him with the powder and ball, the guns and military equipmeiit he fights with, and puts at his hand what he needs in prosecuting the business for which he is sustained. Arsenals, armories, munition factories, when these are taken over for Government use, fall under the administration of the Ordnance Department. This bureau contracts for the manu- facture of arms, large and small, horse equipment, gun mounts, etc., and in time of war exercises powers of great magnitude. Orlando, Vittorio (1860— ). Premier of Italy ; born at Palermo, became professor of administrative law in the Uni- versity of Borne, then a deputy, then Minister of Public In- struction in Giolitti's cabinet, and later Minister of the Interior. He became Prime Minister on October 30, 1917. Ostend. Formerly one of the favorite watering places of Europe and also a Belgian port of entry. Its population be- fore the war was 43,000. In October, 1914, it vfas captured and partially destroyed by the Germans, and it has since been many times bombarded by the air forces of the Allies. It is said to be one of the main stations for Germany's submarine fleet, and would become an important strategic post should Germany be able to hold Belgium. See Antwerp; Pan-Germanism. Overseas Trusts. In the early part of the war corporations were formed in neutral countries to take from the Governments the task of guaranteeing that imports consigned to their coun- tries would not be reimported into the territory of the Central Powers and thus pass through the blockade. The Netherlands Overseas Trust was formed for the Kingdom of the Netherlands, and in April, 1915, Great Britain and France agreed that all conditional contraband and some absolute contraband could pass through the blockade zone if consigned to the Netherlands Gov- ernment or the Netherlands Overseas Trust. In Switzerland a like function is performed by the Society Suisse de Surveillance Economique (known as the S. S. S.). During the period of our neutrality the project was brought forward of an American Overseas Corporation for like purpose. The American Govern- ment refused to approve it, the State Department declaring that it could not sanction any organization which received preferen- tial treatment over other American shippers. See Netherlands, Neutral Problems; Neutral Exports; Neutral Rationmg. P. Pacifism. In the broader sense, is nearly synonymous with internationalism, and signifies a movement for the abolition of war. In the narrower sense it means a protest against any WAK CYCLOPEDIA. 201 war which may be waged, regardless of its causes, purposes, or probable consequences. " Gentlemen who are out and out pacif- ists are making one fundamental mistake . . . America does not constitute the world." (President Wilson, Des Moines, Feb. 15, 1916.) "I want peace, but I know how to get it and they do not." (Buffalo, Nov. 12, 1917. See Peace with Honor. Pact of liondon. On September 5, 1914, the following treaty was signed in London : " The British, French, and Russian Gov- ernments mutually engage not to conclude peace separately dur- ing the present war. The three Governments agree that when terms of peace come to be discussed, no one of the Allies will demand terms of peace without the previous agreement of each of the other Allies." This treaty was adhered to by Japan on October 30, 1915, and by Italy on December 2, 1915. If Russia makes a separate peace with the Central Powers it will be in flat violation of this agreement. See Bolshevihi; Russian Revo- lution. Painlevfi, Paul (1863— ). Ex-Premier of France; mathematician, professor at the Sorbonne, a brilliant chemist, a learned physicist, an excellent speaker, and leader in political life. In politics he is a Republican-Socialist, 1. e.. a moderate. At the opening of the war he urged the appointment of a supe- rior commission on inventions to continue the work of the com- mission on inventions of the war department, most of whose officials had taken the field. He himself is reported to have in- vented the gas used against the Germans at Verdun. He was taken into the cabinet as Minister of Public Instruction, October 31, 1915 ; was appointed to the new office of Minister of In- ventions in January, 1916 ; Minister of War, 1917, where one of his chief acts was the appointment of Petain to the chief com- mand. On the fall of the Ribot ministry in September, 1917, he was called to constitute a ministry from all parties (except the Unified Socialists ) for the sole purpose of prosecuting the war ; this lasted, however, only for a few weeks, falling in Novem- ber, 1917. Palestine. A province of the Turkish Empire, on the eastern shore of the Mediterranean, where a British invasion began in the spring of 1917. The fall of Erzerum had ended the plan for a Turkish invasion of Egypt through this region in 1916. British forces from Egypt began operations in Syria as a part of their near eastern campaign. They advanced to within 50 miles of Jerusalem on March 28, 1917. The Russian collapse halted for a time all operations in this theater; but in November, 1917, further progress was announced, including the taking of Ascalon and Jaffa. Jerusalem was surrendered to the British on Decem- ber 9. See Bagdad; Suee Canal. Panama. A republic occupying the Isthmus of Panama; formerly a State of Colombia. Its area is 33,776 square miles, and its population is approximately 375,000. The President is R. M. Valdez. Panama declared war upon Germany April 7, 1917, in these words : " Our indisputable duty in this tremendous hour of history is of a common ally, whose interests and existence 202 WAR CYCIiOPEDIA. as well are linked indissolubly with the United States. As the situation creates dangers for our country, it is the duty of the Panaman people to cooperate with all the energies and resources they can command for the protection of the canal and to safe- guard the national territory." War on Austria was declared December 10, 1917. See Brazil; Cuba; Guatemala; Pan-Ameri- canism. Panama Canal. The Clayton-Bulwer treaty, between the United States and Great Britain, in 1850, provided for an isth- mian canal to be constructed by a private corporation under International control. But in 1880, stirred by the prospect of a speedy construction of a canal at Panama by the De Lesseps Co., President Hayes announced the doctrine that any canal between the two oceans must be under American control. Pursuant of this idea, Secretary Hay negotiated with England, in 1901, the Hay-Pauncefote treaty, which abrogated the Clayton-Bulwer treaty and recognized the exclusive right of the United States to construct and manage a canal, and placed the canal " politically as well as commercially under the absolute control of the United States." The canal was opened to commerce. Informally, August 15, 1914. It is to-day heavily fortified. See Suez Canal. Panama Canal During War. On November 13, 1914, the President issued a proclamation prescribing rules " for the use of the Panama Canal by belligerent vessels." The proclama- tion was based upon the responsibility of the United States as a neutral exercising " sovereignty in the land and waters of the Canal Zone." The regulations laid down conform closely to the spirit and letter of the Thirteenth Hague Convention, and limited strictly the amount of supplies and fuel a belliger- ent war vessel might take on within the Canal Zone, and also the length of time they might remain there. Rule 14 forbade the use of the radio installation of any belligerent vessel, public or private, within the zone, except in connection with canal busi- ness. Rule 15 forbade the aircraft of a belligerent power, public or private, " to descend or arise within the jurisdiction of the United States at the Canal Zone, or to pass through the air spaces above the lands and waters vnthin said jurisdiction." By an executive ordar dated August 27, 1917, defensive sea a,reas were established adjacent to the terminal ports of the Canal, and regulations were laid down for the government of persons and vessels within such areas. Panama Canal Tolls. Article III of the Hay-Pauncefote treaty of 1901 provided : " The canal shall be free and open to the vessels of commerce and war of all nations observing these rules on terms of entire equality, so that there shall be no dis- crimination against any such nations, or its citizens or subjects, in respect of the conditions or charges of traffic or otherwise. Such conditions and charges of traffic shall be just and equi- table." The canal act of August 24, 1912, contained a clause ex- empting American coastwise vessels using the canal from the payment of tolls. On March 5, 1914, the President, urging that " the large thing to do is the only thing we can afford to do," asked "a voluntary withdrawal from a position everywhere WAR CYCLOPEDIA. 203 questioned and misunderstood." A bill for the repeal of the exemption clause, but reserving American rights in the matter, was passed June 15. See "Scrap of Paper"; Treaties, Observ- ance of. Panama Indemnity. Proposals to indemnify Colombia for the loss of Panama in the revolution of November, 1903, have been made in every administration since that time. Whether the United States was culpable on that occasion is an open question. But the presence of United States forces on the Isthmus with orders to maintain the- free and uninterrupted transit deterred the Colombian Government from taking meas- ures to suppress the revolt and the recognition of Panamanian independence caused a breach in our friendly relations with Colombia. A treaty to indemnify Colombia was discussed under President Taft ; and one was negotiated by President Wilson, but it has not been ratified by the Senate. Pan-Americanism. " The ambitions of this republic do not lie in the path of conquest, but in the paths of peace and justice. Whenever and wherever we can we will stretch forth a hand to those who need help. If the sovereignty of a sister republic is menaced from overseas the power of the United States, and, I hope and believe, the united power of the American republics, will constitute a bulwark which will protect the independence and integrity of their neighbors from unjust invasion or aggres- sion. The American family of nations might well take for its motto that of Dumas's famous musketeers, ' One for all ; all for one.' If I have correctly interpreted Pan- Americanism from the standpoint of the relation of our Government with those beyond the seas, it is In entire harmony with the Monroe doc- trine. The Monroe doctrine is a national policy of the United States ; Pan-Americanism is an international policy of the Ameri- cas." (Secretary Lansing.) See Monroe Doctrine. Pan-Germanism. A term applied to the aspiration that all European people of Germanic stock may be united imder a single flag. The Pan-German League was organized in 1890, and by 1894 had become an active force for propaganda. " We ought not to forget," said the official circular of the league, "that beyond the boundary lines compassed by the black-red- and-whlte flag, thousands of Germans reside." Holland, the Flemish part of Belgium, possibly Denmark, Sweden, and Nor- way, Austria, and the German parts of Russia were to be ab- sorbed by the German Empire. The organization further aspired to see Germany take "its share, as a dominant power in the history of the whole world." Toward this purpose the AUdeutsche Blatter was established in 1894 and has since been an organ of urgent propaganda. For many years after 1894 the Pan-German League was the spokesman of a comparatively small group in Germany. But it has gathered to itself a re- markable collection of writers and public speakers. By 1908 it may be said to have become a power in Germany, a power constantly pressing for a more aggressive foreign policy. By 1911 it was recognized as the center of a movement which even 204 WAR CYCLOPEDIA. the Chancellor and the Kaiser could hardly keep In check. The Navy League, the Defense Association, and many other organi- zations cooperated with it. Its original purpose of uniting all Germans was often lost sight of in the more pressing policy of making Germany dominant, by diplomacy if possible, by war If necessary. Nor has it been forgotten by the league that war would ofCer a swift means of bringing together all Germans. Since the outbreak of the war the Pan-Germans have been at the head of the movement for large annexations, annexations based not alone upon the principle of German na- tionality, but also upon economic advantage. France is to lose her iron and coal lands, Belgium is to be under Germany's busi- ness direction, and Russia is to give up her manufacturing dis- tricts. Not only a greater Germany, but an enormously wealthier Germany, has been their aim. No group of men in history ever labored more directly to bring about war and to make that war profitable. There is growing evidence that many elements in Germany are becoming more and more rest- less and openly critical of the Pan-Germans and the govern- ment's subserviency to them. See "Berlin to Bagdad"; "Con- quest and Kultur"; "Kultur"; " Mittel-Europa" ; "Place in the Sun." Pan-Germanism, Influence of. The foUovnng statement as to the influence of the Pan-Germans in German politics is from an article by Kurt Eisner. It was published in the Neue Zeit, April 23, 1915, and republished by the New Fatherland League : " Who wields the decisive Influence on the trend of foreign poli- tics in Germany ? Who gives the life impulse to economic driving forces? Absolutely none other, for a quarter of a century, than the Pan-Germans. They have acquired a greater Influence on the shaping of national policy than even the mightiest combination of interests among the great landowners and capitalists. In the course of years they have put through more measures than all the political parties and all the parliamentary subdivisions of Germany taken together." (Quoted in the Wew York Times Current History, Vol. VI, p. 674.) Another piece of evidence is the following statement from the Berliner Tageilatt of April 21, 1913 : " It has lately been clearly demonstrated that numerous threads connect the clamorous leaders of Pan-Germanism with the ofiiclal world." See German People versus German Oovem- ment. Pan-Germans Urge War in 1913. In 1913 the Pan- Germans made a political " drive " in Germany. Countless meet- ings were held, speeches made, and resolutions passed for the strengthening of " national feeling." The year 1813 was re- called when Prussia rose against Napoleon, and predictions were freely made that Germany would soon rise again, this time against those who were " hemming her in." Enthusiastic audi- ences were told that war was at hand ; that " there was a smell of blood in the air." Gens. Kelm, Liebert, Wrochem, and Admiral Breusing went from one part of Germany to the other uttering such views. Not only the Pan-German organization WAR CYCLOPEDIA. 205 but the Navy League, which Included over a million names, thie Defense Association, which had spruag up suddenly in 1912 and already had an enormous membership, and more than 20 allied organizations helped to excite the nation. There was no real occasion for this outburst except the diplomatic setback to Germany over Morocco in 1911, and the alarm felt over the results of the Balkan wars of 1912-13. See " Conquest and KuU tur " ; German Army Act of 1913, Reasons for. Pan-Islamism. The Sultan of Turkey claims to be the Caliph or spiritual head of the Mohammedan world. The late Sultan, Abdul Hamld II (1876-1909), sought to consolidate the Islamic world by appealing to its religious zeal as a political unit to oppose the designs of European powers against Turkey. The Young Turks also coquetted with the idea, in which they were encouraged by the German Emperor, who ostentatiously posed as the friend of Mohammedans everywhere. German agents also plotted with the Mohammedan peoples of Great Britain, France, and Russia, with the object of weaning them from their loyalty. But the spectacle of Mohammedan troops from India fighting against Turks in Mesopotamia has revealed the slender bases of the Pan-Islamic movement. See Armenian Massacres ; Holy War; Young Turks. Pan-Slavism. A movement aiming to unite for common effort all peoples of the Slavic race. At first it appears to have been mainly a cultural movement, aiming at the revival and further development of Slavic civilization. From this stage it easily passed into a movement to deliver the Slavs of the Balkans from Turkish misrule and did much to give popular sanction to the war between Russia and Turkey in 1877-78. Since then it ha« continued as a partly cultural, partly political movement aiming at the general development of the Slavic race in a political, economic, and cultural sense. In late years it has taken a new turn, in that it has been used by certain circles in the Russian Government to give a popular basis for attempts to unite around the leadership of Russia all the Slavic peoples, and to gain popular sanction for aggressive designs against Turkey on one hand and Germany and Austria on the other. This extension brought the movement into conflict with Pan-Germanism and did much to render difficult the relations between Russia and the Teutonic powers and to bring on the present war. But the advent of the Russian Republic with less aggressive designs has probably checked this phase of the movement, leaving, however, its real basis undisturbed. See "Kingdom of the Serbs, Groats, and Slovenes"; Slavs; Ukraine. " Panther." German war vessel sent to Agadlr (Morocco) in 1911. See Morocco Question. Papen, Capt. Franz von. Late military attach^ to the Ger- man embassy in Washington. He was dismissed by our Govern- ment on December 4, 1914, for " improper activity in military matters." In an intercepted letter to a friend in Germany he referred to our people as " those idiotic Yankees." See German Intrigue. 206 WAR CTCLOPEDIA-. Paper. Increased exportation of all wood products has affected the situation of paper. The paper shortage became so acute in 1916 that the Federal Trade Commission was forced to investigate the question. The commission maintained that the production of paper was "vested with a public interest," and on June 13, 1917, It recommended governmental control of the production of print and book paper and that the Government of Canada be asked to cooperate with the United States in a simi- lar control. In case the Canadian Government should refuse this cooperation, the commission reconmiended that exportation of paper and paper materials from Canada to this country should be made only through Federal agencies. Some months earlier the Government had instituted a suit under the Sher- man act against the so-called paper trust, and the recent set- tlement (Nov. 26, 1917) of this matter, by an agreement with the manufacturers of news print paper dominating their in- dustry in this country and Canada, puts the paper situation on a secure basis. This agreement compels the dissolution of the trust, and provides that the Government shall fix manufac- turers' maximum prices for the duration of the war and three months thereafter. Paper Blockade. One in which a belliger-ent declares an enemy coast line to be blockaded, but does not station a naval force to prevent access to such coast line according to the recog- nized usage of visit and search. Such paper blockades were for- bidden by the Declaration of Paris, 1856: "A blockade to be binding must be effective." See Blockade; Declaration of Paris. Parole. "A formalpromise or pledge given by a prisoner of war that he will not try to escape if allowed to go about at liberty. ... In civilized warfare the breaking of parole is re- garded as an infamous transgression, and an officer so offending may not expect quarter should he again fall into the hands of the enemy." (Century Dictionary.) During the present war many German officers have broken their parole both in this and other countries. The most noteworthy examples in this country are furnished by the officers of the Eitel Friedrich and Kron- prinz WUhelm. The former vessel took refuge in a United States port on March 10, 1915. The captain was directed to allow none of his officers or crew on shore and promised not to do so. One week later the executive officer, Lieut. Brauer, left the ship and returned to Germany, where he received a new command. It is not possible to state how many other officers left in spite of the captain's promise. On April 13 the Eitel Friedridh was interned, and Capt. Thierichens gave a written pledge for himself, his officers, and his crew. On April 5 the captain of the Kronprinz Wilhelm had given a similar written pledge. The officers of the two vessels, being on parole, were allowed great liberty. A large proportion of them, including Nolte, Hoffman, Eudebusch, Forstreuter, Biermann, Lustvelt, Kreber, Kroneck, and Koch, broke their parole and fled from the United States. It is not possible to state how many did so, as the captains at first refused to give to the United States authorities any list of their officers or crew, and when an officer WAK CYCLOPEDIA. 207 disappeared either reported his absence too late for his ap- prehension or not at all. When it was proposed to photo- graph the members of the crew in order to make their es- cape more difficult, Count Bernstorff asked that they might " be spared the humiliation," and attempted to gloss over their breaches of faith by stating that they were " inspired by pa- triotic motives." When the German Imperial naval authorities at Berlin had their attention called to the violations of parole, they also condoned them by stating that the pledge given by the German captains " does not conform absolutely to the idea of word of honor." One of our admirals fittingly characterlized the position taken by the German Government as " perfectly preposterous; that the parole given in this case was regarded as most sacred and would be so regarded in other countries." See German Diplomacy ; Hague and Geneva Conventions, Ger- man Violations. Pasitch, Mcholas P. Premier of Serbia, who has held office since September, 1912. He piloted Serbia successfully through the Balkan wars, and during the vicissitudes of the gallant little nation since the Austro-German-Bulgarian conquest (November, 1915) the venerable Premier has been a constant inspiration to his people. Passports. A passport serves to establish the Identity of a traveler and is given him in order to recommend him to the pro- tection of the authorities of the district or country to which he is proceeding and to facilitate his journey. It is rigorously required in time of war and by certain countries, like Turkey, even in times of peace. It is obtained in the United States by making application through designated officials, notaries public, or at the Passport Bureau of the Department of State. The conditions under which it is issued in time of war are most exacting and vary from time to time. An American citizen is not entitled to a passport as a matter of right. The State De- partment may properly decline to extend the protection of a passport to certain individuals and for certain objects. For example, an alien who has merely declared his intention to be- come an American citizen may well be denied a passport for use in the country of his birth. Passports are for limited periods, though they may be renewed. By the order of July 26, 1917, issued by the Departments of State and Labor, every person leaving a foreign country for the United States, except persons starting from Canada, must, be- fore entering the United States, present a valid passport or equivalent document, satisfactorily establishing his identity and nationality, with a signed and certified photograph of the bearer attached; and such passport must have been visfid by an American consul or authorized diplomatic officer of the United States, in the country from which the journey to the United States started. In the case of aliens, moreover, the passport must be accompanied by a personal history of the bearer. Passports, German Frauds. In 1914, when thousands of Americans were hastening to leave Germany, several passports were sent by the American embassy at Berlin to the German 208 WAR CTCLOPEDIA. Foreign Office for the necessary vis6s. One of these was sent by the German Foreign Office to the German Admiralty, and by the latter given to Carl Hans Lody, a German spy, who succeeded in entering England with it, and was afterwards apprehended, tried, and executed. Another German, Robert Rosenthal, went to one of the American consulates in Switzer- land, registered as an American citizen under an assumed American name, obtained a certificate of registration, and with it proceeded to France, where he was arrested and convicted as a spy and afterwards executed. In another case a passport, which had been properly issued to an American citizen, after- wards was found in the hands of a German spy in Scotland. The notorious von Rintelen, von der Goltz, Hans Boehm, and Anton Kupferle were also involved in attempts to defraud our State Department in this way. Immediately after the first passport frauds had been discovered the passport regulations, which had been in effect for many years, were amended and made much more strict, and there have been few cases in the past two years in which passports have been fraudulently pro- cured from this Government. The German authorities, having discovered the difficulty in obtaining genuine American pass- ports through fraud, began to furnish their spies with counter- feit passports. These counterfeits were good reproductions of the American passport and the differences would not be ordi- narily detected. At least three German spies bearing these counterfeit passports, of which there are several manufactories, were arrested in England and two in Switzerland. See German Diplomacy ; Intrigue. Patents, Copyrights, and Trade-Marks, Status of Enemy. Patents, copyrights, etc., owned by Germans or by allies of Germany, may be used by American manufacturers during the war by special license from the President and under such conditions as he may prescribe. The applicant for such a license must furnish guaranties that he is able and intends in good faith to use his privilege ; he also must pay a minimum fee of $100 and 1 per cent of a deposit of 5 per cent of the gross receipts derived from his use of the license. In the case of articles and products necessary to the health of the military and naval forces of the United States or the successful prose- cution of the' war the President may fix prices. Within one year after the close of the war the enemy owner of the patent, copyright, or trade-marli may recover payment in a district court of the United States of a reasonable royalty from the licensee. The sum thus recovered will come from the deposit above mentioned, which thus constitutes a trust fund in the Treasury of _the United States for the benefit of the enemy owner. See AUen Property Custodian; Trading with the Enemy Act. " Pay as You Go " War. The financial measures voted by Congress in 1917 provide for a proportion of taxes to loans equal to that reached by any of the European governments and in excess of anything attempted in the CivU War. But while WAR OTCLOPEDIA. 209 " pay as you go " is an excellent motto for governments, it Is not always desirable to apply it too rigorously. A nation en- gaged in a gigantic struggle like the present should certainly not be willing to limit its efEorts to what may be paid for from cur- rent revenues. Neither, on the other hand, should it force up its tax rate unduly. For so long as government does not produce the things needed by itself and society, private capital must do the work, and this it neither will nor can do if it is too fiercely " conscripted." This would be the case at any time, but it is especially so in war time, when much new and costly machinery has to be provided for the production of unusual things. We are raising about 33 per cent of war expenditures by taxes ; and England and France have adopted similar policies. Germany has laid little in the way of additional war taxes, for she blithely planned a short war and heavy indemnities from France and other territory to be conquered. Now, her leaders hardly dare confess the fading of that hope by laying taxes on their own people, from whom they have demanded such sacrifices in men and money. A recent German writer, attacking the financial fool's paradise raised by the German Government, points out that if Germany were to tax in order to pay her present debt it would take everything above an income of $750 a year. See Acts of Con- gress; "Rich Man's War, Poor Man's Fight"; War Finance; War Loans, German; War Tax on Excess Profits; War Tax on Incomes; etc. . Peace Overtures, German, 1916. Germany, through the neutral nations, proposed peace negotiation with the Entente December 12, 1916. Dwelling upon the ruin with which Europe was threatened, the note pointed out the favorable military situa- tion of the Central Powers, but failed to state any definite terms of peace. Also, the note attempted to throw upon the Entente the responsibility of continuing the war. In an explanatory note to the Pope the German Government maintained that it had been forced into a war of defense, an assertion that was repeated in a supplementary statement by Austria-Hungary. In reply to these overtures, and supported by the more important Allies, Mr. Lloyd George declared that the minimum conditions of the En- tente included complete restitution of all territory, full repara- tion for damages, and effective guarantees of security against Prussian militarism. These terms were repeated in a joint reply of the 10 Entente AUies from -Paris, December 30, 1916, which, maintaining that Germany and Austria-Hungary had pro- voked the war, rejected the peace overtures as intended to impose a " German " peace and to sow dissensions among themselves. This reply ended all hope for peace negotiations at that time. See Disarmament; German Military Dominance; Permanent Peace. Peace Overtures, Papal. In August, 1917, Pope Benedict XV invited the belligerent nations to make peace upon bases which he suggested. Advocating a decrease in armament, interna- tional arbitration, and freedom of the seas, he proposed re- ciprocal renunciation of indemnities to cover the damages and 15963°— 18 14 210 WAR CTCLOPEDIA. cost of the war. He favored restitution of occupied territory, and advanced Indefinite proposals regarding other delicate terri- torial questions. A supplementary statement pointed out that the Pope assumed the rSle of peacemaker, not of judge. Presi- dent Wilson summarized the Pope's proposals as foUovi's: " His Holiness in substance proposes that we return to the status quo ante helium, and that then there be a general condonation, disarmament, and a concert of nations based upon an accept- ance of the principle of arbitration; that by a similar concert freedom of the seas be established; and that the territorial claims of France and Italy, the perplexing problems of the Balkan States, and the restitution of Poland be left to such conciliatory adjustments as may be possible in the nerw temper of such a peace, due regard being paid to the aspirations of the peoples whose political fortunes and aflBliations vs^ill be involved." (American reply to the Pope.) Peace Terms, American. The President's reply to the Pope, August 27, 1917, forcibly stated the aim of the United States to free the world from the menace of Prussian militarism con- trolled by an arrogant and faithless autocracy. Distinguishing between the German rulers and the people. President Wilson asserted that the United States would willingly negotiate with a government subject to the popular will. The note disavowed any intention to dismember countries or to impose unfair economic conditions. " Responsible statesmen myst now every- where see, if they never saw before, that no peace can rest securely upon political or economic restrictions meant to benefit some nations and cripple or embarrass others, upon vin- dictive action of any sort, or any kind of revenge or deliberate injury. The American people have suffered intolerable wrongs at the hands of the Imperial German Government, but they desire no reprisal upon the German people, who have themselves suffered aU things in this war, which they did not choose. They believe that peace should rest upon the rights of peoples, not the rights of Governments — the rights of peoples, great or small, weak or powerful — their equal right to freedom and security and self- government and to a participation upon fair terms in the eco- nomic opportunities of the world, the German people, of course, included, If they will accept equality and not seek domination." (American reply to the Pope.) See Permanent Peace; "Status quo ante bellum." Peace Terms, German Industrialists on. A petition was presented to the Chancellor May 20, 1915, from six of the great Industrial and agricultural associations which represent power- ful and widely spread interests in Germany. They urged that Belgium should be subject to Germany in " military and tariff matters, as well as in currency, banking, and post." Northern France as far as the river Somme should also be annexed for " our future position at sea," and the industrial establishments In the annexed territories be transferred to German hands. From Russia part of the Baltic Provinces and the territories to the south should be taken. The necessity of new agricul- tural territory, of new mining and industrial districts, especially WAR CYCLOPEDIA. 211 of the coal and Iron of Belgium and northern France, were emphasized. See " Conquest and Kultur ";" No Annexations, no Indemnities." Peace Terms, German Opinion as to. Nearly all exponents of public opinion in Germany, save the Social Democrats, advo- cate large additions to the German Empire as a result of the war. Most wish parts of northern Prance, where there is coal and iron, all of Belgium, and the conquered part of Russia, which includes rich agricultural territory and the greatest manufacturing region. There is another school, however — a comparatively small group — ^who fear that Germany will make lasting enemies by such a peace, and who hope that Germany's gains will be in a colonial empire. They propose that the Congo be taken from Belgium, Morocco from France, and vari- ous Islands from Portugal. Both those who wish territories from Germany's neighbors and those who wish colonies agree on the importance of the route to the southeast. Germany must control the lands as far as the Persian Gulf and, if possi- ble, Persia. " Berlin-Bombay " is the dream of one Pan-German. See " Berlin to Bagdad." Peace Terms, German Professors on. Their views are set forth in a petition adopted on June 20, 1915, and signed by 1,341 important men in Germany, including 352 professors, 158 educators and clergymen, 145 high officials, mayors and munici- pal officials, 148 judges and lawyers, 252 painters, writers, and publishers. It advocated the annexation of the whole eastern part of France, from Belfort to the coast, and the transfer of the business undertakings and estates to German ownership. Belgium was to be held and the inhabitants allowed no political influence In the Empire. The occupied part of Russia was to be retained and the land turned over to Germany. Egypt was to be taken from England. As to indemnities, "we ought not to hesitate to impose upon France as much as possible." See " No Annexations, no Indemnities." Peace Terms, Lincoln's View of. " The manner of continu- ing the effort remains to choose. On careful consideration of all the evidence accessible, it seems to me that no attempt at negotiation with the insurgent leader could result in any good. He would accept nothing short of severance of the Union, pre- cisely what we will not and can not give. . . . Between him and us the issue is distinct, simple, and inflexible. It is an issue which can only be tried by war and decided by victory. If we yield we are beaten ; if the southern people fail him he is beaten. Either way it would be the victory and defeat follow- ing war. . . . They can at any moment have peace simply by laying down their arms and submitting to the national author- ity. . . . The war will cease on the part of the Government whenever it shall have ceased on the part of those who began it." (Annual message of December, 1864.) Peace Treaties. The United States has concluded about 30 peace treaties, negotiated by Secretary of State Bryan. They are modeled upon one central idea, which is embodied 212 WAR GTCLOPEDIA. in the opening article of each, as follows : " The high contracting parties agree that all disputes between them, of every nature whatsoever, shall, when diplomatic methods of adjustment have failed, be referred for investigation and report to a perma- nent international commission to be constituted [by the con- tracting parties], . . . and agree not to declare war or begin hostilities during such investigation and before the report is submitted." Before the outbreals of the European war, 35 nations had accepted this plan " in principle " and 30 treaties had been signed, of which 28 had been ratified before the end of the year. The 30 nations referred to included Great Britain, France, Russia, and Italy. Germany approved the plan in principle while avoiding all definite arrangements, an attitude growing out of her general opposition to arbitration or any means of settling disputes except by private negotiations or force. See Arbitration, German Attitude; Disarmament, Ger- man Attitude. Peace with Honor. " Not a man or woman would wish peace at the expense of the honor of the United States." " There is a price which is too great to pay for peace. . . . One can not pay the price of self-respect ... of duties abdicated." (President Wilson at Des Moines, Feb. 1, 1916. ) " The right is more precious than peace." (Before Congress, Apr. 2, 1917.) Permanent Peace, American Duty. " It is nothing less than this, to add their authority and their power to the au- thority and force of other nations to guarantee peace and justice throughout the world." (President Wilson to the Sen- ate, Jan. 22, 1917.) Permanent Peace, American Plan. On January 22, 1917, before the United States entered the war. President Wilson, in an address to the Senate, set forth the principles which should govern any peace with which the United States could associate itself, and be true to its noblest ideals and traditions. These principles of a peace Avorth guaranteeing are as follows: (1) Equality of rights as between nations. (Not to be based on old balance of power.) (2) Recognition of the principle that Governments derive their just power from the consent of the governed. (3) The right of all great peoples to a direct outlet to the sea, by territorial readjustments or neutralizations. (4) The freedom of the seas in practically all circumstances. (5) The limitations of armaments on land and sea. (6) No nation to attempt to extend its policy over any other nation or people. (7) A concert of nations to guarantee peace and the rights of all nations. A world organized for peace, not for war. No entangling alliances creating a competition for power, but a concert for peace. " These," the President concluded, " are American principles, American policies. . . . They are also the principles and policies of forward-looliing men and women every- where, of every modern nation, and of every enlightened com- munity." See Aims of the United States; Balance of Power; League to Enforce Peace. Permanent Peace, Relation of the New World to. "No covenant of cooperative peace that does not Include the peoples WAH CTCLOPEDIA. 213 of the New World can suffice to keep the future safe against war, and yet there is only one sort of peace that the peoples of America could join in guaranteeing." It must be " a peace worth guaranteeing, a peace that will win the approval of man- kind, not merely a peace that will serve the several interests and immediate ends of the nations engaged." (President Wil- son to the Senate, Jan. 22, 1917.) Permanent Peace, Sanction of. " Mere agreements may not make peace secure. ... If the peace presently to be made Is to endure, it must be made secure by the organized major force of mankind. The terms of the immediate peace agreed upon will determine whether it is a peace for which such a guaranty can be secured. The question upon which the wliole future .peace and policy of the world depends is this : Is the present war a struggle for a just and secure peace or only a new balance of power? If it be only a struggle for a new balance of power, who will guarantee, who can guarantee, the stable equilibrium of the new arrangement? Only a tranquil Europe can be a stable Europe. There must be, not a balance of power, but a community of power ; not organized rivalries, but an organized common peace." (President Wilson, to the Senate, Jan. 22, 1917.) Persia. A monarchy in western Asia, with an area of 628,000 square miles and a population of 9,500,000. The capital is Teheran. The reigning Shah, Sultan Ahmad Shak, ascended the throne on July 16, 1909, after the abdication of his father Mohammed All. The history of Persia has been disturbed of recent years, owing to the corruption and inefficiency of the old autocratic system and the rivalry of foreign interests. A con- stitution was established in 1906, and since then conditions have improved somewhat, although both Great Britain and Russia have interfered to protect their nationals. By the Anglo- Russian convention of August 31, 1907, Persia was divided into spheres of influence between the two powers, and this fact has been dominant in recent developments. Persia is not for- mally involved in the war, but the Germans and Turks have in- trigued desperately against the dominant powers, as a result of which British and Russian troops have been sent into the country. At present the Allies hold the upper hand. Peter 1(1844— ) . King of Serbia since June 15, 1903. A member of the Karageorgevitch family, he ascended the throne as the result of a palace revolution, in which the rival dynasty, the Obrenovitch, was exterminated. Owing to his feeble health in recent years. King Peter has practically abdicated, and the Crown Prince Alexander has acted as regent. P^tain, Gen. Henri Philippe. The commander in chief of the French armies. He came to the position held and made famous by Marshal Joffre, after a brief incumbency of it by Gen. Nivelle, in the spring of 1917. Like Nivelle, who had been pro- moted, in a sense, over his head, he is one of the heroes of Verdun. He had seen service in Madagascar and other parts of the French colonial empire, and when the war broke out 214 WAR CYCLOPEDIA. had gone into retirement wltli a colonel's rank in a 4ittle vil- lage in the south of France. Joffre ordered him to Alsace and his advancement since is known to all the world. Personally he is an eccentric man, both in appearance and habit, facts which have earlier militated against his promotion. He is long-limbed and overgrown and is given to many odd, simple, and boyish amusements. He enjoys a reputation as an un- erring strategist and has pointed out many of the mistaken tactical maneuvers of the present war. Petrograd. Formerly St. Petersburg; the capital of Kussia, situated near the Baltic in the northwest corner of the State. Population (1912) 2,018,596. Founded by Peter the Great in 1703, Petrograd has always been the city of the aristocracy and bureaucracy and is said to be less Russian than any otlien city in Russia. It has been hinted that, in view of this fact, a removal of the capital of the republic to Moscow may be made. Petrograd became also the center of extreme radicalism in Russia, and it was there that the revolutions of March and November, 1917, started. See BolsheviM; Councils of Workmen's and Soldiers' Delegates; Lenine; Russian Revolution of 1917. Petroleum. There has been a continuous increase in the production of petroleum since the outbreak of the war. In 1916 the production reached 12,276,600,000 gallons. This will be increased in 1917. The war demands abroad have led to in- creasing exports of petroleum since 1914. For the fiscal year of 1914-15 the exports were 2,187,340,610 gallons, for 1915-16, 2,443,478,083 gallons, and for 1916-17, 2,697,056,112 gallons. The domestic demand has also Increased rapidly, so that al- though the number of wells in operation at present is almost three times that of 1915 the supply of gasoline and petroleum products is scarcely adequate to fill the enormous demand. Piave. A river of considerable size in northern Italy, on which the Italian army took its stand in November, 1917, fol- lowing the retreat from the Isonzo. The Piave rises in the Carnic Alps and for half its course flows southeast between the Dolomites and the Venetian Alps, then bends in an abrupt right angle to the southeast across the plain to the Gulf of Venetia. Its volume varies with the seasons, and near the gulf it flows through marshes. It was on the lower course of the river that the Italian army made its stand, the line turning west to the valley of the Brenta at the point where the Piave makes its great bend. Pillage. Article XLVII of The Hague Regulations reads, " Pillage is formally forbidden," and even the German War Book declares that " it is not plundering but downright burglary If a man pilfers things out of uninhabited houses." There are many well-supported instances, however, of such " downright burglary " even by German commanders. Prof. Vernon Kellogg, who spent several months at the " great headquarters " of the German army in the west in connection with work of the Commission for Relief in Belgium, writes : " Where the villageri, and peasants had tried to save something that could be buried WAR CYCLOPEDIA. 215 or concealed the searching out of these pitiful hiding places be- came a great game with the German soldiers. One ingenious Frenchman had secreted a few choice bottles of wide in a famous tomb on heights about the Meuse. But these bottles found their way to special tables at the ' great headquarters.' " Worse still was the whplesale looting of safes and strong boxes and the carting off by German officers of pictures, pianos, sew- ing machines, and furniture, not only from Belgium and north- ern France but from Poland as well. See Belgium, Economic Destruction; Family Honor and Rights; German War Practices. " PiU-boxes." Trench warfare has recently been modified by a system of defense resorted to by the Germans in Flandeiis, in which steel and concrete turrets are connected by scraps of trenches and barbed-wire entanglements and ofCer greater re- sistance to barrage fire than do the open trenches. The trans- portation of the materials for their construction from Dutch ports has precipitated a controversy between Holland and Great Britain. See Trench Warfare. Pins X. Pope, 1903-1914. He died on August 20, 1914, aged 79. His death is reported to have been hastened by the outbreak of the great war. On August 19 he issued an ineffectual appeal for peace. See Benedict XV. " Place in the Sun." A phrase used by William II on June 18, 1901, at Hamburg, in referring to Germany's acquisition of the Chinese harbor at Kiaochow and other valuable com- mercial concessions In China. " In spite of the fact that we have no such fleet as we should have, we have conquered for ourselves a place in the sun. It will now be my place to see to it that this place in the sun shall remain our undisputed possession, in order that the sun's rays may fall fruitfully upon our activity and trade in foreign parts." This expression " a place in the sun " was speedily taken up as a slogan by the Pan-German party, which advocated a bigger navy, more col- onies, and an aggressive policy of colonial expansion. " It is only by relying on our good German sword that we can hope to conquer that place in the sun which rightly belongs to us, and which no one will yield to us voluntarily. . . . Till the world comes to an end, the ultimate decision must rest with the sword." (Extract from the Crown Prince's introduction to Germany in Arms, issued in 1913.) The Kaiser had said in 1900 : " I shall carry through to its completion the work of re- organizing my navy in order that it may stand justified at the Bide of my -army, and that through it the German Empire may also be in a position to win outwardly the place which she has not yet attained." See "Hun"; "Kultur"; Pan-Germanism; "Mittel-Eiiropa." Plattsburg. The most widely known and the oldest of the officers' training camps. " The Plattsburg idea," which originated with Maj. Gen. Leonard Wood and was put into effect by him in 1915, was to provide civilian volunteers with sufficient train- ing to enable them to become officers, after a minimum of addi- tional training, in case a pressing need of officers should arise. 216 WAR CYCLOPEDIA. " Plattsburg " also had a considerable value as a form of pre- paredness propaganda. Plattsburg Is in New York, on Lake Champlaln, near the Canadian line. A regular army post has long been located there. See Offlcers' Training Camps. " Poilu." The word used affectionately by the French people to designate their soldiers in the present war. The term comes from the French word poil, meaning hair, especially the hair or fur of animals or the hair or beard of man. Hence it is commonly supposed that the term poilu came to be applied to the French soldiers because when they were in the trenches they did not shave, as the British soldiers did. The French soldier was homme poilu, bearded man. Far from being a term of reproach, however, the term would naturally signify courage, particularly since the French phrase irave d trois polls is an idiomatic expression meaning a man of known courage. Poincar^, Raymond (1860— ). President of France Since January 17, 1913. Born at Bar-le-Duc, in French Lor- raine. Lawyer (advocate at the court of Paris) and writer. Elected to the Chamber of Deputies at the age of 27, he was 30 before he made his first speech (in defense of the budget). In 1893 he became Minister of Public Instruction ; 1894, of Finance ; 1895, of Public Instruction ; 1896, of Finance ; he re- fused four other offers of ministries. He was elected senator, 1903, and was finally appointed Prime Minister and Minister for Foreign Affairs, 1912, which office be held until elected Presl- Ident. He has written many books, among others How France Is Governed (1913). His course has been marked by modera- tion, so that he has been opposed by the socialists, to whom he seems a conservative. He is a man of prudence and ability, who ha.s taken a more active part in affairs than Is usual with a French President. Poison. Article XXIII of The Hague Regulations says : " It is especially forbidden to employ poison or poisoned weapons." In February, 1915, Gen. Botha, in command of the British forces operating in German Southwest Africa, charged the German forces with having poisoned six wells- at Swakop- mund. In the ensuing correspondence the German authorities admitted having employed " kopper dip " in " isolated instances " to render wells " temporarily unfit for use," but explained that they had left notices in each case of what had been done; and, the German commander continued, poisoning means " secretly adding matter . . . injurious to the health of human beings." Gen. Botha's answer was that in no case were such notices found, and that poisoning had been avoided only through the precaution of a chemical analysis of the contents of the wells in question, which in each instance had revealed the presence of arsenic. See Assassination; Forbidden Weapons; Roumania, German Treachery in. Poland. A country formerly larger than the present German Empire, which extended in its widest frontiers over the regions south of the Baltic Sea between the Oder and the Dwina rivers. The Vistula is its principal channel of communication. For WAR CYCLOPEDIA. 217 centuries the Poles were a dominant nation over the many Slavic peoples of those parts. At an early date the Poles em- braced the Catholic faith, which they still hold In distinction from the Orthodox Church of the Russians and Protestantism of Germany. Without natural barriers Poland has been exposed to the attacks of Kussia on the one side and Germany on the other. The doom of Poland was sealed by its aggressive neighbors, especially Catherine II of Russia, Frederick II of Prussia, and Maria Theresa of Austria, who, instead of quarreling over the spoils, agreed to join in its dismemberment. By three successive partitions, in 1772, 1793, and 1795, the territories of Poland were thus entirely carved up, Lithuania going to Russia, Posen and West Prussia to Prussia, and Galicia to Austria. The Congress of Vienna in 1815 redivided Poland and assigned the greater part to Russia. Twice during the nineteenth century, in 1830 and in 1863, the Russian Poles rebelled, in the hope of securing independence, but their efforts were unsuccessful. Poland, Autonomy. An ideal fostered by the Poles in the nineteenth century for the recovery of a measure of their na- tional independence. The persecution of the Poles by the Rus- sian bureaucracy, as carried into their law, religion, and public schools, has been overmatched only by the sterner tyranny of Prussia in her Polish provinces. On the other hand, because of the heterogeneous character of the Austrian Empire, the Poles of Galicia have been permitted to retain their national customs in greater degree than elsewhere. In the Russian Duma the Polish National Democratic party has been a power In pro- moting the national cause against the forces of Pan-Slavism. After the outbreak of the war the idea was given a sudden and dramatic impulse by a proclamation of the Russian commander, the Grand Duke Nicholas, declaring : " Poles, the time has come when the dream of your fathers will be realized," and promising . the autonomy of Poland " under the scepter of the Russian Emperor, free in faith, in language, and self-government." The eastward advance of the German armies was followed by a joint proclamation of the two Teutonic Emperors, November 5. 1916, solemnly guaranteeing the reestablishment of the kingdom of Poland. But no effective steps for the establishment of a Polish national government were taken until September, 1917, and meanwhile there has been talk of a partition of Russian Poland to the advantage of Germany and Austria. The Pro- visional Government of the Russian Republic has promised in- dependence to Poland. Like Belgium, therefore, Poland's fate, whether it is to be revived and free, or again enslaved, de- pends on the outcome of the war. See Autonomy ; Military Oc- cupation. Poland, Weakness. The greatest weakness of the eighteenth century " Republic of Poland " came less from external enemies than from the faulty social and political structure of the State. An aristocracy, consisting of a number of great nobles who ranked as princes and a turbulent gentry which took the place of a middle class, was unduly exalted. The serfs were reduced 218 WAR CYCLOPEDIA. to the lowest position of any in Europe. The monarchy, to ■which not the strongest man but often the weakest man was chosen, declined. The Diet, or Parliament, which elected the King, refused to grant the revenues and armies necessary for the public defense. A peculiar privilege, known as the liberum veto, by which any measure could be defeated by a single ob- jecting voice, brought the legislature, as well as the monarchy, to a ridiculous state of impotence. "The road to Warsaw" became a byword In Europe for the course of a kingdom going to destruction. Police Power. The power of government to provide for the general welfare. The appearance of this concept in American constitutional law was an event of greatest significance. At the beginning of our national history, the great test of the validity of legislation was Its operation upon private rights. With the appearance of the doctrine of the police power, the primary test became public utility ; and to-day the courts will, generally speaking, sustain any legislation which is reasonably calculated to promote the general welfare, if there is no other objection to it except its effect on private rights. More recently, the doctrine of the police power has undergone another great de- velopment. Once this power was regarded as belonging exclu- sively to the States, but it is recognized to-day that the Na- tional Government too may, and should, exercise its powers in a way to promote all the great ends of good government. As the Supreme Court has said : " Our dual form of government has its perplexities, State and Nation having different spheres of jurisdiction, . . . but it must be kept in mind that we are one people; and the powers reserved to the States and those con- ferred on the Nation are adapted to be exercised, whether inde- pendently or concurrently, to promote the general welfare, ma- terial and moral" (227 U. S. 322). Not jealousy but coopera- tion, in the tasks both of war and of peace, is the maxim to-day of our Federal system. See Due Process of Law; War Powers. Pork. Of our corn supply 86.3 per cent is utilized for animals for market, chiefly for swine. The year's receipts of hogs at the leading western markets to September 1, 1917, have declined 65.7 per cent from the figure for a corresponding period in 1916. Exports of hog products have decreased less rapidly, falling from 1,520,431,895 pounds in 1915 to 1,495,067,362 pounds in 1916-17. Pork products in storage July 1, 1917, were seriously shorter than those on July 1, 1916, but showed a relative in- crease in the following month. Prices have shown the pres- sure of demand upon a shortened supply, the price of hogs per 100 pounds being $16.30 on July 28, 1917, as compared with an average price of $9.60 in 1916, and $8.30 in 1914. Bacon at wholesale has Increased from $0.13 per pound in 1914 to $0.19. Retail prices have advanced at about the same proportion. The present pork situation is complicated by the enormous demand for fats which are used for munitions as well as in foods. The extravagant consumption of fats in this country must be curtailed, and as much pork as possible must be liber- WAR CYCLOPEDIA. 219 ated for the support of the Allied armies and civilian popula- tions abroad. See Meat Supply. Portugal. A republic on the western coast of the Iberian Peninsula. Lisbon is the capital. The population was 5,960,056 in 1911. On October 5, 1910, the monarchy was overthrown, and the constitution of August 21, 1911, provided for a republican government with an elective President. At the outbreak of the war Portugal proclaimed her willingness to fulfill her treaty of alliance with Great Britain and pro- vide 10,000 troops upon request, but Great Britain made no such request. On February 23-25, 1916, Portugal requisitioned 294 German and Austrian vessels in her harbors ; whereupon Ger- many declared war, March 8, 1916. December 7-9, 1917, President Macado and Premier Almeira, who supported the Allies, were overthrown after three days' fighting by a revolu- tion headed by the former Portuguese ambassador to Germany, Dr. Sidonio Paes. Potatoes. The white potato crop is estimated at 442,536,000 bushels for 1917. This is well above the five-year average of 363,000,000 bushels. A shortage of about 78,000,000 bushels in the 1916 crop caused a sharp increase in prices during 1917. There was some suspicion that this shortage was complicated by the practices of speculators. The concerted action of farmers and the patriotic effort of private individuals in war gardens have done much to cause the present satisfactory output. The increased production was widely distributed, few States re- maining stationary in their yields, and only three — ICansas, Louisiana, and Oregon — ijroducing less than in 1916. Ohio, Illi- nois, Indiana, Iowa, and Wisconsin, all normally good producing areas, tripled their yields. New Hampshire, Rhode Island, Ala- bama, and Arizona did likewise, but their potato crops are nor- mally inconsiderable. Exports in potatoes have been forced to decline for the fiscal year from 4,017,760 in 1916 to 2,489,001 bushels in 1917. The increased price, however, has given a higher value to the decreased exports of the latter year. Sweet potatoes show a small increase over the yield of 1916. "Potsdam Conference." It is asserted that the German Government chose its own time to begin the war, and that on July 5, 1914, a conference of German and Austrian dignitaries at Potsdam determined to use the Serajevo murder as a pretext to crush Serbia. This is ofiicially denied in Berlin, but (1) a deputy referred to it openly in the Reichstag recently, (2) a Dutch journalist declares he reported it at the time, (3) the Italian ambassador at Constantinople asserts he heard it from the German ambassador there who attended the conference, and (4) the same Italian ambassador told it to an American diplomat, who recorded it in his diary, and finally, (5) Mr. Henry Morgenthau, then American ambassador to Turkey, ex- plicitly states that the German ambassador there told him about it. Germany has nevertheless maintained that she was ignorant of the terms of the ultimatum to Serbia until too late to influence them. In the face of this, however, Zimmermann 220 WAR CYCLOPEDIA. recently admitted "that we did have the ultimatum in our hands 14 hours before it was sent to the Serbian Govern- ment . . . but . . . the die had been cast." See " Der Tag"; Grey and British Policy, 19 H; Nicholas II, Efforts to Maintain Peace; Serhia, Austrian Ultimatum; War, Responsibility for. President, Control of Foreign Relations. The President is the sole organ of intercourse with foreign nations. He receives ambassadors and other public ministers, nominates the diplo- matic representatives of this country, recognizes new States and Governments, and negotiates all treaties. But before a treaty can be " made " it must receive the consent of the Sen- ate, " two-thirds of the Senators present concurring," while all diplomatic appointments are also subject to its veto. More- over, the power of declaring war belongs to Congress, which also controls the purse. As Jefferson put it, " the transaction of business with foreign nations is executive altogether," but it is nevertheless subject to very effective control. " The Presi- dent by himself is nothing. The President is what the Ameri- can Nation sustains." (President Wilson, to Methodist Church conference, Baltimore, Mar. 25, 1915.) President, War Powers. The President is Commander in Chief of the Army and Navy. His powers as such are pri- marily those of military command and include, of course, the right to dispose the national forces where they can be used to best advantage. In the War of 1812, in the Mexican War, in the Spanish War, in the Boxer rebellion, and recently in Mex- ico, American troops were sent to fight on foreign soil. In the words of Chief Justice Taney, the President as Commander in Chief is " authorized to employ " the military and naval forces of the United States " in the manner he may deem most effec- tual to harass and conquer and subdue the enemy " ; or, as Justice Hughes phrased it in his recent address before the American Bar Association : " There is no doubt of the consti- tutional authority to employ our forces on the battlefields of Europe in the war that we are now waging for the safety of the United States and to conquer an enduring peace that the liberties of free peoples throughout the world may forever be secured from the aggressions of unscruptUous military power." See War Po^oers. Press Associations. Although many of the larger news- papers maintain their own correspondents in Europe, the ma- jority depend for their information \ipon one of the two great news agencies, the Associated Press and the United Press. The former is a cooperative organization of some 900 news- papers, and delivers its service only to these papers. The latter, on the contrary, sells its service to any papers desiring it. The Associated Press supplies most of the morning news- paper.? ; the United Press is an afternoon and Sunday news service. Each association has connections with European news agencies. Both the associations have placed their services at the disposal of the Government and furnish it with any valuable information that they may secure, whether it is published or WAK CTCLOPEDIA. 221 not. Both, of course, have submitted to the voluntary censorship imposed- early In the war and have cooperated In every v^ay. Press Associations, Foreign. The chief European press associations, corresponding to the Associated Press and the United Press of this country, are : In Great Britain, Renter's and the Exchange Telegraph Co. ; In France, the Havas Agency ; In Italy, the Stefanl Agency ; in Germany, the Wolff Telegraph Bureau (semloflBclal) and the Overseas News Agency (official), the latter established since the beginning of the war. Keuter's controls the news services of the Far East, and the (Havas) Agency those of South America and the Levant. See News- papers; Trading with the Enemy Act. Press, Foreign lianguage. Under the trading with the enemy act the Postmaster General administers the provisions requiring the foreign-language press to file translations of its utterances upon " the Government of the United States or of any nation engaged in the present war, its policies, international relations, the state or conduct of the war, or any matter re- lating thereto," unless released from this requirement by presi- dential license, which may be revoked at any time. See Espion- age Act; Mails, Exclusion from; Trading with the Enemy Act. Price Fixing in Australia. At the outset of the war in 1914 all the Australian States except Tasmania passed acts creating tribunals with authority to fix maximum prices in the case of " necessary commodities," or even to commandeer the same. In 1915 the war-precautions act was passed by the Fed- eral parliament vesting the ministry of the Commonwealth with full power to meet " any emergency arising out of the war." On the basis of this general delegation of authority the minis- try, early in 1916, created a Commonwealth prices adjusting board, with powers similar to those of the State boards. These measures were designed primarily to protect the consumer, but the producer's interest was not Ignored. To meet an impend- ing crisis, caused by the glutting of the Australian wheat mar- ket on account of the interruption of transport to England, a most extensive and highly successful scheme of State marketing and distribution was put into operation by the Australian Gov- ernment during the years 1915-1917, to handle two great wheat harvests, which amounted in all to nearly 10,000,000 tons. At the same time the Victoria Government took over th^ hay crop. Tasmania adopted similar measures in the interest of her mine owners. See Food Control; Fuel Control. Prices. For the past 10 years prices have been steadily ris- ing. The general upward tendency was temporarily checked in 1914 by the outbreak of the war, except in the cases of those articles for which the war gave an Immediate increased demand. By the midsummer of 1915 the upward movement was resumed. Wholesale prices of the most important commodities in June, 1916, showed an increase over those of June, 1914, of from 50 to 400 per cent. Retail prices fully kept pace with the rise in wholesale schedules. In 1917 prices have risen alarmingly. Wheat, corn, rye, and cotton have more than doubled from 222 WAR CYCLOPEDIA. August 1, 1916, to August 1, 1917. The chief causes of this have been summarized as (1) increased foreign demand, (2) domestic hoarding, (3) speculation, and (4) cooperation of the sellers to push prices. Each rise in food prices has been used as an excuse for a rise in the prices of other commodities. The result is a condition of ascending prices beyond all reason which works real hardship to the masses of the people. See Coal; Food; Profiteering; Retail Prices; Wheat, etc. Priority Act. In war time the question is constantly aris- ing as to which of two tasks should be performed first in order to serve the public interest best ; and in a country so extensive as ours the problem becomes especially urgent in connection with the use of transportation facilities. In order to meet this situation Congress passed the priority act of August 6, which authorizes the President, whenever he finds it necessary for the national defense and security, to direct that such traffic as in his judgment may be essential shall have preference in transportation. Under the authority conferred by this act, the priority administrator, Mr. Robert S. Lovett, has ordered rail- roads serving ports on the Great Lakes to give coal priority over other freights. The lakes are partly frozen In winter, and all chance to get coal to the Northwest by water then ends. An- other order, effective November 1, 1917, forbids the use of open freight cars for hauling unnecessary freight, such as building materials for theaters, pleasure vehicles, or furniture. Further orders are making evident a discrimination as to shipments of raw materials, as well as unfinished products, in favor of essential industries, as against those which in war time are considered less essential. It should be added that even before the passage of the priority act, voluntary cooperation on the part of the great railroad companies had secured many of its benefits, and that this cooperation still continues. See Fuel Control; Railroad War Board; Transportation and Comimmica- tion Committee ; War Industries Board. Priority, British Practice. The priority order of the Brit- ish Munitions Ministry, March 8, 1917, divides all industrial work into three classes: (a) Work wholly required for war, munitions, or shipping contracts; (6) work required for re- pairs to existing industrial plants, or for the upkeep of stocks or materials likely to be needed for class (a), or for work certi- fied as necessary for the national interest; (c) all other work. All work undertaken under (a) or (6) is so certified by public oflicials. Class (a) work precedes all else; class (6) precedes all but class (a) ; and class (c), which includes all ordinary work for private subjects, may be undertaken only after classes (a) and (&) are fully attended to. Pripet Marshes. After the fall of Warsaw in 1915, the object of the Germans was to divide the Russian army and drive it back into the Pripet Marshes, which cover an area of 30,000 square miles in the vicinity of Pinsk. In this the Germans failed. The Russian retreat, though disastrous, was successfully accomplished by October 1, 1915. WAR CYCLOPEDIA. 223 Prisoners of War. Article IV of The Hague Regulations reads : " Prisoners of war are in the power of the hostile Gov- ernment, but not in that of the Individuals or corps who cap- ture them. They must be humanely treated. All their per- sonal belongings, except arms, horses, and military papers, remain their property." Article VI further provides that the " State may utilize the labor of prisoners of war . . . officers excepted," but that " their tasks shall not be excessive and shall have no connection with the operations of the war." Ambassador Gerard's reports show that British prisoners in Germany have been treated with especial brutality. At one camp he found that the prisoners were being constantly bitten by some ferocious dogs which were allowed among them, and had to threaten to shoot the beasts before he could get them removed. At other places the men complained of brutal treat- ment by the officers in charge. The German War Book teaches that in case of " absolute necessity," prisoners of war may be killed, and the German authorities have, as usual, fully lived up to their barbarous principles. The following is a letter which was received by Mr. Gerard from a German soldier on the west front: To the American Government, Washington, U.S.A. -. Englishmen who have surrendered are shot down in small groups. With the French one is more considerate. I ask whether men let themselves be taken prisoner in order to be disarmed and shot down afterwards? Is that chivalry in battle? It is no longer a secret among the people ; one hears everywhere that few prisoners are taken ; they are shot down in small groups. They say naively : " We don't want any unnecessary mouths to feed. Where there is no one to enter complaint, there is no judge." Is there, then, no power in the world which can put an end to these murders and rescue the victims? Where Is Christianity? Where is right? Might is right. A SOLDIEE AND MAN WHO IS NO BAEBABIAN. Fortunately, the large number of Germans resident in the United States affords a reasonable guaranty that our soldiers will not receive such treatment. See Quarter; United States, Neutral Services to Belligerents. Private Property. See Belgium, Economic Destruction; Contributions; Pillage; Requisitions. Prize Courts. Courts dealing with property captured In time of war. No title can be secured by the captor of maritime property unless a prize court pass upon it. Prize courts may be special courts, or ordinary courts assigned to this work. At present United States district courts are invested with the power of prize courts, with appeal to the Supreme Court. The Ameri- can position is that prize courts administer International law. Washington In his famous neutrality proclamation of April 22, 1793, instructed the proper officers to prosecute " all persons who shall, within the cognizance of the courts of the United States, violate the law of nations with respect to the powers at war," and Congress and the courts have repeatedly taken the position that International law is to be the basis of court action. This has also for over a century been the position of the British 224 WAE CYCLOPEDIA. Admiralty courts, being last confirmed in the case of the Zamora, 1916. In both countries, however, the courts generally regard the regulations of their own country as embodying international law, and doubtless would regard an act of Congress or of Par- liament as absolutely binding. See " Zamora." Prize Court, International. As a remedy against the im- perfections arising from local bias on the part of national prize courts, The Hague Conference of 1907 provided for the estab- lishment of an international prize court, to which appeals could be taken in certain instances from national prize courts. The Declaration of London was designed primarily as a code for this tribunal. The failure of important powers to ratify this convention, and the present great war, have postponed the project. Prizes, Destruction of. International law on this point is excellently summarized in the State Department's memorandum of March 25, 1916, as follows : " If the merchantman finally sur- renders, the belligerent warship may release it or take it into custody. In the case of an enemy merchantman it may be sunk, but only if it is impossible to take it into port, and provided always that the persons on board are put in a place of safety. In the case of a neutral merchantman, the right to sink it in any circumstance is doubtful." German submarine warfare early transgressed this doctrine at every important point. For cap- ture it has invariably substituted destruction, and that regard- less of the nationality of the vessel ; and it discharges the captor's duty toward persons on board, its victims, by putting them into small boats many miles from land or by deliberately murdering them, sometimes with quite gratuitous brutality. See "Belgian Prinee"; " Frye, William P."; " Spurlos Ver- senkt." Prizes in Neutral Ports. "A prize may only be brought into a neutral port on account of unseaworthiness, stress of weather, or want of fuel or provisions. It must leave as soon as the cir- cumstances which justified its entry are at an end. If it does not, the neutral power must order it to leave at once ; should it fall to obey, the neutral power must employ the means at its disposal to release it with its officers and crew and to intern the prize crew." (Thirteenth Hague Convention, Art. XXI.) "Belgian Prince"; "Frye, William P."; "Spurlos Yersenkt." Profiteering. The taking of exorbitant profits in war time, the taking advantage of your neighbors' and your country's necessities that you may make yourself rich. There were such individuals at the time of the American Revolution, and George Washington wrote of them as follows : " I would to God, that one of the most atrocious of each State was hung in gibbets upon a gallows five times as high as the one prepared for Haman. No punishment, in my opinion, Is too great for the man who can build his greatness upon his country's ruin." On July 11, 1917, President Wilson issued an appeal to busi- ness men in which he said : " Patriotism leaves profits out of the question. In these days of our supreme trial, when we are sending hundreds of thou- WAR CYCLOPEDIA. 225 sands of our young men across the seas to serve a great cause, no true man who stays behind to work for them and sustain them by his labor will ask himself what he Is personally going to make out of that labor. No true patriot will permit him- self to take toll of their heroism in money or seek to grow rich by the shedding of their blood. He will give as freely and with as unstinted self-sacrifice as they. When they are giving their lives will he not give at least his money? " I hear it insisted that more than a just price, more than a price that will sustain our industries, must be paid ; that it is necessary to pay very liberal and unusual profits In order to ' stimulate production ' ; that nothing but pecuniary rewards will do — rewards paid in money, not in the mere liberation of the world. " I take it for granted that those who argue thus do not stop to think what that means. Do they mean that you must be paid, must be bribed, to make your contribution, a contribution that costs you neither a drop of blood nor a tear, when the whole world is in travail and men everywhere depend upon and call to you to bring them out of bondage and make the world a fit place to live in again amidst peace and justice? Do they mean that you will exact a price, drive a bargain with the men who are enduring the agony of this war on the battle field, in the trenches, amidst the lurking dangers of the sea, or with the bereaved women and pitiful children, before you will come forward to do your duty and give some part of your life, in easy peaceful fashion, for the things we are fighting for, the things we have pledged our fortunes, our lives, our sacred honor, to vindicate and defend — ^liberty and justice and fair dealing and the peace of nations? " Of course you will not. It is inconceivable. Your patriotism is of the same self-denying stuff as the patriotism of the men dead or maimed on the fields of France, or else it is no patriot- ism at all. Let us never speak, then, of profits and of patriot- ism in the same sentence, but face facts and meet them. Let us do sound business, but not in the midst of a mist. Many a grievous burden of taxation will be laid on this Nation, in this generation and in the next, to pay for this war. Let us see to it that for every dollar that Is taken from the people's pockets it shall be possible to obtain a dollar's worth of the sound stuffs they need." See Retail Prices; " Rich Man's War, Poor Man's Fight "; War Taxes. Propaganda, German. See Bernstorff ; Dernburg, Bernhard; German Intrigue Against American Peace; German Intrigue in the United States; Germain Intrigue, Tools; German, Peace In- trigue; German Propaganda in, Italy; German Government, Moral Bankruptcy of; Igel, von, Papers of; Intrigue; Japanese- American Agreement; Rumors, Malicious and Disloyal. Protectorate. A community under the protection, and to some extent subject to the political control, of another com- munity. The difference between a protectorate and a colony in international law is that if the superior State becomes involved 15963°— 18 15 226 WAR CTCLOPEDIA. in war its colonies too are involved, in the struggle, while its protectorates are not. See Sphere of Influence. Prussia. A kingdom in northern Europe, which is the lead- ing State of the German Empire. It occupies 134,616 square miles of the 208,780 comprising the Empire, and contained (in 1910) 40,165,219 of the total German population of 64,925,993. The King is William II of Germany, who succeeded to the throne on June 25, 1888. Under the existing constitutional system Prussia controls the fiscal, foreign, and military policies of the Empire. The Prussian constitution of 1850 provides for a legis- lature of two houses, but its powers are strictly limited, and the spirit of the government is essentially autocratic. Germany can not become liberalized until the dominion of the Prussian au- tocracy is broken. See Landtag ; Prussianlsm. Prussian Army. " The dearest desire of every Prussian," said Bethmann HoUweg in the Prussian Landtag, January 10, 1914, " is to see the King's army remain completely under the control of the King and not to become the army of Parliament." Prof. Delbriick, of the University of Berlin, in a recent book describes the special character of the German army : " The King is their comrade and they are attached to him as to their war lord, and this is the very foundation of our national life. The essence of our monarchy resides in its relations with the army. Whoever knows our officers must know that they would never tolerate the government of a Minister of War issuing from Parliament." See Militarism. Prussianism. A national spirit characterized by (1) cen- tralized government authority which organizes the whole body of the people for the purposes of (2) material ends, which are achieved by (3) aggressive and even brutal means. " We are polite only by the force of fear. Consequently — for all men must have their relaxations — ^whenever we meet the weak, those beneath us, the momentarily helpless, we are brutal." Prom Frederick the Great, whose guiding principle was to act with startling rapidity against an unprepared and unsuspecting op- ponent, tricked by the " hiding of plans and ambitions," through Bismarck to Treitschke and Bernhardi, unscrupulousness has been synonymous with Prussianism. Frederick said, " the world is governed only by skill and trickery." Prussianism still glories in both, believing that they pay. " The only healthy basis of a great State is national selfishness," according to Bis- marck. Treitschke is no less emphatic : " It Will always redound to the glory of Machiavelli that he has placed the State on a solid foundation, and that he has freed the State and its mor- ality from the moral precepts taught by the Church, but espe- cially because he has been the first to teach, ' The State is power.' " Bernhardi tells us why the civilized world is in danger to-day : "Armed strength in its moral, intellectual, and physical aspects is the truest measure of civilization." Such are the maxims of Prussianism. See Bernhardi ; German Diplo- macy; German Government, Bad Faith of; Junker; Kaiserism; Nietzsche; Treitschke. WAR CYCLOPEDIA. 227 Prussian Treaties with the United States. Three treaties of " amity and commerce," negotiated between the United States and Prussia in the years 1785, 1799, and 1828, respectively, re- main partially in force to-day, and were treated as still opera- tive by both Governments in the cases of the Frye and the Appam. The former case involved an article (XIII) which sub- stitutes preemption for confiscation In connection with contra- band and -provides that where the master of a vessel shall offer to deliver over contraband goods in his charge the vessel shall be allowed to proceed. It is the contention of our Gov- ernment that the sinking of the Frye violated this provision. The article (XIX) Involved in the case of the Appam allows either of the two parties, if belligerent, to have its war vessels take their prizes into the ports of the other, if neutral. Inas- much as the Appam was not attended by a German war vessel, our State Department ruled that this article did not apply ; and the same view was taken by the Supreme Court. Another of the articles (XXIII), which Is of Interest to-day, guarantees the nationals of each, sojourning in the territories of the other in case of war between the two powers, the right to continue In their employments and the right to compensation if their prop- erty is taken for war purposes. Still another article (XXIV) stipulates in detail for the considerate treatment by each nation of the prisoners of war which It may take from the forces of the other. If Germany is to claim any benefit from other provisions of these articles she will have to observe this one with some care. See Alien Enemies; "Appam"; "Frye, Wil- liam P." Prussian Treaties, Attempted Modification of. Ambassa- dor Gerard demanded his passports of the German Government on Monday, February 5. Not having received them on the afternoon of the day following, he called again at the Foi'eign Office, where he was confronted with Count Montgelas, head of the American department, with " a paper which was a reaffirma- tion of the treaty ... of 1799, with some extraordinary clauses added to It. He asked me," Mr. Gerard records, " to read this over and either to sign it or to get authority to sign it, and said that If It was not signed It would be very difficult for Americans to leave the country, particularly the American corre- spondents." Mr. Gerard read the paper. Its central proposal was that in case of war between the United States and Ger- many the nationals of each sojourning in the territories of the other should be " under no other restrictions concerning the enjoyment of their private rights . . . than neutral residents." Considering the large number of German subjects in the United States as compared with that of American citizens In Germany, and also the unfriendly activities of many of the former even before war broke out between the two countries, the proposal was a grossly inequitable one, while the circumstances in which It was made constituted an outrage upon international decency — nothing more or less than an attempt at blackmail. Mr. Gerard's handling of the situation was, however, adequate. "Why do you come to me," he asked Montgelas, "with a pro- 228 WAR CTCLOPEDIA. posed treaty after we have broken diplomatic relations and ask an ambassador who is held as a prisoner to sign it? Pris- oners do not sign treaties, and treaties signed by them would not be worth anything. After your threat to keep Americans here and after reading this document, even if I had authority to sign it, I would stay here until hell freezes over before I would put my name to such a paper." See Diplomatic Im- munity ; German Diplomacy. Przemysl. A fortified city of Galicia, which was first in- vested by the Russians September 16 to October 14, 1914. The siege was temporarily abandoned because of Hindenburg's offensive, but was renewed in November, and was successfully concluded when the Austrian garrison surrendered on March 22, 1915. On June 3, 1915, the Austro-German army under Mackensen regained the city, which they still hold. Quarter. Article XXIII of the Hague Regulations contains the following provision : " It is especially forbidden ... to declare that no quarter will be given." From the month of Sep- tember, 1914, the French Government received by several chan- nels information which showed that Gen. Stenger, command- ing the Fifty-eighth Brigade (One hundred and- twelfth and One hundred and forty -second Regiments of German Infantry) had ordered his troops to kill all prisoners. Here is one version of the order : " Prom to-day on no more prisoners ai-e to be taken. All prisoners are to be slaughtered. Even prisoners already grouped in convoys are to be killed. Let not a single living enemy remain behind." That some such order was given seems clearly established, both by testimony given under oath by German prisoners and by extracts from captured diaries of German soldiers who had belonged to Stenger's command. (See B6dier, German Atrocities from, German, Evidence.) On the Bast Front the same wickedness was enacted. The following are letters received by Mr. Gerard in the early days of the war from German soldiers who were eyewitnesses to the slaughter of Russians among the Masurian lakes and swamps : (1) It was frightful, heart-rending, as these masses of human beings were driven to destruction. Above the terrible thunder of the cannon could be heard the heart-rending cries of the Russians : " Oh, Prussians ! Oh, Prussians ! " but there was no mercy. Our captain had ordered : " The whole lot must die ; so rapid fire." As I have heard, five men and one officer on our side went mad from those heart-rending cries. But most of my comrades and the oflBcera jolted as the unarmed and helpless Russians shrieked for mercy while they were being suffocated in the swamps and shot down. The order was : " Close up and at it harder ! " For days afterwards those heart-rending yells followed me, and I dare not think of them or I shall go mad. There is no God ; there is no morality and no ethics any more. There are no human beings any more, but only beasts., Down with militarism! This was the experience of a Prussian soldier. At present wounded ; Berlin, October 22, 1914. If you are a truth-loving man, please receive these lines from a com- mon Prussian soldier. WAR CYCLOPEDIA. 229 (2) Russian Poland, December 18, 19U. In the name of Christianity I send you these words. My conscience forces me as a Christian German soldier to Inform you of these lines. Wounded Russians are Icilled with the bayonet according to orders, and Russians who hare surrendered are often shot down in masses according to orders In spite of their heart-rending prayers. In the hope that you, as the representative of a Christian State, will protest against this, I sign myself, . A Gbkman Soldibb and Christian. I would give my name and regiment, but these words could get me court-martialed for divulging military secrets. See Hague and Geneva Conventions, Oerman Violations; " Kriegs-Raison" ; Prisoners of War; War, Oerman Ruthless- ness. Quartermaster Corps. This corps is made up of a large number of officers at the head of whom stands a Quartermaster General. The national defense act of 1916 provided for an enlisted force of about 8,000 men, a limit which has been rapidly advanced to meet the needs the corps is meant to serve. It is the supply department of the Army, providing food, horses, vehicles, transport, clothing, camp equipage — in efEect, nearly everything used by the officers and men on the material side except arms, ammunition, and what may be required for the hospital service. B. Railroads. The amount of railway mileage in the country over which to forward supplies and " mobilize " our industrial wealth Is given as 252,230. The roads employ 64,769 locomo- tives, 53,466 passenger coaches, and 2,450,356 freight cars. Many of the main lines are proving to be of the greatest importance in the war. Their managers have put them on a war footing and are rendering the Government incalculable aid. No less than seven trunk lines now cross the Rocky Mountains and connect the Atlantic coast and the Mississippi Valley with the Pacific Coast States. Railroads, Effect of the War on. Like all other industries, railroads have felt the effect of war in scarcity of labor, rise in wages and other costs, and unexpected shifts of business. The great problem is (1) to carry on the regular traffic of the country, which must be reduced to its minimum requirements, in order (2) to allow for great derangements of passenger serv- ice due to movement of 1,500,000 troops, and (3) to take care of the shipments of goods made necessary by manufactures of munitions and great exports to our associates. See Priority; War Industries Board. Railroads' War Board. The voluntary act of the 693 rail- roads of this country in merging their competitive activities for the period of the war and uniting in one continental system has not only made the transportation problem presented by the war less cumbersome to handle, but surer of satisfactory solu- tion. In addition to welding into one loyal army each and every one of the 1,750,000 persons employed by the railroads — from engine wipers to presidents — the coordination of the Nation's carriers has made possible a more intensive use of every loco- 230 WAR CYCLOPEDIA. motive, every freight car, every mile of track, and every piece of railroad equipment in the country. Approximately 20,000,000 miles of train service a year have been saved by the elimination of all passenger trains not essential to the most pressing needs of the country. This reduction of passenger service has released hundreds of locomotives and train erevifs and cleared thousands of miles of track that are absolutely needed in the freight serv- ice for the transportation of necessities. See Transportation and Communication Committee. " Rainbow " Division. Composed of National Guard units from 27 States, now In France. Bank in United States Army and Navy. General ranks •with, admiral, lieutenant general with vice admiral, major gen- eral with rear admiral, brigadier general with commodore, colonel with captain, lieutenant colonel with commander, major with lieutenant commander, captain with lieutenant, first lieu- tenant with lieutenant (junior grade), second lieutenant with ensign, cadet with midshipman. For a chart showing insignia of rank and service, see National Service Harutboolc. Rasputin, Gregor. A Russian monk who, through his ascendancy over the Czarina, gained a strong hold on the Russian Imperial Government during its last days. His coun- sels appear to have been directed to the maintenance of auto- cratic government in full vigor, and also probably toward peace with Germany. His influence was enough to arouse the fear and hatred of many liberal and patriotic leaders in Petrograd. After several unsuccessful attempts to remove him from the court, he was practically " lynched," in January, 1917, by a number of young noblemen in Petrograd. Rathenau Plan. See Belgium, Economic Destruction. "Rebus sic stantibus." "Things remaining thus." Ger- man apologists of the invasion of Belgium have brought for- ward the contention that the binding force of international engagements is always conditioned by this maxim. They then proceed to argue that the treaties of 1831 and 1839 establish- ing the neutralization of Belgium were obsolete and that there- fore Prussia, though party to them, was no longer bound by them. The view generally held outside of Germany is that while the principle " rebus sic stantibus " furnishes a valid argument for the revision or abrogation of a treaty by the consent of the parties to it, it does not authorize a one-sided cancellation of treaty engagements, and this view seems espe- cially applicable in the case of treaties which, like those of 1831 and 1839, are intended, on the face of them, to establish a permanent legal situation. The German view simply means that a State may cast off its engagements at its own sweet will. See Belgium; "Scrap of Paper;" Treaties, Observance of. Recognition. When a new State arises it becomes a mem- ber of the family of nations by the recognition of older States, which is accorded usually by accepting a diplomatic repre- sentative from the newcomer. Such recognition should be accorded with due regard for the rights of the mother country. The term also applies to the recognition of a new Government WAR CYCLOPEDIA. 231 Which has supplanted an older i-6glme in an existing State, as recently happened in Russia. In this case the recognizing State should be fairly assured of the stability of the new order, but, by the principle of nationality, it is not supposed to pass, upon its "legitimacy." On the other hand, recognition is a perfectly voluntary act, and so may be withheld from Governments which have come to power by abhorrent means, as was the case with Huerta's government in Mexico. Finally, circumstances may justify the recognition of the helUgerency of a community strug- gling for its independence. Thus England and other powers recognized the belligerency of the Southern Confederacy very early in the Civil War. See Belligerency ; " De Facto," " de Jure." Reconstruction Hospitals. Will be built to equip and re- educate the wounded man after his wounds have healed, and to return him to civil life ready to be as useful to himself and his country as possible. Red Cross, American. The American Red Cross is an asso- ciation of more than 3,621,000 American citizens, organized locally in chapters, branches, and auxiliaries, governed by a central committee, with headquarters in Washington, D. C. Its accounts are audited by the War Department. Any resident or citizen of the United States may become a member by sending his name, address, and dues to the American Red Cross, Washington, D. C, or to the chapter in his neighborhood. The American Red Cross gives volunteer aid to the sick and wounded of our Army and Navy in time of war. It gives aid to the de- pendents of soldiers and sailors called to the colors. It gives relief to sufferers from famine, disease, or other disaster. It makes no distinction of class, creed, or race. It is a relief clear- ing house, permanent, responsible, and experienced. It is a semigovemmental agency for the collection and distribution of money and supplies for relief purposes. Red Cross Chapter. Permanent local organizations which represent all the local activities and agencies of the Red Cross within their territory. Members of the Red Cross, within the territory of a chapter, are automatically members of the chapter, and a portion of the membership dues is retained by the chapter for its own use within proper restrictions. For information explaining the organization of chapters, see Red Cross Circulars Nos. 149 and 172. A branch is a subordinate part of a chapter, and is expected to carry on in its com- munity the work that a chapter does in a larger territory. The chapter has sole authority for organizing and directing Its branches. Red Cross, History. The sufferings of soldiers in the Crimean War first directed the world's humaner impulses toward measures for the systematic care of the wounded and gave permanent fame to the name of Florence Nightingale. In 1S59, when the Swiss humanitarian, M. Henri Dunant, was visiting Italy as a tourist, he was caught in the dreadful car- nage of the battle of Solferino. Dunant personally ministered 232 WAK CYCLOPEDIA. to the wounded, and — what is more Important — ^he organized volunteers in tlie vicinity to help him in the work. Soon after he formulated the first proposals for volunteer associations to care for the wounded of war and for the neutralization of the personnel of such relief associations. His prophetic vision even embraced the services which such associations could render in time of epidemics, floods, and other catastrophes. M. Dunant's appeals resulted In a preliminary conference held at Geneva in 1863, which in turn led to an official international conference at Geneva in 1864. During this second conference the delegates from the United States made a valuable — perhaps a decisive— contribution by showing that the United States Sanitary Commission, by actual relief operations, had already solved problems which were troubling the conference and were making its success a matter of doubt. The Geneva conven- tion, adopted at that time, revised in 1906, and given additional force by The Hague conferences, was the formal beginning of the Red Cross, and for that reason is sometimes called the " Red Cross treaty." The name " Red Cross " comes from the insignia adopted by the conference — a Greek cross in red on a white ground, which is the flag of the Swiss Federation with colors reversed. See Hospitals; Hospital Ships. Red Cross Nursing Service. To be eligible for enrollment, nurses must have had at least a two years' course of training in a general hospital with a daily average of 50 patients or over. In States where registration is provided for by law, nurses must be registered; they must have the indorsement of the training school from which they graduated and of an organization affili- ated with the American Nurses' Association, of which they are a member, together with the indorsement of at least two mem- bers of a local committee on Red Cross nursing service. Bed Cross Work, Civilian. (1) To engage in civilian relief including (a) the care and education of destitute children; (6) care of mutilated soldiers; (c) care of sick and disabled soldiers; {d) relief work in the devastated areas of France and Belgium, such as furnishing to the inhabitants of these, districts agricultural Implements, household goods, foods, clothing, and such temporary shelter as will enable them to return to their homes; (e) to provide relief for and guard against the increase of tuberculosis. (2) To furnish relief for soldiers and civilians held as prisoners by the enemy, and to give assistance to such civilians as are returned to France from time to time from the parts of Belgium and of France held by the enemy. (3) To sup- ply financial assistance to committees, societies, or individuals allied with the American Red Cross and carrying on relief work in Europe. Red Cross Work, Military. The general lines of activity undertaken in France by the American Red Cross have been determined after a careful survey of the situation by the Red Cross Commission. These purposes may be outlined as follows: (1) To establish and maintain hospitals for soldiers in the American Army in France. (2) To establish and maintain WAR CTCLOPEDIA. 233 canteens, rest houses, recreation huts, and other means of sup- plying the American soldiers with such comforts and recrea- tion as the Army authorities may approve. (3) To establish and maintain in France canteens, rest houses, recreation huts, and other means of supplying comforts and recreation for the sol- diers in the armies of our allies. (4) To distribute hospital equipment and supplies of all kinds to military hospitals for soldiers of the American or allied armies. See Knights of Columlmx ; Y. M. G. A. Red Cross, Why? Questions have been raised as to why work of such magnitude and consequence should not be an object of government instead of private endeavor. The answer is threefold: (1) The Red Cross, as a volunteer organization, offers a fitting medium through which the volunteer spirit of the country may exert itself in the war. That volunteer spirit is a very precious asset and it should be guided and di- rected exclusively as a volunteer effort with enthusiasm, lack of red tape, and unlimited opportunity. (2) Through the 'Rr-ji Cross one-half the Nation, namely, the women, can very effec- tively serve their country in the war emergency. (3) Some such medium as the Red Cross, unofficial and unmarshalled by the formal process of government, is absolutely necessary to mobilize effectively the human, the humane, and imaginative qualities necessary in alleviating the suffering so inevitable in war. " B«d, White, and Blue " Series. A series of handbooks and pamphlets issued by the Committee on Public Information, Washington, D. C. All are free, unless otherwise noted. No. 1. How the War Came to America (English, German, Polish, Bohemian, Italian, Spanish, and Swedish editions). No. 2. National Service Handbook (primarily for libraries, schools, Y. M. C. A.'s, clubs, fraternal organizations, etc., as a guide and reference work on all forms of war activity, civil, charitable, and military. Price, 15 cents. No. 3. The Battle Line of Democracy. Prose and Poetry of the Great War. Sold at cost. Price, 15 cents. No. 4. The President's Flag Day Speech with Evidence of Germany's Plans. No. 5. Conquest and Kultur : Aims of the Germans in Their Own Words, by Profs. Wallace Notestein and Elmer E. Stoll. No. 6. German War Practices : Part I — Treatment of Civil- ians, by Prof. Dana C. Munro. No. 7. War Cyclopedia : A Handbook for Ready Reference on the Great War. Price, 25 cents. Other issues in preparation. Begiment. Companies under captains are combined into battalions; and battalions under majors, with headquarters, supply and machine-gun companies, are combined into regi- ments under colonels. The strength of an Infantry regiment is 103 officers and 3,652 men ; of a light Artillery regiment (3-inch guns), 55 officers and 1,424 men; of a heavy Field Artillery regiment (6-inch howitzers), 63 officers and 1,703 men; of an 234 WAR CYCLOPEDIA. Engineer regiment, 40 officers and 1,617 enlisted men ; and of a Cavalry regiment, 52 officers and 1,539 men. A regiment is both an administrative and tactical unit. See Brigade; Division. Registration, Military. On June 5, 1917, 9,659,382 young men between the ages of 21 and 30, Inclusive, registered for national service under the act of May 18, 1917. " It is a new thing in our history and a landmark in our progress. ... It is in no sense a conscription of the unwilling; it is rather a selection from a nation which has volunteered in mass. . . . The power against which we are arrayed has sought to Impose its will upon the world by force. To this end it has increased armament until it has changed the face of war. ... It is not an army that we must shape and train for war ; it is a nation. . . . The Nation needs all men ; but it needs each man, not in the field that will most pleasure him, but in the en- deavor that will best serve the common good." (President Wil- son's proclamation of May 18, 1917.) See Selective Service; Selective Service, Second Draft. Regular Army. The Regular Army, which has been the nucleus for all our national military arrangements, has always been small. In time of peace, since the end of the Indian wars, it has had few duties, and has been scattered in post and garrison in various parts of the continental area and in our insular possessions. Prior to the passage of the National de- fense act of June 3, 1916, it consisted of only 5,014 commis- sioned officers and 92,973 enlisted men, which included about 6,000 so-called Philippine Scouts. In November, 1917, the strength of the Regular Army was approximately 360,000 en- listed men. See National Defense Act. Regular Army Reserves. To obviate the disadvantages and real dangers which have come in the past from the practice of raising the Regular Army to war strength at need by the enlistment of wholly untrained men, a reserve force has been created. Regular Army service is now for seven years, three years on active duty and four years on furlough, subject to Government call, unless the soldier has enlisted " for the present emergency " only. In case of great proficiency, an enlisted man may be furloughed to the reserve after one year of active serv- ice. The assignment to duty and the use of this valuable body of men are in the hands of the President. See Enlisted Re- serve Corps. Reichsiand. The name applied In Germany and Austria to territory not admitted by itself as a Federal State, or added to the jurisdiction of any one State of the federation, but placed under the joint jurisdiction of the federation as a whole. In- stances are, in Germany, Alsace-Lorraine; in Austria, Bosnia and Herzegovina. Reichstag. The lower house of the German legislature. It is much less important than the Bundesrat. In consists of 397 members, elected for a term of five years by the voters ; that is, by men 25 years of age or older. While it, in conjunction with the Bundesrat, votes the appropriations, certain ones, notably WAR CYCLOPEDIA. 235 those for the army, are voted for a period of years. Its con- sent is required for new taxes, whereas taxes previously levied continue to be collected without the consent of the legislature being again secured. The Reichstag has no power to make or unmake ministries ; in other words, to control the executive, the Emperor. It may reject the measures demanded by the Gov- ernment, but the imperial will determines the fate, the rise and fall, of the Chancellor. See Bundesrath ; Oerman Constitu- tion; Landtag. Reichstag, Apportionment of Seats. The Reichstag is an inadequate representation of the German people. The electoral districts as laid out in 1871 were equal, each representing approxi- mately 100,000 inhabitants. But since then there has been practi- cally no change, while population has increased in some, de- creased in others, so that there now exists a glaring inequality be- tween the districts. The result is very much as though the present American Congress had been elected upon the basis of the dis- trict lines and population of 46 years ago. The large, inade- quately represented districts are naturally progressive cities, the small ones the conservative country regions. A Berlin deputy represents, on the average, 125,000 voters; a deputy of Bast Prussia, home of the far-famed Junkers, an average of 24,000. Representative Government. Government by elective repre- sentatives of the governed, in contrast to direct government on the one hand and autocracy on the other. The United States, Great Britain, and France have representative Governments. In the German system the elective element is confined to the Reichstag, which originates few measures and exercises, for the most part, only a function of control upon the Emperor and Eundesrat. In war, moreover, this function of control is a very curtailed one. Reprisals. Reprisals are retaliatory measures. Ordinarily they transgress the law and are to be justified only by the fact that the victim of them violated the law first. They must not invade the rights of innocent third parties. See Retaliation^, Belligerent Right of. Requisitions. These are governed by Article LIZ of The Hague Regulations, which reads as follows : " Requisitions in kind and service shall not be demanded from municipalities or inhabitants except for the needs of the army of occupation. They shall be in proportion to the resources of the country and of such a nature as not to involve the inhabitants in the obliga- tion of taking part in military operations against their own country. Such requisitions and services shall only be demanded on the authority of the commander in the locality occupied. Contributions in kind shall, as far as possible, be paid for in cash; if not, a receipt shall be given and the payment of the amount due shall he made as soon as. possible." Of these pro- visions the German War Book remarks, " willingly recognized in theory but . . . scarcely ever observed in practice," and the correctness of this comment has been amply borne out by Ger- 236 WAR CXCLOPEDIA. man conduct in Belgium. Requisitions in kind liave been levied on an unprecedented scale and with little reference to the needs of the army of occupation. Payment of cash for them has been made conditional on the payment of huge contributions, and even then has been withheld. Prices have been systemati- cally fixed far below the' value of the articles taken ; the re- ceipts, written in German, have included mock orders on French banks, tickets to moving-picture shows, and other frauds on helpless ignorance ; where a pair of horses were taken, receipts have been given for a brace of chickens, etc. As to services, these, from the first, have included work on trenches, fortifica- tions, the forwarding of troops and munitions, and work in arsenals. See Belgium, Eoonomic Destruction of; Contrihu- tions. Reserve Officers' Training Corps. For training members of the Officers' Reserve Corps. The act of June 3, 1916, au- thorized the establishment of units of the Reserve Officers' Training Corps in colleges and academies willing to give pre- scribed military instruction to their students. Numerous insti- tutions were admitted to this list during 1916-17, and out of these came thousands of candidates for the officers' training camps of May 15 and August 27, 1917 ; a limited number of their selected men will be admitted to the third series' camps of January 5, 1918. See Officers' Reserve Corps; Officers' Training Camps. Resistance, Right of. The belligerent right of capture on the high seas is matched by the equally well-established right on the part of enemy merchantmen to avoid capture if possible, either by flight or resistance. A vessel having recourse to either of these expedients, however, incurs the risk of destruction so long as it persists therein, but once it surrenders, it incurs no further penalty than that of capture, with the certainty of ulti- mate condemnation, and of having its crew made prisoners of war. Thus nothing save " actual forcible resistance or continued efforts to escape by flight when ordered to stop for the purpose of visit . . . has ever been held to forfeit the lives of " the passengers or crew of a merchantman. (Secretary of State Lansing to Ambassador Gerard, June 9, 1915.) Germany her- self accepted these principles before the outbreak of the present war. (See German Prize Code, par. 116.) Her repudiation of them since is the necessary consequence of her methods of sub- marine warfare. See ArmetL Merchantmen; " Falaia "; Fryatt, Capt. Retail Prices. Weekly reports upon the retail prices of 30 principal articles of food, from each town of 3,000 population or over, are gathered by volunteer helpers and forwarded to Her- bert C. Hoover, Washington, D. C, for the purposes of food administration. Unlike the policy of the warring Governments abroad, the United States Government does not attempt di- rectly to control retail prices. Instead it controls wholesale prices by a system of licenses applied to wholesalers and job- bers, and leaves the control of retail prices to the pressure of publicity, the threat of cutting off supplies, and local regulation. WAR CYCLOPEDIA. 237 This seems ii more feasible procedure than any system of direct central control. See Food and Fuel Control Act; Food Control Act, Enforcement; Fuel Control; Price Fixing in Australia; Profiteering. Ketaliation, Belligerent Right of. As between belligerents tlie rules of warfare bind, not absolutely but reciprocally ; and if one belligerent violates them, the other may adopt re- prisals in kind. But such reprisals must not injure neutrals; and this is the weakness of the defense made by Germany of its submarine warfare. However warrantable this might other- wise appear as a measure of retaliation against Great Britain, it has the fatal defect of invading neutral rights. As our State Department put the matter in its third L/usitania note (July 21, 1915) : " Illegal and inhuman acts, however justifiable they may be thought to be against an enemy who is believed to have acted in contravention of law and humanity, are manifestly in- defensible when they deprive neutrals of their acknowledged rights." See Emhargo, British; Submarine Warfare, German Defense of ; War Zone. Reventlow, Count Ernst zu ( 18 7 1— ) . Pan-German writer and naval expert, whose writings in the Deutsche Tages- Zeitung have been distinguished for their bitter and uncompro- mising hatred of the United States. His book on German foreign policy, Deutschlands auswartige Politik, 1888-1914, is one of the most serious treatments of the subject. Rheims. A cathedral town of northern France, famous for centuries because of its beautiful Gothic cathedral and its old associations with Joan of Arc. The cathedral was bombarded by the German army in September, 1914, in spite of the im- munity to which churches and works of art are entitled. The German charge that it was being used as a range-finding point for French artillery is denied by the French Govern- ment. It has been repeatedly bombarded since 1914, and is reported now to be nearly ruined. "A piece of architecture like Rheims is much more than one life ; it is a people — whose centuries vibrate like a symphony in this organ of stone. It is their memories of joy, of glory, and of grief ; their meditations. Ironies, dreams. It is the tree of the race whose roots plunge to the profoundest depths of its soil, and whose branches stretch with a sublime outreaching toward the sky. It is still more; its beauty which soars above the struggles of nations is the harmonious response made by the human race to the riddle of the world — this light of the spirit more neces- sary to souls than that of the sun. Whoever destroys this work murders more than a man; he murders the purest soul of a race." (Romain RoUand, Above the Battle.) See Louvain; Works of Art. Ribot, Alexandre F. J. (1842- ). A French states- man, several times Premier of France. Between 1890 and 1893 first as Foreign Minister, later as Foreign Minister and Premier he was one of the leading advocates of the Franco-Russian al- liance and to him is due, in a large measure, its conclusion. Between 1895 and 1906 he was less prominent in public life as 238 WAR CYCLOPEDIA. lie opposed the lack of emphasis on foreign affairs, but when nationalism and patriotism revived in France after 1906 Rlbot again became more of a figure. In October, 1915, he became Finance Minister and in March, 1917, Premier. He advocated a vigorous prosecution of the war but was defeated on a small question in August, 191T. He remained in the government of M. Painlevfi as Minister of Foreign AfCairs, but soon withdrew. Bice. The rice crop for 191T is estimated at 32,200,000 bushels, a distinct decrease from the figures for 1916, although still well above the average. Louisiana, Texas, and Arkansas provide the bulk of this crop, although it is also of consider- able importance in South Carolina, Mississippi, Georgia, and Florida. Rice is raised also in Missouri, Alabama, and North Carolina. The needs of the United States are supplied largely by importation, 216,048,858 pounds being imported in the year ending in June, 1917, mostly in the form of raw rice. The rice exported during the fiscal year 1916-17, in all forms ex- cept bran and polish, was 180,484,685 pounds. " Rich Man's War, Poor Man's Fight." If there was ever a war to which this description does not apply, it is the one which this country is to-day waging against German military autocracy. From the first the sons of wealthy fami- lies h*ve offered themselves for all branches of military serv- ice in impressive numbers. The selective service act abso- lutely ignores all distinctions of wealth or social position. The war revenues are " conscripted " largely from great incomes and war profits. War profits, in turn^ have been brought under the direct control of the Government through its price-fixing powers. Finally, the objectives of the war include no item designed to appeal to wealth as such. The objective of the war is the freedom of the average man ; It is the right of the average man to make his opinions, feelings, and interests count in shaping the world's affairs, instead of being made the pawn of small groups which feel themselves to be of better clay than the rest of mankind. " This is not a banker's war or a farmer's war or a manufac- turer's -war or a laboring man's war — it is a war for every straight-out American, whether our flag be his by birth or by adoption. We are to-day a Nation in arms, and we must fight and farm, mine and manufacture, conserve food and fuel, save and spend to the one common purpose." (President Wilson to Northwest Loyalty Meetings, Nov. 16, 1917.) See American Federation of Labor; American Alliance of Labor and Democracy; "Business as Usual"; Excess Profits; Food Control Act; Income Tax; Labor and the War; "Pay as You Oo " War; War Purchases of Munitions; War Taxes. Riga. A Russian fortress and city on an arm of the Baltic, long coveted by Germany because of its strategic value and its German relationship, and finally occupied, September 3, 1917, by the army of Prince Leopold of Bavaria. Right of Assembly. The first amendment to the Constitu- tion forbids Congress to make any law " abridging . . . the WAR CYCLOPEDIA. 239 right of the people peaceably to assemble." The same right is frequently recognized in State constitutions. "The right of assembly," says Cooley, in commenting on the provision, " al- ways was, and stiU is, subject to reasonable regulations by law." In the larger cities, in fact, it is often subject to rather strict regulation. See Civil Rights; Freedom of the Press; War Powers. Bights of liife and Rights of Property Compared. " Prop- erty can be paid for ; the lives of peaceful and innocent people can not be. The present German submarine warfare against commerce is a warfare against mankind." (President Wilson, before Congress, Apr. 2, 1917.) Kitter, Dr. Paul. Until recently Swiss minister to the United States. He was intrusted by the German Government with the care of their interests after the departure of Count von Bernstorff, and used his position in an attempt to reach a com- promise between Germany and the United States on the subma- rine issue. He presented a German note asking for a continua- tion of negotiations; but any agreement with Germany, unless unrestricted submarine warfare was abandoned, was refused by President Wilson. Robertson, Gen. Sir WilUam (1860— ). Often called " the brains of the British army." Since 1915 he has been chief of the imperial general stafE. He came out of a humble home in Lincolnshire. Entering the service as a trooper, he has seen active service in many parts of the British Empire covering long years, and was severely wounded in one of his colonial cam- paigns. Prior to being called to his present high ofHce he com- manded the first infantry division in France and was chief of staff to Field Marshal Sir John French. He was knighted by the King in 1915. Root session. See Russia, American Mission to. Rotterdam. The leading port of the Kingdom of the Nether- lands. Population (1914), 472,520. The trade of Rotterdam has suffered severely as a result of the war. In 1913 the port was visited by 10,203 seagoing vessels of a tonnage of 12,785,861. By 1916 this had fallen to 3,644 vessels with a tonnage of 4,158,682. The trade of Rotterdam is likely to be still further affected as a result of the entry of the United States into the war. See Neutral Exports; Neutral Imports; Neutral Ration- ing. Roumania. A constitutional monarchy on the Black Sea, with its official capital at Bucharest. The evacuation of that city on November 27, 1916, caused the removal of the capital to Jassy. The area is 137,907 square miles and the population in 1913 was 7,509,009. The reigning king, Ferdinand, nephew of Charles I of the house of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, came to the throne October 11, 1914. The queen, Marie, is a British princess, the daughter of the Duke of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha. On August 27, 1916, Roumania declared war upon Austria-Hungary for reasons based upon the principles of nationality. See Ferdinand I; Transylvania. 240 WAR CYCLOPEDIA. Boumania, German Treachery in. Documents given to the public on September 24, 1917, by the State Department show how Germany " shamefully abused and exploited " the protection of the United States and the laws of common morality by secreting in the German legation at Bucharest, after the American Gov- ernment had taken charge of Germany's affairs at the Rouman- ian capital, quantities of powerful explosives for bomb plots and deadly microbes, with instructions for their use in destroy- ing horses and cattle. From the grounds of the legation 51 boxes were taken, 50 of which contained each a cartridge filled with the most powerful of known explosives. In the other box, which bore the seal of the German consulate at Kronstadt, Hungary, were found bottles of liquid containing cultivations of the microbes of anthrax and glanders, and a typewritten note which read as follows : " Enclosed, four phials for horses and four for cattle. To be employed as formerly arranged. Each phial is sufficient for 200 head. To be introduced, if pos- sible, directly into the animals' throats; if not, in their fodder. Please make a little report on the success obtained there ; in case of good results the presence of Mr. Kostoff for one day here would be desirable." Another illustration of the sense of honor to be found in German foreign policy. See German Diplomacy; United States, Neutral Services to Belligerents; War, Qerma/n, Buthlessness. Rubber. The rubber industry was at its maximum in 1916. The mere manufacture of tires for motor vehicles by American factories in 1916 required almost one-half the world's production of crude rubber. The total rubber production in that year was 398,720,000 pounds. Importations of crude rubber in London to August, 1917, show an increase over receipts for a correspond- ing period in 1916, while rubber receipts in the United States for the fiscal year 1916-17 were 194,688,303 pounds as com- pared with 159,858,096 pounds in 1915-16. All of which indi- cates a larger crude rubber production in 1917 than in the pre- ceding year. The market for American rubber products has been more than doubled by the war. Exports jumped from $14,767,513 in 1914^15 to $35,153,374 in 1915-16. Increased cost of production, however, has hampered the industry, and exports fell in 1916-17 to $31,110,394. Large Government orders for gas masks, footwear, and druggists' sundries have enlarged the volume of trade in 1917, while the market for tires is also ex- panding. Rumors, Malicious and Disloyal. The number of persons who " know things that are not so " is enormously increased in war time. Such persons are now busy spreading rumors, both silly and malicious. When started with disloyal purpose, they are usually spread by thoughtless repetition. Many loyal citi- zens are approached and asked confidentially if they have heard that a transport has been sunk with all on board ; that a battle has been fought with heavy loss to American life ; that the President's confidential secretary has been sent to Fort Leavenworth for betraying secrets ; that the Red Cross is selling WAR CYCLOPEDIA. 241 supplies and sweaters ; that the food-pledge cards require one to give up household supplies ; that signing them obligates the husband to military service ; that disease or starvation rules in the encampments ; that there is mutiny in camps ; that a secret treaty exists with England which will some day be repudiated and the liberty bonds be worthless ; that any simple service to the State or Government invalidates life Insurance; that the supply of some commodity is limited and a stock should be laid in, etc. These rumors will be followed, it may be prophesied with certainty, by rumors of graft, fraud, and incompetence in high places. The absurdity of many of these stories is patent even to some who repeat them. Why act as an enemy agent by spreading such nonsense? Every one of ,these rumors can be met and should be met by denials and the facts. The War and Navy Departments have published and will continue to publish full news of military events ; health reports on camps are regu- larly made public ; the food card is nothing but a voluntary pledge to help save food, etc. Incompetency and dishonesty, if such exist, will be mercilessly exposed and driven out. Every citizen should know the facts, follow up these rumors, and save our people from mental torture by the words of the silly and un- thinking as well as the malicious and often disloyal talebearer. Kussia. A State in eastern Europe, awaiting its final constitution. It had a land area in 1914 of 8,764,586 square miles, and a population of 173,378,800. Its capital is Petrograd, formerly known as St. Petersburg. Germany's declaration of war against Russia on August 1, 1914, started the present European conflagration. Russia declared war on Turkey No- vember 3, 1914, and on Bulgaria October 19, 1915. The former Czar abdicated on March 15, 1917, as the result of a successful revolution, and a Kepublic was proclaimed. See Nicholas II; Russian Revolution of 1917. Russia, Mission from the United States. Soon after the Russian revolution and the entry of the United States into the war it was decided to send an American mission to Russia to congratulate the new Government and to find out in what way we could assist in providing for its needs. The mission was headed by Elihu Root, former Secretary of State, and consisted of representatives of the railroads, business, Army and Navy, religious, industrial, and socialist organizations of the United States. The mission appears to have been a great success. It won the support of the Russian people and secured a basic knowledge of the situation, but recent developments seem to have canceled its achievement. Russian Revolution of 1917. The revolution to date shows four phases, as follows : 1. Overthrow of the Czar. This occurred on March 15, 1917, when Nicholas II abdicated and authority was vested in a Provisional Government constituted by the Duma, to conduct affairs until the constituent assembly should meet. The old regime fell because as an. autocracy it did not respond to the democratic demands of the Russian people. Its position had 15963°— 18 16 242 WAR CTCIiOPEDIA. been weakened in 1906, when the late Czar granted a constitu- tion, but it retained much of its old power, which it exercised in a corrupt, tyrannical, and inefficient manner. The war of 1914 revealed its defects when the Kussian armies were driven out of Poland and Galicia in 1915 from a lack of ammunition. Public opinion was deeply stirred, but was not yet organized, and the drive of Gen. Brussilov in 1916 eased the situation. Late in that year, however, the Premier, Boris V. Stiirmer, the soul of reaction and accordingly pro-German, began negotia- tions, through A. D. Protopopov, for a separate peace with Germany. The intrigue was discovered and Sturmer resigned, but Protopopov remained as Minister of the Interior and con- tinued the negotiations, which were almost completed when the revolution occurred. The Duma was convened on February 27. On Friday, March 9, there was fighting in the streets of Petro- grad, in which 2,500 persons were killed and wounded. By open appeal, reinforcing secret and well-directed propaganda, the people gradually won the troops over to the cause of the Duma and the nation. Imperial ukases were issued on March 12 sus- pending the Duma and the Council of the Empire for a month. On the 13th Rodzianko, president of the Duma, announced the formation of a Provisional Government with the executive com- mittee of the Duma at its head, thus defying the Czar's decrees. Finally, on March 15, Czar Nicholas was induced to abdicate. Little disorganization followed, for the Government was left in the hands of the members of the official class, who had been active in support of the war. Although monarchy was prac- tically abolished with the abdication of the Czar, the Republic was not formally proclaimed until September 17. 2. Oovemment of the Constitutional Democrats. Prince George Lvov held office as Prime Minister and Minister of the Interior from March 15 to July 20. Milyukov was Minister for Foreign Affairs and Kerensky for Justice; with the exception of the latter, who was a moderate Socialist, the ministry was com- posed exclusively of Constitutional Democrats. (See "Cadets".) The new Government proclaimed free speech, the right to strike, universal suffrage (including woman suffrage), a general am- nesty for all political prisoners and exiles, and the maintenance of existing treaties. A Constituent Assembly was promised to draw up a permanent constitution. It speedily became apparent that the new Government would be opposed at every step by the " Soviet," or Council of Workmen's and Soldiers' Delegates, at Petrograd, which considered itself the true representative of revolutionary Russia and planned to give the revolution a social rather than a merely political character. In response to its demands Gutchkov, Minister of War, Issued his "Ministerial Order No. 1," establishing a hierarchy of ultrademocratic sol- diers' councils even at the front, which practically superseded the authority of the officers and destroyed all discipline. The Germans systematically corrupted the Russian armies by fraternizing with the men and professing agreement with their desire for a democratic peace with " no annexation and no WAK CTCLOPEDIA. 243 indemnities." The protests of high army officers resulted in Gutchkov's resignation on May 13 • and the appointment of Kerensky to succeed him. To set at rest the anxieties of the Allied powers, Milyukov sent a note on May 1 denying that Russia sought a separate peace and declaring her intention to fight the war to " a complete victory." This announcement pro- voked rioting in Petrograd by the Bolsheviki, or ultraradical Socialists (see Bolsheviki) , and on May 16 Milyukov was forced to resign. A new cabinet was formed, which was ruled more and more by Kerensky, Minister of War. He sought by persua- sion to restore discipline in the army. On the other hand, with the return from exile of the old Bolsheviki leader, Lenine, anarchistic rioting became increasingly prevalent in June. Krjanstadt set up as an independent republic, recognizing only the Petrograd Soviet; the Ukraine declared its independence, and Finland took steps to restore its autonomy. An All-Russian Congress of Workmen's and Soldiers' Delegates, sitting in Petro- grad, abolished the Duma as a stronghold of the middle classes. A Bolsheviki demonstration in Petrograd on July 1 showed Lenine's power. That same day Gen. Brusilov Started a vic- torious offensive in Galicia, but it was soon converted into a disastrous retreat by Bolsheviki intrigue and disorganization. In this crisis Prince Lvov gave way to Kerensky, who set up a new ministry. The attempt of the Constitutional Democrats to rule the revolution had failed. 3. Rule of Kerensky. Kerensky found himself practically in the position of dictator, for the councils, both of the work- men's and soldiers' delegates and of the peasants, passed reso- lutions proclaiming that the authority of the new government was unlimited and called on the Russian armies to fight to the last ditch. Kerensky availed himself of this burst of en- thusiasm to secure the restoration (on paper) of the death penalty for treason or mutiny. The Workmen's and Soldiers' Executive Committee at this time censured Kerensky's enemy Lenine by a vote of 300 to 11, and he was driven into Jiiding to escape arrest. (See Lenine.) ^erensky formed a new cabinet on August 7 from which all extreme radicals were excluded. 'The Root Commission, arriving in Washington on the 12th, was able to announce firm hopes of a speedy restoration of internal harmony and military efficiency. On August 26 an extraordi- nary national congress, convoked by Kerensky, met in Moscow. Its chief importance was to reveal the division between the moderate Socialists and the Cadets — the former led by Kerensky, the latter by generals commanding in the field. The capture of Riga by the Germans (Sept. 3) precipitated the break between the military party and Kerensky. On Sep- tember 9 Gen. Kornilov, who had succeeded Brusilov as com- mander in chief, attempted a coup d'gtat, which failed. A democratic congress called by the Central Council of Workmen's and Soldiers' Delegates met in Moscow on September 27 and called for a Preliminary Parliament ("Temporary Council of the Russian Republic") to act until the Constituent Assembly should meet In December ; at the same time it declared against 244 WAR CYCLOPEDIA. the forming of a coalition cabinet wltliout the sanction of the Congress. Kerensky rejected its control and proceeded immedi- ately to admit to his cabinet four members of the Constitutional Democratic party. The Preliminary Parliament began its ses- sions in the last days of October, in an atmosphere of profound depression caused by the German capture of Oesel and Dago, islands at the entrance to the Gulf of Eiga. On November 2, Kerensky in an interview stated that Russia had done her work in the war and was worn out; she would not quit the conflict but was in great need of help from the Allies. The Government revoked an earlier decision to remove to Moscow, but Petrograd was evacuated by a considerable part of its civil population. Strikes, food riots, and street demonstrations again broke out in the capital. Finally the Bolshevik! won over the Petrograd garrison and the navy, and on November 7 they drove Kerensky from the city. The Winter Palace was defended for a time by women soldiers (the "Battalion of Death"), but soon the Government buildings were in the hands of the Bolsheviki under Lenine and Trotzky, who by their audacity and unscrupuluous- ness dominated the situation. 4. The Bolsheviki in Control. A proclamation announced the program of the new rulers in four articles: (1) The ofEer of an immediate democratic peace; (2) the Immediate handing over of the large estates to the peasants ; (3) the transfer of all authority to the Council of Workmen's and Soldiers' Dele- gates; (4) the honest convocation of a Constituent Assembly. (In the article on Lemne will be found further details as to Bolsheviki principles.) Kerensky, following his escape from Petrograd, placed himself at the head of an army with the intention of retaking the capital, but was defeated, more by the defection of his own troops than by the strength of his opponents. Meanwhile, for some days students of the military schools and other loyal elements battled unsuccessfully in Petrograd against the Bolsheviki. The latter gained control of Moscow also, after fierce fighting, and Kiev and other large in- dustrial cities come under their rule. The power of Kerensky collapsed completely and he disappeared from the scene. The Bolsheviki, in pursuance of their program, proclaimed the peas- ants the owners of the lands and published a number of secret treaties and diplomatic letters of the earlier Governments. ( See Secret Treaties Revealed 6j/ Russia.) On November 24 Trotzky presented his proposal for a general armistice. He declared that he spoke as Commissioner of Foreign Affairs for a Govern- ment in the form of a Council of National Commissioners, founded on October 26, and headed by Lenine. The efforts of Gen. Dukhonin (assassinated December 4) and of Gens. Kaledines and Kornilov to resist the Bolsheviki failed. The meeting of the Constituent Assembly (set for December 11) was dispersed because of opposition control. Anti-Bolsheviki newspapers were suppressed, while German agents were given a free hand. The railway workers, who controlled the transport of troops, were gradually won over. Lenine's policy looked towards an exclu- sively proletarian Republic. In interviews Trotzky denied that his Government would make a separate peace, but orders were WAR CYCLOPEDIA. 245 issued for the reduction of tlie Russian armies. On December 15 a truce with Germany was signed, with provision for the immediate opening of peace negotiations, without participation of Russia's allies. See Bolsheviki; Council of Worlcmen's and Soldiers' Delegates; Kerensky ; Lenine; Lvov; Mdyukov; Soviet; Trotsky; Zemstvos. S. Sabotage, German. Promotion of. Sabotage is a French word, much used of late to describe willful and underhanded destruction of machinery, etc., by workmen. It is a method of " industrial warfare " which is much encouraged by the less reputable leaders of the Industrial Workers of the World. Telegraphic exchanges between the German Foreign Office and Count von BernstorfE In January, 1916, which were made public by the State Department on October 9, 1917, show that von Bern- storfE was under orders to promote sabotage in the United States. One telegram says : " General stafE desires energetic action in regard to proposed destruction of Canadian Pacific railway at several points." A second telegram (dated Jan. 26, 1916) contains the following: "In the United States sabotage can be carried out in every kind of factory for sup- plying munitions of war. Railway embankments and bridges must not be touched. Embassy must in no circumstances be compromised." The telegrams named several Americans as suitable for assisting in this work : Joseph McGarrity, of Phila- delphia ; John P. Keating, of Chicago ; and Jeremiah O'Leary, of New York. See Dumba, Recall of; German Diplomacy; German Intrigue, Tools. Salandra, Antonio (1853- ). Ex-Premier of Italy. He has been professor of law at the University of Rome, and minister in several Italian cabinets. In March, 1914, he became Premier. At the outbreak of the European war he refused to follow Germany and Austria, claiming that the Triple Alliance had been broken by Austria. From this position he progressed more and more toward hostility "to Austria and alliance with the Triple Entente, and, despite the opposition of Giolitti, he carried through his policy and Italy declared war on Austria in May, 1915. He resigned as Premier In June, 1916. Saloniki. Saloniki, the Thessalonica of the New Testament, is a most important Greek port on the Gulf of Saloniki, which has been used as an Allied base and port of entry since October, 1915. The Allied troops were landed in Saloniki to assist Serbia, a duty to which Greece was bound by treaty but which Constantine ignored. M. Venizelos, the Greek Premier, at whose invitation they had come, made a protest pro forma, as re- quired by the Greek constitution ; this gave King Constantine a chance to dismiss M. Venizelos, and henceforth direct Greek policy In the interest of Germany. From Saloniki the opera- tions in Macedonia were conducted in the fall and winter of 1916 and in 1917. See Macedonia. 246 WAR CTCLOPEDIA. Samoa. An island colony of Germany in the Pacific, in a group in which Great Britain and the United States also hold islands. German Samoa was taken by a New Zealand force August 29, 1914. Saving. See Economy. Sazonov, Count Sergius. Russian Minister of Foreign Af- fairs, 1910-1916. At the beginning of his ministry Sazonov made with Berlin the so-called Potsdam agreement, withdraw- ing Russian opposition to the building of the Bagdad railway, and was therefore regarded for some time as the friend of Ger- many. On the other hand, he took a principal part in the formation of the Balkan Alliance, and placed Russia firmly across the path of Austrian ambitions in Serbia. He had been, in his earlier career, for 12 years first secretary and chargg d'affaires in the Russian embassy in London. Through the mid- dle and latter part of his ministry he was known as a strong friend of England and of France. In his own country his patriotism and comparative liberalism were trusted at times when Premier Stolypin, his brother-in-law, and the succeeding premier, Stiirmer, were suspected of pro-Germanism. Hence his forced resignation of the foreign office to Stiirmer, in 1916, was one of the causes of Stiirmer's overthrow, and so hastened the revolution of 1917. See Bagdad Railway; Russian Revolu- tion of 1917. SazonoT's Efforts to Maintain Peace. In the days follow- ing the delivery, of the Austrian note to Serbia, Sazonov worked hand in hand with Sir Edward Grey to preserve peace. He secured from Serbia full acceptance of all but two of the Aus- trian demands. After Austria had declared war on Serbia, Sazonov proposed to the German ambassador that if Austria would withdraw from her ultimatum points infringing on Ser- bia's sovereignty, Russia would halt military preparations. The proposal was rejected. Then, on July 31, he proposed that if Austria would halt her troops and submit her demands to the powers, Russia would hold a waiting attitude. No reply was made to the note. Late in the same day Austria expressed a tardy willingness to negotiate. Sazonov at once responded favorably, and negotiations were actually begun in Petrograd between Sazonov and the Austrian ambassador. Then came the German ultimatum and, on August 1, war between Germany and Russia; but Austria and Russia were not at war until August 6. See Grey and British Policy in 19 H; Nicholas II, Efforts to Maintain Peace; Serbia, Austrian Ultimatum; Serbia, Reply to Austria; War, Responsibility for. Scandinavian Lieague. Arrangements for the close coopera- tion of Norway, Sweden, and Denmark were made at a meeting at Malmo in December, 1914, of the three Scandinavian Kings and their respective foreign ministers. The objects of the agree- ment were stated to be the preservation of the common neu- trality of the three countries and the guarding of their welfare under the difficult conditions brought about by the war. The three nations have issued Identical responses to the various peace proposals and have in other ways acted in concert In WAR CYCLOPEDIA. 247 dealing both with Germany and with the Allies. In November, 1917, a conference of the monarchs was hurriedly convened in Christiania on the Insistence of Denmarli that Norway should be prevented from granting England a naval base or otherwise favoring the Allies, and so bringing upon Denmark the retribu- tive measures threatened by Berlin. See Denmark; Norway; Sweden; Submarine Warfare, Neutral Losses; "Willy" and " Nicky " Correspondence. Scarborough, England. A coast town of England on the North Sea. In spite of Its defenseless condition, it was bom- barded by the German fleet in December, 1914, and air raids over the city in August, 1917, have also been In violation of rules of civilized warfare. See Bombardment. Schleswig-Holstein. A province In the northwest of Prussia, taken from Denmark in 1864. It is formed out of the Danish duchies of Schleswig, Holstein and Lauenburg. The annexa- tion of the duchies had long been ardently desired by Prussia in order to round out her territories to the north and to im- prove her connections with the sea. The execution of a maneu- ver which effected this annexation without interference from the other European powers was carried out by Bismarck. On February 1, 1864, Austrian and Prussian troops entered and overran the territories. The incorporation of the duchies into the Prussian kingdom was adroitly effected after the Prussian victory over Austria in 1866. A Danish-German antagonism still smoulders in the stolen provinces, for the Prussian Gov- ernment has tried to Prussianize the Danish element, which is strong in northern Schleswig. See Denmark; Kiel Canai. " Schrecklichkeit." See " Frlghtfulness." " Scrap of Paper." August 4, 1914, the British ambassador in Berlin, Sir Edward Goschen, justified the entrance of Eng- land into the war chiefly on the ground that Germany had violated the neutrality of Belgium, which Great Britain was pledged by treaty to defend. In a dispatch' to the British Gov- ernment he reported a conversation with the German Chancellor, Bethmann Hollweg, who said that " the step taken by His Majesty's Government was terrible to a degree; just for a word — ' neutrality,' a word which in war time had so often been disregarded — just for a scrap of paper Great Britain was going to make war on a kindred nation who desired nothing better than to be friends with her." When this dispatch was published by the British Government, the Associated Press cor- respondent obtained an interview with the German Chancellor, who said that Sir Edward Goschen had misunderstood what he had said about the scrap of paper. The Chancellor maintained that what he had said was that England entered the war to serve her interests ; and that among her motives the Belgian neutrality treaty "had for her only the value of a scrap of paper." See "Spurlos Versenkt " ; Treaties, Observance of. Seaplanes. See Aviation; Hydroplanes. Search. See Blockade; Contraband; Convoy; Visit and Search. 248 WAR CYCLOPEDIA. Secret Treaties Revealed by Knssia. On November 24, 1917, the Bolshevlkl government revealed certain alleged agreements between the Entente Powers with reference to the settlement at the end of the war. In case Russia gained Constantinople and the Dardanelles, she was to allow the freedom of passage of cargoes proceeding to other than Russian ports. Part of Arabia was to be under a separate Mussulman government, and Britain was to have certain additions to her sphere of influence in Persia. In a second document published on the same day France recognized Russia's freedom to define her western bound- aries. In a separate telegram- the Russian Minister of Foreign Affairs recognized that France and Great Britain should have the right to define the western boundary of Germany. On November 28 the Bolshevlkl government published another docu- ment, said to have been signed in London April 26, 1915, by the representatives of Great Britain, France, Russia, and Italy, by which Italy, on the conclusion of the war, was to receive the Trentino, part of the southern Tyrol, Trieste, Istria, and Dal- matia. Lord Cecil, speaking in behalf of the British Govern- ment, has promised to publish the report sent to the Russian Government in May, 1917, as to the terms upon which Italy entered the war. It is expected that the whole matter will be the subject of " questions " in Parliament, and the exact degree of truth in the Bolshevlkl revelations will be stated. See " Willy " and " Nicky " Correspondence. Sedition. Language or conduct tending toward treason or insurrection. The penalty for seditious conspiracy to oppose the authority of the United States is six years' imprisonment. See Espionage AOt. Selective Service. The present selective service law was passed May 18, 1917. It established one class from which the President may draft — those between the ages of 21 and 30, inclusive. The administration is in the hands of the War Department, under the supervision of the President, and with the assistance of local draft boards for each locality, with appeal boards for each congressional district. All persons be- tween these ages were to be enrolled. The number desired Is divided among the several localities in proportion to the popu- lation. No substitution or exemptions by payment are allowed. Exemptions are allowed for those having dependents, those en- gaged in an occupation necessary for the prosecution of the war, or those physically unfit; to be determined by the boards re- ferred to. With about a million aliens of the enrolled ages in the country, very unequally distributed, the drain in making up the quota is heavier upon some communities than others, the basis being population. The enrollment took place on June 5, 1917, and 9,659,382 men registered. The President issued his Instructions to the exemption boards on July 2, and the first men drafted were called to service September 5. See Draft, ConstituHonality of ; Registration, Military. Selective Service, Second Draft. With the completion of the draft of the first army of 687,000men a new system will be WAR CYCLOPEDIA. 249 installed for the creation of succeeding armies, wMch will lessen the labors of the local and district boards. Each of the 9,000,000 men not yet selected will receive a qtuestionnaire, upon the answers to which the local boards will assign him to one of five classes according to his industrial importance and the nature of his family obligations. The men will be called to military duty by classes, and will be examined physically in their order of selection. The appeals remain, but the procedure will be simplified. The Provost Marshal General has author- ized the following classification of selectives into five groups, indicating the order in which they will be called to service : Class I. — (1) Single men without dependent relatives; (2) married man (or widower) with children, who habitually fails to support his family; (3) married man dependent on wife for support; (4) married man (or widower) with children, not usefully engaged ; family sup- ported by income independent of his labor ; ( 5 ) men not included in any other description in this or other classes ; (6) unskilled laborer. Class II. — (1) Married man or father of motherless children, use- fully engaged, but family has sufficient income apart from his daily labor to afford reasonable adequate support during his absence ; (2) married man, no children, wife can support herself decently and without hardship ; (3) skilled farm labor engaged in necessary indus- trial enterprise ; (4) skilled industrial laborer engaged in necessary agricultural enterprise. Class III. — (1) Man with foster children dependent on daily labor for support; (2) man with aged, infirm, or invalid parents or grand- parents dependent on daily labor for support; (3) man with brothers or Bisters incompetent to support themselves, dependent on daily labor for support ; (4) county or municipal officer ; (5) firemen or police- men ; (6) necessary artificers or workmen In arsenals, armories, and navy yards; (7) necessary customhouse clerk; (8) persons necessary In transmission of mails ; (9) necessary employees in service of United States ; (10) highly specialized administrative experts ; (11) technical or mechanical experts in industrial enterprise; (12) highly specialized agricultural expert in agricultural bureau of State or Nation; (13) assistant or associate manager of necessary industrial enterprise ; (14) assistant or associate manager of necessary agricultural enter- prise. Class IV. — (1) Married man with wife (and) or children (or widower with children) dependent on daily labor for support and no other reasonably adequate support available ; (2) mariners in sea service of merchants or citizens in United States ; (3) heads of neces- sary industrial enterprises ; (4) heads of necessary agricultural enter- prises. Class V. — (1) Officers of States or the United States ; (2) regularly or duly ordained ministers ; (3) students of divinity ; (4) persons in military or naval service; (5) aliens; (6) alien enemies; (7) persons morally unfit ; (8) persons physically, permanently, or mentally unfit ; (9) licensed pilots. On November 9 the President issued an appeal to all citizens, and especially lawyers and doctors, to cooperate with ofllcials in classifying all registrants. Sarajevo. The capital of Bosnia; It was the scene of the assassination of the Archduke Francis Ferdinand and his wife on June 28, 1914. The assassin was a Bosnian, who was a member of the Narodna Odbrana, a Serbian secret society which aimed to detach Bosnia and Herzegovina, peopled as they are by races of Serbian stock, from Austria-Hungary and annex them to Serbia. The Austrian Government alleged that he 250 WAK CYCLOPEDIA. secured his arms from the Serbian State arsenal and that the Serbian Government was privy to the deed. The murder of the heir to the throne furnished the Austro-Hungarlan Government with an excuse to square its account with Serbia, which In the eyes of the German, Magyar, and military elements of the monarchy was long overdue. Consequently, an ultimatum of the most humiliating character was addressed to Serbia on July 23, and although Serbia accepted it almost in toto, Austria-Hungary declared war on July 28. Out of this the general European conflagration developed. See "Potsdam Conference"; Serbia, Austrian Ultimatum. Serbia. A constitutional monarchy in the Balkans. The capital is Belgrade, which is at present in the hands of the the Central Powers, Serbia having been overrun by the Austro- Bulgarian forces November 30, 1915. The area of the country before the war was 18,650 square miles, and the population in 1910 was 2,911,701. The present Serbian Government is estab- lished at Corfu. The King is Peter I of the house of Kara- george. He came to the throne in 1903 by means of a palace revolution. The Premier is M. Pashitch, who is also the Minister for Foreign Affairs. Austria declared war against Serbia on July 28, 1914. See Belgrade; " Kingdom of the Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes." Serbia, Austrian Ultimatum. The diplomatic note de- livered by the Austro-Hungarian Government to Serbia on July 23, 1914, nearly a month after the assassination of the Archduke. It is now substantially proven that Germany was privy to Aus- tria's plans. Because of the precarious relations long existent between Serbia and Austria, vigorous action on the part of Austria was generally expected, but the world was entirely un- prepared for the drastic terms finally laid down. Brief and devoid of courteous expression, the note contained 10 articles, of which four were concerned with the murder of Serajevo, while the rest related to the policies of the Serbian Govern- ment in dealing with secret societies, newspapers, public in- struction, and other agencies of political agitation. All propa- ganda of the national aims of Serbia, so far as these were dangerous to Austria-Hungary, was to be suppressed. All officers whom Austria should name as participating in con- spiracy were to be removed, and in the judicial proceedings that were to be taken against the plotters of the recent murder Austrian agents were to be sent into the Servian courts. Finally, for the acceptance of these extraordinary terms a time limit of only 48 hours was set. " I have never seen," said Sir Edward Grey, " one State address to another a document of so formid- able a character." The German Socialist newspaper Vorwarts said (July 25, 1914) : "The demands of that Government (Aus- tria) are more brutal than any ever made upon any civilized State in the history of the world, and they can be regarded only as intended to provoke war." And a sober German historian (Delbrtick) has acknowledged that Austria demanded conditions which would have placed Serbia under per permanent control. WAR CTCLOPEDIA. 251 See " Der Tag"; Qrey and British Policy, 19 H; Nicholas II, Efforts to Maintain Peace; " Potsdam Conference." Serbia, Reply to Austria. Serbia's reply, delivered within a few minutes of the time set, yielded to the demands In prac- tically every point, saving her own sovereignty, and offered to refer to The Hague Tribunal the one point not completely con- ceded. But Austria, without further discussion, declared it un- satisfactory, and by 6 o'clock, July 25, severed relations vrith the smaller kingdom. War was then Inevitable, but it was still a question whether the conflict, as Austria aad Germany desired, should be " localized," a mere punitive expedition against Serbia, or should involve other great powers of Europe. Service Reserve. The United States Public Service Reserve is an official national organization of men who desire to find their place for effective service to the country in the war emergency and to make it easy for the Government to locate them when it needs help from men of their capacities. Its purpose is to enable those who are not called into the Army or Navy to play their part in realizing the ideal of a whole Nation organized to war for the safety of our country and the preservation of the civilization and the future peace of the world. It is a common meeting ground where men of all degrees of capacity and attainment may unite in devoting themselves to the service of our country and mankind. No one should apply for membership who does not honestly intend to " do his bit " as soon as the right opportunity comes to him. By receiving a certificate of enrollment in the United States Public Service Reserve and wearing its emblem you will signify your readiness to serve the Nation in the war emergency, even at the cost of personal sacrifice. Address Department of Labor, Washington, D. C. See Civilian Tasks. Shells. A general name for explosive projectiles. Shrapnel travels to a given point, bursts, and releases bullets which pass on to spread destruction. A shell, on the other hand, bursts upon striking its object or upon the action of a time fuse. Destruction is effected by the broken bits of metal of which it is composed, and by the earth, stones, and other material which it throws up around it. A shell of the very effective French " 75's," it is said, will burst into more than 2,000 pieces, many of them very minute, yet possessing extreme projectile force. Shells are of various diameters and weights and are charged with varying quantities of explosive compounds. Many are now charged with gas or injurious chemicals. On the west- ern front there are guns shooting shells which weigh from 400 to 2,000 pounds, with a carrying power of from 6 to 20 miles. It is computed that a new 16-inch American naval gun will have enough projectile capacity with a charge of 900 pounds of pow- der to send a shell weighing 2,400 pounds a distance of 274 miles horizontally and to a height In the trajectory of 8J miles. The length of such a shell is about 6 feet. An artillery expert computes that the British and French together expended no 252 WAR CYCLOPEDIA. less than 20,000,000 shells in the Battle of the Somme. A half million v-'ere used in one day. See Bomb; Gas Warfare; Shrap- nel; Torpedo. Shipping Board. A board of five members authorized by the shipping act of September 7, 1916, with broad powers to ad- vise and regulate the rates and practices of water carriers in for- eign commerce, or in Interstate commerce on the high seas or Great Lakes. Mr. William Denman, of San Francisco, was chairman of the board until his resignation in August, 1917. He was succeeded by the present chairman, Mr. Edward N. Hurley, of Chicago. The war has brought to the Shipping Board new duties of tremendous Importance. It is- its task to keep up the supply of ships for America and the Allies — to meet the demands for ships from the Army and the Navy, from Italy, and from France. The work of building new ships the board has dele- gated to its construction agency, the Emergency Fleet Corpora- tion. The board itself controls directly the operation of all American ocean-going ships. On October 15 it requisitioned all completed American ships of 2,500 tons or more. It has com- mandeered all ships building in American yards. In most cases it turns back to the original owners to be operated by them ships not needed for military service or by allied Governments. But it has an operating department of its own. It fixes rates and decides problems of priority for the shipment of exports and imports. The limit which Congress has thus far set to the amount of money available for the operations of the board is $1,800,000,000. This huge capital places the Shipping Board ahead of the United States Steel or any other corporation doing business in the Western hemisphere. The Pennsylvania railroad is capitalized at less than half as much. Of the total amount promised by Congress, $1,000,000,000 has already been appro- priated. Ship Corporation. The construction agency of the Shipping Board. Its ofiicial name is The United States Shipping Board Emergency Fleet Corporation. The corporation was organized under the laws of the District of Columbia on April 18, 1917, with a capital of $50,000,000, all of which was subscribed by the Government. The business of the corporation is to contract for and manage the construction of new ships for the Shipping Board, and to complete the construction of ships already build- ing under private contract that have been commandeered. The chairman of the board is also chairman of the corporation. Maj. Gen. George Goethals was general manager of the cor- poration until his resignation in August, 1917. Kear Ad- miral W. L. Capps and Rear Admiral Frederick B. Harris followed him for short periods in this position. On Novem- ber 10, 1917, supreme charge of the work of constructing steel ships was placed in the hands of a civilian engineer, Mr. Charles A. Piez, of Chicago, president of the Link Belt Co. At the same time wooden ship construction was intrusted to Mr. .Tames Heyworth, of Chicago. On December 17 a re- organization took place and Mr. Piez was made general man- ager of the corporation. On December 1, 1917, the corporation WAR CYCLOPEDIA. 253 had tinder construction on Its own contracts 884 ships, ranging in size from 3,500 tons to 9,000 tons. Of these 375 are wooden ships, 551 are steel ships, and 58 are composite. More recent contracts have all been for steel sjiips. In addition the corpora- tion was bringing to completion 426 ships building in American yards on private or foreign account and commandeered for the Government. The total tonnage of these ships was above 3,000,000. Thirty-three of the commandeered ships had already been com- pleted and delivered. The first of the ships originally contracted for by the corporation, a steel vessel of 8,800 tons, was launched at a Pacific coast port on November 26, 1917. The first wooden ship was launched a few days later. By January 1, 1918, the corporation will have completed ships to a total of 1,250,000 tons — a figure a little in excess of a total tonnage before the war of either of the two greatest shipping companies — the Interna- tional Mercantile Marine and the Hamburg-American Line. By January 1, 1919, it expects to bring this figure up to 6,000,000 tons, and some time in the year 1919 the entire present program of the corporation, calling for 10,000,000 tons of new ships, will be completed. The corporation does not do its own building, but appears as owner in the contracts which it makes with private shipbuilding companies. As soon as the corporation has a ship ready for the water it turns it over to be controlled by the Ship- ping Board, the parent organization of the Fleet Corporation. Ship, Fabricated. A standardized steel vessel made of num- bered parts manufactured in various and scattered mills and then assembled in the ship yards of the contracting company. Most of the ships building for the Emergency Fleet Corporation are of the fabricated type. The Submarine Corporation is building at Newark 50 of these ships of 5,000 tons each. Other contracts call for from 10 to 120 ships each. Fabricated ships are sister ships — in very large families. Shipping Committee. The chairman of the United States Shipping Board is the chairman of this committee of the Council of National Defense, which was established April 21, 1917, and which is cooperating with the Shipping Board in its work of supplying the United States and its allies with much-needed tonnage. Mr. P. A. S.' Franklin, president of the International Mercantile Marine, New York City, is the vice chairman of the committee. Shipping, Interned German. Ninety-nine German ships, with gross tonnage of 635,406, were in American ports at the outbreak of war. They were seized by the United States under an act of May 12, 1917, questions of compensation being left to be determined at the end of the war. Repairs (made necessary by injuries done them by their crews while Interned, under orders of BernstorfE), were made in record time, and they are now in service either of the Army and Navy or In the carrying trade. See Brazil; Portugal; Shipping, Ready for Operation; Eminent Domain. Shipping, IjOSSCS by Mines and Submarines. According to records compiled by Journal of Commerce and Commercial Bulletin (New York), from the beginning of the war to January 254 WAR CYCLOPEDIA. 1, 1917, approximately 2,146 merchant vessels were destroyed chiefly by mines and submarines. A statement of the aggre- gate gross (tonnage destroyed estimates it at 3,982,556 tons; of this total, 1,149 vessels of 2,082,683 gross tons were destroyed in 1916. From figures furnished by the New Yorli Times the ton- nage sunk by submarines alone for the first six months of 1917 had reached an average of 600,000 tons a month, which is two or three times the rate of new construction. This high average was due, in part to the extraordinary submarine activity in April, when 800,000 tons were destroyed in four weeks. The total losses for the year to June, 1917, are estimated at something over 3,600,000. Of these 58 per cent were British, 25 per cent neutral, and 17 per cent Allied, other than British. For July and August the losses have been reduced to an average of 150,000 tons a month. This reduction is due in part to the sys- tem of convoys. The United States lost between August, 1914, and September 1, 1917, 55 ships of 145,332 gross tons. See Sub- marine Warfare, British Losses; War-Risk Insurance. Shipping, Ready for Operation. On September 26, 1917» the United States had 458 ships of over 1,500 dead-weight tons, with an aggregate tonnage of 2,871,359, either engaged in or capable of participating in foreign trade. This tonnage is ex- clusive of that engaged on inland waters, unsuitable coastwise ships' and small craft operating along the coast and in bays and harbors. Neither does it Include the 117 ships, of a tonnage of 700,285, taken over from their German and Austrian owners. Ship Registry Act. By an act of August 18, 1914, the free ship clause of the Panama Canal act of August 24, 1912, was amended so as to facilitate the registration of foreign-built vessels. The original act required that foreign-built vessels applying for American registry be not more than 5 years old. This provision was repealed. The efEect of the act is reflected In the increased tonnage during the following year. In 1915 there were added to the merchant fleet of the United States by transfer from foreign flags 148 vessels, of 523,361 tons. But there was a loss during the same period of 77 vessels transferred from American registry to foreign flags. Ship Transfer in Time of War. The law governing this mat- ter is satisfactorily summarized in article 56 of the Declaration of London, as follows: "The transfer of an enemy, vessel to a neutral flag, effected after the outbreak of hostilities, is void, unless it is proved that such transfer was not made in order to evade the consequences to which an enemy vessel, as such, is exposed." See " Daoia." Shrapnel. A shell filled with bullets and a small bursting charge. The shell is split open and the bullets are released, as a rule, about 80 yards before reaching the object aimed at. After explosion, the bullets fly onward in a destructive shower. Named for the inventor, a British general named Shrapnel, who died in 1842. Siam. An independent kingdom in southern Asia with its capital at Bangkok. The area is 198,900 square miles. The WAE CXCLOPEDIA. 255 population was estimated In 1911 at 8,149,487. The reigning king Is Somditch Plira Paraminde. Siam entered the war of the nations on July 22, 1917, and seized the German and Aus- trian ships in Siamese harbors. Signal Corps. This corps is directed by a Chief Signal Officer. It has charge of the construction and operation of military cables, telegraphs, and telephones. Wireless machinery and meteorological apparatus have recently come within the sphere of authority of the corps, which has expanded to meet new needs. The balloon and airplane service has been attached to this department of our military administration. The Signal Corps and its enlisted force are' the eyes and ears of the army. They keep a general in communication with his fighting units and enable him to successfully direct a battle, oftentimes at a distance of some miles from the front; See Aviation. Sinn Fein. An Irish revolutionary society aiming at both independence and the cultural development of the Irish race. It Is equally opposed to the Nationalists and the Unionists, and is the more alluring through its inclusion of many men of letters and art. On Easter, 1916, it precipitated a bloody re- volt at Dublin, with which Germany tried to cooperate. The outbreak was suppressed without great difficulty. The German intrigue has been so clear in this movement that it can not be told as yet how far the Sinn Fein is genuinely Irish and how far it is a tool of Germany. In the United States, too, German intriguers are known to have tried to stir up some of the Irish against Great Britain. See German Intrigue; Irish Parties. Slavs. A race inhabiting eastern and southeastern Europe, where they constitute the great majority of the population. They are not geographically united. The main stock comprises the Russians, Poles, Czechs, Slovaks, and Ruthenes or Little Rus- sians. In the south, and separated from the northern branch by a solid barrier of Germans, Magyars, and Roumanians, live the Southern or Jugo-Slavs. These, though divided into Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes, really form one people. The Bulgars have usually been included In the Southern Slavs, but they were originally an Asiatic people who have been Slavlcized, and since their defeat in the second Balkan war many of them have re- pudiated the Slav cause. Approximate figures for the race as a whole are : EussianB 100, 000, 000 Little Russians (Ukrainers) 30,000,000 Poles 15, 000, ODD Czechs and Slovaks 8, 500, 000 Slovenes 1, 250, 000 Croats 2, 500, 000 Serbs 4, 000, 000 Bulgars 4, 500, 000 Total 165, 750, 000 See "Kingdom of the Serbs, Croats, etc."; Vicrwine. Socialism. See German Political Parties; Liehknecht; Marx. Soldiers' and Sailors' Civil Bights. See Moratorium. 256 WAR CYCLOPEDIA. Soldiers' and Sailors' Insurance Act. By act of October 6, 1917, Congress provided: (1) For the support during the war of the families and dependents of enlisted men. (a) Allotments of pay. Certain proportions of pay are to be withheld from the man and paid directly to the families or dependents, or for insurance, or for other purposes. Allotment or deposit of one- half of pay may be required in all cases. (6) Family allow- ances. In addition to all allotments of pay by the man, the United States will pay monthly allowances to the wife, children, and certain dependents. (2) For the protection of officers and enlisted men and their dependents from the hazards of injury, disease, and death, (a) Compensation. Monthly payments for disability and death due to Injury and disease incurred in the line of duty. (6) Insurance. Provided by the United States upon application and payment of premium, vrithout medical, examination, against total permanent disability and death. The premium will be at normal peace rates without loading, and the United States ^^'ill bear the extra cost due to war service. Pro- vision is made for the continuation of the insurance after leav- ing the service. All of these are administered by the bureau of war risk insurance in the Treasury Department. Up to Decem- ber 15, 1917, applications had been made for $2,073,728,500 insur- ance by 238,924 applicants. Bulletins giving full details may be obtained from the bureau upon request. Solomon Islands. A group of islands in the Pacific Ocean. Taken from Germany, September, 1914, by Australian troops. Somme. A river in northern France, flowing into the Eng- lish Channel. On June 30-July 1, 1916, the Anglo-French forces about the river began a concerted offensive with the railroad centers of Bapaume and Peronne as the immediate objectives, and with the underlying intention (1) of exert- ing constant pressure on the French front in conjunction with Allied offensives in Russia and Italy, and (2) of pushing a wedge into the German lines which should force an evacuation of a material part of France. The specific objectives were not gained before the rainy season put an end to activities, but the main objects of the campaign were in a large measure realized. See Arras; " Hindenburg Line"; Messines Ridge; Verdun. Sonnino, Sydney, Baron (1847— ). He has been several times Premier of Italy. In December, 1914, Sonnino, although leader of the opposition, joined the Salandra Cabinet as Minister of Foreign Affairs. South Africa, Union of. A self-governing British Common- wealth in the southern end of Africa, formed from the former British colonies and the former Transvaal and Orange Free State annexed after the Boer War. Area, 473,100 square miles ; population, 5,973,394. The executive is nominally a Governor General appointed by the Crown; actually it is a cabinet ap- pointed by and responsible to the Union Parliament. Gen. Louis Botha is Premier. At the outbreak of the war Germany had great hopes of a Boer. revolt, and an outbreak of irreconcilables occurred in September, 1914, but this was put down by the WAR CYCLOPEDIA. 257 loyal element. In turn, an army of the Union under the Pre- mier, Gen. Botha, invaded and conquered German Southwest Africa. Another army under Gen. Smuts virtually conquered German East Africa. Soukhoinlinov, Gen. W. A. Russian Minister of War from March 24, 1909, to June 26, 1915. His resignation was due to inefficiency in providing army supplies. Soukhomlinov's trial was not held until 1917. He was convicted on September 26 of high treason, abuse of confidence, and fraud, and was sentenced to life imprisonment at hard labor. Some of the testimony has been very freely used by German propagandists in their attempt to prove a Bussian plot against Germany in 1914. See ilobiUasa- tion Controversy ; War, Responsibility for. Soviet. Russian word for council or committee ; applied to a large variety of such organizations in the Revolution of 1917, but especially to the Petrograd Council of Workmen's and Soldiers' Delegates. See Councils of Workmen's and Soldiers' Deputies. Spain. A constitutional monarchy occupying the major por- tion of the Iberian Peninsula. Its capital is Madrid. Its area is 194,794 square miles, and Its population was estimated in 1910 at 19,943,817. Alfonso XIII has reigned since his birth in 1886, being under the regency of his mother until 1902. The Queen is Victoria, formerly the English Princess Victoria Eugenie (Bna) of Battenberg. Spain, Neutral Problems. At the beginning of the war Spain declared her neutrality and has been able to keep it without great difficulty. A German propaganda was started and Spain was flooded with pro-German literature, while it was freely stated, at least unofficially, that If Spain would join the German side Gibraltar would be restored to her. Neither litera- ture nor offers appear to have had much effect on the Spanish people outside of a few small groups. Nor have the Spanish spokesmen of the Allies, many of whom are Socialists, been able to arouse any popular feeling in favor of the abandon- ment of neutrality. Submarine disputes with Germany have been at times sharp, but an apparent settlement has been reached, although the Government has been criticized for not taking a stronger stand. The fact that Spain is not contiguous to the Central Powers has also rendered the blockade question less acute. Spanish-American War, German Attitnde. "Men who stood high in the universities, men of the greatest amiability, who in former days had been the warmest friends of America, had now become our bitter opponents, and some of their expres- sions seemed to point to eventual war." (Ex- Ambassador An- drew D. White, Autobiography, II, 1905, p. 146.) See America Threatened; Manila Bay, Dewey and Diedrichs at. Sphere of Influence. A region in which some foreign State claims superior rights as against all other outside powers, hoping eventually to convert this right into supreme control. This Inchoate right is often created by a series of agreements 15963°— 18 17 258 WAR CTCLOPEDIA. on the part of the State aspiring to it with other more or less interested States. Morocco was a French sphere of influence before it became a French protectorate. Manchuria is generally regarded as a Japanese sphere of influence. But the term is also more loosely used, and the Caribbean is sometimes spoken of as a " sphere of influence " of the United States. See United States, Caribbean Interests. Spies. See Intrigue. Spitliead Naval Review. In July, 1914, the British fleet was reviewed by King George at Spithead at the very time when the Austrian ultimatum to Serbia was presented at Belgrade. The fleet, perhaps assembled as a measure of precaution against possible German menace, was not demobilized, and was ordered to its stations in the Channel and the Korth Sea. As a result the German squadrons did not dare to venture from their bases when war was declared, and the control of the seas has re- mained in British hands to the present time. " Spurlos Versenkt." A German phrase meaning " sunk without leaving a trace," contained in a secret telegram from Luxburg, the German minister at Buenos Aires. The telegram (of May 19, 1917) advised that Argentine steamers be " spared if possible or else sunk without a trace being left." The advice was repeated July 9. The Swedish minister at Buenos Aires sent these messages, in code, as though they were his own private dispatches. See German Diplomacy; Intrigue; " Not- wendigkeit"; "Scrap of Paper." " Spurlos Versenkt " Applied. On August 26 the British Admiralty communicated to the International Conference of Merchant Seamen a statement of the facts in 12 cases of sink- ings in the previous seven months, wherein the U-boat com- manders had deliberately opened fire on the crews of the vessels after they had taken to their small boats, or had attempted to dispose of them in some other way. The list of ofEeuses Is the following: (1) Kildare, British, sunk April 12, 1917, boats shelled; (2) John W. Pearn, British, sunk May 1, boat shelled; (3) Vulcana, British, sunk March 7, boat shelled; (4) Belgian Prince; (5) 'Westminster, British, sunk December 14, 1916, boats shelled; (6) Eavestone, British, sunk February 3, 1917, boats shelled; (7) Addah, British, sunk June 15, boat shelled and sunk and men shelled in the water; (8) Umaria, British, sunk May 26, boat shelled; (9) Vanland, Swedish, attacked July 23, boat shelled; (10) Baltic, Swedish, sunk June 27, boats shelled; (11) Praden, Danish, sunk May 22, boat shelled; (12) Hestia, Dutch, sunk March 30, boat shelled. In seven cases, from 1 to 13 persons were killed; in the others, wounds were inflicted. The number of successful attempts at " sinking with- out trace" may be inferred from the statement of a British Admiralty official (November 22, 1917) that for the three years of the war 122 ships are recorded as " missing without trace " as against a pre-war average of 15 yearly. See "Belgian Prince." WAR CYCLOPEDIA. 259 Squadron. A Cavalry unit, made up of four troops com- manded by captains, under a major. It Is a technical unit only. Tliree squadrons, witli lieadquarters, supply and machine-gun troops, under a colonel, form a regiment of Cavalry. See Company. Staff. Staff is a general term used to distinguish the ad- ministrative from the 0ghting units in an army. It includes not only the General StafE (created in 1903 and enlarged by the national defense act) but military men engaged in the Inspector General's, the Quartermaster General's, the Judge Advocate General's, the Adjutant General's, the Ordnance, the Engineer- ing, the Signal CoriDS, the Medical, and like departments in the Army. The headquarters staff is the body of men performing secretarial and administrative duties 'for a general at head- quarters. In general, staff is used in distinction to line ; one branch of the service organizes and supplies, the other fights. See General Staff. State Cooperation Section. A subordinate agency of the Council of National Defense, established April 7, 1917, to stimu- late the organization of State councils of defense, either by the action of the governors or by the action of the legislatures of the several States. The section acts as a clearing house betvi^een the State councils of defense and the Council of National De- fense and its subordinate bodies and other Federal agencies. It also acts as a clearing house between the State councils of de- fense themselves, with reference to such activities as they have inaugurated on their own Initiative, and in this connection dis- criminates between those activities which are worthy of en- couragement and those which are not. State Defense Councils. In every State in the Union there is by this time an official State council of defense; and in 43 of the 48 States a chain of county or local councils has been developed. Two more States have planned to begin such local organization at once. Every week the section on cooperation with States henrs of new districts organized and new activities undertaken by the local organizations. The reports which come to Washington from the State councils show the value of this local initiative. State Defense Councils, Illustrated. In one of the first to be organized, the legislature created a commission of five and made ample appropriations for its worlc. Under its direc- tion county councils of defense were established throughout the State. A weekly publication gives information regarding the activities of the State council. In addition, much pamphlet literature is distributed by its direction. The council began (1) the mobilization of the labor supply of the State for war indus- tries, especially agriculture and canning; (2) the increased pro- duction of food was urged through the medium of pamphlets and public lectures; (3) women's work has been emphasized by placing a woman on the State council; (4) the professor of clinical medicine in the leading university has charge of the medical work of the council; and (5) one member of the coun- 260 WAR CYCLOPEDIA. cil has had long experience In the field of transportation. The council is thus organized to cooperate efficiently with the Gov- ernment in almost any exigency that may arise. * State Property. The Hague Regulations deal with this sub- ject as follows: " Akt. LIII. An army of occupation can only take possession of cash, funds, and realizable securities which are strictly the property of the State, depots of arms, means of transport, stores and supplies, and, generally, all movable property be- longing to tlie State which may be used for military operations. "Art. LV. The occupying State shall be regarded only as administrator and usufructuary of public buildings, real estate, forests, and agricultural estates belonging' to the hostile State, and situated in the occupied country. It must safeguard the capital of these properties, and administer them in accordance with the rules of usufruct." In tlie Franco-Prussian War the Germans sold 15,000 oak trees from the French State forests. In the present war they have cut a large amount of walnut timber from the Belgian State forests to provide material for rifle butts, and have done extensive cuttings in other forests for other purposes. They have also torn up many hiiles of State railways and taken them into the interior of Germany. See military Occupation. States Rights versus National Power. People frequently express themselves as if they supposed that the National Gov- ernment is prevented from doing certain things because if it did them it would come into conflict with certain powers or rights of the States, but this is an error. If a power is not given the National Government by the Constitution, then, by the tenth amendment, it belongs to the States or to the people. But if a power belongs to the National Grovernment, its laws passed by virtue of such power override all conflicting State laws what- soever. As the Constitution itself says (Art. VI, par. 2) : " This Constitution and the laws which shall be made In pursu- ance thereof . . . shall be the supreme law of the land . . . anything in the Constitution or laws of any State to the contrary notwithstanding." Applying this principle in the case of the war powers of the National Government, we see that these are limited in no respect by the powers or rights of the States. The only relation which the States can occupy legally toward the National Government in war time is that of cooperation. See Police Power; War Powers. Statistics Division. A subordinate agency of the Council of National Defense, which, in accordance with a resolution of the War Industries Board, adopted on August 17, 1917, is engaged in the work of collecting and making available information upon industrial subjects related to the war and to war prepara- tions. "Status quo ante Bellum." "The state of affairs which existed before the war." Friends and spokesmen of Germany are now urging this formula as a suitable basis for peace. The suggestion is impossible for two reasons : First, the status WAR CYCLOPEDIA. 261 quo ante can not be recovered. Thus Germany has, in the course of the; war, subordinated her allies and come to dominate their policies, and a mere restoration by her of her military conquests would not alter this fact. The second great objec- tion to the formula in question is that given by President Wilson in his note of June 9 to the Russian people : " It was the status quo ante out of which this iniquitous war issued forth, the power of the Imperial German Government within the Empire and its widespread domination and influence outside that Empire. That status must be altered in such fashion as to prevent any such hideous thing from ever happening again." See "No Annewations, No Indemnities "; "Mittel-Europa " Re- alized. Stockholm Conference. A meeting of Socialists of all coun- tries, scheduled at first for September, 1917, which was pro- posed by the Council of Soldiers' and Workmen's Deputies in Petrograd. The idea was that the Socialists of the warrin? nations might lay the basis of an immediate peace, over the heads of the belligerent Governments, which were charged with continuing the war for the benefit of the capitalist classes, and incidentally restore, in some measure, the vitality and prestige of international Socialism. The Russian Provisional Govern- ment accepted the scheme at first but later refused official recognition to the Russian delegates. The autocratic German Government gave its ready consent to the attendance of the German Socialists. In Hungary the Socialists were so sure of the eagerness of their Government to have them go that they threatened to stay away if the Government did not meet certain demands. The Prime Minister of Bulgaria not only had a long interview with the leader of the Socialist party bound for the first conference at Stockholm but saw the party off at the railway station. The pro-German delegates have skill- fully classified the delegates with a view to getting the men and groups desired by the German Government, and of the 202 dele- gates it was hoped to have present, the pro-German group counted on controlling 155. The American labor unions with a membership of 3,000,000 were given 4 members; the American Socialist Parties with 100,000 members, 16. Kerensky's Labor Party group in Russia was excluded. Similar devices for pack- ing the conference were used in regard to the French and English delegates. For these and other reasons the British, French, and American Governments refused passports to delegates from their respective countries, and tie conference has never met. See " No Annexations, No Indemnities." " Strict Accountability." " If the commanders of German vessels of war should act upon the presumption that the flag of the United States was not being used in good faith and should destroy on the high seas our American vessels or the lives of American citizens ... if such a deplorable situation should arise, the Imperial German Government can readily appreciate that the Government of the United States would be constrained to hold the Imperial German Government to a 262 WAR CYCLOPEDIA. Strict accountability for tlie acts of tlieir naval authorities and to take any steps it might be necessary to take to safeguard American lives and property and to secure to American citizens the full enjoyment of their acknovi^ledged rights on the high seas." (War Zone note, Feb. 10, 1915.) Submarine. CaMed. by the Germans U-boat, i. e., undersea boat, or submersible. This type of vyar vessel, while it may travel upon the surface, may also submerge itself and thus hide its movements from an enemy. While beneath the v?ater obser- vations can be taken by means of a projecting perpendicular arm, called a periscope. The submarine can discharge tor- pedoes while it is thus hidden from view and becomes a dan- gerous new weapon of military ofCense. The indiscriminate and inhumane use of this instrument of warfare by Germany has been the main cause of our entering the war. Submarines are of various types, the outgrowth of Ame^fcan Inventive genius, that of John P. Holland and Simon Lake. They are combated more or less successfully by nets of steel sunk in channels, in which their noses are caught, by fleets of destroyers, trawlers, and specially- constructed electric launches, by depth bombs, by low-flying airplanes supplied with bombing appliances, and by other means. See U-Boats; Shipping Losses by Mines and Submarines. Submarine Blockade. After various experiments with the submarine in attacking British warships, the German navy under von Tirpitz began, January 31, 1915, to destroy without warning British merchant and cargo ships. This policy was fol- lowed by the war zone decree of February 4, 1915, and reached its full development on May 7, 1915, when the passenger vessel Lusitania was sunk with a loss of 114 American lives. Owing to the protests of the United States, some pretense was later made of curbing tlie activities of the U-boats, but beginning February 1, 1917, the German Government inaugurated a new policy of sinking all ships found within the waters around the Allied countries, and Chancellor von Bethmann Hollweg revealed the fact that the apparent concessions to the United States had simply given Germany time to complete a program of submarine construction. Submarine Warfare, American Iiives Lost. American lives have been lost through submarine attack upon some 20 vessels, of which 4 were American, 1 Dutch, and 1 Norwegian. In one or two cases the vessel tried to escape and made resist- ance, and the loss of life was a hazard of warfare. In the bulk of the cases the destruction was without fair warning and without reasonable effort to give the passengers and crew chance to escape. Among the more flagrant cases were: May 7, 1915, Lusitania, 114 Americans lost ; August 19, 1915, Arabic, 3 Americans lost ; September 4, 1915, Hesperian, X American lost ; October 28, 1916, Marina, 8 Americans lost ; December 14, 1916, Russian, 17 Americans lost; February 26, 191T, Lacoma, 8 Americans lost; March 16, 1917, Vigilancia, 5 Americans lost; March 21, 1917, Bealdton, 7 Americans lost; WAR CYCLOPEDIA. 263 April 1, 1917, Aetec, 28 Americans lost. In all, up to our decla- ration of war, 226 Americans, many of them women and chil- dren, had lost their lives by the action of German submarines, and in most instances without the faintest color of international right. Submarine Warfare, British Losses. The following table shows by weeks the losses of British shipping in 1917 since the Admirality beglin the official publiciition of the totals. Week ending- Ships. Over 1,600 tons. Under 1,600 tons. Total. Week ending- Ships. Over 1,600 tons. Under 1,600 tons. Total. Mar. 4.. Mar. 11, Mar. 18, Mar. 25, Apr.l. Apr. 8., Apr. 15 Apr. 22 "Apr. 29 May 6. . May 13. May 20. May 27. June 3- June 10 June 17 June 24 July 1. . Julys.. July.15. July 22. July 29. Arig.5., Aug. 12. Aug. 19. Aug. 26. Sept. 2. Sept. 9. Sept. 16 Sept. 23 Sept. 30 Oct. 7.. Oct. 14. Oct. 21. Oct. 28. Nov. 4. . Nov. 11. Nov. 18. 18 24 21 23 16 18 23 23 18 28 16 13 16 18 25 18 12 6 17 Capt. Persius, in the Berlin Tageilatt, in November, 1917, admitted that the German Admiralty was grossly mistaken 'in its calculations, and that Germany has no reason for believing in the decisive influence of the submarine war. See Shipping, Losses hy Mines and Submarines. Submarine Warfare, German Defense. Germany does not pretend that her use of the submarine is in accordance with the principles of international law governing naval warfare. Thus, on the crucial point raised by her methods the German Prize Code of 1914 says : " Before proceeding to the destruction of the vessel, the safety of all persons on board, and, so far as possible, their effects, is to be provided for." Germany's apology for ignoring the accepted principles of law is threefold: (1) She urges the novelty of the submarine; (2) she cites England's unallowable extension of the blockade; (3) she pleads her ne- cessity. By the first argument, murder by a new weapon is not murder; by the second, the innocent are punished for the deeds of a third party ; by the third, the very idea of law is put in jeopardy. Submarine Warfare, German Hopes. " Give us only two^ months of this kind of warfare [i. e. unrestricted submarine warfare] and we shall end the war and make peace within three months." (Zimmermann to Ambassador Gerard, inter- view of Jan. 31, 1917.) 264 WAR CYCLOPEDIA. Submarine Warfare, lUegalities. The four chief counts against German submarine warfare are (1) that, for the belliger- ent right of capture, it has invariably substituted the practice of outright destruction ; (2) that, from the procedure of capture, it has eliminated the essential steps of visit and search, with the result that destruction is carried out with little or no warn- ing to the victims — Lusitomia; (3) that, for the duty of the captor to put those on board the captured vessel Into a safe place before destroying it, it has substituted " the poor measure of safety " of intrijsting them to the mercy of wind and wave in small boats many miles from land — Belgian Prince; and (4) being in itself a lawless practice, it leaves tiny vessel, neu- tral or enemy, passenger or freight, at the mercy of any brutal or heartless or cowardly commander of a submarine. See " Bel- gian Prince" ; " Lmsitania" ; " Spurlos Versenlct" Applied. Submarine Warfare, Tjegal Impracticability. In Its first Lusitania note (May 18, 1915) the State Deportment recorded, for the first time, its conviction, since frequently reiterated, of " the practical impossibility of employing submarines in the de- struction of commerce without disregarding those rules of fair- ness, reason, justice, and humanity which all modern opinion regards as imperative. It is practically impossible for the offi- cers of a submarine to visit a merchantman at sea and examine its papers' and cargo. It is practically Impossible for them to make a prize of her ; and, if they can not put a prize crew on board of her, they can not sink her without leaving her crew and all on board of her to the mercy of the sea in her small boats. Manifestly submarines can not be used against merchant- men . . . without an Inevitable violation of many sacred prin- ciples of justice and humanity." Submarine Warfare, Neutral Losses. Between xiugust 8, 1914, and April 26, 1917, 152 neutral vessels were destroyed by German mines and 695 by German torpedoes or shell fire from submarines. These comprise a total of 847 vessels vrith ascer- certalned tonnage of 1,653,654. Of this total Norway furnished 436 vessels, of 987,816 tons, and the lives of 5,000 sailors ; Hol- land, 76 vessels, of 148,921 tons ; the United States, 20 vessels, of 59,256 tons. The rate of destruction was placed by competent authority, early in July, 1917, as approximately 7,500,000 tons per annum, with approximately 4,500,000 new tonnage in sight, leaving a net loss of 3,000,000 tons. Submarine Warfare, Stages of. (1) December 24, 1914. Admiral von Tlrpltz throws out hints in a newspaper interview of a wholesale torpedoing policy. He directly asks, " What will America say? " This was considerably before the so-called Eng- lish blockade was causing Germany any serious food problem. (2) February 4, 1915. German Government proclaims a war zone about the Br^ish Isles and her Intention to sink any enemy merchantmen encountered in this zone without warning. (3) May 1 ( dated Apr. 22 ) , 1915. German embassy publishes in New York morning papers warning against taking passage on ships whicli our Government has told the people they had a perfect WAl! CYCLOPEDIA. 265 right to take. The Lusitania sailed at 12.20 noon May 1 and was sunk on May 7. (4) August 19, 1915. Sinking of the AraUc, whereupon von Bernstorff gave 'in crul pledge for his Govern- ment that hereafter German submarines would not sink "liners" without warning. (5) February, 1916. (After still more debatable sinkings) Germany makes proposals looking toward "assuming liability" for the Lusitania victims, but the whole case is soon complicated again by the " armed ship " Issue. (6) March 24, 1916. Sinking of the Sussex, passenger vessel with Americans on board. (7) May 4, 1916. Germany, in response to the threat of the United States Government to break ofE diplomatic relations with her, gives her "Sussex pledge." (8) January 31, 1917. Germany notifies our Govern- ment that she will begin " unrestricted submarine war " on the following day. (9) February 3, 1917. The President gives Count Bernstorff his passports and recalls Ambassador Gerard from Berlin. (10) April 6, 1917. American declaration of a state of war because of the repeated murder of Americans. See "Arabic"; Lusitania " ; "Sussex " ; etc. Submarine Warfare, Unrestricted. " The new policy [since January 31, 1917] has swept every restriction aside. Vessels of every kind, whatever their flag, their character, their cargo, their destination, their errand, have been ruthlessly sent to the bottom without warning, and without thought of help or mercy for those on board, the vessels of friendly neutrals along with those of belligerents. Even hospital ships and ships carry- ing relief to the sorely bereaved and stricken people of Bel- glum, though the latter were provided with safe conduct through the proscribed areas by the German Government itself and were distinguished by unmistakable marks of Identity, have been sunk with the same reckless lack of compassion or of principle." (President Wilson, before Congress, Apr. 2, 1917.) Suez Canal. A ship canal constructed across the Suez Isth- mus to connect the eastern Mediterranean with the Red Sea. It is about 100 miles in length and was constructed by a French company at whose head was M. de Lesseps. The canal is of vital Importance to England in that it presents the short- est sea route to India. The British Government at first op- posed its construction, then, after it was finished, through the purchase of the holdings of the Khedive of Egypt in 1875, be- came the largest stockholder. The canal, however. Is still the possession of an international company, and in 1888 an inter- national convention stipulated that it should be always open in time of war and peace to all ships of all nations. Great Britain signed this convention with reservations, but In 1904 agreed to accept its stipulations. During the war of 1914 the canal, hitherto unfortified, was put in a state of defense against an attack from Turkish forces, which were repulsed. The future status of the canal is somewhat doubtful, two possibilities being its fortification and control by England, or its complete inter- nationalization. See Egypt. 266 WAR CTCLOPEDIA. Sugar. The world supply of sugar for 1917-18 will be suffi- cient for the demand if it is efficiently distributed. Production has been reduced in Europe, but judications tend to show that Cuba and the United States and its possessions will have ade- quate supplies if they are properly utilized. The world supply for the present year is estimated at 18,659,792 short tons, a figure but slightly below the average for the five years prior to the war. The sugar crop of the United States estimated for 1917, consists of 225,000 tons of cane and 750,000 tons of beet sugar, both of which were above. the average crop of the past five years. The United States, however, raised only 22.9 per cent of the sugar consumed in this country in the five years before the war and 21.7 per cent since the beginning of the war in 1914, importing the bulk of its sugar from Hawaii, Porto Rico, and Cuba. The Cuban production for 1917 is larger than that of 1916 and 1915. In spite of an adequate supply the world may be confronted with a sugar shortage unless the .consump- tion in the United States is checked. One-fifth of the world consumption of sugar takes place in the United States. Sugar exports from the United States fell in 1916-17 compared with the previous year. A proper distribution of the sugar demands a larger exportation to the western Allies and a curtailment of the domestic consumption. Superdreadnaught. A name given to recently built vessels of the dreadnaught type. The displacement is 25,000 tons or more. The speed attained may be 25 knots or sea miles (a sea mile is 2,000 yards), and the main battery consists of guns of 13.5 inches caliber or better. A superdreadnaught is the last word in naval architecture. " Sussex." The English Channel steamer Sussex, unarmed and employed regularly in passenger service between the ports of Folkestone, England, and Dieppe, France, left Folkestone for Dieppe on March 24, 1916, with 325 or more passengers aboard, Including 25 American citizens. It was attacked by a German submarine at 2.50 p. m. Eighty of the persons on board were killed or injured, two of the latter being Americans. In re- sponse to the inquiry of the United States Government, the German Government admitted that one of its submarines had sunk a vessel in the Channel at about the time ot the disaster to the Sussex, but claimed that it was another vessel, of which it sent what purported to be a sketch made by the submarine commander. Later, however, it was constrained to admit "the possibility " that the submarine's victim was " actually iden- tical with the Sussex " ; and this in fact was proved conclusively by the recovery of fragments of the torpedo, which bore Ger- man insignia. " Sussex " Ultimatum. Secretary Lansing, in a note to the German Government dated April 18, 1916, commenting on the sinking of the Sussex stated : " If it is still the purpose of the Imperial Government to prosecute relentless and indiscriminate warfare against vessels of commerce by the use of submarines without regard to what the Government of the United States WAR CYCLOPEDIA. 267 must consider the sacred and indisputable rules of International law and the universally recognized dictates of humanity, the Government of the United States is at last forced to the con- clusion that there is but one course it can pursue. Unless the Imperial Government should now immediately declare and efEect an abandonment of its present methods of submarine warfare against passenger and freight carrying vessels, the Government of the United States can have no choice but to sever diplo- matic relations with the German Empire altogether. This action the Government of the United States contemplates with the greatest reluctance but feels constrained to take in behalf of humanity and the rights of neutral nations." " Sussex " Ultiqiatum, German Pledge ( 1) . The German Government replied to the Siissete ultimatum on May 4, 1916, with the following assurance : " Ger;nan naval forces have re- ceived the following orders : In accordance with the general principles of visit and search and destruction of merchant vessels recognized by international law, such vessels, both within and without the area declared a naval war zone, shall not be sunk without warning and without saving human lives, unless these ships attempt to escape or offer resistance." This as- surance was qualified however by the condition that the United States should " demand and insist that the British Government shall forthwith observe the rules of international law uni- versally recognized before the war," etc. The note further stated that : " Should the steps taken by the Government of the United States not attain the object it desires to have the laws of humanity followed by all belligerent nations, the Ger- man Government would then be facing a new situation, in which it must reserve itself complete liberty of decision." Secretary Lansing in a note dated May 8, 1916, replied : " In order ... to avoid any possible misunderstanding, the Govern- ment of the United States notifies the Imperial Government that it can not for a moment entertain, much less discuss, a suggestion that respect by German naval forces for the rights of citizens of the United States upon the high seas should in any way or in the slightest degree be made contingent upon the conduct of any other Government affecting the rights of neutrals and noncombatants. Responsibility in such matters is single, not joint ; absolute, not relative." No reply was made to this note by the German Government. See "Frye, WilUam P." "Sussex" Ultimatum: German Pledge (2). Germany intended to keep her pledge only so long as was convenient. This is proved by the statement of Bethmann HoUweg in his address to the ways and means committee of the Beichs- tag, January 31, 1917 : " We have been challenged to fight to the end. We accept the challenge, we stake everything, and we shall be victorious. ... I have always proceeded from the standpoint of whether U-boat war would bring us nearer vic- torious peace or not. Every means, I said in March, that was calculated to shorten the war constitutes the most humane policy to follow. When the most ruthless methods are considered best 268 WAR CTCLOPEDIA. calculated to lead us to victory, and swift victory, I said, they must be employed. This moment has now arrived. Last autumn the time was not yet ripe, but to-day the moment has come when, with the greatest prospect of success, we can undertake the enterprise. We must not, therefore, wait any longer. . . . As regards all that human strength can do to enforce success for the fatherland, be assured, gentlemen, that nothing has been neglected. Everything in this respect will be done." In short, it was never a question with Germany of keeping faith, but' of what would bring success most quickly. See Belgium, Violation of; " Notwendigkeit " ; " Kreigs-Raison." Sweden. A constitutional monarchy occupying the eastern portion of the Scandinavian Peninsula. It cpntains a land area of 158,692 square miles and a population estimated in 1915 at 5,679,607. Its capital is Stockholm. The king is _ Gustaf V, who came to the throne December 8, 1907. The queen is Victoria, a former princess of Baden. The official policy in the great war is one of neutrality, but the revelations in the Luxburg incident have cast suspicions on the sincerity of the Swedish Government. Sweden, Neutral Problems. Sweden has maintained her neutrality since 1914. The fact that Swedish trade is so largely in the Baltic has freed it to some extent from danger from the submarines, and, on the other hand, the German promise of the restoration of Finland to Sweden in case the latter should join the war on the side of the Central" Powers has not been strong enough to bring Sweden to give up her neutrality. Sweden's main international disputes have, thus far, been with the Allies. Alarge Swedish trade exists with Germany, and this has brought down on Sweden the rigors of the Allied blockade. Again, Sweden has suffered from the mail censorship, and has protested strongly against it. Finally, it has been recently proved that Swedish embassies have been transmitting messages of an un- neutral nature to Germany. The Swedish foreign office has pro- tested that they were unaware of the nature of the messages, and the affair is not yet fully settled. See Embargo; Blockade; Neu- tral Trade; " Spurlos Versenlct." Swiss Military System. The Swiss army is a force of militia receiving periodical training upon the principle of universal obligatory military service for men from 20 to 48 years of age. Anyone disqualified must bear increased taxes until the age of 40 years. The army is divided into three classes according to age: (1) The Elite, being men of from 20 to 32 years; (2) the iMtidivehr, or men between 33 and 40; and (3) a reserve of men from 40 to 48 years of age. Eecruitlng schools for the first year of service continue 60 days, for sanitary, veterinary, and transportation troops; 65 days for infantry; 75 days for ar- tillery and fortress troops ; and 90 days for cavalry. After the first year, annual training courses for the tlite last 11 days (with 14 days, however, for artillery and fortress troops). In the Landiffehr all branches of the service, except cavalry, take a repeating course of 11 days each four years. The more promising recruits are given additional training in schools for WAR CYCLOPEDIA. 269 noncommissioned officers, and if making a satisfactory record are still further trained for the commissioned grades. Officers serve in the Elite until 38 years of age, in the Lcmdwehr until 44. years, and remain in the reserve until they are 53 years of age. ,See Universal Military Service. Switzerland. A republican confederation of central Europe ■with its capital at Berne. Its area Is 15,951 square miles and its population in 1913 was estimated at 8,877,210. The Federal Parliament selects a Federal Council of seven members to act as the executive. Bach year the Federal Parliament names the president and vice president of this body, who act as the chief executives of the Republic. The president for 1917 is Edmond Schulthess. Svsdtzerland has acquired much renown as the home of the initiative and referendum. Its neutrality is guar- anteed by European -treaties and defended by a trained citizen soldiery of some 500,000 men. Switzerland, Neutral Problems. Swiss opinion was, at the start, divided between Germany and the Allies, as was to be expected ,in a nation part German and part Latin in race. But the Allied cause has steadily gained, especially since the German aims and German methods of warfare have been revealed. The feeling seems current in Switzerland that possibly her neutral- ity may be violated by one side or the other, and a part of her army has been kept mobilized to defend it. But Switzerland's great difficulty appears to be economic. She is in need of coal and other supplies, and Germany is only too willing to exchange these for foodstuffs and supplies of war. For that reason Swiss Imports have been carefully watched by the Allies lest ma- terials necessary for Germany filter across the Swiss line. Moved by her need of German coal she arranged a treaty with Germany by which that necessity was exchanged for Swiss food- stuffs, but in 1917 Switzerland gave up this arrangement and the Allies agreed to ration Switzerland with coal and other necessi- ties. See Emliargo; Neutral Rationing ; Overseas Trusts. Syria. A province of the Turkish Empire south of Asia Minor and including Palestine. Area 114,530 square miles, pop- ulation about 3,000,000. The latter is mainly Semitic in race, the majority being Mohammedans, although Christians and Jews are numerous. The country has been for many years under the influence of France, most of the missionaries being French, although there Is a strong American college at Beirut. In late years Italians and Germans have entered Into competition, the latter being especially strong through their indirect control of the Syrian railway. German institutions have been opened at Jerusalem and German traders have deluged the country with goods. During the war Turkish armies were organized in Syria to invade Egypt. At present a British force is invading Syria, which on November 22 had advanced to within 5 miles of Jerusalem. 270 WAR CYCLOPEDIA. T. Tanks. Heavy armored motor cars, propelled usually by " caterpillar drive " and used to break through enemy defenses, enfilade his trenches, or to cover attacks upon them. They were first used on September 15, 1916, by the British in their opera- tions on the Somme, and were the decisive factor in General Byng's brilliant advance toward Cambrai. See Cambrai. Tannenberg. An invasion of East Prussia by the Russians in the fall of 1914 was brought to a halt by the ba:ttle of Tannenberg. September 1, 1914. Here the Germans Inflicted a severe defeat on the Russians with troops hastily withdrawn from the west front. According to German authority, 70,000 Russians were captured. Tauscher, Hans. Agent in America of the Krupp works. He was accused on the testimony of one von der Goltz of a plot to blow up the Welland Canal in the fall of 1914. Brought to trial, he was acquitted of the charge, the jury feeling that von der Goltz, who had been released from the Tower of Lon- don in order to give his testimony, might have been influenced by promises of immunity. See Oerman Intrigue. Terauchi, Gen. Coant (1852— y. Premier of Japan since October, 1916. He is primarily a soldier, not a politician, and has always advocated a large military establishment for Japan. The annexation of Korea in 1910 was effected during his governorship, a position which he held until he was made Premier. Toward China Count Terauchi has adopted a concilia- tory policy. See Okuma. Terrain. A word of French origin, meaning the ground, and the configuration thereof, where military operations are con- ducted. Thomas, Albert. French Minister of Munitions, 1916-17. Born in Champigny, near Paris ; son of a baker, who gave him every educational advantage. Expert in metallurgy ; journalist ; historian. After deliberation he left the Catholic Church and became a Socialist, joining the extreme party, the Unified Socialists. Successively a municipal councilor, mayor, deputy to the French Chamber. At the outbreak of the war he started as sergeant, then became a lieutenant. Consulted continually by Millerand, Minister of War, on the subject of munitions, he was made undersecretary for munitions. In the reorganized cabinet of December, 1916, with only five members In the war council (compare England) he was made Minister of Muni- tions. It is said he has never failed to keep the French supply of shells at the maximum. He stood strongly against allowing French Socialist delegates to go to the Stockholm Conference in 1917. He resigned in September, 1917, because Premier Ribot could not give a definition of the war aims of France satisfac- tory to the Unified Socialists. As the latter party would enter no ministry with Ribot, Thomas was not included In the Pain- lev6 ministry of September, 1917. Tirpitz, Admiral Alfred von. Secretary of State for the German Admiralty (1897-1916). "Although only one of the WAR CYCLOPEDIA. 271 three heads of the navy (he was secretary of the navy)," says Mr. Gerard {My Four Tears m Germany, p. 257), " by the force of his personality, by the political position which he had created for himself, and by the backing of his friends in the Navy League, he really dominated the other two departments of the navy, the marine stafC and the marine cabinet." Tlie present German navy was built under his direction, and he Inspired and directed the propagation of the German Navy League. He continued to hold office while other ministers were dismissed. A special advo- cate of Schreokliohkeit (f rightfulness), he Inaugurated the Inhumane policy of sinking undefended passenger and cargo ships by submarines without warning. When that policy failed to yield the expected results he was compelled to retire. Since then he has been prominent among the Pan-Germans, who insist that Germany must gi'eatly extend her frontiers as a result of the war. See Anglo-German Naval Rivalry; "Frightfulness " ; German Navy; Submarine Warfare; War Zone, German. Tisza, Count Stephen (1861— ). Late Hungarian Premier. The son of a famous statesman, he entered politics in 1886 and became Prime Minister in 1903. He carried through the Diet new and stringent rules of procedure, but had to resign in 1905. He returned to office in 1913, to govern with an Iron hand. His home policy has been one of brutal Magyarization. In foreign affairs his hatred of Pan-Slavism led him to abet the coUapse of the Balkan league in 1918, and he is generally believed to have drafted the Austrian ultimatum to Serbia in July, 1914. During the war he has been a firm supporter of the German party which has taken control of Austria. When the new King, Charles IV, came to the throne with ideas of concessions to the non-Magyar races, the continuance of Tisza in power became an impossibility, and he resigned early in 1917. See Balkan Wars; Magyarisation ; Pan-Slavism. Tobacco. The tobacco crop of the United States promises to yield 1,221,186,000 pounds In 1917, as compared with 1,150,- 622,000 pounds in the preceding year. Kentucky leads in the production of tobacco, but with a smaller crop than the one produced in 1916. North Carolina and Virginia hold positions next In importance as to the volume of their crops. Exports of unmanufactured tobacco have fallen off in 1916-17. Great Britain was the heaviest importer of American tobacco in 1917, as has been the case in previous years. The amount taken by Great Britain was, however, noticeably smaller than in 1916. The value of tobacco manufactures has increased from $6,944,347 in 1915-16 to $15,552,544 in the past fiscal year. Most of the soldiers in the field derive much comfort from the use of tobacco, and Red Cross and other agencies of aid usually Include a supply of tobacco in the " comfort kits " they send the soldiers. Togo. A German territory In Africa, north of the Gulf of Guinea ; surrendered to Anglo-French forces August 25, 1914. "Tommy." "Tommy," or "Tommy Atkins," is the w^ord commonly used to designate the British private soldier. From 1815 the specimen or model forms issued by the Government In 272 WAR CTCLOPEDIA. the official army regulations were often filled In with the name of Thomas Atkins, thus : " Description, service, etc., of Thomas Atkins, private, No. 6 Troop," etc. From this practice origi- nated the custom of referring to the private soldier as Thomas Atkins, which was naturally shortened to Tommy Atkins, and then to Tommy. The term seems not to have been popularly used till late in the century. Torpedo. A development of great Importance in naval war- fare. It is associated with the names of Whitehead, an Eng- lishman, and other inventors. The modern so-called automo- bile torpedo in general use is of the shape of a cigar. It car- ries in its nose or head a charge of 250 pounds of guneotton, which is exploded by concussion when it strikes the object aimed at. Abaft the explosive chamber is an air chamber containing the compressed air which supplies the motor power. Behind this air chamber is a balance chamber containing the steering apparatus for directing the rudders. Behind this again, are the engines to revolve the shaft running to two screw propellers. Each torpedo contains two thousand six hundred separate parts and is a small submarine in Itself. A single torpedo costs from $5,000 to $7,000. See Mines, Sub- marine; Suhm,arine Warfare. Torpedo Boats. Small vessels whose main offensive arma- ment is a torpedo shot through a tube. They rely upon high speed, small size and a few light guns for defense. Their dis- placement varies from 50 to 300 tons. They travel t.t a rate running from 19 to 29 knots. See Destroyers. Trading with the Enemy Act. This act, passed October 6, 1917, adds to the powers given the President by the espionage act. It provides for the regulation of the foreign-language press, prohibits trade with " enemies " and " allies of enemies," and authorizes the temporary taking over by the Government of any property held in the United States for or on behalf of " enemies " or " allies of enemies." In the meaning of the act the following are "enemies" or "allies of enemies": (1) Any person resident within the German Empire, or within terri- tory of its allies, or within territory occupied by its or their military forces; (2) any person not residing within the United States who is doing business within any such territory; (3) any corporation created by Germany or Its allies; (4) any corpora- tion created by any other nation than the United States and doing business within the territory above mentioned; (5) any Government, subdivision of Government, officer, or agent of the German Empire and its allies. Thus alien enemies resident within the United States do not from the fact of their nationality alone fall within the act, while an American citizen not residing in the United States might. By Ex;ecutlve order of October 12 the President delegated the power vested in him by the act to various boards. See Alien Property Custodian; Censorship Board; German Insurance Companies; Press, Foreign Lan- guage; War Trade Board; War Trade Council. " Tracer " Bullets. Bullets that speed through the air illuminated, so that they may be watched from the time they WAR CYCLOPEDIA. 273 leave the gun until they hit the target. They are of especial use in enabling antiaircraft gunners and aviators to find the range of the enemy. The effect of the bullets when fired from a faachlne gun resembles a Roman-candle display. Training Camp Activities, Oommission on. To safeguard the health and morals of the armed forces of the United States a Commission on Training Camp Activities, under the chair- manship of Kaymond B. Fosdick, has been appointed by the Secretary of War, under an act of May 18, 1917. The commis- sion, working with the assistance of the Y. M. C. A., the Play- ground and Recreation Associations, and many other bodies, is organizing games and amusements at the different camps. The War Department has certain authority in the zones sur- rounding the camps, but the complete success of the work de- pends upon the cooperation of the several local communities. Transportation and Communication Committee. A com- mittee of the Council of National Defense. The term " commit- tee " is a misnomer. Mr. Daniel Willard, chairman of the Advisory Commission and president of the Baltimore & Ohio Railroad, is the committee. Under his leadership the waste and inefficiency resulting from the decentralization of the rail- road system of this country are being overcome. Railroads for the first time In their history have got together and worked out a common program for the efficient handling of freight and passengers. A special committee on national defense of the American Railway Association has been appointed to cooperate with Mr. Willard in this work. The chairman of this special committee is Mr. Fairfax Harrison, president of the Southern Railroad. Cooperative committees on telegraphs and tele- phones, on electric railroad transportation, and on cars and locomotives are also associated with Mr. Willard. See Rail- roads' War Board. Trans-Siberian Railway. A railroad extending across Si- beria and (together with its connections in Russia) composing an all-rail line from Petrograd to Vladivostok on the Pacific Ocean. The length of the Trans-Siberian railroad proper, from the Ural Mountains to Vladivostok, is about 4,500 miles; from Petrograd to Vladivostok the distance Is 5,620 miles. The railroad was originally built in the years 1891-1902 as a single- track line, but in 1908 the Duma voted the money to double- track it in its entire length. This work, however, has not been completed. When the war broke out the Trans-Siberian railroad became of great importance to Russia as an alternate to the Archangel route by which supplies could be sent from out- side for Russian war needs. But the Trans-Siberian appears to have proved unequal to the strain or else has been Incom- petently handled. The congestion along the route has been terrible, supplies have been delayed, and train service three days behind schedule is fairly common. The road also appears to stand in need of rolling stock and steps were taken, under skilled American guidance, to mend this deficiency. See Russia, Mission from the United States. 15963°— 18-: 18 274 WAR CTCLOPEDIA. Transylvania. A pi'ovince in southeastern Hungary, in- habited largely by Roumanians. When incorporated in Hun- gary in 1867 the people were guaranteed full protection of their rights by the law of nationalities, but in practice they have been subjected to the full force of the Magyarizing policy of the Hungarian Government. The 3,000,000 Roumanians have been denied adequate representation in the Parliament at Budapest, and their schools refused any public assistance. It was pri- marily to relieve them of this oppression that Roumanla entered the war against Austria-Hungary in August, 1916. The Rou- manians were at first successful, occupying a considerable part of the province, but they were driven out by the Germans before the end of 1916. See MagyarKation ; Tisza. Treason. The Constitution (Art. Ill, sec. 3) reads: " Treason against the United States shall consist only in levying war against them, or in adhering to their enemies, giving them aid and comfort. No person shall be convicted of treason unless on the testimony of two witnesses to the same overt act, or on confession in open court." " Giving aid and com- fort " to the enemies of the United States has been thus defined : " In general, any act clearly indicating a want of loyalty to the Government and sympathy with its enemies, and which by fair construction is directly in furtherance of their hostile designs." By " overt act " is meant an act, as dis- tinguished from the mere intention to perform it. It includes, however, not only " acts " in the colloquial sense, but also words, spoken or written. The penalty for treason is death, or im- prisonment for at least five years and a fine of at least $10,000. Treason and Disloyalty. " The United States has in existing statutes power to handle any situation likely to arise because of the ill-advised activities of disloyal agitators. In addition to the laws on treason are (1) the recent espionage act, de- signed, among other things, to punish spies, regulate the use of the mails, and punish those who abuse that use; (2) the selective service act, which provides punishment for those who fail or refuse to register or hinder or obstruct the enforcement of that act. It can prosecute those who willfully make or con- vey false reports or false statements, when the United States is at war, with intent to interfere with the operation or suc- cess of the military or naval forces of the Federal Government or to promote the success of our country's enemies ; also those who willfully cause, or attempt to cause, insubordination, dis- loyalty, mutiny, or refusal of duty, or willfully obstruct, or prevent the execution of the laws of the United States; also those who undertake to overawe the officers of the United States in performing their duties either by direct intimidation or threats, or by injuring their persons or property; also those who engage in seditious conspiracies to overthrow or levy war against the Government or forcibly oppose its authority." ( State- ment of Attorney General Gregory.) Treaties. International contracts, usually bilateral, but some- times, as in the case of The Hague conventions, involving many WAR CYCLOPEDIA. 275 parties. The effect of war on treaties varies with the nature of the instrument. Some treaties, e. g., those stipulating certain rules of warfare, become operative only upon the outbreak of war between the parties to them. More ordinarily, however, treaties between nations are regarded as suspended or abro- gated when they go to war. In the United States, treaty provi- sions which confer private rights are also " law of the land " and as such are enforcible by the courts. See President, Control of Foreign Relations; " Rebus sic stantibus." Treaties, Observance of. At the London Conference in 1871 the Powers, including Prussia, signed the following elementary principle of international law : " The Powers recognize that it is an essential principle of the law of nations that none of them can liberate itself from the engagements of a treaty, nor modify the stipulations thereof, unless with the consent of the contracting parties by means of an amicable understanding." (Opinions of Attorneys General, VI, 664.) " When I have made a promise as a man I try to keep it, and I know of no other rule permissible to a nation. . . . Would you rather be deemed by all the nations of the world incapable of keeping your treaty obligations in order that you might have free tolls? " (President Wilson, Independence Hall, July 4, 1914.) Trebizond. The most Important city on the Turkish shore of the Black Sea, captured by the Russians under the Grand Duke Nicholas, April 18, 1916. The Russians proceeded in three main columns from Erzerum, one operating about Lake Van, a second fighting in Persia and working toward Bagdad, while the third, supported by warships, moved along the coast of the Black Sea toward 'trebizond, expelling the Turks from the coastal towns. With the fall of Trebizond the chief mari- time base for Turko-German operations in Asia Minor was lost to the Central Powers. See Bagdad; Caucasus; Ergerum. Treitschke, Heinrich von (1834—1896). A German his- torian and writer, called by the Kaiser " our national historian," whose books have greatly influenced modern Germany. Born in Saxony of a family probably of Slavonic origin, he turned to Prussia as the State which could best unite Germany, and in spite of his deafness became professor of history in the Uni- versity of Berlin. His lectures were crowded with students — students destined to be the thinkers and leaders of Germany ; his pronouncements on German policy in the Preussiche Jahr- iilcJier determined opinion. He wrote history that glorifies the rise of Prussia ; he acclaimed the union of Germany and the an- nexation of Alsace-Lorraine as he saw it realized through the Franco-Prussian War ; he insisted upon the concentration of power in the German State and on the dominant position of that State in Europe. He was also a bitter opponent of England, losing no opportunity of ridiculing or attacking her. Treitschke pinned his faith to the great State; its rights were paramount. Wars which molded separate fragments into one great political unit, even if wars of conquest, were justifiable. His works be- 276 WAR CTCLOPEDIA. came cyclopedias of patriotism, and, being vigorously and entertainingly written, were and are widely read. Their aphorisms have become a part of German political scripture, their philosophy the creed of German statesmen. They may be summarized in the quotation : " War Is both justlOable and moral, and . . . the ideal of perpetual peace is not only impos- sible but Immoral as well." Not unnaturally the military Bern- hardi quotes Treltschke frequently and reverently — ftn the same page, indeed, with Machiavelli. See Bernhardi; MacMavellicm- ism; Nietzsche. Trench Mortar. A short gun with a vertical fire used to discharge bombs into an enemy entrenchment. The Germans were well supplied with this weapon of offense at the outbreak of the war and the Allies were hard pressed for trench artillery to cope with it. The German trench mortar discharges with a " dull boom " a sausage-shaped projectile, moving so slowly at first that the body of men whom it is designed to strike can often escape its force. Trench Warfare. The protection of troops demands stronger field entrenchments than have been necessary in previous wars ; hence the so-called " trench warfare," which during the last three years has largely taken the place of former tactics. Dig- ging trenches and throwing up breastworks for protection against the enemy's fire is, of course, not a new thing in war- fare. A complicated network of trenches now protects the men on both sides. The spade has become one of the soldier's best weapons of defense. The chief improvement in methods of de- fending entrenched troops is the increased use of machine guns, which must be put out of operation by artillery fire or by rifie fire directed against the gunners before infantry can advance di- rectly against them. There has been also a great increase dur- ing the present war in the use of barbed wire in front of the trenches as a means of defense. Through the use of wire and machine guns it is now possible to defend the front line posi- tions with smaller bodies of men than were considered neces- sary during the earlier years of the war, thus considerably re- ducing the losses entailed. See Artillery; Aviation; " Pill- boxes." Trentino. A mountainous district of Austria, inhabited by Italians, projecting into Italian territory northeast of Italy. The city of Trent has been the Italian objective in this area, though it has but slight strategic value. On May 31, 1915, the Italians were within 10 miles of Trent, but the cam- paign was not pushed with vigor. An Austrian offensive began in the Trentino on May 14, 1916. The Italians were driven 7 miles within their own frontier, but on June 18, 1916, the Aus- trians failed in an attempt to invade farther. See Italia Irre- denta. Trieste. The leading port of Austria, situated at the north- ern end of the Adriatic Sea. Its population in 1910 was 160,993, largely Itajian-speaking. Trieste is of importance in the pres- ent war as one of the places desired by Italy and claimed by WAE CTCLOPEDIA. 277 them on the grounds of nationality. It appeared to be one objective in the Italian drive of 1917. See Italia Irredenta. Triple Alliance. An agreement by Germany, Austria, and Italy in 1882 for their mutual defense. The full and exact text of the treaties still remains secret, but the alliance gave shape to European relations for more than 30 years. In 1914 Ger- many claimed to be bound by the treaties to protect Austria against attack by Russia. Italy, hovsrever, denied that Austria was attacked, insisted that Austria was the aggressor, that her designs in the Balkans would endanger Italy's own safety, and not only declined to fight in the Triple Alliance, but, later, entered the war against her old allies. Triple Entente. The name given to the diplomatic union of England, France, and Russia, formed to oppose the Triple Alli- ance of Germany, Austria, and Italy. Except in the case of Russia and France, there was no written treaty behind it ; the sole basis was a feeling of community in interests and desires. The first stage of the Triple Entente was the alliance in 1893 between Russia and France. In 1904 England, whose policy had hitherto been friendly to Germany and somewhat hostile to France and Russia, shifted her policy as a result of German aggressiveness and concluded an entente (understanding) with France. In 1907 the chain was completed by an entente be- tween England and Russia, due again to aggressive German plans, dangerous to both. The purpose of the Triple Entente seems to have been entirely defensive, and the German thesis of aggressive designs lacks any proof. See Allies. Triple Entente, a German Admission. In view of the con- tention of Germany that she has been the victim of a con- spiracy on the part of Great Britain, France, and Russia for her destruction, it is pertinent to quote the following statement, which was issued by the German Foreign Office in July, 1912, following an interview between William II and Nicholas II at a Baltic port : " The political conversations, which extended to all questions of the day, strengthened on both sides the conviction that it still remains of the highest importance for the interests of the two neighbor Empires and of the general peace to maintain the mutual contact based on reciprocal confidence. There could be no question, either, of new agreements, because there was no particular occasion for them, or of producing alterations in the grouping of the European powers, the value of which for the •maintenance of equilibrium and of peace has already teen proved." Trotzky, Leon. A Russian Anarchist- Socialist, whose real name is Leber Braunsteln, and who was associated with Lenine in the overthrow of Kerensky in November, 1917. During the attempted revolution of 1905 he wrote a book containing the most extreme socialist views. After some years in exile in Siberia he went to Berlin, which place he was compelled to leave early in the war, going first to Switzerland, then to Paris, then to Spain. From there he came to Cuba and to New York in January, 1917. While in New York he was the prin- 278 WAR CTCLOPEDIA. cipal editor of the Russian Socialist newspaper tliere, and was closely associated with the German Socialists. On returning to Russia he denounced America and American capitalism. See Bolsheviki; Lemne, Nickolai; MawimaUsts; Russian Revolu- tion of 19 n. Tsingtau. A German fortified town on Klaochow Bay, China, taken by the Japanese on November 10, 1914. See Kiaochow. Turkey. An empire of Europe and Asia, containing a European area before the Balkan wars of 65,367 square miles. This was greatly reduced by the settlement following the Balkan wars. The Asiatic territory contains 2,179,000 square miles. No complete census has been taken of the population of Turkey, which was estimated roughly in 1912 at 14,080,900, of which 6,132,200 occupied European Turkey. The capital of the Empire is Constantinople. The Sultan, Mohammed V, is temporal and spiritual head of the monarchy, which has been constitutional since 1908. The Grand Vizier is appointed by the Sultan and forms the cabinet. The legislative body is composed of a Senate and Chamber of Deputies. The franchise is exercised by all Ottoman subjects over 25 years of age, but the distribution of seats is so gerrymandered as to restrict the representation of the non-Turkish races. See Armenian Massacres ; Constanti- nople; Young Turks. Turkey, German Influence in. Not long after the treaty of Berlin (1878) German oiBcers, one of whom was Gen. von der Goltz, set about reorganizing the Turkish army. In 1888 Ger- man financiers, depending upon the Deutsche Lank, asked for a railway concession. In the next year the Kaiser, William II, visited Sultan Abdul Hamid. By 1891 German influence at Con- stantinople became evident. Germans in Turkey were directing the building of railways and Germans at home were urging the necessity of German railways to the Persian Guif. In 1898 the Kaiser went to Constantinople and on to Palestine, where he declared himself the friend of 300,000,000 Moslems. In 1899 Dr. Siemens, a Berlin capitalist, signed the Bagdad railway con- vention with Turkey. By 1900 the route was sketched, and in 1903 the Turkish decree was issued constituting the company. Although capitalists of other nations were allowed to share in financing the road, German interests maintained control over it. When the Young Turk movement culminated in the revolution of 1908 the Kaiser was quick to show favor to the new Govern- ment. German oflicers assisted the Turks in their two Balkan wars, 1912-13. The different moves have all been part of a general plan. For two decades German policy has been to create in Turkey a strong but subordinated military ally and to bring her within the German economic system. Rich territories in Asia Minor and the Mesopotamian Valley might be thus developed, an all-German route to the East assured, and Brit- ain's routes to India and her position in Egypt brought within striking distance. See "Berlin to Bagdad"; "Drang nach Osten"; Goltz; " Mittel-Europa" ; Pan-Oermanism. Turkey, Treaties with Germany. A White Boole published in August, 1917, by the Greek Government discloses the fact. WAR CYCLOPEDIA. 279 which was reported to Athens by the Greek minister in Berlin, that on August 4, 1914, a treaty of alliance was signed between Germany and Turkey. The secret was kept from the allies, who vainly tried for three months to keep Turkey neutral. During the war the Ottoman Government, with the consent of Germany, proclaimed its emancipation from all restrictions laid upon its freedom of action from time to time by the European powers, and finally, on January 11, 1917, a series of treaties between Germany and Turkey provided for German recognition of Tur- key's full sovereignty and her equality of status with all inde- pendent nations. Germany has also tried to bring Turkey into her economic net, but so far as is known the negotiations have not resulted in a definite treaty. See " Potsdam Conference." Turkish " Capitulations." In 1535 France obtained a treaty from the Sultan giving French consuls and ministers the right to settle all causes arising between French subjects in Turkey without interference by the Turkish officials ; and in the course of time other nations obtained a like immunity for their subjects. Our own treaty dealing with the matter dates from 1830. Early in the present war the Turkish ambassador informed the State Department that on and after October 1, 1914, the Ottoman Government had determined to abrogate these conventions or " capitulations," as they have always been called. The reason given was that such arrangements restricted " the sovereignty of Turkey " and constituted " an intolerable obstacle to all progress in the Empire." Henceforth, accordingly, the relations of Turkey to the powers were to be regulated by " the general principles of international law." All the principal na- tions, including even Germany and Austria, at once protested against Turkey's action, the final outcome of which awaits the end of the war. See Armenian Massacres. V. U-Boats. The common abbreviation of Unterseeiooten, or " under-sea boats." On September 22, 1914, a German subma- rine torpedoed in quick succession three British armored cruis- ers, Aboulcir, Gressy, and Hague, thus revealing the effectiveness of the new tool in naval warfare. But since then relatively few war vessels have been sunk by submarines. The signifi- cance of submarines had been debated on theoretical grounds by naval experts for some years. In 1913 the following strength in such craft was reported : England 72, France 68, Germany 22, Russia, 36, Austria 10, Japan 15. See Submarme; Submarine Warfare. " U-53." German submarine which arrived at Newport, R. I., on October 8, 1916, with letters for the German ambassa- dor, and soon put to sea to begin ravages on British shipping off the Nantucket coast. Among the five or six vessels sunk was the .steamer Stephana, which carried American passengers. The passengers and crews of all the vessels were picked up by United States destroyers, and no lives were lost. The episode, which was an eight-day wonder, and resulted In a temporary 280 WAR CYCLOPEDIA. tie-up of shipping in eastern ports, started numerous rumors and several legal questions, none of which, however, turned out finally to have been of material importance, as V-^3 vanished as suddenly as it came, and its visit was not succeeded by any of like craft. It is not improbable that the purpose of the German Government in sending U-53 to our shores was to convey a hint of what we might expect if we should become involved with Germany. See " Deutschland." Ukraine. A term, meaning " border," applied to the district in southwest Russia inhabited by the Little Russians, or, as they call themselves, Ukrainers. These people form a separate branch of the Slav race, speaking their own language and pos- sessing a tradition distinct from that of Moscow. They were not incorporated in the Russian Empire till the seventeenth century, and preserved their autonomy for more than a hundred years. Of recent years they had been quite restless against the Rus- sifying policy of the old regime. Several million Ukrainers, be- longing to the Uniate -branch of the Roman Church and living in Galicia, passed to Austria in 1772 in consequence of the parti- tion of Poland. After the first Russian revolution (1905) Ger- many and Austria-Hungary began intriguing in the Ukraine, in the hope of detaching it from Russia, while the Czar's agents were busy in Galicia fomenting disloyalty to the Hapsburgs. The result has been to rouse the Ukraine spirit and create a demand for national unity. Soon after the revolution of March, 1917, a demand was put forward for autonomy, which Prince Lvov refused, but which was conceded by M. Kerensky, and in September the word " independence " was freely used. The question will not be readily solved and may assume an interna- tional aspect. See Autonomy ; Russian Revolution; Slav. Ultimate Destination. See Continuous Transport; Continu- ous Voyage; Contraband. United States. The United States contained a continental population in 1916 of 102,017,312, the total population at that time being 112,444,620. The United States proclaimed its neu- trality at the outbreak of the war. On February 3, 1917, diplo- matic relations with Germany were broken ofE. On April 2, President. Wilson asked Congress to declare that a state of war existed with Germany, which was declared by Congress April 6, 1917. See Aim of the United, States. United States, Breach with Germany. On February 3, 1917, the President went before Congress to -inform it that he had broken off diplomatic relations with the German Im- perial Government. He said : " In view of this declaration [of the renewal of ruthless submarine warfare], which, sud- denly and without prior intimation of any kind, deliberately withdraws the solemn assurance given in the Imperial Gov- ernment's note of the 4th of May, 1916, this Government has no alternative consistent with the dignity and honor of the United States but to take the course which, in its note of the 18th of April, 1916, it announced it would take in the event that the German Government did not declare and effect an abandonment of the methods of submarine warfare which It was then em- WAR CYCLOPEDIA. 281 ploying and to which it now purposes again to resort. I have, therefore, directed the Secretary of State to announce to his excellency the German ambassador that all diplomatic relations between the United States and the German Empire are severed, and that the American ambassador at Berlin will immediately be withdrawn ; and, in accordance with this decision, to hand his excellency his passports." See Submarine Warfare, Stages of; War, Declaration against Germany. United States, Caribbean Interests. The growth of Ameri- can influence In the Caribbean has been a most natural develop- ment. Long before the Spanish-American War our trade with the countries immediately to the south of us had been rapidly increasing. To us has been coming the bulk of their exports, while they have been almost wholly dependent upon us for their imports. By our adherence to the principles of the Mon- roe doctrine we have defended them against European inter- ference and have become in some degree responsible for the maintenance of order on this side of the Atlantic. The close of the Spanish-American War found us in possession of Porto Kico and bound to protect and maintain order in .Cuba. A further extension of American foreign policy became necessary when we began the construction of the Panama Canal. Inter- vention for the repression of lawlessness and the establishment of bases from which to utilize our forces are parts of a pro- gram to make the Caribbean safe not only for ourselves but for whatever foreign interests may enter there. See Cuba, "Piatt Amendment"; Panama Canal; Sphere of Influence; Virgin Isles. United States, Champion of Free Government. "We have made ourselves the champion of free government ... in both continents of this hemisphere . . . the strong brother of all . . . in this hemisphere . . . who maintain the same prin- ciple." (President Wilson, to Railway Business Association, New York City, June 27, 1916.) United States, Interference in European Affairs. In con- formity with the advice of Washington against " entangling alli- ances," the United States has generally abstained from any in- terference in the affairs of Europe. Nevertheless the Republic of Liberia was founded under American auspices, the welfare of American missionaries in Turkey has always been a constant con- cern, and we were represented at two international conferences — Madrid in 1880, Algeciras in 1906 — dealing with the affairs of Morocco, as well as at the Conference of Berlin in 1884, dealing with African afCairs. Then, in the Far East we have come into close contact with European powers, and have often associated ourselves with them in the pursuit of a common policy, as for instance, at the time of the "Boxer" revolt in China, in 1900. But what is more significant still, our responsible statesmen have never hesitated to give expression to our sympathy with liberal movements in Europe. In this connection, see War Information Series, No. 8, distributed by the Committee on Public Informa- tion. 282 WAR CYCLOPEDIA. United States, Isolation of (1). In the years when this Ee- public was still struggling for existence, in the face of threatened encroachments by hostile monarchies over the sea, in order to make the New World safe for democracy our forefathers estab- lished here the policy that soon came to be known as the Monroe doctrine. Warning the Old World not to interfere in the political life of the new, our Government pledged itself in return to ab- stain from interference in the political conflicts of Europe, and history has vindicated the wisdom of this course. We were then too weak to influence the destinies of Europe, and it was vital to mankind that this great experiment in government of and by the people should not be disturbed by foreign attack. Keenforced by the experience of our expanding national life, this doctrine has been ever since the dominating element in the growth of our foreign policy. Whether or not we could have maintained It in case of concerted attack from abroad, it has seemed of such importance to us that we were at all times ready to go to war in its defense. And though since it was first enunciated our strength has grown enormously, although in that time the vast Increase .of our foreign trade and of travel abroad, modern trans- port, modern mails, the cables, and the wireless, have brought us close to Europe and have made our isolation more and more imag- inary, there has been, until the outbreak of the present conflict, small desire on our part to abrogate or even amend the old familiar tradition which has for so long given us peace. In both conferences at The Hague, in 1899 and 1907, we reaffirmed this policy. As our delegates signed the first convention in regard to arbitration, they read Into the minutes this statement : " Nothing contained in this convention shall be so construed as to require the United States of America to depart from its traditional policy of not intruding upon, interfering with, or entangling Itself in the political questions or policy or internal administration of any foreign State ; nor shall anything contained in the said conven- tion be construed to imply a relinquishment by the United States of America of its traditional attitude toward purely American questions." If, therefore, the present war has forced us to abandon, for the time being, our traditional attitude, and to come to the defense of international order and justice, at least the fault has not been ours. As Webster phrased it a hundred years ago, in language strikingly like that of Presi- dent Wilson to-day : " We are one of the nations of tlie earth — we have as clear an interest in international law as individuals In the laws of society." After submitting to unparalleled provocations we have joined in fighting not only for our own rights but for international law itself, without which no nation can be safe, least of all those democratic governments which are organized primarily for peace, not war. See Democracy, a World Safe for; "Entangling Alliances "; International Law, Sanction of; Why are We at Warf United States, Isolation of (8) . "America up to the pres- ent time has been, as if by deliberate choice, confined and pro- vincial, and it will be impossible for her to remain confined and WAK CTCLOPEDIA. 283 provincial. Henceforth she belongs to the world and must act as part of the world." (President Wilson, Oct. 5, 1916.) "The United States will never be what it has been. The United States was once in enjoyment of what we used to call splendid isolation.'" (Shadow Lawn, Nov. 4, 1916.) "And now, by circumstances which she did not choose, over which she had not control, she [America] has been thrust out into the great game of man- kind, on the stage of the world Itself, and here she must know what she is about, and no nation in the world must doubt that all her forces are gathered and organized in the Interest of just, righteous, and humane government." (Shadow Lawn, Oct. 16, 1916.) United States, Neutrality, 1914—1917. At the beginning of the great conflict the United States proclaimed its neutrality, for the war was incomprehensible, and it was not seen that our interests or our honor would be jeopardized. But the sea, hitherto our sure bulwark against aggression, became the source of danger, for both sides transgressed what we considered our rights on what is the highway of all nations — the Allies by inter- ference with our commerce, the Central Powers by the illegal sinking of American ships and the taking of American lives. The State Department protested against all violations, but it soon became clear that the controversies were fundamentally difCerent. With the Allies we disagreed as to the interpretation of the law of the sea, and owing to our treaties with them the dispute could always be referred to arbitration. But in the case of Germany the law was clear. Our contentions were admitted in large measure by the Berlin Foreign Office, and we were given pledges that our rights would be respected ; only, as time went on, these pledges were found to be mere " scraps of paper." Moreover, whereas we might collect damages from the Allies for their injuries to our commerce, no compensations could retrieve the loss of American lives. Thus, by the force of circumstances, while the appearance of impartiality was maintained, our Gov- ernment was driven to adopt the strongest possible tone toward Germany, while disputes with the Allies assumed less and less importance. Meanwhile popular opinion evolved as systemati- cally as the attitude of the Government. The American con- science, fully informed by press and propaganda, passed judg- ment on the authors of the war. It was revolted by the invasion of Belgium and the atrocities there committed ; it resented the reflections cast by German propagandists upon the American intelligence; above all, it was profoundly disturbed by the con- stant revelations of German intrigue against the internal peace and the foreign security of the United States. In shoTt, people and President moved at the same pace, and by the end of 1916 the patience of both was well-nigh exhausted, for by that time there was no doubt that the German military autocracy, ever dominated by the lust of power and relying solely on the power of the sword, had become a menace to us as well as to Europe. The announcement from Berlin, therefore, of unrestricted sub- marine warfare, on February 1, 1917, found the country ready 284 WAR CTCLOPEDIA. to accept the challenge, and to the President's acts in severing diplomatic relations with Germany and in recommending a declaration of war it gave an immediate and whole-hearted approval. See Why are We at War? United States, Neutral Services to Belligerents. At the outbreak of the war the United States was invited and agreed to take over the interests of Great Britain, Germany, and Austria-Hungary in the enemy country, and up to the sev- erance of diplomatic relations with Germany, on February 3, 1917, clischarged the task with great energy and efficiency. The most important task was the inspection of prison camps, to which Mr. Gerard in Berlin, and Mr. Page in London, gave much time. American officials, diplomatic and otherwise, took charge of relief work in Belgium, northern France, Poland, Serbia, and Turkey ; they assisted enemy aliens who were not interned in returning home or made possible the exchange of disabled prisoners. In general, our Government acted as a medium of communication between the two groups of powers, and it was primarily to us that the German peace note of December 12, 1916, was addressed, with the hope that we might use our good offices to secure a favorable response from the Allies. See Prisoners of War; Belgium, Cortimission for Re- lief of; Roumanta, German Treachery in. United States, a World Power. "We are participants, whether we would or not, in the life of the world. The inter- ests of all nations are our own also . . . what affects man- kind is inevitably our affair as well as the affairs of the na- tions of Europe and of Asia." (President Wilson, League to Enforce Peace, Washington, May 27, 1916. ) "Our relationships with the rest of the world are going to be incomparably more intimate In the years to come than they ever have been in years gone by." (Shadow Lawn, Oct. 16, 1916.) Universal 3Iilitary Service. The system of compulsory serv- ice, under which it is incumbent upon each young man capable of bearing arms to drill and familiarize himself with soldierly duties for a period of time, one, two or three years, that he may be In the highest degree useful to his country at the out- break of war. The system has long been in general use in con- tinental European countries. See Conscription; Draft; Selec- tive Service; Swiss UHlitary System. Unneutral Service. This is service performed by a neutral or a neutral ship at the behest of one of the belligerents. Ordi- narily, it consists in transporting military persons or intelli- gence. .Such a vessel is liable to capture on tlie high seas by the enemy, and to subsequent confiscation. See Cronholm; " Spurlos Versenkt." "Uti possidetis." "As you possess." By a peace made on this basis each side retains what it possesses at the close of war. Such a peace would leave the German Emperor master of northern France, Belgium, parts of Russia, Poland, Rou- mania, Italy, etc., while Great Britain would retain the German colonies in Africa. WAR CYCLOPEDIA. 285 V. Venizelos, E. K. ( 1864- ) . Prime Minister of Greece. He is a native of Crete. He first entered Greek politics in 1909, when lie was summoned by the King to deal with a serious internal situation. M. Venizelos restored national unity and piloted the country successfully through the Balkan wars. From the beginning of the European conflict he has favored the cause of the Allies, and several times urged King Oonstantine to join them. But the King twice dismissed his masterful Premier, who in turn set up a Provisional Government at Salonlki for the defense of Greece. After the abdication of Oonstantine on June 11, 1917, M. Venizelos again became Premier, and at once took steps to insure the effective cooperation of Greece with the Allies. See Constantine I; Greece; SaloniJci. Verdun. The military key to the west front, which the German Crown Prince tried to take 'in 1916. It has been, since 1871, the most important of the French defenses on the eastern frontier between the Argonne and the Vosges. During the Ger- man advance of 1914 Verdun held out under violent attack, al- though the Germans were able to push forward a deep salient to the south at St. Mlhiel. In February, 1916, the armies of the German Crown Prince began a violent assault upon Verdun, which lasted six months and which was conceived in the hope of compelling the retirement of the French in Lorraine and Alsace and also of reestablishing German morale. At first the German ofCensive proved irresistible and led to the capture of a large portion of the fortified area around Verdun and of such important forts as Douaumont and Vaux. But their losses were terrific. Verdun was called " the grave " by German soldiers', and the final check administered to their attacks by the French apparently marked the end of German ofEensive power on the western front. A counter offensive organized by Gen. Nivelle in October, 1916, and another in August, 1917, enabled the French at small cost quickly to reclaim practically all the ground they had lost in the great German attack of 1916. Virgin Islands. This group of islands, formerly known as the Danish West Indies, came into the possession of the United States in 1917, through purchase. The size and character of the islands make them of negligible value for their own prod- ucts ; they are wholly dependent upon the United States for a market and for their imports. But their position, commanding the trade routes from Europe to the Panama Canal, makes them of importance to the United States. Easily fortified, the islands are of great value in the defense of the canal and simplify the problem of policing the Caribbean. The United States has three times offered to purchase the islands. In 1865 a proposi- tion of Secretary Seward, whereby we were to acquire the islands for seven and a half million dollars, failed of ratifica- tion by the Senate. Again, in 1902, Secretary Hay concluded a treaty by which the islands were to become ours upon payment 286 WAR CYCLOPEDIA. of $5,000,000. German Influence is said to liave defeated the treaty in the Danish upper house. The third efEort proved suc- cessful and during the present year the islands came into our possession. The price paid was $25,000,000, five times the earlier ofCer. See Monroe Doctrine, German Attitude; United States, Caribbean Interests. Visit and Search. German submarine warfare has elimi- nated from the procedure of belligerent capture the essential step of visit and search. Belligerent warships having a right to capture certain classes of merchant vessels on the high seas, have the right to visit and search every such vessel, whatever its nationality, cargo, or destination, and must visit before attacking. " This Government . . . has acknowledged, as a matter of course, the right to visit and search and the right to apply the rules of contraband of war to articles of commerce. It has, indeed, insisted upon the use of visit and search as an absolutely necessary safeguard against mistaking neutral ves- sels for vessels owned by an enemy and against mistaking legal cargoes for illegal." (Secretary of State Bryan to Count von BernstorfC, Apr. 21, 1915.) See Armed Merchantmen; Capture and Adjudication; Resistance, Bight of; Submarine Warfare, Illegalities. Viviani, Bene. French statesman, belonging to the Radical- Socialist party. He was Premier of France at the outbreak of the war, but later gave way to M. Briand, in whose cabinet he accepted the post of vice president and Minister of Justice. He was the head of the French mission which visited the United States in May, 1917. M. Viviani is a gifted orator, who roused his American audiences to enthusiasm, and his speeches will long remain as among the most effective expositions of the issues of the war. Volunteer System, Defects of. Strictly speaking, all United States forces, except those drafted in the Civil War and selected for service in this war, have been volunteers. The Regular Army and Navy are filled by volunteers, and even the militia, although in early days all men not exempted were obliged to undergo some slight military training. Generally, however, the term "volunteer" has been applied to special forces raised to meet a national emergency and having their separate organizations. Such an army was provided for in 1798 with Washington as commander in chief, in 1812, and in the Mexican War. In the Civil War the Volunteer Army constituted the bulk of the Union forces. The same method was again employed in the Spanish War. Such Volunteer Army differs from the Regular Army in being organized for emergency service only ; it differs from the militia in being nationally organized. The volunteer system is defective in principle and faulty in practice. It is wrong in principle because it takes some who ought not to go and exempts many who ought to go. It shifts the responsibility of decision in a matter which concerns all to the individual or Ms imme- diate family. As to practice, "almost without exception, WAR CYCLOPEDIA. 287 eVery- war in which we have been engaged has been unneces- sarily prolonged by the failure to adopt sound and vigorous policies at the outset, by the volunteer system, by short enlist- ments, by yielding to mild preachments." In the Civil War the volunteer system had to be supplemented by conscription, which, however, was only partly successful because it permitted drafted men to hire substitutes. The Selective Service act contains no such undemocratic provision. See Conscription; Draft; Selective Service. W. Wall Street and the War. See "Rich Man's War, Poor Man's Fight." War Aims of the United States. Since the United States entered the war the President has upon three notable occa- sions clearly and explicitly set forth the American aim, the objects which must be attained by any peace to which the United States can agree: In the war message of April 2, 1917, the note to Russia on May 26, and the reply to the Pope, dated August 27, 1917. The war objects stated by the President in these historic documents were as follows: (1) Recognition of the rights and liberties of small nations. (2) Recognition of the principle that government derives its just power from the consent of the governed. (3) Reparations for wrongs done and the erection of adequate safeguards to prevent their being committed again. (4) No indemnities except as payment for manifest wrongs. (5) No people to be forced under a sovereignty under which it does not wish to live. (6) No territory to change hands except for the purpose of securing those who inhabit it a fair chance <)f life and liberty. (7) No readjustments of power except such as will tend to secure the future peace of the world and the future welfare and happiness of its peoples. (8) A genuine and practical cooperation of the free peoples of the world In some common covenant that will combine their forces to secure peace and justice in the dealings of nations with one another. In his note of May 26 to Russia the Presi- dent further said : " The position of America in this war is so clearly avowed that no man can be excused for mistaking it. She seeks no material profit nor aggrandizement of any kind. She is fighting for no advantage or selfish object of her own, but for the liberation of peoples everywhere from the aggressions of autocratic force." See Aim of United States. " War Babies." A nickname applied to a group of American industrial stocks, such as American Locomotive Co. and Bethle- hem Steel Co., whose values and profits have been so greatly inflated since the outbreak of the war in Europe that they have become the subject of wild speculation. It is the opinion of the President, expressed July 11, 1917, that no one has a right to get rich out of the war. See Profiteering ; War Chemistry. War Cabinet, British. The term " war cabinet " may be ap- plied to the Liberal cabinet of Great Britain in office from the beginning of the war to May, 1915, and to the reorganized coali- 288 WAR CYCLOPEDIA. tion cabinet which took its place until December, 1916, in both of which Mr. H. H. Asquith was Prime Minister. But it is more specifically used for the small council of five members set up at the formation of the Lloyd George ministry, which replaced the coalition cabinet. This new cabinet differs from the conven- tional British cabinet In its composition and in its relations to the department ministers and to Parliament. It is much smaller in numbers. It is not composed of department heads, but stands over these with a general power of direction. It is not a co- herent party group. It was not organized as the result of any formal vote in the House of Conunons, and neither the Prime Minister nor the other members regularly attend the sessions of Parliament. See Cabinet System; Coalition Cabinet. War Chemistry, Drugs. The necessary drugs and medlc- inals habitually used in -the United States have been cut off by war, and the production of substitutes and creation of home in- dustries have been the result. The cost of drugs has been generally increased by this disarrangement but the stimulation of the chemical industry has been a great advantage. The utilization of coal tar, benzol,' and ammonia, liberated by the by-product coke ovens, has resulted in a remarkable growth of synthetic medicinals, flavors, perfumes, etc., from coal tar, and the United States has been able almost fully to supply the home market with camphor. Imports in drugs have decreased during the last three years, while exports have increased enormously. Exports of sodium salts and preparations alone have increased from $3,141,022 in 1914-15 to $12,649,854 in 1915-16 and $18,- 381,450 in .1916-17. Some of the increased value thus indi- cated is due, however, to the condition of rapidly rising prices. War Chemistry, Dyestuffs. The production of dyestufCs previously supplied by Germany has been one of the great chemical problems of the last three years. Some German dye- stuffs have reached the United States through Switzerland, im- ports from that country having increased from $960,018 in 1914- 15 to $1,957,799 in 1916-17. The natural industry in indigo has been revived in India and some natural coloring has reached this country by importation. The bulk of American dyestufCs, however, has been supplied by American products and American made colorings and chemicals. The value of natural dyestuffs in the United States increased from $144,000 In 1914 to $544,000 in 1915, an increase of 285 per cent in less than 12 months. The domestic production of coal-tar dyestuffs has increased during 1916-17 until it can not only supply the American market, but has become an important export. Exportation in dyestuffs for the month of June, 1917, were valued at $1,461,646, as compared with $782,646 in Jvine, 1916. The chemical production of various shades and colors has furnished important subordinate items to the dyestuff prob- lem. "The commercial submarines, DeutscJiland and Bremen, were to a great extent built with money furnished by the dye- stuff manufacturers, who hoped that by sending dyestuffs in this way to America they could prevent the development of WAK CTCLOPEDIA. 289 the industry there. I had%iany negotiations with the Foreign Office with reference to this question of dyestuffs." (Gerard, My Four Years in Germany, p. 264. ) War Chemistry, High Explosives. Guncotton, nitroglycer- ine, trlnltro-toluol (TNT), etc., all compounds the manufacture of which, in this country, was In its infancy at the outbreak of the European war. One of the most important chemicals in the production of these compounds is sulphuric acid, which is obtained from sulphur and from pyrites, or "fool's gold." The principal source of the latter substance has hitherto been the Spanish mines, but submarine warfare has served to direct attention to deposits nearer home, those of Ovjba, the New England States, Alabama, etc. Sulphur is obtained In con- siderable quantities from Louisiana. Scarcely secondary in im- portance is nitric acid, which is obtained from Chile saltpeter. One of the results of the British embargo has been to cut ofC Germany's supplies of this substance, forcing her to obtain nitric acid fx'om the air by elaborate and expensive processes. Toluol and ammonia, both ingredients of high explosives, are obtained from gas and coke, distillations of which also lie at the basis- of the aniline dye industry. Thus Germany has cleverly combined the business of making gaudy colors for her neighbors with that of preparing to kill them. AVar, Cost to the United States. The estimated ordinary expenses of this Government in the first year of its participa- tion in the war is $12,067,278,679.07. This does not include a penny of what we have lent and are going to lend to our asso- ciates. It is merely the sum to be spent, with no financial re- turn, on the running of the Government in v/ar time, including, of course, the expense of the greatly enlarged Army and Navy on the new war footing. This total for the present year is $27,807,000 more than the Government spent in the entire 17 years from the beginning of the present century to the present year. On August 1, 1917, it was estimated that the war was costing as follows; Total to Aug. 1, 1917. Daily. Entente allies.. Teutonic allies.. 859,421,500,000 30,300,000,000 $76,700,000 40,000,000 89,721,500,000 116,700,000 See War Loans and Costs. War Council, Allied. See Interallied Supreme War Council. War, Declarations of. The following table shows the dates at which the war, or breach of diplomatic relations (the latter being shown in the following table in italics) involved the various countries : 15963°— 18 19 290 WAE CYCLOPEDIA. Germany. Austria- Hungary. Turkey. Bulgaria. ♦Aug. 4,1914 Apr. 13,1917 Oct. 26,1917 Aug. 14,1917 Sept. SI, 1917 Apr. 7,1917 Dec. 8,1917 ♦Aug. 3,1914 Aug. 4,1914 July 2,1917 Nov. 28,1916 Apr. 28, 1917 June 17, 1917 May 17,1917 Aug. 27,1916 Aug. 23,1914 Aug. 4,1917 Aug. 9,1914 May 18,1917 Apr. 7,1917 Oct. 6, 1917 ♦Mar. 8,1916 ♦Aug. 28,1916 ♦Aug. 1,1914 ♦Aug. 28,1914 Bolivia Brazil f^bina Aug. 14,1917 CostaRica Cuba...; Scuador France Aug. 12,1914 Aug. 12,1914 July 2,1917 Nov. 5, 1914 Nov. 5, 1914 Oct. 18 1915 Oct. 15, 1915 Greece July 2,1917 Nov. 28,1916 Provisional Gov- ernment Haiti Italy May 23,1915 ♦Aug. 27,1914 Aug. 20, 1915 Japan Montenegro Aug. 7,1914 Panama Dec. 10,1917 Peru tPortugal ♦Mar. is,i9i6 Aug. 27, 1916 ♦Aug. 6,1914 May 24,1915 ♦July 28,1914 July 22,1917 Dec. 7,1917 ♦Aug. 31, 1916 Nov. 3, 1914 ♦Aug. 31,1916 Oct. 19,1915 Kussia '. San Marino Serbia Aug. 9,1914 July 22,1917 Apr. 6, 1917 Oct. 7, 1917 Dec. 2,1914 ♦Oct. 14 1915 Slam United States. - Uruguay * War declared by a Central Power (named at top of column). In all other cases declaration was first made by an Entente Power. t In the case of Portugal a resolution was passed on Nov. 23, 1914, authorizing military intervention as ally of Great Britain ; on May 19, 1915, military aid was granted ; on Mar. 8, 1915, Germany declared war on Portugal. War, Declaration against Austria-Hungary. In his mes- sage of December 4, 1917, the President aslied Congress to de- clare war on Austria-Hungary, which was done on December 7. In the Senate the vote was unanimous, and in the House of Representatives only one Member (Meyer London, of New York, a Socialist) voted against the joint resolution, which was in the following terms : "Whereas the Imperial and Royal Austro-Hungarian Govern- ment has committed repeated acts of war against the Govern- ment and the people of the United States of America : There- fore be it " Resolved hy the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress assembled, That a state of war is hereby declared to exist between the United States of America and the Imperial and Royal Austro-Hungarlan Government; and that the President be, and he Is hereby, au- thorized and directed to employ the entire naval and military forces of the United States and the resources of the Government to carry on war against the Imperial and Royal Austro-Hun- garian Government, and to bring the conflict to a successful termination all the resources of the country are hereby pledged by the Congress of the United States." See Austria-Hungary, President Recommends War. War. Declaration against Germany. On April 2, 1917, the President read to the new Congress his message, in which he^ WAR CYCLOPEDIA. 291 asked the representatives of the Nation to declare the existence of a state of war, and on April 6 the following joint resolution passed : "Whereas the Imperial German Government has committed repeated acts of vs^ar against the Government and the peo- ple of the United States of America: Therefore be it "-Resolved hy the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress assembled, That the state of war between the United States and the Imperial German Government which has thus been thrust upon the United States is hereby formally declared ; and that the President be, and he is hereby, authorized and directed to employ the entire naval and military forces of the United States and the resources of the Government to carry on war against the Imperial German Government ; and to bring the conflict to a successful termina- tion all the resources of the country are hereby pledged by the Congress of the United States." See Aim of United States; German Government, Break with. War Finance. " Public finance " is the name given to the operations of Government in obtaining the wherewithal. Be- fore the present war the facts with which finance deals, and which are usually expressed in terms of dollars and cents, were often given an exaggerated importance. To-day, however, we' see that money, while a convenience, is not an absolute necessity in waging war ; that the prime essentials are men, munitions, food, and clothing. Indeed, even public credit need not rest on any immediate evidences of financial power, but upon the pa- triotism and resolution of the people. Finance, therefore, can do little to lighten the burden which war means to the com- munity as a whole, but it can do a great deal to distribute this burden fairly and equitably as among the different classes of which the community is composed and as between the present generation and posterity ; and this must be its task. See Bond Acts; War Loans, German; War Tax on Excess Profits; etc. War Finance, Lioans, and Taxes. The things used in the war must be on hand during the war itself, but the work of sup- plying them can often be shifted in part to other nations, and thus the amount of them increased, in return for engage- ments to be met in the future. Also bonds furnish a con- venient way for taking up the " slack " caused in certain indus- tries by the disturbance of war, while too heavy taxes may make inroads upon capital which is being used in producing the very things most demanded by the war. Both loans and taxes will, therefore, be needed in financing our part of the war, but it will be fairest to posterity, and in the long run, to ourselves, If we increase gradually the proportion of taxes to loans. The relative burden to be borne by the different classes of the community, on the other hand, will be deter- mined by the kind of taxation we have, both during the war and after it is over. Government should at all times get Its revenues from the kinds of taxes which are most equitable and so from income taxes rather than consumption taxes. The financial plans of our Government meet these various demands 292 WAR CYCLOPEDIA. admirably. We are already relying upon taxation to a greater extent than we ever did in the course of the Civil War, and our principal taxes are levied on incomes and profits at pro- gressive rates. See "Pay as You Oo " War; "Rich Man's War, Poor Man's Fight." War, German Ruthlessness ( 1 ) . " War," said Clausewitz, the great Prussian authority on the subject, about 1827, " Is an act of violence intended to compel our enemy to fulfill our will. ... In such dangerous things as war the errors which proceed ' from a spirit of ' good naturedness ' are the worst. ... He who uses force unsparingly . . . must obtain a superiority if his ad- versary uses less vigor in its application. ... To introduce into the philosophy of war itself a principle of moderation would be an absurdity." " Its procedure," echoes Hartmann, another Ger- man writer, " is completely ruthless." " Since the tendency of thought of the last century," says the War Book, compiled by the German general staff, " was dominated essentially by humani- tarian considerations which not infrequently degenerated into .sentimentality and flabby emotionalism, there have not been wanting attempts to influence the development of the usages of war in a way which was in fundamental contradiction with the nature of war and its object. By steeping himself in military history an oflScer will be able to guard himself against excessive humanitarian notions. It will teach him that certain severities are indispensable." " We are compelled to carry on this war with a cruelty, a ruthlessless, an employment of every imagin- able device, unknown in any previous war." (Pastor Baumgar- ten in Deutsche Reden in Schxoerer Zeit, 1914-15.) War, German Ruthlessness ( 2 ) . Feudalism plus science, thirteenth century plus twentieth — this is the religion of the mistaken Germany that has linked Itself with the Turk, that has, too, adopted the method of Mahomet. ' The state has no conscience,' ' the state can do no vsrong.' With the spirit of the fanatic, she believes this gospel and that it Is her duty to spread it by force. With poison gas that makes living a hell, with sub- marines that sneak through the seas to slyly murder noncom- batants, with dirigibles that bombard men and women while they sleep, with a perfected system of terrorization that the modern world first heard of when German troops entered China — German feudalism is making war on mankind." (Sec- retary Lane, before the Home Club of the Interior Department, Washington, June 4, 1917.^ See Atrocities; "Frightfulness " ; Hague and Geneva Conventions, German Violations; German War Code; "Hun"; " Kriegs-Raison" ; Suimarine Warfare. War, German View. The German theory of the purpose of war is stated by Bernhardi as follows : " War is an instru- ment of progress, a regulator in the life of humanity, an indis- pensable factor of civilization, a creative power." The same idea is expressed by Lasson: "War is the fundamental phe- nomenon in the life of States"; or, as Trietschke has put it, " War is the forceful extension of policy." The Anglo-American theory is difEerent and points to very different results. It is that war is primarily remedial, a redress of grievances, a method of self-help. And being a means rather than an end, with WAR CYCLOPEDIA. 293 the vindication of the law its object, the rules governing it must be foUovyed as a matter of course. More than that, how- ever, since vcar takes place chiefly for the lack of a better method of obtaining one's rights, the essential step in its abolition must be to supply something better. In short, where the Prussian idea of war presents it as a positive good, the Anglo-American idea presents it as a necessary evil, and offers the hope that it will not always be necessary. See Arbitration; Disarmament; German War Code; Militarism; Permanent Peace. War Industries Board. The War Industries Board, which acts as a clearing house for the war industry needs of the Gov- ernment, was created July 28, 1917, by the Council of National Defense with the approval of the President. It absorbed the work of the former General Munitions Board of the Council and also of the automotive committee and the committees on raw materials and supplies of the Advisory Commission. Of the members of the board, Mr. B. M. Baruch gives his attention in particular to raw materials ; Mr. Robert S. Brookings gives his attention in particular to iinished products ; and Judge K. S. Lovett exercises such priority control, including transportation, as is authorized to the Government. The board assists the pur- chasing departments of the Army and Navy, and in conjunction with the Federal Trade Commission assists the President in fixing prices of basic products, such as copper, steel, etc. In addition to the priority control which it exercises through the powers delegated to Judge Lovett by the President, it controls, with the assistance of the exports council, the buying of the Allies. For this purpose three of its members — Mr. Baruch, Mr. Brookings, and Judge Lovett — together with Mr. Herbert C. Hoover in food matters, constitute the Allied purchasing commission. " The luxuries of peace must give way to the ne- cessity of war. We must standardize, economize, and then produce, produce, produce. This country has three great neces- sities for making modern war — men, metal, and machinery. We must make them all available now," says the chairman of the War Industries Board. The members are B. M. Baruch, R. S. Brookings, Hugh Frayne, R. S. Lovett, Lieut. Col. P. B. Pierce, Rear Admiral F. F. Fletcher, and Frank A. Scott, who was chairman until October 25, 1917. See OounoU of National Defense; Munitions Ministry ; Priority. War Information Series. A series of pamphlets prepared and distributed, vidthout charge, by the Committee on Public Information, 10 Jackson Place, Washington, D. O. No. 1. The War Message and Facts Behind It. No. 2. The Nation in Arms, by Secretaries Lane and Baker. No. 3. The Government of Germany, by Prof. Charles D. Hazen. No. 4. The Great War : From Spectator to Participant, by Prof. A. C. McLaughlin. No. 5. A War of Self Defense, by Secretary Lansing and As- sistant Secretary of Labor Louis F. Post. No. 6. American Loyalty, by Citizens of German Descent. No. 7. Amerikanlsche Biirgertreue, A translation of No. 6. 294 WAR CTCliOPEDIA. No. 8. America's Interest in Popular Government Abroad, by Prof. B. B. Greene. No. 9. Home Lessons for Citizen Soldiers. No. 10. First Session of the War Congress, by Charles Merz. No. 11. The German War Code, by J. W. Garner and G. W. Scott. Other issues will appear shortly. War Insurance. See Soldiers' and Sailors' Insurance Act; War Risk Insurance. War Loans and Costs. As long ago as in April, 1916, the approximate amounts of the loans contracted for war pur- poses by the difEerent belligerent powers were stated to be $19,881,731,110 for the Allies ($7,903,145,000 for Great Britain and $6,590,053,000 for France) and $9,206,750,000 for the enemy powers (6,415,250,000 for Germany). This was a grand total of $29,088,481,110 for all war loans. It was predicted, on authority, before the United States entered the war that $75,000,000,000 would be its cost to all the belligerents on the third anniversary day of its beginning. As a matter of fact, at the end of three years, in August, 1917, the total cost was found to be $90,000,000,000, and the rate of expenditure was $117,000,000 daily. The statement at this time was as follows : United Kingdom ?26, 705, 000, 000 France 16, 530, 000, 000 Russia 14, 250, 000, GOD Italy — 1 5, 050, 000, 000 United States 1, 629, 000, 000 Other allies , 3, 250, 000. 000 Total - 67, 414, 000, 000 Less advances of one power to another _ 7, 992, 500, 000 Net total (or Allies 59, 421, 500, 000 Germany 19, 750, 000, 000 Austria-Hungary 9, 700, 000, 000 Bulgaria and Turkey 1, 450, 000, 000 Total 30, 900, 000, 000 Less advances 600, 000, 000 Net total for enemy 30, 300 , O OP, 000 Grand total cost 89, 721, 500, 000 War liOans, German. In an article entitled " The Neces- sity of a War Indemnity," by C. Oetleshofen, in Dos Orossere Deutschland for August 18, 1917, the crushing burden of the interest charges on the German loans is Indicated : " However great the economic strength of Germany may be assumed to be, we can not escape the fact that such an increase of expenditures [as 7.000,000,000 marks ($1,750,000,000) annual interest on war loans] will cripple the whols national economy. In the year 1913 the income of all individuals whose annual receipt were 3,000 marks or over amounted in the aggregate for the whole territory of Prussia to only 7,000,000,000 marks in round num- bers. The aggregate paid-in capital of all German business corporations, including incorporated banks, is but 15.500,000,000 marks, and their, reserve in round numbers 4,000,000,000 marks. During the relatively favorable year of 1913 they paid altogether WAK CYCLOPEDIA. 2&5 only 1,333,000,000 marks in dividends. Consequently the total dividends of all our corporations in Germany would not cover more than a fifth part of the annual increase w the Empire's expenditures." It should be added that this was written before the addition of the 600,000,000 marks annual interest (estimated) for the loan of September, 1917. War, liow Death Bate from Casualties. " Up to about June 1, the losses of the British expeditionary forces in deaths in action and deaths from wounds were about 7 per cent of the total of all men sent to France since the beginning of the war. It may be added that the ratio of losses of this character to-day, because of improved tactics and the swiftly mounting allied superiority in artillery, is less than seven to every hun- dred men." (Secretary of War Baker, Nov. 10, 1917.) War, Magnitude of. " I believe that the American people hardly yet realize the sacrifices and sufferings that are before them. We thought the scale of our Civil War was unprece- dented, but in comparison with the struggle into which we have now entered the Civil War seems almost insignificant in its proportions and in its expenditure of treasure and of blood." (President Wilson, Washington, May 12, 1917.) War, Object of. " The object of this war is to deliver the free peoples of the world from the menace and the actual power of a vast military establishment controlled by an irresponsible government which, having secretly planned to dominate the world, proceeded to carry the plan out without regard either to the sacred obligations of treaty or the long-established practices and long-cherished principles of international action and honor ; which chose its own time for the war ; delivered its blow fiercely and suddenly ; stopped at no barrier either of law or of mercy ; swept a whole continent within the tide of blood — not the blood of soldiers only, but the blood of innocent women and children also, and of the helpless poor; and now stands balked but not defeated, the enemy of four-fifths of the world. This power is not the German peoplcf. It is the ruthless master of the Ger- man people. It is no business of ours how that great people came under its control or submitted with temporary zest to the domination of its purpose; but it is our business to see to it that the history of the rest of the world is no longer left to its handling." (President's reply to the peace overtures of the Pope.) See American Creed; Democracy, a World Safe for; United States, War Aims of. War Powers. The constitutional powers of the United States Government in the conduct of war. The specific items of the power are: (1) The powers of Congress to provide money for the common defense, to raise" and equip armies and fleets, to declare war, to call the militia of the several States into the serylce of the United States in cases of insurrection or invai^Jlon, and to provide for the governance of the forces of the United States; and (2) the powers of the President as com- mander in chief of the Army ind Navy. These powers, as they have been construed and applied since the beginning of our 296 WAR CTCJXJPEDIA. Government, comprise the full powers of sovereignty in the conduct of war, either foreign or domestic. As Hamilton ex- pressed it in the Federalist, they are powers which " ought to exist without limitation, because it is impossible to foresee or define the extent and variety of national exigencies, or the cor- respondent extent and variety of the means which may be necessary to satisfy them ; " or, as Justice Story put it, the Con- stitution must be deemed to have provided the powers necessary for the national defense, otherwise " the country would be in danger of losing both its liberty and its sovereignty. ... It would be more willing to submit to foreign conquest than to domestic rule." See Congress, Implied Powers of; President's War Powers. War Powers, Lincoln on. " I am unable," said Lincoln in 1863, " to appreciate the danger apprehended that the Ameri- can people will, by means of military arrests during the Re- bellion, lose the right of public discussion, the liberty of speech and the press, the laws of evidence, trial by jury, and habeas corpus, throughout the indefinite peaceful future which I trust lies before them, any more than I am able to believe that a man could contract so strong an appetite for emetics during a tem- porary illness as to persist in feeding upon them during the remainder of his healthful life." Hamilton had expressed him- self to the same effect in the Federalist. " The idea of re- straining the legislative authority," he there wrote, " in the means of providing - for the national' defense, is one of those refinements which owe their origin to a zeal for liberty more ardent than enlightened." War Purchases of Munitions. By law our Government fixes the prices at which it buys its war supplies from the muni- tions makers. As the buying of the Allies is centralized, the same control of purchases will be effected by them. Before we entered the war, and while the Allies were bidding for supplies, there were highly exaggerated notions of the profits in the munitions business. Figures gathered -by the Treasury Depart- ment as a basis for congressional action showed that only about half the munitions makers of the country earned enough to make them taxable under the far-reaching excess-profits tax. The Treasury figures were based on the most profitable period, i. e., that before we entered the war, while buying was unregulated, no taxes were imposed, and labor and materials were obtainable at a lower rate than they have been since. See " Rich Man's War, Poor Man's Fight " ; War Taw on Excess Profits. War Relief. The most important agency for relief is the American Red Cross Society, which has been active since the outbreak of the European war. The sanitary commission, financed largely by the Rockefeller Foundation, made a re- markable record in the typhus fever epidemic in^Serbia. The Commission for Relief in Belgium carried on its work under most embarrassing circumstances, distributing millions of dol- lars In foodstuffs. The average monthly expenditure during 1915 was $5,000,000. The Carnegie Endowment for International WAR CYCLOPEDIA. 297 Peace has published a list of 40 organizations, with the total amount given by each up to dates which vary from January 1 to April 1, 1916, the grand total being $28,896,177.36. But the agencies and amounts spent in war relief have recently greatly increased. See Belgium, Commission for Belief in; Carnegie Endoioment; Red Cross. War, Responsibility for, in 1914 (1). In all her public utterances Germany to satisfy her own people has insistently claimed that the present war was forced upon her by her enemies. In the declaration of war against France she alleged that France had already violated German territory by the drop- ping of bombs from a French aeroplane on railway lines near Nuremberg. Tliis charge was disproved by the testimony of the military commander of that district. (Letter of Prof. Schwalbe in Deutsche Medizinische Wochensphrift, May 18, 1915.) Similar assertions, designed to prove the Entente Allies the aggressors, were contained in the Austrian declaration of war on Serbia, and the German declaration on Russia. First it was-Eussia, then France, then England that was represented as the aggressor who precipitated the war. Now, three years after the war's beginning, the German propaganda has returned to Russia. In particular much has been made of the alleged gen- eral mobilization by Russia before the German mobilization, thus rendering fruitless the efforts for peace which it is claimed the Kaiser was making; and garbled reports are circulated in and 'out of Germany of the evidence in the trial of the Russian gen- eral, Soukhomlinov, in September, 1917, as affording irrefutable proof of such mobilization. (See Mobiligation Controversy; Soukhomlinov. ) Even if this evidence proved all that the Ger- mans claim it does, the larger question of responsibility for the general situation out of which mobilization grew would remain unaltered. Mr. Viviani, the French Minister for Foreign Affairs, correctly summed up the subject in a statement July 31, 1914 : "All the impressions derived from Berlin bring conviction that Germany has sought to humiliate Russia, to disintegrate the Triple Entente, and. If these results could not be obtained, to make war." War, Responsibility for, in 1914 (2). See Arbitration, Oerman Attitude; Austria and Serbia, 1913; Balkan Question; Belgium, Neutralization of; Belgium, Violation of; " Berlin to Bagdad," Political Purpose; Bernhardi, Priedrich von; " Con- quest and Kultur " ; " Encirclement, Policy of " ; Orey and Brit- ish Policy; Oerman Army Act, 1913, Reasons for ; German Mili- tary Autocracy, Plan of; Oerman Military Autocracy, Propaganda for War; Oerman Military Autocracy, Responsibiliify for the Present War; Hegemony, Oerman Ambition; Kiel Canal; Lieb- knecht on Oerman War Policy; " Mittel-Europa " ; Mobilization; MobiUzation Controversy ; Morocco Question; Nicholas II, Efforts to Maintain Peace; Parv-Oermanism ; Pan-Slavism; " Place in the Sun"; "Potsdam Conference" ; Prussianism; Sazanov's Efforts to Maintain Peace; " Scrap of Paper " ; Serbia, Austrian Ultima- tum; Serbia, Reply to Austria; War, Oerman View of; William II; " Willy " and " Nicky " Correspondence. 298 WAR CYCLOPEDIA. War Risk Insurance. By an act of September 2, 1914, a Bureau of War Risk Insurance was established for tlie insurance of sliipping and commerce at reasonable rates. Up to June 30, 1917, policies had been issued to the amount of $623,964,598. By an act of June 12, 1917, the bureau was empowered to ex- tend its insurance to officers and seamen of American merchant ships. The protection includes indemnity for injuries and com- pensation during captivity, as well as insurance against death. Full particulars are obtainable from the bureau, which is In the Treasury Department, Washington. War Saving Stamps and Certificates. Provided for in the bond act of September 24, 1917, and put in operation December 3. The stamps are sold in two denominations — thrift stamps costing 25 cents each and war-savings stamps. When 16 thrift stamps are affixed to a thrift card the latter may be exchanged for a war-savings stamp by paying accrued interest of from 12 to 23 cents, according to the month in which issued. The war- savings stamps are to be affixed to certificates containing spaces for 20 stamps, and having a face value of |100. These will be dated January 2, 1918 and will mature January 1, 1923. If the 20 spaces are filled during December, 1917, or January, 1918, the cost to the purchaser will be $4.12 for each stamp, or $82.40 for the full certificate, and on January 1, 1923, the Government will redeem the certificate at $100, giving the holder a net profit of $17.60 for the use of his money. This is an excellent device for combining savings and investment with patriotic service. The stamps are for sale at all post offices and other public places. See Bond Acts. Warsaw. The capital of Russian Poland, into which the Ger- mans advanced after repelling the finst Russian invasion of East Prussia in 1914. Warsaw was threatened as early as October 13. The Austro-German forces pursuing the Rus- sians in their retreat from Gallcia In 1915 made advances toward Warsaw but did not reach the city. The German oflEen- sive of July 12-14, 1915, along the entire eastern front caused the Russians to shorten their lines about Warsaw. The fall of Ivangorod on August 4 forced the evacuation of Warsaw, and the Germans entered the city August 4, 1915. AVar Tax, Excise. See War Tax, Practical Effects. War Tax on Excess Profits. Under the act of October 3, 1917, a tax is levied on the net incomes of individuals, partner- ships, or corporations which (after certain permitted deduc- tions) are in excess of certain percentages of the Invested capi- tal of such individuals, etc. The rates are as follows : 20 per cent of profits not in excess of 15 per cent of the Invested capital ; 25 per cent of profits, 15 per cent and not in excess of 20 per cent of invested capital ; 35 per cent of profits. 20 per cent and not in excess of 25 per cent of invested capital ; 45 per cent of profits, 25 per cent and not in excess of 33 per cent of in- vested capital ; 60 per cent of profits, 33 per cent and better of invested capital. In addition, in the case of a trade or busi- ness (a term which includes the professions as well) having no War cyclopedia. 299 Invested capital or only a nominal capital, a tax of 8 per cent is levied on all net incomes, of individuals, above $6,000, or of corporations, above $3,000. Finally the tax of 124 per cent which vs'as levied by the act of September 8, 1916, on the net incomes of all persons, corporations, etc., manufacturing muni- tions, electric motor boats, submarines, etc., or parts of same, is reduced after January 1, next, to 10 per cent. War Tax on Incomes. Under the act of October 3, 1917, new income taxes are Imposed. The preceding law taxed the net in- ■ come of individuals in excess of $3,000 for an unmarried man and $4,000 for a head of a family. The war tax bill reduces the exemption of unmarried persons to $1,000 and of heads of fami- lies to $2,000, but grants an additional exemption of $200 for each dependent child. The surtaxes on Incomes of $5,000 and over are the same for all, as follows : Between $5,000 and $7,500, 1 per cent ; $7,500 and $10,000, 2 per cent ; $10,000 and $12,500, 3 per cent ; $12,500 and $15,000, 4 per cent ; $15,000 and $20,000, 5 per cent ; $20,000 and $40,000, 8 per cent ; $40,000 and $60,000, 12 per cent ; $60,000 and $80,000, 17 per cent ; $80,000 and $100,000, 22 per cent; $100,000 and $150,00, 27 per cent; $150,000 and $300,000, 42 per cent ; $300,000 and $500,000, 46 per cent ; $500,000 and $750,000, 50 per cent ; $750,000 and $1,000,000, 55 per cent ; $1,000,000 and $1,500,000, 61 per cent ; $1,500,000 and $2,000,000, 62 per cent ; over $2,000,000, 63 per cent. War Tax, Practical Effects. The war revenue act of Octo- ber 3, 1917, will compel the average citizen to pay, among othei-s, the following taxes : Approximately 2 per cent increase on incomes of $5,000 or less. Letter postage, except local letters, increased to 3 cents and post cards to 2 cents beginning November 3. One cent for each 10 cents paid for admissions to amusements, 5-cent shows and 10-cent outdoor amusement parks exempted. Ten per cent on all club dues of $12 a year or over. One cent for each 25 cents paid for parcel post. One cent on each 20-eent express package charge. Three per cent of all freight charges. Eight per cent of passenger fares by rail or water, except trips of less than 30 miles. Ten per cent of charges for seats, berths, and staterooms on parlor cars or vessels. ' Five cents on each telegraph, telephone, or radio message cost- ing 15 cents or more. Three per cent on jewelry. Three per cent on checkerboards and all kinds of games. Two per cent on perfumes, toilet waters, toilet soaps, etc. Two per cent on proprietary medicines. Two per cent on chewing gum. One cent on each dollar of premium for fire and casualty in- surance. Three per cent on graphophone records. Bight cents on each $100 of life insurance. 300 WAK CTCLOPEDIA-. The tax on whisky is increased from $1.10 a gallon to $3.20. The tax on beer is increased from $1 a barrel to $2.75. Increased tax on cigars, cigarettes, and manufactured tobacco and snuff. AVar Trade Board. Under the trading with the enemy act this board consists of representatives of the Secretaries of State, Treasury, Agriculture, Commerce, the Food Administra- tion, and the Shipping Board, with power to control foreign trade by license in order to prevent trade being conducted from the United States with or to the advantage of the enemies of the United States, to control by license the business of enemy, or ally of enemy, companies in the United States, and to exercise the powers of the Export Administrative Board of August 21. Ap- peals from decisions of the board go to the War Trade Council. The New York, offices of the War Trade Board are at 45 Broadway. War Trade Council, An appeal board consisting of the Secretaries of State, Treasury, Agriculture, and Commerce, the Food Administration, and the chairman of the Shipping Board, with powers, under the trading with the enemy act, to advise the President and the War Trade Board. War Vessels, BeUlgerent. By the established rules of in- ternational law a neutral may admit the war vessels of bellig- erent powers to its harbors on terms of absolute impartiality, but it is not expected ordinarily to allow them to remain longer than 24 hours except on account of damage or stress of weather. The vessels thus admitted may make such repairs as are abso- lutely necessary to render them seaworthy and take on enough coal to enable them to reach their nearest home port, but they may not, of course, augment their supplies of war ' materials or their crews ; and belligerent warships may not replenish their fuel supply a second time in a port of the same neutral within three months. Where these rules are transgressed, it is the duty of the neutral to intern the ofEending belligerent vessel. See Intern; Neutral Duties; Prizes in Neutral Ports. War Zone. The present war has brought into prominence the conception of a military area at sea, commonly called a war zone. " As established in practice, it Is aimed to secure many of the effects of a blockade, but its primary motive is to pre- empt a portion of the sea for a continuous naval employment." War Zone, British. At the very beginning of ,the European war Germany planted mines in the North Sea without notifi- cation, leaving them to deal death indiscriminately to neutral and to enemy, to combatant and to noncombatant. Toward the end of October, 1914, British trading vessels were sunk with loss of life, and neutral vessels, in all probability, escaped the same fate only because of warning given by British cruisers. The British Government on November 3, 1914, announced that " the whole of the North Sea must be considered a military area " in which vessels of all countries would be exposed to the gravest dangers from mines and warships unless they followed the route prescribed by the Admiralty. All ships wishing to WAR CTCLOPEDIA. 301 trade to and from Norway, the Baltic, Denmark, and Holland were advised to take the route by the Straits of Dover; all ships which crossed a line drawn from the Hebrides through the Faroe Islands to Iceland would do so at their peril. The British policy entailed unusual hardships for the commerce of the 'United States. The detention of vessels bound for neutral ports was &e chief grievance, and merchants and shippers be- sought the Government for relief. As a result, the Department of State on December 26, 1914, addressed to the British Gov- ernment the first formal protest complaining against the treat- ment accorded vessels and cargoes bound for neutral ports. See Detention; Embargo, BHtish. War Zone, German. On February 4, 1915, the German Gov- ernment declared " the waters surrounding Great Britain and Ireland, including the whole English Channel, to be comprised within the seat of war," and published its intention of sinking enemy merchantmen within this area after the ensuing Feb- ruary 18. Neutral powers were accordingly warned not to intrust " their crews, passengers, or merchandise to such ves- sels," and were urged to keep their own vessels out of said waters. The United States, on February 10, denied the legality of such a policy, and stated that it would hold the German Gov- ernment to " a strict accountability " for its actions. In the second Lusitania note, our Government declared that it could not admit that such a proclamation could operate " as in any degree an abbreviation of the rights either of American ship- masters or American citizens " on the high seas. On February 1, 1917, the German Government extended this zone to the west- ward and southward, including the Mediterranean, and pre- scribed certain markings for one American ship a week which would be allowed to pass through the war zone in safety. It was this announcement which caused President Wilson to hand Count von BernstorfC his passports on' February 3, 1917. Finally, late in November, 1917, the German Government an- nounced the establishment of a similar zone about the Azores. See Freedom, of the Seas, German View; " Strict AccountaMlity." " Watchful Waiting." The term applied by President Wil- son to his Mexican policy. " I do not hesitate to say, now that we see it in retrospect," says Carranza's legal representative in Washington, " that the policy pursued by President Wilson was the only one that could have produced the reestablishment of constitutional government in Mexico, and it has already proven to be the biggest asset the United States has in Mexico." (Wash- ington Post, Nov. 2, 1917.) It may be added that it has also proved to be the biggest asset the United States, has in the Western Hemisphere. See Brazil; Cuba; Ouateinala; Panama. Welland Canal. A canal 26J miles long, running through Canadian territory between Lakes Ontario and Erie. At least two attempts appear to have been made by Germans in the United States to destroy it, both of which were failures. See Sabotage; Tausoher, Hans, 302 WAR CYCLOPEDIA. Wheat, Price of. Under the food act the price of wheat (No. 1, northern, at Chicago) was set at $2 a bushel for the crop of 1918. The crop of 1917 was fixed at $2.20 a bushel on August 30, 1917, by the President upon recommendation of the special wheat committee headed by Dr. Harry A. Garfield, in " the hope and expectation . . . that this step ^will at once stabilize and keep within moderate bounds the price of wheat . . . and, in consequence, .the prices of flour and bread also." Wheat Supply, United States. The wheat crop of the United States for 1917 is estimated in December at 650,828,000 bushels, as compared with 640,000,000 bushels in 1916. Both of these yields are below the five-year average of 806,000,000 bushels. The normal demand for seed and domestic consumption In the United States is about 600,000,000 bushels, which, if continued at this figure, wiU leave available only 60,000,000 bushels for exportation to our allies and to neutrals. Wheat exports for the year ending In June, 1917, were 149,- 837,427 bushels, of which 144,486,749 went to the Allied powers and to European neutrals. To this must be added 11,942,505 barrels of wheat flour, 7,366,294 of which were sent to Europe. The needs of the Allies for 1917, at the lowest conserva- tive estimate, are 550,000,000 bushels of wheat. With a short- age in the world's wheat supply, it is obvious that the United States must materially enlarge its exports In order properly to support the war. Reduction of home consumption and govern- mental direction of exportation are the measures urged to efEect this increase. Wheat naturally came under the export control act of July 9, 1917. For the elimination of waste and reduction of home consumption of wheat, see Pood Control; Export Control. When wm the War End? ( 1 ) No one can fix the date biu the German people. The war must go on until they are ready to live the life of a peaceful, law-abiding nation. President Wilson says : " We can not take the word of the present rulers of Germany as a guaranty of anything that is to endure unless explicitly supported by such conclusive evidence of the will and purpose of the German people themselves as the other peoples of the world would be justified In accepting. Without such guaranties treaties of settlement, agreements for disarmament, covenants to set up arbitration in the place of force, territorial adjustments, reconstitutions of small nations, if made with the German Government, no man, no nation, could now flepend on. We must await some new evidence of the purposes of the great peoples of the Central Powers. God grant it may be given soon and in a way to restore the confidence of all peoples everywhere in the faith of nations and the possibility of a covenanted peace."' See ArHtration, German Attitude; Disarmament, Oer- man Attitude; German Diplomacy; German Intrigue; German Military Autocracy ; German People versus German Government ; International Law, Sanction of; United States, Isolation of. When will the War End? (2) This, the most frequent ques- tion of current history. Sir Robert Baden-Powell answers in the first annual report of the Canadian Patriotic Fund. " The war WAR CYCLOPEDIA. 303 Will be decided In 1935. The true victory," he explains, " will lie not so much in the actual tactical gains on the battle field to-day as in the quality of the men who have to carry on the work of the country after the war. War kills off the best of a nation's manhood ; therefore, extra care must be exercised to save every child — not for its own sake or for Its parents' sake, but for the sake of the nation. It has got to be saved — saved from infant mortality, then from ill health, and finally, from drifting into being waste human material. We must economize our human material. Each Individual must be made (1) healthy and strong, (2) endowed with character for becom- ing a valuable citizen of the State." See Child Welfare. When wiU the War End? (3) " The shortest way out of the war is straight through." (W. J. Bryan.) Why are We at War? (1) America no longer occupies a position of charmej isolation. In this war navies have trans- ported great armies thousands of miles. The wireless has kept Germany informed almost constantly of developments in the United States. German submarines have appeared in our ports and have sunk ships off our coasts. Already we are within the menace. Let disaster come to the British and American Navies and the war may be brought within our borders. To-day more than ever before we face the problem of defending with a real force or with adequate guaranties our traditional ideals of democratic rule and national independence. If Germany emerges from this war victorious and unreformed, then we, like France, Holland, Belgium, and Switzerland during the past decades, must shoulder a burden of military prepared- ness in time of peace such as America has never before known. Nor is this all. The war has taught the strength of the Nation in arms, as well as the pitiful condition of the individual in such a State. Should the German military oligarchy continue after the war to control internal and external policy, then the future is unsafe for us and the world. From this we must de- fend ourselves as well as the peoples of Europe. See America Threatened; " Der Tag" — When; "V-53"; United States, Isolation of. Why are We at War? (2) " It is plain enough how we were forced into the war. The extraordinary insults and aggressions of the Imperial German Government left us no self-respecting choice but to take up arms in defense of our rights as a free people and of our honor as a sovereign gov- ernment. The military masters of Germany denied us the right to be neutral. They filled our unsuspecting communities with vicious spies and conspirators and sought to corrupt the opinion of our people in their own behalf. When they found they could not do that, their agents diligently spread sedition amongst us and sought to draw our own citizens from their allegiance — and some of those agents were men connected with the official embassy of the German Government itself here in our own capital. They sought by violence to destroy our industries and arrest our commerce. They tried to incite 304 WAR CYCLOPEDIA. Mexico to take up arms against us and to draw Japan into a hostile alliance with her— and that, not by indirection, but . by direct suggestion from the Foreign Office in Berlin. They Impudently denied us the use of the high seas and repeatedly executed, their threat that they would send to their death any of our people who ventured to approach the coasts of Europe. And many of our own people were corrupted. Men began to look upon their own neighbors with suspicion and to wonder in their hot resentment and surprise whether there was any community in which hostile Intrigue did not lurk. What great nation in such circumstances would not have taken up arms? Much as we had desired peace, It was denied us, and not of our own choice. This flag under which we serve would have been dishonored had we withheld our hand." (President Wilson, Flag Day address, Washington, June 14, 1917. This address, carefully annotated and explained, can be obtained, free, from' the Committee on Public Information.) See German Intrigue; Submwrme Warfare; Zimmerman Note. " Wilhelmina." An American vessel which left New York for Hamburg on January 22, 1915, with a cargo of foodstuffs on board. Calling at Falmouth on February 9, her cargo was de- tained as a prize and was subsequently subjected to proceedings for condemnation. Ordinarily, the immunity of the cargo, which was consigned neither to the public authorities of the enemy nor to a fortified place, would not have been questioned. But on January 25 a decree of the Bundesrat made all grain and flour imported into Germany deliverable only to certain organizations under direct Government control; on February 6 this provision was repealed; and it had never applied to more than 15 per cent of the Wilhelmina's cargo, which was largely of meats, vegetables, and fruits. The im- portant question raised by the case was therefore whether Great Britain should treat as contraband foodstuffs destined for the civil population of the enemy. This question was never determined, for on March 11, the British Government instituted its embargo upon all neutral trade with Germany, and pro- ceeded forthwith, in accordance with the terms of the order in council, to purchase the Willielmina's cargo. See Blockade; Contraband ; Embargo; British. Wilhelmshaven. The chief German naval base on the North Sea, about 40 miles southwest of Ouxhaven, with harbors, docks, and all the equipment for a great naval establishment. See Kiel Canal; Zeediiigge. William II (1859— ). King of Prussia and German Emperor since June 15, 1888. William II's grandfather, William I, achieved German unity and established the German Em- pire, and greatly Influenced the Ideals of his grandson. Wil- liam II's mother was the eldest daughter of Queen Victoria of England. At his accession he declared to the army: "So we are bound together — I and the army — so we are born for one another, and so we shall hold together indlssolubly, whether, as God wills it, we are to have peace or storm." After forcing Bismarck's resLgnatlon on March 18, 1890, William II tele- WAR CYCLOPEDIA. 305 graphed to the Grand Duke of Weimar: "To me has fallen the post of officer of the watch upon the ship of state. We shall keep the old course ; and now full steam ahead ! " A few weeks later at Bremen he said, " It is a tradition in our house that we regard ourselves as chosen by God to govern and guide the people over whom we are appointed to rule, so that we may promote their welfare and further their material and spiritual interests. . . . We Germans shall succeed by vigorous striving toward the goal in accordance with the good maxim, ' We Germans fear God, and nothing else in the world.' " These three utterances summarize well his reign from 1890 onward : A devotion to the army and navy ; a restless striving to push forward in every field of activity, quite unaware that in so doing he could not possibly " keep to the old course " of caution which Bismarck had steered ; and an unlimited confi- dence in himself as the chosen of God. Endowed with an active mind and extraordinary energy, he sought to lead the way in political, social, and economic matters, to furnish the inspira- tion in literature, art, and science, and to develop the intensely modern materialistic Germany, with its overwhelming discipline, its progressive efficiency, and its expanding power beyond the seas — Deutschland uher Alles. By his ceaseless visits to brother sovereigns he may have supposed that he was knitting the ties of friendship and preserving the peace of the world, although these visits were often a burden to tha recipient and his efforts for peace were neutralized by sensational speeches which caused embarrassment to his ministers at home and concern to his neighbors abroad. See Autocracy; "Hun"; Kaiserism; Mili- tarism; "Willi/" and "Nicky" Correspondence. William n, Ambitions. " I hope it [Germany] wiU be granted, through the harmonious cooperation of princes and peoples, of its armies and its citizens, to become in the future as closely united, as powerful, and as authoritative as once the Roman world empire was, and that, just as in the old time they said Civis romanus sum, hereafter at some time in the future, they will say, ' I am a German citizen.' " ( Quoted by Christian Gauss, The Oerman Emperor as Shown by His Public Utter- ances, 1915, p. 169.) In 1900 William II boasted that " without Germany and the German Emperor no great decision dare henceforth be taken." And again : " It is to the Empire of the World that German genius aspires. God has called us to civil- ize the world ; we are the missionaries of human progress. The German people will be the block of granite on which our Lord will be able to elevate the civilization of the world." (Quoted by Herbert Adams Gibbons, The New Map of Europe, p. 31.) See "Place in the Sun." William n, Surrender to the Militarists. In November, 1913, the French ambassador in Berlin reported : " The German Emperor is no longer in his [own] eyes the champion of peace against the warlike tendencies of certain parties in Germany. William II has come to think that war with France is inevita- ble, and that it must come sooner or later. Naturally he be- 15963°— 18 20 306 WAR CYCLOPEDIA. lieves in the crushing superiority of the German army and In its certain success." (French Yellow Book, No. 6.) See Mili- tarism. " Will to War." A phrase used often by German militarists as a companion to a " place in the sun." " The will to war," they say, " must go hand in hand with the resolution to act on the offensive without any scruples, just because the offensive is the only way of Insuring victory." See " Place in the Htm " ; War, German Ruthlessness ; War, German Viem; " World Power or Downfall." " Willy " and " Nicky " Correspondence. The name ap- plied to a series of letters and telegrams exchanged between William II of Germany and Nicholas II of Russia in the course of the years 1904-1907; and made public by the Provisional Government of Russia. The series Illustrates the efforts of William II to rescue autocratic power In Russia from the discredit into which the defeats at the hands of the .Japanese In eastern Asia had plunged it, and also to bring Nicholas secretly to make alliance with Germany against Great Britain and to treat Russia's alliance with France, if need be, as a " scrap of paper." In case of war with England, Denmark was to be treated as Belgium has been in the present war, except that a preliminary effort was to be made to cause the Danes to see and accept the inevitable. The German Emperor telegraphed on August 2, 1905, from Copenhagen, whither he had gone on one of his numerous visits : "Considering great number of channels leading from Copen- hagen to London, and proverbial want of discretion of the Danish court, I was afraid to let anything be known about our alliance, as it would Immediately have been communicated to London, a most impossible thing so long as treaty is to remain secret for the present. By long conversation with Isvolsky [Russian ambassador to Denmark], however, I was able to gather that actual minister of foreign affairs, Count Raben, and a number of persons of influence have already come to the con- viction that in case of war and Impending attack on Baltic from foreign power Danes expect — ^thelr Inability and helpless- ness to uphold even shadow of neutrality against invasion being evident — that Russia and Germany will immediately take steps to safeguard their interests ty laying hands on Den/mark and occupying it during the war. As this would at the same time guarantee territory and future existence of dynasty and coun- try, the Danes are slowly resigning themselves to this alterna- tive and making up their minds accordingly. This being ex- actly what you wished and hoped for, I thought it better not to touch on the subject with Danes and refrained from making any allusions. It is better to let the Idea develop and ripen in their heads and let them draw final conclusions themselves, so that they will of their own accord be moved to lean upon us and fall In line with our two countries. Tout vient d qui sait attendre. . . . — Willy." Another series of similar letters exchanged immediately be- fore tjie outbreak of the war shows that the Kaiser strove to WAR CYCLOPEDIA. 307 bring the Czar to stop the Russian mobilization, while the Czar strove to persuade the Kaiser to submit the Austro-Serblan dis- pute to international arbitration. See Nicholas II, Efforts to Maintain Peace. Wilson, President, Quoted. Aim of United States, page 8 ; alien groups in America, 11 ; America, creed of, 13 ; " America first," 13 ; American Alliance of Labor and Democracy, 14 ; Armed neutrality toward Germany, 19 ; Austria-Hungary, rec- ommends war on, 24 ; " Battle line of democracy," 80 ; " Central Europe," 115 ; chauvinism, 54 ; civilian relief, 56 ; civilian tasks, 56 ; civilization, 147 ; democracy as a social system, 73-74 ; democracy the best preventive of war, 74 ; democracy, a world safe for, 74 ; diplomacy, 77 ; disarmament, 79 ; education in war time, 84 ; entangling alliances, 87 ; equality of nations, 87 ; food economy campaign, 97 ; " Pour Minute " men, 99 ; freedom of the seas, 102 ; German Government, bad faith of, 112 ; German in- trigue in the United States, 113; German military autocracy, plan of, 115 ; German military autocracy, responsible for present war, 116 ; German military autocracy, spirit, 116-117 ; German military dominance, 117 ; German peace intrigue, method, 117- 118 ; German peace intrigue, motive, 118-119 ; German people vs. German Government, 120 ; Germany, break with, 280-281 , hu- manity, rights of, 132 ; hyphenated Americans, 133 ; intrigue and peace, 138 ; labor and the war, 14, 148-149 ; Latin America, 150-151 ; league to enforce peace, America's duty, 152 ; " melting pot," 166-167; militarism, the spirit of, 169; Monroe doctrine to-day, 177; morality of nations, 178; not a banker's war, etc., 238 ; pacifists, 201 ; peace overtures, papel, 209-210 ; peace with honor, 212 ; permanent peace, 212-213 ; profiteering, 224-225 ; registration, military, 234 ; property rights vs. lives, 239 ; " strict accountability," 261-262 ; submarine warfare, unrestricted, 265 ; treaties, observance of, 275 ; United States, break with Ger- many, 280-281 ; United States, the champion of free government, 281; United States, isolation of, 282-283; United States, a world power, 284 ; war aims of the United States, 8, 287 ; war, magnitude of, 295 ; war, object of, 295 ; when the war will end, 302-303 ; why we are in the war, 303-304 ; world peace and world opinion, 309. " Windber." An American vessel, from which, while it was at sea, the steward, one Piepenbrink, was removed by a French cruiser. In answer to our Government's protest (dated Dec. 7, 1914), the British Government sought to extenu- ate the act on the ground that, while Piepenbrink had declared his intention of becoming an American citizen, he was actually still a German subject. Our Government replied that he was an American citizen in contemplation of the law, but that whether he was or not, his removal was without justification, citing the case of the Trent. Eventually the British and French Governments agreed to Piepenbrink's release " as a special favor, while reserving the question of principle." Wireless Stations. In order to prevent the American coast from becoming a base of operations of either of the belligerents, 308 WAR CYCLOPEDIA. the President, on August 5, 1914, issued a proclamation forbid- ding all radio stations within the United States " from transmit- ting or receiving for delivery messages of an unneutral nature." This order having been indifEerently observed, one month later the Government took over the station at Siasconset, while the one at Sayville, which had been put by its owners practically at the disposal of the German Government, was closed. See Base of Naval Operations; Panama Canal During War. Woman's Committee of the Council of National Defense. A group of 10 representative women of the United States, ap- pointed by the Council of National Defense, April 21, 1917, to coordinate and centralize the war work of women. The mem- bers are Dr. Anna Howard Shaw, of New York, chairman; Miss Ida TarbeU, of New York, vice chairman ; Mrs. Philip N. Moore, of St. Louis, secretary; Mrs. Stanley McCormick, of Boston, treasurer ; Mrs. Josiah B. Co\yles, of California ; Miss Maud Wetmore, of Rhode Island; Mrs. Carrie Chapman Catt, of New York ; Mrs. Antoinette Funk, of Illinois ; Mrs. Joseph R. Lamar, of Georgia ; and Miss Agnes Nestor, of Illinois. The organization has State divisions in 48 States, and acts as a mouthpiece of the Government, sending messages to women, stimulating patriotic service, and supplying a channel for effec- tive prosecution of war work. There are 10 departments or sub- committees finding their counterpart in State, county, and civic units, namely, registration, food production and home economics, food administration, women in industry, child welfare, mainte- nance of existing social service agencies, health and recreation, education. Liberty Loan, and h