TP (O HS7 CORNELL UNIVERSITY LIBRARY BOUGHT WITH THE INCOME OF THE SAGE ENDOWMENT FUND GIVEN IN 1891 BY HENRY WILLIAMS SAGE CM£MJSTRY LIBRARY TP 10.H67'T909""'"""*'*^ ""^jeyj «wentleth century book of reclp 3 1924 004 933 945 - Cornell University Library The original of tiiis book is in tine Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924004933945 HENLEY'S TWENTIETH CENTURY BOOK OF RECIPES, FORMULAS AND PROCESSES r HENLEY'S TWENTIETH CENTURY BOOK OF RECIPES, FORMULAS AND PROCESSES CONTAINING NEARLY TEN THOUSAND SELECTED SCIENTIFIC, CHEM- ICAL, TECHNICAL AND HOUSEHOLD RECIPES, FORMU- LAS AND PROCESSES FOR USE IN THE LABORATORY, THE OFFICE, THE WORKSHOP AND IN THE HOME EDITED BY GARDNER D. HISCOX, ME. AUTHOR OF "MECHANICAL MOVEMENTS, POWERS AND DEVICES," "GAS, GASOLINE AND OIL ENGINES," ETC. ILLUSTRATED NEW YORK THE NORMAN W. HENLEY PUBLISHING 132 NASSAU STREET 1909 COMPANY A- 1!.\^£-9.Z COPYRTGHT, 1907, BY THE NORMAN W. HENLEY PUBLISHING COMPANY Also, Entered at Stationers' Hall Court, London, England All rights reserved COMPOSITION, ELBCTROTTPING, AND PRINTING BY THE TROW PRESS, NEW YORK, U. S. A. PREFACE In compiling this book of formulas, recipes and processes, the Editor has endeavored to meet primarily the practical requirements of the me- chanic, the manufacturer, the artisan, and the housewife. An idea) book for this purpose would naturally include only formulas and recipes which have been carefully tested. Such a course would have been im- practicable, for the reason that chemical or technological tests of several thousand processes would have taxed the resomres of a large laboratory, would have entailed a prohibitive expense, and would have required years of painstaking labor. The next best course is naturally the selection of recipes from trust- worthy sources. It is this simpler course which the Editor has adopted. Inasmuch as the authorities whom he has consulted have themselves in many cases spared no pains in obtaining accuracy, the Editor has reason to believe that the recipes to be found in the following pages will be found sufficiently correct, in the main, for the needs of everyday life. ■ In addition to exercising the utmost care in selecting his materials from competent sources, the Editor has also modified formulas which were ob- viously ill adapted for his needs, but were still valuable if altered. Proc- esses of questionable merit he has discarded. By adhering to this plan the Editor trusts that he has succeeded in preparing a repository of useful knowledge representing the experience of practical men in every branch of technical achievement. Rliieli of the matter has been specially trans- lated for this work from foreign technological periodicals and books. In this v/:i\ the Editor has succeeded, he hopes, in embodying much practical information otherwise inaccessible to most English-speaking people. Each recipe is to be regarded as a basis of expei'iment, to be modified to suit the particular purpose in hand, or the peculiar conditions which may affect the experimenter. Chemicals are rarely of uniform relative purity and strength ; heat or cold may markedly influence the result ob- biined, and lack of skill in the handling of utensils and instmments may often cause failure. Inasmuch as a particular formula may not always be applieal)le, the Editor has thought it advisable to give as many recipes T 8 PREFACE as his limited space would allow under each heading. Sometimes a series of formulas is given which apparently differ but slightly in their ingre- dients. This has been done on the principle that one, at least, will answer the purpose in hand. Recognizing the fact that works of a similar character are not un- known, the Editor has endeavored to present in these pages the most modern methods and formulas. Naturally, old recipes which have proven their value by long use are also included, particularly where no very noteworthy advance has been made. THE EDITOR. February, 1907. HENLEY'S BOOK OF RECIPES ABRASION REMEDY: See Cosmetics and Ointments. ABSINTHE : See Wines and Liquors. Acid-Proofing An Acid-Proof Table Top.— 1. Copper sulphate 1 part Potassium chlorate. ... 1 part Water 8 parts Boil until salts are dissolved. Aniline hydrochlorate. 3 parts Water 20 parts Or, if more readily procurable: Aniline 6 parts Hydrochloric acid 9 parts Water 50 parts By the use ot a brush two coats of so- lution No. 1 are applied while hot; the sec- ond coat as soon as the first is dry. Then two coats of solution No. 2, and the wood allowed to dry thoroughly. Later, a coat of raw linseed oil is to be applied, using a cloth instead of a brush, in order to get a thinner coat of the oil. A writer in the Journal of Applied Microscopy states that he has used this method upon some old laboratory tables which had been finished in the usual way, the wood having been filled oiled, and varnished. After scraping off the varnish down to the wood, the solutions were ap- plied, and the result was very satisfac- tory. After some experimentations the for- mula was modified without materially affecting the cost, and apparently in- creasing the resistance of the wood to the action of strong acids and alkalies. The modified formula follows: 1. Iron sulphate 4 parts Copper sulphate 4 parts Potassium permanga- nate 8 parts Water, q. s 100 parts 2. Aniline 12 parts Hydrochloric acid .... 18 parts Water, q. s 100 parts Or: Aniline hydrochlorate 16 parts Water, q. s 100 parts Solution No. 2 has not been changed, except to arrange the parts per hundred. The method of application is the same, except that after solution No. 1 has dried, the excess of the solution which has dried upon the surface of the wood is thor- oughly rubbed off before the application of solution No. 2. The black color does not appear at once, but usually requires a few hours before becoming ebony black. The linseed oil may be diluted with turpentine without disadvantage, and after a few applications the surface will take on a dull and not displeas- ing polish. The table tops are easily cleaned by washing with water or suds after a course of work is completed, and the application of another coat of oil puts tncm in excellent order for another course of work. Strong acids or alkalies when spilled, if soon wiped off, have scarcely a perceptible effect. A slate or tile top is expensive not only in its original cost, but also as a destroyer of glassware. Wood tops when painted, oiled, or paraffined have objectionable features, the latter especially in warm weather. Old table tops, after the paint or oil is scraped off down to the wood, take the above finish nearly as well as the new wood. To Make Wood Acid- and Chlorine- Proof. — Take 6 pounds of wood tar and 12 pounds rosin, and melt them together in an iron kettle, after which stir in 8 pounds finely powdered brick dust. The damaged parts must be cleaned perfectly and dried, whereupon they may be painted over with tne warm preparation or filled up and drawn off, leaving the film on the inside. Protecting Cement Against Acid. — A paint to protect cement against acid is obtained by mixing pure asbestos, very finely powdered, with a thick solution of 10 ADHESIVES sodium silicate. The sodium silicate must be as alkaline as possible. The asbestos is first rubbea with a small quantity of the silicate, until a cake is obtained and then kept in well-closed vessels. For use this cake is simply thinned with a solution of the silicate, which furnishes a paint two or three ap- plications of which protect the walls of reservoirs, etc., against any acid solid or liquid. This mass may also be em- ployed for making a, coating of sand- stone. To Make Corks Imperm.eable and Acid-Proof. — Choose' your corks care- fully. Then plunge them into a solution of gelatin or common glue, 15 parts, in 24 parts of glycerine' and 500 parts of water, heated to 44° or 48° C. (112°-120° F.), and keep them there for several hours. On removing the corks, which should be weighted down in the solution, dry them in tne shade until they are free from all surplus moisture. They are now perfectly tight, retaining at the same time the greater portion of their elasticity and suppleness. To render them acid- proof, they should be treated with a mixture of vaseline, 2 parts, and paraiHne 7 parts, heated to about 105° F. This second operation may be avoided by adding to the gelatin solution a little ammonium dichromate and afterwards exposing the corks to the light. Lining for Acid Receptacles.- — Plates are formed of 1 part of brown slate, 2 of powdered glass, and 1 of Portland cement, the whole worked up with sili- cate of soda, molded and dried. Make a cement composed of ground slate and silicate of soda and smear the surface for the lining; then, while it is still plastic, apply the ijlates prepared as above de- scribed. Instead of these plates, slabs of glass or porcelain or similar substances may be employed with the same cement. ACACIA, MUCILAGE OF : See Adhesives under Mucilages. ACID-PROOF GLASS: See Glass. ACID-RESISTING PAINT: See Paint. ACIDS, SOLDERING: See Solders. ACID STAINS FROM THE SKIN, TO REMOVE : See Cleaning Preparations and Meth- ods. ACID TEST FOR VINEGAR: See Vinegar. ACNE REMEDIES: See Cosmetics. ADEPS LmUM: See Fats. Adhesives GLUES : Manufacture of Glue. — I. — The usual fjrocess of removing the phosphate of ime from bones for glue-making pur- poses by means of dilute hydrochloric acid has the disadvantage that the acid cannot be regenerated. Attempts to use sulphurous acid instead have so far proved unsuccessful, as, even with the large quantities used, the process is very slow. According to a German invention this difficulty with sulphurous acid can be avoided by using it in aqueous solu- tion under pressure. The solution of the lime goes on very rapidly, it is claimed, and no troublesome precipi- tation of calcium sulphite takes place. Both phosphate of lime and sulphurous acid are regenerated from the lyes by simple distillation. II. — Bones may be treated with suc- cessive quantities of combined sulphur- ous acid and water, from which the heat of combination has been previously dis- sipated, the solution being removed after each treatment, before the bone salts dissolved therein precipitate, and before the temperature rises above 74° F. — U. S. Pat. 783,784. III. — A patent relating to the process for treating animal sinews, preparatory for the glue factory, has been granted to Florsheim, Chicago, and consists in im- mersing animal sinews successively in petroleum or benzine to remove the outer fleshy animal skin; in a hardening or preserving bath, as boric acid, or alum or copper sulphate; and in an alkaline bath to remove fatty matter from the fibrous part of the sinews. The sinews are afterwards tanned and disintegrated. Test for Glue. — The more water the glue takes up, swelling it, the better it is. Four ounces of the glue to be exam- ined are soaked for about 12 hours in a cool place in 4 pounds of cold water. If the glue has dissolved after this time, it is of bad quality and of little value; but if it is coherent, gelatinous, and weighing double, it is good; if it weighs up to 16 ounces, it is very good; if as much as 20 ounces, it may be called excellent. To Prevent Glue from Cracking.— To prevent glue from cracking, which fre- quently occurs when glued articles are ADHESIVES 11 exposed to the heat of a stove, a little chloride of potassium is added. This prevents the clue from becoming dry enough to crack. Glue thus treated will adhere to glass, metals, etc., and may also be used for pasting on labels. Preventing the Putrefaction of Strong Glues. — The fatty matter always existing in small quantity in sheets of ordinary glue affects the adhesive properties and facilitates the development of bacteria, and consequently putrefaction and de- composition. These inconveniences are remedied by adding a small quantity of caustic soda to the dissolved glue. The soda prevents decomposition absolutely; with the fatty matter it forms a hard soap which renders it harmless. Liquid Glues. — I. — Glue 3 ounces Gelatin 3 ounces Acetic acid 4 ounces Water 2 ounces Alum 30 grains Heat together for 6 hours, skim, and add: II. — Alcohol 1 fluidounce Brown glue. No. 2. . 2 pounds Sodium carbonate . . 11 ounces Water 3 J pints Oil of clove 160 minims Dissolve the soda in the water, pour the solution over the dry glue, let stand over night or till tlioroughly soaked and swelled, then heat carefully on a water bath until dissolved. When nearly cold stir in the oil of cloves. By using white glue, a finer article, fit for fancy work, may be made. III. — Dissolve by heating 60 parts of borax in ViO parts of water, add 480 parts dextrin (pale yellow) and 50 parts of glucose and heat carefully with con- tinued stirring, to complete solution; replace the evaporated water and pour through flannel. The glue made in this way remains clear quite a long time, and possesses great adhesive power; it also dries very quickly, but upon careless and extended heating above 90° C. (194° F.), it is apt to turn brown and brittle. IV. — Pour 60 parts of warm (not hot) water over SO parts of Cologne glue and allow to soak over night. Next day the swelled glue is dissolved with moderate heat, and if still too thick, a little more water is added. When this is done, add from 2i to 3 parts of crude nitric acid, stir well, and fill the liquid glue in well- corked bottles. This is a good liquid steam glue. V. — Soak 1 pound of good glue in a ouart of water for a few hours, then melt the glue by heating it, together with the unabsorbed water, then stir in } pound dry white lead, and when that is well mixed pour in 4 fluidounces of alcohol and continue the boiling 5 minutes longer. _ VI. — Soak 1 pound of good glue in 1 J pints of cold water for 5 hours, then add 3 ounces of zinc sulphate and 2 fluid- ounces of hydrochloric acid, and keep the mixture heated for 10 or li hours at 175° to 190° F. The glue remains liquid and may be used for sticking a variety of materials. VII. — A very inexpensive liquid glue may be prepared by first soaking and then dissolving gelatin in twice its own weight of water at a very gentle heat; then add glacial acetic acid in weight equal to the weight of the dry gelatin. It should be remembered, however, that all acid glues are not generally applica- ble. VIII.— Glue ... 200 parts Dilute acetic acid. . 400 parts Dissolve by the aid of heat and add: Alcohol 25 parts Alum 5 parts IX. — Glue 5 parts Calcium chloride. . 1 part Water 1 part X. — Sugar of lead 1 J drachms Alum 1 J drachms Gum arabic 2 J drachms Wheat flour 1 av. lb. Water, q. s. Dissolve the gum in 2 quarts of warm water; when cold mix in the flour, and add the sugar of lead and alum dissolved in water; heat the whole over a slow fire until it shows signs of ebullition. Let it cool, and add enough gum water to bring it to the proper consistence. XI. — Dilute 1 part of official phos- phoric acid with 2 parts of water and neu- tralize the solution with carbonate of ammonium. Add to the liquid an equal quantity of water, warm it on a water bath, and dissolve in it sufficient glue to form a thick syrupy liquid. Keep in well-stoppered bottles. XII. — ^Dissolve 3 parts of glue in small pieces in 12 to 15 of saccharate of lime. By heating, the glue dissolves rapidly and remains liquid, when cold, without loss of adhesive power. Any desirable consistence can be secured by varying the amount of saccharate of lime. Thick glue retains its muddy color, while a thin solution becomes clear on standing. The saccharate of lime is prepared by 12 ADHESIVES dissolving 1 part of sugar in 3 parts of water, and after adding J part of the weight of the sugar of slaked lime, heat- ing the whole from 149° to 185° P., allow- ing it to macerate for several days, shaking 'it frequently. The solution, which has the properties of mucilage, is then de- canted from the sediment. XIII. — In a solution of borax in water soak a good quantity of glue until it has thoroughly imbibed the liquid. Pour off the surplus solution and then put on the water bath and melt the glue. Cool down until the glue begins to set, then add, drop by drop, with agitation, enough acetic acid to check the tendency to solidification. If, after becoming quite cold, there is still a tendency to solidification, add a few drops more of the acid. The liquid should be of the consistence of ordinary mucilage at all times. XIV.— Gelatin 100 parts Cabinetmakers' glue. 100 parts Alcohol 25 parts Alum 2 parts Acetic acid, 20 per cent 800 parts Soak the gelatin and glue with the acetic acid and heat on a water bath until fluid; then add the alum and alcohol. XV.— Glue 10 parts Water 16 parts Sodium salicylate. ... 1 part XVI. — Soak 5 parts of Cologne glue in an aqueous calcium chloride solution (1 : 4) and heat on the water bath until dissolved, replacing the evaporating water; or slack 100 parts of lime with 150 parts of hot water, dissolve 60 parts of sugar in 180 parts of water, and add 15 Earts of the slacked lime to the solution, eating the whole to 75° C. (167° P.). Place aside for a few days, shaking from time to time. In the clear sugar-lime solution collected by decanting soak 60 parts of glue and assist the solution by moderate heating. XVII. — Molasses, 100 parts, dissolved in 300 parts of water, 25 parts of quick- lime (slaked to powder), being then stirred in and the mixture heated to 167° P. on a water bath, with frequent stir- rings. After settling for a few 'days a large portion of the lime will have dis- solved, and the clear, white, thick solu- tion, when decanted, behaves like rubber solution and makes a highly adherent coating. XVIII. — Dissolve bone glue, 250 parts, by heating in 1,000 parts of water, and add to the solution barium perox- ide 10 parts, sulphuric acid (66° B.) 5 Earts, and water 15 parts. Heat for 48 ours on the water bath to 80° C. (176° P.). Thus a syrupy liquid is obtained, which is allowed to settle and is then decanted. This glue has no unpleasant odor, and does not mold. XIX. — A glue possessing the adhesive qualities of ordinary joiners' glue, but constituting a pale yellow liquid which is ready for use without requiring heating and possesses great resistance to damp- ness, is produced by treating dry casein with a diluted borax solution or with enough ammonia solution to cause a faintly alkaline reaction. The prepara- tion may be employed alone or mixed with liquid starch in any proportion. Glue for Celluloid. — I. — Two parts shellac, 3 parts spirits of camphor, and 4 parts strong alconol dissolved in a warm place, give an excellent gluing agent to fix wood, tin, and other bodies to celluloid. The glue must be kept well corked up. II. — A collodion solution may be used, or an alcoholic solution of fine celluloid shavings. Glue to Form Paper Pads. — I. — Glue 3 J ounces Glycerine 8 ounces Water, a sufficient quantity. Pour upon the glue more than enough water to cover it and let stand for several hours, then decant the greater portion of the water; apply heat until the glue is dissolved, and add the glycerin. If the mixture is too thick, add more water. n. — Glue 6 ounces Alum 30 grains Acetic acid J ounce Alcohol 1 J ounces Water 6| ounces Mix all but the alcohol, digest on a water bath till the glue is dissolved, allow io cool and add the alcohol. Ill- — Glue 5 ounces Water 1 ounce Calcium chloride. . 1 ounce Dissolve the calcium chloride in the water, add the glue, macerate until it is thoroughly softened, and then heat until completely dissolved. IV.— Glue. 20 ounces Glycerine 5 ounces Syrupy glucose. . . 1 ounce Tannin 60 grains Cover the glue with cold water, and let stand over night. In the morning pour off superfluous water, throw the glue on muslin, and manipulate so as to get rid of as much moisture as possible, then put in a water bath and melt. Add the glyc- ADHESIVES 13 erine and syrup, and stir well in. Fi- nally, dissolve the tannin in the smallest quantity of water possible and add. This mixture must be used hot. V. — Glue. ._. 15 ounces Glycerine 5 ounces Linseed oil 2 ounces Sugar 1 ounce Soak the glue as before, melt, add the sugar and glycerine, continuing the heat, and finally^ add the oil gradually under constant stirring. This must be used hot. Glue for Tablets.— I. — Glue 3J ounces Glycerine 8 ounces Water, a sufficient quantity. Pour upon the glue more than enough water to cover it and let stand for several hours, then decant the greater portion of the water; apply heat until the glue is dissolved, and add the glycerine. If the mixture is too thick, add more water. II. — Glue 6 ounces Alum 30 grains Acetic acid } ounce Alcohol 1 j ounces Water 6J ounces Mix all but the alcohol, digest on a water bath till the glue is^issolved, allow to cool and add the alco&>l. III. — Glue 6 ounces Water 1 ounce Calcium chloride. . . 1 ounce Dissolve the calcium chloride in the water, add the glue, macerate until it is thoroughly softened, and then apply heat until completely dissolved. IV. — Griue, 1 pound; glycerine,4ounces; glucose syrup, 3 tablespoonf uls ; tannin, ?ii ounce. Lfse warm, and give an hour to dry and set on the pads. This can be colored with any aniline dye. Marine Glue. — Marine glue is a prod- uct consisting of shellac and caoutchouc, which is mixed differently according to the use for which.it is required. The quantity of benzol used as solvent gov- erns the hardness or softness of the glue. I. — One part Pari caoutchouc is dis- solved in li parts benzol; 30 parts pow- dered shellac are added to the solution, and the mixture is carefully heated. II. — Stronger glue is obtained by dis- solving 10 parts good crude caoutchouc in 120 parts benzine or naphtha which solution is poured slowly and in a fine stream into 20 parts asphaltum melted in a kettle, stirring constantly and heat- ing. Pour the finished glue, after the solvent has almost evaporated and the mass has become quite uniform, into fiat molds, in which it solidifies into very hard tablets of dark brown or black color. For use, these glue tablets are first soaked in boiling water and then heated over a free flame until the marine glue has be- come thinly liquid. The pieces to be glued are also warmed and a very durable union is obtained. III. — Cut caoutchouc into small pieces and dissolve in coal naphtha by heat and agitation. Add to this solution pow- dered shellac, and heat the whole, con- stantly stirring until combination takes place, then pour it on metal plates to form sheets. When used it must be heated to 248° F., and applied with a brush. Water-Proof Glues.— I.— The glue is put in water till it is soft, and subse- quently melted in linseed oil at moderate heat. This glue is affected neither by water nor by vapors. II. — Dissolve a small quantity of san- darac and mastic in a little alcohol, and add a little turpentine. The solution is boiled in a kettle over the fire, and an equal quantity of a strong hot solution of glue and isinglass is added. Then filter through a cloth while hot. III. — Water-proof glue may also be produced by the simple addition of bichromate of potassium to the liquid glue solution, and subsequent exposure to the air. IV. — Mix glue as usual, and then add linseed oil in the proportion of 1 part oil to 8 parts glue. If it is desired that the mixture remain liquid, i ounce of nitric acid should be added to every pound of glue. This will also prevent the glue from souring. V. — In 1,000 parts of rectified alcohol dissolve 60 parts of sandarac and as much mastic whereupon add 60 parts of white oil of turpentine. Next, prepare a rather strong glue solution and add about the like quantity of isinglass, heating the solution until it commences to boil; then slowly add the hot glue solution till a thin paste forms, which can still be filtered through a cloth. Heat the solution be- fore use and employ like ordinary glue. A connection eflfected with this glue is not dissolved by cold water ana even resists hot water for a long time. VI.— Soak 1,000 parts of Cologne glue in cold water for 12 hours and in another vessel for the same length of time 150 parts of isinglass in a mixture of lamp spirit and water. Then dissolve both masses together on the water bath in a suitable vessel, thinning, if necessary, with some hot water. Next add 100 14 ADHESIVES parts of linseed oil varnish and filter hot through linen. VII. — Ordinary glue is kept in water until it swells up without losing its shape. Thus softened it is placed in an iron crucible without adding water; then add linseed oil according to the quantity of the glue and leave this mixture to boil over a slow fire until a gelatinous mass results. Such glue unites materials in a very durable manner. It adheres firmly and hardens quickly. Its chief advan- tage, however, consists in that it neither absorbs water nor allows it to pass through,, whereby the connecting places are often destroyed. A little borax will prevent putrefaction. VIII. — Bichromate of potassium 40 parts (by weight); gelatin glue, 55 parts; alum, 5 parts. Dissolve the glue in a little water and add the bichromate of potassium and the alum. IX. — This preparation permits an ab- solutely permanent gluing of pieces of cardboard, even when they are moist- ened by water. Melt together equal parts of good pitch and gutta-percha; of this take 9 parts, and add to it 3 parts of boiled linseed oil and 1 J parts of litharge. Place this over the fire and stir it till all the ingredients are intimately mixed. The mixture may be diluted with a little benzine or oil of turpentine, and must be warm when used. Glue to Fasten Linoleum on Iron Stairs, — I. — Use a mixture of glue, isin- glass, and dextrin which, dissolved in water and heated, is given an admixture of turpentine. The strips pasted down must be weighted with boards and brick on top until the adhesive agent has hard- ened. II. — Soak 3 parts of glue in 8 parts water, add J part hydrochloric acid and f part zinc vitriol and let this mixture boil several hours. Coat the floor and the back of the linoleum with this. Press the linoleum down uniformly and firmly and weight it for some time. Glue for Attaching Gloss to Precious Metals. — Sandarac varnish, IS parts; marine glue, 5 parts; drying oil, 5 parts; white lead, 5 parts; Spanish white, 5 parts; turpentine, 5 parts. Triturate all to form a rather homogeneous paste. This glue becomes very hard and resisting. Elastic Glue.— Although elastic glue is less durable than rubber, and will not stand much heat, yet it is cheaper than rubber, and is not, like rubber, affected by oil colors. Hence it is largely used for printing rollers and stamps. For stamps, good glue is soaked for 24 hours in soft water. The water is poured off, and the swollen glue is melted and mixed with glycerine and a little salicylic acid and cast into molds. The durability is in- creased by painting the mass with a solu- tion of tannin, or, better, of bichromate of potassium. Printing rollers require greater firmness and elasticity. The mass for them once consisted solely of glue and'vinegar, and their manufacture was very difficult. The use of glycerine has remedied this, and gives great elas- ticity, without adhesiveness, and has re- moved the liability of moldiness. Swol- len glue, which has been superficially dried, is fused with glycerine and cast into oil molds. Similar mixtures are used for casting plaster ornaments, etc., and give very sharp casts. A mass con- sisting of glue and glycerine is poured over tne model in a box. When the mold is removed, it is painted with plaster out- side and with boiled oil inside, and can then be used many times for making re- productions of the model. Glue for Paper and Metal. — A glue which will keep well and adhere tightly is obtained by diluting 1,000 parts by weight of potato starch in 1,200 parts by weight of water and adding 50 parts by weight of pure nitric acid. The mixture is kept in a hot place for 48 hours, taking care to stir frequently. It is afterwards boiled to a thick and transparent consist- ency, diluted with water if there is occa- sion, and then there are added in the form of a screened powder, 2 parts of sal ammoniac and 1 part of sulphur fiowers. Glue for Attaching Cloth Strips to Iron. — Soak 600 parts of Cologne glue in the evening with clean cold water in a. clean vessel; in the morning pour off the water, place the softened glue without admix- ture of water into a clean copper ■ or enamel receptacle, which is put on a mod- erate low fire (charcoal or steam appa- ratus). During the dissolution the mass must be continually stirred with a wood- en trowel or spatula. If the glue is too thick, it is thinned with diluted spirit, but not with water. As soon as the glue has reached the boiling point, about 50 parts of linseed oil varnish (boiled oil) is added to the mass with constant stirring. When the latter has been stirred up well, add 60 parts of powdered colophony and shake it into the mass with stirring, subsequently removing the glue from the fire. In order to increase the binding (jualities and to guard against moisture, It is well still to add about 50 parts of isinglass, which has been previously cut ADIIESIVES 15 into narrow strips and placed, well beaten, in a vessel, into which enough spirit of wine has been poured to cover all. Wlieii dissolved, the last-named mass is added to the boiling glue with constant stirring. The adhesive agent is now ready for use and is employed hot, it being advisable to warm the iron also. Apply glue only to a surface equivalent to a single strip at a time. The strips are pressed down with a stiff brush or a wad of cloth. Glue for Leather or Cardboard. — To attach leather to cardboard dissolve good glue (softened by swelling in water) with a little turpentine and enough water in an ordinary glue pot, and then having made a thick paste with starch in the proportion of 2 parts by weight, of starch powder for every 1 part, by weight, of dry glue, mix the compounds and allow the mixture to become cold before appli- cation to the cardboard. For Wood, Glass, Cardboard, and all Articles of a Metallic or Mineral Char- acter. — Take boiled linseed oil 20 parts, Flemish glue 20 parts, hydrated lime 15 parts, powdered turpentine 5 parts, alum 5 parts acetic acid 5 parts. Dissolve the glue with the acetic acid, add the alum, then the hydrated lime, and finally the turpentine and the boiled linseed oil. Triturate all well until it forms a homo- §eneoua paste and keep in well-closed asks. LFse like any other glue. Glue for Uniting Metals with Fabrics. — Cologne glue of good quality is soaked and boded down to the consistency of that used by cabinetmakers. Then add, with constant stirring, sifted wood ashes until a moderately thick, homogeneous mass results. Use hot and press the pieces well together during the drying. For tinfoil about 2 per cent of boracic acid should be added instead of the wood ashes. Glue or Paste for Making Paper Boxes. — Chloral hydrate 5 parts Gelatin, white 8 parts Gum arabic 2 parts Boiling water 30 parts Mix the chloral, gelatin, and gum arabic in a porcelain container, pour the boiling water over the mixture and let stand for 1 day, giving it a vigorous stir- ring several times during the day. In cold weather this is apt to get hard and stiff, but this may be obviated by stand- ing the container in warm water for a few minutes. This paste adheres to any surface whatever. Natural Glue for Cementing Porcelain, Crystal Glass, etc.— The Targe shell snails which are found in vineyards tave at the extremity of their body a small, whitish bladder filled with a substance of greasy and gelatinous aspect. If this substance extracted from tne bladder is applied on the fragments of porcelain or any body whatever, which are juxtaposed by being made to touch at all parts, they acquire such adhesion that if one strives to separate them by a. blow, they are more liable to break at another place than the cemented seam. It is necessary to give this glue suiBcient time to dry per- fectly, so as to permit it to acquire the highest degree of strength and tenacity. Belt Glue. — A glue for belts can be prepared as follows: Soak 50 parts of gelatin in water, pour off the excess of water, and heat on the water bath. With good stirring add, first, 6 parts, by weight, of glycerine, then 10 parts, by weight, of turpentine, and 6 parts, by weight, of linseed oil varnish and thin with water as required. The ends of the belts to be glued are cut off obliquely and wartned; then the hot glue is applied, and the united parts are subjected to strong pressure, allowing them to dry thus for 24 hours before the belts are used. Chromium Glue for Wood, Paper, and Cloth. — I. — (a) One-half pound strong glue (any glue if color is immaterial, white fish glue otherwise); soak 12 hours in 12 fluidounces of cold water. (6) One- quarter pound gelatin; soak 2 hours in 12 fiuidounces cold water, (c) Two ounces bichromate of potassium dis- solved in 8 fluidounces boiling water. Dissolve (a) after soaking, in a glue pot, and add (6). After (a) and (6) are mixed and dissolved, stir in (c). This glue is exceedingly strong, and if the article cemented be exposed to strong sunlight for 1 hour, the glue becomes perfectly waterproof. Of course, it is understood that the exposure to sunlight is to be made after the glue is thoroughly dry. The one objectionable feature of this cement is its color, which is a yellow- brown. By substituting chrome alum in place of the bichromate, an olive color is obtained. II. — Use a. moderately strong gelatin solution (containing 5 to 10 per cent of dry gelatin), to which about 1 part of acid chromate of potassium in solution is added to every 5 parts of gelatin. This mixture has the property of becoming in- soluble by water through the action of sunlight under partial reduction of the chromic acid. 16 ADHESIVES Fireproof Glue. — Raw linseed oil 8 parts • Glue or gelatin 1 part Quicklime 2 parts Soak the glue or gelatin in the oil for 10 to 12 hours, and then melt it by gently heating the oil, and when perfectly fluid stir in the quicklime until the whole mass is homogeneous, then spread out in layers to dry gradually, out of the sun's rays. For use, reheat the glue in a glue pot in the ordinary way of melting glue. CEMENTS. Under this heading will be found only cements for causing one substance to ad- here to another. Cements used prima- rily as fillers, such as dental cements, will be found under Cements, Putties, etc. Cutlers' Cements for Fixing Knife Blades into Handles. — I. — Rosin 4 pounds Beeswax 1 pound Plaster of Paris or brickdust 1 pound II. — Pitch 5 pounds Wood ashes 1 pound Tallow 1 pound III. — Rosin, 12; sulphur flowers, 3; iron filings, 5. Melt together, fill the handle while hot, and insert the instru- ment. IV. — Plaster of Paris is ordinarily used for fastening loose handles. It is made into a moderately thick paste with water run into the hole in the head of the pestle, the handle inserted and held in place till the cement hardens. Some add sand to the paste, and claim to get better results. V. — Boil together 1 part of caustic soda, 3 parts of rosin, and 5 parts of water till homogeneous and add 4 parts of plaster of Paris. The paste sets in half an hour and is but little affected by water. VI. — Equal quantities of autta percha and shellac are melted together and well stirred. This is best done in an iron cap- sule placed on a sandbath and heated over a gas furnace or on the top of a stove. The combination possesses both hardness and toughness, qualities that make it particularly desirable in mend- ing mortars and pestles. In using, the articles to be cemented should be warmed to about the melting point of the mixture and retained in proper position until cool, when they are ready for use. VII.— Rosin 600 ) parts Sulphur 150 V by Iron filings 250 ) weight. Pour the mixture, hot, into the opening of the heated handle and shove in the knife likewise heated. VIII. — Melt suflScient black rosin, and incorporate thoroughly with it one-fifth its weight of very fine silver sand. Make the pestle hot, pour in a little of the mix- ture, then force the handle well home, and set aside for a day before using. IX. — Make a smooth, moderately soft Easte with litharge and glycerine; fill the ole in the pestle with the cement, and firmly press the handle in place, keeping it under pressure for three or four days. Cements for Stone. — I. — An excellent cement for broken marble consists of 4 parts of gypsum and 1 part of finely powdered gum arable. Mix intimately. Then with a cold solution of borax make into a mortarlike mass. Smear on each face of the parts to be joined, and fasten the bits of marble together. In the course of a few days the cement becomes very hard and holds very tenaciously. The object mended should not be touched for several days. In mending colored marbles the cement may be given the hue of the marble by adding the color to the borax solution. II. — A cement which dries instanta- neously, qualifying it for all sorts of re- pairing and only presenting the disad- vantage of having to be freshly prepared each time, notwithstanding any subse- quent heating, may be made as follows: In a metal vessel or iron spoon melt 4 to 5 parts of rosin (or preferably mastic) and 1 part of beeswax. This mixture must be applied rapidly it being of ad- vantage slightly to heat the surfaces to be united, which naturally must have been previously well cleaned. III. — Slaked lime, 10 parts; chalk, IS parts; kaolin, 6 parts; mix, and imme- diately before use stir with a correspond- ing amount of potash water glass. IV.— Cement on Marble Slabs.— The whole marble slab is thoroughly warmed and laid face down upon a neatly cleaned planing bench upon which a woolen cloth IS spread so as not to injure the polish of the slab. Next apply to the slab very hot, weak glue and quickly sift hot plaster of Paris on the glue in a thin even layer, stirring the plaster rapidly into the ap- plied glue by means of a strong spatula, so that a uniform glue-plaster coating is formed on the warm slab. Before this has time to harden tip the respective piece of furniture on the slab. The frame, like- wise warmed, will adhere very firmly to the slab after two days. Besides, this process has the advantage of great cleanliness. ADHESIVES 17 V. — The following is a recipe used by marble workers, and which probably can be used to advantage: Flour of sul- phur, 1 part; hydrocnlorate of am- monia, 2 parts; iron filings, 16 parts. The above substances must be reduced to a powder, and securely preserved in closely stoppered vessels. When the cement is to be employed, take 20 parts very fine iron filings and 1 part of the above powder; mix them together with enough water to form a manageable paste. This paste solidifies in 20 days and becomes as hard as iron. A recipe for another cement useful for joining small pieces of marble or alabaster is as follows: Add J pint of vinegar to i pint skimmed milk; mix the curd with the whites of 5 eggs, well beaten, and suffi- cient powdered quicklime sifted in with constant stirring so as to form a paste. It resists water and a moderate degree of heat. VI.— Cement for Iron and Marble. — For fastening iron to marble or stone a good cement is made as follows: Thirty parts plaster of Paris, 10 parts iron filings, i part sal ammoniac mixed with vinegar to a fluid paste fresh for use. Cement for Sandstones. — One part sulphur and 1 part rosin are melted separately; the melted masses are mixed and 3 parts litharge and 2 parts ground glass stirred in. The latter ingredients must be perfectly drj;, and have been well pulverized and mixed previously. Equally good cement is obtained by melting together 1 part pitch and iV part wax, and mixing with 2 parts brickdust. The stones to be cemented, or be- tween the joints of which the putty is to be poured, must be perfectly dry. If practicable, they should be warmed a Kttle, and the surfaces to which the putty is to adhere painted with oil varnish once or twice. The above two formulae are of especial value in case the stones are very much exposed to the heat of the sun in summer, as well as to cold, rain, and snow in winter. Experience has shown that in these instances the above- mentioned cements give better satisfac- tion than the otiier brands of cement. Cements for Attaching Objects to Glass. — Rosin 1 part Yellow wax 2 parts Melt together. To Attach Copper to Glass. — Boil 1 part of caustic soda and 3 parts of co- lophony in 5 parts of water and mix with the like quantity of plaster of Paris. This cement is not attacked by water, heat, and petroleum. If, in place of the plaster of Paris, zinc white, white lead, or slaked lime is used, the cement hard- ens more slowly. To Fasten Brass upon Glass. — Boil to- gether 1 part of caustic soda, 3 parts of rosin, 3 parts of gypsum, and 5 parts of water. The cement made in this way hardens in about half an hour, hence it must be applied quickly. During the preparation it should be stirred con- stantly. All the ingredients used must be in a finely powdered state. Uniting Glass with Horn. — (1) A solu- tion of 2 parts of gelatin in 20 parts water is evaporated up to one-sixth of its volume and J mastic dissolved in J spirit added and some zinc white stirred in. The putty is applied warm; it dries easily and can be Kept a long time. (2) Mix gold size with the equal volume of water glass. To Cement Glass fo Iron. — I. — Rosin 5 ounces Yellow wax 1 ounce Venetian red 1 ounce Melt the wax and rosin on a water bath and add, under constant stirring, the Venetian red previously well dried. Stir until nearly cool, so as to prevent the Ve- netian red from settling to the bottom. U. — Portland cement. ... 2 ounces Prepared chalk 1 ounce Fine sand 1 ounce Solution of sodium silicate enough to form a semi- liquid paste. ni. — Litharge 2 parts White lead 1 part Work into a pasty condition by using 3 parts boiled linseed oil, 1 part copeil varnish. Celluloid Cements. — I. — To mend brok- en draughting triangles and other cellu- loid articles, use 3 parts alcohol and 4 parts ether mixed together and applied to the fracture with a brush until the edges become warm. The edges are then stuck together, and left to dry for at least 24 hours. II. — Camphor, 1 part; alcohol, 4 parts. Dissolve and add equal quantity (by weight) of shellac to this solution. III. — If firmness is desired in putting celluloid on wood, tin, etc., the following gluing agent is recommended, viz.: A compound of 2 parts shellac, 3 parts spirit of camphor, and 4 parts strong alcohol. 18 ADHESIVES IV. — Shellac 2 ounces Spirits of camphor. . 2 ounces Alcohol, 90 per cent. . 6 to 8 ounces V. — Make a moderately strong glue or solution of gelatin. In a dark place or a dark room mix with the above a small amount of concentrated solution of potas- sium dichromate. Coat the back of the label, which must be clean, with a thin layer of the mixture. Strongly press the label against the bottle and keep the two in close contact by tying with twine or otherwise. Expose to sunlight for some hours; this causes the cement to be insol- uble even in hot water. VI. — Lime av. oz. 1 White of egg av. oz. 2§ Plaster of Paris. . . . av. oz. 5 J Water fl. oz. 1 Reduce the lime to a fine powder; mix it with the white of egg by trituration, forming a uniform paste. Dilute with water, rapidly incorporate the plaster of Paris, and use the cement immediately. The surfaces to be'cemented must first be moistened with water so that the ce- ment will readily adhere. The pieces must be firmly pressed together and kept in tlhis position for about 12 hours. Cementing Celluloid and Hard-Rubber Articles. — I. — Celluloid articles can be mended by making a mixture com- posed of 3 parts of alcohol and 4 parts of ether. This mixture should be Kept in a well-corked bottle, and when celluloid articles are to be mended, the broken surfaces are painted over with the alcohol and ether mixture until the surfaces soften: then press together and bind and allow to dry for at least 24 hours. II. — Dissolve 1 part of gum camphor in 4 parts of alcohol; dissolve an equal weight of shellac in such strong campnor solution. The cement is applied warm and the parts united must not be dis- turbed until the cement is hard. Hard- rubber articles are never mended to form a strong joint. in. — Melt together equal parts of gutta percha and real aspnaltum. The cement is applied hot, and the broken surfaces pressed together and held in place while cooling. Sign-Letter Cements. — I. — Copal varnish 15 parts Drying oil 5 parts Turpentine (spirits). 3 parts Oil of turpentine .... 2 parts Liquefied glue 5 parts Melt all together on a water bath until well mixed, and then add 10 parts slaked lime. II.— Mix 100 parts finely powdered white litharge with 50 parts dry white lead, knead together 3 parts linseed oil varnish and 1 part copal varnish into a firm dough. C^at the side to be attached with this, removing the superfluous ce- ment. It will dry quickly and become very hard. m. — Copal varnish 15 parts Linseed-oil varnish . 6 parts Raw turpentine 3 parts Oil of turpentine .... 2 parts Carpenters' glue, dis- solved in water ... 5 parts Precipitated chalk . . 10 parts rV. — Mastic gum 1 part Litharge, lead 2 parts White lead 1 part Linseed oil 3 parts Melt together to a homogeneous mass. Apply hot. To make a thorough and reliable job, the letters should be heated to at least the temperature of the cement. To Fix Gold Letters, etc., upon Glass. — I. — The glass must be entirely clean and polished, and the medium is prepared in the following manner: One ounce fish glue or isinglass is dissolved in water so that the latter covers the glue. When this is dissolved a quart of rectified spir- it of wine is added, and enough water is poured in to make up one-quarter the whole. The substance must be kept well corked. II.- — Take J quart of the best rum and J ounce fish glue, which is dissolved in the former at a moderate degree of heat. Then add J quart distilled water, and filter through a piece of old linen. The glass is laid upon a perfectly level table and is covered with this substance to the thickness of J inch, using a clean brush. Seize the gold leaf with a pointed object and place it smoothly upon the prepared mass, and it will be attracted by the glass at once. After 5 minutes hold t»he glass slightly slanting so that the superfluous mass can run off, and leave the plate in this position for 24 hours, when it will be perfectly dry. Now trace the letters or the design on a piece of paper, and perforate the lines with a thick needle, making the holes -^ inch apart. Then place the perforated paper upon the surface of the glass, and stamp the tracery on with powdered chalk. The paper pattern is then carefully removed, and the accurate design will remain upon the gold. The outlines are now filled out with an oily gold mass, mixed with a little chrome orange and diluted with boiled oil or turpentine. When all is dry the superfluous gold is washed off ADHESIVES 19 with waler by means of a common rag. The back of the glass is then painted with a suitable color. Attaching Enamel Letters to Glass. — To affix enamel letters to glass, first clean the surface of the glass perfectly, leaving no grease or sticky substance of any kind adhering to the surface. Then with a piece of soap sketch the out- lines of the design. Make the proper division of the guide lines, and strike off accurately the position each letter is to occupy. Then to the back of the letters apply a cement made as follows: White lead ground in oil, 2 parts; dry white lead, 3 parts. Mix to a soft putty con- sistency with good copal varnish. With a small knife or spatula apply the cement to the back of the letter.s, observing especial care in getting the mixture well and uniformly laid around the inside edges of the letter. In at- taching the letters to the glass make sure to expel the air from beneath the char- acters, and to do this, work them up and down and sidewise. If the weather be at all warm, support the letters while drying by pressing tiny beads of sealing wax against the glass, close to the under side or bottom of the letters. With a putty knife, keenly sharpened on one edge, next remove all the sur- plus cement. Give the letters a hard, firm pressure against the glass around all etfges to securely guard against the disruptive attacks of moisture. The seepage of moisture beneath the surface of the letters is the main cause of their early detachment from the glass. The removal of the letters from the glass may be effected by applying tur- pentine to the top of the characters, allowing it to soak down and through the cement. Oxalic acid applied in the same way will usually slicK the letters off in a trice. Cement for Porcelain Letters. — Slake 15 parts of fresh quicklime in '20 parts of water. Melt 50 parts of caoutchouc and 50 parts of linseed-oil varnish together, ana bring the mixture to a boil. While boiling, pour the liquid on the slaked lime, little by little, under constant stir- ring. Pass the mixture, while still hot, through muslin, to remove any possible lumps, and let cool. It takes the cement 2 days to set completely, but when dry it makes a joint that will resist a great deal of strain. By thinning the mixture down with oil of turpentine, a brilliant, powerfully adhesive varnish is obtained. Water -Glass Cements. — I. — Water glass (sodium of potassium silicate), which is frequently recommended for cement- ing glass, does not, as is often asserted, form a vitreous connection between the joined surfaces; and, in fact, some of the commercial varieties will not even dry, but merely form a thick paste, which has a strong affinity for moisture. Good 30° B. water glass is, however, suitable for mending articles that are ex- posed to heat, and is best applied to sur- faces that have been gently warmed; when the pieces are put together they should be pressed warmly, to expel any superfluous cement, and then heated strongly. To repair cracked glasses or bottles through which water will leak, water glasses may he used, the application being effected in the following easy manner: The vessel is warmed to induce rarefaction of the internal air, after which the mouth is closed, either by a cork in the case of bottles, or by a piece of parchment or bladder if a wide- mouthed vessel is under treatment. While still hot, the outside of the crack is covered with a little glass, and the vessel set a.side to cool, whereupon the difference hctween the pressure of the external and internal air will force the cement into the fissure and close it completely. All that is tlieii necessary is to take off the cover and leave the vessel to warm for a few hours. Sub- sequently rinse it out with lime water, followed hy clean water, and it will then hold any liquid, acids and alkaline fluids alone excepted. II. — When water glass is brought into contact with calcium chloride, a cal- cium silicate is at once formed which is insoluble in water. It seems possible that this reaction may be used in bind- ing together masses of sand, etc. The process indicated has long been used in the preservation of stone which has be- come "weathered." The stone is first brushed with the water glass and after- wards with a solution of calcium chlor- ide. The conditions here are of course different. Calcium chloride must not be con- founded with the so-called " chloride of lime " which is a mixture of calcium hy- pochlorite and other bodies. To Fasten Paper Tickets to Glass —To attach paper tickets to glass, the em- ployment of water glass is efficacious. Care should be taken to spread this prod- uct on the glass and not on the paper, and then to apply the paper dry, which should be done immediately. When the solution is dry the paper cannot be de- 20 ADHESIVES tached. The silicate should be some- what diluted. It is spread on the glass with a rag or a small sponge. JEWELERS' CEMENTS. Jewelers and goldsmiths require, for the cementing or genuine and colored gems, as well as for the placing of col- ored folio under certain stones, very adhesive gluing agents, which must, however, be colorless. In this respect these are distinguished chiefly by the so-called diamond cement and the regu- lar jewelers' cement. Diamond ce- ment is much esteemed by jewelers for cementing precious stones and corals, but may also be employed with ad- vantage for laying colored fluxes of glass on white glass. The diamond cement is of such a nature as to be able to remain for some time in contact with water without becoming soft. It ad- heres best between glass or between pre- cious stones. It is composed as follows: Isinglass 8 parts, gum ammoniac 1 part, galbanum 1 part, spirit of wine 4 parts. Soak the isinglass in water with admix- ture of a little spirit of wine and add the solution of the gums in the remainder of the spirit of wine. Before use, heat the diamond cement a little so as to soften it. Jewelers' cement is used for similar purposes as is the diamond ce- ment, and is prepared from: Isinglass (dry) 10 parts, mastic varnish 5 parts. Dissolve the isinglass in very little water, adding some strong spirit of wine. The mastic varnish is prepared by pouring a mixture of highly rectifled spirit of wine and benzine over finely powdered mastic and dissolving it in the smallest possible quantity of liquid. The two solutions of isinglass and mastic are in- timately ground together in a porcelain dish. Armenian Cement. — The celebrated " Armenian " cement, so called formerly used by Turkish and Oriental jewelers generally, for setting precious stones, ' facing diamonds," rubies, etc., is made as follows: Mastic gum 10 parts Isinglass (fish glue) . 20 parts Gum ammoniac .... 5 parts • Alcohol absolute. ... 60 parts Alcohol, 50 per cent. . 35 parts Water 100 parts Dissolve the mastic in the absolute alcohol; dissolve, by the aid of gentle heat, on the water bath, the isinglass in the water, and add 10 parts of the dilute alcohol. Now dissolve the ammoniacum in the residue of the dilute alcohol. Add the first solution to the second, mix thor- oughly by agitation and then add the solution of gum ammoniac and stir well in. Finally put on the water bath, and keeping at a moderate heat, evaporate the whole down to 175 parts. Cement for Enameled Dials. — The following is a good cement for enameled dials, plates, or other pieces: Grind into a fine powder 2^ parts of dammar rosin and 2J parts of copal, using colorless pieces if possible. Next add 2 parts of Venetian turpentine and enough spirit of wine so that the whole forms a thick paste. To this grind 3 parts of the finest zinc white. The mass now has the consistency of prepared oil paint. To remove the yellow tinge of the cement add a trifle of Berlin blue to the zinc white. Finally, the whole is heated until the spirit of wine is driven off and a molt- en mass remains, which is allowed to cool and is kept for use. Heat the parts to be cemented. Watch -Lid Cement. — The hardest ce- ment for fixing on watch lids is shellac. If the lids are exceedingly thin the en- graving will always press through. Be- fore cementing it on the inside of the lid, in order not to injure the polish, it is coated with chalk dissolved in alcohol, which is first allowed to dry. Next melt the shellac on the stick, heat the watch lid and put it on. After the engraving has been done, simply force the lid off and remove the remaining shellac from the latter by light tapping. If this does not remove it completely lay the lid in alco- hol, leaving it therein until all the shel- lac has dissolved. All that remains to be done now is to wash out the watch lid. Jewelers' Glue Cement. — Dissolve on a water bath 50 parts of fish glue in a little 95-per-cent alcohol, adding 4 parts, by weight, of gum ammoniac. On the other hand, dissolve 2 parts, by weight, of mastic in 10 parts, by weight, of alcohol. Mix these two solutions and preserve in a well-corked flask. For use it suffices to soften it on the water bath. Casein Cements. — I. — Borax 5 parts Water 95 parts Casein, sufficient quantity. Dissolve the borax in water and in- corporate enough casein to produce a mass of the proper consistency. II. — The casein is made feebly alka- line by means of soda or potash lye and ADHESIVES 21 then subjected for about S4 hours to a temperature, of 140° F. Next follow the customary admixture, such as lime and water glass, and finally, to accom- plish a quicker resinification, substances containing tannin are added. For tan- nic admixtures to the partially disinte- grated casein, slight quantities — about 1 per cent — of gallic acid, cutch, or quercitannic acid are employed. The feebly alkaline casein cmnent contain- ing tannic acid is used in the well-known manner for the gluing together of wood. For Metals. — Make a paste with 16 ounces casein, 20 ounces slaked lime, and SO ounces of sand, in water. For Glass. — I. — Dissolve casein in a concentrated solution of borax. II. — Make a paste of casein and water glass. Pasteboard and Paper Cement. — I. — Let pure glue swell in cold water; pour and press off the excess; put on the water bath and melt. Paper or other material cemented with this is then immediately, before the cement dries, submitted to the action of formaldehyde and dried. The cement resists the action of water, even hot. II. — Melt together equal parts of good pitch and gutta percha. To 9 parts of this mass add S parts of boiled linseed oil and i part litharge. The heat is kept up until, with constant stirring, an intimate union of all the in- gredients has taken place. The mix- ture is diluted with a little benzine or oil of turpentine and applied while still warm. The cement is waterproof. III. — The National Druggist says that experience with pasting or cement- ing parchment paper seems to show that about the best agent is casein cement, made by dissolving casein in a saturated aqueous solution of borax. IV. — The following is recommended for paper boxes: Chloral hydrate 5 parts Gelatin, white 8 parts Gum arable 2 parts Boiling water 30 parts Mix the chloral, gelatin, and gum arable in a porcelain container, pour the boiling water over the mixture and let stand for 1 day, giving it a. vigorous stirring several times dfuring the day. In cold weather this is apt to get hard and stiff, but this may be obviated by standing the container in warm water for a few minutes. This paste adheres to any surface whatever. Waterproof Cements for Glass, Stone- ware, and Metal. — I. — Make a paste of sulphur, sal ammoniac, iron filings, and boiled oil. II. — Mix together dry: Whiting, 6 pounds; plaster of Paris, 3 pounds; sand, 3 pounds; litharge, 3 pounds; rosin, 1 pound. Make to a paste with copal varnish. III. — Make a paste of boiled oil, 6 pounds; copal, 6 pounds; litharge, 2 pounds; white lead, 1 pound. IV. — Make a paste with boiled oil, 3 pounds; brickdust 2 pounds; dry slaked lime, 1 pound. V. — Dissolve 93 ounces of*alum and 93 ounces of sugar of lead in water to concentration. Dissolve separately 152 ounces of gum arable in 25 gallons of water, and then stir in C'2J pounds of flour. Then heat to a uniform paste with the metallic salts, but take care not to boil the mass. VI. — For Iron and Marble to Stand in Heat. — In 3 pounds of water dissolve first, 1 pound water glass and then 1 pound of borax. With the solution make 2 pounds of clay and 1 pound of barytes, first mixed dry, to a paste. VII.— Glue to Resist Boiling Water.— Dissolve separately in water 55 pounds of glue ana a mixture of 40 pounds of bichromate and 5 pounds of alum. Mix as wanted. VIII. (Chinese Glue). — Dissolve shel- lac in 10 times its weight of ammonia. IX. — Make a paste of 40 ounces of dry slaked lime 10 ounces of alum, and 50 ounces of white of egg. X.— Alcohol 1,000 parts Sandarac 60 parts Mastic 60 parts Turpentine oil. .. . 60 parts Dissolve the gums in the alcohol and add the oil and stir in. Now prepare a solution of equal parts of glue and isinglass, by soaking 125 parts of each in cold water until it becomes saturated, pouring and pressing off the residue, and melting on the water bath. This should produce a volume of glue nearly equal to that of the solution of gums. The latter should, in the meantime, have been cautiously raised to the boiling point on the water bath, and then mixed with the hot glue solution. It is said that articles united with this substance will stand the strain of cold water for an unlimited time, and it takes hot water even a long time to affect it. 22 ADHESIVES XI. — Burgundy pitch 6 parts Gutta percha 1 part Pumice stone, in fine powder 3 parts Melt the gutta percha very carefully, add the pumice stone, and lastly the pitch, and stir until homogeneous. Use while still hot. This cement will withstand water and dilute mineral acids. LEATHER AND RUBBER CEMENTS. I. — Use a melted mixture of gutta Eercha and genuine asphalt, applied ot. The hard-rubber goods must be kept pressed together until the cement has cooleiil. II. — A cement which is effective for cementing rubber to iron and which is especially valuable for fastening rub- ber bands to handsaw wheels is made as follows: Powdered shellac, 1 part; strong water of ammonia, 10 parts. Put the shellac in the ammonia water and set it away in a tightly closed jar for 3 or 4 weeks. By that time the mixture will become a perfectly liquid transpar- ent mass and is then ready for use. When applied to rubber the ammonia softens it, but it quickly evaporates, leav- ing the rubber in the same condition as before. The shellac clings to the iron and thus forms a firm bond between the iron and the rubber. III. — Gutta percha, white. 1 drachm Carbon disulphide . . 1 ounce Dissolve, filter, and add: India rubber 15 grains . Dissolve. Cement for Metal on Hard Rubber. — I. — Soak good Cologne glue and boil down so as to give it the consistency of joiners' glue, and add with constant stirring, enough sifted wood ashes until a homo- geneous, moderately thick mass results. Use warm and fit the pieces well together while drying. How to Unite Rubber and Leather. — II. — Roughen both surfaces, the leather and the rubber, with a sharp glass edge; apply to both a diluted solution of gutta percha in carbon bisulphide, and let this solution soak into the material. Then press upon each surface a skin of gutta percha i^ of an inch in thickness between rolls. The two surfaces are now united in a press, which should be warm but not hot. This method should answer in all cases in which it is applicable. The other prescription covers cases in which a press cannot be used. Cut 30 parts of rubber into small pieces, and dissolve I it in 140 parts of carbon bisulphide, the I vessel being placed on a water bath of 30° C. (86° F.). Further, melt 10 parts of rubber with 15 of colophony, and add 35 parts of oil of turpentine. When the rubber has been completely dissolved, the two liquids may be mixed. The •resulting cement must be kept well corked. To Fasten Rubber to Wood.— I.— Make a cement by macerating virgin gum rubber, or as pure rubber as can be had, cut in small pieces, in just enough naphtha or gasoline to cover it. Let it stand in a very tightly corked or sealed jar for 14 days, or^ a sufficient time to become dissolved, shaking the mixture daily. II. — Dissolve pulverized gum shellac, 1 ounce, in 9 J ounces of strong ammonia. This of course must be kept tightly corked. It will not be as elastic as the first preparation. III. — ^Puse together shellac and gutta percha in equal weights. IV. — India rubber 8 ounces Gutta percha 4 ounces Isinglass 2 ounces Bisulphide of carbon 32 ounces V. — India rubber 5 ounces Gum mastic 1 ounce Chloroform 3 ounces VI. — Gutta percha 16 ounces India rubber 4 ounces Pitch 4 ounces Shellac 1 ounce Linseed oil 1 ounce Amalgamate by heat. VII. — Mix 1 ounce of oil of turpentine with 10 ounces of bisulphide of carbon in which as much gutta percha as possible has been dissolved. VIII. — Amalgamate by heat: Gutta percha 100 ounces Venice turpentine. 80 ounces Shellac 8 ounces India rubber 2 ounces Liquid storax 10 ounces IX. — Amalgamate by heat: India rubber 100 ounces Rosin 15 ounces Shellac 10 ounces Then dissolve in bisulphide of carbon. X. — Make the following solutions sep- arately and mix: (a) India rubber 5 ounces Chloroform 140 ounces {b) India rubber 5 ounces Rosin 2 ounces Venice turpentine. 1 ounce Oil of turpentine. . 20 ounces AiHIKSI\ES 23 Cement for Patching Rubber Boots and Shoes. — • I. — India rubber, finely chopped 100 parts Rosin 15 parts Shellac. 10 parts Carbon disulphide, q. s. to dissolve. This will not only unite leather to leather, india rubber, etc., but will unite rubber to almost any substance. II. — Caoutchouc, finely cut 4 parts India rubber, finely cut 1 part Carbon disulphide ... 32 parts Dissolve the caoutchouc in the carbon disulphide, add the rubber, let macer- ate a few days, then mash with a palette knife to a smooth pa.ste. The vessel in whicli the solution is made in both instances above must be kept tightly closed, and should have frequent agita- tions. III. — Take 100 parts of crude rubber or caoutchouc, (! parts Oil of turpentine. . . 10 parts The gutta percha, shredded fine, is dissolved in the carbon disulphide and turpentine oil. To the solution add the asphalt and set away for several days, or until the asphalt is dissolve■ by Gum turpentine 40 ) weight. Oil turpentine, enough. Melt together first the caoutchouc and rosin, then add the gum turpentine, and when all is liquefied, add enough of oil of turpentine to preserve it liquid. A second solution is prepared by dissolv- ing together: Caoutchouc 10 ) Parts Chloroform 280 f weight. For use these two solutions are mixed. Wash the hole in the rubber shoe over with the cement, then a piece of linen dipped in it is placed over it; as soon as the linen adheres to the sole, the cement is then applied as thickly as re- quired. CEMENTS FOR METALS AND FOR AT- TACHING VARIOUS SUBSTANCES TO METALS: Cements for Iron. — I. — To make a good cement for iron on iron, make a thick paste, with water, of powdered iron, 60 parts; sal ammoniac, 2 parts, and sulphur flowers, 1 part. Use while fresh. II.— Sulphur flowers, 6 parts; dry white lead 6 parts, and powdered borax, 1 part. Mix by sifting and keep as a dry powder in a closed tin box. To use, make into a thin paste with strong sul- phuric acid and press together immedi- ately. This cement will harden in 5 days. TIT . — Graphite 50 pounds Whiting 15 pounds Litharge 15 pounds Make to a paste with a boiled oil. IV. — Make a paste of white lead and asbestos. V. — Make a paste of litharge and ^yc- erine. Red lead may be added. This also does for stone. VI. — Make a paste of boiled oil of equal parts of white lead, pipe clay, and black oxide of manganese. VII. — Make iron filings to a paste with water glass. Vin. — Sal ammoniac. ... 4 ounces Sulphur 2 ounces Iron filings 32 ounces Make as much as is to be used at once to a paste with a little water. This re- mark applies to both the following dry recipes: IX. — Iron filings 160 ounces Lime 80 ounces Red lead 16 ounces Alum 8 ounces Sal ammoniac. . . 2 ounces X. — Clay 10 ounces Iron filings 4 ounces Salt 1 ounce Borax . .- 1 ounce Black oxide of manganese ... 2 ounces XL— Mix: Iron filings 180 ounces Lime 45 ounces Salt 8 ounces XII.— Mix: Iron filings 140 ounces Hydraulic lime . . 20 ounces Sand 25 ounces Sal ammoniac. . . 3 ounces Either of these last two mixtures is made into a paste with strong vinegar just before use. XIII. — Mix equal weights of zinc oxide and black oxide of manganese into a paste with water glass. XIV. — Copal varnish, 15 parts; hy- drated lime, 10 parts; glue de nerfs (of sinews), 5 parts; fat drying oil, 5 parts; ADHESIVES 25 powdered turpentine, 3 parts; essence of turpentine, i parts. Dissolve the glue de nerjs on the water bath, add all the other substances, and triturate inti- mately. XV. — Copal varnish, 15 parts; pow- dered turpentine, 3 parts; essence of tur- pentine, 2 parts; powdered fish glue, 3 parts; iron filings, 3 parts; ocher, 10 parts. XVI. — To make a cement for cast iron, take 16 ounces cast-iron borings; S ounces sal ammoniac, and 1 ounce smphur. Mix well and keep dry. When ready to use take 1 part of this powder to 20 parts of cast-iron borings and mix thorougnly into a stiff paste, adding a little water. XVII. — Litharge 2 parts Boiled linseed oil 2 parts White lead 1 part Copal 1 part Heat together until of a uniform con- sistence and apply warm. XVIII. — A cement for iron which is said to be perfectly waterproof and fire- proof is made by working up a mixture of equal weights of red lead and litharge with glycerine till the mass is perfectly homogeneous and has the consistency of a glazier's putty. This cement is said to answer well, even for very large iron vessels, and to be unsurpassable for stopping up cracks in large iron pans of steam pipes. Cement for Metal, Glass, and Force - Isdn. — A soft alloy is prepared by mixing from 30 to 36 parts of copper precipi- tated in the form of a fine brown powder, with sulphuric acid of a specific gravity of 1.85 in a cast-iron or porcelain mor- tar and incorporating by stirring with 75 parts of mercury, the acid being after- wards removed by washing with water. In from 10 to 14 hours the amalgam be- comes harder than tin, but when heated to 692° P., it can be kneaded like wax. In this condition it is applied to the surface to be cemented, and will fix them firmly together on cooling. Dissolve 1 drachm of gum mastic in 3 drachms of spirits of wine. In a sep- arate vessel containing water soak 3 drachms of isinglass. When thoroughly soaked take it out of the water and put it into 5 drachms of spirits of wine. Take a piece of gum ammoniacum the size of a large pea and grind it up finely with a little spirits of wine and isinglass until it has dissolved. Then mix the whole together with sufficient heat. It will be found most convenient to place the vessel on a hot-water bath. Keep this cement in a bottle closely stoppered, and when it is to be used, place it in hot water until dissolved. Cements for Fastening Porcelain to Metal. — I. — Mix equal parts of alcohol (95 per cent) and water, and make a paste by incorporating the liquid with 300 parts of finely pulverized chalk and 250 parts of starch. II. — Mix finely powdered burned lime, 300 parts, with powdered starch, 250 parts, and moisten the mixture with a compound of equal parts of water and alcohol of 95 per cent until a, paste results. III. — Cement or plaster can be used if the surfaces are sufficiently large; cement is the better article when the object may be exposed to moisture or subjected to much pressure. A process which can be recommended consists in mingling equal weights of chalk, brick- dust, clay, and Romain cement. These materials, pulverized and sifted, are in- corporated with linseed oil in the pro- portion of half a kilo of oil to 3 kilos of the mingled powder. The Romain or Romanic cement is so designated from the district in France where the calca- reous stone from which it is prepared is found in considerable quantity. Al- though its adhesive qualities are unques- tioned, there are undoubtedly American cements equally as good. IV. — Acetate of lead, 46 J parts by weight; alum, 46J parts by weight; gum arable, 76 parts by weight; flour, 500 parts by weight; water, 2,000 parts by weight. Dissolve the acetate of lead and the alum in a little water; on the other hand dissolve the gum arable in water by pouring, for instance, the 2 liters of boiling water on the gum arable reduced to powder. When the gum has dissolved, add the flower, put all on the fire, and stir well with a piece of wood; then add the solution of acetate of lead and the alum; agitate well so as to pre- vent any lumps from forming; retire from the fire before allowing to boil. This glue is used cold, does not peel off, and is excellent to make wood, glass, card- board, etc. adhere to metals. Cement for Leather and Iroto.— To face a cast-iron pulley with leather apply acetic acid to the face of the_ pulley with a brush, which will roughen it by rusting, and then when dry apply a cement made of 1 pound of fish glue and i pound of common glue, melted in a mixture of alcohol and water. The leather should then be placed on the pulley and dried under pressure. 26 ADHESIVES Amber Cements. — I. — To solder to- gether two pieces of yellow amber, slightly heat the parts to be united and moisten them witn a solution of caustic soda; then bring the two pieces together quickly. II. ^Dissolve in a closed bottle 75 parts of cut-up caoutchouc in 60 parts of chloroform. Add 15 parts of mastic and let the mixture stand in the cold until all has dissolved. III. — Moisten the pieces to be joined with caustic potash and press them to- gether when warm. The union is so perfect that no trace of the juncture is visible. A concentrated alcoholic solu- tion of the rosin over the amber, soluble in alcohol, is also employed for this pur- pose. Another medium is a solution of hard and very finely powdered copal in pure sulphuric ether. Coat both fractures, previously well cleaned, with this solution and endeavor to combine them intimately by tying or pressing. IV. — In 30 parts by weight of copal dissolve 30 parts by weight of alumina by means of a water bath. Bathe the surface to be cemented with this gelat- inous liquid, but very slightly. Unite the fractures and press them together firmly until the mixture is dry. Acid-Proof Cements for Stoneware and Glass. — I. — Mix with the aid of heat equal weights of pitch, rosin, and plaster of Paris. II. — Mi.x silicate of soda to a paste with ground glass. III. — Mix boiled oil to a paste with china clay.' IV. — Mix coal tar to a paste with pipe clay. V. — Mix boiled oil to a paste with quicklime. VI.— Mix with the aid of heat: Sul- phur, 100 pounds; tallow, 2 pounds; rosin, 2 pounds. Thicken with ground glass. VII.— Mix with the aid of heat: Rosin, 2 pounds; sulphur, 2 pounds; brickdust, 4 pounds. VIII.— Mix with the aid of heat 2 pounds of India rubber and 4 pounds of boiled oil. Thicken with 12 pounds of pipe clay. IX. — Fuse 100 pounds of India rub- ber with 7 pounds of tallow. Then make to a paste with dry slaked lime and finally add 20 pounds of red lead. X. — Mix with the aid of heat: Rosin, 24 pounds; red ocher, 8 pounds; boiled oil, 2 pounds; plaster of Paris, 4 pounds Acid-Proof Cement for Wood, Metals, etc. — I. — Powdered asbestos ... 2 parts Ground baryta 1 part Sodium water-glass so- lution 2 parts Mix. II. — To withstand hot nitric acid the following is used: Sodium water-glass so- lution 2 parts Sand 1 part Asbestos 1 part Mix. ni. — Asbestos 2 parts Sulphate of barium ... 3 parts Silicate of sodium .... 2 parts By mixing these ingredients a cement strong enough to resist the strongest nitric acid will be obtained. rV. — If hot acids are dealt with, the following mixture will be found to possess still more resistant powers: Silicate of sodium (50° Baume) 2 parts Fine sand 1 part Asbestos 1 part Both these cements take a few hours to set. If the cement is wanted to set at once, use silicate of potassium, instead of silicate of sodium. This mixture will be instantly effective and possesses the same power of resistance as the other. Directions for Repairing Broken Glass, Porcelain, Bric-a-Brac. — Broken glass, china, bric-a-brac, and picture frames, not to name casts, require each a differ- ent cement — in fact, several different cements. Glass may be beautifully mended to look at, but seldom so as to be safely used. For clear glass the best cement is isinglass dissolved in gin. Put 2 ounces of isinglass in a clean, wide- mouthed bottle, add half a pint of gin, and set in the sun until dissolved. Shake well every day, and before using strain through double lawn, squeezing very gently. Spread a white cloth over the mend- ing table and supply it with plenty of clean linen rags, strong rubber bands, and narrow white tape, also a basin of tepid water and a clean soft towel. Wash the broken glass very clean, especially along the break, but take care not to chip it further. Wet both broken edges well with the glue, using a camel' s-hair pencil. Fit the break to a nicety, then slip on rubber bands length- and cross- wise, every way they will hold. If they will not hold true as upon a stemmed AuHESIVES T, thing, a vase or jug or scent bottle, string half a dozen bands of the same size and strength upon a bit of tape, and tie the tape about neck or base before beginning the gluing. After the parts are joined slip another tape through the same bands and tie it above the fracture; thus with all their strength the bands Cull the break together. The bands can e used thus on casts of china — in fact, to hold anything mendable. In glass mending the greater the pressure the better — if only it stops short of the break- ing point. Properly made the isinglass cement is as clear as water. When the pieces fit true one on the other the break should be hardly visible, if the pressure has been great enough to force out the tiny bubbles, which otherwise refract the light and make the line of cleavage distressingly apparent. Mended glass may be used to hold dry things — as rose leaves, sachets, violet powder, even can- dies and fruits. But it will not bear to have any sort of liquid left standing in it, nor to be washed beyond u quick rinsing in tepid water. In wiping always use a very soft towel, and pat the vessel dry with due regard to its infirmities. Mend a lamp loose in the collar with sifted plaster of Paris mixed to a very soft paste with beaten white of egg. Have everything ready before wetting up the plaster, and work quickly so it may set in place. With several lamps to mend wet enough plaster for one at a time. It takes less than 5 minutes to set, and is utterly worthless if one tries working it over. Metal work apart from the glass needs the soldering iron. Dust the break well with powdered rosin, tie the parts firmly together, lay the stick of solder above the break, and fetch the iron down on it lightly but firmly. When the solder cools, remove the melted rosin with a cloth dipped in alcohol. Since breakables have so unhappy a knack of fracturing themselves in such fashion they cannot possibly stand up- right, one needs a. sand box. It is only a box of handy size with 8 inches of clean, coarse sand in the bottom. Along with it there should be some small leaden weights, with rings cast in them, run- ning from an ounce to a, quarter pound. Two of each weight are needed. In use, tapes are tied to the rings, and the pair of weights swung outside the edges of the box, so as to press in place the upper part of a broken thing to which the tapes have been fastened. Set broken platters on edge in the sand box with the break up. The sand will hold them firm, and the broken bit can be slapped on. It is the same with plates and saucers. None of these com- monly requires weighting. But very fine pieces where an invisible seam is wanted should be held firm until partly set, then have the pair of heaviest weights accurately balanced across the broken piece. The weights are also very useful to prop and stay topheavy articles and balance them so they shall not get out of kilter. A cup broken, as is so com- mon with cups, can have the tape passed around it, crossing inside the handle, then be set firmly in the sand, face down, and be held by the hanging weights pulling one against the other. The most dependable cement for china is pure white lead, ground in linseed oil, so thick it will barely spread smoothly with a knife. Given time enough to harden (some 3 months), it makes a seam practically indestructible. Tlie objec- tion to it is that it always shows in a staring white line. A better cement for fine china is white of egg and plaster. Sift the plaster three times and tie a generous pinch of it loosely in mosquito netting. Then beat the egg until it will stick to the plaster. Have the broken egg very clean, cover both with the beaten egg, dust well with the plaster, fit together at once, tie, using ruboer bands if possible, wrap loosely in very soft tissue paper, and bury heatl and ears in the sand box, taking care that the break lies so that the sand will hold it together. Leave in the box 24 hours. After a week the su- perfluous plaster may be gently scraped away. General Formulas for Cements for Repairing Porcelain, Glassware, Crock- ery, Plaster, and Meerschaum. — I. — An excellent cement for joining broken crockery and similar small articles can be made by melting 4 or .5 parts of rosin (or, better still, gum mastic) with 1 part of beeswax in an iron spoon or similar vessel. Apply while hot. It will not stand great neat. II. — An excellent cement for porcelain and stoneware is obtained by mixing 20 parts of fish slue with an equal weight of crystallizaWe acetic acid and evapo- rate the mixture carefully to a syrupy consistency so that it forms a gelatinous mass on cooling. For use the cement thus obtained is made liquid again by heating and applied to the fracture with a brush. The pieces should now be pressed firmly together, by winding a twine tightly around them, until the cement has hardened. III. — For luting vessels made of glass. 28 ADHESIVES porcelain, etc., which are to be used to hold strong acids, a mixture of asbestos powder, water glass, and an indifferent pow- der (permanent white, sand, etc.) is rec- ommended. To begin with, asbestos powder is made into a pulp with three or four times the quantity (weight) of a solution of soda water glass (of 30° B.). The same is exceedingly fat and plastic, but is not very well suited for working, as it shrinks too much and cracks when drying. By an addition of fine writing sand of the same weight as the asbestos used, the mass can be made less fat, so as to obviate shrinking, without detracting from the plasticity. Small vessels were molded from it and dried in the air, to be tested afterwards. Put in water, the hardened mass becomes soft again and falls apart. Brought into contact, however, with very strong min- eral acids, it becomes even firmer and withstands the liquid perfectly. Con- centrated nitric acid was kept in such small vessels without the mass being visibly attacked or anything penetrating it. The action of the acid manifestly has the effect that silicic acid is set free from the water glass in excess, which clogs up the pores entirely and con- tributes to the lutation. Later on, the mass cannot be dissolved by pure water any more. The mass is also highly fire- proof. One of the molded bodies can be kept glowing in a Bunsen gas flame for about half a day after treatment with acid, without slagging in the least. For many purposes it ought to be welcome to have such a mass at hand. It cannot be kept ready for use, however, as it hardens a few hours after being pre- pared; if potash water glass is used, in- stead of the soda composition, this in- duration takes place still more quickly. IV. — Cement for Glass, Porcelain, etc. Isinglass (fish glue) . . 50 parts Gum ammoniac 4 parts Gum mastic 2 parts Alcohol, 95 per cent . . 10 parts Water, q. s. Soak the isinglass in cold water over night, or until it has become swollen and soft throughout. In the morning throw off any superfluous fluid and throw the isinglass on a clean towel or other coarse cloth, and hang it up in such a way that any free residual water will drain away. Upon doing this thoroughly depends, m a great measure, the strength of the cement. When the gelatin has become thoroughly drained put it into a flask or other container, place it in the water bath and heat carefully until it becomes fluid, being careful not to let it come to a boil, as this injures its adhesive prop- erties (the same may be said in regard to glues and gelatins of all kinds). Dis- solve the gums in the alcohol and add the solution to the gelatin after remov- ing the same from the water bath, and letting it cool down to about 160° F. Stir well together or mix hj agitation. The following precautions must be observed: 1. Both surfaces to be joined must be absolutely clean, free from dust, dirt, grease, etc. 2. Where the cement is one that requires the application of heat before use, the objects to be united should also be heated to a point at least as high as the melting point of the cement. Otherwise, the cement on application is chilled and consequently fails to make a lasting joint. 3. The thinner the la^er of cement the stronger the joint; avoid, therefore, using too much of the binding material. Cover both surfaces to be united, coapt them exactly, and press together as closely as possible. In this manner the thinnest possible layer is secured. 4. Bind the parts securely to- gether, and let remain without loosening or attempting to use the article for 2 or 3 days or longer. A liquid cement ac- quires its full strength only after evapor- ation of the fluids used as solvents, and this can occur only from the infinitesimal line of exposed surface. V. — Liquid Porcelain Cement. — Fish glue, 20 parts; glass acetic acid, 20 parts; heat together until the mass gelatmizes on cooliM. VI. — Take 1 ounce of Russian isin- glass, cut in small pieces, and bruise well; then add 6 ounces of warm water, and leave it in a warm place for from 24 to 48 hours. Evaporate the re- sulting solution to about 3 ounces. Next dissolve J ounce of mastic in 4 ounces of alcohol, and add the mastic solution to the isinglass in small quan- tities at a time, continuing the heat and stirring well. While still hot strain the liquid through muslin. Vn. — For optical glasses, Canada bal- sam is employed, the two pieces being firm- ly pressed together. After a while, espe- cially by humidity, punctures will form, and the glass is separated by a mist of varying reflexes, while in certain climates the heat will melt the balsam. For all other glass articles which require only simple treatment, such as knobs of covers, plates, etc., silicate of potash is excel- lent. VIII. — Glass Cement. — Dissolve in 150 parts of acetic acid of 96 per cent, 100 AUHESIVES 29 parts of gelatin by the use of heat, and add ammonium bichromate, 5 parts. This glue must be kept away from the light. IX.— White glue 10 parts Potassium bichromate 2 parts Water 100 parts The glue is dissolved in a portion of the water by the aid of heat, the bichro- mate in the remainder, and the liquids mixed, the mixing being done in a feebly lighted place, and the mixture is then kept in tne dark. It is applied in feeble light, being reliquefied by gentle heat, and the glass, the fractured pieces being tightly clamped together, is then exposed to a strong light for some time. Bv this exposure the cement becomes insoluble. This is waterproof cement for glass. X. — Diamond Glass Cement. — Dis- solve 100 parts of fish glue in 160 parts of 90 per cent alcohol and add, with con- stant stirring, 200 parts of powdered rosin. This cement must be preserved in absolutely tight bottles, as it solidifies very quickly. XI — To unite objects of crystal dis- solve 8 parts of caoutchouc and 100 parts of gum mastic in 600 parts of chloro- form. Set aside, hermetically closed, for 8 days; then apply with a brush, cold. XII. — To make a transparent cement for glass, digest together for a week in the cold 1 ounce of india rubber, 67 ounces of chloroform, and 40 ounces of mastic. XIII. — A mixture of traumaticin, a solution of caoutchouc in chloroform, and a concentrated solution of water ^lass make a capital cement for unit- ing articles of glass. Not only is the joint very strong, but it is transparent. Neither changes of temperature nor moisture affect the cement. XIV. — A transparent cement for por- celain is preparea by dissolving 76 parts of india rubber, cut into small pieces, in a bottle containing 60 parts chloro- form; to this add 15 parts green mastic. Let the bottle stand in the cold until the ingredients have become thoroughly dis- solved. XV. — Some preparations resist the ac- tion of heat and moisture a short time, but generally yield very quickly. The following cement for glass has proven most resistant to liquids and heat: Silver litharge .... 1,000 parts White lead 60 parts Boiled linseed oil. . 3 parts Copal varnish .... 1 part Mix the lead and litharge thoroughly, and the oil and copal in the same man- ner, and preserve separately. When needed for use, mix in the proportions indicated (150 parts of the powder to 4 parts of the liquid) and knead well to- gether. Apply to the edges of the glass, bind the broken parts together, and let stand for from 24 to 48 hours. XVI. — To reunite plaster articles dis- solve small pieces of celluloid in ether; in a quarter of an hour decant, and use the pasty deposit which remains for smearing the edges of the articles. It dries rapidly and is insoluble in water. XVII.— To Mend Wedgwood Mortars. — It is easy enough to mend mortars so that they may be used for making emul- sions and other light work which does not tax their strength too much. But a mended mortar will hardly be able to stand the force required for powdering hard substances. A good cement for mending mortars is the following: a. — Glass flour elutriated. 10 parts Fluorspar, powdered and elutriated 20 parts Silicate of soda 60 parts Both glass and fluorspar must be in the finest possible condition, which is best done by shaking each in fine pow- der, with water allowing the coarser particles to defposit, and then to pour off the remainder, which holds the finest particles in suspension. The mixture must be made very rapidly by quick stirrine, and when thoroughly mixed must be at once applied. This is said to yield an excellent cement. b. — Freshly burnt plaster of Paris 5 parts Freshly burnt lime .... 1 part White of egg, sufficient. Reduce the first two ingredients to a very fine powder and mix them well; moisten the two surfaces to be united with a small quantity of white of egg to make them adhesive; then mix the powder very rapidly with the white of egg and apply the mixture to the broken surfaces. If they are large, two persons should do this, eacn applying the cement to one portion. The pieces are then firmly pressed to- gether and left undisturbed for several days. The less cement is used the better will the articles hold together. c. — If there is no objection to dark- colored cement, the very best that can be used is probably marine glue. This is made thus: Ten parts of caoutchouc or india rubber are dissolved in 120 parts of benzine or petroleum naphtha, with 30 • ADHESIVES the aid of a gentle heat. When the so- lution is complete, which sometimes lequires from 10 to 14 days, 20 parts of asphalt are melted in an iron vessel and the caoutchouc solution is poured in very slowly in a fine stream and under con- tinued heating, until the mass has be- come homogeneous and nearly all the solvent has been driven off. It is then poured out and cast into greased tin molds. It forms dark brown or black cakes, which are very hard to break. This cement requires considerable heat to melt it; and to prevent it from being burnt it is best to heat a capsule contain- ing a piece of it first on a water bath until the cake softens and begins to be liquid. It is then carefully wiped dry and heated over a naked flame, under constant stir- ring, up to about 300° F. The edges of the article to be mended should, if possi- ble, also be heated to at least 212° F., so as to permit the cement to be ap- plied at leisure and with care. The thinner the cement is applied the better it binds. Meerschaum Cements. — I. — If the ma- terial is genuine (natural) meerschaum ii lasting joint can be made between the parts by proceeding as follows: Clean a clove or two of garlic (the fresher the better) by removing all the outside hull of skin; throw into a little mortar and mash to a paste. Rub this paste over each surface to be united and join quick- ly. Bring the parts as closely together as possible and fasten in this position. Have ready some boiling fresn milk; place the article in it and continue the boiling for 30 minutes. Remove and let cool slowly. If properly done,, this makes a, joint that will stand any ordi- nary treatment, and is nearly invisible. For composition, use a cement made of quicklime, rubbed to a thick cream with egg albumen. II. — ^^Mix very fine meerschaum shav- ings with albumen or dissolve casein in water glass, stir finely powdered magne- sia into the mass, and use the cement at once. This hardens quickly. Asbestos Cement. — Ground asbestos may be made into a cement which will stand a high degree of heat by simply mixing it with a solution of sodium sili- cate. By subsequent treatment with a solution of calcium chloride the mass may be made insoluble, silicate of cal- cium being formed. A cement said to stand a high degree of heat and to be suitable for cementing glass, porcelain, or other vessels intended to hold corrosive acids, is this one: I.— Asbestos 2 parts Barium sulphate 3 parts Sodium silicate 2 parts By mixing these ingredients a cement strong enough to resist the strongest nitric acid will be obtained. If hot acids are dealt with, the following mixture will be found to possess still more resistant powers: II.— Sodium silicate 2 parts Fine sand 1 part Asbestos powder 1 part Both these cements take a few hours to set. If the cement is wanted to set at once, use potassium silicate instead of sodium silicate. This mixture will be instantly effective, and possesses the same power of resistance as the other. Parisian Cement. — Mix 1 part of finely ground glass powder, obtained by levigation, with 3 parts of finely pow- dered zinc oxide rendered perfectly free from carbonic acid by calcination. Be- sides prepare a solution of 1 part, by weight, of borax in a very small quantity of hot water and mix this with 50 parts of a highly concentrated zinc chloride solution of 1.5 to 1.6 specific gravity. As is well known the mixture of this powder with the liquid into a soft uni- form paste is accomplished only imme- diately before use. The induration to a stonelike mass takes place within a few minutes, the admixture of borax retarding the solidification somewhat. The pure white color of the powder may be tinted with ocher, manganese, etc., according to the shade desired. Strong Cement. — Pour over well- washed and cleaned casein 12i parts of boiled linseed oil and the same amount of castor oil. Boil. Stir actively and add a small amount of a saturated aque- ous solution of alum; remove from the fire and set aside. After a while a milky looking fluid will separate and rise. This should be poured off. To the residue add 120 parts of rock candy syrup and 6 parts of dextrin. A Cheap and Excellent Cement. — A cheap and excellent cement, insoluble after drying in water, petroleum, oils, carbon disulphide, etc., very hard when dry and of very considerable tensile strength, is composed of casein and some tannic-acid compound, as, for in- stance, calcium tannate, and is prepared as follows: First, a tannin solution is prepared either by dissolving a tannin salt, or by extraction from vegetable sources (as barks from certain trees, etc.), to which Ai/iIESIVES 31 is added dear lime water (obtained by filtering milk of lime, or by letting the milk stand until the lime subsides) until no further precipitation occurs, and red litmus paper plunged in the fluid is turned blue. The liquid is now sepa- rated from its precipitate, either by de- cantation or otherwise, and the precipi- tate is dried. In operating with large quantities of the substance, this is done hy passing a stream of atmospheric air through the same. The lime tan- nate obtained thus is then mixed with casein in proportions running from 1 : 1 up to 1 : 10, and the mixture, thoroughly dried, is milled into the consistency of the finest powder. This powder has now only to be mixed with water to be ready for use, the consistency of the prepara- tion depending upon the- use to which it is to be put. Universal Cement. — Take gum arable, 100 parts, by weight; starch, 75 parts, by weignt; white sugar, 21 parts, by weight; camphor, 4 parts, by weight. Dissolve the gum arabic in a little water; also dissolve the starch in a little water. Mix and add the sugar and camphor. Boil on the water bath until a paste is formed which, on coating, will thicken. Cement for Ivory. — Melt together equal parts of gutta percha and ordinary Eitch. The pieces to be united have to e warmed. Cement for Belts. — Mix 60 parts, by weight, of fish glue with equal parts of whey and acetic acid. Then add 50 parts, by weight, of garlic in paste form and boil the whole on the water bath. At the same time make a solution of 100 parts, by weight, of gelatin in the same quantity of whey, and mix both liquids. To the whole add, finally, 50 parts, by weight, of 90-per-cent alcohol and, after filtration, a cement is ob- tained which can be readily applied with a brush and possesses extraordinary binding qualities. Cement for Chemical Apparatus. — Melt together 20 parts of gutta percha, 10 parts of yellow wax, and 30 parts of shellac. Size Over Portland Cement. — The best size to use on Portland cement molding for wall paper would ordinarily be glue and alum size put on thin and warm, made in proportion of i pound of glue and same weight of alum dis- solved in separate pails, then poured to- gether. Aquarium Cements. — I. — Litharge 3 ounces Fine white sand ... 3 ounces Plaster of Paris. ... 3 ounces Rosin, in fine pow- der 1 ounce Linseed oil, enough. Drier, enough. Mix the first three ingredients, add sufficient linseed oil to make a homogene- ous paste, and then add a small quantity of drier. This should stand a few hours before it is used. It is said that glass joined to iron with this cement will break before it will come loose. II. — Litharge 1 ounce Fine wnite sand .... 1 ounce Plaster of Paris. ... 1 ounce Manganese borate. 20 grains Rosin, in fine pow- der 3 J pounds Linseed varnish oil, enough. III. — Take equal parts of flciwers of sulphur, ammonium chloride, aiul iron filings, and mix thoroughly with boiled linseed oil. Finally, add enough white lead to form a thin paste. IV. — Powdered graphite. 6 parts Slaked lime 3 parts Barium sulphate. . . 8 parts Linseed varnish oil. 7 parts V. — Simply mix equal parts of white and red lead with a little kettle-boiled linseed oil. Substitute for Cement on Grinder Disks. — A good substitute in place of glue or various kinds of cement for fast- ening emery cloth to the disks of grind- ers of the Gardner type is to heat or warm the disk and apply a thin coating of beeswax; then put the emery cloth in place and allow to set and cool under pressure. Knockenplombe. — If 1 part of thymol be mixed with 2 parts of iodoform we obtain a substance that retains its fiuid- ity down to 72° C. (161.6° F.). If the temperature be carried down to 60° C. (140° F.) it suddenly becomes solid and hard. If, in its liquid condition, this substance be mixed intimately with an equal quantity of calcined bone, it forms a cement that can be molded or kneaded into any shape, that, at the temperature of the body (98° F.), becomes as hard as stone, a fact that suggests many useful purposes to which the mixture may be put. Cement for General Use. — Take gum arabic, 100 parts, by weight; starch, 75 ADHESIVES parts by weight; white sugar, 21 parts, by weight; camphor, 4 parts, by weight. Dissolve the gum arable in a little water. On the other hand, dissolve the starch also in some water. When this is done add the sugar and the camphor and put in a water bath. Boil until a paste is formed, which must be rather thin, be- cause it will thicken on cooling. Strong Cement. — Pour over well- washed and cleaned casein 12J parts of boiled linseed oil and the same amount of castor oil, put on the fire and bring to a, boil; stir actively and add a small amount of a saturated aqueous solution of alum; remove from the fire and set aside. After standing a while a milky- looking fluid will separate at the bottom and rise to the top. This should be poured off and to the residue add 120 parts of rock-candy syrup and 6 parts of dextrine. Syndeticon. — I. — Slake 100 parts of burnt lime with 60 parts of water, pour off the supernatant water; next, dissolve 60 parts of lump sugar in 160 parts of water, add to the solution 15 parts of the slaked lime, heat to 70° or 80° C. (158° to 176° F.), and set asidcj shaking fre- quently. Finally dissolve 50 to 60 parts of genuine Cologne glue in 250 parts of the clear solution. II. — A solution of 10 parts gum ara- bic and 30 parts of sugar in 100 parts of soda water glass. . IIL — A hot solution of 50 parts of Cologne glue in 60 parts of a 20-per-cent aqueous calcium-chloride solution. IV. — A solution of 60 parts of Co- logne glue in 60 parts of acetic acid. V. — Soak isinglass (fish bladder) in acetic acid of 70 per cent until it swells up, then rub it up, adding a little water dur- ing the process. "Shio Liao." — Under this name the Chinese manufacture an excellent ce- ment which takes the place of glue, and with which gypsum, marble, porcelain, stone, and stoneware can be cemented. It consists of the following parts (by weight): Slaked powdered lime, 54 parts; powdered alum, 6 parts; and fresh, well - strained blood, 40 parts. These materials are stirred thoroughly until an intimately bound mass of the consistency of a more or less stiff salve is obtained. In paste form this mass is used as cement; in a liquid state it is employed for painting all sorts of arti- cles which are to be rendered waterproof and durable. Cardboard covers, which are coated with it two or three times, be- come as hard as wood. The Chinese paint their houses with "shio liao" and glaze their barrels with it, in which they trans- port oil and other greasy substances. LUTES. Lutes always consist of a menstruum and dissolved or suspended solids, and they must not be attacked by the gases and liquids coming in contact with them. In some cases the constituents of the lute react to form a more strongly adhering mass. The conditions of application are, in brief: (a) Heating the composition to make it plastic until firmly fixed in place. (b) Heating the surfaces. (c) Applying the lute with water or a volatile solvent, which is allowed to vola- tilize. (d) Moistening the surfaces with wa- ter, oil, etc. (the menstruum of the lute itself). (e) Applying the lute in workable con- dition and the setting taking place by chemical reactions. (/) Setting by hydration. (g) Setting by oxidation. These principles will be found to cover nearly all cases. Joints should not be ill - fitting, de- pending upon the lute to do what the pipes or other parts of the apparatus should do. In most cases one part of the fitting should overlap the other, so as to mate a small amount of the lute efl'ective and to keep the parts of the ap- paratus rigid, as a luted joint is not supposed to be a particularly strong one, but rather one -quickly applied, effective while in place and easily removed. Very moderate amounts of the lute should be used, as large amounts are likely to develop cracks, be rubbed off, etc. A classification may be given as fol- lows: (1) Plaster of Paris. (2) Hydraulic cement. (3) Clay. (4) Lime. (5) Asphalt and pitch. (6) Rosin. (7) Rubber. (8) Linseed oil. (9) Casein and albumen. (10) Silicates of soda and oxychlo- ride cements. (11) Flour and starch. (12) Miscellaneous, including core compounds. I. Plaster of Paris is, of course, often used alone as a paste, which quickly aI»HESIVES 33 soliQines, for gas and wood distillation retorts, etc., and similar places where quickness of setting is requisite. It is more often, however, used with some fibrous material to give it greater strength. Asbestos is the most commonly used material of these, as it will stand a high temperature. When that is not so im- portant, straw, plush trimmings, hair, etc., are used as binders, while broken ■stone, glass, and various mineral sub- stances are used as fillers, but they do not add anything to the strength. These lutes seem to be particularly suit- able for oil vapors and hydrocarbon gases. Formulas: (1) Plaster and water. (2) Plaster (wet) and asbestos. (3) Plaster (wet) and straw. (4) Plaster (wet) and plush trim- mings. (6) Plaster (wet) and hair. (6) Plaster (wet) and broken stone, etc. II. Hydraulic Cement. — Cement is used either alone or with sand, asbestos, etc. These lutes are suitable for nitric acid. When used with substances such as rosin or sulphur, cement is probably employed because it is in sucn a fine state of division and used as a filler and not because of any powers of setting by hydration. Formulas: (1) Cement — neat. (2) Cement and asbestos. (3) Cement and sand. III. Clay. — This most frequently en- ters into the composition of lutes as a filler, but even then the very finely divid- ed condition of certain grades renders it valuable, as it gives body to » liquid, such as linseed oil, which, unless stiff- ened, would be pervious to a gas, the clay in all cases being neutral. Thus, for luting pipes carrying chlorine, a stiff paste of clay and molasses has been sug- gested by Theo. Koller in Die Surrogate, but it soon gives way. Formulas: (1) Clay and linseed oil. (2) Same, using fire clay. (3) Clay and molasses. (1) Is suitable for steam, etc.; (2) for chlorine, and (3) for oil vapors. IV. Lime is used in the old lute known as putty, which consists of caustic lime and linseed oil. Frequently the lime is replaced by chalk and china clay, but the lime should be, in part at least, caus- tic, so as to form a certain amount of lime soap. Lime is also used in silicate and casein compositions, which are very strong and useful, but will be described elsewnere. Formulas: (1) Lime and boiled oil to stiff mass. (2) Clay, etc., boiled oil to stiff mass. V. Asphalt and Pitch. — These sub- stances are used in lutes somewhat inter- changeably. As a rule, pitch makes the stronger lutes. Tar is sometimes used, but, because of the light oils and, fre- quently, water contained, it is not so good as either of the others. Asphalt dissolved in benzol is very useful for uniting glass for photographic, microscopical, and other uses. Also for coating wood, concrete, etc., where the melted asphalt would be too thick to cover well. Benzol is the cheapest solvent that is satisfactory for this pur- pose, as the only one that is cheaper would be a petroleum naphtha, which does not dissolve all the constituents of the asphalt. For waterproofing wood, brick, concrete, etc., melted asphalt alone is much used, but when a little paraffine is added, it improves its water- C roofing qualities, and in particular cases oiled oil IS also added to advantage. Formulas: 1. Refined lake asphalt. 2. Asphalt 4 parts Paraffine 1 part 3. Asphalt 10 parts Paraffine 2 parts Boiled oil 1 part Any of these may be thinned with hot benzol or toluol. Toluol is less volatile than benzol and about as cheap, if not cheaper, the straw-colored grades being about 24 cents per gallon. Examples of so-called "stone cement" are: 4. Pitch 8 parts Rosin 6 parts Wax 1 part Plaster i to < part 5. Pitch 8 parts Rosin 7 parts Sulphur 2 parts Stone powder 1 part These compositions are used to unite slate slabs and stoneware for domestic, engineering, and chemical purposes. Va- rious rosin and pitch mixtures are used for these purposes, and the proportions of these two ingredients are determined by the consistency desired. Sulphur and stone powder are added to prevent the formation of cracks, sulphur acting chem- ically and stone powder mechanically 34 ADHESIVES Where the lute would come in contact with acid or vapors of the same, lime- stone should not be the powder used, otherwise it is about the best. Wax is a useful ingredient to keep the composi- tion from getting brittle with age. A class of lutes under this general grouping that are much used are so- called ' marine glues" (q. v.). They must be tough and elastic. When used for calking on a vessel they must expand and contract with the temperature and not crack or come loose. Formulas : 6. Pitch 3 parts Shellac 2 parts Pure crude rubber ... 1 part 7. Pitch 1 part Shellac 1 part Rubber substitute 1 part These are used by melting over a burner. VI. Rosin, Shellac, and Wax. — A strong cement, used as a stone cement, is: 1. Rosin 8 parts Wax 1 part Turpentine 1 part It has little or no body, and is used in thin layers. For nitric and hydrochloric acid vapors: 2. Rosin 1 part Sulphur 1 part Fire clay 2 parts Sulphur gives great hardness and permanency to rosin lutes, but this com- position is somewhat brittle. Good waterproof lutes of this class are: 3. Rosin 1 part Wax 1 part Powdered stone 2 parts 4. Shellac 5 parts Wax 1 part Turpentine 1 part Chalk, etc 8 to 10 parts For a soft air-tight paste for ground- glass surfaces: 5. Wax 1 part Vaseline 1 part 6. A strong cement, without body, for metals (other than copper or alloys of same), porcelain, and glass is made by letting 1 part of finely powdered shellac stand with 10 parts of ammonia water until solution is effected. VII. Rubber. — Because of its toughness, elasticity, and resistance to alterative influences, rubber is a, very useful con- stituent in lutes, but its price makes its use very limited. Leather Cement. 1. Asphalt 1 part Rosin 1 part Gutta percha 4 parts Carbon disulphide. . . 20 parts To stand acid vapors: 2. Rubber 1 part Linseed oil 3 parts Fire clay 3 parts 3. Plain Rubber Cement. — Cut the crude rubber in small pieces and then add the solvent. Carbon disulphide is the best, benzol good and much cheaper, but gasoline is probably most extensively used because of its cheapness. 4. To make corks and wood im- pervious to steam and water, soak them in a rubber solution as above; if it is desired to protect them from oil vapors, use glue composition. (See Section IX.) VIII. Linseed Oil. — This is one of the most generally useful substances we have for luting purposes, if absorbed by a por- ous substance that is inert. Formulas: 1. China clay of general utility for aqueous vapors. Linseed oil of general utility for aque- ous vapors. 2. Lime forming the well - known putty. Linseed oil forming the well - known putty. 3. Red or white lead and linseed oil. These mixtures become very strong when set and are best diluted with pow- dered glass, clay, or graphite. There are almost an endless number of lutes using metallic oxides and linseed oil. A very good one, not getting as hard as those containing lead, is: 4. Oxide of iron and linseed oil. IX. Casein, Albumen, and Glue. — These, if properly made, become very tough and tenacious; they stand moder- ate iieat and oil vapors, but not acid vapors. 1. Finely powdered case- in 12 parts Slaked lime (fresh).. . 50 parts Fine sand 50 parts Water to thick mush. A very strong cement which stands moderate heat is the following : 2. Casein in very fine powder 1 part Rubbed up with sili- cate of soda 3 parts A strong lute for general purposes. ADHESnES 35 wliicli must be used promptly when made: 3. White of egg made into a paste with slaked lime. A composition for soaking corks, wood, packing, etc., to render them im- pervious to oil vapors, is: (iciatine or good glue 3 parts Glycerine i to 1 part Water 6 part^ Oil of wintergreen, etc., to keep from spoiling. X. Silicate of Oxychloride Cements. — For oil vapors, standing the highest heat: 1. A stiff paste of .sificate of soda and asbestos. fJaskets for superheated steam, re- torts, furnaces, etc.: 2. Siliciitc of soda and powdered glass; dry the mixture and heat. Not so strong, however, as the follow- ing: 3. Silicate of soda 50 parts Asbestos 15 parts Slaked lime 10 parts Metal Cement: 4. Silicate of soda 1 part Oxides of metal, such as zinc oxide; lith- arge, iron oxide, singly or mixed 1 part Very hard and extra strong composi- tions: 5. Zinc oxide 2 parts Zinc chloride 1 part Water to make a paste. 6. Magnesium oxide ... 2 parts Magnesium chloride. 1 part Water to make a paste. XI. Flour and Starch Compositions.— 1. The well-known flaxseed poultice sets very tough, but does not stand water or condensed steam. 2. Flour and molasses, made by mak- ing a stiff composition of the two. This is an excellent lute to have at hand at all times for emergency use, etc. 3. Stiff paste of flour and strong zinc- chloride solution forms a more imper- vious lute, and is more permanent as a cement. This is good for most pur- poses, at ordinary temperature, where it would not be in contact with nitric-acid vapors or condensing steam. 4. A mixture of dextrine and fine sand makes a good composition, mainly used as core compound. XII. Miscellaneous. — 1. Litharge. Glycerine. Mixed to form a stiff paste, sets and becomes very hard and strong, and is very useful for inserting glass tubes, etc., in iron or brass. For a high heat: 2. Alumina 1 part Sand. 4 parts Slaked lime 1 part Borax i part Water sufficient. A class of mixtures that can be classi- fied only according to their intended use are core compounds. I. — Dextrine, about 1 part Sand, about 10 parts With enough water to form a paste. II. — Powdered anthracite coal, with molasses to form a stiff paste. III. — Rosin, partly saponi- fied by soda lye .... 1 part Flour 2 parts Sand (with sufficient water) 4 parts (These proportions are approxirnalo and the amount of .sand can be increased for some purposes.) IV. — Glue, powdered 1 part Flour. . 4 parts Sand (with sufficient water) 6 parts For some purposes the following mix- ture is used. It does not seem to be a gasket or a core compound: V. — Oats (or wheat) ground 25 parts Glue, powdered 6 parts Sal ammoniac 1 part Paper read by Samttel S. Sadtter before the Franklin Institute. PASTES : Dextrine Pastes. — I. — Borax, powdered.. . . CO parts Dextrine, light yellow. 480 parts Glucose 50 parts Water 420 parts By the aid of heat, di.ssolve the borax in the water and add the dextrine and glucose. Continue the heat, but do not let the mixture boil, and stir constantly until a homogeneous solution is obtained, from time to time renevping the water lost by evaporation with hot water. Finally, bring up to full weight (1,000 parts) by the addition of hot water, then strain through flannel. Prepared in this manner the paste remains bright and clear for a long time. It has extraor- dinary adhesive jjroperties and dries very rapidly. If care is not taken to keep the cooking temperature below the boiling Coint of water, the paste is apt to become rown and to be very brittle on drying. 36 ADHESIVES II. — Dissolve in hot water a sufficient quantity of dextrine to bring it to the consistency of honey. This forms a strong adhesive paste that will keep a long time unchanged, if the water is not allowed to evaporate. Sheets of paper may be prepared for extempore labels by coating one side with the paste and allowing it to dry; by slightly wetting the gummed side, the label will adhere to glass. This paste is very useful in the oflSce or laboratory. III. — Pour over 1,000 parts of dextrine 450 parts of soft water and stir the mix- ture for 10 minutes. After the dextrine has absorbed the water, put the mixture over the fire, or, preferaoly, on a water bath, and heat, with lively stirring for 5 minutes, or until it forms a light milk- like liquid, on the surface of which lit- tle bubbles begin to form and the liquid is apparently beginning to boil. Do not allow it to come to a boil. Re- move from the fire and set in a bucket of cold water to cool off. When cold add to every 1,000 parts of the solution 61 parts glycerine and as much salicylic acid as will stand on the tip of a knife blade. If the solution is too thick, thin it with water that has been boiled and cooled off again. Do not add any more glycerine or the solution will never set. IV. — Soften 175 parts of thick dex- trine with cold water and 250 parts of boiling water added. Boil for 5 minutes and then add 30 parts of dilute acetic acid, 30 parts glycerine, and a drop or two of clove oil. V. — Powder coarsely 400 parts dex- trine and dissolve in 600 parts of water. Add 20 parts glycerine and 10 parts glu- cose and heat to 90° C. (195° F.). VI. — ^Stir 400 parts of dextrine with water and thin the mass with 200 parts more water, 20 parts glucose, and 10 parts aluminum sulphate. Heat the whole to 90° C. (195° F.) in the water bath until the whole mass becomes clear and liquid. VII. — Warm 2 parts of dextrine, 5 parts of water, 1 part of acetic acid, 1 part of alcohol together, with occasional stirring until a complete solution is at- tained. VIII.— Dissolve by the aid of heat 100 parts of builders' glue in 200 parts of water add 2 parts of bleached shellac dissolved previously in 60 parts of alcohol. Dissolve by the aid of heat 50 parts of dex- trine in 50 parts of water, and mix the two solutions by stirring the second slowly into the first. Strain the mixture through a cloth into a shallow dish and let it harden. When, needed cut off a piece of sufficient size and warm until it becomes liquid and if necessary or advisable thin with water. IX. — Stir up 10 parts of dextrine with suflScient water to make a thick broth. Then, over a light fire, heat and add 25 parts of sodium water glass. X. — Dissolve 5 parts of dextrine in water and add 1 part of alum. Fastening Cork to Metal. — In fasten- ing cork to iron and brass, even when these are lacquered, a good sealing wax containing shellac will be found to serve the purpose nicely. Wax prepared with rosin is not suitable. The cork surface is painted with the melted sealing wax. The surface of the metal is heated with a spirit flame entirely free from soot, until the sealing wax melts when pressed upon the metallic surface. The wax is held in the flame until it burns, and it is then applied to the hot surface of the metal. The cork surface painted with sealing wax is now held in the flame, and as soon as the wax begins to melt the cork is pressed firmly on the metallic sur- face bearing the wax. To Paste Celluloid on Wood, Tin, or Leather. — To attach celluloid to wood, tin, or leather, a mixture of 1 part of shellac, 1 part of spirit of camphor, 3 to 4 parts of alcohol and spirit of camphor (90°) is well adapted, in which 1 part of cam- phor is dissolved without heating in 7 parts of spirit of wine of 0.832 specific gravity, adding 2 parts of water. To Paste Paper Signs on Metal or Cloth.' — A piece of gutta percha of the same size as the label is laid under the latter and the whole is heated. If the heating cannot be accomplished by means of a spirit lamp the label should be ironed down under a protective cloth or paper in the same manner as woolen goods are pressed. This method is also very use- ful for attaching paper labels to minerals. Paste for Fastening Leather, Oilcloth, or Similar Stuff to Table or Desk Tops, etc.— Use the same paste for leather as for oilcloth or other goods, but moisten the leather before applying the paste. Prepare the paste as follows: Mfix 21 pounds of good wheat flour with 2 tablespoonfuls of pulverized gum ara- ble or powdered rosin and 2 table- spoonfuls of pulverized alum in a clean dish with water enough to make a uni- formly thick batter; set it over a slow fire and stir continuously until the paste is uniform and free from lumps. When the mass has become so stout that the wooden spoon or stick will stand in it ADH?:SIVES 37 upright, it is taken from the fire and placed in another dish and covered so that no skin will form on top. When cold, the table or desk top, etc., is covered with a thin coat of the paste, the cloth, etc., carefully laid on and smoothed from the center toward the edges with a rolling pin. The trimming of edges is accomplished when the paste has dried. To smooth out the leather after pasting, a woolen cloth is of the best service. To Paste Paper on Smooth Iron. — ' Over a water bath dissolve 200 parts, by weight, of gelatine in 150 parts, by weight, of water; while stirring add 50 parts, by weight, of acetic acid, 50 parts alco- hol, and 50 parts, by weight, of pulver- ized alum. The spot upon which it is desired to attach the paper must first be rubbed with a bit of fine emery paper. Paste for Affixing Cloth to Metal. — Starch 20 parts Sugar 10 parts Zinc chloride 1 part Water 100 parts Mix the ingredients and stir until a perfectly smooth liquid results entirely tree from lumps, then warm gradually until the liquid thickens. To Fix Paper upon Polished Metal. — Dissolve 400 parts, by weight, of dextrine in 600 parts, by weight, of water; add to this 10 parts, by weight, of glucose, and heat almost to boiling. Albumen Paste. — Fresh egg albumen is recommended as a paste for affixing labels on bottles. It is said that labels put on with this substance, and well dried at the time, will not loosen even when bottles are put into water and left there for some time. Albumen, dry, is almost proof against mold or ferments. As to cost, it is but little if any higher than gum arabic, the white of one egg being sufficient to attach at least 100 medium-sized labels. Paste for Parchment Paper. — The best agent is made by dissolving casein in a saturated aqueous solution of borax. Medical Paste. — As an adhesive agent for medicinal purposes Professor Reihl, of Leipsic, recommends the viscous sub- stance contained in the white mistletoe. It is largely present in the berries and the bark of the plant; it is called viscin, and can be produced at one-tenth the price of caoutchouc. Solutions in ben- zine may be used like those of caout- chouc without causing any irritation if applied mixed with medicinal remedies to the skin. Paste That WUl Wot Mold.— Mix good white fiour with cold water into a thick paste. Be sure to stir out all the lumps; then add boiling water, stirring all the time until thoroughly cooked. To 6 quarts of this add J pound light brown sugar and J ounce corrosive sublimate, dissolved in a little hot water. When the paste is cool add 1 drachm oil of lavender. This paste will keep for a long time. Pasting Wood and Cardboard on Metal. — In a little water dissolve 50 parts of lead acetate and 5 parts of alum. In another receptacle dissolve 75 parts of fum arabic in 2,000 parts of water, nto this gum-arabic solution pour 500 garts of flour, stirring constantly, and eat gradually to the boiling point. Mingle the solution first prepared with the second solution. It snould be kept in mind that, owing to the lead acetate, this preparation is poisonous. ' Agar Agar Paste. — The agar agar is broken up small, wetted with water, and exposed in an earthenware vessel to the ac- tion of ozone pumped under pressure into the vessel from the ozonizing apparatus. About an hour of this bleaches the agar agar and makes it freely soluble in boil- ing water, when solutions far more con- centrated than has hitherto been possible can be prepared. On cooling, the solu- tions assume a milky appearance, but form no lumps and are readily relique- fied by heating. If the solution is com- pletely evaporated, as of course happens when the adhesive is allowed to dry after use, it leaves a firmly holding mass which is insoluble in cold water. Among the uses to which the preparation can be applied are the dressing of textile fabrics and paper sizing, and the production of photographic papers, as well as the or- dinary uses of an adhesive. Strongly Adhesive Paste. — Four parts glue are soaked a few hours in 15 parts cold water, and moderately heated till the solution becomes perfectly clear, when 65 parts boiling water are added, while stirring. In another vessel 30 parts boiled starch are previously stirred together with 20 parts cold water, so that a thin, milky liquid without lumps results. The boiling glue solution is poured into this while stirring constantly, and the whole is kept boiling another 10 minutes. Paste for Tissue Paper. — (a) Pulverized gum ara- ble 2 ounces White sugar 4 drachms Boiling water 3 fluidounces 38 ADHESIVES (6) Common laundry starch IJ ounces Cold water 3 fluidounces Make into a batter and pour into Boiling water 32 fluidounces Mix (a) with (b), and keep in a wide- mouthed bottle. Waterproof and Acidproof Pastes. — I. — Chromic acid SJ parts Stronger ammonia. . . 15 parts Sulphuric acid J part Cuprammonium so- lution 30 parts Fine white paper .... 4 parts II. — Isinglass, a sufficient quantity Acetic acid 1 part Water 7 parts Dissolve sufficient isinglass in the mix- ture of acetic acid and water to make a thin mucilage. One of the solutions is applied to the surface of one sheet of paper and the other to the other sheet, and they . are then pressed together. III.— A fair knotting varnish free from surplus oil is by far the best adhe- sive for fixing labels, especially on metal surfaces. It dries instantly, insuring a speedy job and immediate packing, if needful, without fear of derangement. It has great tenacity, and is not only absolutely damp-proof itself, but is actu- ally repellent of moisture, to which all water pastes are subject. It costs more, but the additional expense is often infini- tesimal compared with the pleasure of a satisfactory result. Balkan Paste. — Pale glue 4 ounces White loaf .sugar. .. . 2 ounces Powdered starch ... . 1 ounce White dextrine J pound Pure glycerine 3 ounces Carbolic acid J ounce Boiling water 32 ounces Cut up the glue and steep it in J pint boiling water; when softened melt in a saucepan; add sugar, starch, and dex- trine, and lastly the glycerine, in which carbolic acid has been mixed; add re- mainder of water, and boil until it thick- ens. Pour into jars or bottles. Permanent Paste. — I. — ^ Wheat flour 1 pound Water, cold 1 quart Nitric acid 4 fluidrachms Boric acid 40 grains Oil of cloves 20 minims Mix the flour, boric acid, and water, then strain the mixture; add the nitric acid, apply heat with constant stirring until the mixture thickens; when nearly cold add the oil of cloves. This paste will have a pleasant smell, will not attract flies, and can be thinned by the addition of cold water as needed. II. — Dissolve 4 ounces alum in 4 quarts hot water. When cool add as much flour as will make it of the usual consistency; then stir into it J ounce powdered rosin; next add a little water in which a dozen cloves have been steeped; then boil it until thick as mush, . stirring from the bottom all the time. Thin with warm water for use. Preservatives for Paste. — Various an- tiseptics are employed for the preserva- tion of flour paste, mucilage, etc. Boric and salicylic acids, oil of cloves, oil of sassafras, and solution of formaldehyde are among those which have given best service. A durable starch paste is pro- duced by adding some borax to the water used in making it. A paste from 10 parts (weight) starch to 100 parts (weight) water with 1 per cent borax added will keep many weeks, while with- out this addition it will sour after- six days. In the case of a gluing material prepared from starch paste and joiners' glue, borax has also demonstrated its pre- serving qualities. The solution is made by mixing 10 parts (weight) starch into a paste with water and adding 10 parts (weight) glue soaked in water to the hot solution; the addition of -jV part (weight) of borax to the solution will cause it to keep for weeks. It is equal to the best glue, but should be warmed and stirred before use. Board -Sizing. — A cheap sizing for rough, weather-beaten boards may be made by dissolving shellac in sal soda and adding some heavy-bodied pigment. This size will stick to grease spots. Lin- seed oil may be added if desired. Lime- water and linseed oil make a good heavy sizing, but hard to spread. They are usually used half and half, though these proportions may be varied somewhat. Rice Paste.— Mix the rice flour with cold water, and boil it over a gentle fire until it thickens. This paste is quite white and becomes transparent on dry- ing. It is very adherent and of great use for many purposes. Casein Paste. — A solution of tannin, prepared from a bark or from commer- cial tannin, is precipitated with lime- water, the lime being added until the solution just turns red litmus paper blue. The supernatant liquid is then decanted. adhesives 39 nnd the precipitate is dried without arti- ficial heat. The resulting calcium tan- nate is then mixed, according to the pur- pose for which the adhesive is intended, with from 1 to 10 times its weight of dry casein by grinding in a mill. The ad- hesive compound is soluble in water, retroleum, oils, and carbon bisulphide, t is very strong, and is applied in the form of a paste with water. PASTES FOR PAPERHANGERS. I. — Use a cheap grade of rye or wheat flour, mix thoroughly with cold water to about the consistency of dough, or a little thinner, being careful to remove all lumps; stir in a tablespoonful of pow- dered alum to a quart of flour, then pour in boiling water, stirring rapidly until the flour is thoroughly cooked. Let this cool before using, and thin with cold water. II. — Venetian Paste. — (o) 4 ounces white or fish glue 8 fluidounces cold water (b) 2 fluidounces Venice turpentine (c) 1 pound rye flour 16 fluidounces (1 pint) cold water (d) 64 fluidounces (J gallon) boiling water Soak the 4 ounces of glue in the cold water for 4 hours; dissolve on a. water bath (glue pot), and while hot stir in the Venice turpentine. Make up (c) into a batter free from lumps and pour into (d). Stir briskly, and finally add the glue so- lution. This makes a very strong paste, and it will adhere to a painted surface, owing to the Venice turpentine in its composition. III. — Strong Adhesive Paste. — (a) 4 pounds rye flour J gallon cold water (6) IJ gallons boilinpf water (c) 2 ounces pulverized rosin Make (a) into a batter free from lumps; then pour into (6). Boil if necessary, and while hot stir in the pulverized rosin a little at a time. This paste is exceed- ingly strong, and will stick heavy wall paper or thin leather. If the paste be too thick, thin with a little hot water; never thin paste with cold water. I V.~Flour Paste. — (a) '•J pounds wheat flour 32 fluidounces (1 quart) cold water (ft) 1 ounce alum 4 fluidounces hot water (c) 96 fluidounces (§ gallon) boiling water Work the wheat flour into a batter free from lumps with the cold water. Dis- solve the alum as designated in (b). Now stir in (a) and (o) and, if necessary, continue boiling until the paste thickens into a semitransparent mucilage, after which stir in solution (6). The above makes a very fine paste for wall paper. ^.— Elastic or Pliable Paste.— (a) 4 ounces common starch 2 ounces white dextrine 10 fluidounces cold water (6) 1 ounce borax 3 fluidounces glycerine 64 fluidounces (J gallon) boiling water Beat to a batter the ingredients of (a). Dissolve the borax in the boiling water; then add the glycerine, after which pour (a) into solution (6). Stir until it becomes translucent. This paste will not crack, and, being very pliable, is used for paper, cloth, leather, and other material where flexibility is required. VI. — A paste with which wall paper can be attached to wood or masonry, adhering to it firmly in spite of damp- ness, is prepared, as usual, of rye flour, to wiiicli, tKnvever, are added, after the boil- ing, X\ parts, l>y weight, of good linseey weignt, of alcohol. Absolute alcohol should have no for- eign smell and should mix with water without cloudiness. After the admixture of 6 drops of sil- ver-nitrate solution, 10 cubic centimeters of absolute alcohol should not become turbid or colored even on heating. A mixture of 10 cubic centimeters of absolute alcohol and 0.2 cubic centimeter of potash lye evaporated down to 1 cubic centimeter should not exhibit an odor of fusel oil after supersaturation with dilute sulphuric acid. Five cubic centimeters of sulphuric acid, carefully covered, in a test tube, with a stratum of 5 cubic centimeters of absolute alcohol, should not form a rose- colored zone at the surface of contact, even on standing for some time. The red color of a mixture of 10 cubic centimeters of absolute alcohol and 1 cubic centimeter of potassium-perman- ganate solution should not pass into yellow before 20 minutes. Absolute alcohol should not be dyed by hydrogen sulphide water or by aque- ous ammonia. Five cubic centimeters of absolute al- cohol should not leave behind a weighable residue after evaporation on water oath. Absolute Alcohol. — If gelatine be sus- pended in ordinary alcohol it will absorb the water, but as it is insoluble in alcohol, that substance will remain behind, and thus nearly absolute alcohol will be ob- tained without distillation. Perfumed Denaturized Alcohol. — East India lemon oil 1,250 parts Mirbane oil 1,000 parts Cassia oil 50 parts Clove oil 75 parts Lemon oil 100 parts Amyl acetate 500 parts Spirit (95 per cent). 7,000 parts Dissolve the oils in the spirit and add the amyl acetate. The mixture serves for destroying the bad odor of denatur- ized spirit in distilling. Use 50 parts of the perfume per 1,000 parts of spirit. Solid Alcohol.— I.— Heat 1,000 parts of denaturized alcohol (90 per cent) in a flask of double the capacity on the water bath to about 140° F., and then mix with 28 to 30 parts of well-dried, rasped Venetian soap and 2 parts of gum lac. After re- peated shaking, complete dissolution will take place. The solution is put, while still warm, into metallic vessels, closing them up at once and allowing the mixture to cool therein. The admix- ture of gum lac effects a better preserva- tion and also prevents the evaporation of the alcohol. On lighting the solid spirit the soap remains behind. II. — ^maragdine is a trade name for solidified alcohol. It consists of alcohol and gun cotton, colored with malachite green. It appears in the market in the form of small cubes. Alcohol in Fermented Beers. — Expe- rience has shown that J pound of sugar to 1 gallon of water yields about 2 per cent of proof spirit, or about 1 per cent of ab- solute alcohol. Beyond this amount it is not safe to go, if the legal limit is to be observed, yet a ginger beer brewed with J pound per gallon of sugar would be a very wishy-washy compound, and there is little doubt that a much larger quantity is generally used. The more sugar that is used — up to 1 A or 1 J pounds per gallon — the better the drink will be and the more customers will relish it; but it will be as "strong" as lager and contain per- haps 5 per cent of alcohol, which will make it anything but a " temperance" drink. Any maker who is using as much as even J pound of sugar per gallon is bound to fet more spirit than the law allows, leanwhile it is scarcely accurate to term ginger beers, etc., non-alcoholic. Alcohol Deodorizer. — Alcohol 160 ounces Powdered quicklime. 300 grains Powdered alum 150 grains Spirit of nitrous ether 1 J drachms Mix the lime and alum intimately by trituration; add the alcohol and shake well; then add the spirit of nitrous ether; set aside for 7 days and filter through animal charcoal. Denaturized Alcohol. — There are two general classes or degrees of denaturizing, viz., the "complete" and the "incom- plete," according to the purpose for 46 ALCOHOL which the alcohol so denaturized is to be ultimately used. I. — Complete denaturization by the German system is accomplished by the addition to every 100 liters (equal to 26^ gallons) of spirits: (a) Tivo and one-half liters of the "stand- ard"' denaturizer, made of 4 parts of wood alcohol, 1 part of pyridine (a nitro- genous base obtained by distilling bone oil or coal tar), with the addition of SO grams to each liter of oil of lavender or rosemary. (6) One and one-fourth liters of the above "standard" and 2 liters of benzol with every 100 liters of alcohol. II. — Incomplete denaturization — i. e., sufficient to prevent alcohol from being drunk, but not to disqualify it from use for various special purposes, for which the wholly denaturized spirits would be unavailable — is accomplished by several methods as follows, the quantity and nature of each substance given being the prescribed dose for each 100 liters (26 1 gallons) of spirits: (c) Five liters of wood alcohol or J liter of pyridine. (d) Twenty liters of solution of shellac, containing 1 part gum to 2 parts alcohol of 90-per-cent purity. Alcohol for the manufacture of celluloid and pegamoid is denaturized. (e) By the addition of 1 kilogram of camphor or 2 liters oil of turpentine or i liter benzol to each 100 liters of spirits. Alcohol to be used in the manufacture of ethers, aldehyde, agaricin, white lead, bromo-silver gelatines, photographic pa- pers and plates, electrode plates, collo- dion, salicylic acid and salts, aniline chemistry, and a great number of other purposes, is denaturized by the addition of— (/) Ten liters sulphuric ether, or 1 part of benzol, or J part oil of turpentine, or 0.025 part of animal oil. For the manufacture of varnishes and inks alcohol is denaturized by the addi- tion of oil of turpentine or animal oil, and for the production of soda soaps by the addition of 1 kilogram of castor oil. Alcohol for the production of lanolin is prepared by adding 5 liters of benzine to each hectoliter of spirits. ALE. The ale of the modern brewer is man- ufactured in several varieties, which are determined by the wants of the consumer and the particular market for which it is intended. Thus, the finer kinds of Burton, East India, Bavarian, and other like ales, having undergone a thorough fermentation, contain only a small quan- tity of undecomposed sugar and gum, varying from 1 to 5 per cent. Some of these are highly "hopped" or "bittered," the further to promote their preservation during transit and change of temper- ature. Mild or sweet ales, on the con- trary, are less accentuated by lengthened fermentation, and abound in saccharine and gummy matter. They are, there- fore, more nutritious, though less intox- icating, than those previously referred to. In brewing the finer kinds of ales, pale malt and the best hops of the current season's growth are always employed; and when it is desired to produce a liquor possessing little color, very great atten- tion is paid to their selection. With the same object, the boiling is conductedwith more than the usual precautions, and the fermentation is carried on at a somewhat lower temperature than that commonly allowed for other varieties of beer. For ordinary ale, intended for immediate use, the malt may be all pale; but, if the liquor be brewed for keeping, and in warm weather, when a slight color is not objec- tionable, one-fifth, or even one-fourth of amber malt may be advantageously em- ployed. From 4i to 6 pounds of hops is the quantity commonly used to the one- fourth of malt, for ordinary ales; and 7 pounds to 10 pounds for "keeping" ales. The proportions, however, must greatly depend on the intended quality and de- scription of the brewing and the period that will be allowed for its maturation. The stronger varieties of ale usually contain from 6 to 8 per cent of "absolute alcohol"; ordinary strong ale, 41 to 6 per cent ; mild ale, 3 to 4 per cent ; and table ale, 1 to 1 J per cent (each by volume) ; togeth- er with some undecomposed saccharine, gummy, and extractive matter, the bitter and narcotic principles of the hop, some acetic acid formed by the oxidation of the alcohol, and very small and variable quantities of mineral and saline matter. Ordinary ale-wort (preferably pale), sufficient to produce 1 barrel, is slowly boiled with about 3 handfuls of hops, and 12 to 14 pounds of crushed groats, until the whole of the soluble matter of the latter is extracted. The resulting liquor, after being run through a coarse strainer and become lukewarm, is fer- mented with 2 or 3 pints of yeast; and, as soon as the fermentation is at its height, is either closely bunged up for draft or is at once put into strong stone- ware bottles, which are then well corked and wired. White ale is said to be very nutritious, though apt to prove laxative to those un- ALLOYS accustomed to its use. It is drunk in a state of effervescence or lively fermenta- tion; the glass or cup containing it being kept in constant motion, when removed from the mouth, until the whole is con- sumed, in order that the thicker portion may not subside to the bottom. ALE, GINGER: See Beverages. ALFENIDE METAL: See Alloys. ALKALI, HOW TO DETECT : Sec Soaps. ALKALOIDS, ANTIDOTES TO: See Atropine. Alloys No general rules can be given for alloyinp; metals. Alloys differing greatly in fusibility are commonly made by adding the more fusible ones, either in the melted state or in small portions at a time, to the other melted or heated to the lowest possible temperature at which a perfect union will take place between them. The mixture is usually effected under a flux, or some material that will promote liquefaction and prevent vola- tilization and unneces.sary exposure to the air. Thus, in melting lead and tin together for solder, rosin or tallow is thrown upon the surface is rubbed with sal ammoniac; and in combining some metals, powdered charcoal is used for the same purpose. Mercury or (juick- silver combines with many metals in the cold, forming amalgams, or easily fusible alloys (q. v.). Alloys generally possess characteris- tics unshared by their component metals. Thus, copper and zinc form brass, which has a different density, hardness, and color from either of its constituents. Whether the metals tend to unite in atomic proportions or in any definite ratio is still undetermined. The evi- dence afforded by the natural alloys of gold and silver, and by the phenomena accompanying the cooling of several alloys from the state of fusion, goes far to prove that such is the case (Rud- berg). The subject is, however, one of considerable difficulty, as metals and metallic compounds are generally solu- ble in each other, and unite by simple fusion and contact. That they do not combine indifferently with each other, but exercise a species of elective affinity not dissimilar to other bcidics, is clearly shown by the homogeneity and superior quality of many alloys in which the con- stituent metals are in atomic proportion. The variation of the specific gravity and melting points of alloys from the mean of those of their component metals also affords strong evidence of a chemical change having taken place. Thus, alloys generally melt at lower temperatures than their separate metals. They also usually possess more tenacity and hardness than the mean of their constituents. Matthiessen found that when weights are suspended to spirals of hard-drawn wire made of copper, gold, or platinum, they become nearly straightened when stretched by a moderate weight; but wires of equal dimensions composed of copper-tin (1'2 per wnt of tin), silver- platinum (36 per cent of platinum), and gold-copper (84 per cent of copper) scarce- ly undergo any permanent change in form when subjected to tension by the same weight. The same chemist gives the following approximate results upon the tenacity of certain metals and wires hard-drawn through the same gauge (No. 23): Pounds Copper, breaking strain '25-30 Tin, breaking strain under 7 Lead, breaking strain under 7 Tin-lead (20% lead) about 7 Tin-copper (l'i''.o copper). . about 7 Copper-tin (12% tin) about 80-90 Gold (12% tin) 20-25 Gold-copper (8.4% copper) 70-75 Silver (8.4% copper) 45-50 Platinum (8.4% copper) 45-50 Silver-platinum (30% platinum) . 75-80 On the other hand, the malleability, ductility, and power of resisting oxygen of alloys is generally diminished. The alloy formed of two brittle metals is always brittle; that of a brittle and a duc- tile metal, generally so; and even two ductile metals sometimes unite to form a brittle compound. The alloys formed of metals having different fusing points are usually malleable while cold and brittle while hot. The action of the air on alloys is generally less than on their simple metals, unless the former are heated. .V mixture of 1 part of tin and 3 parts of lead is scarcely acted- on at common temperatures; but at a red heat it readily takes fire, and continues to burn for some time like a piece of bad turf. In like manner, a mi.xture of tin and zinc, when strongly heated, de- composes both moist air and steam with rapidity. The specific gravity of alloys is rarely 48 ALLOYS the arithmetical mean of that of their constituents, as commonly taught; and in many cases considerable condensation or expansion occurs. When there is a strong affinity between two metals, the density of their alloy is generally greater than the calculated mean; and vice versa, as may be seen in the following table: Allots having a density Greater than the Mean of their Constit- uents : Copper and bismuth. Copper and palladium. Copper and tin. Copper and zinc. Gold and antimony. Gold and bismuth. Gold and cobalt. Gold and tin. Gold and zinc. Lead and antimony. Palladium and bismuth, Silver and antimony. Silver and bismuth. Silver and lead. Silver and tin. Silver and zinc. Less than the Mean of their Constituents: Gold and copper. Gold and iridium. Gold and iron. Gold and lead. Gold and nickel. Gold and silver. Iron and antimony. Iron and bismuth. Iron and lead. Nickel and arsenic. Silver and copper. Tin and antimony. Tin and lead. Tin and palladium. Zinc and antimony. Compounding Alloys.— Considerable experience is necessary to insure success in compounding alloys, especially when the metals employed vary greatly in fusibility and volatility. The following are rules supplied by an experienced workman: 1. Melt the least fusible, oxidizable, and volatile first, and then add the others heated to their point of fusion or near it. Thus, if it is desired to make an alloy of exactly 1 part of copper and 3 of zinc, it will be impossible to do so by putting proportions of the metals in a crucible and exposing the whole to heat. Much of the zinc would fly off in vapor before the copper was melted. First, melt the copper and add the zinc, which has been melted in another crucible. The zinc should be in excess, as some of it will be lost anyway. . 2. Some alloys, as copper and zmc, copper and arsenic, may be formed by exposing heated plates of the least fusi- ble metal to the vapor of the other. In making brass in the large way, thin plates of copper are dissolved, as it were, in melted zinc until the proper proportions have been obtained. 3. The surface of all oxidizable metals should be covered with some protecting agent, as tallow for very fusible ones, rosin for lead and tin, charcoal for zinc, copper, etc. 4. Stir the metal before casting and if possible, when casting, with a white- wood stick; this is much better for the purpose than an iron rod. 5. If possible, add a small portion of old alloy to the new. If the alloy is re- quired to make sharp castings and strength is not a very great object, the proportion of old alloy to the new should be increased. In all cases a new or thoroughly well-cleansed crucible should be used. To obtain metals and metallic alloys from their compounds, such as oxides, sulphides, chlorides, etc., a process lately patented makes use of the reducing qualities of aluminum or its alloys with magnesium. The finely powdered ma- terial (e. g., chromic oxide) is placed in a crucible mixed with aluminum oxide. The mixture is set afire by means of a soldering pipe or a burning magnesium wire, and the desired reaction takes place. For igniting, one may also employ with advantage a special priming cartridge consisting of pulverized aluminum to which a little magnesium may be mixed, and peroxide of magnesia, which is shaped into balls and lighted with a magnesium wire. By suitable additions to the pulverized mixture, alloys con- taining aluminum, magnetism, chro- mium, manganese, copper, iron, boron, silicic acid, etc., are obtained. ALUMINUM ALLOYS. M. H. Pecheux has contributed to the Comptes Rendus, from time to time, the results of his investigations into the alloys of aluminum with soft metals, and the following constitutes a brief summary of his observations: Lead. — When aluminum is melted and lead is added in proportion greater than 10 per cent, the metals separate on cooling into three layers — lead, alumi- num, and between them an alloy contain- ing from 90 to 97 per cent of aluminum. ALLOYS 49 The alloys with 93, 95, and 98 per cent have densities of 8.745, 2.674, and 2.600 re- spectively, and melting points near that of aluminum. Their color is like that of aluminum, but the^ are less lustrous. All are malleable, easily cut, softer than aluminum, and have a granular fracture. On remelting they become somewhat richer in lead, through a tendency to liquation. They do not oxidize in moist air, nor at their melting points. They are attacked in the cold by hydrochloric and by strong sulphuric acid, with evo- lution of hydrogen, and by strong nitric acid when hot; strong solution of po- ta.ssium hydroxide also attacks them. They are without action on distilled water, whether cold or hot. Zinc. — Well-defined alloys were ob- tained, corresponding to the formulas Zn.Al, Zn,Al, ZnAI, ZnAU, ZnAU, ZnAU, ZnAI., ZnAho, ZnAI,,. Their melting points and densities all lie be- tween those of zinc and aluminum, and those containing most zinc are the hard- est. They are all dissolved by cold hydrochloric acid and by hot dilute nitric acid. Cold concentrated nitric acid at- tacks the first three, and cold dilute acid the first five. The ZnsAI, ZnAI,, ZnAl,o, and ZnAI, a are only slightly affected by cold potassium-hydroxide solution; the others are strongly attacked, potassium zincate and aluminate probably being formed. Tin. — A filed rod of tin-aluminum alloy plunged in cold water gives off for some minutes bubbles of gas, composed of hydrogen and oxygen in explosive pro- portions. An unfiled rod, or a filed rod of either aluminum or tin, is without action, though the unfiled rod of alloy will act on boiling water. The filed rod of alloy, in faintly acid solution of cop- per or zinc sulphate, becomes covered with a deposit of copper or zinc, while bubbles of oxygen are given off. M. Pecheux believes that the metals are truly alloyed only at the surface, and that filing lays bare an almost infinitely numerous series of junctions of the two metals, which, heated by the filing, act as ther- mocouples. Bismuth. — By the method used for lead, bismuth alloys were obtained con- taining 75, 85, 88, and 94 per cent of aluminum, with densities 2.86, 2.79, 2.78, and 2.74 respectively. They were sonorous, brittle, finely grained, and homogeneous, silver-wnite, and _ with melting points between those of their con- stituents, but nearer that of aluminum. They are not oxidized in air at the tem- perature of casting, but are readily at- tacked by acids, concentrated or dilute, and by potassium-hydroxide solution. The filed alloys behave like those of tin, but still more markedly. Magnesium. — These were obtained with 66, 68, 73, 77, and 85 per cent of aluminum, and densities 2.24, 2.47, 2.32, 2.37, 2.47. Th6y are brittle, with large granular fracture, silver-white, file well, take a good polish, and have melt- ing points near that of aluminum. Being viscous when melted, they are dif- ficult to cast, and when slowly cooled form a gray, spongy mass which cannot be remelted. They do not oxidize in air at the ordinary temperatures, but burn readily at a bright-red heat. They are attacked violently by acids and by potassium-hydroxide solution, decom- pose hydrogen peroxide, and slowly de- compose water even in the cold. Tin, Bismuth, and Magnesium. — The action of water on these alloys just re- ferred to has been recently demonstrated on a larger scale, 5 to 6 cubic centimeters of hydrogen having been obtained in 20 minutes from 2 cubic centimeters of the filed tin alloy. The bismuth alloy yield- ed more hydrogen than the tin alloy, and the magnesium alloy more than the bis- muth alloy. The oxygen of the decom- posed water unites with the aluminum. Larger quantities of hydrogen are ob- tained from copper-sulphate solution, apart from the decomposition of this solution by precipitation of copper at the expense of the metal alloyed with the aluminum. The alloys of aluminum with zinc and lead do not decompose pure water, but do decompose the water of copper-sulphate solution, and, more slowly, that of zinc-sulphate solution. _ Aluminum is a metal whose properties are very materially influenced oy a pro- portionately small addition of copper. Alloys of 99 per cent aluminum and 1 per cent of copper are hard, brittle, and bluish in color; 96 per cent of aluminum and 5 per cent of copper give an alloy which can be hammered, but with 10 per cent of cop- per the metal can no longer be worked. With 80 per cent and upward of copper are obtained alloys of a beautiful yellow color, and these mixtures, containing from 5 to 10 per cent of aluminum and from 90 to 95 per cent of copper, are the genuine aluminum bronzes. The 10-pcr-cent al- loys are of a pure golden-yellow color; with 5 per cent of aluminum they are reddish yellow, like gold heavily alloyed with copper, and a 2-per-cent admix- ture is of an almost pure copper red. 50 ALLOYS As the proportion of copper increases, the brittleness is diminished, and alloys containing 10 per cent and less of aluminum can be used for industrial purposes, the best consisting of 90 per cent of copper and 10 of aluminum. Ihe hardness of this alloy approaches that of the general bronzes, whence its name. It can be stretched out into thin sheets between rollers, worked under the hammer, and shaped as desired by beating or pressure, in powerful stamping presses. On ac- count of its hardness it takes a fine pol- ish, and its peculiar greenish-gold color resembles that of gold alloyed with cop- •per and silver together. Alloys with a still greater proportion of copper approach this metal more and more nearly in their character; the color of an alloy, for instance, composed of 95 per cent of copper and 5 per cent of alu- minum, can be distinguished from pure gold only by direct comparison, and the metal is very hard, and also very mal- leable. Electrical Conductivity of Aluminum Alloys. — During three years' exposure to the atmosphere, copper-aluminum alloys in one test gradually diminished in con- ductivity in proportion to the amount of copper they contained. The nickel-copper aluminum alloys, which show such re- markably increased tensile strength as compared with good commercial alumi- num, considerably diminished in total con- ductivity. On the other hand, the man- ganese-copper aluminum alloys suflEered comparatively little diminution in total conductivity, and one of them retained comparatively high tensile strength. It was thought that an examination of the structure of these alloys by aid of microphotography might throw some light on the great difference which exists between some of their physical proper- ties. For instance, a nickel-copper alu- minum alloy has 1.6 times the tensile strength of ordinary commercial alumi- num. Under a magnification of 800 diameters practically no structure could be discovered. Considering the re- markable crystalline structure exhibited by ordinary commercial aluminum near the surface of an ingot, when allowed to solidify at an ordinary rate, the want of structure in these alloys must be attrib- uted to the process of drawing down. The inference is that the great differ- ence which exists between their tensile strengths and other qualities is not due to variation in structure. Colored Alloys of Aluminum. — A pur- ple scintillating composition is produced by an alloyage of 78 parts of gold and 22 parts aluminum. With platinum a gold- colored alloy is obtained; with palladium a copper-colored one; and with cobalt and nickel one of a yellow color. Easily fusible metals of the color of aluminum give white alloys. Metal difficult of fusion, such as iridium, osmium, tita- nium, etc., appear in abnormal tones of color through such alloyages. Aluminum -Brass. — Aluminum, 1 per cent; specific gravity, 8.35 ; tensile strength, 40. Aluminum, 3 per cent; specific grav- ity, 8.33; tensile strength, 65. The last named is harder than the first. Aluminum-Copper. — Minikin is prin- cipally aluminum with a small percent- age of copper and nickel. It is alloyed by mixing the aluminum and copper, then adding the nickel. It resembles palladium and is very strong. Aluminum - Silver. — I. — Silver, 3 per cent; aluminum, 97 per cent. A hand- some color. II. — A silver aluminum that is easily worked into various articles contains about one-fourth silver and three-fourths of aluminum. Aluminum -Tin. — Bourbon metal is composed of equal parts of aluminum and tin; it solders readily. Aluminum -Tungsten. — A new metal alloy consisting of aluminum and tung- sten is used of late in France in the con- struction of conveyances, especially car- riages, bicycles, and motor vehicles. The French call it partinium; the com- position of the new alloy varies according to the purposes for which it is used. It is considerably cheaper than aluminum, almost as light, and has a greater resist- ance. The strength is stated at 32 to 37 kilograms per square millimeter. Aluminum-Zinc. — Zinc, 3 per cent; aluminum, 97 per cent. Very ductile, white, and harder than aluminum. AMALGAMS : See Fusible Alloys. Anti-Friction Bearing or Babbitt Met- als.— These alloys are usually supported by bearings of brass, into which it is poured after they have been tinned, and neated and put together with an exact model of the axle, or other working piece, plastic clay being previously applied, in the usual manner, as a lute or outer mold- Soft gun metal is also excellent, and is much used for bearings. They all be- come less heated in working than the .OYS 51 hardermetals, and less grease or oil is con- sequently required when they are used. I. — An anti-friction metal of excellent quality and one that has been used with success is made as follows : 17 parts zinc; 1 part copper; 1 J parts antimony; prepared in the following way: Melt the copper in a small crucible, then add the antimony, and lastly the zinc, care being taken not to burn the zinc. Burning can be prevented by allowing the copper and antimony to cool slightly before add- ing the zinc. This metal is preferably cast into the shape desired and is not used as a lining metal because it requires too great a heat to pour. It macnines nicely and takes a fine polish on bearing surfaces. It has the appearance of aluminum when finished. Use a lubri- cating oil made from any good grade of machine oil to which 3 parts of kerosene have been added. II. — Copper, 6 parts; tin, 12 parts; lead, 150 parts; antimonjr, 30 parts; wrought iron, 1 part; cast iron, 1 part. For certain purposes the composition is modified as follows: Copper, 16 parts; tin, 40 parts; lead, 120 parts; antimony, 24 parts; wrought iron, 1 part; cast iron, 1 part. In both cases the wrought iron is cut up in small pieces, and in this state it will melt readily in fused copper and cast iron. After the mixture has been well stirred, the tin, lead, and antimony are added; these are previously melted in separate crucibles, and when mingled the whole mass is again stirred thoroughly. The product may then be run into ingots, to be employed when needed. When run into the molds the surface should be well skimmed, for in this state it oxidizes rapidly. The proportions may be varied without materially affecting the results. III. — From tin, 16 to 20 parts; anti- mony, 2 parts; lead, 1 part; fused to- gether, and then blended with copper, 80 parts. Used where there is much friction or high velocity. IV. — Zinc, 6 parts; tin, 1 part; cop- per, 20 parts. Used when the metal is exposed to violent shocks. V. — Lead, 1 part; tin, 2 parts; zinc, 4 parts; copper, 68 parts. Used when the metal is exposed to heat. VI. — Tin, 48 to SO parts; antimony, 5 parts; copper, 1 part. VII. — (Fenton's.) Tin, with some zinc, and a little copper. VIII.— (Ordinary.) Tin, or hard pewter, with or without a small portion of antimony or copper. Without the last it is apt to spread out under the weight of heavy machinery. Used for the Dearings of locomotives, etc. The following two compositions are for motor and dynamo shafts: 100 pounds tin; 10 pounds copper; 10 pounds antimony. 83^ pounds tin; 8} pounds antimony; SJpounds copper. IX. — Lead, 75 parts; antimony, 23 parts; tin, 2 parts. X. — Magnolia Metal. — This is com- posed of 40 parts of lead, 7J parts of antimony, 2^ of tin, | of bismuth, } of aluminum, and \ of graphite. It is used as an anti-friction metal, and takes its name from its manufacturer's mark, a magnolia flower. ARGENTAN: See German Silver, under this title. BELL METAL. The composition of bell metal varies considerably, as may be seen below: I. — (Standard.) Copper, 78 parts; tin, 22 parts; fused together and cast. The most sonorous of all the alloys of copper and tin. It is easily fusible, and has a fine compact grain, and a vitreous conchoidal and yellowish-red fracture. According to Klaproth, the finest-toned Indian gongs have this composition. II. — (Founder's Standard.) Copper, 77 parts; tin, 21 parts; antimony, 2 parts. Slightly paler and inferior to No. I. III. — Copper, 80 parts; tin, 20 parts. Very deep-toned and sonorous. Used in China and India for the larger gongs, tam-tams, etc. IV.— Copper, 78 to 80 parts; tin, 22 to 20 parts. Usual composition of Chinese cymbals, tam-tams, etc. v.— Copper, 75 (= 3) parts; tin, 26 (=1) part. Somewhat brittle. In frac- ture, semivitreous and bluish-red. Used for church and other large bells. VI. — Copper, 80 parts; tin, 10} parts; zinc, 5J parts; lead, 4J parts. English bell metal, according to Thomson. In- ferior to the last; the lead being apt to form isolated drops, to the injury of the uniformity of the alloy. VII.— Copper, 68 parts; tin, 32 parts. Brittle; fracture conchoidal and ash- gray: Best proportions for house bells, hand bells, etc.; for which, however, 2 of copper and 1 of tin is commonly substituted by the founders. VIII.— Copper, 72 parts; tin, 26i parts; iron, H parts. Used by the Paris houses for the bells of small clocks. IX. — Copper, 72 parts; tin, 26 parts; zinc, 2 parts. Used, like the last, for very small bells. X.— Copper, 70 parts; tin, 26 parts; 52 ALLOYS zinc, 2 parts. Used for the bells of repeat- ing watches. XI. — Melt together copper, 100 parts; tin, 25 parts. After being cast into the required object, it should be made red- hot, and then plunged immediately into cold water in order to impart to it the requisite degree of sonorousness. For cymbals and gongs. XII. — Melt together copper, 80 parts; tin, 20 parts. When cold it has to be hammered out with frequent annealing. XIII. — Copper, 78 parts; tin, 22 parts; This is superior to the former, and it can be rolled out. For tam-tams and gongs. XIV. — Melt together copper, 72 parts; tin, 26 to 56 parts; iron /f part. Used in making the bells of ornamental French clocks. Castings in bell metal are all more or less brittle; and, when recent, have a color varying from a dark ash-gray to grayish-white, which is darkest in the more cuprous varieties, in which it turns somewhat on the yellowish-red or bluish-red. The larger the proportion of copper in the alloy, the deeper and graver the tone of the. bells formed of it. The addition of tin, iron, or zinc, causes them to give out their tones sharp- er. Bismuth and lead are also often used to modify the tone, which each metal affects differently. The addition of antimony and bismuth is frequently made by the founder to give a more crys- talline grain to the alloy. All these conditions are, however, prejudicial to the sonorousness of bells, and of very doubtful utility. Rapid refrigeration increases the sonorousness of all these alloys. Hence M. D'Arcet recommends that the "pieces" be heated to a cherry- red after they are cast, and after having been suddenly plunged into cold water, that they be submitted to well-regulatad pressure by skillful hammering, until they assume their proper form ; after which they are to be again heated and allowed to cool slowly in the air. This is the method adopted by the Chinese with their gongs, etc., a casing of sheet iron being em- ployed by them to support and protect the pieces during the exposure to heat. In a general way, however, bells are formed and completed by simple casting. This is necessarily the case with all very large bells. Where the quality of their tones is the chief object sought after, the greatest care should be taken to use com- mercially pure copper. The presence of a very little lead or any similar metal greatly lessens the sonorousness of this alloy; while that of silver increases it. The specific gravity of a large bell is seldom uniform through its whole sub- stance; nor can the specific gravity from any given portion of its constituent met- als be exactly calculated owing to the many interfering circumstances. The nearer this uniformity is approached, or, in other words, chemical combination is complete, the more durable and finer- toned will be the bell. In general, it is found necessary to take about one-tenth more metal than the weight of the in- tended bell, or bells, in order to allow for waste and scorification during the opera- tions of fusing and casting. BISMUTH ALLOYS. Bismuth possesses the unusual quality of expanding in cooling. It is, there- fore, introduced in many alloys to reduce or check shrinkage in the mold. For delicate castings, and for taking impressions from dies, medals, etc., va- rious bismuth alloys are in use, whose composition corresponds to the follow- ing figures: I II III IV Bismuth 6 5 2 8 Tin 3 2 1 3 Lead 13 3 1 5 v.— Cliche Metal.— This alloy is com- posed of tin, 48 parts; lead, 32.5; bis- muth, 9; and antimony, 10.5. It is es- pecially well adapted to dabbing rollers for printing cotton goods, and as it pos- sesses a considerable degree of hardness, it wears well. VI.— For filling out defective places in metallic castings, an alloy of bismuth 1 part, antimony 3, lead 8, can be ad- vantageously used. VII. — For Cementing Glass. — Most of the cements in ordinary use are dis- solved, or at least softened, by petro- leum. An alloy of lead 3 parts, tin 2, bismuth 2.5, melting at 212° F., is not affected by petroleum, and is therefore very useful for cementing lamps made of metal and glass combined. LIPOWITZ'S BISMUTH ALLOY : See Cadmium Alloys. BRASS. In general brass is composed of two- thirds copper and one-third zinc, but a little lead or tin is sometimes advanta- geous, as the following: I.— Red copper, 66 parts; zinc, 34 parts; lead, 1 part. II. — Copper, 66 parts; zinc, 32 parts; tin, 1 part; lead, 1 part. Ill— Copper, 64.5 parts; zinc, 33.6 parts; lead, 1.5 parts; tin, 0.5 part. Brass-Aluminum.— A small addition of aluminum to brass (1 .5 to 8 per cent) great- ALLOYS 53 ly increases its hardness and elasticity, and this alloy is also easily worked for any purpose, lirass containing 8 per cent of aluminum has the valuable property of being but slightly affected by acids or gases. A larger percentage of aluminum makes the brass brittle. It is to be noted that aluminum brass decreases very materi- ally in volume in casting, and the casts must be cooled slowly or they will be brittle. It is an alloy easily made, and its low price, combined with its excellent qualities, would seem to make it in many cases an advantageous substitute for the expensive phosphorous bronze. Bristol Brass (Prince's Metal).— This alloy, which possesses properties similar to those of French brass, is prepared in the following proportions; I II III Copper 75.7 67.2 60.8 Zinc 24.3 32.8 39.2 Particular care is required to prevent the zinc from evaporating during the fus- ing, and for this purpose it is customary to put only half of it into the first melting, and to add the remainder when the first mass is liquefied. Brass-Iron (Aich's Metal). — This is a variety of brass with an admixture of iron, which gives it a considerable degree of tenacity. It is especially adapted for purposes which rec^ul^e a hard and, at the same time, tenacious metal. Analyses of the various kinds of this metal show considerable variation in the proportion.s. Even the amount of iron, to which the hardening effect must be attributed, may vary within wide limits without materi- ally modifying the tenacity which is the essential characteristic of this alloy. I. — The best variety of Aich's metal consists of copper, 60 parts; zinc, 38.2; iron, 1.8. The predominating quality of this alloy is its hardness, which is claimed to be not inferior to that of certain kinds of steel. It has a beautiful golden-yellow color, and is said not to oxidize easily, a valuable property for articles exposed to the action of air and water. II.— Copper, 60.2 parts; zinc, 38.2; iron, 1.6. The permissible variations in the content of iron are from 0.4 to 3 per cent. Sterro metal may properly be consid- ered in connection with Aich's metal, since its constituents are the same and its properties very similar. The principal difference between the two metals is that sterro metal contains a much larger amount of iron. The composition of this alloy varies considerably with dif- ferent manufacturers. III. — Two varieties of excellent qual- ity are the product of the Rosthorn fac- tory, in Lower Austria — copper, 55.33 parts; zinc, 41.80; iron, 4.66. Also IV. — English sterro metal (Gedge's alloy for ship sheathing), copper, 60 parts; zinc, 38.125; iron, 1.5. The great value of this alloy lies in its strength, which is equaled only by that of the best steel. As an illustration of this, a wrought-iron pipe broke with a pressure of 267 atmospheres, while a similar pipe of sterro metal withstood the enormous pressure of 763 atmospheres without cracking. Besides its remark- able strength, it possesses a high degree of elasticity, and is, therefore, particular- ly suitable for purposes which require the combination of these two qualities, such as the construction of hydraulic cylinders. It is well known that these cylinders, at a certain pressure, begin to sweat, that is, the interior pressure is so great that the water permeates through the pores of the steel. With a sterro metal cylinder, the pressure can be con- siderably increased without any mois- ture being perceptible on the outside of the cylinder. Sterro metal can be made even more hard and dense, if required for special purposes, but this is effected rather by mechanical manipulation than by any change in the chemical composition. If rolled or hammered in heat, its strength is increased, and it acquires, in addition, an exceedingly high degree of tenacity. Special care must De taken, however, in hammering not to overheat the metal, as in this case it would become brittle and might crack under the hammer. Sterro metal is especially suitable for all the purposes for which the so-called red metal has been in the past almost ex- clusively used. Axle bearings, for ex- ample, made of sterro metal have such excellent qualities that many machine factories are now using this material entirely for the purpose. Cast Brass. — The various articles of bronze, so called, statuettes, clock cases, etc., made in France, where this industry has attained great perfection and exten- sive proportions, are not, in many cases_ genuine bronze, but fine cast brass. Fol- lowing are the compositions of a few mixtures of metals most frequently used by French manufacturers: Copper Zinc Tin Lead I .63.70 33.55 2.50 0.25 II . 64.45 32.44 0.25 2.86 III 70.90 24.05 2.00 3.05 IV 7'>.43 a. '3 1.87 2.95 54 ALLOYS Their special advantage is that they can be readily cast, worked with file and chisel, and easily gilded. To Cast Yellow Brass. — If good, clean, yellow brass sand castings are desired, the brass should not contain over 30 per cent of zinc. This will assure an alloy of good color and one which will run free and clean. Tin or lead may be added without affecting the property of casting clean. A mixture of 7 pounds of copper, 3 pounds of spelter, 4 ounces of tin, and 3 ounces of lead makes a good casting alloy and one which will cut free and is strong. If a stronger alloy be desired, more tin may be added, but 4 ounces is usually sufficient. If the alloy be too hard, reduce the proportion of tin. Leaf Brass. — This alloy is also called Dutch gold, or imitation gold leaf. It is made of copper, 77.75 to 84.5 parts; zinc, 15.5 to 22.25. Its color is pale or bright yellow or greenish, according to the proportions of the metals. It has an unusual degree of ductility. Malleable Brass. — This metal is af- fected less by sea water than pure copper, and was formerly much used for ship sheathing, and for making nails and rivets which were to come in contact with sea water. At the present day it has lost much of its importance, since all the larger ships are made of steel. It is usually composed of copper, 60 to 62 parts; and zinc, 40 to 38 parts. It is sometimes called yellow metal, or Mtintz metal (called after its inventor), and is prepared with certain precautions, di- rected toward obtaining as fine a grain as possible, experience having shown that only a fine-grained alloy of uniform density can resist the action of the sea water evenly. A metal of uneven den- sity will wear in holes. To obtain as uniform a grain as possible, small sam- ples taken from the fused mass are cooled quickly and examined as to fracture. If they do not show the desired uniform grain, some zinc is added to the mass. After it has permeated the whole mass, a fresh sample is taken and tested, this being continued until the desired result is reached. It is scarcely necessary to remark that considerable experience is required to tell the correct composition of the alloy from the fracture. The mass is finally poured into molds and rolled cold. Malleable brass can be worked warm, like iron, being ductile in heat, a valuable quality. Experiments with malleable brass show that all alloys containing up to 58.33 per cent of copper and up to 41.67 per cent of zinc are malleable. There is, in addition, a second group of such al- loys, with 61.54 per cent of copper and 38.46 per cent of zinc, which are also malleable in heat. The preparation of these alloys re- quires considerable experience, and is best accomplished by melting the metals together in the usual manner, and heating the fused mass as strongly as possible. It must be covered with a layer of char- coal dust to prevent oxidation of the zinc. The mass becomes thinly fluid, and an intimate mixture of the constituents is effected. Small pieces of the same alloy are thrown into the liquid mass until it no longer shows a reflecting surface, when it is cast into ingots in iron molds. The ingots are plunged into water while still red-hot, and acquire by this treat- ment a very high degree of ductility. The alloy, properly prepared, has a fibrous fracture and a reddish-yellow color. Sheet Brass (For Sheet and Wire). — In the preparation of brass for the manu- facture of wire, an especially pure qual- ity of copper must be used; without this, all efforts to produce a suitable quality of brass will be in vain. That pure copper is indispensable to the manufacture of good, ductile brass may be seen from the great difference in the composition of the various kinds, all of which answer their purpose, but contain widely varying quantities of copper and zinc. The fol- lowing table shows the composition of some excellent qualities of brass suitable for making sheet and wire: Brass Sheet — Source Jemappes Stolberg Romilly Rosthorn (Vienna). Rosthorn (Vienna). Rosthorn (Vienna). Iserlohn & Romilly Ludenscheid (Brittle) Hegermiihl Oker Brass Wire — England Augsburg ; . . . Neustadt Neustadt Neustadt Neustadt (Good quality) .... (Brittle) For wire and sheet. Cop- per 64.6 64.8 70.1 68.1 71.5 71.1 70.1 72.73 63.66 70.16 68.98 70.29 71.89 70.16 71.36 71.5 71.0 65.4 65.5 67.0 Zinc Lead 1.4 2.0 0.38 0.2 0.4 0.17 1.3 2.52 0.79 0.97 0.28 0.85 0.2 2.1 0.5 Tin 0.20 0.17 0.79 0.5 ALLOYS 55 As the above figures show, the per- centage of zinc in the different kinds of brasslies between 27 and 34. Recently, alloys containing a somewhat larger Cobalt \ "-24 Antimony 6.78 " ALLOYS 63 Albata Metal. — Copper, 40 parts; zinc, 32 parts; and nickel, 8 parts. Alfenide Metal.— Copper, 60 parts; zinc, 30; nickel, 10; traces of iron. Bath Metal. — This alloy is used es- pecially in England for the manufacture of teapots, and is very popular owing to the fine white color it possesses. It takes ahigh polish, and articles made from this alloy acquire in the course of time, upon only being rubbed with a white cloth, a permanent silver luster. The composition of Bath metal is cop- per, 55 parts; zinc, 45 parts. Baudoin Metal. — This is composed of 72 parts of copper, 16.6 of nickel, 1.8 of cobalt, 1 of zinc; J per cent of aluminum may be added. CASTING COPPER: Macht's Yellow Metal.— I.— This alloy consists of 33 parts of copper and 25 of zinc. It has a dark golden-yellow color, great tenacity, and can be forged at a red heat, properties which make it es- pecially suitable for fine castings. n. — Yellow. — Copper, 67 to 70 parts; zinc, 33 to 30 parts. III. — Red. — Copper, 82 parts; zinc, 18 parts. Copper Arsenic. — Arsenic imparts to copper a very fine white color, and makes it very hard and brittle. Before Ger- man silver was known, these alloys were sometimes used for the manufacture of such cast articles as were not to come in contact with iron. When exposed to the air, they soon lose their whiteness and take on a brownish shade. On account of this, as well as the poisonous character of the arsenic, they are very little used at the present time. Alloys of copper and arsenic are best prepared by pressing firmly into a crucible a mixture of 70 parts of copper and 30 of arsenic (the copper to be used in the form of fine shavings) and fusing this mixture in a furnace with a good draught, under a cover of glass. Copper Iron. — The alloys of copper and iron are little used in the industries of the present day, but it would seem that in earlier times they were frequently prepared for the purpose of giving a con- siderable degree of hardness to copper; for in antique casts, consisting princi- pally of copper, we regularly find large quantities of iron, which leads to the sup- position that they were added intention- ally. These alloys, when of a certain com- Eosition, have considerable strength and ardness. With an increase in the quan- tity of the iron the hardness increases, but the solidity is lessened. A copper and iron alloy of considerable strength, and at the same time very hard, is made of copper, 66 parts; iron, 34. These alloys acquire, on exposure to air, an ugly color inclining toward black, and are therefore not adapted for arti- cles of art. Copper Nickel.— A. Morrell, of New York, has obtained a patent on a nickel- copper alloy which he claims is valu- able _ on account of its noncorrosive qualities, therefore making it desirable for ships, boiler tubes, and other uses where the metal comes much in contact with water. The process of making the metal is by smelting ore containing sul- phide of nickel and copper, and besem- erizing the resultant matter. This is calcined in order to obtain the nickel and copper in the form of oxides. The latter are reduced in reverberating fur- nace with carbon, or the like, so as to produce an alloy which preferably con- tains 2' parts of nickel and 1 part of copper. Delta Metal. — An alloy widely used for making parts of machinery, and also for artistic purposes, is the so-called Delta metal. This is a variety of brass hardened with iron; some manufacturers add small quantities of tin and lead; also, in some cases, nickel. The follow- ing analysis of Delta metal (from the fac- tory at Dusseldorf) will show its usual composition: I II III IV V Copper Zinc Lead Iron Manganese Nickel Phosphorus 55.94 41.61 0.72 0.87 0.81 tra- ces. 0.013 55.80 40.07 1.82 1.28 0.96 tra- ces. 0.011 55.82 41.41 0.76 0.86 1.38 0.06 tra- ces. 64.22 42.25 1.10 0.99 1.09 0.16 0.02 58.6C 38.95 0.67 1.62 o'.ii I is cast, II hammered. III rolled, and IV hot-stamped metal. Delta metal is produced by heating zinc very strongly in crucibles (to about 1600° F.), and adding ferromanganese or "spiegel- eisen," producing an alloy of 95 per cent zinc and 5 per cent of iron. Copper and brass and a very small amount of copper phosphate are also added. 64 ALLOYS Gone Metal. — A sonorous metal for cymbals, gongs, and tam-tams consists of 100 parts of copper with 25 parts tin. Ignite tne piece after it is cast and plunge it into cold water immediately. Production of Minargent. — This alloy consists of copper, 500 parts; nickel, 350; tungsten, 25, and aluminum, 5. The metal obtained possesses a handsome white color and greatly resembles silver. Minofor. — The so-called Minofor metal is composed of copper, tin, antimony, zinc, and iron in the following proportions: I II Copper 3.26 4 Tin 67.53 66 Antimony 17.00 20 Zinc 8.94 9 Iron 1 Minargent and Minofor are sometimes used in England for purposes in which the ordinary Britannia metal, 2 parts tin and 1 part antimony, might equally well be employed; the latter surpasses both of them in beauty of color, but they are, on the other hand, harder. Retz Alloy. — This alloy, which resists the corrosive action of alkalies and acids, is composed of 15 parts of copper, 2.34 of tin, 1.82 of lead, and 1 of antimony. It can be utilized in the manufacture of receivers, for which porcelain and ebo- nite are usually employed. Ruoltz Metal. — This comprises 20 parts of silver, 50 of copper, 30 of nickel. These proportions may, however, vary. Tissier's Metal. — This alloy contains arsenic, is of a beautiful tombac red color, and very hard. Its composition varies a great deal, but the peculiar alloy which gives the name is composed of copper, 97 parts; zinc, 2 parts; arsenic, 1 or 2. It may be considered a brass with a very high percentage of copper, and hardened by the addition of arsenic. It is sometimes used for axle bearings, but other alloys are equally suitable for this purpose, and are to be preferred on account of the absence of arsenic, which is always dangerous. FILE ALLOYS.— Many copper-tin al- loys are employed for the making of files which, in distinction from the steel files, are designated composition files. Such alloys have the following compositions: Geneva Composition Files. — I II Copper 64.4 62 Tin 18.0 20 Zinc 10.0 10 Lead 7.6 8 Voeel's Composition Files. — III IV V Copper 57.0 61.5 73.0 Tin 28.5 31.0 19.0 Zinc 78.0 .... 8.0 Lead 7.0 8.5 8.0 VI. — Another alloy for composition files is copper, 8 parts; tin, 2; zinc, l,and lead, 1 — fused under a cover of borax. EASILY FUSIBLE OR PLASTIC AL- LOYS. (These have a fusing point usually below 300° F.) (See also Solders.) I. Rose's Alloy. — Bismuth, 2 parts; lead, 1 part; tin, 1 part. Melting point, 200° F. II. Darcet Alloy. — This is composed of 8 parts of bismuth, 5 of lead, and 3 of tin. It melts at 176° F. To impart greater fusibility, tV part of mercury is added; the fusing is then lowered to 149°. F. III.— Newton alloy melts at 212° F., and is composed of 5 parts of bismuth, 2 of lead, and 3 of tin. IV.— Wood's Metal.— Tin 2 parts Lead 4 parts Bismuth 5 to 8 parts This silvery, fine-grained alloy fuses between 151° and 162° F., and is ex- cellently adapted to soldering. V. — Bismuth, 7 parts; lead, 6 parts; cadmium, 1 part. Melting point, 180° F. VI. — Bismuth, 7 to 8 parts; lead, 4; tin, 2; cadmium, 1 to 2. Melting point, 149° to 160° F. Other easily fusible alloys : VII VIII IX Lead 1 2 3 Tin 1 2 3 Bismuth 1 1 1 Melting Point 258° F. 283° 311° Fusible Alloys for Electric Installa- tions. — These alloys are employed in electric installations as current inter- rupters. Serving as conductors on a short length of circuit, they melt as soon as the current becomes too strong. Fol- lowing is the composition of some of these alloys. Fusing temper- ature Lead Tin Bis- muth Cad- mium I... 203° F. 250 500 500 II... 193° F. 397 532 71 III... 168° F. 344 94 500 62 IV... 153° F. 260 148 522 70 V... 150° F. 249 142 501 108 VI... 145° F. 267 136 500 100 ALLOYS 65 These alloys are prepared by melting the lead in a stearine oath and adding successively, and during the cooling, first, the cadmium; second, the bismuth; third, the tin. It is absolutely necessary to proceed in this manner, since these metals fuse at temperatures ranging from 850° F. (for lead), to 551° F. (for tin). Fusible Safety Alloys for Steam Boilers. — Atmos. pres- sure I. II. III. IV. V. VI. VII. VIII. IX. X. XI. Bis- muth 8 Lead 5 Zinc 3 Melting point 212° F. 8 8 4 235° F. 8 8 3 253° F. 8 10 8 266° F. 8 Vi 8 270° F. 8 16 14 280° F. 8 16 12 285° F. 8 22 24 309° F. 8 32 36 320° F. 8 32 28 330° F. 8 30 24 340° F. 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 5 6 7 8 Lipowitz Metal. — This amalgam is pre- pared as follows: Melt in a dish, cad- mium, 3 parts, by weight; tin, 4 parts; bismuth, 15 parts; and lead, 8 parts, adding to the alloy, while still in fusion, 2 parts of quicksilver previously heated to about 212° F. The amalgamation f)roceeds easily and smoothly. The iquid mass in the dish, which should be taken from the fire immediately upon the introduction of the mercury, is stirred until the contents solidify. Vvhile Lipo- witz alloy softens already at 140° F. and fuses perfectly at 158°, the amalgam has a still lower fusing point, which lies around 143^ F. This amalgam is excellently adapted for the production of impressions of various objects of nature, direct im- pressions of leaves, and other delicate parts of plants having been made with its aid which, in point of sharpness, are equal to the best plaster casts and have a very pleasing appearance. The amal- gam has a silver-white color and a fine gloss. It is perfectly constant to atmospheric influences. This amal- gam has also been used with good suc- cess for the making of small statuettes and busts, which are hollow and can be readily gilt or bronzed by electro-depo- sition. The production of small statues is successfully carried out by making a hollow gypsum mold of the articles to be cast and heating the mold evenly to about 140° F. A corresponding quan- tity of the molten amalgam is then poured in and the mold moved rapidly to and fro, so that the alloy is thrown against the sides all over. The shaking should be continued until it is certain that the amal- gam has solidified. AVhen the mold has cooled off it is taken apart and the seams removed by means of a sharp knife. If the operation is carried on correctly, a chasing of the cast mass be- comes unnecessary, since the alloy fills out the finest depressions of the mold with the greatest sharpness. Amalgam for Plaster. — Tin, 1 part; bismuth, 1 part; mercury, 1 part. Melt the bismuth and the tin together, and when the two metals are in fusion add the mercury while stirring. For use, rub up the amalgam with a little white of egg and brush like a varnish on the plaster articles. Plastic Metal Composition. — I. Copper oxide is reduced by means of hydrogen or copper sulphate by boiling a solution of the same in water with some zinc filings in order to obtain entirely pure copper. Of the copper powder obtained in this man- ner, 20, 30, or 36 parts, by weight, accord- ing to the degree of hardness desired for the composition (the greater the quantity of copper used the harder will the composi- tion Decome), are thoroughly moistened in a cast-iron or porcelain mortar with sulphuric acid of 1.85 specific gravity; 70 parts, by weight, of mercury are then added to this paste, the whole being con- stantly stirred. VVhen all the copper has been thoroughly amalgaxnated with the mercury, the sulphuric acid is washed out again with boiling water, and in 12 hours after it has become cold the com- position will be so hard that it can be polished. It is impervious to the action of dilute acids, alcohol, ether, and boil- ing water. It contains the same specific gravity, alike in the soft or the hard con- dition. When used as a cement, it can at any time be rendered soft and plastic in the following manner: If applied while hot and plastic to the deoxidized surfaces of two pieces of metal, these latter will unite so firmly that in about 10 or 12 hours the metal may be subjected to any mechanical process. The prop- erties of this composition render it very useful for various purposes, and it forms a most effective cement for fine metal articles which cannot be soldered in fire. II. — Bismuth, 5.5 parts; lead, 3; tin, 1.5. III. Alloy d'llomburg. t- Bi.smuth, 66 ALLOYS 3 parts; lead, 3; tin, 3. Thi? alloy is fusible at 261° F., and is of a silvery white. It is employed for reproductions of medals. IV. Alloy Valentine Rose. — Bismuth, 4 to 6 parts; lead, 2 parts; tin, 2 to 3 parts. This alloy fuses at 212° to 250° F. V. Alloy Rose pere. — Bismuth, 2 parts; lead, 2; tin, 2. This alloy fuses at 199° F. The remainder are plastic alloys for reproducing cuts, medals, coins, etc.: VI. — Bismuth, 4 parts; lead, 2 parts; tin, 1 part. VII. — Bismuth, 3 parts; lead, 3 parts; tin, 2 parts. Vni. — Bismuth, 4 parts; lead, 2 parts; tin, 2 parts. IX. — Bismuth, 5 parts; lead, 2 parts; tin, 3 parts. X. — Bismuth, 2 parts; lead, 2 parts; tin, 2 parts. Quick - Water. — That the amalgam may easily take hold of bronze objects and remain there, it is customary to cover the perfectly cleansed and shining article with a thin coat of mercury, which is usually accomplished by dipping it into a so-called quick-water bath. In the form of minute globules the mercury immediately separates itself from the solution and clings to the bronze object, which thereupon presents the appearance of being plated with silver. After it has been well rinsed in clean water, the amalgam may be evenly and without difficulty applied with the scratch brush. This quick-water (in reality a solution of mercurous nitrate), is made in the sim- plest manner by taking 10 parts of mer- cury and pouring over it 11 parts of nitric acid of a specific gravity equal to 1.33; now let it stand until every part of the mercury is dissolved; then, wnile stirring vigorously, add 540 parts of water. This solution must be kept in closed flasks or bottles to prevent im- purities, such as dust, etc., from falling into it. The preparatory work on the object to be gilded consists mainly in cleansing it from every trace of oxidation. First, it must be well annealed by placing it in a bed of glowing coal, care being exer- cised that the heating be uniform. When cooled, this piece is plunged into a highly diluted sulphuric-acid bath in order to dissolve in a measure the oxide. Next it is dipped in a 36° nitric-acid bath, of a specific gravity equal to 1.33, and brushed off with a lon^ brush; it is now dipped into, nitric acid into which a little lampblack and table salt have been thrown. It is now ready for washing in clean water and drying in unsoiled sawdust. It is of the greatest importance that the surface to be gilded should ap- pear of a pale yellow tint all over. If it be too smooth the gold will not take hold easily, and if it be too dull it will require too much gold to cover it. GOLD ALLOYS : Colored Gold Alloys. — The alloys of gold with copper have a reddish tinge; those of gold with silver are whiter, and an alloy of gold, silver, and copper to- gether is distinguished by a greenish tone. Manufacturers of gold ware make use of these different colors, one piece being frequently composed of several pieces of varying color. Below are given some of these alloys, with their colors: Gold Silver Copper steel Cad- mium I.. 2.6 1.0 .... II.. 75.0 16.6 8. '4 III.. 74.6 11.4 '9.7 4.3 IV.. 75.0 12.6 .... 12.5 v.. 1.0 2.0 VI.. 4.0 3.0 i.'o .... VII.. 14.7 7.0 6.0 VIII.. 14.7 9.0 4.0 IX.. 3.0 1.0 1.0 X.. 10.0 1.0 4.0 XI.. 1.0 1.0 XII.. 1.0 2.0 XIII.. 30.0 3.6 '2.0 XIV.. 4.0 .... 1.0 XV.. 29.0 ii.o XVI.. 1.3 i.6 Nos. I, II, III, and IV are green gold; No. Vis pale yellow; Nos. VI, VII, and VIII bright yellow; Nos. IX and X pale red; Nos. XI and XII bright red; Nos. XIII, XIV, and XV gray; while No, XVI exhibits a bluish tint. The finished gold ware, before being put upon the market, is subjected to a special treat- ment, consisting either in the simple pickling or in the so-called coloring, which operation is conducted especially with alloys of low degree of fineness, the object being to give the layers a super- ficial layer of pure gold. The presence of silver considerably modifies the color of gold, and the jewel- er makes use of this property to obtain alloys of various shades. The following proportions are to be observed, viz.: ALLOYS 67 f- 1 .,-1 ij °°^^ Silver Copper t^olor of uold per per per 1,000 1,000 1,000 1. Oreen 760 250 .. . II. Dead leaves. .. . 700 800 ... III. Sea green 600 400 . IV. Pink 760 200 SO V. English yellow.. 750 126 125 VI. English white. . . 750 150 100 VII. Whiter 750 170 80 VIII. Less white 750 190 60 IX. Red 750 ... 250 Other colored gold alloys are the fol- lowing: X. Blue.— Fine gold, 75; iron, 25. XI. Dark Gray. — Fine gold, 94; iron, 6. XII. Pale Gray. — Fine gold, 191; iron, 9. XIII. Cassel Yellow. — Fine gold, 75; fine silver, 12J; rose copper, 12^. The above figures are understood to be by weight. The gold solders, known in France under the names of soudures au quart (13i carat), au tiers (12 carat), and au deux (9 carat), are composed of 3, 2, or 1 part of gold respectively, with 1 part of an alloy consisting of two-thirds silver and one-third copper. Gold also forms with aluminum aseries of alloys of greatly vary- ing coloration, the most curious of them, composed of 22 parts of aluminum for 88 parts of gold, possessing a pretty purple shade. _ But all these alloys, of a highly crystalline base, are very brittle and can- not be worked, for which reason their handsome colorings have not yet been capable of being utilized. Enameling Alloys.— I. Transparent. — This alloy should possess the property of transmitting rays of light so as to give the highest possible effect to the enamel. The alloy of gold for transparent green should be pale; a red or copper alloy does not do for green enamel, the copper has a tendency to darken the color and thus take away a part of its brilliancy. The following alloy for transparent preen possesses about the nearest print, in color, to the enamel — which should represent, as near as possible, the color and brilliancy of the emerald — that can be arrived at: ozs. dwts. grs. Fine gold 18 8 Fine silver 1 6 Fine copper 10 No borax must be used in the melting of this alloy, it being of a more fusible nature than the ordinary alloy, and will not take so high a heat in enameling. II. Red Enamel. — The enamel which forms this color being of a higher fusing point, if proper care be not taken, the gold will melt first, and the work become ruined. In the preparation of red enam- el, the coloring matter is usually an oxide of gold, and this so raises the tempera- ture at which it melts that, in ord^r to prevent any mishap, the gold to be enam- eled on should be what is called a 22- carat red, that is, it should contain a preponderance of copper in the alloying mixture so as to raise tne fusing point of the gold. The formula is: ^. ozs. dwtB. grs. Fine gold 18 8 Fine silver 10 Fine copper 16 Gold-leaf Alloys. — All gold made into leaf is more or less alloyed. The gold used by the goldbeater is alloyed ac- cording to the variety of color required. Fine gold is commonly supposed to be in- capable of being reduced to thin leaves. This, however, is not the case, although its use for ordinary purposes is unde- sirable on account of its greater cost. It also adheres by contact of one leaf with another, thus causing spoiled material and wasted labor; but for work exposed to the weather it is much preferable, as it is more durable and does not tarnish or change color. The following is a list of the principal classes of leaf recognized and ordinarily prepared by beaters with the proportion of alloy they contain: Gold Silver Copper grs. grs. grs. I. Red gold... 456-460 ... 20-24 II. Pale red. .. 464 ... 16 III. Extra deep. 456 12 12 IV. Deep 444 24 12 V. Citron 440 30 10 VI. Yellow 408 72 VII. Pale yellow 384 96 .... VIII. Lemon 360 120 IX. Green or pale 312 168 X. White 240 240 Gold-Plate Alloys.— Gold, 92 parts; copper, 8 parts. II. — Gold, 84 parts; copper, 16 parts. III. — Gold, 76 parts; copper, 26 parts. IMITATION GOLD. I. — One hundred parts, by weight, of copper of the purest quality; 14 of zinc or tin; 6 of magnesia; f of sal ammoniac, limestone, and cream of tartar. The copper is first melted, then the magnesia, sal ammoniac, limestone, and cream of tarta,r in powder are added separately and gradually. The whole mass is kept stirred for a half hour, the zinc or tin being dropped in piece by piece, the stir- 68 ALLOYS ring being kept up till they melt. Fi- nally the crucible is covered and the mass is kept in fusion 35 minutes and, the same being removed, the metal is poured into molds, and is then ready for use. The alloy thus made is said to be fine-grained, malleable, takes a high polish, and does not easily oxidize. II. — An invention, patented in Ger- many, covers a metallic alloy,' to take the place of gold, which, even if exposed for some time to the action of ammonia- cal and acid vapors, does not oxidize or lose its sold color, . It can be rolled and worked Tike gold and has the appearance of genuine gold without containing the slightest admixture of that metal. The alloy consists of copper and antimony in the approximate ratio of 100 to 6, and is produced by adding to molten copper, as soon as it has reached a certain degree of heat, the said percentage of antimony. When the antimony has likewise melted and entered into intimate union with the copper, some charcoal ashes, magne- sium, and lime spar are added to the mass when the latter is still in the crucible. III. Aluminum Gold. — This alloy, called Nuremberg gold, is used for mak- ing cheap gold ware, and is excellent for this purpose, as its color is exactly that of pure gold, and does not change in the air. Articles made of Nuremberg gold need no gilding, and retain their color under the hardest usage; even the fracture of this alloy shows the pure gold color. The composition is usually 90 parts of cop- per, 2.5 of gold, and 7.5 of aluminum. IV. — Imitation gold, capable of being worked and drawn into wire, consists of 950 parts copper, 45 aluminum, and 2 to 5 of silver. V. — Chrysochalk is similar in com- position to Mannheim gold: I II Copper 90.5 58.68 Zinc 7.9 40.22 Lead 1.6 1.90 In color it resembles gold, but quickly loses its beauty if exposed to the air, on account of the oxidation of the copper. It can, however, be kept bright for a long time by a coating of colorless varnish, which excludes the air and prevents oxidation. Chrysochalk is used for most of the ordinary imitations of gold. Cheap watch chains and jewelry are manufactured from it, and it is widely used by the manufacturers of imitation bronze ornaments. Mannheim Gold or Similor. — Mann- heim gold is composed of copper, zinc, and tin, in proportions about as follows: I 11 Copper 83.7 89.8 Zinc 9.3 9.9 Tin 7.0 0.6 It has a fine yellow color, and was formerly much used in making buttons and pressed articles resembling gold. Later alloys, however, surpass it in color, and it has fallen somewhat into disuse. One variety of Mannheim gold, so called, contains 1.40. parts of brass (composition 3 Cua 1 Zn) to 10 of copper and 0.1 of zinc. Mosaic Gold.— This is an alloy com- posed — with slight deviations— ^of 100 Earts of copper and 50 to 55 of zinc. _ It as a beautiful color, closely resembling that of gold, and is distinguished by a very fine grain, which makes it especially suitable for the manufacture of castings which are afterwards to be gilded. The best method of obtaining a thoroughly homogeneous mixture of the two metals is first to put into the crucible one-half of the zinc to be used, place the cover upon it, and fuse the mixture under a cover of borax at as low a temperature as possible. Have ready the otner half of the zinc, cut into small pieces and heated almost to melting, and when the contents of the crucible are liquid throw it in, a small portion at a time, stirring constantly to effect as intimate a mixture of the metals as possible. Oreide or Oroide (French Gold).— The so-called French gold, when polished, so closely resembles genuine gold in color that it can scarcely be distinguished from it. Besides its beautiful color, it has the valuable properties of being very ductile and tenacious, so that it can easily be stamped into any desired shape; it also takes a high polish. It is frequently used for the manufacture of spoons, forks, etc., but is unsuitable for this pur- pose on account of the large amount of copper contained in it, rendering it in- jurious to health. The directions for preparing this alloy vary greatly. The products of some Paris factories show the following composition: I II III Copper 90 80.5 86.21 Zinc 10 14.5 31.52 Tin 0.48 Iron 0.24 A special receipt for oreide is the fol- lowing: IV. — Melt 100 parts of copper and add, with constant stirring, 6 parts of magnesia, 3.6 of sal ammoniac, 1.8 of lime, and 9 of crude tartar. Stir again ALLOYS 69 thoroughly, and add 17 parts of ^anu- lated zinc, and after mixing it with the copper by vigorous stirring keep the alloy liquid for one hour. Then care- fully remove the scum and pour off the alloy. Pinchbeck. — This was first manufac- tured in England. Its dark gold color is the best imitation of gold alloyed with copper. Being verv ductile, it can easily be rolled out into thin plates, which can be given any desired shape by stamping. It does not readily oxidize, and thus fulfills all the requirements for making cheap jewelry, which is its principal use. Copper 88.8 93.6 Zinc 11.2 6.4 Or Copper 2.1 1.28 Zinc 0.7 Brass 1.0 0.7 Palladium Gold. — Alloys of gold, cop- per, silver, and palladium have a b^o^vn- ish-red color and are nearly as hard as iron. They are sometimes (although rarely) used for the bearings for the axles of the wheels of fine watches, as they invite little friction and do not rust in the air. The composition used in the Swiss and Eng- lish watch factories consists usually of gold 18 parts, copper 13 parts, silver 11, and palladium 6. Talmi Gold. — The name of talmi gold was first applied to articles of jewelry, chains, earrings, bracelets, etc., brought from Paris, and distinguished by beau- tiful workmanship, a low price, and great durability. Later, when this al- loy had acquired a considerable reputa- tion, articles were introduced under the same name, but which were really made of other metals, and which retained their beautiful gold color only as long as they were not used. The fine varieties of talmi gold are manufactured from brass, cop- per, or tombac, covered with a thin plate of gold, combined with the base by roll- ing, under strong pressure. The plates are then rolled out by passing through rollers, and the coating not only acquires considerable density, but adheres so closely to the base that the metal will keep its beautiful appearance for years. Of late, many articles of talmi gold have been introduced whose gold coat- ing is produced by electroplating, and is in many cases so thin that hard rubbing will bring through the color of the base. Such articles, of course, are not durable. In genuine talmi gold, the coating, even though it may be thin, ad- heres very closely to the base, for the rea- son that the two metals are actually welded by the_ rolling, and also because alloyed gold is always used, which is much harder than pure gold. The pure gold of electroplating is very soft. The composition of some varieties of talmi gold are here given. It will be seen that the content of gold varies greatly, and the durability of the alloy will, of course, correspond to this. The alloys I, II, III are genuine Paris talmi gold; IV, V, and VI are electroplated imitations; and VII is an alloy of a wrong composition, to which the gold does not adhere firmly: Copper Zinc Tin Iron Gold I. 89.9 9.3 1.3 II. 90.8 8.3 0.9 III. 90.0 8.9 0.9 jy(90.7 89.0) ■'*• ) 88.2 11.4 f "■■' y(87.5 12.4) ^- ( 83.1 17.0 C "-^ yj (93.5 6.6) » „- ^^- ( 84.5 15.8 \ "•"* VII. 86.0 12.0 1.1 0.3 .... Japanese Alloys. — In Japan some specialties in metallic alloys are in use of which the composition is as follows: Shadke consists of copper with from 1 to 10 per cent of gold. Articles made from this alloy are laid in a pickle of blue vitriol, alum, and verdigris, until they acquire a bluish-black color. Gui-shi-bu-ichi is an alloy of copper containing 30 to 50 per cent of silver. It possesses a peculiar gray shade. Mokume consists of several composi- tions. Thus, about 30 gold foils (gen- uine) are welded together with shadke, copper, silver, and gui-shi-bu-ichi and pierced. The pierced holes are, after firmly hammering together the plates, filled up with the above-named pickle. The finest Japanese brass consists of 10 parts copper and 8 parts zinc, and is called siachu. The bell metal kara kane is composed of copper 10 parts, tin 10 parts, iron 0.5 part, and zinc 1.5 parts. The copper is first fused, then the re- maining metals are added in rotation. GERMAN SILVER OR ARGENTAN. The composition of this alloy varies considerably, but from the adjoined fig- ures an average may be found, which will represent, approximately, the normal composition: Copper 50 to 66 parts Zinc 19 to 31 parts Nickel 13 to 18 parts The properties of the different kinds, such as their color, ductility, fusibility, 70 ALLOYS etc., vary with the proportions of the single metals. For making spoons, forks, cups, candlesticks, etc., the most suitable proportions are 50 parts of copper, 25 of zinc, and 25 of nickel. This metal has a beautiful blue-white color, and does not tarnish easily. German silver is sometimes so brittle that a spoon, if allowed to fall upon the floor, will break; this, of course, indicates faulty composition. ' But the following table will show how the character of the alloy changes with the varying percent- age of the metals composing it: Copper Zinc Nickel Quality I. 8 3.5 4 Finest quality. II. 8 3.5 6 Beautiful, but refractory. 111. S 6.5 3 Ordinary, readily fus- ible. IV. 52 26.0 22 First quality. V. 59 30.0 11 Second quality. VI. 63 31.0 6 Third quality. The following analyses give further particulars in regard to different kinds of German silver: For sheet (French) (French) (French) Vienna. . Vienna. . Vienna . . Berlin. . . Berlin. . . English.. English.. English. . English.. Chinese. Chinese. Chinese. Chinese. Castings. Castings. Castings . Castings . Castings. Cop- per Zinc Nickel Lead Iron 31.3 18.7 30.0 20.0 25.0 16.7 25.0 25.0 22.0 22.0 20.0 20.0 28.0 18.0 29.1 17.5 17.01 19.13 22.15 15.05 26.05 10.85 25. IS.O 3.0 36.8 36.8 40.6 15.6 36.9 17.9 25.4 31.6 2.6 24.3 24.3 2.9 21.8 21.8 1.9 19.4 19.4 2.9 27.1 14.3 0.8 20.0 20.0 3.0 In some kinds of German silver are found varying quantities of iron, man- ganese, tin, and very frequently lead, added for the purpose of changing the properties of the alloy or cheapening the cost of production. But all these metals have a detrimental rather than a bene- ficial effect upon the general character of the alloy, and especially lessen its power of resistance to the action of dilute acids, one of its most valuable properties. Lead makes it more fusible; tin acts somewhat as in bronze, making it denser and more resonant, and enabling it to take a higher polish. With iron or man- ganese the alloy is whiter, but it be- comes at the same time more refractory and its tendency toward brittleness is increased. SUBSTITUTES FOR GERMAN SIL- VER. There are many formulas for alloys which claim to be substitutes for Ger- man silver; but no one of them has yet become an article of general commerce. It will be sufficient to note these ma- terials briefly, giving the composition of the most important. Nickel Bronze. — This is prepared by fusing together very highly purified nickel (99.5 per cent) with copper, tin, and zinc. A oronze is produced contain- ing 20 per cent of nickel, light-colored and very hard. Bismuth Bronze. — I II III IV Copper 25.0 45.0 69.0 47.0 Nickel 24.0 32.5 10.0 30.9 Antimony 50.0 Bismuth 1.0 1.0 1.0 0.1 Tin 16.0 15.0 1.0 Zinc. 21.5 20.0 21.0 Aluminum 1.0 I is hard and very lustrous, suitable for lamp reflectors and axle bearings; II is hard, resonant, and not affected by sea water, for parts of ships, pipes, tele- graph wires, and piano strings; III and IV are for cups, spoons, etc. Manganese Argentan.— Copper 52 to 50 parts Nickel 17 to 15 " Zinc 5 to 10 " Manganese 1 to 5 " Copper, with 15 per cent phosphorus . 3 to 5 " Readily cast for objects of art. Aphtite. — Iron 66 parts Nickel 23 " Tungsten 4 " Copper 5 " Arguzoid. — Copper 55.78 parts Zinc 23.198 " Nickel 13 . 406 " Tin 4.035 " Lead... 3.544 " Silver white, almost ductile, suited for artistic purposes. A_LLOYS 71 Ferro-Argentan. — Copper 70.0 parts Nickel 20.0 " Zinc 6.5 " Cadmium 4.5 " Resembles silver; worked like German silver. Silver Bronze. — Manganese, 18 per cent; aluminum, 1.2 per cent; silicium, 6 per cent; zinc, 13 per cent; copper, 67.5 per cent. The electric resistance of sil- ver bronze is greater than that of Ger- man silver, hence it ought to be highly suitable for rheostats. Instrument Alloys. — The following are suitable for physical and optical in- struments, metallic mirrors, telescopes, etc.: I. — Copper, 62 parts; tin, 33 parts; lead, 5 parts. II. — Copper, 80; antimony, 11; lead, 9. III. — Copper, 10; tin, 10; antimony, 10; lead, 40. IV.— Copper, 30; tin, 50; silver, 2; arsenic, 1. v.— Copper, 66; tin, 33. VI.— Copper, 64; tin, 26. VII.— Steel, 90; nickel, 10. VIII.— Platinum, 60; copper, 40. IX. — Platinum, 45; steel, 55. X.— Platinum, 55; iron, 45. XI.— Platinum, 15; steel, 85. XII.— Platinum, 20; copper, 79; ar- senic, 1. XIII.— Platinum, 62; iron, 28; gold, 10. XIV.— Gold, 48; zinc, 5^2. XV.— Steel, 50; rhodium, 50. XVI.— Platinum, 12; iridium, 88. XVII.— Copper, 89.5; tin, 8.5; zinc, 2. LEAD ALLOYS. The following alloys, principally lead, are used for various purposes: Bibra Alloy. — This contains 8 parts of bismuth, 9 of tin, and 38 to 40 of lead. Metallic Coflans.— Tin, 40 parts; lead, 45 parts; copper, 15 parts. Plates for Engraving.— I.— Lead, 84 parts; antimony, 16 parts. II. — Lead, 86 parts; antimony, 14 parts. III.— Lead, 87 parts; antimony, 12 parts; copper, 1 part. IV.— Lead, 81 parts; antimony, 14 parts; tin, 5 parts. V. — Lead, 73 parts; antimony, 17 parts; zinc, 10 parts. VI.— Tin, 53 parts; lead, 43 parts; antimony, 4 parts. Hard lead is made of lead, 84 parts; antimony, 16 parts. Sheet Metal Alloy.— Tin 35 parts Lead 250 parts Copper 2.5 parts Zinc 0.5 part This alloy has a fine white color, and can be readily rolled into thin sheets. For that reason it is well adapted for lining tea chests and for the production of tobacco and chocolate wrappers. The copper and zinc are used in the form of fine shavings. The alloy should be immediately cast into thin plates, which can then be passed through rolls. MAGNETIC ALLOYS. Alloys which can be magnetized most strongly are composed of copper, man- ganese, and aluminum, the quantities of manganese and aluminum being pro- portional to their atomic weights (65.0 to 27.1, or about 2 to 1). The maximum magnetization increases rapidly with increase of manganese, but alloys con- taining much manganese are exceedingly brittle and cannot be wrought. The highest practicable proportion of man- ganese at present is 24 per cent. These magnetic alloys were studied by Hensler, Haupt, and Starck, and Gum- lich has recently examined them at the Physikalisch - technische Reichsanstalt, witn very remarkable and interesting re- sults. The two alloys examined were com- posed as follows: Alloy I. — Copper, 61.5 per cent; man- ganese, 23.5 per cent; aluminum, 15 per cent; lead, 0.1 per cent, with traces of iron and silicon. Alloy II. — Copper, 67.7 per cent; manganese, 20.5 per cent; aluminum, 10.7 per cent; lead, IM per cent, with traces of iron and silicon. Alloy II could be worked without dif- ficulty, but alloy I was so brittle that it broke under the hammer. A bar 7 inches long and J inch thick was obtained by grinding. This broke in two during the measurements, but, fortunately, without invalidating them. Such a material is evidently unsuited to practical uses. The behavior of magnetic alloys at high temperatures is very peculiar. Al- loy I is indifferent to temperature chan- ges, which scarcely affect its magnetic properties, but the behavior of alloy 11 is very different. Prolonged heating to 230° F. produces a great increase in its capa- bility of magnetization, which, after 544 hours' heating, rises from 1.9 to 3.2 kilo- 72 ALLOYS gauss, approaching the strength of alloy I. But when alloy II is heated to 329° F., its capability of magnetization fails again and the material suffers permanent injury, which can be partly, but not wholly, cured by prolonged heating. Another singular phenomenon was exhibited by both of these alloys. When a bar of iron is magnetized by an electric current, it acquires its full magnetic strength almost instantaneously on the closure of the circuit. The magnetic alloys, on the contrary, do not attain their full magnetization for several min- utes. In some of the experiments a gradual increase was observed even after the current had been flowing five minutes. In magnetic strength alloy I proved far superior to alloy II, which con- tained smaller proportions of manga- nese and aluminum. Alloy I showed magnetic strengths up to 4.5 kilogauss, while the highest magnetization ob- tained with alloy II was only 1.9 kilo- gauss. But even alloy II may be called strongljf magnetic, for its maximum mag- netization is about one-tenth that of good wrought iron (18 to 20 kilogauss), or one-sixth that of cast iron (10 to 12 kilogauss). Alloy I is nearly equal in magnetic properties to nickel, which can be magnetized up to about 5 kilogauss. MANGANESE ALLOYS: Manganese bronze is a bronze de- prived of its oxide by an admixture of manganese. The manganese is used as copper manganese containing 10 to 30 per cent manganese and added to the bronze to the amount of 0.5 to 2 per cent. Manganese Copper. — The alloys of copper with manganese have a beauti- ful silvery color, considerable ductility, great hardness and tenacity, and are more readily fusible than ordinary bronze. A special characteristic is that they exactly fill out the molds, with- out the formation of blowholes, and pre- sent no difficulties in casting. Cupromanganese is suitable for many Eurposes for which nothing else but ronze can advantageously be used, and the cost of its production is no greater than that of genuine bronze. In pre- paring the alloy, the copper is used in the form of fine grains, obtained by pouring melted copper into cold water. These copper grains are mixed with the dry oxide of manganese, and the mixture put into a crucible holding about 66 pounds. Enough space must be left in the cruci- ble to allow a thick cover of charcoal, as the manganese oxidizes easily. The crucible is placed in a well-drawing wind furnace and subjected to a strong white heat. The oxide of manganese is completely reduced to manganese, which at once combines with the copper to form an alloy. In order to prevent, as far as possible, the access of air to the fusing mass, it is advisable to cover the crucible with a lid which has an aperture in the center for the escape of the carbonic oxide formed during; the reduction. When the reduction is complete and the metals fused, the lid is removed and the contents of the crucible stirred with an iron rod, in order to make the alloy as homogeneous as possible. By re- peated remelting of the cupromanganese a considerable quantity of the man- ganese is reconverted into oxide; it is, therefore, advisable to make the casts directly from the crucible. When poured out, the alloy rapidly solidifies, and re- sembles in appearance good German silver. Another reason for avoiding re- melting is that the crucible is strongly attacked by the cupromanganese, and can be used but a few times. The best kinds of cupromanganese contain between 10 and 30 per cent of manganese. They have a beautiful white color, are hard, tougher than cop- per, and can be worked under the ham- mer or with rolls. Some varieties of cupromanganese which are especially valuable for technical purposes are given below: I II III IV Copper 75 60 65 60 Manganese. 25 25 20 20 Zinc 15 5 .. Tin 10 Nickel 10 10 Manganin. — This is an alloy of copper, nickel, and manganese for electric re- sistances. TVnRROR ALLOYS: Amalgams for Mirrors. — I. — Tin, 70 parts; mercury, 30 parts. II. — For curved mirrors. Tin, 1 part; lead, 1 part; bismuth, 1 part; mercury, 9 parts. III.— For glass balls.- Tin, 80 parts; mercury, 20 parts. IV.— Metallic cement. Copper, 30 parts; mercury, 70 parts. V. — MirrormetaL— Copper, 100 parts; tin, 50 parts; Chinese copper, 8 parts; lead, 1 part; antimony, 1 part. Reflector Metals. — I. — (Cooper's.) Copper, 35 parts; platinum, 6; zinc, 2; tin, 16.5; arsenic, 1. On account of the hardness of this alloy, it takes a very high polish; it is impervious to the effects of the weather, and is therefore remark' A1.1.0VS ably well adapted to the manufacture of mirrdrs for fine optical instruments. II. — (l)uppler's.) Zinc, 20 parts; sil- ver, 80 parts. III.— Copper, 66.22 parts; tin, 33.11 parts; arsenic, 0.67 part. IV. — Copper, 64 parts; tin, 32 parts; arsenic, 4 parts. v.— Copper, 82.18 parts; lead, 9.22 parts; antimony, 8.60 parts. VI. — (Little's.) Copper, 69.01 parts; tin, 30.82 parts; zinc, 2.44 parts; arsenic, 1.83 parts. Speculum Metal. — Alloys consisting of 2 parts of copper and 1 of tin can be very brilliantly polished, and will serve for mirrors. Good speculum metal should have a very fine-grained fracture, should be white and very hard, the high- est degree of polish depending upon these qualities. A composition to meet these requirements must contain at least 35 to 36 per cent of copper. Attempts have frequently been made to increase the hardness of speculum metal by additions of nickel, antimonj', and arsenic. With the exception of nickel, these substances have the effect of causing the metal to lose its high luster easily, any consid- erable quantity of arsenic in particular having this effect. The real speculum metal seems to be a combination of the formula Cu^Sn, composed of copper 68.21 per cent, tin 31.7. An alloy of this nature is some- times separated from ordnance bronze by incorrect treatment, causing the so- called tin spots; but this has not the pure white color which distinguishes the spec- ulum metal containing 31.5 percent of tin. By increasing the percentage of copper the color gradually shades into yellow; with a larger amount of tin into blue. It is dangerous to increase the tin too much, as this changes the other properties of the alloy, and it becomes too brittle to be worked. Below is a table showing differ- ent compositions of speculum metal. The standard alloy is undoubtedly the best. Arse- Sil- Copper Tin Zinc nio ver Standard alloy.. .. 68.21 31.7 Otto's alloy 68.5 31.5 Richard- son's alloy 65.3 30.0 0.7 2. 2. Sollifs al- loy 64.6 31.3 4.1 Nickel .... Chinese speculum metal. .. 80.83 8.5 Anti- OldRoman 63.39 19.05 mony 17.29 Lead PALLADIUM ALLOYS. I. — An alloy of palladium 24 part.s, gold 80, is white, hard as steel, unchange- able in the air, and can, like the other alloys of palladium, be used for dental purposes. II. — Palladium 6 parts, gold 18, sil- ver 11, and copper 13, gives a reddish- brown, hard, and very fine-grained alloy, suitable for the bearings of pivots in clock works. The alloys of most of the other plati- num metals, so called, are little used on account of their rarity and costliness. Iridium and rhodium give great hardness to steel, but the commercial rhodium and iridium steel, so called, frequently contains not a trace of either. The alloy of iridium with osmium has great hard- ness and resistance and is recommended for pivots, fine instruments, and points of snip compasses. Palladium Silver. — This alloy, com- posed of 9 parts of palladium and 1 of silver, is used almost exclusively for den- tal purposes, and is well suited to the manufacture of artificial teeth, as it does not oxidize. An alloy even more fre- quently used than this consists of plati- num 10 parts, palladium 8, and gold 6. Palladium Bearing Metal. — This alloy is extremely hard, and is used instead of jewel bearings in watches. It is com- posed of palladium 24 parts, gold 7i, silver 44, copper 92. PLATINUM ALLOYS. Platinum has usually been alloyed with silver in goldsmith's work, ■i parts silver to 1 of platinum being taken to form the favorite "platinum silver." The object has been to produce an alloy having a white appearance, which can be polished, and at the same time has a low melting point. In addition to this platinum alloy the following are well known: I. — A mixture of 7 parts platinum with 3 parts iridium. This gives to platinum the hardness of steel, which can be still further increased by taking 4 parts of iridium. II. — An alloy of 9 parts platinum and 1 part iridium is used by the French in the manufacture of measuring instru- ments of great resisting power. Compounds of copper, nickel, cad- mium, and tungsten are also used in the construction of parts of watches; the lat- ter acquire considerable hardness with- out becoming magnetic or rusting like steel. III. — For this purpose a compound of 74 ALLOYS 62.75 parts platinum, 18 parts copper, 1.25 parts cadmium, and 18 parts nickel is much recommended. IV. — Very ductile platinum - copper alloys have also been made, e. g., the so- called Cooper gold, consisting of 3 parts platinum and 13 parts copper, which is almost equal to 18-carat gold in regard to color, finish, and ductility. If 4 per cent of platinum is taken, these latter alloys acquire a. rose-red color, while a golden-yellow color can be produced by farther adding from 1 to 2 per cent (in all 5 to 6 per cent) of platinum. The last-named alloy is extensively used for ornaments, likewise alloy V. V. — Ten parts platinum, 60 parts nickel, and 220 parts brass, or 2 parts platinum, 1 part nickel and silver re- spectively, 2 parts brass, and 6 parts copper; this also gives a golden-yellow color. VI. — -For table utensils a favorite alloy is composed of 1 part platinum, 100 parts nickel, and 10 parts tin. Articles made of the latter alloy are impervious to at- mospheric action and keep their polish for a long time. Pure white platinum alloys have for some time been used in dental work, and they have also proved serviceable for jewelry'. VII. — A mixture of 30 parts platinum, 10 parts gold, and 3 parts silver, or 7 parts platinum, 2 parts gold, and 3 parts silver. VIII. — For enameled articles: Plati- num, 35 parts; silver, 65 parts. First fuse the silver, then add the platinum in the spongy form. A good solder for this is platinum 80 parts, copper 20 parts. IX. — For pens: Platinum, 4 parts; silver, 3 parts; copper, 1 part. Platinum Gold. — Small quantities of platinum change the characteristics of gold in many respects. With a small percentage the color is noticeably lighter than that of pure gold, and the alloys are extremely elastic; alloys containing more than 20 per cent of platinum, however, almost entirely lose tneir elasticity. The melting point of the platinum-gold alloy is high, and alloys containing 70 per cent of platinum can be fused only in the flame of oxyhydrogen gas, like platinum itself. Alloys with a smaller percentage of platinum can be prepared in furnaces, but require the strongest white heat. In order to avoid the chance of an im- perfect alloy from too low a temperature, it is always safer to fuse them with the oxyhydrogen flame. The alloys of plat- inum and gold have a somewhat lim- ited application. Those which contain from 6 to 10 per cent of platinum are used for sheet and wire in the manu- facture of artificial teeth. Platinum-Gold Alloys for Dental Pur- poses. — I II III Platinum 6 14 10 Gold 2 4 6 Silver. 1 6 .. Palladium 8 Platinum Silver. — An addition of plat- inum to silver makes it harder, but also more brittle, and changes the white color to gray. An alloy which contains only a very small percentage of platinum is noticeably darker in color than pure silver. Such alloys are prepared under the name of platine au litre, containing between 17 and 35 per cent of plati- num. They are almost exclusively used for dental purposes. Imitation Platinum. — I. — Brass,. 100 parts ; zinc, 65 parts. II. — Brass, 120 parts; zinc, 75 parts. III. — Copper, 5 parts; nickel, 4 parts; zinc, IJ parts; antimony, 1 part; lead, 1 part; iron, 1 part; tin, 1 part. Cooper's Pen Metal. — This alloy is especially well adapted to the manufac- ture of pens, on account of its great hard- ness, elasticity, and power of resistance to atmospheric influences, and would certainly have superseded steel if it were possible to produce it more cheaply than IS the case. The compositions most fre- quently used for pen metal are copper 1 part, platinum 4, and silver 3; or, copper 21, platinum 50, and silver 36. Pens have been manufactured, con- sisting of several sections, each of a dif- ferent alloy, suited to the special purpose of the part. Thus, for instance, the sides of the pen are made of the elastic composition just described; the upper part is of an alloy of silver and platinum; and the point is made either of minute cut rubies or of an extremely hard alloy of osmium and iridium, joined to the body of the pen by melting in the flame of the oxyhydrogen blowpipe. The price of such pens, made of expensive materials and at the cost of great labor, is of course exceedingly high, but their excellent qualities repay the extra expense. They are not in the least affected by any kind of ink, are most durable, and can be used constantly for years without showing any signs of wear. The great hardness and resistance to the atmosphere of Cooper's alloys make them very suitable for manufacturing ALLOYS 75 mathematical instruments where great Erecision is required. It can scarcely e calculated how long a chronometer, for instance, whose wheels are construct- ed of this alloy, will run before showing any irregularities due to wear. In the construction of such instruments, the price of the material is not to be taken into account, since the cost of the labor in their manufacture so far exceeds this. PEWTER. This is an alloy of tin and lead only, or of tin with antimony and copper. The first is properly called pewter. Three varieties are known in trade: I (Plate Pewter). — From tin, 79 per cent; antimony, 7 per cent; bismuth and copper, of each 2 per cent; fused to- gether. Used to make plates, teapots, etc. Takes a fine polish. II (Triple Pewter).— From tin, 79 per cent; antimony, 15 per cent; lead, 6 per cent; as the last. Used for minor articles, syringes, toys, etc. III (Ley Pewter).— From tin, 80 per cent; lead, 20 per cent. Used for measures, inkstands, etc. According to the report of a French commission, pewter containing more than 18 parts of lead to 82 parts of tin is unsafe for measures for wine and similar liquors, and, indeed, for anj; other uten- sils exposed to contact with food or beverages. The legal specific gravity of pewter in France is 7.764; if it be greater, it contains an excess of lead, and is liable to prove poisonous. The proportions of these metals may be ap- proximately determined from the specific gravity; but correctly only by an assay for the purpose. SILVER ALLOYS : Aluminum Silver. — Aluminum and silver form beautiful white alloys which are considerably harder than pure alu- minum, and take a very high polish. They have the advantage over copper alloys of being unchanged by_ exposure to the air, and of retaining their_ white color. The properties of aluminum and silver alloys vary considerably according to the percentage of aluminum. I. — An alloy of 100 parts of aluminum and 5 parts of silver is very similar to pure aluminum, but is harder and takes a finer polish. II. — One hundred and sixty-nine parts of aluminum and 5 of silver make an elastic alloy, recommended for watch sprii^s and dessert knives. IIL — An alloy of equal parts of silver and aluminum is as hard as bronze. IV. — Five parts of aluminum and 1 Sart of silver make an alloy that is eas- y worked. V. — Also aluminum, 3 parts, and sil- ver, 1 part. VI. Tiers-Argent. — This alloy is pre- pared chiefly in Paris, and used for the manufacture of various utensils. As in- dicated by its name (one-third silver), it consists of 33.33 parts of silver and 66.66 parts of aluminum. Its advan- tages over silver consist in its lower price and greater hardness; it can also be stamped and engraved more easily than the alloys of copper and silver. VII. — This is a hard alloy which has been found very useful for the operating levers of certain machines, such as the spacing lever of a typewriter. The metal now generally used for this purpose by the various typewriter companies is "alu- minum silver," or "silver metal." The proportions are given as follows: Copper 67.00 Nickel 20 . 00 Zinc 20.00 Aluminum 3 . 00 This alloy when used on typewriting machines is nickel-plated for the sake of the first appearance, but so far as corro- sion is concerned, nickeling is unneces- sary. The alloy is stiff and strong and cannot be bent to any extent without breaking, especially if the percentage of aluminum is increased to 3.5 per cent; it casts free from pinholes and blow- holes; the liquid metal completely fills the mold, giving sharp, clean castings, tfue to pattern; its cost is not greater than brass; its color is silver white, and its hardness makes it susceptible to a high polish. Arsenic. — Alloys which contain small quantities of arsenic are very ductile, have a beautiful white color, and were formerly used in England in the man- ufacture of tableware. They are not, however, suitable for this purpose, on account of the poisonous character of the arsenic. They are composed usually of 49 parts of silver, 49 of copper, and 2 of arsenic. China Silver. — Copper, 65.24 per cent; tin, 19.52 per cent; nickel, 13.00 per cent; silver, 2.05 per cent. Copper -Silver. — When silver is alloyed with copper only one proportion is known which will give a uniform casting. The proportion is 72 per cent silver to 28 per cent copper. With more silver than 72 per cent the center of a cast bar will be 76 ALLOYS richer than the outside, which chills first; while with a less percentage than 72 per cent the center of the bar will be poorer and the outside richer than the average. This characteristic of silver- copper alloys is known to metallurgists as 'segregation." When nickel is added to the silver and copper, several good alloys may be formed, as the following French com- positions: I II III Silver 33 40 20 Copper. . , . 37-42 30-40 45-55 Nickel 25-30 20-30 25-35 The whitening of alloys of silver and copper is best accomplished by anneal- ing the alloy until it turns black on the surface. Cool in a mixture of 20 parts, by weight, of concentrated sulphuric acid to 1,000 parts of distilled water and leave therein for some time. In place of the sulphuric acid, 40 parts of potassium bisulphate may be used per 1,000 parts of liquid. Repeat the process if neces- sary. Copper, Silver, and Cadmium Alloys. — Cadmium added to silver alloys gives great flexibility and ductility, without affecting the white color; these proper- ties are valuable in the manufacture of silver-plated ware and wire._ The pro- portions of the metals vary in these al- loys. Some of the most important vari- eties are given below. Silver Copper Cadmium 1 980 15 5 II 950 15 35 III 900 18 82 IV 860 20 180 V 666 25 309 VI 667 50 284 VII 500 50 450 In preparing these alloys, the great volatility of cadmium must be taken into account. It is customary to pre- pare first the alloy of silver and copper, and add the cadmium, which, as in the case of the alloys of silver and zinc, must be wrapped in paper. After putting it in, the mass is quickly stirred, and the alloy poured immediately into the molds. This is the surest way to prevent the volatilization of the cadmium. Silver, Copper, Nickel, and Zinc Alloys. — These alloys, from the metals con- tained in them, may be characterized as argentan or German silver with a cer- tain percentage of silver. They have been used for making small coins, as in the older coins of Switzerland. Being quite hard, they have the advantage of wearing well, but soon lose their beau- tiful white color and take on a disagree- able shade of yellow, like poor brass. The silver contained in them can be regained only "by a laborious process, which is a great drawback to their use in coinage. The composition of the Swiss fractional coins is as follows: 20 cen- 10 cen- 5 cen- times times times Silver 15 10 5 Copper 50 55 60 Nickel 25 25 25 Zinc 10 10 10 Mousset's Alloy.— Copper, 59.06; sil- ver, 27.56; zinc, 9.57; nickel, 3.42. This alloy is yellowish with a reddish tinge, but white on the fractured surface. It ranks next after Argent-Ruolz, which also contains sometimes certain quanti- ties of zinc, and in this case may be classed together with the alloy just de- scribed. The following alloys can be rolled into sheet or drawn into wire: I II III Silver 33.3 34 40.0 Copper 41.8 42 44.6 Nickel 8.6 8 4.6 Zinc 16.3 16 10.8 Japanese (Gray) Silver. — An alloy is prepared in Japan which consists of equal parts of copper and silver, and which IS given a beautiful gray color by boiling in a solution of alum, to which copper sulphate and verdigris are added. The so-called "mokum," also a Japanese alloy, is prepared by placing thin plates of gold, silver, copper, and the alloy just described over each other and stretch- ing them under the hammer. The.cross sections of the thin plates obtained in this way show the colors of the different metals, which give them a peculiar striped appearance. Mokum is prin- cipally used for decorations upon gold and silver articles. Silver-Zinc. — Silver and zinc have great affinity for each other, and alloys of these two metals are therefore easily made. The required quantity of zinc, wrapped in paper, is thrown into the melted and strongly heated silver, the mass is thoroughly stirred with an iron rod, and at once poured out into molds. Alloys of silver and zinc can be obtained which are both ductile and flexible. An allojf consisting of 2 parts of zinc and 1 of silver closely resembles silver in color, and is quite ductile. With a larger pro- portion of zinc the alloy becomes brittle. In preparing the alloy, a somewhat larger quantity of zinc must be taken than the xVLI.OYS finished alloy is intended to nmtain, as a small amount always volatilizes. Imitation Silver Alloys.— There are a number nf alloys, composed of different metals, which resemble silver, and may be briefly mentioned here. I. — Warne's metal is composed of tin 10 parts, bismuth 7, and cobalt 3. It is white, fine-grained, but quite difficult to fuse. II. — Tonca's metal contains copper 5 parts, nickel 4, tin 1, lead 1, iron 1, zinc 1, antimony 1. It is hard, difficult to fuse, not very ductile, and cannot be recommended. III. — Trabuk metal contains tin 87.5, nickel 5.5, antimony 5, bismuth 5. IV. — Tourun- Leonard's metal is com- posed of 500 parts of tin and 64 of bell metal. v.— Silveroid is an alloy of cocper, nickel, tin, zinc, and lead. VI. — Minargent. Copper, 100 parts; nickel, 70 parts; tungsten, 5 parts; alu- minum, 1 part. VII. — Nickel, 23 parts; aluminum, 5 parts; copper, 5 parts; iron, 65 parts; tungsten, 4 parts. VIII.— Argasoid. Tin, 4.035; lead, 3.544; copper, 55.780; nickel, 13.406; zinc, 23.198; iron, trace. SOLDERS : See Solders. STEEL ALLOYS: See also Steel. For Locomotive Cylinders. — This mix- ture consists of 20 per cent steel castings, old steel springs, etc.; 20 per cent No. 2 coke iron, and 60 per cent scrap. From this it is stated a good solid metal can be obtained, the castings being free from honeycombing, and finishing better than the ordinary cast-iron mixture, over which it has the advantage of 24 per cent great- er strength. Its constituents are: Sili- con, 1.51; manganese, 0.33; phosphorus, 0.65; sulphur, 0.068; combined carbon, 0.02; graphite, 2.45. Nickel steel is composed of nickel 36 per cent, steel 64 per cent. Tungsten steel is crucible steel with 5 to 12 per cent tungsten. STEREOTYPE METAL. Lead 2 parts Tin 3 parts Bismuth 5 parts The melting point of this alloy is 196° F. The alloy is rather costly because of the amount of bismuth which it contains. The following mixtures are cheaper: I II III U 1 3 1 2 1 5 1.5 2 2 8 3 5 1 Tin Lead Bismuth. . . Antimony. . TIN ALLOYS : Alloys for Dentists' Molds and Dies. — I. — Very hard. Tin, 16 parts; anti- mony, 1 part; zinc, 1 part. II. — Softer than the former. Tin, 8 parts; zinc, 1 part; antimony, 1 part. III. — Very hard. Tin, 12 parts; an- timony, 2 parts; copper, 1 part. Cadmium Alloy, about the Hardness of Zinc. — Tin, 10 parts; antimony, 1 part; cadmium, 1 part. Tin-Lead. — Tin is one of those metals which is not at all susceptible to the action of acids, while lead, on the other hand, is very easily attacked by them. In such alloys, consequently, used for cooking utensils, the amount of lead must be limited, and should properly not exceed 10 or 15 per cent; but ca.ses have been known in which the so-called tin <(in- tained a third part, by weight, of lead. Alloys containing from 10 to IS per cent of lead have a oeautiful white color, are considerably harder than pure tin, and much cheaper. Many alloys of tin and lead are very lustrous, and are used for stage jewelry and mirrors for reflect- ing the light of lamps, etc. An especially brilliant alloy is called "Fahlun bril- liants." It is used for stage jewelry, and consists of 29 parts of tin and 19 of lead. It is poured into molds faceted in the same way as diamonds, and when seen by artificial light, the effect is that of dia- monds. Other alloys of tin and lead are employed in the manufacture uf toys. These must fill the molds well, and must also be cheap, and therefore as much as 50 per cent of lead is used. Toys can also be made from type metal, which is even cheaper than the alloys of tin and lead, but has the disadvantage of readily breaking if the articles are sharply bent. The alloys of tin and lead give very good castings, if sharp iron or brass molds are used. Lead 19 parts Tin 29 parts This alloy is very bright and possesses a permanent sheen. It is well adapted for the making of artificial gems for stage use. It is customary in carrying out the process to start with two parts of tin and one part of lead. Tin is added until a sample drop which is allowed to fall upon an iron plate forms a mirror. The artificial gems are produced by 78 ALLOYS dipping into the molten alloy pieces of glass cut to the proper shape. The tin coating of metal which adheres to the glass cools rapidly and adheres tena- ciously. Outwardly these artificial gems appear rough and gray, but inwardly they are highly reflective and quite deceptive when seen in artificial light. If the reflective surfaces be coated with red, blue, or green aniline, various colored effects can be obtained. In- stead of fragile glass the gems may be produced by means of well-polished pieces of steel or bronze. Other Tin-Lead Alloys. — Percentage of lead and specific gravity. P.O. S.G. P.O. S. G. 7.290 28 8.105 1 7.316 29 8.137 2 7.342 30 8.169 3 7.369 31 8.202 4 7.396 32 8.235 5 7.423 33 8.268 6 7.450 34 8.302 7 7.477 35 8.336 8 7.505 36 8.379 9 7.533 37 8.405 10. .. .. 7.562 38 8.440 11 7.590 39 8.476 12 7.619 40 8.512 13 7.648 41 8.548 14 7.677 42 8.584 15 7.706 43 8.621 16 7.735 44 8.658 17 7.764 45 8.695 18 7.794 46 8.732 19 7.824 47 8.770 20 7.854 48 8.808 21 7.885 49 8.846 22 7.916 50 8,884 23; 7.947 60 9.299 24 7.978 70 9.736 25 8.009 80 10.225 26 8.041 90 10.767 27 8.073 100 11.370 Tin Statuettes, Buttons, etc. — I. — Tin 4 parts Lead 3 parts This is a very soft solder which sharp- ly reproduces all details. Another easily fusible alloy but some- what harder, is the following: II.— Tin 8 parts Lead 6 parts Antimony 0.5 part Miscellaneous Tin AUoys. — I. — Alger Metal. — Tin, 90 parts; antimony, 10 parts. This alloy is suitable as a protector. II. Argentine Metal. — Tin, 85.5 per cent; antimony, 14.5 per cent. III. — Ashberry metal is composed of 78 to 82 parts of tin, 16 to 20 of antimony, 2 to 3 of copper. IV. Quen'sMetal.— Tin, 9 parts; lead, 1 part; antimony, 1 part; bismuth, Ipart. Type Metal. — An alloy which is to serve for type metal must be readily cast, fill out the molds sharply, and be as hard as possible. It is difficult to satisfy all these requirements, but an alloy of antimony and lead answers the purpose best. At the present day there are a great many formulas for type metal in which other metals besides lead and antimony are use'd, either to make the alloy more readily fusible, as in the case of additions of bismuth, or to give it greater power of resistance, the latter being of especial importance for types that are subjected to constant use. Copper and iron have been rec- ommended for this purpose, but the fusibility of the alloys is greatly im- paired by these, and the manufacture of the types is consequently more difficult than with an alloy of lead and antimony alone. In the following table some al- loys suitable for casting type are given: Lead ^nti- Cop- Bis- ^i^e Tin Niok- mony per muth 13 1 II 5 1 III 10 1 IV 10 2 .. 1 V 70 18 2 .... 10 . . VI 60 20 20 VII 55 25 20 VIII 55 30 15 IX 100 30 8 2 .. 20 8 X 6 .. 4 .. 90 .. .. The French and English types contain a certain amount of tin, as shown by the following analyses: English Types ^'^^ I II III '^ Lead 69.2 61.3 55.0 55 Antimony... 19.5 18.8 22.7 30 Tin 9.1 20.2 22.1 15 Copper 1.7 Ledebur gives the composition of type metal as follows: I II III IV Lead 75 60 80 82 Antimony... 23 25 20 14.8 Tin 22 15 .. 3.2 WATCHMAKERS' ALLOYS: See Watchmakers' Formulas. WHITE METALS. The so-called white metals are em- ployed almost exclusively for bearings. (See Anti-friction Metals under Alloys.) In the technology of mechanics an ac- curate distinction is made laetween the different kinds of metals for bearings; and they may be classed in two groups, red brass and white metal. The red- A1.1.0YS 79 brass bearings are characterized by great hardness and power of resistance, and are principally used for bearings of heav- ily loaded and rapidly revolving axles. For the axles of large and heavy fly- wheels, revolving at great speed, bearings of red brass are preferable to white metal, though more expensive. In recent years many machinists have found it advantageous to substitute for the soft alloys generally in use for bear- ings a metal almost as hard as the axle itself. Phosphor bronze (q. v.) is fre- quently employed for this purpose, as it can easily be made as hard as wrought or cast steel. In this case the metal is used in a thin layer, and serves only, as it were, to fill out the small interstices caused by wear on the axle and bearing, the latter being usually made of some rather easily fusible alloy of lead and tin. Such bearings are very durable, but ex- pensive, and can only be used for large machines. For small machines, i^zi- ning gently and uniformly, white-metal bearings are preferred, and do excellent work, if the axle is not too heavily loaded. For axles which have a high rate of revo- lution, bearings made of quite hard metals are chosen, and with proper care — which, indeed, must be given to bear- ings of any material — thejf will last for a long time without needing repair. tl »dt^o6t^rHNiOlCl^lN« ] [ oi --l O W ■^ 00 1- ::;§:::: :SS8 [8 ■ ■NiOM -^ "OOP ;000 ■duJO oSooSoo :iOO OOQPO 'OOC pqwpp ;pqu ;r-oooooic a d a o o §- a S'_;_^ ooorr-ai . . . : :|;g3 3 O O O O SSSSSuxua o a o o o » »^ » »j3.a Other white bearing metals are: XXI. — Tin, 8.5; antimony, 10; cop- per, 6 parts. XXII.— Tin, 42; antimony, 16; lead, 42 parts. XXIII.— Tin, 72; antimony, 26; cop- per, 2 parts. XXIV.— Tin, 81; antimony. 12.6; copper, 6.5 parts. White Metals Based on Copper. — I. — Copper, 65 parts; arsenic, 55 parts. II. — Copper, 64 parts; arsenic, 50 parts. III. — Copper, 10 parts; zinc, 20 parts; nickel, 30 parts. IV. — Nickel, 70 parts; copper, 30 parts; zinc, 20 parts. V. — Nickel, 60 parts; copper, 30 parts; zinc, 30 parts. VI. — Copper, 8 parts; nickel, 4 parts; zinc, 4 parts. VII. — Copper, 10 parts; nickel, 5 parts; zinc, 5 parts. VIII. — Copper, 8 parts; nickel, 3 parts; zinc, 4 parts. IX. — Copper, 60 parts; nickel, 25 parts; zinc, 25 parts. X. — Copper, 55 parts; nickel, 24 parts; zinc, 21 parts. XI. — Copper, 55 parts; nickel, 24 parts; zinc, 16 parts; iron, 2 parts; tin, 3 parts. IX, X, and XI are suitable for table- ware. XII. — Copper, 67 parts, and arsenic, 53 parts. XIII. — Copper, 63 parts, and arsenic, 57 parts. XII and XIII are bright gray, un- affected by the temperature of boiling wa- ter; they are fusible at red heat. White Metals Based on Platinum. — I. — Platinum, 1 part; copper, 4 parts; or platinum, IJ parts; copper, 3^ parts. II. — Platinum, 10 parts; tin, 90 parts; or platinum, 8 parts; tin, 92 parts. III. — Platinum, 7 parts; copper, 13 parts; tin, 80 parts. IV. — Platinum, 2 parts; steel, 98 parts. V. — Platinum, 2.5 parts; steel, 97.5 parts. IV and V are for gun metal. Miscellaneous White-Metal Alloys. — I. — For lining cross-head slides : Lead, 65 parts; antimony, 25 parts; copper, 10 parts. Some object to white metal containing lead or zinc. It has been found, however, that lead and zinc have properties of great use in these alloys. II. — Tin, 86 parts; antimony, 7J parts; copper, 7J parts. III. — Tin, 90 parts; copper, 3 parts; antimony, 7 parts. 80 ALUMINUM AND ITS TREATMENT ZINC ALLOYS : Bidery Metal. — This is sometimes composed of 31 parts of zinc, 2 parts of copper, and 2 parts of lead; the whole is melted on a layer of rosin or wax to avoid oxidation. This metal is very resistive; it does not oxidize in air or moisture. It takes its name from the town of Bider, near Hyderabad (India), where it was prepared for the first time industrially for the manufacture of different utensils. Other compositions of Indian Bidery metal (frequently imitated in England) are about as follows: P.O. P.O. P.C. Copper... 3.5 11.4 16 Zinc 93.4 84.3 112 Tin 1.4 2 Lead 3.1 2.9 4 Erhardt recommends the following as being both ductile and hard: Zinc 89 to 93 Tin 9 to 6 Lead 2 to 4 Copper 2 to 4 The tin is first melted, and the lead, zinc, and copper added successively. Zinc-Nickel. — Zinc, 90 parts; nickel, 10 parts. Used in powder form for 'painting and cloth printing purposes. Platine for Dress Buttons. — Copper, 43 parts; zinc, 67 parts. UNCLASSIFIED ALLOYS: Alloys for Drawing Colors on Steel. — Alloys of various composition are suc- cessfully used for drawing colors on steel. To draw to a straw color use 2 parts of lead and 1 part of tin, and melt in an iron ladle. Hold the steel piece to be drawn in the alloy as it melts and it will turn to straw color. This mixture melts at a temperature of about 437° F. For darker yellow use 9 parts of lead to 4 parts of tin, which melts at 458° F. For purple, use 3 parts of lead to 1 part of tin, the melting temperature being 482° F. For violet, use 9 parts of lead to 2 parts of tin, which melts at 494° F. Lead without any alloy will draw steel to a dark blue. The above apply to steel only since iron requires a somewhat greater neat and is more or less uncer- tain in handling. Alloy for Pattern Letters and Figures. — A good alloy for casting pattern letters and figures and similar small parts of brass, iron, or plaster molds, is made of lead 80 parts, and antimony 20 parts. A better alloy will be lead 70 parts, an- timony and bismuth each 15 parts. To insure perfect work the molds should be quite hot by placing them over a Bun- sen burner. Alloy for Caliper and Gage-Rod Cast- ings. — A mixture of 30 parts zinc to 70 parts aluminum gives a light and durable alloy for gage rods and caliper legs; the gage rods must be steel tipped,' for the alloy is soft and wears away too rapidly for gage points. Alloys for Small Casting Molds. — Tin, 75 parts, and lead, 22 parts; or 75 parts of zinc and 25 parts of tin; or 30 parts of tin and 70 parts of lead; or 60 parts of lead and 40 parts of bismuth. ALLOYS FOR METAL FOIL: See Metal Foil. ALMOND COLD CREAM: See Cosmetics. ALMOND LIQUEURS: See Wines and Liquors. ALTARS, Xp CLEAN: See Cleaning Preparations and Meth- ods. ALUM: Burnt Alum: — I. — Heat the alum in a porcelain dish or other suitable vessel till it liquefies, then raise and continue the heat, not allowing it to exceed 400°, till aqueous vapor ceases to be disen- gaged, and the salt has lost 47 per cent of its weight. Reduce the residue to pow- der, and preserve it in a well-stoppered bottle. — Cooley. II. — Heat ordinary alum (alumina alum) with constant stirring in an iron pan in which it will first melt quietly, and then commence to form blisters. Continue heating until a dry white mass of a loose character remains, which is powdered and kept in well-closed glasses. ALUM BATH: See Photography. ALUM SOAP : See Soap. Aluminum and its Treatment HOW TO COLOR ALUMINUM: Blanching of Aluminum. — Aluminum is one of the metals most inalterable by air; nevertheless, the objects of aluminum tarnish quickly enough without being ALl'MINrM AND ITS TREATMENT isi altered. Tliey may l>c restored to tlicir mat whiteness in tlie following manner: Immerse the aluminnm artieles in a boiling bath of caustic potash; next plunye them (luickly into nitric acid, rinse and let dry. It must be under- stood that this method is applicable only to pieces entirely of aluminum. Decolorized Aluminum. — Gray or un- sightly aluminum may be restored to its white color by washing with a mixture of 30 parts of borax dissolved in 1,000 parts of water, with a few drops of am- monia added. Mat Aluminum. — In order to impart to aluminum the appearance of mat silver, plunge the article into a hot bath composed of a 10-per-cent solution of caustic soda saturated with kitchen salt. Leave it in the bath for 1.5 to 20 seconds, then wash and brush; put back into the bath for half a minute, wash anew and dry in sawdust. To Blacken Aluminum. — I. — The sur- faec of the sheet to be colored is polished with very fine emery powder or finest emery cloth. After polishing pour a thin layer of olive oil over the surface and heat slowly over an alcohol flame. Large sheets must, of course, be heated in the drying oven. After a short while pour on oil again, in order to obtain ab- solute uniformity of the coating, and heat the plate once more. Under the action of the heat the plate turns first brown, then black, according to the degrees of heat. When the desired coloration has been attained, the plate is polished over again, after cooling, with a woolen rag or soft leather. II. — White arsenic 1 ounce Sulphate of iron .... 1 ounce Hydrochloric acid . . 1 '2 ounces Water 12 ounces When the arsenic and iron are dis- solved by the acid add the water. The aluminum to be blackened should be well cleaned with fine emery jjowder and washed before immersing in the blackening solution. When the deposit of black is deep enough dry off with fine sawdust and lacquer. Decorating Aluminum. — A process for decorating aluminum, patented in Ger- many, prescribes that the objects be first corroded, which is usually done with caustic soda lye, or, better still, by a new method which consists in heating 3 parts of sulphuric acid with 1 part of water to 140° to 158° F., in an enameled vessel. Into this liquid dip the aluminum arti- cles, rinsing them off clean and then dry- ing them well. The corroded articles are now placed in a bath consisting of 1,000 parts of alcohol (90 per cent), 1.50 parts of antimony, 250 parts of chemically pure hydrochloric acid, 100 parts of manganous nitrate, and '20 parts of purified and finally elutriated graph- ite. In this bath, which is heated to 86°-95° F., the obje( ts are left until fumes develop around them, which takes place in a few seconds. Now they are put over a coal fire or similar arrange- ment until the alcohol is burned up and there is no more smoke. After they are somewhat cooled ofi', they are laid into cold water and worked with a brush, then rinsed with water and well dried. The pieces are now provided with a gray me- tallic coating, consisting mainly of anti- mony, manganese, and graphite. This metallic layer renders them capable of re- ceiving a lacquer which is best prepared from 1,000 parts of alcohol (90 per cent), 60 parts of sandarae, 100 parts of shellac, ana 100 parts of nigrosine (black aniline color). Then the articles are quickly but thoroughly rinsed off, dried in warmed air for a few minutes, and baked in ovens or over a moderate coal fire until they do not smoke any more and no more gloss can be seen. Finally they are rubbed with a cotton rag saturated with thin linseed-oil varnish, and the ob- jects thus treated now appear dull black, like velvet. The covering withstands all action of the weather, so that cooking vessels coated with this varnish on the outside can be placed on the fire without injury to the coating. If the articles are engraved, the aluminum appears almost glossy white under the black layer at the engraved places. When the pieces have been provided with the gray metallic coating, colored lacquer may also be applied with the brush. In this manner paintings, etc., may be done on alu- minum, while not possible on unprepared aluminum surfaces, which will not retain them. Making Castings in Aluminum. — The method adopted in preparing molds and cores for aluminum work is neces- sarily somewhat the same as for brass, but there are particular points which need attention to insure successful work. Both in the sand and the making of the molds there are some small differences which make considerable variation in the results, and the temperature at which the metal is poured is a consideration of some importance. In selecting the sand, which should 82 ALUMINUM AND ITS TREATMENT not have been previously used, that of a fine grain should be chosen, but it should not have any excess of aluminous matter, or it will not permit of the free escape of gases and air, this being an important matter. Besides this, the sand must be used as dry as possible consistent with its holding against the flow of the metal, and having only moderate compression in ramming. In making the molds it is necessary to remember that aluminum has a large contraction in cooling, and also that at certain temperatures it is very weak and tears readily, while all metals shrink away from the mold when this is wholly outside the casting, but they shrink on to cores or portions of the mold partly inclosed by metal. Thus, if casting a plate or bar of metal, it will shrink away from the mold in all direc- tions; but if casting a square frame, it shrinks away from the outside only, while it shrinks on to the central part or core. With brass, or iron, or such metals, this is not of much importance, but with some others, including alumi- num, it is of great importance, because if the core or inclosed sand will not give somewhat with the contraction of the metal, torn or fractured castings will be the result. Both for outside and inside molds, and with cores used with alu- minum, the sand should be compressed as little as possible, and hard ramming must in every case be avoided, particu- larly where the metal surrounds the sand. The molds must be very freely vented, and not only at the joint of the mold, but by using the vent wire freely through the body of the mold itself; in fact, for brass the venting would be considered excessive. With aluminum it is, how- ever, necessary to get the air off as rapid- ly as possible, because the metal soon gets sluggish in the mold, and unless it runs up quickly it runs faint at the edges. The ingates should be wide and of fair area, but need careful making to prevent their drawing where they enter the cast- ing, the method of doing this being known to most molders. If it is considered desirable to use a specially made-up facing sand for the molds where the metal is of some thick- ness, the use of a little pea or bean meal will be all that is necessary. To use this, first dry as much sand as may be re- quired and pass through a 20-mesh sieve, and to each bushel of the fine sand rub in about 4 quarts of meal, afterwards again passing through the sieve to insure regular mixing. This sand should then be damped as required, being careful that all parts are equally moist, rubbing on a board being a good way to_ get it tough, and in good condition, with the minimum of moisture. The molds should not be sleeked with tools, but they may be dusted over with plumbago or steatite, smoothing with a camel's-hair brush, in cases in which a very smooth face is required on the castings. Preferably, however, the use of the brush even should be avoided. Patterns for aluminum should be kept smooth and well varnished. In melting the metal it is necessary to use a plumbago crucible which is clean and which has not been used for other metals. Clay or silica crucibles are not good for this metal, especially silica, on account of the metal absorbing silicon and becoming hard under some condi- tions of melting. A steady fire is neces- sary, and the fuel should reach only about halfway up the crucible, as it is not desirable to overheat the crucible or metal. The metal absorbs heat for some time and then fuses with some ra- gidity, hence the desirability of a steady eat; and as the metal should be poured when of a claret color under the film of oxide which forms on the surface, too rapid a heating is not advisable. The molding should always be well in ad- vance of the pouring, because the metal should be used as soon as it is ready; for not only is waste caused, but the metal loses condition if kept in a molten state lor long periods. The metal should be poured rapidly, but steadily, and when cast up there should not be a large head of metal left on top of the runner. In fact, it is rather a disadvantage to leave a large head, as this tends to draw rather than to feed the casting. With properly prepared molds, and careful melting, fluxes are not required, but ground cryolite — a fluoride of sodium and aluminum — is sometimes used to increase the fluidity of the metal. In using this, a few ounces according to the bulk of metal to be treated is put into the molten metal before it is taken from the furnace, and well stirred in, and as soon as the reaction apparently ceases the pot is lifted and the metal at once skimmed and poured. The use of sodium in any form with aluminum is very undesirable, however, and should be avoided, and the same remark appHes to tin, but_ there is no objection to alloy- ihg with zinc, when the metal thus pro- duced is sold as an alloy. Aluminum also casts very well in molds of plaster of Paris and crushed bath brick when such molds are perfectly dry Ai.uMi.>i M AAJU ITS TREATMENT 88 and well vented, smoothness being se- cured by brushing over with dr^ stea- tite or plumbago. When cjisting in metal molds, these should be well brushed out with steatite or plumbago, and made fairly hot before pouring, as in cold molds the metal curdles and be- comes sluggish, with the result that the castings run up faint. To Increase the Toughness, Density, and Tenacity of Aluminum. — For the purpose of improving aluminum, with- out increasing its specific gravity, the aluminum is mixed with 4 to 7 per cent of phosphorus, whereby the density, te- nacity, and especially the toughness are said to be enhanced. WORKING OF SHEET ALUMINUM: The great secret, if there is any, in working aluminum, either pure or al- loyed, consists in the proper lubricant and the shape of the tool. Another great disadvantage in the proper working of the metal is that, when a manufac- turer desires to make up an article, he will procure the pure metal in order to make his samples, which, of course, is harder to work than the alloy. But the different grades of aluminum sheet which are on the market are so numerous for different classes of work that it might be advisable to consider them for a mo- ment before passing to the method of working them. The pure metal, to begin with, can be purchased of all degrees of hardness, from the annealed, or what is known as the "dead soft" stock, to the pure alumi- num hard rolled. Then comes a harder grade of allovs, running from "dead soft" metal, wnich will draw up hard, to the same metal hard rolled; and, still again, another set of alloys which, per- haps, are a little harder still when hard rolled, and will, when starting with the "dead soft," spin up into a utensil which, when finished, will probably be as stiff as brass. These latter alloys are finding a large sale for replacing brass used in all classes of manufactured articles. To start with lathe work on aluminum, probably more difficulty has been found here, especially in working pure metal, and more complaints are heard from this source than from any other. As stated before, however, these difficulties can all be readily overcome, if the proper tools and the proper lubricants are used, as automatic screw machines are now made so that they can be operated when working aluminum just as readily as when tney are working brass, and in some cases more readily. To start with the question of the tool, this should be made as what is known as a "shearing tool," that is, instead of a short, stubby point, such as would be need in turning brass, the point should be lengthened out and a lot of clearance prov^ided on the inside of the tool, so as to give the chips of the metal a good chance to free themselves and not cause a clogging around the point of the tool — a simi- lar tool, for instance, to what would be used for turning wood. The best lubricant to be used would be coal oil or water, and plenty of it. The latter is almost as good as coal oil if enough of it is used, and with either of these lubricants and a tool properly made, there should be no difficulty what- soever in the rapid working of aluminum, either on the lathe or on automatic screw machines. To go from the lathe to the drawing press, tlie same tools here would be used in drawing up shapes of aluminum as are used for drawing up brass or other metals; the only precaution necessary in this instance being to use a proper lubricant, which in this case is a cheap grade of vaseline, or in some cases lard oil, but in the majority of instances better results will be secured by the use of vaseline. Aluminum is probably sus- ceptible of deeper drawing with less occasion to anneal than any of the other commercial metals. It requires but one-third or one-fourth of as much an- nealing as brass or copper. For in- stance, an article which is now manu- factured in brass, requiring, say, three or four operations before the article is fin- ished, would probably have to be an- nealed after every operation. With aluminum, however, if the proper grade is used, it is generally possible to perform these three operations without annealing the metal at all, and at the same time to produce a finished article which, to all intents and purposes, is as stiff as an article made of sheet brass. Too much stress cannot be laid on the fact of starting with the proper grade of metal, for either through ignorance or by not observing this point is the founda- tion of the majority of the complaints that aluminum "has been tried and found wanting." If, however, it should be found necessary to anneal aluminum, this can be readily accomplished by heating it in an ordinary muffle, being careful that the temperature shall not be too high— about 650° or 700° F. The best test as to when the metal has reached the proper temperature is to take a soft pine stick and draw it across the 84 ALUMINUM AND ITS TREATMENT metal. If it chars the stick and leaves a black mark on the metal, it is suffi- ciently annealed and is in a proper con- dition to proceed with further opera- tion. Next taking up the question of spin- ning aluminum, success again depends particularly on starting with the proper metal. The most satisfactory speed for articles from 5 to 8 inches in diam- eter is about 2,600 revolutions a minute, and for larger or smaller diameters the speed should be so regulated as to give the same velocity at tne circumference. Aluminum is a very easy metal to spin and no difficulty should be found at all in spinning the proper grades of sheets. Several factories that are using large quantities of aluminum now, both for spinning and stamping, are paying their men by the piece tne same amount that they formerly paid on brass and tin work, and it is stated that the men working on this basis make anywhere from 10 to 20 per cent more wages by working alu- minum. After aluminum has been manufac- tured into the shape of an article, the next process is the finishing of it. The best polish can be obtained by first cutting down the metal with an ordinary rag buff on which use tripoli, and then finish it with a dry red rouge which comes in the lump form, or that which is known as "White Diamond Rouge." One point, however, that it is necessary to observe carefully is that both the tripoli and the rouge should be procured ground as fine as it is possible to grind them; for, if this is not done, the metal will have little fine scratches all over it, and will not appear as bright and as handsome as it other- wise would. If it is desired to put on a frosted ap- pearance, this can either be done by scratch brushing or sand blasting. A brass wire scratch brush, made of crimped wire of No. 32 to No. 36 B. & S. gage, with three or four rows of bris- tles, will probably give the best results. This work of scratch brushing can be somewhat lessened, however, if, before applying the scratch brush to the surface of the aluminum, the article is first cut down by the use of a porpoise-hide wheel and fine Connecticut sand, placing the sand between the surface of the alumi- num and the wheel, so that the skin and the irregularities on the surface are re- moved, and then putting the article on a buffing wheel before attempting to scratch brush it. This method, how- ever, is probably more advantageous in the treating of aluminum castings than for articles manufactured out of the sheet metal, as in the majority of cases it is simply necessary before scratch brushing to cut down the article with tripoli, and then polish it with rouge as already de- scribed, before putting on the scratch brush; in this way the brush seems to take hold quicker and better, and to pro- duce a more uniform polish. An effect similar to the scratch-brush finish can be got by sand blasting, and by first sand blasting and then scratch brushing the sheets, a good finish is ob- tained with very much less labor than by scratch brushing alone. Another very pretty frosted- effect is procured by first sand blasting and then treated as here- inafter described by "dipping" and "frosting," and many variations in the finish of aluminum can be got by varying the treatment, either by cutting down with tripoli and polishing, scratch brush- ing, sand blasting, dipping, and frosting, and by combinations of those treatments. A very pretty mottled effect is secured on aluminum by first polishing and then scratch brushing and then nolding the aluminum against a soft pine wheel, run at a high rate of speed on a lathe, and by careful manipulation, quite regular forms of a mottled appearance can be obtained. The dipping and frosting of aluminum sheet is probably the cheapest way of producing a nice finish. First remove all grease and dirt from the article by dipping in benzine, then dip into water in order that the beniine adhering to the article may be removed, so as not to affect the strength of the solution into which it is next dipped. After they have been taken out of the water and well shaken, the articles should be plunged in a strong solution of caustic soda or caus- tic potash, and left there a sufficient length of time until the aluminum starts to turn black. Then they should be removed, dipped in water again, and then into a solution of concentrated nitric and sulphuric acid, composed of 24 parts of nitric acid to 1 part of sulphuric acid. After being removed, the article should be washed thoroughly in water and dried in hot sawdust in the usual way. This finish can also be varied somewhat by making the solution of caustic soda of varying degrees of strength, or by adding a small amount of common salt to the solution. In burnishing the metal use a blood- stone or a steel burnisher. In burnish- ing use a mixture of melted vaseline and coal oil, or a solution composed of 2 tablespoonfuls of ground borax dissolved in about a quart of hot water, with a few AMALGAMS 85 drops of ammonia added. In engrav- ing, which adds materially to the ap- pearance of finished castings, book cov- ers, picture frames, and similar articles made of sheet, probably the best lubri- cant to use on an engraver's tool in order to obtain a clean cut, which is bright, is naphtha or coal oil, or a mixture of coal oil and vaseline. The naphtha, how- ever, is preferred, owing to tne fact that it does not destroy the satin finish in the neighborhood of the cut, as the other lubricants are very apt to do. There is, however, as much skill required in using and making a tool in order to give a bright, clean cut as there is in the choice of the lubricant to be used. The tool should be made somewhat on the same plan as the lathe tools already outlined. That is, they should be brought to a, sharp point and be "cut back ' rather far, so as to give plenty of clearance. There has been one class of work in aluminum that has been developed lately and only to a certain extent, in which there are great possibilities, and that is in drop forging the metal. Some very superior bicycle parts have been manufactured by drop forging. This can be accomplished probably more readily with aluminum than with other metals, for the reason that it is not necessary with all the alloys to work them hot; consequently, they can be worked and handled more rapidly. ALUMINUM, TO CLEAN: See Cleaning Preparations and Meth- ods. ALUMINUM ALLOYS: See Alloys. ALUMIinJM BRONZE: See Alloys under Bronzes. ALUMUTOM CASTINGS: See Casting. ALUMINUM PAPER : See Paper. ALUMINUM PLATING: See Plating. ALUMINUM POLISHES: See Polishes. Amalgams See abo Easily Fusible Alloys under Alloys. The name amalgam is given to al- loys of metals containing mercury. The term comes to us from the alchemists. It signifies softening, because an excess of mercury dissolves a large number of metals. Preparation of Amalgams. — Mercury forms amalgams with most metals. It unites directly and readily, either cold or hot, with potassium, sodium, barium, strontium, calcium, magnesium, zinc, cadmium, tin, antimony, lead, bismuth, silver, and gold; directly, but more dif- ficultly, with aluminum, copper, and palladium. This combination takes place oftenest at the ordinary temper- ature; certain metals, however, like aluminum and antimony, combine only when heated in presence of quicksilver. Quicksilver has no direct action on metals of high fusing points: manganese, iron, nickel, cobalt, uranium, platinum, and thoir congeners. Still, amalgams of these metals can lie obtained of buty- rous consistency, either by electrolysis of their saline solutions, employing quick- silver as the negative electrode, or by the action of an alkaline amalgam (potas- sium or sodium), on their concentrated and neutral saline solutions. These same refractory metals are also amalga- mated superficially when immersed in the amalgam of sodium or of ammonium in presence of water. Processes for preparing amalgams by double decomposition between an alkaline amalgam and a metallic salt, or by elec- trolysis of saline solutions, with employ- ment of mercury as the negative elec- trode, apply a foriinri to metals capable of combining directly with the quick- silver. The latter of these methods is especially utilized for the preparation of alkaline earthy metals by electrolytic decomposition of the solutions of tneir salts or hydrated oxides with quicksilver as a cathode. General Properties of Amalgams. — Amalgams are liquid when the quick- silver is in great excess; solid, but readily fusible, when the alloyed metal pre- dominates. They have a metallic luster, and a metallic .structure which renders them brittle. They even form crystallized metallic combinations of constant propor- tions, dissolved in an excess of quick- silver, when the excess is separated by compression in a chamois skin, or by filtration in a glass funnel of slender stem, terminating with an orifice almost capillary. According as the fusing heat of a metal is less or greater than its combination heat with quicksilver, the amalgamation of this metal produces an elevation or a lowering of temperature. Thus potas- 86 AMALGAMS sium, sodium, and cadmium, in alloy with quicksilver, disengage heat; while zinc, antimony, tin, bismuth, lead, and silver combine with mercury with ab- sorption of heat. The amalgamation of 162 parts of quicksilver with 21 parts of lead, 12 parts of tin or of antimony, and 28.5 parts of bismuth, lowers the tem- perature of the mixture 79° F. Amalgams fijrmed with disengage- ment of heat are electro-negative with reference to the metals alloyed with the cjuicksilver. The products with absorp- tion of heat are electro-negative with ref- erence to the metals comoined with the quicksilver; consequently, in a battery of elements of pure cadmium and amal- gamated cadmium, the cadmium will be the negative pole; in case of zinc and amalgamated zinc, the zinc will be the positive pole. Heat de.composes all amalgams, va- porizing the mercury and leaving the metal alloys as a residue. Water is decomposed by the amal- gams of potassium and sodium, because the heat of formation of these amalgams, although considerable, is even less than the heat disengaged by potassium and sodium, on decomposing water. The alkaline amalgams may, therefore, serve as a source of nascent hydrogen in pres- ence of water, giving rise to an action less energetic, and often more advan- tageous, than that of the alkaline metals alone. Thus is caused the frequSnt em- ployment of sodium amalgam for hydro- genizing a large number of bodies. As a consequence of their action on water, the alkaline amalgams are changed by moist air, with production of free alkali or alkaline carbonate. Applications of Potassium Amalgams. — I. — They furnish a process for prepar- ing potassium by the decomposition of potash by the electric current, by em- ploying quicksilver as the cathode, and vaporizing the quicksilver of the amal- gam formed by heating this in a current of dry hydrogen. II. — They can serve for the prepara- tion of the amalgams of the metals, other than those of the alkaline group, by de- composing the salts of these metals, with formation of a salt of potash and of the amalgam of the metal corresponding to the original salt. III. — They can be employed as a source of nascent hydrogen in presence of water for hydrogenizing many sub- stances. Applications of Sodium Amalgams. — These are nearly the same as those of the potassium amalgams, but the sodium amalgams are employed almost exclu- sively, because sodium is easier to handle than potassium, and is cheaper. These employments are the following: L — Sodium amalgam furnishes a proc- ess for the preparation of sodium when soda is decomposed by means of the electric current, employing quicksilver as the cathode, and afterwards vaporizing the quicksilver of the amalgam formed by heating this in a current of dry hy- drogen. II. — Amalgams of sodium serve for the preparation of amalgams of the oth- er metals, particularly alkaline earthy metals and metals of high fusing points, by decomposing the salts of these metals, with formation of a salt of soda and of the amalgam of the metal corresponding to the original salt. III. — They serve for amalgamating superficially the metals of high fusing point, called "refractory," such as iron and platinum, when a well-cleaned plate of these metals is immersed in sodium amalgam in presence of water. IV. — An amalgam of 2 or 3 per cent of sodium is employed in the processes of extraction of gold by amalgamation. It has the property of rendering quick- silver more brilliant, and consequently more energstic, by acting as a deoxidant on the pellicle of oxide formed on its surface in presence of certain ores, which, by keeping it separated from the particles of gold, destroy its activity, sodium amalgam of 3 per cent is utilized with success for the amalgamated plates employed in crushers and other appa- ratus for treating the ores of gold. If a few drops of this amalgam are spread on a plate of copper, of tin, or of zinc, a brilliant coating of an amalgam of tin, copper, or zinc is immediately formed. V. — Amalgams of from 2 to 8 per cent of sodium serve frequently in laborato- ries for reducing or hydrogenizing or- ganic combinations, without running the risk of a partial destruction of these compounds by too intense action, as may occur by employing free sodium instead of its amalgam. Applications of Barium Amalgams. — These ca,n, by distillation, furnish bari- um. It is one of the processes for pre- paring this metal, which, when thus ob- tained, almost always retains a little sodium. Applications of Strontium Amalgams. — These amalgams, washed and dried rapidly immediately after their prepara- tion, and then heated to a nascent red AMALGAMS 87 in a current of dry hydrogen, yield a fused mass of strontium. Applications of Cadmium Amalgams. — Amalgams of cadmium, formed of equal weights of cadmium and quicksilver, have much power of cohesion and are quite malleable; the case is the same with an amalgam formed of 1 part of cad- mium and 2 parts of quicksilver. They are used as dental cements for plugging teeth; for the same purpose an ameiigam of 2 parts of quicksilver, 1 part of cad- mium, and 2 parts of tin may be used. Applications of Zinc Amalgams. — The principal employment of zinc amalgams IS their use as a cathode or negative elec- trode in the batteries of Munson, Dan- iels, and Lechanche. This combination is designed to render the zinc non-attack- able by the exciting liquid of the battery with open circuit. The action of the mercury is to prevent the zinc from form- ing a large number of small voltaic ele- ments when foreign bodies are mingled with the metal; in a word, the giving to ordinary zinc the properties of pure zinc, and consequently of causing a great sav- ing in expense. For amalgamating a zinc plate it is plunged for a few seconds into water in which there is one-sixteenth in volume of sulphuric acid, then rubbing with d copper-wire brush which has been dippedin the quicksilver. The mercury takes more readily on the zinc when, after the zinc has been cleaned with water sharpened with sulphuric acid, it is moistened with a solution of corro- sive sublimate, which is reduced and furnishes a first very thin coat of amal- gam, on which the quicksilver is im- mediately fixed by simple immersion without rubbing. The zinc of a battery may be amalga- mated by putting at the bottom of the compartment containing each element, a little quicksilver in sucn a way that the zinc touches the liquid. The amalga- mation is effected under the influence of the current, but this process applies only on condition that the zinc alone touches the bottom of the vessel containing the quicksilver. Applications of Manganese Amalgams. — These may s6rve for the preparation of manganese. For this purpose it is sufficient to distill in a current of pure Kydrogen. The manganese remains in the form of a grayish powder. Applications of Tin Amalgams.— I — Tinning of glass. This operation is accomplished in the following manner: On a cast-iron table, quite horizontal, a sheet of tin of the dimensions of the glass is spread out and covered with a layer of quicksilver, 5 or 6 millimeters in thick- ness. The glass is made to slide on the sheet of tin in such a way as to drive off the excess of quicksilver; when the two surfaces are covered without interposi- tion of air, weights are placed on the glass. In a few days, the glass may be removed, having been covered with an adhering pellicle of amalgam of 4 parts of tin and 1 part of quicksilver. (See also Mirrors.) II. — An amalgam consisting of 2 parts of zinc and 1 part tin may be used for covering the cushions of frictional elec- tric machines. This amalgam is pre- pared by first melting the zinc and tin in a crucible and adding the quicksilver previously heated. III. — Mention has been made of the cadmium amalgam employed for plug- ging teeth, an amalgam of 2 parts of quicksilver, 2 parts of tin, and 1 part of cadmium. For the same purpose an amalgam of tin, silver, and gold is em- ployed. (See also Cements, Dental.) Applications of Copper Amalgams. — I. — An amalgam of 30 per cent of copper has been employed tor filling teeth. This use has been abandoned on account of the inconvenience occasioned by the great changeableness of the product. II. — The amalgam of 30 per cent of copper, designated by the name of "me- tallic mastic," is an excellent cement for repairing objects and utensils of porce- lain. For this employment, the broken surfaces are heated to 662° F., and a little of the amalgam, previously heated to the consistency of melted wax, is applied. III. — Copper amalgam, of 30 to 45 Eer cent of copper, rendered plastic by eating and grinding, may serve for ob- taining with slight compression copies of delicate objects, which may, after hard- ening of the amalgam, be reproduced, either in wax or by galvanic process. IV. — According to Debray, when a medal, obtained with an amalgam of 45 per cent of copper, by compression in the soft state, in molds of gutta percha, is heated progressively to redness in an atmosphere of hydrogen, the quicksilver is volatilized gradually, and the particles of copper come together without fusion in such a way as to produce a faithful reproduction, formed exclusively of me- tallic copper, of the original medal. V. — In the metallurgy of gold the crushers are furnished with amalga- mated plates of copper for retaining the gold. The preparation of these plates. 88 AMALGAMS which are at least 0.128 inches in thick- ness, is delicate, requiring about two weeks. They are freed from greasy mat- ter by rubbing with ashes, or, better, with a little sand and caustic soda, or if more rapid action is desired, with a cloth dipped in dilute nitric acid; they are washed with water, then with a solution of potassium cyanide, and finally brushed with a mixture of sal ammoniac and a little quicksilver, until the surface is completely amalgamated. They are finally made to albsorb as much quick- silver as possible. But the plates thus treated are useful for only a few days when they are sufficiently covered with a layer of gold amalgam; in the meantime they occasion loss of time and of gold. So it is preferable to cover them arti- ficially with a little, gold amalgam, which is prepared by dissolving gold in quick- silver. Sometimes the amalgam of gold is replaced by an amalgam of silver, which is readily poured and more eco- nomical. Another method giving better results consists in silvering copper slabs by elec- troplating and covering them with a layer of silver. Then it is only necessary to apply a little quicksilver, which adheres quite rapidly, so that they are ready for use almost immediately, and are quite active at the outset. These amalgamation slabs ought to be cleaned before each operation. Po- tassium cyanide removes fatty matter, and sal ammoniac the oxides of the low metals. • Applications of Lead Amalgams. — These meet with an interesting employ- ment for the autogenous soldering of lead. After the surfaces to be soldered have been well cleaned, a layer of lead amalgam is applied. It is afterwards sufficient to pass along the line of junc- tion a soldering iron heated to redness, in order that the heat should cause the volatilization of the quicksilver, and that the lead, .liberated in a state of fine divi- sion, should be melted and cause the adherence of the two surfaces. The only precaution necessary is to avoid breathing the mercurial vapor, which is quite poisonous. Applications of Bismuth Amalgams. — The amalgam formed of 1 per cent of bismuth and 4 parts of quicksilver will cause the strong adherence of glass. It is employed with advantage in the tin- ning of glass globes. For this operation it is poured into a dry hot receiver, and then passed over the whole surface of the gkss; it solidifies on cooling. For the purpose of economizing the bismuth, the price of which is high, the preceding amalgam is replaced by another com- posed of 2 parts of quicksilver, 1 part of bismuth, 1 part of lead, and 1 part of tin. The bismuth, broken into small frag- ments, is added to the tin and lead, pre- viously melted in the crucible, and when the mixture of the three metals becomes fluid, the quicksilver is poured in, while stirring with an iron rod. The impuri- ties floating on the surface are removed, and when the temperature is sufficiently lowered this amalgam is slowly poured into the vessels to be tinned, whicn have been previously well cleaned and slightly heated. M. Ditte recommends for the same employment, as a very strong ad- herent to the glass, an amalgam obtained by dissolving hot 2 parts of bismuth and 1 part of lead in a solution of 1 part of tin in 10 parts of quicksilver. By caus- ing a quantity of tnis amalgam to move around the inside of a receiver, clean, dry, and slightly heated, the surface will be covered with a thin, brilliant layer, which hardens q^uite rapidly. For the injection of anatomical pieces an amalgam formed of 10 parts of quick- silver, 50 parts of bismuth, 31 parts of lead, and 18 parts of tin, fusible at 77.5° and solidifiable at 60° C, is made use of; or, again, an amalgam composed of 9 parts of Darcet alloy and 1 part of quick- silver fusible at 127i°F., and pasty at a still lower temperature. This last amal- gam may also be used for filling carious teeth. The Darcet alloy, as known, con- tains 2 parts of bismuth, 1 part of lead, and 1 part of tin, and melts at 199J° F. The addition of 1 part of quicksilver lowers the fusing point to 104° F. Applications of Silver Amalgams. — I. — In the silvering of mirrors by the Petit- jean method, which has almost univer- sally replaced tinning, the property of silver in readily amalgamating is taken advantage of, by substituting the glass after silvering to the action of a dilute solution of double cyanide of mercury and potassium in such a manner as to form an amalgam of white and brilliant silver adhering strongly to the glass. To facilitate the operation and utilize all the silver, while economizing the double cya- nide, M. Lenoir has recommended the following: Sprinkle the glass at the time when it is covered with the mercurial solution with very fine zinc powder, which precipitates the quicksilver and regulates the amalgamation. II- — The metallurgy of silver also takes advantage of the property of this AMALGAMS 89 metal in combining cold with quicksil- ver; this for the treatment of poor silver ores. In the Saxon or Freiburg process for treating silver ores, recourse is had to quicksilver in the case of amalgam in amalgamating casks, in which tne ore, after grinding, is shaken with disks of iron, and with mercury and water. The amalgam, collected and filtered under strong pressure, contains from 30 to 33 per cent of silver. It is distilled either in cylindrical retorts of cast iron, fur- nished with an exit tube immersed in the water for condensing the mercurial vapors, or on plates of iron, arranged ,( Borax, powdered 50 " Carbolic acid, crystals ... 5 " Oil of eucalyptus 5 -^ Oil of wintergreen 5 ^ Menthol 5 «" Thymol SJ» ni. — Boracic acid 10 ounces Sodium biborate. . . 4 ounces Alum 1 ounce Zinc sulphocarbolate 1 ounce Thymic acid 1 drachm. Mix thoroughly. For an antiseptic wash dissolve 1 or 2 drachms in a quart of warm water. I V.-^Ektogan is a new dusting powder which is a mixture of zinc hydroxide and dioxide. It is equivalent to about 8 per cent of active oxygen. It is a yellowish- white odorless and tasteless powder, in- soluble in water. It is used externally in wounds and in skin diseases as a moist dressing mixed with citric, tartaric, or ANTISEPTICS 99 to'-'' tannic acid, which causes the liberation of oxygen. With iodides it liberates iodine. It is stated to be strongly anti- septic; it is used in the form of a powder, a gauze, and a plaster. Antiseptic Pencils. — I. — Tannin q. s. Alcohol, q. s 1 part Ether, q. s 3 parts Make into a mass, using as an excip- ient the alcohol and ether previously mixed. Roll into pencils of the desired length and thickness. I'hen coat with collodion, roll in pure silver leaf, and finally coat with the following solution of gelatine and set aside to dry: (Jelatine 1 drachm Water 1 pint Dissolve by the aid of a gentle heat. When wanted for use, .shave away a portion of the covering, dip the pencil into tepid water and apply. II. — Pencils for stopping bleeding are prepared by mixing: Purified alum 480 Borax 24 Oxide zinc 2J Thymol 8 Formalin 4 Melting carefully in a water bath, add- ing some perfume, and forming mixture into pencils or cones. A very convenient way to form into pencils where no mold need be made is to take a .small glass tube, roll a piece of oil paper around the tube, remove the glass tube, crimp the paper tube thus formed on one end and stand it on end or in a bottle, and pour the melted so- lution in it and leave until cool, then re- move the paper. Antiseptic Paste (Poison) for Organic Specimens. — (a) Wheat flour 16 ounces Beat to a batter with cold water 16 fluidounces Then pour into boil- ing water 32 fluidounces (6) Pulverized gum ar- able 2 ounces Dissolve in boil- ing water 4 fluidounces (c) Pulverized alum. . . 2 ounces Dissolve in boil- ing water 4 fluidounces (d) Acetate of lead .... 2 ounces Dissolve in boil- ing water 4 fluidounces (e) Corrosive sublimate 10 grains Mix (a) and (6) while hot and continue to simmer: meanwhile stir in (r) and mix thoroughly; then add (d). Stir briskly, and pour in the dry corrosive sublimate. This paste is very poison- ous. It is used for anatomical work and for pasting organic tissue, labels on skel- etons, etc. Mouth Antiseptics. — I. — Thymic acid, 25 centigrams (3 J grains): benzoic acid, 3 grams (45 grains); essence of pep- permint, 75 centigrams (10 minims); tincture of eucalyptus, 15 grams (4 J drachms); alcohol, 100 grams (3 ounces). Put sufficient in a glass of water to render latter milky. II. — Tannin, 12 grams (3 drachms); menthol, 8 grams (2 drachms); thymol, 1 gram (15 grains); tincture benzoin, 6 grams (90 minims); alcohol, 100 grams (S ounces). Ten drops in a half-glassful of tepid water. See also Dentifrices for Mouth Washes. Antiseptic Paste. — Difficulty is often experienced in applying an antiseptic dressing to moist surfaces, such as the lips after operation for harelip. A paste for this purpose is described by its origi- nator, Socin. The compo.sition is: Zinc oxide, 50 parts; zinc chloride, 5 parts; distilled water, 50 parts. The paste is applied to the wound, previously dried by means of a brush or spatula, allowed to dry on, and to remain in place five or six days. It may then be removed and a fresh application made. Potassium bicar- bonate 32.0 grams Sodium benzoate . . 32.0 grams Sodium borate 8.0 grams Thymol 0.2 gram Eucalyptol 2.0 c. cent. Oil of peppermint. . 0.2 c. cent. Oil of wintergreen. . 0.4 c. cent. Tincture of cudbear 15.0 c. cent. Alcohol 60.0 c. cent. Glycerine 250.0 c. cent. Water, enough to make 1,000.0 c. centimeters Dissolve the salts in 650 cubic centi- meters of water, and t>he thymol, eucalyp- tol, and oils in the alcohol. Mix the alcoholic solution with the glycerine and add the aqueous liquid, then the tincture of rudbear, and lastly enough water to make 1,000 cubic centimeters. Allow to stand a few days, then filter, adding a little magnesium carbonate to the filter, if necessary, to get a brilliant filtrate. This is from the Formulary of the Bournemouth Pharmaceutical Associa- tion, as reported in the Canadian Phar- maceutical Association: 100 ANTISEPTICS Alkaline Glycerine of Thymol. — Sodium bicarbonate. . 100 grains Sodium biborate 200 grains Sodium benzoate 80 grains Sodium salicylate .... 40 grains Menthol 2 grains Pumilio pine oil 4 minims Wintergreen oil 2 minims Thymol 4 grains Eucalyptol 12 minims Compound Solution of Thymol. — A Benzoic acid 64 grains Borax 64 grains Boric acid 128 grains Distilled water 6 ounces Dissolve. B Thymol 20 grains Menthol 6 grains Eucalyptol 4 minims Oil of wintergreen. ... 4 minims Oil of peppermint. ... 2 minims Oil of thyme 1 minim Alcohol (90 per cent) . 3 ounces Dissolve. , Mix solutions A and B, make up to 20 fluidounces with distilled water, and filter. Oil of Cinnamon as an Antiseptic. — Oil of cinnamon in a 9-per-cent emulsion, when used upon the hands, completely sterilizes them. A 7-to 8-per-cent emul- sion is equal to a 1-per-cent solution of corrosive sublimate and is certainly far more agreeable to use. Oil of thyme in an 1 1-per-cent solution is equal to a 7-per- cent solution of cinnamon oil. Green Coloring for Antiseptic Solu- tions. — The safest coloring substance for use in a preparation intended either for internal administration or for applica- tion to the skin is the coloring matter of leaves, chlorophyll. A tincture of spin- ach or of grass made by macerating 2 ounces of the freshly cut leaves in a pint of alcohol for five days will be found to give good results. If the pure coloring substance is wanted the solvent should be evaporated off. Antiseptic Bromine Solution. — Bromine 1 ounce Sodium chloride 8 ounces Water 8 pints Dissolve the sodium chloride in the water and add the bromine. This solu- tion is to be diluted, when applied to broken skin surfaces, 1 part with 15 parts of water. Substitute for Rubber Gloves. — Mur- phy has found that a 4-, 6-, or 8-per-cent solution of gutta-percha in benzine, when applied to the hands of the surgeon or the skin of the patient, will seal these surfaces with an insoluble, impervious, and practically imperceptible coating — a coating that will not allow the secre- tions of the skin to escape, and will not admit secretions, blood, or pus into the crevices of the skin. At the same time it does not impair the sense of touch nor the pliability of the skin. A similar solu- tion in acetone also meets most of the requirements. Murphy's routine method of hand prep- aration is as follows: First, five to seven minutes' scrubbing with spirits of green soap and running hot water; second, three minutes' washing with alcohol; third, when the hands are thoroughly dried, the gutta-percha solution is poured over the hands and forearms, care being taken to fill in around and beneath the nails. The hands must be kept exposed to the air with the fingers separated until thoroughly dry. The coating is very thin and can be recognized only by its glazed appearance. It will resist soap and water, but is easily removed by wash- ing in benzine. The hands can be washed in bichloride or any of the anti- septic solutions without interfering with the coating or affecting the skin. If the operations be many, or prolonged, the coating wears away from the tips of the fingers, but is easily renewed. For the remaining portion of the hands one application is sufficient for a whole morn- ing's work. The 4-per-cent solution of rubber wears better on the tips of the fingers, in han- dling instruments, sponges, and tissues than the acetone solution. For the abdomen the acetone solution has the advantage, and it dries in three to four seconds after its application, while the benzine solution takes from three to tour and a half minutes to make a dry, firm coating. The preparation of the patient's skin consists in five minutes' scrubbing with spirits of green soap, washing with ether, followed by alcohol. The surface is then swabbed over thoroughly with the ben- zine or acetone solution. The gutta-percha solution is prepared by dissolving the pure gutta-percha chips in sterile benzine or acetone. These solutions do not stand boiling, as this impairs the adhesiveness and elasticity of the coating. ANTISEPTICS FOR CAGED BIRDS: See Veterinary Formulas. ANTISEPTICS 101 APOLLmARIS : See Waters. APPLE SYRUP: See Essences and Extracts. AQUA FORTIS FOR BRIGHT LUS- TER: See Castings. AQUA FORTIS FOR THE TOUCH- STONE: See Gold. AQUARIUM CEMENTS : See Adhesives. AQUARIUM PUTTY: See Putty. ARGENTAN : See Alloys. ARMENIAN CEMENT: See Adhesives under Jewelers' Ce- ments. ARMS, OIL FOR : See Lubricants. ARNICA SALVE : See Ointments. ARSENIC ALLOYS: See Alloys. ASBESTOS CEMENT: See Adhesives. ASBESTOS FABRIC: See Fireproofing. ASPHALT AS AN INGREDIENT OF INDIA RUBBER: See Rubber. ASPHALT IN PAINTING: See Paint. ASPHALT VARNISHES: See Varnishes. ASSAYING: See Gold. ASTHMA CJIKES.— Asthma Papers.— I. — Impregnate bibulous paper with the following: Extract of stramonium, 10; potassium nitrate, 17; sugar, 20; warm water, 200 parts. Dry. II. — Blotting or gray filter paper, 120; potassium nitrate, 60; powdered bella- donna leaves, 5; powdered stramonium leaves, 5; powdered digitalis leaves, 5; powdered lobelia, .'5; myrrh, 10; oli- Danum, 10; phellandrium fruits, 5 parts. Stramonium Candle. — Powdered stra- monium leaves, 120; potassium nitrate, 72; Peruvian balsam, 3; powdered sugar, 1; powdered tragacanth, 4 parts. (Water, q. s. to mass; roll into suitable shapes and dry.) Cleary's Asthma Fumigating Powder. — Powdered stramonium, 15; powdered belladonna leaves, 15; powdered opium, 2; potassium nitrate, S. Asthma Fumigating Powders. — I. — Powdered stramonium leaves, 4; pow- dered aniseed, 2; potassium nitrate, 2 parts. II- — Powdered stramonium, 30; potas- sium nitrate, 5; powdered tea, 15; pow- dered eucalyptus leaves, 15; powdered Indian hemp, 15; powdered lobelia, 15; powdered aniseed, 2; distilled water, 4.5 parts. (All the herbal ingredients in coarse powder; moisten with the water in which the potassium nitrate has been previously dissolved, and dry.) Schi^mann's Asthma Powder. — Potas- sium nitrate, 25; stramonium, 70; bella- donna leaves, 5 parts. Neumeyer's Asthma Powder. — Potas- sium nitrate, 6 parts; sugar, 4; stramo- nium, 6; powdered lobelia, 1. Fischer s Asthma Powder. — Stramo- nium, 5 parts; potassium nitrate, 1; pow- dered Achillea millefolium leaves, 1. Vorlaender's Asthma I'otnlrr. — Stra- monium, 150; lobelia, 80; arnica flowers, 80; potassium nitrate, 30; potassium iodide, 3; naphthol, 1,100 parts. Asthma Cigarettes. — I. — Belladonna leaves, 5 parts; stramonium leaves, 5 parts; digitalis leaves, 5 parts; sage leaves, 5 parts; potassium nitrate, 75 parts; tincture of benzoin, 40 parts; boil- ing water, 1,000 parts. Extract the leaves with the boiling wuter, filter, and in the filtrate dissolve the salts. Im- merse in the fluid sheets of bibulous paper (Swedish filter paper will an- swer) and let remain for 24 hours. At the end of this time remove, dry, cut into pieces about 2i by 4 inches, and roll into cigarettes. II. — Sodium arseniate, 3 grains; ex- tract of belladonna, 8 grains; extract of stramonium, 8 grains. Dissolve the ar- seniate of sodium in a small quantity of water, and rub it with the two extracts. Then soak up the whole mixture with fine blotting paper, which is dried and cut into 24 equal parts. Each part is rolled up in a piece of cigarette paper. Four or five inhalations are generally sufficient as a dose. ASTHMA IN CANARIES: See Veterinary Formulas. ASTRINGENT FOR HORSES: See Veterinary Formulas. ATOMIC WEIGHTS: See Weights and Measures. 102 BAKING POWDERS ATROPINE, ANTIDOTE TO. The usual physiological antidotes to the mydriatic alkaloids from belladonna, stramonium, and hyoscyamus are mor- Chine or eserine. Strong tea, coffee, or randy are usually administered as stim- ulants. Chief reliance has usually been placed upon a stomach siphon and plenty of water to wash out the contents of the stomach. The best antidote ever reported was that of muscarine extracted by alcohol from the mushroom, Amanita muscaria, but the difficulty of securing the same has caused it to be overlooked and almost forgotten. Experiments with this antidote showed it to be an al- most perfect opposite of atropine in its effects upon the animal body and that it neutralized poisonous doses. AQUA AROMATICA.— Cort. cinnam. chinens. . 3 parts Flor. lavandulse 5 parts Fol. Menth. pip 6 parts Fol. rosmarini 5 parts Fol. salvise 10 parts Fruct. foeniculi 3 parts Spiritus 70 parts Aqua 300 parts Macerate the drugs in the mixed al- cohol and water for 24 hours and distill 200 parts. AQUA REGIA. — Aqua regia consists in principle of 2 parts of hydrochloric acid and 1 part of nitric acid. But this quan- tity varies according to the shop where it is used for gilding or jewelry, and some- times the proportion is brought to 4 parts of hydrochloric acid to 1 of nitric acid. AUTOMOBILES, ANTIFREEZING SO- LUTION FOR: See Freezing Preventives. AXLE GREASE: See Lubricants. BABBITT METAL: See Alloys. Baking Powders I. — Tartaric acid, 3 parts; sodium bicarbonate, 1 part; starch, 0.75 part. Of this baking powder the required amount for 500 parts of flovir is about 20 parts for rich cake, and 15 parts for lean cake. The substances employed must be dry, each having been previously sifted by itself, so that no coarse pieces are present; the starch is mixed with the sodium bicarbonate before the acid is added. When large quantities are pre- pared the mixing is done by machine; smaller quantities are best mixed to- gether in a spacious mortar, and then passed repeatedly through a sieve. In- stead of starch, flour may be used, but starch is preferable, because it inter- feres with the action of the acid on the alkali. II. — A formula proposed by Cramp- ton, of the United States Department of Agriculture, as the result of an investi- gation of the leading baking powders of the market, is: Potassium bitartrate. . . 2 parts Sodium bicarbonate. . . 1 part Cornstarch 1 part The addition of the starch serves the double purpose of a " filler" to increase the weight of the powder and as a pre- servative. A mixture of the chemicals alone does not keep well. The stability of the preparation is in- creased by drying each ingredient sepa- rately by exposure to a gentle heat, mixing at once, and immediately placing in bot- tles or cans and excluding access of air and consequently of moisture. This is not a cheap powder; but it is the best that can be made, as to health- fulness. III. — Sodium acid phos- phate 20 parts Calcium acid phos- phate 20 parts Sodium bicarbonate 25 parts Starch 35 parts Caution as to drying the ingredients and keeping them dry must be observed. Even the mixing should be done in a room free from excessive humidity. IV. — ^Alum Baking Powder. — Ammonium alum, anhydrous 15 parts Sodium bicarbonate 18 parts Cornstarch, q. s. to make 100 parts. Mix. The available carbon dioxide yielded is 7| per cent or 8 per cent. BALANCE SPRING: See Watchmakers' Formulas. BALDNESS : See Hair Preparations. BALL BLUE: See Laundry Preparations. BALSAMS : See also Ointments. ' BALSAMS 103 Wild-Cherry Balsam.— Wild-cherry bark. . 1 (niiicc Licorice niot 1 ounce Ipecac 1 ounce Bioodroot 1 drachm Sassafras 1 drachm Compound tincture of opium 1 fluidounce Fluid extract of cubeb -t fluidrachms Moisten the ground drugs with the fluid extract and tincture and enough menstruum consisting of 25 per cent alcohol, and after six or eight hours pack in a percolator, and pour on menstruum until percolation begins. Then cork the orifice, cover the percolator, and allow to macerate for 24 hours. Then percolate to 10 fluidounces, pouring back the first portion of percolate until it comes through clear. In the percolate dissolve \ ounce of ammonium chloride and A pound of sugar by cold percolation, adding simple syrup to make 16 fluidounces. Finally add 1 fluidrachm of chloroform. Balsam Spray Solution. — Oil of Scotch pine. . . 30 minims Oil of eucalyptus. ... 1 drachm Oil of cinnamon .... 30 minims Menthol crystals ... . q. s. Fluid extract of balm- of-Gilead buds ... 1 drachm Tincture of benzoin, enough to make . . 4 ounces This formula can, of course, be modi- fied to suit your rec|uii;ements. The oils of eucalyptus and cinnamon can be omit- ted and such quantities of tincture of tolu and tincture of myrrh incorporated as may be desired. Birch Balsam. — Parts by weight Alcohol 30,000 Birch juice 3,000 Glycerine 1,000 Bergamot oil 90 Vanillin 10 Geranium oil 50 Water 14,000 BALSAM STAINS, TO REMOVE : See Cleaning Preparations and Meth- ods. BATTANA BRONZING SOLUTION: See Plating. BANANA SYRUP : See Essences and Extracts. BANANA TRICK, THE BURNING: See Pyrotechnics. BANJO SOUR: Sec licvi iMt;i> under Lemonade. BAR POLISHES : See Polishes. BARBERS'-ITCH CURE: See Ointments. BARBERS' POWDER: See Cosmetics. BAROMETERS (PAPER): See Hygrometers and llygroscopes. BATH, AIR: See Air Bath. BATH METAL: See Alloys. BATH POWDER: See Cosmetics. BATH TABLETS, EFFERVESCENT. Tartaric acid 10 parts Sodium bicarbonate. . 9 parts Rice flour 6 parts A few spoonfuls of this, when stirred into a batntubful of water, causes a co- pious liberation of carbon dioxide, which IS refreshing. This mixture can be made into tablets by compression, moistening, if necessary, with alcohol. Water, of course, cannot Ije used in making them, as its presence causes the decomposition referred to. Perfume may be added to this powder, essential oils being a gdod form. Oil of lavender would be a suit- able addition, in the proportion of a fluidrachm or more to the pound of powder. .V better but more expensive perfume may be obtained by mixing 1 part of oil of rose geranium with 6 parts of oil of lavender. A perfume still more desirable may be had by adding u mix- ture of the oils from which Cologne water is made. Fur an ordinary quality the following will suffice: Oil of lavender . . 4 fluidrachms Oil of rosemary. . i fluidrachms Oil of bergamot. . 1 fluidounce Oil of lemon '2 fluidounces Oil of clove 30 minims For the first quality the following may be taken: Oil of neroli 6 fluidrachms Oil of rosemary. . 3 fluidrachms Oil of bergamot.. 3 fluidrachms Oil of cedrat 7 fluidrachms Oil of orange peel 7 fluidrachms A fluidrachm or more of either of these mixtures may be used to the pound, as in the case of lavender. These mixtures may also be used in the preparation of a bath powder (non-effer- 104 BATTERY FILLERS vescent) made by mixing equal parts of powdered soap and powdered borax. BATH-TUB ENAMEL: See Varnishes. BATH-TUB PAINTS: See Paint. BATTERY FILLERS AND SOLUTIONS. I. — In the so-called dry batteries the exciting substance is a paste instead of a fluid; moisture is necessary to cause the reaction. These pastes are gener- ally secret preparations. One of the earlier "dry" batteries is that of Gassner. "The apparatus consists of a containing vessel of zinc, which forms the positive element; the negative one is a cylinder of carbon, and the space between is filled with a paste, the recipe for which is : Oxide of zinc 1 part Sal ammoniac 1 part Plaster 3 parts Chloride of zinc 1 part Water 2 parts The usual form of chloride-of-silver battery consists of a sealed cell contain- ing a zinc electrode, the two being gen- erally separated by some form of porous septum. Around the platinum or silver electrode is cast a quantity of silver chloride. This is melted and general- ly poured into molds surrounding the metallic electrode. The exciting fluid is either a solution of ammonium chlo- ride, caustic potassa, or soda, or zinc sulphate. As ordinarily constructed, these cells contain a paste of the electro- lyte, and are sealed up hermetically in glass or hard-rubber receptacles. II. — The following formula is said to' yield a serviceable filling for dry batteries: Charcoal 3 ounces Graphite 1 ounce Manganese dioxide. . . Bounces Calcium hydrate 1 ounce Arsenic acid 1 ounce Glucose mixed with dextrine or starch . . 1 ounce Intimately mix, and then work into a paste of proper consistency with a sat- urated solution of sodium and ammo- nium chlorides containing one-tenth of its volume of a mercury-bichloride solu- tion and an equal volume of hydrochloric acid. Add the fluid gradually, and well work up the mass. III. — Calcium chloride, crystallized 30 parts Calcium chloride, granulated 30 parts Ammonium sulphate 15 parts Zinc sulphate 25 parts Solutions for Batteries. — The almost exclusively employed solution of sal am- moniac (ammonium chloride) presents the drawback that the zinc rods, glasses, etc., after a short use, become covered with a fine, yellow, very difiicultly sol- uble, basic zinc salt, whereby the gen- eration of the electric current is impaired, and finally arrested altogether. This evil may be remedied by an admixture of cane sugar. For a battery of ordinary size about 20 to 25 grams of sugar, dis- solved in warm water, is sufficient per 50 to 60 grams of sal ammoniac. After prolonged use only large crystals (of a zinc saccharate) form, which, however, become attached only to the zinc rod in a, few places, having very little disad- vantageous effect upon the action of the batteries and being easy to remove, owing to their ready solubility. BAUDOIN METAL: See Alloys. BAY RUM. I. — Oil of bay 1 drachm Alcohol 18 ounces Water 18 ounces Mix and filter through magnesia. II. — Bay-leaf otto J ounce Magnesium carbonate. | ounce Jamaica rum 2 pints Alcohol 3 pints Water 3 pints Triturate the otto with the magnesium carbonate, gradually adding the other ingredients, previously mixed, and filter. If the rum employed contains sufiBcient sugar or mucilaginous matter to cause any stickiness to be felt on the skin, rec- tification will be necessary. BEAD OIL: See Wines and Liquors. BEAR FAT: See Pats. BEARING LUBRICANT: See Lubricants. BEARING METAL: See Babbitt Metal, Bearing Metal, and Phosphor Bronze, under Alloys. BEDBUG DESTROYERS: See Insecticides. BEEF. IRON, AND WINE. Extract of beef .... 512 grains Detannated sherry wine 26 ounces Alcohol 4 ounces Citrate of iron and _ ammonia 256 grains Simple sirup 12 ounces BELT PASTES 105 Tincture of oranee. 2 ounces Tincture of carda- mom CO 1 ounce Citric acid 10 grains Water, enough to make 4 pints Let stand 24 hours, agitate frequently, and filter. See that the orange is fresh. BEEF PEPTONOIDS: See Peptonoids. BEEF PRESERVATIVES: See Foods. BEEF TEA: See Beverages. BEERS, ALCOHOL IN : See Alcohol. BEER. GINGER, HOP-BITTER, SCOTCH, AND SPRUCE : See Beverages. BEER, RESTORATION OF SPOILED. 1. — Powdered chalk is poured into the cask and allowed to remain in the beer until completely precipitated. II. — The liquor of boiled raisins may be poured into the beer, with the result that the sour taste of the beer is disguised. III. — A small quantity of a solution of Cotash will remove the sour taste of eer. Too much potash must not be added; otherwise the stomach will suffer. Beer thus restored will not keep long. ly. — If the beer is not completely spoiled it may be restored by the addi- tion of coarsely powdered charcoal. v.— If the addition of any of the above- mentioned substances should affect the taste of the beer, a little powdered zingi- ber may be used to advantage. Syrup or molasses may also be employed. BEES, FOUL BROOD IN. "Foul brood" is a contagious disease to which bees are subject. It is caused by bacteria and its presence may be known by the bees becoming languid. Dark, stringy, and elastic masses are found in the bottom of the cells, while the caps are sunken or irregularly punc- tured. Frequently the disease is said to be accompanied by a peculiar offensive odor. Prompt removal of diseased col- onies, their transfer to clean and thor- oughly disinfected hives, and feeding on antiseptically treated honey or syrup are the means taken for the prevention and cure of the disease. The antiseptics used are salicylic acid, carbolic acid, or formic acid. Spraying the brood with any one of these remedies in a solution and feeding with a honey or syrup medi- cated with them will usually be all that is required by way of treatment. It is ] also said that access to salt water is im- portant for the health of bees. BEETLE POWDER: See Insecticides. BELL METAL: See Alloys. BELLADONNA, ANTIDOTES TO: See Antidotes and Atropine. BELT PASTES FOR INCREASING ADHESION. I— Tallow 50 parts Castor oil, crude 20 parts Fish oil 20 parts Colophony 10 parts Melt on a. moderate fire and stir until the mass cools. II.— Melt 250 parts of gum elastic with 250 parts of oil of turpentine in an iron, well-closed crucible at 122° F. (caution!) and mix well with 200 parts of colophony. After further melting add 200 parts of yellow wax and stir carefully. Melt in 750 parts of heated train oil, 250 parts of tallow, and to this add, with constant stirring, the first mixture when the latter is still warm, and let cool .slowly with stirring. This grease is intended for cotton belts. III. — Gutta-percha 40 parts Rosin 10 parts Asphalt 15 parts Petroleum 60 parts Heat in a glass vessel on the water bath for a few hours, until a uniform so- lution is obtained. Let cool and add 15 parts of carbon disulphide and allow the mi.\ture to stand, shaking it frequently. Directions for Use. — The leather belts to be cemented should first be roughened at the joints, and after the cement has been applied they should be subjected to a strong pressure between warm rollers, whereupon they will adhere to- gether with much tenacity. Preservation of Belts. — In a well-cov- ered iron vessel heat at a temperature of 50° C. (152° F.) 1 part by weight of caoutchouc, cut in small pieces, with 1 part by weight of rectified turpentine. When the caoutchouc is dissolved add 0.8 part of colophony, stir until this is dissolved, and add to the mixture 0.1 part of yellow wax. Into another vessel of suitable size pour 3 parts of fish oil, add 1 part of tallow, and neat the mixture until tne tallow is melted; then pour on the contents of the first vessel, con- stantly stirring — an operation to be con- tinued until the matter is cooled and congealed. This grease is to be rubbed 106 BENZINE on the inside of the belts from time to time, while they are in use. The belts run easily and do not slip. The grease may also serve for improving old oelts. For this purpose the grease should be rubbed on both sides in a warm place. A first layer is allowed to soak in, and another applied. To Make a Belt Pull.— Hold a piece of tar soap on the inside of the belt while it is running. BELT CEMENT: See Adhesives. BELT GLUE: See Adhesives. BELT LUBRICANT: See Lubricants. BENEDICTINE: See Wines and Liquors. Benzine Benzine, to Color Green. — Probably the simplest and cheapest as well as the best method of coloring benzine green is to dissolve in it sufficient oil soluble aniline green of the desired tint to give the re- quired shade. Purification of Benzine. — Ill-smelling benzine, mixed with about 1 to 2 per cent of its weight of free fatty acid, will dis- solve therein. One-fourth per cent of tannin is added and all is mixed well. Enough potash or soda lye, or even lime milk, is added until the fatty acids are saponified, and the tannic acid is neu- tralized, shaking repeatedly. After a while the milky liquid separates into two layers, viz., a salty, soapy, mud-sediment and clear, colorless, and almost odorless benzine above. This benzine, filtered, may be employed for many technical purposes, but gives an excellent, pure product upon a second distillation. Fatty acid from tallow, olive oil, or other fats may be used, but care should be taken that they have as slight an odor of rancid fat as possible. The so-called elaine or olein — more correctly oleic acid — of the candle factories may likewise be employed, but it should first be agi- tated with a tV-per-cent soda solution to get rid of the bad-smelling fatty acids, especially the butyric acid. The Prevention of the Inflammability of Benzine. — A mixture of 9 volumes tetrachloride and 1 volume of benzine is practicably inflammable. The flame is .soon extinguished by itself. Substitute for Benzine as a Cleansing Agent. — I. — Chloroform 75 parts Ether 75 parts Alcohol .....600 parts Decoction of quillaya bark 22,500 parts Mix. II. — Acetic ether, tech- nically pure 10 parts Amyl acetate 10 parts Ammonia water 10 parts Alcohol dilute 70 parts Mix. III. — Acetone 1 part Ammonia water 1 part Alcohol dilute 1 part Mix. Deodorizing Benzine. — I. — Benzine 20 ounces Oil of lavender ... 1 fluidrachm Potassium dichro- mate 1 ounce Sulphuric acid ... 1 fluidounce Water 20 fluidounces Dissolve the dichromate in the water, add the acid and, when the solution is cold, the benzine. Shake every hour during the day, allow to stand all night, decant the benzine, wash with a pint of water and again decant, then add the oil of lavender. II. — First add to the benzine 1 to 2 per cent of oleic acid, which dissolves. Then about a quarter of 1 per cent of tannin is incorporated by shaking. A sufficient quantity of caustic potassa solution, or milk of lime, to combine with the acids is then well shaken into the mixture, and the whole allowed to stand. The benzine rises to the top of the watery fluid, sufficiently deodorized and decol- orized for practical purposes. III.— To 1,750 parts of water add 250 parts of sulphuric acid, and when it has cooled down add 30 parts of potassium permanganate and let dissolve. Add this solution to 4,500 parts of benzine, stir well together, and set aside for 2* hours. Now decant the beiizine and to it add a solution of 7 J parts of potassium permanganate and 15 parts of sodium hydrate in 1,000 parts of water, and agi- tate the substances well together. Let stand untU the benzine separates, then draw off. IV. — Dissolve 3 parts of litharge and 18 parts of sodium hydrate in 40 parts of water. Add this to 200-250 parts of benzine and agitate well together for two minutes, then let settle and draw off the benzine. Rinse the latter by agitating BEVERAGES 107 it with plenty of clear water, let settle, draw on the benzine, and, if necessary, repeat the operation. BENZINE, CLEANING WITH: See Cleaning Preparations and Meth- ods, under Miscellaneous Methods. BENZOIC ACID IN FOOD: See Food. BENZOIN SOAP: See Soap. BENZOPARAL: A neutral, bland, oily preparation of benzoin, useful for applying various antiseptics by the aid of an atomizer, nebulizer, or vaporizer. Can be used plain or in combination with other easily dissolved medicihals. Paraffine, liciuid 16 ounces Gum benzoin 1 ounce Digest on a sand bath for a half hour and filter. Beverages GINGER ALE AND GINGER BEER: Old-Fashioned Ginger Beer. — Lemons, large and sound 6 only Ginger, bruised 3 ounces Sugar 6 cups Yeast, compressed ... J cake Boiling water 4 gallons Water enough Slice the lemons into a large earthen- ware vessel, removing the seed. Add the ginger, sugar, and water. When the mixture has cooled to lukewarmness, add the yeast, first diffused in a little water. Cover the vessel with a piece of cheese cloth, and let the beer stand 24 hours. At the end of that time strain and bottle it. Cork securely, but not so tightly that the bottles would break before the corks would fly out, and keep in a cool place. Ginger Beer. — Honey gives the bever- age a peculiar softness and, from not having fermented with yeast, is the less violent in its action when opened. In- gredients: White sugar, i pound; honey, I pound; bruised ginger, 5 ounces; juice of sufficient lemons to suit the taste; water, 41 gallons. Boil the ginger in 3 quarts of the water for half an hour, then add the ginger, lemon juice, and honey, with the remainder of the water; then strain through a cloth; when cold, add the quarter of the white of an egg and a tea- spoonful of essence of lemon. Let the whole stand for four days before bot- tling. This quantity will make a hun- dred bottles. Ginger Beer without Yeast.— Ginger, bruised 1 J pounds Sugar 20 pounds Lemons 1 dozen Honey 1 pound Water enough Boil the ginger in 3 gallons of water for half an hour; add the sugar, the lemons (bruised and sliced), the honey, and 17 gallons of water. Strain and, after three or four days, bottle. Package Pop. — Cream of tartar 3 ounces Ginger, bruised 1 ounce Sugar 24 ouiires Citric acid i drachms Put up in a package, an parts, by weight, of prime Dammar rosin and 1.5 parts of ammonia soda. Heat gently, and stir fre- quently, until no more carbonic acid bub- bles up. Cool and pulverize again. Put the powder into a glass carboy, and pour over it 50 parts of carbon tetrachloride; let this stand for 2 days, stirring fre- quently. Then filter. Ten parts of the fluid are mixed with 5 parts of metallic- bronze of any desired .shade, and put into bottles. Shake well before using. General Formulas for Bronzing Prepa- rations. — I. — Take 'HO parts subacetate of copper, 120 parts oxide of zinc in pow- der form, 60 parts borax, 60 parts salt- peter, and 3.5 parts corrosive sublimate. Prepare a paste from it with oil, stir to- gether, and continue working with boiled linseed oil and turpentine. II. — Dissolve 120 parts sulphate of copper and add 120 parts chipping of tin; stir well and gather the precipitating copper. After complete drying, grind very finely in boiled linseed oil and tur- pentine. III. — Melt in a crucible 60 parts sul- phur and 60 parts stannic acid; stir with a clay tube until the mixture takes on the appearance of Dutch gold and pour out. When cold mix the color with boiled lin- seed oil and turpentine, adding a small quantity of drier. These three bronzes must be covered with a pale, resistant 186 BRONZING lacquer, otherwise they will soon tarnish in rooms where gas is burned. Florentine Bronzes. — I. — To produce a Florentine bronzing, apply to the articles, which mjist have previously been dipped, a varnish composed of cherry gum lac dissolved in alcohol. This varnish is Eut on with a brush, and after that the ronzed piece is passed through the stove. II. — If the article is of brass it must be given a coat of copper by means of the battery. Next dip a brush in olive oil and brush the piece uniformly; let dry for 5 or 6 hours and place in saw- dust. Then heat the article on a mod- erate charcoal dust fire. Preparation of French Bronze. — French bronze may be prepared by re- ducing to a powder hematite, 5 parts, and plumbago, 8 parts, and mixing into a paste with spirit of wine. Apply the composition with a soft brush to the article to be bronzed and set it aside for some hours. By polishing with a toler- ably hard brush tne article will assume the beautiful appearance of real bronze. The desired tint ma^ be regulated by the proportions of the ingredients. How to Bronze Metals. — Prepare a solution of 1 J ounces of sodium hyposul- phite in 1 pint of water and add to the same a solution of IJ ounces of lead acetate dissolved in 1 pint of water. If, instead of lead acetate, an equal weight of sulphuric acid (IJ ounces) is added to the sodium hyposulphite and the process carried on as before, the brass becomes coated with a very beau- tiful red, which changes to green, and finally a splendid brown with a green and red iridescence. This last is a very durable coating and may be especially recommended. It is very difficult to obtain exact shades by this process with- out some experience. The thorough cleansing of all articles from grease by boiling in potash is absolutely necessary to success. By substituting other metal salts for the lead acetate many changes in tints and quality of the coatings can also be effected. When this mixture is heated to a tem- perature a little below the boiling point it precipitates sulphide of lead in a state of fine division. If some metal is pres- ent some of the lead is precipitated on the surface and, according to the thick- ness of the layer, different colors are pro- duced. .To produce an even color the articles must be evenly heated. By im- mersion of brass articles for 5 minutes the same may be coated with colors varying from gold to copper red, then to carmine, dark red, and from light blue to blue white, and at last a reddish white, depending on the time the metal remains in the solution and the temperature used. Iron objects treated in this solution take a steel-blue color, zinc a brown color. In the case of copper objects a golden yellow cannot be obtained. New Bronzing Liquid. — Dissolve 10 parts of fuchsine ana 5 parts of aniline purple in 100 parts of alcohol (95 percent) and add to the solution 5 parts of ben- zoic acid. Boil the whole for, 10 min- utes until the color turns bronze brown. This liquid can be applied to all metals and dries quickly. A Bronze for Brass. — Immerse the articles, freed from dirt and grease, in a cold solution of 10 parts of potassium permanganate, 50 parts of iron sulphate, 5 parts of hydrochloric acid in 1,000 parts of water. Let remain 30 seconds, then withdraw, rinse, and let dry in fine, soft sawdust. If the articles have be- come too dark, or if a reddish-brown color be desired, immerse for about 1 minute in a warm (140° F.) solution of chromic acid, 10 parts; hydrochloric acid, 10 parts; potassium permanganate, 10 parts; iron sulphate, 50 parts; water, 1,000 parts. Treat as before. If the latter solution a;lone be used the product will be a brighter dark-yellow or red- dish-brown color. , By heating in a dry- ing oven the tone of the colors is im- proved. To Bronze Copper. — This process is analogous to the one practiced at the Mint of Paris for bronzing medals. Spread on the copper object a solution composed of: Acetate or chlorhy- drate of ammonia . . 30 parts Sea salt 10 parts Cream of tartar 10 parts Acetate of copper .... 10 parts Diluted acetic acid. . . 100 parts het dry for 24 to 48 hours at an ordi- nary temperature. The surface of the metal will become covered with a series of varying tints. Brush with a waxed brush. The green portions soaked with chlorhydrate of ammonia will assume a blue coloring, and those treated with carbonate will be thick and darkened. Bronzing and Patinizing of Small Zinc Articles. — Coatings of bronze tones and Eatina shades may be produced on zinc y means of various liquids, but the BRONZING 187 articles, before being worked upon, should be rubbed down with very fine glass or emery paper, to make them not only perfectly metallic, but also some- what rough, as a consequence of which the bronze or patina coalings will adhere much better. The best bronze or pa- tina effects on bronze are obtained by electroplating the article with a fairly thick deposit of brass rich in copper and then treating it like genuine bronze. The solutions used, however, must always be highly diluted, otherwise they may eat entirely through the thin metallic coat- ing. Bronzing of Zinc. — Mix thoroughly 30 parts of sal ammoniac, 10 parts of oxalate of potash, and 1,000 parts of vinegar. Apply with a brush or a rag several times, until the desired tint is produced. Bronze Gliding on Smooth Moldings. — A perfect substitute for dead gilding can- not be obtained by bronzing, because of the radically different reflection of the light, for the matt gilding presents to the light a perfectly smooth surface, while in bronzing every little scale of bronze reflects the light in a different direction. In consequence of this diffusion of light, all bronzing, even the best executed, is somewhat darker and dimmer than leaf gilding. This dimness, it is true, ex- tends over the whole surface, and there- fore is not perceptible to the layman, and cannot be callea an evil, as the genuine leaf gftld is so spotted that a, bronzed surface is cleaner than a gilt one. The following process is the best known at present: Choose only the best bronze, which is first prepared thick with pure spirit. Next add a quantity of water and stir again. After the precipitation, which occurs promptly, the water is poured off and renewed rejjeatedly by fresh water. When the spirit has been washed out again in this manner, the re- maining deposit, i. e., the bronze, is thinned with clean, good gold size. The bronze must be thin enough just to cover. The moldings are coated twice, the second time commencing at the op- posite end. Under no circumstances should the dry, dead gilding give off color when grasping it firmly. If it does that, either the size is inferior or the so- lution too weak or the mixture too thick. Incombustible Bronze Tincture.— Five parts of prime dammar rosin and 1.5 parts of ammonia soda, very finely pul- verized. Heat gently, with frequent stirring, until the evolution of carbonic acid ceases. Then take from the fire, and when cool pulverize again. Put the powder into a glass carboy, and pour over it SO parts of carbon tetrachloride; let this stand for '2 days, stirring fre- auently, then filter. Ten parts of the fluid are to be mixed with each 5 parts of metallic bronze of any desired shade, and put into bottles. Shake the tincture well before using. Bronzing Engraved Ornaments. — Take bronze and stir with it pale copal varnish diluted one-half with turpentine. With this paint the ornaments neatly. In J hour the bronze will have dried. The places from which the bronze is to be removed, i. e., where the bronze has overrun the polished surface, are dabbed with a small rag soaked with kerosene, taking care that it is not too wet, so as to prevent the kerosene from running into the ornament. After a short while the bronze will have dissolved and can be wiped off with a soft rag. If this does not remove it entirely, dab and wipe again. Finally finish wiping with an especially soft, clean rag. Kerosene does not attack polish on wood. The bronze must become dull and yet adhere firmly, under which condition it has a hardened color. If it does not become dull the varnish is too strong and should be diluted with turpentine. Durable Bronze on Banners. — To render bronzes durable on banners, etc., the ground must be primed with gum arable and a. little glycerine. Then af>- ply the bronze solution, prepared with aammar and one-tenth varnish. In- stead of gum arable with glycerine, gela- tine glue may also be employed as an underlay. BRONZE SUBSTITUTES. The following recipe is used in making imitation gold bronzes: Sandarac SO parts Mastic 10 parts Venice turpentine. . . S parts Alcohol 135 parts In the above dissolve: Metanil yellow and gold orange 0.4 parts and add Aluminum, finely powdered 20 parts and shake. If a deeper shade is desired it is well to use ethyl orange and gold orange in the same proportion, instead of the dyes. For the production of imitation copper bronze take the above-mentioned rosin mixture and dissolve therein only gold 138 BRONZING orange 0.8 parts, and add aluminum 20 parts, whereby a handsome copper color IS produced. Metanil yellow 0.4 parts without gold orange gives with the same amount of lacquer a greenish tone of bronze. The pigments must not be made use of in larger quantities, because the luster of the bronze is materially affected. Only pigments of certain properties, Such as solubility in alcohol, relative constancy to reductive agents, are suitable; unsuitable are, for instance, naphthol yellow, phenylene-diamin, etc. Likewise only a lacquer of certain com- position is fit for use, other lacquers of commerce, such as zapon (celluloid) lacquer being unsuitable. The bronzes prepared in this manner excel in luster and color effect; the cost is very low. They are suitable for bronzing low- priced articles, as tinware, toys, etc. tJnder the action of sun and moisture the articles lose some of their luster, but ob- jects kept indoors such as figures of plas- ter of Paris, inkstands, wooden boxes, etc., retain their brilliancy for years. Some use powdered aluminum and yel- low organic dyestuffs, such as gold orange. These are employed together with a var- nish of certain composition, which im- parts the necessary gloss to the mixture. BRONZE COLORING: To Color Bronze. — Bronze articles ac- quire handsome tempering colors by heating. In order to impart an old ap- pearance to new objects of bronze, they may be heated over a flame and rubbed with a woolen rag dipped in finely pow- dered graphite, until the desired shade is attained. Or else a paste is applied on the article, consisting of grapnite 5 parts and bloodstone 15 parts, with a suf- ficient quantity of alcohol. After 24 hours brush off the dry powder. A hot solution composed of sal ammoniac 4 parts, sorrel salt 1 part, vinegar 200 parts, may also be brushed on. Another way is to dip the pieces into a boiling so- lution of cupric acetate 20 parts, and sal ammoniac 10 parts, dissolved in 60 to 100 parts of vinegar. Patent bronzes (products colored by means of aniline dyes) have hitherto been used in the manufacture of toys and de luxe or fancy paper, but makers of wall or stained paper have recently ^ven their attention to these products. Wall — or moire — paper prepared with these dyes furnishes covers or prints of silken gloss with a peculiar double-color effect in which the metallic brilliancy charac- teristic of bronze combines with the shades of the tar pigments used. Very beautiful reliefs, giving rise to the most charming play of colors in perpendicular or laterally reflected light, are produced by pressing the paper lengths or web Eainted with aniline-bronze dyes. The rass brocade and tin bronzes serve as bases for the aniline dyes; of the tar pig- ments only basic aniline dyes soluble in alcohol are used. In coloring the pul- verized bronze care must be taken that the latter is as free as possible from or- ganic fats. Tar dyes should be dis- solved in as concentrated a form as pos- sible in alcohol and stirred with the bronze, the pigment being then fixed on the vehicle with an alcoholic solution of tannin. The patent bronze is then dried by allowing the alcohol to evapo- rate. This method of coloring is purely mechanical, as the tar dyes do not com- bine with the metallic bronze, as is the case with pigments in which hydrate of alumina is used. A coating of aniline bronze of this kind is therefore very sen- sitive to moisture, unless spread over the paper surface with a suitable protect- ive binding medium, or protected by a transparent coat of varnish, which of course must not interfere with the special color effect. Pickle for Bronzes. — Sulphuric acid, 1,000 parts; nitric acid, 500 parts; soot, 10 parts; sea salt, 5 parts. Imitation Japanese Bronze. — When the copper or coppered article is per- fectly dry and the copper or copper coating made brilliant, which is produced by, rubbing with a soft brush, put graph- ite over the piece to be bronzed so that the copper is simply dyed. Wipe off the raised portions with a damp cloth, so that the copper makes its appearance. Next put on a thin coat of Japanese var- nish; wipe the relief again and let dry. Apply 1 or 2 coats after the first is per- fectly dry. Handsome smoked hues may be obtained by holding the bronze either over the dust of lighted peat or powdered rosin thrown on lighted coal, so as to obtain a smoke which will change the color of the varnish employed. The varnish must be liciuid enough to be worked easily, for this style of bronzing is only applicable to brass. Green Bronze on Iron. — Abietate of silver, 1 part; essence of lavender, 19 parts. Dissolve the abietate of silver in the essence of lavender. After the arti- cles have been well pickled apply the abietate-of-silver solution with a brush; next place the objects in a stove and let the temperature attain about 150° C. Blue Bronze. — Blue bronze is pro- BRONZING 139 duced by the wet process by coloring white bronze (silver composition) with aniline blue. A blue-bronze color can be produced in the ordinary way from white- bronze color, the product of pure Eng- lish tin, and with an alum solution con- sisting of 20 parts of alum in 4,500 parts of water boiled for 5 hours and washed clean and dried. The bronze prepared in this manner is placed in a porcelain dish, mixed with a solution of 15 parts of aniline blue in 1,500 parts of alcohol, stirring the bronze powder and liquid until the alcohol has evaporated entire- ly and the bronze color becomes dry. This manipulation must be repeated 6 or 8 times, until the desired blue shade is reached. When the bronze is dark enough it is washed out in warm water, and before entirely dry 1 tablespoonful of petroleum is poured on 2 pounds of bronze, which is intimately mixed and spread out into a thin layer, exposed to the air, whereby the smell is caused to disappear in a few days. Bronzing with Soluble Glass. — To bronze wood, porcelain, glass, and metal by means of a water-glass solution, coat the article with potash water-glass of 30° Be. and sprinlcle on the respective bronze powder. Brown Oxidation on Bronze. — Genu- ine bronze can be beautifully oxidized by painting it with a solution of 4 parts of sal ammoniac and 1 part of oxalium (oxalate of potash) in 200 parts of vine- gar, allowing it to dry, and repeating the operation several times. These articles, protected against rain, soon lose the un- pleasant glaring metallic luster and as- sume instead a soft brown tint, which bronze articles otherwise acquire only after several years' exposure to the at- mosphere. A beautiful bronze color which will remain unaffected by heat can be imparted to bronze articles by the following process: The object is first washed m a solution of 1 part of crystal- lized verdigris and 2 parts of sal ammo- niac in 260 parts of water, and then dried before an open fire till the green color begins to disappear. The operation is repeated 10 to 20 times, but with a solu- tion of 1 part of verdigris crystals and 2 parts of sal ammoniac in 600 parts of water. The color of the article, olive green at first, gradually turns to brown, which will remain unaltered even when exposed to strong heat. BROWZE POWDERS: See also Plating for general methods of bronzing, and Varnishes. Gold and Silver Bronze Powders. — Genuine gold bronze is produced from the waste and parings obtained in gold beating. The parings, etc., are ground with honey or a gum solution, upon a glass plate or under hard granite stones, into a very fine powder, which is re- peatedly washed out with water and dried. There are various shades of gold bronze, viz., red, reddish, deep yellow, pale yellow, as well as greenish. These tints are caused by the various percent- ages of gold or the various mixtures of the gold with silver and copper. By the use of various salt solutions or acidulated substances other shades can be imparted to bronze. In water con- taining sulphuric acid, nitric acid, or hydrochloric acid, it turns a bright yel- low; by treatment with a solution of crys- tallized verdigris or blue vitriol in water it assnmi's more of a reddish hue; other tints are obtained with the aid of cooking salt, tartar, green vitriol, or saltpeter in water. Gold bronze is also obtained by dis- solving gold in aqua regia and mixing with a solution of green vitriol in water, whereupon the gold falls down as a me- tallic powder which may be treated in different ways. The green vitriol, how- ever, must be dissolved in boiling water and mixed in a glass, drop by drop, with sulphuric acid and stirred until the basic iron sulphate separating in flakes has re- dissolved. Another way of producing gold bronze is by dissolving gold in aqua regia and evaporating the solution in a porcelain dish. When it is almost dry add a little pure hydrochloric acid and repeat this to drive out all the free chlo- rine and to produce a pure hydrochlorate of gold. The gold salt is dissolved in distilled water, taking J liter per ducat (34 grams fine gold); into this solution drop, while stirring by means of a glass rod, an 8° solution (by Beaume) of an- timony chloride, as long as a precipitate forms. This deposit is gold bronze, which, dried after removal of all liquids, is chiefly employed in painting, for bronz- ing, and for china and glass decoration. Metallic gold powder is, furthermore, obtained by dissolving pure and alloyed gold in aqua regia and precipitating it again by an electro-positive metal, such as iron or zinc, which is placed in the liq- uid in the form of rods. The gold is completely separated thereby. The rods must be perfectly clean and polished bright. The color of the gold bronze depends upon the proportions of the gold. In order to further increase the brilliancy the dried substance may still be ground. 140 BRUSHES Mosaic Gold. — Mosaic gold, generally a compound of tin, 64.63 parts, and sul- phur, 35.37 parts, is odorless and taste- less, and dissolves only in chlorine solu- tion, aqua regia, and boiling potash lye. It is employed principally for bronz- ing plaster-of-Paris figures, copper, and brass, by mixing it with 6 parts of bone ashes, rubbing it on wet, or applying it with varnish or white of egg in tne prep- aration of gold paper or for gilding cardboard and wood. Mosaic gold of golden-yellow color is produced by heat- ing 6 parts ot sulphur and 16 parts of tin amalgam with equal parts of mer- cury and 4 parts of sulphur; 8 parts of precipitate from stannic muriate (stannic acid) and 4 parts of sulphur also give a handsome mosaic gold. The handsomest, purest, and most gold-like mosaic gold is obtained by melting 12 parts of pure tin, free from lead, and mixing with 6 parts of mercury to an amalgam. This is mixed with 7 parts of flowers of sulphur and 6 parts of sal ammoniac, whereupon the mass is subjected for several hours to a heat which at first does not attain redness, but eventually when no more fumes are generated is increased to dark-red heat. This operation is conducted either in a glass retort or in an earthenware cru- cible. The sal ammoniac escapes first on heating, next vermilion sublimates and some stannic chloride, while the mosaic gold remains on the bottom, the upper layer, consisting of lustrous, golden, delicately translucent leaflets, being the handsomest mosaic gold. Genuine Silver Bronze. — This is ob- tained by the finely ground waste from beating leaf silver or by dissolving silver in aqua fortis. This solution is then diluted with water and brightly scoured copper plates are put in, whereby the silver precipitates as a metallic powder. Imitation Silver Bronze. — This is ob- tained through the waste in beating imi- tation leaf silver, which, finely ground, is then washed and dried. In order to increase the luster it is ground again in a dry condition. Mosaic Silver. — Mosaic silver is an amalgam of equal parts of mercury, bis- muth, and tin. One may also melt 50 parts of good tin in a crucible, and as soon as it becomes liquid add 50 parts of bismuth, stirring all with an iron wire until the bismuth is fused as well. As soon as this occurs the crucible must be removed from the fire; then stir in, as long as the contents are still liquid, 25 parts of mercury and mix the whole mass evenly until it can be ground on a stone slab. BRONZE VARNISHES: See Varnishes. BRONZING SOLUTIONS FOR PAINTS: See Paints. BRONZING OF WOOD : See Wood. BROOCHES, PHOTOGRAPHS ON: See Photography. BROWN OINTMENT: See Ointments. BROWNING OF STEEL: See Plating. BROWNSTONE, IMITATION: See Brick Staiin. BRUNETTE POWDER : See Cosmetics. Brushes HOW TO TAKE CARE OF PAINT AND VARNISH BRUSHES. It is a good plan to fill the varnish brush before putting it in the keeper. Whitewash or kalsomine brushes should not be put into newly slaked lime or hot kalsomine. Cement-set brushes should never be put in any alcohol mixture, such as shel- lacs and spirit stains. Varnish brushes should be selected with a view to their possessing the follow- ing qualities: 1st, excellence of mate- rial; 2d, excellence of make, which includes fullness of hair or bristles and permanency of binding; 3d, life and spring, or elasticity sufficient to enable the varnisher to spread the varnish with- out reducing it with turpentine; and 4th, springing, when in use, to a true chisel edge. Temperature for Brushes. — The bris- tles of every brush are held in place by the handle. It passes through the shank of the brush and is kiln-dried to fit perfectly. If it shrinks, however, its outward tension is lost and the bristles loosened. For this reason the first principle in brush care is to keep the tool, when it is new or not soaking, in a cool place, out of hot rooms, and any temperature that would tend to shrink the wood of the handle. Cleaning Paint Brushes. — No new brush should be dipped in the paint and put to work without first being BRUSHES— BUNIONS 14.1 (•leaned. By working it with a brisk movement back and forth through the hand most of the dust and loose hairs will be taken out. A paint brush, when thus thoroughly dry cleaned, should be placed in water for a few minutes, not long enough to soak or swell it, but only until wet through, and then swung and shaken dry. It is then ready to dip in the paint, and although some of the hairs may still be loose, most of them will come out in the first few minutes' work- ing and can be easily picked from the surface. Cleaning Varnish Brushes.— Varnish brushes, and brushes used in varnish stain, buggy paint, and all color in var- nish require different handling than paint brushes. They should be more thoroughly dry cleaned, in order that all loose hairs may be worked out. After working them through the hand it is a good thing to pass the brush back and forth over a sheet of sandpaper. This rough surface will pull out the loose bristles and smooth down the rough ends of the chisel point. The brush should then be washed by working it for a few minutes in clean turpentine and swinging it dry. It should never be put in water. For carriage work and fine varnishing the brush should be broken in on the rubbing coat in order to work out all the dust particles before it is used on the finishing coats. Setting the Paint -Brush Bristles.— • For the first 2 or 3 days new brushes require special care while at rest. They should be dipped in raw oil or the paint itself and smoothed out carefully, then laid on their sides over night. The chisel-pointed brushes should be set at an incline, the handle supported just enough to allow the brush to lie along the point. This is done to prevent twist- ing of the bristles, and to keep the shape of the brush. It is necessary to do this only "i or 3 times before the shape becomes set. Paint Brushes at Rest. — An impor- tant principle in brush care is never to leave the brush on end while at rest. Even for temporary rest during a job the brush should never stand on end. At night it should always be placed in a "brusn-keeper" — a water-tight box, or a paint keg, with nails driven through the sides on which the brushes can be sus- pended in water. Holes are bored in the handles so the brush wiJI hang free of the bottom, but with the bristles en- tirely under water. Before placing them in water the brushes should be wiped so as not to be too full of paint, but not cleaned. Varnish Brashes at Rest.— Varnish brushes should be kept at rest in tur- pentine and varnish, or better, in some of the varnish that the brush is used for. They should preferably not be kept in turpentine, as that makes the brush '• lousy" — roughening the bristles. Washing Brushes.— All brushes should be washed in benzine or turpentine and shaken dry — not whipped — when it is desired to change from one color to an- other, or from one varnish to another. To Restore Brushes. — A good remedy to restore lettering brushes which have lost their elasticity and do not keep a point, is as follows: Put the pencil in oil and brush it sev- eral times over a hot iron in such a man- ner that the hairs touch the iron from each side; then dip the pencil quickly in cold water. A Removable Binding.— The bristle bunch of brushes is bound with rope so as to keep them together for use. In- stead of the twine, a covering of rubber may be employed, which is easily slipped over the bristles and can be conveniently removed again. The cleaning of the brush is much facilitated thereby, and the breadth of the stripe to be drawn with the brush can be accurately regu- lated, according to how far the covering is slipped over the brush. See also Cleaning Preparations and Methods. BRUSHES OF WATCHMAKERS: THEIR CARE: See Watchmakers' Formulas. BXJBBLES IN GELATIN : See Gelatin. BUBBLE (SOAP) LIQUTO: See Soap Bubble Liquid. BUBBLES. Bubbles of air often adhere to molds immersed in depositing solutions. They may be prevented by previously dipping the object into spirits of wine, or be re- moved by the aid of a soft brush, or by directing a powerful current of the liquid against them by means of a vulcanized india-rubber bladder, with a long and curved glass tube attached to it; but the liquid should be free from sediment. BUG KILLERS: See Insecticides. BUNIONS : See Corn Cures. 142 BURNS— BUTTER BURNS : See also Ointments and Turpentine. Mixture for Bums.- — I. — A mixture of castor oil with the white of egg is recom- mended for burns. The eggs are broken into a bowl and the castor oil slowly poured in while the eggs are beaten. Enough oil is added to make a thick, creamy paste, which is applied to the burn. The applications are repeated often enough to prevent their becoming dry or sticky. Leave the surface un- covered. II. — Put 27 parts, by measure, of menthol into 44 parts, by measure, of witch hazel (distillate) and apply freely. A good plan is to bandage the parts and wet the wrappings with this mixture. III. — A very eflBcacious remedy for burns is a solution of cooking salt in water. It is best to immerse fingers, hands, and arms in the solution, which must be tolerably strong. For burns in the face and other parts of the body, salt water poultices are applied. Butter (See also Foods.) Butter Color. — Orlean, 80 parts, by weight; curcuma root (turmeric), 80 parts, by weight; olive oil, 240 parts, by weight; saffron, 1 part, by weignt; alco- hol, 5 parts, by weight. The orlean and turmeric are macerated with olive oil and expressed. The weight of the filtered liquid is made up again to 240 parts, by weight, with olive oil, next the filtered saflfron-alcohol extract is added, and the alcohol is expelled again by heating the mixture. Artificial Butter.— I.— Carefully washed beef suet furnishes a basis for the manufactures of an edible substitute for natural butter. The thoroughly washed and finely chopped suet is ren- dered in a steam-heated tank; 1,000 parts of fat, 300 parts of water, 1 part of potassium carbonate, and 2 stomachs of pigs or sheep, are taken. The temper- ature of the mixture is raised to 113° F. After 2 hours, under the influence of the pepsin in the stomachs, the membranes are dissolved and the fat is melted and rises to the top of the mixture. After the addition of a little salt the melted fat is drawn off, stood to cool so as to allow the stearine and palmitin to separate, and then pressed in bags in a hydraulic press. Forty to 50 per cent of solid stearine remains, while 50 to 60 per cent of fluid oleopalmitin (so-called "oleo- margarine") IS pressed out. The "oleo oil" is then mixed with 10 per cent of its weight of milk and a little butter color and churned. The product is then worked, salted, and constituted the "oleomargarine," or butter substitute. Leaf lard can be worked in the same way as beef suet, and will yield an oleopal- mitin suitable for churning up into a butter substitute. II. — Fat from freshly slaughtered cattle after thorough washing is placed in clean water and surrounded with ice, where it is allowed to remain until all animal heat has been removed. It is then cut into small pieces by machinery and cooked at a temperature of about 150° F. (65.6° C.) until the fat in liquid form has separated from the tissue, then settled until it is perfectly clear. Then it is drawn into the graining vats and allowed to stand for a day, when it is ready for the presses. The pressing extracts the stearine, leav- ing a product commercially known as oleo oil which, when churned with cream or milk, or both, and with usually a pro- Cortion of creamery butter, the whole eing properly salted, gives the new food product, oleomargarine. III. — In making butterine use neutral lard, which is made from selected leaf lard in a very similar manner to oleo oil, excepting that no stearine is extracted. This neutral lard is cured in salt brine for from 48 to 70 hours at an ice-water temperature. It is then taken and, with the desired proportion of oleo oil and fine, butter, is churned with cream and milk, f)roducing an article which when proper- y salted and packed is ready for the market. In both cases coloring matter is used, which is the same as that used by dairymen to color their butter. At cer- tain seasons of the year — viz., in cold weather, a small quantity of sesame oil or salad oil made from cottonseed oil is used to soften the texture of the product. IV. — "Ankara" is a substance which in general appearance resembles a good article of butter, being rather firmer at ordinary temperatures than that sub- stance, approaching the consistency of cocoa butter. It is quite odorless, but in taste it resembles that of a fair article of butter and, what is more, its behavior under heat is very similar to that of but- ter — it browns and forms a sort of spume like that of fat. Ankara consists of a base of cocoa butter, carrying about 10 per cent of milk, colored with yolk of egg. While not derived from milk, on the one hand, nor does it come from a single vegetable or animal fat on the other, an- BUTTER— CArf: PARFAIT 143 kara may be considered an belonging to the cat^ory of the margarines. An- kara is obtained in the market in the form of cakes or tablets of 2 pounds in weight. V. — Fresh butter, ISO parts, by weight; animal fat, 80 parts, by weight; sun- flower oil, 40 parts, by weight; cocoanut oil, 30 parts, by weight. VI. — Fresh butter, 100 parts, by weight; animal fat, 100 parts, by weight; sunflower oil, 80 parts, by weight; cocoa- nut oil, 20 parts, by weight. VII. — Fresh butter, 50 parts, by weight; animal fat, ISO parts, by weight; sunflower oil, 80 parts, by weight; cocoa- nut oil, 20 parts, by weight. It is seen that these three varieties contain respectively SO, 33, and about 16 per cent of cow's butter. The appear- ance of the mixture is nearly perfect. Formulas V to VII are for a Russian arti- ficial butter called " Perepusk." To Impart the Aroma and Taste of Natural Butter to Margarine. — In order to give margarine the aroma and flavor of cow butter, add to it a fatty acid product, which is obtained by saponification of butter, decomposition of the soap, and distillation in the vacuum at about 140° F. The addition of the product is made upon emulsification of the fats with milk. The margarine will keep for months. Harmless Butter Color. — Alum, pul- verized finely, 30 parts; extract of tur- meric, 1 part. With the extract damp- en the powder as evenly as possible, then spread out and dry over some hot sur- face. When dry, again pulverize thor- oughly. Protect the product from the light. As much of the powder as will lie on the point of a penknife is added to a churnful.of milk, or cream, before churning, and it gives a beautiful golden color, entirely harmless. To make the extract of turmeric add 1 part of pow- dered turmeric to 5 parts of alcohol, and let macerate together for fully a week. To Sweeten Rancid Butter. —I. —Wash the butter first with fresh milk and after- wards with spring water, carefully work- ing out the residual water. II. — Add 2S to 30 drops of lime chlor- ide to every 2 pounds of butter, work the mass up thoroughly, then wash in plenty of fresh, cold water, and work out the residual water. III. — Melt the butter in a water bath, along with some freshly burned animal charcoal, coarsely powdered and care- fully sifted to free it from dust. After this has remained in contact for a few minutes, the butter is strained through a clean flannel. If the rancid odor is not completely removed, complete the process. An English Margarine. — A mixture of edible fats of suitable consistency, e. g., oleo oil, S parts; neutral lard, 7 parts; and butter, 1 part; is mixed with albuminous "batter," 4 parts, with the addition of 1 part of salt as a preservative. If the albuminous constituent be composed of the whites and yolks of eggs beaten to a foam the product will have the consist- ency and color of butter. The molten fats are added to the egg batter and the whole is stirred at a temperature sufii- cient to produce coagulation of the albu- men (lS0-200° F.). The mass is then cooled gradually with continuous stir- ring, and the salt is worked in. Olive-Oil Paste. — If an ounce of peeled garlic be rubbed up into a pulp, in a clean Wedgwood mortar, and to this be added from 3 to 4 ounces of good olive oil, with constant rubbing up with the pestle, the oil becomes converted into a pasty mass, like butter. It is possible that the mucilage obtainable from other bulbs of the Luium tribe would prove equally efficient in conferring semi- solidity on the oil, without imparting any strong smell. The above composition is largely used by the Spanish peasantry, instead of butter, which runs liquid in the Spanish summer. It is known as "aleoli." The more easily solidified portion of olive oil is stearine, and this may be cheaply prepared from mutton fat. If added, in certain proportions, to olive oil, it would certainly raise its melt- ing point. BUTTERMILK, ARTIFICIAL. Buttermilk powder, 10 parts; vinegar, 1 part; syrup of buckthorn, 1 part. Dis- solve the powder in the water and add the vinegar and syrup. The powder is prepared as follows: Sodium chloride, 50 parts; milk sugar, 100 parts; potas- sium nitrate, 5 parts; alum, 5 parts. Mix. BUTTER, ARTIFICIAL: TESTS FOR: See Poods. BUTTER COLORANT: See Foods. BUTTONS OF ARTIFICIAL AGATE: See Agate. CADMIUM ALLOYS: See Alloys. CAFE PARFAIT: See Ice Creams. 144 CALAMUS CORDIAL— CAMPHOR CALAMUS CORDIAL: See Wines and Liquors. CALCIUM CARBIDE: Preservation and Use of Calcium Carbide. — Calcium carbide is readily at- tacked by the air and the moisture con- tained in the generators and consequent- ly decomposes during the storing, with formation of acetylene gas. Aside from the loss, this decomposition is also at- tended with dangers. One of the oldest methods of preservation is the saturation of the carbide with petroleum. In using such carbide a layer of petroleum forms on the surface of the water in the gener- ator, which prevents the water from evaporating, thus limiting the subse- quent generation of acetylene from the remaining carbide. Instead of petro- leum many other substances have been proposed which answer the purpose equally well, e. g., toluol, oils, solid bodies, which previously have to be liquefied, such as stearine, parafHne, rosin, etc. Of a different nature is a medium of- fered by Letang of Paris. He em- ploys sugar or saccharine bodies to which he adds, if necessary, a little petroleum, turpentine, vaseline, or varnish of any kind, as well as chalk, limestone, talc, sulphur, or sand. The carbide is coated with this mixture. The saccharine sub- stances dissolve in the generating water, and also have a dissolving action on the slaked lime, which is formed by the de- composition of the carbide which admits of its easy removal. According to another process carbide is put on the market in such a shape that, without weighing, merely by count- ing or measuring one is in a position to use equivalent quantities for every charge. Gearing casts molten carbide in tne shape of bars, and pours a layer of gela- tin, glue, and water soluble varnish over the carbide bars. Others make shells containing a certain quantity of reduced carbide. For this ordinary and varnished pasteboard, wax paper, tin- foil, thin sneet zinc, and similar sub- stances may be used which ward off atmospheric moisture, thus protecting the carbide from premature decompo- sition. Before use, the cartridge-like shell is pierced or cut open, so that the water can get at the contents. The more or less reduced carbide is filled in the shell, either without any admixture or united into a compact mass by a bind- ing agent, such as colophony, pitch, tar, sand, etc. Deodorization of Calcium Carbide. — Calcium carbide is known to possess a very unpleasant odor because it con- stantly develops small quantities of im- pure acetylene in contact with the mois- ture of the air. Le Roy, of Rouen, proposes for portable — especially bicy- cle — lamps, in which the evil is more noticeable than in large plants, simply to pour some petroleum over the carbide and to pour off the remainder not ab- sorbed. The petroleum, to which it is well to add some nitro-benzol (mir- bane essence), prevents the access of air to the carbide, but permits a very satis- factory generation of gas on admission of water. CALCIUM SULPHIDE (LUMINOUS): See Paints. CALFSKIN: See Leather. CAMERA RENOVATION: See Photography. CAMPHOR PREPARATIONS: Fragrant Naphthalene Camphor. — Naphthalene white, in scales 3,000 parts Camphor 1,000 parts Melt on the steam bath and add to the hot mass: Coumarin 2 parts Mirbane oil 10 parts Cast in plates or compressed tablets. The preparation is employed as a moth preventive. Powdered Camphor in Permanent Form. — I. — Powder the camphor in the usual manner, with the addition of a little alcohol. When it is nearly reduced to the proper degree of fineness add a few drops of fluid petrolatum and imme- diately triturate again. In this manner a powder as fine as flour is obtained, which does not cake together. This powdered camphor may be used for ail purposes except for solution in alcohol, as it will impart to the latter a faint opal- escence, owing to the insolubility of the petrolatum. II. — Take equal parts of strong ether and alcohol to reduce the camphor to powder. It is claimed for this method that it only takes one-half of the time required when alcohol alone is used, and that the camphor dries more quickly. Before sifting add 1 per cent of white vaseline and 5 per cent of sugar of milk. Triturate fairly dry, spread out in the air, say 15 minutes, then pass through a moderately fine wire sieve, using a stubby shaving brush to assist in working it through. CAMPHOR— CANDLES 145 Camphor Pomade — Oil of bitter almonds. 1 drachm Oil of cloves 20 drops Camphor 1 J ounces White wax 4 ounces Lard, prepared 1 pound Melt the wax and lard together, then add the camphor in saturated solution in spirit; put in the oils when nearly cold. Camphor Ice. — I. — White wax 16 parts Benzoated suet 48 parts Camphor, powdered. 8 parts Essential oil, to perfume. Melt the wax and suet together. When nearly cold, add the camphor and perfume, mix well, and pour into molds. II. — Oil of almond ]6 parts White wax 4 parts Spermaceti 4 parts Paraffine 8 parts Camphor, powdered. 1 part Perfume, quantity sufficient. Dissolve the camphor in the oil by the aid of a gentle heat. Melt the solids to- gether, remove, and let cool, but before the mixture begins to set add the cam- phorated oil and the perfume, mix, and pour into molds. III. — Stearine (stearic acid) 8 pounds Lard 10 pounds White wax 5 pounds Spermaceti 5 pounds Melt on a water bath in an earthen or porcelain dish; strain into a similar ves- sel; add a solution of 2 ounces powdered borax in 1 pound of glycerine, previously warmed, to the melted substance when at the point of cooling; stir well; add cam- phor, 2 pounds, powdered by means of alcohol, 3 ounces; stir well and pour into molds. CAMPHOR SOAP : See Soap. CAMPHOR SUBSTITUTES IW THE PREPARATION OF CELLULOID : See Celluloid. CAMPHOR AND RHUBARB AS A REMEDY FOR CHOLEPJ^: See Cholera Remedies. CAN VARNISH : See Varm'shes. CANARY-BIRD PASTE. The following is a formula much used hy German canary-bird raisers: Sweet almonds, blanched 16 parts Pea meal 32 parts Butter, fresh (un- salted) 3 parts Honey, quantity sufficient to make a stiff paste. The ingredients are worked into a stiff paste, which is pressed through a colander or large sieve to granulate the mass. Some add to every 5 pounds, 10 or 15 grains of saffron and the yolks of 2 eggs. CANARY BIRDS AND THEIR DIS- EASES : See Veterinary Formulas. CANDLES : Coloring Ceresine Candles for the Christmas Tree. — For coloring these candles only dye stuffs soluble in oil can be employed. Blue: 23-24 lav- ender blue, pale or dark, 100-120 parts per 5,000 parts of ceresine. Violet: 2(i fast violet R, 150 parts per 5,000 parts of ceresine. Silver gray: 29 silver gray, 150 parts per 5,000 parts of ceresine. Yellow and orange: 30 wax yellow, me- dium, 200 parts per 5,000 parts of cere- sine; 61 old gold, 200 parts per 5,000 parts of ceresine. Pink and red: 27 peach-pink, or 29 chamois, about 100 parts per 5,000 parts of ceresine. Green: 16-17 brilliant green, 33 May green, 41 May green, 200-250 parts per 5,000 parts of ceresine. The above-named colors should be ground in oil and the ceresine tinted with them afterwards. Manufacture of Composite ParafBne Candles. — Three parts of hydroxy- stearic acid are dissolved in 1 part of a suitable solvent (e. g., stearic acid), and the solution is mixed with paraffine wax to form a stock for the manufacture of composite candles. Transparent Candles. — The following are two recipes given in a German patent specification. The figures de- note parts by weight: I. — Paraffine wax, 70; stearine, 15; petroleum, 15. II. — Paraffine wax, 90; stearine, 5; petroleum, 5. Recipe I of course gives candles more transparent than does recipe II. The 15 per cent may be re- garded as the extreme limit consistent with proper solidity of the candles. To Prevent the Trickling of Burning Candles. — Dip the candles in the fol- lowing mixture: Magnesium sulphate IS parts Dextrin 15 parts Water 100 parts The solution dries quickly and does not affect the burning of the candle. 146 CANDLE— CARAMELS Candle Coloring. — Candles are colored either throughout or they sometimes consist of a white body that is covered with a colored layer of paraffine wax. According to the material from which candles are made (stearine, paraffine, or ozokerite), the process of coloring varies. Stearine, owing to its acid character, dissolves the coal-tar colors much more readily than do the perfectly neutral par- affine and ozokerite waxes. For coloring stearine the necessary quantity of the color is added to the melted mass and well stirred in; if the solution effected happens to be incomplete, a small addi- tion of alcohol will prove an effective remedy. It is also an advantage to dis- solve the colors previously in alcohol and add the concentrated solution to the melted stearine. The alcohol soon evap- orates, and has no injurious effect on the quality of the stearine. For a number of years there have been on the market so-called " fat colors," formed by making concentrated solu- tions of the color, and also sjjecial prep- arations of the colors in stearine. They are more easily applied, and are, there- fore, preferred to the powdered aniline colors, which are apt to cause trouble by being accidentally distributed in soluble particles, where they are not wanted. Since paraffine and ozokerite dissolve comparatively little, they will not be- come colored, and so must be colored indirectly. One way is to dissolve the color in oleic acid or in stearine acid and add the solution to the wax to be col- ored. Turpentine may be employed for the same purpose. Concerning the colors suitable for candles, there are the eosine colors previously mentioned, and also chroline yellow, auramine, taniline blue, tartrazine, brilliant green, etc. The latter, however, bleaches so rapidly that it can hardly be recommended. An interesting phenomenon is the change some colors undergo in a, warm tem- perature; for instance, some blues turn red at a moderate degree of heat (120° F.) and return to blue only when com- pletely cooled off; this will be noticed while the candle mixture is being melted previous to molding into candles. CANDLES (FUMIGATING) : See Pumigants. CANDY COLORS AND FLAVORS : See Confectionery. CANDY: See Confectionery. CANVAS WATERPROOFING: See Waterproofing. CAOUTCHOUC : See Rubber. CAOUTCHOUC SOLUTION FOR PAINTS : See Paint. CAPPING MIXTURES FOR BOTTLES: See Bottle-Capping Mixtures. CAPSULE VARNISH: See Varnishes. CARAMEL: Cloudless Caramel Coloring. — I.— When it is perfectly understood that in the manufacture of caramel, sugar is to be deprived of the one molecule of its water of constitution, it will be apparent that heat must not be carried on to the point of carbonization. Cloudy cara- mel is due to the fact that part of the sugar has been dissociated and reduced to carbon, which is insoluble in water. Hence the cloudiness. Caramel may be made on a small scale in the following manner: Place 4 or 5 ounces of granu- lated sugar in a shallow porcelain-lined evaporating dish and apply either a direct heat or that of an oil bath, con- tinuing the heat until caramelization takes place or until tumescence ceases and the mass has assumed a dark-brown color. Then carefully add sufficient water to bring the viscid mass to the consistence of a heavy syrup. Extreme care must be taken and the face and hands protected during the addition of the water, owing to the intensity of the heat of the mass, and consequent sput- tering. II. — The ordinary sugar coloring material is made from sugar or glucose by heating it, while being constantly stirred, up to a temperature of about 405° P. A metal pan capable of holding nearly ten times as much as the sugar used, is necessary so as to retain the mass in its swollen condition. As soon as it froths up so as nearly to fill the pan, an action which occurs suddenly, the fire must instantly be extinguished or re- moved. The finished product will be insoluble if more than about 15 per cent of its weight is driven off by the heat. CARAMEL IN FOOD: See Food. CARAMELS : See Confectionery. CARBOLIC ACID— CARPET SOAP 147 CARBOLIC ACID. Perfumed Carbolic Acid. — I. — Carbolic acid (cryst.). 1 ounce Alcohol 1 ounce Oil bergamot 10 minims Oil eucalyptus 10 minims Oil citronella 3 minims Tincture cudbear. .. . 10 minims Water, to make 10 ounces Set aside for several days, and then filter through fuller's earth. II. — Carbolic acid (cryst.) 4 drachms Cologne water 4 drachms Dilute acetic acid. ... 9 ounces Keep in a cool place for a few days, and Qlter. Treatment of Carbolic-Acid Burns. — Thoroughly wash the hands with alco- hol, and the burning and tingling will almost immediately cease. Unless em- ployed immediately, however, the alco- hol has no effect. When the time elapsed since the burning is too great for alcohol to be of value, brush the burns with a saturated solution of picric acid in water. Decolorization of Carbolic Acid. — To decolorize the acid the following simple method is recommended. For purify- ing carbolic acid which has already \>v- corae quite brown-red on account of having been kept in a tin vessel, the re- ceptacle is exposed for a short time to a temperature of 25° C. (77° F.), thus causing only a part of the contents to melt. In this state the acid is put into glass funnels and left to stand for 10 to 12 days in a room which is likewise kept at the above temperature. Clear white crystals form from the drippings, which remained unchanged, protected from air and light, while by repeating the same process more clear crystals are obtained from the solidified dark col- ored mother lye. In this manner 75 to 80 per cent of clear product is obtained altogether. Disguising Odor of Carbolic Acid. — Any stronger smelling substance will dis- guise the odor of carbolic acid, to an ex- tent at least, but it is a, difficult odor to disguise on account of its persistence. Camphor and some of the volatile oils, such as peppermint, cajeput, caraway, clove, and wintergreen may be used. To Restore Reddened Carbolic Acid. — Demont's method consists in melting the acid on the water bath, adding 12 per cent of alcohol of 95 per cent, letting cool down and, after the greater part of the substance has crystallized out, decanting the liquid residue. The crystals ob- tained in this manner are snowy white, and on being melted yield a nearly color- less liquid. The alcohol may be recov- ered by redistillation at a low tempera- ture. This is a rather costly procedure. CARBOLIC SOAP: See Soap. CARBOLDTEUM : See also Paints and Wood. Preparation of Carbolineum. — I . — Melt together 60 parts of American rosin (F) and 150 parts of pale paraffine oil (yel- low oil), and add, with stirring, 20 parts of rosin oil (rectified). II. — Sixty parts, by weight, of black coal tar oil of a specific gravity higher than 1.10; 25 parts, by weight, of creo- sote oil; 25 parts, by weight, of beech- wood tar oil of a higher .specific weight than 0.9. Mix together and heat to about 347° F., or until the fumes given off begin to deposit soot. The resulting carbolineum is brown, and of somewhat thick consistency; when cool it is ready for use and is packed in cask.s. This improved carbohneum is applied to wood or masonry with a brush; the surfaces treated dry quickly, very soon loose the odor of the carbolineum, and are effec- tively protected from dampness and for- mation of fungi. CARBON PRINTING: See Photography. CARBON PROCESS IN PHOTOGRA- PHY: See Photography. CARBONYLE : See Wood. CARBUNCLE REMEDIES: See Boil Remedy. CARDS (PLAYING), TO CLEAN: See Cleaning Preparations and Meth- ods. CARDBOARD, WATERPROOF GLUE FOR: See Adhesives under Cements and Waterproof Glues. CARDBOARD, WATERPROOFING : See Waterproofing. CARMINATIVES : See Pain Killers. CARPET PRESERVATION: See Household Formulas. CARPET SOAP: See Soap. 148 CASEIN CARRIAGE-TOP DRESSING: See Leather. CARRON OIL: See Cosmetics. CASE HARDENING: See Steel. Casein Dried Casein, its Manufacture and Uses. — For the production of casein, skimmed milk or buttermilk is used, articles of slight value, as they cannot be employed for feeding hogs or for making cheese, except of a very inferior sort, of little or no alimentive qualities. This milk is heated to from 70° to 90° C. (175°-195° F.), and sulphuric or hydro- chloric acid is added until it no longer causes precipitation. The precipitate is washed to free it from residual lactose, redissolved in a sodium carbonate solu- tion, and again precipitated, this time by lactic acid. It is again washed, dried, and pulverized. It takes 8 gallons of skimmed milk to make 1 pound of dry casein. In the manufacture of fancy papers, or papers that are made to imitate the appearance of various cloths, laces, and silks, casein is very widely used. It is also largely used in waterproof- ing tissues, for preparation of water- proof products, and various articles prepared from agglomeration of cork (packing boards, etc.). With lime water casein makes a glue that resists heat, steam, etc. It also enters into the manu- facture of the various articles made from artificial ivory (billiard balls, combs, toilet boxes, etc.), imitation of celluloid, meerschaum, etc., and is finding new uses every day. Casein, as known, may act the part of an acid and combine with bases to form caseinates or caseates; among these compounds, caseinates of potash, of soda, and of ammonia are the only ones soluble in water; all the others are insol- uble and may be readily prepared by double decomposition. Thus, for ex- ample, to obtain caseinate of alumina it is suflScient to add to a solution of casein in caustic soda, a solution of sulphate of alumina; an insoluble precipitate of ca- sein, or caseinate of alumina, is instantly formed. This precipitate ought to be freed from the sulphate of soda (formed by double decomposition), by means of pro- longed washing. Pure, ordinary cellu- lose may be incorporated with it by this process, producing a new compound, cheaper than pure cellulose, although possessing the same properties, and capa- ble of replacing it in all its applications. According to the results desired, in transparency, color, hardness, etc., the most suitable caseinate should be select- ed. Thus, if a translucent compound is to be obtained, the caseinate of alumina yields the best. If a white compound is desired, the caseinate of zinc, or of mag- nesia, should be chosen; and for colored products the caseinates of iron, copper, and nickel will give varied tints. The process employed for the new prod- ucts, with a base of celluloid and casein- ate, is as follows: On one hand casein is dissolved in a solution of caustic soda (100 parts of water for 10 to 25 parts of soda), and this liquid is filtered to separate the matters not dissolved and the impurities. On the other hand, a salt of the base of which the caseinate is desired is dis- solved, and the solution filtered. It is well not to operate on too concentrated a solution. The two solutions are mixed in a receptacle provided with a mechan- ical stirrer, in order to obtain the in- soluble caseinate precipitate in as finely divided a state as possible. This precip- itate should be washed thoroughly, so as to free it from the soda salt formed by double decomposition, but on account of its gummy or pasty state, this washing presents certain difficulties, and should be done carefully. After the washing the mass is freed from the greater part of water contained, by draining, foUowed by drying, or energetic pressing; then it is washed in alcohol, dried or pressed again, and is ready to be incorporated in the plastic mass of the celluloid. For the latter immersion and washing it has been found that an addition of 1 to 5 per cent of borax is advantageous, for it renders the mass more plastic, and facil- itates the operation of mixing. This may be conducted in a mixing appara- tus; but, in practice, it is found prefer- able to effect it with a rolling mill, oper- ating as follows: The nitro-cellulose is introduced in the plastic state, and moistened with a solution of camphor in alcohol (40 to 50 parts of camphor in 50 to 70 of alcohol for 100 of nitro-cellulose) as it is prac- ticed in celluloid factories. This plastic mass of nitro-cellulose is placed in a rolling mill, the cylinders of which are slightly heated at the same time as the caseinate, prepared as above; then the whole mass is worked by the cylinders until the mixture of the two CASTING 149 is perfectly homogeneous, and the final mass is sufficiently hard to be drawn out in leaves in the same way as practiced for pure celluloid. '1 hesc leaves are placed in hydraulic pressrs, where they are compressed, first hot, then cold, and the block thus formed is afterwards cut into leaves of the thickness desired. These leaves are dried in an apparatus in the same way as ordinary celluloid. The product resembles celluloi parts Oxide of copper ] part Carbonate of cobalt . . 1 part Oxide of cobalt 2 parts Olive.— Oxide of chrome 3 parts Oxide of zinc '2 parts Flint ") parts Oxide of cobalt 1 part Blood Red.— Oxide of zinc .'50 parts Crocus martis 7 parts Oxide of chrome. ... 7 parts Litharge 5 parts Borax 5 parts Red oxide of iron 2 parts Black.— Chromate of iron 24 parts Oxide of nickel 2 parts Oxide of tin ■i parts Oxide of cobalt 5 parts Imperial Blue. — Oxide of cobalt 10 parts Black color 1 J parts Paris white 7 j parts Flint 2i parts Carbonate of soda ... 1 part Mahogany. — Chromate of iron 30 parts Oxide of manganese. . 20 parts Oxide of zinc 12 parts Oxide of tin 4 parts Crocus martis 2 parts Gordon Green. — Oxide of chrome. ... 1 '2 parts Paris white 8 parts Bichromate of potash. 4} parts Oxide of cobalt | part Violet.— Oxide of cobalt 2i parts Oxide of manganese. . 4 parts Oxide of zinc S parts Cornwall stone S parts 166 CERAMICS Lavender. — Calcined oxide of zinc 5 parts Carbonate of cobalt . . | part Oxide of nickel J part Paris white 1 part Brown. — Manganese 4 parts Oxide of chrome 2 parts Oxide of zinc 4 parts Sulphate barytes 2 parts Dove. — Oxide of nickel 7 parts Oxide of cobalt 2 parts Oxide of chrome 1 part Oxide of flint 18 parts Paris white 3 parts Yellow Green. — Flint 6 parts Paris white 4 parts Bichromate of potash. 4 J parts Red lead 2 parts Fluorspar 2 parts Plaster of Paris 1 J parts Oxide of copper J part BODIES REQUIRING NO STAIN: Ivory. — Cane marl 16 parts Ball clay 12 parts Feldspar 8 parts China clay 6 parts Flint 4 parts Cream. — Ball clay 22 parts China clay 5 J parts Flint 5 parts Feldspar 3 J parts Cane marl 12 parts Black.— Ball clay 120 parts Ground ocher 120 parts Ground manganese. 35 parts Buff.— Ball clay 12 parts China clay 10 parts Feldspar 8 parts Bull fire clay 16 parts Yellow ocher 3 parts Drab.— Cane marl 30 parts Ball clay 10 parts Stone 7 parts Feldspar 4 parts Brown. — Red marl SO parts China clay 7 parts Ground manganese . . 6 parts Feldspar 3 parts In making mazarine blue glazed bricks use the white body and stain the glaze only. Mazarine blue 1 part Glaze 7 parts For royal blue use 1 part stain to 6 parts white body, and glaze unstained. Blood-Red Stain. — Numerous brick manufacturers possess beds of clay from which good and sound bricks or tiles can be made, the only drawback being that the clay does not burn a good color. In many cases this arises from the fact that the clay contains more or less sul- phur or other impurity, which spoils the external appearance of the finished article. The following stain will con- vert clay of any color into a rich, deep red, mixed in proportions of stain, 1 part, to clay, 60 parts. Stain.— Crocus martis 20 parts Yellow ocher 4 parts Sulphate of iron 10 parts Red oxide of iron 2 parts A still cheaper method is to put a slip or external coating upon the goods. The slip being quite opaque, effectively hides the natural color of the brick or tile upon which it may be used. The process is to mix: Blood-red stain 1 part Good red clay 6 parts Add water until the mixture becomes about the consistency of cream, then with a sponge force the liquid two or three times through a very fine brass wire lawn. No. 80, and dip the goods in the liquid as soon as they are pressed or molded. Blue Paviors. — Blue paving bricks may be produced with almost any kind of clay that will stand a fair amount of heat, by adopting the same methods as in the former case of blood-red bricks, that is, the clay may be stained through- out, or an outside coating may be ap- plied. Stain for Blue Paviors. — Ground ironstone .... 20 parts Chromate of iron 5 parts Manganese 6 parts Oxide of nickel 1 part Use 1 part clay and 1 part stain for coating, and 50 or 60 parts clay and 1 part stain for staining through. Fire blue paviors very hard. Buff Terra-Cotta Slip.— Buff fire clay 16 parts China clay 6 parts CERAMICS 167 Yellow ocher. 3 parts Ball clay 10 parts Flint 4 parts Add water to the materials after mix- ing well, pass through the fine lawn, and dip the goods when soft in the liquid. Transparent Glaze. — Ground flint glass 4 parts Ground white lead. ... 4 parts Ground oxide of zinc. J part This glaze is suitable for bricks or tiles made of very good red clay, the natural color of the clay showing through the glaze. The goods must first be fired sufficiently hard to make them durable, afterwards glazed, and fired again. The glaze being comparatively soft will fuse at about halt the neat required for the first burning. The glaze may be stained, if desired, with any of the colors given in glazed-brick recipes, in the following proportions: Stain, 1 part; glaze, 1 part. SPECIAL RECIPES FOR POTTERY AND BRICK AND TILE WORKS : Vitrifiable Bodies. — The following mix- tures will flux only at a very high heat. They require no glaze when a proper heat is attained, and they are admirably adapted for stoneware glazes. I. — Cornwall stone. .. . 20 parts Feldspar 12 parts China clay 3 parts Whiting 2 parts Plaster of Paris ... 1 J parts II.— Feldspar 30 parts Flint 9 parts Stone 8 parts China clay 3 parts III.— Feldspar 20 parts Stone 5 parts Oxide of zinc 3 parts Whiting 2 parts Plaster of Paris ... 1 part Soda crystals, dis- solved 1 part Special Glazes for Bricks or Pottery at One Burning. — To run these glazes intense heat is required. I. — Cornwall stone 40 parts Flint 7 parts Paris white 4 parts Ball clay 15 parts Oxide of zinc 6 parts White lead 15 parts II.— Feldspar 20 parts Cornwall stone. .. . 5 parts Oxide of zinc 3 parts Flint 3 parts Lynn sand li parts Sulphate bai-ytes. . . IJ parts III-— Feldspar 25 parts Cornwall stone 6 parts Oxide of zinc 2 parts China clay 2 parts IV. — Cornwall iitone 118 parts Feldspar 40 parts Paris white 28 parts Flint 4 parts V. — Feldspar 16 parts China clay 4 parts Stone 4 parts Oxide of zinc 2 parts Plaster of Paris .... 1 part VI. — Feldspar 10 parts Stone 5 parts Flint 2 parts Plaster J part The following glaze is excellent for bricks in the bi.scuit and pottery, which require an easy firing: White.— White lead 20 parts Stone 9 parts Flint 9 parts Borax 4 parts Oxide of zinc 2 parts Feldspar 3 parts These materials should be procured finely ground, and after being thoroughly mixed should be placed in a fire-clay crucible, and be fired for 5 or 6 hours, sharply, or until the material runs down into a liquid, then with a pair of iron tongs draw the crucible from the kiln and pour the liquid into a bucket of cold water, grind the flux to an extremely fine powder, and spread a coating upon the plate to be enameled, previously brushing a little gum thereon. The plate must then be fired until a suSicient heat is attained to run or fuse the pow- der. POTTERY BODIES AND GLAZES: Ordinary. — I. — China clay 2* parts Sfone U parts Bone 3 parts II. — China clay 5 parts Stone ■ 2i parts Bone 7 parts Barytes 3 parts III.— Chain clay 5 parts Stone 3 parts Flint i part Barytes 8 parts Superior. — I.— China clay 35 parts Cornwall stone 23 parts Bone 40 parts Flint 2 parts 168 CERAMICS II. — China clay 35 parts Cornwall stone 8 parts Bone 50 parts Flint 3 parts Blue clay 4 parts III. — China clay 8 parts Cornwall stone 40 parts Bone 29 parts Flint 5 parts Blue clay 18 parts IV. — China clay 32 parts Cornwall stone 23 parts Bone 34 parts Flint 6 parts Blue clay 5 parts V. — China clay 7 parts Stone 40 parts Bone 28 parts Flint 5 parts Blue clay 20 parts Finest China Bodies. — I. — China clay 20 parts Bone 60 parts Feldspar 20 parts II. — China clay 30 parts Bone 40 parts Feldspar 30 parts III. — China clay 25 parts Stone 10 parts Bone 45 parts Feldspar 20 parts IV. — China clay 30 parts Stone 15 parts Bone 35 parts Feldspar 20 parts Earthenware Bodies. — I. — Ball clay 13 parts China clay 9^ parts Flint 5J parts Cornwall stone 4 parts II.— Ball clay 12i parts China clay 8 parts Flint 5 J parts Cornwall stone ... 2J parts One pint of cobalt stain to 1 ton of glaze. III.— Ball clay 13} parts China clay 11 parts Flint 4 parts Cornwall stone 5 parts Feldspar 4 parts Stain as required. I v.— Ball clay 18i parts China clay isi parts Flint 8| parts Stone 4 parts Blue stain, 2 pints to ton. V. — Ball clay 15 parts China clay . . .' 12 parts Flint 6 parts Stone 4 parts Feldspar 4 parts Blue stain, 2 pints to ton. VI. (Parian).— Stone 11 parts Feldspar 10 parts China clay 8 parts COLORED BODIES : Ivory Body. — Ball clay 22 parts China 5 J parts Flint 6 parts Stone 3i parts Dark Drab Body.— Cane marl 30 parts Ball clay 10 parts Cornwall stone 7 parts Feldspar 4 parts Black Body.— Ball clay 120 parts Ocher 120 parts Manganese 35 parts Cobalt carbonate. . 2 parts Grind the three last mentioned ingre- dients first. Caledonia Body. — Yellow clay 32 parts China clay 10 parts Flint 4 parts Brown Body. — Red clay 50 parts Common clay 7 J parts Manganese 1 part Flint 1 part Jasper Body. — Cawk clay 10 parts Blue clay 10 parts Bone 5 parts Flint 2 parts Cobalt J part Stone Body. — Stone 48 parts Blue clay 25 parts China clay 24 parts Cobalt 10 parts Egyptian Black. — Blue clay 235 parts Calcined ocher. . . . 225 parts Manganese 45 parts China clay 15 parts Ironstone Body. — Stone 200 parts Cornwall clay 150 parts CERAMICS Blue clay 200 parts Flint 100 parts Calx 1 part Cream Body. — Blue clay li parts Brown clay 1 j parts Black clay 1 part Cornish clay 1 part Common ball clay. . J part Buff color 1 part Light Drab.— Cane marl 30 parts Ball clay 24 parts Feldspar 7 parts Sage Body. — Cane marl 15 parts Ball clay 15 parts China clay 5 parts Stained with turquoise stain. COLORED GLAZES FOR POTTERY: Blue.— White glaze 100 parts Oxide of cobalt ... 3 parts Red lead 10 parts Flowing blue 3 parts Enamel blue 3 parts Grind. Pink.— White glaze 100 parts Red lead 8 parts Marone pink U. (j. 8 parts Enamel red 3 parts Grind. Buff.— White glaze 100 parts Red lead 10 parts Buff color 8 parts Grind. Ivory. — White glaze 100 parts Red lead 8 parts Enamel amber. ... 8 parts Yellow underglaze i parts Grind. Turquoise. — White glaze . . . . 100 parts Red lead 10 parts Carbonate of soda. 5 parts Enamel blue 4 parts Malachite, 110. .. . i parts Grind. YeUow.— L— White glaze 100 parts Red lead 10 parts Oxide of uranium. 8 parts Grind. 11. — Dried flint 5 parts Cornwall stone 15 parts Litharge 50 parts Yellow underglaze. . . 4 parts Grind. Green. — I- — Oxide of copper 8 parts Flint of glass 3 parts Flint 1 part Red lead 6 parts Grind, then take: Of above 1 part Whiteglaze 6 parts Or stronger as required. II.— Red lead 60 parts Stone '24 parts Flint 1'2 parts Flint glas.s 12 parts China rlay ;i parts Calcined oxide of copper 14 parts Oxide of cobalt } part Grind only. Green Glaze, Best. — III. — Stone SO parts Flint S parts Soda crystals 4 parts Borax 3 J parts Niter .2 parts Whiting. . . .8 parts Oxide of pobiilt i part Glost fire, then take: Above frit 60 parts Red lead i~ parts Calcined oxide of copper 5\ parts Black.— Red lead 24 parts Raddle 4 parts Manganese 4 parts Flint 2 parts Oxide of cobalt 2 parts Carbonate of cobalt. 2 parts Glost fire. WHITE GLAZES: China.— Frit: I. — Stone 6 parts Niter 2 parts Borax 12 parts Flint 4 parts Pearl ash 2 parts To mill: Frit 24 parts Stone 15i parts Flint 61 parts White lead 31 parts 170 CERAMICS II.— Frit: Stone 24 parts Borax 53 parts Lynn sand 40 parts Feldspar 32 parts Paris white 16 parts To mill: Frit 90 parts Stone 30 parts White lead 90 parts Flint 4 parts Glass 2 parts III.— Frit: Stone 50 parts Borax 40 parts Flint 30 parts Flint glass 30 parts Pearl barytes 10 parts To mill: Frit 160 parts Red lead 30 parts Enamel blue J part Flint glass 2 parts IV.— Frit: Borax 100 parts China clay.. 55 parts Whiting 60 parts Feldspar 75 parts To mill: Frit 200 parts China clay 16 parts White clay 3 J parts Stone 3 parts Flint 2 parts v.— Frit: Stone 40 parts Flint 25 parts Niter 10 parts Borax 20 parts White lead 10 parts Flint glass 40 parts To mill: Frit 145 parts Stone . 56 parts Borax 16 parts Flint 15 parts Red lead 60 parts Flint glass ........ 8 parts Earthenware. — Frit: I.— Flint 108 parts China clay 45 parts Paris white 60 parts Borax 80 parts Soda crystals 30 parts To mill: Frit 270 parts Flint 20 parts Paris white 15 parts Stone 80 parts White lead 65 parts II.— Frit: Flint 62 parts China clay 30 parts Paris white 38 parts Boracic acid 48 parts Soda crystals 26 parts To mill: Frit 230 parts Stone 160 parts Flint 60 parts Lead 120 parts III.— Frit: Stone 56 parts Paris white 55 parts Flint 60 parts China clay 20 parts Borax 120 parts Soda crystals 15 parts To mill: Frit 212 parts Stone 130 parts Flint 50 parts Lead 110 parts Stain as required. IV.— Frit: Stone 100 parts Flint 44 parts Paris white 46 parts Borax 70 parts Niter 10 parts To mill: Frit 200 parts Stone 60 parts Lead 80 parts Pearl White Glaze.— Frit: Flint 50 parts Stone 100 parts Paris white 20 parts Borax 60 parts Soda crystals 20 parts To mill: Frit 178 pounds Lead 55 pounds Stain 3 ounces Opaque Glaze. — Frit: Borax 74 parts Stone 94 parts Flint 30 parts China clay 22 parts Pearl ash 5 J parts To mill: Frit 175 parts Lead 46 parts CERAMICS Flint 10 parts Oxide of tin 12 parts Flint glass 12 parts Glaze for Granite. — Frit: I.— Stone 100 parts Flint 80 parts China clay 30 parts Paris white 30 parts Feldspar 40 parts Soda crystals 40 parts Borax 80 parts To mill: Frit 360 parts Flint SO parts Stone SO parts Lead 80 parts II.— Frit: Borax . 100 parts Stone 50 parts Flint SO parts Paris white 40 parts China clay 20 parts To mill: Frit 210 parts Stone 104 parts Flint 64 parts Lead 95 parts Raw Glazes. — White: I.— White lead 160 parts Borax 32 parts Stone 48 parts Flint 52 parts Stain with blue and grind. II.— White lead 80 parts Litharge 60 parts Boracic acid 40 parts Stone 45 parts Flint 50 parts Treat as foregoing. III.— White lead 100 parts Borax 4 parts Flint 11 parts Cornwall stone .... 50 parts IV.— Red lead 80 parts Litharge 60 parts Tincal 40 parts Stone 40 parts Flint 52 parts ROCKINGHAM GLAZES. I. — Litharge SO parts Stone 7J parts Red marl 3 parts Oxide of manganese 5 parts Red oxide of iron ... 1 part II.— White lead 30 parts Stone 3 parts Flint 9 parts Red marl 3 parts Manganese 5 parts III.— Red lead 20 parts Stone 3 parts Flint 2 parU China clay 2 parts Manganese 3 parts Red oxide of iron ... 1 part Stoneware Bodies. — Ball clay 14 parts China clay 10 parts Stone 8 parts Bali clay 8 parts China clay 5 parts Flint 3 parts Stone 4 parts Ball clay 14 parts China clay 11 parts Flint 4 parts Stone S parts Feldspar 4 parts Cane marl 16 parts China clay 10 parts Stone 9 parts Flint 5 parts Glazes. — Hard glaze: Stone 10 parts Flint 5 parts Whiting 1 J parts Red lead 10 parts Hard glaze: Feldspar 25 parts Flint 5 parts Red lead 15 parts Plaster 1 part Softer: White lead 13 parts Flint glass 10 parts Feldspar 18 parts Stone 3 parts Whiting 1 J parts Best: Feldspar 20 parts Flint glass 14 parts White lead 14 parts Stone 3 parts Oxide of zinc 3 parts Whiting 1 J parts Plaster 1 part Roddngham Bodies. — Ball clay 20 parts China clay 13 parts Flint 7 parts Stone 1 part Cane marl 22 parts China clay 15 parts Flint 8 parts Feldspar 1 part 172 CERAMICS Glazes. — I.— Red lead 60 parts Stone 8 parts Red clay 3 parts Best manganese ... 5 parts II.— White lead 60 parts Feldspar 6 parts Flint 16 parts Red clay 6 parts Manganese 12 parts III.— Red lead 100 parts Stone 15 parts Flint 10 parts China clay 10 parts Manganese 40 parts Crocus martis 2 parts IV.— Litharge 100 parts Feldspar 14 parts China clay 20 parts Manganese 40 parts Oxide of iron 2 parts Jet. — Procure some first-class red marl, add water, and, by passing through a fine lawn, make it into a slip, and dip the ware therein. When fired use the following: Glaze. — Stone 60 parts Flint 30 parts Paris white 7 J parts Red lead 140 parts One part mazarine blue stain to 10 parts glaze. Mazarine Blue Stain. — Oxide of cobalt 10 parts Paris white 9 parts Sulphate barytes .... 1 part Calcine. Another Process Body. — Ball clay 16 parts China clay 12 parts Flint clay 9 parts Stone clay 6 parts Black stain 7 parts Glaze. — Litharge 70 parts Paris white 3 parts Flint 12 parts Stone 30 parts Black stain 20 parts Black Stain.— Chromate of iron . .. 12 parts Oxide of nickel 2 parts Oxide of tin 2 parts Carbonate of cobalt. 5 parts Oxide of manganese . 2 parts Calcine and grind. Blue Stains. — I. — Oxide of cobalt SJ parts Oxide of zinc 7i parts Stone 7 j parts Fire this very hard. II. — Zinc 6 pounds Flint 4 pounds China clay 4 pounds Oxide of cobalt 5 ounces Hard fire. III.— Whiting 3i parts Flint 3} parts Oxide of cobalt 2i parts Glost fire. Turquoise Stain. — Prepared cobalt .... 1 J parts Oxide of zinc 6 parts China clay 6 parts Carbonate of soda . . 1 part Hard fire. MATERIALS : Tin Ash. — Old lead 4 parts Grain tin 2 parts Melt in an iron ladle, and pour out in water, then spread on a dish, and calcine in glost oven with plenty of air. Oxide of Tin.— Granulated tin 6 pounds Niter J pound Put on saucers and fire in glost oven. Oxide of Chrome is made by mixing powdered bichromate of potash with sulphur as follows: Potash 6 parts Flowers of sulphur. . 1 part Put in saggar, inside kiln, so that fumes are carried away, and place 4 or 5 pieces of red-hot iron on the top so as to ignite it. Leave about 12 hours, then pound very fine, and put in saggar again. Calcine in hard place of biscuit oven. Wash this until the water is quite clear, and dry for use. Production of Luster Colors on Por- celain and Glazed Pottery. — The luster colors are readily decomposed by acids and atmospheric influences, because they do not contain, in consequence of the low baking temperature, enough silicic acid to form resistive compounds. In order to attain this, G. Alefeld has patented a process according to which such compounds are added to the luster E reparations as leave behind after the urning an acid which transforms the luster preparation into more resisting CERAMICS 173 compounds. In this connection the ad- mixture of such bodies has been found advantageous, as thejr form phosphides with the metallic oxides of the lusters after the burning. These phosphides are especially fitted for the production of saturated resisting compounds, not only on account of their insolubility in water, but also on account of their colorings. Similarly titanic, molybdic, tungstic, and vanadic compounds may be produced. The metallic phosphates produced by the burning give a luster coating which, as regards gloss, is not inferior to the non- saturated metallic oxides, while it mate- rially excels them in power of resistance. Since the lusters to be applied are used dissolved in essential oils, it is necessary to make the admixture of phosphoric substance also in a form soluble in essen- tial oils. For the production of this admixture the respective chlorides, pre- eminently phosphoric chloride, are suit- able. Tney are mixed with oil of lav- ender in the ratio of 1 to 5, and the resulting reaction product is added to the commercial metallic oxide luster, singly or in conjunction with precious metal preparations (glossy gold, silver, plati- num, etc.) in the approximate propor- tion of 5 to 1. Then proceed as usual. Instead of the chlorides, nitrates and acetates, as well as any readily destruc- tible organic compounds, may also be employed, which are entered into fusing rosin or rosinous liquids. Metallic Luster on Pottery. — Accord- ing to a process patented in Germany, a mixture is prepared from various natural or artificial varieties of ocher, to which 25-50 per cent of finely powdered more or less metalliferous or sulphurous coal is added. The mass treated in this man- ner is brought together in saggars with finely divided organic substances, such as sawdust, shavings, wood-wool, cut straw, etc., and subjected to feeble red heat. After the heating the material is taken out. The glazings now exhibit that thin but stable metallic color which is governed by the substances used. Besides coal, salts and oxides of silver, cobalt, cadmium, chrome iron, nickel, manganese, copper, or zinc may be em- ployed. The color-giving layer is re- moved by washing or brushing, while the desired color is burned in and re- mains. In this manner handsome shades can be produced. Metallic Glazes on Enamels. — The formulas used by the Arabs and their Italian successors are partly disclosed in manuscripts in the British and South Kensington Museums; two are given below: Arab Italian Copper sulphide 36 . 87 24 . 74 Silver sulphide 1.15 i . 03 Mercury sulphide 24 . 74 Redocher 71.98 49^49 These were ground with vinegar and applied with the brush to the already baked enamel. A great variety of iri- descent and metallic tones can be ob- tained by one or the other, or a mixture of the following formulas: I II III IV V VI Copper carbonate.. .SO .... 28 .. 95 Copper oxalate 5 . . Copper sulphide 20 Silver carbonate 3 . . 2 i 5 Bismuth subnitrate. . . 12 . . . . 10 . . Stannous oxide 25 Red ocher 70 85 55 70 84 ! ! Silver chloride and yellow ocher may be respectively substituted for silver car- bonate and red ocher. The ingredients, ground with a little gum tragacanth and water, are applied with a brush to enam- els melting about 1814° F., and are fur- naced at 1202° F. in a reducing atmos- phere. After cooling the ferruginous deposit is rubbed off, and the colors thus brought out. Sulphur, free or combined, is not nec- essary, cinnabar has no action, ocher may be dispensed with, and any organic gummy matter may be used instead of vinegar, and broom is not needed in the furnace. The intensity and tone of the iridescence depend on the duration of the reduction, and the nature of the enamel. Enamels containing a coloring base — copper, iron, antimony, nickel — especially in presence of tin, give the best results. To Toughen China. — To toughen china or glass place the new article in cold water, bring to boil gradually, boil for 4 hours, and leave standing m the water till cool. Glass or china toughened in this way will never crack with hot water. How to Tell Pottery and Porcelain. — The following simple test will serve: Hold the piece up to the light, and if it can be seen through — that is, if it is translucent — it is porcelain. Pottery is opaque, and not so hard and white as porcelain. The main differences in the manufacture of stoneware, earthenware, and porcelain are due to the ingredients used, to the way they are mixed, and to the degree of heat to which they are sub- 174 CHEESE jected in firing. Most of the old English wares found in this country are pottery or semichina, although the term china is commonly applied to them all. Cheese Manufacture. — The process of cheese making is one which is eminently in- teresting and scientific, and which, in every gradation, depends on principles which chemistry has developed and il- lustrated. When a vegetable or min- eral acid is added to milk, and heat applied, a coagulum is formed, which, wnen separated from the liquid por- tion, constitutes cheese. Neutral salts, earthy and metallic salts, sugar, and gum arable, as well as some other sub- stances, also produce the same effect; but that which answers the purpose best, and which is almost exclilsively used by dairy farmers, is rennet, or the mucous membrane of the last stom- ach of the calf. Alkalies dissolve this curd at a boiling heat, and acids again precipitate it. The solubility of casein in milk is occasioned by the presence of the phosphates and other salts of the alka- lies. In fresh milk these substances may be readily detected by the property it possesses of restoring the color of red- dened litmus paper. The addition of an acid neutralizes the alkali, and so pre- cipitates the curd in an insoluble state. The philosophy of cheese making is thus expounded by Liebig: " The acid indispensable to the co- agulation of milk is not added to the milk in the preparation of cheese, but it is formed in the milk at the expense of the milk-sugar present. A small quantity of water is left in contact with a small quantity of a calf's stomach for a few hours, or for a night; the water absorbs so minute a portion of the mucous mem- brane as to be scarcely ponderable; this is mixed with milk ; its state of transfor- mation is communicated (and this is a most important circumstance) not to the cheese, but to the milk-sugar, the ele- ments of which transpose themselves into lactic acid, which neutralizes the alkalies, and thus causes the separation of the cheese. By means of litmus paper the process may be followed and observed through all its stages; the alkaline re- action of the milk ceases as soon as the coagulation begins. If the cheese is not immediately separated from the whey, the formation of lactic acid continues, the fluid turns acid, and the cheese itself passes into a state of decomposition. "When cheese-curd is kept in a cool place a series of transformation takes place, in consequence of which it as- sumes entirely new properties; it gradu- ally becomes semi-transparent, and more or less soft, throughout the whole mass; it exhibits a feebly acid reaction, and develops the characteristic caseous odor. Fresh cheese is very sparingly soluble in water, but after having been left to itself for two or three years it becomes (es- pecially if all the fat be previously re- moved) almost completely soluble in cold water, forming with it a solution which, like milk, is coagulated by the addition of the acetic or any mineral acid. The cheese, which whilst fresh is insoluble, returns during the maturation, or ripening, as it is called, to a state sim- ilar to that in which it originally existed in the milk. In those English, Dutch, and Swiss cheeses which are nearly in- odorous, and in the superior kinds of French cheese, the casein of the milk is present in its unaltered state. " The odor and flavor of the cheese is due to the decomposition of the butter; the non-volatile acids, the margaric and oleic acids, and the volatile butyric acid, capric and caproic acids are liberated in consequence of the decomposition of glycerine. Butyric acid imparts to cheese its characteristic caseous odor, and the differences in its pungency or aromatic flavor depend upon the propor- tion of free butyric, capric, and caproic acids present. In the cheese of certain dairies and districts, valerianic acid has been detected along with the other acids i'ust referred to. Messrs Jljenjo and jaskowski found this acid in the cheese of Limbourg, and M. Bolard in that of Roquefort. " The transition of the insoluble into soluble casein depends upon the de- composition of the phosphate of lime by the margaric acid of the butter; mar- garate of lime is formed, whilst the. phos- phoric acid combines with the casein, forming a compoupd soluble in water. " The bad smell of inferior kinds of cheese, especially those called meager or poor cheeses, is caused by certain fetid products containing sulphur, and which are formed by the decomposition or pu- trefaction of the casein. The alteration which the butter undergoes (that is, in becoming rancid), or which occurs in the milk-sugar still present, being trans- mitted to the casein, changes both the composition of the latter substance and its nutritive qualities. " The principal conditions for the prep- aration of the superior kinds of cheese CHEESE 175 (other obvious circumstances being of course duly regarded) are a careful removal of the whey, which holds the milk-sugar in solution, and a low tem- perature during the maturation or rip- ening of the cheese." Cheese differs vastly in quality and flavor according to the method em- ployed in its manufacture and the rich- ness of the milk of which it is made. Much depends upon the quantity of cream it contains, and, consequently, when a superior quality of cheese is de- sired cream is frequently added to the curd. This plan is adopted in the man- ufacture of Stilton cheese and others of a like description. The addition of a pound or two of butter to the curd for a middling size cheese also vastly improves the quality of the product. To insure the richness of the milk, not only should the cows be properly fed, but certain breeds chosen. Those of Alderney, Cheddar, Cheshire, etc., have been widely preferred. The materials employed in making cheese are milk and rennet. Rennet is used either fresh or salted and dried; generally in the latter state. The milk may be of any kind, according to the quality of the cheese required. Cows' milk is that generally employed, but occa- sionally ewes' milk is used; and some- times, though more rarely, that from goats. In preparing his cheese the dairy farmer puts the greater portion of the milk into a large tub, to which he adds the remainder, sufficiently heated to raise the temperature to that of new milk. The wnole is then whisked to- gether, the rennet or rennet liquor added, and the tub covered over. It is now al- lowed to stand until completely " turned," when the curd is gently struck down several times with the skimming dish, after which it is allowed to subside. The vat, covered with cheese cloth, is next placed on a "horse" or "ladder" over the tub, and filled with curd by means of the skimmer, care being taken to allow as little as possible of the oily particles or butter to run back with the whey. The curd is pressed down with the nands, and more added as it sinks. This process is repeated until the curd rises to about two inches above the edge. The newly formed cheese, thus partially separated from the whey, is now placed in a clean tub, and a proper Quantity of salt, as well as of annotta, added when that coloring is used, after which a board is placed over and under it, and pressure applied for about 2 or 3 hours. The cheese is nesrt turned out and surrounded by a fresh cheese cloth, and then again submitted to pressure in the cheese press for 8 or 10 hours, after which it is commonly removed from the press, salted all over, and again pressed for 15 to 20 hours. The quality of the cheese es- pecially depends on this part of the proc- ess, as if any of the whey is left in the cheese it rapidly becomes bad-flavored. Before placing it in the press the last time the common practice is to pare the edges smooth and sightly. It now only remains to wash the outside of the cheese in warm whey or water, to wipe it dry, and to color it with annotta or reddle, as is usually done. The storing of the newly made cheese is the next point that engages the atten- tion of the, maker and wholesale dealer. The same principles which influence the maturation or ripening of fermented liquors also operate here. A cool cellar, neither damp nor dry, and which is un- influenced by change of weather or sea- son, is commonly regarded as the best for the purpose. If possible, the tem- perature should on no account be per- mitted to exceed 50° or 52° F. at any portion of the year. An average of about 45° F. is preferable when it can be procured. A place exposed to sudden changes of temperature is as unfit for storing cheese as it is for storing beer. " The quality of Roquefort cheese, which is prepared from sheep's milk, and is very excellent, depends exclusively upon the places where the cheeses are kept after pressing and during maturation. These are cellars, communicating with mountaiin grottoes and caverns which are kept constantly cool, at about 41° to 42° F., by currents of air from clefts in the mountains. The value of these cel- lars as storehouses varies with their property of maintaining an equable and low temperature." It will thus be seen that very slight differences in the materials, in the prep- aration, or in storing of the cheese, ma- terially influence the quality and flavor of this article. The richness of the milk; the addition to or subtraction of cream from the milk; the separation of the curd from the whey with or without com- pression; the salting of the curd; the collection of the curd, either whole or broken, before pressing; the addition of coloring matter, as annotta or saffron, or of flavoring; the place and method of stor- ing; and the length of time allowed for maturation, all tend to alter the taste and odor of the cheese in some or other par- ticular, and that in a way readily percep- 176 CHEESE tible to the palate of the connoisseur. No other alimentary substance appears to be so seriously affected by slight variations in the quality of the materials from which it is made, or by such ap- parently trifling differences in the meth- ods of preparing. The varieties of cheese met with in commerce are very numerous, and differ greatly from each other in richness, color, and flavor. These are commonly dis- tinguished by names indicative of the places in which they have been manufac- tured, or of the quality of the materials from which they have been prepared. Thus we have Dutch, Gloucester, Stil- ton, skimmed milk, raw milk, cream, and other cheeses ; names which explain them- selves. The following are the principal varieties : American Factory. — Same as Cheddar. Brickbat. — Named from its form; made, in Wiltshire, of new milk and cream. Brie.-^A soft, white, cream cheese of French origin. Cheddar. — A fine, spongy kind of cheese, the eyes or vesicles of which con- tain a rich oil; made up into round, thick cheeses of considerable size (150 to 200 pounds). Cheshire. — From new milk, without skimming, the morning's milk being mixed with that of the preceding even- ing's, previously warmed, so that the whole may be brought to the heat of new milk. To this the rennet is added, in less quantity than is commonly used for other kinds of cheese. On this point much of the flavor and mildness of the cheese is said to depend. A piece of dried rennet, of the size of a half-dollar put into a pint of water over night, and allowed to stand until the next morn- ing, is sufficient for 18 or 20 gallons of milk; in large, round, thick cheeses (100 to 200 pounds each). They are gen- erally solid, homogeneous, and dry, and friable rather than viscid. Cottenham. — A rich kind of cheese, in flavor and consistence not unlike Stilton, from which, however, it differs in shape, being flatter and broader than the latter. Cream. — From the "strippings" (the last of the milk drawn from the cow at each milking), from a mixture of milk and cream, or from raw cream only, ac- cording to the quality desired. It is usually made in small oblong, square, or rounded cakes, a general pressure only (that of a 2- or 4-pound weight) being applied to press out the whey. After 12 hours it is placed upon a board or wood- en trencher, and turned every day until dry. It ripens in about 3 weeks. A little salt is generally added, and fre- quently a little powdered lump sugar. Damson. — Prepared from damsons boiled with a little water, the pulp passed through a sieve, and then boifed with about one-fourth the weight of sugar, until the mixture solidifies on cooling; it is next poured into small tin molds pre- viously dusted out with sugar. Cherry cheese, gooseberry cheese, plum cheese, etc., are prepared in the same way, using the respective kinds of fruit. They are all very agreeable candies or confections. Derbyshire. — A small, white, rich variety, very similar to Dunlop cheese. Dunlop. — Rich, white, and buttery; in round forms, weighing from 30 to 60 pounds. Dutch (Holland).— Of a globular form, 5 to 14 pounds each. Those from Edam are very highly salted; those from Gouda less so. Emmenthaler. — Same as Gruyere. Gloucester. — Single Gloucester, from milk deprived of part of its cream; dou- ble Gloucester, from milk retaining the whole of the cream. Mild tasted, semi- buttery consistence, without being fri- able; in large, round, flattish forms. Green or Sage. — From milk mixed with the juice of an infusion or decoction of sage leaves, to which marigold flowers and parsley are frequently added. Gruy6re. — A fine kind of cheese made in Switzerland, and largely consumed on the Continent. It is firm and dry, and exhibits numerous cells of con- siderable magnitude. Holland. — Same as Dutch. Leguminous. — The Chinese prepare an actual cheese from peas, called tao- foo, which they sell in the streets of Can- ton. The paste from steeped ground peas is boiled, which causes the starch to dissolve with the casein; after straining the liquid it is coagulated by a solution of gypsum; this coagulum is worked up like sour milk, salted, and pressed into molds. Limburger. — A strong variety of cheese, soft and well ripened. Lincoln. — From new milk and cream; in pieces about 2 inches thick. Soft, and will not keep over 2 or 3 months. CHEESE 177 NeufchAtel. — A much-esteemed vari- ety of Swiss cheese; made of cream, and weighs about 5 or 6 ounces. Norfolk.— Dyed yellow with annotta or saffron; good, but not superior; in cheeses of 30 to 50 pounds. Pannesan. — From the curd of skimmed milk, hardened by u gentle heat. The rennet is added at about 120°, and an hour afterwards the curdling milk is set on a slow fire until heated to about 150° F., during which the curd separates in small lumps. A few pinches of saffron are then thrown in. About a fortnight after making the outer crust is cut off, and the new surface varnished with lin- seed oil, and one side colored red. Roquefort. — From ewes' milk; the best prepared in France. It greatly resembles Stilton, but is scarcely of equal richness or quality, and possesses a peculiar pungency and flavor. Roquefort, Imitation. — The gluten of wheat is kneaded with a little salt and a small portion of a solution of starch, and made up into cheeses. It is said that this mixture soon acquires the taste, smell, and unctuosity of cheese, and when kept a certain time is not to be dis- tinguished from the celebrated Roquefort cheese, of which it possesses all the pecu- liar pungency. By slightly varying the process other kinds of cheese may be imitated. Sage. — Same as green cheese. Slipcoat or Soft. — A very rich, white cheese, somewhat resembling butter; for present use only. Stilton. — The richest and finest cheese made in England. From raw milk to which cream taken from other milk is added; in cheeses generally twice as high as they are broad. Like wine, this cheese is vastly improved by age, and is therefore seldom eaten before it is 2 years old. A spurious appearance of age is sometimes given to it by placing it in a warm, damp cellar, or by sur- rounding it with masses of fermenting straw or dung. Sufiolk. — From skimmed milk; in round, flat forms, from 24 to 30 pounds each. Very hard and horny. Swiss. — The principal cheeses made in Switzerland are the Gruyere, the Neufchatel, and the Schabzieger or green cheese. The latter is flavored with melitot. Westphalian. — Made in small balls or rolls of about 1 pound each. It derives its peculiar flavor from the curd being allowed to become partially putrid before being pressed. In small balls or rolls of about 1 pound each. Wiltshire.— Resembles Cheshire or Gloucester. The outside is painted with reddle or red ocher or whey. York. — From cream. It will not keep. We give below the composition of some of the principal varieties of cheese: Double Ched- Glouces- Skim dar ter Water 36.64 35.61 43.64 Casein 23.38 21.76 45.64 Fatty matter 35.44 38.16 5.76 Mineral matter. . 4.54 4.47 4.96 100.00 100.00 100.00 Stilton Cothcr- stone Water 32.18 38.28 Butter 37.36 30.89 Casein 24.31 23.93 Milk, sugar, and ex- tractive matters. .. . 2.22 3.70 Mineral matter 3.93 3.20 100.00 100.00 Gruyere Ordinary (Swiss) Dutch Water 40.00 36.10 Casein 31.50 29.40 Fatty matter 24.00 27.50 Salts 3.00 .90 Non - nitrogenous or- ' ganic matter and loss 1.50 6.10 100.00 100.00 When a whole cheese is cut, and the consumption small, it is generally found to become unpleasantly dry, and to lose flavor before it is consumed. This is best prevented by cutting a sufficient quantity for a few days' consumption from the cheese, and keeping the re- mainder in a cool place, rather damp than dry, spreading a thin film of butter over the fresh surface, and covering it with a cloth or pan to keep off the dirt. This removes the objection existing in small families against purchasing a whole cheese at a time. The common practice of buying small quantities of cheese should be avoided, as not only a higher price is paid for any given quality, but there is little likelihood of obtaining exactly the same flavor twice running. Should cheese become too dry to be 178 CHEWING GUMS agreeable, it may be used for stewing, or for making grated cheese, or Welsn rarebits. Goats' Iililk Cheese. — Goats' milk cheese is made as follows: Warm 20 quarts of milk and coagulate it with rennet, either the , powder or extract. Separate the curds from the whey in a colander. After a few days the dry curd may be shaped into larger or smaller cheeses, the former only salted, the latter containing salt and caraway seed. The cheeses must be turned every day, and sprinkled with salt, and any mold re- moved. After a few days they may be put away on shelves to ripen, and left for several weeks. Pure goat's milk cheese should be firm and solid all the way through. Twenty quarts of milk will make about 4 pounds of cheese. CHEESE COLORANT: See Food. CHEMICAL GARDENS: See Gardens, Chemical. CHERRY BALSAM: See Balsam. CHERRY CORDIAL: See Wines and Liquors. Chewing Gums Manufacture. — The making of chew- ing gum is by no means the simple oper- ation which it seems to be. Much expe- rience in manipulation is necessary to succeed, and the published formulas can at best serve as a guide rather than as something to be absolutely and blindly followed. Thus, if the mass is either too hard or soft, change the proportions until it is right; often it will be found that different purchases of the same article will vary in their characteristics when worked up. But given a basis, the man- ufacturer can flavor and alter to suit himself. The most successful manu- facturers attribute their success to the employment of the most approved ma- chinery and the greatest attention to details. The working formulas and the processes of these manufacturers are guarded as trade secrets, and aside from publishing general formulas, little in- formation can be given. Chicle gum is purified by boiling with water and separating the foreign matter. Flavorings, pepsin, sugar, etc., are worked in under pressure by suitable machinery. Formula: I. — Gum chicle 1 pound Sugar 2 pounds Glucose 1 pound Caramel butter 1 pound First mash and soften the gum at a gentle heat. Place the sugar and glu- cose in a small copper pan; add enough water to dissolve the sugar; set on a fire and cook to 244° F.; lift off the fire; add the caramel butter and lastly the gum; mix well into a smooth paste; roll out on a smooth marble, dusting with finely pow- dered sugar, run through sizing machine to the proper thickness, cut into strips, and again into thin slices. II. — Chicle 6 ounces ParafBne 2 ounces Balsam of Tolu ... 2 drachms . Balsam of Peru . . 1 drachm Sugar 20 ounces Glucose 8 ounces Water 6 ounces Flavoring, enough. Triturate the chicle and balsams in water, take out and add the parafBne, first heated. Boil the sugar, glucose, and water together to what is known to confectioners as "crack " heat, pour the syrup over the oil slab and turn into it the gum mixture, which will make it tough and plastic. Add any desired flavor. III. — Gum chicle 122 parts ParafBne 42 parts Balsam of Tolu. .. . 4 parts Sugar 384 parts Water 48 parts Dissolve the sugar in the water by the aid of heat and pour the resultant syrup on an oiled slab. Melt the gum, balsam, and parafBne together and pour on top of the syrup, and work the whole up to- gether. IV. — Gum chicle 240 parts White wax 64 parts Sugar 640 parts Glucose 128 parts Water 192 parts Balsam of Peru ... 4 parts Flavoring matter, enough. Proceed as indicated in II. V. — Balsam of Tolu 4 parts Benzoin 1 part White wax 1 part Paraffine 1 part Powdered sugar. ... 1 part Melt together, mix well, and roll into sticks of the usual dimensions. Mix, and, when sufficiently cool, roll out into sticks or any other desirable form. CHEWING GUMS— CHOLERA REMEDIES 179 Spruce Chewiog Gum. — Spruce gum 20 parts Chicle 20 parts Sugar, powdered. . 60 parts Melt the gums separately, mix while hot, and immediately add the sugar, a small portion at a time, kneading it thor- oughly on a hot slab. When com- pletely incorporated remove to a cold slab, previously dusted with powdered sugar, roll out at once into sheets, and cut into sticks. Any desired flavor or color may be added to or incorporated with the sugar. CHICKEN -COOP APPLICATION: See Insecticides. CHICKEN DISEASES AND THEIR REMEDIES: See Veterinary Formulas. CHICORY, TESTS FOR: See Foods. CHILBLAINS: See Ointments. CHILBLAIN SOAP: See Soap. CHILDREN, DOSES FOR: See Doses. CHILLS, BITTERS FOR: See Wines and Liquors. CHINA CEMENTS: See Adhesives and Lutes. CHINA: See Ceramics. CHINA. TO REMOVE BURNED LET- TERS FROM: See Cleaning Preparations and Meth- ods, under Miscellaneous Methods. CHINA REPAIRING: See Porcelain. CHINA RIVETING. China riveting is best left to practical men, but it tan be done with a drill made from a splinter of a diamond fixed on a handle. If this is not to be had, get a small three-cornered file, harden it by placing it in the fire till red hot, and then plunging it in cold water. Next grind the point on a grindstone and finish on an oilstone. With the point pick out the place to be bored, taking care to. do it gently for fear of breaking the article. In a little while a piece will break off, then the hole can easily be made by working the point round. The wire may then be passed through and fas- tened. A good cement may be made from 1 ounce of grated cheese, J ounce of finely powdered quicklime, and white of egg sufficient to make a paste. The less cement applied the better, using a feather to spread it over the broken edge. CHLORIDES, PLATT'S: See Disinfectants. CHLORINE-PROOFING : See Acid-Proofing. CHOCOLATE. Prepare 1,000 parts of finished cacao and 30 parts of fresh cacao oil, in a warmed, polished, iron mortar, into a liquid substance, add to it 800 parts of finely powdered sugar, and, after a good consistency has been reached, 60 parts of powdered iron lactate and 60 parts of sugar syrup, finely rubbed together. Scent with 40 parts of vanilla sugar. Of this mass weigh out tablets of 126 parts into the molds. Coating Tablets with Chocolate. —If a. chocolate which is free from sugar be placed in a dish over a water bath, it will melt into a fluid of proper consistence for coating tablets. No water must be added. The coating is formed by dip- ping the tablets. When they are suffi- ciently hardened they are laid on oiled paper to dry. CHOCOLATE CASTOR - OIL LOZ- ENGES: See Castor Oil. CHOCOLATE CORDIAL: See Wines and Liquors. CHOCOLATE EXTRACTS: See Essences and Extracts. CHOCOLATE SODA WATER: See Beverages. CHOKING IN CATTLE: See Veterinary Formulas. CHOLERA REMEDIES: Sun Cholera Mixture. — Tincture of opium Tincture of capsicum Tincture of rhubarb . Spirit of camphor ... Spirit of peppermint. Squibb's Diarrhea Mixture. - Tincture opium 40 Tincture capsicum. . . 40 Spirit campnor 40 Chloroform i . . 15 Alcohol 65 part part part part part parts parts parts parts parts 180 CHOLERA REMEDIES— CIDER Aromatic Rhubarb. — Cinnamon, ground. . 8 parts Rhubarb 8 parts Calumba 4 parts Saffron 1 part Powdered opium. ... 2 parts Oil peppermint 5 parts Alcohol, q. s. ad . . . . 100 parts Macerate the ground drugs with 75 parts alcohol in a closely covered per- colator for several days, then allow per- colation to proceed, using sufficient al- cohol to obtain 95 parts of percolate. In percolate dissolve the oil of peppermint. Rhubarb and Camphor. — Tincture capsicum ... 2 ounces Tincture opium 2 ounces Tincture camphor. ... 3 ounces Tincture catechu 4 ounces Tincture rhubarb. .. . 4 ounces Spirit peppermint .... 4 ounces Blackberry Mixture. — Fluid extract black- berry root 2 pints Fluid ginger, soluble. 5 J ounces Fluid catechu 5J ounces Fluid opium for tinc- ture 160 minims Brandy 8 ounces Sugar 4 pounds Essence cloves 256 minims Fssence cinnamon . . 256 minims Chloroform 128 minims Alcohol (25 percent), q. s. ad 1 gallon CHOWCHOW: See Condiments. CHROME YELLOW, TEST FOR: See Pigments. CHROMIUM GLUE: See Adhesives. CHROMIUM STEEL: See Steel. CHROMO MAKING. The production of chromo pictures requires a little skill. Practice is neces- sary. The glass plate to be used should be washed off with warm water, and then laid in a 10 per cent solution of nitric acid. After one hour, wash with clean, cold water, dry with a towel, and polish the plate with good alcohol on the in- side — hollow side — until no finger marks or streaks are visible. This is best as- certained by breathing on the glass; the- breath should show an even blue surface on the glass. Coat the unmounted photograph to be colored with benzine by means of wad- ding, but without pressure, so that the retouching of the picture is not dis- turbed. Place 2 tablets of ordinary kitchen gelatin in 8f ounces of distilled or pure rain water, soak for an hour, and then heat until the gelatin has com- pletely dissolved. Pour this warm solu- tion over the polished side of the glass, so that the liquid is evenly distributed. The best way is to pour the solution on the upper right-hand corner, allowing it to flow into the left-hand corner, from there to the left below and right below, finally letting the superfluous liquid run off. Take the photograph, which has been previously slightly moistened on the back, lay it with the picture side on the gelatin-covered plate, cen- tering it nicely, and squeeze out the excess gelatin solution gently, prefer- ably by means of a rubber squeegee. Care must be taken, however, not to dis- place the picture in this manipulation, as it is easily spoiled. The solution must never be allowed to boil, since this would render the gelatin brittle and would result in the picture, after having been finished, cracking off from the glass in a short time. When the picture has been attached to the glass plate without blisters (which is best ob- served from the back), the edge of the glass is cleansed of gelatin, preferably by means of a small sponge and luke- warm water, and the pfate is allowed to dry over night. When the picture and the gelatin are perfectly dry, coat the back of the picture a few times with castor oil until it is per- fectly transparent; carefully remove the oil without rubbing, and proceed with the painting, which is best accomplished with good, not over-thick oil colors. The coloring must be observed from the glass side, and for this reason the small details, such as eyes, lips, beard, and hair, should first be sketched in. When the first coat is dry the dress and the flesh tints are painted. The "whole surface may be painted over, and it is not neces- sary to paint shadows, as these are al- ready present in the picture, and con- sequently show the color through in varying strength. When the coloring has dried, a second glass plate should be laid on for protec- tion, pasting the two edges together with narrow strips of linen. Cider To Make Cider. — Pick the apples off the tree by hand. Every apple before going into the press should be carefully CIDER 181 wiped. As soon as a charge of apples is ground, remove the pomace and put in a cask with a false bottom and a strainer beneath it, and a vessel to catch the drainage from pomace. As fast as the juice runs from the press place it in clean, sweet, open tubs or casKs with the heads out and provide with a faucet, put in about two inches above bottom. The juice should be closely watched and as soon as the least sign of fermentation ap- pears (bubbles on top, etc.) it should be run off into casks prepared for this pur- pose and placed in a moderately cool room. The barrels should be entirely filled, or as near to the bunghole as possible. After fermentation is well under way the spume or foam should be scraped off with a spoon several times a day. When fermentation has ceased the cider is racked off into clean casks, filled to the bunghole, and the bung driven in tightly. It is now ready for use or for bottling. Champagne Cider. — I. — To convert or- dinary cider into champagne cider, pro- ceed as follows: To 100 gallons of good cider add 3 gallons of strained honey (or 24 pounds of white sugar will answer), stir in well, tightly bung, and let alone for a week. Clarify the cider by adding a half gallon of skimmed milk, or 4 ounces of gelatin dissolved in sufficient hot water and add 4 gallons of proof spirit. Let stand 3 days longer, then syphon off, bottle, cork, and tie or wire down. Bunging the cask tightly is done in order to induce a slow fermentation, and thus retain in the cider as much carbonic acid as possible. II. — Put 10 gallons of old and clean cider in a strong and iron-bound cask, pitched within (a sound beer cask is the very thing), and add and stir in well 40 ounces of simple syrup. Add 5 ounces of tartaric acid, let dissolve, then add 7 J ounces sodium bicarbonate in powder. Have the bung ready and the moment the soda is added put it in and drive it home. The cider will be ready for use in a few hours. Cider Preservative. — I. — The addition of 154 grains of bismuth subnitrate to 22 gallons of cider prevents, or materially retards, the hardening of the beverage on exposure to air; moreover, the bismuth salt renders alcoholic fermentation more coioplete. IL — Calcium sulphite (sulphite of lime) is largely used to prevent fermen- tation in cider. About J to i of an ounce of the sulphite is required for 1 gallon of cider. It should first be dissolved in a small quantitv of cider, then added to the bulk, and the whole agitated until thoroughly mixed. The barrel should then be bunged and allowed to stand for several days, until the action of the sul- phite is exerted. It will preserve the sweetness of cider perfectly, but care should be taken not to add too much, as that would impart a slight sulphurous taste. Artificial Ciders.— To 25 gallons of soft water add 2 pounds of tartaric acid, 25 or 30 pounds of sugar, and a pint of yeast; put in a warm place, and let fer- ment for 15 days, then add the flavoring matter to suit taste. The various fruit ethers are for sale at any wholesale drug house. Bottling Sweet Cider. — Champagne quarts are generally used for bottling cider, as they are strong and will stand pressure, besides being a convenient size for consumers. In making cider champagne the liquor should be clari- fied and bottled in the sweet condition, that is to say, before the greater part of the sugar which it contains has been converted into alcohol by fermentation. The fermentation continues, to a certain extent, in the bottle, transforming more of the sugar into alcohol, and the car- bonic acid, being unable to escape, is dissolved in the cider and produces the sparkling. The greater the quantity of sugar contained in the liquor, when it is bot- tled, the more complete is its carbona- tion by the carbonic-acid gas, and con- sequently the more sparkling it is when poured out. But this is true only within certain limits, for if the production of sugar is too high the fermentation will be arrested. To make the most sparkling cider the liquor is allowed to stand for three, four, five, or six weeks, during which fermen- tation proceeds. The time varies ac- cording to the nature of the apples, and also to the temperature; when it is very warm the first fermentation is usually completed in 7 days. Before bottling, the liquid must be fined, and this is oest done with catechu dissolved in cold cider, 2 ounces of cate- chu to the barrel of cider. This is well stirred and left to settle for a few days. The cider at this stage is still sweet, and it is a point of considerable nicety not to carry the first fermentation too far. The bottle should not be quite filled, so as to allow more freedom for the carbonic-acid gas which forms. When the botfles have been filled. 182 CIDER— CIGAKS corked, and wired down, they should be placed in a good cellar, whicn should be dry, or else the cider will taste of the cork. The bottles should not be laid for four or five weeks, or breakage will ensue. When they are being laid they should be placed on laths of wood or on dry sand; they should never be allowed on cold or damp floors. Should the cider be relatively poor in sugar, or if it has been fermented too far, about 1 ounce of powdered loaf sugar can be added to each bottle, or else a measure of sugar syrup before pouring in the cider. Imitation Cider. — I. — A formula for an imitation cider is as follows: Rain water 100 gallons Honey, unstrained . . 6 gallons Catechu, powdered. 3 ounces Alum, powdered. ... 5 ounces Yeast (brewer's pref- erably) 2 pints Mix and put in a warm place to fer- ment. Let ferment for about 15 days; then add the following, stirring well in: Bitter almonds, crushed Bounces Cloves 8 ounces Let stand 24 hours, add two or three gallons of good whiskey, and rack off into clean casks. Bung tightly, let stand 48 hours, then bottle. If a higher color is desired use caramel sufficient to pro- duce the correct tinge. If honey is not obtainable, use sugar-house molasses instead, but honey is preferable. II. — The following, when properly prepared, makes a passable substitute for cider, and a very pleasant drink: Catechu, powdered. 3 parts Alum, powdered ... 5 parts Honey 640 parts Water 12,800 parts Yeast 32 parts Dissolve the catechu, alum, and honey in the water, add the yeast, and put in some warm place to ferment. The con- tainer should be filled to the square open- ing, made by sawing out five or six inches of the center of a stave, and the spume skimmed off daily as it arises. In cooler weather from 2 weeks to 18 days will be required for thorough fermentation. In warmer weather from 12 to 13 dajrs will be sufBcient. When fermentation is com- plete add the following solution: Oil of bitter almonds 1 part Oil of clover 1 part Caramel 32 parts Alcohol 192 parts The alcohol may be replaced by twice its volume of good bourbon whiskey. A much cheaper, but correspondingly poor substitute for the above may be made as follows: Twenty-five gallons of soft water, 2 pounds tartaric acid, 25 pounds of brown sugar, and 1 pint of yeast are allowed to stand in a warm place, in a clean cask with the bung out, for 24 hours. Then bung up the cask, after adding 3 gallons of whiskey, and let stand for 48 hours, after which the liquor is ready for use. CIDER VINEGAR: See Vinegar. Cigars Cigar Sizes and Colors. — Cigars are named according to their color and shape. A dead-black cigar, for instance, is an "Oscuro," a very dark-brown one is a "Colorado," a medium brown is a "Colorado Claro," and a yellowish light brown is a "Claro." Most smokers know the names of the shades from "Claro" to "Colorado," and that is as far as most of them need to know. As to the shapes, a "Napoleon" is the biggest of all cigars — being 7 inches long; a "Per- fecto" swells in the middle and tapers down to a very small head at the lighting end; a "Panatela" is a thin, straight, up- and-down cigar without the graceful curve of the ' Perfecto"; a "Conchas" is very short and fat, and a "Londres"' is shaped like a "Perfecto" except that it does not taper to so small a head at the lighting end. A "Reina Victoria" is a "Londres" that comes packed in a rib- bon-tied bundle of 50 pieces, instead of in the usual four layers of 13, 12, 13 and 12. How to Keep Cigars. — Cigars kept in a case are influenced every time the case is opened. Whatever of taint there may be in the atmosphere rushes into the case, and is finally taken up by the cigars. Even though the cigars have the appear- ance of freshness, it is not the original freshness in which they were received from the factory. They have been dry, or comparatively so, and have absorbed more moisture than has been put in the case, and it matters not what that mois- ture may be, it can never restore the fiavor that was lost during the drying-out process. After all, it is a comparatively simple matter to take good care of cigars. All that is necessary is a comparatively air- tight, zinc-lined chest. This should be ("IGARS— CLARET PUNCH 183 behind the counter in a place where the temperature is oven. Wnea a customer calls for a cigar the dealer takes the box out of the chest, serves his customer, and then puts the box back again. The box being opened for a moment the cigars are not perceptibly affected. The cigars in the close, heavy chest are always safe from atmospheric influences, as the boxes are closed, and the chest is open but a moment, while the dealer is taking out a box from which to serve his customer. Some of the best dealers have either a large chest or a cool vault in which they keep their .stock, taking out from time to time whatever they need tor use. Some have a number of small chests, in which they koep different brands, so as to avoid opening and closing one particular chest so often. It may be said that it is only the high- er priced cigars that need special care in handling, although the cheaper grades are not to be handled carelessly. The Havana cigars are more susceptible to cliiiMKc, for there is a delicacy of flavor to be preserved that is never present in the cheaper grades of cigars. Every dealer must, of course, make a display in his show case, but he need not serve his patrons with these cigars. The shrinkage in value of the cigars in the case is merely a business proposition of profit and loss. Cigar Flavoring. ^ I. — Macerate 2 ounces of cinnamon and 4 ounces of tonka beans, ground fine, in 1 quart of rum. II. — Moisten ordinary cigars with a strong tincture of cascarilla, to which a little gum benzoin and storax may be added. Some persons add a small quan- tity of camphor or oil of cloves or cassia. III. — Tincture of valerian. 4 drachms Butyric aldehyde. . . -i drachms Nitrous ether 1 drachm Tincture vanilla. ... 'i drachms Alcohol 5 ounces Water enough to make 16 ounces IV. — Extract vanilla 4 ounces Alcohol i gallon Jamaica rum J gallon Tincture valerian. . . 8 ounces Caraway seed 'i ounces English valerian root i ounces Bitter orange peel.. . 2 ounces Tonka beans 4 drachms Myrrh 16 ounces Soak the myrrh for 3 days in 6 quarts of water, add the alcohol, tincture va- lerian, and extract of vanilla, and after grinding the other ingredients to a coarse powder, put all together in a jug and macerate for 2 weeks, occasionally shak- ing; lastly, strain. v.— Into a bottle filled with i pint of French brandy put IJ ounces of cascar- illa bark and ij ounces of vanilla pre- viously ground with J pound of sugar; carefully close up the flask and distil m a warm place. After 3 days pour off the licjuid, and add J pint of mastic extract. The finished cigars are moistened with this liquid, pacKed in boxes, and pre- served from air by a well-closed lid. They are said to acquire a pleasant flavor and mild strength through this treat- ment. Cigar Spots. — The speckled appear- ance of certain wrappers is due to the work of a species of fungus that attacks the growing tobacco. In a certain dis- trict of Sumatra, which produces an ex- ceptionally fine tobacco for wrappers, the leaves of the plant are commonly speckled in this way. Several patents have been obtained for methods of spot- ting tobacco leaves artificially. A St. Louis firm uses a solution composed of: Sodium carbonate 3 parts Calx chlorinata 1 part Hot water 8 parts Dissolve the washing soda in the hot water, add the chlormated lime, and heat the mixture to a boiling tempera- ture for 3 minutes. When cool, decant into earthenware or stoneware jugs, cork tightly, and keep in a cool place. The corks of jugs not intended for immediate use should be covered -with a piece of bladder or strong parchment paper, and tightly tied down to prevent the escape of gas, and consequent weakening of the bleaching power of the fluid. The pre- pared liquor is sprinkled on the tobacco, the latter being then exposed to light and air, when, it is said, the disagreeable odor produced soon disappears. CINCHONA: See Wines and Liquors. CINNAMON CORDIAL: See Wines and Liquors. CINNAMON ESSENCE: See Essences and Extracts. CINNAMON OIL AS AN ANTISEPTIC: See Antiseptics. CITRATE OF MAGNESIUM: See Magnesium Citrate. CLARET LEMONADE AND CLARET PUNCH: See Beverages, under Lemonades. 184 CLARIFYING— CLEANING PREPARATIONS CLARIFICATION OF GELATIN AND GLUE: See Gelatin. CLARIFYING. Clarification is the process by which any solid particles suspended in a liquid are either caused to coalesce together or to adhere to the medium used for clar- ifying, that they may be removed by fil- tration (which would previously have been impossible), so as to render the liquid clear. One of the best agents for this purpose is albumen. When clarifying vegetable extracts, the albumen which is naturally present in most plants accomplishes this purpose easily, provided the vegetable matter is extracted in the cold, so as to get as much albumen as possible in solu- tion. Egg albumen may also be used. The effect of albumen may be increased by the addition of cellulose, in the form of a fine magma of filtering paper. This has the further advantage that the subse- quent filtration is much facilitated. Suspended particles of gum or pectin may be removed by cautious precipita- tion with tannin, of which only an ex- ceedingly small amount is usually neces- sary. It combines with the gelatinous substances better with the aid of heat than in the cold. There must be no ex- cess of tannin used. Another method of clarifying liquids turbid from particles of gum, albumen, pectin, etc., is to add to them a definite quantity of alcohol. This causes the former substances to separate in more or less large flakes. The quantity of alco- hol required varies greatly according to the nature of the liquid. It should be determined in each case by an experiment on a small scale. Resinous or waxy substances, such as are occasionally met with in honey, etc., may be removed by the addition of bole, Eulped filtering paper, and heating to oiling. In each case the clarifying process may be hastened by making the separat- ing particles specifically heavier; that is, by incorporating some heavier sub- stance, such as talcum, etc., which may cause the flocculi to sink more rapidly, and to form a compact sediment. Clarifying powder for alcoholic liquids: Egg albumen, dry .... 40 parts Sugar of milk 40 parts Starch 20 parts Reduce them to very fine powder, and mix thoroughly. For clarifying liquors, wines, essences, etc., take for every quart of liquid 75 grains of the above mixture, shake re- peatedly in the course of a few days, the mixture being kept in a warm room, then filter. Powdered talcum renders the same service, and has the additional advan- tage of being entirely insoluble. How- ever, the above mixture acts more ener- getically. CLAY: Claying Mixture for Forges. — Twenty parts fire clay; 20 parts cast-iron turn- ings; 1 part common salt; J part sal am- moniac; all by measure. The materials should be thoroughly mixed dry and then wet down to the con- sistency of common mortar, constantly stirring the mass as the wetting proceeds. A rough mold shaped to fit the tuyere opening, a trowel, and a few minutes' time are all that are needed to complete the successful claying of the forge. This mixture dries hard and when glazed by the fire will last. Plastic Modeling Clay. — A perma- nently plastic clay can be obtained by first mixing it with glycerine, turpen- tine, or similar bodies, and then adding vaseline or petroleum residues rich in vaseline. The proportion of clay to the vaseline varies according to the desired consistency of the product, the admix- ture of vaseline varying from 10 to 50 per cent. It is obvious that the hardness of the material decreases with the amount of vaseline added, so that the one richest in vaseline will be the softest. By the use of various varieties of clay and the suitable choice of admixtures, the plasticity, as well as the color of the mass, may be varied. Cleaning Preparations and Methods (See also Soaps, Polishes, and House- hold Formulas). TO REMOVE STAINS FROM THE HANDS: Removal of Aniline-Dye Stains from the Skin. — Rub the stained skin with a pinch of slightly moistened red crys- tals of chromic trioxide until a distinct sensation of warmth announces the de- struction of the dye stuff by oxidation and an incipient irritation of the skin. Then rinse with soap and water. A sin- gle application usually suffices to remove CLEANING PREPARATIONS AND METHODS 185 the stain. It is hardly nefcssary to call attention to the poisonousness and strong caustic action of chromic trioxide; but only moderate caution is required to avoid evil effects. Pyrogallic-Acid Stains on the Fingers (see also Photoeraphy) . — Pyro stains may be prevented fairly well by rubbing in a little wool fat before beginning work. A very effective way of eliminating devel- oper stains is to dip the finger tips occa- sionally during development into the clearing bath. It is best to use the clearing bath, with ample friction, be- fore resorting to soap, as the latter seems to have a fixing effect upon the stain. Lemon peel is useful for removing pyro stains, and so are the ammonium per- sulphate reducer and the thiocarbamide clearer. To Clean Ver^ Soiled Hands.— In the morning wash in warm water, using a stiff brush, and apply glycerine. Re- peat the application two or three times during the day, washing and brushing an hour or so afterwards, or apply a warm solution of soda or potash, and wash in warm water, using a stiff brush as before. Finally, rub the nands with pumice or infusorial earth. There are soaps made especially for this purpose, similar to those for use on woodwork, etc., in which infusorial earth or similar matter is incorporated. To Remove Nitric-Acid Stains. — One plan to avoid stains is to use rubber finger stalls, or rubber gloves. Nitric- acid stains can be removed from the hands by painting the stains with a solu- tion of permanganate of potash, and washing off the permanganate with a 5 per cent solution of hydrochloric (muri- atic) acid. After this wash the hands with pure castile soap. Any soap that roughens the skin should be avoided at all times. Castile soap is the best to keep the skin in good condition. CLEANING GILDED ARTICLES: To Clean Gilt Frames and Gilded Sur- faces Generally. — Dip a soft brush in alcohol to which a few drops of ammonia water has been added, and with it go over the surface. Do not rub — at least, not roughly, or harshly. In the course of five minutes the dirt will have become soft, and easy of removal. Then go over the surface again gently with the same or a similar brush dipped in rain water. Now lay the damp article in the sunlight to dry. If there is no sunlight, place it near a warm (but not hot) stove, arid let dry completely. In order to avoid streaks, take care that the position of the article, during the drying, is not exactly vertical. To Clean Fire-Gilt Articles.— Fire-gilt articles are cleaned, according to their condition, with water, diluted hydro- chloric acid, ammonia, or potash solu- tion. If hydrochloric acid is employed thorough dilution with water is especially necessary. The acidity should hardly be noticeable on the tongue. To clean gilt articles, such as gold moldings, etc., when they have become tarnished or covered with flyspecks, etc., rub them slowly with an oniorucut in half and dipped in rectified alcohol, and wash off lightly with a moist soft sponge after about 2 hours. Cleaning Gilded and Polychromed Work on Altars.— To clean bright gold a fine little sponge is used which is moistened but lightly with tartaric acid and passed over the gilding. ~ Next go over the gilt work with a small sponge saturated with alcohol to remove all dirt. For matt gilding, use only a white flannel dipped in lye, and carefully wipe off the dead gold with this, drying next with a fine linen rag. To clean polychromed work sponge with a lye of rain water, 1,000 parts, and calcined potasli, 68 parts, and immediately wash off with a clean sponge and water, so that the lye does not attack the paint too much. SPOT AND STAIN REMOVERS: To Remove Aniline Stains. — I. — Sodium nitrate 7 grains Diluted sulphuric acid 15 grains Water 1 ounce Let the mixture stand a day or two before using. Apply to the spot with a sponge, and rinse the goods with plenty of water. II. — An excellent medium for the re- moval of aniline stains, which are often very stubborn, has been found to be liquid opodeldoc. After its use the stains are said to disappear at once and entirely. Cleansing Fluids. — A spot remover is made as follows: I. — Saponine 7 parts Water 130 parts Alcohol 70 parts Benzine 1,788 parts Oil mirbane 5 parts II. — Benzene (benzol).. 89 parts Ascetic ether 10 parts Pear oil 1 part This yields an effective grease eradi- cator, of an agreeable odor. 186 CLEANING PREPARATIONS AND METHODS in. — To Remove Stains of Sulphate of copper, or of salts of mercury, silver, or gold from the hands, etc., wash them first with a dilute solution either of ammonia, iodide, bromide, or cyanide of potassium, and then with plenty of water; if the stains are old ones they should first be rubbed with the strongest acetic acid and then treated as above. Removal of Picric-Acid Stains. — I. — Recent stains of picric acid may be re- moved readily if the stain is covered with a layer of magnesium carbonate, the car- bonate moistened with a little water to form a paste, and the paste then rubbed over the spot. n. — Apply a solution of Boric acid 4 parts Sodium benzoate, ... 1 part Water 100 parts in. — Dr. Prieur, of Besan9on, recom- mends lithium carbonate for the removal of picric-acid stains from the skin or from linen. The method of using it is simply to lay a small pinch on the stain, and moisten the latter with water. Fresh stains disappear almost instantly, and old ones in a minute or two. To Remove Finger Marks from Books, etc. — I. — Pour benzol (not benzine or gasoline, but Merck's "c. p." crjystalliz- able) on calcined magnesia until it be- comes a crumbling mass, and apply this to the spot, rubbing it in lightly, with the tip of the finger. When the benzol evaporates, brush ofl'. Any dirt that re- mains can be removed by using a piece of soft rubber. II. — If the foregoing fails (which it sometimes, though rarely, does), try the following: Make a hot solution of sodium hydrate in distilled water, of strength of from 3 per cent to 5 per cent, according to the age, etc., of the stain. Have pre- pared some bits of heavy blotting paper somewhat larger than the spot to be re- moved; also, a blotting pad, or several pieces of heavy blotting paper. Lay the soiled page face downward on the blot- ting pad, then, saturating one of the bits of blotter with the hot sodium hydrate solution, put it on the stain and go over it with a hot smoothing iron. If one ap- plication does not remove all the grease or stain, repeat the operation. Then saturate another bit of blotting paper with a 4 per cent or 5 per cent solution of hy- drochloric acid in distilled water, apply it to the place, and pass the iron over it to neutralize the strong alkali. This process will instantly restore any faded writing or printing, and make the paper bright and fresh again. Glycerine as a Detergent. —For cer- tain kinds of obstinate spots (such as coffee and chocolate, for instance) there is no better detergent than glycerine, especially for fabrics with delicate colors. Apply the glycerine to the spot, with a sponge or otherwise, let stand a min- ute or so, then wash off with water or alcohol. Hot glycerine is even more efficient than cold. CLEAinNG SKINS AND LEATHER: See also Leather. To Clean Colored Leather. — Pour car- bon bisulphide on non-vulcanized gutta- Eercha, and allow it to stand about 24 ours. After shaking actively add more gutta-peroha gradually until the solution becomes of gelatinous consistency. This mixture is applied in suitable quan- tity to oil-stained, colored leather and allowed to dry two or three hours. The subsequent operation consists merely in removing the coat of gutta-percha from the surface of the leather — that is, rub- bing it with the fingers, and rolling it off the surface. The color is not injured in the least by the sulphuret of carbon; only those leathers on which a dressing containing starch has been used look a little lighter in color, but the better class of leathers are not so dressed. The dry gutta-per- cha can be redissolved in sulphuret of carbon and used over again. To Clean Skins Used for Polishing Purposes. — First beat them thoroughly to get rid of dust, then go over the surface on both sides with a piece of good white soap and lay them in warm water in which has been put a little soda. Let them lie here for 2 hours, then wash them in plenty of tepid water, rubbing them vigorously until perfectly clean. This bath should also be made alkaline with soda. The skins are finally rinsed in warm water, and dried quickly. Cold water must be avoided at all stages of the cleansing process, as it has a tendency to shrink and harden the skins. The best way to clean a chamois skin is to wash and rinse it out in clean water immediately after use, but this practice is apt to be neglected so that the skin be- comes saturated with dirt and grime. To clean it, first thoroughly soak in clean, soft water. Then, after soaping it and rolling it into a compact wad, beat with a small round stick — a buggy spoke, say — turning the wad over repeatedly, and keeping it well wet and soaped. This should suffice to loosen the dirt. Then rinse in clean water until the skin CLEANING PREPARATIONS AND METHODS 187 is clean. As wringing by hand is apt to injure the chamois skin, it is advisable to use a small clothes wringer. Before using the skin again rinse it in clear water to which a little pulverized alum has been added. STRAW-HAT RENOVATION: To Renovate Straw Hats.— I. — Hats made of natural (uncolored) straw, which have become soiled by wear, may be cleaned by thoroughly sponging with a weak solution of tartaric acid in water, followed by water alone. The hat after being so treated should be fastened by the rim to a board by means of pins, so that it will keep its shape in drying. n. — Sponge the straw with a solution of By weight Sodium hyposulphite. 10 parts Glycerine 5 parts Alcohol 10 parts Water 75 parts Lay aside in a damp place for 24 hours and then apply By weight Citric acid S parts Alcohol 10 parts Water 90 parts Press with a moderately hot iron, after stiffening with weak gum water, if neces- sary. III. — If the hat has become much dark- ened in tint by wear the fumes of burning sulphur may be employed. The material should be first cleaned by thoroughly sponging with an aqueous solution^ of potassium carbonate, followed bya sim- ilar application of water, and it is then suspended over the sulphur fumes. These are generated by placing in a metal or earthen dish, so mounted as to keep the heat from setting fire to anything beneath, some brimstone (roll sulphur), and sprinkling over it some live coals to start combustion. The operation is con- ducted in a deep box or barrel, the dish of burning sulphur being placed at the bottom, and the article to be bleached UPS suspended from a string stretched ^s the top. A cover not fitting so ' as to exclude all air is placed over it.'^^HI the apparatus allowed to stand for^Pew hours. Hots so treated will require to be stif- fened by the application of a little gum water, and pressed on a block with a hot iron to bring them back into shape. Waterproof Stiffening for Straw Hats. —If a waterproof stiffening is reouired use one of the varnishes for which for- mulas follow: I. — Copal 450 parts Sandarac 75 parts Venice turpentine 40 parts Castor oil 5 parts Alcohol 800 parts II. — Shellac 500 parts Sandarac 176 parts Venice turpentine 60 parts Castor oil 16 parts Alcohol 2,000 parts III.— Shellac 750 parts Rosin 150 parts Venice turpentine 150 parts Castor oil 20 parts Alcohol 2,500 parts How to Clean a Panama Hat. — Scrub with Castile soap and warm water, a nail brush being used as an aid to get the dirt away. The hat is then placed in the hot sun to dry and in the course of two or three hours is ready for use. It will not only be as clean a^ when new, but it will retain its shape admirably. The cleaned hat will be a trifle stiff at first, but will soon grow supple under wear. A little glycerine added to the rinsing water entirely prevents the stiffness and brittleness accjuired by some hats in dry- ing, while a little ammonia in the wash- ing water materially assists in the scrub- bing process. Ivory, or, in fact, any good white soap, will answer as well as castile for the purpose. It is well to rinse a second time, adding the glycerine to the water used the second time. Im- merse the hat completely in the rinse water, moving it about to get rid of traces of the dirty water. When the hat has been thorougnly rinsed, press out the surplus water, using a Turkish bath towel for the purpose, and let it rest on the towel when drying. PAINT, VARNISH, AND ENAMEL RE- MOVERS: To Remove Old Oil, Paint, or Varnish Coats. — I. — Apply a mixture of about 5 parts of potassium silicate (water glass, 36 per cent), about 1 part of soda lye (40 per cent), and 1 part of ammonia. The composition dissolves the old varnish coat, as well as the paint, down to the bottom. The varnish coatings which are to be removed may be brushed off or left for days in a hardened state. Upon being thoroughly moistened with water the old varnish may be readily washed off, the lacquer as well as the oil paint coming off completely. The ammonia otherwise employed dissolves the var- nish, but not tne paint. 188 CLEANING PREPARATIONS AND METHODS II. — Apply a mixture of 1 part oil of turpentine and 2 parts of ammonia. This is effective, even if the coatings withstand the strongest lye. The two liquids are shaken in a bottle until they mix like milk. The mixture is applied to the coating with a little oakum; after a few minutes the old paint can be wiped off. To Clean Brushes and Vessels of Dry Paint (see also Brushes and Paints). — The cleaning of the brushes and ves- sels in which the varnish or oil paint had dried is usually done by boiling with soda solution. This frequently spoils the brushes or cracks the vessels if of glass; besides, the process is rather slow and dirty. A much more suitable remedy is amyl acetate, which is a liquid with a pleasant odor of fruit drops, used mainly for dissolving and cementing celluloid. If amyl acetate is poured over a paint brush the varnish or hardened paint dis- solves almost immediately and the brush is again rendered serviceable at once. If necessary, the process is repeated. For cleaning vessels shake the lic(uid about in them, which softens the paint so that it can be readily removed with paper. In this manner much labor can be saved. The amyl acetate can be easily removed from the brushes, etc., by alcohol or oil of turpentine. Varnish and Paint Remover. — Dis- solve 20 parts of caustic soda (98 per cent) in 100 parts of water, mix the solu- tion with 20 parts of mineral oil, and stir in a kettle provided with a mechanical stirrer, until the emulsion is complete. Now add, with stirring, 20 parts of saw- dust and pass the whole through a paint mill to obtain a uniform intermixture. Apply the paste moist. To Remove Varnish from Metal. — To remove old varnish from metals, it suf- fices to dip the articles in equal parts of ammonia and alcohol (95 per cent). To Remove Water Stains from Var- nished Furniture. — Pour olive oil into a dish and scrape a little white wax into it. This mixture should be heated until the wax melts and rubbed sparingly on the stains. Finally, rub the surface with a linen rag until it is restored to bril- liancy. To Remove Paint, Varnish, etc., from Wood. — Varnish, paint, etc., no matter how old and hard, may be softened in a few minutes so that they can be easily scraped off, by applying the following mixture: Water glass 5 parts Soda lye, 40° B. (27 per cent) 1 part Ammonia water 1 part Mix. Removing Varnish, etc. — A patent has been taken out in England for a liquid for removing varnish, lacquer, tar, and paint. The composition is made by mixing 4 ounces of benzol, 3 ounces of fusel oil, and 1 ounce of alcohol. It is stated by the inventor that this mixture, if applied to a painted or varnished sur- face, will make the surface quite clean in less than 10 minutes, and that a paint- soaked brush " as hard as iron " can be made as soft and pliable as new by simply soaking for an hour or so in the mixture. To Remove Enamel and Tin Solder. — Pour enough of oil of vitriol (concen- trated sulphuric acid) over powdered fluorspar in an earthen or lead vessel, so as just to cover the parts whereby hydro- fluoric acid is generated. For use, dip the article suspended on a wire into the liquid until the enamel or the tin is eaten away or dissolved, which does not injure the articles in any way. If heated, the liquid acts more rapidly. The work should always be conducted in the open air, and care should be taken not to in- hale the fumes, which are highly inju- rious to the health, and not to get any liquid on the skin, as hydrofluoric acid is one of the most dangerous poisons. Hydrofluoric acid must be kept in earth- en or leaden vessels, as it destroys glass. Removing Paint and Varnish from Wood. — The following compound is given as one which will clean paint or varnish from wood or stone without in- juring the material: Flour or wood pulp. . 385 parts Hydrochloric acid. . . 450 parts Bleaching powder. . . 160 parts Turpentine 5 parts This mixture is applied to the surface and left on for some time. It is then brushed off, and brings the paint away with it. It keeps moist quite long enough to be easily removed after it has acted. Paste for Removing Old Paint or Varnish Coats. — I. — Sodium hydrate 5 parts Soluble soda glass ... 3 parts Flour paste 6 parts Water 4 parts II. — Soap 10 parts Potassium hydrate. . . 7 parts Potassium silicate .... 2 parts CLEANING PREPARATIONS AND METHODS 189 To Remove Old Enamel.— Lay the articles horizontally in a vessel contain- ing a concentrated solution of alum and boil them. The solution should be just sufficient to cover the pieces. In 20 or 85 minutes the old enamel will fall into dust, and the article can be polished with emery. If narrow and deep vessels are used the operation will require more time. INK ERADICATORS: Two-Solution Ink Remover. — I. — (a) Citric acid 1 part Concentrated solu- tion of borax ... 2 parts Distilled water. ... 16 parts Dissolve the acid in the water, add the borax solution, and mix by agitation. (6) Chloride of lime. . . 3 parts Water 16 parts Concentrated bor- ax solution 2 parts Add the chloride of lime to the water, shake well and set aside for a week, then decant the clear liquid and to it add the borax solution. For use, saturate the spot with solu- tion (a), apply a blotter to take off the ex- cess of liquid, then apply solution (b). When the stain has disappeared, apply the blotter and wet the spot with clean wafter; finally dry between two sheets of blotting paper. II. — (a) Mix, in equal parts, potassium chloride, potassium hypochlorite, and oil of peppermint. (6) Sodium chloride, hydrocnloric acid and water, in equal parts. Wet the spot with (a), let dry, then brUsh it over lightly with (6), and rinse in clear water. A good single mixture which will an- swer for most inks is made by mixing citric acid and alum in equal parts. If desired to vend in a liquid form add an equal part of water. In use, the powder is spread well over the spot ana (if on clotn or woven fabrics) well rubbed in with the fingers. A few drops of water are then added, and also ruboed in. A final rinsing with water completes the process. Ink Erasers. — I. — Inks made with nut- galls and copperas can be removed by using a moderately concentrated solu- tion of oxalic acid, followed by use of pure water and frequent drying with clean blotting paper. Most other black inks are erased by use of a weak solution of chlorinated lime, followed by dilute acetic acid and water, with frequent dry- ing with blotters. Malachite green ink IS bleached by ammonia water; silver inks by potassium cyanide or sodium hyposulphite. Some aniline colors are easily removed by alcohol, and nearly all by chlorinated lime, followed by diluted acetic acid or vinegar. In all cases apply the substances with camel's-hair bru.shes or feathers, and allow them to remain no longer than necessary, after which rinse well with water and ciry with blotting paper. II. — Citric acid 1 part Water, distilled 10 parts Concentrated solution of borax 2 parts Dissolve the citric acid in the water and add the borax. Apply to the paper with a, delicate camel's-hair pencil, re- moving any excess of water with a blot- ter. A mixture of oxalic, citric, and tar- taric acids, in equal parts, dissolved in just enough water to give a clean solution, acts energetically on most inks. Erasing Powder or Poimce. — Alum, 1 part; amber, 1 part; sulphur, 1 part; saltpeter, 1 part. Mix well together and keep in a glass bottle. If a little of this powder is placed on an ink spot or fresh writing, rubbing very lightly with a clean linen rag, the spot or the writing will disappear at once. Removing Ink Stains. — I.— The ma- terial requiring treatment should first be soaked in clean, warm water, the super- fluous moisture removed, and the faoric spread over a clean cloth. Now allow a few minims of liquor ammonise fortis, specific gravity 0.891, to drop on the ink spot, then saturate a tiny tuft of absorbent cotton-wool with acidum phosphoricum dilutum, B. P., and apply repeatedly and with firm pressure over the stain; repeat the procedure two or three times, and finally rinse well in wirm water, after- wards drying in the sun, when eveiy trace of ink will have vanished. This method is equally reliable for old and fresh ink stains, is rapid in action, and will not injure the most delicate fabric. II. — To remove ink spots the fabric is soaked in warm water, then it is squeezed out and spread upon a clean piece of linen. Now apply a few drops of liquid ammonia of a specific gravity of 0.891 to the spot, and dab it next with a wad of cotton which has been saturated with dilute phosphoric acid. After repeating the process several times and drying the piece in the sun, the ink spot will have disappeared without leav- ing the slightest trace. 190 CLEANING PREPARATIONS AND METHODS III. — Ink spots may be removed by the following mixture: Oxalic acid 10 parts Stannic chloride .... 2 parts Acetic acid 5 parts Water to make 500 parts Mix. IV. — The customary method of cleans- ing ink spots is to use oxalic acid. Thick blotting paper is soaked in a concen- trated solution and dried. It is then laid immediately on the blot, and in many instances will take the latter out without leaving a trace behind. In more stub- born cases the cloth is dipped in boiling water and rubbed with crystals of oxalic acid, after which it is soaked in a weak solution of chloride of lime — say 1 ounce to a quart of water. Under such circum- stances the linen should be thoroughly rinsed in several waters afterwards. Oxalic acid is undesirable for certain fabrics because it removes the color. V. — Here is a more harmless method: Equal parts of cream of tartar and citric acid, powdered fine, and mixed together. This forms the " salts of lemon " sold by druggists. Procure a hot dinner plate, lay the part stained in the plate, and moisten with hot water; next rub in the above powder with the bowl of a spoon until the stains disappear; then rinse in clean water and dry. To Remove Red (Aniline) Ink. — Stains of red anilines, except eosine, are at once removed by moistening with alcohol of 94 per cent, acidulated with acetic acid. Eosine does not disappear so easily. The amount of acetic acid to be used is ascertained by adding it, drop by drop, to the alcohol, testing the mixture from time to time, until when dropped on the stain, the latter at once disappears. CLEANING OF WALLS, CEILINGS, AND WALL PAPER: See also Household Formulas. To Renovate Brick Walls. — Dissolve glue in water in the proportion of 1 ounce of glue to every gallon of water; add, while hot, a piece of alum the size of a hen's egg, i pound Venetian red, and 1 pound Spanish brown. Add more water if too dark; more red and brown if too light. Cleaning Painted Doors, Walls, etc.— The following recipe is designed for painted objects that are muen soiled. Simmer gently on the fire, stirring con- stantly, 30 parts, by weight, of pulverized borax, and 450 parts of brown soap of good quality, cut in small pieces, in 3,000 parts of water. The litjuid is applied by means of flannel and rinsed off at once with pure water. To Remove Aniline Stains from Ceil- ings, etc. — In renewing ceilings, the old aniline color stains are often very annoy- ing, as they penetrate the new coating. Painting over with shellac or oil paint will bring relief, but other drawbacks appear. A very practical remedy is to place a tin vessel on the floor of the room, and to burn a quantity of sulphur in it after the doors and windows of the room have been closed. The sulphur vapors destroy the aniline stains, which disap- pear entirely. Old Ceilings. — In dealing with old ceilings the distemper must be washed off down to the plaster face, all cracks raked out and stopped with putty (plas- ter of Paris and distemper mixed), and the whole rubbed smooth with pumice stone and water; stained parts should be painted with oil color, and the whole distempered. If old ceilings are in bad condition it is desirable that they should be lined with paper, which should have a coat of weak size before being distem- pered. Oil Stains on Wall Paper. — Make a medium thick paste of pipe clay and water, applying it carefully flat upon the oil stain, but avoiding all friction. The paste is allowed to remain 10 to 12 hours, after which time it is very carefully re- moved with a soft rag. In many cases a repeated action will be necessary until the purpose desired is fully reached. Finally, however, this will be obtained without blurring or destroying the de- sign of the wall paper, unless it be of the cheapest variety. In the case of a light, delicate paper, the paste should be com- posed of magnesia and benzine. To Clean Painted Walls. — A simple method is to put a little aqua ammonia in moderately warm water, dampen a flannel with it, and gently wipe over the painted surface. No scrubbing is nec- essary. Treatment of Whitewashed Walls.— It is suggested that whitewashed walls which it is desired to paper, with a view to preventing peeling, should be treated with water, after which the scfafe should be vigorously used. If the white- wash has been thoroughly soaked it cad| easily be removed with the scraper. Care should be taken that every part of the Wall is well scraped. CLEANING PREPARATIONS AND METHODS 191 Cleaning Wall Paper. — I. — To clean wall paper the dust should first be re- moved by lightly brushing, preferably with a feather duster, and the surface then gently rubbed with slices of moder- ately stale bread, the discolored surface of tne bread being removed from time to time, so as to expose a fresh portion for use. Care should be taken to avoid scratching the paper with the crust of the bread, and the rubbinB should be in one direction, the surface being systematically gone over, as in painting, to avoid the production of streaks. II. — ^Mix 4 ounces of powdered pumice with 1 quart of flour, and with the aid of water make a stiff dough. Form the dough into rolls 2 inches in diameter and 6 inches long; sew each roll separately in a cotton cloth, then boil for 40 or 50 minutes, so as to render the mass firm. Allow to stand for several hours, remove the crust, and they are ready for use. III. — Bread will clean paper; but un- less it is properly used the job will be a very tedious one. Select a ' tin " loaf at least two days old. Cut off the crust at one end, and rub down the paper, com- mencing at the top. Do not rub the bread backwards and forwards, but in single strokes. When the end gets dirty take a very sharp knife and pare off a thin layer; then proceed as before. It is well to make sure that the walls are quite dry before using the bread, or it may smear the pattern. If the room is furnished it will, of course, be necessary to place cloths around the room to catch the crumbs. IV. — A preparation for cleansing wall paper that often proves much more effec- tual than ordinary bread, especially when the paper is very dirty, is made by mix- ing I dough and J plaster of Paris. This should be made a day before it is needed for use, and should be very gently baked. If there are any grease spots they should be removed Dy holding a hot flatiron against a piece of blotting paper placed over them. If this fails, a little tuller's earth or pipe clay should be made into a paste with water, and this should then be carefully plastered over the grease spots and allowed to remain till quite dry, when it will be found to have absorbed the grease. V. — Mix together 1 pound each of rye flour and white flour into a dougn, which is partially cooked and the crust removed. To this 1 ounce common salt and J ounce of powdered naph- thaline areadded, and finally 1 ounce of corn meal, and J ounce of burnt umber. The composition is formed into a mass, of the proper size to be grasped in the hand, and in use it should be drawn in one direction over the surface to be cleaned. VI. — Procure a soft, flat sponge, being careful that there are no hard or gritty places in it, then get a bucket of new, clean, dry, wheat bran. Hold the sponge flat side up, and put a handful of bran on it, then quickly turn against the wall, and rub the wall gently and care- fully with it; then repeat the operation. Hold a large pan or spread down a drip cloth to catch the bran as it falls, but never use the same bran twice. Still another way is to use Canton flannel in strips a foot wide and about 3 yards long. Roll a strip around a stick 1 inch thick and 10 inches long, so as to have the ends of the stick covered, with the nap of the cloth outside. As the cloth gets soiled, unroll the soiled part and roll it up with the soiled face inside. In this way one can change places on the cloth when soiled and use tne whole face of the cloth. To take out a grease spot requires care. First, take several thicknesses of brown wrapping paper and make a pad, place it against the grease spot, and hold a hot flatiron against it to draw out the grease, which will soak into the brown paper.. Be careful to have enough layers of brown paper to keep the iron from scorching or discoloring the wall paper. If the first application does not take out nearly all the grease, repeat with clean brown paper or a blotting pad Then take an ounce vial of washed sulphuric ether and a soft, fine, clean spongt and sponge the spot carefully until all the grease disap- pears. Do not wipe the place with tne sponge and ether, but dab the sponge carefully against the place. A small quantity of ether is advised, as it is very inflammable. CLOTHES AND FABRIC CLEANERS: Soaps for Clothing and Fabrics. — When the fabric is washable and the color fast, ordinary soap and water are sufficient for removing grease and the or- dinarily attendant dirt; but special soaps are made which may possibly be more effectual. I. — Powdered borax. ... 30 parts Extract of soap bark 30 parts Ox gall (fresh) 120 parts Castile soap 450 parts First make the soap-bark extract by boiling the crushed bark in water until it has assumed a dark color, then strain the liquid into an evaporating dish, and 192 CLEANING PREPARATIONS AND METHODS by the aid of heat evaporate it to a solid extract; then, powder and mix it with the borax and the ox gall. Melt the castile soap by adding a small quantity of water and warming, then add the other ingre- dients and mix well. About 100 parts of soap bark make 20 parts of extract. II. — Castile soap 2 pounds Potassium carbonate. . § pound Camphor J ounce Alcohol I ounce Ammonia water J ounce Hot water, J pint, or sufBcient. Dissolve the potassium carbonate in the water, add the soap previously re- duced to thin shavings, Keep warm over a water bath, stirring occasionally, until dissolved, adding more water if neces- sary, and finally, when of a consistence to become semisolid on cooling, remove from the fire. When nearly ready to set, stir in the camphor, previously dis- solved in the alcohol and the ammonia. The soap will apparently be quite as efficacious without the camphor and ammonia. If a paste is desired, a potash soap should be used instead of the castile in the foregoing formula, and a portion or all of the water omitted. Soaps made from potash remain soft, while soda soaps harden on the evaporation of the water which they contain when first made. A liquid preparation may be obtained, of course, by the addition of sufficient water, and some more alcohol would probably improve it. Clothes-Cleaning Fluids : See also Household Formulas. I. — Borax 1 ounce Castile soap 1 ounce Sodium carbonate. . . 3 drachms Ammonia water 5 ounces Alcohol 4 ounces Acetone 4 ounces Hot water to make. . . 4 pints Dissolve the borax, sodium bicarbo- nate, and soap in the hot water, mix the acetone and alcohol together, unite the two solutions, and then add the ammonia water. The addition of a couple of ounces of rose water will render it some- what fragrant. II. — A strong decoction of soap bark, preserved by the addition of alcohol, forms a good liquid cleanser for fabrics of the more delicate sort. III. — Chloroform 16 parts Ether 15 parts Alcohol 120 parts Decoction of quillaia bark of 30° . . . . 4,500 parts IV. — Acetic ether 10 parts Amyl acetate 10 parts Liquid ammonia. ... 10 parts Dilute alcohol 70 parts V. — Another good non-inflammable spot remover consists of equal parts of acetone, ammonia, and diluted alcohol. For use in large quantities carbon tetra- chloride is suggested. VI. — Castile soap 4 a v. ounces Water, boiling. ... 32 fluidounces Dissolve and add: Water 1 gallon Ammonia 8 fluidounces Ether 2 fluidounces Alcohol 4 fluidounces To Remove Spots from Tracing Cloth. — It is best to use benzine, which is ap- Clied by means of a cotton rag. The enzine also takes off lead-pencil marks, but does not attack India and other inks. The places treated with benzine should subsequently be rubbed with a little talcum, otherwise it would not be pos- sible to use the pen on them. Removal of Paint from Clothing. — Before paint becorhes " dry " it can be removed from cloth by the liberal appli- cation of turpentine or benzine. If the spot is not large, it may be immersed in the liquid; otnerwise, a thick, folded, absorbent cloth should be placed under the fabric which has been spotted, and the liquid sponged on freeljf enough that it may soak through, carrying the greasy matter with it. Some skill in manipu- lation is requisite to avoid simply spread- ing the stain and leaving a "ring" to show how far it has extended. When benzine is used the operator must be careful to apply it only in the absence of light or fire, on account of the extremely inflammable character of the vapor. Varnish stains, when fresh, are treated in the same way, but the action of the solvent may possibly not be so complete on account of the gum rosins present. When either paint or varnish has dried, its removal becomes more diffi- cult. In such case soaking in strong ammonia water may answer. An emul- sion, formed by shaking together 2 parts of ammonia water and 1 of spirits of tur- pentine, has been recommended. To Remove Vaseline Stains from Clothing. — Moisten the spots with a mix- ture of 1 part of aniline oil, 1 of pow- CLEANING PREPAIIATIONS AND METHODS 193 dered soap, and 10 of water. After allowing the cloth to lie for 5 or 10 min- utes, wash with water. To Remove Grease Spots from Plush. — Place fresh bread rolls in the oven, break them apart as soon as they have become very hot, and rub the spots with the crumbs, continuing the work by us- ing new rolls until all traces of fat have disappeared from the fabric. Purified benzine, which does not alter even the most delicate colors, is also useful for this purpose. To Remove Iron Rust from Muslin and Linen. — Wet with lemon juice and salt and expose to the sun. If one ap- plication does not remove the spots, a second rarely fails to do so. Keroclean. — This non - inflammable cleanser removes grease spots from deli- cate fabrics without injury, cleans all kinds of jewelry and tableware by re- moving fats and tarnish, kills moths, insects, and household pests by suffo- cation and extermination, and cleans ironware by removing rust, brassware by removing grease, copperware by remov- ing verdigris. It is as clear as water and will stand any fire test. Kerosene 1 ounce Carbon tetrachloride (commercial) 3 ounces Oil of citronella 2 drachms Mix, and filter if necessary. If a strong odor of carbon bisulphide is de- tected in the carbon tetrachloride first shake with powdered charcoal and filter. To Clean Gold and Silver Lace. — I. — Alkaline liauids sometimes used for cleaning gold lace are unsuitable, for they generally corrode or change the color of the silk. A solution of soap also interferes with certain colors, and should therefore not be employed. Alcohol is an effectual remedy for restoring the luster of gold, and it may be used with- out any danger to the silk, but where the gold is worn off, and the base metal ex- posed, it is not so successful in accom- plishing its purpose, as by removing the tarnish the base metal becomes more distinguishable from the fine gold. II. — To clean silver lace taKC alabas- ter in very fine powder, lay the lace upon a cloth, and with a soft brush take up some of the powder, and rub both sides with it till it becomes bright and clean, afterwards polish with another brush until all remnants of the powder are re- moved, and it exhibits a lustrous surface. III. — Silver laces are put in curdled mdk for 24 hours. A piece of Venetian soa^, or any other good soap, is scraped and stirred into 2 quarts of rain water. To this a quantity of honey and fresh ox gall IS added, and the whole is stirred for some time. If it becomes too thick, more water is added. This mass is al- lowed to stand for half a day, and the wet laces are painted with it. Wrap a wet cloth around the roller of a mangle, wind the laces over this, put another wet cloth on top, and press, wetting and re- peating the application several times. Next, dip the laces in a clear solution of equal parts of sugar and gum arable, Cass them again through the mangle, etween two clean pieces of cloth, and hang them up to dry thoroughly, attach- ing a weight to the lower end. IV. — Soak ^old laces over night in cheap white wine and then proceed as with silver laces. If the gold is worn off, put 771 grains of shellac, 31 grains of dragon's blood, 31 grains of turmeric in strong alcohol and pour off the ruby-col- ored fluid. Dip a fine hair pencil in this, paint the pieces to be renewed, and hold a hot flatiron a few inches above them, so that only the laces receive the heat. V. — Silver embroideries may also be cleaned by dusting them with Vienna lime, and brushing off with a velvet brush. For gildings the stuff is dipped in a, solution of gold chloride, and this is re- duced by means of hydrogen in another vessel. For silvering, one of the following two processes may be employed: (a) Paint- ing with a solution of 1 part of phos- phorus in 15 parts bisulphide of carbon and dipping in a. solution of nitrate of silver; (o) dipping for •i hours in a solu- tion of nitrate of silver, mixed with am- monia, then exposing to a current of pure hydrogen. To Remove Silver Stains from White Fabrics. — Moisten the fabric for two or three minutes with a solution of 5 parts of bromine and 500 parts of water. Then rinse in clear water. If a yellow- ish stain remains, immerse in a solution of 150 parts of sodium hyposulphite in 500 parts of water, and again rinse in clear water. Rust-Spot Remover. — Dissolve potas- sium bioxalate, 200 parts, in distilled water, 8,800 parts; add glycerine, 1,000 parts, and filter. Moisten the rust or ink spots with this solution; let the linen, etc., lie for 3 hours, rubbing the moist- ened spots frequently, and then wash well with water. 194 CLEANING PREPARATIONS AND METHODS To Clean Quilts. — Quilts are cleaned | by first washing them in lukewarm soap- suds, then laying them in cold, soft (rain) water over night. The next day they are pressed as dry as possible and hung up; the ends, in which the moisture re- mains for a long time, must be wrung out from time to time. It is very essential to beat the drying quilts frequently with a smooth stick or board. This will have the effect of swelling up the wadding, and preventing it from felting. Furthermore, the quilts should be repeatedly turned during the drying from right to left and also from top to bottom. In this manner streaks are avoided. Removal of Peruvian-Balsam Stains. — The fabric is spread out, a piece of filter paper being placed beneath the stain, and the latter is then copiously moistened with chloroform, applied by means of a tuft of cotton wool. Rubbing is to be avoided. Solution for Removing Nitrate of Sil- ver Spots. — Bichloride of mercury 6 parts Ammonium chloride. 5 parts Distilled water 40 parts Apply the mixture to the spots with a cloth, then rub. This removes, almost instantaneously, even old stains on linen, cotton, or wool. Stains on the skin thus treated become whitish yellow and soon disappear. Cleaning Tracings. ^ — Tracing cloth can be very quickly and easily cleaned, and pencil marks removed by the use of benzine, which is applied with a cotton swab. It may be rubbed freely over the tracing without injury to lines drawn in ink, or even in water color, but the pencil marks and dirt will quickly disappear. The benzine evaporates almost immedi- ately, leaving the tracing unharmed. The surface, nowever, has been softened and must be rubbed down with talc, or some similar substance, before drawing any more ink lines. The glaze may be restored to tracing cloth after using the eraser by rubbing the roughened surface with a piece of hard wax from an old' phonograph cylinder. The surface thus produced is superior to that of the original glaze, as it IS absolutely oil- and water-proof. Rags for Cleaning and Polishine. — Immerse flannel rags in a solution of 20 parts of dextrine and 30 parts of oxalic acid in 20 parts of logwood decoction; gently wring them out, and sift over them a mixture of finely powdered tripoli and pumice stone. Pile the moist rags one upon another, placing a layer of the pow- der between each two. Then press, sepa- rate, and dry. Cleaning Powder. — Bole 500 parts Magnesium carbo.' nate 50 parts Mix and make into a paste with a small quantity of benzine or water; apply to stains made by fats or oils on the cloth- ing and when dry remove with a brush. CLEANING PAINTED AND VAR- NISHED SURFACES: Cleaning and Preserving Polished Woodwork. — Rub down all the polished Work with a very weak alcoholic solu- tion of shellac (1 to 20 or even 1 to 30) and linseed oil, spread on a linen cloth. The rubbing should be firm and hard. Spots on the polished surface, made by alcohol, tinctures, water, etc., should be removed as far as possible and as soon as possible after they are made, by the use of boiled linseed oil. Afterwards they should be rubbed with the shellac and linseed oil solution on a soft linen rag. If the spots are due to acids go over them with a little dilute ammonia water. Ink spots may be removed with dilute or (if necessary) concentrated hydrochloric acid, following its use with dilute ammo- nia water. In extreme cases it may be necessary to use the scraper or sandpa- per, or both. Oak as a general thing is not polished, but has a matt surface which can be washed with water and soap. First all stains and spots should be gone over with a sponge or a soft brush and very weak ammonia water. The carved work should be freed of dust, etc., by the use of a stiff brush, and finally washed with dilute ammonia water. When dry it should be gone over very thinly and evenly with brunoline applied with a soft pencil. If it is desired to give an especially handsome finish, after the surface is entirely dry, give it a prelim- inary coat of brunoline and follow this on the day after with a second. Bruno- line may be purchased of any dealer in paints. To make it, put 70 parts of lin- seed oil in a very capacious vessel (on account of the foam that ensues) and add to it 20 parts of powdered litharge, 20 parts of powdered minium, and 10 parts of lead acetate, also powdered. Boil until the oil is completely oxidized, stir- ring constantly. When completely oxi- dized the oil is no longer red, but is of a dark brown color. When it acquires CLEANING PREPARATIONS AND METHODS 15)o this color, remove from the fire, and add 160 parts of turpentine oil, and stir well. This brunoline serves splendidly for polishing furniture or other polished wood. To Clean Lacquered Goods. — Papier- mache and lacquered goods may be cleaned perfectly by rubbing thoroughly with a paste made of wheat flour and olive oil. Apply with a bit of soft flan- nel or old linen, rubbing hard; wipe off and polish by rubbing with an old silk handkerchief. Polish for Varnished Work. — To reno- vate varnished work make a polish of 1 quart good vinegar, 2 ounces butter of antimony, 2 ounces alcohol, and 1 quart oil. Shake well before using. To Clean Paintings. — To clean an oil painting, take it out of its frame, lay a piece of cloth moistened with rain water on it, and leave it for a while to take up the dirt from the picture. Several appli- cations may be required to secure a perfect result. Then wipe the picture very gently with a tuft of cotton wool damped with absolutely pure linseed oil. Gold frames may be cleaned with a freshly cut onion; they should be wiped with a soft sponge wet with rain water a few hours after the application of the onion, and finally wiped with a soft rag. Removing and Preventing Match Marks. — The unsightly marks made on a painted surface by striking matches on it can sometimes be removed by scrub- bing with soapsuds and a stiff brush. To prevent match marks dip a bit of flannel in albolinc (liquid vaseline), and with it go over the surface, rubbing it hard. A second rubbing with a dry bit of flannel completes the job. A man may " strike " a match there all day, and neither get a light nor make a mark. GLOVE CLEANERS: Powder for Cleaning Gloves. — I. — White bole or pipe clay 60 . parts Orris root (pow- dered) 30.0 parts Powdered grain soap 7.5 parts Powdered borax ... 15.0 parts Ammonium chlor- ide 2.5 parts Mix the above ingredients. Moisten the gloves with a darnp cloth, rub on the powder, and brush oft after drying. II. — Four pounds powdered pipeclay, 2 pounds powdered white soap, 1 ounce lemon oil, thoroughly rubbed together. To use, make powder into a thin cream with water and rub on the gloves while on the hands. This is a cteaply pro- duced compound, and does its work ef- fectually. Soaps and Pastes for Cleaning Gloves. — I. — Soft soap 1 ounce Water 4 ounces Oil of lemon J drachm Precipitated chalk, a , sufficient quantity. Dissolve the soap in the water, add the oil, and make into a stiff paste with a sufficient quantity of chalk. II. — White hard soap 1 part Talcum 1 part Water 4 parts Shave the soap into ribbons, dissolve in the water by the aid of heat, and in- corporate the talcum. III. — Curd soap 1 av. ounce Water 4 fluidounces Oil of lemon ^ fluidrachm French chalk, a sufficient quantity. Shred the soap and melt it in the water by heat, add the oil of lemon, and make into a stiff paste with French chalk. IV. — White castile soap, old and dry 15 parts Water 15 parts Solution of chlorin- ated soda 16 parts Ammonia water. ... 1 part Cut or shave up the soap, add the water, and heat on the water bath to a smooth paste. Remove, let cool, and add the other ingredients and mix thor- oughly. V. — Castile soap, white, old, and dry 100 parts Water 75 parts Tincture of quillaia 10 parts Ether, sulphuric. . . 10 parts Ammonia water, FF 5 parts Benzine, deodorized 75 parts Melt the soap, previously finely shaved, in the water, bring to a boil and remove from the fire. Let cool down, then add the other ingredients, incor- porating them thoroughly. This should be put up in collapsible tubes or tightly closed metallic boxes. This is also use- ful for clothing. Liquid Cloth and Glove Cleaner. — Gasoline 1 gallon Chloroform 1 ounce Carbon disulphide. . . 1 ounce 196 CLEANING PREPARATIONS AND METHODS Essential oil almond. . 5 drops Oil bergamot 1 drachm Oil cloves 5 drops Mix. To be applied with a sponge or soft cloth. STONE CLEANING: Cleaning and Polishing Marble.— I. — Marble that has become dirty by ordinary use or exposure may be cleaned by a simple bath of soap and water. . If this does not remove stains, a weak solution of oxalic acid should be applied with a sponge or rag, washing quickly and thoroughly with water to minimize injury to the surface. Rubbing well after this with chalk moistened with water will, in a measure, restore the luster. Another method of finishing is to apply a solution of white wax in turpentine (about 1 in 10), rub- bing thoroughly with a piece of flannel or soft leather. If the marble has been much exposed, so that its luster has been seriously im- paired, it may be necessary to repolish it in a more thorough manner. This may be accomplished by rubbing it first with sand, beginning with a moderately coarse-grained article and changing this twice for finer kinds, after which tripoli or pumice is used. The final polish is given by the so-called putty powder. A plate of iron is generally usedin applying the coarse sand; with the fine sand a leaden plate is used; and the pumice is employed in the form of a smooth-surfaced piece of convenient size. For the final polishing coarse linen or bagging is used, wedged tightly into an iron planing tool. During all these applications water is allowed to trickle over the face of the stone. The putty powder referred to is bin- oxide of tin, obtained by treating metal- lic tin with nitric acid, which converts the metal into hydrated metastannic acid. This, when heated, becomes anhydrous. In this condition it is known as putty powder. In practice putty powder is mixed with alum, sulphur, and other substances, the mixture used being de- Eendent upon the nature of the stone to e polished. According to Warwick, colored mar- ble should not be treated with soap and water, but only with the solution of bees- wax above mentioned. II. — Take 2 parts of sodium bicarbon- ate, 1 part of powdered pumice stone, and 1 part of finely pulverized chalk. Pass through a fine sieve to screen out all particles capable of scratching the marble, and add sufficient water to form a pasty mass. Rub the marble with it vigorously, and end the cleaning with soap and water. III.— Oxgall 1 part Saturated solution of sodium carbo- nate 4 parts Oil of turpentine . . 1 part Pipe clay enough to form a paste. IV. — -Sodium carbonate. 2 ounces Chlorinated lime. . 1 ounce Water 14 ounces Mix well and apply the magma to the marble with a clotn, rubbing well in, and finally rubbing dry. It may be neces- sary to repeat this operation. V. — Wash the surface with a mixture of finely powdered pumice stone and vin- egar, and leave it for several hours; then brush it hard and wash it clean. When dry, rub with whiting and wash leather. VI. — Soft soap 4 parts Whiting 4 parts Sodium bicarbonate 1 part Copper sulphate. . . 2 parts Mix thoroughly and rub over the mar- ble with a piece of flannel, and leave it on for 24 hours, then wash it off with clean water, and polish the marble with a piece of flannel or an old piece of felt. VII. — A strong solution of oxalic acid effectually takes out ink stains. In handling it the poisonous nature of this acid should not be forgotten. VIII. — Iron mold or ink spots may be taken out in the following man- ner: Take J ounce of butter of antimony and 1 ounce of oxalic acid and dissolve them in 1 pint of rain water; add enough flour to bring the mixture to a proper consistency. Lay it evenly on the stained part with a brush, and, after it has remained for a few days, wash it off and repeat the process if the stain is not wholly removed. IX. — To remove oil stains apply com- mon clay saturated with benzine. If the grease has remained in long the polish will be injured, but the stain will be removed. X. — The following method for remov- ing rust from iron depends upon the solu- bility of the sulphide of iron in a solution of cyanide of potassium. Clay is made into a thin paste with ammonium sul- phide, and the rust spot smeared with the mixture, care being taken that the spot is only just covered. After ten minutes this paste is washed off and re- placed by one consisting of white bole mixed with a solution of potassium cyanide (1 to 4), which is in its turn CLEANING PREPARATIONS AND METHODS 197 washed off after about SJ hours. Should a reddish spot remain after washing off the first paste, a second layer may be ap- plied for about 5 minutes. XI. — Soft soap 4 ounces Whiting 4 ounces Sodium carbonate. 1 ounce Water, a sufficient quantity. Make into a thin paste, apply on the soiled surface, and wash off after 24 hours. XII. — In a spacious tub place a tall vessel upside down. On this set the article to be cleaned so that it will not stand in the water, which would loosen the cemented parts. Into this tub pour a few inches of cold water — hot water renders, marble dull — take a soft brush and a piece of Venetian soap, dip the former in the water and rub on the latter carefully, brushing off the article from top to bottom. When in this manner dust and dirt have been dissolved, wash off all soap particles by means of a water- ing pot and cold water, dab the object with a clean sponge, which absorbs the moisture, place it upon a cloth and care- fully dry with a verjf clean, soft cloth, rubbing gently. This treatment will restore the former gloss to the marble. XIII. — Mix and shake thoroughly in a bottle equal quantities of sulphuric acid and lemon juice. Moisten the spots and rub them lightly with a linen cloth and they will disappear. XIV. — Ink spots are treated with acid oxalate of potassium; blood stains I)y brushing with alabaster dust and dis- tilled water, then bleaching with chlorine solution. Alizarine ink and aniline ink spots can be moderated by laying on rags saturated with Javelle water, chlorine wa- ter, or chloride of lime paste. Old oil stains can only be effaced by placing the whole piece of marble for hours in oen- zine. Fresh oil or grease spots are oblit- erated by repeated applications of a little damp, white clay and subsequent brushing with soap water or weak soda solution. For many other spots an ap- plication of benzine and magnesia is useful. XV. — Marble slabs keep well and do not lose their fresh color if they are cleaned with hot water only, without the addition of soap, which is injurious to the color. Care must be taken that no liquid dries on the marble. If spots of wme, coffee, beer, etc., have already ap- peared, they are cleaned with diluted spirit of sal ammoniac, highly diluted oxalic acid, Javelle water, ox gall, or, take a quantity of newly slaked lime, mix it with water into a paste-like consistency. apply the paste uniformly on the spot with a brush, and leave the coating alone for two to three days before it is washed off. If the spots are not removed by a single application, repeat the latter. In using Javelle water 1 or 2 drops should be carefully poured on each spot, rinsing off with water. To Remove Grease Spots from Marble. — If the spots are fresh, rub them over with a piece of cloth that has been dipped into pulverized china clay, repeating the operation several times, and then brush with soap and water. When the spots are old brush with distilled water and finest French plaster energetically, then bleach with chloride of lime that is put on a piece of white cloth. If the piece of marble is small enough to permit it, soak it for a few hours in refined benzine. Preparation for Cleaning Marble, Furniture, and Metals, Especially Cop- per. — This preparation is claimed to give very quickly perfect brilliancy, persisting without soiling either the hand or the articles, and without leaving any odor o{ copper. The following is the composi- tion for 100 parts of the product: Wax, 2.4 parts; oil of turpentine, 9.4 parts; acetic acid, 42 parts; citric acid, 42 parts; white soap, 42 parts. Removing Oil Stains from Marble. — Saturate fuller's earth with a solution of equal parts of soap liniment, ammonia, and water; apply to the greasy part of the marble; keep there for some hours, pressed down with a smoothing iron sufficiently hot to warm the mass, and as it evaporates occasionally renew the solution. When wiped off dry the stain will have nearly disappeared. Some days later, when more oil works toward the surface repeat the operation. A few such treatments should suffice. Cleaning Terra Cotta. — After having carefully removed all dust, paint the terra cotta, by means of a brush, with a mix- ture of slightly gummed water and finely powdered terra cotta. Renovation of Polished and Varnished Surfaces of Wood, Stone, etc. — This is composed of the following ingredients, though the proportions may be varied: Cereal flour or wood pulp, 38i parts; hydrochloric acid, 45 parts; chloride of lime, 16 parts; turpentine, J part. After mixing the ingredients thoroughly in order to form a homogeneous paste, the object to be treated is smeared with it and allowed to stand for some time. The paste on the surface is then removed by passing over it quickly a piece of soft 198 CLEANING PREPARATIONS AND METHODS leather or a brush, which will remove dirt, grease, and other deleterious sub- stances. By rubbing gently with a cloth or piece of leather a polished sur- face will be imparted to wood, and ob- jects of metal will be rendered lustrous. The addition of chloride of lime tends to keep the paste moist, thus allowing the ready removal of the paste without dam- aging the varnish or polish, while the turpentine serves as a disinfectant and renders the odor less disagreeable during the operation. The preparation is rapid in its action, and does not affect the varnished or polished surfaces of wood or marble. While energetic in its cleansing action on brass and other metallic objects, it is attended with no corrosive effect. Nitrate of Silver Spots. — To remove these spots from white marble, they should be painted with Javelle water, and after having been washed, passed over a concentrated solution of thiosul- phate of soda (hyposulphite). To Remove Oil-Paint Spots from Sandstones. — This may be done by washing the spots with pure turpentine oil, then covering the place with white argillaceous earth (pipe clay), leaving it to dry, and finally rubbing with sharp soda lye, using a brush. Caustic am- monia also removes oil-paint spots from sandstones. RUST REMOVERS: To Remove Rust from Iron or Steel Utensils. — • I. — Apply the following solution by means of a brush, after having removed any grease by rubbing with a clean, dry cloth: 100 parts of stannic chloride are dissolved in 1,000 parts of water; this solution is added to one containing 2 parts tartaric acid dissolved in 1,000 parts of water, and finally 20 cubic cen- timeters indigo solution, diluted with 2,000 parts of water, are added. After allowing the sqjution to act upon the stain for a few seconds, it is rubbed clean, first with a moist cloth, then with a dry cloth; to restore the polish use is made of silver sand and jewelers' rouge. II. — When the rust is recent it is re- moved by rubbing the metal with a cork charged with oil. In this manner a per- fect polish is obtained. To take off old rust, mix equal parts of fine tripoli and flowers of sulphur, mingling this mixture with olive oil, so as to form a paste. Rub the iron with this preparation by means of a skin. III. — The rusty piece is connected with a piece of zinc and placed in water containing a little sulphuric acid. After the articles have been in the liquid for several days or a week, the rust will have completely disappeared. The length of time will depend upon the depth to which the rust has penetrated. A little sulphuric acid may oe added from time to time, but the chief point is that the zinc always has good electric contact with the iron. To insure this an iron wire may be firmly wound around the iron object and connected with the zinc. The iron is not attacked in the least, as long as the zinc is kept in good electric contact with it. When the articles are taken from the liquid they assume a dark gray or black color and are then washed and oiled. IV. — The rust on iron and steel ob- jects, especially large pieces, is readily removed by rubbing the pieces with oil of tartar, or with very fine emery and a little oil, or by putting powdered alum in strong vinegar and rubbing with this alumed vinegar. V. — Take cyanide of calcium, 25 parts; white soap, powdered, 25 parts; Spanish white, 50 parts; and water, 200 parts. Triturate all well and rub the piece with this paste. The effect will be quicker if before using this paste the rusty object has been soaked for 5 to 10 minutes in a solution of cyanide of potassium in the ratio of 1 part of cya- nide to 2 parts of water. VI. — To remove rust from polished steel cyanide of potassium is excellent. If possible, soak the instrument to be cleaned in a solution of cyanide of potas- sium in the proportion of 1 ounce of cya- nide to 4 ounces of water. Allow this to act till all loose rust is removed, and then polish with cyanide soap. The latter is made as follows: Potassium cya- nide, precipitated chalk, white castile soap. Make a saturated solution of the cyanide and add chalk sufficient to make a creamy paste. Add the soap cut in fine shavings and thoroughly incorporate in a mortar. When the mixture is stiff cease to add the soap. It should be re- membered that potassium cyanide is a virulent poison. VII. — Apply turpentine or kerosene oil, and after letting it stand over night, clean with finest emery cloth. VIII. — To free articles of iron and steel from rust and imbedded grains of sand the articles are treated with fluor- hydric acid (about 2 per cent) 1 to 2 hours, whereby the impurities but not the metal are dissolved. This is followed by a washing with lime milk, to neutralize any fluorhydric acid remaining. CLEANING PKEPAUATIONS AND METHODS 199 To Remove Rust from Nickel.— First ffrease the articles well; then, after a few days, rub them with a rag charged with ammdiiia. If the rust spots persist, add u few drops of hydrochloric acid to the ammonia, rub and wipe ofl at once. Next rinse with water, dry, and polish with tripoli. Removal of Rust.— To take off the rust from small articles which glass or emery paper would bite too deeply, the ink-erasing rubber used in business offices may be emploj^ed. By bevel ing it, (ir cutting it to a pomt as needful, it can be introduced into the smallest cavities and windings, and a perfect cleaning be effected. To Remove Rust from Instnunents. — I. — Lay the instruments over night in a saturated solution of chloride of tin. The rust spots will disappear through reduction. Upon withdrawal from the solution the instruments are rinsed with water, placed in a hot soda-soap solution, , and dried. Cleaning with absolute alco- hol and polishing chalk may also follow. II. — Make a solution of 1 part of kerosene in 200 parts of benzine or car- bon tetrachloride, and dip the instru- ments, which have been dried by leaving them in heated air, in this, moving their parts, if movable, as in forceps and scis- sors, about under the liquid, so that it may enter all the crevices. Next lay the instruments on a plate in a dry room, so that the benzine can evaporate. Nee- dles are simply thrown in the paraffine solution, and taken out with tongs or tweezers, after which they are allowed to dry on a plate. in. — Pour olive oil on the rust spots and leave for several days; then rub with emery or tripoli, without wiping off the oil as far as possible, or always bringing it back on the spot. Afterwards remove the emery and the oil with a rag, rub again with emery soaked with vinegar, and finally with fine plumbago on a piece of chamois skin. To Preserve Steel from Rust. — To preserve steel from rust dissolve 1 part caoutchouc and 16 parts turpentine with a gentle heat, then add 8 parts boiled oil, and mix by bringing them to the heat of boiling water. Apply to the steel with a brush, the same as varnish. It can be removed again with a cloth soaked in turpentine. METAL CLEANING: Cleaning and Preserving Medals, Coins, and Small Iron Articles. — The coating of silver chloride may be reduced with molten potassium cyanide. Then boil the article in water, displace the water with alcohol, and dry in a drying closet. When dry brush with a soft brush and cover with " zaponlack " (any good transparent lacquer or varnish will answer). Instead of potassium cyanide alone, a mixture of that and pota-.sium carbonate may be used. After treatment in this way, delicate objects of silver become kss brittle. Another way is to put the article in molten sodium carbonate and remove the silver carbonate thus formed, by acetic acid of 50 per cent strength. This process produces the finest possil)le polish. The potassium-cyanide process may be used with all small iron objt-cts. For larger ones molten potassium rhodanide is recommended. I'liis convrrts tlie iron oxide into iron sulphide that is eas- ily washed off and leaves the surface of a fine black color. Old coins may be cleansed by first immersing them in strong nitric acid and then washing them in clean water. Wipe them dry before putting away. To Clean Old Medals. — Immerse in lemon juice until the coating of oxide has completely disappeared; 24 hours is gen- erally sufficient, but a longer time is not harmful. Steel Cleaner. — Smear the object with oil, preferably petroleum, ami allow some days for penetration of the surface of the metal. Then rub vigorously with a piece of flannel or willow wood. Or, with a paste composed of olive oil, sulphur flowers, and tripoli, or of rotten stone and oil. Finally, a coating may be em- ployed, made of 10 parts of potassium cyanide and 1 part of cream of tartar; or 25 parts of potassium cyanide, with the addition of 55 parts of carbonate of lime and 20 parts of white soap. Restoring Tarnished Gold. — Sodium bicarbonate. 20 ounces Chlorinated lime.. . . 1 ounce Common salt 1 ounce Water 16 ounces Mix well and apply with a soft brush. A very small quantity of the solution is sufficient, and it may be used either cold or lukewarm. Plain articles may be brightened by putting a drop or two of the liquid upon them and lightly brushing the surface with fine tissue paper. 200 CLEANING PREPARATIONS AND METHODS Cleaning Copper. — I. — Use Armenian bole mixed into a paste with oleic acid. II. — Rotten stone 1 part Iron subcarbonate . . 3 parts Lard oil, a sufficient quantity. ni. — Iron oxide 10 parts Pumice stone 32 parts Oleic acid, a sufficient quantity. IV. — Soap, cut fine 16 parts Precipitated chalk . . 2 parts Jewelers' rouge 1 part Cream of tartar 1 part Magnesium carbonate 1 part Water, a sufficient quantity. Dissolve the soap in the smallest quan- tity of water that will eflfect solution over a water bath. Add the other ingredients to the solutj|)n while still hot, stirring constantly. To Remove Hard Grease, Paint, etc., from Machinery. — To remove grease, paint, etc., from machinery add half a pound of caustic soda to 2 gallons of water and boil the parts to be cleaned in the fluid. It is possible to use it several times before its strength is exhausted. Solutions for Cleaning Metals. ^- I. — Water 20 parts Alum 2 parts Tripoli 2 parts Nitric acid 1 part II. — Water 40 parts Oxalic acid 2 parts Tripoli 1 parts To Cleanse Nickel. — I. — Fifty parts of rectified alcohol; 1 part of sulphuric acid; 1 part of nitric acid. Plunge the piece in the bath for 10 to 15 seconds, rinse it off in cold water, and dip it next into rectified alcohol. Dry with a fine linen rag or with sawdust. II. — Stearine oil 1 part Ammonia water 25 parts Benzine. .*. 50 parts Alcohol 75 parts Rub up the stearine with the ammonia, add the benzine and then the alcohol, and agitate until homogeneous. Put in wide-mouthed vessels and close care- fully. To Clean Petroleum Lamp Burners. — Dissolve in a quart of soft water an ounce or an ounce and a half of washing soda, using an old half-gallon tomato can. Into this put the burner after removing the wick, set it on the stove, and let it boil strongly for 5 or 6 minutes, then take out, rinse under the tap, and dry. Every particle of carbonaceous matter will thus be got rid of, and the burner be as clean and serviceable as new. This ought to be done at least every month, but the light would be better if it were done every 2 weeks. Gold-Ware Cleaner. — Acetic acid 2 parts Sulphuric acid 2 parts Oxalic acid 1 part Jewelers' rouge 2 parts Distilled water 200 parts Mix the acids and water and stir in the rouge, after first rubbing it up with a por- tion of the liquid. With a clean cloth, wet with this mixture, go well over the article. Rinse off with hot water and dry. Silverware Cleaner. — Make a thin paste of levigated (not precipitated) chalk and sodium hyposulphite, in equal parts, rubbed up in distilled water. Apply this paste to the surface, rubbing well with a soft brush. Rinse in clear water and dry in sawdust. Some authorities advise the cleaner to let the paste dry on the ware, and then to rub off and rinse with hot water. Silver-Coin Cleaner. — Make a bath of 10 parts of sulphuric acid and 90 parts of water, and let the coin lie in this until the crust of silver sulphide is dissolved. From 5 to 10 minutes usually suffice. Rinse in running water, then rub with a soft brush and castile soap, rinse again, dry with a soft cloth, and then carefully rub with chamois. Cleaning Silver-Plated Ware. — Into a wide-mouthed bottle provided with a good cork put the following mixture: Cream of tartar 2 parts Levigated chalk 2 parts Alum 1 part Powder the alum and rub up with the other ingredients, and cork tightly. When required for use wet sufficient of the powder and with soft linen rags rub the article, being careful not to use much pressure, as otherwise the thin lajrer of plating may be cut through. Rinse in hot suds, and afterwards in clear water, and dry in sawdust. When badly blackened with silver sulphide, if small, the article may be dipped for an instant in hydrochloric acid and imme- diately rinsed in running water. Larger articles may be treated as coins are — immersed for 2 or 3 minutes in a 10 per cent aqueous solution of sulphuric acid, or the surface may be rapidly wiped CLEANING PREPARATIONS AND METHODS 201 with a swab carrying nitric acid and in- stantly rinsed in running water. Cleanine Gilt Bronze Ware. — If greasy, wash carefully in suds, or, better, dip into a hot solution of caustic potash, and then wash in suds with a soft rag, and rinse in running water. If not then clean and bright, dip into the following mixture: Nitric acid 10 parts Aluminum sulphate. . 1 part Water 40 parts Mix. Rinse in running water. Britannia Metal Cleaner. — Rub first with jewelers' rouge made into a paste with oil; wash in suds, rinse, dry, and finish with chamois or wash leather. To Remove Ink Stains on Silver. — Silver articles in domestic use, and espe- cially silver or plated inkstands, fre- quently become badly stained with ink. These stains cannot be removed by ordi- nary processes, but readily yield to a paste of chloride of lime and water. Ja- velle water may be also used. Removing Egg Stains. — A pinch of table salt taken between the thumb and finger and rubbed on the spot with the end of the finger will usually remove the darkest egg stain from silver. To Clean Silver Ornaments. — Make a strong solution of soft soap and water, and in this boil the articles for a few min- utes — five will usually be enough. Take out, pour the soap solution into a basin, and as soon as the liquid has cooled down sufficiently to be borne by the hand, with a soft brush scrub the articles with it. Rinse in boiling water and place on a porous substance (a bit of tiling, a brick, or unglazed earthenware) to dry. Fi- nally give a light rubbing with a chamois. Articles thus treated look as bright as new. Solvent for Iron Rust. — Articles at- tacked by rust may be conveniently , cleaned by dipping them into a well- saturated solution of stannic chloride. The length of time of the action must be regulated according to the thickness of the rust. As a rule 12 to 24 hours will suffice, but it is essential to prevent an excess of acid in the bath, as this is liable to attack the iron itself. After the ob- jects have been removed from the bath they must be rinsed with water, and sub- se()uently with ammonia, _ and then quickly dried. Greasing with vaseline seems to prevent new formation of rust. Objects treated in this manner are said to resemble dead silver. Professor Weber proposed a diluted alkali, and it has been found that after employing this remedy the dirt layer is loosened and the green platina reappears. Potash has been found to be an efficacious remedy, even in the case of statues that had apparently turned completely black. To Clean Polished Parts of Machines. — Put in a flask 1,000 parts of petroleum; add 20 parts of paraffine, shaved fine; cork the bottle and stand aside for a couple of days, giving it an occasional shake. The mixture is now ready for use. To use, shake the bottle, pour a little of the liquid upon a woolen rag and rub evenly over the part to be cleaned; or apply with a brush. Set the article aside and, next day, rub it well with a dry, woolen rag. Every particle of rust, resinified grease, etc., will disappear provided the article has not been neglected too long. In this case a further applica- tion of the oil will be necessary. If too great pressure has not been made, or the rubbing continued too long, the residual oil finally leaves the surface protected by a delicate layer of paraffine that will pre- vent rusting for a long time. To Clean Articles of Nickel. — Lay them for a few seconds in alcohol con- taining 2 per cent of sulphuric acid; re- move, wash in running water, rinse in alcohol, and rub dry with a linen cloth. This process gives a brilliant polish and is especially useful with plated articles on the plating of which the usual polishing materials act very destructively. The yellowest and brownest nickeled articles are restored to pristine brilliancy by leaving them in the alcohol and acid for 15 seconds. Five seconds suffice ordi- narily. How to Renovate Bronzes.— For gilt work, first remove all grease, dirt, wax, etc., with a solution in water of potas- sium or sodium hydrate, then dry, and with a soft rag apply the following: Sodium carbonate. . 7 parts Spanish whiting 15 parts Alcohol, 85 per cent 60 parts Water 125 parts Go over every part carefully, using a brush to get into the minute crevices. When this dries on, brush ofif with a fine linen cloth or a supple chamois skin. Or the following plan may be used: Remove grease, etc., as directed above, dry and go over the spots where the gilt surface is discolored with a brush dipped in a solution of two parts of alum in 250 parts of water and 65 parts of nitric acid. As soon as the gilding reappears or the 202 CLEANING PREPARATIONS AND METHODS surface becomes bright, wash off, and dry in the direct sunhght. Still another cleaner is made of nitric acid, 30 parts; aluminum sulphate, 4 parts; distilled or rain water, 125 parts. Clean of grease, etc., as above, and apply the solution with a camel's-hair pencil. Rinse off and dry in sawdust. Finally, some articles are best cleaned by im- mersing in hot soap suds and rubbing with a soft brush. Rinse in clear, hot water, using a soft brush to get the residual suds out of crevices. Let dry, then finish by rubbing the gilt spots or places with a soft, linen rag, or a bit of chamois. There are some bronzes gilt with imi- tation gold and varnished. Where the work is well done and the gilding has not been on too long, they will deceive even the practiced eye. The deception, how- ever, may easily be detected by touching a spot on the gilt surface with a glass rod dipped in a solution of corrosive subli- mate. If the gilding is true no discolor- ation will occur, but if false a brown spot will be produced. To Clean a Gas Stove. — An easy meth- od of removing grease spots consists in immersing the separable parts for sev- eral hours in a warm lye, heated to about 70° C. (158° F.), said lye to be made of 9 parts of caustic soda and 180 parts of water. These pieces, together with the fixed parts of the stove, may be well brushed with this lye and afterwards rinsed in clean, warm water. The grease will be dissolved, and the stove restored almost to its original state. Cleaning Copper Sinks. — Make rot- ten stone into a stiff paste with soft soap and water. Rub on with a woolen rag, and polish with dry whiting and rotten stone. Finish with a leather and dry whiting. Many of the substances and mixtures used to clean brass will effec- tively clean copper. Oxalic acid is said to be the best medium for cleaning cop- per, but after using it the surface of the copper must be well washed, dried, and then rubbed with sweet oil and tripoli, or some other polishing agent. Otherwise the metal will soon tarnish again. Treatment of Cast-iron Grave Crosses. — The rust must first be thoroughly re- moved with a steel-wire brush. When this is done apply one or two coats of red lead or graphite paint. After this prim- ing has become hard, paint with double- burnt lampblack and equal parts of oil of turpentine and varnish. This coating is followed by one of lampblack ground with coach varnish. Now paint the sin- gle portions with " mixtion " (gilding oil) and gild as usual. Such crosses look better when they are not altogether black. Ornaments may be very well treated in colors with oil paint and then varnished. The crosses treated in this manner are preserved for many years, but it is essential to use good exterior or coach varnish for varnishing, and not the so-called black varnish, which is mostly composed of asphalt or tar. Cleaning Inferior Gold Articles. — The brown film which forms on low-quality gold articles is removed by coating with fuming hydrochloric acid, whereupon they are brushed off with Vienna lime and petroleum. Finally, clean the ob- jects with benzine, rinse again in pure benzine, and dry in sawdust. To Clean Bronze. — Clean the bronze with soft soap; next wash it in plenty of water; wipe, let dry, and apply light en- caustic mixture composed of spirit of turpentine in which a small quantity of yellow wax has been dissolved. The en- caustic is spread by means of a linen or woolen wad. For gilt bronze, add 1 spoonful of alkali to 3 spoonfuls of water and rub the article with this by means of a ball of wadding. Next wipe with a clean chamois, similar to that employed in silvering. How to Clean Brass and Steel. — To clean brasses quickly and economically, rub them with vinegar and salt or with oxalic acid. Wash immediately after the rubbing, and polish with tripoli and sweet oil. Unless the acid is washed off the article will tarnish quickly. Copper kettles and saucepans, brass andirons, fenders, and candlesticks and trays are best cleaned with vinegar and salt. Cooking vessels in constant use need only to be well washed afterwards. Things for show — even pots and pans — need the oil polishing, which gives a deep, rich, yellow luster, good iox six months. Oxalic acid and salt should be employed for furniture brasses — if it touches the wood it only improves the tone. Wipe the brasses well with a wet cloth, and polish thoroughly with oil , and tripoli. Sometimes powdered rotten stone does better than tne tripoli. Rub, after using, either_ with a dry cloth or leather, until there is no trace of oil. The brass to be cleaned must be .freed completely from grease, caked dirt» and grime. Wash with strong ammonia suds and rinse dry before beginning with the acid and salt. The best treatment for wrought steel is to wash it very clean with a stiff brush CLEANING TREPARATIONS AND METHODS 203 and ammonia soapsuds, rinse well, dry by hcat.oil plentifully with sweet oil, and dust thickly with powdered quicklime. Let the lime stay on 2 days, then brush it off with a clean, very stiff brush. Polish with a softer brush, and rub with cloths until the luster comes out. By leaving the lime on, iron and steel may be kept from rust almost indefinitely. Before wettinc any sort of bric-a-brac, and especially bronzes, remove all the dust possible. After dusting, wash well in strong white soapsuds and ammonia, rinse clean, polish with just a suspicion of oil and rotten stone, and rub off after- wards every trace of the oil. Never let acid touch a bronze surface, unless to eat and pit it for antique effects. Composition for Cleaning Copper, ITickel, and other Metals. — Wool grease, id parts, by weight; fire clay, 30 parts, by weight; parafnne, 5 parts, by weight; Canova wax, 5 parts, by weight; cocoa- nut oil, 10 parts, by weight; oil of mir- bane, 1 part, by weight. After mixing these different ingredients, which con- stitute a paste, this is molded in order to give a cylindrical form, and introduced into a case so that it can be used like a stick of cosmetic. Putz Pomade. — I. — Oxalicacid, 1 part; caput mortuum, 15 parts (or, if white pomade is desired, tripoli, 12 parts); powdered pumice stone, best grade, 20 parts; palm oil, 60 parts; petroleum or oleine, i parts. Perfume with mirbane oil. II. — Oxalic acid 1 part Peroxide of iron (jewelers' rouge).. 15 parts Rotten stone '20 parts Talm oil 60 parts Petrolatum 5 parts Pulverize the acid and the rotten stone and mix thoroughly with the rouge. Sift to remove all grit, then make into a f)aste with the oil and petrolatum. A ittle nitro-benzol may be added to scent the mixture. III. — Oleine 40 parts Ceresine 5 parts Tripoli . 40 parts Light mineral o i 1 (0.870) '20 parts Melt the oleine, ceresine, and min- eral oil together, and stir in the tripoli; next, grind evenly in a paint mill. To Clean Gtmimed Parts of Ma- chinery. — Boil about 10 to 15 parts of caustic soda or 100 parts of soda in 1,000 parts of water, immerse the parts to be cleaned in this for some time, or, better, boil them with it. Then rinse and dry. For small shops this mode of cleaning is doubtless the oest. To Remove Silver Plating.— I. — Put sulphuric acid 100 parts and potassium nitrate (saltpeter) 10 parts in a vessel of stoneware or porcelam, heated on the water bath. When the silver has left the copper, rinse the objects several times. This silver stripping bath may be used several times, if it is Kept in a well-closed bottle. When it is saturated with silver, decant the liquid, boil it to dryness, then add the residue to the deposit, and melt in the crucible to obtain the metal. n. — Stripping silvered articles of the silvering may be accomplishedby the fol- lowing mixture: Sulphuric acid, 60° B., 3 parts; nitric acid, 40° B., 1 part; heat the mixture to about 166° F., and im- merse the articles by means of a copper wire. In a few seconds the acid mixture will have done the work. A thorough rinsing off is, of course, necessary. To Clean Zinc Articles. — In order to clean articles of zinc, stir rye bran into a paste with boiling water, and add a hand- ful of silver sand and a little vitriol. Rub the article with this paste, rinse with water, dry, and polish with a cloth. To Remove Rust from Nickel. — Smear the rusted parts well with grease (ordi- nary animal fat will do), and allow the article to stand several days. If the rust is not thick the grease and rust may be rubbed off with a cloth dipped in am- monia. If the rust is very deep, apply a diluted solution of hydrochloric aeid, taking care that the acid does not touch the metal, and the rust may be easily rubbed off. Then wash the article and polish in the usual way. Compound for Cleaning Brass. — To make a brass cleaning compound use oxalic acid, 1 ounce; rotten stone, 6 ounces; enough whale oil and sjjirits of turpentine of equal parts, to mix, and make a paste. To Clean Gilt Objects. — I. — Into an ordinary drinking glass pour about 20 drops of ammonia, immerse the piece to be cleaned repeatedly in this, and brush with a soft brush. Treat the article with pure water, then with alcohol, and wipe with a soft rag. II. — Boil common alum in soft, pure water, and immerse the article in the solution, or rub the spot with it, and dry with sawdust. III. — For cleaning picture frames. 204. CLEANING PREPARATIONS AND METHODS moldings, and, in fact, all kinds of gilded work, tne best medium is liquor potassae, diluted with about 5 volumes of water. Dilute alcohol is also excellent. Methylated wood spirit, if the odor is not objectionable, answers admirably. To Scale Cast Iron. — To remove the scale from cast iron use a solution of 1 part vitriol and 2 parts water; after mix- ing, apply to the scale with a cloth rolled in the form of a brush, using enough to wet the surface well. After 8 or 10 hours wash off with water, when the hard, scaly surface will be completely removed. Cleaning Funnels and Measures. — Funnels and measures used for measur- ing va-rnishes, oils, etc., may be cleaned by soaking them in a strong solution of lye or pearlash. Another mixture for the same purpose consists of pearlash with quicklime in aqueous solution. The measures are allowed to soak in the solution for a short time, when the resin- ous matter of the paint or varnish is easily removed. A thin coating of pe- troleum lubricating oils may be removed, it is said, by the use of naphtha or petro- leum benzine. To Clean Aluminum. — I. — Aluminum articles are very hard to clean so they will have a bright, new appearance. This is especially the case with the matted or frosted pieces. To restore the pieces to brilliancy place them for some time in water that has been slightly acidulated with sulphuric acid. II. — Wash the aluminum with coal-oil, gasoline or benzine, then put it in a con- centrated solution of caustic potash, and after washing it with plenty of water, dip it in the bath composed of | nitric acid and J water. Next, subject it to a bath of concentrated nitric acid, and finally to a mixture of rum and olive oil. To render aluminum capable of being worked like pure copper, J of oil of tur- pentine and i stearic acid are used. For polishing by hand, take a solution of 30 parts of borax and 1,000 parts of water, to which a few drops of spirits of ammonia have been added. How to Clean Tarnished Silver. — I. — If the articles are only slightly tarnished, mix 3 parts of best washed and purified chalk and 1 part of white soap, adding water, till a thin paste is formed, which should be rubbed on the silver with a dry brush, till the articles are quite bright. As a substitute, whiting, mixed with caus- tic ammonia to form a paste, may be used. This mixture is very effective, but it irritates the eyes and nose. n. — An eflScacious preparation is ob- tained by mixing beech-wood ashes, 2 parts; Venetian soap, 7^5 part; cooking salt, 2 parts; rain water, 8 parts. Brush the silver with this lye, using a somewhat stiff brush. in. — ^A solution of crystallized potas- sium permanganate has been recom- mended. IV. — ^A grayish violet film which silver- ware acquires from perspiration, can be readily removed by means of ammonia. V. — To remove spots from silver lay it for 4 hotirs in soapmaKcrs' lye, then throw on fine powdered gypsum, moisten the latter with vinegar to cause it to adhere, dry near the fire, and wipe off. Next rub the spot with dry bran. This not only causes it to disappear, but gives extraor- dinary gloss to the silver. VI. — Cleaning with the usual fine powders is attended with some diflBculty and inconvenience. An excellent result is obtained without injury to the silver by employing a saturated solution of hypo- sulphite of soda, which is put on with a brush or rag. The article is then washed with plenty of water. VII. — Never use soap on silverware, as it dulls the luster, giving the article more the appearance of pewter than silver. When it wants cleaning, rub it with a piece of soft leather and prepared chalk, made into a paste with pure water, entirely free from grit. To Clean Dull Gold. —I.— Take 80 parts, by weight, of chloride of lime, and rub it up with gradual addition of water in a porcelain mortar into a thin, even paste, which is put into a solution of 80 parts, by weight, of bicarbonate of soda, and 20 parts, by weight, of salt, in 3,000 parts, by weight, of water. Shake it, and let stand a few days before using. If the preparation is to be kept for any length of time the bottle should be placed, well corked, in the cellar. For use, lay the tarnished articles in a dish, pour the liquid, which has previously been well shaken, over them so as just to cover them, and leave them therein for a few days. II. — Bicarbonate of soda. 31 parts Chloride of lime. ... 15.5 parts Cooking salt 16 parts Water 240 parts Grind the chloride of lime with a little water to a thin paste, in a porcelain ves- sel, and add the remaining chemicals. Wash the objects with the aid of a soft brush with the solution, rinse several times in water, ana ary in fine sawdust. CLEANING PREPARATIONS AND METHODS 205 Cleaning Bronze Objects. — Employ powdered chicory mixed with water, so as to obtain a paste, which is applied with a brush. After the brushing, rinse off and dry in the sun or near a stove. Cleaning Gilded Bronzes. — I. — Com- mence by removine the spots of grease and wax with a little potash or soda dis- solved in water. Let dry, and apply the following mixture with a rag: Carbonate of soda, 7 parts; whiting, 16 parts; alco- hol (85°), 50 parts; water, 125 parts. When this coating is dry pass a fine linen cloth or a piece of supple skin over it. The hollow parts are cleaned with a brush. II. — After removing the grease spots, let dry and pass over all the damaged parts a pencil dipped in the following mixture: Alum, 2 parts; nitric acid, 65; water, 250 parts. When the gilding be- comes bright, wipe, and dry in the sun or near a fire. III. — Wash in hot water containing a little soda, dry, and pass over the gilding B pencil soaked in a liquid made of 30 parts nitric acid, 4 parts of aluminum ghosphate, and 125 parts of pure water, •ry in sawdust. IV. — Immerse the objects in boiling soap water, and facilitate the action of the soap by rubbing with a soft brush; put the objects in hot water, brush them carefully, and let them drv in the air; when they are quite dry rub the shining parts only with an old linen cloth or a soft leather, without touching the others. Stripping Gilt Articles. — Degilding or stripping gilt articles may be done by at- taching the object to the positive pole of a battery and immersing it in a solution composed of 1 pound of cyanide dissolved in about 1 gallon of water. Desilvering may be effected in the same manner. To Clean Tarnished Zinc— Apply with a rag a mixture of 1 part sulphuric acid with 12 parts of water. Rinse the zinc with clear water. Cleaning Pewter Articles. — Pour hot lye of wood ashes upon the tin, throw on sand, and rub with a hard, woolen rag, hat felt, or whisk until all particles of dirt have been dissolved. To polish pewter plates it is well to have the turner make similar wooden forms fitting the plates, and to rub them clean this way. Next they are rinsed with clean water and placed on a table with a clean linen cover on which they are left to dry without being touchecl, otherwise spots will ap- pear. This scouring is not necessary so often if the pewter is rubbed with wheat bran after use and cleaned perfectly. New pewter is polished with a paste of whiting and brandy, rubbing the dishes with it until the mass becomes dry. To Clean Files. — Files which have be- come clogged with tin or lead are cleaned by dipping for a few seconds into concentrated nitric acid. To remove iron filings from the file cuts, a bath of blue vitriol is employed. After the files have been rinsed in water they are like- wise dipped in nitric acid. File-ridges closed up by zinc are cleaned by im- mersing the files in diluted sulphuric acid. Such as have become filled with copper or brass are also treated with nitric acid, but here the process has to be repeated several times. The files should always be rinsed in water after the treat- ment, brushed with u. stiff brush, and dried in sawdust or by pouring alcohol over them, aqd letting it burn off on the file. Scale Pan Cleaner. — About the quick- est cleaner for brass scale pans is a solu- tion of potassium bichromate in dilute sulphuric acid, using about 1 part of chromate, in powder, to 3 parts of acid and 6 parts of water. In this imbibe a cloth wrapped around a stick (to protect the hands), and with it rub the pans. Do this at tap or hydrant, so that no time is lost in placing the pan in running water after having ruboed it with the acid solution. For pans not very badly soiled rubbim; with ammonia water and rinsing is sufficient. Tarnish on Electro -Plate Goods. — This tarnish can be removed by dipping the article for from 1 to 15 minutes — that is, until the tarnish shall have been removed — in a pickle of the following composition: Rain water 2 gallons and potassium cyanide i pound. Dissolve together, and fill into a stone jug or jar, and close tightly. The article, after having been immersed, must be taken out and thoroughly rinsed in several waters, then dried with fine, clean saw- dust. Tarnish on jewelry can be speed- ily removed by this process; but if the cyanide is not completely removed it will corrode the goods. OIL-, GREASE-, PAINT-SPOT ERAD- ICATORS: Grease- and Paint-Spot Eradicators. — I.— Benzol 500 parts Benzine 500 parts Soap, best white, shaved 5 parts Water, warm, sufficient. 206 CLEANING PREPARATIONS AND METHODS Dissolve the soap in the warm water, using from 50 to 60 parts. Mix the ben- zol and benzine, and add the soap solu- tion, a little at a time, shaking up well after each addition.' If the mixture is slow in emulsifying, add at one time from 50 to 100 parts of warm water, and shake violently. Set the emulsion aside for a few days, or until it separates, then de- cant the superfluous water, and pour the residual pasty mass, after stirring it up well, into suitable boxes. II. — Soap spirit 100 parts Ammonia solution, 10 per cent 25 parts Acetic ether 15 parts III. — Extract of quillaia . 1 part Borax 1 part Ox gall, fresh 6 parts Tallow soap 15 parts Triturate the quillaia and borax to- t ether, incorporate the ox gall, and, nally, add the tallow soap and mix thoroughly by kneading. The product is a plastic mass, whicn may be rolled into sticks or put up into boxes. Removing Oil Spots from Leather. — To remove oil stains from leather, dab the spot carefully with spirits of sal am- moniac, and after allowing it to act for a while, wash with clean water. This treatment may have to be repeated a few times, taking care, however, not to injure the color of the leather. Sometimes the spot may be removed very simply by spreading the place rather thickly with butter and letting this act for a few hours. Next scrape off the butter with the point of a knife, and rinse the stain with soap and lukewarm water. To Clean Linoleum. — Rust spots and other stains can be removed from lino- leum by rubbing with st^eel chips. To Remove Putty, Grease, etc., from Plate Glass.— To remove all kinds of greasy materials from glass, and to leave the latter bright and clean, use a paste made of benzine and burnt magnesia of such consistence that when the mass is pressed between the fingers a drop of benzine will exude. With this mixture and a wad of cotton, go over the entire surface of the glass, rubbing it well. One rubbing is usually sufiicient. After drying, any of the substance left in the corners, etc., is easily removed by brush- ing with a suitable brush. The same preparation is very useful for cleaning mirrors and removing grease stains from books, papers, etc. Removing Spots from Ftimiture.— White spots on polished tables are re- moved in the following manner: Coat the spot with oil and pour on a rag a few drops of " mixtura balsamica oleosa," which can be bought in every drug store, and rub on the spot, which will disappear immediately. To Remove Spots from Drawings, etc. — Place soapstone, fine meerschaum shavings, amianthus, or powdered mag- nesia on the spot, and, if necessary, lay on white filtering paper, saturating it with peroxide of hydrogen. Allow this to act for a few hours, and remove the application with a brush. If necessary, repeat the operation. In this manner black coffee spots were removed from a valuable diagram without erasure by knife or rubber. WATCHMAKERS' AND JEWELERS' CLEANING PREPARATIONS: To Clean the Tops of Clocks in Re- pairing. — Sprinkle whiting on the top. Pour good vinegar over this and rub vigorously. Rinse in clean water and dry slowly in the sun or at the fire. A good polish will be obtained. To Clean Watch Chains.— Gold or silver watch chains can be cleaned with a very excellent result, no matter whether they be matt or polished, by laying them for a few seconds in pure aqua ammonia; they are then rinsed in alcohol, and finally shaken in clean sawdust, free from sand. Imitation gold and plated chains are first cleaned in benzine, then rinsed in alcohol, and afterwards shaken in dry sawdust. Ordinary chains are first dipped in the following pickle: Pure nitric acid is mixed with concentrated sulphuric acid in the proportion of 10 parts of the former to 2 parts of the latter; a little table salt is added. The chains are boiled in this mixture, then rinsed several times in water, afterwards in alcohol, and finally dried in sawdust. Cleaning Brass Mountings on Clock Cases, etc. — The brass mountings are first cleaned of dirt by dipping them for a short time into boiling soda lye, and next are pickled, still warm, if possible, in a mixture consisting of nitric acid, 60 parts; sulphuric acid, 40 parts; cooking salt, 1 part; and shining soot (lamp- black), J part, whereby they acquire a handsome golden-yellow coloring. The pickling mixture, however, must not be em- ployed immediately after pouring together the acids, which causes a strong genera- tion of heat, but should settle for at least Ci^EANING PREPARATIONS AND METHODS 207 ] day. This makes the articles hand- somer and more uniform. After the dip- ping the objects are rinsed in plenty of clean water and dried on a hot, iron plate, and at the same time warmed for lac- quering. Since the pieces would be iacauered too thick and unevenly in pure gold varnish, this is diluted with alcohol, 1 part of gold varnish suflBcing for 10 parts of alcohol. Into this liquid dip the mountings previously warmed and^dry them again on the hot plate. Gilt Zinc Clocks.— It freq^uently hap- pens that clocks of gilt zinc become covered with green spots. To remove such spots the following process is used: Soak a small wad of cotton in alkali and rub it on the spot. The green color will disappear at once, but the gilding being gone, a black spot will remain. Wipe off well to remove all traces of the alkali. To replace the gilding, put on, by means of liquid gum arable, a little bronze pow- der of the colorof the gilding. The powdered bronze is applied dry with the aid of a brush or cotton wad. When the gilding of the clock has become black or dull from age, it may be revived by im- mersion in a bath of cyanide of potas- sium, but frequently it suffices to wash it with a soft brush in soap and water, in which a little carbonate of soda has been dissolved. Brush the piece in the lather, rinse in clean water, and dry in rather hot sav.dust. The piece should be dried well inside and outside, as moisture will cause it to turn black. To Clean Gtunmed Up Springs. — Dissolve caustic soda in warm water, place the spring in the solution and leave it there for about one half hour. Any oil still adhering may now easily be taken off with a hard brush; next, dry the spring with a clean cloth. In this man- ner gummed up parts of tower clocks, locks, etc., may be quickly and thor- oughly cleaned, and oil paint may be removed from metal or wood. The lye is sharp, but free from danger, nor are the steel parts attacked by it. To Clean Soldered Watch Cases.— Gold, silver, and other metallic watch casfs which in soldering have been ex- posed to heat, are laid in diluted sul- phuric acid (1 part acid to 10 to ISjparts water), to free them from oxide. Heat- ing the acid accelerates the cleaning proc- ess. The articles are then well rinsed In water and dried. Gold cases are next brushed with powdered tripoli moistened with oil, to remove the pale spots caused by the heat and boiling, and to restore the original color. After that they are cleaned with soap water and finally pol- ished with rouge. Silver cases are pol- ished after boiling, with a scratch brush dipped in beer. A Simple Way to Clean a Clock. —Take a. bit of cotton the size of a hen's egg, dip it in kerosene and place it on flie floor of the clock, in the corner; shut the door of the clock, and wait 3 or 4 days. The clock will be like a new one— and if you look inside you will find the cotton batting black with dust. The fumes of the oil loosen the particles of dust, and they fall, thus cleaning the clock. To Restore the Color of a Gold or Gilt Dial. — Dip the dial for a few seconds in the following mixture: Half an ounce of cyanide of potassium is dissolved in a quart of hot water, and 2 ounces of strong ammonia, mixed with J an ounce of alcohol, are added to the solution. On removal from this bath, the dial should immediately be immersed in warm water, then brushed with soap, rinsed, and dried in hot boxwood dust. Or it may simply be immersed in dilute nitric acid; but in this case any painted figures will be destroyed. A Bath for Cleaning Clocks. — In an enameled iron or terra- cotta vessel pour 2,000 parts of water, add 50 parts of scraped Marseilles soap, 80 to 100 parts of whitiuK, and a small cup of spirits of ammonia. To hasten the proc- ess of solution, warm, but do not allow to boil. If the clock is very dirty or much oxi- dized, immerse the pieces in the bath while warm, and as long as necessary. Take them out with a skimmer or strainer, and pour over them some ben- zine, letting the liquid fall into an empty vessel. This being decanted and bot- tled can be used indefinitely for rinsing. If the bath has too much alkali or is used when too hot, it may affect the polish and render it dull. This may be obviated by trying different strengths of the alkali. Pieces of blued steel are not injured by the alkali, even when pure. To Remove a Figure or ITame from a Dial. — Oil of spike lavender may be employed for erasing a letter or number. Enamel powder made into a paste with water, oil, or turpentine is also used for this purpose. It should be previously levigated so as to obtain several degrees of fineness. The powder used for repol- ishing the surface, where an impression has been removed, must be extremely fine. It is applied with a piece of peg- 208 CLEANING PREPARATIONS AND METHODS wood or ivory. The best method is to employ diamond powder. Take a little of the powder, make into a paste with fine oil, on the end of a copper polisher the surface of which has been freshly filed and slightly rounded. The marks will rapidly disappear when rubbed with this. The surface is left a little dull; it may be rendered bright by rubbing with the same powder mixed with a greater quan- tity of oil, and applied with a stick of pegwood. Watchmakers will do well to try on disused dials several degrees of fineness of the diamond powder. Cleaning Pearls. — Pearls turn yellow in the course of time by absorbing per- spiration on account of being worn in the hair, at the throat, and on the arms. There are several ways of rendering them white again. I. — The best process is said to be to put the pearls into a bag with wheat bran and to neat the bag over a coal fire, with constant motion. II. — Another method is to bring 8 parts each of well-calcined, finely pow- dered lime and wood charcoal, which has been strained through a gauze sieve, to a boil with 500 parts of pure rain water, suspend the pearls over the steam of the boiling water until they are warmed through, and then boil them in the liquid for 5 minutes, turning fre- quently. Let them cool in the liquid, take them out, and wash off well with clean water. III. — Place the pearls in a piece of fine linen, throw salt on them, and tie them up. Next rinse the tied-up pearls in lukewarm water until all the salt has been extracted, and dry them at an ordi- nary temperature. IV. — The pearls may also be boiled about J hour in cow's milk into which a little cheese or soap has been scraped; take them out, rinse off in fresh water, and dry them with a clean, white cloth. V. — Another method is to have the pearls, strung on a silk thread or wrapped , up in thin gauze, mixed in a loaf of bread of barley flour and to have the loaf baked well in an oven, but not too brown. When cool remove the pearls. yi. — Hang the pearls for a couple of minutes in hot, strong, wine vinegar or highly diluted sulphuric acid, remove, and rinse them in water. Do not leave them too long in the acid, otherwise they will be injured by it. GLASS CLEANING: Cleaning Preparation for Glass with Metal Decorations. — Mix 1,000 parts of denaturized spirit (96 per cent) with 150 parts, by weight, of ammonia; 20 parts of acetic ether; 15 parts of ethylic ether; 200 parts of Vienna lime; 9S0 parts of bolus; and 550 parts of oleine. With this mixture both glass and metal can be quickly and thoroughly cleaned. It is particularly recommended for show windows ornamented with metal. Paste for Cleaning Glass. — Prepared chalk 6 pounds Powdered French chalk IJ pounds Phosphate calcium . . . 2i pounds Quillaia bark 2j pounds Carbonate ammonia. . 18 ounces Rose pink 6 ounces Mix the ingredients, in fine powder, and sift through muslin. Then mix with soft water to the consistency of cream, and apply to the glass by means of a soft rag or sponge; allow it to dry on, wipe off with a cloth, and polish with chamois. Cleaning Optical Lenses. — For this purpose a German contemporary rec- ommends vegetable pith. The medulla of rushes, elders, or sunflowers is cut out, the pieces are dried and pasted singly alongside of one another upon a piece of cork, whereby a brush-like apparatus is obtained, which is passed over the sur- face of the lens. For very small lenses pointed pieces of elder pith are em- ployed. To dip dirty and greasy lenses into oil of turpentine or ether and rub them with a linen rag, as has been pro- posed, seems hazardous, because the Can- ada balsam with which the lenses are cemented might dissolve. To Remove Glue from Glass. — If glue has simply dried upon the glass hot water ought to remove it. If, however, the spots are due to size (the gelatinous wash used by painters) when dried they become very refractory and recourse must be had to chemical means for their removal. The commonest size being a solution of gelatin, alum, and rosin dis- solved in a solution of soda and com- bined with starch, hot solutions of caus- tic soda or of potash may be used. If that fails to remove them, try diluted hydrochloric, sulphuric, or any of the stronger acids. If the spots still remain some abrasive powder (flour of emery) must be used and the glass repolished with jewelers' rouge applied by means of a chamois skin. Owing to the varied nature of sizes used the above are only suggestions. Cleaning Window Panes.— Take di- luted nitric acid about as strong as strong CLEANING PREPARATIONS AND METHODS 209 vinegar and pass it over the class pane, leave it to act a minute and throw on pulverized whiting, but just enough to give off a hissing sound. Now rub both with the hand over the whole pane and polish with a dry rag. Rinse off with clean water and a little alcohol and polish dry and clear. Repeat the process on the other side. The nitric acid removes all impurities which have remained on the glass at the factory, and even with inferior panes a good appearance is ob- tained. To Clean Store Windows. — For clean- ing the large panes of glass of store win- dows, and also ordinary show cases, a semiliquid paste may be employed, made of calcined magnesia and purified benzine. The glass should be rubbed with a cotton rag until it is brilliant. Cleaning Lamp Globes. — Pour 2 spoon- fuls of a slightly neated solution of potash into the globe, moisten the whole surface with it, and rub the stains with a fine , linen rag; rinse the globe with clean water and carefully dry it with a fine, soft cloth. To Clean Mirrors. — Rub the mirror with a ball of soft paper slightly damp- ened with methylated spirits, then with a duster on which a little whiting has been sprinkled, and finally polish with clean paper or a wash leather. This treatment will make the glass beautifully bright. To Clean Milk Glass. — To remove oil spots from milk glass panes and lamp globes, knead burnt magnesia with ben- zine to a plastic mass, which must be kept in a tight-closing bottle. A little of this substance rubbed on the spot with a linen rag will make it disappear. To Remove Oil-Paint Spots from Glass. — If the window panes have been bespattered with oil paint in painting walls, the spots are, of course, easily re- moved while wet. When they nave become dry the operation is more diffi- cult and alcohol and turpentine in equal parts, or spirit of sal ammoniac should be used to soften the paint. After that go over it with -chalk. Polishing with salt will also remove paint spots. The salt grates somewhat, but it is not hard enough to cause scratches in the glass; a subsequent polishing with chalk is also advisalile, as the drying of the salt might injure the glass. For scratching off soft paint spots sheet zinc must be used, as it cannot damage the glass on account of its softness. In the case of silicate paints (the so-called weather-proof coatings) the panes must be especially protected, be- cause these paints destroy the polish of the glass. Rubbing the spots with brown soap is also a good way of remov- ing the spots, but care must be taken in rinsing off that the window frames are not acted upon. Removing Silver Stains.— The follow- ing solution will remove silver stains from the hands, and also from woolen, linen, or cotton goods: Mercuric chloride. ... 1 part Ammonia muriate.. . . 1 pari Water 8 parU The compound is poisonous. MISCELLANEOUS CLEANING METH- ODS AND PROCESSES : Universal Cleaner. — Green soap 90 to 25 parts Boilingwater 750 parts Liquid ammonia, caustic 30 to 40 parts Acetic ether 20 to 30 parts Mix. To Clean Playing Cards.— Slightly soiled playing cards may be made clean by rubbing them with a soft rag dipped in a solution of camphor. Very little of the latter is necessary. To Remove Vegetable Growth from Buildings. — To remove moss and lichen from stone and masonry, apply water in which 1 per cent of carbolic acid has been dissolved. After a few hours the plants can be washed off with water. Solid Cleansing Compound. — The basis of most of the solid grease eradicators is benzine and the simplest form is a benzine jelly made by shaking 3 ounces of tincture of quillaia (soap bark) with enough benzine to make 16 fluidounces. Benzine may also be solidified by the use of a soap with addition of an excess of alkali. Formulas in which soaps are used in this way follow: I. — Cocoanut-oil soap. 2 av. ounces Ammonia water. . . 3 fluidounces Solution of potas- sium 1 J fluidounces Water enough to make 12 fluidounces Dissolve the soap with the aid of heat in i fluidounces of water, add the am- monia and potassa and the remainder of the water. If the benzine is added in small por- tions, and thoroughly agitated, 2} fluid- ounces of the above will be found suffi- cient to solidify 32 fluidounces of benzine. 210 CLEANING PREPARATIONS— COFFEE II. — Castile soap, white. 3 J av. ounces Water, boiling 3 J fluidounces Water of ammonia 5 fluidrachms Benzine enough to make 16 fluidounces Dissolve the soap in the water, and when cold, add the other ingredients. To Clean Oily Bottles. — Use 2 heaped tablespoonfuls (for every quart of capac- ity) of fine sawdust or wheat bran, and shake well to cover the interior surface thoroughly; let stand a few minutes and then add about a gill of cold water. If the bottle be then rotated in a horizontal position, it will usually be found clean after a single treatment. In the case of drying oils, especially when old, the bot- tles should be moistened inside with a little ether, and left standing a few hours before the introduction of sawdust. This method is claimed to be more rapid and convenient than the customary one of using strips of paper, soap solution, etc. Cork Cleaner. — Wash in 10 per cent solution of hydrochloric acid, then im- merse in a solution of sodium hypo- sulphite and hydrochloric acid. Finally the corks are washed with a solution of soda and pure water. Corks containing oil or fat cannot be cleaned by this method. To Clean Sponges. — Rinse well first in very weak, warm, caustic-soda lye, then with clean water, and finally leave the sponges in a solution of bromine in water until clean. They will whiten sooner if exposed to the sun in the bromine water. Then repeat the rinsings in weak lye and clean water, using the latter till all smell of bromine has disappeared. Dry quickly and in the sun if possible. CLEARING BATHS: See Photography. CLICHE METALS: See Alloys. CLOCK-DIAL LETTERING: See Watchmakers' Formulas. CLOCK-HAND COLORING: See Metals. CLOCK OIL: See Oil. CLOCK REPAIRING: See Watchmaking. CLOCKMAKERS' CLEANING PROC- ESSES. See Cleaning Preparations and Meth- ods. CLOTH TO IRON, GLUEING: See Adhesives. CLOTHES CLEANERS: See Cleaning Preparations and Meth ods; also, Household Formulas. CLOTHS FOR POLISHING: See Polishes. CLOTH, WATERPROOFING: See Waterproofing. CLOTHING, CARE OF: See Household Formulas. COACH VARNISH: See Varnishes. COALS, TO EAT BURNING: See Pyrotechnics. COAL OIL: See Oil. COBALTIZING: See Plating. COCOAS: See Beverages. COCOA CORDIAL: See Wines and Liquors. COCOANUT CAKE: See Household Formulas and Recipes. COCHINEAL INSECT REMEDY: See Insecticides. COD-LIVER OIL AND ITS EMULSION: See Oil, Cod-Liver. COFFEE, SUBSTITUTES FOR. I. — Acorn. — Prom acorns deprived of their shells, husked, dried, and roasted. II. — Bean. — Horse beans roasted along with a little honey or sugar. III. — Beet Root. — From the yellow beet root, sliced, dried in a kiln or oven, and ground with a little coffee. IV. — Dandelion. — From dandelion roots, sliced, dried, roasted, and ground with a little caramel. All the above are roasted, before grind- ing them, with a little fat or lard. Those which are larger than coffee berries are cut into small slices before being roasted. They possess none of the exhilarating properties or medicinal virtues of the genuine coffee. V. — Chicory. — This is a common adul- terant. The roasted root is prepared by cutting the full-grown root into slices, and exposing it to heat in iron cylinders, along with about IJ per cent or 2 per cent of lard, in a similar way to that adopted for coffee. When ground to powder in a mill it constitutes the chi- COFFEE— COLD AND COUGH MIXIFRES 211 cory coflfee so generally employed both as a substitute for coffee and as an adulterant. The addition of 1 part of good, fresh, roasted chicory to 10 or 12 parts of coffee forms a mixture which yields a beverage of a fuller flavor, and of a ilooper color than that furnished by an equal quantity of pure or unmixed coffee. In this way a less quantity of coffee may be used, but it should be re- membered that the article substituted for it does not possess in any degree the peculiar exciting, soothing, and nunger- staying properties of that valuable prod- uct. The use, however, of a larger proportion of chicory than that just named imparts to the beverage an in- sipid flavor, intermediate between that of treacle and licorice; while the con- tinual use of roasted chicory, or highly rhicorized coffee, seldom fails to weaken tlic powers of digestion and derange the bowels. COFFEE CORDIAL: See Wines and Liquors. COFFEE EXTRACTS: See Essences and Extracts. COFFEE SYRUPS: Sec Syrups. COFFEE FOR THE SODA FOUN- TAIN: Sei- Beverages. COIL SPRING: See Steel. COIN CLEANING: See Cleaning Preparations and Meth- ods. COINS, IMPRESSIONS OF: See Matrix Mass. COIN METAL: See Alloys. COLAS: See Veterinary Formulas. Cold and Cough Mixtures Cough Syrup. — The simplest form of cough syrup of good keeping q^uality is syrup of wild cherry containing am- moiuum chloride in the dose of 2^ grains to each teaspoonful. Most of the other compounds contain ingredients that are prone to undergo fermentation. I. — Ipecacuanha wine 1 fluidounce Spirit of anise. ... 1 fluidrachm Syrup 16 fluidounces S^rup of squill 8 fluidounces Tincture of Tolu. i fluidrachms Distilled water enough to make 30 fluidounces II. — Heroin 6 grains Aromatic sulphur- ic acid 1 J fluidounces Concentrated acid infusion of roses 4 fluidounces Distilled water. . . 5 fluidounces Glycerine 6 fluidounces Oxymel of squill.. 10 fluidounces III. — Glycerine 2 fluidounces Fluid extract of wild cherry .... 4 fluidounces Oxymel 10 fluidounces S^rup 10 fluidounces Cochineal, a sufllcient quantity. Benzoic-Acid Pastilles. — Benzoic acid 105 parts Rhatany extract . .. S'i.'i parts Tragacanth 35 parts Sugar 140 parts The materials, in the shape of pow- ders, are mixed well and sufficient fruit paste added to bring the mass up to 4,600 parts. Roll out and divide into lozenges weighing 20 grains each. Cough Balsam with Iceland Moss. — Solution of morphine acetate 1'2 parts Sulphuric acid, dilute li parts Cherry-laurel water. 12 parts Orange-flower water, triple '24 parts Syrup, simple 128 parts (Jlyceriiie 48 parts .Tincture of saffron. . 8 parts Decoction of Iceland mos.s 1 1 '2 parts Mix. Dose; One teaspoonful. Balsamic Cough Syrup. — Balsam of Peru 2 drachms Tincture of Tolu .... 4 drachms Camphorated tincture of opium 4 ounces Powdered extract lic- orice 1 ounce Syrup squill 4 ounces Syrup dextrine (glu- cose) sufficient to make 16 ounces Add the balsam of Peru to the tinc- tures, and in a mortar rub up the extract of licorice with the syrups. Mix to- gether and direct to be taken in tea- spoonful doses. Whooping-Cough Remedies. — The fol- lowing mixture is a spray to be used 212 COLD AND COUGH MIXTURES— CONDIMENTS in the sick room in cases of whooping cough: Thymol 1.0 Tincture of eucalyptus. 30.0 Tincture of benzoin .... 30.0 Alcohol 100.0 Water enough to make 1000.0 Mix. Pour some of the mixture on a cloth and hold to mouth so that the mix- ture is inhaled, thereby giving relief. Expectorant Mixtures. — 1. — Ammon. chloride. 1 drachm Potass, chlorate.. 30 grains Paregoric 2 fluidrachms Syrup of ipecac. . . 2 fluidrachms Syrup wild cherry enough to make 2 fluidounces Dose: One teaspoonful. II.— Potass, chlorate. . 1 drachm Tincture guaiac . . 3 J drachms Tincture rhubarb. 1 1 drachms Syrup wild cherry enough to make 3 fluidounces , Dose: One teaspoonful. Eucalyptus Bonbons for Coughs. — Eucalyptus oil 5 parts Tartaric acid 15 parts Extract of malt. ... 24 parts Cacao 100 parts Peppermint oil ... . 1.4 parts Bonbon mass 2,203 parts Mix and make into bonbons weighing 30 grains each. COLD CREAM: See Cosmetics. COLIC m CATTLE: See Veterinary Formulas. COLLODION. Turpentine 5 parts Ether and alcohol. ... 10 parts Collodion 94 parts Castor oil 1 part Dissolve the turpentine in the ether and alcohol mixture (in equal parts) and filter, then add to the mixture of collo- dion and castor oil. This makes a good elastic collodion. See also Court Plaster, Liquid. COLOGNE: See Perfumes. COLOGNE FOR HEADACHES: See Headaches. COLORS: See Dy^es and Pigments. COiORS, FUSIBLE ENAMEL: See Enameling. COLORS FOR PAINTS: See Paint. COLOR PHOTOGRAPHY: See Photography. COLORS FOR SYRUPS: See Syrups. CONCRETE: See Stone, Artificial. Condiments Chowchow. — Curry powder 4 ounces Mustard powder 6 ounces Ginger 3 ounces Turmeric 2 ounces Cayenne 2 drachms Black pepper powder. 2 drachms Coriander 1 drachm Allspice 1 drachm Mace 30 grains Thyme 30 grains Savory 30 grains Celery seed 2 drachms Cider vinegar 2 gallons Mix all the powders with the vinegar, and steep the mixture over a very gentle fire for 3 hours. The pickles are to be parboiled with salt, and drained, and the spiced vinegar, prepared as above, is to be poured over them while it is still warm. The chowchow keeps best in small jars, tightly covered. Essence of Extract of Soup Herbs. — Thyme, 4 ounces; winter savory, 4 ounces; sweet marjoram, 4 ounces; sweet basil, 4 ounces; grated lemon peel, 1 ounce; eschalots, 2 ounces; bruised celery seed, 1 ounce; alcohol (50 per cent), 64 ounces. Mix the vegetables, properly bruised, add the alcohol, close the container and set aside in a moderately warm place to digest for 15 days. Filter and press out. Pre- serve in 4-ounce bottles, well corked. Tomato Bomllon Extract. — Toma- toes, 1 quart; arrowroot, 2 ounces; ex- tract of beef, 1 ounce; bay leaves, 1 ounce; cloves, 2 ounces; red pepper, 4 drachms; Worcestershire sauce, quantity sufficient to flavor. Mix. Mock Turtle Extract. — Extract of beef, 2 ounces; concentrated chicken, 2 ounces; clam juice, 8 ounces; tincture of black pepper, 1 ounce; extract of celery, 3 drachms; extract of orange peel, soluble, 1 drachm; hot water enough to make 2 quarts. CONDIMENTS 213 RELISHES: Digestive Relish. — I. — Two ounces Jamaica ginger; 2 ounces black peppercorns; 1 ounce mus- tard seed; 1 ounce coriander fruit (seed); 1 ounce pimento (allspice); J ounce mace; J ounce cloves; J ounce nutmegs; J ounce chili pods; 3 drachms cardamom seeds; 4 ounces garlic; 4 ounces escha- lots; 4 pints malt vinegar. Bruise spices, garlic, etc., and boil in vinegar for 15 minutes and strain. To this add 2^ pints mushroom ketchup; 1 5 pints India soy. Again simmer for 15 minutes and strain through muslin. II. — One pound soy; 50 ounces best vinegar; 4 ounces ketchup; 4 ounces gar- lic; 4 ounces eschalots; 4 ounces capsi- cum; J ounce cloves; i ounce mace; J ounce cinnamon; 1 drachm cardamom seeds. Boil well and strain. Lincolnshire Relish. — Two ounces gar- lic; 2 ounces Jamaica ginger; 3 ounces black peppercorns; f ounce cayenne pep- per; i ounce ossein; } ounce nutmeg; 2 ounces salt; IJ pints India soy. Enough malt vinegar to make 1 gallon. Bruise spices, garlic, etc., and simmer in i a gallon of vinegar for 20 minutes, strain and add soy and suflBcient vinegar to make 1 gallon, then boil for 5 minutes. Keep in bulk as long as possible. Curry Powder. — I. — Coriander seed 6 drachms Turmeric 5 scruples Fresh ginger 41 dracnms Cumin seed 18 grains Black pepper 54 grains Poppy seed 94 grains Garlic 2 heads Cinnamon 1 scruple Cardamom 5 seeds Cloves 8 only Chillies 1 or 2 pods Grated cocoanut. ... J nut II. — Coriander seed J pound Turmeric i pound Cinnamon seed 2 ounces Cayenne J ounce Mustard 1 ounce Ground ginger 1 ounce Allspice i ounce Fenugreek seed 2 ounces TABLE SAUCES: Worcestershire Sauce. — Pimento 2 drachms Clove 1 drachm Black pepper 1 drachm Ginger 1 drachm Curry powder 1 ounce Capsicum 1 drachm Mustard 2 ounces Shallots, bruised 2 ounces Salt 2 ounces Brown sugar 8 ounces Tamarinds 4 ounces Sherry wine 1 pint Wine vinegar 2 pints The spices must be freshly bruised. The ingredients are to simmer together with the vinegar for an hour, adding more of the vinegar as it is lost by evap- oration; then ada the wine, and if de- sired some caramel coloring. Set aside for a week, strain, and bottle. Table Sauce. — Brown sugar, 16 parts; tamarinds, 16 parts; onions, 4 parts; powdered ginger, 4 parts; salt, 4 parts; garlic, 2 parts; cayenne, 2 parts; soy, 2 parts; ripe apples, 64 parts; mustard powder, 2 parts; curry powder, 1 part; vinegar, quantity sufficient. Pare and core the apples, boil them in sufficient vinegar with the tamarinds and raisins untifsoft, then pulp through a fine sieve. Pound the onions and garlic in a mortar and add the pulp to that of the apples. Then add the other ingredients and vin- egar, 60 parts; heat to boiling, cool, and add sherry wine, 10 parts, and enough vinegar to make the sauce.just pourable. If a sweet sauce is desired add sufficient treacle before the final boiling. Epicure's Sauce. — Eight ounces tam- arinds; 12 ounces sultana raisins; 2 ounces garlic; 4 ounces eschalots; 4 ounces horse-radish root; 2 ounces black pepper ; i ounce chili pods ; 3 ounces raw Jamaica ginger; IJ pounds golden syrup; 1 pound burnt .sugar (caramel); 1 ounce powdered cloves; 1 pint India soy; 1 gallon malt vinegar. Bruise roots, spices, etc., and boil in vinegar for 15 minutes, then strain. To the strained liquor add golden syrup, soy, and burnt sugar, then simmer for 10 minutes. Piccalilli Sauce. — One drachm chili pods; IJ ounces black peppercorns; J ounce pimento; f ounce garlic; J gal- lon malt vinegar. Bruise spices and garlic, boil in the vinegar for 10 minutes, and strain. One ounce ground Jamaica ginger; 1 ounce turmeric; 2 ounces flower of mus- tard; 2 ounces powdered natal arrowroot; 8 ounces strong acetic acid. Rub pow- ders in a mortar with acetic acid and add to above, then boil for 5 minutes, or until it thickens. FLAVORING SPICES. J. — Five ounces powdered cinnamon bark; 2i ounces powdered cloves; 2i 214 CONDIMENTS ounces powdered nutmegs; IJ ounces powdered caraway seeds; IJ ounces powdered coriander seeds; 1 ounce pow- dered Jamaica ginger; J ounce powdered allspice. Let all be dry and in fine pojv- der. Mix and pass through a sieve. II. — Pickling Spice. — Ten pounds small Jamaica ginger; 2J pounds black peppercorns; if pounds white pepper- corns; IJ pounds allspice; } pound long pepper; 1^ pounds mustard seed; J pound chill pods. Cut up ginger and long pepper into small pieces, and mix all the other ingredients intimately. One ounce to each pint of boiling vin- egar is sufficient, but it may be made stronger it desired hot. Essence of Savory Spices. — Two and one-half ounces black peppercorns; 1 ounce pimento; f ounce nutmeg; J ounce mace; J ounce cloves; J ounce cinnamon bark; J ounce caraway seeds; 20 grains cayenne pepper; 15 ounces spirit of wine; 5 ounces distilled water. Bruise all the spices and having mixed spirit and water, digest in mixture 14 days, shaking fre- quently, then filter. MUSTARD : The Prepared Mustards of Commerce. — The mustard, i. c, the flower or pow- dered seed, used in preparing the different condiments, is derived from three varie- ties of Brassica (Cruciferw) — Brassica alba L., Brassica nigra, and Brassica juncea. The first yields the "white" seed of commerce, which produces a mild mustard; the second the "black" seed, yielding the more pungent powder; a,nd the latter a very pungent and oily mus- tard, much employed by Russians. The pungency of tne condiment is also af- fected by the method of preparing the paste, excessive heat destroying the sharpness completely. The pungency is further controlled and tempered, in the cold processes, by the addition of wheat or rye flour, which also has the advantage of serving as a binder of the mustard. The mustard flour is pre- pared by first decorticating the seed, then grinding to a fine powder, the ex- pression of the fixed oil from which completes the process. This oil, unlike the volatile, is of a mild, pleasant taste, and of a greenish color, which, it is said, makes it valuable in the sophistication and imitation of "olive" oils, refined, cottonseed, or peanut oil being thus con- verted into huile vierge de Lucca, Flor- ence, or some other noted brand of olive oil. It is also extensively used for illu- minating purposes, especially in south- ern Russia. The flavors, other than that of the mustard itself, of the various prepara- tions are imparted by the judicious use of spices — cinnamon, nutmeg, cloves, pimento, etc. — aromatic herbs, such as thyme, sage, chervil, parsley, mint, marjoram, tarragon, etc., and finally chives, onions, shallots, leeks, garlic, etc. In preparing the mustards on a large scale, the mustard flower and wheat or rye flour are mixed and ground to a smooth paste with vinegar, must (un- fermented grape juice), wine, or what- ever is used in the preparation, a mill similar to a drug or paint mill being used for the purpose. This dough immedi- ately becomes spongy, and in this condi- tion, technically called "cake," is used as the basis of the various mustards of commerce. Mustard Cakes. — In the mixture, the amount of flour used depends on the pungency of the mustard flower, and the flavor desired to be imparted to the fin- ished product. The cakes are broadly divided into the yellow and the brown. A general formula for the yellow cake is: Yellow mustard, from 20 to 30 per cent; salt, from 1 to 3 per cent; spices, from J to J of 1 per cent; wheat flour, from 8 to 12 per cent. Vinegar, must, oi: wine, complete the mixture. The brown cake is made with black mustard, and contains about the follow- ing proportions: Black mustard, from 20 to 30 per cent; salt, from 1 to 3 per cent; spices, from J to i of 1 per cent; wheat or rye flour, from 10 to 15 per cent. The variations are so wide, however, that it is impossible to give exact pro- portions. In the manufacture of table mustards, in fact, as in every other kind of manufacture, excellence is attained only by practice and the exercise of sound judgment and taste by the manu- facturer. Moutarde des Jesuittes. — Twelve sar- dels and 280 capers are crushed into a paste and stirred into 3 pints of boiling wine vinegar. Add. 4 ounces of brown cake and 8 ounces of yellow cake and mix well. Kirschner Wine Mustard. — Reduce 30 quarts of freshly expressed grape juice to half that quantity, by boiling over a moderate fire, on a water bath. Dissolve in the boiling liquid 5 pounds of sugar, and pour the syrup through a colander containing 2 or 3 large horse-radishes cut CONDIMENTS 215 into very thin slices and laid on a coarse towel spread over tiie bottom and sides of tiie colander. To the colate add the following, all in a state of fine powder: Cardamom seeds . . ■. . 2 J drachms Nutmeg 2J drachms Cloves 4 J drachms Cinnamon 1 ounce Ginger 1 ounce Brown mustard cake. 6 pounds Yellow mustard cake. 9 pounds Grind all together to a perfectly smooth paste, and strain several times through muslin. Duesseldorff Mustard. — Brown mustard cake. 10 ounces Yellow Inustard cake. 48 ounces Boiling water 06 ounces Wine vinegar 64 ounces Cinnamon 6 drachms Cloves 15 drachms Sugar 64 ounces Wine, good white .... 64 ounces Mix after the general directions given above. German Table Mustard. — Laurel leaves 8 ounces Cinnamon 5 drachms Cardamom seeds.. .. 2 drachms Sugar 64 ounces Wine vinegar 96 ounces Brown cake 10 ounces Yellow cake 48 ounces Mi.i; after general directions as given above. Krems Mustard, Sweet. — Yellow cake 10 pounds Brown cake 20 pounds Fresh grape juice .... 6 pints Mix and boil down to the proper con- sistency. Krems Mustard, Sour. — Brown mustard flour. 30 parts Yellow mustard flour. 10 parts Grape juice, fresh. . .. 8 parts Mix and boil down to a paste and then stir in 8 parts of wine vinegar. Tarragon Mustard. — Brown mustard flour. 40 parts Yellow mu.stard flour. 20 parts Vinegar 6 parts Tarragon vinegar. ... 6 parts Boil the mustard in the vinegar and add the tarragon vinegar. Tarragon Mustard, Sharp. — This is prepared by adding to every 100 pounds of the above 21 ounces of white pepper, 6 ounces of pimento, and 2J ounces of cloves. mixing thoroughly by grinding together in a mill, then put in a warm spot and let stand for 10 days or 2 weeks. Finally strain. Moutarde aux Epices. — Mustard flour, yellow. 10 pounds Mustard flour, brown. 40 pounds Tarragon 1 pound Basil, herb 5 ounces Laurel leaves li drachms White pepper 3 ounces Cloves lii drachms Mace 2 drachms Vinegar 1 gallon iSIix the herbs and macerate them in the vinegar to exhaustion, then add to the mustards, and grind together. Set aside for a week or ten days, then strain through muslin. In all the foregoing formulas where the amount of salt is not specified, it is to be added according to the taste or dis- cretion of the manufacturer. Mustard Vinegar. — Celery, chopped fine. 82 parts Tarragon, the fresh herb 6 parts Cloves, coarsely pow- dered 6 parts Onions, chopped fine 6 parts Lemon peel, fresh, chopped fine 3 parts White-wine vinegar. . J75 parts White wine 515 parts Mustard seed, crushed 100 parts Mix and macerate together for a week or 10 days in a warm place, then strain off. Ravigotte Mustard. — Parsley '2 parts Chervil 2 parts Chives 2 parts Cloves 1 part Garlic 1 part Thyme 1 part Tarragon 1 part Salt 8 parts Olive oil 4 parts White- wine vinegar.. 128 parts Mustard flower, sufficient. Cut or brui.se the plants and spices, and macerate them in the vinegar for 15 or 20 davs. Strain the liquid through a cloth and add the salt. Rub up mustard with the olive oil in a vessel set in ice, adding a little of the spiced vinegar from time to time, until the whole is incorpo- rated and the complete mixture mates 384 parts. 216 CONDIMENTS— CONFECTIONERY COiroiMERTS, TESTS FOR ADUL- TERATED: See Foods. CONDITION POWDERS FOR CAT- TLE: See Veterinary Formulas. CONDUCTIVITY OF ALUMINUM AL- LOYS: See Alloys. Confectionery Cream Bonbons for Hoarseness. — Stir into 500 parts of cream 500 parts of white sugar. Put in a pan and cook, with continuous stirring, until it becomes brown and viscid. Now put in a bak- ing tin and smooth out, as neatly as pos- sible, to the thickness of, say, twice that of the back of a table knife and let it harden. Before it gets completely hard draw lines with a knife across the sur- face in such manner that when it is quite hard it will break along them, easily, into bits the size of a lozenge. Nut Candy Sticks.— Cook to 320° F. 8 pounds best sugar in 2 pints water, with 4 pounds glucose addea. Pour out on an oiled slab and add 5 pounds al- monds, previously blanched, cut in small pieces, and dried in the drying room. IVIix up well together to incorporate the nuts thoroughly with the sugar. When it has cooled enough to be handled, form into a round mass on the slab and spin out in long, thin sticks. Fig Squares. — Place 5 pounds of sugar and 5 pounds of glucose in a cop- per pan, with water enough to dissolve the sugar. Set on the fire, and when it starts to boil add 5 pounds of ground figs. Stir and cook to 240° on the ther- mometer. Set off the fire, and then add 5 pounds of fine cocoanuts; mix well and pour out on greased marble, roll smooth, and cut like caramels. Caramels. — Heat 10 pounds sugar and 8 pounds glucose in a copper kettle until dissolved. Add cream to the mixture, at intervals, until 2i quarts are used. Add 2i pounds caramel butter and 12 ounces paraffine wax to the mixture. Cook to a rather stiff ball, add nuts, pour out between iron bars and, when cool enough, cut into strips. For the white ones flavor with vanilla, and add 2 pounds melted chocolate liquor for the chocolate caramel when nearly cooked. Candy Orange Drops.— It is compar- atively easy to make a hard candy, but to put the material into "drop" form apparently requires experience and a machine. To make the candy itself, put, say, a pint of water into a suitable pan or kettle, heat to boiling, and add gradually to it 2 pounds or more of sugar, stirring well so as to avoid the risk of burning the sugar. Continue boiling the syrup so "formed until a little of it poured on a cold slab forms a mass of the required hardness. If the candy is to b^ of orange flavor, a little fresh oil of or- ange is added just before the mass is ready to set and the taste is improved according to the general view at least by adding, also, say, 2 drachms of citric acid dissolved in a very little water. As a coloring an infusion of safflower or tincture of turmeric is used. To make such a mass into tablets, it is necessary only to pour out on a well- greased slab, turning the edges back if inclined to run, until the candy is firm, and then scoring with a. knife so that it can easily be broken into pieces when cold. To make "drops" a suitable mold is necessary. Experiment as to the sufficiency of the boiling in making candy may be saved and greater certainty of a good result se- cured by the use of a chemical thermom- eter. As the syrup is boiled and the water evaporates the temperature of the liquid rises. When it reaches 220° F., the sugar is then in a condition to vield the "thread" form; at 240° "soft tall" is formed; at 245°, "hard ball"; at 252°, "crack"; and at 290°, "hard crack." By simply suspending the thermometer in the liquid and observing it from time to time, one may know exactly when to end the boiling. Gum Drops. — Grind 25 pounds of Arabian or Senegal gum, place it in a copper pan or in a steam jacket kettle, and pour 3 gallons of boiling water over it; stir it up well. Now set the pan with the gum into another pan containing boiling water and stir the gum slowly until dissolved, then strain it through a No. 40 sieve. Cook 19 pounds of sugar with sufficient water, 2 pounds of glu- cose, and a teaspoonful of cream of tar- tar to a stiff ball, pour it over the gum, mix well, set the pan on the kettle wim the hot water, and let it steam for 1 J hours, taking care that the water in the kettle does not run dry; then open the door of the stove and cover the fire with ashes, and let the gum settle for nearly an hour, then remove the scum which has settled on top, flavor and run out with the fun- CONFECTIONERY 217 nel dropper into the starch impressions, and place the trays in the drying room for 2 days, or until dry, then take the drops out of the starch, clean them off well and place them in crystal pans, one or two layers. Cook sugar and water to S4i° on the syrup gauge and pour over the drops lukewarm. Xet stand in a moderately warm place over night, then drain the svrup off, and about an hour afterwtirds knock the gum drops out on a clean table, pick them apart, and place on trays until dry, when they are ready for sale. A Good Stunmer Taffy. — Place in a kettle 4 pounds of sugar, 3 pounds of elucose, and IJ pints of water; when it boils drop in a piece of butter half the size of an egg and about 2 ounces of paraflSne wax. Cook to 262°, pour on a slab, and when cool enough, pull, flavor, and color if you wish. Pull until light, then spin out on the table in strips about 3 inches wide and cut into 4- or 4J-inch lengths. Then wrap in wax paper for the counter. This taffy keeps long with- out being grained by the heat. Chewing Candy. — Place 20 pounds of sugar in a copper pan, add 20 pounds of glucose, and enough water to easily dis- solve the sugar. Set on the fire or cook in the steam pan in 2 quarts of water. Have a pound of egg albumen soaked in 2 quarts of water. Beat this like eggs into a very stiff froth, add gradually the sugar and glucose; when well beaten up, add 5 pounds of powdered sugar, and beat at very little heat either in the steam beater or on a pan of boiling water until light, and does not stick to the back of the hand, flavor with vanilla, and put in trays dusted with fine sugar. When cold it may be cut, or else it may be stretched out on a sugar-dusted table, cut, and wrapped in wax paper. This chewing candy has to be kept in a very dry place, or else it will run and get sticky. Montpelier Cough Drops. — Brown sugar 10 pounds Tartaric acid 2 ounces Cream of tartar i ounce Water 1 i quarts Anise-seed flavoring, quantity suflBcient. Melt the sugar in the water, and when at a sharp bou add the cream of tartar. Cover the pan for 5 minutes. Remove the lid and let the sugar boil up to crack degree. Turn out the batch on an oiled slab, and when cool enough to handle mold in the acid and flavoring. Pass it through the acid drop rollers, and when the_ drops are chipped up, and before sifting, rub some icing with them. Medicated Cough Drops. — Light-brown sugar. .. 14 pounds Tartaricacid 1} ounces Cream of tartar } ounce Water 2 quarts Anise-seed, cayenne, clove, and pepper- mint flavoring, a few drops of each. Proceed as before prescribed, but when sufficiently cool pass the batch through the acid tablet rollers and dust with sugar. Horehound Candy. — Dutch crushed sugar. 10 pounds Dried horehound leaves 2 ounces Cream of tartar } ounce Water 2 quarts Anise-seed flavoring, quantity sufficient. Pour the water on the leaves and let it gently simmer till reduced to 3 pints; then strain the infusion through muslin, and add the liquid to the sugar. Put the pan containing the syrup on the fire, and when at a sharp boil add the cream of tartar. Put the lid on the pan for 5 min- utes; then remove it, and let the sugar boil to stiff boil degree. Take the pan off the fire and rub portions of the sugar against the side until it produces a creamy appearance; then add the flavor- ing. Stir all well, and pour into square tin frames, previously well oiled. Menthol Cough Drops. — Gelatin 1 ounce Glycerine (by weight) 2i ounces Orange-flower water. . 2 J ounces Menthol 5 grains Rectified spirits 1 drachm Soak the gelatin in the water for 2 hours, then neat on a water bath until dissolved, and add 1 J ounces of glycerine. Dissolve the menthol in the spirit, mix with the remainder of the glycerine, add to the glyco-gelatin mass, and pour into an oiled tin tray (such as the lid of a bis- cuit box). When the mass is cold divide into 10 dozen pastilles. Menthol pastilles are said to be an excellent remedy for tickling cough as well as laryngitis. They should be freshly prepared, and cut oblong, so that the patient may take half of one, or less, as may be necessary. Violet Flavor for Candy. —Violet fla- vors, like violet perfumes, are very com- plex mixtures, and their imitation is a 218 CONFECTIONERY correspondingly difficult undertaking. The basi3 is vanilla (or vanillin), rose, and orris, with a very little of some pun- gent oil to bring up the flavor. The fol- lowing will give a basis upon which a satisfactory flavor may be built: Oil of orris 1 drachm Oil of rose 1 drachm Vanillin 2 drachms Cumarin 30 grains Oil of clove 30 minims Alcohol 11 ounces Water 5 ounces Make a solution, adding the water last. CONFECTIONERY COLORS. — The following are excellent and entirely harmless coloring agents for the pur- poses named: Red. — Cochineal syrup prepared as follows: Cochineal, in coarse powder 6 parts Potassium carbonate 2 parts Distilled water 15 parts Alcohol 12 parts Simple syrup enough to make 500 parts Rub up the potassium carbonate and the cochineal together, adding the water and alcohol, little by little, under constant trituration. Set aside over night, then add the syrup and filter. Pink.— Carmine 1 part Liquor potassae 6 parts Rose water, enough to make 48 parts Mix. Should the color be too high, dilute with water until the requisite tint is acquired. Orange. — Tincture of red sandalwood, 1 part; ethereal tincture of orlean, quan- tity sufficient. Add the tincture of or- lean to the sandalwood tincture until the desired shade of orange is obtained. A red added to any of the yellows gives an orange color. The aniline colors made by the "Ak- tiengesellschaft fiir Anilin - Fabrika- tion," of Berlin, are absolutely non-toxic, and can be used for the purposes recom- mended, i. e., the coloration of syrups, cakes, candies, etc., with perfect confi- dence in their innocuity. Pastille Yellovr.— Citron yellow II 7 parts Grape sugar, first quality 1 part White dextrine 2 parts Sap -Blue Paste. — Dark blue 3 parts Grape sugar 1 part Water 6 parts Sugar-Black Paste. — Carbon black 3 parts Grape sugar 1 part Water 6 parts Cinnabar Red.*— Scarlet 65 parts White dextrine 30 parts Potato flour 5 parts Bluish Rose.*— Grenadine 65 parts White dextrine 30 parts Potato flour 5 parts Yellowish Rose. — Rosa II 60 parts Citron yellow 5 parts White dextrine 30 parts Potato flour 5 parts Violet.— Red violet 65 parts White dextrine 30 parts Potato flour 5 parts Carmine Green. — Woodruff (Waldmeis- ter) green 55 parts Rosa II 5 parts Dextrine 35 parts Potato flour 5 parts To the colors marked with an asterisk (*) add, for every 4 pounds, 4J ounces, a grain and a half each of potassium iodide and sodium nitrate. Colors given in form of powders should be dissolved in hot water for use. Yellow. — Various shades of yellow may be obtained by the maceration of Besiello saffron, or turmeric, or grains d'Avignon in alcohol until a strong tinc- ture IS obtained. Dilute with water until the desired shade is obtained. An aqueous solution of quercitrine also gives an excellent yellow. Blue.— Indigo carmine 1 part Water 2 parts Mix. Indigo carmine is a beautiful, power- ful, and harmless agent. It may usually be bought commercially, but if it can- not be readily obtained, proceed as fol- lows: Into a capsule put 30 grains of indigo in powder, place on a water bath, and heat to dryness. When entirely dry put CONFECTIONERY— COPPER 219 into a large porcelain mortar (the sub- stance swells enormously under subse- quent treatment — hence the necessity tor a large, or comparatively large, mor- tar) and cautiously add, drop by drop, 120 grains, by weight, of sulphuric acid, C. P., stirring continuously during the addition. Cover the swollen mass close- ly, and set aside for 24 hours. Now add S fluidounces of distilled water, a few drops at a. time, rubbing or stirring continuously. Transfer the liquid thus obtained to a tall, narrow, glass cylinder or beaker, cover and let stand for 4 days, giving the liquid an occasional stirring. Make a strong solution of sodium car- bonate or bicarbonate, and at the end of the time named cautiously neutralize the liquid, adding the carbonate a little at a time, stirring the indigo solution and testing it after each addition, as the least excess of alkali will cause the indigo to separate out, and fall in a doughy mass. Stop when the test shows the near ap- proach of neutrality, as the slight re- maining acidity will not affect the taste or the properties of the liquid. Filter, and evaporate in the water bath to dry- ness. The resultant matter is sulphin- digotate of potassium, or the "indigo carmine" of commerce. Tincture of indigo may also be used as a 'harmless blue. Green. — The addition of the solution indigo carmine to an infusion of any of the matters given under "yellow" will pro- duce a green color. Tincture of crocus and glycerine in equal parts, with the addition of indigo-carmine solution, also gives a fine green. A solution of com- mercial chlorophyll gives grass-green, in shades varying according to the concen- tration of the solution. Voice and Throat Lozenges. — Catechu 191 grains Tannic acid 273 grains Tartaric acid 273 grains Capsicin 30 minims Black-currant paste . 7 ounces Refined sugar. Mucilage of acacia, of each a sufficient quantity. Mix to produce 7 pounds of lozenges. CONSTIPATION IN BIRDS: See Veterinary Formulas. COOKING TABLE: See Tables. COOLING SCREEN: See Refrigeration. Copper Annealing Copper. — Copper is almost universally annealed in muffles, in which it is raised to the desired temperature, and subsequently allowed to cool either in the air or in water. A muffle is nothing more or less than a reverberatory furnace. It is necessary to watch the copper carefully, so that when it has reached the right temperature it may be drawn from the muffle and allowed to cool. This is important, for if the copper is heated too hign, or is left in the muffle at the ordi- nary temperature of annealing too long, it is burnt, as the workmen say. Copper that has been burnt is yellow, coarsely granular, and exceedingly brittle — even more brittle at a red heat than when cold. In the case of coarse wire it is found that only the surface is burnt, while the interior is damaged less. This causes the exterior to split loose from the in- terior when bent or rolled, thus giving the appearance of a brittle copper tube with a copper wire snugly fitted into it. Cracks a half inch in depth have been observed on the surface of an ineot on its first pass through the rolls, all due to this exterior burning. It is apparent that copper that has been thus over- heated in the muffle is entirely unfit for rolling. It is found that the purer forms of copper are less liable to be harmed by overheating than samples containing even a small amount of impurities. Even the ordinary heating in a muffle will often suffice to burn in this manner the surface of some specimens of copper, rendering them unfit for further working. Copper that has been thus ruined is of use only to be refined again. As may be inferred only the highest grades of refined copper are used for drawing or for rolling. This is not be- cause the lower grades, when refined, can- not stand sufficiently high tests, but be- cause methods of working are not adequate to prevent these grades of cop- per from experiencing the deterioration due to overheating. The process of refining copper con- sists in an oxidizing action followed by a reducing action which, since it is per- formed by the aid of gases generated by stirring the melted copper with a pole, is called poling. The object of the oxida- tion is to oxidize and either volatilize or turn to slag all the impurities contained in the copper. This procedure is ma- terially aided by the fact that the sub- COPPER oxide of copper is freely soluble in metallic copper and thus penetrates to all parts of the copper, and parting with its oxygen, oxidizes the impurities. The object of the reducing part of the refining process is to change the excess of the suboxide of copper to metallic copper. Copper containing even less than 1 per cent of the suboxide of copper shows decreased malleability and duc- tility, and is both cold-short and red- short. If the copper to be refined con- tains any impurities, such as arsenic or antimony, it is well not to remove too much of the oxygen in the refining proc- ess. If this is done, overpoled copper is produced. In this condition it is brittle, granular, of a shining yellow color, and more red-short than cold- short. When the refining has been prop- erly done, and neither too much nor too little oxygen is present, the copper is in the condition of "tough pitch," and is in a fit state to be worked. Copper is said to be " tough pitch " when it requires frequent bending to break it, and when, after it is broken, the color is pale red, the fracture has a silky lus- ter, and is fibrous like a tuft of silk. On hammering a, piece to a thin plate it should show no cracks at the edge. 'At tough pitch copper offers the nighest degree of malleability and ductility of which a given specimen is capable. This is the condition in which refined copper is (or should be) placed on the market, and if it could be worked with- out changing this tough pitch, any specimen of copper that could Ibe brought to this condition would be suitable for rolling or drawing. But tough pitch is changed if oxygen is either added or taken from refined copper. By far the more important of these is the removal of oxygen, especially from those specimens that contain more than a mere trace of impurities. This is shown by the absolutely worthless condition of overpoled copper. The addition of carbon also plays a very important part in the production of overpoled copper. That the addition of oxygen to refined copper is not so damaging is shown by the fact that at present nearly all the cop- per that is worked is considerably oxi- dized at some stage of the process, and not especially to its detriment. Burnt copper is nothing more or less than copper in the overpoled condition. This is brought about by the action of reducing gases in the muffle. By this means the small amount of oxygen nec- essary to give the copper its tough {iitch is removed. This oxygen is combined with impurities in the copper, and thus renders them inert. For example, the oxide of arsenic or antimony is inca- pable of combining more than mechan- ically with the copper, but when its oxy- gen is removed the arsenic or antimony IS left free to combine with the copper. This forms a brittle alloy, and one that corresponds almost exactly in its proper- ties with overpoled copper. To be sure overpoled copper is supposed to contain carbon, but that this is not the essential ruling principle in case of annealing is shown by the fact that pure copper does not undergo this change under condi- tions that ruin impure copper, and also by the fact that the same state may be produced by annealing in pure hydro- gen and thus removing the oxygen that renders the arsenic or antimony inert. No attempt is made to deny the well- known fact that carbon does combine with copper to the extent of 0.2 per cent and cause it to become exceedingly brittle. It is simply claimed that this is probably not what occurs in the pro- duction of so-called burnt copper during annealing. The amount of impurities capable of rendering copper easily burnt is exceedingly small. This may be bet- ter appreciated when it is considered that from 0.01 to 0.2 per cent expresses the amount of oxygen necessary to ren- der the impurities inert. The removal of this very small amount of oxygen, which is often so small as to be almost within the limits of the errors of analysis, will suffice to render copper overpoled and ruin it for any use. There are methods of avoiding the numerous accidents that may occur in the annealing of copper, due to a change of pitch. As already pointed out, the quality of refined copper is lowered if oxygen be either added to or taken from it. It is quite apparent, therefore, that a really good method of annealing cop- per will prevent any change in the state of oxidation. It is necessary to prevent access to the heated copper both of at- mospheric air, which would oxidize it, and of the reducing gases used in heat- ing the muffle, which would take oxygen away from it. Obviously the only way of accomplishing this is to inclose the copper when heated and till cool in an atmosphere that can neither oxidize nor deoxidize copper. By so doing copper may be heated to the melting point and allowed to cool again without suffering as regards its pitch. There are com- paratively few gases that can be used for this purpose, but, fortunately, one which is exceedingly cheap and universally COPPER 221 prevalent fulfills all requirements, viz., steam. In order to apply the principles enunciated it is necessary only to anneal copper in the ordinary annealing pots such as are used for iron, care being taken to inclose the copper while heating and while cooling in an atmosphere of steam. This will effectually exclude air and prevent the ingress of gases used in heating the annealer. Twenty-four hours may be used in the process, as in the annealing of iron wire, with no detri- ment to the wire. This may seem in- credible to those manufacturers who have tried to anneal copper wire after the manner of annealing iron wire. By this method perfectly bright annealed wire may be produced. Such a process of annealing copper offers many advan- tages. It allows the use of a grade of copper that has hitherto been worked only at a great disadvantage, owing to its tendency to get out of pitch. It allows the use of annealers such as are ordi- narily employed for annealing iron, and thus cheapens the annealing consider- ably as compared with the present use of muffles. There is no chance of produc- ing the overpoled condition from the action of reducing gases used in beating the muffles. There is no chance of pro- ducing the underpoled condition due to the absorption of suboxide of copper. None of the metal is lost as scale, and the saving that is thus effected amounts to a considerable percentage of the total value of the copper. The expense and time of cleaning are wholly saved. In- cidentally brignt annealed copper is produced by a process which is appli- cable to copper of any shape, size, or condition — a product tnat has hitherto been obtained only by processes (mostly secret) which are too cumbersome and too expensive for extensive use; and, as is the case with at least one process, with the danger of producing the overpoled condition, often in only a small section of the wire, but thus ruining the whole piece. COPPER COLORING: Blacking Copper. — To give a copper article a black covering, clean it with emery paper, heat gently in a Bunsen or a spirit flame, immerse for 10 seconds in solution of copper filings in dilute nitric acid, and heat again. Red CoIorin|[ of Copper. — A fine red color may be given to copper by gradu- ally heating it in an air bath. Prolonged heating at a comparatively low temper- ature, or rapid heating at a high tem- pereture, produces the same result. As soon as the desired color is attained the metal should be rapidly cooled by quenching in water. The metal thus colored may be varnished. To Dye Copper Parts Violet and Or- ange. — Polished copper acquires an orange-like color leamng to gold, when dipped for a few seconds into a solution of crystallized copper acetate. A hand- some violet is obtained by placing the metal for a few minutes in a solution of antimony chloride and rubbing it after- wards with a piece of wood covered with cotton. During this operation the cop- per must be heated to a degree bearable to the hand. A crystalline appearance is produced by boiling the article in copper sulphate. Pickle for Copper.— Take nitric acid, 100 parts; kitchen salt, 2 parts; calcined soot, 2 parts; or nitric acid, 10 parts; sul- phuric acid, 10 parts; hydrochloric acid, 1 part. As these bleaching baths attack the copper quickly, the objects must be left in only for a few seconds, washing them afterwards in plenty of water, and drying in sawdust, bran, or spent tan. Preparations of Copper Water. — I. — Water, 1,000 parts; oxalic acid, 30 parts; spirit of wine, 100 parts; essence of tur- pentine, 50 parts; fine tripoli, 100 parts. II. — Water, 1,000 parts; oxalic acid, 30 parts; alcohol, 50 parts; essence of turpentine, 40 parts; fine tripoli, 50 parts. III. — Sulphuric acid, 300 parts; sul- phate of alumina, 80 parts; water, 520 parts. Tempered Copper. — Objects made of copper may be satisfactorily tempered by subjecting them to a certain degree of heat for a determined period of time and bestrewing them with powdered sulphur during the heating. While hot the objects are plunged into a bath of blue vitriol; after the bath they may be heated again. COPPER ALLOYS: See Alloys. COPPER CLEANING: See Cleaning Preparations and Meth- ods. COPPER ETCHING: See Etching. COPPER IN FOOD: See Food. COPPER LACQUERS: See Lacquers. %%% COPPER— COPYING PRINTED PICTURES COPPER PAPER: See Paper, Metallic. COPPER PATINIZING AND PLATING : See Plating. COPPER POLISHES: See Polishes. COPPER, SEPARATION OF GOLD FROM: See Gold. COPPER SOLDER: See Solders. COPPER VARNISHES: See Varnishes. COPYING PRINTED PICTURES. The so-called "metallic" paper used for steam-engine indicator cards has a smooth surface, chemically prepared so that black lines can be drawn upon it with pencils made of brass, copper, sil- ver, aluminum, or any of the softer metals. When used on the indicator it receives the faint line drawn by a brass point at one end of the pencil arm, and its special advantage over ordinary paper is that the metallic pencil slides over its surface with very little friction, and keeps its point much longer than a graphite pencil. This paper can be used as a transfer paper for copying engravings or sketches, or anything printed or written in ink or drawn in pencil. The best copies can be obtained by following the directions below: Lay the metallic transfer paper, face up, upon at least a dozen sheets of blank paper, and lay the print face down upon it. On the back of the print place a sheet of heavy paper, or thin cardboard, and run the rubbing tool over this protecting sheet. In this manner it is comparative- ly easy to prevent slipping, and prints 8 or 10 inches on a side may be copied satisfactorily. Line drawings printed from relief plates, or pictures with sharp contrast of black and white, without any half- tones, give the best copies. Very few half-tones can be transferred satisfac- torily; almost all give streaked, indis- tinct copies, and many of the results are worthless. The transfer taken off as described is a reverse of the original print. If the question of right and left is not impor- tant this reversal will seldom be objec- tionable, for it is easy to read back- ward what few letters generally occur. However, if desired, the paper may be held up to the light and examined from the back, or placed before a mirror and viewed by means of its reflected image, when the true relations of right and left will be seen. Moreover, if sufficiently important, an exact counterpart of the original may be taken from the reversed copy by laying another sheet face down- ward upon it, and rubbing on the back of the fresh sheet just as was done in making the reversed copy. The im- pression thus produced will be fainter than the first, but almost always it can be made dark enough to show a distinct outline which may afterwards be re- touched with a lead pencil. For indicator cards the paper is pre- pared by coating one surface with a suit- able compound, usually zinc oxide mixed with a little starch and enough glue to make it adhere. After drying it is passed between calendar rolls under great pressure. The various brands manu- factured for the trade, though perhaps equally good for indicator diagrams, are not equally well suited for copying. If paper of firmer texture could be prepared with the same surface finish, probably much larger copies could be produced. Other kinds of paper, notably the heavy plate papers used for some of the best trade catalogues, possess this transc fer property to a slight degree, though they will not receive marks from a me- tallic pencil. The latter feature would seem to recommend them for transfer purposes, making them less likely to be- come soiled by contact with metallic objects, but so far no kind has been found which will remove enough ink to give copies anywhere near as dark as the indicator paper. Fairly good transfers can be made from almost any common printers' ink, but some inks copy much better than others, and some yield only the faintest impressions. The length of time since a picture was printed does not seem to de- termine its copying quality. Some very old prints can be copied better than new ones; in fact, it was by accidental trans- fer to an indicator card from a book nearly a hundred years old that the peculiar property of this "metallic" paper was discovered. Copying Process on Wood. — If wood surfaces are exposed to direct sunlight the wood will exhibit, after 2 weeks action, a browning of dark tone in the exposed places. Certain parts of the surface being covered up during the en- tire exposure to the sun, they retain their original shade and are set off clearly and sharply against the parts browned by the sunlight. Based on this property of the COPYING PROCESSES— CORKS 223 wood is a sun-copying process on wood. The method is used for producing tarsia in imitation on wood. A pierced stencil of tin, wood, or paper is laid on a freshly planed plate of wood, pasting it on in places to avoid shifting, and put into a common copying frame. To prevent the wood from warping u stretcher is em- ployed, whereupon expose to the sun for from 8 to 14 days. After the brown shade has appeared the design obtained is partly fixed by polishing or by a coating of varnish, lacquer, or wax. Best suited for such works are the pine woods, espe- cially the .5-year fir and the cembra pine, which, after the exposure, show a yellow- ish brown tone of handsome golden gloss, that stands out boldly, especially after subsequent polishing, and cannot be replaced by any stain or by pyrography. The design is sharper and clearer than that produced by painting. In short, the total effect is pleasing. How to Reproduce Old Prints. — Pre- pare a bath as follows: Sulphuric acid, 8 to 6 parts (according to the antiquity of print, thickness of paper, etc.); alcohol, 3 to 6 parts; water, 100 parts. In this soak the print from 5 to 15 minutes (the time depending on age, etc., as above), remove, spread face downward on a glass or ebonite plate, and wash thor- oughly in a gentle stream of running water. If the paper is heavy, reverse the sides, and let the water flow over the face of the print. Remove care- fully and place on a heavy sheet of blotting paper, cover with another, and press out every drop of water possible. Where a wringing machine is convenient and sufficiently wide, passing the blot- ters and print through the rollers is bet- ter than mere pressing with the hands. The print, still moist, is then laid face upward on a heavy glass plate (a mar- ble slab or a lithographers' stone an- swers equally well), and smoothed out. With a very soft sponge go over the sur- face with a thin coating of gum-arabic water. The print is now ready for ink- ing, which is done exactly as in litho- jraphing, with a roller and printers' or ithographers' ink, cut with oil of tur- pentine. Suitable paper is then laid on and rolled with a dry roller. This gives a reverse image of the print, which is then applied to a zinc plate or a lithogra- phers' stone, and as many prints as de- sired pulled ofT in the usual lithographing method. When carefully done and the right kind of paper used, it is said that the imitation of the original is perfect in every detail. f! To Copy Old Letters, Manuscripts, etc. — If written in the commercial ink of the period from 1860 to 1864, which was almost universally an iron and tannin or gallic-acid ink, the following process may succeed: Make a thin .solution of glucose, or honey, in water, and with this wet the paper in the usually observed way in copying recent documents in the letter book, put in the press, and screw down tightly. Let it remain in the press some- what longer than in copying recent docu- ments. When removed, before attempt- ing to separate the papers, expose to the fumes of strong water of ammonia, copy side downward. CORDAGE: See also Ropes. Strong Twine. — An extraordinarily strong pack thread or cord, stronger even than the so-called " Zuckerschnur," may be obtained by laying the thread of fibers in a strong solution of alum, and then carefully drying them. Preservation of Fishing Nets. — The following recipe for the preservation of fishing nets is also applicable to ropes, etc., in contact with water. Some have been subjected to long test. For 40 parts of cord, hemp, or cot- ton, 3 parts of kutch, 1 part of blue vitriol, J part of potassium chromate, and 2i parts of wood tar are required. The kutch is boiled with 150 parts of water until dissolved, and then the blue vitriol is added. Next, the net is entered and the tar added. The whole should be stirred well, and the cordage must boil 5 to 8 minutes. Now take out the net- ting, lay it in another vessel, cover up well, and leave alone for 12 hours. After that it is dried well, spread out in a clean Elace, and coated with linseed oil. Not efore 6 hours have elapsed should it be folded together and put into the water. The treatment with linseed oil may be omitted. CORDAGE LUBRICAKT: See Lubricants. CORDAGE WATERPROOFING: See Waterproofing. CORDIALS: See Wines and Liquors. CORKS: Impervious Corks. — Corks which have been steeped in petrolatum are said to be an excellent substitute for glass stopper.s. Acid in no way affects them and chemi- cal fumes do not cause decay in them, neither do they become fixed by a blow or long disuse. 224 CORKS— CORN CURES Non-Porous Corks. — For benzine, tur- pentine, and varnish cans, immerse the corks in hot melted parafEne. Keep them under about 5 minutes; hold them down with a piece of wire screen cut to fit the dish in which you melt the paraf- fine. When taken out lay them on a screen till cool. Cheap corks can in this way be made gas- and air-tight, and can be cut and bored with ease. Substitute for Cork. — Wood pulp or other ligneous material may be treated to imitate cork. For the success of the composition it is necessary that the con- stituents be mingled and treated under special conditions. The volumetric pro- portions in which these constituents combine with the best results are the fol- lowing: Wood pulp, 3 parts; cornstalk pith, 1 part; gelatin, 1 part; glycerine, 1 part; water, 4 parts; 20 per cent formic- aldehyde solution, 1 part; but the pro- portions may be varied. After disinte- grating the ligneous substances, and while these are in a moist and hot condi- tion they are mingled with the solution of gelatm, glycerine, and water. The mass is stirred thoroughly so as to obtain a homogeneous mixture. The excess of rnoisture is removed. As a last opera- tion the formic aldehyde is introduced, and the mass is left to coagulate in this solution. The formic aldehyde renders the product insoluble in nearly all liquids. So It is in this last operation that it is necessarj^ to be careful in producing the composition properly. When the oper- ation is terminated the substance is sub- initted to pressure during its coagulation, either by molding it at once into a desired form, or into a mass which is afterwards converted into the finished product. CORKS, TO CLEAN: See Cleaning Preparations and Meth- ods, under Miscellaneous Methods. CORK TO METAL, FASTENING: See Adhesives, under Pastes. CORK AS A PRESERVATIVE: See Preserving. CORKS. WATERPROOFING: See Waterproofing. CORN CURES: I. — Salicylic-Acid Corn Cure. — Extract cannabis indica, 1 part, by measure ; salicylic acid, 10 parts, by measure; oil of turpentine, 5 parts, by measure; acetic acid, glacial, 2 parts, by measure; coca- ine, alkaloidal, 2 parts, by measure; col- lodion, elastic, sufficient to make 100 parts. Apply a thin coating every night, putting each layer directly on the pre- ceding one. After a few applications, the mass drops off, bringing the indurated portion, and frequently the whole of the corn, off with it. II. — Compound Salicylated Collodion Corn Cure. — Salicylic acid, 11 parts, by weight; extract of Indian hemp, 2 parts, by weight; alcohol, 10 parts, by weight; flexible collodion, U. S. P., a sufficient quantity to make 100 parts, by weight. The extract is dissolved in the alcohol and the acid in about 50 parts, by weight, of collodion, the solutions mixed, and the liquid made up to the required amount. The Indian hemp is presum- ably intended to prevent pain; whether it serves this or any other useful purpose seems a matter of doubt. The acid is frequently used without this addition. III. — Extract of cannabis indica, 90 grains; salicylic acid, 1 ounce; alcohol, 1 ounce; collodion enough to make 10 ounces. Soften the extract with the alcohol, then add the collodion, and lastly the acid. IV. — Resorcin, 1 part, by weight; salicylic acid, 1 part, by weight; lactic acid, 1 part, by weight; collodion elasti- cum, 10 parts, by weight. Paint the corn daily for 5 or 6 days with the above solution and take a foot bath in very hot water. The corn will readily come off. Corn Plaster.-;- Yellow wax, 24. parts, by weight; Venice turpentine, 3 parts, by weight; rosin, 2 parts, by weight; salicylic acid, 2 parts, by weight; balsam of Peru, 2 parts, by weight; lanolin, 4 parts, by weight. Corn Cure. — Melt soap plaster, 85 Carts, by weight, and yellow wax, 5 parts y weight, in a vapor bath, and stir finely ground salicylic acid, 10 parts, by weight, into it. Removal of Corns.— The liquid used by chiropodists with pumice stone for the removal of corns and callosities is usually nothing more than a solution of potassa or concentrated lye, the pumice stone being dipped into the solution by the operator just before using. Treatment of Bunions. — Wear right and left stockings and shoes, the inner edges of the sole of which are perfectly straight. The bunion is bathed night and morning in a 4 per cent solution of carbolic acid for a few minutes, followed by plain water. If, after several weeks, the bursa is still distended with fluid, it is aspirated. If the bunion is due to flatfoot, the arch of the foot must be restored by a plate. When the joints are enlarged because of gout or rheuma- CORN CURES— COSMETICS 225 tism, the constitutional conditions must be treated. In other cases, osteotomy and tenotomy are required. The Treatment of Corns. — Any corn may be speedily and permanently cured. The treatment is of three kinds — preven- tive, palliative, and curative. I. — The preventive treatment lies in adopting such measures as will secure freedom from pressure and friction for the parts most liable to corns. To this end a well-fitting shoe is essential. The shoes should be of well-seasoned leather, soft and elastic, and should be cut to a proper model. II. — The palliative treatment is gen- erally carried out with chemical sub- stances. The best method, is, briefly, as follows: A ring of glycerine jelly is painted around the circumference of the corn, to form a raised rampart. A piece of salicylic plaster mull is then cut to the size and shape of the central depression, and applied to the surface of the corn. This is then covered with a layer of glyc- erine jelly, and before it sets a pad of cotton wool is applied to the surface. This process is repeated as often as is necessary, until the horny layer separates and is cast off. If the point of a sharp, thin-bladed knife be introduced at the groove which runs around the margin of the corn, and be made to penetrate toward its central axis, by the exercise of a little manual dexterity the horny part of the corn can be easily made to separate from the parts beneath. III. — Any method of treatment to be curative must secure the removal of the entire corn, together with the under- lying bursa. It is mainly in connection with the latter structure that complica- tions, which alone make a corn a matter of serious import, are likely to arise. Freeland confidently advises the full and complete excision of corns, on the basis of his experience in upward of 60 cases. Every precaution having been taken to render the operation aseptic, a spot is selected for the injection of the anaesthetic solution. The skin is rendered insen- sitive with ethyl chloride; and 5 minims of a 4 per cent solution of cocaine is in- jected into the subcutaneous tissue be- neath the corn. After a wait of a few minutes the superficial parts of the site of the incision are rendered insensitive with ethyl chloride. Anaesthesia is now complete. Two semielliptical incisions meeting at their extremities are made through the skin around the circumference of the growth, care being taken that they pen- etrate well into the subcutaneous tissue. Seizing the parts included in the incision with a pair of dissecting forceps, a wedge- shaped piece of tissue — including the corn, a layer of skin and subcutaneous tissue, and the bursa if present — is dis- sected out. The oozing is pretty free, and it is sometimes necessary to torsion a small vessel; but the hemorrhage is never severe. The edges of the wound are brought together by one or two fine sutures; an antiseptic dressing is applied, and the wound is left to heal — primary union in a few days being the rule. The rapidity of the healing is often phenom- enal. There is produced a scar tissue at the site of the corn, but this leads to no untoward results. Cosmetics COLD CREAM. I. — Oil of almonds .... 425 parts Lanolin 185 parts White wax 62 parts Spermaceti 62 parts Borax 4.5 parts Rose water 300 parts Melt together the first four ingredients, then incorporate the solution of borax in the rose water. II. — Tragacanth li'> parts Boric acid 100 parts Glycerine 140 parts Expressed oil of al- monds 50 parts Glyconine SO parts Oil of lavender. ... 0.5 parts Water enough to make 1,000 parts Mix the tragacanth and the boric acid with the glycerine; add the almond oil, lavender oil, and egg glycerite, which have been previously well incorporated, and, lastly, add the water in divided portions until a clear jelly of the desired consistency is obtained. III.— Oil of almonds 26 ounces Castor oil (odorless). 6 ounces Lard (benzoated) ... 8 ounces White wax. ..... . . . 8 ounces Rose water (in win- ter less, in sum- mer more, than quantity named) . . 12 ounces Orange-flower water 8 ounces Oil of rose 15 minims Extract of jasmine. . 6 drachms Extract of cassia. ... 4 drachms Borax 2 ounces Glycerine 4 ounces COSMETICS Melt the oil of sweet almonds, wax, and Vard together, and stir in the castor oil; make a solution of the borax in the glycerine and rose and orange-flower waters; add this solution, a little at a time, to the melted fat, stirring con- stantly to insure thorough incorporation; finally add the oil of rose dissolved in the extracts, and beat the ointment until cold. IV. — Spermaceti (pure), i ounce; white wax (pure), J ounce; almond oil, J pound; butter of cocoa, J pound; lano- lin, 2 ounces. Melt and stir in 1 drachm of balsam of Peru. After settling, pour off the clear portion and add 2 fluidrachms of orange- flower water and stir briskly until it concretes. Camphorated Cold Cream. ^ Oil of sweet al- monds 8 fluidounces White wax 1 ounce Spermaceti 1 ounce Cfamphor 1 ounce Rose water 5 fluidounces Borax (in fine pow- der) 4 drachms Oil of rose 10 drops Melt the wax and spermaceti, add the oil of sweet almonds, in which the cam- Ehor has been dissolved with very gentle eat; then gradually add the rose water, in which the borax has previously been dissolved, beating or agitating con- stantly with a wooden spatula until cold. Lastly add the oil of rose. Petrolatum Cold Cream. — Petrolatum (white).. . 7 ounces Paraffine J ounce Lanolin 2 ounces Water 3 ounces Oil of rose 3 drops Alcohol 1 drachm A small quantity of borax may be added, if desirable, and the perfume may be varied to suit the taste. LIP SALVES: Pomades for the Lips. — Lip pomatum which is said always to retain a, hand- some red color and never to grow rancid is prepared as follows: I. — Parafline 80 . parts Vaseline 80.0 parts Anchusine 0.5 parts Bergamot oil 1.0 part Lemon peel 1.0 part II. — Vaseline Pomade. — Vaseline oil, white. . . 1,000 parts Wax, white 300 parts Geranium oil, Afri- can 40 parts Lemon oil 20 parts III. — Rose Pomade. — Almond oil 1,000 parts Wax, white 300 parts Alkannin 3 parts Geranium oil 20 parts IV. — Yellow Pomade. — Vaseline oil, white. 1,000 parts Wax, white 200 parts Spermaceti 200 parts Saffron surrogate. 10 parts Clove oil 20 parts V. —White Pomade . — Vaseline oil, white. 1,000 parts Wax, white 300 parts Bitter almond oil, genuine 10 parts Lemon oil 2 parts VI.— Paraffine 49.0 parts Vaseline 49.0 parts Oil of lemon . 75 parts Oil of violet . 75 parts Carmine, quantity sufficient. Lipol. — For treating sore, rough, or inflamed lips, applj[ the following night and morning, rubbing in well with the finger tips: Camphor, J ounce; men- thol, J ounce; eucalyptol, 1 drachm; petrolatum (white), 1 pound; paraffine, i pound; alkanet root, J ounce; oil of bitter almonds, 15 drops; oil of cloves, 10 drops; oil of cassia, 5 drops. Digest the root in the melted paraffine and pe- trolatum, strain, add the other ingre- dients and pour into lip jars, hot. MANICURE PREPARATIONS: Powdered Nail Polishes. — I. — Tin oxide 8 drachms Carmine J drachm Rose oil 6 drops Neroli oil 5 drops II. — Cinnabar 1 drachm Infusorial earth 8 drachms III. — Putty powder (fine) . 4 drachms Carmine 2 grains Oil of rose 1 drop IV. — White Castile soap. . . 1 part Hot water 16 parts Zinc chloride solu- tion, 10 per cent, quantity sufficient. Dissolve the soap in the water and to the solution add the zinc-chloride solu- tion until no further precipitation oc- curs. Let stand over night; pour off the supernatant fluid, wash the precipitate COSMETICS 227 well with water, and dry at the ordinary temperature. Carmine may be added it desired. Polishing Pastes for the Nails. — I.— Talcum 5 drachms Stannous oxide 3 drachms Powdered tragacanth 5 grains Glycerine 1 drachm Rose water, quantity sufficient. Solution of carmine sufficient to tint. Make paste. For softening the nails, curing hang- nails, etc., an ointment is sometimes used consisting of white petrolatum, 8 parts; powdered castile soap, 1 part; ana per- fume to suit. II. — Eosine 10 grains White wax J drachm Spermaceti J drachm Soft paraffine 1 ounce Alcohol, a sufficient quantity. Dissolve the eosine in as little alcohol as will suffice, melt the other ingredients to- gether, add the sol ution, and stir until cool. ITail-Cleaning Washes.— I. — Tartaric acid 1 drachm Tincture of myrrh . . 1 drachm Cologne water 2 drachms Water 3 ounces Dissolve the acid in the water; mix the tincture of myrrh and cologne, and add to the acid solution. Dip the nails in this solution, wipe, and polish with chamois skin. II. — Oxalic acid 30 grains Rose water.. 1 ounce Nail Varnish.— Paraffine wax 60 grains Chloroform 2 ounces Oil of rose 3 drops POMADES: I. — Beef-Marrow Pomade. — Vaseline oil, yel- low 20,000 parts Cere.sine, yellow 3,000 parts Beef marrow , . 2,000 parts Saffron substi- tute 15 parts Lemon oil 50 parts Bergamotoil. . . 20 parts Clove oil 5 parts Lavender oil... 10 parts II. — China Pomade. — Vaseline oil, yellow 20,000 parts Ceresine, yel- low 5,000 parts Brilliant, brown 12 parts Peru balsam. . . 50 parts Lemon oil 5 parts Bergamot oil . . 5 parts Clove oil 5 parts Lavender oil . . 5 parts 111.7-Crystalline Honey Pomade. — Nut oil, 125 drachms; spermaceti, 15 drachms; gamboge, 2 drachms; vervain oil, 10 drops; cinnamon oil, 20 drops; bergamot oil, 30 drops; rose oil, 3 drops. The spermaceti is melted in the nut oil on a water bath and digested with the gamboge for 20 minutes; it is next strained, scented, and poured into cans which are standing in water. The cool- ing must take place very slowly. In- stead of gamboge, butter color may be used. Any desired scent mixture may be employed. IV.— Herb Pomade,— Vaseline oil, yel- low 20,000 parts Ceresine, yellow 5,000 parts Chlorophyll... '•20 parts Lemon oil 50 parts Clove oil 20 parts Geranium oil, African 12 parts Curled mint oil. 4 parts V. — Rose Pomade. — Vaseline oil, white . 20,000 parts Ceresine, white 5,000 parts Alkanniii 15 parts Geranium oil, African 50 parts Palmarosa oil. 30 parts Lemon oil.. . . 20 parts VI. — Strawberry Pomade. — When the strawberry season is on, and berries are plenty and cheap, the following is timely: Strawberries, ripe and fresh 4 parts Lard, sweet and fresh 25 parts Tallow, fresh 5 parts Alkanet tincture, quantity suffi- cient. Essential oil, quan- tity sufficient to perfume. Melt lard and tallow together on the water bath at the temperature of boiling water. Have the strawberries arranged on a straining cloth. Add the alkanet tincture to the melted grease, stir in, and then pour the mixture over the berries. Stir the strained fats until the mass be- COSMETICS gins to set, then add the perfume and stir in. A little artificial essence of strawberries may be added. The odor usually employed is rose, about 1 drop to every 2 pounds. VII.— Stick Pomade.— Tallow 500 parts Ceresine 150 parts Wax, yellow 50 parts Rosin, light 200 parts Pa raffin e oil (thick).. 300 parts Oil of cassia 5 parts Oil of bergamot. . 5 parts Oil of clove 2 parts VIII.— Vaseline Pomade.— Melt 250 parts of freshly rendered lard and 25 parts of white wax at moderate heat and mix well with 200 parts of vaseline. Add 15 parts of bergamot oil, 3 parts of lavender oil, 2 parts of geranium oil, and 2 parts of lemon oil, mixing well. IX.— Witch-Hazel Jelly.— Oil of sweet al- monds 256 parts Extract of witch- hazel fluid 10 parts Glycerine 32 parts Soft soap 20 parts Tincture of musk, quantity suf- ficient to perfume. Mix in a large mortar the glycerine and soft soap and stir until incorporated. Add and rub in the witch-hazel, and then add the oil, slowly, letting it fall in a very thin, small stream, under con- stant agitation; add the perfume, keep- ing up the agitation until complete in- corporation is attained. Ten drops of musk to a quart of jelly is sufficient. Any other perfume may be used. Colors for Pomade. — Pomade may be colored red by infusing alkanet in the grease; yellow may be oDtained by using annotto in the same way; an oil-soluble chlorophyll will give a green color by admixture. In coloring grease by means of alkanet or annotto it is best to tie the drug up in a piece of coarse cloth, place in a small portion of the grease, heat gently, squeez- ing well with a rod from time to time; and then adding this strongly colored grease to the remainder. This proce- dure obviates exposing the entire mass to heat, and neither decantation nor straining is needed. Brocq's Pomade for Itching. — Acid phenic 1 part Acid salicylic 2 parts Acid tartaric ... 3 parts Glycerols of starch 60 to 100 parts Mix and make a pomade. White Cosmetique. — Jasmine pomade 2 ounces Tuberose pomade. ... 2 ounces White wax 2 ounces Refined suet 4 ounces Rose oil 15 minims Melt the wax and suet over a water bath, then add the pomades, and finally the otto. Glycerine and Cucumber Jelly. — Gelatin 100 to 240 grains Boric acid 240 grains Glycerine .6 fluidounces Water 10 fluidounces Perfume to suit. The perfume must be one that mixes without opalescence, otherwise it mars the beauty of the prep- aration. Orange-flower water or rose water could be substituted for the water if desired, or another perfume consisting of Spirit of vanillin (15 grains per ounce). 2 fluidrachms Spirit of coumarin (16 grains per ounce) 2 fluidrachms Spirit of bitter al- monds (J) 8 minims to the quantities given above would prove agreeable. Cucumber Pomade. — Cucumber pomade. . . 2 ounces Powdered white soap. J ounce Powdered borax 2 drachms Cherry-laurel water. . 3 ounces Rectified spirit 3 ounces Distilled water to make 48 ounces Rub the pomade with the soap and borax until intimately mixed, then add the distilled water (which may be warmed to blood heat), ounce by ounce, to form a smooth and uniform cream. When 40 ounces of water have been so incorporated, dissolve any essential oils desired as perfume in the spirit, and add the cherry-laurel water, making up to 48 ounces with plain water. ROUGES AND PAINTS: Grease Paints. — Theatrical face paints are sold in sticks, and there are many varieties of color. Yellows are obtained with ocher; browns with burnt umber; and blue is made with ultramarine. These colors should in each ease be levi- gated finely along with their own weight COSMETICS 229 of equal parts of precipitated chalk oxide of zinc and diluted with the sam : and ^ _. «..-« ««i»vi^u iTiuu me same to the tint required, then made into sticks with mutton suet (or vaseline or paraf- fine, equal parts) well perfumed^ By blending these colors, other tints may thus be obtained. White Grease Paints. — I. — Prepared chalk . . 4 av. ounces Zinc oxide 4 av. ounces Bismuth subni- trate 4 av. ounces Asbestos powder. 4 a v. ounces Sweet almond oil, about 2J fluidounces Camphor 40 grains Oil peppermint. . . 3 fluidrachms EsoDouquet ex- tract 3 fluidrachms Sufficient almond oil should be used to form a mass of proper consistence. II. — Zinc oxide 8 parts Bismuth subnitrate . . 8 parts Aluminum oxychlor- ide 8 parts Almond oil, quantity sufficient, or 5-6 parts. Perfume, quantity sufficient. Mix the zinc, bismuth, and aluminum oxychloride thoroughly ; make into a paste with the oil. Any perfume may be added, but that generally used is composed of 1 drachm of essence of bouquet, 12 grains of camphor, and 12 minims of oil of pep- permint for every 3i ounces of paste. Bright Red.— Zinc oxide 10 parts Bismuth subnitrate.. . 10 parts Aluminum oxychlor- ide 10 parts Almond oil, quantity sufficient. Mix the zinc, bismuth, and aluminum salts, and to every 4 ounces of the mix- ture add 21 grains of eosine dissolved in a drachm of essence of bouquet, 12 minims oil of peppermint, and 12 grains of cam- phor. Make the whole into a paste with almond oil. Red.— Cacao butter 4 a v. ounces White wax 4 a v. ounces Olive oil. 2 fluidounces Oil of rose '. 8 drops Oil of bergamot . . 3 drops Oil of neroli 2 drops Tincture musk ... 2 drops Carmine 90 grains Ammonia water . . 3 fluidrachms Deep, or Bordeaux, Red.— Zinc oxide 30 parts Bismuth subnitrate. . . 30 parts Aluminum oxychlor- ide. 30 parts Carmine 1 part Ammonia water 5 parts Essence bouquet 3 parts Peppermint, camphor, etc., quan- tity sufficient. Mix the zinc, bismuth, and aluminum salts. Dissolve the carmine in the am- monia and add solution to the mixture. Add 24 grains of camphor, and 24 minims of oil of peppermint dissolved in the essence bouquet, and make the whole into a paste with oil of sweet almonds. Vermilion. — Vermilion 18 parts Tincture of saffron . . \i parts Orris root, powdered 30 parts Chalk, precipitated.. 120 parts Zinc oxide 120 parts Camphor 2 parts Essence bouquet. ... 9 parts Oil of peppermint. . . 2 parts Almond oil, quantity sufficient. Mix as before. Pink.— Zinc carbonate '2.50 parts Bismuth subnitrate.. i'>0 parts Asbestos 250 parts Expressed oil of al- monds 100 parts Camphor 55 parts Oil of peppermint . . 55 parts Perfume 2.5 parts Eosine 1 part Dark Red. — Like the preceding, but colored with a solution of carmine. Rouge. — Zinc oxide 2 J ounces Bismuth subnitrate.. . 2 j ounces Aluminum phimbate. 2i ounces Eosine 1 drachm Essence bouquet 2 drachms Camphor 6 drachms Oil of peppermint ... . 20 minims Almond oil, quantity sufficient. Dissolve the eosine in the essence bouquet, and mix with the camphor and peppermint; add the powder and make into a paste with almond oil. Black Grease Paints. — I. — Soot 2 av. ounces Sweet almond oil . 2 fluidounces Cacao butter 6 av. ounces Perfume, sufficient. 230 COSMETICS The soot should be derived from burning camphor and repeatedly washed with alcohol. It should be triturated to a smooth mixture with the oil; then add to the melted cacao butter; add the per- fume, and form into sticks. Brown or other colors may be obtained by adding appropriate pigments, such as finely levigated burned umber, sienna, ocher, jeweler's rouge, etc., to the fore- going base instead of lampblack. II. — Best lampblack 1 drachm Cacao butter 3 drachms Olive oil 3 drachms Oil of neroli 2 drops Melt the cacao butter and oil, add the lampblack, and stir constantly as the mixture cools, adding the perfume toward the end. III. — Lampblack 1 part Cacao butter 6 parts Oil neroli, sufficient. Melt the cacao butter and the lamp- black, and while cooling make an inti- mate mixture, adding the perfume toward the last. IV.— Lampblack 1 part Expressed oil of al- monds 1 part Oil cocoanut 1 part Perfume, sufficient. Beat the lampblack into a stiff paste with glycerine. Apply with a sponge; if necessary, mix a little water with it when using. V.^ — Beat the finest lampblack into a stiff paste with glycerine and apply with a sponge; if necessary, add a little water to the mixture when using. Or you can make a grease paint as follows: Drop black, 2 drachms; almond oil, % drachms; cocoanut oil, 6 drachms; oil of lemon, 5 minims; oil of neroli, 1 minim. Mix. Fatty Face Powders. — These have a small percentage of fat mixed with them in order to make the powder adhere to the skin. Dissolve 1 drachm anhydrous lano- lin in 2 drachms of ether in a mortar. Add 3 drachms of light magnesia. Mix well, dry, and then add the following: French chalk, 2 ounces; powdered starch, \\ ounces; boric acid, 1 drachm; perfume, a sufficient quantity. A good perfume is coumarin, 2 grains, and attar of rose, 2 minims. Nose Putty. — I. — ^Mix 1 ounce wheat flour with 2 drachms of powdered tragacanth and tint with carmine. Take as much of the powder as necessary, knead into a stiff paste with a little water and apply to the nose, having previously painted it with spirit gum. II. — White wax, 8 parts; rosin, white, 8 parts; mutton suet, 4 parts; color to suit. Melt together. Rose Powder. — As a base take 200 parts of powdered iris root, add 600 parts of rose petals, 100 parts of sandalwood, 100 parts of patchouli, 3 parts of oil of geranium, and 2 parts of true rose oil. Rouge Tablets. — There are two dis- tinct classes of these tablets: those in which the coloring matter is carmine, and those in which the aniline colors are used. The best are those prepared with carmine, or ammonium carminate, to speak more correctly. The following is an excellent formula: Ammonium carminate. . . 10 parts Talc, in powder 25 parts Dextrin 8 parts Simple syrup, sufficient. Perfume, to taste, sufficient. Mix the talc and dextrin and add the perfume, preferably in the shape of an essential oil (attar of rose, synthetic oil of jasmine, or violet, etc.), using 6 to 8 drops to every 4 ounces of other in- gredients. Incorporate the ammonium carminate and add just enough simple syrup to make a mass easily rolled out. Cut into tablets of the desired size. The ammonium carminate is made by adding 1 part of carmine to 2 J parts of strong ammonia water. Mix in a vial, cork tightly, and set aside until a solution is formed, shaking occasionally. The am- monium carminate is made by dissolving carmine in ammonia water to saturation. Rouge Palettes. — To prepare rouge palettes rub up together: Carmine 9 parts French chalk 50 parts Almond oil 12 parts Add enough tragacanth mucilage to make the mass adhere and spread the whole evenly on the porcelain palette. Liquid Rouge. — I. — Carmine 4 parts Stronger ammonia water 4 parts Essence of rose .... 16 parts Rose water to make. 500 parts Mix. A very delightful violet odor, if this is _ preferred, is obtained by using ionone in place of rose essence. A cheaper preparation may be made as follows: COSME'J'ICS 231 II. — Eosine 1 part Distillrd water. . '•2(1 parts (llvreritie 5 part.s Ci)loene water 75 part.s Alcohol 100 parts Mix. Rub toeetlier with 10 parts of almond oil and add sufficient mucilage of traga- canth to make the mass adnere to the porcelain palette. III. — Carmine 1 part Stronger ammonia water 1 part Attar of rose 4 parts Rose water 125 parts Mix. Any other color may be used in place of rose, violet (ionone), for in- stance, or heliotrope. A cheaper prep- aration may be made by substituting eosine for the carmine, as follows: IV. — Eosine 1 part Distilled water .... 20 parts Glycerine 6 parts Cologne water. . . 75 parts Alcohol 100 parts Mix. Peach Tint.— a. — Buffalo eosine .... 4 drachms Distilled water 16 fluidounces Mix. b. — Pure hydrochloric acid 2 J drachms DLstilled water 64 fluidouncf.s Mix. Pour a into b, shake, and set aside for a few hours; then pour off the clear por- tion and collect the precipitate on a filter. Wash with the same amount of b and immediately throw the precipitate into a glass measure, stirring in with a glass rod sufficient of 6 to measure 16 ounces in all. Pass through a hair sieve to get out any filtering paper. To every 16 ounces add 8 ounces of glycerine. Theater Rouge. — Base: Cornstarch 4 drachms Powdered white tal- cum 6 drachms Mix. a. — Carminoline 10 grains Base 6 drachms Water 4 drachms Dissolve the carminoline in the water, mix with the base and dry. b. — Geranium red 10 grains Base 6 drachms Water 4 drachms Mix as above and dry. SKII? FOODS. Wrinkles on the face yield to a wash consisting of 50 parts milk of almonds (inade with rose water) and 4 parts alu- minum sulphate. Use morning and night. Rough skin is to be washed constantly in Vichy water. Besides this, rough places are to have the following applica- tion twice daily — either a few drops of: I.— Rose water 100 parts Glycerine '25 parts Tannin J part Mix. Or use: II. — Orange-flower water 100 parts Glycerine 10 parts Borax 2 parts Mix. Sig.: -Vpply twice daily. " Beauty Cream." —This formula gives the skin a beautiful, smooth, and fresh appearance, and, at the same time, serves to protect and preserve it: .\lum, powdered 10 grams Whites of 'i eggs Boric acid 3 grams Tincture of benzoin . . 40 drops Olive oil 40 drops Mucilage of acacia. . . 5 drops Rice flour, quantity sufficient. Perfume, quantity sufficient. Mix the alum and the white of eggs, without any addition of water whatever, in an earthen vessel, and dissolve the alum by the aid of very gentle lioat (derived from a lamp, or gaslight, regulated to a very small flame), and constant, even, stirring. This must continue until the aqueous content of the albumen is cum- plctely driven off. Care must be taken to avoid ciiagulation of the albumen (which occurs very easily, as all know). Let the mass obtained in this manner get completely cold, then throw into a Wedg- wood mortar, add the boric acid, tinc- ture of benzoin, oil, mucilage (instead of which a solution of fine gelatin may be used), etc., and rub up together, thickening it with the addition of suffi- cient rice flour to give the desired con- sistence, and perfuming at will. In- stead of olive oil any pure fat, or fatty oil, may be used, even vaseline or glyc- erine. Face Bleach or Beautlfier. — Syrupy lactic acid ... . 40 ounces Glycerine 80 ounces Distilled water 5 gallons Mix. Gradually add Tincture of benzoin . . 3 ounces Color by adding 232 COSMETICS Carmine No. 40 40 grains Glycerine 1 ounce Ammonia solution. . . J ounce Water to 3 ounces Heat this to drive off the ammonia, and mix all. Shake, set aside; then filter, and add Solution of ionone. ... 1 drachm Add a few drachms of kaolin and filter until bright. BLACKHEAD REMEDIES. I. — Lacticacid 1 drachm Boric acid 1 drachm Ceresine 1 drachm Paraffine oil 6 drachms Hydrous wool fat. . . IJ ounces Castor oil 6 drachms II. — Unna advises hydrogen dioxide in the treatment of blackheads, his pre- scription being: Hydrogen dioxide 20 to 40 parts Hydrous wool fat . . 10 parts Petrolatum 30 parts III.— Thj;mol. 1 part Boric acid 2 parts Tincture of witch- hazel 18 parts Rose water suffi- cient to make . . . 200 parts Mix. Apply to the face night and morning with a sponge, firstwasning the face with hot water and castile soap, and drying it with a coarse towel, using force enough to start the dried secretions. An excellent plan is to steam the face by holding it over a basin of hot water, keeping the head covered with a cloth. IV. — Ichthyol 1 drachm Zinc oxide 2 drachms Starch 2 drachms Petrolatum 3 drachms This paste should be applied at night. The face should first be thoroughly steamed or washed in water as hot as can be comfortably borne. All pus- tules should then be opened and black- heads emptied with as little violence as possible. After careful drying the paste should be thoroughly rubbed into the affected areas. In the morning, after removing the paste with a bland soap, bathe with cool water and dry with little friction. HAND CREAMS AND LOTIONS: Chapped Skin. — I. — Glycerine 8 parts Bay rum 4 parts Ammonia water .... 4 parts Rose water 4 parts Mix the bay rum and glycerine, add the ammonia water, and finally the rose water. It is especially efficacious after shaving. II. — As glycerine is bad for the skin of many people, here is a recipe which will be found more generally satisfactory as it contains less glycerine: Bay rum, 3 ounces; glycerine, 1 ounce; carbolic acid, J drachm (30 drops). Wash the hands well and apply while hands are soft, preferably just before going to bed. Rub m thoroughly. This rarely fails to cure the worst "chaps" in two nights. III. — A sure remedy for chapped hands consists in keeping them carefully dry and greasing them now and then with an anhydrous fat (not cold cream). The best substances for the purpose are un- guentum cereum or oleum olivarum. If the skin of the hands is already cracked the following preparation will heal it: Finely ground zinc oxide, 5.0 parts; bismuth oxychloride, 2.0 parts; with fat oil, 12.0 parts; next add glycerine, 5.0 parts; lanolin, 30.0 parts; and scent with rose water, 10.0 parts. IV. — Wax salve (olive oil 7 parts, and yellow wax 3 parts), or pure olive oil. Hand-Cleaning Paste. — Cleaning pastes are composed of soap and grit, either with or without some free alkali. Any soap may be used, but a white soap is preferred. Castile soap does not make as firm a paste as soap made from animal fats, and the latter also lather better. For grit, anything may be used, from powdered pumice to fine sand. A good paste may be made by dissolv- ing soap in the least possible quantity of hot water, and as it cools and sets stirring in the grit. A good formula is: White soap 2i pounds Fine -sand 1 pound Water 5 J pints Lotion for the Hands. — ■ Boric acid 1 drachm Glycerine 6 drachms Dissolve. by heat and mix with Lanolin 6 drachms Vaseline 1 ounce Add any perfume desired. The bora- ted glycerine should be cooled before mixing it with the lanolin. Cosmetic Jelly. — Tragacanth (white rib- bon) 60 grains Rose water 14 ounces Macerate for two days and strain forcibly through coarse muslin or chees : COSMETICS 233 doth. Add glycerine and alcohol, of each 1_ ounce. Perfume to suit. Use immediately after bathing, rubbing in well until dry. Perspiring Hands.— I.— Take rectified eau de cologne, 60 parts (by weight); belladonna dye, 8 parts; glycerine, 3 parts; rub gently twice or three times a day with half a tablespoonful of this mixture. One may also employ chalk, carbonate of magnesia, rice starch, hot and cold baths of the hands (as hot and as cold as can be borne), during 6 min- utes, followed by a solution of 4 parts of tannin in 32 of glycerine. II. — Rub the hands several times per day with the following mixture: By weight Rose water 125 parts Borax 10 parts Glycerine 8 parts Hand Bleach. — Lanolin, 30 parts ; glycerine, 20 parts ; borax, 10 parts ; eucalyptol, 2 parts ; essential oil of al- monds, 1 part. After rubbing the hands with this mixture, cover them with gloves during the night. For the removal of developing stains, see Photography. MASSAGE CREAMS: Massage Application. — White potash soap, shaved 20 parts Glycerine 30 parts Water. . : 30 parts Alcohol (90 per cent) . 10 parts Dissolve the soap by heating it with the glycerine and water, mixed. Add the alcohol, and for every 30 ounces of the solution add 5 or 6 drops of the mis- tura oleoso balsamica, German Phar- macopoeia. Filter while hot. Medicated Massage Balls. — They are the balls of parafflne wax molded with a. smooth or rough surface with menthol, camphor, oil of wintergreen, oil of pep- permint, etc., added before shaping. Spe- cially useful in headaches, neuralgias, and rheumatic affections, and many other afflictions of the skin and bones. The method of using them is to roll the ball over the affected part by the aid of the palm of the hand with_ pressure. Continue until relief is obtained or a sensation of warmth. The only external method for the treatment of all kinds of headaches is the menthol medicated mas- sage ball. This may be made with smooth or corrugated surfaces. Keep wrapped in foil in cool places. Casein Massage Cream.— The basis of the modern massage cream is casein. Casein is now produced very cheaply in the powdered form, and by treatment with glycerine and perfumes it is possible to turn out a satisfactory cream. The following formula is suggested: Skimmed milk 1 gallon Water of ammonia. . 1 ounce Acetic acid 1 ounce Oil of rose geranium 1 drachm Oil of bitter almond. 1 drachm Oil of anise 2 drachms Cold cream (see below), enough. Carmine enough to color. Add the water of ammonia to the milk and let it stand 24 hours. Then add the acetic acid and let it stand another 24 hours. Then strain through cheese cloth and add the oils. Work this thoroughly in a Wedgwood mortar, adding enougn carmine to color it a delicate pink. To the product thus obtained add an equal amount of cold cream made by the for- mula herewith given: White wax 4 ounces Spermaceti 4 ounces White petrolatum. ... 12 ounces Rose water 14 ounces Borax 80 grains Melt the wax, spermaceti, and petro- latum tocether over a water bath; dis- solve the Dorax in the rose water and add to the melted mass at one time. Agitate violently. Presumably the borax solu- tion should be of the same temperature as the melted mass. Massage Skin Foods. — This preparation is used in massage for removing wrinkles: I. — White wax J ounce Spermaceti J ounce Cocoanut oil 1 ounce Lanolin 1 ounce Oil of sweet almonils 2 ounces Melt in a porcelain dish, remove from the fire, and add Orange-flower water. . . 1 ounce Tincture of benzoin. . . 3 drops Beat briskly until creamy. II. — Snow-white cold cream 4 ounces Lanolin 4 ounces Oil of theobroraa ... 4 ounces White petrolatum oil 4 ounces Distilled water 4 ounces In hot weather add Spermaceti 1 J drachms White wax 2 J drachms COSMETICS In winter the two latter are left out and the proportion of cocoa butter is modi- fied. Prepared and perfumed in pro- portion same as cold cream. III. — White petrolatum 7 av. ounces Paraffine wax .... J ounce Lanolin 2 av. ounces Water 3 fluidounces Oil of rose 3 drops Vanillin 2 grains Alcohol 1 fluidrachm Melt the paraffine, add the lanolin and petrolatum, and when these have melted pour the mixture into a warm mortar, and, with constant stirring, incorporate the water. When nearly cold add the oil and vanillin, dissolved in the alcohol. Preparations of this kind should be rubbed into the skin vigorously, as fric- tion assists the absorbed fat in developing the muscles, and also imparts softness and fullness to the skin. SKIN BLEACHES, BALMS, LOTIONS, ETC.: See also Cleaning Methods and Photog- raphy for removal of stains caused by photographic developers. Astringent Wash for Flabby Skin. — This is used to correct coarse pores, and to remedy an oily or flabby skin. Apply with sponge night and morning: Cucumber juice 1 J ounces Tincture of benzoin . . J ounce Cologne 1 ounce Elder-flower water. .. 5 ounces Put the tincture of benzoin in an 8-ounce bottle, add the other ingredients, previously mixed, and shake slightly. There will be some precipitation of ben- zoin in this mixture, but it will settle out, or it may be strained out through cheese cloth. Bleaching Skin Salves. — A skin-bleach- ing action, due to the presence of hydro- gen peroxide, is possessed by the follow- ing mixtures: I. — Lanolin 30 parts Bitter almond oil. . . . 10 parts Mix and stir with this salve base a solution of Borax 1 part Glycerine 15 parts Hydrogen peroxide. . 15 parts For impure skin the following com- position is recommended: II. — White mercurial oint- ment 5 grams Zinc ointment 5 grams Lanolin 30 grams Bitter almond oil. ... 10 grams And gradually stir into this a solution of Borax 2 grams Glycerine 30 grams Rose water 10 grams Concentrated nitric acid 5 drops III. — Lanolin 30 grams Oil sweet almond. . . 10 grams Borax 1 gram Glycerine 15 grams Solution hydrogen peroxide 15 grams Mix the lanolin and oil, then incor- porate the borax previously dissolved in the mixture of glycerine and peroxide solution. IV. — Ointment ammoniac mercury 5 grams Ointment zinc oxide. 5 grams Lanolin 30 grams Oil sweet almond. . . 10 grams Borax 2 grams Glycerine 30 gr^ms Rose water 10 grams Nitric acid, C. P. . . . 5 drops Prepare in a similar manner as the foregoing. Rose oil in either ointment makes a good perfume. Both ointments may, of course, be employed as a general skin bleach, which, in fact, is their real office — cosmetic creams. Emollient Skin Balm. — Quince seed J ounce Water 7 ounces Glycerine IJ ounces Alcohol 4 J ounces Salicylic acid 6 grains Carbolic acid 10 grains Oil of bay 10 drops Oil of cloves 5 drops Oil of orange peel. ... 10 drops Oil of wintergreen. ... 8 drops Oil of rose 2 drops Digest the quince seed in the water for 24 hours, and then press through a cloth; dissolve the salicylic acid in the alcohol; add the carbolic acid to the glyc- erine; put all together, shake well, and bottle. Skin Lotion. — Zinc sulphocarbo- late 30 grains Alcohol (90 per cent) 4 nuidrachms Glycerine 2 fluidrachms Tincture of cochi- neal 1 fluidrachm O r a ng e-flower water 1 J fluidounces Rose water (triple) to make 6 fluidounces COSMETICS 235 Skin Discoloration. — Discoloration of the neck may be removed by the use of acids, the simplest of which is that in buttermilk, but if the action of this is too slow try 4 ounces of lactic acid, 2 of glycerine, and 1 of rose water. These will mix without heating. Apply sev- eral times daily with a soft linen rag; pour a small quantity into a saucer and dip the cloth into this. If the skin be- comes sore use less of the remedy and allay the redness and smarting with a good cold cream. It is always an acid that removes freckles and discolorations, by burning them off. It is well to be slow in its use until you find how severe its action is. It is not wise to try for home making any of the prescriptions which include corrosive sublimate or any other deadly poison. Peroxide of hydro- gen diluted with 5 times as much water, also will bleach discolorations. Do not try any of these bleaches on a skin freshly sunburned. For that, wash in hot water, or add to the hot water application enough witch-hazel to scent the water, and after that has dried into the skin it will be soon enough to try other applications. . Detergent for Skin Stains. — Moritz Weiss has introduced a detergent paste which will remove stains from the skin without attacking it, is non-poisonous, and can be used without not water. Moisten the hands with a little cold water, apply a small quantity of the paste to the stained skin, rub the hands together for a few minutes, and rinse with cold water. The preparation is a mixture of soft soap and hard tallow, melted to- gether over the fire and incorporated with a little emery powder, flint, glass, sand, quartz, pumice stone, etc., with a little essential oil to mask the smell of the soap. The mixture sets to a mass like putty, but does not dry hard. _ The approximate proportions of the ingre- dients are: Soft soap, 30 per cent; tal- low, 15 per cent; emery powder, 55 per cent, and a few drops of essential oil. _ If an extra detergent quality is de- sired, 4 ounces of sodium carbonate may be added, and the quantity of soap may be reduced. Paste thus made will at- tack grease, etc., more readily, but it is harder on the skin. Removing Inground Dirt. — Egg albumen 8 parts Boric acid 1 part Glycerine 32 parts Perfume to suit. Distilled water to make. 50 parts Dissolve the boric acid in a sufiicient quantity of water; mix the albumen and glycerine and pass through a silk strain- er. Finally, mix the two fluids and add the residue of water. Every time the hands are washed, dry on a towel, and then moisten them lightly but thoroughly with the liquid, and dry on a soft towel without rubbing. At night, on retiring, apply the mixture and wipe slightly or just enough to take up superfluous liquid; or, better still, sleep in a pair of cotton gloves. TOILET CREAMS: Almond Cold Creams.— .\ liquid al- mond cream may be made by the ap- pended formula. It has been known as milk of almond: I. — Sweet almonds.. . . 5 ounces White castile soap. 2 drachms White wax a draclmi.s Spermaceti 2 drachms Oil of bitter al- monds 10 minims Oil of bergamot. . . 20 minims Alcohol 6 fluidounces Water, a sufiicient quantity. Beat the almonds in a smooth mortar until as much divided as their nature will admit; then gradually add water in very small quantities, continuing the beating until a smooth paste is obtained; add to thi.s, gradually, one pint of water, stirring well all the time. Strain the resulting emulsion without pressure through a cotton cloth previously well washed to remove all foreign matter. If new, the cloth will contain starch, etc., which mu.st be removed. Add, through the strainer, enough water to bring the meas- ure of the strained liquid to 1 pint. While this operation is going on let the soap be shaved into thin ribbons, and melted, with enough water to cover it, over a very gentle fire or on a water bath. When fluid add the wax and spermaceti in large pieces, so as to allow them to melt slowly, and thereby better effect union with the soap. Stir occasionally. Wlicn all is melted place the soapy mixture in a mortar, run into it slowly the emulsion, blending the two all the while with the pestle. Care must be taken not to add the emulsion faster than it can be incor- porated with the soap. Lastly add the alcohol in which the perfumes have been previously dissolved, in the same man- ner, using great care. _ This preparation is troublesome to make and rather expensive, and it is perhaps no better for the purpose than glycerine. The mistake is often made of applying the latter too freely, its "stickiness" being unpleasant, and it is COSMETICS best to dilute it largely with water. Such a lotion may be made by mixing Glycerine 1 part Rose water 9 parts Plain water may, of course, be used as the diluent, but a slightly perfumed preparation is generally considered more desirable. The perfume may easily be obtained by dissolving a very small pro- portion of handkerchief "extract" or some essential oil in the glycerine, and then mixing with plain water. II. — White wax J ounce Spermaceti 2| ounces Oil of sweet al- monds 2 J ounces Melt, remove from the fire, and add Rose water 1 J ounces Beat until creamy : not until cold. When the cream begins to thicken add a few drops of oil of rose. Only the finest almond oil should be used. Be careful in weighing the wax and spermaceti. These precautions will insure a good product. III. — White wax 4 ounces Spermaceti 3 ounces Sweet almond oil 6 fluidounces Glycerine 4 fluidounces Oil of rose gera- nium 1 fluidrachm Tincture of ben- zoin 4 fiuidrachms Melt the wax- and spermaceti, add the oil of sweet almonds, then beat in the glycerine, tincture of benzoin, and oil of rose geranium. When all are incor- porated to a smooth, creamy mass, pour into molds. IV. — Sweet almonds, blanched 5 ounces Castile soap, white 120 grains White wax 120 grains Spermaceti .... 120 grains Oil of bitter al- monds 10 drops Oil of bergamot 20 drops Alcohol 6 fluidounces Water, sufficient. Make an emulsion of the almonds with water so as to obtain 16 fluidounces of product, straining through cotton which has previously been washed to remove starch. Dissolve the soap with the aid of heat in the necessary amount of water to form a liquid, add the wax and spermaceti, continue the heat until the latter is melted, transfer to a mortar, and incorporate the almond emulsion slowly with constant stirring until all has been added and a smooth cream has been formed. Finally, add the two vola- tile oils. V. — Melt, at moderate heat. By weight. White wax 100 parts Spermaceti 1,000 parts Then stir in By weight. Almond oil 500 parts Rose water 260 parts And scent with By weight. Bergamot oil ... . 10 parts Geranium oil. . . . 5 parts Lemon oil 4 parts By weight. VI. — Castor oil 500 parts White wax 100 parts Almond oil 150 parts Melt at moderate heat and scent with By weight. Geranium oil ... . 6 parts Lemon oil 5 parts Bergamot oil ... . 10 parts By weight. VII. — Almond oil 400 parts Lanoline 200 parts White wax 60 parts Spermaceti 60 parts Rose water. ...... 300 parts By weight. VIII.— White wax 6 parts Tallow, freshly tried out 4 parts Spermaceti 2 parts Oil of sweet al- monds 6 parts Melt together and while still hot add, with constant stirring, 1 part of sodium carbonate dissolved in 79 parts of hot water. Stir until cold. Perfume to the taste. IX. — Ointment of rose water. . . 1 ounce Oil of sweet almonds .... 1 fluidounce Glycerine 1 fluidounce Boric acid 100 grains Solution of soda 2i fluidounces Mucilage of quince seed . 4 fluidounces Water enough to make 40 fluidounces Oil of rose, oil of bitter almonds, of each sufficient to perfume. Heat the ointment, oil, and solution of soda together, stirring constantly until an emulsion or saponaceous mixture is COSMETICS 237 formed. Then warm together the glyc- erine, acid, and mucilage and about 30 fluidounces of water; mix with the emul- sion, stir until cold, and add the re- mainder of the water. Lastly, add the volatile oils. The rose-water ointment used should be the "cold cream" of the United States Pharmacopa-ia. X. — Spermaceti.... 2 ounces White wax .... 2 ounces Sweet almond oil 14 fluidounces Water, distilled 7 fluidounces Borax, powder 60 grains Coumarin J grain Oil of bergamot 24 drops Oil of rose 6 drops Oil of bitter almonds .... 8 drops Tincture of am- bergris 5 drops Melt the spermaceti and wax, add the sweet almond oil, incorporate the water in which the borax has previously been dissolved, and finally add the oils of ber- gamot, rose, and bitter almond. XI. — Honey 2 av. ounces Castile s o a p , white powder 1 av. ounce Oil sweet al- monds 26 fluidounces Oil bitter al- monds 1 fluidrachm Oil bergamot. . i fluidrachm Oil cloves .... IS drops Peru balsam.. . 1 fluidrachm Liquor potassa. Solution carmine, of each sufii- cient. Mix the honey with the soap in a mor- tar, and add enough liquor potassa (about 1 fluidrachm) to produce a nice cream. Mix the volatile oils and balsam with the sweet almond oil, mix this with the cream, and continue the trituration until thoroughly mixed. Finally add, if desired, enough carmine solution to impart a rose tint. XII. —White wax 800 parts Spermaceti 800 parts Sweet almond oil 5,600 parts Distilled water. . 2,800 parts Borax 50 parts Bergamot oil . . . 20 parts Attar of rose .... 5 parts Coumarin 0.1 part Add for each pound of the cream 5 drops of etheric oil of bitter almonds, and 3 drops tincture of ambra. Proceed as in making cold cream. The following also makes a fine cream: XIII. — Spermaceti 3 parts White wax 2 parts Oil of almonds, fresh 12 parts Rose water, double 1 part Glycerine, pure. . . 1 part Melt on a water bath the spermaceti and wax, add the oil (which should be fresh), and pour the whole into a slightly wanned mortar, under constant and lively stirring, to prevent granulation. Con- tinue the trituration until the mass has a white, creamy appearance, and is about the consistence of butter at ordi- nary temperature. Add, little by little, under constant stirring, the orange- flower water and glycerine mi.xed, and finally the perfume as before. Con- tinue the stirring for 15 or 20 minutes, then immediately put into containers. Chappine Cream. — Quince seed 2 drachms Glycerine IJ ounces Water 1 J ounces Lead acetate 10 grains Flavoring, sufficient. Macerate the quince seed in water, strain, add the glycerine and lead ace- tate, previously dissolved in sufficient water; flavor with jockey club or orange essence. Cucumber Creams. — I. — White wax 3 ounces Spermaceti 3 ounces Benzoinated lard. ... 8 ouiuos Cucumbers 3 ounces Melt together the wax, spermaceti, and lard, and infuse in the liquid the cucum- bers previously grated. .VIlow to cool, stirring well; let stand a day, remelt, strain and again stir the "cream" until cold. II. — Benzoinated lard. ... 5 ounces Suet 3 ounces Cucumber juice 10 ounces Proceed as in making cold cream. Glycerine Creams.^ I. — Oil of sweet al- monds 100 parts White wax 13 parts Glycerine, pure 25 parts Add a sufficient quantity of any suitable perfume. Melt, on the water bath, the oil, wax, and glycerine together, remove and as the mass cools down add the perfume in sufficient quantity to make a creamy mass. COSMETICS II. — Quince seed 1 ounce Boric acid 16 grains Starch 1 ounce Glycerine 16 ounces Carbolic acid 30 minims Alcohol 12 ounces Oil of lavender 30 minims Oil of rose 10 drops Extract of white rose 1 ounce Water enough to make 64 ounces Dissolve the boric acid in «, quart of water and in this solution macerate the quince seed for 3 hours; then strain. Heat together the starch and the glycer- ine until the starch granules are broken, and mix with this the carbolic acid. Dissolve the oils and the extract of rose in the alcohol, and add to the quince- seed mucilage; then mix all together, strain, and add water enough to make the product weigh 64 ounces. III. — Glycerine 1 ounce Borax 2 drachms Boracic acid 1 drachm Oil rose geranium . . 30 drops Oil bitter almond ... 15 drops Milk 1 gallon Heat the milk until it curdles and allow it to stand 12 hours. Strain it through cheese cloth and allow it to stand again for 12 hours. Mix in the salts and glycerine and triturate in a mortar, finally adding the odors and coloring if wanted. The curdled milk must be entirely free from water to avoid separation. If the milk will not curdle fast enough the addition of 1 ounce of water ammonia to a gallon will hasten it. Take a gallon of milk, add 1 ounce am- monia water, heat (not boil), allow to stand 24 hours, and no trouble will be found in forming a good base for the cream. IV. — This is offered as a substitute for cucumber cream for toilet uses. Melt 15 parts, by weight, of gelatin in hot water containing 15 parts, by weight, of boracic acid as well as 150 parts, by weight, of glycerine; the total amount of water used should not exceed 300 parts, by weight. It may be perfumed or not. Lanolin Creams. — I. — Anhydrous lanolin. 650 parts Peach-kernel oil . . . 200 parts Water 150 parts Perfume with about 15 drops of ionone or 20 drops of synthetic ylang- ylang. II. — Lanolin 40 parts Olive oil 15 parts ParafHne ointment. . 10 parts Agua naphse 10 parts Distilled water 15 parts Glycerine 5 parts Boric acid 4 parts Borax 4 parts Geranium oil, sufficient. Extract, triple, of ylang-ylang, quantity sufficient. HI. — Anhydrous lanolin. 650 drachms Almond oil 200 drachms Water 150 drachms Oil of ylang-ylang . 5 drops Preparations which have been intro- duced years ago for the care of the skin and complexion are the glycerine gelees, which have the advantage over lanolin that they go further, but present the drawback of not being so quickly ab- sorbed by the skin. These products are filled either into glasses or into tubes. The latter way is preferable and is more and more adopted, owing to the conven- ience of handling. A good recipe for such a gelee is the following: Moisten white tragacanth powder, 50 parts, with glycerine, 200 parts, and spirit of wine, 100 parts, and shake with a suit- able amount of perfume; then quickly mix and shake with warm distilled water, 650 parts. , A transparent slime will form imme- diately which can be drawn off at once. Mucilage Creams. — I. — Starch 30 parts Carrageen mucilage. 480 parts Boric acid 15 parts Glycerine 240 parts Cologne water 240 parts Boil the starch in the carrageen muci- lage, add the boric acid and the glycer- ine. Let cool, and add the cologne water. II. — Linseed mucilage. . . 240 parts Boric acid 2 parts Salicylic acid 1.3 parts Glycerine 60 parts Cologne water 120 parts Rose water 120 parts Instead of the cologne water any ex- tracts may be used. Lilac and ylang- ylang are recommended. Witch-Hazel Creams. — I. — Quince seed 90 grains Boric acid 8 grains Glycerine 4 nuidounces Alcohol 6 fluidounces Carbolic acid 6 drachms Cologne water .... 4 fluidounces Oil lavender flow- ers 40 drops COSMETICS 239 Glycerite starch ... 4 av. ounce.s Distilled witch-hazel extract enough to make Si fluidounces Dissolve the boric acid in 16 ounces of the witch-hazel extract, macerate the quince seed in the solution for 3 hours, strain, add the glycerine, carbolic acid, and glycerite, and mix well. Mix the alcohol, cologne water, lavender oil, and mucilages, incorporate with the previous mixture, and add enough witch-hazel extract to bring to the measure of 32 fluidounces. II. — Quince seed 4 ounces Hot water 16 ounces Glycerine 32 ounces Witch-hazel water . . 128 ounces Boric acid 6 ounces Rose extract 2 ounces Violet extract 1 ounce Macerate the quince seed in the hot water; add the glycerine and witch-hazel, in which the boric acid has been pre- viously dissolved; let the mixture stand for 2 days, stirring occasionally; strain and add the perfume. Skin Cream for Collapsible Tubes. — I. — White vaseline 6 ounces White wax 1 ounce Spermaceti fl drachms Subchloride bismuth 6 drachms Attar of rose 6 minims Oil of bitter almonds 1 minim Rectified spirit Jounce Melt the vaseline, wax, and sperma- ceti together, and while cooling incor- porate the subchloride of bismuth (in warm mortar). Dissolve the oils in the alcohol, and add to the fatty mixture, stirriilg all until uniform and cold. In cold weather the quantities of wax and spermaceti may be reduced. II.— Lanolin 1 ounce Almond oil 1 ounce Oleate of zinc (pow- der) 3 drachms Extract of white rose 1 i drachms Glycerine 2 drachms Rose water 2 drachms Face Cream Without Grease. — Quince seed 10 parts Boiling water 1,000 parts Borax 5 parts Boric acid 5 parts Glycerine 100 parts Alcohol, 94 per cent. 125 i)arts Attar of rose, quantity sufficient to perfume. Macerate the quince seed in half of the boiling water, with frequent agita- tions, for 2 hours and 30 minutes, then strain off. In the residue of the boiling water dissolve the borax and boric arid, add the glycerine and the perfume, the latter dissolved in the alcohol. Now add, little by little, the colate of quince seed, under constant agitation, which should be kept up for 5 minutes after the last portion of the colate is added. TOILET MILKS: Cucumber Milk. — Simple cerate 2 pounds Powdered borax 11 J ounces Powdered castile soap 10 ounces Glycerine 26 ounces Alcohol 24 ounces Cucumber juice 32 ounces Water to 5 gallons lonone 1 drachm Jasmine J drachm Neroli J drachm Rhodinol 15 minims To the melted cerate in a hot water bath add the soap and stir well, keepine up the heat until perfectly mixed. Add 8 ounces of borax to 1 gallon of boiling water, and pour gradually into the hot melted soap and cerate; add the re- mainder of the borax and hot water, then the heated juice and glycerine, and lastly the alcohol. Shake well while cooling, set aside for 48 hours, and siphon off any water that may separate. Snake well, and repeat after standing again if necessary; then perfume. Cucumber Juice. — It is well to make a large quantity, as it keeps indefinitely. Washed unpeeled cucumbers are grated and pressed; the juice is heated, skimmed and boiled for 5 minutes, then cooled and filtered. Add 1 part of alcohol to 2 parts of juice, let stand for 12 hours or more, and filter until clear. Glycerine Milk. — Glycerine 1,150 parts Starch, powdered. . 160 parts Distilled water 400 parts Tincture of benzoin 20 parts Rub up 80 parts of the starch with the glycerine, then put the mixture on the steam bath and heat, under continuous stirring, until it forms a jellylike mass. Remove from the bath and stir in the remainder of the starch. Finally, add the water and tincture and stir till homo- geneous. Lanolin Toilet Milk. — White castile soap, powdered 22 grains Lanolin 1 ounce Tincture benzoin .... 12 drachms Water, enough. 240 COSMETICS Dissolve the soap in 2 fluidounces of warm water, also mix the lanolin with 2 fluidounces of warm water; then in- corporate the two with each other, finally adding the tincture. The latter may be replaced by 90 grains of pow- dered borax. Jasmine Milk. — To 25 parts of water add gradually, with constant stirring, 1 part of zinc white, 2 quarts of grain spirit, and 0.15 to 0.25 part of glycerine; finally stir in 0.07 to 0.10 part of jasmine essence. Filter the mixture and fill into glass bottles. For use as a cosmetic, rub on the raspberry paste on retiring at night, and in the morning use the jas- mine milk to remove the paste from the skin. The two work together in their effect. SUNBURN AND FRECKLE REME- DIES. I. — Apply over the affected skin a solution of corrosive sublimate, 1 in 500, or, if the patient can stand it, 1 in 300, morning and evening, and for the night apply emplastrum hydrargyri com- positum to the spots. In the morning remove the plaster and all remnants of it by rubbing fresh butter or cold cream over the spots. For redness of the skin apply each other day zinc oxide ointment or oint- ment of bismuth subnitrate. II. — Besnier recommends removal of the mercurial ointment with green soap, and the use, at night, of an ointment composed of vaseline and Vigo's plaster (emplastrum hydrargyri compositum), in equal parts. In the morning wash off with soap and warm water, and apply the following: Vaseline, white 20 parts Bismuth carbonate. . . 5 parts Kaolin 5 parts Mix, and make an ointment. III. — Leloir has found the following of service. Clean the affected part with green soap or with alcohol, and then ap- ply several coats of the following: Acid chrysophanic . . 15 parts Chloroform 100 parts Mix. Apply with a camel's-hair pencil. When the application dries thoroughly, go over it with a layer of traumaticine. This application will loosen itself in several days, when the process should be repeated. IV. — When the skin is only slightly discolored use a pomade of salicylic acid, or apply the following: Acid chrysophanic, from 1 to 4 parts Acid salicylic 1 to 2 parts Collodion 40 parts V. — When there is need for a more complicated treatment, the following is used: (a) Corrosive sublimate 1 part Orange- flower water 7,500 parts Acid, hydrochloric, dilute 500 parts (6) Bitter almonds .... 4,500 parts Glycerine 2,500 parts Orange-flower water 25,000 parts Rub up to an emulsion in a porcelain capsule. Filter and add, drop by drop, and under constant stirring, 5 grams of tincture of benzoin. Finally mix the two solutions, adding the second to the first. This preparation is applied with a sponge, on retiring, to the affected places, and allowed to dry on. VI. — According to Brocq the follow- ing should be penciled over the affected spots: Fresh pure milk 50 parts Glycerine 30 parts Acid, hydrochloric, concentrated 5 parts Ammonium chlorate . 3 parts VII. — Other external remedies that may be used are lactic acid diluted with 3 volumes of water, applied with a glass rod; dilute nitric acid, and, filially, per- oxide of hydrogen, which last is a very powerful agent. Should it cause too much inflammation, the latter may be assuaged by using an ointment of zinc oxide or bismuth subnitrate — or one may use the following: Kaolin 4 parts Vaseline 10 parts Glycerine 4 parts Magnesium carbonate 2 parts Zinc oxide 2 parts Freckle Remedies. — I. — Poppy oil 1 part Lead acetate 2 parts Tincture benzoin. ... 1 part Tincture quillaia. ... 5 parts Spirit nitrous ether. . . 1 part Rose water 95 parts Saponify the oil with the lead acetate; add the rose water, and follow with the tinctures. II. — Chloral hydrate 2 drachms Carbolic acid 1 drachm COSMETICS 241 Tincture iodine 60 drops Glycerine 1 ounce Mix and dissolve. Apply with a camel's-hair pencil at night. III.— Distilled vinegar. . . 660 parts Lemons, cut in small pieces 135 parts Alcohol, 85 per cent 88 parts Lavender oil 23 parts Water... 88 parts Citron oil 6 parts This mixture is allowed to stand for 3 or 4 days in the sun and filtered. Coat, bv means of a sponge before retiring, the places of the skin where the freckles are and allow to dry. Freckles and Liver Spots. — Modern dermatological methods of treating freckles and liver spots are based partly on remedies that cause desquamation and those that depigmentate (or de- stroy or neutralize pigmentation). Both metnods may be distinguished in respect to their effects and mode of using into the following: The active ingredients of the desquamative pastes are reductives which promote the formation of epithe- lium and hence expedite desquamation. There are many such methods, and especially to be mentioned is that of Unna, who uses resorcin for the purpose. Lassar makes use of a paste of naphthol and sulphur. Sunburn Remedies. — I. — Zinc sulphocarbo- late 1 part Glycerine 20 parts Rose water 70 parts Alcohol, 90 per cent 8 parts Cologne water. ... 1 part Spirit of camphor. 1 part IL — Borax 4 parts Potassium chlorate 2 parts Glycerine 10 parts Alcohol 4 parts Rose water to make 90 parts IIL — Citric acid 2 drachms Ferrous sulphate (cryst.) 18 grains Camphor 2 grains Elder-flower water 3 fluidounces IV. — Potassium carbon- ate 3 parts Sodium chloride . . 2 parts Orange- flower water 16 parts Rose water 65 parts V. — Boroglycerine, 60 percent 1 part Ointment of rose water 9 parts VI. — Sodium bicarbon- ate 1 part Ointment of rose water 7 parts VII. — Bicarbonate of soda 2 drachms Powdered borax ... 1 drachm Compound tincture of lavender 1) drachms Glycerine 1 ounce Rose water 4 ounces Dissolve the soda and borax in the glycerine and rose water, and add the tincture. Apply with a small piece? of sponge 2 or 3 times a day. Then gently dry by dabbing with a soft towel. VIII.— Quince seeds 2 drachms Distilled water. .. . 10 ounces Glycerine 2 ounces Alcohol, 94 per cent 1 ounce Rose water 2 ounces Boil the seeds in the water for 10 min- utes, then strain off the liquid, and when cold add to it the glycerine, alcohol, and rose water. IX. — Whitesoft soap. .. 2i drachms Glycerine 1 j drachms Almond oil 11 drachms Well mix the glycerine and soap in a mortar, and very gradually add the oil, stirring constantly until perfectly mixed. X. — Subnitrate of bis- muth 1 J drachms Powdered French chalk 30 grains Glycerine 2 drachms Rose water 1 J ounces Mix the powders, and rub down care- fully with the glycerine; then add the rose water. Shake the bottle before use. XI. — Glycerine cream . . 2 drachms Jordan almonds.. 4 drachms Rose water 5 ounces Essential oil- of al- monds 3 drops Blanch the almonds, and then dry and beat them up into a perfectly smooth paste; then mix in the glycerine cream and essential oil. Gradually add the rose water, stirring well after each addi- tion; then strain through muslin. Tan and Freckle Lotion. — Solution A: Potassium iodide, iodine, glycerine, and infusion rose. Dissolve the potassium iodide in a 242 COSMETICS small quantity of the infusion and a drachm of the glycerine; with this fluid moisten the iodine in a glass of water and rub it down, gradually adding more liquid, until complete solution has been obtained; then stir in the remainder of the ingredients, and bottle the mixture. Solution B: Sodium thiosulphate and rose water. With a small camel's-hair pencil or piece of fine sponge apply a little of solution A to the tanned or freckled surface, until a slight or tolerably uniform brownish yellow skin has been produced. At the expiration of 15 or 20 minutes moisten a piece of cambric, lint, or soft rag with B' and lay it upon the affected part, re- moving, squeezing away the liquid, soaking it afresh, and again applying until the iodine stain has disappeared! Repeat the process thrice daily, but diminish the frequency of application if tenderness be produced. A Cure for Tan. — Bichloride of mer- cury, in coarse powder, 10 grains; dis- tilled water, 1 pint. Agitate the two together until a complete solution is obtained. Add i ounce of glycerine. Apply with a small sponge as often as agreeable. This is not strong enough to blister and skin the face in average cases. It may be increased or reduced in strength by adding to or taking from the amount of bichloride of mercury. Do not for- get that this last ingredient is a powerful poison and shoula be kept out of the reach of children and ignorant persons. Improved Carron Oil. — Superior to the old and more suitable. A desirable preparation for burns, tan, freckle, sun- burn, scalds, abrasions, or lung affec- tions. Does not oxidize so quickly or dry up so rapidly and less liable to ran- cidity. Linseed oil 2 ounces Limewater 2 ounces Parafiine, liquid 1 ounce Mix the linseed oil and water, and add the paraffine. Shake well before using. LIVER SPOTS. I. — Corrosive subli- mate 1 part White sugar 190 parts White of egg 34 parts Lemon juice 275 parts Water to make.. . . 2,500 parts Mix the sublimate, sugar, and albu- men intimately, then add the lemon juice and water. Dissolve, shake well, and after standing an hour, filter. Ap- ply in. the morning after the usual ablu- tions, and let dry on the face. II. — Bichloride of mercury, in coarse powder, 8 grains; witch-hazel, 2 ounces; rose water, 2 ounces. Agitate until a solution is obtained. Mop over the affected parts. Keep out of the way of ignorant persons and chil- dren. TOILET POWDERS: Almond Powders for the Toilet. — I. — Almond meal .... 6,000 parts Bran meal 3,000 parts Soap powder 600 parts Bergamot oil 50 parts Lemon oil 15 parts Clove oil 15 parts Neroli oil 6 parts II. — Almond meal. . . . 7,000 parts Bran meal 2,000 parts Violet root 900 parts Borax 350 parts Bitter almond oil . 18 parts Palmarosa oil.. . . 36 parts Bergamot oil 10 parts III. — Almond meal .... 3,000 parts Bran meal 3,000 parts Wheat flour 3,000 parts Sand 100 parts Lemon oil 40 parts Bitter almond oil . 10 parts Bath Powder, — Borax 4 ounces Salicylic acid 1 drachm Extract of cassia 1 drachm Extract of jasmine ... 1 drachm Oil of lavender 20 minims Rub the oil and extracts with the borax and salicylic acid until the alcohol has evaporated. Use a heaping teaspoonf ul to the body bath. Brunette or Rachelle. — Base 9 pounds Powdered Florentine orris 1 pound Perfume the same. Powdered yellow ocher. . . . (av.) 3 ounces 120 grains Carmine No. 40 60 grains Rub down the carmine and ocher with alcohol in a mortar, and spread on glass to dry; then mix and sift. Violet Poudre de Riz. — I. — Cornstarch 7 pounds Rice flour 1 pound Powdered talc 1 pound Powdered orris root. . 1 pound Extract of cassia 3 ounces Extract of jasmine ... 1 ounce COSMETICS MS II. — Cheaper. Potato starch 8 pounds Powdered talc 1 pound Powdered orris 1 pound Extract of cassia 3 ounces Barber's Powder. — Cornstarch 5 pounds Precipitated chalk. . . 3 pounds Powdered talc 2 pounds Oil of neroli 1 drachm Oil of cedrat 1 drachm Oil of orange 2 drachms Extract of jasmine. . . 1 ounce Rose Poudre de Riz. — I. — Cornstarch 9 pounds Powdered talc 1 pound Oil of rose IJ drachms Extract of jasmine. . . 6 drachms II. — Potato starch 9 pounds Powdered talc 1 pound Oil of rose J drachm Extract of jasmine. . . jounce Ideal Cosmetic Powder. — The follow- ing combines the best qualities that a powder for the skin should have: Zinc, white 50 parts Calcium carbonate, precipitated 300 parts Steatite, best white. . 50 parts Starch, wheat, or rice 100 parts Extract white rose, triple 3 parts Extract jasmine, tri- ple 3 parts Extract orange flow- er, triple ... . . 3 parts Extract of cassia, tri- ple 3 parts Tincture of myrrh.. 1 part Powder the solids and mix thoroughly by repeated siftings. Flesh Face Powder. — Base 9 pounds Powdered Florentine orris 1 pound Carmine No. 40 250 grains Extract of jasmine . . 100 minims Oil of neroli 20 minims Vanillin 5 grains Artificial musk 30 grains White heliotropin ... 30 grains Coumarin 1 grain Rub the carmine with a portion of the base and alcohol in a mortar, mixing the perfume the same way in another large mortar, and adding the orris. Mix and sift all until specks of carmine disappear on rubbing. White Face Powder.— Base 9 pounds Powdered Florentine orris 1 pound Perfume the same. Mix and sift. Talcum Powders. — Talc, when used as a toilet powder should be in a state of very fine division. Antiseptics are some- times added in small proportion, but these are presumably of little or no value in the c|uantity allowable, and may prove irritating. For general use, at all events, the talcum alone is the best and the safest. As a perfume, rose oil may be employed, but on account of its cost, rose geranium oil is probably more frequently used. A satisfactory propor- tion is i drachm of the oil to a pound of the powder. In order that the per- fume may be thoroughly disseminated throughout the powder, the oil should be triturated first with a small portion of it; this should then be further triturated with a larger portion, and, if the quan- tity operated on be large, the final mix- ing may be effected by sifting. Many odors besides that of rose would be suit- able for a toilet powder. Ylang-ylang would doubtless prove very attractive, but expensive. The following formulas for other va- rieties of the powder may prove useful: Violet Talc — I. — Powdered talc 14 ounces Powdered orris root. 2 ounces Extract of cassia. ... J ounce Extract of jasmine . . jounce Rose Talc — II. — Powdered talc 5 pounds Oil of rose i drachm Extract of jasmine . 4 ounces Tea-Rose Talc — III. — Powdered talc 5 pounds Oil of rose 60 drops Oil of wintergreen . . 4 drops Extract of jasmine. . 2 ounces Bora ted Apple Blossom. — IV. — Powdered talc 22 pounds Magnesium carbon- ate 2J pounds Powdered boric acid 1 pound Mix. Carnation pink blos- som (Schimmel's) 2 ounces Extract of trefle .... 2 drachms To 12 drachms of this mixture add: Neroli 1 drachm Vanillin J drachm Alcohol to 3 ' ounces Sufificient for io pounds. COSMETICS V. — Talcum 8 ounces Starch 8 ounces Oil of neroli 10 drops Oil of ylang-ylang . 5 drops VI. — Talcum 12 ounces Starch 4 ounces Orris root 2 ounces Oil of bergamot. ... 12 drops VII. — Talcum 14 ounces Starch 2 ounces Lanolin ^ ounce Oil of rose 10 drops Oil of neroli S drops TOILET VINEGARS: Pumillo Toilet Vinegar. — Alcohol, 80 per cent 1,600 parts Vinegar, 10 per cent. 840 parts Oil of pinu spumillo 44 parts Oil of lavender 4 parts Oil of lemon 2 parts Oil of bergamot .... 2 parts Dissolve the oils in the alcohol, add the vinegar, let stand for a week and filter. Vinaigre Rouge. — Acetic acid 24 parts Alum 3 parts Peru balsam 1 part Carmine, No. 40. . . 12 parts Ammonia water. . . 6 parts Rose water, dis- tilled 575 parts Alcohol 1,260 parts Dissolve the balsam of Peru in the alcohol, and the alum in the rose water. Mix the two solutions, add the acetic acid, and let stand overnight. Dis- solve the carmine in the ammonia water and add to mixture. Shake thoroughly, let stand for a few minutes, then decant. TOILET WATERS: " Beauty Water."— Fresh egg albumen. . 500 parts Alcohol 125 parts Lemon oil 2 parts Lavender oil 2 parts Oil of thyme 2 parts Mix the ingredients well together. When first mixed the liciuid becomes flocculent, but after standing for 2 or 3 days clears up — sometimes becomes Perfectly clear, and may be decanted, t forms a light, amber-colored liquid that remains clear for months-. At night, before retiring, pour about a teaspoonful of the water in the palm of the hand, and rub it over the face and neck, letting it dry on. In the morning, about an hour before the bath, repeat the oper- ation, also fetting the liquid dry on the skin. The regular use of this prepara- tion for 4 weeks will give the skin an extraordinary fineness, clearness, and freshness. Rottmanner's Beauty Water.— KoUer says that this preparation consists of 1 part of camphor, 5 parts of milk of sul- phur, and 50 parts of rose water. Birch Waters. — Birch water, which has many cosmetic applications, espe- cially as a hair wash, or an ingredient in hair washes, may be prepared as follows: I. — Alcohol, 96 per cent 3,500 parts Water 700 parts Potash soap 200 parts Glycerine 150 parts Oil of birch buds. . . 50 parts Essence of spring flowers 100 parts Chlorophyll, quantity sufficient to color. Mix the water with 700 parts of the alcohol, and in the mixture dissolve the soap. Add the essence of spring flowers and birch oil to the remainder of the alcohol, mix well, and to the mixture add, little by little, and with constant agitation, the soap mixture. Finally, add the glyc- erine, mix thoroughly, and set aside for 8 days, filter and color the filtrate with chlorophyll, to which is added a little tincture of saffron. To use, add an equal volume of water to produce a lather. II.— Alcohol, 96 per cent 2,000 parts Water 500 parts Tincture of can- tharides 25 parts Salicylic acid 25 parts Glycerine 100 parts Oil of birch buds . 40 parts Bergamot oil 30 parts Geranium oil 5 parts Dissolve the oils in the alcohol, add the acid and tincture of cantharides; mix the, water and glycerine and add, and, finally, color as before. III.— Alcohol 30,000 parts Birch juice 3,000 parts Glycerine 1,000 parts Bergamot oil ... . 90 parts Vanillin. , 10 parts Geranium oil.. . . 50 parts Water 14,000 parts IV. — Alcohol 40,000 parts Oil of birch 150 parts Bergamot oil ... . 100 parts Lemon oil SO parts COITON 245 Palmarosa oil. . . 100 parts Glycerine 2,000 parts Borax 150 parts Water 20,000 parts Violet Ammonia Water. — Most prep- arations of this character consist of either coarselv powdered ammonium carbonate, with or without the addition of ammonia water, or of a coarsely pow- dered mixture, which slowlv evolves the odor of ammonia, the whole being per- fumed by the addition of volatile oil, pomade essences, or handkerchief ex- tract. The following are typical for- mulas: I.— Moisten coarsely powdered am- monium carbonate, contained in a suit- able bottle, with a mixture of concen- trated tincture of orris root, 2 J ounces; aromatic spirit of ammonia, 1 drachm; violet extract, 3 drachms. II. — Fill suitable bottles with coarsely powdered ammonium carbonate and add to the salt as much of the following solu- tion as it will absorb: Oil of orris, 5 minims; oil of lavender flowers, 10 minims; violet extract, 30 minims; stronger water of ammonia, 2 fluid- ounces. III.— The following is a formula for a liquid preparation: Extract violet, 8 fluidrachms; extract cassia, 8 fluidrachms; spirit of rose, 4 fluidrachms; tincture of orris, 4 fluidraclims ; cologne spirit, 1 pint; spirit of ammonia, 1 ounce. Spirit of ionone may be used instead of extract of violet. Violet Witch-Hazel.— Spirit of ionone J drachm Rose water 6 ounces Distilled extract o f witch-hazel enough to make 16 ounces Cotton BLEACHING OF COTTON: I. — Bleaching by Steaming. — The singed and washed cotton goods are gassed through hydrochloric acid of 2° e. Leave them in heaps during 1 hour, wash, pass through sodium hypo- chlorite of 10° B^. diluted with 10 times the volume of water. Let the pieces lie in heaps for 1 hour, wash, pass through caustic soda lye of 38° Be. diluted with 8 times its volume of water, steam, put again through sodium chloride, wash, acidulate slightly with hydrochloric acid, wash and dry. Should the whiteness not be sufficient, repeat the operations. II— Bleaching with Caldum Sulphite. — ;The cotton goods are impregnated with 1 part, by weight, of water, 1 part of caustic lime, and i part of bisulphite of 40° Be.; next steamed during 1-2 hours at a pressure of J atmosphere, washed, acicfulated, washed and dried. The result is as white a fabric as by the old method with caustic lime, soda, and calcium chloride. The bisulphite may also be replaced by calcium hydrosul- phite, and, instead of steaming, the fabric may be boiled for several hours with calcium sulphite. Ill —Bleaching of Vegetable Fibers with Hydrogen Peroxide.- Pass the pieces through a solution containing caustic soda, soap, hydrogen peroxide, and burnt magnesia. The pieces are piled in heaps on carriages; the latter are shoved into the well-known apparatus of Mather & Piatt (kier), and tlie li(iuid is pumped on for 6 hours, at a pressure of j atmos- phere. Next wash, acidulate, wash and dry. The bleaching may also be done on an ordinary reeling v.it. -For 6 pieces are needed about 1,000 parts, by weight, of water; 10 parts, by weight, of solid caustic soda; 1 part of burnt mag- nesia; 30 parts, by weight, of hydrogen peroxide. After 3-4 hours' boiling, wash, acidulate, wash and dry. The bleaching may also be performed by passing through barium peroxide, then through sulphuric acid or hydrochloric acid, and next through soda lye. It is fjracticable also to commence with the atter and finally give a. treatment with hydrogen peroxide. The whiteness obtained by the above Crocess is handsomer than that produced y the old method with hypochlorites, and the fabric is weakened to a less ex- tent. TESTS FOR COTTON. I. — Cotton, when freed from extrane- ous matter by boiling with potash, and afterwards with hydrochloric acid, yields pure cellulose or absorbent cotton, which, according to the U. S. P., is soluble in copper ammonium sulphate solution. The B. P. is more specific and states that cotton is soluble in a concentrated solution of copper ammonium sulphate. The standard test solution (B. P.) is made by dissolving 10 parts of copper sulphate in 160 parts of distilled water, and cautiouslv adding solution of am- monia to the liquid until the precipitate first formed is nearly dissolved. The product is then filtered and the filtrate made up to 200 parts with distilled 246 COTTON— COUGH MIXTURES water. The concentrated solution is prepared by using a smaller quantity of distilled water. II. — Schweitzer's reagent for textile fibers and cellulose is made by dissolving 10 parts of copper sulphate in 100 parts of water and adding a solution of 5 parts of potassium hydrate in 50 parts of water; then wash the precipitate and dissolve in 20 per cent ammonia until saturated. This solution dissolves cotton, linen, and silk, but not wool. The reagent is said to be especially useful in microscopy, as it rapidly dissolves cellulose, but has no action on lignin. III. — ^Jandrier's Test for Cotton in Woolen Fabrics. — Wash the sample of fabric and treat with sulphuric acid (20 Be.) for half an hour on the water bath. To 100 to 200 parts of this solu- tion add 1 part resorcin, and overlay on concentrated sulphuric acid free from nitrous products. The heat developed is sufficient to give a color at the contact point of the liquids, but intensity of color may be increased by slightly heating. If the product resulting from treating the cotton is made up 1 in 1,000, resorcin' will give an orange color; alphanaphtol a purple; gallic acid a green gradually becoming violet down in the acid; hydro- quinone or pyrogallol a brown; morphine or codeine, a lavender; thymol or menthol a pink. Cotton may be detected in colored goods, using boneblack to de- colorize the solution, if necessary. IV. — Overbeck's test for cotton in woolen consists in soaking the fabric in an aqueous solution of alloxantine (1 in 10), and after drying expose to ammonia vapor and rinse in water. Woolen ma- terial is colored crimson, cotton remains blue. V. — Liebermann's Test. — Dye the fab- ric for half an hour in fuchsine solution rendered light yellow by caustic soda solution and then washed with water — silk is colored dark red; wool, light red; flax, pink; and cotton remains colorless. To Distinguish Cotton from Linen. — Take a sample about an inch and a half square of the cloth to be tested and plunge it into a tepid alcoholic solution of cyanine. After the coloring matter has been absorbed by the fiber, rinse it in water and then plunge into dilute sul- phuric acid. If it is of cotton the sam- ple will be almost completely bleached, while linen preserves the blue color al- most unchanged. If the sample be then plunged in ammonia, the blue will be strongly reinforced. Aromatic Cotton. — Aromatic cotton is produced as follows : Mix camphor, 5 parts; pine-leaf oil, S parts; clove oil, 5 parts; spirit of wine (90 per cent), 80 parts; and distribute evenly on cotton, 500 parts, by means of an atomizer. The cotton is left pressed together in a tightly closed tin vessel for a few days. Cotton Degreasin^. — Cotton waste, in a greasy condition, is placed in an acid- proof apparatus, where it is simulta- neously freed from grease, etc., and pre- pared for bleaching by the following process, which is performed without the waste being removed from the appara- tus: (1) treatment with a solvent, such as benzine; (2) steaming, for the purpose of vaporizing and expelling from the cotton waste the solvent still remaining in it after as much as possible of this has been recovered by draining; (3) treatment with a mineral acid; (4) boiling with an alkali lye; (5) washing with water. COTTONSEED HULLS AS STOCK FOOD. Cottonseed hulls or other material containing fiber difiicult of digestion are thoroughly mixed with about 5 per cent of their weight of hydrochloric acid (spe- cific gravity, 1.16), and heated in a closed vessel, provided with a stirrer, to a temperature of 212° to 300° F. The amount of acid to be added depends on the material employed and on the dura- tion of the heating. By heating for 30 minutes the above percentage of acid is required, but the quantity may be re- duced if the heating is prolonged. After heating, the substance is ground and at the same time mixed witn some basic substances such as sodium carbonate, chalk, cottonseed kernel meal, etc., to neutralize the acid. During the heating, the acid vapors coming from the mixture may be led into a second quantity of material contained in a separate vessel, air being drawn through both vessels to facilitate the removal of the acid vapors. COTTONSEED OIL: See Oil. COTTONSEED OIL IN FOOD, TESTS FOR: See Foods. COTTONSEED OIL IN LARD, DETEC- TION OF: See Foods and Lard. COUGH CANDY: See Confectionery. COUGH MIXTURES FOR CATTLE: See Veterinary Formulas. COURT PLASTERS— CREAM 247 COUGH MIXTURES AND REMEDIES: See Cold and Cough Mixtures. COUNTER POLISHES: See Polishes. COUNTERS, WATERPROOFING: See Waterproofing. Court Plasters (Sec also Plasters.) Liquid Court Plaster. — I. — If soluble guncotton is dissolved in acetone in the proportion of about 1 part, by weight, of the former to 35 or 40 parts, by volume, of the latter, and half a part each of castor oil and glycerine be added, a colorless, elastic, and flexible film will form on the skin wherever it is applied. Unlike ordinary collodion it will not be likely to dry and peel off. If tinted very slightly with alkanet and saffron it can be made to assume the color of the skin so that when applied it is scarcely ob- servable. A mixture of warm solution of sodium silicate and casein, about 9 parts of the former to 1 part of the latter, gelatinizes and forms a sort of liquid court plaster. II. — In order to make liquid court plaster flexible, collodion, U. S. P., is the best liquid that can po.ssibly be recommended. It may be made by weighing successively into a tarred bottle: Collodion 4 av. ounces Canada turpentine.. 95 grains Castor oil 57 grains Before applying, the skin should be perfectly dry; eacn application or layer should be permitted to harden. Three or four coats are usually sufficient. III. — Procure an ounce bottle and fill it three-fourths full of flexible collodion, and fill up with ether. Apply to cuts, bruises, etc., and it protects tnem and will not wash off. If the ether evaporates, leaving it too thick for use, have more ether put in to liquefy it. It is a good thing to have in the house and in the tool chest. COW DISEASES AND .THEIR REM- EDIES: See Veterinary Formulas. CRAYONS: See Pencils. CRAYONS FOR GRAINING AND MAR- BLING. Heat 4 parts of water and 1 part of white wax over a fire until the wax has cornpletely dissolved. Stir in 1 part of purified potash. When an intimate combination has taken place, allow to cool and add a proportionate quantity of gum arable. With this mixture the desired colors are ground thick enough so that they can be conveniently rolled into a pencil with chalk. The desired shades must be composed on the grind- ing .slab as they are wanted, and must not be simply left in their natural tone. Use, for instance, umber, Vandyke brown, and white lead for oak; umber alone would be too dark for walnut use. All the earth colors can be conveniently worked up. It is best lo prepare '2 or 3 crayons of each set, mixing the first a little lighter by the addition of white lead and leaving the others a little darker. The pencils should be kept in a dry place and are more suitable for graining and marbling than brushes, since they can be used with either oil or water. CRAYONS FOR WRITING ON GLASS: See Etching, and Glass. Cream (See also Alilk.) Whipped Cream. — Tliere are many ways to whip cream. The following is very highly indorsed: Keep the ereiiin on ice until ready to whip. Take "i earthen vessels aliout 6 inches in diam- eter. Into 1 bowl put 1 pint of rich sweet cream, i teaspoonfuls powdered sugar, and ,'> drops of best vanilla ex- tract. Add the white of 1 egg and beat with large egg beater or use whipping apparatus until i inches of froth has formed; skim off the froth into the other vessel and so proceed whipping and skimming until all the cream in the first vessel has been exhausted. The whipped cream will stand up all day and should be let stand in the vessel on ice. Special machines have been constructed for whipping cream, but most dispensers prepare it with an ordinary egg beater. Genuine whipped cream is nothing other than pure cream into which air has been forced by the action of the different ap- paratus manufactured for the purpose; care must, however, be exercised in order that butter is not produced in- stead of whipped cream. To avoid this the temperature of the cream must be kept at a low degree and the whipping must not be too violent or prolonged; hence the following rules must be ob- served in order to produce the desired result: 248 CREAM— CRYSTAL CEMENTS 1. Secure pure cream and as fresh as possible. 2. Surround the bowl in which the cream is being whipped with cracked ice, and perform the operation in a cool place. 3. As rapidly as the whipped cream arises, skim it off and place it in another bowl, likewise surrounded with. ice. 4. Do not whip the cream too long or too violently. 5. The downward motion of the beater should be more forcible than the upward, as the first has a tendency to force the air into the cream, while the second, on the contrary, tends to expel it. 6. A little powdered sugar should be added to the cream after it is whipped, in order to sweeten it. 7. Make whipped cream in small quantities and keep it on ice. I. — Cummins's Whipped Cream. — ■ Place 12 ounces of rich cream on the ice for about 1 hour; then with a whipper beat to a consistency that will withstand its own weight. II. — Eberle's Whipped Cream. — Take a pint of fresh, sweet cream, which has been chilled by being placed on the ice, add to it a heaping tablespoonful of pow- dered sugar and 2 ounces of a solution of gelatin (a spoonful dissolved in 2 ounces of water), whip slowly for a minute or two until a heavy froth gathers on top. Skim off the dense froth, and put in container for counter use; con- tinue this until you have frothed all that is possible. III. — Foy's Whipped Cream. — Use only pure cream; have it ice cold, and in a convenient dish for whipping with a wire whipper. A clear, easy, quick, and convenient way is to use a beater. Fill about one-halt full of cream, and beat vigorously for 2 or 3 minutes; a little pow- dered sugar may be added before beat- ing. The cream may be left in the beater, and placed on ice. IV. — American Soda Fountain Com- pany's Whipped Cream. — Take 2 earthen bowls and 2 tin pans, each 6 or 8 inches greater in diameter than the bowls; place a bowl in each pan, surround it with broken ice, put the cream to be whipped in 1 bowl, and whip it with a whipped cream churn. The cream should be pure and rich, and neither sugar nor gelatin should be added to it. As the whipped cream rises and fills the bowl, remove the churn, and skim off the whipped cream into the other bowl. The philosophy of the process is that the churn drives air into the cream, and blows an infinity of tiny bubbles, which forms the whipped cream; therefore, in churning, raise the dasher gently and slowly, and bring it down quickly and forcibly. When the second bowl is full of whipped cream, pour off the liquid cream, which has settled to the bottom, into the first bowl, and whip it again. Keep the whipped cream on ice. The addition of an even teaspoonful of salt to 1 quart of sweet cream, before whipping, will make it whip up very readily and stiff, and stand up much longer and better. CRESOL EMULSION. One of the best starting points for the preparation is the "creosote" obtained from blast furnaces, which is rich in cresols and contains comparatively little phenols. The proportions used are: Creosote, 30 parts; soft soap, 10 parts; and solution of soda (10 per cent), 30 parts. Boil the ingredients together for an hour, then place aside to settle. The dark fluid is afterwards drained from any oily portion floating upon the top. CREAM, COLD: See Cosmetics. CREAMS FOR THE FACE AND SKIN : See Cosmetics. CREOLINE SOAP: See Soap. CREOSOTE SOAP: See Soap. CROCKERY: See Ceramics. CROCKERY CEMENTS: See Adhesives. CROCUS. The substance known as "crocus," which is so exceedingly useful as a pol- ishing medium for steel, etc., may be very generally obtained in the cinders produced from coal containing iron. It will be easily recognized by its rusty color, and should be collected and re- duced to a powder for future use. Steel burnishers may be brought to a, high state of polish with this substance by rubbing tnem upon a buff made of sol- diers' belt or hard wood. After this operation, the burnisher should be rubbed on a second buff charged with jewelers' rouge. CRYSTAL CEMENTS FOR REUNIT- ING BROKEN PIECES: See Adhesives, under Cements. CRYSTALLIZATION— DAMASKEENING 249 CRYSTALLIZATION, ORNAMENTAL: See Gardens, Chemical. CUCUMBER ESSENCE: See Essences and Extracts. CUCUMBER JELLY, JUICE, AND MILK: See Cosmetics. CURACOA CORDIAL: See Wines and Liquors. CURTAINS, COLORING OF: See Laundry Preparations. CURRY POWDER: See Condiments. CURRYING: See Leather. CUSTARD POWDER: Corn flour 7 pounds Arrowroot 8 pounds Oil of almond 20 drops Oil of nutmegs 10 drops Tincture of saffron to color. Mix the tincture with a little of the mixed flours; then add the essential oils and make into a paste; dry this until it can be reduced to a powder, and then mix all the ingredients by sifting several times through a fine hair sieve. CUTICURA OINTMENT: See Ointments. CUTLERY CEMENTS: See Adhesives. CYLINDER OIL: See Lubricants. CYMBAL METAL: See Alloys. DAMASK CLEANERS: See Cleaning Preparations and Meth- ods. Damaskeening Damaskeening, practiced from most ancient times, consists in ornamentally inlaying one metal with another, fol- lowed usually by polishing. Generally gold or silver is employed for inlaying. The article to be decorated by damas- keening is usually of iron (steel) or copper; in Oriental (especially Japan- esej work, also frequently of bronze, which has been blackened, or, at least, darkened, so that the damaskeening is effectively set off from the ground. If the design consists of lines, the grooves are dug out with the graver in such a manner that they are wider at the bot- tom, so as to hold the metal forced in. Next, the gold or silver pieces suitably formed are laid on top ana hammered in so as to fill up the opening. Finally the surface is gone over again, so that the surface of the inlay is perfectly even with the rest. If the inlays, however, are not in the form of lines, but are composed of larger pieces of certain outlines, they are sometimes allowed to project beyond the surface of the metal decorated. At times there are inlays again in the raised por- tions of another metal; thus, Japanese bronze articles often contain figures of raised gold inlaid with silver. Owing to the high value which dam- askeening imparts to articles artistic- ally decorated, many attempts have been made to obtain similar effects in a cheaper manner. One is electro- etching, described further on. Another process for the wholesale manufacture of objects closely resembling damask- eened work is the following: By means of a steel punch, on which the decorations to be produced project in relief, the designs are stamped by means of a drop hammer or a stamping press into gold plated or silver plated sheet metal on tne side which is to show the damaskeening, finally grinding off the surface, so that the sunken portions are again level. Naturally, the stamped portion, as long as the depth of the stamping is at least equal to the thick- ness of the precious metal on top, will appear inlaid. It is believed that much of the early damaskeening was done by welding to- gether iron and either a steel or an im- pure or alloyed iron, and treating the surface with a corroding acid that affect- ed the steel or alloy without changing the iron. The variety or damaskeening known as koftgari or kuft-work, practiced in India, was produced by rougn-etching a metallic surface and laying on gold-leaf, which was imbedded so that it adhered only to the etched parts of the design. Damaskeening by Electrolysis. — Dam- askeening of metallic plates may be done by electrolysis. A copper plate is covered with an isolating layer of feeble thickness, such as wax, and the desired design is scratched in it by the use of a pointed tool. The plate is sus- pended in a bath of sulphate of copper, connecting it with the positive pole of a battery, while a second copper plate is connected with the negative pole. The current etches grooves wherever the wax has been removed. When enough has 250 DAMASKEENING— DECALCOMANIA PROCESSES been eaten away, remove the plate from the bath, cleanse it with a little hydro- chloric acid to remove any traces of oxide of copper which might appear on the lines of the design; then wash it in plenty of water and place it in a bath of silver or nickel, connecting it now with the neg- ative pole, the positive pole being repre- sented hj a leaf of platinum. After a certain time the hollows are completely filled with a deposit of silver or nickel, and it only remains to polish the plate, which has the appearance of a piece damaskeened by hand. Damaskeening on Enamel Dials. ^ Dip the dial into molten yellow wax, trace on the dial the designs desired, penetrating down to the enamel. Dip the dial in a fluorhydric acid a suflScient length of time that it may eat to the desired depth. Next, wash in several waters, remove the wax hj means of turpentine, i. e., leave the piece covered with wax immersed in essence of turpen- tine. By filling up the hollows thus ob- tained with enamel very pretty effects are produced. DANDRUFF CURE: See Hair Preparations. DANTZIG BITTERS: See Wines and Liquors. DECALCOMANIA PROCESSES: See also Chromos, Copying Processes, and Transfer Processes. The decalcomania process of trans- ferring pictures requires that the print (usuafly in colors) be made on a spe- cially prepared paper. Prints made on decalcomania paper may be transferred in the reverse to chinaware, wood, cellu- loid, metal, or any hard smooth surface, and being varnished after transfer (or burnt in, m the case of pottery) acquire a fair degree of permanence. The origi- nal print is destroyed by the transfer. Applying Decalcomania Pictures on Ceramic Products under a Glaze. — A biscuit-baked object is first coated with a mixture of alcohol, shellac, varnish, and liquid glue. Then the prepared picture print is transferred on to this adhesive layer in the customary manner. The glaze, however, does not adhere to this coating and would, therefore, not cover the picture when fused on. To attain this, the layer bearing the transfer picture, as well as the latter, are simul- taneously coated with a dextrin solution of about 10 per cent. When this dex- trin coating is dry, the picture is glazed. The mixing proportions of the two so- lutions employed, as well as of the ad- hesive and the dextrin solutions, vary somewhat according to the physical con- ditions of the porcelain, its porosity, etc. The following may serve for an example: Dissolve 5 parts of shellac or equivalent gum in 25 parts of spirit and emulsify this liquid with 20 parts of varnish and 8 parts of liquid glue. After drying, the glaze is put on and the ware thus pre- pared is placed in the grate fire. The process described is especially adapted for film pictures, i. e., for such as bear the picture on a cohering layer, usually consisting of collodion. It can- not be employed outright for gum pic- tures, i. e., for such pictures as are composed of different pressed surfaces, consisting mainly of gum or similar ma- terial. If this process is to be adapted to these pictures as well, the ware, which has been given the biscuit baking, is first provided with a crude glaze coat- ing, whereupon the details of the proc- ess are carried out as described above with the exception that there is another glaze coating between the adhesive coat and the biscuit-baked ware. In this case the article is also immediately placed in the grate fire. It is immaterial which of the two kinds of metachromatypes (transfer pictures) is used, in every case the baking in the muffle, etc., is dropped. The transfer pictures may also be pro- duced in all colors for the grate fire. Decalcomania Paper. — Smooth un- sized paper, not too thick, is coated with the following solutions: I. — Gelatin, 10 parts, dissolved in 300 parts warm water. This solution is applied with a sponge. The paper should be dried flat. 11. — Starch, 50 parts; gum traga- canth, dissolved in 600 parts of water. (The gum tragacanth is soaked in 300 parts of water; in the other 300 parts the starch is boiled to a paste; the two are then poured together and boiled.) The dried paper is brushed with this paste uniformly, a fairly thick coat being ap- plied. The paper is then .allowed to dry again. III. — One part blood albumen is soaked in 3 parts water for 24 hours. A small quantity of sal ammoniac is added. The paper, after having been coated with these three solutions and dried, is run through the printing press, the pic- tures, however, being printed reversed so that it may appear in its true position when transferred. Any colored inks may be used. uiii;Ai.i;uMAiMA rnOCESSES— DENTIFRICES 251 IV. — A transfer paper, known as "de- calque rapide," invented by J. B. Dur- aray, consists of a paper of the kind generally used for making pottery trans- fers, but coated with a mixture of gum and arrowroot solutions in the propor- tion of '2 i parts of the latter to 100 of the former. The coating is applied in the ordinary manner, but the paper is only semi-glazed. Furthermore, to decorate pottery ware by means of this new trans- fer paper, there is no need to immerse the ware in a bath in order to get the paper to draw off, as it will come away when moistened with a damp sponge, after having been in position for less than 5 minutes, whereas the ordinary papers require a much longer time. Picture Transferrer. — A very weak solution of soft soap and pearlashes is used to transfer recent prints, such as illustrations from papers, magazines, etc., to unglazed paper, on the decalco- mania principle. Such a solution is: I. — Soft soap i ounce Pearlasn 2 drachms Distilled water. .. . 16 fluidounces The print is laid upon a flat surface, such as a drawing board, and moistened with the liquid. The paper on which the reproduction is required is laid over this, and then a sheet of thicker paper placed on the top, and the whole rubbed evenly and hard with a blunt instrument, such as the bowl of a spoon, until the desired depth of color in the transferrer is obtained. Another and more artistic process is to cover the print with a trans- parent sheet of material coated with wax, to trace out the pictures with a point and to take rubbings of the same after powdering with plumbago. II. — Hard soap 1 drachm Glycerine 30 grains Alcohol 4 fluidrachms Water 1 fluidounce Dampen the printed matter with the solution by sponging, and proceed as with I. DEHORNERS: See Horn. DELTA METAL: See Alloys. DEMON BOWLS OF FIRE: See Pyrotechnics. DENTAL CEMENTS: See Cements. DENTAL WAX: See Wax. Dentifrices TOOTH POWDERS: A perfect tooth powder that will clean the teeth and mouth with thoroughness need contain but few ingredients and is easily made. For the base there is noth- ing better than precipitated chalk; it possesses all the detergent and polishing properties necessary for the thorough cleansing of the teeth, and it is too soft to do any injury to soft or to de- fective or thinly enameled teeth. This cannot be said of pumice, cuttlebone, charcoal, kieselguhr, and similar abra- dants that are used in tooth powders. Their use is reprehensible in a tooth powder. The use of pumice or other active abradant is well enough occasion- ally, by persons afllicted with a growth of tartar on the teeth, but even then it is best applied by a competent dentist. Abrading powders have much to answer for in hastening the day of the toothless race. Next in value comes soap. Powdered white castilesoap is usually an ingredient of tooth powders. There is nothing so effective for removing sordes or thick- ened mucus from tlie gums or mouth. But used alone or in too large propor- tions, the taste is unpleasant. Orris possesses no cleansing properties, but is used for its flavor and because it is most effective for masking the taste of the soap. Sugar or saccharine may be used for sweetening, and for flavoring almost anything can be used. Flavors should, in the main, be used singly, though mixed flavors lack ' the clean taste of simple flavors. The most popular tooth powder sold is the white, saponaceous, wintergreen-flavored powder, and here is a formula for this type: I. — Precipitated chalk. . . 1 pound White castile soap ... 1 ounce Florentine orris 2 ounces Sugar (or saccharine, 2 grains) 1 ounce Oil of wintergreen ... J ounce The first four ingredients should be in the finest possible powder and well dried. Triturate the oil of wintergreen with part of the chalk, and mix this with the bal- ance of the chalk. Sift each ingredient separately through a sieve (No. 80 or finer), and mix well together, afterwards sifting the mixture 5 or 6 times. The finer the sieve and the more the mixture is sifted, the finer and lighter the powder will be. 252 DENTIFRICES This powder will cost about 15 cents a pound. Pink, rose-flavored powder of the Caswell and Hazard, Hudnut, or McMahan type, once so popular in New York. It was made in two styles, with and without soap. II. — Precipitated chalk. . . 1 pound Florentine orris 2 ounces Sugar 1 J ounces White Castile soap ... 1 ounce No. 40 carmine 15 grains Oil of rose 12 drops Oil of cloves 4 drops Dissolve the carmine in an ounce of water of ammonia and triturate this with part of the chalk until the chalk is uni- formly dyed. Then spread it in a thin layer on a sheet of paper and allow the ammonia to evaporate. When there is no ammoniacal odor left, mix this dyed chalk with the rest of the chalk and sift the whole several times until thor- oughly mixed. Then proceed to make up the powder as in the previous formula, first sifting each ingredient separately and then together, being careful thor- oughly to triturate the oils of rose and cloves with the orris after it is sifted and before it is added to the other powders. The oil of cloves is used to back up the oil of rose. It strengthens and accen- tuates the rose odor. Be careful not to get a drop too much, or it will predomi- nate over the rose. Violet Tooth Powder. — Precipitated chalk. ... 1 pound Florentine orris 4 ounces Castile soap jl ounce Sugar IJ ounces Extract of violet J ounce Evergreen coloring, R. & P., quan- tity sufficient. Proceed as in the second formula, dye- ing the chalk with the evergreen coloring to the desired shade before mixing. III. — Precipitated chalk . 16 pounds Powdered orris .... 4 pounds Powdered cuttlefish bone 2 pounds Ultramarine 9 J ounces Geranium lake. .. . 340 grains Jasmine 110 minims Oil of neroli 110 minims Oil of bitter al- monds 35 minims Vanillin 50 grains Artificial musk (Lautier's) 60 grains Saccharine 140 grains Rub up the perfumes with 2 ounces of alcohol, dissolve the saccharine in warm water, add all to the orris, and set aside to dry. Rub the colors up with water and some chalk, and when dry pass all through a mixer and sifter twice to bring out the color. Camphorated and Carbolated Powders. — A camphorated tooth powder may be made by leaving out the oil of winter- green in the first formula and adding IJ ounces of powdered camphor. Carbolated tooth powder may like- wise be made with the first formula by substituting 2 drachms of liquefied car- bolic acid for the oil of wintergreen. But the tooth powder gradually loses the odor and taste of the acid. It is not of much utility anyway, as the castile soap In the powder is of far greater antiseptic power than the small amount of carbolic acid that can safely be combined in a tooth powder. Soap is one of the best antiseptics. Alkaline salts, borax, sodium bicar- bonate, etc., are superfluous in a powder already containing soap. The only use- ful purpose they might serve is to correct acidity of the mouth, and that end can be reached much better by rinsing the mouth with a solution of sodium bicar- bonate. Acids have no place in tooth powders, the French Codex to the con- trary notwithstanding. Peppermint as a Flavor. — In France and all over Europe peppermint is the popular flavor, as wintergreen is in this country. English apothecaries use sugar of milk and heavy calcined magnesia in many of their tooth powders. Neither has any C articular virtue as a tooth cleanser, but oth are harmless. Cane sugar is pref- erable to milk sugar as a sweetener, and saccharine is more efficient, though ob- jected to by some; it should be used in the proportion of 2 to 5 grains to the pound of powder, and great care taken to have it thoroughly distributed throughout. An antiseptic tooth powder, containing the antiseptic ingredients of listerine, is popular in some localities. IV. — Precipitated chalk . . 1 pound Castile soap 5 drachms Borax 3 drachms Thymol 20 grains Menthol 20 grains Eucalyptol 20 grains Oil of wintergreen . . 20 grains Alcohol J ounce Dissolve the thymol and oils in the alcohol, and triturate with the chalk, and proceed as in the first formula. DENTIFRICES 253 One fault with this powder is the dis- agreeable taste of the thymol. This may be omitted and the oil of winter- green increasedto the improvement of the taste, but with some loss of antisep- tic power. Antiseptic Powder. — V. — Boric acid 50 parts Salicylic acid 50 parts Dragon's blood. . . 20 parts Calcium carbon- ate 1,000 parts Essence spearmint. 12 parts Reduce the dragon's blood and cal- cium carbonate to the finest powder, and mix the ingredients thoroughly. The powder should be used twice a day, or even oftener, in bad cases. It is es- pecially recommended in cases where the enamel has become eroded from the effects of iron. Menthol Tooth Powder. — Menthol leaves a cool and pleasant sensation in the mouth, and is excellent for fetid breath. It may be added to most for- mulas by taking an equal (juantity of oil of wintergreen and dissolving in alcohol. Menthol 1 part Salol 8 parts Soap, grated fine. ... 20 parts Calcium carbonate. . 20 parts Magnesia carbonate 60 parts Essential oil of mint. 2 parts Powder finely and mix. If there is much tartar on the teeth it will be well to add to this formula from 10 to 20 parts of pumice, powdered very finely. Tooth Powders and Pastes. — Although the direct object of these is to keep the teeth clean and white, they also prevent decay, if it is only by force of mere clean- liness, and in this way (and also by re- moving decomposing particles of food) tend to keep the breath sweet and whole- some. The necessary properties of a tooth powder are cleansing power un- accompanied by any abrading or chemi- cal action on the teeth themselves, a cer- tain amount of antiseptic power to enable it to deal with particles of stale food, and a complete absence of any disagreeable taste or smell. ' These conditions' are easy to realize in practice, and there is a very large number of eificient and good powders, as well as not a few which are apt to injure the teeth if care is not taken to rinse out the mouth very thoroughly after using. These powders include some of the best cleansers, and have hence been admitted in the following recipes, mostly taken from English collections. I- — Charcoal and sugar, equal weights. Mix and flavor with clove oil. II. — Charcoal 156 parts Red kino 156 parts Sugar 6 parts Flavor with peppermint oil. III.— Charcoal 270 parts Sulphate of quinine.. . . 1 part Magnesia. ... 1 part Scent to liking. I V. — Charcoal 30 parts Cream of tar- tar 8 parts Yellow cin- chona bark 4 parts Sugar 15 parts Scent with oil of cloves. V. — Sugar 120 parts Alum 10 parts Cream of tar- tar 20 parts Cochineal. ... 3 parts VI. — CreMm of tar- tar 1,000 parts Alum 190 parts Carbonate of magnesia.. 375 parts Sugar 375 parts Cochineal..., 7.5 parts Essence Cey- lon cinna- mon 90 parts Essence cloves 7.'> parts Essence Eng- lish pep- permint. . . l.'> parts VII.— Sugar 200 parts Cream of tar- tar 400 parts Magnesia.. . 400 parts Starch 400 parts Cinnamon. . . 32 parts Mace 11 part.s Sulphate of quinine.. . . 16 parts Carmine 17 parts Scent with oil of peppermint and oil of rose. VIII. — Bleaching pow- der 1 1 parts Red coral. ... 12 parts IX. — Red cinchona bark 12 parts Magnesia. ... 50 parts Cocnineal. ... 9 parts Alum 6 parts Cream of tar- tar 100 parts 254 DENTIFRICES English pep- permint oil. 4 parts Cinnamon oil 2 parts Grind the first five ingredients sepa- rately, then mix the alum with the cochi- neal, and then add to it the cream of tar- tar and the bark. In the meantime the magnesia is mixed with the essential oils, and finally the whole mass is mixed through a very fine silk sieve. X. — White wood charcoal . . . 250 parts Cinchona bark 125 parts Sugar 250 parts Peppermint oil 12 parts Cinnamon oil 8 parts XI. — Precipitated chalk 750 parts Cream of tar- tar 250 parts Florence or- ris root. . . . 250 parts Sal ammoniac 60 parts Ambergris ... 4 parts Cinnamon. . . 4 parts Coriander. ... 4 parts Cloves 4 parts Rosewood ... 4 parts XII. — D r a g o n ' s blood 250 parts Cream of tar- tar 30 parts Florence or- ris root. ... 30 parts Cinnamon. . . 16 parts Cloves 8 parts XIII.— Precipitated chalk 500 parts Dragon's blood 250 parts Red sandal- wood 125 parts Alum 125 parts Orris root. . . . 250 parts Cloves 15 parts Cinnamon. . . 15 parts Vanilla 8 parts Rosewood. . . 15 parts Carmine lake 250 parts Carmine 8 parts XIV. — Cream of tar- tar 150 parts Alum 25 parts Cochineal.... 12 parts Cloves 25 parts Cinnamon ... 25 parts Rosewood ... 6 parts Scent with essence of rose. X v.— Coral 20 parts Sugar 20 parts Wood char- coal 6 parts Essence of ver- vain 1 part XVI.— Precipitated chalk 500 parts Orris root. . . . 500 parts Carmine 1 part Sugar 1 part Essence of rose 4 parts Essence of ne- roli 4 parts XVII.— Cinchona bark 50 parts Chalk 100 parts Myrrh 50 parts Orris root. . . . 100 parts Cinnamon. . . 50 parts Carbonate of ammonia. . 100 parts Oil of cloves. 2 parts XVIII. — Gum arable. . 30 parts Cutch 80 parts Licorice juice. 550 parts Cascarilla.. . . 20 parts Mastic 20 parts Orris root. . . 20 parts Oil of cloves. . 5 parts Oil of pepper- mint 15 parts Extract of amber 5 parts Extract of musk 5 parts XIX.— Chalk 200 parts Cuttlebone. . . 100 parts Orris root. . . . 100 parts Bergamot oil. . 2 parts Lemon oil. ... 4 parts Neroli oil. . . . 1 part Portugal oil . . 2 parts XX. — Borax 50 parts Chalk 100 parts Myrrh 25 parts Orris root. ... 22 parts Cinnamon. .. 25 parts XXI. — Wood char- coal 30 parts White honey. 30 parts Vanilla sugar 30 parts Cinchona bark 16 parts Flavor with oil of peppermint. XXII.— Syrup of 33°B. 38 parts Cuttlebone. . . 200 parts Carmine lake 30 parts English oil of peppermint 5 parts DENTIFRICES XXIII. — Rrd coral 50 parts Cinnamon. . . 12 parts Cochineal.... 6 parts Alum 2i parts Honey 125 parts Water 6 parts Triturate the cochineal and the alum with the water. Then, after allowing them to stand for 24 hours, put in the honey, the coral, and the cinnamon. \\ hen the effervescence ha.s ceased, which happens in about 48 hours, flavor with essential oils to taste. XXIV.— Well-skimmed honey 50 parts Syrup of pep- permint. . . 50 parts Orris root. ... 12 parts Sal ammoniac 12 parts Cream of tar- tar 12 parts Tincture of cinnamon.. 3 parts Tincture of cloves 3 parts Tincture of vanilla .... 3 parts Oil of cloves. 1 part XXV. — Cream of tar- tar 120 parts Pumice 120 parts Alum 30 parts Cochineal.. . . 30 parts Ucrgamot oil. 3 parts Clove 3 parts Make to a thick paste with honey or sugar. XXVI.— Honey 250 parts Precipit a t e d chalk 250 parts Orris root. . . . 250 parts Tine t u r e of opium 7 parts Tine t u r e of myrrh 7 parts Oil of rose ... 2 parts Oil of cloves. . 2 parts Oil of nutmeg 2 parts XXVII. — Florentine or- ris 6 parts Magnesi u m carbonate. . 2 parts Almond soap 12 parts Calcium car- bonate .... 60 parts Thymol 1 part Alcohol, quantity sufficient. Powder the solids and mix. Dissolve the thymol in as little alcohol as possible, and add perfume in a mixture in equal parts of oil of peppermint, oil of clove. oil of lemon, and oil of eucalyptu.s. About 1 minim of each to every ounce of powder will be sufficient. XXVIII. — Myrrh, 10 parts; sodium chloride, 10 parts; soot, 5 parts; soap, 5 parts; lime carbonate, 500 parts. XXIX. — Camphor, 5 parts; soap, 10 parts; saccharine, 0.25 parts; thymol, 0.5 parts; lime carbonate, 500 parts. Scent, as desired, with rose oil, sassafras oil, wintergreen oil, or peppermint oil. XXX. — Powdered camphor, 6 parts; myrrh, 15 parts; powdered Peruvian bark, 6 parts; di.stillcd water, 12 parts; alcohol of 80° P., 50 parts. .Macerate the powders in the alcohol for a week and then filter. XXXI. — Soap, 1; saccliarine. 0.025; thymol, 0.05; lime carbonate, 50; .sassa- fras essence, enough to perfume. XXXII. — Camphor, 0.5; soap, 1; sac- charine, 0.025; calcium carbonate, 50; oil of sassafras, or cassia, or of gaul- theria, enough to perfume. XXXIII. — Myrrh, 1; sodium chloride, 1; soap, 50; lime carbonate, 50; rose oil as required. XXXIV. — Precipitated calcium car- bonate, 60 parts; quinine sulphate, 2 parts; saponine, 0.1 part; saccharine, 0.1 part; carmine as required; oil of peppermint, sufficient. XXXV. — Boracic arid, 100 parts; powilered starch, 50 parts; quinine hy- drochlorate, 10 parts; saccharine, 1 part; vanillin (dissolved in alcohol), 1.5 parts. Neutral Tooth Powder. — Potassium chlorate, 200 parts; starch, 200 parts; carmine lake, 40 parts; saccliarine (in alcoholic solution), 1 part; vanillin (dis- solved in alcohol), 1 part. Tooth Powder for Children. — Magnesia carbonate. . 10 parts Medicinal soap 10 parts Sepia powder 80 parts Peppermint oil, quantity sufficient to flavor. Flavorings for Dentifrice. — I. — Sassafras oil, true. ... 1 drachm Pinus pumilio oil ... . 20 minims Bitter orange oil 20 minims Wintergreen oil 2 minims Anise oil 4 minims Rose geranium oil . . . 1 minim Alcohol 1 ounce Use according to taste. II. — Oil of peppermint, English 4 parts Oil of aniseed 6 parts 256 DENTIFRICES Oil of clove 1 part Oil of cinnamon. ... 1 part Saffron 1 part Deodorized alcohol . 350 parts Water 300 parts Or, cassia, 4 parts, and vanilla, } part, may be substituted for the saffron. LIQUID DENTIFRICES AND TOOTH WASHES: A French Dentifrice. — I. — A prepara- tion which has a reputation in France as a liquid dentifrice is composed of alco- hol, 96 per cent, 1,000 parts; Mitcham peppermint oil, 30 parts; aniseed oil, 5 parts; oil of Acorus calamus, 0.5 parts. Finely powdered cochineal and cream of tartar, 5 parts each, are used to tint the solution. The mixed ingredients are set aside for 14 days before filtering. Sozodont. — II. — The liquid tooth preparation "Sozodont" is said to contain: Soap powder, 60 parts; glycerine, 60 parts; alcohol, 360 parts; water. 220 parts; oils of peppermint, of aniseed, of clover, and of cinnamon, 1 part each; oil of winter- green, 1-200 part. III. — Thymol 2 grains Benzoic acid 24 grains Tincture eucalyptus 2 drachms Alcohol quantity suiEcient to make 2 ounces. Mix. Sig.: A teaspoonful diluted with half a wineglassful of water. IV. — Carbolic acid, pure 2 ounces Glycerine, 1,260°.. 1 ounce Oil wintergreen. . . 6 drachms Oil cinnamon 3 drachms Powdered cochi- neal J drachm S. V. R 40 ounces Distilled water. ... 40 ounces Dissolve the acid in the glycerine with the aid of a gentle heat and the essential oils in the spirit; mix together, and add the water and cochineal; then let the Dreparation stand for a week and filter. A mixture of caramel and cochineal coloring, N. F., gives an agreeable red color for saponaceous tooth washes. It is not permaneiit, however. Variations of this formula follow: V. — White castile soap. 1 ounce Tincture of asarum 2 drachms Oil of peppermint. J drachm Oil of wintergreen. | drachm Oil of cloves 5 drops Oil of cassia 5 drops Glycerine 4 ounces Alcohol 14 ounces Water 14 ounces VI. — White castile soap, li ounces Oil of orange 10 minims Oil of cassia 6 minims Oil of wintergreen. 15 minims Glycerine 3 ounces Alcohol 8 ounces Water enough to make 1 quart. VII. — White castile soap. 3 ounces Glycerine 5 ounces Water 20 ounces Alcohol 30 ounces Oil of peppermint. 1 drachm Oil of wintergreen. 1 drachm Oil of orange peel . 1 drachm Oil of anise 1 drachm Oil of cassia 1 drachm Beat up the soap with the glycerine; dissolve the oils in the alcohol and add to the soap and glycerine. Stir well until the soap is completely dissolved. VIII. ^ — White castile soap. 1 ounce Orris root 4 ounces Rose leaves 4 ounces Oil of rose i drachm Oil of neroli.' i drachm Cochineal | ounce Diluted alcohol. . . 2 quarts If the wash is intended simply as an elixir for sweetening the breath, the fol- lowing preparation, resembling the cele- brated eau de hotot, will be found very desirable: IX. — Oil of peppermint. 30 minims Oil of spearmint . . 15 minims Oil of cloves 5 minims Oil of red cedar wood 60 minims Tincture of myrrh. 1 ounce Alcohol 1 pint Care must be taken not to confound the oil of cedar tops with the oil of cedar wood. The former has an odor like tur- pentine; the latter has the fragrance of the red cedar wood. For a cleansing wash, a solution of soap is to be recommended. It may be made after the following formula: X. — ^ White castile soap. 1 ounce Alcohol 6 ounces Glycerine 4 ounces Hot water 6 ounces Oil of peppermint. 15 minims Oil of wintergreen 20 minims Oil of cloves 5 minims Extract of vanilla . i ounce Dissolve the soap in the hot water and add the glycerine and extract of vanilla. Dissolve the oils in the alcohol, mix the solutions, and after 24 hours filter through paper. DENTIFRICES 25' It is customary to color such prepara- tions. An agreeable brown-yellow tint may be given by the addition of a small quantity of caramel. A red color may be given by cochineal. The color will fade, but will be found reasonably per- manent when kept from strong light. TOOTH SOAPS AKD PASTES: Tooth Soaps. — I. — White castile soap . . 225 parts Precipitated chalk . . 225 parts Orris root 225 parts Oil of peppermint. . 7 parts Oil of cloves 4 parts Water, a sufficient quantity. II. — Castile soap 100 drachms Precipitated chalk. . 100 drachms Powdered orris root. 100 drachms White sugar 50 drachms Rose water 50 drachms Oil of cloves 100 drops Oil of peppermint. . . 3 drachms Dissolve the soap in water, add the rose water, then rub up with the sugar with which the oils have been previously triturated, the orris root and the pre- cipitated chalk. III. — Potassium chlorate, 20 drachms; powdered white soap, 10 drachms; pre- cipitated chalk, 20 drachms; peppermint oil, 15 drops; clove oil, 5 drops; glycer- ine, sufficient to mass. Use with a soft brush. Saponaceous Tooth Pastes. — I.— Precipitated car- bonate of lime . . 90 parts Soap powder 30 parts Ossa sepia, pow- dered 15 parts Tincture of cocaine 45 parts Oil of peppermint. 6 parts Oil of j|lang-ylang. 0.3 parts Glycerine 30 parts Rose water to cause liquefac- tion. Carmine solution to color. II. — Precipitated car- bonate of lime . . 150 parts Soap powder 45 parts Arrowroot 45 parts Oil of eucalyptus . 2 parts Oil of peppermint. 1 part Oil of geranium . . 1 part Oil of cloves 0.25 parts Oil of aniseed .... 0.25 parts Glycerine 45 parts Chloroform water to cause lique- faction. Carmine solution to color. Cherry Tooth Paste.— III. — Clarified honey . . 100 drachms Precipitated chalk 100 drachms Powdered orris root 100 drachms Powdered rose leaves 60 drops Oil of cloves 55 drops Oil of mace 55 drops Oil of geranium. . 55 drops Chinese Tooth Paste.— IV. — Powdered pumice 100 drachms Starch 20 drachms Oil of peppermint 40 drops Carmine J drachm Eucalyptus Paste. — Forty drachms precipitated chalk, 11 drachms soap powder, 11 drachms wheaten starch, i drachm carmine, 30 drops oil of pep- permint, 30 drops oil of geranium, 60 drops eucalyptus oil, 2 drops oil of cloves, 12 drops oil of anise mixed to- gether and incorporated to a paste, with a mixture of equal parts of glycerine and spirit. Myrrh Tooth Paste.— Precipitated chalk 8 ounces Orris 8 ounces White castile soap, bounces Borax 2 ounces Myrrh 1 ounce Glycerine, quantity sufficient. Color and perfume to suit. A thousand grams of levigated pow- dered oyster shells are rubbed up with 12 drachms of cochineal to a homogene- ous powder. To this is added 1 drachm of potassium permanganate and 1 drachm boric acid and rubbed well up. Foam up 200 drachms castile soap and 5 drachms chemically pure glycerine and mix it with the foregoing mass, adding by teaspoon- ful 150 grams of boiling strained honey. The whole mass is again thoroughly rubbed up, adding while doing so 200 drops honey. Finally the mass should be put into a mortar and pounded for an hour and then kneaded with the hands for '2 hours. Tooth Paste to be put in Collapsible Tubes.— Calcium carbonate, levigated 100 parts Cuttlefish bone, in fine powder 2.5 parts Castile soap, old white, powdered 2o parts Tincture of carmine, ammoniated 4 parts Simple syrup "iS parts 258 DENTIFRICES Menthol 2 parts Alcohol 5 parts Attar of rose or other perfume, quan- tity sufficient. Rose water sufficient to make a paste. Beat the soap with a little rose water, then warm until softened, add syrup and tincture of carmine. Dissolve the perfume and menthol in the alcohol and add to soap mixture. Add the solids and incorporate thoroughly. Finally, work to a proper consistency for filling into collapsible tubes, adding water, if necessary. MOUTH WASHES. I. — Quillaia bark. . . . 125 parts Glycerine 95 parts Alcohol 155 parts Macerate for 4 days and add: Acid, c a r b o 1 . cryst 4 parts Ol. geranii 0.6 parts Ol. caryophyll . . 0.6 parts Ol. rosse 0.6 parts Ol. cinnam 0.6 parts Tinct. ratanhse. . 45 parts Aqua rosse 900 parts Macerate again for 4 days and filter. Thymol . ... 20 parts Peppermint oil . . 10 parts Clove oil 5 parts Sage oil 5 parts Marjoram oil... 3 parts Sassafras oil ... . 3 parts Wintergreen oil. 0.5 parts Coumarin 0.5 parts Alcohol, dil 1,000 parts A teaspoonful in a glass of water. II. — Tincture orris (1 in 4) IJ parts Lavender water. . . J part Tinct. cinnamon (lin8).. .. .. .. 1 part Tinct. yellow cinch bark 1 part Eau de cologne. ... 2 parts Orris and Rose. — III. — Orris root 30 drachms Rose leaves 8 drachms Soap bark 8 drachms Cocnineal 3 J drachms Diluted alcohol. . 475 drachms Oil rose 30 drops Oil neroli 40 drops Myrrh Astringent. — IVi — Tincture myrrh. . 125 drachms Tincture benzoin. 50 drachms Tincture cinchona 8 drachms Alcohol 225 drachms Oil of rose 30 drops Bore tonic. — V. — Acid boric 20 parts Oil wintergreen . 10 parts Glycerine 110 parts Alcohol 150 parts Distilled water enough to make 600 parts Sweet Salicyl. — VI. — Acid salicylic. . . 4 parts Saccharine 1 part Sodium bicar- bonate 1 part Alcohol 200 parts Foaming Orange. — VII. — Castile soap. .. . 29 drachms Oil orange 10 drops Oil cinnamon. . . 5 drops Distilled water. . 30 drachms Alcohol 90 drachms Australian Mint. — VIII.— Thymol . . .... 0.25 parts Acid benzoic. . . 3 parts Tincture eucalyp- tus 15 parts Alcohol 100 parts Oil peppermint. 0.75 parts Fragrant Dentine. — IX. — Soap bark 125 parts Glycerine 95 parts Alcohol 155 parts Rose water 450 parts Macerate for 4 days and add: Carbolic acid, cryst 4 parts Oil geranium .. . 0.6 parts Oil cloves 0.6 parts Oil rose 0.6 parts Oil cinnamon. . . 0.6 parts Tincture rhatany 45 parts Rose water 450 parts Allow to stand 4 days; then filter. Aromantiseptic. — X.— Thymol 20 parts Oil peppermint. 10 parts Oil cloves 5 parts Oil sage 5 parts Oil marjoram.. . 3 parts Oil sassafras. ... 3 parts Oil wintergreen. 0.5 parts Coumarin 0.5 parts Diluted alcohol. 1,000 parts The products of the foregoing formulas are used in the proportion of 1 teaspoon- ful in a half glassful of water. Foaming. — XI. — Soap bark, powder 2 ounces Cochineal powder. 60 grains Glycerine 3 ounces DEN'J'IFUICES— DEPILATORIES 259 Alcohol 10 ounces Water sufficient to make 32 ounces Mix the soap, cochineal, glycerine, alcohol, and water together; let macerate for several days; filter and flavor; if same produces turbidity, shake up the mixture with magnesium carbonate, and filter through paper. Odonter. — XII. — Sd.ip bark, powder 2 ounces Cudbear, powder. 4 drachms Glycerine 4 ounces Alcohol 14 ounces Water sufficient to make 32 ounces Mix, and let macerate with frequent agitation, for several days; filter; add flavor; if necessary filter again through magnesium carbonate or paper pulp. Sw,eet Anise. — XIII. — Soap bark 2 ounces Aniseed 4 drachms Cloves 4 drachms Cinnamon 4 drachms Cochineal 60 grains Vanilla 60 grains Oil of peppermint. 1 drachm Alcohol 16 ounces Water sufficient to make 32 ounces Reduce the drugs to coarse powder, dissolve the oil of peppermint in the alcohol, add equal parts of water, and macerate therein the powders for 5 to 6 days, with frequent agitation; place in percolator and percolate until 32 fluid- ounces have been obtained. Let stand for a week and filter through paper; if neces- sary to make it perfectly bright and clear, shake up with some magnesia, and again filter. Saponaceous. — XIV. — White castile soap 2 ounces Glycerine 2 ounces Alcohol 8 ounces Water 4 ounces Oil peppermint. . . 20 drops Oil wintergreen ... 30 drops Solution of carmine N. F. suffi- cient to color. Dissolve the soap in the alcohol and water, add the other ingredients, and filter. XV. — Crystallized car- bolic acid 4 parts Eucalyptol 1 part Salol 2 parts Menthol 0.25 parts Thymol 0.1 part Alcohol 100 parts Dye with cochineal (1} per cent). Jackson's Mouth Wash.— Fresh lemon peel, 10 parts; fresh sweet orange peel, 10 parts; angelica root, 10 parts; guaia- cum wood, 30 parts; balsam of Tolu, 12 parts; benzoin, 12 parts; Peruvian bal- sam, 4 parts; myrrh, 3 parts; alcohol (90 per cent), 500 parts. Tablets for Antiseptic Mouth Wash. — Heliotropine, 0.01 part; saccharine, 0.01 part; salicylic acid, 0.01 part; men- thol, 1 part; milk sugar, 5 parts. These tablets may be dyed green, red, or blue, with chlorophyll, cosine, and indigo car- mine, respectively. Depilatories Depilatory Cream. — The depilatory cream largely used in New York hospi- tals for the removal of hair from the skin previous to operations: I. — Barium sulphide. ... 3 parts Starch 1 part Water, sufficient quantity. The mixed powdets are to be made into a paste with water, and applied in a moderately thick layer to the parts to be denuded of hair, the excess of the latter having been previously trimmed off with a pair of scissors. From time to time a small part of the surface should be ex- amined, and when it is seen that the hair can be removed, the mass should be washed off. The barium sulphide should be quite fresh. It can he pre- pared by making barium sulphate and its own weight of charcoal into a paste with linseed oil, rolling the pa.ste into the shape of a sausage, and placing it upon a bright fire to incinerate. When it has ceased to burn, and is a white hot mass, remove from the fire, cool, and powder. The formula is given with some re- serve, for preparations of this kind are usually unsafe unless used with great care. It should be removed promptly when the skin begins to burn. II. — Barium sulphide. .. . 25 parts Soap 5 parts Talc 35 parts Starch 35 parts Benzaldehyde suf- ficient to make.. . 120 parts Powder the solids and mix. To use, to a part of this mixture add 3 parts of water, at the time of its application, and with a camel's-hair pencil paint the mix- ture evenly over the spot to be freed of hair. Let remain in contact with the 260 DEPILATORIES— DIAMOND TESTS skin for 5 minutes, then wash off with a sponge, and in the course of 5 minutes longer the hair will come off on slight friction with the sponge. Strontium sulphide is an efficient de- pilatory. A convenient form of applying it is as follows: III. — Strontium sulphide . 2 parts Zinc oxide 3 parts Powdered starch ... 3 parts Mix well and keep in the dry state un- til wanted for use, taking then a sufficient quantity, forming into a paste with warm water and applying to the surface to be deprived of hair. Allow to remain from 1 to 5 minutes, according to the nature of the hair and skin; it is not advisable to continue the application longer than the last named period. Remove in all cases at once when any caustic action is felt. After the removal of the paste, scrape the skin gently but firmly with a blunt-edged blade (a paper knife, for in- stance) until the loosened hair is re- moved. Then immediately wash the denuded surface well with warm water, and apply cold cream or some similar emollient as a dcessing. By weight IV. — Alcohol 12 parts Collodion 35 parts Iodine 0.75 parts Essence of turpen- tine 1.5 parts Castor oil 2 parts Apply with a brush on the affected parts for 3 or 4 days in thick coats. When the collodion plaster thus formed is pulled off, the hairs adhere to its inner surface. V. — Rosin sticks are intended for the removal of hairs and are made from colo- phony with an admixture of 10 per cent of yellow wax. The sticks are heated like a stick of sealing wax until soft or semi-liquid (142° F.), and lightlj applied on the place from which the hair is to be removed, and the mass is allowed to cool. These rosin sticks are said to give good satisfaction. DEPTHINGS, VERIFICATION OF: See Watchmakers' Formulas. DESILVERING: See Plating. DESSERT, SALAMANDRINE: See Pyrotechnics. DETERGENTS: See Cleaning Preparations and Meth- ods. DEVELOPERS FOR PHOTOGRAPHIC PURPOSES: See Photography. DEXTRIN PASTES AND MUCI- LAGES: See Adhesives. DIAL CEMENTS: See Adhesives, under Jewelers' Ce- ments. DIAL CLEANERS: See Cleaning Preparations and Meth- ods. DIAL REPAIRING: See Watchmakers' Formulas. DLAMALT: See Milk. DIAMOND TESTS: See also Gems and Jewelers' For- mulas. To Distinguish Genuine Diamonds. — ■ If characters or marks of any kind are drawn with an aluminum pencil on glass, porcelain, or any substance containing silex, the marks cannot be erased by rubbing, however energetic the friction, and even acids will not cause them to dis- appear entirely, unless the surface is en- tirely freed from greasy matter, which can be accomplished by rubbing with whiting and passing a moistened cloth over the surface at the time of writing. So, in order to distinguish the true dia- mond from the false, it is necessary only to wipe the stone carefully and trace a line on it with an aluminum pencil, and then rub it briskly with a moistened cloth. If the line continues visible, the stone is surely false. If, on the contrary, the stone is a true diamond, the line will disappear without leaving a trace, and without in- jury to the stone. The common test for recognizing the diamond is the file, which does not cut it, though it readily attacks imitations. There are other stones not affected by the file, but they have characteristics of color and other effects by which they are readily distinguished. This test should be confirmed by others. From the following the reader can select the most convenient: A piece of glass on which the edge of a diamond is drawn, will be cut without much pressure; a slight blow is suffi- cient to separate the glass. An imita- tion may scratch the glass, but this will not be cut as with the diamond. DIAMOND TESTS— DIGESTIVE POWDERS 261 If a small drop of water is placed upon the face of a diamond and moved about by means of the point of a pin, it will preserve its globular form, provided the stone is clean and dry. If the attempt is made on glass, the drop will spread. A diamond immersed in a glass of water will be distinctly visible, and will shine clearly through the liquid. The imitation stone will be confounded with the water and will be nearly invisible. By looking through a diamond with a glass at a black point on a sheet of white paper, a single distinct point will be seen. Several points, or a foggy point will ap- pear if the stone is spurious. Hydrofluoric acid dissolves all imita- tions, but has no effect on true diamonds. This acid is kept in gutta-percha bot- tles. For an eye practiced in comparisons it is not difficult to discern that the facets in the cut of a true diamond are not as regular as are those of the imitation; for in cutting and polishing the real stone an effort is made to preserve the original as much as possible, preferring some slight irregularities in the planes and edges to the loss in the wcignt, for we all know that diamonds are sold by weight. In an imitation, however, whether of paste or another less valuable stone, tliere is al- ways an abundance of cheap material which may be cut away and thereby form a perfect-appearing stone. Take a piece of a fabric, striped red and white, and draw the stone to be tested over the colors. If it is an imi- tation, the colors will be seen through it, while a diamond will not allow them to be seen. A genuine diamoiid, rubbed on wood or metal, after having been previously exposed to the light of the electric arc, becomes phosphorescent in darkness, which does not occur with imitations. Heat the stone to be tested, after giving it a coating of borax, and let it fall into cold water. A diamond will undergo the test without the slightest damage; the glass will be broken in pieces. Finally, try with the fingers to crush an imitation and a genuine diamond be- tween two coins, and you will soon see the difference. DIAMOND CEMENT: See Adhesives, under Jewelers' Ce- ments. DIARRHEA IN BIRDS: See Veterinary Formulas. DIARRHEA REMEDIES: See Cholera Remedies. Die Venting. — Many pressmen have spent hours and days in the endeavor to produce sharp and full impressions on figured patterns. If all the deep recesses in deep-figured dies are vented to allow the air to escape when the blow is struck, it will do much to obtain perfect impressions, and requires only half the force that is necessary in unvented dies. This is not known in many shops and consequently this little air costs much in power and worry. DIGESTIVE POWDERS AND TAB- LETS. I. — Sodium bicarbonate. 93 parts Sodium chlorate. ... I parts Calcium carbonate.. 3 parts Pepsin 5 parts Ammonium carbon- ate 1 part II. — Sodium bicarbonate. 120 parts Sodium chlorate. ... 5 parts Sal physiologic (see below) 4 parts Magnesium carbon- ate 10 parts III. — Pepsin, saccharated (U.S. P.) 10 drachms Pancreatin 10 drachms Diastase 50 drachms Acid, lactic 40 drops Sugar of milk 40 drachms IV. — Pancreatin 3 parts Sodium bicarbonate. 15 parts Milk sugar 2 parts Sal Physiologicum.^The formula for this ingredient, the so-called nutritive salt (Nahrsalz), is as follows: Calcium phosphate. 40 parts Potassium sulphate. 2 parts Sodium phosphate. . 20 parts Sulphuric, precipita- ted 5 parts Sodium chlorate. .. . 60 parts Magnesium phos- phate _. 5 parts Cansbad salts, arti- ficial 60 parts Silicic acid 10 parts Calcium fluoride.. . . 2 J parts Digestive Tablets. — Powdered double re- fined sugar 300 parts Subnitrate bismuth 60 parts Saccharated pepsin 45 parts Pancreatin 45 parts Mucilage 35 parts Ginger 30 parts Mix and divide into suitable sizes. 262 DIOGEN DEVELOPER— DISINFECTANTS DIOGEN DEVELOPER: See Photography. DIP FOR BRASS: See Plating and Brass. DIPS: See Metals. DIPS FOR CATTLE: See Disinfectants anti Veterinary For- mulas. DISH WASHING: See Household Formulas Disinfectants Disinfecting Fluids. — I. — Creosote 40 gallons Rosin, powdered. . . 56 pounds Caustic soda lye,38° Tw 9 gallons Boiling water 12 gallons Methylated spirit. . 1 gallon Black treacle 14 pounds Melt the rosin and add the creosote; run in the lyes; then add the matter and methylated spirit mixed together, and add the treacle; boil all till dissolved and mix well together. II. — Hot water 120 pounds Caustic soda lye, 38° B 120 pounds Rosin 300 pounds Creosote 450 pounds Boil together the water, lye, and rosin, till dissolved; turn off steam and stir in the creosote; keep on steam to nearlj' boiling all the time, but so as not to boil over, until thoroughly incorporated. III. — Fresh - made soap (hard yellow) .... 7 pounds Gas tar 21 pounds Water, with 2 pounds soda 21 pounds Dissolve soap (cut in fine shavings) in the gas tar; then add slowly the soda and water which has been dissolved. IV. — Rosin 1 cwt. Caustic soda lye, 18° B 16 gallons Black tar oil J gallon Nitro- naphthalene dissolved in boil- ing water (about i gallon) 2 poimds Melt the rosin, add the caustic lye; then stir in the tar oil and add the nitro- naphthalene. V. — Camphor 1 ounce Carbolic acid (75 per cent) 12 ounces Aqua ammonia 10' drachms Soft salt water 8 drachms To be diluted when required for use. VI. — Heavy tar oil 10 gallons Caustic soda dis- solved in 5 gallons water 600° F 30 pounds Mix the soda lyes with the oil, and heat the mixture gently with constant stir- ring; add, when just on the boil, 20 pounds of refuse fat or tallow and 20 pounds of soft soap; continue the heat until thoroughly saponified, and add water gradually to make up 40 gallons. Let it settle; then decant the clear liquid. Disinfecting Fluids or Weed-Killers. — I. — Cold water, 20 gallons; powdered rosin, 56 pounds; creosote oil, 40 gallons; sulphuric acid, J gallon; caustic soda lye, 30° B., 9 gallons. Heat water and dissolve the rosin; then add creosote and boil to a brown mass and shut off steam; next run in sulphuric acid and then the lyes. II. — Water 40 gallons Powdered black rosin 56 pounds Sulphuric acid 2 J gallons Creosote 10 gallons Melted pitch 24 pounds Pearlash boiled in 10 gallons water.. 56 pounds Boil water and dissolve rosin and acid; then add creosote and boil well again; add pitch and run' in pearlash solution (boiling); then shut off steam. III. (White).— Water, 40 gallons; turpentine, 2 gallons; ammonia, J gal- lon; carbolic crystals, 14 pounds; caustic lyes, 2 gallons; white sugar, 60 pounds, dissolved in 40 pounds water. Heat water to boiling, and add first turpentine, next ammonia, and then car- bolic crystals. Stir well until thoroughly dissolved, and add lyes and sugar solu- tion. DISINFECTING POWDERS. I. — Sulphate of iron. . . 100 parts Sulphate of zinc ... 50 parts Oak bark, powder. 40 parts Tar 5 parts Oil 5 parts 11. — Mix together chloride of lime and burnt umber, add water, and set on plates. DISIM'KCTANTS 26a Blue Sanitary Powder. — Powdered alum 2 pounds Oil of eucalyptus ... li ounces Rectified spirits of t'lr (i ounces Rectified spirit of turpentine , . '2 ounces Ultramarine blue (common) J ounces Common salt 14 pounds Mix alum with about 3 pounds of salt in a large mortar, gradually add oil of eucalyptus and spirits, then put in the ultramarine blue, and lastly remaining salt, mixing all well, and passing through a sieve. Carbolic Powder. (Strong). — Slaked lime in fine powder, 1 cwt.; carbolic acid, 75 per cent, 2 gallons. Color with aniline dye and then pass through a moderately fine sieve and put into tins or casks anci keep air-tight. Pink Carbolized Sanitary Powder. — Powdered alum 6 ounces Powdered green cop- peras 5 pounds Powdered red lead. . 5 pounds Calvert's No. 5 car- bolic acid 12 i pounds Spirit of turpentine. l\ pounds Calais sand 10 pounds Slaked lime 60 pounds Mix carbolic acid with turpentine and sand, then add the other ingredients, lastly the slaked lime and, after mixing, pass through a sieve. It is advisable to use lime that has been slaked some time. Cuspidor Powder. — Peat rubble is ground to a powder, and 100 parts put into a mi.xing machine, which can be hermetically sealed. Then 15 parts of blue vitriol are added either very finely fiulverized or in a saturated aqueous so- ution. Next are added 2 parts of forma- lin, and lastly 1 part of ground cloves, orange peel, or a sufficient quantity of some volatile oil, to give the desired per- fume. The mixing machine is then closed, and kept at work until the con- stituents are perfectly mixed; the powder is then ready to be put up for the market. Its purpose is to effect a rapid absorption of the sputum, with simultaneous de- struction of any microbes present, and to prevent decomposition and consequent unpleasant odors. Deodorants for Water-Closets. — I. — Ferric chloride 4 parts Zinc chloride 5 parts Aluminum chloride. 5 parts Calcium chloride. ... 4 parts Magnesium chloride. 3 parts Water sufficient to make 90 parts Dissolve, and add to each gallon 10 grains thymol and J ounce oil of rose- mary, previously dissolved in about 6 quarts of alcohol, and filter. II. — Sulphuric acid, fuming 90 parts Potassium perman- ganate 45 parts Water 4,200 parts Dissolve the permanganate in the water, and add under the acid. This is said to be a most powerful disinfectant, deodorizer, and germicide. It should not be used where there are metal trim- mings. Formaldehyde for Disinfecting Books, Papers, etc. — The property of formal- dehyde of penetrating all kinds of paper, even when folded together in several layers, may be utilized for a perfect dis- infection of books and letters, especially at a temperature of 86° to 122° F. in a c-losetl room. Tlie degree of penetra- tion as well as the disinfecting power of the formaldehyde depend upon the method of generating the gas. Letters, paper in cb)sed envelopes, are complete- ly disinfected only in 12 hours, books in 24 hours at a temperature of 122° F. when 70 cubic centimeters of formo- chloral — 17.5 g. of gas — per cubic meter of space are used. Books must be stood up in such a manner that the gas can enter from the sides. Bacilli of typhoid preserve their vitality longer upon un- sized paper and on filtering paper than on other varieties. There is much difference of opinion as to the disinfecting and deodorizing power of formaldehyde when used to disinfect wooden tierces. While some have found it to answer well, others have got variable results, or failed of success. The explanation seems to be that those who have obtained poor re- sults have not allowed time for the dis- infectant to penetrate the pores of the wood, the method of application being wrong. The solution is thrown into the tierce, which is then steamed out at once, whereby the aldehyde is volatilized be- fore it has had time to do its work. If the formal and the steam, instead of being used in succession, were used to- gether, the steam would carry the dis- infectant into the pores of the wood. But a still better plan is to give the alde- hyde more time. 264 DISINFECTANTS Another point to be remembered in all cases of disinfection by formaldehyde is that a mechanical cleansing must pre- cede the action of the antiseptic. If there are thick deposits of organic mat- ter which can be easily dislodged with a scrubbing brush, they can only be dis- infected by the use of large quantities of formaldehyde used during a long period of time. General Disinfectants. — I. — Alum 10 ounces Sodium carbonate . . 10 ounces Ammonium chloride 2 ounces Zinc chloride 1 ounce Sodium chloride. ... 2 ounces Hydrochloric acid, quantity suffi- cient. Water to make 1 gallon. Dissolve the alum in one half gallon of boiling water, and add the sodium carbonate; then add hydrochloric acid until the precipitate formed is dissolved. Dissolve the other salt in water and add to the previous solution. Finally add enough water to make the whole measure 1 gallon, and filter. In use, this is diluted with 7 parts of water. II. — For the Sick Room. — In using this ventilate frequently: Guaiac, 10 parts; eucalyptol, 8 parts; phenol, 6 parts; men- thol, 4 parts; thymol, 2 parts; oil of cloves, 1 part; alcohol of 90 per cent, 170 parts. Atomizer Liquid for Sick Rooms. — III.— Eucalyptol 10^ Thyme oil 5 I Parta Lemon oil 5 j- by Lavender oil 5 weight. Spirit, 90 per cent.. . IIOJ To a pint of water a teaspoonful for evaporation. Non-Poisonous Sheep Dips. — Paste. — I. — Creosote (containing. 16 per cent to 20 per cent of car- bolic acid) 2 parts Stearine or Yorkshire grease 1 part Caustic soda lyes, specific gravity, 1340... 1 part Black rosin, 5 per cent to 10 per cent. Melt the rosin and add grease and soda lyes, and then add creosote cold. II. — Creosote 1 part Crude hard rosin oil 1 part Put rosin oil in copper and heat to about 220° F., and add as much caustic soda powder, 98 per cent strength, as the oil will take up. The quantity depends upon the amount of acetic acid in the oil. If too much soda is added it will remain at the bottom. When the rosin oil has taken up the soda add creosote, and let it stand. Odorless Disinfectants. — I. — Ferric chloride 4 parts Zinc chloride 5 parts Aluminum chloride . 5 parts Calcium chloride ... 4 parts Manganese chloride 3 parts Water 69 parts If desired, 10 grains thymol and 2 fluidrachms oil of rosemary, previously dissolved in about 12 fluidracnms of al- cohol, may be added to each gallon. II. — Alum 10 parts Sodium carbonate . . 10 parts Ammonium chloride 2 parts Sodium chloride. ... 2 parts Zinc chloride 1 part Hydrochloric acid, sufficient. Water 100 parts Dissolve the alum in about SO parts boiling water and add the sodium car- bonate. The resulting precipitate of aluminum hydrate dissolve with the aid of just sufiicient hydrochloric acid, and add the other ingredients previously dis- solved in the remainder of the water. III. — Mercuric chloride. . . 1 part Cupric sulphate .... 10 parts Zinc sulphate 50 parts Sodium chloride .... 65 parts Water to make 1,000 parts. Paris Salts. — The disinfectant known by this name is a mixture made from the following recipe: Zinc sulphate 49 parts Ammonia alum 49 parts Potash permanga- nate 1 part Lime 1 part The ingredients are fused together, mixed with a little calcium chloride, and perfumed with thymol. Piatt's Chlorides.— I. — Aluminum sulphate. 6 ounces Zinc chloride 1 J ounces Sodium chloride. ... 2 ounces Calcium chloride. . . 3 ounces Water enough to make 2 pints. II. — A more elaborate formula for a preparation said to resemble the proprie- tary article is as follows: DISINFECTANTS— DOSES 265 Zinc, in strips 4 ounces Lead oarlionate .... i ounces Chlorinated lime. . . 1 ounce Magnesium carbon- 8.te J ounce Aluminum liydrate.. \\ ounces Potassium hydrate. , | ounce Hydrochloric acid . . 16 ounces Water 16 ounces Whiting, enough. Dissolve the zinc in the acid; then add the other salts singly in the order named, letting each dissolve before the next is added. When all are dissolved add the water to the solution, and after a couple of hours add a little whiting to neutralize any excess of acid; then filter. Zinc chloride ranks very low among disinfectants, and the use of such solu- tions as these, by giving a false sense of security from disease germs, may be the means of spreading rather than of check- ing the spread of sickness. Disinfecting Coating. — Carbolic acid, 2 parts; manganese, 3 parts; calcium chloride, 2 parts; china clay, 10 parts; infusorial earth, 4 parts ; dextrin, 2 parts; and water, 10 parts. DISTEMPER IN CATTLE: See Veterinary Formulas. DISTILLATION OF WOOD: See Wood. DIURETIC BALL: See Veterinary Formulas. DOG APPLICATIONS: See Insecticides. DOG BISCUIT. The waste portions of meat and tallow, including the skin and fiber, have for years been imported from South Ameri- can tallow factories in the form of blocks. Most of the dog bread consists principally of these remnants, chopped and mixed with flour. They contain a good deal of firm fibrous tissue, and a large percent- age of fat, but are lacking in nutritive salts, which must be added to make good dog bread, just as in the case of the meat flour made from the waste of meat ex- tract factories. The flesh of dead ani- mals is not used by any reputable manu- facturers, for the reason that it gives a dark color to the dough, has an unpleas- ant odor, and if not properly sterilized would be injurious to dogs as a steady diet. Wheat flour, containing as little bran as possible, is generally used, oats, rye, or Indian meal being only mixed in to make special varieties, or, as in the case of Indian meal, for cheapness. Rye flour would give a good flavor, but it dries slowly, and the biscuits would have to go through a special process of drying after baking, else they would mold and spoil. Dog bread must be made from good wheat flour, of a medium sort, mixed with 15 or 16 per cent of sweet, dry chopped meat, well baked and dried like pilot bread or crackers. This is the rule for all the standard dog bread on the market. There are admixtures which affect more or less its nutritive value, such as salt, vegetables, chopped bones, or bone meal, phosphate of lime, and other nutritive salts. In preparing the dough and in baking, care must be taken to keep it light and porous. DOG DISEASES AND THEIR REME- DIES: See Veterinary Formulas. DOG SOAP: See Soap. DONARITE: See Explosives. DOORS, TO CLEAN: See Cleaning Preparations and Meth- ods. DOSES FOR ADULTS AND CHILDREN. The usual method pursued by medical men in calculating the doses of medicine for children is to average the dose in proportion to their approximate weight or to figure out a dose upon the assump- tion that at 12 years of age half of an adult dose will be about right. Calcu- lated on this basis the doses for those under 1'2 will be in direct proportion to the age in years plus \i, divided into the age. By this rule a child 1 year old should get 1 plus I'i, or 13, dividing 1, or iV of an adult dose. If the child is 2 years old it should get 2 plus \i, or 14, dividing 2, or \ of an adult dose. A child of 3 years should get 3 plus 12, or 15, dividing 3, or ^ of an adult dose. A child of 4 should get 4 plus 12, or 16, dividing 4, or \ of an adult dose. As both children and adults vary materially in size when of the same age the calculation by approximate weights is the more accurate way. Taking the weight of the average adult as 150 pounds, then a boy, man, or woman, whatever the age, weighing only 75 pounds should receive only one-half of an adult dose, and a man of 300 pounds, provided his weight is the result of a properly propor- tioned body, and not due to mere adipose 266 DOSE TABLE— DYES tissue, should be double that of the aver- age adult. If the weight is due to mere fat or to some diseased condition of the body, such a calculation would be entire- ly wrong. The object of the calculation is to get as nearly as possible to the amount of dilution the dose undergoes in the blood or in the intestinal contents of the patient. Each volume of blood should receive exactly the same dose in order to give the same results, other conditions being equal. DOSE TABLE FOR VETERINARY PURPOSES: See Veterinary Formulas. DRAWINGS, PRESERVATION OF. Working designs and sketches are eas- ily soiled and rendered unsuitable for further use. This can be easily avoided by coating them with collodion, to which 24 per cent of stearine from a good stearine candle has been added. Lay the drawing on a glass plate or a board, and pour on the collodion, as the photographer treats his plates. After 10 or 20 minutes the design will be dry and perfectly white, possessing a dull luster, and being so well protected that it may be washed off with water without fear of spoiling it. DRAWINGS, TO CLEAN: See Cleaning Preparations and Meth- ods. DRIERS: See Siccatives. DRILLING, LUBRICANT FOR: See Lubricants. DRINKS FOR SUMMER AND WINTER : See Beverages. DROPS, TABLE OF: See Tables. DRUG ROOTS: See Roots. DRYING OILS: See Oil. DRY ROT: See Rot. DUBBING FOR LEATHER: See Lubricants. DUST-LAYING: See Oil. DUST PREVENTERS AND DUST CLOTHS: See Household Formulas. Dyes In accordance with the requirements of dyers, many of the following recipes describe dyes for large quantities of goods, but to make them equally adapted for the use of private families they are usually given in even quantities, so that it is an easy matter to ascertain the quan- tity of materials required for dyeing, when once the weight of the goods is known, the quantity of materials used being re- duced in proportion to the smaller quan- tity of goods. Employ soft water for all dyeing pur- poses, if it can be procured, using 4 gal- lons water to 1 pound of goods; for larger quantities a little less water will do. Let all the implements used in dyeing be kept perfectly clean. Prepare the goods by scouring well with soap and water, wash- ing out the soap well, and dipping in warm water, before immersion in the dye or mordant. Goods should be well aired, rinsed, and properly hung up after dye- ing. Silks and fine goods should be ten- derly handled, otherwise injury to the fabric will result. Aniline Black.— Water, 20 to 30 parts; chlorate of potassa, 1 part; sal ammo- niac, 1 part; chloride or copper, 1 part; aniline and hydrochloric acid, each 1 part, previously mixed together. It is essen- tial that the preparation should be acid, and the more acid it is the more rapid will be the production of the blacks; if too much so, it may injure the fabric. The fabric or yarn is dried in agiing rooms at a low temperature for 24 hours, and washed afterwards. Black on Cotton. — For 40 pounds goods, use sumac, 30 pounds; boil f of an hour; let the goods steep overnight, and immerse them in limewater, 40 minutes, remove, and allow them to drip f of an hour; add copperas, 4 pounds, to the sumac liquor, and dip 1 hour more; next work them through limewater for 20 minutes; then make a new dye of logwood, 20 pounds, boil 2J hours, and enter the goods 3 hours; then add bichromate of potash, 1 pound, to the new dye, and dip 1 hour more. Work in clean cold water and dry out of the sun. Black Straw Hat Varnish.— Best al cohol, 4 ounces; pulverized black seal- ing wax, 1 ounce. Place in a phial, and put the phial into a warm place, stirring or shaking occasionally until the wax is dissolved. Apply it when warm before the fire or in the sun. This makes a beautiful gloss. DYES 267 Chrome Black for Wool. — For 40 pounds of goods, use blue vitriol, 3 pounds; boil a short time, then dip the wool or fabric | of an hour, airing fre- quently. Take out the goods, and make a dye with logwood, •i-i pounds; boil i hour, dip J of an hour, air the goods, and dip } of an hour longer; then wash in strong soapsuds. A good fast color. Black Dye on Wool, for Mixtures. — For .)0 pounds of wool, take bichromate of polish, 1 pound, 4 ounces; ground argal, 15 ounces; boil together and put in the fabric, stirring well, and let it re- miiin in the dye 5 hours. Take it out, rinse slightly in clean water, then make a new dye, into which put logwood, IJ pounds. Boil IJ hours, adding cham- ber lye, 5 pints. Let the fabric remain in all night, and wash out in clean water. Bismarck Brown. — Mix together 1 pound Bismarck, 5 gallons water, and j pound sulphuric acid. This paste dissolves easily in hot water and may be used directly for dyeing. A liquid dye may be prepared by making the bulk of the above mixture to 2 gallons with alco- hol. To dye, sour with sulphuric acid; add a quantity of sulphate of soda, im- merse tlie wool, and add the color by smnll portions, keeping the temperature under iM° F. Very interesting shades may be developed by combining the color with indigo paste or picric acid. Chestnut Brown for Straw Bonnets. — For '2.') hats, use ground sanders, IJ pounds; ground curcuma, 2 pounds; powdered gallnuts or sumac, } pound; rasped logwood, -^ pound. Boil to- gether with the hats in a large kettle (so us not to crowd), for 2 hours, then with- draw the hats, rinse, and let them re- main overnight in a bath of nitrate of 4° Be., when they are washed. A darker brown may be obtained by increasing the quantity of sanders. To give the hats the desired luster, they are brushed with a brush of couchgrass, when dry. Cinnamon or Brown for Cotton and Silk. — Give the goods as much color, from a solution of blue vitriol, 2 ounces, to water, 1 gallon, as they will take up in dipping 15 minutes; then turn them through limewater. This will make a beautiful sky blue of much durability. The fabric should next be run through a solution of prussiate of potash, 1 ounce, to water, 1 gallon. Brown Dye for Cotton or Linen.— Give the pieces a mixed mordant of acetate of alumina and acetate of iron, and then dye them in a bath of madder, or madder and fustic When the acetate of alu- mina predominates, the dye has an amaranth tint. A cinnamon tint is ob- tained by first giving a mordant of alum, next a madder bath, then a bath of fustic, to which a little green copperas has been added. Brown for Silk. — Dissolve annatto, 1 pound; pearlash, 4 pounds, in boiling water, and pass the silk through it for 2 hours; then take it out, squeeze well, and dry. Next give it a mordant of alum, and pass through a bath of bra- zil wood, and afterwards through a bath of logwood, to which a little green cop- peras has been added; wring it out and dry; afterwards rinse well. Brown Dye for Wool. — This may be induced by a decoction of oak bark, with variety of shade according to the quan- tity employed. If the goods be first pa.sscd through a mordant of alum the color will lie brightened. Brown for Cotton. — Catechu or terra japonica gives cotton a brown color; blue vitriol turns it to the bronze; green copperas darkens it, when applied as u, mordant and the stuff js boiled in the bath. Acetate of alumina as a mordant brightens it. Tlie French color Ciir- melite is given with catechu, 1 pound; verdigris, 4 ounces; and sal ammoniac, 5 ounces. Dark Snuff Brown for Wool. — For 50 pounds of goods, take camwood, 10 pounds, boil for 20 minutes, then dip the goods for J of an hour; take them out, and add to the dye, fustic, 25 pounds, boil 12 minutes, and dip the goods } of an hour; then add blue vitriol, 10 ounces, copperas, 2 pounds, 8 ounces; dip again 40 minutes. Add more copperas if the shade is required darker. Brown for Wool and Silk. — Infusion or decoction of walnut peels dyes wool and silk a brown color, which is bright- ened by alum. Horse-chestnut peels also impart a brown color; a mordant of muriate of tin turns it on the bronze, and sugar of lead the reddish brown. Alkali Blue and Nicholson's Blue.— Dissolve 1 pound of the dye in 10 gallons boiling water, and add this by small por- tions to the dye bath, which should be rendered alkaline by borax. The fabric should be well worked about between each addition of the color. The tem- perature must be kept under 212° F. To develop the color, wash with water DYES and pass through a bath containing sulphuric acid. Aniline Blue. —To 100 pounds of fabric, dissolve 1} pounds aniline blue in 3 quarts hot alcohol, strain through a filter, and add it to a bath of 130° F.; also 10 pounds Glauber's salts, and 5 pounds acetic acid. Immerse the goods and handle them well for 20 minutes. Next heat slowly to 200° F.; then add 5 pounds sulphuric acid diluted with water. Let the whole boil 20 minutes longer; then rinse and dry. If the aniline be added in 2 or 3 proportions during the process of coloring, it will facilitate the evenness of the color. Blue on. Cotton. — For 40 pounds of goods, use copperas, 2 pounds; boil and dip 20 minutes; dip in soapsuds, and return to the dye 3 or 4 times; then make a new bath with prussiate of pot- ash, § pound; oil of vitriol, IJ pints; boil J hour, rinse out and dry. Sky Blue on Cotton. — For 60 pounds of goods, blue vitriol, 5 pounds. Boil a short time, then enter the goods, dip 3 hours, and transfer to a bath of strong limewater. A fine brown color will be imparted to the goods if they are then put through a' solution of prussiate of potash. Blue Dye for Hosiery. — One hundred pounds of wool are colored with 4 pounds Guatemala or 3 pounds Bengal indigo, in the soda or wood vat. Then boil in a kettle a few minutes, 5 pounds of cud- bear or 8 pounds of archil paste; add 1 pound of soda, or, better, 1 pail of urine; then cool the dye to about 170° F. and enter the wool. Handle well for about 20 minutes, then take it out, cool, rinse, and dry. It makes no difference whether the cudbear is put in before or after the indigo. Three ounces of ani- line purple dissolved in alcohol, J pint, can be used instead of the cudbear. Wood spirit is cheaper than alcohol, and is much used by dyers for the purpose of dissolving aniline colors. It produces a very pretty shade, but should never be used on mixed goods which have to be bleached. Dark-Blue Dye. — This dye is suitable for thibets and lastings. Boil 100 pounds of the fabric for 1 J hours in a solution of alum, 25 pounds; tartar, 4 pounds; mor- dant, 6 pounds; extract of indigo, 6 pounds; cool as usual. Boil in fresh water from 8 to 10 pounds of logwood, in a bag or otherwise, then cool the dye to 170° F. Reel the fabric quickly at first, then let it boil strongly for 1_ hour. This is a very good imitation of indigo blue. Saxon Blue. — For 100 pounds thibet or comb yarn, use alum, 20 pounds; cream of tartar, 3 pounds; mordant, 2 pounds; extract of indigo, 3 pounds; or carmine, 1 pound, makes a better color. When all is dissolved, cool the kettle to 180° F.; enter and handle quickly at first, then let the fabric boil j hour, or until even. Long boiling dims the color. Zephyr worsted yarn ought to i>e pre- pared, first, by boiling it in a solution of alum and sulphuric acid; the indigo is added afterwards. Logwood and Indigo Blue. — For 100 pounds of cloth. Color the cloth first by one or two dips in the vat of indigo blue, and rinse it well, and then boil it in a solution of 20 pounds of alum, 2 pounds of half-refined tartar, and 5 pounds of mordant, for 2 hours ; finally take it out and cool. In fresh water boil 10 pounds of good logwood] for half an hour in a bag or otherwise; cool ofif to 170° F. before entering. Handle well over a reel, let it boil for half an hour; then take it out, cool and rinse. This is a very firm blue. Blue Purple for Silk. — For 40 pounds of goods, take bichromate of potash, 8 ounces; alum, 1 pound; dissolve all and bring the water to a boil, and put in the goods; boil 1 hour. Then empty the dye, and make a new dye with logwood, 8 pounds, or extract of logwood, 1 pound 4 ounces, and boil in this 1 hour longer. Grade the color by using more or less logwood, as dark or light color is wanted. Blue Purple for Wool. — One hundred Couhds of wool are first dipped in the lue vat to a light shade, then boiled in a solution of 15 pounds of alum and 3 Sounds of half -refined tartar, for l\ ours, the wool taken out, cooled, and let stand 24 hours. Then boil in fresh water 8 pounds of powdered cochineal for a few minutes, cool the kettle to 170° F. Handle the prepared wool in this for 1 hour, when it is ready to cool, rinse and dry. By coloring first with cochi- neal, as aforesaid, and finishing in the blue vat, the fast purple or dahlia, so much admired in German broadcloths, will be produced. Tin acids must not be used in this color. To Make Extract of Indigo Blue.— Take of vitriol, 2 pounds, and stir into it finely pulverized indigo, 8 ounces, stir- ring briskly for the first half hour; then DYES 269 cover up, and stir 4 or 5 times daily for a few days. Add a little pulverized chalk, stirring it up, and keep adding it as long as it foams; it will neutralize the acid. Keep it closely corked. Li^ht Silver Drab. — For 60 pounds of goods, use logwood, J pound; alum, about the same quantity; boil well, enter the goods, and dip them for 1 hour. Grade tne color to any desired shade by using equal parts of logwood and alum. GRAY DYES: _ Slate Dye for Silk. — For a small quan- tity, take a pan of warm water and about a teacupful of logwood liquor, pretty strong, and a piece of pearlasn the size of a nut; take gray-colored goods and handle a little in this liquid, and it is finished. If too much logwood is used, the color will be too dark. Slate for Straw Hats. — First, soak in rather strong warm suds for 16 minutes to remove sizing or stiffening; then rinse in warm water to get out the soap. Scald cudbear, 1 ounce, in sufficient water to cover the hat; work it in this dye at 180° F., until a light purple is obtained. Have a vessel of cold water, blued with the extract of indigo, J ounce, and work or stir the bonnet in this until the tint pleases. Dry, then rinse out with cold water, and dry again in the shade. If the purple is too deep in shade the final slate will be too dark. Silver Gray for Straw. — For 25 hats, select the whitest hats and soften them in a bath of crystallized soda to which some clean limewater has been added. Boil for 2 hours in a large vessel, using for a bath a decoction of the follow- ing: Alum, 4 pounds; tartaric acid, f pound; some ammoniacal cochineal, and carmine of indigo. A little sulphuric acid may be necessary in order to neu- tralize the alkali of the cochineal dye. If the last-mentioned ingredients are used, let the hats remain for an hour longer in the boiling bath, then rinse in slightly acidulated water. Dark Steel. — Mix black and white wool together in the proportion of 50 pounds of black wool to 7 J pounds of white. For large or small quantities, keep the same proportion, mixing care- fully and thoroughly. GREEN DYES: Aniline Green for Silk. — Iodine green or night green dissolves easily in warm water. For a liquid dye 1 pound may be dissolved in 1 gallon alcohol, and mixed with 2 gallons water, containing 1 ounce sulphuric acid. Aniline Green for Wool.— Prepare two baths, one containing the dissolved dye and a quantity of carbonate of soda or borax. In this the wool is placed, and the temperature raised to 212° F. A grayish green is produced, which must be brightened and fixed in a second bath of water 100° F., to which some acetic acid has been added. Cotton requires preparation by sumac. Green for Cotton. — For 40 pounds of goods, use fustic, 10 pounds; blue vitriol, 10 ounces; soft soap, 2 J quarts; and log- wood chips, 1 pound 4 ounces. Soak the logwood overnight in a brass vessel, and put it on the fire in the morning, adding the other ingredients. When quite hot it is ready for dyeing; enter the goods at once, and handle well. Differ- ent shades may be obtained by letting part of the goods remain longer in the dye. Green for Silk. — Boil green ebony in water, and let it settle. Take the clear liquor as hot as the hands can bear, and handle the goods in it until of a bright yellow. Take water and put in a little sulphate of indigo; handle goods in this till of the shade desired. The ebony may previously be boiled in a bag to prevent it from sticking to the silk. Green for Wool and Silk. — Take equal quantities of yellow oak and hickory bark, make a strong yellow bath by boiling, and shade to the desired tint by adding a small quantity of extract of indigo. Green Fustic Dye. — For 50 pounds of goods, use 50 pounds of fustic with alum, 11 pounds. Soak in water until the strength is extracted, put in the goods until of a good yellow color, remove the chips, and add extract of indigo in small quantities at a time, until the color is satisfactory. PURPLE AND VIOLET DYES: Aniline Violet and Purple. — Acidulate the bath by sulphuric acid, or use sul- phate of soda; both these substances render the shade bluish. Dye at 212° F. To give a fair middle shade to 10 pounds of wool, a quantity of solution equal to J to I ounces-of the solid dye will be re- quired. The color of the dyed fabric is improved by washing in soap and water, and then passing through a bath soured by sulphuric acid. Purple. — For 40 pounds of goods, use 270 DYES alum, 3 pounds; muriate of tin, 4 tea- cups; pulverized cochineal, 1 pound; cream of tartar, 2 pounds. Boil the alum, tin, and cream of tartar, for 20 minutes, add the cochineal and boil 5 minutes; immerse the goods 2 hours; re- move and enter them in a new dye com- posed of brazil wood, 3 pounds; log- wood, 7 pounds; alum, 4 pounds, and muriate of tin, 8 cupfuls, adding a little extract of indigo. Ptxrple for Cotton. — Get up a tub of hot logwood liquor, enter 3 pieces, give them 5 ends, and hedge out. Enter them in a clean alum tub, give them 5 ends, and hedge out. Get up another tub of logwood liquor, enter, give them 5 ends, and hedge out; renew the alum tub, give 5 ends in that, and finish. Pvirple for Silk. — For 10 pounds of goods, enter the goods in a blue dye bath, and secure a light-blue color, dry, and dip in a warm solution containing alum, 2 J pounds. Should a deeper color be required, add a little extract of indigo. Solferino and Magenta for Woolen, Silk, or Cotton. — For 1 pound of woolen goods, magenta shade, 96 grains, apothe- caries' weight, of aniline red, will be re- quired. Dissolve in a little warm alco- hol, using, say, 6 fluidounces, or about 6 gills alcohol per ounce of aniline. Many dyers use wood spirits because of its cheapness. For a solferino shade, use 64 grains aniline red, and dissolve in 4 ounces alcohol, to each 1 pound of goods. Cold water, 1 quart, will dissolve these small quantities of aniline red, but the cleanest and quickest way will be found by using the alcohol, or wood spirits. Clean the cloth and goods by steeping at a gentle heat in weak soapsuds, rinse in several masses of clean water and lay aside moist. The alcoholic solution of aniline is to be added from time to time to the warm or hot dye bath, till the color on the goods is of the desired shade. The goods are to be removed from the dve bath before each addition of the afcoholic solution, and the bath is to be well stirred before the goods are re- turned. The alcoholic solution should be first dropped into a little water, and well mixed, and the mixture should then be strained into the dye bath. If the, color is not dark enough after working from 20 to 30 minutes, repeat the re- moval of the goods from the bath, and the addition of the solution, and the re- immersion of the goods from 16 to 30 minutes more, or until suited, then re- move from the bath and rinse in several masses of clean water, and dry in the shade. Use about 4 gallons water for dye bath for 1 pound of goods; less water for larger quantities. Violet for Silk or Wool. — A good violet dye may be given by passing the goods first through a solution of verdigris, then through a decoction of logwood, and lastly through alum water. A fast violet may be given by dyeing the goods crim- son with cochineal, without alum or tartar, and after rinsing passing them through the indigo vat. Linens or cot- tons are first galled with 18 per cent of gallnuts, next passed through a mordant of alum, iron liquor, and sulphate of copper, working them well, then worked in a madder bath made with an equal weight of root, and lastly brightened with soap or soda. Violet for Straw Bonnets. — Take alum, 4 pounds; tartaric acid, 1 pound; chlor- ide of tin, 1 pound. Dissolve and boil, allowing the hats to remain in the boiling solution 2 hours; then add enough decoc- tion of logwood, carmine, and indigo to induce the desired shade, and rinse finally in water in which some alum has been dis- solved. Wine Color. — For 50 pounds of goods, use camwood, 10 pounds, and boil 20 minutes; dip the goods J hour, boil again, and dip 40 minutes; then darken with blue vitriol, 15 ounces, and 5 pounds of copperas. Lilac for Silk. — For 5 pounds of silk, use archil, 7i pounds, and mix well with the liquor. Make it boil J hour, and dip the silk quickly; then let it cool, and wash in river water. A fine half violet, or lilac, more or less full, will be obtained. RED, CRIMSON, AND PINK DYES: Aniline Red. — Inclose the aniline in a small muslin bag. Have a kettle (tin or brass) filled with moderately hot water and rub the substance out. Then immerse the goods to be colored, and in a short time tney are done. It improves the color to wring the goods out of strong soapsuds before putting them in the dye. This is a permanent color on wool or silk. Red Madder.— To 100 pounds of fabric, use 20 pounds of alum, 5 pounds of tar- tar, and 5 pounds of muriate of tin. When these are dissolved, enter the goods and let them boil for 2 hours, then take out, let cool, and lay overnight. Into fresh water, stir 75 pounds of good d\t:s 271 madder, and enter the fabric at 120° F. and bring it up to 200° F. in the course of an hour. Handle well to secure even- ness, then rinse and dry. Red for Wool.— For 40 pounds of eoods, make a tolerably thicK paste of lac dye and sulphuric acid, and allow it to stand for a day. Then take tartar, 4 pounds, tin liquor, 2 pounds 8 ounces, and 3 pounds of the paste; make a hot bath with sufficient water, and enter the goods for f hour; afterwards care- fully rinse and dry. Crimson for Silk. — For 1 pound of goods, use alum, 3 ounces; dip at hand heat 1 hour; take out and drain, while making a new dye, by boiling for 10 minutes, cochineal, 3 ounces; bruised nutgalls, 2 ounces; and cream of tartar, I ounce, in 1 pail of water. When a little cool begin to dip, raising the heat to a boil, continuing to dip 1 hour. Wash and dry. Aniline Scarlet. — For every 40 pounds of goods, dissolve 5 pounds white vitriol (sulphate of zinc) at 180° F., place the goods in this bath for 10 minutes, then add the color, prepared hy boiling for a few minutes, 1 pound andine scarlet in 3 gallons water, stirring the same con- tinually. This solution has to be fil- tered before being added to the bath. The goods remain in the latter for 15 minutes, when they have become browned and must be boiled for another half hour in the same bath after the so- lution of sal ammoniac. The more of this is added the deeper will be the shade. Scarlet with Cochineal. — For 50 pounds of wool, yarn, or cloth, use cream of tar- tar, 1 pound 9 ounces; cochineal, pul- verized, I'iJ ounces; muriate of tin or scarlet spirit, 8 pounds. After boiling the dye, enter the goods, work them well for 15 minutes, then boil them 1 J hours, slowly agitating the goods while boiling, wash in clean water, and dry out of the sun. Scarlet with Lac Dye.— For 100 pounds of flannel or yarn, take 25 pounds of ground lac dye, 15 pounds of scarlet spirit (made as per directions be- low), 5 pounds of tartar, 1 pound of flav- ine, or accprding to shade, 1 pound of tin crystals, 5 pounds of muriatic acid. Boil all for 15 minutes, then cool the dye to 170° F. Enter the goods, and handle them quickly at first. Let boil 1 hour, and rinse while yet hot, before the gum and impurities harden. This color stands scouring with soap better than cochineal scarlet. A small quantity of sulphuric acid may be added to dissolve the gum. Muriate of Tin or Scarlet Spirit.— Take 16 pounds muriatic acid, 22° Be.; 1 pound feathered tin, and water, 2 pounds. The acid should be put in a stoneware pot, and the tin added, and allowed to dissolve. The mixture should be kept a few days before using. The tin is feathered or granulated by melting in a suitable vessel, and pouring it from a height of about 5 feet into a pailful of water. This is a most powerful agent in certain colors, such as scarlets, or- anges, pinks, etc. Pink for Cotton. — For 40 pounds of goods, use redwood, 20 pounds; muriate of tin, 2J pounds. Boil the redwood 1 hour, turn off into :i large vessel, add the muriate of tin, and put in the goods. Let it stand 5 or 10 minutes, and a good fast pink will be produced. Pink for Wool. — For 60 pounds of goods, take alum, .5 pounds 12 ounces; boil and immerse the Roods .50 minutes; then add to the dye cochineiil well pul- verized, 1 pound, 4 ounces; cream of tartar, 5 pounds; boil and enter the goods while boiling, until the color is satisfac- tory. YELLOW, ORANGE, AWD BRONZE DYES: Aniline Yellow. — This color is slightly soluble in water, and for dyers' use may be used directly for the preparation of the bath dye, but is best used by dis- solving 1 pound of dye in 2 gallons alco- hol. Temperature of bath should be under 200° F. The color is much im- proved and brightened by a trace of sul- phuric acid. Yellow for Cotton. — For 40 pounds goods, use sugar of lead, 3 pounds 8 ounces; dip the goods 2 hours. ISlake a new dye with bichromate of potash, 2 pounds; dip until the color suits, wring out and dry. If not yellow enough re- peat the operation. Yellow for Silk. — For 10 pounds of goods, use sugar of lead, 7 J ounces ; alum, 2 pounds. Enter the goods, and let them remain 12 hours; remove them, drain, and make a new dye with fustic, 10 pounds. Immerse until the color suits. Orange. — I. — For 50 pounds of goods, use areal, 3 pounds; muriate of tin, 1 quart; Doil and dip 1 hour; then add to the dye, fustic, 25 pounds; madder, 2J 272 DYES quarts; and dip again 40 minutes. If preferred, cochineal, 1 pound 4 ounces, may be used instead of the madder, as a ■ better color is induced by it. II. — For 40 pounds of goods, use sugar of lead, 2 pounds, and boil 15 minutes. When a little cool, enter the goods, and dip for 2 hours, wring them out, make a fresh dye with bichromate of potash, 4 pounds; madder, 1 pound, and immerse until the desired color is secured. The shade may be varied by dipping in limewater. Bronze. — Sulphate or muriate of man- ganese dissolved in water with a little tartaric acid imparts a beautiful bronze tint. The stuff after being put through the solution must be turned through a weak lye of potash, and afterwards through another of chloride of lime, to brighten and fix it. Prussiate of copper gives a bronze or yellowish-brown color to silk. The piece well mordanted with blue vitriol may be passed through a solution of prussiate of potash. Mulberry for Silk.^For 5 pounds of silk, use alum, 1 pound 4 ounces; dip 50 minutes, wash out, and make a dye with brazil wood, 5 ounces, and logwood, IJ ounces, bv boiling together. Dip in this J hour; then add more brazil wood and logwood, equal parts, until the color suits. FEATHER DYES. I. — Cut some white curd soap in small pieces, pour boiling water on tnem, and add a little pearlash. When the soap is quite dissolved, and the mixture cool enough for the hand to bear, plunge the feathers into it, and draw them through the hand till the dirt appears squeezed out of them; pass them through a clean lather with some blue in it; then rinse them in cold water with blue to give them a good color. Beat them against the hand to shake off the water, and dry by shaking them near a fire. When perfect- ly dry, coil each fiber separately with a blunt knife or ivory folder. II. — Black, — Immerse for 2 or 3 days in a bath, at first hot, of logwood, 8 parts, and copperas or acetate of iron, 1 part. III. — Blue. — Same as II, but with the indigo vat. IV. — Brown. — By using any of the brown dyes for silk or woolen. V. — Crimson. — A mordant of alum, followed by a hot bath of brazil wood, afterwards by a weak dye of cudbear. VI. — Pink or Rose. — With safiBower or lemon juice. VII.— Plum.— With the red dye, fol- lowed by an alkaline bath. VIII. — Red. — A mordant of alum, followed by a bath of brazil wood. IX. — ^Yellow. — A mordant of alum, followed by a bath of turmeric or weld. X. — Green. -;-Take of verdigris and verditer, of each 1 ounce; gum water, 1 pint; mix them well and dip the feath- ers, they having been first soaked in hot water, into the said mixture. XI. — Purple. — Use lake and indigo. XII. — Carnation. — Vermilion and smalt. DYES FOR ARTIFICIAL FLOWERS. The French employ velvet, fine cam- bric, and kid for the petals, and taffeta for the leaves. Very recently thin plates of bleached whalebone have been used for some portions of the artificial flowers. Colors and Stains. — I. — Blue. — Indigo dissolved in oil of vitriol, and the acid partly neutralized with salt of tartar or whiting. II. — Green. — A solution of distilled verdigris. III. — Lilac. — Liquid archil. IV. — Red. — Carmine dissolved in a solution of salt of tartar, or in spirts of hartshorn. V. — ^Violet. — Liquid archil mixed with a little salt of tartar. VI. — ^Yellow. — Tincture of turmeric. The colors are generally applied with the fingers. DYES FOR FURS: I. — Brown. — Use tincture of logwood. II. — Red. — Use ground brazil wood, i pound; water, l| quarts; cochineal, J ounce; boil the brazil wood in the water 1 hour; strain and add the cochi- neal; boil 15 minutes. III.— Scarlet. — Boil J ounce saffron in J pint of water, and pass over the work before applying the red. IV. — Blue. — Use logwood, 7 ounces; blue vitriol, 1 ounce; water, 22 ounces; boil. • V. — Purple. — Use logwood, 11 ounces; alum, 6 ounces; water, 29 ounces. VI. — Green. — Use strong vinegar, IJ pints; best verdigris, 2 ounces, ground fine; sap green, J ounce; mix all to- gether and boil. DYES 278 DYES FOR HATS. The hats should be at first strongly galled by boiline a long time in a decoc- tion of galls with a little logwood so that the dye may penetrate into their sub- stance; after wnich a proper quantity of vitriol and decoction of logwood, with a little verdigris, are added, and the bats kept in this mixture for a considerable time. They are afterwards put into a fresh liquor of logwood, galls, vitriol, and verdigris, and, when the hats are costly, or of a hair which with difficulty takes the dye, the same process is re- peated a third time. For obtaining the most perfect color, the hair or wool is dyed blue before it is formed into hats. The ordinary bath for dyeing hats, em- ployed by London manufacturers, con- sists, for 12 dozen, of 144 pounds of logwood; 12 pounds of green sulphate of iron or copperas; 7 J pounds verdigris. The logwood having been introduced into the copper and digested for some time, the copperas and verdigris are added in successive quantities, and in the above proportions, along with every successive 2 or 3 dozen of hats sus- g ended upon the dripping machine, lach set of hats, after being exposed to the bath with occasional airings during 40 minutes, is taken off the pegs, and laid out upon the ground to be more com- pletely blackened by the peroxydize- nicnt of the iron with the atmospheric oxygen. In 3 or 4 hours the dyeing is completed. When fuUv dyed, the Eats are well washed in running water. Straw hats or bonnets may be dyed l)lack by boiling them 3 or 4 hours in a strong liquor of logwood, adding a little copperas occasionally. Let the Donnets remain in the liquor all night; then take out to dry in the air. It the black is not satisfactory, dye again after drying. Rub inside and out with a sponge moistened in fine oil; then block. I. — Red Dye. — Boil ground brazil wood in a lye of potash, and boil your straw hats in it. II.-^Blue Dye. — Take a sufficient quantity of potash lye, 1 pound of litmus or lacmus, ground; make a decoction and then put in the straw, and boil it. TO DYE, STIFFEN, AND BLEACH FELT HATS. Felt hats are dyed by repeated im- mersion, drawing and dipping in a hot watery solution of logwood, 38 parts; green vitriol, 3 parts; verdigris, 2 parts; repeat the immersions and drawing with exposure to the air 13 or 14 times, or until the color suits, each step in the process lasting from 10 to 15 minutes. Aniline colors may be advantageously used instead of the above. For a stiffen- ing, dissolve borax, 10 parts; carbonate of potash, 3 parts, in hot water; then add shellac, 50 parts, and boil until all is dis- solved; apply with a sponge or a brush, or by immersing the hat when it is cold, and dip at once in very dilute sulphuric or acetic acid to neutralize the alkali and fix the shellac. Felt hats can be bleached by the use of sulphuric acid gas. LIQUID DYE COLORS. These colors, thickened with a little gum, may be used as inks in writing, or as colors to tint maps, foils, artificial flowers, etc., or to paint ou velvet: I. — Blue. — Dilute Saxon blue or sul- phate of indigo with water. If required for delicate work, neutralize with chalk. II.— Purple. — Add a little alum to a strained decoction of logwixul. III. — Green. — Dissolve sap green in water and add a little alum. IV. — Yellow. — Dissolve annatto in a weak lye of subcarbonate of soda or potash. V. — Golden Color. — Steep French berries in hot water, strain, and add a little gum and alum. VI. — Red. — Dissolve carmine in am- monia, or in weak carbonate of potash water, or infuse powdered cochineal in water, strain, and add a little gum in water. UNCLASSIFIED DYERS' RECIPES: To Cleanse Wool. — Make a hot bath composed of water, 4 parts; and urine, 1 part; enter the wool, teasing and opening it out to admit the full action of the liquid. After 20 minutes' immersion, remove from the liquid and allow it to drain; then rinse in clean runnini^ water, and spread out to dry. The liquid is good for subsequent operations, only keep up the proportions, and use no soap. To Extract Oil Spots from Finished Goods. — Saturate the spot with benzine; then place two pieces of very soft blotting paper under and two upon it, press well with a hot iron, and the grease will be absorbed. New Mordant for Aniline Colors.-— Im- merse the goods for some hours in a bath of cold water in which chloride or acetate of zinc has been dissolved until the solu- tion shows 2° Be. For the wool the 274 DYES mordanting bath should be at a boiling heat, and the goods should also be placed in a warm batli of tannin, 90° P., for half an hour. In dyeing, a hot solution of the color must be used to which should be added, in the case of the cotton, some chloride of zinc, and, in the case of the wool, a certain amount of tannin solu- tion. To Render Aniline Colors Soluble in Water. — A solution of gelatin in acetic acid of almost the consistence of syrups is first made, and the aniline in fine is gradually added, stirring all the time so as to make a homogeneous paste. The mixture is then to be heated over a water bath to the temperature of boiling water and kept at that heat for some time. Limewater for Dyers' Use. — Put some lime, 1 pound, and strong limewater, IJ pounds, into a pail of water; rummage well for 7 or 8 minutes. Then let it rest until the lime is precipitated and the water clear; add this quantity to a tubful of clear water. To Renew Old Silks. — Unravel and put themin a tub, cover with cold water, and let them remain 1 hour. Dip them up and down, but do not wring; hang up to drain, and iron while very damp. Fuller's Purifier for Cloths. — Dry, pulverize, and sift the following ingredi- ents: Fuller's earth, 6 pounds; French chalk, 4 ounces; pipe clay, 1 pound. Make into a paste with rectified oil of turpentine, 1 ounce; alcohol, 2 ounces; melted oil soap, IJ pounds. Compound the mixture into cakes of any desired size, keeping them in water, or small wooden boxes. To Fix Dyes. — Dissolve 20 ounces of gelatin in water, and add 3 ounces of bichromate of potash. This is done in a dark room. The coloring matter is then added and the goods submitted thereto, after which they are exposed to the action of light. The pigment thus becomes in- soluble in water and the color is fast. DYES AND DYESTUFFS. Prominent among natural dyestufifs is the coloring matter obtained from log- wood and known as "hsematein." The color-forming substance (or chromogen), hsematoxylin, exists in the logwood partly free and partly as a glucoside. When pure, hsematoxylin forms nearly colorless crystals, but on oxidation, es- pecially in the presence of an alkali, it IS converted into the coloring matter haematein, which forms colored lakes with metallic bases, yielding violets. blues, and blacks with various mordants. Logwood comes into commerce in the form of logs, chips, and extracts. The chips are moistened with water and ex- posed in heaps so as to induce fermenta- tion, alkalies and oxidizing agents being added to promote the "curing" or oxida- tion. When complete and the chips have assumed a deep reddish-brown color, the decoction is made which is employed in dyeing. The extract offers convenience in transportation, storage, and use. It is now usually made from logwood chips that have not been cured. The chips are treated in an .extractor, pressure often being used. The extract is sometimes adulterated with chestnut, hemlock, and quercitron extracts, and with glucose or molasses. Fustic is the heart-wood of certain species of trees indigenous to the West Indies and tropical South America. It is sold as chips and extract, yields a coloring principle which forms lemon- yellow lakes with alumina and is chiefly used in dyeing wool. Young fustic is the heart-wood of a sumac native to the shores of the Mediterranean, which yields an orange-colored lake with alum- ina and tin salts. Cutch, or catechu, is obtained from the wood and pods of the Acacia catechu, and from the betel nut, both native in India. Cutch appears in commerce in dark-brown lumps, which form a dark- brown solution with water. It contains catechu-tannic acid, as tannin and catechin, and is extensively used in weighting black silks, as a mordant for certain basic coal-tar dyes, as a brown dye on cotton, and for calico printing. Indigo, which is obtained from the glucoside indican existing in the indigo plant and in woad, is one of the oldest dyestuffs. It is obtained from the plant by a process of fermentation and oxida- tion. Indigo appears in commerce in dark-blue cubical cakes, varying very much in composition as they often con- tain indigo red and indigo brown, be- sides moisture, mineral matters, and glutinous substances. Consequently the color varies. Powdered indigo dissolves in concentrated fuming sulphuric acid, forming monosulphonic and disulphonic acids. On neutralizing these solutions with sodium carbonate and precipitating the indigo carmine with common salt there is obtained the indigo extract, solu- ble indigo, and indigo carmine of com- merce. True indigo carmine is the so- dium salt of the disulphonic acid, and when sold dry it is called "indigotine." One of the most important of the recent DYES 275 achievements of chemistry is the synthetic production of indigo on a commercial scale. Artificial dyestuffs assumed preponder- ating importance with the discovery of the lilac color mauve by Perkin in 1866, and fuchsine or magenta by Verguin in 189fl, for with each succeeding year other colors have been discovered, until at the present time there are several thousand artificial organic dyes or colors on the market. Since the first of these were prepared from aniline or its derivatives the colors were known as "aniline dyes," but as a large number are now prepared from other constituents of coal tar than aniline they are better called "coal-tar dyestuffs." There are many schemes of classification. Benedikt-Knecht divides them into I, aniline or amine dyes; II, f)henol dyes; III, azo dyes; IV, quino- ine and acridine derivatives; V, anthra- cene dyes; and VI, artificial indigo. Of the anthracene dyes, the alizarine is the most important, since this is the coloriiij^ principle of the madder. The synthesis of alizarine from anthracene was effected by Grabe and Liebermann in 1868. This discovery produced a complete revolution in calico printing, turkey-red dyeing, and in the manu- facture of madder preparations. Madder finds to-day only a very limited applica- tion in the dyeing of wool. In textile dyeing and printing, sub- stances called mordants are largely used, either to fix or to develop the color on the fiber. Substances of mineral origin, such as salts of aluminum, chromium, iron, copper, antimony, and tin, prin- cipally, and many others to a less extent and of organic origin, like acetic, oxalic, citric, tartaric, and lactic acid, sulpho- nated oils, and tannins are employed as mordants. Iron liquor, known as black liquor or pyrolignite of iron, is made by dissolving scrap iron in pyroligneous acid. It is used as a mordant in dyeing silks and cotton and in calico printing. Red liquor is a solution of aluminum acetate in acetic acid, and is produced by acting on calcium or lead acetate solu- tions with aluminum sulphate or the double alums, the supernatant liquid forming the red liquor. The red liquor of the trade is often the sulpho-acetate of alumina resulting when the quantity of calcium or lead acetate is insufficient to completely decompose the aluminum salt. Ordinarily the solutions have a dark-brown color and a strong pyro- ligneous odor. It is called red liquor because it was first used in dyeing reds. It is employed as a mordant by the cotton dyer and largely by the printer. ITon-Poisonotis Textile and Egg Dyes for Hoiisehold Use. — The preparation of non-poisonous colors for dyeing fabrics and eggs at home constitutes a separate department in the manufacture of dye- stuffs. Certain classes of aniline dyes may be properly said to form the materials. The essence of this color preparation consists chiefly in diluting or weakening the coal- tar dyes, made m the aniline factories, and bringing them down to a certain desired shade by the addition of certain chemicals suited to their varying charac- teristics, which, though weakening the color, act at the same time as the so-called mordants. The anilines are divided with refer- ence to their characteristic reactions into groups of basic, acid, moderately acid, as well as dyes that are insoluble in water. In cases where combinations of one or more colors are needed, only dyes of similar reaction can be combined, that is, basic with basic, and acid with acid. For the purpose of reducing the original intensity of the colors, and also as mordants, dextrin, Glauber's salt, alum, or aluminum sulphate is pressed into service. Where Glauber's salt is used, the neutral salt is exclusively, em- ployed, which can be had cheaply and in immense quantities in the chemical industry. Since it is customary to pack the color mixtures in two paper boxes, one stuck into the other, and moreover since certain coal-tar dyes are only used in large crystals, it is only reasonable that the mordants should be calcined and not put up in the shape of crystallized salts, particularly since these latter are prone to absorb the moisture from the air, and when thus wet likely to form a compact mass very difficult to dissolve. This in- convenience often occurs with the large crystals of fuchsine and methyl violet. Because these two colors are mostly used in combination with dextrin to color eggs, and since dextrin is also very hygroscopic, it is better in these in- dividual cases to employ calcined Glau- ber's salt. In the manufacture of egg colors the alkaline coloring coal-tar dyes are mostly used, and they are to be found in a great variety of shades. Of the non-poisonous egg dyes, there are some ten or a dozen numbers, new red, carmine, scarlet., pink, violet, blue, yellow, orange, green, brown, black, heliotrope, etc., wnich when mixed will 276 DYES enable the operator to form shades almost without number. The manufacture of the egg dyes as carried on in the factory consists in a mechanical mixing of basic coal-tar dye- stuffs, also some direct coloring benzi- dine dyestuffs, with dextrin in the ratio of about 1 part of aniline dye to 8 parts of dextrin; under certain circumstances, according to the concentrated state of the dyes, the reducing quantity of the dextrin may be greatly increased. As reducing agents for these colors insoluble sub- stances may also be employed. A part also of the egg dyes are treated with the neutral sulphate; for instance, light brilliant green, because of its rubbing off, is made with dextrin and Glauber's salt in the proportion of 1:3:3. For the dyeing of eggs such color mix- tures are preferably employed as contain along with the dye proper a fixing agent (dextrin) as well as a. medium for the superficial mordanting of the eggshell. The colors will then be very brilliant. Here are some recipes: Parts pfi noT- Color Dyestuff ^ by^^ f 'f^ D^. Blue.. .Marine blue B.N... 3.5 35.0 60.0 Brown., Vesuvius 30.0 37.5 30.0 Green. .Brilliant green O.. .13.5 18.0 67.5 Orange. Orange ri. 9.0 18.0 75.0 Red .. .Diamond fuchsinel. 3.5 18.0 75.0 Pink . . . Eosin A 4.5 — 90.0 Violet. .Methyl violet 6 B. . 3.6 18.0 75.0 Yellow. Naphthol yellows. 13. 5 36.0 67.5 Very little of these mixtures sufiices for dyeing five eggs. The coloring matter is dissolved in 600 parts by weight of boil- ing water, while the eggs to be dyed are boiled hard, whereupon they are placed in the dye solution until they seem suffi- ciently colored. The dyes should be put up in waxed paper. Fast Stamping Color. — Rub up sepa- rately, 20 parts of cupric sulphate and 20 parts of anilic hydrochlorate, then mix carefully together, after adding 10 parts of dextrin. The mixture is next ground with 5 parts of glycerine and sufficient water until a thick, uniform, paste-like mass results, adapted for use by means of stencil and bristle-brush. Aniline black is formed thereby in and upon the fiber, which is not destroyed by boiling. New Mordanting Process. — The or- dinary method of mordanting wool with a bichromate and a reducing agent al- ways makes the fiber more or less tender, and Amend proposed to substitute the use of a solution of chromic acid contain- ing 1 to 2 per cent of the weight of the wool, at a temperature not exceeding 148° F., and to treat it afterwards with a solution of sodium bisulphite. Accord- ing to a recent French patent, better results are obtained with neutral or slight- ly basic chromium sulphocyanide. This salt, if neutral or only slightly basic, will mordant wool at 148° P. The double sulphocyanide of chromium and ammo- nium, got by dissolving chromic oxide in ammonium sulphocyanide, can alsobe used. Nevertheless, in order to precipi- tate chromium chromate on the fiber, it is advisable to have a soluble chromate and a nitrate present, as well as a soluble copper salt and a free acid. One ex- ample of the process is as follows: Make the bath with 2 to 3 per cent of ammonio- chromium sulphocyanide, one-half of 1 per cent sodium bichromate, one-third of 1 per cent sodium nitrite, one-third of 1 per cent sulphate of copper, and 1.5 per cent sulphuric acid — percentages based on the weight of the wool. Enter cold and slowly heat to about 140° to 150° F. Then work for half an hour, lift and rinse. The bath does not exhaust and can be reinforced and used again. Process for Dyeing in Khaki Colors. — Bichromate of potash or of soda, chloride of manganese, and a solution of acetate of soda or formiate of soda (15° Be.) are dissolved successively in equal quan- tities. The solution thus composed of these three salts is afterwards diluted at will, according to the color desired, con- stituting a range from a dark brown to a light olive green shade. The propor- tions of the three salts may be increased or diminished, in order to obtain shades more or less bister. Cotton freed from its impurities by tho usual methods, then fulled as ordinarily, is immersed in the bath. After a period, varying according to the results desired, the cotton, threads, or fabrics of cotton, are washed thoroughly and plunged, still wet, into an alkaline solution, of which the concentration ought never to be less than 14° Be. This degree of concentra- tion is necessary to take hold of the fiber when the cotton comes in contact with the alkaline bath, and by the contraction which takes place the oxides of chrome and of manganese remain fixed in the fibers. This second operation is followed by washing in plenty of water, and then the cotton IS dried in the open air. If the color is judged to be too pale, the threads or fabrics are immersed again in the initial bath, left the necessary time for obtaining the desired shade, and then DYES 277 washed, but without passing them through an alkalinr bath. This process furnishes a series of khaki colors, solid to light, to fulling and to chlorine. LAKES: Scarlet Lake. — In a vat holding 120 gallons provided with good agitating ap- paratus, dissolve 8 pounds potash alum in 10 gallons hot water and add 50 gallons cold water. Prepare a solution of 2 pounds ammonia soda and add slowly to the alum solution, stirring all the time. In a second vessel dissolve 5 pounds of brilliant scarlet aniline, by first making it into a paste with cold water and after- wards pouring boiling water over it; now let out steam into the vat until a temper- ature of 150° to 165° F. is obtained. Next dissolve 10 pounds barium chloride in 10 gallons hot water in a separate vessel, add this very slowly, stir at least 3 hours, keeping up temperature to the same figures. Fill up vat with cold water and leave the preparation for the night. Next morning the liquor (which should be of a bright red color) is drawn off, and cold water again added. Wash by de- cantation 3 times, filter, press gently, and make into pulp. It is very important to precipitate the aluminum cold, and heat up before adding the dyestuff. The chemicals used for precipitating must be added very slowly and while constantly stirring. Tlie quantity used for the three wash- ings is required each time to be double the quantity originally used. I. — Madder Lakes. — Prepare from the root 1 pound best madder, alum water (1 pound alum with IJ gallons of water), saturated solution of carbonate of potash (} pound carbonate of potash to i gallon of water). The madder root is inclosed in a linen bag of fine texture, and bruised with a pestle in a large mortar with 2 gallons of water (free from lime) added in small quantities at a time, until all the coloring matter is extracted. Make this liquor boil, and gradually pour into the boiling water solution. Add the carbonate of potash solution gradually, stirring all the time. Let the mixture stand for 12 hours and drop and dry as required. II. — Garancine Process. — This is the method usually employed in preference to that from the root. Garancine is pre- pared by steeping madder root in sul- phate of soda and washing. Garancine 2 pounds Alum (dissolved in a little water) i pounds Chloride of tin J ounce Sufficient carbonate of potash or soda to precipitate the alum. Boil the garancine in i gallons of pure water; add the alum, and continue boiling from 1 to 2 hours. Allow the product to Cartially settle and filter through flannel efore cooling. Add to the fUtrate the chloride of tin, and sufficient of the pot- ash or soda solution to precipitate the alum; filter through flannel and wash well. The first filtrate may be used for lake of an inferior quality, and the farancine originally employed may also e treated as above, when a lake slightly inferior to the first may be obtained. Maroon Lake. — Take of a mixture made of: 3 Sapan wood ) ,„ . I Lima wood } ' ' ■ ^« P"*^ Soda crystals i'i parts Alum 56 parts Extract the color from the woods as for rose pink, and next boil the soda and alum together and add to .the woods solution cold. This must be washed clean before adding to the wood liquor. Carnation Lake.— Water 42 gallons Cochineal 12 pounds Salts of tartar 1} pounds Potash alum j pound Nitrous acid, nitro- muriate of tin -14 pounds Muriatic acid, nitro- muriate of tin 60 pounds Pure block tin, nitro- muriate of tin 22 pounds Should give specific gravity 1.310. Boil the water with close steam, taking care that no iron touches it; add the cochineal and boil for not more than five minutes; then turn off the steam and add salts of tartar and afterwards carefully add the alum. If it should not rise, put on steam until it does, pass through a 120-mesh sieve into a settling vat, and let it stand for 48 hours (not for precipita- tion). Add gradually nitromuriate of tin until the test on blotting paper (given below) shows that the separation is complete. Draw off clear water after it has settled, and filter. To test, rub a little of the paste on blotting paper, then dry on steam chest or on the hand, and if on bending it cracks, too much tin has been used. To Test the Color to See if it is Pre- cipitating. — Put a drop of color on white blotting paper, and if the color spreads, it is not precipitating. If there is a color- 278 D\ES less ring around the spot of color it shows that precipitation is taking place; if the white ring is too strong, too much has been used. BLACK LAKES FOR WALL-PAPER MANUFACTURE: Bluish-Black Lake. —Boil well 220 parts of Domingo logwood in 1,000 parts of water to which 2 parts of am- monia soda have been added; to the boil- ing logwood add next 25 parts of green vitriol and then 3.5 parts of sodium bi- chromate. The precipitated logwood lake is washed out well twice and then filtered. Black Lake Ai. — Logwood extract, Sanford, 120 parts; green vitriol, 30 Carts; aceticacid, 7° Be., 10 parts; sodium ichromate, 16 parts; powdered alum, 20 parts. The logwood extract is first dissolved in boiling water and brought to 25° Be. by the addition of cold water. Then the remaining ingredients are added in rotation, the salts in substance, finely powdered, with constant stirring. After the precipitation, wash twice and filter. Aniline Black Lake; — In the precipi- tating vat filled with 200 parts of cold water enter with constant stirring in the order mentioned the following solutions kept in readiness: Forty parts of alum dis- solved in 800 parts of water; 10 parts of calcined soda dissolved in 100 parts of water; 30 parts of azo black dissolved in 1,500 parts of water; 0.6 parts of "brilliant green" dissolved in 100 parts of wat^r; 0.24 parts of new fuchsine dissolved in 60 parts of water; 65 parts of barium chloride dissolved in 1,250 parts of water. Allow to settle tor 24 hours, wash the lake three times and filter it. Carmine Lake for Wall Paper and Colored Papers. — Ammonia soda (98 per cent), 57.5 parts by weight; spirits (96 per cent), 40 parts by weight; corallin (dark), 10 parts by weight; corallin (pale), 5 parts by weight; spirit of sal ammoniac (16° Be.), 8 parts by weight; so- dium phosphate, 30 parts by weight; stan- nic chloride, 5 parts by weight; barium chloride, 75 parts by weight. Dissolve the corallin in the spirit, and filter the solution carefully into eight bottles, each containing 1 part of the above quantity of spirit of sal ammoniac, and let stand. The soda should meanwhile be dissolved in hot water and the solution run into the stirring vat, in which there is cold water to the height of 17 inches. Add the sodium phosphate, which has been , dissolved in a copper vessel, then the corallin solution, and next the stannic chloride diluted with 3 pailfuls of cold water. Lastly the barium chloride solu- tion is added. The day previous barium chloride is dissolved in a cask in as little boiling water as possible, and the recep- tacle IS filled entirely with cold water. On the day following, allow the same to run in slowly during a period of three- fourths of an hour, stir till evening, allow to settle for 2 days, draw off and filter. English Pink. — Quercitron bark. . . . 200 parts Lime 10 parts Alum 10 parts Terra alba 300 parts Whiting 200 parts Sugar of lead 7 parts Put the bark into a tub, slake lime in another tub, and add the clear limewater to wash the bark; repeat this 3 times, letting the bark stand in each water 24 hours. Run liquor into the tub below and add the terra alba and whiting; wash well in the top tub and run into liquor below through a hair sieve, stirring well. Dissolve the sugar of lead in warm water and pour gently into" the tub, stir- ring all the time; then dissolve the alum and run in while stirring; press slightly, drop, and dry as required. Dutch Pink.— I. — Quercitron bark.. . 200 parts Lime 20 parts Alum '. 20 parts Whiting 100 parts Terra alba 200 parts White sugar of lead 10 parts II. — Quercitron bark. . . 300 parts Lime 10 parts Alum 10 parts Terra alba 400 parts Whiting 100 parts Sugar of lead 7 parts Put the bark into a tub with cold water, slake 28 pounds of lime, and add the limewater to the bark. (This draws all the color out of the wood.) Dissolve a,lum in water and run it into bark liquor. The alum solution must be just warm. Dissolve sugar of lead and add it to above, and afterwards add the terra alba and whiting. The product should now be in a pulp, and must be dropped and dried as required. Rose Pink. — I. — Light. Sapan wood 100 parts Lima 100 parts Paris white 200 parts Alum 210 parts DYES 279 II.— Deep. Sapan woo\, partly through precipitation by the acids or the acid salts of the meat extract, part- ly through salting out by the salts of the ex- tract, and partly by coagulation at a higher temperature. A sub.sequent addition of albumen is impracticable because the al- bumen is likewise precipitated, insolubly, by the acids and salts contained in the extract. This precipitation can be pre- vented, according to a French patent, by neutralizing the extract before mixing with albumen, by the aid of sodium bicarbonate. The drying of the mixture is accomplished in a carbonic acid at- mosphere. The preparation dissolves in cold or hot water into a white, milky liquid and exhibits the smell and taste of meat extract, if the albumen added was tasteless. The taste which the extract loses by the neutralization returns in its original strength after the mixture with albumen. In this manner a meat prep- aration is obtained which contains larger quantities of albumen and is more nutritious and palatable than other preparations. FOODS, PREDIGESTED: See Peptonoids. Foot-Powders and Solutions The following foot-powders have been recommended as dusting powders: I. — Boric acid 2 ounces Zinc oleate 1 ounce Talcum 3 ounces II. — Oleate of zinc (pow- dered) J ounce Boric acid 1 ounce French chalk 5 ounces Starch 1 i ounces 362 FOOT-POWDERS— FORMALDEHYDE III. — Dried alum 1 drachm Salicylic acid J drachm Wheat starch 4 drachms Powdered talc 1 J ounces IV. — Formaldehyde solu- tion 1 part Thymol iV part Zinc oxide 35 parts Powdered starch. ... 65 parts V. — Salicylic acid 7 drachms Boric acid . 2 ounces, 440 grains Talcum 38 ounces Slippery elm bark. . . 1 ounce Orris root 1 ounce VI.— Talc.... 12 ounces Boric acid 10 ounces Zinc oleate 1 ounce Salicylic acid 1 ounce Oil of eucalyptus ... 2 drachms Vn. — Salicylic acid 7 drachms Boric acid 3 ounces Talcum 38 ounces Slippery elm, pow- dered 1 ounce Orris, powdered. .. . 1 ounce Salicylated Talcum. — I. — Salicylic acid 1 drachm Talcum 6 ounces Lycopodium 6 drachms Starch 3 ounces Zinc oxide 1 ounce Perfume, quantity sufficient. II. — Tannotorm 1 drachm Talcum 2 drachms Lycopodium 30 grains Use as a dusting powder. Solutions for Perspiring Feet. — I. — Balsam Peru 15 minims Formic acid 1 drachm Chloral hydrate 1 drachm Alcohol to make 3 ounces. Apply by means of absorbent cotton. II. — Boric acid 15 grains Sodium borate 6 drachms Salicylic acid 6 drachms Glycerine 1 J ounces Alcohol to make 3 ounces. For local application. FOOTSORES ON CATTLE: See Veterinary Formulas. FORGING OF STEEL: See Steel. FORMALDEHYDE : See also Disinfectants, Foods, and Milk. Commercial Formaldehyde. — This ex- tremely poisonous preservative is ob- tained by passing the vapors of wood spirit, in the presence of air, over copper heated to redness. The essential parts of the apparatus employed are a metal chamber into which a feed-tube enters, and from which 4 parallel copper tubes or oxidizers discharge by a common exit tube. This chamber is fitted with in- spection apertures, through which the course of the process may be watched and controlled. The wood spirit, stored in a reservoir, falls into a mixer where it is volatilized and intimately mixed with air from a chamber which is connected with a force pump. The gases after traversing the oxidizer are led into a condensing coil, and the crude formal- dehyde is discharged into the receiver beneath. The small amount of uncondensed gas is then led through a series of two washers. The "formol" thus obtained is a mixture of water, methyl alcohol, and 30 to 40 per cent of formaldehyde. It is rectified in a still, by which the free methyl alcohol is removed and pure for- mol obtained, containing 40 per cent of formaldehyde, chiefly in the form of the acetal. Rectification must not be pushed too far, otherwise the formaldehyde may become polymerized into trioxmethylene. When once oxidation starts, the heat gen- erated is sufficient to keep the oxidizers red hot, so that the process works practi- cally automatically. Determination of the Presence of For- maldehyde in Solutions. — Lemme makes use, for this purpose, of the fact that formaldehyde, in neutral solutions of sodium sulphite, forms normal bisulphite salts, setting free a corresponding qiian- tity of sodium hydrate, that may be titrated with sulphuric acid and phenol- phthalein. The sodium sulphite solu- tion has an alkaline reaction toward phenolphthalein, and must be exactly neutralized with sodium bisulphite. Then to 100 cubic centimeters of this solution of 250 grams of sodium sulphite (Na2S03+7HjO) in 750 grams water, add 5 cubic centimeters of the suspected formaldehyde solution. A strong red color is instantly produced. Titrate with normal sulphuric . acid until the color disappears. As the exact disappearance of the color is not easily determined, a margin of from 0.1 to 0.2 cubic centi- meters may be allowed without the ex- actness of the reaction being injured, since 1 cubic centimeter of normal acid answers to only 0.03 grams of formal- dehyde. FORMALIN FOR GRAIN SMUT: See Grain. FREEZING PREVENTIVES— FROST BITE 363 FRAMES: THEIR PROTECTION FROM FLIES. Since there is great risk of damaging the gilt when trying to remove fly- specks with spirits of wine, it has been found serviceable to cover gilding with a copal varnish. This hardens and will stand rough treatment, and may be re- newed wherever removed. FRAME CLEANIITG: See Cleaning Preparations and Meth- ods. FRAME POLISHES: See Polishes. FRAMING, PASSE-PARTOUT: See Passe- Partout. FRECKLE LOTIONS: See Cosmetics. FREEZING MIXTURES: See also Refrigeration and Refriger- ants. Freezing Preventives Liquid for Cooling Automobile En- gines. — In order to prevent freezing of the jacket water, when the engine is not in operation in cold weather, solutions are used, notably of glycerine and of calcium chloride (CaClj). The proportions for the former solution are equal parts of water and glycerine, by weight; for the latter, approximately i gallon of water to 8 pounds of CaCU, or a saturated solution at 60° F. This solution (CaCla-|-6HjO) is then mixed with equal parts of water, gallon for gallon. Many persons com- plain that CaCla corrodes the metal parts, out this warning need do no more than urge the automobilist to use onljf the chemically pure salt, carefully avoiding the "chloride of lime" (CaOCI,)- A practical manufacturing chemist of wide experience gives this: A saturated solution of common salt is one of the best things to use. It does not affect the metal of the engine, as many other salts would, and is easily renewed. It will remain fluid down to 0° P., or a little below. Equal parts of glycerine and water is also good, and has the advantage that it will not crystallize in the chambers, or evaporate readily. It is the most con- venient solution to use on this account, and may repay the increased cost over brine, in the comfort of its use. It needs only the occasional addition of a little water to make it last all winter and leave the machinery clean when it is drawn off. With brine an incrustation of salt as the water evaporates is bound to occur which reduces the efficiency of the solution until it is removed. Water frequently must be added to keep the original volume, and to hold the salt in solution. A solution of calcium chloride is less troublesome so far as crystallizing is concerned, but is said to have a ten- dency to corrode the metals. _ Anti -Freezing Solution for Automo- bilists. — Mix and filter 41 pounds pure calcium chloride and a gallon of warm water and put the solution in the radia- tor or tank. Replace evaporation with clean 'water, and leakage with solution. Pure calcium chloride retails at about 8 cents per pound, or can be procured from any wholesale drug store at 6 cents. _ Anti-Freezing, Non-Corrosive Solu- tion. — A solution for water-jackets on gas engines that will not freeze at .iny temperature above 20° below zero (!•'.) may be made by combining 100 parts of water, by weight, with 75 parts of car- bonate potash and 50 parts of glycerine. This solution is non-corrosive and will remain perfectly liquid at all Icmpera- tures above its congealing point. Anti-Frost Solution. — As an excellent remedy against the freezing of shop win- dows, apply a mixture consisting of 55 parts of glycerine dissolved in 1,000 parts of 62 per cent alcohol, containing, to improve the odor, some oil of amber. As soon as the mixture clarifies, it is rubbed over the inner surface of the glass. This treatment, it is claimed, not only prevents the formation of frost, but also stops sweating. Protection of Acetylene Apparatus from Frost. — Alcohol, glycerine, and calcium chloride have been recommend- ed for the protection of acetylene gener- ators from frost. The employment of calcium chloride, which must not be confounded with chloride of lime, appears preferable in all points of view. A solution of 20 parts of calcium chloride in 80 parts of water congeals only at 5° F. above zero. But as this temperature does not generally penetrate the genera- tors, it will answer to use 10 or 15 parts of the chloride for 100 parts of water, which will almost always be sufficient to avoid congelation. Care must be taken not to use sea salt or other alkaline or metallic salts, which deteriorate the metal of the apparatus. FROST BITE. When the skin is as yet unbroken, Hugo Kuhl advises the following: 364 FROST BITE— FRUIT PRESERVING I. — Carbolized water . . . 4 drachms Nitric acid 1 drop Oil of geranium .... 1 drop Mix. Pencil over the skin and then hold the penciled place near the fire until the skin is quite dry. If the skin is already broken, use the following ointment: II. — Hebra's ointment. . 500 parts Glycerine 100 parts Liquefied carbolic acid 15 parts Mix. Apply to the broken skin occasionally. III. — Camphor 25 parts Iodine, pure 50 parts Olive oil 500 parts ParafBne, solid. . . . 450 parts Alcohol, enough. Dissolve the camphor in the oil and the iodine in the least possible amount of alcohol. Melt the paraffine and add the mixed solutions. When homogeneous pour into suitable molds. Wrap the pencils in parafBne paper or tin foil, and pack in wooden boxes. By using more or less olive oil the pencils may be made of any desired consistency. IV. — Dissolve 5 parts of campho-. in a mixture consisting of 5 parts of ather and 5 parts of alcohol; then add collodion suflScient to make 100 parts. V. — Dissolve 1 part of thymol in 5 parts of a mixture of ether and alcohol, then add collodion sufficient to make 100 parts. VI. — Carbolic acid 2 parts Lead ointment. ... 40 parts Lanolin 40 parts Olive oil 20 parts Lavender oil IJ parts VII. — Tannic acid IS parts Lycopodium 15 parts Lard 30 parts VIII. — Zinc oxide 15 parts Glycerine 45 parts Lanolin 40 parts IX.— Ichthyol 10 parts Resorcin 10 parts Tannic acid 10 parts Distilled water. .. .^50 parts Any of these is to be applied about twice a day. FROSTED GLASS: See Glass. FROST PREVENTIVE: See Freezing Preventives. FROST REMOVERS: See Glass. FRUIT ESSENCES AND EXTRACTS: See Essences and Extracts. Fruit Preserving (See also Essences, Extracts, and Pre- serves.) How to Keep Fruit. — According to experiments of Max de Nansouty, fruit carefuUj' wrapped in silk paper and then buried in dry sand will preserve a fresh appearance with a fresh odor or flavor, almost indefinitely. It may also be pre- served in dry excelsior, but not nearly so well. In stubble or straw fruit rots very quickly, while in shavings it mil- dews quickly. In short, wheat-straw fruit often takes on a musty taste and odor, even when perfectly dry. Finally, when placed on wooden tablets and exposed to the air, most fruit decays rapidly. I. — Crushed Strawberry. — Put up by the following process, the fruit retains its natural color and taste, and may be exposed to the air for months, without fermenting: Take fresh, ripe berries, stem them, and rub through a No. 8 sieve, rejecting all soft and green fruit. Add to each gallon of pulp thus obtained, 8 pounds of granulated sugar. Put on the fire and bring just to a boil, stirring constantly. Just before removing from the fire, add to each gallon 1 ounce of a saturated alcoholic solution of salicylic acid, stir- ring well. Remove the scum, and, while still hot, put into jars, and hermetically seal. Put the jars in cold water, and raise them to the boiling point, to pre- vent them from bursting by sudden expansion on pouring hot fruit into them. Pill the jars entirely full, so as to leave no air space when fruit cools and contracts. II. — Crushed Raspberry. — Prepare in the same manner as for crushed straw- heiTj, using J red raspberries and i black, to give a nice color, and using 7 pounds of sugar to each gallon of pulp. III. — Crushed Pineapple. — Secure a good brand of canned grated pineapple, and drain off about one-half of the liquor, by placing on a strainer. Add to each pound of pineapple 1 pound of granu- lated sugar. Place on the fire, and bring to boiling point, stirring constantly. Just before removing from the fire, add to each gallon of pulp 1 ounce saturat- ed alcoholic solution of salicylic acid. FRUIT rilESERVING— FUMIGANTS iido Put into air-tight jars until wanted for use. IV.— Crushed Peach.— Take a good brand of canned yellow peaches, drain off liquor, and rub through a No. 8 sieve. Ailil sugar, bring to the boiling point, and when ready to remove from fire add to each gallon 1 ounce saturated alco- holic solution of salicylic acid. Put into jars and seal hermetically. y. — Crushed Apricot. — Prepared in similar manner to crushed peach, using canned apricots. VI. — ^^Crushed Orange. — Secure or- anges with a thin peel, and containing plenty of juice. Remove the outer, or yellow peel, first, taking care not to in- clude any of the bitter peel. (The outer peel may be used in making orange phosphate, or tincture of sweet orange peel.) Next remove the inner, bitter peel, quarter, and remove the seeds. Extract part of the juice, and grind the pulp through an ordinary meat grinder. Add sugar, place on the fire, and bring to the boiling point. When ready to remove, add to each gallon 1 ounce of saturated alcoholic solution of salicylic acid and 1 ounce of glycerine. Put into air-tight jars. VII. — Crushed Cherries. — Stone the cherries and grind them to a pulp. Add sugar, and place on the fire, stirring con- stantly. Before removing, add to each gallon 1 ounce of the saturated solution of salicylic acid. Put into jars and seal. VIII.— Fresh Crushed Fruits in Sea- soii. — In their various seasons berries and fruits may be prepared in fresh lots for the soda fountain each morning, by reducing the fruit to a pulp, and mixing this pulp with an equal quantity of heavy simple syrup. Berries should be rubbed through a sieve. In selecting berries, it is better to use the medium-sized berries for the pulp, reserving the extra large specimens for garnishing and decorative effects. Mash the berries with a wooden masher, never using iron or copper utensils, which may discolor the fruit. Pineapple may be prepared by remov- ing the rough outer skin and grating the pulp upon an ordinary tin kitchen grater. The grater should be scrupulously clean, and care should be taken not to grate off any of the coarse, fibrous matter com- prising the fruit's core. All crushed fruits are served as follows: INlix equal quantities of pulp and simple syrup in the counter bowl; use li to 2 ounces to each glass, adding the usual quantity of cream, or ice cream. Draw soda, using a fine stream freely. _ IX. — Glacis. — Crushed fruits, served m the following manner, make a deli- cious and refreshing drink: Crushed fruit 12 drachms Juice of half a lemon. Shaved ice. Put the ice into a small glass, add the fruit and lemon juice, stir well, and .serve with a spoon and straws. FRDIT PRODUCTS, TESTS FOR: See Foods. FRUIT SYRUPS: See Syrups. FRUIT VINEGAR: See Vinegar. FUEL, PAPER AS A: See Paper. Fumigants (See also Disinfectants.) Fumigating Candles. — I. — Lime wood charcoal, 6,000 parts, by weight, satu- rated with water (containing saltpetT, 150 parts, by weight, in solution), and dried again, is mixed with benzoin, 750 parts, by weight; styrax, 700 parts, by weight; mastic, 100 parts, by weight; cascarilla, 450 parts, by weight; Peruvian balsam, 40 parts, by weight; Mitcham oil, lavender oil, lemon oil, and bergamot oil, 15 parts, by weight, each; and neroli oil, 3 parts, by weight. II. — Charcoal, 7,500 parts, by weight; saltpeter, 150 parts, by weight; Tolu bal- sam, 500 parts, by weight; musk, 2 parts, by weight; rose oil, 1 part. The mixtures are crushed with thick tragacanth to a solid mass. III. — Sandal wood, 48 parts, by weight; clove, 6 parts, by weight; ben- zoin, 6 parts, by weight; licorice juice, 4 parts, by weight; potash saltpeter, 2 parts, by weight ; cascarilla bark, 1.5 parts, by weight; cinnamon bark, 1.5 parts, by weight; musk, 0.05 parts, by weight. All these substances are powdered and mixed, whereupon the following are added : Styrax (liquid), 5 parts, by weight; cin- namon oil, 0.05 parts, by weight; clove oil, 0.05 parts, by weight; geranium oil, 0.5 parts, by weight; lavender oil, 0.2 parts, by weight; Peruvian balsam, 0.2 parts, by weight. The solid ingredients are each powdered separately, then placed in the respective proportion in a 366 FUMIGANTS spacious porcelain dish and intimately mixed by means of a flat spatula. The dish must be covered up with a cloth in this operation. After the mixture has been accomplished, add the essential oils and just enough solution of gum arable so that by subsequent kneading with the pestle a. moldable dough results which possesses sufficient solidity after drying. The mass is pressed into metallic molds in the shape of cones not more than f of an inch in height. IV. — Red Fumigating Candles. — San- dal wood, 1 part; gum benzoin, 1.5 parts; Tolu balsam, 0.250 parts; sandal oil, .025 parts; cassia oil, .025 parts; clove oil, 25 parts; saltpeter, .090 parts. The powder IS mixed intimately, saturated with spirit of wine, in which the oils are dissolved, and shaped into cones. V. — Wintergreen oil 1 part Tragacanth 20 parts Saltpeter 50 parts Phenol, crystallized. 100 parts Charcoal, powdered. 830 parts Water. Dissolve the saltpeter in the water, stir the solution together with the pow- dered charcoal and dry. Then add the tragacanth powder, also the wintergreen oil and the phenol, and prepare from the mixture, by means of a tragacanth solu- tion containing 2 per cent of saltpeter, a mass which can be shaped into candles. Fumigating Perfumes. — These are used for quickly putting down bad odors in the sick room, etc. They are decid- edly antiseptic, and fulfil their purpose admirably. I. — Select good white blotting paper, and cut each large sheet lengthwise into 3 equal pieces. Make a solution of 1 ounce of potassium nitrate in 12 ounces of boiling water; place this solution in a large plate, and draw each strip of paper over the solution so as to saturate it. Then dry by hanging up. The dried paper is to be saturated in a similar manner with either of the following so- lutions: (1) Siam benzoin 1 ounce Storax 3 drachms Olibanum 2 scruples Mastic 2 scruples Cascarilla 2 dracnms Vanilla 1 drachm Rectified spirit 8 ounces Bruise the solids and macerate in the spirit 5 days, filter, and add Oil of cinnamon. ... 8 parts Oil of cloves 8 parts Oil of bergamot .... 5 parts Oil of neroli 5 parts Mix. (2) Benzoin li ounces Sandalwood 1 ounce Spirit 8 ounces Macerate as No. 1, and add Essence of vetiver . . 3 ounces Oil of lemon grass. . 40 drops Mix. After the paper is dry, cut up into suitable sized pieces to go into commer- cial envelopes. II. — Benzoin 1 av. ounce Storax 1 av. ounce Fumigating e s - sence 2 fluidounces Ether 1 fluidounce Acetic acid, glacial 20 drops Alcohol 2 fluidounces Dissolve the benzoin and storax in a mixture of the alcohol and ether, filter and add the fumigating and the acetic acid. Spread the mixture upon filtering or bibulous paper and allow it to dry. To prevent sticking, dust the surface with talcum and preserve in wax paper. When used the paper is simply warmed, or held over a lamp. III.— Musk 0.2 parts Oil of rose 1 part Benzoin 100 parts Myrrh 12 parts Orris root 250 parts Alcohol (SiO per cent) 500 parts IV. — Benzoin 80 parts Balsam Tolu 20 parts Storax 20 parts Sandal wood 20 parts Myrrh 10 parts Cascarilla bark. . . 20 parts Musk 0.2 parts Alcohol 250 parts ■ Fumigating Ribbon. — I. — Take J-inch cotton tape and saturate it with niter; when dry, saturate with the following tincture : Benzoin 1 ounce Orris root 1 ounce Myrrh 2 drachms Tolu balsam 2 drachms Musk 10 grains Rectified spirit 10 ounces Macerate for a week, filter, and add 10 minims of attar of rose. II. — Another good formula which may also be used for fumigating paper, is: FUMIGANTS 367 Olibanum 2 ounces Storax 1 ounce Benzoin 6 drachms Peruvian balsam... J ounce Tolu balsam 3 drachms Rectified spirit 10 ounces Macerate 10 days, and filter. Perfumed Fumigating Pastilles. — I. — Vegetable charcoal . . 6 ounces Benzoin 1 ounce Nitrate of potash ... J ounce Tolu balsam 2 drachms Sandalwood 2 drachms Mucilage of tragacanth, a suffi- ciency. Reduce the solids to fine powder, mix, and make into a stiff paste with the mu- cilage. Divide this into cones 25 grains in weight, and dry with a gentle heat. II. — Powdered willow charcoal 8 ounces Benzoic acid 6 ounces Nitrate of potash .. . 6 drachms Oil of thyme J drachm Oil of sandal wood. . j drachm Oil of caraway i draclim Oil of cloves i drachm Oil of lavender J drachm Oil of rose j drachm Rose water 10 ounces Proceed as in I, but this recipe is better for the addition of 20 grains of powdered tragacanth. III. — Benzoin 10 av. ounces Charcoal 24 av. ounces Potassium nitrate. 1 av. ounce Sassafras 2 a v. ounces Mucilage of acacia, sufficient. Mix the first four in fine powder, add the mucilage, form a mass, and make into conical pastilles. IV. — Potassium nitrate 375 grains Water 25 fluidounces Charcoal wood, powder 30 av. ounces Tragacanth, pow- der 375 grains Storax 300 grains Benzoin 300 grains Vanillin 8 grains Coumarin 3 grains Musk 3 grains Civet li grains Oil of rose 20 drops Oil of bergamot. 15 drops Oil of ylang-ylang 10 drops Oilof rhodium. . 10 drops Oil of sandal wood 5 drops Oil of cinnamon . 5 drops Oil of orris 1 drop Oil of cascarilla . 1 drop _ Saturate the charcoal with the potas- sium nitrate dissolved in the water, dry the mass, powder, add the other ingre- dients, and mix thoroughly. Beat the mixture to a plastic mass with the addi- tion of sufficient mucilage of tragacanth containing 2 per cent of saltpeter in solution, and form into cone-shaped pastilles. In order to evenly distribute the storax throughout the mass, it may be previously dissolved in a small amount of acetic ether. V. — Benzoin 2 av. ounces Cascarilla 1 av. ounce Myrrh 1 av. ounce Potassium n i - trate J av. ounce Potassium chlo- rate 60 grains Charcoal, wood. 4 av. ounces Oil of cloves. .. . 1 fluidrachm Oil^of cinnamon 1 fluidrachm Oil of lavender. 1 fluidrachm Mucilage of tragacanth, sufficient. Mix the first six ingredients previously reduced to fine powder, add the oils, and then incorporate enough mucilage to form a mass. Divide this into pastilles weighing about 60 grains and dry. VI. — Charcoal, pow- der 30 av. ounces Potassium ni- trate J av. ounce Water 33 fluidounces Tragacanth, powder 300 grains Tincture of benzoin IJ fluidounces Peru balsam . . 300 grains Storax, crude. . 300 grains Tolu balsam . . 300 grains Oleo-balsamic mixture 2J fluidrachms Coumarin .... 8 grains Saturate the charcoal with the potas- sium nitrate dissolved in the water, then dry, reduce to powder, and incorporate the tragacanth and then the remaining ingredients. Form a mass by the addi- tion of sufficient mucilage of tragacanth containing 2 per cent of potassium nitrate in solution and divide into pas- tilles. VII. — Powdered nitrate of potassium i ounce Powdered gum ara- ble i ounce Powdered cascarilla bark (fresh) ..... i ounce Powdered benzoin (fresh) 4 ounces 368 FURS— GARDENS, CHEMICAL Powdered charcoal. 7 ounces Oil of eucalyptus. . . 25 drops Oil of cloves 25 drops Water, a, sufficiency. Make a smooth paste, press into molds and dry. FURS: To Clean Furs. — For dark furs, warm a quantity of new bran in a pan, taking care that it does not burn, to prevent which it must be briskly stirred. When well warmed rub it thoroughly into the fur with the hand. Repeat this 2 or 3 times, then shake the fur, and give it another sharp rubbing until free from dust. For white furs: Lay them on a table, and rub well with bran made moist with warm water; rub until quite dry, and afterwards with dry bran. The wet bran should be put on with flannel, then dry with book muslin. Light furs, in addition to the above, should be well rubbed with magnesia or a piece of book muslin, after the bran process, against the way of the fur. To Preserve Furs. — I. — Furs may be preserved from moths and other insects by placing a little colocynth pulp (bitter apple), or spice (cloves, pimento, etc.), wrapped in muslin, among them; or they may be washed in a very weak solution of corrosive sublimate in warm water (10 to 15 grains to the pint), and after- wards carefully dried. As well as every other species of clothing, they should be kept in a clean, dry place, from which they should be taken out occasionally, well beaten, exposed to the air, and re- turned. II. — Sprinkle the furs or woolen stuffs, as well as the drawers or boxes in which they are kept, with spirits of tur- pentine, the unpleasant scent of which will speedily evaporate on exposure of the stuffs to the air. Some persons place sheets of paper moistened with spirits of turpentine, over, under, or between pieces of cloth, etc., and find it a very effectual method. Many woolen drapers put bits of camphor, the size of a nutmeg, in papers, on different parts of the shelves in their shops, and as they brush their cloths every 2, 3, or 4 months, this keeps them free from moths; and this should be done in boxes where the furs, etc., are put. A tallow candle is frequently put within each muff when laid by. Snuff or pepper is also good. FURNACE JACKET. A piece of asbestos millboard — 10 inches by 4 inches by | inch — is per- forated in about a dozen or more places with glycerined cork borers, then nicked about an inch from each short end and immersed in water until saturated; next the board is bent from the nicks at right angles and the perforated portion shaped by bending it over a bottle with as little force as possible. The result should be a perforated arched tunnel, resting on narrow horizontal ledges at each side. Dry this cover in the furnace, after set- ting it in position, and pressing it well to the supports. Three such covers, weigh- ing 1 pound, replaced 24 fire clay tiles, weighing 13 pounds, and a higher tem- perature was obtained than with the latter. FURNITURE CLEANERS: See Cleaning Preparations and Meth- ods. FURNITURE, ITS DECORATION: See Wood. FURNITURE ENAMEL: See Varnishes. FURNITURE POLISHES: See Polishes. FURNITURE WAX: See Waxes. FUSES: See Pyrotechnics. FUSES FOR ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS: See Alloys. FUNNELS, TO CLEAN: See Cleaning Preparations and Meth- ods. GALVANIZED PAPER: See Paper, Metallic. GAMBOGE STAIN: See Lacquers. GAPES IN POULTRY: See Veterinary Formulas. GARANCINE PROCESS: See Dyes. GARDENS, CHEMICAL: See also Sponges. I. — Put some sand into a fish-globe or other suitable glass vessel to the depth of 2 or 3 inches ; in this place a few pieces of sulphate of copper, aluminum, and iron; pour over the whole a solution of sodium silicate (water glass), 1 part, and water, 3 parts, care being taken not to disar- range the chemicals. Let this stand a week or so, when a dense growth of the silicates of the various bases used will be seen in various colors. Now displace GARDENS, CHEMICAL— GELATIN 369 the solution of the sodium silicate with clear water, by conveying a stream of water through a very small rubber tube into the vessel. The water will gradu- ally displace the sodium silicate solution. Care must be taken not to disarrange or break down the growth with the stream of water. A little experimenting, ex- perience and expertness will enable the operator to produce a very pretty garden. II. — This is a permanent chemical garden, which may be suspended by brass chains with a lamp behind. Prepare a small beaker or jar full of cold saturated solution of Glauber's salt, and into the solution suspend by means of threads a kidney bean and a non-por- ous body, such as a marble, stone, glass, etc. Cover the jar, and in a short time there will be seen radiating from the bean small crystals of sulphate of sodium which will increase ana give the bean the aspect of a sea urchin, while the non- Eorous body remains untouched. The ean appears to have a special partiality tor the crystals, which is due to the ab- sorption of water by the bean, but not of the salt. In this way a supersaturated solution is formed in' the immediate neighborhood of the bean, and the crys- tals, in forming, attach themselves to its surface. III. — A popular form of ornamental crystallization is that obtained by im- mersing a zinc rod in a solution of a lead salt, thus obtaining the "lead tree." To prepare this, dissolve lead acetate in water, add a few drops of nitric acid, and then suspend the zinc rod in the solution. The lead is precipitated in large and beautiful plates until the solution is ex- hausted or the zinc dissolved. In this case the action is electro-chemical, the first portions of the lead precipitated forming with the zinc a voltaic arrange- ment of sufficient power to decompose the salt. It is said that by substituting chloride of tin for the lead salt a"tin tree" may be produced, while nitrate of silver under the same conditions would produce a "silver tree." In the latter case dis- tilled water should be used to prevent precipitation of the silver by possible impurities contained in ordinary water. GAS FIXTURES: See Brass. GAS FIXTURES, BRONZING OF: See Plating. GAS SOLDERING: See Soldering. GAS-STOVES, TO CLEAN: See Cleaning Preparations and Meth- ods. GAS TRICK: See Pyrotechnics. GEAR LUBRICANT: See Lubricants. GELATIN: French Gelatin. — Gelatin is derived from two sources, the parings of skins, hides, etc., and from bones. The latter are submitted to the action of dilute hydrochloric acid for several days, which attacks the inorganic matters — car- bonates, phosphates, etc., and leaves the ossein, which is, so to say, an isomer of the skin substance. The skin, parings of hide, etc., gathered from the shambles, butcher shops, etc., are brought into the factory, and if not ready for immediate use are thrown into quicklime, which preserves them forthetime being. From the lime, after washing, they pass into dilute acid, which removes the last traces of lime, and are now ready for the treat- ment that is to furnish the pure gelatin. The ossein from bones goes through the same stages of treatment, into lime, washed and laid in dilute acid again. From the acid bath the material goes into baths of water maintained at a temperature not higher than from 175° to 195° F. The gelatin manufacturer buys from the button-makers and manufacturers of knife handles and bone articles gen- erally, those parts of the bone that they cannot use, some of which are pieces 8 inches lone by a half inch thick. Bones gathered by the ragpickers fur- nish the strongest glue. The parings of skin, hide, etc., are from those portions of bullock hides, calf skins, etc., that cannot be made use of by the tanner, the heads, legs, etc. . The gelatin made by Coignet for the Pharmacie Centrale de France is made from skins procured from the tawers of Paris, who get it -directly from the abat- toirs, which is as much as to say that the material is guaranteed fresh and healthy, since these institutions are under rigid inspection and surveillance of govern- ment inspectors and medical men. There is a gelatin or glue, used ex- clusively for joiners, inside carpenters, and ceiling makers (plafonneurs), called rabbit vermicelli, and derived from rab- bit skins. As the first treatment of these skins is to saturate them with mercury bichloride, it is needless to say the prod- uct is not employed in pharmacy. 870 GELATIN— GEMS To Clarify Solutions of Gelatin, Glues, etc. — If 1 per cent of ammonium fluoride be added to turbid solutions of gelatin or common glue, or, in fact, of any gums, it quickly clarifies them. It causes a dep- osition of ligneous matter, and also very materially increases the adhesive power of such solutions. Air Bubbles in Gelatin. — The pres- ence of minute air bubbles in cakes of commercial gelatin often imparts to them an unpleasant cloudy appearance. These minute air bubbles are the result of the rapid, continuous process of drying the sheets of gelatin by a counter-cur- rent of hot air. Owing to the rapid drying a hard skin is formed on the out- side of the cake, leaving a central layer from which the moisture escapes only with difficulty, and in which the air bub- bles remain behind. Since the best qual- ities of gelatin dry most rapidly, the presence of these minute bubbles is, to a certain extent, an indication of supe- riority, and they rarely occur in the poorer qualities of gelatin. If dried slowly in the old way gelatin is liable to be dam- aged by fermentation; in such cases large bubbles of gas are formed in the sheets, and are a sign of bad quality. GEMS, ARTIFICIAL: See also Diamonds. The raw materials for the production of artificial gems are the finest silica and, as a rule, finely ground rock crystals; white sand and quartz, which remain pure white even at a higher temperature, may also be used. Artificial borax is given the preference, since the native variety frequently con- tains substances which color the glass. Lead carbonate or red lead must be per- fectly pure and not contain any protoxide, since the latter gives the glass a dull, freenish hue. White lead and red lead ave to dissolve completely in dilute nitric acid or without leaving a residue; the so- lution, neutralized as much as possible, must not be reddened by prussiate of pot- ash. In the former case tin is present, in the latter copper. Arsenious acid and salt- peter must be perfectly pure; they serve for the destruction of the organic sub- stances. The materials, without the col- oring oxide, furnish the starting quantity for the production of artificial gems ; such glass pastes are named "strass." The emerald, a precious stone of green color, is imitated by melting 1,000 parts of strass and 8 parts of chromic oxide. Artificial emeralds are also obtained with cupric acid and ferric oxides, con- sisting of 43.84 parts of rock crystal; 21.92 parts of dry sodium carbonate ; 7.2 parts of calcined and powdered borax; 7.2 parts of red lead; 3.65 parts of salt- peter; 1.21 parts of red feme oxide, and 0.6 parts of green copper carbonate. Agates are imitated by allowing frag- ments of variously colored pastes to flow together, and stirring during the deli- quation. The amethyst is imitated by mixing 300 parts of a glass frit with 0.6 parts of gray mangfanese ore, or from 300 parts of frit containing 0.8 per cent of manganic oxide, 36.5 parts of saltpeter, 15 parts of borax, and 15 parts of minium (red lead). A handsome amethyst is obtained by melting together 1,000 parts of strass, 8 parts of manganese oxide, 5 parts of cobalt oxide, and 2 parts of gold purple. Latterly, attempts have also been made to produce very hard glasses for imitation stones from alumina and borax with the requisite coloring agents. Besides imitation stones there are also produced opaque glass pastes bearing the name of the stones they resemble, e. g., aventurine, azure -stone (lapis lazuh), chrysoprase, turquoise, obsidian, etc. For these, especially pure materials, as belonging to the most important ingre- dients of glassy bodies, are used, and certain quantities of red lead and borax are also added. GEM CEMENTS: See Adhesives, undei Jewelers' Ce- ments. GERMAN SILVER: See Alloys. GERMAN SILVER SOLDERS: See Solders. GILDING: See Paints, Plating, and Varnishes. GILDING GLASS: See Glass. GILDING, TO CLEAN: See Cleaning Preparations and Meth- ods. GILDING, RENOVATION OF: See Cleaning Compounds. GILDING SUBSTITUTE: See Plating. GILT, TEST FOR: See Gold. GILT WORK, TO BURNISH: See Gold. GIN LIQUEUR: See Wines and Liquors. GLASS 871 GUTGERADE: See Beverages. GIUGER ALE AND GINGER BEER: See Beverages. GINGER CORDIAL: See Wines and Liquors. GINGER EXTRACTS: See Essences and Extracts. Glass Bent Glass. — This was formerly used for show cases; its use in store fronts is becoming more and more familiar, large plates being bent for this purpose. It is much used in the construction of dwell- ings, in windows, or rounded corners, and in towers; in coach fronts and in rounded front china closets. Either plain glass or beveled glass may be bent, and to any curve. The number of molds required in a glass-bending establishment is large. The bending is done in a kiln. Glass melts at 2,300° F.; the heat employed in bending is 1 ,800° F. No pyrometer would stand long in that heat, so the heat of the kiln is judged from the color of the flame and other indications. Smaller pieces of glass are put into the molds in the kilns with forks made for thepurpose. The great molds used for bending large sheets of glass are mounted on cars, that may be rolled in and out of kilns. The glass is laid upon the top of the mold or cavity, and is bent by its own weight. As it is softened by the heat it sinks into the mold and so is bent. It may take an hour or two to bend the glass, which is then left in the kiln from 24 to 36 hours to anneal and cool. Glass of any kind or size is put into the kilns in its finished state; the great heat to which it is sub- jected does not disturb the polished sur- face. Despite every precaution more or less glass is broken in bending. Bent glass costs about 50 per cent more than the flat. The use of bent glass is increasing, and there are 4 or 5 glass-bending estab- lishments in the United States, of which one is in the East. Colored Glass. — R. Zsigmondy has made some interesting experiments in coloring glass with metallic sulphides, such as molybdenite, and sulphides of antimony, copper, bismuth, and nickel. Tests made with batches of 20 to 40 pounds and with a heat not too great, give good results as follows: Sand, 65 parts; potash, 15 parts; soda. 5 parts; lime, 9 parts; molybdenite, 3 parts; sulphide of sodium, 2 parts, gave a dark reddish-brown glass. In thinner layers this glass appeared light brownish yellow. Flashed with opal, it became a smutty black brown. Sand, 50 parts; potash, 15 parts; soda, 5 parts; lime, 9 parts; molybdenite, 1 part; sulphide of sodium, 2 parts, gave a yellow glass. Sand, 10 parts; potash, 3.3 parts; soda, 0.27 parts; lime, 1.64 parts; molybdenite, 0.03 parts, gave a reddish-yellow glass with a fine tinge of red. Sand, 100 parts; potash, 26 parts; soda, 108 parts; lime, 12 parts; sulphide of cop- per, 1.7 parts; sulphide of sodium, 2.3 parts, gave a dark-brown color, varying from sepia to sienna. In thick layers it was no longer transparent, but still clear and unclouded. When heated this glass became smutty black brown and clouded. A fine copper red was obtained from sand, 10 parts; potash, 3 parts; lime, 1.2 parts; soda, 0.'-^5 parts; sulphide of cop- per, 7.5 parts; sulphide of sodium, 10.5 parts; borax, 9.5 parts. Attempts to color with sulphides of antimony and bismuth failed. But the addition of 7 per cent of sulphide of nickel to an ordinary batch gave a glass of fine amethyst color. Coloring Electric-Light Bulbs and Globes.' — Two substances suggest them- selves as excellent vehicles of color, and both water soluble — water glass (po- tassium or sodium silicate) and gelatin. For tinting, water-soluble aniline colors should.be tried. The thickness of the solution must be a matter of experimenta- tion. Prior to dipping the globes they should be made as free as possible from all grease, dirt, etc. The gelatin solu- tion should not be so thick that any appreciable layer of it will form on the surface of the glass, and to prevent cracking, some non-drying material should be added to it, say glycerine. Rose-Tint Glass. — Selenium is now used for coloring glass. Rose-tinted glass is made by adding selenium directly to the ingredients in the melting pot. By mixing first with cadmium sulphide, orange red is produced. This process is stated not to require the reheating of the glass and its immersion in the color- ing mixture, as in the ordinary process of making red glass. CUTTING, DRILLING, GRINDING, AND SHAPING GLASS: To Cut Glass. — I. — Glass may be cut without a diamond. Dip a piece of 872 GLASS common string in alcohol and squeeze it reasonably dry. Then tie the string tightly around the glass on the line of cutting. Touch a match to the string and let it burn off. The heat of the burning string will weaken the glass in this particular place. While it is hot plunge the glass under water, letting the arm go well under to the elbow, so there will be no vibration when the glass is struck. With the free hand strike the glass outside the line of cutting, giving a quick, sharp stroke with a stick of wood, a long-bladed knife, or the like, and the cut will be as clean and straight as if made by a regular glass cutter. The same principle may be employed to cut bottles into vases, and to form all sorts of pretty things, such as jewelry boxes, picture panes, trays, small tablets, windows for a doll house, etc. II. — Scratch the glass around the shape you desire with the corner of a file or graver; then, having bent a piece of wire into the same shape, heat it red hot and lay it upon the scratch and sink the glass into cold water just deep enough for the water to come almost on a level with its upper surface. It will rarely fail to break perfectly true. To Cut Glass Under Water.— It is possible to cut a sheet of glass roughly to any desired shape with an ordinary pair of scissors, if the operation be per- formed under water. Of course, a smooth edge cannot be obtained by such means, but it will be found satisfactory. Drilling, Shaping, and Filing Glass. — Take any good piece of steel wire, file to the shape of a drill, and then hold it in a flame till it is at a dull red heat; then quench in metallic mercury. A piece of good steel, thus treated, will bore through glass almost as easily as through soft brass. In use, lubricate with oil of turpentine in which camphor has been dissolved. When the point of the drill has touched the other side put the glass in water, and proceed with the drilling very slowly. If not possible to do this, reverse the work — turn the glass over and drill, very carefully, from the op- posite side. By proceeding with care you can easily drill three holes through glass -,\ inch thick J of an inch apart. In making the drill be careful not to make the point and the cutting edges too acute. The drill cuts more slowly, but more safe- ly, when the point and cutting edges are at a low angle. To Make Holes in Thin Glass.— To produce holes in panes of thin or weak glass, provide the places to be perforated with a ring of moist loam, whose center leaves free a portion of glass exactly the size of the desired hole. Pour molten lead into the ring, and the glass and lead will fall through at once. This process is based upon the rapid heating of the glass. To Grind Glass.— For the grinding of glass, iron, or steel laps and fine sand are first used; after that, the sand is re- placed by emery. Then the polishing IS started with pure lead or pure tin laps, and finished with willow wood laps. The polishing powder is tin putty, but per- oxide of iron or dioxide of tin is a good polishing medium. Pohl asserts that if glass is polished with crocus (Paris red) it appears of a dark or a yellowish-brown tint. He con- tends that the crocus enters the pores of the glass, and, to prevent this, ne uses zinc white with the most satisfactory results. A Home -Made Outfit for Grinding Glass. — Provide two pieces of cork, one concave and one convex (which may be cut to shape after fitting to the lathe). Take a copper cent or other suitable article and soft-solder a screw to fit the lathe, and then wax it to the cork; get a cheap emery wheel, such as is used on sewing machines. Polish the edge on the zinc collar of the emery wheel (or use a piece of zinc). The other cork should be waxed to a penny and centered. Spectacle lenses may be cut on the same emery wheel if the wheel is attached to the lathe so as to revolve. Another method is to take a common piece of window glass (green glass is the best) and make a grindstone of that, using the flat surface for grinding. Cement it on a large chuck, the glass being from 2 to 2 J inches in diameter. To Drill Optical Glass. — A graver sharpened to a long point is twisted between the fingers, and pressed against the glass, the point being moistened from time to time with turpentine. When the hole is finished half way, the drilling should be commenced from the other side. The starting should be be- gun with care, as otherwise the graver IS likely to slide out and scratch the lens. It is advisable to mark the point of drill- ing with a. diamond, and not to apply too great a pressure when twisting the graver. Lubricants for Glass Drilling. — 1. — jrut garlic, chopped in small pieces, into spirit of turpentine and agitate the mix- GLASS 873 ture from time to time. Filter at the end of a fortnight, and when you desire to pierce the glass dip your bit or drill into this liquitC taking care to moisten it constantly to prevent the drill, etc., from becoming heated. _II. — Place a little alum in acetic acid, dip your drill into this and put a drop of it on the spot where the glass is to be pierced. GILDING GLASS. When it is desired to gild glass for decorative purposes use a solution of gelatin in hot water, to which an equal quantity of alcohol has been added. The glass to be gilded is covered with this solution and the gold leaf put on while wet. A sheet of soft cotton must be pressed and smoothed over the leaf until the gelatin below is evenly distrib- uted. This prevents spots in gilding. Careful apportionment of the gelatin is necessary. If too much be used, the gold may become spotted; if too little, the binding may be too weak to allow the gold to be polished. The glass should be cleaned thoroughly before gilding. After the gold leaf is put on the whole is allowed to dry for 10 or 20 minutes, when the luster of the gold can be raised by a cautious rubbing with cotton. Then another layer of gelatin is spread on with one stroke of a soft brush, and, if espe- cially good work be required, a second layer of gold is put on and covered as before. In this case, however, the gela- tin is used hot. After the gilding has become perfectly dry the letters or orna- mentation are drawn and the surplus gold around the edges is taken off. The gilding docs not become thoroughly fixed until after several months, and until then rough handling, washing, etc., should be avoided. The best backing for glass gilding is asphaltum, with a Tittle lampblack, this to be mixed up with elastic varnish; outside finishing varnish is the best, as the addition of this material gives dur- ability. GLASS MANUFACTURING: See also Ceramics. The blue tint of the common poison bottle is got by the addition of black oxide of cobalt to the molten glass; the green tint of the actinic glass bottle is obtained in the same way by the ad- dition of potassium bichromate, which is reduced to the basylous condition, and the amber tint is produced by the ad- dition of impure manganese dioxide, a superior tint being produced by suphur in one form or another. The formulas for various kinds of bottle glass, which indicate the general composition of almost all glasses, are: White Glass for Ordinary Molded Bottles.— Sand. 641 Lime g Parts Carbonate of sodium iaf .y, Nitrate of sodium r,) *™gn'- White Flint Glass Containing Lead.— Sand c.*?" Lime r, Parts Carbonate of sodium.. . •i\ - by Nitrate of sodium 3 weight. Red lead 8} Ordinary Green Glass for Dispensing Bottles.— Sand 631 Parts Carbonaie of M)(iium . , . . 26 j- by Lime nj weight. A mixture for producing a good green flint glass is much the same as that for the ordinary white flint glass, except that the lime, instead of being the purest, is ordinary slaked lime, and the sodium nitrate is omitted. Sand, lime, and sodium carbonate are the ordinary bases of glass, while the sodium nitrate is the decolorizing agent. Glass. Refractory to Heat. — Fine sand, 70 parts; potash, 30 parts; kaolin, 25 parts. Transparent Ground Glass. —Take hold of the glass by one corner with an ordinary pair of fire tongs. Hold it in front of a clear fire, and heat to about 98° F., or just hot enough to be held comfortably in the hand. Then hold the glass horizontally, ground side upper- most, and pour in the center a little photographer's dry-plate negative var- nish. Tilt the glass so that the va.^nish spreads over it evenly, then drain back the surplus varnish into the bottle from one corner of the glass. Hold the glass in front of the fire again for a few minutes and the varnish will crystallize on its surface, making it transparent. The glass should not be made too hot before the varnish is put on, or the varnish will not run evenly. This method answers very well for self-made magic-lantern slides. Ground glass may be made temporarily transparent by wiping with a sponge dipped in paraflSne or glycerine. WATER-TIGHT GLASS r Water-Tight Glass Roofs.— Glass roofs, the skeletons of which are constructed 874 GLASS of iron, are extremely difficult to keep water-tight, as the iron expands and contracts with atmospheric changes. To meet this evil, it is necessary to use an elastic putty, which follows the vari- ations of tne iron. A good formula is: Two parts rosin and one part tallow, melted together and stirred together thoroughly with a little minium. This putty is applied hot upon strips of linen or cotton cloth, on top and below, and these are pasted while the putty is still warm, with one edge on the iron ribs and the other, about one-fourth inch broad, over the glass. Tightening Agent for Acid Receptacles. — Cracked vessels of glass or porcelain, for use in keeping acids, can be made tight by applying a cement prepared in the following manner: Take finely sifted sand, some asbestos with short fiber, a little magnesia and add enough con- centrated water glass to obtain a readily kneadable mass. The acid renders the putty firm and waterproof. PENCILS FOR MARKING GLASS: See also Etching and Frosted Glass. Crayons for Writing on Glass. — I. — The following is a good formula: Spermaceti 4 parts Tallow 3 parts Wax 2 parts Red lead 6 parts Potassium carbonate. 1 part Melt the spermaceti, tallow, and wax together over a slow fire, and when melted stir in, a little at a time, the potassium carbonate and red lead, previ- ously well mixed. Continue the heat for 20 or 30 minutes, stirring constantly. Withdraw from the source of heat, and let cool down somewhat, under constant stir- ring, at the temperature of about 180° F. ; before the mixture commences to set, pour off into molds and let cool. The latter may be made of bits of glass tubing of convenient diameter and length. After the mixture cools, drive the crayons out by means of a rod that closely fits the diameter of the tubes. II. — Take sulphate of copper, 1 part, and whiting, 1 part. Reduce these to a fine powder and mix with water; next roll tnis paste into the shape of crayons and let dry. When it is desired to write on the glass use one of these crayons and wipe the traced designs. To make them reappear breathe on the glass. III. — Melt "together, spermaceti, 3 parts; talc, 3 parts, and wax, 2 parts. When melted stir in 6 parts of minium and 1 part of caustic potash. Continue heating for 30 minutes, then cast in suit- able molds. When formed and ready to be put away dust them with talc pow- der, or roll each pencil in paraffine powder. PREVENTION OF FOGGING, DIM- MING, AND CLOUDING. I. — Place a few flat glass or porcelain dishes with calcium chloride in each window. This substance eagerly ab- sorbs all moisture from the air. The contents of the dishes have to be re- newed every 2 or 3 days, and the moist calcium chloHde rigorously dried, where- upon it may be used over again. II. — Apply to the inside face of the glass a thin layer of glycerine, which does not permit the vapor to deposit in fine drops and thus obstruct the light. Double glass may also be used. In this way the heat of the inside is not in direct contact with the cold outside. III. — By means of the finger sightly moistened, apply a film of soap of any brand or kind to the mirror; then rub this off with a clean, dry cloth; the mirror will be as bright and clear as ever; breathing on it will not affect its clear- ness. IV. — Window glass becomes dull dur- ing storage by reason of the presence of much alkali. This can be avoided by taking sand, 160 parts; calcined sodium sulphate, 75; powdered marble, 50; and coke, 4 to 5 parts. About 3 parts of the sodium sulphate may be replaced by an equal quantity of potash. FROSTED GLASS. I. — A frosted appearance may be given to glass by covering it with a mixture of Magnesium sulphate. 6 ounces Dextrin 2 ounces Water 20 ounces _ When this solution dries, the magne- sium sulphate crystallizes in fine needles. II- — Another formula directs a strong solution of sodium or magnesium sul- phate, applied warm, and afterwards coated with a thin solution of acacia. III.— A more permanent "frost" may be put on the glass by painting with white lead and oil, either smooth or in stipple effect. The use of lead acetate with oil gives a more pleasing effect, perhaps, than the plain white lea,d. ly. — If still greater permanency is desired, the glass may be ground by rubbing with some gritty substance. GLASS 375 v.— For a temporary frosting, dip a pierc of flat marble into glass cutter's sharp sand, moistened with water; rub over the glass, dipping frequently in sand and water. If the frosting is re- quired very fine, finish off with emery and water. Mix together a strong, hot solution of Epsom salt and a clear solu- tion of gum arable; apply warm. Or use a strong solution of sodium sulphate, warm, and when cool, wash ■with gum water. Or daub the glass with a lump of glazier's putty, carefully and uniform- Iv, until the surface is equally covered. I'his is an excellent imitation of ground glass, and is not disturbed by rain or damp. VI. — This imitates ground glass: Sandarac 2 J ounces Mastic i ounce Ether 24 ounces Benzine 16 to 18 ounces VII. — Take whitelead ground in a mix- ture of J varnish and \ oil of turpentine, to which burnt white vitriol and white sugar of lead are added for drier. The paint must be prepared exceedingly thin and applied to the glass evenly, using a broad brush. If the windows require a new coat, the old one is first removed by the use of a strong Ijfe, or else apply u mixture of hydrochloric acid, 2 parts; vitriol, 2 parts; copper sulphate, 1 part; and gum arable 1 part, by means of a brush. The production of this imitation frosting entails little expense and is of special advantage when a temporary use of the glass is desired. VIII. — A little Epsom salt (sulphate of magnesia) stirred m beer with a small dose of dextrin and applied on the panes by means of a sponge or a brush permits of obtaining mat panes. Hoarfrost Glass. — The feathery foams traced by frost on the inside of the windows in cold weather may be imitated as follows: The surface is first ground either by sand-blast or the ordinary method, and is then covered with a sort of varnish. On being dried either in the sun or by artificial heat, the varnish contracts strongly, taking with it the particles of glass to which it adheres; and as the con- traction takes places along definite lines, the pattern given by the removal of the particles of glass resembles very closely the branching crystals of frostwork. A single coat gives a small, delicate effect, while a thick film, formed by putting on 2, 8 or more coats, contracts so strongly as to produce a large and bold design. By using colored glass, a pattern in half-tint may be made on the colored ground, and after decorating white glass, the back may be silvered oi gilded. Engraving, Matting, and Frosting. — Cover the glass with a layer of wax or of varnish on which the designs are traced with a graver or pen-point; next, hydro- fluoric acid is poured on the tracings. This acid is very dangerous to handle, while the following process, though fur- nishing the same results, does not present this drawback: Take powdered nuoride of lime, 1 part, and sulphuric acid, 2 parts. Make a homogeneous paste, which is spread on th« parts reserved for the engraving or frosting. -Vt the end of 3 or 4 hours wash with water to remove the acid, next with alcohol to take off the varnish, or with essence of turpen- tine if wax has been employed for stop- ping off. To Render Window Panes Opaque. — I. — Panes may be rendered mat and non-transparent by painting them on one side with a liquid prepared by grinding whiting with potash water-glass solution. After one or two applications, the panes are perfectly opaque, while admitting the light. II. — Paint the panes with a solution of Dextrin 2001 Parts Zinc vitriol 800 | ^, Bitter salt 300 |" .^JL. In water 2,000 J ^^'S'''- III. — For deadening panes already set in frames the following is suitable: Dis- solve 1 part of wax in 10 parts of oil of turpentine, adding 1 part of varnish and 1 part of siccative. With this mixture coat the panes on the outside and dab, while still wet, with a pad of cotton wadding. If desired small quantities of Paris blue, madder lake, etc., may be added to the wax solution. IV. — For deadening window panes in factories and workshops: To beeswax dissolved in oil of turpentine, add some dryer and varnish to obtain a quicker drying and hardening. After the win- dow pane has been coated with this mixture on the outside, it is dabbed uniformly with a pad of wadding. The wax may be tinted with glazing colors. Frosted Mirrors. — I. — Cover with a solution of Epsom salts in stale beer; apply with a sponge to the mirror, first wiping it clean and dry. On drying, the Epsom salt crystallizes, giving very hand- some frosted effects, but the solution must not be applied on humid days 376 GLASS when the glass is liable to be damp, for in that case the effect will be a blurred one. When it is desirable to remove the coating, lukewarm water will serve the purpose without damage to the luster of the mirror. II. — The following mixture, when applied to a mirror and left to dry, will form in many shapes, all radiating from a focus, this focus forming anywhere on the glass, and when all dry tends to form a most pleasing object to the eye. Sour ale 4 ounces Magnesium sulphate. 1 ounce Put on the mirror with a small, clean sponge and let dry. It is now ready for the artist, and he may choose his own colors and subject. Crystalline Coatings or Frostwork on Glass or Paper. — Dissolve a small quan- tity of dextrin (gum arable and trag- acanth are not so suitable) in aqueous salt solution as concentrated as possible, for instance, in sulphate of magnesia (bitter salt), sulphate of zinc or any other readily crystallizing salt; filter the solution through white blotting paper and coat glass panes uniformly thin with the clear filtrate, using a fine, broad badger brush; leave them lying at an ordinary medium temperature about one- quarter hour in a horizontal position. As the water slowly evaporates during this short time, handsome crystalline patterns, closely resembling frostwork, will develop gradually on the glass panes, which adhere so firmly to the glass or the paper (if well-sized glazed paper had been used) that they will not rub off easily. They can be permanently fixed by a subsequent coat of alcoholic shellac solution. Especially handsome effects are pro- duced with colored glass panes thus treated, and in the case of reflected light by colored paper. For testing crystals as regards their optical behavior, among others their behavior to polarized light, it is sufficient to pour a solution of collodion wool (soluble peroxide lime for the prepara- tion of collodion) over the surface of glass with the crystalline designs, and to pull off the dry collodion film care- fully. If this is done cautiously it is not diflBcult to lift the whole crystalline group from the glass plate and to in- corporate it with the glass-like, thin collodion film. REMOVING WINDOW FROST. Here are fourteen methods of prevent- ing frost on windows, arrangecf in the order of their efficacy: 1, Flame of an alco- hol lamp; 2, sulphuric acid; 3, aqua ammonia; 4, glycerine; 5, aqua regia; 6, hydrochloric acid; 7, benzine; 8, hydri- oaic acid; 9, boric acid; 10, alcohol; 11, nitric acid; 12, cobalt nitrate; 13, in- fusion of nutgalls; 14, tincture of ferrous sulphate. By the use of an alcohol lamp (which, of course, has to be handled with great care) the results are immediate, and the, effect more nearly permanent than by any other methods. The sul- phuric acid application is made with a cotton cloth swab, care being taken not to allow any dripping, and so with all other acids. The effect of the aqua ammonia is almost instantaneous, but the window is frosted again in a short time. With the glycerine there are very good results — but slight stains on the window which may be easily removed. The instructions for glycerine are: Dissolve 2 ounces of glycerine in 1 quart of 62 per cent alcohol containing, to improve the odor, some oil of amber. When the mixture clarifies it is rubbed over the inner surface of the glass. This, it is claimed, not only prevents the formation of frost, but also prevents sweating. To Prevent Dimming of Eyeglasses, etc. — Mix olein-potash soap with about 3 per cent of glycerine and a little oil turpentine. Similar mixtures have also been recommended for polishing physi- cians' reflectors, show-windows, etc., to prevent dimming. WRITING ON GLASS: See also Etching and Inks. Composition for Writing on Glass. — To obtain mat designs on glass, take sodium fluoride, 35 parts; potassium sul- phate, 7 parts; zinc chloride, IS parts; hydrochloric acid, 63 parts; distilled water, 1,000 parts. Dissolve the sodium fluoride and the potassium sulphate in half the water; dissolve the zinc chloride in the remaining water and add the hydrochloric acid. Preserve these two solutions separately. For use, mix a little of each solution and write on the glass with a pen or brush. Ink for Writing on Glass.— Shellac 20 parts Alcohol 150 parts Borax 35 parts Water 250j)arts Water-soluble dye sufficient to color. Dissolve the shellac in the alcohol, the borax in the water, and pour the shellac GLASS— GLAZES <3/ / solution slowly into that of the borax. Then add the coloring matter previously dissolved in a little water. GLASS AND GLASSWARE CEMENT: See Adhesives and Amalgams. GLASS CLEANERS: See Cleaning Preparations and Meth- ods. GLASS, COPPERING, GILDING, AND PLAXmG: See Plating. GLASS ETCHING: See Etching. GLASS, HOW TO AFFIX SIGN-LET- TERS ON: See Adhesives under Sign-Letter Cements. GLASS, FASTENING METALS ON: See Adhesives. GLASS LETTERING: See Lettering. GLASS LUBRICANTS: See Lubricants. GLASS, PERCENTAGE OF LIGHT AB- SORBED BY: See Light. GLASS POLISHES: See Polishes. GLASS, SILVERING OF: See Mirrors. , GLASS SOLDERS: See Solders. GLASS, SOLUBLE, AS A CEMENT: See Adhesives. GLASS, TO AFFIX PAPER ON: See Adhesives, under Water-Glass Cements. GLASS, TO SILVER: See Silver. Glazes (See also Ceramics, Enamels, Faints, and Varnishes.) Glazes for Cooking Vessels. — Melt a frit of red lead, 22.9 parts (by weight); crystallized boracic acid, 31 parts; enamel soda, 42.4 parts; cooking salt, 10 parts; gravel, 12 parts; feldspar, 8 parts. According to the character of the clay, this frit is mixed with varying quantities of sand, feldspar and kaolin, in the following manner: Frit 84 84 84 84 Red lead 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 Gravel 8 6 3 Feldspar 2 5 8 Kaolin, burnt. 6.5 6.5 6.5 6.5 Glazes which are produced without addition of red lead to the frit, are pre- pared as follows. Melt a frit of the following composition: Red lead, 22.9 parts (by weight); boracic acid in crystals, 24.8 parts; enamel soda, 37.1 parts; calcined potash, 6.9 parts; cook- ing salt, 10 parts; chalk, 10 parts; gravel, 12 parts; feldspar, 8 parts. From the frit the following glazes are prepared: Frit 86.5 86.5 86.5 86.6 Gravel 7 4.5 3 Feldspar 2.54 7 Kaolin, burnt. 6.5 6.5 6.5 6.5 Glazing on Size Colors. — The essential condition for this work is a well-sized foundation. For the glazing paint, size is likewise used as a binder, but a little dissolved soap is added, of about the strength employed for coating ceilings. Good veining can be done with this, and a better effect can be produced in execut- ing pieces which are to appear in relief, such as car-touches, masks, knobs, etc., than with the ordinary means. A skill- ful grainer may also impart to the work the pleasant luster of natural wood. The same glazing method is applicable to colored paintings. If the glazing colors are prepared with wax, dissolved in French turpentine, one may likewise glaze with them on a size-paint ground. Glazing tube-oil colors thinned with turpentine and siccative, are also useful for this purpose. For the shadows, asphalt and van Dyke brown are recom- mended, while the contour may be painted with size-paint. Coating Metallic Surfaces with Glass. — Metallic surfaces may be coated with glass by melting together 125 parts (by weight) of flint-glass fragments, 20 parts of sodium carbonate, and 12 parts of boracic acid. The molten mass is next poured on a hard and cold surface, stone or metal. After it has cooled, it is pow- dered. Make a mixture of 50° Be. of this powder and sodium silicate (water glass). The metal to be glazed is coated with this and heated in a muffle or any other oven until the mixture melts and can be evenly distributed. This glass coating adheres firmly to iron and steel. Glaze for Bricks. — A glazing color for bricks patented in Germany is a compo- 378 GLAZES— GLYCERINE sition of 12 parts (by weight) lead; 4 parts litharge; 3 parts quartzose sand; 4 parts white argillaceous earth; 2 parts kitchen salt; 2 parts finely crushed glass, and 1 part saltpeter. These ingredients are all reduced to a powder and then mixed with a suitable quantity of water. The color prepared in this manner is said to possess great durability, and to impart a fine luster to the bricks. GLAZES FOR LAUNDRY: See Laundry Preparations. GLOBES, HOW TO COLOR: See Glass-Coloring. GLOBES, PERCENTAGE OF LIGHT ABSORBED BY: See Light. GLOBES, SILVERING OF: See Mirrors. GLOSS FOR PAPER: See Paper. GLOVE-CLEANERS: See Cleaning Compounds. GLOVES, SUBSTITUTE FOR RUBBER : See Antiseptics. GLOVES, TESTING: See Rubber. GLUCOSE IN JELLY: See Foods. Glue (Formulas for Glues and methods of manufacturing Glue will be found under Adhesives.) Rendering Glue Insoluble in Water. — Stuebling finds that the usual mixture of bichromate and glue when used in the ordinary way does not possess the water- proof properties with which it is gener- ally credited. If mixed in the dayhght, it sets hard before it can be applied to the surfaces to be glued, and if mixed and applied in the dark room it remains just as soluble as ordinary glue, the light being unable to penetrate the in- terior of the joints. Neither is a mixture of linseed oil and glue of any use for this purpose. Happening to upset a strong solution of alum — prepared for wood staining — into an adjacent slue pot, he stirred up the two together out of curiosity and left them. Wishing to use the glue a few days later, he tried to thin it down with water, but unsuccess- fully, the glue having set to a waterproof mass. Fresh glue was then mixed with alum solution and used to join two pieces of wood, these resisting the action of the water completely. To Bleach Glue.— Dissolve the glue in water, by heat, and while hot, add a mixture in equal parts of oxalic acid and zinc oxide, to an amount equal to about 1 per cent of the glue. After the color has been removed, strain through muslin. Method of Purifying Glue.— The |lue is soaked in cold water and dissolved in a hot 25 per cent solution of magnesium sulphate. The hot solution is filtered, and to the filtrate is added a 25 per cent solution of magnesium sulphate con- taining 0.5 per cent of hydrochloric acid (or, if necessary, sulphuric acid). A white flocculent precipitate is obtained which is difficult to filter. The re- mainder of the glue in the saline solution is extracted by treatment with magnesium sulphate. The viscous matter is washed, then dissolved in hot water, and allowed to cool, a quantity of weak alcohol acid- ulated by 1 per cent of hydrochloric acid being added just before the mass solidi- fies. Prom 2 to 3 parts, by volume, of strong alcohol (methyl pr ethyl) are then added and the solution filtered, charcoal being used if necessary. The glue is finally precipitated from this solution by neutralizing with ammonia and washing with alcohol or water. To Distinguish Glue and Other Ad- hesive Agents. — The product to be ex- amined is heated with hydrofluoric acid (50 per cent). If bone glue is present in any reasonable quantity, an intense odor of butyric acid arises at once, similar to that of Limburger cheese. But if dextrin or gum arable is present, only an odor of dextrine or fluorhydric acid will be perceptible. Conduct the re- action with small quantities; otherwise the smell will be so strong that it is hard to remove from the room. GLUE CLARIFIER: See Gelatin. Glycerine Recovering Glycerine from Soap Boil- er's Lye. — I. — Glycerine is obtained as a by-product in making soap. For many years the lyes were thrown away as waste, but now considerable quantities of glycerine are recovered, which are much used in making explosive com- pounds. When a metallic salt or one of the alkalies, as caustic soda, is added to tallow, a stearite of the metal (common soap is stearite of sodium) is formed, whereby the glycerine is eliminated. GLYCERINE— GOLD 379 This valuable by-product is contained in the waste lye, and has formed the sub- ject of several patents. Draw the lye off from the soap-pans; this contains a large quantity of water, some salt and soap and a small quantity of glycerine, and the great trouble is to concentrate the lye so that the large cjuantity of water is eliminated, some- times 10 to 12 days being occupied in doing this. The soap and salt are easily removed. To remove the soap, run the lye into a series of tanks alternating in size step- like, so that as the first, which should be the largest, becomes full, the liquor will flow into the second, from that into the third, and so on; by this arrangement the rosinous and albuminous matters will settle, and the soap still contained in the lyes will float on tne surface, from which it is removed by skimming. After thus freeing the lye of the solid impurities, convey the purified lye to the glycerine recovering department (wooden troughs or pipes may be used to do this), and after concentrating by heating it in a steam- jacketed boiler, and allowing it to cool somewhat, ladle out the solid salt that separates, and afterwards con- centrate the lye by allowing it to flow into a tank, but before doing so let the fluid come in contact with a hot blast of air or superheated steam, whereby the crude discolored glycerine is obtained. This is further purified by heatipg with animal charcoal to decolorize it, then distilling several times in copper stills with superheated steam. Tne chief points to attend to are: (1) The neutral- izing and concentrating the lye as much- as possible and then separating the salts and solid matters; (2) concentrating the purified lye, and mixing this fluid with oleic acid, oil, tallow, or lard, and heating the mixture to 338° F., in a still, by steam, and gradually raise the heat to 372° F.; (3) stirring the liquor while being heated, and allowing the aqueous vapor to es- cape, and when thus concentrated, sa- ponifying the liquid with lime to elimi- nate the glycerine; water is at the same time expelled, but this is removed from the glycerine by evaporating the mix- ture. II. — In W. E. Garrigues's patent for the recovering of glycerine from spent soap lyes, the liquid is neutralized with a mineral acid, and after separation of the insoluble fatty acids it is concentrated and then freed from mineral salts and volatile fatty acids, and the concentrat- ed glycerine solution treated with an alkaline substance and distilled. Thus the soap lye may be neutralized with sulphuric acid, and aluminum sulphate added to precipitate the insoluble fatty acids. The filtrate from these is con- centrated and the separated mineral salts removed, after which barium chloride is added and then sufficient sulphuric acid to liberate the volatile fatty acids combined with the alkali. These acids are partially enveloped in the barium sulphate, with which they can be separated from the liquid by filtration, while the remaining portion can be expelled by evaporating the liquid in a vacuum evaporator. Finally, the solution is treated with sodium carbonate, and the glycerine distilled. Glycerine Lotion. — Glycerine 4 ounces Essence bouquet .... } ounce Water 4 ounces Cochineal coloring, a sufficient quantity. (See also Cosmetics for Glycerine Lotions.) GLYCERINE APPLICATIONS: See Cosmetics. GLYCERINE AS A DETERGENT: See Cleaning Preparations and Meth- ods. GLYCERINE PROCESS: See Photography. GLYCERINE SOAP: See Soap. GLYCERINE DEVELOPER: See Photography. GLYCO-THYMOLINE : See Antiseptics. Gold (See also Jewelers' Formulas.) Gold Printing on Oilcloth and Imita- tion Leather. — Oilcloth can very easily be gilt if the right degree of heat is observed. After the engraving has been put in the press, the latter is heated slightly, so that it is still possible to lay the palm of the hand on the heated plate without any unpleasant sensation. Go over the oilcloth with a rag in which a drop of olive oil has been rubbed up, which gives a greasy film. No priming with white of egg or any other priming agent should be done, since the gold leaf would stick. Avoid sprinkling on gild- ing powder. The gold leaf is applied directly on the oilcloth; then place in the lukewarm press, squeezing it down with GOLD a quick jerky motion and opening it at once. If the warm plate remains too long on the oilcloth, the gold leaf will stick. When the impression is done, the gold leaf is not swept off at once, but the oilcloth is first allowed to cool com- pletely for several minutes, since there is a possibility that it has become slightly softened under the influence of the heat, especially at the borders of the pressed figures, and the gold would stick there if swept off immediately. The printing should be sharp and neat and the gold glossy. For bronze printing on oilcloth, a preliminary treatment of printing with varnish ground should be given. The bronze is dusted on this varnish. Imitation leather is generally treated in the same manner. The tough paper substance is made to imitate leather perfectly as regards color and press- ing, especially the various sorts of calf, but the treatment in press gilding differs entirely from that of genuine leather. The stuff does not possess the porous, spongy nature of leather, but on the contrary is very hard, and in the course of manufacture in stained-paper factories is given an almost waterproof coating of color and varnish. Hence the applied ground of white of egg pene- trates but slightly into this substance, and a thin layer of white of egg remains on the surface. The consequence is that in gilding the gold leaf is prone to become attached, the ground of albumen being quickly dissolved under the action of the heat and put in a soft sticky state even in places where there is no en- graving. In order to avoid this the ground is either printed only lukewarm, or this imitation leather is not primed at all, but the gold is applied immediately upon going over the surface with the oily rag. Print with a rather hot press, with about the same amount of heat as is employed for printing shagreen and title paper. A quick jerky printing, avoiding a long pressure of the plate, is necessary. Liquid Gold. — Take an evaporating dish, put into it 880 parts, by weight, of pure gold; then 4,400 parts, by weight, of muriatic acid, and 3,520 parts, by weight, nitric acid; place over a gas flame until the gold is dissolved, and then add to it 22 parts, by weight, of pure tin; when the tin is dissolved add 42 parts, by weight, of butter of antimony. Let all remain over the gas until the mixture begins to thicken. Now put into a glass and test with the hydrometer, which should give about 1,800 specific gravity. Pour into a large 'glass and fill up with water until the hydrometer shows 1090; pour all the solution into a chemical pot and add to it 1,760 parts, by weight, balsam of sulphur, stirring well all the while, and put it over the gas again; in an hour it should give, on testing, 125° F.; gradually increase the heat up to 185° F., when it should be well stirred and then left to cool about 12 hours. Pour the watery fluid into a large vessel and wash the dark-looking mass 5 or 6 times with, hot water; save each lot of water as it contains some portion of gold. Remove all moisture from the dark mass by rolling on a slab and warming before the fire occasionally so as to keep it soft. When quite dry add 2i times its weight of turpentine and put it over a small flame for about 2 hours; then slightly in- crease the heat for another hour and a half. Allow this to stand about 24 hours, and then take a glazed bowl and spread over the bottom of it 1,760 parts, by weight, of finely powdered bismuth; pour the prepared gold over it in several places. Now take a vessel containing water and place inside the other vessel containing the gold, and heat it so as to cause the water to boil for 3 hours; allow it to remain until settled and pour off the gold from the settlings of the bis- muth, and try it; if not quite right con- tinue the last process with bismuth until good; the bismuth causes the gold to adhere. Preparation of Balsam of Sulphur. — Take 16 parts oil of turpentine; SJ parts spirits of turpentine; 8 parts flour of sulphur. Place all in a chemical pot and heat until it boils; continue the boiling until no sulphur can be seen in it; now remove from tne heat and thin it with turpentine until about the thickness of treacle, then warm it again, stirring well; allow it to cool until it reaches 45° F., then test it with the hydrometer, and if specific gravity is not 995 continue the addition of turpentine and warming until correct, let it thoroughly cool, then bottle, keep- ing it air-tight. To Purify Bismuth. — Take 6 parts bismuth metal, J part saltpeter. Melt together in a biscuit cup, pour out on to a slab, and take away all dirt, then grind into a fine powder. To Recover the Gold from the Re- mains of the Foregoing Process. — Put all the "watery" solutions into a large vessel and mix with a filtered saturated solution of copperas; this will cause GOLD S81 u precipitate of pure metallic gold to gradually subside; wash it with cold wuter and dry in an evaporating dish. All rags and settlings that are thick should be burnt in a crucible until a^ yellow mass is seen; then take this and dissolve it in 2 parts muriatic acid and 1 part nitric acid. Let it remain in a porce- lain dish until it begins to thicken, and crystals form on the sides. Add a little nitric acid, and heat until crystals again form. Now take this and mix with cold water, add a solution of copperas to it and allow it to settle; pour off the water, and with fresh water wash till quite free from acid. The gold may then be used again, and if great care is exercised almost one-half the original quantity may be recovered. The quantities given in the recipe should produce about 13 to 1.5 parts of the liquid gold. It does not in use require any burnishing, and should be fired at rose- cofor heat. If desired it can be fluxed with Venice turpentine, oil of lavender, or almonds. Treatment of Brittle Gold.— I.— Add to every 100 parts, by weight, 5 to 8 parts, by weight, of cupric chloride and melt un- til the oily layer which forms has disap- peared. Then pour out, and in most cases a perfectly pliable gold will have been obtained. If this should not be the case after the first fusion, repeat the oper- ation with the same quantity of cupric chloride. The cupric chloride must be kept in a well-closed bottle, made tight with paraffine, and in a dry place. II. — Pass chlorine gas through the molten cold, by which treatment most of the gold which has otherwise been set aside as unfit for certain kinds of work may be redeemed. Assaying of Gold. — To determine the presence of gold in ores, etc., mix a small quantity of the finely powdered ore in a flask with an equal volume of tincture of iodine, shake repeatedly and well, and leave in contact about 1 hour, with repeated shaking. Next allow the mixture to deposit and dip a narrow strip of filtering paper into tlie solution. Allow the paper to absorb, next to dry; then dip it again into the solution, re- peating this 5 to 6 times, so that the filtering paper is well saturated and im- pregnated. The strip is now calcined, as it were, and the ashes, if gold is present, show a, purple color. The coloring disappears immediately if the ashes are moistened with bromine water. The same test may also be modified as follows: Cover the finely pulverized ore with bromine water, shake well and repeatedly during about 1 hour of the contact, and filter. Now add to the solution stannic protochloride in solution, whereby, in case gold is present, a purple color (gold purple of Cassius) will at once appear. In case the ore to be assayed contains sulphides, it is well to roast the ore previously, and should it contain lime carbonate, it is advisable to calcine the ore before in the presence of ammonium carbonate. Gold Welding. — Gold may be welded together with any metal, if the right methods are employed, but best with copper. Some recipes for welding agents are nere given. I. — Two parts by weight (16 ounces equal 1 pound) of green vitriol; 1 part by weight (16 ounces equal 1 pound) of saltpeter; 6 parts by weight (16 ounces equal 1 pound) of common salt; 1 part bv weight (16 ounces equal 1 pouncf) of black manganic oxide or pulverized, and mixed with 48 parts by weight (16 ounces equal 1 pound) of good welding sand. II.— Filings of the metal to be used in welding are mixed with melted borax in the usual proportion. To be applied in the thickness desired. III. — A mixture of 338 parts of sodium phosphate and Hi parts of boracic acid is used when the metal is at dark-red heat. The metal is then to be brought to a bright-red heat, and ham- mered at the same time. The metal easily softens at a high temperature, and a wooden mallet is best. All substances containing carbon should be removed from the surface, as success depends upon the formation of a fusible copper phos- phate, which dissolves a thin layer of oxide on the surface, and keeps the latter in good condition for welding. To Recover Gold-Leaf Waste.— To re- cover the gold from color waste, gold brushes, rags, etc., they are burned up to ashes. The ashes are leached with boiling water containing hydrochloric acid. The auriferous residuum is then boiled with aqua regia (1 part nitric acid and 3 parts hydrochloric acid), whereby the gold is dissolved and gold chloride results. After filtration and evaporation to dryness the product is dissolved in water and precipitated with sulphate of protoxide of iron. The pre- cipitated gold powder is purified with hydrochloric acid. Gold from Acid Coloring Baths. — I.— Different lots are to be poured together GOLD and the gold in them recovered. The following method is recommended: Dissolve a handful of phosphate of iron in boiling water, to which liquor add the coloring baths, whereby small particles of gold are precipitated. Then draw off the water, being careful not to dissolve the auriferous sediment at the bottom. Free this from all traces of acid by washing with plenty of boiling water; it will require 3 or 4 separate washings, with sufficient time between each to allow the water to cool and the sediment to settle before pouring off the water. Then dry in an iron vessel by the fire and fuse in a covered skittlepot with a flux. II. — The collected old coloring baths are poured into m. sufficiently large pot, an optional quantity of nitro-muriatic acid IS added, and the pot is placed over the fire, during which time the fluid is stirred with a wooden stick. It is taken from the fire after a while, diluted largely with rain water and filtered through coarse paper. The gold is recovered from the filtered solution with a solution of green vitriol which is stored in air- tight bottles, then freshened with hot water, and finally smelted with borax and a little saltpeter. Parting with Concentrated Sulphuric Acid. — It is not necessary scrupulously to observe the exact proportion of the gold to the silver. After having prepared the auriferous silver, place it in a quantity of concentrated sulpnuric acid contained in a porcelain vessel, and let it come to a violent boil. When the acid has either be- come saturated and will dissolve no more, or when solution is complete, remove the dissolving vessel from the fire, let it cool, and, for the purpose of clarifying, pour dilute sulphuric acid into the solution. The dissolved silver is next carefully decanted from the gold sediment upon the bottom, another portion of con- centrated acid is poured in, and the gold is well boiled again, as it will still contain traces of silver; this operation may be repeated as often as is deemed necessary. The solution, poured into the glass jars, is well diluted with water, and the silver ' is then precipitated by placing a sheet of copper in the solution. The precipi- tate is then freshened with hot water, which may also be done by washing upon the filter; the granulated silver (sulphate of silver) is pressed out in linen, dried and smelted. The freshened gold, after drying, is first smelted with bisulphate of soda, in order to convert the last traces of silver into sulphate, and then smelted with borax and a little saltpeter. To Remove Gold from Silver.— I.— Gold is taken from the surface of silver by spreading over it a paste, made of powdered sal ammoniac with aqua fortis and heating it till the matter smokes and is nearly dry, when the gold may be separated by rubbing it with the scratch brush. II. — The alloy is to be melted ard poured from a height into a, vessel of cold water, to which a rotary motion is imparted, or else it is to be poured through a broom. By this means the metal is reduced to a fine granular con- dition. The metallic substance is then treated with nitric acid, and gently heated. Nitrate of silver is produced, which can be reduced by any of the ordinary methods; while metallic gold remains as a black sediment, which must be washed and melted. Simple Specific Gravity Test. — A cer- tain quantity of the metal is taken and drawn out into a wire, which is to be exactly of the same length as one from fine Sliver; of course, both must have been drawn through the same hole, silver being nearly § lighter than gold, it is natural that the one of fine silver must be lighter, and the increased weight of the wire under test corresponds to the percentage of gold contained in it. To Make Fat Oil Gold Size.— First thin up the fat oil with turpentine to workable condition; then mix a little very finely ground pigment with the gold size, about as much as in a thin priming coat. Make the size as nearly gold color as is con- venient; chrome yellow tinted with ver- milion is as good as anything for this pur- pose. Then thin ready for the brush with turpentine, and it will next be in order to run the size through a very fine strainer. Add japan, as experience or experiment may teach, to make it dry tacky about the time the leaf is to be laid. Dry slow- ly, because the slower the size dries, the longer it will hold its proper tackiness when it is once in that condition. To Dissolve Copper from Gold Articles. ; — Take 2 ounces of proto-sulphate of iron and dissolve it in J a pint of water, then add to it in powder 2 ounces of nitrate of potash; boil the mixture for some time, and afterwards pour it into a shallow vessel to cool and crystallize; then to every part of the crystallized salt add 8 ounces of muriatic acid, and preserve in a bottle for use. Equal Earts of the above preparation and of oiling water is a good proportion to use in dissolving copper, or 1 part by weight GOLD S83 of nitric acid may be used to 4 parts by weight <)i boiling water as a substitute. GOLD PURPLE. I. — The solution of stannous chloride nrcossury for the preparation of gold purple is produced by dissolving pure tin in pure hydrochloric acid (free from iron), in such a manner that some of the tin re- mains undissolved, and evaporating the solution, into which a piece of tin is laid, to crystallization. II. — Recipe for Pale Purple. — Dis- solve 2 parts by weight of tin in boiling aqua regia, evaporate the solution at a moderate heat until it becomes solid, dissolve in distilled water and add 2 parts by weight of a solution of stannous chloride (specific gravity 1.7) dilute with 9,856 parts by weight of water, stir into the liquid a solution of gold chloride prepared from 0.6 parts by weight of gold and containing no excess of acid (the latter being Tjrought about by evaporating the solution of gold chloride to dryness and heating for some time to about 320° P.). This liquid is dimmed by the admixture of SO parts by weight of liquid ammonia which eliminates the purple. The latter is quickly filtered off, washed out and while still moist rubbed up with the glass paste. This consists of enamel of lead 20 parts by weight; quartzose sand, 1 part by weight; red lead, 2 parts by weight; and calcined borax, 1 part by weight, with silver carbonate, 3 parts by weight. III.— Recipe for Dark Gold Purple.— Gold solution of 0.5 parts by weight of gold, solution of stannous chloride (specific gravity 1.7) 7.5 parts by weight; thin with 9,866 parts by weight of water, separate the purple by a few drops of sulphuric acid, wash out the purple and niix same with enamel of lead 10 parts by weight and silver carbonate, 0.5 parts by weight. IV.— Recipe for Pink Purple.— Gold solution of 1 part by weight of gold; solution of 50 parts by weight of alum in 19,712 parts by weight of water; add 1.5 fiarts by weight of stannous chloride so- ution (specific gravity 1.7) and enough ammonia until no more precipitate »is formed; mix the washed out precipitate, while still moist, with 70 parts by weight of enamel of lead and 2.5 parts by Weight of silver carbonate. According to the composition of the purple various reds are obtained in fusing it on; the latter may still be brightened up by a suitable increase of the flux. To Render Pale Gold Darker.— Take verdigris, 50 parts by weight and very strong vinegar, 100 parts by weight. Dissolve the verdigris in the vinegar, rub the pieces with it well, heat them and dip them in liquid ammonia diluted with water. Repeat the operation if the de- sired shade does not appear the first time. Rinse with clean water and dry. To Color Gold. — Gilt objects are im- proved by boiling in the following solu- tion: Saltpeter, 2 parts by weight; cook- ing salt, 1 part by weight; alum, 1 part by weight; water, 24 parts by weight; hydrochloric acid, 1 part by weight (1.12 specific gravity). In order to impart a rich appearance to gilt articles, the fol- lowing paste is applied: Alum, 3 parts by weight; saltpeter, 2 parts by weight; zinc vitriol, 1 part by weight; cooking salt, 1 part by weight; made into a paste with water. Next, heat until black, on a hot iron plate, wash with water, scratch with vinegar and dry after washing. Gold-Leaf Striping. — To secure a good job of gilding depends largely for its beauty upon the sizing. Take tube chrome yellow ground in oil, thin with wearing body varnish, and temper it ready for use with turpentine. Apply in the evening with an ox-tail striper, and let it stand until the next morning, when, under ordinary circumstances, it will be ready for the gold leaf, etc. After the gilding is done, let the job stand 24 hours before varnishing. Composition of Aqua Fortis for the Touch-Stone. — Following are the three compositions mostly in use: I. — Nitric acid, 30 parts; hydrochloric acid, 3 parts; distilled water, 20 parts. II. — Nitric acid, 980 parts by weight; hydrochloric acid, 20 parts by weight. III. — Nitric acid, 123 parts by weight; hydrochloric acid, 2 parts by weight. To Remove Soft Solder from Gold. — Place the work in spirits of salts (hydro- chloric acid) or remove as much as pos- sible with the scraper, using a gentle heat to remove the solder more easdy. Tipping Gold Pens. — Gold pens are usualfy tipped with iridium. This is done by soldering very small pieces to the points and filing to the proper shape. To Recognize Whether an Article is Gilt. — Simply touch the object with a glass rod previously dipped into a solu- tion of bichloride of copper. If the article has been gilt the spot touched should remain intact, while it presents a 384 GOLD— GRAIN brown stain if no gold has been de- posited on its surface. To Burnish Gilt Work.— Ale has proved a very good substitute for soap and water in burnishing gilt as it in- creases the ease and smoothness with which it is accomplished. Vinegar is a somewhat poorer substitute for ale. White -Gold Plates Without Solder.— The gold serving as a background for white-gold is rolled in the desired dimensions and then made perfectly even under a powerful press. It is then carefully treated with a file until a per- fectly smooth surface is obtained. After a white-gold plate of the required thick- ness has been produced in the same manner, the surfaces of the two plates to be united are coated with borax and then pressed together by machine, which causes the harder metal to be squeezed slightly into the surface of the other, furnishing a more solid and compact mass. The metals, now partially united, are firmly fastened together by means of strong iron wire and a little more borax solution is put on the edges. Then heat to the temperature necessary for a com- plete adhesion, but the heat must not be so great as to cause an alloyage by fusing. The whole is finally rolled out into the required thickness. To Fuse Gold Dust. — Use such a crucible as is generally used for melting brass; heat very hot; then add the gold dust mhced with powdered borax; after some time a scum or slag will be on top, which may be thickened by the addition of a little lime or bone ash. If the dust contains any of the more oxidizable metals, add a little niter, and skim off the slag or scum very carefully; when melted, grasp the crucible with strong iron tongs, and pour off immediately into molds, slightly greased. The slag and crucibles may be afterwards pulver- ized, and the auriferous matter recovered from the mass through cupellation by means of lead. GOLD, AGEING: See Plating. GOLD ALLOYS: See Alloys. GOLD, EXTRACTION OF, BY AMAL- GAMATION: See Amalgams. GOLD LETTERS ON GLASS, CEMENTS FOR AFFIXING: See Adhesives, under Sign- Letter Cem- ents. GOLD, REDUCTION OF OLD PHOTO- GRAPHIC: See Photography. GOLD FOIL SUBSTITUTES AND GOLD . LEAF: See Metal Foil. GOLD-LEAF ALLOYS: See Alloys. GOLD LEAF AND ITS APPLICATION: See Paints. , GOLD PLATING: See Plating. GOLD, RECOVERY OF WASTE: See Jewelers' Formulas. GOLD RENpVATOR: See Cleaning Preparations and Meth- ods. GOLD, SEPARATION OF PLATINUM FROM: See Platinum. GOLD SOLDERS: See Solders. GOLD TESTING: See Jewelers' Formulas. GOLD VAItNISH: See Varnishes. GOLDWASSER: See Wines and Liquors. GONG METAL: See Alloys. GRAIN. Formalin Treatment of Seed Grain for Smut. — Smut is a parasitic fungus, and springs from a spore (which cor- responds to a seed in higher plants). This germinates when the grain is seeded and, penetrating the little grain plant when but a few days old, grows up within the grain stem. After entering the stem there is no evidence of its presence until the grain begins to head. At this time the smut plant robs the developing kernels of their nourishment and ripens a mass of smut spores. These spores usually ripen before the grain, and are blown about the field, many spores becoming lodged on the ripening grain kernels. The wholesale agent of infection is the threshing machine. For this reason the safest plan is to treat all seed wheat and oats each year. Secure a 40 per cent solution of formalin (the commercial name for formaldehyde gas held in a water so- lution). About 1 ounce is required for every 5 bushels of grain to be treated. GRAIN— GREASE ERAUICAIX^RS 385 (!;ieiin off a space on the barn floor or sweep a clean space on the hard level § round and lay a good-sized canvas own, on which to spread out the wheat. See that the place where the grain is to be treated is swept clean and thoroughly sprinkled with the formalin solution before placing the seed grain there. Prepare the formalia solution im- mediately before use, as it is volatile, and if kept may disappear by evapora- tion. Use 4 ounces of formalin for 10 gallons of water. This is sufficient for 600 Eounds of grain. Put the solution in a arrel or tub, thoroughly mixing. The solution can be applied with the garden sprinkler. Care must be taken to moisten the grain thoroughly. Sprinkle, stir the grain up thoroughly and sprinkle again, until every kernel is wet. After sprinkling, place the grain in a conical pile and cover with horse- blankets, gunny sacks, etc. The smut that does the damage lies iust under the glume of the oats or on tne basal hairs of the wheat. Covering the treated grain holds the gas from the formalin within the pile, where it comes in contact with the kernels, killing such smut spores as may have survived the previous treat- ment. After the grain has remained in a covered pile 2 to 4 hours, spread it out again where the wind can blow over it, to air and dry. As soon as the grain can be taken in the hand without the kernels sticking together, it can be sown in the field. The grain may be treated in the forenoon and seeded in the afternoon. Since this treatment swells the kernels it hastens germination and should be done in the spring just before seeding time. While the copper sulphate or blue- stone treatment is valuable in killing smut, the formalin treatment can be given in less time, is applied so easily and is so effectual that it is recommended as a sure and ready means of killing smut in wheat and oats. GRAINING CRAYONS: See Crayons. GRAINING COLORS: See Pigments. GRAINING WITH PAINT: See Paint. GRAINING, PALISANDER: See Palisander. GRAPE JUICE. PRESERVATION OF: See Wines and Liquors. GRAPE SAUCE: See Ice Creams. GRAPHITE AS A LUBRICANT: See Lubricants. GRASS: See Lawns. GRAVEL WALKS. For cleaning gravel walks any of the following may be used : I. — Gas-tar liquor. II.— Rock salt (cattle salt). III. — Hydrochloric acid. IV. — Sulphuric acid. V. — Fresh limewater. The gas -tar liquor must be poured out a few times in succession, and must not touch the tree roots and borders of the paths. This medium is cheap. Cattle salt must like- wise be thrown out repeatedly. The use of hydrochloric and sulphuric acids is somewhat expensive. Mix 60 parts of water with 10 parts of unslaked lime and 1 part of sulphuric acid in a kettle, and sprinkle the not or cold mixture on the walks by means of a watering pot. If limewater is used alone it must be fresh — 1 part of unslaked lime in 10 parts of water. GRAVERS: To Prepare Gravers for Bright-Cutting. — Set the gravers after the sharpening on the oilstone on high-grade emery (tripoli) paper. Next, hone them further on the rouge leather, but without tearing threads from it. In this manner the sil- ver and aluminum engravers grind their gravers. A subsequent whetting of the graver on the touchstone is not advisable, since it is too easily injured thereby. A graver prepared as described gives excel- lent bright engraving and never fails. In all bright-cutting the graver must be highly polished; but when bright- cutting aluminum a lubricant like coal- oil or vaseline is generally employed with the polished tool; a mixture of vaseline and benzine is also used for this purpose. Another formula which may be recom- mended for bright-cutting aluminum is composed of the following ingredients: Mix 4 parts of oil of turpentine and 1 ?art of rum with 1 ounce of stearine. mmerse the graver in any of the mix- tures before making the bright-cut. GREASES: See Lubricants. GREASE ERADICATORS: See Cleaning Preparations and Meth- ods. GRINDSTONES— GUMS GREASE PAINTS: See Cosmetics. GREEN, TO DISTINGUISH BLUE FROM, AT NIGHT: See Blue. GREEN GILDING: See Plating. GRENADES: See Fire Extinguishers. GRINDING: See Tool Setting. GRINDER DISK CEMENT, SUBSTI- TUTE FOR: See Adhesives. GRINDSTONES: To Mend Grindstones. — The mending of defective places in grindstones is best done with a mass consisting of earth- wax (so-called stone-pitch), 5 parts, by weight; tar, 1 part; and powdered sand- stone or cement, 3 parts, which is heated to the boiling point and well stirred to- gether. Before pouring in the mass the places to be mended must be heated by laying red-hot pieces of iron on them. The substance is, in a tough state, poured into the hollows of the stone, and the pouring must be continued, when it com- mences to solidify, until even with the surface. Treatment of the Grindstone. — The stone should not be left with the lower Eart in the water. This will render it rittle at this spot, causing it to wear oS more quickly and thus lose its circu- larity. It is best to moisten the stone only when in use, drop by drop from a vessel fixed above it and to keep it quite dry otherwise. If the stone is no longer round, it should be made so again by turning by means of a piece of gas pipe or careful trimming, otherwise it will com- mence to jump, thus becoming useless. It is important to clean all tools and articles before grinding, carefully re- moving all grease, fat, etc., as the pores of the stone become clogged with these impurities, which destr(^ its grain and diminish its strength. Should one side of the grindstone be lighter, this ir- regularity can be equalized by affixing pieces of lead, so as to obtain a uniform motion of the stone. It is essential that the stone should be firm on the axis and not move to and fro in the bearings. Grindstone Oil. — Complaints are often heard that grindstones are occasionally harder on one side than the other, the softer parts wearing away in hollows. which render grinding difficult, and soon make the stone useless. This defect can be remedied completely by means of boiled linseed oil. When the stone is thoroughly dry, the soft side is turned uppermost, and brushed over with boiled oil, which sinks into the stone, until the latter is saturated. The operation takes about 3 to 4 hours in summer. As soon as the oil has dried, the stone may be damped, and used without any further delay. Unlike other similar remedies, this one does not prevent the stone from biting properly in the oiled parts, and the life of the stone is considerably length- ened, since it does not have to be dressed so often. GROUNDS FOR GRAINING COLORS: See Pigments. GUMS: (See also Adhesives, under Mucilages.) Gums, their Solubility in Alcohol. — The following table shows the great range of solubility of the various gums, and of various specimens of the same gum, in 60 per cent alcohol: Acajon 6.94 to 42.92 Aden 0.60 to 26.90 Egyptian 46.34 Yellow Amrad 26.90 to 32.16 White Amrad 0.54 to 1.50 Kordofan 1.40 to 6.06 Australian 10.67 to 20.85 Bombay 22.06 to 46.14 Cape 1.67 to 1.88 Embavi 25.92 Gedda 1.24 to 1.30 Ghatti 31.60 to 70.32 Gheziereh 1.50 to 12.16 Halebi 3.70 to 22.60 La Plata 9.65 Mogadore 27.66 East Indian 3.24 to 74.84 Persian 1.74 to 17.34 Senegal 0.56 to 14.30 Substitute for Gum Arabic. — Dissolve 250 parts of glue in 1,000 parts of boiling water and heat this glue solution on the water bath with a mixture of about 10 parts of barium peroxide of 75 per cent BaOa and 5 parts of sulphuric acid (66°) mixed with 115 parts of water, for about 24 hours. After the time has elapsed, pour off from the barium sul- phate, whereby a little sulphurous acid results owing to reduction of the sul- phuric acid, which has a bleaching action and makes the glue somewhat paler. If this solution is mixed, with stirring, and dried upon glass plates in the drying- room, a product which can hardly be GUNPOWDER STAINS— GYPSUM 387 distinguished from gum arable is ob- tained. An envelope sealed with this mucilage cannot be opened by moisten- iuK the envelope. Ihe traces of free acid which it contains prevent the in- vasion of bacteria, hence all putrefaction. The adhesive power of the artificial gum is so enormous that the use of cork stoppers is quite excluded, since they crumble off every time the bottle is opened, so that finally a perfect wreath around the inner neck of the bottle is formed. Only metallic or porcelain stoppers should be used. GUM ARABIC, INCREASING ADHE- SION OF: See Adhesives, under Mucilages. GUM BICHROMATE PROCESS: See Photography. GUM DROPS: See Confectionery. GUM-LAC: See Oil. GUMS USED IN MAKING VARNISH : See Varnishes. GUN BARRELS, TO BLUE : See Steel. GUN BRONZE: See Alloys, under Phosphor Bronze. GUN COTTON: See Explosives. GUN LUBRICANTS: See Lubricants. GUNPOWDER: See Explosives. GUNPOWDER STAINS. A stain produced by the embedding of grains of gunpowder in the skin is practically the same thing as a tattoo mark. The charcoal of the gunpowder remains unaffected by the fluids of the tissues, and no way is known of bring- ing it into solution there. The only method of obliterating such marks is to take away with them the skin in which they are embedded. This has been accomplished by the application of an electric current, and by the use of caustics. When the destruction of the true skin has been accomplished, it becomes a foreign body, and if the destruction has extended to a sufficient depth, the other foreign body, the color- ing matter which has been tattooed in, may be expected to be cast off with it. Recently pepsin and papain have been proposed as applications to remove the cuticle. .\ glycerole of either is tattooed into the skin over the disfigured part; and it is said that the operation has proved successful. It is scarcely necessary to say that suppuration is likely to follow such treat- ment, and that there is risk of scarring. In view of this it becomes apparent that any such operation should be under- taken only by a surgeon skilled in dermatological practice. An amateur might not only cause the patient suffer- ing without success in removal, but add another disfigurement to the tattooing. Carbolic acid has been applied to small portions of the affected urea at a time, with the result that the powder and skin were removed simultaneously and, according to the physician reporting the case, with little discomfort to the patient. Rubbing the affected part with moistened ammonium chloride once or twice a day has been reported as a slow but sure cure. GUTTA-PERCHA. Gutta-Percha Substitute.— I.— A de- coction of birch bark is first prepared, the external bark by preference, being evaporated. The thick, black residue hardens on exposure to the air, and is said to possess the properties of gutta- Fercha without developing any cracks, t can be mixed with 50 per cent of India rubber or gutta-percha. The com- pound is said to be cheap, and a good non-conductor of electricity. Whether it possesses all the good qualities of gutta-percha is not known. II. — A new method of making gutta- percha consists of caoutchouc and a rosin soap, th, latter compounded of 100 parts of rosin, 100 parts of Carnauba wax, and 40 parts of gas-tar, melted together and Eassed through a sieve. They are eated to about 355° to 340° F., and slowly saponified by stirring with 75 parts of limewater of specific gravity 1.06. The product is next put into a kneading machine along with an equal quantity of caoutchouc cuttings, and worked in this machine at a tempera- ture of 195° F. or over. When suffi- ciently kneaded, the mass can be rolled to render it more uniform. GUTTER CEMENT: See Cement and Putty. GYPSUM: See also Plaster. Method of Hardening Gypstim and Rendering it Weather-ft-oof. — Gypsum possesses only a moderate degree of strength even after complete hardening. GYPSUM— HAIR PREPARATIONS and pieces are very liable to be broken off. Various methods have been tried, with a view to removing this defect and increasing the hardness of gypsum. Of these methods, that of Wachsmuth, for hardening articles made of gypsum and rendering them weather-proof, deserves special notice. All methods of hardening articles made of gypsum have this in common: the gypsum is first deprived of its moisture, and then immersed in a solution of certain salts, such as alum, green vitriol, etc. Articles treated by the methods hitherto in vogue certainly acquire considerable hardness, but are no more capable of resistance to the effects of water than crude gypsum. The object of Wachsmuth's process is not merely to harden the gypsum, but to transform it on the surface into insoluble combinations. The process is as fol- lows: The article is first put into the re- quired shape by mechanical means, and then deprived of its moisture by heating to 212° to 302° F. It is then plunged into a heated solution of barium hydrate, in which it is allowed to remain for a longer or shorter time, according to its strength. When this part of the process is complete, the article is smoothed by grinding, etc., and then placed in a solu- tion of about 10 per cent of oxalic acid in water. In a few hours it is taken out, dried, and polished. It then possesses a hardness surpassing that of marble, and is impervious to the action of water. Nor does the polish sustain any injury from contact with water, whereas gypsum articles hardened by the usual methods lose their polish after a few minutes' immersion in water. Articles treated by the method described have the natural color of gypsum, but it is possible to add a color to the gypsum during the hardening process. This is done by plunging the gypsum, after it has been deprived of its moisture, and before the treatment with the barium solution, into a solution of a colored metallic sulphate, such as iron, copper, or chrome sulphate, or into a solution of some coloring matter. Pigments soluble in the barium or oxalic-acid solutions may also be added to the latter. Gypsum may be hardened and rendered insoluble by ammonium borate as follows: Dissolve boric acid in hot water and add sufficient ammonia water to the solution that the borate at first separated is redissolved. The gypsum to be cast is stirred in with this liquid, and the mass treated in the ordinary way. Articles already cast are simply washed with the liquid, which is quickly. absorbed. The articles withstand the weather as well as though they were of stone. GYPSUM FLOWERS: See Flowers. GYPSUM, PAINT FOR: See Paint. HAIR FOR MOUNTING. The microscopist or amateur, who shaves himself, need never resort to the trouble of embedding and cutting hairs in the microtome in order to secure very thin sections of the hair of the face. If he will first shave himself closely "with the hair," as the barbers say (i. e., in the direction of the natural growth of the hair), and afterwards lightly "against the hair" (in the opposite direction to above), he will find m the "scrapings" a multitude of exceedingly thin sections. The technique is very simple. The lather and "scrapings" are put into a saucer or large watch-glass and carefully washed with clean water. This breaks down and dissolves the lather, leaving the hair sections lying on the bottom of the glass. The after-treatment is that usually em- ployed in mounting similar objects. Hair Preparations DANDRUFF CURES. The treatment of that condition of the scalp which is productive of dandruff properly falls to the physician, but un- fortunately the subject has not been much studied. One cure is said to be a sulphur lotion made by placing a little sublimed sulghur in water, shaking well, then al- lowing to settle, and washing the head every morning with the clear liquid. Sulphur is said to be insoluble in water; yet a sulphur water made as above indicated has long been in use as a hair wash. A little glycerine improves the preparation, preventing the hair from becoming harsh by repeated wash- The exfoliated particles of skin or "scales" should be removed only when entirely detached from the cuticle. They result from an irritation which is in- creased by forcible removal, and hence endeavors to clean the hair from them by combing or brushing it in such a way as to scrape the scalp are liable to be worse than_ useless. It follows that gentle handling of the hair is important when dandruff is present. HAIR PREPARATIONS 3«9 I. — Chloral hydrate bounces Resorcin 1 ounce Tannin 1 ounce Alcohol 8 ounces Glycerine 4 ounces Rose water til make . 4 pints II. — White wax 3i drachms Liquid petrolatum . . 2J ounces Rose water 1 ounce Borax 15 grains Precipitated sulphur. 3} drachms Pine-Tar Dandruff Shampoo. — Pine tar 4 parts Linseed oil 40 parts Ilcat these to 140° F. ; make solution of potassa, U. S. P., 10 parts, and water, 4.) parts; add alcohol, 5 parts, and graffually add to the heated oils, stirring cnnstantly. Continue the heat until saponified thoroughly; and make up with water to 128 parts. When almost ciiiil, add ol. lavender, ol. orange, and ol. bcrgamot, of each 2 parts. HAIR-CURLING LIQUIDS. It is impossible to render straight hair curly without the aid of the iron or paper and other curlers. But it is possible, on the other hand, to make artificial curls more durable and proof against outside influences, such as especially dampness of the air. Below are trustworthy re- cipes: I II Water 70 80 Spirit of wine 30 20 Ronix 2 — Tincture of tjcnzoin . . — 3 Perfume ad. lib. ad. lib. HAIR DRESSINGS AND WASHES: Dressings for the Hair.— I. — Oil of wintergreen . 20 drops Oil of almond, es- sential 35 drops Oil of rose, ethereal 1 drop Oil of violets 30 drops ^ Tincture of canthar- ides 50 drops Almond oil 2,000 drops ISIix. Hair Embrocation. — II. — Almond oil, sweet . 280 parts Spirit of sal am- moniac 280 parts Spirit of rosemary. . 840 parts Iloney water 840 parts Mix. Rub the scalp with it every morning by means of a sponge. Hair Restorer. — III. — Tincture of can- tharides 7 parts Gall tincture 7 parts Musk essence 1 part Carmine 0.5 part Rectified spirit of wine 28 parts Rose water 140 parts To be used at night. Rosemary Water. — IV. — Rosemary oil IJ parts Rectified spirit of wine 7 parts Magnesia 7 parts Distilled water 1,000 parts Mix the oil with the spirit of wine and rub up with the magnesia in a mortar; gradually add the water and finally filter. Foamy Scalp Wash. — Mix 2 parts of soap spirit, 1 part of borax-glycerine (1-1-2), 6 parts of barium, and 7 parts of orange-flower water. Lanolin Hair Wash. — Extract 4 parts quillaia bark with 36 parts water for several days, mix the percolate with 4 parts alcohol, and filter after having settled. Agitate 40 parts of the filtrate at a temperature at which wool grease becomes liquid, with 12 parts anhydrous lanolin, and fill up with wiitcr to which 15 per cent spirit of wine has been added, to 300 parts. Admixture, such as cin- chona extract, Peru balsam, ouinine, tincture of cantharides, bay-oil, am- monium carbonate, menthol, etc., may be made. The result is a yellowish- white, milky liquid, with a cream-like fat layer floating on the top, which is finely distributed by agitating. Birch Water. — Birch water, which has many cosmetic applications, especially as a hair wash or an ingredient in hair washes, may be prepared as follows: Alcohol, 96 per cent . . 3,500 parts ■ ~^ater 700 parts Potash soap 200 parts Glycerine 150 parts Oil of birch buds. . . .^ SO parts Essence of spring flowers 100 parts Chlorophyll, q. s. to color. Mix the water with 700 parts of the alcohol, and in the mixture dissolve the soap. Add the essence of spring flowers and birch oil to the remainder of the alcohol, mix well, and to the mixture add, little by little, and with constant agitation, the soap mixture. Finally 390 HAIR PREPARATIONS add the glycerine, mix thoroughly, and set aside for 8 days, filter and color the filtrate with chlorophyll, to which add a little tincture of saiiron. To use, add an equal volume of water to produce a lather. Petroleum Hair Washes. — I. — Deodor- ized pale petroleum, 10 parts; citronella oil, 10 parts; castor oil, 5 parts; spirit of wine, 90 per cent, 50 parts; water, 75 parts. II. — Quinine sulphate, 10 parts; acetic acid, 4 parts; tincture of cantharides, 30 parts; tincture of quinine, 3 parts; spirit of rosemary, 60 parts; balm water, 90 parts; barium, 120 parts; spirit of wine, 150 parts; water, 1,000 parts. III. — Very pure petroleum, 1 part; almond oil, 2 parts. Brilliantine. — I. — Olive oil, 4 parts; glycerine, 3 parts; alcohol, 3 parts; scent as desired. Shake before use. II. — Castor oil, 1 part; alcohol, 2 parts; saffron to dye yellow. Scent as desired. III. — Lard, 7 parts; spermaceti, 7 parts; almond oil, 7 parts; white wax, 1 part. A Cheap Hair Oil. — I. — Sesame oil or sunflower oil, 1,000 parts; lavender oil, 15 parts; bergamot oil, 10 parts; and geranium oil, 5 parts. II. — Sesame oil or sunflower oil, 1,000 parts; lavender oil, 12 parts; lemon oil, 20 parts; rosemary oil, 5 parts; and geranium oil, 2 parts. HAIR DYES. There is no hair dye which produces a durable coloration; the color becomes gradually weaker in the course of time. Here are some typical formulas in which a mordant is employed: I. — Nitrate of silver J ounce Distilled water 3 ounces Mordant: Sulphuret of potas- sium § ounce Distilled water 3 ounces II.— (a) Nitrate of silver (crys- tal) , . li ounces Distilled water 12 ounces Ammonia water suf- ficient to make a clear solution. Dissolve the nitrate of silver in the water and add the ammonia water until the precipitate is redissolved. (6) Pyrogallic acid 2 drachms Gallic acid 2 drachms Cologne water 2 ounces Distilled water 4 ounces III.— Nitrate of silver 20 grains Sulphate of copper. . 2 grains Ammonia, quantity sufficient. Dissolve the salts in J ounce of water and add ammonia until the precipitate which is formed is redissolved. Then make up to 1 ounce with water. Apply to the hair with a brush. This solution slowly gives a brown'shade. For darker shades, apply a second solution, com- posed of : IV. — Yellow sulphide am- monium 2 drachms Solution of ammonia 1 drachm Distilled water 1 ounce Black Hair Dye without Silver. — V. — Pyrogallic acid .... 3.6 parts Citric acid 0.3 parts Boro-glycerine. ... 11 parts Water 100 parts If the dye does not impart the desired intensity of color, the amount of pyro- gallic acid may be increased. The wash is applied evenings, followed in the morn- ing by a weak ammoniacal wash. One Bottle Preparation. — VI. — Nitrate of copper . . 360 grains Nitrate of silver. . . 7 ounces Distilled water. ... 60 ounces Water of ammonia, a sufficiency. Dissolve the salts in the water and add the water of ammonia carefully until the precipitate is all redissolved. This solu- tion, properly applied, is said to produce a very black color; a lighter shade is secured by diluting the solution. Cop- per sulphate may be used instead of the nitrate. Brown Hair Dyes. — A large excess of ammonia tends to produce a brownish dye. Various shades of brown may be produced by increasing the amount of water in the silver solution. It should be remembered that the hair must, pre- viously to treatment, be washed with warm water containing sodium carbonate, well rinsed with clear water, and dried. I. — Silver nitrate 480 grains Copper nitrate ... 90 grains Distilled water. . . 8 fluid ounces Aihmonia water, sufficient. .Dissolve the two salts in the distilled water and add the ammonia water until the liquid becomes a clear fluid. In using apply to the hair carefully IIAUl PREFAUATIONS 391 with a tooth-brush, after thoroughly cleansing the hair, and expose the latter to the rays of the sun. II.- Silver nitrate 30 parts Copper sulphate, crystals 20 parts Citric acid 20 parts Distilled water 950 parts Ammonia water, quantity sufficient to dissolve the pre- cipitate first formed. Various shades of brown may be pro- duced by properly diluting the solution before it be applied. Bismuth subni- trate 200 grains Water 2 fluidounces Nitric acid, suffi- cient to dissolve, or about 420 grains Use heat to effect solution. Also: Tartaric acid .... 150 grains Sodium bicarbon- ate 168 grains Water 32 fluidounces When effervescence of the latter has ceased, mix the cold liquids by pouring the latter into the former with constant stirring. Allow the precipitate to sub- side; transfer it to a filter or strainer, and wash with water until free from the sodium nitrate formed. Chestnut Hair Dye. — Bismuth nitrate. . . 230 grains Tartaric acid 75 grains Water 100 minims Dissolve the acid in the water, and to the solution add the bismuth nitrate and stir until dissolved. Pour the resulting solution into 1 pint of water and collect the magma on a filter. Remove all traces of acid from the magma by repeated washings with water; then dissolve it in: Ammonia water. . 2 fluidrachms And add: Glycerine 20 minims Sodium hyposul- phite 75 grains Water, enough to make 4 fluidounces. HAIR RESTORERS AKD TONICS: Falling of the Hair. — After the scalp has been thoroughly cleansed by the shampoo, the following formula is to be used: Salicylic acid 1 parf Precipitate of sulphur. 2 J parts Rose water 25 parts The patient is directed to part the hair. and then to rub in a small portion of the ointment along the part, working it well into the scalp. Then another part is made parallel to the first, and more oint- ment rubbed in. Thus a series of first, longitudinal, and then transverse parts are made, until the whole scalp has oeen well anointed. Done in this way, it is not necessary to smear up the whole shaft of the hair, but only to reach the hair roots and the sebaceous glands, where the trouble is located. This proc- ess is thoroughly performed for six suc- cessive nights, and the seventh night an- other shampoo is taken. The eighth night the inunctions are commenced again, and this is continued for six weeks. In almost every case the production of dandruff is checked completely after six weeks' treatment, and the hair, which Inay have been falling out rapidly before, begins to take firmer root. To be sure, many hairs which are on the point of falling when treatment is begun will fall anyway, and it may even seem for a time as if the treatment were increasing the hair-fall, on account of the mechanical dislodgment of such hairs, but this need never alarm one. After six weeks of such treatment the shampoo may be taken less frequently. Next to dandruff, perhaps, the most common cause of early loss of hair is heredity. In some families all of the male members, or all who resemble one particular ancestor, lose their hair early. Dark-haired families and races, as a rule, become bald earlier than those with light hair. At first thought it would seem as though nothing could be done to prevent premature baldness when hered- ity is the cause, but this is a mistake. Careful hygiene of the scalp will often counterbalance hereditary predisposition for a number of years, and even after the hair has actually begun to fall proper stimulation will, to a certain extent, and for a limited time, often restore to the hair its pristine thickness and strength. Any of the rubefacients may be prescribed for this purpose for daily use, such as croton on, IJ per cent; tincture of can- tharides, 15 per cent; oil of cinnamon, 40 per cent; tincture of capsicum, 15 per cent; oil of mustard, 1 per cent; or any one of a dozen others. Tincture of cap- sicum is one of the best, and for a routine prescription the following has served well: Resorcin 5 parts Tincture capsicum. . 15 parts Castor oil 10 parts Alcohol 100 parts Oil of roses, sufficient. 392 HAIR PREPARATIONS It is to be recommended that the stim- ulant be changed from time to time, so as not to rely on any one to the exclusion of others. Jaborandi, oxygen gas, qui- nine, and other agents have enjoyed a great reputation as hair-producers for a time, and have then taken their proper position as aids, but not specifics, in re- storing the hair. It IS well known that after many fevers, especially those accompanied by great depression, such as pneumonia, typhoid, puerperal, or scarlet fever, the hair is liable to fall out. This is brought about in a variety of ways: In scarlatina, the hair papilla shares in the general desquamation; in typhoid and the other fevers the baldness may be the result either of the excessive seborrhea, which often accompanies these diseases, or may be caused by the general lowering of nutrition of the body. Unless the hair- fall be accompanied by considerable dandruff (in which case the above-men- tioned treatment should be vigorously employed), the ordinary hygiene of the scalp will result in a restoration of the hair in most cases, but the employment of moderate local stimulation, with the use of good general tonics, will hasten this end. It seems unwise to cut the hair of women short in these cases, be- cause the baldness is practically never complete, and a certain proportion of the hairs will retain firm root. These may be augmented by a switch made of the hair which has fallen out, until the new hair shall have grown long enough to do up well. In this way all of that oftentimes most annoying short-hair period is avoided. For Falling Hair. — I. — Hydrochloric acid 75 parts Alcohol 2,250 parts The lotion is to be applied to the scalp every evening at bedtime. II. — Tincture of cinchona 1 part Tincture of rose- mary 1 part Tincture of jabor- andi 1 part Castor oil 2 parts Rum 10 parts Mix. Jaborandi Scalp Waters for Increasing the Growth of Hair. — First prepare a jaborandi tincture from jaborandi leaves, 200 parts; spirit, 95 per cent, 700 parts; and water, 300 parts. After digesting for a week, squeeze out the leaves and filter the liquid. The hair wash is now prepared as follows: I. — Jaborandi tincture, 1,000 parts; spirit, 95 per cent, 700 parts; water, 300 parts; glycerine, 150 parts; scent essence, 100 parts; color with sugar color. II. — Jaborandi tincture, 1,000 parts; spirit, 95 per cent, 1,500 parts; quinine tannate, 4 parts; Peru balsam, 20 parts; essence heliotrope, 50 parts. Dissolve the quinine and the Peru balsam in the spirit and then add the jaborandi tinc- ture and the heliotrope essence. Filter after a week. Rub into the scalp twice a week before retiring. POMADES: I. — Cinchona Pomade. — Ox marrow 100 drachms Lard 70 drachms Sweet almond oil. . . . 17 drachms Peru balsam 1 drachm Quinine sulphate. . . 1 drachm Clover oil 2 drachms Rose essence 25 drops II. — Cantharides Pomade. — Ox marrow 300 drachms White wax 30 drachms Mace oil 1 drachm Clove oil 1 drachm Rose essence or ge- ranium oil 25 drops Tincture of canthar- ides 8 drachms Pinaud Eau de Quinine. — The com- position of this nostrum is not known. Dr. Tsheppe failed to find in it any con- stituent of cinchona bark. The absence of quinine from the mixture probably would not hurt it, as the "tonic" effect of quinine on the hair is generally regarded as a myth. On the other hand, it has been stated that this preparation contains: Quinine sulphate ... 2 parts Tincture of Krameria 4 parts Tincture of canthar- ides 2 parts Spirit of lavender. . . 10 parts Glycerine 15 parts Alcohol 100 parts SHAMPOOS : A Hair Shampoo is usually a tincture of odorless soft soap. It is mostly per- fumed with lavender and colored with green aniline. Prepared the same as tr. sapon. virid. (U. S. P.), using an inexpen- sive soft soap, that is a good foam pro- ducer. Directions: Wet the hair well in warm water and rub in a. few teaspoon- fuls of the following formulas. No. I is considered the best: HAIR PREPARATIONS— HAT WATERPROOFING 393 I II III IV Parts used Cottonseed oil — 24 26 U Linseed oil 20 — — — Malaga olive oil .... 20 — — — Caustic potash fl^ 8 6 3 Alcohol 5 4)t 5 2 Water 30 26 34 16 J Warm the mixed oils on a large water bath, then the pota.sh and water in an- other vessel, heating both to 158° F., and adding the latter hot solution to tlie hot oil while stirring briskly. Now add and thoroughly mix the alcohol. Stop stir- ring, keeping the heat at 158° F., until the mass becomes clear and a small quan- tity dissolves in boiling water without globules of oil separating. If stirred after the alcohol nas been nixed the soap will be opaque. Set aside for a few days in a warm place before using to make liquid shampoo. Liquid Shampoos. — I. — Fluid extract of soap-bark 10 parts Glycerine 6 parts Cologne water 10 parts Alcohol 20 parts Rose water 30 parts II. — Soft soap 24 parts Potassium carbon- ate 6 parts Alcohol 48 parts Water enough to make 400 parts Shampoo Pastes, — I. — White castile soap, in shavings .... 2 ounces Ammonia water. . 2 fluidounces Bay rum, or co- logne water. ... 1 fluidounce Glycerine 1 fluidounce Water 12 fluidounces Dissolve the sonp in the water by means of heat; when nearly cold stir in the other ingredients. II. — Ca.stile soap, white. 4 ounces Potassium carbon- ate 1 ounce Water 6 fluidounces Glycerine 2 fluidounces Oil of lavender flowers 5 drops Oil of bergamot. . . 10 drops To the water add_ the soap, in shav- ings, and the potassium carbonate, and heat on a water bath until thoroughly softened; add the glycerine and oils. If necessary to reduce to proper consist- ency, more water may be added. Egg Shampoo. — Whites of 2 eggs Water 5 fluidounces Water of ammonia. 3 fluidounces Cologne water J fluidounce Alcohol 4 fluidounces Beat the egg whites to a froth, and add the other ingredients in the order in which they are named, with a thorough mixing after each addition. Imitation Egg Shampoos. — Many of the egg shampoos are so called from their appearance. They usually con- tain no egg and are merely preparations of perfumed soft soap. Here are some formulas: I. — White castile soap. .. . 4 ounces Powdered curd soap. . 2 ounces Potassium carbonate. 1 ounce Honey 1 ounce Make a homogeneous paste by heating with water. II. — Melt 3i pounds of lard over a salt-water bath and run into it a lye formed by dissolving 8 ounces of caustic potassa in 1 J pints of water. Stir well until saponification is effected and per- fume as desired. HAIR, REMOVAL OF, FROM SKINS: See Leather. HAIR REMOVERS: See Depilatorie.s. HAMBURG BITTERS: See Wines and Liquors. HAMMER HARDENING: See Steel. HAND CREAMS: See (^osmetics. HANDS, TO REMOVE STAINS FROM THE: See Cleaning Preparations. HARE-LIP OPERATION, ANTISEPTIC PASTE FOR: See Antiseptics. HARNESS DRESSINGS AND PREPA- RATIONS: See Leather Dressings. HARNESS WAX: See Waxes. HAT-CLEANING COMPOUNDS: See Cleaning Compounds. HAT WATERPROOFING: See Waterproofing. 394 HATS— HERBARIUM SPECIMENS HATS: Dyeing Straw Hats. — The plan gen- erally followed is that of coating the hats with a solution of varnish in which a suitable aniline dye has dissolved. The following preparations are in use: I. — For dark varnishes prepare a basis consisting of orange shellac, 900 parts; sandarac, 225 parts; Manila copal, 225 parts; castor oil, 55 parts; and wood- spirit, 9,000 parts. To color, add to the foregoing amount alcohol-soluble, coal- tar dyes as follows: Black, 55 parts of soluble ivory-black (modified by olue or green). Olive-brown, 15 parts of bril- liant-green, 55 parts of Bismarck brown R, 8 parts of spirit blue. Olive-green, 28 parts of brilliant-green, 28 parts of Bis- marck-brown R. Walnut, 55 parts of Bismarck-brown R, 15 parts of nigrosin. Mahogany, 28 parts of Bismarck-brown R, which may be deepened by a little nigrosin. II. — For light colors prepare a var- nish as follows: Sandarac, 1,350 parts; elemi, 450 parts; rosin, 450 parts; castor oil, 110 parts; wood-spirit, 9,000 parts. For this amount use dyes as follows: Gold, 55 parts of chrysoidin, 55 parts of aniline-yellow. Light green, 55 parts of brilliant-green, 7 parts of aniline-yellow. Blue, 55 parts of spirit blue. Deep blue, 55 parts of spirit blue, 55 parts of in- dulin. Violet, 28 parts of methyl-violet, 3 B. Crimson, 55 parts of safranin. Chest- nut, 55 parts of safranin, 15 parts of in- dulin. III. — Shellac 4 ounces Sandarac 1 ounce Gum thus 1 ounce Methyl spirit 1 pint In this dissolve aniline dyes of the requisite color, and apply. For white straw, white shellac must be used. To Extract Shellac from Fur Hats.— Use the common solvents, as carbon bisulphide, benzine, wood alcohol, tur- pentine, and so forth, reclaiming the spirit and shellac by a suitable still. HEADACHE REMEDIES: See also Pain Killers. Headache Cologne. — As a mitigant of headache, cologne water of the farina type is refreshing. Oil of neroli 6 drachms Oil of rosemary 3 drachms Oil of bergamot 3 drachms Oil of cedrat 7 drachms Oil of orange peel .... 7 drachms Deodorized alcohol . . 1 gallon To secure a satisfactory product from the foregoing formula it is necessary to look carefully to the quality of the oils. Oil of cedrat is prone to change, and oil of orange peel, if exposed to the atmos- phere for a short time, becomes worth- less, and will spoil the other materials. A delightful combination of the acetic odor with that of cologne water may be had by adding to a pint of the foregoing, 2 drachms of glacial acetic acid. The odor so produced may be more grateful to some invalids than the neroli and lemon bouquet. Still another striking variation of the cologne odor, suitable for the use in- dicated, may be made by adding to a pint of cologne water an ounce of am- moniated alcohol. Liquid Headache Remedies. — Acetanilid 60 grains Alcohol 4 fluidrachms Ammonium carbon- ate 30 grains Water 2 fluidrachms Simple elixir to make 2 fluidounces Dissolve the acetanilid in the alcohol, the ammonium carbonate in the water, mix each solution with a portion of the simple elixir, and mix the whole together. HEAT -INDICATING PAINT: See Paint. HEAT INSULATION: See Insulation. HEAT, PRICKLY: See Household Formulas. HEAT-RESISTANT LACQUERS: See Lacquers. HEAVES: See Veterinary Formulas. HEDGE MUSTARD. Hedge mustard (erysimum) was at one time a popular remedy in France for hoarseness, and is still used in country districts, but is not often prescribed. Liquid ammonia 10 drops Syrup of erysimum IJ ounces Infusion of lime flowers. 3 ounces To be taken at one dose. HERBARIUM SPECIMENS, MOUNT- ING. A matter of first importance, after drying the herbarium specimens, is to poison them, to prevent the attacks of insects. This is done by brushing them over on both sides, using a camel's-hair pencil, with a solution of 2 grains of HEIIBAIUUM SPECLMENS— HECTOGRAPH PADS 395 corrosive sublimate to an ounce of me- thylated spirit. In tropical climates the solution is generally used of twice this strength. There are several methods of mounting them. Leaves with a waxy surface and coriaceous texture are best stitched through the middle after they have been fastened on with an adhesive mixture. Twigs of leguminous trees will often throw off their leaflets in dry- ing. This may, in some measure, be prevented by dipping them in boiling water before drying, or if the leaves are not very rigid, by using strong pressure at first, without the use of hot water. If the specimens have to be frequently handled, the most satisfactory prepara- tion is Lepage's fish glue, but a mixture of glue and paste, with carbolic acid added, is used in some large herbaria. The disadvantage of using glue, gum, or paste is that it is necessary to have some of the leaves turned over so as to show the under surface of the leaf, and some of the flowers and seeds placed loose in envelopes on the same sheet for purposes of comparison or microscopic exami- nation. Another plan is to use narrow slips of gummed stiff but thin paper, such as very thin parchment paper. These strips are either gummed over the stems, etc., and pinched in round the stem with forceps, or passed through slits made in the sheet and fastened at the back. If the specimens are mounted on cards and protected in glass frames, stitching in the principal parts with gray thread produces a very satisfactory appearance. Hectograph Pads and Inks The hectograph is a gelatin pad used for duplicating letters, etc., by transfer. The pad should have a tough elastic consistency, similar to that of a printer's roller. The letter or sketch to be dupli- cated is written or traced on a sheet of heavy paper with an aniline ink (which has great tinctorial ciualities). When dry this is laid, inked side down, on the pad and subjected to moderate and uniform pressure for a few minutes. It may then be removed, when a copy of the original will be found on the pad which has absorbed a large quantity of the ink. The blank sheets are laid one jjy one on the paa, subjected to moderate pressure over the whole surface with a wooden or rubber roller, or with the hand, and lifted off bj; taking hold of the corners and stripping them gently with an even movement. If this is done too quickly the composition may be torn. Each succeeding copy thus made will be a little fainter than its predecessor. From 40 to 60 legible copies may be made. When the operation is finished the surface of the pad should be gone over gently with a wet sponge and the remaining ink soaked out. The super- fluous moisture is then carefully wiped off, when the pad will be ready for another operation. The pad or hectograph is essentially a mixture of glue (gelatin) and glycerine. This mixture has the property of remain- ing soft yet firm for a long time and of absorbing and holding certain coloring matters in such a way as to give them up slowly or in layers, so to speak, on pressure. Such a pad may be made by melting together 1 part of glue, 2 parts of water and 4 parts of glycerine (all by weight, of course), evaporating some of the water and tempering the mixture with more glue or glycerine if the season or climate require. The mass when of proper con- sistency, whiclj can be ascertained by cooling a small portion, is poured into a shallow pan and allowed to set. Clean glue must be used or the mixture strained; and air bubbles should be removed by skimming the surface with a piece of card-board or similar appliance. Variations of this formula have been proposed, some of which are appended: I. — Glycerine 12 ounces Gelatin 2 ounces Water 7 J ounces Sugar 2 ounces II. — Water 10 ounces Dextrin IJ ounces Sugar 2 ounces Gelatin 15 ounces Glycerine 15 ounces Zinc oxidr IJ ounces III. — Gelatin 10 ounces Water 40 ounces Glycerine 120 ounces Barium sulphate . . 8 ounces The Tokacs patent composition, be- sides the usual ingredients, such as gela- tin, glycerine, sugar, and gum, contains soap, and can tnerefore be washed off much easier for new use. The smooth- ness of the surface is also increased, without showing more sticking capacity with the first impressions. Hectograph Inks (see also Inks). — The writing to be copied by means of the hectograph is done on good paper with an aniline ink. Formulas for suitable ones are appended. It is said that more copies can be obtained from writing with the purple ink than with other kinds: 396 HECTOGRAPH INKS— HORN Purple. — I. — Methyl violet 2 parts Alcohol 2 parts Sugar 1 part Glycerine 4 parts Water 24 parts Dissolve the violet in the alcohol mixed with the glycerine; dissolve the sugar in the water; mix both solutions. II. — A good purple hectograph ink is made as follows: Dissolve 1 part methyl violet in 8 parts of water and add 1 part of glycerine. Gently warm the solution for an hour, and add, when cool, J part alcohol. Or take methyl violet, 1 part; water, 7 parts; and glycerine, 2 parts. Black.— Methyl violet 10 parts Nigrosin 20 parts Glycerine 30 parts Gum arabic 5 parts Alcohol 60 parts Blue.— Resorcin blue M 10 parts Dilute acetic acid .... 1 part Water 85 parts Glycerine 4 parts Alcohol 10 parts Dissolve by heat. Red.— Fuchsin 10 parts Alcohol 10 parts Glycerine 10 parts Water 50 parts Green. — Aniline green, water soluble 15 parts Glycerine 10 parts Water 50 parts Alcohol 10 parts Repairing Hectographs. — Instead of remelting the hectograph composition, which is not always successful, it is recommended to pour alcohol over the surface of the cleaned mass and to light it. After solidifying, the surface will be again ready for use. HEMORRHOIDS: See Piles. HERB VINEGAR: See Vinegar. HIDES: See Leather. HIDE BOUND: See Veterinary Formulas. HIDE-CLEANING PROCESSES: See Cleaning Preparations and Meth- ods. HOARHOUin) CANDY: See Confectionery. HOARSENESS, CREAM BON-BONS FOR: See Confectionery. HOARSENESS, REMEDY FOR: See Cough and Cold Mixtures and Tur- pentine. HOG DISEASES AND THEIR REME- DIES: See Veterinary Formulas. HONEY: Honey Clarifier. — For 3,000 parts of fresh honey, take 875 parts of water, 150 parts of washed, dried, and pulverized charcoal, 70 parts of powdered chalk, and the whites of 3 eggs beaten in 90 parts of water. Put the honey and the chalk in a vessel capable of contain- ing J more than the mixture and boil for 3 minutes; then introduce the charcoal and stir up the whole. Add the whites of the eggs while continuing to stir, and boil again for 3 minutes. Take from the fire, and after allowing the liquid to cool for a quarter of an hour, filter, and to secure a perfectly clear liquid refilter on flannel. Detecting Dyed Honey. — For the de- tection of artificial yellow dyestuff in honey, treat the aqueous yellow solution with hydrochloric acid, as well as with ammonia; also extract the dyestuff from the acid or ammoniacal solution by sol- vents, such as alcohol or ether, or con- duct the Arata wool test in the following manner: Dissolve 10 parts of honey in 50 parts of water, mix with 10 parts of a 10 per cent potassium-bisulphate solu- tion and boil the woolen thread in this liquid for 10 minutes. HONEY WINE: See Mead. HONING: See Whetstones. HOOF SORES: See Veterinary Formulas. HOP BITTER BEER: See Beverages. HOP SYRUP: See Essences and Extracts. HORN: Artificial Horn. — To prepare artificial horn from compounds of nitro-cellulose and casein, by nardening them and re- moving their odor of camphor, the com- pounds are steeped in formaldehyde from several hours to as many days. HORN— HOUSEHOLD FORMULAS 397 according to the thickness of the object treated. When the formaldehyde has penetrated through the mass and dis- solved the camphor, the object is taken out of the liciuid and driecl. Both the camphor extracted and the formalde- hyde used can be recovered by distilla- tion, and used over again, thus cheapen- ing the operation. Dehorners or Horn Destroyers. — The following are recommended by the Board of Agriculture of Great Britain: Clip the hair from the top of the horn when the calf is from 2 to 6 days old. Slightly moisten the end of a stick of caustic potash with water or saliva (or moisten the top of the horn bud) and rub the tip of each horn firmly with the potash for about a quarter of a minute, or until a slight impression has been made on the center of the horn. The horns should be treated in this way from 2 to 4 times at intervals of 5 minutes. If, during the interval of 5 minutes after one or more applications, a little blood ap- pears in the center of the horn, it will then only be necessary to give another very slight rubbing witn the potash. The following directions should be carefully observed: The operation is best performed when the calf is under 6 days old, and should not be attempted after the ninth day. When not in use the caustic potash should be kept in a stoppered glass bottle in a ary place, as it rapidly deteriorates when exposed to the air. One man should hold the calf while an assistant uses the caustic. Roll a piece of tin foil or brown paper round the end of the stick of caustic potash, which is held by the fingers, so as not to injure the hand of the operator. Do not moisten the stick too much, or the caustic may spread to the skin around the horn and destroy the flesh. For the same reason keep the calf from getting wet for some days after the operation. Be careful to rub on the_ center of the horn and not around the side of it. Staining Horns. — A brown stain is given to norns by covering them first with an aqueous solution of potassium ferrocyanide, drying them, and then treating with a hot dilute solution of copper sulphate. A black stain can be produced in the following manner: After having finely sandpapered the horns, dissolve 50 to 60 grains of nitrate of silver in 1 ounce of distilled water. It will be colorless. Dip a small brush in, and paint the horns where they are to be black. When dry, put them where the sun can shine on them, and you will find that they will turn jet black, and may then be polished. To Soften Horn.— Lay the horn for 10 days in a solution of water, 1 part; nitric acid, 3 parts; wood vinegar, 'i parts; tannin, 5 parts; tartar, 2 parts; and zinc vitriol, 2.5 parts. HORN BLEACHES: See Bone and Ivory. HORN, UNITING GLASS WITH: See Adhesives. HORSES, THE TREATMENT OF THEIR DISEASES: See Veterinary Formulas. Household Fommlas How to Lay Galvanized Iron Roofing. — The use of galvanized iron for general roofing work has increased greatly dur- ing the past few years. It has many features which commend it as a roofing material, but difficulties have been ex- perienced by beginners as to the proper method of applying it to the roof. The weight of material used is rather heavy to permit of double seaming, but a meth- od has been evolved that is satisfac- tory. Galvanized iron roofing can be put on at low cost, so ax to be water-tight and free from buckling at the joints. The method does away with double seaming, and is considered more suitable than the latter for roofing purposes wherever it can be laid on a roof steeper than 1 to 12. Galvanized iron of No. 28 and heavier gauges is used, the sheets being lap- seamed and soldered together in strips in the shop the proper length to apply to the roof. After the sheets are fastened together a IJ-inch edge is turned up the entire length of one side of the sheet, as indicated in Fig. 1. This operation is r 1 FIG. 1 FIG. 2 /t^"" -1 FIG. 3 FIG.4 . 1,— ||_CL«T FIG. 5 FIG. 6 done with tongs having gauge pins set at the proper point. The second oper- 398 HOUSEHOLD FORMULAS ation consists in turning a strip J inch wide toward the sheet, as shown in Fig. 2. This sheet is then laid on the roof, and a cleat about 8 inches lon^ and 1 inch wide, made of galvanized iron, is nailed to the roof close to the sheet and bent over it, as shown in Fig. 3. A second sheet having IJ inches turned up is now brought against the first sheet and bent over both sheet and cleat, as shown in Fig. 4. The cleat is then bent backward over the second sheet and cut off close to the roof, as in Pig. 5, after which the seams are drawn together by double seaming tools, as the occasion demands, and slightly ham- mered with a wooden mallet. The fin- ished seam is shown in Fig. 6. It will be seen that the second sheet of galvan- ized iron, cut J inch longer than the first, laps over the former, making a sort of bead which prevents water from driving in. Cleats hold both sheets firmly to the roof and are nailed about 12 inches apart. Roofs of this character, when laid with No. 28 gauge iron, cost very little more than the cheaper grades of tin, and do not have to be painted. Applications for Prickly Heat.^ — Many applications for this extremely annoying form of urticaria have been suggested and their efficacy strongly urged by the various correspondents of the medical press who propose them, but none of them seem to be generally efficacicius. Thus, sodium bicarbonate in strong, aqueous solution, has long been a domes- tic remedy in general use, but it fails probably as often as it succeeds. A weak solution of copper sulphate has also been highly extolled, only to disap- point a very large proportion of those who resort to it. And so we might go on citing remedies which may sometimes give relief, but fail in the large proportion of cases. In this trouble, as in almost every other, the idiosyncrasies of the patient play a great part in the effects pro- duced by any remedy. It is caused, primarily by coni^estion of the capillary vessels of the skin, and anything that tends to relieve this congestion will give relief, at least temporarily. Among the newer suggestions are the following: Alcohol 333 parts Ether 333 parts Chloroform 333 parts Menthol 1 part Mix. Directions: Apply occasion- ally with a sponge. Among those things which at least assist one in bearing the affliction is fre- quent change of underwear. The under- garments worn during the day should never be worn at night. Scratching or rubbing should be avoided where pos- sible. Avoid stimulating food and drinks, especially alcohol, and by all means keep the bowels in a soluble con- dition. Cleaning and Polishing Linoleum. — Wash the linoleum with a mixture of equal parts of milk and water, wipe dry, and rub in the following mixture by means of a cloth rag: Yellow wax, 5 parts; turpentine oil, 11 parts; varnish, 5 parts. As a glazing agent, a solution of a little yellow wax in turpentine oil is also recommended. Other polishing agents are: I. — Palm oil, 1 part; paraffine, 18; ker- osene, 4. II. — Yellow wax, 1 part; carnauba wax, 2; turpentine oil, 10; benzine, 5. Lavatory Deodorant. — Sodium bicarbonate. . 5 ounces Alum 5 J ounces Potassium bromide. . . 4 ounces Hydrochloric acid enough. Water enough to make 4 pints. To 3 parts of boiling water add the alum and then the bicarbonate. Intro- duce enough hydrochloric acid to dis- solve the precipitate of aluminum hy- drate which forms and then add the potassium bromide. Add enough water to bring the measure of the finished prod- uct up to 4 pints. Removal of Odors from Wooden Boxes, Chests, Drawers, etc. — This is done by varnishing them with a solution of shellac, after the following manner: Make a solution of shellac, 1,000 parts; alcohol, 90 per cent to 95 per cent, 1,000 parts; boric acid, 50 parts; castor oil, SO parts. The shellac is first dissolved in the alcohol and the acid and oil added afterwards. For the first coating use 1 part of the solution cut with from 1 to 2 parts of alcohol, according to the porosity of the wood — the more porous the less necessity for cutting. When the first coat is absorbed and dried in, repeat the application, if the wood is very porous, with the diluted shellac, but if of hard, dense wood, the final coating may be now put on, using the solution without addition of alcohol. If desired, the solu- tion may be colored with any of the alcohol soluble aniline colors. The shel- lac solution, by the way, may be applied to the outside of chests, etc., and finished off after the fashion of "French polish." HOUSEHOLD FORMULAS 399 When used this wav, a prior application of 2 coats of linseed oil is advisable. Stencil Marking Ink that will Wash Out. — Triturate together 1 part of fine soot and '2 parts of Prussian blue, with a littleglycerine; then add 3 parts of gum urabic and enough glycerine to form a thin paste. Washing Fluid.— Take 1 pound sal soda, J pound good stone lime, and 5 quarts of water; boil a short time, let it settle, and pour off the clear fluid into a stone jug, and cork for use; soak the white clothes overnight in simple water, wring out and soap wristbands, collars, and dirty or stained places. Have the boiler half filled with water just begin- ning to boil, then put in 1 common tea- cupful of fluid, stir and put in your clothes, and boil for half an hour, then rub lightly through one suds only, and all is complete. Starch Luster. — A portion of stearine, the size of an old-fashioned cent, added to starch, } pound, and boiled with it for 2 or 3 minutes, will add greatly to the beauty of linen, to which it may be ap- plied. To Make Loose Kails in Walls Rigid. — As soon as a nail driven in the wall be- comes loose and the plastering begins to break, it can be made solid and firm by the following process: Saturate a bit of wadding with thick dextrin or glue; wrap as much of it around the nail as Eossible and reinsert the latter in the ole, pressing it home as strongly as possible. Remove the excess of glue or dextrin, wiping it cleanly off with a rag dipped in clean water; then let dr^. The nail will then be firmly fastened in place. If the loose plastering be touched with the glue and replaced, it will adhere and remain firm. How to Keep Lamp Burners in Order. — In the combustion of coal oil a car- bonaceous residue is left, which attaches itself very firmly to the metal alongthe edge of the burner next the flame. This is especially true of round burners, where the heat of the flame is more in- tense than in flat ones, and the deposit of carbon, where not frequently removed, soon gets sufficiently heavy to interfere seriously with the movement of the wick up or down. The deposit may be scraped off with a knife blade, but a mucn more satisfactory process of get- ting rid of it is as follows: Dissolve so- dium carbonate, 1 part, in 5 or 6 parts of water, and in this boil the burner for 5 minutes or so. When taken out the burner will look like a new one, and acts like one, provided that the apparatus for raising and lowering the wick has not previously been bent and twisted by at- tempting to force the wick past rough deposits. To Remove the Odor from Pasteboard. — Draw the pasteboard through a 3 per cent solution of viscose in water. The pasteboard must be calendered after dry- ing. To Remove Woody Odor— To get rid of that frequently disagreeable smell in old chests, drawers, etc., paint the sur- face over with the following mixture: Acetic ether 100 parts Formaldehyde C parts Acid, carbolic 4 parts Tincture of eucalyp- tus leaves 60 parts Mix. After applying the mixture ex- f)ose the article to the open air in the siin- ight. To Keep Flies Out of a House. — Never allow a speck of food ti> remain uncov- ered in dining room or pantry any length of time after meals. Never leave rem- nants of food exposed that you intend for cat or hens. Feed at once or cover their food up a distance from the house. Let nothing decay near the house. Keep your dining room and pantry windows open a few inches most of the time. Darken your room and pantry when not in use. If there should oe any flies they will go to the window when the room is darkened, where they are easily cauglit, killed, or brushed out. An Easy Way to Wash a Heavy Com- fortable. — Examine the comfortable, and if you find soiled spots soap them and scrub with a small brush. Hang the comfortable on a strong line and turn the hose on. When one side is washed turn and wash the other. The water forces its way through cotton and cover- ing, making the comfortable as light and fluffy as when new. Squeeze the corners and ends as dry as possible. Preservation of Carpets. — Lay sheets of brown paper under the carpet. This gives a soft feeling to the foot, and by diminishing the wear adds longer life to the carpet; at the same time it tends to keep away the air and renders the apart- ments warm. To Do Away with Wiping Dishes. — Make a rack by putting a shelf over the kitchen sink, slanting it so that the water 400 HOUSEHOLD FORMULAS will drain off into the sink. Put a lattice railing about 6 inches high at the front and ends of the shelf so that dishes can be set against it on their edges without falling out. Have 2 pans of hot water. Wash the dishes in one and rinse them in the other. Set them on edge in the rack and leave until dry. A Convenient Table. — Ten common-sized eggs weigh 1 pound. Soft butter, the size of an egg, weighs 1 ounce. One pint of coffee and of sugar weighs 12 ounces. One quart of sifted flour (well heaped) weighs i pound. One pint of best brown sugar weighs 12 ounces. How to Make a Cellar Waterproof. — The old wall surface should be roughened and perfectly cleaned before plastering is commenced. It may be advisable to put the first coat on not thicker than J inch, and after this has set it may be cut and roughened by a pointing trowel. Then apply a second J-inch coat and finish this to an even and smooth sur- face. Proportion of plaster: One-half part slaked lime, 1 part Portland ce- ment, part fine, sharp sand, to be mixed well and applied instantly. Removing Old Wall Paper. — Some paper hangers remove old paper from walls by first dampening it with water in which a little baking soda has been dis- solved, the surface being then gone over with a "scraper" or other tool. How- over, the principle object of any method is to soften the old paste. This may be readily accomplished by first wetting a section of the old paper with cold or tepid water, using a brush, repeating the wetting until the paper and paste are soaked through, when the paper may easily be pulled off, or, if too tender, may be scraped with any instrument of a chisel form shoved between the paper and the wall. The wall should then be washed with clean water, this operation being materially assisted by wetting the wall ahead of the washing. Stained Ceilings. — ^Take unslaked white lime, dilute with alcohol, and paint the spots with it. When the spots are dry — which will be soon, as the alcohol evapo- rates and the lime forms a sort of in- sulating layer — one can proceed painting with size eolor, and the spots will not show through again. To Overcome Odors in Freshly Papered Rooms. — After the windows and doors of such rooms have been closed, bring m red-hot coal and strew on this several handfuls of juniper berries. About 12 hours later open all windows and doors, so as to admit fresh air, and it will be found that the bad smell has entirely disappeared. Treatment of Damp Walls.— I. — A good and simple remedy to obviate this evil is caoutchouc glue, which is pre- Eared from rubber hose. The walls to e laid dry are first to be thoroughly cleaned by brushing and rubbing off; then the caoutchouc size, which has been previously made liquid by heating, is ap- plied with a broad brush in a uniform layer — about 8 to 12 inches higher than the wall appears damp — and finally f)aper is pasted over the glue when the alter is still sticky. The paper will at once adhere very firmly. Or else, apply the liquefied glue in a uniform layer upon paper (wall paper, caoutchouc paper, etc.). Upon this, size paint may be ap- plied, or it may be covered with wall paper or plaster. If the caoutchouc size is put on with the necessary care — i. e., if all damp spots are covered with it — the wall is laid dry for the future, and no peeling off of the paint or the wall paper needs to be apprehended. In cellars, protection from dampness can be had in a like manner, as the caoutchouc glue adheres equally well to all surfaces, whether stone, glass, metal, or wood. II. — The walls must be well cleaned before painting. If the plaster should be worn and permeated with saltpeter in places it should be renewed and smoothed. These clean surfaces are coated twice with a water-glass solution, 1.1, using a brush and allowed to dry well. Then they are painted 3 times with the following mixture: Dissolve 100 parts, by weight, of mastic in 10 parts of absolute alcohol; pour 1,000 parts of water over 200 parts of isinglass; allow to soak for 6 hours; heat to solution and add 100 parts of alcohol (50 per cent). Into this mixture pour a hot solution of 50 parts of ammonia in 250 parts of alcohol (50 per cent), stir well, and subsequently add the mastic solu- tion and stand aside warm, stirring dili- gently. After 5 minutes take away from the fire and painting may be com- menced. Before a fresh application, however, the solution should be removed. When this coating has dried complete- ly it is covered with oil or varnish paint, preferably the latter. In the same man- ner the exudation of so-called saltpeter HOUSEHOLD FORMULAS— HYDROMETER 401 in fresh masonry or on the exterior of tupades, etc., may be prevented, size paint or lirae paint being employed in- stead of the oil-varnish paint. New walls which are to be painted will give oflfno more saltpeter alter 2 or 3 appli- cations of the isingla.ss solution, so tnat the colors of the wall paper will not be injured either. Stains caused by smoke, soot, etc., on ceilings of rooms, kitchens, or corridors which are difficult to cover up with size paint, may also be com- pletely isolated by applying the warm isinglass solution 2 or 3 times. The size paint is, of course, put on only after complete drying of the ceilings. To Protect Papered Walls from Ver- min. — It is not infrequent that when the wall paper becomes defective or loose in papered rooms, vermin, bed bugs, ants, etc., will breed behind it. In order to prevent this evil a little colocynth powder should be added to the paste used for hanging the paper, in the proportion of 50 or 60 parts for 3,000 parts. _ Care of Refrigerators. — See that the sides or walls of all refrigerators are oc- casionally scoured with soap, or soap and slaked lime. Dust Preventers. — Against the bene- ficial effects to be observed in the use of most preparations we must place the following bad effects: The great smooth- ness and slipperiness of the boards dur- ing the first few days after every appli- cation of the dressing, which forbids the use of the latter on steps, floors of gymna- sia, dancing floors, etc. The fact that the oil or grease penetrates the soles of the boots or shoes, the hems of ladies' dresses, and things accidentally falling to the floor are soned and spotted. Be- sides these there is, especially during the first few days after application, the dirty dark coloration which the boards take on after protracted use of the oils. Finally, there is the considerable cost of any process, especially for smaller rooms and apartments. In schoolrooms and railroad waiting rooms and other places much freauented by children dnd others wearing shoes set with iron, the boards soon become smooth from wear, and for such places the process is not suited. According to other sources of infor- mation, these evil tendencies of the appli- cation vanish altogether, or are reduced to a minimum, if (1) entirely fresh, or at least, not rancid oils be used; (2) if, after each oiling, a few days be allowed to elapse before using the chamber or hall, and finally (3), if resort is not had to costly foreign special preparations, but German goods, procurable at wholesale in any quantity, and at very low figures. The last advice (to use low-priced preparations) seems sensible since accord- ing to recent experiments, none of the oils experimented upon possess any es- pecial advantages over the others. An overwhelming majority of the laboratories for examination have given a verdict in favor of oil as a dust-sup- pressing application for floors, and have expressed a desire to see it in universal use. The following is a suggestion put forth for the use of various preparations: This dust-absorbing agent has for its object to take up the dust in sweeping floors, etc., and to prevent its develop- ment. The production is as follows: Mix in an intimate manner 12 parts, by weight, of mineral sperm oil with 88 parts, by weight, of Roman or Portland cement, adding a few drops of mirbane oil. Upon stirring a uniform paste forms at first, which then passes into a greasy, sandy mass. This mass is sprinkled upon the surface to be swept and cleaned of dust, next going over it with a broom or similar object in the customary man- ner, at which operation the dust will mix with the mass. The preparation can be used repeatedly. HUCKLEBERRY VIKEGAR: See Vinegar. HUNYADI WATER: See Water. HYDROCHINON DEVELOPER: See Photography. HYDROGEN, AMALGAMS AS A SOXJRCE OF NASCENT: See Amalgams. HYDROGEN PEROXIDE AS A PRE- SERVATIVE: See Preserving. HYDROMETER AND ITS USE. Fill the tall cylinder or test glass with the spirit to be tested and see that it is of the proper temperature (60° P.). Should the thermometer indicate a higher tem- perature wrap the cylinder in cloths which have been dipped in cold water until the temperature falls to the required degree. If too low a temperature is indicated, reverse the process, using warm instead of cold applications. When 60° is reached note the specific gravity on _ the floating hydrometer, [ave me cylinder filled to the top and look across the top of the liquid at the mark on the hydrometer. This is to preclude an 402 HYGROMETERS— ICE incorrect reading by possible refraction in the glass cylinder. HYGROMETERS AND HYGRO- SCOPES: Paper Hygrometers. — Paper hygrom- eters are made by saturating white blot- ting paper with the following liquid and then hanging up to dry: Cobalt chloride 1 ounce Sodium chloride J ounce Calcium chloride 75 grains Acacia J ounce Water 3 ounces The amount of moisture in the atmos- phere is roughly indicated by the chang- ing color of the papers, as follows: Rose red rain Pale red very moist Bluish red moist Lavender blue .... nearly dry Blue very dry Colored Hygroscopes.— These instru- ments are often composed of a flower or a figure, of light muslin or paper, im- mersed in one of the following solutions: I. — Cobalt chloride. ... 1 part Gelatin 10 parts Water 100 parts The normal coloring is pink; this color changes into violet in medium humid weather and into blue in very dry weather. II. — Cupric chloride. . . 1 part Gelatin 10 parts Water 100 parts The color is yellow in dry weather. III. — Cobalt chloride.. . . 1 part Gelatin 20 parts Nickel oxide 75 parts Cupric chloride. ... 25 parts Water 200 parts The color is green in dry weather. HYOSCYAMUS, ANTIDOTE TO: See Atropine. HYPOSULPHITE OF SODA: See Photography. ICE: See also Refrigeration. Measuring the Weight of Ice. — A close estimate of the weight of ice can be reached by multiplying together the length, breadth, and thickness of the block in inches, and dividing the product by 30. This will be very closely the weight in pounds. Thus, if a block is 10 X 10 X 9, the product is 900, and this divided by 30 gives 30 pounds as correct weight. A block 10 x 10 x 6 weighs 20 pounds. This simple method can be easily applied, and it may serve to re- move unjust suspicions, or to detect short weight. To Keep Ice in Small Quantities. — To keep ice from melting, attention is called to an old preserving method. The ice is cracked with a hammer between 2 layers of a strong cloth. Tie over a com- mon unglazed flower-pot, holding about 2 to 4 quarts and placed upon a porce- lain dish, a piece of white flannel in such a manner that it is turned down funnel- like into the interior of the pot without touching the bottom. Placed in this flannel funnel the cracked ice keeps for days. ICE FLOWERS. Make a 9, per cent solution of the best clear gelatin in distilled water, filter, and flood the filtrate over any surface which it is desired to ornament. Drain off slightly, and if the weather is sufficiently cold, put the plate, as nearly level as pos- sible, out into the cold air to freeze. In freezing, water is abstracted from the colloidal portion, which latter then as- sumes an eflBorescent form, little flowers, with exuberant, graceful curves of crys- tals, showing up as foliage, from all over the surface. _ To preserve in permanent form all that is necessary is to flood them with absolute alcohol. This treatment removes the ice, thus leaving a lasting framework of gelatin which may be preserved indefinitely. In order to do this, as soon as the gelatin has become quite dry it should be either varnished, flowed with an alcoholic solution of clear shellac, or the gelatin may be rendered insoluble by contact, for a few moments, with a solution of potassium bichromate, and subsequent exposure to sunlight. ICING: See Household Formulas. IMOGEN DEVELOPER: See Photography. INCENSE: See Puinigants. INCRUSTATION, PREVENTION OF: See Boiler Compounds. INDIGO: See Dyes. INFANT FOODS: See Foods. INFLUENZA IN CATTLE: See Veterinary Formulas. IGNITING COMPOSITION— INKS 403 mK ERADICATORS: See Cleaning Preparations and Meth- ods. IGNITING COMPOSITION. Eight parts of powdered manganese, 10 parts of amorphous phosphorus, and 5 parts of glue. The glue is soaked in water, dissolved in the heat, and the manganese and the phosphorus stirred in, so that a thinly liquid paste results, which is applied by means of a brush. Allow to dry well. This, being free from sul- phur, can be applied on match-boxes. Inks BLUEPRINT INKS. I. — For red-writing fluids for blue- prints, take a piece of common washing soda the size of an ordinary bean, and dissolve it in 4 tablespoonfuls of ordinary red-writing ink, to make a red fluid. To keep it from spreading too much, use a fine pen to apply it with, and write fast so as not to allow too much of the fluid to get on the paper, for it will continue eating until it is dry. II. — For red and white solutions for writing on blueprints, dissolve a crystal of oxalate of potash about the size of a pea in an ink-bottle full of water. This will give white lines on blueprints; other potash solutions are yellowisn. If this shows a tendency to run, owing to too great strength, add more water and thicken slightly with mucilage. Mix this with red or any other colored ink e.bout half and half, and writing may be done on the blueprints in colors corre- sponding to the inks used. III. — Add to a small bottle of water enough washing soda to make a clear white line, then add enough gum arable to it to prevent spreading and making ragged lines. To make red lines dip the pen in red ink and then add a little of the solution by means of the quill. IV. — For white ink, grind zinc oxide fine on marble and incorporate with it a mucilage made with gum tragacanth. Thin a little for use. Add a little oil of cloves to prevent mold, and shake from time to time. V. — A fluid which is as good as any for writing white on blueprints is made of equal parts of sal soda and water. VI. — Mix equal parts of borax and water. Both these fluids. V and VI, must be used with a fine-pointed pen; a pen with a blunt point will not work well. DRAWING INKS: Blue Ruling Ink. — Good vitriol, 4 ounces; indigo, 1 ounce. Pulverize the indigo, add it to the vitriol, and let it stand exposed to the air for 6 days, or until dissolved; then fill the pots with chalk, add fresh gall, J gill, boiling it before use. Black Ruling Ink. — Take good black ink, and add gall as for blue. Do not cork it, as this prevents it from turning black. Carbon Ink. — Dissolve real India ink in common black ink, or add a small quantity of lampblack previously heated to redness, and ground perfectly smooth, with a small portion of the ink. Carmine. — The ordinary solution of carmine in ammonia water, after a short time in contact with steel, becomes black- ish red, but an ink may be made that will retain its brilliant carmine color to the last by the following process, given by Dingier: Triturate 1 part of pure car- mine with 15 parts of acetate of ammonia solution, with an equal quantity of dis- tilled water in a porcelain mortar, and allow the whole to stand for some time. In this way, a portion of the alumina, which is combined with the carmine dye, is taken up by the acetic acid of the am- monia salt, and separates as a precipi- tate, while the pure pigment of tne cochineal remains dissolved in the half- satur.nted ammonia. It is now filtered and a few drops of pure white sugar syrup added to tnicken it. A solution of gum arable cannot be used to thicken it, since the ink still contains some acetic acid, which would coagulate the bas- sorine, one of the constituents of the gum. Liquid Indelible Drawing Ink. — Dis- solve, by boiling, 2 parts of blond (golden yellow) shellac in 1.6 parts, by weight, of sal ammoniac, 16°, with 10 parts, by weight, of distilled water, and filter the solution through a woolen cloth. Now dissolve or grind 0.5 parts, by weight, of shellac solution with 0.01 part, by weight, of carbon black. Also dissolve .03 parts of nigrosin in 0.4 parts of distilled water and pour both solutions together. The mixture is allowed to settle for 2 days and the ready ink is drawn off from the sediment. GLASS, CELLULOID, AND METAL INKS: See also Etching. Most inks for glass will also write on celluloid and the metals. The following 404 INKS I and II are the most widely known recipes: I. — In 500 parts of water dissolve 86 parts of sodium fluoride and 7 parts of sodium sulphate. In another vessel dissolve in the same amount of water 14 parts of zinc chloride and to the solution add 56 parts of concentrated hydro- chloric acid. To use, mix equal vol- umes of the two solutions and add a little India ink; or, in the absence of this, rub up a little lampblack with it. It is scarcely necessary to say that the mix- ture should not be put in glass containers, unless they are well coated internally with parafEne, wax, gutta-percha, or some similar material. To avoid the inconvenience of keeping the solutions in separate bottles, mix them and preserve in a rubber bottle. A quill pen is best to use in writing with this preparation, but metallic pens may be used, if quite clean and new. II. — In 160 parts of alcohol dissolve 20 parts of rosin, and add to this, drop by drop, stirring continuously, a solution of 35 parts of borax in 250 parts of water. This being accomplished, dissolve in the solution sufficient methylene blue to give it the desired tint. Ink for Writing on Glazed Cardboard. — The following are especially recom- mended for use on celluloid: I. — Dissolve 4 drachms of brown shellac in 4 ounces of alcohol. Dissolve 7 drachms of borax in 6 ounces of dis- tilled water. Pour the first solution slowly into the second and carefully mix them, after which add 12 grains of aniline dye of the desired color. Violet, blue, green, red, yellow, orange, or black aniline dyes can be used. Such inks may be used for writing on bottles, and the glass may be cleaned with water without the inscription being impaired. II. — Ferric chloride .... 10 parts Tannin 15 parts Acetone 100 parts Dissolve the ferric chloride in a por- tion of the acetone and the tannin in the residue, and mix the solutions. III. — Dissolve a tar dyestuff of the desired color in anhydrous acetic acid. Indelible Inks for Glass or Metal. — Schobel recommends the following inks for marking articles of glass, glass slips for microscopy, reagent flasks, etc., in black: I. — Sodium silicate 1 to 2 parts Liquid India ink 1 part For white:. II. — Sodium water glass 3 to 4 parts Chinese white 1 part Instead of Chinese white, a sufficient amount of the so-called permanent white (barium sulphate) may be used. The containers for these inks should be kept air-tight. The writing in either case is not attacked by any reagent used in microscopical technique but may be readily scraped away with a knife. The slips or other articles should be as near chemically clean as possible, before at- tempting to write on them. According to Schuh, a mixture of a shellac solution and whiting or precipi- tated chalk answers very well for mark- ing glass. Any color may be mixed with the chalk. If the glass is thoroughly cleaned with alcohol or ether, either a quill pen or a camel's-hair pencil (or a fresh, clean steel pen) may be used. Ink on Marble. — Ink marks on marble may be removed with a paste made by dissolving an ounce of oxalic acid and half an ounce of butter of antimony in a pint of rain water, and adding sufficient flour to form a thin paste. Apply this to the stains with a brush; allow it to re- main on 3 or 4 days and then wash it off. Make a second application, if necessary. Perpetual Ink. — I. — Pitch, 3 pounds; melt over the fire, and add of lampblack, } pound; mix well. II. — Trinidad asphaltum and oil of turpentine, equal parts. Used in a melted state to fill in the letters on tomb- stones, marbles, etc. Without actual violence, it will endure as long as the stone itself. Tnlr for Steel Tools. — Have a rubber stamp made with white letters on a black ground. Make up an ink to use with this stamp, as follows: Ordinary rosin, J pound; lard oil, 1 tablespoonf ul ; lampblack, 2 tablespoon- fuls; turpentine, 2 tablespoonf uls. Melt the rosin, and stir in the other ingredients in the order given. When the ink is cold it should look like ordinary printers' ink. Spread a little of this ink over the pad and ink the rubber stamp as usual, and press it on the clean steel — saw blade, for instance. Have a rope of soft putty, and make a border of putty around the stamped design as close up to the letter- ing as possible, so that no portion of the steel inside the ring of putty is exposed but the lettering.. Then pour into the putty ring the etching mixture, composed of 1 ounce of nitric acid, 1 ounce of muri- INKS 405 atic acid, and 12 ounces of water. Allow it to rest for only a minute, draw oif the acid with a glass or rubber syringe, and soak up the last trace of acid with a moist sponge. Take ofif the putty, and wipe off the design with potash solution first, and then with turpentine, and the job is done. Writing on Ivory, Glass, etc. — Nitrate of silver, 3 parts; gum arable, 20 parts; distilled water, 30 parts. Dissolve the gum arable in two-thirds of the water, and the nitrate of silver in the other third. Mix and add the desired color. Writing on Zinc (see also Horti- cultural Inks). — Take 1 part sulphate of copper (copper vitriol), 1 part chloride of potassium, both dissolved in 35 parts water. With this blue liquid, writing or drawing may be done with a common steel pen upon zinc which has been polished bright with emery paper. After the writing is done the plates are put in water and left in it for some time, then taken out and dried. The writing will remain intact as long as the zinc. If the writing or drawing should be brown, 1 part sulphate of iron (green vitriol) is added to the above solution. The chemicals are dissolved in warm water and the latter must be cold before it can be used. GOLD INK. I. — The best gold ink is made by rub- bing up gold leaf as thoroughly as pos- sible with a little honey. The honey is then washed away with water, and the finely powdered gold leaf left is mixed to tlie consistency of a writing ink with weak gum water. Everything depends upon the fineness of the gold powder, i. e., upon the diligence with which it has been worked with the honey. Precipitated gold is finer than can be got by any rub- bing, but its color is wrong, being dark brown. The above gold ink should be used with a quill pen. II. — An imitation gold or bronze ink is composed by grinding 1,000 parts of powdered bronze of handsome color with a varnish prepared by boiling to- gether 500 parts of nut oil, 200 parts of garlic, 500 parts of cocoanutoil, 100 parts of Naples yellow, and as much of sienna. HORTICULTURAL INK. I. — Chlorate of platinum, J ounce; soft water, 1 pint. Dissolve and pre- serve it in glass. Used with a clean quill to write on zinc labels. It almost immediately turns black, and cannot be removed by washing. The addition of gum and lampblack, as recommended in certain books, is unnecessary, and even prejudicial to the quality of the ink. II. — Verdigris and sal ammoniac, of each J ounce; levigated lampblack, i ounce; common vinegar, J pint; mix thoroughly. Used as the last, for either zinc, iron, or steel. III. — Blue vitriol, 1 ounce; sal am- moniac, i ounce (both in powder); vine- far, i pint; dissolve. A little lamp- lack or vermilion may be added, but it is not necessary. Use No. I, for iron, tin, or steel plate. INDELIBLE INKS. These are also frequently called water- proof, incorrodible, or indestructible inks. They are employed for writing labels on bottles containiiig strong acids and alkaline solutions. They may be employed with stamps, types or stencil plates, by which greater neatness will be secured than can be obtained with either a brush or pen. The following is u superior prepara- tion for laundry use: Aniline oil 85 parts Potassium chlorate. . , 5 parts Distilled water 44 parts Hydrochloric acid, pure (specific grav- ity, 1.124).. 68 parts Copper chloride, pure 6 parts IMix the aniline oil, potassium chlor- ate, and 26 parts of the water and heat in a capacious vessel, on the water bath, at a temperature of from 175° to 195° F., until the chlorate is entirely dissolved, then add one-half of the hydrochloric and continue the heat until the mixture begins to take on a darker color. Dis- solve the copper chloride in the residue of the water, add the remaining hydro- chloric acid to the solution, and add the whole to the liquid on the water bath, and heat the mixture until it acquires a fine red-violet color. Pour into a flask with a well-fitting ground-glass stopper, close tightly and set aside for several days, or until it ceases to throw down a precipitate. When this is the case, pour off the clear liquid into smaller (one drachm or a drachm and a half) con- tainers. This ink must be used with a quill pen, and is especially good for linen or cotton fabrics, but does not answer so well for silk or woolen goods. When first used, it appears as a pale red, but on washing with soap or alkalies, or on exposure to 406 INKS the air, becomes a deep, dead black. The following is a modification of the foregoing: Blue Indelible Ink. — This ink has the reputation of resisting not only water and oil, but alcohol, oxalic acid, alkalies, the chlorides, etc. It is prepared as fol- lows: Dissolve 4 parts of gum lac in 36 parts of boiling water carrying 2 parts of borax. Filter and set aside. Now dissolve 2 parts of gum arable in 4 parts of water and add the solution to the filtrate. Finally, after the solution is c|uite cold, add 2 parts of powdered indigo and dissolve by agitation. Let stand for several hours, then decant, and put in small bottles. Red Indelible Inks. — By proceeding according to the following formula, an intense purple-red color may be pro- duced on fabrics, which is indelible in the customary sense of the word: 1. — Sodium carbonate . . 3 drachms Gum arable 3 drachms Water 12 drachms 2. — Platinic chloride. .. . 1 drachm Distilled water 2 ounces 3. — Stannous chloride. . . 1 drachm Distilled water 4 drachms Moisten the place to be written upon with No. 1 and rub a warm iron over it until dry; then write with No. 2, and, when dry, moisten with No. 3. An intense and beautiful purple-red color is porduced in this way. A very rich purple color — the purple of Cassius — may be produced by substituting a solu- tion of gold chloride for the platinic chloride in the above formula. Crimson Indelible Ink. — The following formula makes an indelible crimson ink: Silver nitrate 50 parts Sodium carbonate, crystal 75 parts Tartaric acid 16 parts Carmine 1 part Ammonia water, strongest 288 parts Sugar, white, crystal- lized 36 parts Gum arable, pow- dered 60 parts Distilled water, quantity sufficient to make 400 parts Dissolve the silver nitrate and the sodium carbonate separately, each in a. portion of the distilled water, mix the solutions, collect the precipitate on a filter, wash, and put the washed ^ecipi- tate, still moist, into a mortar. To this add the tartaric acid, and rub together until effervescence ceases. Now, dis- solve the carmine in the ammonia water (which latter should be of specific grav- ity .882, or contain 34 per cent of am- monia), filter, and add the filtrate to the silver tartrate magma in the mortar. Add the sugar and gum arable, rub up together, and add gradually, with con- stant agitation, sufficient distilled water to make 400 parts. Gold Indelible Ink. — Make two solu- tions as follows: 1. — Chloride of gold and sodium 1 part Water 10 parts Gum 2 parts 2. — Oxalic acid 1 part Water 5 parts Gum 2 parts The cloth or stuff to be written on should be moistened with liquid No. 2. Let dry, and then write upon the pre- pared place with liquid No. 1, using preferably a quill pen. Pass a hot iron over the mark, pressing heavily. INDIA, CHINA, OR JAPAN INK. Ink by these names is based on lamp- black, and prepared in various ways. Many makes fiow less easily from the pen than other inks, and are less durable than ink that writes paler and afterwards turns black. The ink is usually unfitted for steel pens, but applies well with a brush. I. — Lampblack (finest) is ground to a paste with very weak liquor of potassa, and this paste is then diffused through water slightly alkalized with po- tassa, after which it is collected, washed with clean water, and dried; the dry powder is next levigated to a smooth, stiff paste, with a strong filtered decoc- tion of carrageen or Irish moss, or of quince seed, a few drops of essence of musk, and about half as much essence of ambergris being added, by way of perfume, toward the end of the process; the mass is, lastly, molded into cakes, which are ornamented with Chinese characters and devices, as soon as they are dry and hard. II. — A weak solution of fine gelatin is boiled at a high temperature in a digester for 2 hours, and then in an open vessel for 1 hour more. The liquid is next filtered and evaporated to a proper consistency, either in a steam- or salt- INKS 407 water bath. It is, lastly, made into a pastf, as before, with lampblack which has been previously heated to dull red- ness in a well-closed crucible. Neither of the above gelatinizes in cold weather, like the ordinary imitations. To Keep India Ink Liquid. — If one has to work with the ink for some time, u. small piece should be dissolved in warm water and the tenth part of glycerine added, which mixes intimately with the ink after shaking for a short time. India ink thus prepared will keep very well in a corked bottle, and if a black jelly should form in the cold, it is quickly dis- solved by heating. The ink flows well from the pen and does not wipe. INK POWDERS AND LOZENGES. Any of these powders may, by the ad- dition of mucilage of gum arable, be made into lozenges or buttons — the "ink buttons" or "ink stones" in use abroad and much affected by travelers. The following makes a good service- able black ink, on maceratmg the pow- der in 100 times its weight of rain or distilled water for a few days: I. — Powdered gallnuts . . 16 parts Gum arable 8 parts Cloves 1 part Iron sulphate 10 parts Put into an earthenware or glass vessel, cover with 100 parts of rain or distilled water, and set aside for 10 days or 2 weeks, giving an occasional shake the first 3 or ■! days. Decant and bottle for use. Tlie following is ready for use instant- ly on being dissolved in water: II. — Aleppo gallnuts 84 parts Dutcn Madder 6 parts Powder, mix, moisten, and pack into the percolator. Extract with hot water, filter, and press out. To the filtrate add 4 parts of iron acetate (or pyroacetate) and ■il parts of tincture of mdigo. Put into the water bath and evaporate to dry- ness and powder the dry residue. LITHOGRAPHIC INKS. These are for writing on lithographic stones or plates: I.— Mastic (in tears), 8 ounces; shel- lac, 12 ounces; Venice turpentine, 1 ounce. iStelt together, add wax, 1 pound; tallow, 6 ounces. When dis- solved, add hard tallow soap (in shav- ings), 6 ounces; and when the whole is perfectly combined, add lampblack, 4 ounces. Mix well, cool a little, and then pour it into molds, or upon a slab, and when cold cut it into square pieces. II. (Lasteyrie). — Dry tallow soap, mastic (in tears), and common soda (in fine powder), of each, 30 parts; shellac, 150 parts; lampblack, I'i parts. Mix as indicated in Formula I. MARKING OR LABELING INKS: Black Marking Inks. — I. — Borax 60 parts Shellac 180 parts Boiling water 1,000 parts Lampblack, a sufficient quantity. Dissolve the borax in the water, add the shellac to the solution and stir until dissolved. Rub up a little lampblack with sufficient of the liquid to form a paste, and add the rest of the solution a little at a time and with constant rubbing. Test, and if not black enough, repeat the operation. To get the best effect — a pure jet-black — the lampl>lack should be purified and freed from the calcium phosphate always present in the com- mercial article to the extent, frequently, of 85 to 87 per cent, by treating with hydrochloric acid and washing with water. II. — An ink that nothing will bleach is made by mixing pyrogallic acid and sul- phate of iron in eoual parts. Particu- larly useful for marking labels on bottles containing acids. Varnish the label after the ink is dry so that moisture will not affect it. COLORED MARKING INKS: Eosine Red. — Eosine B 1 drachm Solution of mercurie chloride 2 drachms Mucilage of acacia. . . 2 drachms Rectified spirit 4 ounces Oil of lavender 1 drop Distilled water 8 ounces Dissolve the eosine in the solution and 2 ounces of water, add the mucilage, and mix, then the oil dissolved in the spirit, and finally make up. Orange. — Aniline orange 1 drachm Sugar 2 drachms Distilled water to 4 ounces Blue.— I. — Resorcin blue 1 drachm Distilled water 6 drachms Mix and agitate occasionally for 2 hours, then add: 408 INKS Hot distilled water ... 24 ounces Oxalic acid 10 grains Sugar J ounce Shake well. This and other aniline inks can be perfumed by rubbing up a drop of attar of rose with the sugar be- fore dissolving it in the hot water. II. — -A solid blue ink, or marking paste, to be used with a brush for sten- ciling, is made as follows: Shellac, 2 ounces; borax, 2 ounces; water, 25 ounces; gum arable, 2 ounces; and ul- tramarine, sufficient. Boil the borax and shellac in some of the water till they are dissolved, and withdraw from the fire. When the solution has become cold, add the rest of the 25 ounces of water, and the ultramarine. When it is to be used with the stencil, it must be made thicker than when it is to be applied with a marking brush. III. — In a suitable kettle mix well, stirring constantly, 50 parts of liquid logwood extract (80 per cent) with 3 parts of spirit previously mingled with 1 part of hydrochloric acid, maintaining a temperature of 68° F. Dissolve 5 parts of potassium chromate in 15 parts of boiling water; to this add 10 parts of hydrochloric acid, and pour this mixture, after raising the temperature to about 86° F., very slowly and with constant stirring into the kettle. Then heat the whole to 185° F. This mass, which has now assumed the nature of an extract, is stirred a little longer, and next 15 parts of dextrin mixed with 10 parts of fine white earth (white bole) are added. The whole is well stirred throughout. Transfer the mass from the kettle into a crusher, where it is thoroughly worked through. PRINTING INKS. Black printing inks owe their color to finely divided carbon made from lamp- black, pine-wood, rosin oil, etc., ac- cording to the quality of the ink desired. The finest inks are made from flame- lampblack. There are, however, cer- tain requirements made of all printing inks alike, and these are as follows: The ink must be a thick and homoge- neous liquid, it must contain no solid matter but finely divided carbon, and every drop when examined microscopic- ally must appear as a clear liquid con- taining black grains uniformly distrib- uted.. The consistency of a printing ink must be such that it passes on to the printing rollers at the proper rate. It will be obvious that various consistencies are demanded according to the nature of the machine used by the printer. For a rotary machine which prints many thou- sands of copies an hour a much thinner ink will be necessary than that required for art printing or for slow presses. As regards color, ordinary printing ink should be a pure black. For economy's sake, however, newspaper printers often use an ink so diluted that it does not look deep black, but a grayish black, espe- cially in large type. The question of the time that the ink takes to dry on the paper is a very impor- tant one, especially with ink used for printing newspapers which are folded and piled at one operation. If then the ink does not dry very quickly, the whole impression smudges and "sets off" so much that it becomes illegible in places. Although it is essential to have a quick drying ink for this purpose, it is danger- ous to go too far, for a too quickly drying ink would make the paper stick to the forms and tear it. A last condition which must be fulfilled by a good printing ink is that it must be easy of removal from the type, which has to be used again. No one composition will answer every purpose and a number of different inks are required. Makers of printing inks are obliged, therefore, to work from de- finite recipes so as to be able to turn out exactly the same ink again and again. They make newspaper ink for rotary presses, book-printing, inks, half-tone inks, art inks, etc. As the recipes have been attained only by long, laborious, and costly experiments, it is obvious that the makers are not disposed to commu- nicate them, and the recipes that are offered and published must be looked upon with caution, as many of them are of little or no value. In the recipes given below for printing inks, the only intention is to give hints of the general cornposition, and the practical man will easily discover what, if any, alterations have to be made in the recipe for his special purpose. Many different materials for this man- ufacture are given in recipes, so many, in fact, that it is impossible to discover what use they are in the ink. The fol- lowing is a list of the articles commonly in use for the manufacture of printing ink: ^ ^ Boiled linseed oil, boiled without driers. Rosin oil from the dry distillation of rosin. Rosin itself, especially American pine rosin. INKS 409 Soap, usually rosin-soap, but occa- sionally ordinary soap. Lampblack and various other pig- ments. By the most time-honored method, linseed oil was very slowly heated over an open fire until it ignited. It was allowed to burn for a time and then ex- tinguished by putting a lid on the pot. In this way a liquid was obtained of a dark brown or black color with par- ticles of carbon, and with a consistency varying with the period of heating, being thicker, the longer the heating was con- tinued. If necessary, the liquid was then thinned with unboiled, or only very slightly boiled, linseed oil. Lampblack in the proper quantity was added and the mixture was finally rubbed up on a stone in small quantities at a time to make it uniform. Boiling the Linseed Oil. — This process, although it goes by the name of ooiling, is not so in the proper sense of the word, but a heating having for its object an initial oxidation of the oil, so that it will dry better. Linseed oil is a type of the drying oils, those which when exposed in thin coats to the air absorb large quan- tities of oxygen and are thereby con- verted into tough, solid sheets naving froperties very similar to those of soft ndia rubber. The process goes on much faster with the aid of heat than at the or- dinary temperature, and the rate at which the boiled oil will dry in the ink can be exactly regulated by heating it for a longer or shorter time. Prolonged heating gives an oil which will dry very quickly on exposure in thin coats to the air, the shorter the heating the more slowly will the ink afterwards made with the oil dry. Linseed oil must always be boiled in vessels where it has plenty of room, as the oil soon swells up and it begins to de- compose so energetically at a particular temperature that there is considerable risk of its boiling over and catching fire. Various contrivances have been thought out for boiling large quantities of the oil with safety, such as pans with an outlet pipe in the side, through which the oil escapes when it rises too high instead of over the edge of the pan, and fires built on a trolley running on rails, so that they can at once be moved from under the fian if there is any probability of the atter boiling over. The best apparatus for preparing thickened linseed oil is undoubtedly one in which the oil offers a very large surface to the air, and on that account requires to be moderately heated only. The oil soon becomes very thick under these conditions and if necessary can be diluted to any required consist- ency with unboiled oil. In boiling linseed oil down to the proper thickness by the old method there are two points demanding special atten- tion. One is the liability of the oil to boil over, and the other consists in the devel- opment of large quantities of vapor, most- ly of acroleine, which have a most power- ful and disagreeable smell, and an intense action upon the eyes. The attendant must be protected from these fumes, and the boiling must therefore be done where there is a strong draught to take the fumes as fast as they are produced. There are various contrivances to cope with boiling over. Savage's Printing Ink.— Pure balsam of copaioa, 9 ounces; lampblack, 3 ounces; indigo and Prussian blue, each 5 druclims; drachms; Indian red, J ounce; yellow soap, 3 ounces. jNIix, and grind to the utmost smoothness. Toning Black Inks. — Printers' inks consisting solely of purified lampblack and vehicle give, of course, impressions which are pure black. It is, nowever, well known that a black which has to a practiced eye a tinge of blue in it looks much better than a pure black. To make such an ink many makers mix the lampblack with a blue pigment, which is added in very fine powder before the first grinding. Prussian blue is the pigment usually chosen and gives very attractive results. Prussian blue is, however, not a remarkable stable substance, and is very apt to turn brown from the forma- tion of ferric oxide. Hence an ink made with Prussian blue, although- it may look very fine at first, often assumes a dull brown hue in the course of time. Ex- cellent substitutes for Prussian blue are to be found in the Induline blues. These are very fast dyes, and inks tinted with them do not change color. As pure in- digo is now made artificially and sold at a reasonable price, this extremely fast dye can also be used for tinting inks made with purified lampblack. To Give Dark Inks a Bronze or Changeable Hue. — Dissolve 1§ pounds gum shellac in 1 gallon 65 per cent alcohol or cologne spirits for 24 hours. Then add 14 ounces aniline red. Let it stand a few hours longer, when it will be ready for use. Add this to good blue, black, or other dark ink, as needed in quantities to suit, when if carefully done 410 INKS they will be found to have a rich bronze or changeable hue. Quick Dryer for Inks Used on Book- binders' Cases. — Beeswax, 1 ounce; gum arable (dissolved in sufficient acetic acid to make a thin mucilage), J ounce; brown japan, J ounce. Incorporate with 1 pound of good cut ink. INKS FOR STAMP PADS. The ink used on vulcanized rubber stamps should be such that when ap- plied to a suitable pad it remains suffi- ciently fluid to adhere to the stamp. At the same time the fluidity should cease by the time the stamp is pressed upon an absorbing surface such as paper. For- merly these inks were made by rubbing up pigments in fat to a paste. Such inks can hardly be prevented, however, from making impressions surrounded by a greasy mark caused by the fat spreading in the pores of the paper. Now, most stamping inks are made without grease and a properly prepared stamping ink contains nothing but glycerine and coal- tar dye. As nearly all these dyes dis- solve in hot glycerine the process of manufacture is simple enough. The dye, fuchsine, methyl violet, water blue, emerald green, etc., is put into a thin porcelain dish over which concentrated glycerine is 'poured, and the whole is heated to nearly 212° F. with constant stirring. It is important to use no more glycerine than is necessary to keep the dye dissolved when the ink is cold. If the mass turns gritty on cooling it must be heated up with more glycerine till solution is perfect. In dealing with coal-tar dyes insoluble in glycerine, or nearly so, dissolve them first in the. least possible quantity of strong, hot alcohol. Then add the glyc- erine and heat till the spirit is evapo- rated. To see whether the ink is properly made spread some of it on a strip of cloth and try it with a rubber stamp. On paper, the separate letters must be quite sharp and distinct. If they run at the edges there is too much glycerine in the ink and more dye must be added to it. If, on the contrary, the impres- sion is indistinct and weak, the ink is too thick and must be diluted by carefully adding glycerine. Aniline colors are usually employed as the tinting agents. The following is a typical formula, the product being a black ink: I. — Nigrosiu 3 parts Water 15 parts Alcohol ^5 parts Glycerine 70 parts Dissolve the nigrosin in the alcohol, add the glycerine previously mixed with the water, and rub well together. Nigrosin is a term applied to several compounds of the same series which differ in solubility. In the place of these compounds it is probable that a mixture would answer to produce black as suggested by Hans Wilder for making writing ink. His formula for the mix- ture is: II. — Methyl violet 3 parts Bengal green 5 parts Bismarck green 4 parts A quantity of this mixture should be taken equivalent to the amount of nigro- sin directed. These colors are freely soluble in water, and yield a deep green- ish-black solution. The aniline compound known as brilliant green answers in place of Bengal green. As to the permanency of color of this or any aniline ink, no guarantee is offered. There are comparatively few coloring substances that can be con- sidered permanent even in a qualified sense. Among these, charcoal takes a, foremost place. Lampblack remains indefinitely unaltered. This, ground very finely with glycerine, would yield an ink which would perhaps prove serv- iceable in stamping; but it would be liable to rub off to a greater extent than soluble colors which penetrate the paper more or less. Perhaps castor oil would prove a better vehicle for insoluble color- ing matters. Almost any aniline color may be substituted for nigrosin in the foregoing formula, and blue, green, red, purple, a,nd other inks obtained. In- soluble pigments might also be made to answer as suggested for lampblack. The following is said to be a cushion that will give color permanently. It consists of a box filled with an elastic composition, saturated with a suitable color. The cushion fulfils its purpose for years without being renewed, always con- tains sufficient moisture, which is drawn from the atmosphere, and continues to act as a color stamp cushion so long as a remnant of the mass or composition remains, in the box or receptacle. This cushion or pad is too soft to be self-sup- porting, but should be held in a low, flat pan, and have a permanent cloth cover. Ill- — The composition consists pref- erably of 1 part gelatin, 1 part water, 6 parts glycerine, and 6 parts coloring matter. A suitable black color can be INKS 411 made from the following materials: One part gelatin glue, 3 parts lampblack, aniline black, or a suitable quantity of logwood extract, 10 parts of glycerine, 1 part absolute alcohol, 2 parts water, 1 part Venetian soap, i part salicylic acid. For red, blue, or violet: One part gelatin glue, 2 parts aniline of desired color, 1 part absolute alcohol, 10 parts glycerine, 1 part Venetian soap, and i part salicylic acid. The following are additional recipes used for this purpose: IV. — Mix and dissolve 2 to 4 drachms aniline violet, 15 ounces alcohol, 15 ounces glycerine. The solution is poured on the cushion and rubbed in with u brush. The general method of pre- paring the pad is to swell the gelatin with cold water, then boil and add the glycerine, etc. V.^Mix well 16 pounds of hot lin- seed oil, 3 ounces of powdered indigo, or u. like quantity of Berlin blue, and 8 pounds of lampblack. For ordinary sign-stamping an ink without the indigo might be used. By substituting ultra- marine or Prussian blue for the lamp- black, a, blue "ink" or paint would result. Inks for Hand Stamps. — As an excip- ient for oily inks, a mixture of castor oil and crude oleic acid, in parts varying according to the coloring material used, is admirable. The following are ex- amples: Black. — Oil soluble nigrosin and crude oleic acid in equal parts. Add 7 to 8 parts of castor oil. Red. — Oil soluble aniline red, 2 parts; crude oleic acid, 3 parts; castor oil, from 30 to 60 parts, according to the in- tensity of color desired. Red. — Dissolve J ounce of carmine in 2 ounces strong water of ammonia, and add 1 drachm of glycerine and J ounce dextrin. Blue. — Rubl ounce Prussian blue with enough water to make a perfectly smooth paste; then add 1 ounce dextrin, incor- porate it well, and finally add sufficient water to bring it to the proper consis- tency. Blue. — Oil soluble aniline blue, 1 part; crude oleic acid, 2 parts; castor oil, 30 to 32 parts. Violet. — Alcohol, 15 ounces; glycer- ine, IS ounces; aniline violet, 2 to 4 drachms. Mix, dissolve, pour the solu- tion on the cushion, and dab on with a brush. Color Stamps for Rough Paper.— It has hitherto been impossible to get a satisfactory application for printing with rubber stamps on rough paper. Fatty vehicles are necessary for such paper, and they injure the India rubber. It is said, however, that if the rubber is first soaked in a solution of glue, and then in one of tannin, or bichromate of potash, it becomes impervious to the oils or fats. Gum arabic can be substituted for the glue. Indelible Hand-Stamp Ink. — I. — Copper sulphate 20 parts Aniline chlorate .... 20 parts Rub up separately to a fine powder, then carefully mix, and add 10 parts of dextrin and incorporate. Add 5 parts of glycerine and rub up, adding water, a little at a time, until a homogeneous viscid mass is obtained. An aniline color is produced in the material, which boiling does not destroy. II. — Sodium carbonate . . 22 parts Glycerine 85 parts Gum arabic, in pow- der 20 parts Silver nitrate II parts Ammonia water. ... 20 parts Venetian turpentine 10 parts Triturate the carbonate of sodium, gum arabic, and glycerine together. In a separate flask dissolve the silver nitrate in the ammonia water, mix the solution with the triturate, and heat to boiling, when the turpentine is to be added, with constant stirring. After stamping, ex- pose to the sunlight or use a, hot iron. The quantity of glycerine may be varied to suit circumstances. White Stamping Ink for Embroidery. — Zinc white 2 drachms Mucilage 1 drachm Water 6 drachms Triturate the zinc white with a small quantity of water till quite smooth, then add the mucilage and the remainder of the water. STENCIL INKS. I. — Dissolve 1 ounce of gum arabic in 6 ounces water, and strain. This is the mucilage. For Black Color use drop black, powdered, and ground with the mucilage to extreme fineness; for Blue, ultramarine is used in the same manner; for Oreen, emerald green; for White, flake white; for Red, vermilion, lake, or carmine; for Yellow, chrome yellow. When ground too thick they are thinned 412 INKS with a little water. Apply with a small brush. II. — Triturate together 1 pint pine soot and 2 pints Prussian blue witn a little glycerine, then add 3 pints gum arabic and sufficient glycerine to form a thin paste. Blue Stencil Inks. — The basis of the stencil inks commonly used varies to some extent, some preferring a mixture of pigments with oils, and others a watery shellac basis. The basis: I. — Shellac 2 ounces Borax 1 J ounces Water 10 ounces Boil together until 10 ounces of solu- tion is obtained. The coloring: Prussian blue 1 ounce China clay J ounce Powdered acacia ... J ounce Mix thoroughly and gradually incor- porate the shellac solution. II. — Prussian blue 2 ounces Lampblack 1 ounce Gum arabic 3 ounces Glycerine, sufficient. Triturate together the dry powders and then make into a suitable paste with glycerine. Indelible Stencil Inks. — I. — Varnish such as is used for ordinary printing ink, 1 pound; black sulphuret of mercury, 1 pound; nitrate of silver, 1 ounce; sul- phate of iron, 1 ounce; lampblack, 2 tablespoonfuls. Grind all well together; thin with spirits turpentine as desired. II. — Sulphate of manganese, 2 parts; lampblack, 1 part; sugar, 4 parts; all in fine powder and triturated to a paste in a little water. III. — Nitrate of silver, J ounce; water, f ounce. Dissolve, add as much of the strongest liquor of ammonia as will dissolve the precipitate formed on its first addition. Then add of mucilage, 1 J drachms, and a little sap green, syrup of buckthorn, or finely powdered indigo, to color. This turns black on being held near the fire, or touched with a hot iron. SYMPATHETIC INKS: Table of Substances Used in Ilaking Sympathetic Inks. — For writing and for bringing out the writing: Cobalt chloride, heat. Cobalt acetate and a little saltpeter, heat. Cobalt chloride and nickel chloride mixed, heat. Nitric acid, heat. Sulphuric acid, heat. Sodium chloride, heat. Saltpeter, heat. Copper sulphate and ammonium chloride, heat. Silver nitrate, sunlight. Gold trichloride, sunlight. Ferric sulphate, infusion of gallnuts or ferrocyanide of potassium. Copper sulphate, ferrocyanide of potassium. Lead vinegar, hydrogen sulphide. Mercuric nitrate, hydrogen sulphide. Starch water, tincture of iodine or iodine vapors. Cobalt nitrate, oxalic acid. Fowler's solution, copper nitrate. Soda lye or sodium carbonate, phenol- phthaleine. f A sympathetic ink is one that is in- visible when written, but which can be made visible by some treatment. Com- mon milk can be used for writing, and exposure to strong heat will scorch and render the dried milk characters visible. The following inks are developed by exposure to the action of reagents: I. — Upon writing with a very clear solution of starch on paper that contains but little sizing, and submitting the dry characters to the vapor of iodine (or passing over them a weak solution of potassium iodide), the writing becomes blue, and disappears under the action of a solution of hyposulphite of soda (1 in 1,000). II. — Characters written with a weak solution of the soluble chloride of plati- num or iridium become black when the paper is submitted to mercurial vapor. This ink majf be used for marking linen, as it is indelible. III. — Sulphate of copper in very dilute solution will produce an invisible writing, which may be turned light blue by vapors of ammonia. _IV. — Soluble cornpounds of antimony will become red by hydrogen sulphide vapor. V. — Soluble compounds of arsenic and of peroxide of tin will become yellow by the same vapor. . VI. — An acid solution of iron chloride IS diluted until the writing is invisible when dry. This writing has the prop- erty of becoming red by sulphocyanide vapors (arising from the action of sul- phuric acid on potassium sulphocyanide in a long-necked flask), and it disappears INKS 413 by ammonia, and may alternately be made to appear and disappear by these two vapors. VII. — Write with a solution of paraf- fine in benzol. When the solvent has evaporated, the parafEne is invisible, but becomes visible on being dusted with lampblack or powdered graphite or smoKing over a candle flame. VIII. — Dissolve 1 part of a lead salt, 0.1 part of uranium acetate, and the same quantity of bismuth citrate in 100 parts of water. Then add, drop by drop, a solution of sal ammoniac until the whole becomes transparent. Afterwards, mix with a few drops of gum arable. To reveal the characters traced with this ink, expose them to the fumes of sulphuric acid, which turns them immediately to a dark brown. The characters fade away in a few minutes, but can be renewed by a slight washing with very dilute nitric acid. TYPEWRITER RIBBON INKS. I. — Take vaseline (petrolatum) of high boiling point, melt it on a water bath or slow fire, and incorporate by constant stirring as much lamp or powdered drop black as it will take up without becom- ing granular. If the vaseline remains in excess, the print is liable to have a greasy outline; if the color is in excess, the print will not be clear. Remove the mixture from the fire, and while it is cooling mix equal parts of petroleum, benzine, and rectified oil of turpentine, in which dissolve the fatty ink, introduced in small portions, by constant agitation. The volatile solvents should be in such quantity that the fluid ink is of the con- sistence of fresh oil paint. One secret of success lies in the proper application of the ink to the ribbon. Wind the ribbon on a piece of cardboard, spread on a table several layers of newspaper, then unwind the ribbon in such lengths as may be most convenient, and lay it flat on the paper. Apply the ink, after agi- tation, Dv means of a soft brush, and rub it well into the interstices of the rib- bon with a toothbrush. Hardly any ink should remain visible on the surface. For colored inks use Prussian blue, red lead, etc., and especially the aniline colors. II. — Aniline black J ounce Pure alcohol 15 ounces Concentrated glycer- ine 15 ounces Dissolve the aniline black in the alco- hol, and add the glycerine. Ink as be- fore. The aniline inks containing glyc- erine are copying inks. III. — Alcohol 2 ounces Aniline color J ounce Water 2 ounces Glycerine 4 ounces Dissolve the aniline in the alcohol and add the water and glycerine. IV. — Castor oil 2 ounces Cassia oil J ounce Carbolic acid j ounce Warm them together and add 1 ounce of aniline color. Indelible typewriter inks may be made by using lampblack in place of the aniline, mixing it with soft petrolatum and dissolving the cooled mass in a mixture of equal parts of ben- zine and turpentine. COLORING AGENTS: Red.— I. — Bordeaux red, O. S. 15 parts Aniline red, O. S. . . . 15 parts Crude oleic acid. ... 45 parts Castor oil enough to make 1,000 parts Rub the colors up with the oleic acid, add the oil, warming the whole to 100° to 110° F. (not higher), under constant stirring. If the color is not sufficiently intense for your purposes, rub up a trifle more of it with oleic acid, and add it to the ink. By a little experimentation you can get an ink exactly to your desire in the matter. Blue -Black.— II. — Aniline black, O. S.- 6 parts Oleic acid, crude. .. . 5 parts Castor oil, quantity sufficient to 100 parts. Violet.— III. — Aniline violet, O. S.. 3 parts Crude oleic acid .... 5 parts Castor oil, quantity sufficient to 100 parts. The penetration of the ink may be increased ad libitum by the addition of a few drops of absolute alcohol, or, better, of benzol. ReinMng. — For reinking ribbons use the following recipe for black : One ounce aniline black; 15 ounces pure grain alcohol; 15 ounces concentrated glyc- erine. Dissolve the aniline black in the alcohol and then add the glycerine. For blue use Prussian blue, and for red use red lead instead of the aniline black. This ink is also good for rubber stamp pads. 414 INKS WRITING INKS. The common writing fluids depend mostly upon galls, logwood, or aniline for coloring. There are literally thou- sands of formulas. A few of the most re- liable have been gathered together here: I. — Aleppo galls (well bruised), 4 ounces; clean soft water, 1 quart; mac- erate in a clean corked bottle for 10 days or a fortnight or longer, with fre- quent agitation; then add of gum arable (dissolved in a wineglassful of water), IJ ounces; lump sugar, J ounce. Mix well, and afterwards further add of sulphate of iron (green copperas crushed small), IJ ounces. Agitate occasionally for 2 or 3 days, when the ink may be decanted for use, but is better if the whole is left to digest together for 2 or 3 weeks. When . time is an object, the whole of the ingredients may at once be put into a bottle, and the latter agitated daily until the ink is made; and boiling water instead of cold water may be em- ployed. Product, 1 quart of excellent ink, writing pale at first, but soon turn- ing intensely black. II. — Aleppo galls (bruised), 12 pounds; soft water, 6 gallons. Boil in a copper vessel for 1 hour, adding more water to make up for the portion lost by evap- oration; strain, and again boil the galls with water, 4 gallons, for J hour; strain off the liquor, and boil a third time with water, 2J gallons, and strain. Mix the several liquors, and while still hot add of green copperas (coarsely pow- dered), 4 J pounds; gum arable (bruised small), 4 pounds. Agitate until dis- solved, and after defecation strain through a hair sieve, and keep in a bunged cask for use. Product, 12 gallons. III. — Aleppo galls (bruised), 14 pounds; gum, 5 pounds. Put them in a small cask, and add boiling soft water, 15 gallons. Allow the whole to macer- ate, with frequent agitation, for a fort- night, then further add of green cop- peras, 5 pounds, dissolved in water, 7 pints. Again mix well, and agitate the whole once daily for 2 or 3 weeks. Prod- uct, 15 gallons. Brown Ink. — I. — To make brown ink, use for coloring a strong decoction of catechu; the shade may be varied by the cautious addition of a little weak solution of bichromate of potash. II. — A strong decoction of logwood, with a very little bichromate of potash. Blue Ink. — To make blue ink, sub- stitute for the black coloring sulphate of indigo and dilute it with water till it pro- duces the required color. Anticorrosive or Asiatic Ink. — I. — Galls, 4 pounds; logwood, 2 pounds; pomegranate peel, 2 pounds; soft water, 5 gallons. Boil as usual; then add to the strained, decanted cold liquor, 1 pound of gum arable, lump sugar or sugar candy, } pound; dissolved in water, 3 pints. Product, 4 J gallons. Writes pale, but flows well from the pen, and soon darkens. II. — Braised galls, 14 pounds; gum, 5 pounds. Put them in a small cask, and add of boiling water, 15 gallons. Allow the whole to macerate, with fre- quent agitation, for 2 weeks, then further add green copperas, 5 pounds, dissolved in 7 pints water. Again mix well, and agitate the whole daily for 2 or 3 weeks. Blue-Black Ink. — Blue Aleppo galls (free from insect perforations), 4 J ounces ; bruised cloves, 1 drachm; cold water, 40 ounces; purified sulphate of iron, IJ ounces; pure sulphuric acid (by measure), 35 minims; sulphate of in- digo (in the form of a paste), which should be neutral, or nearly so, 1 ounce. The weights used are avoirdupois, and the measures apothecaries'. Place the galls, then bruised with the cloves, in a 50-ounce bottle, pour upon them the water, and digest, often daily shaking for a fortnight. Then filter through paper in another 50-ounce bottle. Get out also the refuse galls, and wring out of it the remaining liquid through a strong, clean linen or cotton cloth, into the filter, in order that as little as possible may be lost. Next put in the iron, dis- solve completely, and filter through paper. Then the acid, and agitate briskly. Lastly, the indigo, and thor- oughly mix by shaking. Pass the whole through paper; just filter out of one bot- tle into another until the operation is finished. Note. — No gum or sugar is proper and on no account must the acid be omitted. When intended for copying, 5i ounces of galls is the quantity. On the large scale this fine ink is made by percolation. Colored Inks. — Inks of various colors may be made from a strong decoction of the ingredients used in dyeing, mixed with a little alum or other substance used as a mordant, and gum arable. Any of the ordinary water-color cakes employed in drawing diffused through water may also be used for colored ink. INKS 415 COPYING mK. This is usually prepared by adding a little sugar to ordinary black ink, which for this purpose should be very rich in color, and preferably made galls pre- pared by heat. Writing executed with this ink may be copied within the space of 5 or 6 hours, by passing it through a copying press in contact with thin, un- sized paper, slightly damped, enclosed between 2 sheets of thick oiled or waxed paper, when a reversed transcript will be obtained, which will read in proper order when the back of the copy is turned up- wards. In the absence of a press a copy may be taken, when the ink is good and the writing very recent, by rolling the sheets, duly arranged on a ruler, over the surface of a flat, smooth table, employing as much force as possible, and avoiding any slipping or crumbling of the paper. Another method is to pass a warm flat- iron over the paper laid upon the writ- ing. The following proportions are em- ployed: I. — Sugar candy or lump sugar, 1 ounce; or molasses or moist sugar, 1} ounces; rich black ink, IJ pints; dis- solve. II. — Malt wort, 1 pint; evaporate it to the consistence of a syrup, and then dis- solve it in good black ink, IJ pints. III. — Solazza juice, 2 ounces; mild ale, J pint; dissolve, strain, and triturate with lampblack (previously heated to dull redness in a covered vessel), i ounce; when the mixture is complete, add of strong black, IJ pints; mix well, and in 2 or 3 hours decant the clear. After making the above mixtures, they must be tried with a common steel pen, and if they do not flow freely, some more unprepared ink should be added until they are found to do so. Alizarine Blue. — In 20 parts of fuming sulphuric acid dissolve 5 parts of indigo, and to the solution add 100 parts of ex- tract of aqueous myrobalous and 10.5 parts iron filings or turning shavings. Finally add: Gum arabic 1.5 parts Sugar 7.5 parts Sulphuric acid, 66° B 10.5 parts Aniline blue 1.5 parts Carbolic acid 0.5 parts Mirobalan extract to make 1,000 parts. This ink when first used has a bluish tint, afterwards becoming black. Alizarine Green. — In 100 parts of aqueous extract of gall apples dissolve: Iron sulphate 30 parts Copper sulphate 0.5 parts Sulphuric acid 2 parts Sugar. . 8 parts Wood vinegar, recti- fied 50 parts Indigo carmine 30 parts Copying Ink for Copying Without a Press. — An ordinary thin-paper copying book may be used, and the copying done by transferrence. It is only necessary to place the page of writing in the letter book, just as one would u.se a leaf of blot- ting paper. The superfluous ink that would go into the blotting paper goes on to the leaf of the letter book, and show- ing through the thin paper gives on the other side of the leaf a perfect transcript of the letter. Any excess of ink on the page, either of the letter or of the copy- ing paper, is removed by placing a sheet of blotting paper between them, and run- ning one's hand firmly over the whole in the ordinary manner. This ready tran- scription is accomplished by using ink which dries slowly. Obviously the ink must dry sufficiently slowly for the characters at the top of a page of writing to remain wet when the last line is being written, while it must dry sufficiently to Ereclude any chance of the copied page eing smeared while subsequent pages are being covered. The drying must also be sufficiently rapid to prevent the characters "setting off," as printers term it, from one page on to another after folding. The formula for the requisite ink is very simple: Reduce by evaporation 10 volumes of any good ink to 6, then add 4 volumes of glycerine. Or manufacture some ink of nearly double strength, and add to any quantity of it nearly an equal volume of glycerine. Gold Ink. — Mosaic gold, 2 parts; gum arabic, 1 part; rubbed up to a proper condition. Green Ink. — A good, bright green, aniline ink may be made as follows: Aniline green (solu- ble) 2 parts Glycerine 16 parts Alcohol 112 parts Mucilage of gum ara- bic 4 parts Dissolve the aniline in the alcohol, and add the other ingredients. Most of the gum arabic precipitates, but according to the author of the formula (Nelson) it has the effect of rendering the ink slow- flowing enough to write with. Filter. 416 INKS Hectograph Inks (see also Hectograph). _I. —Black.— Methyl violet, 10 parts; nigrosin, 20 parts; glycerine, 30 parts; gum arable, 5 parts; alcohol, 60 parts. II. — Blue. — Resorcin blue M, 10 parts. Dissolve by means of heat in a mix- ture of: Dilute acetic acid .... 1 part Distilled water 85 parts Glycerine 4 parts Alcohol, 90 per cent . . 10 parts III. — Green. — Aniline green, water solution, 15 parts; glycerine, 10 parts; Water, 50 parts; alcohol, 10 parts. Paste Ink to Write with Water.— I.— Black. —Take 4 parts of bichromate of potash, pulverized, and mixed with 25 parts of acetic acid; 50 parts of liquid extract of logwood; j part of picric acid; 10 parts of pulverized sal sorrel; 10 parts of mucilage; and J part of citrate of iron, and mix well. The liquid extract of logwood is prepared by mixing 3 parts of an extract of common commercial qual- ity with 2 parts of water. II. — Red. — Take 1 part of red aniline mixed with 10 parts of acetic acid; 5 parts of citric acid, and 25 parts of mucilage, all well mixed. For use, mix 1 part of the paste with 16 parts of water. III. — Blue. — Take 2 parts of aniline blue mixed with 10 parts of acetic acid; 6 parts of citric acid, and 40 parts of mucilage, all well mixed. For use, mix 1 part of the paste with 8 parts of water. IV. — Violet. — Use the same ingre- dients in the same proportions as blue, with the difference that violet aniline is used instead of blue aniline. V. — Green. — Take 1 part of aniline blue; 3 parts of picric acid, mixed with 10 parts of acetic acid; 3 parts of citric acid, and 80 parts of mucilage. For use, 1 part of this paste is mixed with 8 parts of water. VI. — Copying. — Take 6 parts of pul- verized bichromate of potash, mixed with 10 parts of acetic acid and 240 parts of liquid extract of logwood, and add a pulverized mixture of 35 parts of alum, 20 parts of sal sorrel, and 20 parts mucilage. Mix well. For use, 1 part of this paste is mixed with 4 parts of hot water. Purple Ink. — I. — A strong decoction of logwood, to which a little alum or chloride of tin has been added. II. (Normandy). — To 12 pounds of Campeachy wood add as many gallons of boiling water. Pour the solution through a funnel with a strainer made of coarse flannel, or 1 pound of hydrate, or acetate of deutoxide of copper finely powdered (having at the bottom of the funnel a piece of sponge); then add immediately 14 pounds of alum, and for every 340 gallons of liquid add 80 pounds of gum arable or gum Senegal. Let these remain for 3 or 4 days, and a beautiful purple color will be produced. Red Ink. — Brazil wood, ground, 4 ounces; white wine vinegar, hot, 1 J pints. Digest in a glass or a well-tinned copper or enamel saucepan, until the next day; then gently simmer for half an hour, adding toward the end gum arable and alum, of each, J ounce. Inks for Shading Pen. — The essential feature in the ink for use with a shading pen is simply the addition of a sufficient quantity of acacia or other mucilaginous substance to impart a proper degree of consistency to the ink. A mixture of 2 parts of mucilage of acacia with 8 of ink gives about the required consistency. The following formulas will probably be found useful: I. — Water-soluble nigro- sin 1 part Water 9 parts Mucilage acacia .... 1 part II. — Paris violet 2 parts Water 6 parts Mucilage acacia .... 2 parts III.— Methyl violet 1 part Distilled water 7 parts Mucilage acacia. ... 2 parts IV. — Bordeaux red 3 parts Alcohol 2 parts Water 20 parts Mucilage acacia. ... 2 parts V. — Rosaniline acetate . . 2 parts Alcohol 1 part Water 10 parts Mucilage acacia. ... 2 parts Silver Ink.— I.— Triturate in a mortar equal parts of silver foil and sulphate of potassa, until reduced to a fine powder; then wash the salt out, and mix the resi- due with a mucilage of equal parts of gum arable water. II. — Make as gold ink, but use silver leaf or silver bronze powder. in. — Oxide of zinc 30 grains Mucilage 1 ounce Spirit of wine 40 drops Sliver bronze 3 drachms Rub together, until perfectly smooth, INKS— INSECT BITES il7 the zinc and mucilage, then add the spirit of wine and silver bronze and make up the quantity to 2 ounces with water. Violet Ink. — I. — For 2 gallons, heat S gills of alcohol on a water bath. Add to the alcohol 2 ounces of violet aniline, and stir till dissolved; then add the mix- ture to 2 gallons of boiling water; mix well, and it is ready for use. Smaller quantities in proportion. II. — Another good violet ink is made by dissolving some violet aniline in water to which some alcohol has been added. It takes very little aniline to make a large quantity of the ink. White Ink (for other White Inks see Blueprint Inks). — So-cq.lled white inks are, properly speaking, white paints, as a white solution cannot be made. A paint suitable tor use as an "ink" may be made by grinding zinc oxide very fine on a slab with a little tragacanth mucilage, and then thinning to the required consistency to flow from the pen. The mixture re- quires shaking or stirring from time to time to keep the pigment from separating. The "ink" may be preserved by adding a little oil of cloves or other antiseptic to prevent decomposition of the mucilage. White marks may sometimes be made on colored papers by the application of acids or alkalies. The result, of course, depends on the nature of the coloring matter in each instance, and any "ink' of this kind would be efficacious or other- wise, according to the coloring present in the paper. Yellow Ink.^I. — Gamboge (in coarse Eowder), 1 ounce; hot water, 5 ounces, lissolvc, and when cold, add of spirit, J ounce. II. — Boil French berries, J pound, and alum, 1 ounce, in rain water, 1 quart, for i an hour, or longer, then strain and dissolve in the hot liquor gum arable, 1 ounce. Waterproof Ink (see also Indelible Inks). — Any ordinary ink may be made waterproof by mixing with it a little ordinary glue. After waterproofing ink in this way it is possible to wash draw- ings with soap and water, if necessary, without the ink running at all. White Stamping Ink. — Zinc white 2 drachms White precipitate .... 6 grains Mucilage 1 drachm Water 6 drachms Triturate the zinc white with a small quantity of water till quite smooth, then add the mucilage and the remainder of the water. INK FOR THE LAUKDRY: See Laundry Preparations. INK FOR LEATHER FINISHERS: See Leather. INKS FOR TYPEWRITERS: See Typewriter Ribbons. INK FOR WRITING ON GLASS: See Etching and Glass. INK GUM REMEDY: See Rust Preventives. INLAYING BY ELECTROLYSIS. See also Electro-etching, under Etching. The process consists in engraving the design oy means of the sand-blast and stencils on the surface of the article. The design or pattern is rendered con- ductive and upon this conductive surface a precipitate of gold, silver, platinum, etc., is applied, and fills up the hollows. Subsequently the surface is ground smooth. Iijsect Bites REMEDIES FOR INSECT BITES. I. — Carbolic acid 15 grains Glycerine 2 drachms Rose water 4 ounces II. — Salicylic acid 15 grains Collodion "H drachms Spirit of ammonia . . 5i drachms III. — Fluid extract rhus toxicodendron.... 1 drachm Water 8 ounces IV. — Ipecac, in powder.. 1 drachm Alcohol 1 ounce Ether 1 ounce V. — Betanaphthol 30 grains Camphor 30 grains Lanolin cold cream . 1 ounce VI. — Spirit of sal ammoniac, whose favorable action upon fresh insect bites is universally known, is often unavail- able. A simple means to alleviate the pain and swelling due to such bites, when still fresh, is cigar ashes. Place a little ashes upon the part stung, add a drop of water — in case of need beer, wine, or cof- fee may be used instead — and rub the resulting paste thoroughly into the skin. It is preferable to use fresh ashes of tobacco, because the recent heat offers sufficient guarantee for absolute freedom from impurities. The action of the to- bacco ashes is due to the presence of 418 INSECTICIDES potassium carbonate, which, like spirit of sal ammoniac, deadens the effect of the small quantities of acid (formic acid, etc.) which have been introduced into the small wound by the biting insect. Insecticides (See also Petroleum.) The Use of Hydrocyanic Acid Gas for Exterminating Household Insects. — Re- cent successful applications of hydro- cyanic acid gas for the extermination of insects infecting greenhouse plants have suggested the use of the same remedy for household pests. It is now an established fact that IJ grains of 98 per cent pure cyanide of potassium volatilized in a cubic foot, of space, will, if allowed to remain for a period of not less than 3 hours, kill all roaches and similar in- sects. It may be stated that a dwelling, office, warehouse, or any building may be economically cleared of all pests, provided that the local conditions will permit the use of this gas. It probably would be dangerous to fumigate a building where groceries, dried fruits, meats, or prepared food materials of any kind are stored. Air containing more than 25 per cent of the gas is inflam- mable; therefore it would be well to put out all fire in an inclosure before fumi- gating. Hydrocyanic acid, in all its forms, is one of the most violent poisons known, and no neglect should attend its use. There is probably no sure remedy for its effects after it has once entered the blood of any of the higher animals. When cyanide of potassium is being used it should never be allowed to come in contact with the skin, and even a slight odor of the gas should be avoided. Should the operator have any cut or break in the skin of the hands or face it should be carefully covered with court- plaster to prevent the gas coming in con- tact with the flesh, or a small particle of the solid compound getting into the cut might cause death by poisoning in a few minutes' time. Hydrocyanic acid gas should not be used in closely built apartments with single walls between, as more or less of the gas will penetrate a brick wall. An inexpe- rienced person should never use cyanide of potassium for any purpose, and if it be found practicable to treat buildings in general for the extermination of insects, the work should be done only under the direction of competent officials. Ex- periments have shown that a smaller dose and a shorter period of exposure are required to kill mice than for roaches and household insects generally, and it read- ily follows that the larger animals and human beings would be more quickly overcome than mice, since a smaller supply of pure air would be required to sustain life in mice, and small openings are more numerous than large ones. The materials employed and the meth- od of procedure are as follows: After ascertaming the cubic content of the inclosure, provide a glass or stoneware (not metal) vessel of 2 to 4 gallons capac- ity for each 5,000 cubic feet of space to be fumigated. Distribute the ]ars ac- cording to the space, and run a smooth cord from each jar to a common point near an outside door where they may all be fastened; support the cord above the jar by means of the back of a chair or other convenient object in such a position that when the load of cyanide of potas- sium is attached it will hang directly over the center of the jar. Next weigh out upon a piece of soft paper about 17 ounces of 98 per cent pure cyanide of potassium, using a large pair of forceps for handling the lumps; wrap up and place in a paper bag and tie to the end of the cord over the jar. After the load for each jar has been similarly provided, it is well to test the working of the cords to see that they do not catch or bind. Then remove the jar a short distance from under the load of cyanide and place in it a little more than a quart of water, to which slowly add lA pints of commer- cial sulphuric acid, stirring freely. The action of the acid will bring the temper- ature of the combination almost to the boiling point. Replace the jars beneath the bags of cyanide, spreading a large sheet of heavy paper on the floor to catch any acid that may possibly fly over the edge of the jar WQen t)ie cyanide is dropped, or as a result of the violent chemical action which follows. Close all outside openings and open up the interior of the apartment as much as possible, in order that the f uU strength of the gas may reach the hiding places of the insects. See that all entrances are locked or guarded on the outside to pre- vent persons entering; then leave the building, releasing the cords as you go. The gas will all be given off in a few minutes, and should remain in the building at least 3 hours. When the sulphuric acid comes in contact with the cyanide of potassium the result is the formation of sulphate of Eotash, which remains in the jar, and the ydrocyanic acid is liberated and es- INSECTICIDES 419 capes into the air. The chemical action is no violent as to cause a sputterine, and frequently particles of the acid are thrown over the sides of the jar; this may be prevented by supporting a sheet of stiff paper over the jar by means of a hole in the center, through which the cord supporting the cyanide ol potassium is passed, so that when the cord is re- leased the paper will descend with the cyanide and remain at rest on the top of the jar, but will not prevent the easy descent of the cyanide into the acid. The weight of this paper will in no way interfere with the escape of the gas. At the end of the time required for fumigation, the windows and doors should be opened from the outside and the gas allowed to escape before anyone enters the building. A general cleaning should follow, as the insects leave their hiding places and, dying on the floors, are easily swept up and burned. The sulphate of potash remaining in the jars is poisonous and should be immediately buried and the jars themselves filled with earth or ashes. No food that has remained during fumigation should be used, and thorough ventilation should be maintained for several hours. After one of these experiments it was noted that ice water which had remained in a closed cooler had taken up ths gas, and had both the odor and taste of cyanide. For dwellings one fumigation each year would be sufficient, but for storage nouses it may be necessary to make an application every 3 or 4 months to keep tliera entirely free from insect pests. The cost of materials for one application is about 50 cents for each 6,000 cubic feet of space to be treated. The cyanide of potassium can be purchased at about 35 cents per pound, and the commercial sulphuric acid at about 4 cents per pound. The strength of the dose may be in- creased and the time of exposure some- what shortened, but this increases the cost and does not do the work so thor- oughly. In no case, however, should the dose remain less than 1 hour. The application of this method of controlling household insects and pests generally is to be found in checking the advance of great numbers of some par- ticular insect, or in eradicating them where they have become thoroughly established. This method will be found very advantageous in clearing old build- ings and ships of cockroaches. APPLICATIONS FOR CATTLE, POUL- TRY, ETC.: See also Veterinary Formulas. Parts by weight. Fly Protectives for Animals. — I.^ — Oil of clones 3 parts Bay oil 5 parts Eucalyptus tincture 5 parts Alcohol 150 parts Water 200 parts II.-;-Tar well diluted with grease of any kind is as effective an agent as any for keeping flies from cattle. The mix- ture indicated has the advantage of being cheap. Applying to the legs, neck, and ears will usually be sufficient. Cattle Dip for Ticks.— Dr. Noorgard of the Bureau of Animal Industry finds the following dip useful, immersion lasting one minute: Sulphur 86 pounds Extra dynamo oil . . 1,000 gallons Insecticides for Animals. — I.— Bay oil 500 Naphthalene 100 Camphor 60 Animal oil 25 II. — Bay oil, pressed . . . 400 Naphthalene 100 Crude carbolic acid 10 For Dogs, Cats, etc. — The following is an excellent powder for the removal of fleas from cats or dogs: Naphthalene .... 4 av. ounces Starch 12 av. ounces Reduce to fine powder. A few grains of lampblack added will impart a light gray color, and if desirable a few drops of oil of pennyroyal or eucalyptus will disguise tne naphthalene odor. Hub into the skin of the animal and let the powder remain for a day or two, when the same can be removed bv comb- ing or giving a bath, to whicli some infusion of quassia or quassia chips has been added. This treatment is equally efficient for lice and ticks. Poultry Lice Destroyer. — I. — Twenty pounds sublimed sulphur; 8 pounds fuller's earth; 2 pounds powdered naph- thalene; i ounce liquid carbolic acid. Mix thoroughly and put up in half- pound tins or boxes. Sprinkle about the nest for use. II. — Oil of eucalyptus smeared about the coop will cause the parasites to leave. To drive them out of the nests of sitting hens, place in the nest an egg that has been emptied, and into which has been inserted a bit of sponge imbibed in essence of eucalyptus. There may be used also a concentrated solution of extract of tobacco, to which phenol has been added. 420 INSECTICIDES III. — Cover the floor or soil of the house with ground or powdered plaster, taken from old walls, etc. ANT DESTROYERS: A most efficacious means of getting rid of ants is spraying their resorts with pe- troleum. The common oil is worth more for this purpose than the refined. Two thorough sprayings usually suffice. In armoires, dressing cases, etc., oil of turpentine should be employed. Pour it in a large plate, and let it evaporate freely. Tobacco juice is another effect- ive agent, but both substances have the drawback of a very penetrating and dis- agreeable odor. Boiling water is deadly to ants wherever it can be used (as in the garden, or yard around the house). So is carbon disul- phide injected into the nests by aid of a good, big syringe. An emulsion of pe- troleum and water (oil, 1 part; water, 3 parts) poured on the earth has proven very efficacious, when plentifully used (say from 1 ounce to 3 ounces to the square yard). A similar mixture of cal- cium sulphide and water (calcium sul- phide, 100 parts; water, 1,000 parts; and the white of 1 egg to every quart of water) poured into their holes is also effective. A weak solution of corrosive sublimate is very deadly to ants. Not only does it kill them eventually, but it seems to craze them before death, so that ants of the same nest, after coming into contact with the poison, will attack each other with the greatest ferocity. Where ants select a particular point for their incursions it is a good plan to surround it with a "fortification" of ob- noxious substance. Sulphur has been used successfully in this way, and so has coal oil. The latter, however, is not a desirable agent, leaving a persistent stain and odor. The use of carbon disulphide is rec- ommended to destroy ants' nests on lawns. A little of the disulphide is poured into the openings of tne hills, stepping on each as it is treated to close it up. The volatile vapors of the disul- phide will penetrate the chambers of the nest in every direction, and if sufficient has been used will kill not only the adult insects but the larvae as well. A single treatment is generally sufficient. Formulas to Drive Ants Away. — I. — Water 1 quart Cape aloes 4 ounces Boil together and add : Camphor in small pieces 1§ ounces II. — Powdered cloves. .. . 1 ounce Insect powder 1 ounce Scatter around where ants infest. III.— Cape aloes J pound Water 4 pints Boil together and add camphor gum, 3 ounces. Sprinkle around where the ants infest. BEDBUG DESTROYERS. A good bug killer is benzine, pure and simple, or mixed with a little oil of mirbane. It evaporates quickly and leaves no stain. The only trouble is the inflammability of its vapor. The following is a popular prepara- tion: To half a gallon of kerosene oil add a quart of spirit of turpentine and an ounce of oil of pennyroyal. This mix- ture is far less dangerous than benzine. The pennyroyal as well as the turpentine are not only poisonous but exceedingly distasteful to insects of all kinds. The kerosene while less quickly fatal to bugs than benzine is cheaper and safer, and when combined with the other ingre- dients becomes as efficient. Where the wall paper and wood work of a room have become invaded, the usual remedy is burning sulphur. To be efficient the room must have every door, window, crevice, and crack closed. The floor should be wet in advance so as to moisten the air. A rubber tube should lead from the burning sulphur to a key-hole or auger-hole and through it, and by aid of a pair of bellows air should be blown to facilitate the combustion of the sulphur. Pastes. — Some housewives are partial to corrosive sublimate for bedbugs; but it is effective only if the bug eats the poison. The corrosive sublimate cannpt penetrate the waxy coat of the insect. But inas- much as people insist on having this a few formulas are given. I. — Common soap 1 av. ounce Ammonium chlo- ride 3 av. ounces Corrosive sublimate 3 av. ounces Water enough to make 32 fluid- ounces. Dissolve the salts in the water and add the soap. This will make a paste that can be painted with a brush around in the cracks and crevices. Besides, it will make an excellent filling to keep the cracks of the wall and wainscoting free from bugs of all kinds. The formula could be modified so as to permit the use INSECTICIDES 421 of Paris green or London purple, if de- sired. A decoction of quassia could be used to dissolve the soap. The latter paste would, of course, not be poisonous, and in many instances it would be pre- ferred. It is possible to make a cola in- fusion of white hellebore of 25 per cent strength, and in 1 quart of infusion dis- solve 1 ounce of common soap. The ad- vantage of the soap paste is simply to keep the poisonous substance thoroughly distributed throughout the mass at all times. The density of the paste can be varied to suit. Kerosene oil or turpentine could replace 6 ounces or 8 ounces of the water in making the paste, and either of these would make a valuable addition. Another paste preparation which will meet with hearty recommendation is blue ointment. This ointment, mixed with turpentine or kerosene oil, can be used to good advantage; especially so as the turpentine is so penetrating that both it and the mercury nave a chance to act more effectually. It can be said that turpentine will kill the bedbug if the two come in contact; and kerosene is not far behindhand in its deadly work. II. — Blue ointment 1 ounce Turpentine 3 ounces Stir well together. Liquid Bedbug Preparations. — There is no doubt that the liquid form is the best to use; unlike a powder, or even a paste, it will follow clown a crack into remote places where bugs hide, and will prevent their escape, and it will also kill the eggs and nits. The following sub- stances are the most employed, and are Crobably the best: Kerosene, turpentine, enzine, carbolic acid, corrosive subli- mate solution, oil pennyroyal, and strong solution of soap. Here are several good formulas that can be depended upon: I. — Oil of pennyroyal ... 1 drachm Turpentine 8 ounces Kerosene oil, enough to make 1 gallon. Put up in 8-ounce bottles as a bedbug exterminator. II. — Oil of eucalyptus .. . 1 drachm Eucalyptus leaves. . . 1 ounce Benzine 2 ounces Turpentine 2 ounces Kerosene enough to make 16 ounces. Mix the turpentine, benzine, and kerosene oil, and macerate the eucalyp- tus leaves in it for 24 hours; then strain and make up the measure to 1 pint, hav- ing first added the oil of eucalyptus. FLY-KILLERS. A fly poison that is harmless to man may be made from quassia wood as fol- lows: Quassia 1,000 parts Molasses ISO parts Alcohol SO parts Water S,760 parts Macerate the quassia in 500 parts of water for 24 hours, boil for half an hour, set aside for 24 hours, then press out the liquid. Mix this with the molasses and evaporate to 200 parts. Add the alcohol and the remaining 750 parts of water, and without filtering, saturate absorbent paper with it. This being set out on a plate with a little water attracts the flies, which are killed by partaking of the liquid. Sticky Preparations. — I. — Rosin 150 parts Linseed oil 50 parts Honey 18 parts Melt the rosin and oil together and stir in the honey. II. — Rapeseed oil 70 parts Rosin 30 parts Mix and melt together. III. — Rosin 60 parts Linseed oil 38 parts Yellow wax '2 parts IV. — Rosin 10 parts Turpentine 5 parts Rapeseed oil 5 parts Honey 1 part Sprinkling Powders for Flies. — I. — Long peppers, pow- dered 5 parts Quassia wood, pow- dered 5 parts Sugar, powdered .... 10 parts Mix, moisten the mixture with 4 parts -of alcohol, dry, and again powder. Keep the powder in closely stoppered jars, tak- ing out a sufficient quantity as desired. II. — Orris root, powdered 4 parts Starch, powdered. ... 15 parts Eucalyptol 1 part Mix. Keep in a closely stoppered jar or box. Strew in places affected by flies. Fly Essences. — I. — Eucalyptol 10 parts Bergamot oil 3 parts Acetic ether 10 parts Cologne water 50 parts Alcohol, 90 per cent. 100 parts Mix. One part of this "essence" is 422 INSECTICIDES to be added to 10 parts of water and sprayed around the rooms frequently. II. — Eucalyptol 10 parts Acetic ether 5 parts Cologne water 40 parts Tincture of insect powder (1 :5) . . . . 50 parts REMEDIES AGAINST HUMAN PARA- SITES: By weight I. — Yellow wax 85 parts Spermaceti 60 parts Sweet oil 500 parts Melt and add: Boiling distilled water 150 parts After cooling add: Clove oil 2 parts Thyme oil 3 parts Eucalyptus oil ... . 4 parts II. — Bay oil, pressed. . . 100 parts Acetic ether 12 parts Clove oil 4 parts Eucalyptus oil 3 parts For Head Lice in Children. — One of the best remedies is a vinegar of sabadilJa. This is prepared as follows: Sabadilla seed, 5 parts; alcohol, 5 parts; acetic acid, 9 parts; and water, 36 parts. Macerate for 3 days, express and filter. The direc- tions are: Moisten the scalp and hair thoroughly at bedtime, binding a cloth around the head, and let remain over- night. If there are any sore spots on the scalp, these should be well greased be- fore applying the vinegar. To Exterminate Illites. — Mix together 10 parts of naphthalene, 10 parts of phenic acid, 5 parts of camphor, 5 parts of lemon oil, 2 parts of thyme oil, 2 g3,rts of oil of lavender, and 2 parts of the oil of juniper, in 500 parts of pure alcohol. Vermin Killer. — Sabadilla, powder. . 2 av. ounces Acetic acid J fluidounce Wood alcohol 2 fluidounces Water sufficient to make 16 fluid ounces. Mix the acetic acid with 14 fluidounces of water and boil the sabadilla in this mixture for 5 to 10 minutes, and when nearly cold add the alcohol, let stand, and decant the clear solution and .bottle. Directions : Shake the bottle and apply to the affected parts night and morning. INSECTICIDES FOR PLANTS. Two formulas for insecticides with especial reference to vermin which attack plants: I. — Kerosene 2 gallons Common soap J pound Water 1 gallon Heat the solution of soap, add it boil- ing hot to the kerosene and churn until it forms a perfect emulsion. For use upon scale insects it is diluted with 9 parts of water; upon other ordinary insects with 15 parts of water, and upon soft insects, like plant lice, with from 20 to 25 parts of water. For lice, etc., which attack the roots of vines and trees the following is recom- mended: II. — Caustic soda 5 pounds Rosin 40 pounds Water, a sufficient quantity. Dissolve the soda in 4 gallons of water, by the aid of heat, add the rosin and after it is dissolved and while boiling add, slowly, enough water to make 50 gallons. For use, 1 part of this mixture is diluted with 10 parts of water and about 5 gal- lons of the product poured into a depres- sion near the root of the vine or tree. For Cochineal Insects. — An emujsion for fumagine (malady of orange trees caused by the cochineal insect) and other diseases caused by insects is as follows: Dissolve, hot, 4 parts of black soap in 15 parts of hot water. Let cool to 104° F., and pour in 10 parts of ordinary petroleum, shaking vigorously. Thus an emulsion of cafe au lait color is ob tained, which may be preserved in- definitely. For employment, each part of the emulsion is diluted, according to circumstances, with from 10 to 20 parts of water. For Locusts. — Much trouble is ex- perienced in the Transvaal and Natal with locust pests, the remedies used being either a soap spray, containing 1 pound ordinary household soap in 5 gallons of water, or arsenite of soda, the latter being issued by the government for the purpose, and also used for the de- struction of prickly pear, and as a basis of tick dips. A solution of 1 pound in 10 gallons of water is employed for full- grown insects, and of 1 pound in 20 gallons of water for newly hatchet! ones, 1 pound of sugar being added to each pound of arsenite dissolved. The solu- tion sometimes causes sores on the skin, and the natives employed in its use are given grease to rub over themselves as a measure of protection. An advantage of the arsenite solution over soap is that much less liquid need be used. A composition for the destruction of pear blight, which has been patented in INSECTICIDES 423 the United States, is as follows: Pepper- mint oil, 16 parts; ammonia water, 60 (Kirts; calomel, 30 parts; and linseed oil, 1,000 parte. For Moths and Caterpillars. — I. — Venice turpentine 200 parts Rosin 1,000 parts Turpentine 140 parts Tar 80 parts Lard 600 parts Rape oil 240 parts Tallow ■ .."200 parts II. — Rosin SO parts Lard 40 parts Stearine oil 40 parts For Non-Masticating Insects . — For protection against all non-masticating and many mandibulate insects, kerosene oil is much used. It is exhibited in the form of emulsion, which may be made as follows: Kerosene 2 gallons Common soap 8 ounces Water 1 gallon Dissolve the soap in the water by the aid of heat, bring to the boiling point, and add the kerosene in portions, agitat- ing well after each addition. This is conveniently done by means of the pump to be used for spraying the mixture. For Scale Insects. — For _ destroying scale insects dilute the cochineal emul- sion (see above) with 9 times its volume of water; in the case of most others, ex- cept lice, dilute with 14 volumes, and for the latter with 20 to 25 volumes. For the extermination of scale insects, resinous preparations are also em- ployed, which kill by covering them with an impervious coating. Such a wash may be made as follows: Rosin 3i pounds Caustic soda 1 pound Fish oil 8 ounces Water '20 gallons Boil the rosin, soda, and oil with a small portion of the water, adding the remainder as solution is effected. For the San Jose scale a stronger preparation is required, the proportion of water being decreased by half, but such a solution is applied only when the tree is dormant. Scale Insects on Orange Trees.— Scale insect enemies of orange trees are direct- ly controlled in two ways: (1) By spray- ing the infested trees with some liquid insecticide, and (2) by subjecting them to the fumes of hydrocyanic acid gas, com- monly designated as "gassing." The latter method is claimed to be the most effective means known of destroying scale insects. In practice the metnod con- sists in closing a tree at night with a tent and filling the latter with the poisonous fumes generated by treating refined potassium cyanide (98 per cent) with commercial sulphuric acid (66 per cent) and water. The treatment should con- tinue from 30 to 40 minutes, the longer time being preferable. The work is done at night to avoid the scalding which follows day applications, at least in bright sunshine. The oily washes are said to be the best for the use by the spraying method. "Kerosene emulsion" is a type of these washes. A formula published by the United States Department of Agricul- ture follows: Kerosene, 2 gallons; whale- oil soap, J pound; water, 1 gallon. The soap is dissolved in hot water, the kero- sene added, and the whole thoroughly emulsified by means of a power pump until a rather heavy, creamy emulsion is E reduced. The quantity of soap may e increased if desired. The insecti- cide is applied by spraying the infected tree with an ordinary force pump with spraying nozzle. Coating Against the Plant Louse. — (a) — Mix 75 parts of green soap, 50 Carts of linseed oil, and 'iS parts of car- olic acid. Afterwards mix the mass with 15,000 parts of water. (b) Mix 4 parts of carbolic acid with 100 parts water glass. Louse Washes. — Unslaked lime 18 parts Sulphur 9 parts Salt 6.75 parts Mix as follows: A fourth part of the lime is slaked and boiled for § of an hour with the sulphur in 22.6 parts of water. The remainder of the lime is then slaked and added with the salt to the hot mix- ture. The whole is burned for another half hour or an hour, and then diluted to 353 parts. The fluid is applied luke- warm when the plants are not in active growth. For Slugs on Roses. — Powdered pyrethrum. 8 ounces Powdered colocynth. . 4 ounces Powdered hellebore . . 16 ounces Flea Powder. — Naphthalene 4 ounces Talcum 10 ounces Tobacco dust i ounces 434 INSECT POWDERS To Keep Flaxseed Free from Bugs. — As a container use a tin can with a close- fitting top. At the bottom of the can place a small vial of chloroform with a loose-fitting cork stopper. Then pour the flaxseed, whole or ground, into the can, covering the vial. Enough of the chloroform will escape from the vial to kill such insects as infest the flaxseed. INSECT POWDERS. Pyrethrum, whale oil (in the form of soap), fish oil (in the form of soap), soft soap, paraffine, Prussic acid, Paris green, white lead, sulphur, carbon bisulphide, acorus calamus, camphor, Cayenne pepper, tobacco, snuff, asafetida, white hellebore, eucalyptol, quassia, borax, acetic ether are most important substances used as insecticides, alone, or in combi- nation of two or more of them. The Prussic acid and Paris green are dan- gerous poisons and require to be used with extreme care: Insect powder is used for all small in- sects and as a destroyer of roaches. The observations of some experimenters seem to show that the poisonous principle of these flowers is non-volatile, but the most favorable conditions under which to use them are in a room tightly closed and well warmed. There may be two poisonous principles, one of which is vola- tile. Disappointment sometimes arises in their use from getting powder either adulterated, or which has been exposed to the air and consequently lost some of its efficiency. The dust resulting from the use of insect powder sometimes proves irri- tating to the mucous membranes of the one applying the powder. This is best avoided by the use of a spray atomizer. Persistence in the use of any means is an important element in the work of destroying insects. A given poison may be employed and no visible result follow at first, when in reality many may have been destroyed, enough being left to de- ceive the observer as to numbers. They multiply very rapidly, too, it must be remembered, and vigorous work is re- quired to combat this increase. Where they can easily migrate from one house- holder's premises to those of another, as in city "flats," it requires constant vigi- lance to keep them down, and entire extermination is scarcely to be expected. The ordinary insect powder on the market is made from pyrethrum car- neum, pyrethrum roseum, and pyrethrum cinerarise-folium. The first two are generally ground together and are com- mercially called Persian insect powder; while the third is commonly called Dalmatian insect powder. These pow- ders are sold in the stores under many names and in combination with other powders under proprietary names. The powder is obtained by crushing the dried flowers of the pellitory (pyrethrum). The leaves, too, are often used. They are cultivated in the Caucasus, whence the specific name Caucasicum some- times used. Pyrethrum belongs to the natural order compositse, and is closely allied to the chrysanthemum. The active principle is not a volatile oil, as stated by some writers, but a rosin, which can be dissolved out from the dry flowers by means of ether. The leaves also contain this rosin but in smaller proportions than the flowers. Tincture of pyrethrum is made by infusing the dried flowers in five times their weight of rectified spirit of wine. Diluted with water it is used as a lotion. Borax powder also makes a very good insectifuge. It appears to be particu- larly effective against the common or kitchen cockroach. Camphor is sometimes used, and the powdered dried root of acorus calamus, the sweet flag. A mix- ture of white lead with four times its weight of chalk is also highly recom- mended. The fish-oil soaps used in a powdered form are made from various recipes, of which the following is a typi- cal example: Powdered rosin 2 pounds Caustic soda 8 ounces Fish or whale oil 4 ounces Boil together in a gallon of water for at least an hour, replacing some of the water if required. The following insect-powder formulas are perfectly safe to use. In each in- stance insect powder relates to either one of the pyrethrum plants powdered, or to a mixture: I. — Insect powder. ... 8 ounces av. Powdered borax. . 8 ounces av. Oil of pennyroyal . 2 fluidrachms II. — Insect powder 8 ounces av. Borax 8 ounces av. Sulphur 4 ounces av. Oil of eucalyptus . 2 fluidrachms This formula is especially good for cockroaches: III. — Insect powder. ... 14 ounces av. Quassia in fine Eowder 6 ounces a v. ite hellebore, powdered 2 ounces av. INSECT POWERS— INSULATION ■125 Beetle Powder. — Cocoa powder 4 ounces Starch 8 ounces Borax .' . . 37 ounces Mix thoroughly. Remedies Against Mosquitoes. — A rem- edy to keep off mosquitoes, etc., is com- posed as follows: Cinnamon oil, 1 part; patchouli oil, 1 part; sandal oil, 4 parts; alcohol, 400 parts. This has a pleasant odor. Oil of pennyroyal is commonly used to keep mosquitoes away. Some form of petroleum rubbed on the skin is even more efficient, but unpleasant to use, and if left on long enough will burn the skin, A 40 per cent solution of formaldehyde for mosquito bites gives remarkably (|uick and good results. It should be applied to the bites as soon as possible with the cork of the bottle, and allowed to dry on. Diluted ammonia is also used to rub on the bites. Roach Exterminators. — Borax, starch, and cocoa are said to be the principal in- gredients of some of the roach foods on the market. A formula for a poison of this class is as follows: Borax 37 ounces Starch 9 ounces Cocoa 4 ounces Moth Exterminators. — Cold storage is the most effective means of avoiding the ravages of moths. Where this is imprac- ticable, as in bureau drawers, camphor balls may be scattered about with satis- factory result. The following is also ef- fective: Spanish pepper 100 parts Turpentine oil 50 parts Camphor 25 parts Clove oil 10 parts Alcohol, 96 per cent. 900 parts Cut the Spanish pepper into little bits, and pour over them the alcohol and oil of turpentine. Let stand 2 or 3 days, then decant, and press out. To the liquid thus obtained add the camphor and clove oil, let stand a few days, then filter and fill into suitable bottles. To use, imbibe bits of bibulous paper in the liquid and put them in the folds of clothing to be protected. Protecting Stuffed Furniture from Moths. — The stuffing, no matter whether consisting of tow, hair, or fiber, as well as the covering, should be coated with a 10 per cent solution of sulphur in carbon sulphide. The carbon sulphide dis- solves the sulphur so as to cause a very fine division and to penetrate the fibers completely. Powder to Keep Moths Away. — Cloves 2 ounces Cinnamon 2 ounces Mace 2 ounces Black pepper 2 ounces Orris root 2 ounces Powder coarsely and mix well together. Book-Worms. — When these insects infest books they are most difficult to deal with, as the ordinary destructive agents injuriously affect the paper of the book. The books should be well beaten and exposed to the sun, and a rag moist- ened with formalin passed through the binding and the covers where possible. In other cases the bottom edge of the binding should be moistened with forma- lin before putting on the shelves, so that formaldehyde vapor can be diffused. INSECT POWDERS: See Insecticides. INSECT TRAP. Into a china wash-basin, half filled with water, pour a glass of beer; cover the basin with a newspaper, in the center of which a small round hole is cut. Place it so that the edges of the paper lie on the floor and the nole is over the center of the basin. At night beetles and other in- sects, attracted by the smell of beer, climb the paper and fall through the hole into the liquid. INSTRUMENT ALLOYS: See Alloys. INSTRUMENT CLEANING: See Cleaning Preparations and Meth- ods. INSTRUMENT LACQUER: See Lacquers. Insulation ELECTRIC INSULATION: Insulating Varnishes. — For earth cables and exposed strong current wires: I. — Melt 2 parts of asphalt together with 0.4 parts of sulphur, add 5 parts of linseed-ou varnish, linseed oil or cotton- seed oil, keep at 320° F. for 6 hours; next pour in oil of turpentine as required. II. — Maintain 3 parts of elaterite with 2 parts of linseed-oil varnish at 392° F. for 5 to 6 hours; next melt 3 parts of asphalt, pour both substances together, and again maintain the temperature of 426 INSULATION 392° F. for 3 to 4 hours, and then add 1 part of linseed-oil varnish and oil of turpentine as required. III. — Insulating Varnish for Dynamos and Conduits with Low Tension.— Shellac, 4 parts; sandarac, 2 parts; linoleic acid, 2 parts; alcohol, 15 parts. IV. — An insulating material which contains no caoutchouc is made by dis- solving natural or coal-tar asphalt in wood oil, adding sulphur and vulcanizing at 572° F. The mixture of asphalt and wood oil may also be vulcanized with chloride of sulphur by the ordinary proc- ess used for caoutchouc. Before vul- canizing, a solution of rubber scraps in naphthalene is sometimes added and the naphthalene expelled by a current of steam. Substitutes for hard rubber are made of natural or artificial asphalt com- bined with heavy oil of tar and talc or infusorial earth. Most of the insulating materials ad- vertised under alluring names consist of asphalt combined with rosin, tar, and an inert powder such as clay or asbestos. Some contain graphite, which is a good conductor and therefore a very unde- sirable ingredient in an insulator. INSULATION AGAINST HEAT. An asbestos jacket is the usual insu- lator for boilers, steampipes, etc. The thicker the covering around the steam- pipe, the more heat is retained. A chief requirement for such protective mass is that it contains air in fine chan- nels, so that there is no connection with the closed-in air. Most substances suitable for insulating are such that they can only with diflSculty be used for a protective mass. The most ordinary way is to mix infusorial earth, kieselguhr, slag-wool, hair, ground cork, etc., with loam or clay, so that this plastic mass may be applied moist on the pipes. In using such substances care should be taken carefully to clean and heat the surfaces to be covered. The mass for the first coating is made into a paste by gradual addition of water and put on thick with a brush. After drying each time a further coating is applied. This is repeated until the desired thickness is reached. The last layer put on is rubbed smooth with the flat hand. Finally, strips of linen are wound around, which is coated with tar or oil paint as a protection against outside injuries. Cork stones consist of crushed cork with a mineral binding agent, and are sold pressed into various shapes. Leather Waste Insulation. — Portions of leather, such as the fibers of sole leather of any size and form, are first rendered soft. The surface is then carded or the stfrface fibers scratched or raised in such a manner that when sev- eral pieces are pressed together their surface fibers adhere, and a compact, durable piece of leather is produced. The carding can be done by an ordinary batting machine, the action of which is so regulated that not only are the pieces of leather softened, but the fibers on their surfaces raised. The structure of the separate pieces of leather remains essentially unaltered. The raised fibers give the appearance of a furry substance to the leather. The batted , pieces of leather are well mixed with paste or some suitable gum, either in or outside of the machine, and are then put into specially shaped troughs, where they are pressed together into layers of the re- quired size and thickness. The separate pieces of leather adhere and are matted together. An agglutinant, if accessible, will contribute materially to the strength and durability of the product. The layers are dried, rolled, and are then ready for use. The pieces need not be packed together promiscuously. If larger portions of waste can be secured, the separate pieces can be arranged one upon another in rows. The larger pieces can also be used for the top and bottom of a leather pad, the middle portion of which consists of smaller pieces. INSULATION AGAINST MOISTURE, WEATHER, ETC. Experiments have shown that with the aid of red lead a very serviceable, resist- ive, and weatherproof insulation material may be produced from inferior fibers, to take the place, in many cases, of gutta- percha and other substances em^oyed for insulating purposes, and particularly to effect the permanent insulation of aerial conductors exposed to the action of the weather. Hackethal used for the purpose any vegetable fiber which is wrapped around the conductors to be insulated. The fiber is then saturated with liquid red lead. The latter is ac- complished in the proportion of 4 to 5 parts of red lead, by weight, to 1 part, by weight, of linseed oil, by the hot or cold process, by mere immersion or under pressure. All the three substances, fiber, oil, and red lead, possess in them- selves a certain insulating capacity, but none of them is alone of utility for such purposes. Even the red lead mixed with linseed oil does not possess in the liquid state a high degree of insulating power. IODINE SOLVENT— IRON 427 Only when both substances, the ingre- dients of the linseed oil capable of ab- sorbing oxygen and the lead oxide rich in oxycen, oxidize in the air, a new gummy product of great insulating capacity results. mTKNSIFIERS: See Photography. IODINE SOLVENT. Iodine is quickly dissolved in oils by first rubbing up the iodine with one- fourth of its weight of potassium iodide and a few drops of glycerine, then adding a little oil and rubbing up again. The addition of the resultant liquid to the rest of the oil and a sharp agitation finishes the process. IODINE SOAP: See Soap. IODOFORM DEODORIZER. Rub the part with about a teaspoonful of wine vinegar, after a previous thor- ough washing with soap. Iron (See also Metals and Steel.) To Color Iron Blue. — One hundred and forty parts of hyposulphite of soda are dissolved in 1,000 parts of water; 35 parts of acetate of lead are dissolved in 1,000 parts of water; the two solutions are mixed, boiled, and the iron is im- mersed therein. The metal takes a blue color, such as is obtained by heating. To Distinguish Iron from Steel.— The piece of metal to be tested is washed and then plunged into a solution of bichro- mate of potash, with the addition of considerable sulphuric acid. In half a minute or a minute the metal can be taken out, washed, and wiped. Soft steels and cast iron assume under this treatment an ash-grav tint. Tempered steels become almost black, without any metallic reflection. Puddled and re- fined irons remain nearly white and al- ways have metallic reflections on the part of their surface previously filed, the remainder of the surface presenting ir- regular blackish spots. Another method is to apply a magnet. Steel responds much more quickly and actively to the magnetic influence than does iron. Powder for Hardening Iron and Steel. — For wrought iron place in the charge 20 parts, by weight, of common salt; 2 parts, by weight, of potassium cyanide; 0.3 parts, by weight, of potassium bi- chromate; 0.15 parts, by weight, of broken glass; and 0.1 part, by weight, of potassium nitrate for case-hardening- For cooling and hardening cast iron : To 60 parts, oy weight, of water add 2.5 parts, by weight, of vinegar; 3 parts, by weight, of common salt; and 0.25 parts, by weight, of hydrochloric acid. Preventing the Peeling of Coatings for Iron. — To obviate the scaling of coat- ings on iron, if exposed to the attacks of the weather, it is advisable to wash the iron thoroughly and to paint it next with a layer of boiling linseed oil. If thus treated, the paint never cracks off. If the iron objects are small and can be heated, it is advantageous to heat them previously and to dip them into linseed oil. The boiling oil enters all the pores of the metal and drives out the moisture. The coating adheres so firmly that frost, rain, nor wind can injure it. To Soften Iron Castings. — To soften hard iron castings, heat the object to a high temperature, cover it over with fine coal dust or some similar substance, and allow it to cool gradually. When the articles are of small size, a number of them are packed in a crucible with sub- stances yielding carbon to iron at a glowing heat. The crucible is then tightly closed, and placed in a stove or on an open fire. It is gradually heated and kept at a red heat for several hours, and then allowed to cool slowly. Cast-iron turnings, carbonate of soda, and unre- fined sugar are recommended as sub- stances suitable for packing in the cru- cible with the castings. If unrefined sugar alone is added, the quantity must not be too small. By this process the iron may be rendered extremely soft. To Whiten Iron. — Mix ammoniacal salt in powder with an equal volume of mercury. This is dissolved in cold water and mixed thoroughly. Irnmerse the metal, heated to redness, in this bath and it will come out possessing the white- ness and beauty of silver. Care should be taken not to overheat the article and thus burn it. IRON, BITING OFF RED HOT: See Pyrotechnics. IRON, CEMENTS FOR: See Adhesives. IRON, TO CLEAN: See Cleaning Preparations and Meth- ods. IRON TO CLOTH, GLUING: See Adhesives. 428 IRON— IVORY IRON, HOW TO ATTACH RUBBER TO : See Adhesives, under Rubber Ce- ments. IRON OXALATE DEVELOPER: See Photography. IRON SOLDERS: See Solders. IRONING WAX: See Laundry Preparations. IRON VARNISHES: See Varnishes. ITCH, BARBERS': See Ointments. Ivory (See also Bones, Shell, and Horn.) TO COLOR IVORY: Red. — The article is placed for 24 hours in water, 1,000 parts of which carry 100 parts of vinegar (acetic acid, 6 per cent), and from 1 to 5 parts of aniline red. As soon as it acquires the desired color pour off the liquid, let the ivory dry, and polish with Vienna lime. Black. — Wash the article first in pot- ash or soda lye and then put into a neutral solution of silver nitrate. Drain off the liquid and lay in the direct sun- shine. Red-Purple.— Put the article in a weak solution of triple gold chloride and then into direct sunshine. Red. — For a different shade of red (from the first given), place the article for a short time in water weakly acidified with nitric acid and then in a solution of cochineal in ammonia. Yellow. — Leave for several hours in a solution of lead acetate, rinse and dry. When quite dry place in a solution of potassium chromate. To Color Billiard Balls Red.— Fiery Red. — Wash the article first in a solution of carbonate of soda, then plunge for a few seconds in a bath of equal parts of water and nitric acid. Remove, rinse in running water; then put in an alcoholic solution of fuchdne and let it remain until it is the required color. Cherry Red. — Clean by washing in the sodium carbonate solution, rinse and lay in a, 2 per cent solution of tin chloride, for a few moments, then boil in a solution of logwood. Finally lay in a solution of potassium carbonate until it assumes the desired color. Pale Red. — Wash in soda solution, rinse and lay for 25 minutes in a 5 per cent solution of nitric acid, rinse, then lay for several minutes in a weak solution of tin chloride. Finally boil in the following solution: Carmine, 2 parts; sodium car- bonate, 12 parts; water, 200 parts; acetic acid enough to saturate. Brown. — Apply several coats of an ammoniacal solution of potassium per- manganate. Similar results are ob- tained if the solution is diluted with vin- egar, and the ivory article allowed to remain in the liquid for some time. Etching on Ivory (see also Etching). — Although decorations on ivory articles, such as umbrella handles, cuff-buttons, fans, book-covers, boxes, etc., are gen- erally engraved, the work is frequently done by etching. The patterns must be very delicate, and are executed in lines only. The simplest way is to cover the surface with a thin rosin varnish. Then transfer the pattern and scratch it out ac- curately with a pointed needle. Otherwise proceed same as in etching on metal and stone, making an edge of modeling wax around the surface to oe etched and pour- ing on the acid, which consists, in this case, of sulphuric acid, 1 part, to which 5 to 6 parts of water are added. It acts very quickly. The lines turn a deep black. If brown lines are desired, dis- solve 1 part of silver nitrate in 5 parts of water, etch for a short time, and expose the article for a few hours to the light, until the design turns brown. Very often etchings in ivory are gilded. For this purpose, fill the etched patterns accurately with siccatives, using a writ- ing pen, dry, and dab on gold leaf. After a few hours remove the superfluous gold with wadding, and the design will be nicely gilded. Etched ivory articles present a very handsome appearance if they are first covered with a silvery gloss, the design being gilded afterwards. For the former purpose the etched object is laid in the above described solution of silver nitrate until it has acquired a dark yellow color. Then rinse it off in clean water and, while still moist, expose to direct sunlight. After 3 to 4 hours the surface becomes entirely black, but will take on a fine silvery luster if rubbed with soft leather. Flexible Ivory.— To soften ivory and render it flexible put pure phosphoric acid (specific gravity, 1.13) into a wide- mouthed bottle or jar that can be cov- ered, and steep the ivory in this until it partially loses its opacity; then wash the ivory in cold, soft water and dry, when the ivory will be found soft and flexible. IVORY 429 It regains its hardness in course of time when freely exposed to air, although its flexibility can be restored by immersing the ivory in hot water. Another softening fluid is prepared by mixing 1 ounce of spirit of niter with 5 ounces of water and steeping the ivory in the fluid for t or 5 days. Hardened Ivory. — To restore the hard- ness to ivory thdt has been softened by the above methods, wrap it in a sheet of white writing paper, cover it with dry de- crepitated salt, and let it remain thus covered for 24 hours. The decrepitated salt is prepared by strewing common kitcluMi .salt on a plate or dish and stand- ing .same before a fierce fire, when the salt loses its crystalline appearance and assumes a dense opaque whiteness. IMITATION IVORY: See also Casein and Plaster. Manufacture of Compounds Imitating Ivory, Shell, etc. — Casein, as known, may act the part of an acid and combine with ba.ses to form caseinates or caseatcs; among these compounds, caseinates of potash, of soda, and of ammonia are the only ones soluble in water; all the others are insoluble and may be readily pre- pared by double decomposition. Thus, for example, to obtam caseinate of alumina, it is sufficient to add to a solu- tion of casein in caustic soda a solution of sulphate of alumina; an insoluble precipitate of casein, or caseinate of alumina, is instantly formed. This pre- cipitate ought to be freed from the sul- phate of soda (formed by double de- composition) by means of prolonged washing. When pure, ordinary cellulose may be incorporated with it by this process, pro- ducing a new compound, cneaper tnan pure cellulose, although possessing the same properties, and capable of replacing it in all its applications. According to the results desired, in transparency, color, hardness, etc., the most suitable caseinate should be selected. Thus, if a translucent compound is to be obtained, the caseinate of alumina yields the best. If a white compound is desired, the case- inate of zinc or of magnesia should be chosen; and for colored products the case- inates of iron, copper, and nickel will give varied tints. The process employed for the new products, with a base of celluloid and caseinate, is as follows: On one hand casein is dissolved in a solution of caus- tic soda. (100 of water for 10 to 25 of soda), and this liquid is filtered, to sepa- rate the matters not dissolved and the impurities. On the other hand, a salt (of the base of which the caseinate is desired) is dis- solved, and the solution filtered. It is well not to operate on too concentrated a solution. The two solutions are mixed in a reservoir furnished with a mechan- ical .stirrer, in order to obtain the insol- uble caseinate precipitate in as finely divided a state as possible. This precip- itate should be washed thoroughly so as to free it from the soda salt formoray all and mix with strong vinegar. To Widen a Jewel Hole.— Chuck the hole in a lathe with cement. Place u spirit lamp underneath to prevent the cement from hardening. Hold the f)ointed bit against the hole, while the athe is running, until the hole is true, when the lamp should be removed. The broach to widen the hole should be made of copper, of the required size and shape, and the point, after being oiled, should be rollea in diamond dust until it is entirely covered. The diamond dust should then be beaten in with a burnish- er, using very light blows so as not to bruise the broach. After the hole is widened as desired, it requires polishing with a broach made of ivory and used with oil and the finest diamond dust, louse, not driven into the broach. To Clean Jet Jewelry. — Reduce bread crumbs into small particles, and intro- duce into all the curves and hollows of the jewelry, while rubbing with a flannel. Coloring Common Gold. — In coloring gold below 18 carat, the following mix- ture may be used with success, and if carefully employed, even 12 carat gold may be colored by it: Take nitrate of potassa (saltpeter), 4 parts, by weight; alum, 2 parts; and common salt, 2 parts. Add sufficient warm water to mix the ingredients into a thin paste; place the mixture in a small pipkin or crucible and allow to boil. The article to be colored should be suspended by a wire and dipped into the mixture, where it should remain from 10 to 20 minutes. Tlic article should then be removed and well rinsed in hot water, when it must be scratch brushed, again rinsed and re- turned to the coloring salts for a few minutes; it is then to l)e again rinsed in hot water, scratch brushed, and finally brushed with soap and hot water, rinsed in hot water, and placed in boxwood sawdust. The object being merely to remove the alloy, as soon as the article has acquired the proper color of fine gold it may be considered sufficiently acted upon by the above mixture. The color- ing salts should not be used for gold of a lower standard than 12 carat, and, even for this quality of gold, some care must be taken when the articles are of a very slight make. Shades of Red, etc., on Matt Gold Bijouterie. — For the production of the red and other shades on matt gold arti- cles, the so-called gold varnishes are employed, which consist of shellac dis- solved in alcohol and are colored with gum rosins. Thus a handsome golden yellow is obtained from shellac, 35 parts; seed-lac, 35 parts; dragon's blood, 50 parts; gamboge, 50 parts; dissolved in 400 parts of alcohol; the clear solution is decanted and mixed with 75 parts of Venice turpentine. By changing the amounts of the coloring rosins, shades from bright gold vellow to copper color are obtained. Tne varnish is applied evenly and after drying is wiped on from the raised portions of the article by means of a pad of wadding dipped into alcohol, whereby a handsome patina- tion effect is produced, since the lacquer remains in the cavities. Chased articles are simply rubbed with earth colors ground into a paste with turpentine oil, for which purpose burnt sienna, fine ochers of a golden color, golden yellow, and various .shades of green are employed. I. — Yellow wax 32 parts Red bole 3 parts Crystallized verdi- gris 2 parts Alum 2 parts II. — Yellow wax 95 parts Red bole 64 parts Colcothar 2 parts Crystallized verdi- gris 32 parts Copper ashes 20 parts Zinc vitriol 32 parts Green vitriol 16 parts Borax 1 part The wax is melted and the finely pow- dered chemicals are stirred in, in rota- tion. If the gilt bronze goods are to obtain a lustrous orange shade, apply a mixture of ferric oxide, alum, cooking salt, and vinegar in the heated articles by means of a brush, heating to about 266° F. until the shade commences to turn black and water sprinkled on will evaporate with a hissing sound, then cool in water, dip in a mixture of 1 part of nitric acid with 40 parts of water, rinse JEWELERS' FORMULAS thoroughly, dry, and polish. For the production of a pale-gold shade use a wax preparation consisting of: III. — Yellow wax 19 parts Zinc vitriol 10 parts Burnt borax 3 parts Green-gold color is produced by a mix- ture of: IV. — Saltpeter 6 parts Green vitriol 2 parts Zinc vitriol 1 part Alum 1 part To Matt Gilt Articles.— If it is desired to matt gilt articles partly or entirely, the portions which are to remain burnished are covered with a mixture of chalk, sugar, and mucilage, heating until this "stopping-off" covering shows a black color. On the places not covered apply a matting powder consisting of: Saltpeter 40 parts Alum 25 parts Cooking salt 35 parts Heat the objects to about 608° F., whereby the powder is melted and ac- quires the consistency of a thin paste. In ease of too high a temperature de- composition will set in. To Find the Number of Carats.— To find the number of carats of gold in an object, first weigh the gold and mix with seven times its weight in silver. This alloy is beaten into thin leaves, and nitric acid is added; this dissolves the silver and copper. The remainder (gold) is then fused and weighed; by comparing the first and last weights the number of carats of pure gold is found. To check repeat several times. Acid Test for Gold. — The ordinary ready method of ascertaining whether a piece of jewelry is made of gold consists in touching it with a glass stopper wetted with nitric acid, which leaves gold un- touched, but colors base alloys blue from the formation of nitrate of copper. Imitation Diamonds. — 1. — Minium, 75 parts (by weight); washed white sand, 50 parts; calcined potash, 18 parts; cal- cined borax, 6 parts.; bioxide of arsenic, 1 part. The sand must be washed in hydrochloric acid and then several times in clean water. The specific gravity of this crystal glass is almost the same as that of the diamond. II. — Washed white sand, 100 parts (by weight): minium, 35 parts; calcined pot- ash, 25 parts; calcined borax, 20 parts; nitrate of potash (crystals), 10 parts; peroxide of manganese, 5 parts. The sand must be washed as above stated. Diamantine. — This substance consists of crystallized boron, the basis of borax. By melting 100 parts of boracic acid and 80 parts of aluminum crystals is ob- tained the so-called bort, which_ even attacks diamond. The diamantine of commerce is not so hard. To Refine Board Sweepings.— The residue resulting from a jobbing jew- eler's business, such as board sweepings and other residuum, which is continually accumulating and which invariably con- sists of all mixed cfualities of standard, may have the precious metals recovered therefrom in a very simple manner, as follows: Collect the residue and burn it in an iron ladle or pan, until all grease or other organic matter is destroyed. When cool mix with i part soda-ash, and melt in a clay crucible. When the metal is thoroughly melted it will leave the flux and sink to the bottom of the crucible; at this stage the flux assumes the appear- ance of a thin fluid, and then is the time to withdraw the pot from the fire. The metal in the crucible — but not the flux — may now be poured into a vessel of water, stirring the water in a circular direction while the metal is being poured in, which causes it to form into small grains, and so prepares it for the next process. Dis- solve the grains in a mixture of nitric acid and water in equal quantities. It takes about four times the quantity of liquid as metal to dissolve. The gold remains undissolved in this mixture, and may be recovered by filtering or decant- ing the liquid above it in the dissolving vessel; it is then dried, mixed with a little flux, and melted in the usual manner, whereupon pure gold will be obtained. To recover the silver, dilute the solution which has been withdrawn from the gold with six times its bulk of water, and add by degrees small quantities of finely powdered common salt, and this will throw down the silver into a white, curdy powder of chloride of silver. Continue to add salt until no cloudiness is observed in the solution, when the water above the sediment may be poured off; the sediment is next well washed with warm water several times, then dried and melted in the same manner as the gold, and you will have a lump of pure silver. Restoration of the Color of Tur- quoises. — After a certain time turquoises lose a part of their fine color. It is easy to restore the color by immersing them in a solution of carbonate of soda. But it seems that the blue cannot be restored anew after this operation, if it again becomes dull. The above applies to JEWELERS' FORMULAS 433 comnion turquoises, and not to those of the Orient, of which the color does not change. Colorings for Jewelers' Work.— I. ^ Take 40 parts of saltpeter; 30 parts of alum; 30 parts of sea salt; or 100 grams of liquid ammonia; 3 parts sea salt; and 100 parts water. This is heated without bringing it to a boil, and the articles dipped into it for from 2 to 3 minutes, stirring the liquid constantly; after this bath they are dipped in alum water and then thoroughly rinsed in clean water. II. — One hundred parts of calcium bro- mide and 2 parts of bromium. The ob- jects are allowed to remain in this solu- tion (which must be also constantly stirred) for from 2 to 3 minutes, then washed in a solution of sodium hypo- sulphite, after which they must be rinsed in clean water. III. — ^Thirty parts of verdigris; 30 parts of sea salt; 30 parts of hematite; 30 parts of sal ammoniac, and 5 parts of alum. This must be all ground up together and mixed with strong vinegar; or we may also use 100 parts of verdigris; 100 parts of hydrochlorate of ammonia; 65 parts of saltpeter, and 40 parts of copper filings, all of which are to be well mixed with strong vinegar. 22-Carat Solder. — Soldering is a proc- ess which, by means of a more fusible compound, the connecting surfaces of metals are firmly secured to each other, but, for many practical purposes, it is advisable to have the fusing point of the metal and solder as near each other as poiisible, which, in the majority of cases, preserves a union more lasting, and the joint less distinguishable, in consequence of the similarity of the metal and solder in color, which age does not destroy, and this is not the case with solders the fusible points of which are very low. The metal to be soldered together must have an affinity for the solder, otherwise the union will be imperfect; and the solder should likewise act upon the metal, partly by this affinity or chemical attrac- tion, and partly by cohesive force, to unite the connections soundly and firmly together. Solders should therefore be prepared suitable to the work in hand, if a good and lasting job is to be made. It should always be borne in mind that the higher the fusing point of the gold alloy — and this can be made to vary consid- erably, even with any specified auality— the harder solder must be used, for. in the case of a more fusible mixture of gold, the latter would melt before the solder and cause the work to be destroyed. A very good formula for the first, or ordi- nary, 22-carat alloy is this: dwts. grs. Fine gold 1 Fine silver 3 Fine copper 2 1 5 This mixture will answer all the many purposes of the jobber; for soldering nigh quality gold wares that come for repairs, particularly wedding rings, it will be found admirably suited. If an easier solder is wanted, and such is very often the case with jobbing jewelers, es- Eecially where several solderings have to e accomplished, it is as well to have at hand a solder which will not disturb the previous soldering places, for if this is not prevented a very simple job is made very difficult, and a lot of time and patience wholly wasted. To guard against a thing of this kind the following solder may be employed on the top of the previous one: dwts. grs. Fine gold 1 Fine silver 3 Yellow brass 2 1 5 This solder is of the same value as the previous one, but its melting point is lower, and it will be found useful for many purposes that can be turned to good account in a jobbing jeweler's business. JEWELERS' ALLOYS: See also Alloys and Solders. i8-Carat Gold for Rings. — Gold coin, 19J grains; pure copper, 3 grains; pure silver, IJ grains. Cheap Gold, 12 Carat.- — Gold coin, 25 grains; pure copper, 13J grains; pure silver, 7J grains. Very Cheap 4-Carat Gold. — Copper, 18 parts; gold, 4 parts; silver, 2 parts. Imitations of Gold. — I. — Platina, 4 pennyweights; pure copper, 2i penny- weights; sheet zinc, 1 pennyweight; block tin, IJ pennyweights; pure lead, IJ pennyweight. If this snould be found too hard or brittle for practical use, remelting the composition with a little sal ammoniac will generally render it malleable as desii-ed. II. — Platina, 2 parts; silver, 1 part; copper. 3 parts. These compositions, when properly prepared, so nearly resem- ble pure gold that it is very difficult to 434. JEWELERS' FORMULAS distinguish them therefrom. A little powdered charcoal, mixed with metals while melting, will be found of service. Best Oreide of Gold. — Pure copper, 4 ounces; sheet zinc. If ounces; magnesia, f ounce; sal ammoniac, ^ ounce; quick- lime, -^ ounce; cream tartar, | ounce. First melt the copper at as low a tem- perature as it will melt; then add the zinc, and afterwards the other articles in powder, in the order named. Use a charcoal fire to melt these metals. Bushing Alloy for Pivot Holes, etc. — Gold coin, 3 pennyweights; silver, 1 pennyweight, 20 grains; copper, 3 pen- nyweights, 20 grains; palladium, 1 pennyweight. The best composition known for the purpose named. Gold Solder for 14- to i6-Carat Work. — Gold coin, 1 pennyweight; pure silver, 9 grains; pure copper, 6 grains; brass, 3 grains. Darker Solder. — Gold coin, 1 penny- weight; pure copper, 8 grains; pure silver, 5 grains; brass, 2 grains. Melt together in charcoal Are. Solder for Gold. — Gold, 6 penny- weights; silver, 1 pennyweight; copper, 2 pennyweights. Soft Gold Solder. — Gold, 4 parts; silver, 1 part; copper, 1 part. Solders for Silver (for the use of jewelers). — Fine silver, 19 pennyweights; copper, 1 pennyweight; sheet brass, 10 pennyweights. White Solder for Silver.— Silver, 1 ounce; tin, 1 ounce. Silver Solder for Plated Metal.— Fine silver, 1 ounce; brass, 10 pennyweights. Solders for Gold. — I. — Silver, 7 parts; copper, 1 part; with borax. II. — Gold, 2 parts; silver, 1 part; cop- per, 1 part. III. — Gold, 3 parts; silver, 3 parts; copper, 1 part; zinc, J part. For Silver. — Silver, 2 parts; brass, 1 Eart; with borax; or, silver, 4 parts; rass, 3 parts; zinc, -^ part; with borax. Gold Solders (see also Solders). — I. — Copper, 24.24 parts; silver, 27.57 parts; gold, 48.19 parts. II. — Enamel Solder. — Copper, 25 parts; silver, 7.07 parts; gold, 67.93 parts. III. — Copper, 26.55 parts; zinc, 6.25 parts; silver, 31.25 parts; gold, 36 parts. IV.— Enamel Solder.— Silver, 19.57 parts; gold, 80.43 parts. Solder for 22-Carat Gold.— Gold of 22 carats, 1 pennyweight; silver, 2 grains; copper, 1 grain. For i8-Carat Gold.— Gold of 18 carats, 1 pennyweight; silver, 2 grains; copper, 1 grain. For Cheaper Gold. — I. — Gold, 1 penny- weight; silver, 10 grains; copper, 8 grains. II. — Fine gold, 1 pennyweight; silver, 1 pennyweight; copper, 1 pennyweight. Silver Solders (see also Solders). — I. (Hard.) — Copper, 30 parts; zinc, 12.85 parts; silver, 57.15 parts. II. — Copper, 23.33 parts; zinc, lOparts; silver, 66.67 parts. III.— Copper, 26.66 parts; zinc, 10 parts; silver, 63.34 parts. IV. (Soft.) — Copper, 14.75 parts; zinc, 8.50 parts; silver, 77.05 parts. v.— Copper, 22.34 parts; zinc, 10.48 parts; silver, 67.18 parts. VI.— Tin, 63 parts; lead, 37 parts. FOR SILVERSMITHS: I. — Sterling Silver. — Fine silver, 11 ounces, 2 pennyweights; fine copper, 18 pennyweignts. II. — Equal to Sterling. — Fine silver, 1 ounce; fine copper, 1 pennyweight, 12 grains. III. — Fine silver, 1 ounce; fine copper, 5 pennyweights. IV. — Common Silver for Chains. — Fine silver, 6 pennyweights; fine copper, 4 pennyweight^. V. — Solder. — Fine silver, 16 penny- weights; fine copper, 12 grains; pin brass, 3 pennyweights, 12 grains. VI. — ^AUoy for Plating. — Fine silver, 1 ounce; fine copper, 10 pennyweights. VII. — Silver Solder. — Fine silver, 1 ounce; pin brass, 10 pennyweights; pure spelter, 2 pennyweights. VIII.— Copper Solder for Plating.— Fine silver, 10 pennyweights; fine cop- per, 10 pennyweights. IX. — Common Silver Solder. — Fine silver, 10 ounces; pin brass, 6 ounces, 12 pennyweights; spelter, 12 penny- weignts. X. — Silver Solder for Enameling. — Fine silver, 14 pennyweights; fine cop- per, 8 pennyweights. XL— For Filling Signet Rings.— Fine silver, 10 ounces; fine copper, 1 ounce, 16 pennyweights; fine pin brass, 6 ounces, 12 pennyweights; spelter, 12 pennyweights. JEWELERS' FORMULAS 435 XII.— Silver Solder for Gold Plating. — Fine silver, 1 ounce; fine copper, 5 pennyweights; pin brass, .5 pennyweights. XIII.— Mercury Solder.— Fine silver, 1 ounce; pin brass, 10 pennyweights; bar tin, i pennyweights. XIV. — Imitation Silver. — Fine silver, 1 ounce; nickel, 1 ounce, 11 grains; fine copper, 2 ounces, 9 grains. XV. — Fine silver, 3 ounces; nickel, 1 ounce, 11 pennyweights; fine copper, 2 ounces, 9 grains; spelter, 10 penny- weights. XVI.— Fine Silver Solder for Filigree Work. — Fine silver, 4 pennyweights, 6 grains; pin brass, 1 pennyweight. Bismuth Solder. — Bismuth, 3 ounces; lead, 3 ounces, 18 pennyweights; tin, 5 ounces, 6 pennyweights. BRASS: I. — Yellow Brass for Turning. — (Com- mon article.) — Copper, 20 pounds; zinc, 10 pounds; lead, 4 ounces. II. — Copper, 32 pounds; zinc, 10 pounds; lead, 1 pound. III. — Red Brass Free, for Turning. — Copper, 100 pounds; zinc, 50 pounds; lend, 10 pounds; antimony, 44 ounces. IV.— Best Red Brass for Fine Cast- ings. — Copper, '•24 pounds; zinc, 5 pounds; bismuth, 1 ounce. V. — Red Tombac. — Copper, 10f)ounds; zinc, 1 pound. VI. — Tombac. — Copper, 16 pounds; tin, 1 pound; zinc, 1 pound. VII. — Brass for Heavy Castings. — Copper, 6 to 7 parts; tin, 1 part; zinc, 1 part. VIII.— Malleable Brass.- Copper, 70.10 parts; zinc, '29.90 parts. IX. — Superior Malleable Brass. — Cop- per, 60 parts; zinc, 40 parts. X. — Brass. — Copper, 73 parts; zinc, ■27 parts. XI. — Copper, 65 parts; zinc, 35 parts. XII. — Copper, 70 parts; zinc, 30 parts. XIII. — German Brass. — Copper, 1 pound; zinc, 1 pound. XI \'. — Watchmakers' Brass. — Copper, 1 part; zinc, 2 parts. XV. — Brass for Wire. — Copper, 34 parts; calamine. 56 parts. XVI. — Brass for Tubes. — Copper, 2 parts; zinc, 1 part. XVII.— Brass for Heavy Work.- Copper, 100 parts; tin, 15 parts; zinc, 15 parts. XVIII.— Copper. 112 parts; tin, 13 parts; zinc, 1 part. XIX. — Tombac or Red Brass. — Cop- per, 8 parts; zinc, 1 part. XX. — Brass. — Copper, 3 parts; melt, then add zinc, 1 part. XXI. — Buttonmakers' Fine Brass. — Brass, 8 parts; zinc, 5 parts. XXII. — Buttonmakers' Common Brass. — Button brass, 6 parts; tin, 1 part; lead, 1 part. Mix. XXIII.— Mallet's Brass.— Copper, 25.4 parts; zinc, 74.6 parts. Used to pre- serve iron from oxidizing. XXIV.— Best Brass for Clocks.— Ro.se copper, 85 parts; zinc, 14 parts; lead, 1 part. GOLD ALLOYS: See also Gold Alloys, under Alloys. Gold of 22 carats fine being so little used is intentionally omitted. I.— Gold of 1 8 Carats, Yellow Tint. — rtion of 10 grams to the liter (1 per cent) has also been suggested, several experimenters reporting very successful results therefrom. Some years ago Ber- ineer proposed a process for removing sulphur compounds from benzine, which would presumably be equally applicable to kerosene. This process is as follows: Potassium permanga- nate 1 ounce Sulphuric acid J pint Water 3§ pints Mix the acid and water, and when the mixture has become cold pour it into a 2-gallon bottle. Add the permanganate and agitate until it is dissolved. Then add benzine, 1 gallon, and thoroughly afjitate. Allow the liquids to remain in contact for 24 hours, frequently agitating the mixture. Separate the benzme and wash in a similar bottle with a mixture of Potassium permanga- nate J ounce Caustic soda i ounce Water 2 pints Agitate the mixture frequently during several hours; then separate the benzine and wash it thoroughly with water. On agitating the benzine with the acid per- manganate solution an emulsion-like mi.xture is produced, which separates in a few seconds, the permanganate slowly subsiding and showing considerable re- duction. In the above process it is quite probable that the time specified (24 hours) is greatly in excess of what is necessary, as the reduction takes place almost entirely in a very short time. It has also been suggested that if the proc- ess were adopted on a manufacturing scale, with mechanical agitation, the time could be reduced to an hour or two_ KEROSENE-CLEANING COMPOUNDS: See Cleaning Preparations, under Miscellaneous Methods. KEROSENE EMULSIONS: See Petroleum. KETCHUP (ADULTERATED), TESTS FOR: See Foods. KHAKI COLORS: See Dyes. KID: See Leather. KIP: See Leather. KIRSCHWASSER: See Wines and Liquors. KISSINGEN SALTS: See Salts (Effervescent). KISSINGEN WATER: See Waters. KNIFE-SHARPENING PASTES: See Razor Pastes. KNOCKENPLOMBE : See Adhesives. KNOTS: See Faint. KOLA CORDLAL: See Wines and Liquors. KOUMISS SUBSTITUTE: See also Beverages. To prepare a substitute tor koumiss from cow's milk: Dissolve i ounce grape sugar in 3 fluid ounces water. Mix 18 grains well washed and pressed beer yeast with 2 fluid ounces of cow's milk. Mix the two liquids in a champagne bottle, fill with milk, stopper securely, and keep for 3 to 4 days at a tempera- ture not exceeding 50° F., shaking fre- quently. The preparation does not keep longer than 4 to 5 days. KUMMEL: See Wines and Liquors. KWASS: See Beverages. LABEL PASTES, GLUES, AND MUCI- LAGES: See Adhesives. LABEL VARNISHES: See Varnishes. LACE LEATHER: See Leather. LACE, TO CLEAN GOLD AND SILVER: See Cleaning Preparations and Meth- ods. LACES, WASHING AND COLORING OF: See Laundry Preparations. Lacquers (See also Enamels, Glazes. Paints, Var- nishes, and Waterproofing.) LAC AND THE ART OF LACQUERING. The art of lacquering includes various steps, which are divulged as little as possible. Without them nothing but a varnish of good cjuality would be realized. "Thus in 'Tonkin, where the abundant 438 LACQUERS production is the object of an important trade with the Chinese, it is so used only for varnishing, while in China the same product from the same sources con- tributes to most artistic applications. When the Annamites propose to lac- quer an object, a box, for example, they first stop up the holes and crevices, cov- ering all the imperfections with a coating of diluted lac, by means of a flat, close, short brush. Then they cover the whole with a thick coating of lac and white clay. This clay, oily to the touch, is found at the bottom of certain lakes in Tonkin; it is dried, pulverized, and sifted with a piece of fine silk before being embodied with the lac. This operation is designed to conceal the inequalities of the wood and produce a uniform surface which, when completely dry, is rendered smooth with pumice stone. If the object hks portions cut or sunk the clayey mixture is not applied, for it would make the details clammy, but in its place a single, uniform layer of pure lac. In any case, after the pumicing, a third coating, now pure lac, is passed over the piece, which at this time has a mouse-gray color. This layer, known under the name of sou lot, colors the piece a brilliant black. As the lac possesses the remarkable property of not drying in dry air, the object is left in a damp place. When perfectly dried the piece is var- nished, and the desired color imparted by a single operation. If the metallic applications are excepted, the lac is colored only black, brown, or red. The following formulas are in use: Black. — One part of turpentine is warmed for 20 minutes beyond the fus- ing point; then poured into 3 parts of lac; at the same time pheu deu (copperas) is added. The mixture is stirred for at least a day, sometimes more, by means of a large paddle. Maroon. — This is prepared by a process similar to the preceding, replacing half of the copperas by an equal quantity of China vermilion. Red. — The lac, previously stirred for 6 hours, is mixed with hot oil of trau, and the whole is stirred for a day, after which vermilion is added. The latter should be of good quality, so as to have it brilliant and unchangeable. The operation of lacquering is then ended, but there are parts to be gilded. These are again covered with a mixture of lac and oil of trau. When this layer is dry the metallic leaves are applied, which are themselves protected oy a coating, composed also of lac and oil of trau. All these lac and oil of trau mix- tures are carefully filtered, which the natives effect by pressing the liquid on a double filtering surface formed of wad- ding and of a tissue on which it rests. It can only be applied after several months when the metallic leaf is of gold. _ In the case of silver or tin the protecting coat can be laid on in a few days. It favor- ably modifies the white tints of these two metals by communicating a golden color. The hue, at first reddish, gradually im- proves and acquires its full brilliancy in a few months. Little information is procurable con- cerning the processes employed by the ■Chinese. The wood to be lacquered should be absolutely dry. It receives successive applications, of which the number is not less than 33 for perfect work. When the lac coating attains the thickness of J of an inch it is ready for the engravers. The Chinese, like the inhabitants of Tonkin, make use of oil of trau to mix with the lac, or oil of aleurites, and the greatest care is exercised in the drying of the different layers. The operation is conducted in dim-lighted rooms specially fitted up for the purpose; the moisture is maintained to a suitable extent by systematically watering the earth which covers the walls of this " cold stove." Lacquer for Aluminum. — Dissolve 100 parts of gum lac in 300 parts of am- monia, and heat the solution for about 1 hour moderately on the water bath. Af- ter cooling, the mixture is ready for use. The aluminum to be coated is cleaned in the customary manner. After it has been painted with the varnish, it is heated in the oven to about 572° F. The coating and heating may be repeated. Lacquer for Brass. — • Annatto J ounce Saffron J ounce Turmeric 1 ounce Seed lac in coarse pow- der 3 ounces Alcohol 1 pint Digest the annatto, saffron, and tur- meric in the alcohol for several days, then strain into a bottle containing the seed lac; cork and shake until disscJved. Lacquer for Bronze. — I. — The follow- ing process yields a protective varnish for bronze articles and other metallic objects in various shadings, the lacquer produced excelling in high luster and permanency: Pill 40 parts of best pale shellac; 12 parts of pulverized Florentine LACQUERS 439 lake; 30 parts gamboge; and 6 parts of dragon's olood, likewise powdered, into a bottle and add 400 parts of spirit. Allow this mixture to form a solution preferably by heating the flask on the water bath, to nearly the boiling point of the water, and shaking now and then until all has dissolved. After the cooling pour off the liquid from the sediment, if any is present; this liquid constitutes a lacquer of dark-red color. In a second bottle dissolve in the same manner 24 parts of gamboge in 400 parts of spirit, which affords a lacquer of golden yellow color. According to the desired shade, the red lacquer is now mixed with the yellow one, thus producing any hue re- quired from the deepest red to a golden tone. If necessary, thin with spirit of wine. The varnish is applied, as usual, on the somewhat warmed article, a cer- tain temperature having to be adhered to, which can be ascertained by trials and is ciisily regulated by feeling. II. — The following is equally suitable for boots and leather goods as for appli- cation on iron, stone, glass, paper, cloth, and other surfaces. The inexperienced should note before making this liquid that it does not give a yellowish bronze like gold paint, but a darkish iridescent one, and as it is a pleasing variation in aids to home decoration, it would doubtless sell well. Some pretty effects are obtained by using a little phloxine instead of part of the violet aniline, or phloxine alone will produce a rich red- dish bronze, and a lustrous peacock green is obtained with brilliant aniline green crystals. Quantities : Flexile methylated col- lodion, 1 gallon; pure violet aniline, 1 pound. Mix, stand away for a few days to allow the aniline to dissolve and stir frequently, taking care to bung down securely, as the collodion is a volatile liquid, then strain and bottle off. It is applied with u brush, dries rapidly, and docs not rub off or peal. Celluloid Lacquer. — Dissolve uncol- ored celluloid in a mixture of strong alcohol and ether. The celluloid first swells up in the solvent, and after vigor- ous shaking, the bottle is allowed to stand quietly for the undissolved portion to settle, when the clear, supernatant fluid is poured off. The latter may be imme- diately used; it yields a colorless glossy lacquer, or may be colored, as desired, with aniline colors. Colored Lacquer. — Make a strong solution of any coloring matter which is soluble in methylated spirit, such as cochineal, saffron, the aniline dyes, etc. Filter through fine cambric, and to this filtered solution add brown shellac in flakes in the proportion of 4 to 5 ounces of shellac to each pint of methylated spirit. Shake once a day for about 8 days. If too thick it may be thinned by adding more colored spirit or plain spirit as required, and any lighter shade can be obtained by mixing with plain lacquer mixed in the above proportions. Lac- quer works best in a warm, dry place, and the process is improved by slightly warming the articles, which must be absolutely free from grease, dirt, or moisture. The best resnlts are ob- tained by applying many coats of thin, light-colored lacquer, each coat to be thoroughly dry before applying the next. Appfy with a soft camel s-hair brush; it is Detter to use too small a brush than too large. When complete, warm the articles for a few seconds before a clear fire; the hotter tlie better; if too hot, however, the colors will fade. This makes the lacquer adhere firmly, es- pecially to metallic surfaces. Aniline green works very well. Lacquer for Copper. — A lacquer w hich to a certain degree resists heat and acid liquids, but not alkaline ones, is obtained by heating fine, thickly liquid amber varnish, whereby it is rendered sufficiently liquid to be applied with the brush. The copper article is coated with this and left to stand until the lac- quer has dried perfectly. Next, the object is heated until the lacquer com- mences to smoke and turns brown. If the operation is repeated twice, a coating is finally obtained, which, as regards resisting qualities to acid bodies, excels even enamel, but which is strongly at- tacked even by weakly alkaline liquids. Ebony Lacquer. — The ebony lacquer recommended by the well-known tng- lish authority, Mr. H. C. Standaee, con- sists of i ounce aniline hydrochloride, J ounce alcohol, 1 part sulphate of cop- per, 100 parts of water. The aniline dye IS dissolved in the alcohol and the copper sulphate in the water. The wood is first coated with the copper sulphate solution, and after this coating has been given plenty of time to dry the aniline salt tincture is applied. Shortly the copper salt absorbed by the wood will react on the aniline hydrochloride, developing a, deep, rich black which acids or alkalies are powerless to destroy. Coat with shellac and give a Frencn polish, thus bringing the ebony finish up to a durable and unsurpassed luster. 440 LACQUERS GOLD LACQUERS: I. — For Brassware. — A gold lacquer to improve the natural color of brassware is prepared from 16 parts gum lac, 4 parts dragon's blood, and 1 part curcuma powder dissolved in 320 parts spirits of wine in the warmth and filtered well. The articles must be thoroughly cleaned by burning, grinding, or turning either dull or burnished, and then coated with a thin layer of the above mixture, applied with a soft hair brush or a pad of wad- ding. If the objects are colored the lacquer must be laid on by stippling. Should the color be too dark, it may be lightened by reduction with a little spirit until the correct shade is produced. The most suitable temperature for the metal during the work is about the warmth of the hand; if too hot or too cold, the lac- quer may smear, and will then have to be taken off again with spirit or hot potash lye, the goods being dried in sawdust or recleaned as at first, before applying the lacquer again. Round articles may be fixed in the lathe and the lacquer laid on with a pad of wadding. In order to color brassware, a solution of 30 parts caustic soda; 10 parts cupric carbonate; 200 parts water (or 200 parts ammonia neutralized by acetic acid); 100 parts verdigris, and 60 parts sal ammoniac is employed, into which the warmed articles are dipped. After having dried they are coated with color- less shellac varnish. II. — For Tin. — Transparent gold lac- quer for tin (all colors) may be made as follows: Take J pint of alcohol, add 1 ounce gum shellac; J ounce turmeric; 1 J ounce red sanders. Set the vessel in a warm place and shake frequently for half a day. Then strain ofi the liquor, rinse the bottle and return it, corking tightly for use. When this is used, it must be applied to the work freely and flowed on full, or if the work admits it, it may be dipped. One or more coats rnay be given as the color is required light or dark. For rose color substitute i ounce of finely ground lake in place of the turmeric. For blue, substitute Prus- , sian blue. For purple, add a little of the blue to the turmeric. For Bottle Caps, etc. — I. — Gum gutta 10 parts Shellac 100 parts Turpentine 10 parts Alcohol 450 parts II. — Gum gutta 40 parts Dragon's blood 5 parts Alcoholic extract of sandalwood 5 parts Sandarac 75 parts Venice turpentine. . . 25 parts Alcohol, 95 per cent. 900 parts Mix and dissolve by the aid of a gentle heat. Liquid Bottle Lac. — Into a half-gallon bottle put 8 ounces of shellac, and pour over it IJ pints of alcohol of 94 per cent, and 2J ounces of sulphuric ether. Let stand, with occasional shaking, until the shellac is melted, and then add 4 ounces of thick turpentine and J ounce of boric acid. Shake until dissolved. To color, use the aniline colors soluble in alcohol — for red, eosine; blue, phenol blue; black, negrosin; green, aniline green; violet, methyl violet, etc. If it is desired to have the lac opaque, add 8 ounces of . pulverized steatite, but remember to keep the lac constantly stirred while using, as otherwise the steatite falls to the bottom. Lithographic Lacquer. — Dissolve 15 parts, by weight, of red lithol R or G in paste of 17 per cent, in 150 parts, by weight, of hot water. Boil for 2 minutes, shaking with 2.5 parts, by weight, of barium chloride. Dissolve in 25 parts, by weight, of water. Add to the mixture 100 parts, by weight, of aluminum hy- drate of about 4 per cent. Cool, filter, and dry. Lacquer for Microscopes, Mathemat- ical Instruments, etc. — Pulverize 160 parts, by weight, turmeric root, cover it with 1,700 parts alcohol, digest in a warm place for 24 hours, and men filter. Dissolve 80 parts dragon's blood, 80 parts sandarac, 80 parts gum elemi, 50 parts gum gutta, and 70 parts seed lac, put in a retort with 250 parts powdered glass, pour over them the colored alco- hol first made, and hasten solution by warming in the sand or water bath. When completely dissolved, filter. To Fix Alcoholic Lacquers on Metallic Surfaces. — Dissolve 0.5 parts of crys- tallized boracic acid in 100 parts of the respective spirit varnish whereby the latter after being applied forms so hard a coating upon a smooth tin surface that it cannot be scratched off even with the finger-nails. The aforementioned Eercentage of boracic acid should not e exceeded in preparing the solution; otherwise the varnish will lose in inten- sity of color. Lacquer for Oil Paintings. — Dilute 100 parts of sulphate of baryta with 600 parts of water containing in solution- 60 parts of red lithol R or G in paste of 17 LACQUERS— LAMPBLACK 441 per cent. Boil the mixture for several pinutes in a solution of 10 parts of bar- ium chloride in 100 parts bf^water. Af- ter cooling, filter and dry. Lacquers for Papers. — I. — With base of baryta: Dissolve 30 parts of red lithol R or G in paste of 17 per cent, in 300 parts of hot water. Add an emulsion obtained by mixing 10 parts of sulphate of alumina in 100 parts of v^ater and 5 parts of calcined soda dissolved in 50 parts of water. Precipitate with a solu- tion of 17.5 parts of barium chloride in 185 parts of water. Cool and filter. II. — With base of lime: Dissolve 30 parts red lithol R or G in paste of 17 per cent, in 300 parts of hot water. Boil for a few minutes with an emulsion pre- pared by mixing 10 parts sulphate of alumina with 100 parts of water and 2.5 parts of slaked lime in 100 parts of water. Filter after cooling. Lacquer for Stoves and other Articles to Withstand Heat. — This is not altered by heat, and does not give off disagree- able odors on heating: Thin 1 part of sodium water glass witn 2 parts of water in order to make the vehicle. This is to be thickened with the following ma- terials in order to get the desired color: White, barium sulphate or white lead; yellow, baryta chromate, ocher, or ura- nium yellow; green, chromium oxide or ultramarine green; brown, cadmium oxide, manganese oxide, or sienna brown; red, either iron or chrome red. The coloring materials must be free from lumps, and well ground in with the vehicle. Bronze powders may also be used either alone or mixed with other coloring stuffs, but care must be taken, in either instance, to secure a sufficient quantity. The colors should be made up as wanted, and no more than can conveniently be applied at the time should be prepared. An excellent way to use the bronze powders is to lay on the coloring matter, and then to dust on the powder before the glass sets. Lines or ornamentation of any sort may be put on by allowing the coating of enamel to dry, and then drawing the lines or any desired design with a fresh solution of the water gla.ss colored to suit the taste, or dusted over with bronze. MISCELLANEOUS RECIPES: Russian Polishing Lac. — I.— Sticklac 925 parts Sandarac 875 parts T/arch turpentine. . . '270 parts Alcohol, 96 per cent 3,500 parts The sticklac is broken up and mixed with the sandarac, put into a suitable container with a wide mouth, the spirit poured over it and set aside. After standing for a week in a warm place, frequently stirring in the meantime (best with a glass rod) and fully dissolving, stir in the turpentine. Let stand '2 or 3 days longer, then filter through glass wool. The sandarac dissolves complete- ly in the spirit, but the stick leaves » slight residue which may be added to the next lot of lac made up and thus be treated to a fresh portion of spirit. The larch turpentine snould be of the best quality. This lac is used by woodcarvers and turners and is very much prized by them. Mastic Lac. — II. — Mastic, select 150 parts Sandarac 400 parts Camphor 15 parts Alcohol, 96 per cent 1,000 parts Prepare as directed in the first recipe. Leather Polish Lac. — III. — Shellac 16 parts Veiiice turpentine. . 8 parts Sandarac 4 parts Lampblack, Swed- ish 2 parts Turpentine oil ... . 4 parts Alcohol, 96 per cent 960 parts The alcohol and turpentine oil are mixed and warmed under constant stir- ring in the sand or water bath. The shellac and sandarac are now stirred in, the stirring being maintained until both are dissolved. Finally add the turpen- tine and dissolve. Stir the lampblack with a little vinegar and then add and stir in. Instead of lampblack \'i5 to 150 parts of nigrosin may be used. This lac should be well shaken before appli- cation. LACQUERED WARE, TO CLEAN: See Cleaning Preparations and Meth- ods. LAKES: See Dyes. LAMPBLACK: Production of Lampblack. — The last oil obtained in the distdlation of coal tar, and freed from naphthalene as far as possible, viz., soot oil, is burned in a special furnace for the production of various grades of lampblack. In this furnace is an iron plate, which must always be kept glowing; upon this plate the soot oil trickles through a small tube fixed above it. It is decomposed and 442 LAMPBLACK— LARD the smoke (soot) rises into four cham- bers through small ai)ertures. When the quantity of oil destined for decom- position has been used up, the furnace is allowed to stand undisturbed for a few days, and only after this time has elapsed are the chambers opened by windows provided for that purpose. In the fourth chamber is the very finest lampblack, which the lithographers use, and in the third the fine ^rade employed by manu- facturers of printers' ink, while the first and second contain the coarser soot, which, well sifted, is sold as flame lamp- black. From grade No. 1 the calcined lamp- black for paper makers is also produced. For preparing this black capsules of iron plate with closing lid are filled, the stuff IS stamped firmly into them and the cover smeared up with fine loam. The capsules are next placed in a well draw- ing stove and calcined, whereby the em- pyreumatic oils evaporate and the re- maining lampblack becomes odorless. Allow the capsules to cool for a few days before opening them, as the soot dries very slowly, and easily ignites- again as soon as air is admitted if the capsules are opened before. This is semi-calcined lampblack. For the purpose of preparing com- pletely calcined lampblack, the semi- calcined article is again jammed into fresh capsules, closing them up well and calcining thoroughly once more. After 2 days the capsules are opened contain- ing the all-calcined lampolack in com- pact pieces. For the manufacture of coal soot an- other furnace is employed. Asphalt or pitch is burned in it with exclusion of air as far as practicable. It is thrown in through the doors, and the smoke escapes through the chimney to the soot chambers, 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5, assorting itself there. When the amount of asphalt pitch destined for combustion has burned up completely, the furnace is left alone for several days without opening it. After this time has elapsed tne outside doors are slowly opened and some air is ad- mitted. Later on they can be opened altogether after one is satisfied that the soot has cooled completely. Chamber 4 contains the finest soot black, destined for the manufacture of leather cloth and oil cloth. In the other chambers is fine and ordinary flame black, which is sifted and packed in suitable barrels. Cal- cined lampblack may also be produced from it, the operation being the same as for oil black. LAMP BURNERS AND THEIR CARE: See Household Formulas. LAMPS: Coloring Incandescent Lamps. — In- candescent light globes are colored by dipping the bulbs into a thin solution of collodion previously colored to suit with anilines soluble in collodion. Dip and rotate quickly, bulb down, till dry. For office desks, room lights, and in churches, it appears often desirable to modify the glaring yellowish rays of the incandescent light. A slight collodion film of a delicate bluish, greenish, or pink shade will do that. For advertising purposes the bulbs are often colored in two or more colors. It is also easy with a little practice to paint words or pictures, etc., on the bulbs with colored collodion with a brush. Another use of colored collodion in pharmacy is to color the show globes on their inside, thus avoiding freezing and the additional weight of the now used colored liquids. Pour a quantity of col- ored collodion into the clean, dry globe, close the mouth and quickly let the col- lodion cover all parts of the inside. Re- move the balance of the collodion at once, and keep it to color electric bulbs for your trade. LANOLINE: See Oil. LANOLINE CREAMS: See Cosmetics. LANOLINE SOAP: See Soap. LANTERN SLIDES: See Photography. LARD: Detection of Cottonseed Oil in Lard. — Make a 2 per cent solution of silver nitrate in distilled water, and acidify it by adding 1 per cent of nitrate acid,. C. P. Into a test tube put a sample of the sus- pected lard and heat gently until it lique- fies. Now add an equal quantity of the silver nitrate solution, agitate a little, and bring to a boil. Continue the boiling vigorously for about 8 minutes. If the lard remain clear and colorless, it may be accepted as pure. The presence of cottonseed oil or fat will make itself known by a coloration, varying from yellow, grayish green to brown, accord- ing to the amount present. LATHE LUBRICANT: See Lubricants. LAUNDRY PREPARATIONS 443 LAUNDRY INKS: See Household Formulas. Laundry Preparations BLUING COMPOUNDS: Laundry Blue. — The soluble blue of commerce, when properly made, dis- solves freely in water, and solutions so made are put up as liquid laundry blue. The water employed in making the solu- tion should be free from mineral sub- stances, especially lime, or precipitation may occur. If rain water or distilled water and a good article of blue be used, a staple preparation ought apparently to result; but whether time alone effects the matter of solubility it is impossible to state. As it is essential that tne solu- tion should be a perfect one, it is best to filter it through several thicknesses of fine cotton cloth before bottling; or if made in large quantities this method may be modified by allowing it to stand some days to settle, when the top portion can be siphoned off for use, the bottom only requiring filtration. This soluble blue is said to be potas- sium ferri-ferrocyanide, and is prepared by gradually adcling to a boiling solution of potassium ferricyanide (red prussiate of potash) an equivalent quantity of hot solution of ferrous sulphate, boiling for 2 hours and washing the precipitate on a filter until the washings assume a dark- blue color; the moist precipitate can then at once be dissolved by tne further ad- dition of a sufficient quantity of water. About 64 parts of the iron salt are neces- sary to convert 100 parts of the potassium salt into the blue compound. Leaf bluing for laundry use may be prepared by coating thick sized paper with soluble blue formed into a paste with a mixture of dextrin mucilage and glycerine. Dissolve a given quantity of dextrine in water enough to make a solution about as dense as ordinary syrup, add about as much glycerine as tnere was dextrine, rub the Dlue smooth with a sufficient quantity of this vehicle and coat the sheets with the paint. The amount of blue to be used will depend of course on the intended cost of the product, and the amount of glycerine will require adjustment so as to give a mixture which will not "smear" after the water has dried out and yet remain readily sol- uble. UltramtCrine is now very generally used as a laundry blue where the insoluble or "bag blue" is desired. It is mixed with glucose, or glucose and dextrine, and pressed into balls or cakes. When glu- cose alone is used, the product has a tendency, it is said, to become soft on keeping, which tendency may be coun- teracted by a proper proportion of dex- trin. Bicarbonate of sodium is added as a "filler" to cheapen the product, the quantity used and the quality of the ultramarine employed being both regu- lated by the price at which the product is to sell. The coal-tar or aniline blues are not offered to the general public as laundry blues, but laundry proprietors have them frecjuently brought under their notice, chiefly in the form of solutions, usually 1 to 1§ per cent strong. These dyes are strong bluing materials, and, being in the form of solution, are not liable to speck the clothes. Naturally their properties depend upon the par- ticular dye used; some are fast to acids and alkalies, others are fast to one but not to another; some will not stand iron- ing, while others again are not affected by the operation; generally they are not fast to light, but this is only of minor im- portance. The soluble, or cotton, blues are those most favored; these are made in a great variety of tints, varying from a reddish blue to a pure blue in hue, dis- tinguished by sucn brands as 3R, 6B, etc. Occasionally the methyl violets are used, especially the blue tints. Blackley blue is very largely used for this purpose, being rather faster than the soluble blues. It may be mentioned that a 1 per cent solution of this dye is usually strong enough. Unless care is taken in dissolving these dyes they are apt to produce specks. The heat to wnich the pure blues are exposed in iron- ing the clothes causes some kinds to assume a purple tinge. The cheapest aniline blue costs about three times as much as soluble blue, yet the tinctorial power of the aniline colors is so great that possibly they might be cheapened. Soluble Blue. — I. — Dissolve 217 parts of prussiate of potash in 800 parts of hot water and bring the whole to 1,000 parts. Likewise dissolve 100 parts of ferric chloride in water and bring the solution also to 1,000 parts. To each of these solutions add 2,000 parts of cooking salt or Glauber's salt solution saturated in the cold and mix well. The solutions thus prepared of prussiate of potash and ferric chloride are now mixed together with stirring. Allow to settle and re- move by suction the clear liquid con- taining undecomposed ferrocyanide of 444 LAUNDRY PREPARATIONS potassium and Glauber's salt; this is kept and used for the next manufacture by boiling it down and allowing the salts to crystallize out. The percentage of ferro- cyanide of potassium is ' estimated by analysis, and for the next production proportionally less is used, employing that obtained by concentration. After siphoning off the solution the precipitate is washed with warm water, fjlaced on a filter and washed out on the after by pouring on cold water until the water running on commences to assume a strong blue color. The precipitate is then squeezed out and dried at a moder- ate heat (104° F.). The Paris blue thus obtained dissolves readily in water and can be extensively employed in a similar manner as indigo carmine. II. — Make ordinary Prussian blue (that which has been purified by acids, chlorine, or the hypochlorites) into a thick paste with distilled or rain water, and add a saturated solution of oxalic acid sufficient to dissolve. If time be of no consequence, by leaving this solution exposed to the atmosphere, in the course of 60 days the blue will be entirely pre- cipitated in soluble form. Wash with weak alcohol and dry at about 100° F. The resultant mass dissolves in pure water and remains in solution indefi- nitely. It gives a deep, brilliant blue, and is not injurious to the clothing or the hands of the washwoman. The same result may be obtained by precipitating the soluble blue from its oxide solution by the addition of alcohol of 95 per cent, or with a concentrated solu- tion of sodium sulphate. Pour off the mother liquid and wash with very dilute alcohol; or throw on a filter and wash with water until the latter begins to come off colored a deep blue. Liquid Laundry Blue. — This may be prepared either with liquid Prussian blue or indigo carmine. Make a solution of gum dragon (gum tragacanth) by dis- solving 1 to 2 ounces of the powdered gum in 1 gallon of cold water in which i ounce oxalic acid has been dissolved. The gum will take several days to dis- solve, and will require frequent stirring and straining before use. To the strained portion add as much Prussian blue in fine powder as the liquid will dissolve without precipitating, and the com- pound is ready for use. Instead of powdered Prussian blue, soluble Prussian blue may be used. This is made by dissolving solid Prus- sian blue in a solution of oxalic acid, but as the use of oxalic acid is to be depre- cated for the use of laundresses, as it would set up blood poisoning should it get into any cuts in the flesh, it is best to prepare liquid blue by making a solution of yellow prussiate of potash (ferrocya- nide of potassium) with water, and then by adding a sufficient quantity of chlor- ide of iron to produce a blue, but not enough to be precipitated. Ball Blue. — The ball sold for laundry use consists usually, if not always, of ultramarine. The balls are formed by compression, starch or some other ex- cipient of like character being added to render the mass cohesive. Blocks of blue can, of course, be made by the same process. The manufacturers of ultra- marine prepare balls and cubes of the pigment on a large scale, and it does not seem likely that there would be a sufficient margin of profit to justify the making of them in a small way from the powdered pigment. Careful experi- ments, however, would be necessary to determine this positively. Ultramarine is of many qualities, and it may be ex- pected that tne balls will vary also in the amount of "filling" according to the price at which they are to be sold. Below is a "filled" formula: Ultramarine 6 ounces Sodium carbonate. ... 4 ounces Glucose 1 ounce Water, a sufficient quantity. Make a thick paste, roll into sheets, and cut into tablets. The balls in bulk can be obtained only in large packages of the manufacturers, say barrds of 200 pounds; but put up in 1-pound boxes they can be bought in cases as small as 28 pounds. Laundry Blue Tablets. — Ultramarine 6 ounces Sodium carbonate.. . . 4 ounces Glucose 1 ounce Water, a sufficient quantity. Make a thick paste, roll into sheets, and cut into tablets. Polishes or Glazes for Laundry Work. — I. — To a mixture of 200 parts each of Japan wax and paraffine, add 100 parts of stearic acid, melt together, and cast in molds. If the heated smoothing iron be rubbed with this wax the iron will not merely get over the surface much more rapidly, but will leave a handsome polish. Laundry Gloss Dressing. — II- — Dissolve white wax, 5.0 parts, in ether, 20.5 parts, and add spirit, 75.0 parts. Shake before use. Heat until melted, in a pot, 1,000 parts LAUNDRY PREPARATIONS 445 of wax and 1,000 parts of stearine, as well as a few drops of an essential oil. To the hot liquid add with careful stirring 250 parts of ammonia lye of 10 per cent, whereby a thick, soft mass results im- mediately. Upon further heating same turns thin agam, whereupon it is diluted with 20,000 parts of boiling water, mixed with 100 parts of starch and poured into molds. STARCHES. Most laundry starches now contain some polishing mixture for giving a high luster. 1. — Dissolve in a vessel of sufficient capacity, 42 parts of crystallized mag- nesium chloride in 30 parts of water. Ill another vessel stir 12 parts of starch in 20 parts of water to a smooth paste. Mix the two and heat under pressure until the starch is fluidified. II. — Pour 250 parts, hy weight, of water, over 6 parts, by weight, of pow- dered gum tragacanth until the powder swells uniformly; then add 750 parts, by weight, of boiling water,"" dissolve 50 parts, by weight, of borax in it, and stir SO Earts, by weight, of stearine and SO parts, y weight, of talcum into the whole. Of this fluid add 250 parts to 1,000 parts of boiled starch, or else the ironing oil is applied by means of a sponge on the starched wash, which is then ironed. By weight III. — Starch 1,044 parts Borax 9 parts ("ommon s:ilt 1 part Gum arable 8 parts Stearine 20 parts WASHING FLUIDS, BRICKS AND POWDERS: Washing Fluids. — Rub up 75 parts of milk of sulphur with 125 parts of glycer- ine in a mortar, next add 50 parts of camphorated spirit and 1 part of lav- ender oil, and finally stir in 2S0 parts of rose water and 1,000 parts of distilled water. The liquid must be stirred con- stiintly when filling it into bottles, since the sulphur settles rapidly and would thus be unevenly distributed. Grosser's Washing Brick. — Water 54 parts Sodium hydrate. . . . 38.21 parts Sodium biborate.. . . 6.61 parts Sodium silicate 1.70 parts Haenkel's Bleaching Solution. — Water 36.15 parts Sodium liydrate. . . . 40.22 parts Sodium silicate 23.14 parts Luhn's Washing Extract. — Water 34. SO parts Sodium hydrate. . . . 25.33 parts Soap 39.40 parts Washing Powders. — I. — Sodium carbonate, partly effloresced . 2 parts Soda ash 1 part II. — Sodium carbonate, partly effloresced . 6 parts Soda ash 3 part.s Yellow soap 1 part III. — Sodium carbonate, partly effloresced 3 parts Soap bark 1 part IV. — Sodium carbonate.^ partly effloresced I Equal Borax j parts. Yellow soap J V. — A good powder can be made from 100 parts of crystal soda, 25 parts of dark-yellow rosin-cured soap, and 6 parts of soft soap. The two latter are placed in a pan, along with one-half the soda (the curd soap being cut into small lumps), and slowly heated, with con- tinual crutchine, until they are thorough- ly melted — without, however, beginning to boil. The fire is then drawn and the remaining soda crutched in until it, too, is melted, this being effected by the resid- ual heat of the mass and the pan. The mass will be fairly thick by the time the soda is all absorbed. After leaving a little longer, with occasional stirrinK, the contents are spread out on several thin sheets of iron in a cool room, to be then turned over by the shovel at short in- tervals, in order to further cool and break down the mixture. The soap will then be in a friable condition, and can be rubbed through the sieve, the best re- sults being obtained by passing through a coarse sieve first, and one of finer mesh afterwards. With these ingredients u fine yellow-colored powder will be ob- tained. White stock soap may also be used, and, if desired, colored with palm oil and the same colorings as are used for toilet soaps. The object of adding soft soap is to increase the solubility and softness of the powder, but the propor- tion used should not exceed one-third of the hard soap, or the powder will be smeary and handle moist. The quality of the foregoing product is good, the powder being stable and not liable to ball, even after prolonged storage; neither does it wet the paper in which it is packed, nor swell up, and therefore the packets retain their appearance. 446 LAUNDRY PREPARATIONS— LEAKS In making ammonia-turpentine soap powder the ammonia and oil of turpen- tine are crutched into the mass shortly before removing it from the pan, and if the powder is scented — for which pur- pose oil of mirbane is mostly used — the perfume is added at the same stage. To Whiten Flannels. — Dissolve, by the aid of heat, 40 parts of white castile soap, shaved fine, in 1,200 parts of soft water, and to the solution, when cold, gradually add, under constant stirring, 1 part of the strongest water of ammonia. Soak the goods in this solution for 2 hours, then let them be washed as usual for fine flannels. A better process, in the hands of experts, is to soak the goods for an hour or so in a dilute solution of sodium hyposulphite, remove, add to the solution sufficient dilute hydrochloric acid to de- compose the hyposulphite. Replace the goods, cover the tub closely, and let re- main for 15 minutes longer. Then re- move the running water, if convenient, and if not, wring out quickly, and rinse in clear water. One not an expert at such work must be very careful in the rinsing, as care must be taken to get out every trace of chemical. This is best done by a second rinsing. Ink for the Laundry. — The following is said to make a fine, jet-black laundry ink: a. Copper chloride,crys- tals 85 parts Sodium chlorate. . . . 106 parts Ammonium chloride 53 parts Water, distilled 600 parts 6. Glycerine 100 parts Mucilage gum arable (gum, 1 part; water, 2 parts).. . . 200 parts Aniline hydrochlor- ate 200 parts Distilled water 300 parts Make solutions a and 6 and preserve in separate bottles. When wanted for use, mix 1 part of solution a with 4 parts of solution 6. Laces, Curtains, etc. — I. — To give lace curtains, etc., a cream color, take 1 part of chrysoidin and mix with 2 parts of dextrin and dissolve in 250 parts of water. The articles to be washed clean are plunged in this solution. About an ounce of chrysoidin is sufficient for 5 curtains. II. — Washing curtains in coffee will give them an ecru color, but the simplest way to color curtains is with "Philadel- phia yellow" (G. or R. of the Berlin Aktiengesellschaft's scale). LAUNDRY SOAP: See Soap. LAVATORY DEODORANT: See Household Formulas. LAXATIVES FOR CATTLE AND HORSES: See Veterinary Formulas. LEAD: See also Metals. Simple Test for Red Lead and Orange Lead. — Take a little of the sample in a test tube, add pure, strong nitric acid and heat by a Bunsen burner until a white, solid residue is obtained. Then a,dd water, when a clear, colorless solution will be obtained. A white residue would indicate adulteration with barytes, a red residue or a yellow solution with oxide of iron. The presence of iron may be as- certained by adding a few drops of a solution of potassium ferrocyanide (yel- low prussiate of potash) to the solution, when a blue precipitate will be obtained if there be the least trace of iron present. LEAD, TO TAKE BOILING, IN THE MOUTH: See Pyrotechnics. LEAD ALLOYS: See Alloys. LEAD PAPER: See Paper. LEAD PLATE, TINNED: See Plating. LEAKS, IN BOILERS, STOPPING: See Putties. LEAKS: To Stop Leakage ia Iron Hot-Water Pipes. — Take some fine iron borings or filings and mix with them sufficient vine- gar to form a sort of paste, though the mixture is not adhesive. With this mix- ture fill up the cracks where the leakage is found, having previously dried the Eipe. It must be kept dry until the paste as become quite hard. If an iron pipe should burst, or there should be a hole broken into it by accident, a piece of iron may be securely fastened over it, by bed- ding it on in paste made of the borings and vinegar as above, but the pipe should not be disturbed until it has become per- fectly dry. To Prevent Wooden Vessels from Leaking. (See also Casks.) — Wooden LEATHER 447 vessels, such as pails, barrels, etc., often become so dry that the joints do not meet, thus causing leakage. In order to obviate this evil stir together 60 parts hog's lard, 40 parts salt, and 33 parts wax, and allow the mixture to dissolve .slowly over a fire. Then add 40 parts tliarcoal to the liquid mass. The leaks in the vessels are dried off well and filled up with putty while still warm. When the latter has become dry, the barrels, etc., will be perfectly tight. If any Eutty is left, keep in a dry place and eat it to be used again. Leather (See also Shoes.) Artificial Leather. — Pure Italian hemp is cut up fine; 1 part of this and i part of coarse, cleaned wool are carded together and formed into wadding. This wad- ding is packed in linen and felted by treatment with hot acid vapors. The resulting felt is washed out, dried, and impregnated with a substance whose composition varies according to the leather to be produced. Thus, good sole leather, for instance, is produced according to a Danish patent, in the following manner: Mix together 50 parts of boiled linseed oil; 20 parts of colo- phony; 25 parts of Frencn turpentine; 10 parts of glycerine, and 10 parts of vegetable wax, and heat over a water bath with some ammonia water. When the mass has become homogeneous, add 25 parts of glue, soaked in water, as well as a casein solution, which latter is produced by dissolving 50 parts, by weight, of moist, freshly precipitated rasi'in in i saturated solution of 16 parts of borax and adding 10 parts of potas- sium bichromate, the last two also by weight. Finally, mineral dyestuffs as well as antiseptic substances may be added to the mass. The whole mixture is now boiled until it becomes sticky and the felt is impregnated with it by im- mersion. The impregnated felt is dried for 24 hours at an ordinary tempera- ture; next laid into a solution of alumi- num acetate and finally dried completely, dyed, and pressed between hot rollers. Black Dye for Tanned Leather. — This recipe takes the place of the ill-smelling iron blacking, and is not injurious to the leather. Gallnuts, pulverized, ISOparts; vitriol, green or black, 10 parts; rock candy, 60 parts; alum, 15 parts; vinegar, 260 parts; cooking salt, 20 parts. Dissolve with 4,000 parts of distilled water. Boil this solution slowly and the blacking is done. When it has cooled and settled, pour through linen, thus obtaining a pure, good leather blacking. Bronze Leather. — All sorts of skins — sheepskins, goatskins, coltskins, and light calfskin.^ — are adapted for the preparation of bronze leather. In this preparation the advantage lies not only in the use of the faultless skins, but scari- fied skins and those of inferior quality may also be employed. The dressing of the previously tanned skin must be carried out with the greatest care, to pre- vent the appearance of spots and other faults. After tanning, the pelts are well washed, scraped, and dried. Then they are bleached. For coloring, it is cus- tomary to employ methyl violet which has previously been dissolved in hot water, taking 100 parts, by weight, of the aniline color to 8,000 parts, by weight, of water. If in the leather-dressing establishment a line of steam piping be convenient, it is advisable to boil up all the coloring dyes, rather than simply to dissolve them; for in this way complete solution is effected. Where steam is used no special appliance is required for boiling up the dj'es, for this may take place without inconvenience in the separate dye vats. A length of steam hose and a brass nozzle with a valve is all that is needed. It may be as well to add here that the violet color for dyeing may be made cheaper than as above described. To 3,000 parts, by weight, of pretty strong logwood decoction add 50 parts, by weight, of alum and 100 parts, by weight, of methyl violet. This compound is almost as strong as the pure violet solution, and instead of 8,000 parts, by weight, we now have 30,000 parts, by weight, of color. The color is applied and well worked in with a stiff brush, and the skins al- lowed to stand for a short time, sufficient to allow the dye to penetrate the pores, when it is fulled. As for the shade of the bronze, it may be made reddish, bluish, or brownish, according to taste. For a reddish or brownish ground the skins are simply fulled in warm water, planished, fulled again, and then dyed. According to the color desired, the skins are treated with cotton blue and methyl violet R, whereupon the application of the bronze follows. The bronze is dissolved in alcohol, and it is usual to take 200 parts, by weight, of bronze to 1,000 of alcohol. By means of this mixture the peculiar component parts of the bronze are dis- solved. For a fundamental or thorough U8 LEATHER solution a fortnight is required. All bronze mixtures are to be well shaken or agitated before using. Skins may be bronzed, however, without the use of the bronze colors, for it is well known that all the aniline dyes present a bronze ap- pearance when highly concentrated, and this is particularly the case with the violet and red dyes. If, therefore, the violet be applied in very strong solutions, the effect will be much the same as when the regular bronze color is employed. Bronze color on a brown ground is the most beautiful of all, and is used to the greatest advantage when it is desirable to cover up defects. Instead of warm clear water in such a case, use a decoc- tion of logwood to which a small quan- tity of alum has been added, and thus, during the fulling, impart to the skins a proper basic tint, which may, by the ap- plication of a little violet or bronze color, be converted into a most brilliant bronze. By no means is it to be forgotten that too much coloring matter will never produce the desired results, for here, as with the other colors, too much will bring out a greenish tint, nor will the gloss turn out so beautiful and clear. Next rinse the skins well in clean water, and air them, after which they may be dried with arti- ficial heat. Ordinary as well as dam- aged skins which are not suitable for chevreaux (kid) and which it is desirable to provide with a very high polish, in order the more readily to conceal the defects in the grain, and other imperfec- tions, are, after the drying, coated with a mixture, compounded according to the following simple formula: Stir well 1 pint of ox blood and 1 pint of unboiled milk in 10 quarts of water, and with a soft sponge apply this to the surface of the skin. The blood has no damaging effect upon the color. Skins thus mois- tened must not be laid one upon another, but must be placed separately in a thor- oughly well-warmed chamber to dry. When dry they are glossed, and may then be pressed into shagreen or pebbled. The thin light goatskins are worked into kid or chevreaux. Properly speaking, they are only imitation chevreaux (kid), for although they are truly goatskins, under the term chevreaux one under- stands only such skins as have beeo cured in alum and treated with albumen and flour. After drying, these skins are drawn over the perching stick with the round knife, then glossed, stretched, glossed again, and finally vigorously brushed upon the flesh side with a stiff brush. The brushing should be done preferably by hand, for the brushing machines commonly pull the skins out of all shape. Brushing is intended only to give the flesh side more of a flaky appearance. During the second glossing care must be taken that the pressure is light, for the object is merely to bring the skin back into its proper shape, lost in the stretching; the glossing proper should have been accomplished during the first operation. Cracked Leather. — The badly cracked and fissured carriage surface greets the painter on every hand. The following IS the recipe for filling up and facing over such a surface: Finest pumice stone, 6 parts; lampblack (in bulk), 1 part; com- mon roughstuff filler, 3 parts. Mix to stiff paste in good coach japan, 5 parts; hard drying rubbing varnish, 1 part. Thin to a brushing consistency with turpentine, and apply 1 coat per day. Put on 2 coats of this filler and then 2 coats or ordinary roughstuff. Rub with lump pumice stone and water. This process does not equal burning off in getting permanently rid of the cracks, but wnen the price of painting forbids burning off, it serves as an effective sub- stitute. Upon a job that is well cared for, and not subjected to too exacting service, this filler will secrete the cracks and fissures for from 3 to 5 months. DRESSINGS FOR LEATHER: For Carriage Tops. — I. — Here is an inexpensive and quickly prepared dress- ing for carriage tops or the like: Take 2 parts of common glue; soak and liquefy it over a fire. Three parts of castile soap are then dissolved over a moderate heat. Of water, 120 parts are added to dissolve the soap and glue, after which an intimate mixture of the ingredients is effected. Then 4 parts of spirit varnish are added; next, 2 parts of wheat starch, previously mixed in water, are thrown m. Lampblack in a sufficient quantity to give the mixture a good coloring power, without killing the gloss, is now added. This preparation may be used as above prepared, or it may be placed over a gentle fire and the liquid ingredients slowly evaporated. The evaporated mass is then liquefied with beer as shop needs demand. II. — Shabby dark leather will look like new if rubbed over with either lin- seed oil or the well-beaten white of an egg mixed with a little black ink. Polish with soft dusters until quite dry and glossy. Polishes. — I. — Dissolve sticklac, 25 LEATHER 449 parta; shellac, 20 parts; and gum ben- zoin, i parts, all nnely powdered, in a rolling cask containing 100 parts of 96 per cent alcohol; perfume with 1 part of oil of rosemary. Upon letting stand for several days, filter the solution, where- upon a good glossy polish for leather, etc., will be obtained. II. — Dissolve 2 pounds of borax in 4 gallons of water and add 5 pounds of shellac to the boiling liquid in portions, till all is dissolved. Then boil half an hour, and finally stir in 5 pounds of sugar, 2 J pounds of glycerine, and H pounds of soluble nigrosin. When cola add 4 pounds of 95 per cent methylated spirit. III. — Ox blood, fresh, clean 1,000 parts Commercial glyc- erine 200 parts Oil of turpentine . 300 parts Pine oil (rosin oil) 5,000 parts Ox gall 200 parts Formalin 15 parts Mix in the order named, stirring in each ingredient. When mixed strain through linen. Kid Leather Dressings. — Creams for greasing fine varieties of leather, such as kid, patent leather, etc., are produced as follows, according to tried recipes: White Cream. — Lard 75 parts Glycerine, technical . 25 parts Mirbane oil, ad libitum. Black Cream. — Lard 100 parts Yellow vaseline 20 parts Glycerine, technical. 10 parts Castor oil, technical. 10 parts Dye black with lampblack and per- fume with oil of mirbane. Colored Cream. — Lard 100 parts Castor oil 20 parts Yellow wax 25 parts White vaseline 30 parts Dye with any desired dyestuff, e. g., red with anchusine, green with chloro- phyl. In summer it is well to add some wax to the first and second prescriptions. These are for either Morocco or kid: I. — Shelkc 2 parts Benzoin 2 parts Yellow wax 6 parts Soap liniment 7 parts Alcohol 600 parts Digest until solution is effected, then allow the liquid to stand in a cool place for 12 hours and strain. Apply with a bit of sponge or soft rag; spread thinly and evenly over the surface, without rubbing much. If dirty, the leather should first be washed with a little soft soap and warm water, wiped well, and allowed to dry thorough^ before the dressing is put on. II- — Oil of turpentine. ... 8 ounces Suet 2 pounds Soft soap 8 ounces Water 16 ounces Lampblack 4 ounces Patent Leather Dressings. — I. — Wax 22 parts Olive oil 60 parts Oil turpentine, best. 20 parts Lavender oil 10 parts With gentle heat, melt the wax in the oil, and as soon as melted remove from the fire. Add the turpentine oil, in- corporate, and when nearly cold, add and incorporate the lavender oil. II. — Wax 22 parts Olive oil 60 parts Oil of turpentine. ... 30 parts With gentle heat, melt the wax in the olive oil, and as soon as melted remove from the fire. When nearly cold stir in the turpentine. Red Russia Leather Varnish. — Shellac 1.20 parts Dammar rosin, pow- dered 0.15 parts Turpentine, Venice . . 0.60 parts Dissolve with frequent shaking in 12 parts of alcohol (95 per cent), add 1.8 parts of powdered red sanders wood, let stand for 3 days and filter. The object of this varnish is to restore the original color to worn Russia leather boots, pre- viously cleaned with benzine. Russet Leather Dressing. — The fol- lowing formulas are said to yield effi- cient preparations that are at once de- tersive and polishing, thus rendering the use of an extra cleaning liquid unneces- sary. I. — Soft soap 2 parts Linseed oil 3 parts Annatto solution (in oil) 8 parts Beeswax 3 parts Turpentine 8 parts Water 8 parts Dissolve the soap in the water, and add the annatto; melt the wax in the oil and turpentine, and gradually stir in the soap solution, stirring until cold. 450 LEATHER II. — Palm oil 16 parts Common soap 48 parts Oleic acid 32 parts Glycerine 10 parts Tannic acid 1 part Melt the soap and palm oil together at a gentle heat, and add the oleic acid; dissolve the tannic acid in the glycerine, add to the hot soap and oil mixture, and stir until perfectly cold. Shoe Leather Dressing. — Over a water bath melt 50 parts, by weight, of oil of turpentine; 100 parts, by weight, of olive oil; 100 parts, by weight, of train oil; 40 parts, by weight, of carnauba wax; 15 parts, by weight, of asphaltum; and 2 parts, by weight, of oil of bitter almonds. DYEING LEATHER. In dyeing leather, aniline or coal-tar colors are generally used. These dyes, owing to their extremely rapid action on organic substances, such as leather, do not readily adapt themselves to the staining process, because a full brushful of dye liquor would give a much deeper coloration than a half-exhausted brush would give. Consequently, to alter and to color leather by the staining process results in a patchy coloration of the skin. In the dyeing operation a zinc shallow trough, 4 to 6 inches deep, is used, into which the dye liquor is put, and to pro- duce the best results the contents of the trough are kept at a uniform tempera- ture by means of a heating apparatus beneath the trough, such as a gas jet or two, which readily allows of a heat being regulated. The skins to be dyed are spread out flat in the dye trough, one at a time, each skin remaining in the dye liquor the time prescribed by the recipe. The best coloration of the skin is pro- duced by using 3 dye troughs of the same dye liquor, each of different strength, the skin being put in the weakest liquor first, then pissed into the second, and from there into the third dye liquor, where it is allowed to remain until its full depth of color is obtained. Very great skill is required in the em- ployment of aniline dyes, as if the heat be too great, or the skins remain too long in the final bath, "bronzing" of the color occurs. The only remedy for this (and that not always effectual) is to sponge the skin with plenty of cold, clean water, directly it is taken out of the final dye bath. The dyed skins are dried and finished as before. Leather Brown. — Extract of fustic .... 5 ounces Extract of hypernic . . 1 ounce Extract of logwood. . . i ounce Water 2 gallons Boil all these ingredients for 15 min- utes, and then dilute with water to make 10 gallons of dye liquor. Use the dye liquor at a temperature of 110° F. Mordant. — Dissolve 3 ounces of white tartar and 4 ounces of alum in 10 gal- lons of water. Fast Brown. — Prepare a dye liquoj by dissolving IJ ounces fast brown in 1 gal- lon of water, and make a 10-gallon bulk of this. Use at a temperature of 110° F., and employ the same mordanting liquor as in last recipe. Bismarck Brown. — Extract of fustic 4 ounces Extract of hypernic. . 1 ounce Extract of logwood ... J ounce Water 2 gallons Preparation. — Boil all together for 15 minutes. Method of Dyeing. — First mordant the skins with a mordanting fluid made by dissolving 3 ounces tartar and J ounce borax in 10 gallons of water. Then put the skins into the above foundation bath at a temperature of 100° F. Take them out, and then put in 1 ounce of Bismarck brown, dissolved in boiling water. Put the skins in again until colored deep enough, then lift out, drip and dry. HARNESS PREPARATIONS: Blacking for Harness. — I. — In a water bath dissolve 90 parts of yellow wax in 900 parts of oil of turpentine; aside from this mix well together, all the ingredients, being finely powdered, 10 parts of Prus- sian blue, 5 parts of indigo, 50 parts of bone black, and work this into a portion of the above-mentioned waxy solution. Now throw this into the original solution, which still remains in the water bath, and stir it vigorously until the mass becomes homogeneous, after which pour it into any convenient earthenware receptacle. II. — Best glue, 4 ounces; good vine- gar, 1 J pints; best gum arable, 2 ounces; good black ink, ^ pint; best isinglass, 2 drachms. Dissolve the gum in the ink, and melt the isinglass in another vessel in as much hot water as will cover it. Having first steeped the glue in the vine- gar until soft, dissolve it completely by the aid of heat, stirring to prevent burn- ing. The heat should not exceed 180° F. Add the gum and ink, and allow the mixture to rise again to the same temperature. Lastly mix the solution in ismglass, and remove from fire. When LEATHER 451 used, a small portion must be heated until fluid, and then applied with a sponge and allowed to dry on. Dressings for Harness. — I. — Ox blood, fresh and well purified 100 parts Glycerine, technical. 20 parts Turpentine oil 30 parts Pine oil SO parts Ox gall 20 parts Formalin IJ parts The raw materials are stirred together cold in the order named. Pour the mix- ture through thin linen. It imparts a wonderful mild, permanent gloss. II. — A French harness dressing of good quality consists of oil of turpentine, 900 parts; yellow wax, 90 parts; Berlin blue, 10 parts; indigo, S parts; and bone black, 50 parts. Dissolve the yellow wax in the oil of turpentine with the aid of moderate heat in a water bath, mix the remaining substances, which should previously be well pulverized, and work them with a small portion of the wax solution. Finally, add the rest of the wax solution, and mix the whole well in the water bath. When a homogeneous liquid has resulted, pour it into earthen receptacles. Harness Oils. — I. — Neatsfoot oil 10 ounces Oil of turpentine. .. . 2 ounces Petrolatum 4 ounces Lampblack J ounce Mix the lampblack with the turpentine and the neatsfoot oil, melt the petrolatum and mix by shaking together. II. — Black aniline. ... 35 grains Muriatic acid ... 50 minims Bone black 175 grains Lampblack 18 grains Yellow wax 2^ av. ounces Oil of turpentine 22 fluidounces III. — Oil of turpentine 8 fluidounces Yellow wax 2 av. ounces Prussian blue ... J av. ounce Lampblack J av. ounce Melt the wax, add the turpentine, a portion first to the finely powdered Prus- sian blue and lampblack, and thin with neatsfoot oil. Harness Pastes. — I. — Ceresinc, natural yellow 1.5 parts Yellow beeswax .... 1.5 parts Japan wax 1.5 parts Melt on the water bath, and when half cooled stir in 8 parts of turpentine oil. Harness Grease. — . By weight 11. — i^eresine, natural yellow 2.5 parts Beeswax, yellow 0.8 parts French colophony, pale 0.4 parU By weight III. — French oil turpen- tine 2.0 parts Intimately mixed in the cold with American lamp- black 1.5 parts Put mixture I in a kettle and melt over a fire. Remove from the fire and stir in mixture II in small portions. Then pour through a fine sieve into a second vessel, and continue pouring from one kettle into the other until tlie mass is rather thickish. Next fill in cans. Should the mi.xture have become too cold during the filling of the can.s. the vessel containing the grease need only be placed in hot water, whereby the con- tents are rendered liquid again, so that pouring out is practicable. For per- fuming, use cinnamon oil as required. ThLs harness grease is applied by means of a rag and brushed. Waterproof Harness Composition. — See also Waterproofing. By weight Rosin spirit 37^ parts Dark mineral oil. . 13 J parts Paraffine scales. . . 16.380 parts Lampblack 7.940 parts Dark rosin 5.450 parts Dark syrup 5.450 parts Naphthalene black 'i.500 parts Berlin blue O.tiSO parts Mirbaneoil 0.170 parts Melt the paraffine and the rosin, add the mineral oil and the rosin spirit, stir the syru# and the pigments into this, and lastly add the mirbane oil. PATENT AND ENAMELED LEATHER. Patent leather for boots and shoes is prepared from sealskins, enameled leather for harness from heavy bullock's hides. The process of tanning is what is called "union tannage" (a mixture of oak and hemlock barks). These tanned skins are subjected to the process of soak- ing, unhairine, liming, etc., and are then subjected to the taniung process. When about one-third' tanned a Duffing is taken off (if the hides are heavy), and the hide is split into three layers. The top or grain side is reserved for enameling in fancy colors for use on tops of carriages; the middle layer is finished for splatter 45a LEATHER boards and carriage trimmings, and some parts of harness; the underneath layer, or flesh side is used for shoe uppers and other purposes. The tanning of the splits is completed by subjecting tnem to a gambler liquor instead of a bark liquor. When the splits are fully tanned they are laid on a table and scored, and then stretched in frames and dried, after which each one is covered on one side with the following compound, so as to close the pores of the leather that it may present a suitable surface for receiving the varnish: Into 14 parts of raw lin- seed oil put 1 part dry white lead and 1 part silver litharge, and boil, stirring constantly until the compound is thick enough to dry in 15 or 20 minutes (when spread on a sheet of iron or china) into a tough, elastic mass, like caoutchouc. This compound is laid on one side of the leather while it is still stretched in the frame. If for enameled leather (i. e., not the best patent), chalk or yellow ocher may be mixed in the above com- pound while boiling, or afterwards, but before spreading it on the leather. The frames are then put into a rack in a drying closet, and the coated leather dried by steam heat at 80° to 160° F., the heat being raised gradually. After removal from the drying closet, the grounding coat previously laid on is pumiced, to smooth out the surface, and then given 2 or 3 coats of the enameling varnish, which consists of Prussian blue and lampblack boiled with linseed oil and diluted with turpentine, so as to enable it to flow evenly over the surface of the coated leather. When spread on with a brush, each coating of the enamel is dried before applying the next, and pumiced or rubbed with tripoli powder on a piece of flannel (the coat last laid on is not subjected to this rubbing), when the leather is ready for market.* To prepare the enameling composi- tion, boil 1 part asphaltum with 20 parts raw linseed oil until thoroughly com- bined; then add 10 parts thick copal varnish, and when this mixture is homo- geneous dilute with 20 parts spirit of turpentine. Instead of the foregoing enameling varnish the following is used for superior articles : Prussian blue 18 ounces Vegetable black ... 4 ounces Raw linseed oil. . . . 160 fluidounces Boil together as previously directed, and dilute with turpentine as occasion requires. These enameling varnishes should be made and kept several weeks in the same room as the varnishing is carried on, so that they are always sub- jected to the same temperature. STAIKS FOR PATENT LEATHER: Black Stain. — Vinegar 1 gallon Ivory black 14 ounces Ground iron scales. . . 6 pounds Mix well and allow to stand a few days. Red Stain. — Water, 1 quart; spirit of hartshorn, 1 quart; cochineal, J pound. Heat the water to near the boiling point, and then dissolve in it the cochineal, afterwards adding the spirit of hartshorn. Stir well to incorporate. Liquid Cochineal Stain. — Good French carmine 2 J drachms Solution of potash J ounce Rectified spirit of wine 2 ounces Pure glycerine 4 ounces Distilled water to make 1 pint. To the carmine in a 20-ounce bottle add 14 ounces of distilled water. Then gradually introduce solution of potash, shaking now and again until dissolved. Add glycerine and spirit of wine, making up to 20 ounces with distilled water, and filter. Blue Black. — Ale droppings, 2 gallons; bruised galls, J pound; logwood extract, J pound; indigo extract, 2 ounces; sul- phate of iron, 3 J ounces. Heat together and strain. Finishers' Ink. — Soft water, 1 gallon; logwood extract, IJ ounces; green vitriol, 2 J ounces; potassium bichromate, J ounce; gum arable, J ounce. Grind the gum and potassium bichro- mate to powder and then add all the coloring ingredients to the water and boil. To Restore Patent Leather Dash. — Take raw linseed oil, 1 part; cider vine- gar, 4 ounces; alcohol, 2 ounces; butter of antimony, 1 ounce; aqua ammonia, i ounce; spirits of camphor, J ounce; lavender, J ounce. Shake well together; apply with a soft brush. PRESERVATIVES FOR LEATHER. I. — Mutton suet SO parts Sweet oil 50 parts Turpentine 1 part Melt together. The application should be made on the dry leather warmed to the point where it will liquefy and absorb the (at. II. — Equal parts of mutton fat and linseed oil. mixed with one-tenth their LEATHER ■i5S weight of Venice turpentine, and melted together in an earthen pipkin, will pro- duce a "dubbin" which is very efficacious in preserving leather when exposed to wet or snow, etc. The mixture should t>c applied when the leather is quite dry and warm. III. — A solution of 1 ounce of solid parafline in 1 pint light naphtha, to which 6 drops of sweet oil have been added, is put cold on the soles, until they will absorb no more. One dressing will do for the uppers. This process is claimed to vastly increase tne tensile strength. Patent Leather Preserver. — Carnauba wax 1.0 part Turpentine oil 9.5 parts Aniline black, soluble in fat 0.06 parts Melt the wax, stir in the turpentine oil and the dye and scent with a little mir- bane oil or lavender oil. The paste is rubbed out on the patent leather by means of a soft rag, and when dry should be polished with a soft brush. REVIVERS AND REGENERATORS. By weight. I. — Methylic alcohol 22 J parts Ground ruby shellac 2.250 parts Dark rosin 0.910 parts Gum rosin 0.115 parts Sandarac 0.115 parts Lampblack .'. 0.115 parts Aniline black, spirit- soluble 0.115 parts The gums are dissolved in spirit and next the aniline black soluble in spirit is added; the lampblack is ground with a little liquid to a paste, which is added to the whole, and filtering follows. Kid Reviver. — By weight. II. — Clear chloride of lime solution 3.5 parts Spirit of sal ammo- niac 0.5 parts Scraped Marseilles soap 4.5 parts Water 6.0 parts Mix chloride of lime solution and spirit of sal ammoniac and stir in the soap dissolved in water. Revive the gloves with the pulpy mass obtained, by means of a flannel rag. TANNING LEATHER. Pickline Process. — Eitner and Stiazn^ have made a systematic series of experi- ments with mixtures of salt and vari- ous acids for pickling skins preparatory to tanning. Experiments with hydro- chloric acid, acetic and lactic acids showed that these offered no advantages over sulphuric acid for use in pickling, the pickled pelts and the leather pro- duced from them being similar in ap- pearance and quality. By varying the concentration of the pickle liquors, it was found that the amount of salt absorbed by the pelt from the pickle liquor was controlled by the concentration of the solution, 23 to 25 per cent of the total amount used being taken up by the pelt, and that the absorption capacity of the pelt for acid was limited. The goods pickled with the largest amount of acid possessed a more leathery feel and after drying were fuller and stretched much better than those in which smaller amounts of acids were employed. Dried, pickled pieces, con- taining as much as 3 per cent of sulphuric acid, snowed no deterioration or tender- ing of fiber. The pickled skins after chrome tanning still retained these characteristics. An analysis of the leather produced by tanning with sumac showed that no free acid was retained in the finished leather. An Australian pickled pelt was found to contain 19.2 per cent of salt and 2.8 per cent of sul- phuric acid. From a very large number of experi- ments the following conclusions were drawn: 1. That sulphuric aeid is quite equal in efficiency to other acids for the purpose. 2. To a certain limit increas- ing softness is produced by increasing the quantity of acid used. 3. For naturally soft skins and when a leather not very soft is required the best results are obtained by usin^ 22 pounds of salt, 2.2 pounds of sulphuric acid, and 25 gal- lons of water for 1 10 pounds of pelt in the drum. 4. For material which is natural- ly hard and when a soft leather is re- quired, the amount of acid should be increased to 4.4 pounds, using similar amounts as those given above of pelt, salt, and water. French Hide Tanning Process. — I. — The prepared pelts are submitted to a 3 to 4 hours' immersion in a solution of rosin soap, containing 5 to 10 per cent of caustic soda. The goods are afterwards placed in a 6 to 12 per cent solution of a salt of chromium, iron, copper, or alum- inum (preferably aluminum sulphate) for 3 to 4 hours. II. — The hides are soaked in a solu- tion of sodium carbonate of 10° Be. for 3 to 6 hours. After washing with water they are allowed to remain for 5 hours in 454 LEATHER a bath of caustic soda, the strength of which may vary from 2° to 30° Be. From this they are transferred to a bath of hydrochloric acid (1° to 5° Be.) in which they remain for 2 hours. Finally the hides are washed and the beam-work finished in the usual way. The tannage consists of a special bath of sodium or ammonium sulphoricinoleate (2 to 30 per cent) and sumac extract, or similar tannins material (2 to 50 per cent). The strength of this bath is gradually raised from 4° to 30° or 40° Be. Tanning Hides for Robes. — The hides should be very thoroughly soaked in order to soften them completely. For dry hides this will require a longer time than for salted. A heavy hide requires longer soaking than a skin. Thus it is impos- sible to fix a certain length of time. After soaking, the hide is fleshed clean, and is now ready to go into the tan liquor, which is made up as follows: One part alum; 1 part salt; i to J part japonica. These are dissolved in hot water in suf- ficient quantity to make a 35° liquor. The hide, according to the thickness, is left in the tan from 5 to 10 days. Skins are finished in about 2 or 3 days. The hide should be run in a drum for about 2 hours before going into tan, and again after that process. In tanning hides for robes, shaving them down is a main requisite for success, as it is impossible to get soft leather otherwise. After shaving put back into the tan liquor again for a day or two and hang up to dry. When good and hard, shave again and lay away in moist sawdust and give a heavy coat of oil. When dry, apply a solution of soft soap; roll up and lay away in moist sawdust again. Run the hides on a drum or wheel until thoroughly soft. The composition of the tan liquor may be changed considerably. If the brown- ish tinge of the japonica be objectionable, that article may be left out entirely. The japonica has the effect of making the robe more able to resist water, as the alum and salt alone are readily soaked out by rain. Lace Leather. — Take cow hides aver- aging from 25 to 30 pounds each; 35 hides will make a convenient soak for a vat containing 1,000 gallons of water, or 25 hides to a soak of 700 gallons. Soak 2 days or more, as required. Change water every 24 hours. Split and flesh; resoak if necessary. When thoroughly soft put in limes. Handle and strength- en once a day, for 5 or 6 days. Unhair and wash. Bathe in hen manure, 90° F. Work out of drench, wash well, drain 4 of 5 hours. Then process, using 45 pounds vitriol and 600 pounds of soft water to 700 gallons of water. In re- newing process for second or consecutive packs, use IS pounds vitriol and 200 pounds salt, always keeping stock con- stantly in motion during time of proc- essing. After processing, drain over night, then put in tan in agitated liquors, keeping the stock in motion during the whole time of tanning. Pack down over- night. Use 200 pounds dry leather to each mill in stuffing. For stuffing, use 3 gallons curriers' hard grease and 3 gallons American cod oil. Strike out from mill, on flesh. Set out on grain. Dry slowly. Trim and board, length and cross. The stock is then ready to cut. The time for soaking the hides may be reduced one-half by putting the stock into.a rapidly revolving reel pit, with a good inflow of water, so that the dirty water washes over and runs off. After 10 hours in the soak, put the stock into a drum, and keep it tumbling 5 hours. This produces soft stock.. In liming, where the saving of the hair is no object, softer leather is obtainable by using 35 pounds sulphide of sodium with 60 pounds lime. Then, when the stock comes from the limes, the hair is dissolved and immediately washes off, and saves the labor of unhairing and caring for the hair, which in some cases does not pay. MISCELLANEOUS RECIPES: Russian Leather. — This leather owes its name to the country of its origin. The skins used for its production are goat, large sheep, calfskin, and cow or steer hide. The preliminary operations of soaking, unhairing, and fleshing are done in the usual manner, and then the hides are permitted to swell in a mixture of rye flour, oat flour, yeast, and salt. This compound is made into a paste with water, and is then thinned with suffi- cient water to steep a hundred hides in the mixture. The proportions of ingre- dients used for this mixture are 22 pounds rye flour, 10 pounds oat flour, a little salt, and sufficient yeast to set up fermentation. The hides are steeped in this com- pound for 2 days, until swelled up, and then put into a solution of willow and poplar barks, in which they are allowed to remain 8 days, being frequently turned about. The tanning process is then completed by putting them into a tanning liquor composed of pine and willow barks, equal parts. They are steeped 8 days in this liquor, and then a LEATHER 455 g; fresh lic|uor of the same ingredients and -roportions is made up. The hides are ardened and split, and then steeped in the freshly made liquor for another 8 days, when they are sufficiently tanned. The hides are then cut down the middle (from head to tail) into sides, and scoured, rinsed, and dried by dripping, and then passed on to the currier, who slightly dampens the dry sides and puts them in a heap or folds them together for a couple of days to temper, and then impregnates them with a compound con- sistingof § parts birch oil and J parts seal oil. This is applied on the flesh side for light leather, and on the grain side also for heavy leather. The leather is then "set out," "whitened," and well boarded and dried before dyeing. A decoction of sandalwood, alone or mixed with cochineal, is used for pro- ducing the Russian red color, and this dye liquor is applied several times, allowing each application to dry before applying the following one. A brush is used, and the dye licjuoris spread on the grain side. A solution of tin chloride is used in Russia as a mordant for the leather before laying on the dye. The dye liquor is prepared by boiling 18 ounces of sandalwood in 13 pints of water for 1 hour, and then filtering the liquid and dissolving in the filtering fluid 1 ounce of prepared tartar and soda, which is then given an hour's boiling and set aside for a few days be- fore use. After dyeing, the leather is again im- pregnated with the mixture of birch and seal oils (applied to the grain side on a fjiece of flannel) and when the dyed eather has dried, a thin smear of gum- dragon mucilage is given to the dyed side to protect the color from fading, while the flesh side is smeared with bark-tan juice and the dyed leather then grained for market. Toughening Leather. ■ — • Leather is toughened and also rendered impervious by impregnating with a solution of 1 part of caoutchouc or gutta-percha in 16 parts of benzene or other solvent, to which is added 10 parts of linseed oil. Wax and rosin may be added to thicken the solu- tion. Painting on Leather. — When the leath- er is finished in the tanneries it is at the same time provided with the necessary greasy particles to give it the required fliancy and prevent it from cracking, t is claimed that some tanners strive to obtain a greater weight thereby, thus increasing their profit, since a pound of fat is only one-eighth as dear as a pound of leather. If such leather, so called kips, which are much used for carriage covers and knee caps, is to be prepared for painting purposes, it is above all necessary to close up the pores of the leather, so that the said fat particles cannot strike through. They would combine with the applied paint and prevent the latter from drying, as the grease consists main- ly of fish oil. For this reason an elastic spirit leather varnish is employed, which protects the succeeding paint coat suffi- ciently from the fat. For further treatment take a good coach varnish to which J of stand oil (linseed oil which has thickened by standing) has been added and allow the mixture to stand for a few days. With this varnish grind the desired colors, thinning them only with turpentine oil. Put on 2 coats. In this manner the most delicate colors may be applied to the leather, only it is needful to put on pale and delicate shades several times. In some countries the legs or tops of boots are painted yellow, red, green, or blue in this manner. Inferior leather, such as sheepskin and goat leather, which is treated with alum by the tanner, may likewise be provided with color in the manner stated. Subsequently it can be painted, gilded, or bronzed. Stains for Oak Leather. — I. — Apply an intimate mixture of 4 ounces of umber (burnt or raw); J ounce of lampblack, and 17 fluidounces ox gall. II. — The moistened leather is primed with a solution of 1 part, by weight, of copper acetate in 50 parts of water, slicked out and then painted with solu- tion of yellow prussiate potash in feebly acid water. LEATHER AS AN INSULATOR: See Insulation. LEATHER CEMENTS: See Adhesives, under Cements. LEATHER -CLEANING PROCESSES : See Cleaning Preparations and Meth- ods. LEATHER, GLUES FOR: See Adhesives. LEATHER LAC: See Lacquers. LEATHER LUBRICANTS: See Lubricants. LEATHER POLISHES: See Leather. 456 LEMONS— LETTERING LEATHER VARNISH : See Varnish. LEATHER WATERPROOFING: See Waterproofing. LEMONS: See also Essences, Extracts, and Fruits. Preservation of Fresh Lemon Juice. — The fresh juice is cleared by gently heat- ing it with a little egg albumen, without stirring the mixture. This causes all solid matter to sink with the coagulated white, or to make its way to the surface. The juice is then filtered through a woolen cloth and put into bottles, filled as full as possible, and closed with a cork stopper, in such a way that the cork may be directly in contact with the liquid. Seal at once and keep in a cool place. The bottles should be asepticized with boiling water just before using. LEMON CORDIAL : See Wines and Liquors. LEMON EXTRACT (ADULTERATED), TESTS FOR: See Foods. LEMON SHERBET POWDER: See Salts, Effervescent. LEMONADES, LEMONADE POWDERS, AND LEMONADE DROPS: See Beverages. LEMONADE POWDER: See Salts, Effervescent. LENSES AND THEIR CARE: Unclean Lenses (see also Cleaning Prep- arations and Methods). — If in either ob- jective or eyepiece the lenses are not clean, the definition may be seriously im- E aired or destroyed, tjncleanliness may e due to finger marks upon the front lens of the objective, or upon the eyepiece lenses; dust which in time may settle upon the rear lens of the objective or on the eye lens; a film which forms upon one or the other lens, due occasionally to the fact that glass is hygroscopic, but generally to the exhalation from the interior finish of the mountings, and, in immersion ob- jectives, because the front lens is not properly cleaned; or oil that has leaked on to its rear surface, or air bubbles that have formed in the oil between the cover glass and front lens. Remedy. — Keep all lenses scrupu- lously clean. For cleaning, use well- washed linen (an old handkerchief) or Japanese lens paper. Eyepieces. — To find impurities, revolve the eyepieces during the observation; breathe upon the lenses, and wipe gently with a circular motion and blow off any particles which may adhere. Dry Objectives. — Clean the front lens as described. To examine the rear and in- terior lenses use a 2-inch magnifier, look- ing through the rear. Remove the dust from the rear lens with a camel's-hair brush. Oil Immersion Objectives. — Invariably clean the front lens after use with moist- ened linen or paper, and wipe dry. In applying oil examine the front of the objective with a magnifier, and if there are any air bubbles, remove them with a pointed quill, or remove the oil entirely and apply a fresh quantity. LENSES, REPAIRING BROKEN: See Adhesives, under Cements. LETTERS, TO REMOVE FROM CHINA : See Cleaning Preparations and Meth- ods, under Miscellaneous Methods. LETTER -HEAD SENSITIZERS: See Photography, under Paper-Sensi- tizing Processes. Lettering CEMENTS FOR ATTACHING LETTERS ON GLASS : See Adhesives, under Sign-Letter Ce- ments. Gold Lettering. — This is usually done by first drawing the lettering, then cover- ing with an adhesive mixture, such as size, and finally applying gold bronze powder or real gold leaf. A good method for amateurs to follow in marking letters on glass is to apply first a coat of whiting, mixed simply with water, and then to mark out the letters on this surface, using a pointed stick or the like. After this has been done the letters may easily be painted or gilded on the reverse side of the glass. When done, wash off the whiting from the other side, and the work is complete. Bronze Lettering. — The following is the best method for card work: Write with asphaltum thinned with turpentine until it flows easily, and, when nearly dry, dust bronze powder over the letters. When the letters are perfectly dry tap the card to take off the extra bronze, and it will leave the letters clean and sharp. The letters should be made with a camel's- hair brush and not with the automatic pen, as oil paints do not work satisfac- torily with these pens. For bronzed letters made with the pen, use black letterine or any water color. LETTERING 457 If a water color is used add considerable gum arabic. Each letter should be bronzed as it is made, as the water color dries much more quickly than the as- phaltum. Another method is to mix the bronze powder with bronze sizing to about the consistency of the asphaltum. Make the letter with a camel's-hair brush, using the bronze paint as one would any oil paint. This method requires much skill, as the gold paint spreads quickly and is apt to flood over the ed^e of the letter. For use on oilcloth this is the most practical method. Bronzes may be purchased at any hardware store. They are made in copper, red, green, silver, gold, and cop- per shades. Lettering on Glass. — White lettering on glass and mirrors produces a rich effect. Dry zinc, chemically pure, should be used. It can be obtained in any first- class paint store and is inexpensive. To every teaspoonful of zinc, 10 drops of mucilage should be added. The two shouldlje worked up into a thick paste, water being gradually added until the mixture is about the consistency of thick cream. The paint should then be ap- plied with a camel's-hair brush. Another useful paint for this purpose is Chemnitz white. If this distemper color is obtained in a jar, care should be exercised to keep water standing above the color to prevent drying. By using mucilage as a sizing these colors will ad- here to the glass until it is washed off. Both mixtures are equally desirable for lettering on block card-board. Any distemper color may be employed on glass without in any way injuring it. An attractive combination is — first to letter the sign with Turkey red, and then to outline the letters with a very narrow white stripe. The letter can be ren- dered still more attractive by shading one side in black. Signs on Show Cases. — Most show cases have mirrors at the back, either in the form of sliding panels or spring doors. Lettering in distemper colors on these mirrors can easily be read through the fronts or tops of cases. If the mirror is on a sliding panel, it will be necessary to detach it from the case in order to letter it. When the mirror is on a spring door the sign can be let- tered witn less trouble. By tracing letters in chalk on the out- side of the glass, and then painting them on the inside, attractive signs can be produced on all show cases; but paint- ing letters on the inside of a show case glass is more or less difiScult, and it is not advisable to attempt it in very shallow cases. " Spatter " Work. — Some lettering which appears very difficult to the unin- itiated is, in fact, easily produced. The beautiful effect of lettering and orna- mentation in the form of foliage or con- ventional scrolls in a speckled ground is simple and can be produced with little effort. Pressed leaves and letters cr designs cut from newspapers or maga- zines may be tacked or pasted on card- board or a mat with flour paste. As little paste as possible should be used — only enough to hold the design in place. When all the designs are in the positions desired, a toothbrush should be dipped in the ink or paint to be employed. A toothpick or other small piece of wood is drawn to and fro over the bristles, which are held toward the sign, the en- tire surface of which should be spat- tered or sprinkled with the color. Wnen the color is dry the designs pasted on should be carefully removed and the paste which held them in place should be scraped off. This leaves the letters and other designs clean cut and white against the "spatter" background. The begin- ner should experiment first with a few simple designs. After he is able to pro- duce attractive work with a few figures or letters he may confidently undertake more elaborate combinations. Lettering on Mirrors. — From a bar of fresh common brown soap cut off a one- inch-wide strip across its end. Cut this into 2 or 3 strips. Take one strip and with a table-knife cut from two opposite sides a wedge-shaped point resembling that of a shading pen, but allow the edge to be fully J inch thick. Clean the mirror thoroughly and proceed to letter in exactly the same manner as with a shading pen. To Fill Engraved Letters on Metal Signs. — Letters engraved on metal may be filled in with a mixture of asphaltum, brown japan, and lampblack, the mix- ture being so made as to be a putty-like mass. It should be well pressed down with a spatula. Any of the mass ad- hering to the plate about the edges of the letters is removed with turpentine, and when the cement is thorougnly dried the plate may be polished. If white letters are desired, make a putty of dry white lead, with equal parts of coach japan and rubbing varnish. Fill the letters nearly level with the sur- 458 LICORICE— LIME face, and when hard, apply a stout coat of flake white in japan thinned with tur- pentine. This will give a clean white finish that may be polished. The white cement may be tinted to any desired shade, using coach colors ground in japan. Tinseled Letters, or Chinese Painting on Glass. — This is done by painting the groundwork with any color, leaving the letter or figure naked. When dry, place tin foil or any of the various colored copper foils over the letters on the back of the glass, after crumpling them in the hand, and then partially straightening them out. LICE KILLERS: See Insecticides. LICHEN REMOVERS: See Cleaning Preparations and Meth- ods, under Miscellaneous Methods and Household Formulas. LICORICE: Stable Solutions of Licorice Juice. — A percolator, with alternate layers of broken glass, which have been well washed, first with hydrochloric acid and plentifully rinsed with distilled water, is the first requisite. This is charged with pieces of crude licorice juice, from the size of a hazel nut to that of a walnut, which are weighted down with well- washed pebbles. The percolate is kept for 3 days in well corked flasks which have been rinsed out with alcohol be- forehand. Decant and filter and evap- orate down rapidly, under constant stirring, or in vacuo. The extract should be kept in vessels first washed with alcohol and closed with parchment paper, in a dry place — never in the cellar. To dissolve this extract, use water, first boiled for 15 minutes. The solu- tion should be kept in small flasks, first rinsed with alcohol and well corked. If to be kept for a long time, the flasks should be subjected for 3 consecutive days, a half hour each day, to a stream of steam, and the corks paraffined. There is frequently met with in com- merce a purified juice that remains clear in the mixtura solvens. It is usually obtained by supersaturation with pure ammonia, allowing to stand for 3 days, decanting, filtering the decanted liquor, and quick evaporation. Since solutions with water alone rapidly spoil, it is well to observe with them the precautions commoD for narcotic extracts. To Test Extract of Licorice. — ^Mere solubility is no test for the purity of extract of licorice. It is, therefore, pro- posed to make the glycyrrhizin content . and the nature of the ash the determining test. To determine the glycyrrhizin quantitatively proceed as follows: Mac- erate tV ounce of the extract, in coarse powder, in 10 fluidounces distilled water for several hours, with more or less fre- quent agitation. When solution is com- plete, add 10 fluidounces alcohol of 90 per cent, filter and wash the filter with alcohol of 40 per cent until the latter comes off colorless. Drive off the alco- hol, which was added merely to facilitate filtration, by evaporation in the water bath; let the residue cool down and pre- cipitate the glycyrrhizin by addition of sulphuric acid. Filter the liquid and wash the precipitate on the filter with distilled water until the wash water comes off neutral. Dissolve the glycyrrhizin from the filter by the addition of ammonia water, drop by drop, collecting the fil- tered solution in a tared capsule. Evap- orate in the water bath, dry the residual glycyrrhizin at 212° F., and weigh. Re- peated examinations of known pure ex- tracts have yielded a range of percentage of glycyrrhizin running from 8.06 per cent to 11.90 per cent. The ash should be acid in reaction and a total percentage of from 5.64 to 8.64 of the extract. LIFTING SPRINGS, HOW TO SOLDER : See Solders. LIGHT, INACTINIC: See Photography. LIGNALOE SOAP: See Soap. LIMEADE : See Beverages, under Lemonades. LIME AS A FERTILIZER: See Fertilizers. LIME, BIRD. Bird lime is a thick, soft, tough, and sticky mass of a greenish color, has an unpleasant smell and bitter taste, melts easily on heating, and hardens when ex- posed in thin layers to the air. It is dif- ficult to dissolve in alcohol, but easily soluble in hot alcohol, oil of turpentine, fat oils, and also somewhat in vinegar. The best quality is prepared from the inner green bark of the holly (Ilex aqui- folium), which is boiled, then put in bar- rels, and submitted for 14 days to slight fermentation until it becomes sticky. Another process of preparing it is to mix the boiled bark with ]uice of mistletoe berries and burying it in the ground until LINIMENTS— LINSEED OIL 459 fermented. The bark is then pulverized, boiled, and washed. Artificial bird lime is prepared by boiling and then igniting linseed oil, or boiling printing varnisE until it is very tough and sticky. It is also prepared by dissolving cabinet- makers' glue in water and adding a con- centrated solution of chloride of zinc. The mixture is very sticky, does not dry on exposure to the air, and has the ad- vantage that it can be easily washed off the feathers of the birds. LIME JUICE : See Essences and Extracts LIME-JUICE CORDIAL : See Wines and Liquors. LIME WAFERS: See Confectionery. LIITEN, TO DISTINGUISH COTTON FROM: See Cotton. LINEN DRESSING: See Laundry Preparations. LINIMENTS: See also Ointments. For external use only. — I. — The fol- lowing penetrating oily liniment reduces all kinds of inflammatory processes: Paraffineoil 4 ounces Capsicum powder.. . . i ounce Digest on a sand bath and filter. To this may be added directly the following: Oil of wintergreen or peppermint, phenol, thymol, camphor or eucalyptol, etc. II. — Camphor 2 ounces Menthol 1 ounce Oil of thyme 1 ounce Oil of sassafras. . . .'. 1 ounce Tincture of myrrh . . 1 ounce Tincture of capsicum 1 ounce Chloroform 1 ounce Alcohol 2 pints LINIMENTS FOR HORSES: See Veterinary Formulas. LINOLEUM: See also Oilcloth. Composition for Linoleum, Oilcloth, etc. — This is composed of whiting, dried linseed oil, and any ordinary dryer, such as litharge, to which ingredients a pro- portion of gum tragacanth is to be added, replacing a part of the oil and serving to impart flexibility to the fabric, and to the composition in a pasty mass the property of drying more rapidly. In the _ pro- duction of linoleum, the whiting is re- placed in whole or in part by pulverized rork. The proportions are approximate- ly the following by weight: Whiting or powdered cork, 13 parts; gfum traga- canth, 5 parts; dried linseed oil, 5 J parts; siccative, J part. Dressings for Linoleum. — A weak so- lution of beeswax in spirits of turpentine has been recommended for brightening the appearance of linoleum. Here are some other formulas: I. — Palm oil 1 ounce Paraffine IS ounces Kerosene -1 ounces Melt the paraffine and oil, remove from the fire and incorporate the kerosene. II. — Yellow wax 5 ounces Oil turpentine 11 ounces Amber varnish 5 ounces Melt the wax, add the oil, and then the varnish. Apply with u rag. Treatment of Newly Laid Linoleum. — The proper way to cleanse a linoleum flooring is first to sweep off the dust and then wipe up with a damp cloth. Several times a year the surface should be well rubbed with floor wax. Care must be had that the mass is well pulverized and free from grit. Granite linoleum and figured coverings are cleansed without the application of water. A floor cover- ing which has been treated from the beginning with floor wax need only be wiped off daily with a vith Venice turpentine. Oil Suitable for Use with Gold. — Heat and incorporate linseed oil, 1 quart; rape oil, 1 pint; Canadian balsam, 3 pints; rectified spirits of tar, 1 quart. Wool Oil. — These are usually pro- duced by the distillation in retorts of Yorkshire grease and other greases. The distilled oil is tested for quality, and is brought down to 70 per cent or 50 per cent grades by the addition of a suitable quantity of mineral oil. The lower the quality of the grease used the lower is the grade of the resulting wool oil. OIL BITTERS: See Wines and Liquors. OIL, CASTOR: See Castor Oil. OIL FOR FORMING A BEAD ON LIQUORS : See Wines and Liquors. OILS FOR HARNESS: See Leather. OILS (EDIBLE), TESTS FOR : See Foods. OIL, HOW TO POUR OUT : See Castor Oil. OIL, LUBRICATING : See Lubricants. 486 OILS— OINTMENTS OILS, PURIFICATION OF: See Fats. OILCLOTH : See Linoleum. OILCLOTH ADHESIVES: See Adhesives. OILCLOTH VARNISHES : See Varnishes. OILING FIBERS AND FABRICS: See Waterproofing. OILSKINS : See Waterproofing. OIL REMOVERS: See Cleaning Preparations and Meth- ods. OIL, SOLIDIFIED: See Lubricants. Ointments Arnica Salve. — Solid extract of arnica 2 parts Rosin ointment 16 parts Petrolatum i parts Sultanas 16 parts Fine cut tobacco 1 part Boil the raisins and the tobacco in 40 ounces of water until exhausted, express the liquid, and evaporate down to 8 ounces. Soften the arnica extract in a little hot water and mix in the liquid. Melt the rosin ointment and petrolatum together, and add the liquid to the melted mass and incorporate thoroughly. Barbers' Itch. — Ichthyol 30 grains Salicylic acid 12 grains Mercury oleate (10 per cent) 3 drachms Lanolin 1 ounce Mix. To be kept constantly applied to the affected parts. Brown Ointment. — Rosin 1 ounce Lead plaster . . .4 ounces Soap cerate ... 8 ounces Yellow beeswax.. . . 1 ounce Olive oil 7 J fluidounces Chilblains. — The following are for unbroken chilblains: 1. — Sulphurous acid. ... 3 parts Glycerine 1 part Water 1 part II. — Balsam Peru 1 part Alcohol 24 parts Hydrochloric acid. . . 1 part Tincture benzoin compound 8 parts Dissolve the balsam in the alcohol, and add the acid and tincture. Apply morning and evening. Domestic Ointments. — I. — Vaseline 80 parts Diachylon oint- ment 30 parts Carbolic acid 4 parts Camphor 5 parts II. — Butter, fresh (un- salted) 750 parts Wax, yellow 125 parts Rosin, white 100 parts Nutmeg oil 15 parts Peru balsam 1 part III. — Lead plaster, sim- ple 6,090 parts Vaseline, yellow . . 1,000 parts Camphor 65 parts Carbolic acid 50 parts Mix. Green Salve. — White pine turpentine 8 ounces Lard, fresh 8 ounces Honey 4 ounces Beeswax, yellow 4 ounces Melt, stir well, and add Verdigris, powdered. . 4 drachms Apply locally. This cannot be surpassed when used for deep wounds, as it prevents the formation of proud flesh and keeps up a healthy discharge. Salve for all Wounds. — Lard, fresh 16 ounces White lead, dry 3 ounces Red lead, dry 1 ounce Beeswax, yellow 3 ounces Black rosin 2 ounces Mix, melt, and boil for 45 minutes, then add Common turpentine. . . .4 ounces Boil for 3 minutes and cool. Apply locally to cuts, burns, sores, ulcers, etc. It first draws, then heals. Irritating Plaster. — Tar, purified 16 ounces Burgundy pitch 1 ounce White pine turpentine 1 ounce Rosin, common 2 ounces Melt and add Mandrake root, pow- dered 1 drachm Bloodroot, powdered. 1 ounce Poke root, powdered . . 1 ounce Indian turnip root, powdered 1 ounce Apply to the skin in the form of a OINTMENTS 4H7 Pain -Subduing Ointment. — The lowing is an excellent formula: Tincture of capsicum. 5 parts Tincture of camphor Ammonia water. . . Alcohol Soap liniment fol- plaster (spread on muslin) and renew it daily. This salve will raise a sore which is to be wiped with a dry cloth to remove mat- ter, etc. The sore must not be wetted. Tills is a powerful counter-irritant for re- moving internal pains, and in other cases where an irritating plaster is necessary. Mercury Salves. — I. — Red Salve. — Red mercury oxide, 1 part; melted lard, 9 parts. I II. — White Salve. — Mercury precipi- tate, 1 part; melted lard, 9 parts. Pink salve. Ammoniated mer- cury 1 ounce Mercuric oxide, precipitated 2 J ounces Red mercuric sul- phide (vermilion) 60 grains Perfume i fluidounce Lard li pounds Prepared suet J pound Antiseptic Nervine Ointment. — Iiidof orm 2 parts Salol 4 parts Boric acid ■'i parts Antipyrinc 5 parts Vaselme 80 parts Photographers' Ointment. — The fol- lowing protects the hands from photo- graphic chemicals: Best castile soap, in fine shavings 1 ounce Water 1 ounce Wax 1 ounce Ammonia 45 minims Lanolin 1 ounce The soap is dissolved in the water heated for that purpose, the wax mixed in with much stirring, and, when all is in solution, the ammonia is added. When clear, the lanolin is put in, and then, if the mixture is very thick, water is added until the whole has the consistency of honey. Keep in a covered stoneware jar. The hands should be first washed with ordinary soap, and then, while the lather is still on them, a bit of the mixture about the size of a hazel nut is rubbed in until all is absorbed, and the hands are dry. At the close of the work, the film of wax is washed off in warm water and a little lanoliu rubbed into the hands. 1 part 2 parts 2 parts 2 parts Skin Ointment. — I. — Add about 2 per cent of phenol to petrolatum, perfuming it with oil of bergamot and color a duU green. It has been suggested that a mixture of Prussian blue and yellow ocher would answer as the coloring agent. II. — Phenol 40 grains Boric acid 2 drachms Oil of bergamot 90 minims Petrolatum 1 pound Color with chlorophyll. OINTMENTS FOR VETERINARY PUR- POSES : See Veterinary Formulas. OLEIN SOAP: See Soap. OLEOMARGARINE : See Butter. OLIVE-OIL PASTE: See Butter Substitutes. OmfX CEMENTS: See Adhesives. ORANGEADE : See Beverages, under Lemonades. ORANGE BITTERS AND CORDIAL: See Wines and Licjuors. ORANGE DR9PS: See Confectionery. ORANGE EXTRACT: See Essences and Extracts. ORANGE FRAPP6: See Beverages, under Lemonades. ORANGE PHOSPHATE: See Beverafjcs. ORGEAT PUNCH: See Beverages, under Lemonades. ORTOL DEVELOPER: See Photography. OXIDIZING : See Bronzing, Plating, Painting. OXIDE, MAGNETIC: See Rust Preventives. OXOLIN : See Rubber. OZONATINE : See Air Purifying. PACKAGE POP: See Beverages, under Ginger Ale. PACKAGE WAX: See Waxes. 488 PACKINGS— PAINTINGS PACKINGS: Packing for StuflSng Boxes. — Tallow 10 parts Barrel soap, non-filled 30 parts Cylinder oil 10 parts Talcum Venetian, finely powdered. ... 20 parts Graphite, finely washed 6 parts Powdered asbestos. . . 6 parts Melt the tallow and barrel soap to- gether, add the other materials in rota- tion, mix intimately in a mixing ma- chine, and fill in 4-pound cans. Packing for Gasoline Pumps. — For packing pumps on gasoline engines use asbestos wick-packing rubbed full of regular laundry soap; it will work with- out undue friction and will pack tightly. Common rubber packing is not as good, as the gasoline cuts it out. PADS OF PAPER: See Paper Pads. PAIN -SUBDUING OINTMENT: See Ointments. PAINTING PROCESSES : Painting Ornaments or Letters on Cloth and Paper. — Dissolve gum shellac in 95 per cent alcohol at the rate of 1 pound of shellac to 3 pints of alcohol, and mix with it any dry color desired. If it becomes too thick, thin with more alcohol. This works free, does not bleed out, imparts brilliancy to the color, and wears well.- The preparation can be used also on paper. Painting on Marble. — To paint marble in water colors, it must be first thor- oughly cleaned and all grease com- pletely removed. The slab is washed well, and then rubbed off with benzine by means of a rag or sponge. In order to be quite sure, add a little ox gall or aguoline to the colors. After marble has been painted with water colors it cannot be polished any more. Painting on Muslin. — To paint on muslin requires considerable skul. Select a smooth wall or partition, upon which tack the muslin, drawing the fabric taut and firm. Then make a, solution of starch and water, adding one-fourth starch to three-fourths water, and apply a glaze of this to the muslin. To guard against the striking in of the paint, and to hold it more securely in place and tex- ture, mix the pigment with rubbing varnish to the consistency of a stiff paste, and then thin with turpentine to a free work- ing condition. A double thick camel's- hair brush, of a width to correspond properly with the size of the surface to be coated, is the best tool with which to coat fine muslin. A fitch-hair tool is prob- ably best suited to the coarser muslin. Many painters, when about to letter on muslin, wet the material with water; but this method is not so reliable as sizing with starch and water. Wetting canvas or duck operates very successfully in holding the paint or color in check, but these materials should not be confounded with muslin, which is of an entirely dif- ferent texture. PAINTING ON LEATHER: See Leather. PAINTINGS : Protection for Oil Paintings. — Oil Eaintings should under no circumstances e varnished over before the colors are surely and unmistakably dry, otherwise the fissuring and early decay of the sur- face may be anticipated. The conten- tion of some people that oil paintings need the protection of a coat of varnish is based upon the claim that the picture, unvarnished, looks dead and lusterless in parts and glossy in still others, the value and real beauty of the color being thus unequally manifested. It is not to be inferred, however, that a heavy coat- ing of varnish is required. When it is deemed advisable to varnish over an oil painting the varnish should be mastic, with perhaps 3 or 4 drops of refined lin- seed oil added to insure against cracking. A heavy body of varnish used over paintings must be strictly prohibited, in- asmuch as the varnish, as it grows in age, naturally darkens in color, and in so doing carries with it a decided- clouding and discoloration of the delicate pig- ments. A thinly applied coat of mastic varnish affords the required protection from all sorts and conditions of atmos- pheric impurities, besides fulfilling its mission in other directions. Oil paintings, aquarelles, etc., may be also coated with a thin layer of Canada balsam, and placed smoothly on a pane of glass likewise coated with Canada balsam, so that both layers of balsam come together. Then the pictures are pressed down from the back, to remove all air bubbles. To Renovate Old Oil Paintings. — When old oil paintings have become dark and cracked, proceed as follows: Pour alcohol in a dish and put the pic- ture over it, face downward. The fumes of the alcohol dissolve the paint of the picture, the fissures close up_again, and PAINTINGS— PAINTS 489 the color assumes a freshness which is surprising. Great caution is absolutely necessary, and one must look at the paint- ing very often, otherwise it may happen that the colors will run together or even run off in drops. PAINTINGS, TO CLEAN: Sfc Cleaning Preparations and Meth- ods. Paints (See also Acid-Proofing, Ceramics, Enamels, Fireproofin^ Glazing, Painting Processes, Pigments, Rust Preventives, Varnishes, and Waterproofing.) PAINT BASES: Dry Bases for Paints. — The following colors and minerals, mixed in the pro- portions given and then ground to fine powder, make excellent dry paints, and may be thinned with turpentme oil, and a small percentage of cheap varnish to consistency required. Buff.— Yellow ocher 44 pounds Whiting 6 pounds Oxide of zinc 5 pounds Plaster of Paris i pound Brick Brown. — Yellow ocher 26 pounds Calcined copperas.. . . 4 pounds Red hematite li pounds Best silica 7 pounds Whiting 18 pounds Gray. — Oxide of zinc 30 pounds White lead 6 pounds Whiting 12 pounds Bone black J pound Yellow ocher 2 pbunds Crimson. — Indian red 25 pounds Crocus martis 7 pounds Oxide of zinc 6 pounds Wliitiiig 6 pounds Vandyke Brown. — Yellow ocher 25 pounds Whiting 18 pounds Umber 4 pounds Oxide of zinc 7 pounds Purple oxide of iron . . 1 pound Blood Red. — Crocus martis 30 pounds Whiting 20 pounds Hematite 3 pounds Silica 6 pounds Venetian red 2 pounds Drab.— Yellow ocher 40 pounds Whiting 10 pounds Oxide of zinc 8i pounds Sulphate of barytes.. . 1 pound Paint for Blackboards. — Shellac 1 pound Alcohol 1 gallon Lampblack (fine quality) 4 ounces Powdered emery 4 ounces Ultramarine blue .... 4 ounces Dissolve the shellac in the alcohol. Place the lampblack, emery, and ultra- marine bliie on a cheese-cloth strainer, pour on part of the shellac solution, stirring constantly and gradually adding the solution until all of tne powders have passed through the strainer. Dark-Green Paint for Blackboards. — Mix 1 part Prussian blue and 1 part chrome green with equal parts of gilders' size and alcohol to a thin cream consistency. Apply with a large, stiff brush and after an hour a second coat is given. After "ii to 48 hours smooth the surface with a felt cloth. This renders it rich and velvety. The shade must be a deep black green and the quantities of the colors have to be modified accordingly if necessary. Old blackboards should be previously thoroughly cleaned with soda. BRONZING SOLUTIONS FOR PAINTS. I. — The so-called " banana solution" (the name being derived from its odor) which is used in applying bronzes of various kinds, is usually a mixture of equal parts of amyl acetate, acetone, and benzine, with just enough pyr- oxyline dissolved therein to give it body. Powdered bronze is put into a bottle containing this mixture and the paint so formed applied with a brush. The thin covering of pyroxyline that is left after the evaporation of the liquid protects the bronze from the air and keeps it from being wiped off by the cleanly housemaid. Tarnished picture frames and tarnished chandeliers to which a gold bronze has been applied from such a solution will look fresn and new for a long time. Copper bronze as well as gold bronze and tne various col- ored bronze powders can be used in the "banana solution" for making very pretty advertising signs for use in the drug store. Lettering and bordering wort upon the signs can be done with it. Several very small, stiff painters' brushes are needed for such worK and they must 490 PAINTS be either kept in the solution when not in use, or, better still, washed in benzine or acetone immediateljf after use and put away for future service. As the "banana solution" is volatile, it must be kept well corked. II. — A good bronzing solution for paint tins, applied by dipping, is made by dis- solving Syrian asphaltum in spirits of turpentine, etc., and thinning it down with these solvents to the proper bronze color and consistency. A little good boiled oil will increase the adherence. Paint Brushes. — To soften a hard paint brush, stand the brush overnight in a pot of soft soap and clean in warm water. Afterwards clean in benzine. If the brush is wrapped with a string do not let the string touch the soap. Paint brushes which have dried up as hard as stone can be cleaned in the fol- lowing manner: Dissolve 1 part soda in 3 parts water; pour the solution in a cylinder glass, and suspend in it the brushes to be cleaned, so that they are about 2 inches from the bottom of the vessel. Let it remain undisturbed at a temperature of 140° to 158° F., 12 to 24 hours, after which the most indurated brushes will have become soft, so that they can be. readily cleaned with soap. It is essential, however, to observe the temperature, as bristle brushes will be injured and spoiled if the heat is greater. Black. — A Permanent Black of Rich Luster for Metal Boxes. — Dissolve chlorate of potassium and blue vitriol, equal parts, in 36 times as much water, and allow the solution to cool. The parts to be blacked may be either dipped in the solution, or the solution may be flowed on and allowed to remain until the metal becomes black, after which the fixtures should be rinsed in clean water and allowed to dry. Those parts of the surface which show imperfections in the black should be recoated. Dead White on Silver Work, etc. — Bruise charcoal very finely and mix it with calcined borax in the proportion of 4 parts of charcoal to 1 of borax. Of this make a paste with water; apply this paste on the parts to be deadened; next expose the piece to the fire of well-lit coal until it acquires a cherry-red shade; allow to cool and then place it in water slightly acidulated with sulphuric acid. The bath must not be more than 5° Be. Leave the piece in the bath about 2 hours, then rinse off several times. White Coating for Signs, etc. — A white color for signs and articles exposed to the air is prepared as follows for the last coat: Thin so-called Dutch "stand" oil with oil of turpentine to working consistency, and grind in it equal parts of zinc white and white lead, not adding much siccative, as the white lead assists the drying considerably. If the paint is smoothed well with a badger brush, a very durable white color of great gloss is obtained. Linseed oil, or varnish which has thickened like "stand" oil by long open storing, will answer equally well. To Prevent Crawling of Paints. — Probably the best method to pursue will be to take an ordinary flannel rag and carefully rub it over the work pre- vious to varnishing, striping, or painting. This simple operation will obviate the possibility of crawling. In some instances, however, crawling may be traced to a defective varnish. The latter, after drying evenly on a well- prepared paint surface will at times crawl, leaving small pitmarks. For this, the simple remedy consists in purchasing varnish from a reputable manufacturer. FIREPROOF PAINTS: See also Fireproofing. Fireproofing paints of effective quality are prepared in different ways. Natu- rally no oily or greasy substances enter into their composition, the blending agent being simply water. I. — One of the standing paints con- sists of 40 pounds of powdered asbestos, 10 pouncis of aluminate of soda, 10 pounds of lime, and 30 pounds of silicate of soda, with the addition of any non- rosinous coloring matter desired. The whole is thoroughly mixed with enough water to produce a perfect blend and render an easy application. Two or more coats of this is the rule in applying it to any wood surface, inside or outside of building. II. — Another formula involves the use of 40 pounds of finely ground glass, a like amount of ground porcelain, and similarly of China clay or the same quan- tity of powdered asbestos, and 20 pounds of quicklime. These materials are ground very fine and then mixed in 60 pounds of liquid silicate of soda with water, as in the preceding formula. Two or more coats, if necessary, are given. Each of these paints is applied with a brush in the ordinary way, the drying being accomplished in a few hours, and, if coloring matter is desired, the above proportions are varied accordingly. III. — A surface coated with 3 coats of water glass, these 3 coats being subse- PAINTS 491 quently coated with water glass con- taining enough whiting or ground chalk to make it a trifle thicker tnan ordinary paint, is practically non-inflammable, only yielding to fierce consuming flames after a somewhat protracted exposure. IV. — Zinc white, 70 pounds; air- slaked lime, 39 pounds; white lead, 50 pounds; sulphate of zinc, 10 pounds; silicate of soda, 7 gallons. Tne zinc white and lime are mixed together, then ground in elastic oil, after w^ich the sili- cate of soda is added, this addition being followed by the white lead and sulphate of zinc. This white paint can be colored to meet any desired snade and it may be classed as a good working paint and probably fireproof to the same extent that most of the pretentiously sounded pigments on the markets are. Fireproof and Waterproof Paints. — The following recipes are claimed to resist both fire and water: A prepara- tion for protecting wood against the ac- tion of fire and of moisture, and also for producing on the surface of wood and metal a coat, insulating with reference to electricity and preservative from corro- sion, has been introduced in France by Louis Bethisy and Myrthil Rose. The bases or fundamental raw materials quite distinct from those hitherto em- ployed for the same purpose, are 100 parts, by weight, of nitro-cellulose and 30 parts, by weight, of chloride of lime, dis- solved in 50 per cent alcohol. Preparation of the Bases. — The cellu- lose (of wood, paper, cotton, linen, ramie, or hemp) is put in contact with two- thirds part of sulphuric acid of 66° Be. and one-third part of nitric acid of 42° Be. for some 20 or 30 minutes, washed with plenty of water, and kept for 2-t hours in a tank of water supplied with an ener- getic current. The nitro-cellulose thus obtained is bleached for this purpose; a double hypo- chlorite of aluminum and magnesium is employed. This is obtained by grinding together 100 parts of chloride of lime, 60 parts of aluminum sulphate, 23 parts of magnesium sulphate, with 200 parts of water. When the nitro-cellulose is bleached and rewashed, it is reduced to powder and dried as thoroughly as possible. It is then placed in a vat hermetically closed and put in contact with the indicated proportion of calcium chloride dissolved m alcohol. This solution of calcium chloride should be prepared at least 84 hours in advance and filtered. Composition of the Coating. — This has the following constituents: Bases (nitro-cellulose and solution of calcium chloride), 1 part; amyl acetate (solvent of the bases), 5 parts, by weight; sul- phuric ether of 0.3°, 1.650 parts, by weight; alcohol, 0.850 parU, by weight; one of these powders, alum, talc, as- bestos, or mica, 0.100 parts. Other sol- vents may be employed instead of amyl acetate; for example, acetone, acetic arid, ether alcohol, or methylic alcohol. The ether alcohol furnishes a product drying yerv quickly. If a very pliant coating is desired, the amyl acetate is employed preferably, with addition of vaseline oil, 0.20 parts, and lavender oil, O.OIO parts. Method of Operating. — The sulphuric acid is mixed with the alcohol, and left for an hour in contact, shaking from time to time. Afterwards the amyl ace- tate is added, and left in contact for an- other hour under similar .if^itation. In case of the employment of vaseline oil and lavender on, those two are mingled in ether alcohol. The base is introduced and left in contact for i?4 hours, with frequent agitation. The fluidity of the product is augmented by increasing the quantity of the solvent. Properties. — Wood covered with this coating is fireproof, non-hygrometric, and refractory to the electric- current. It also resists the action of acids and alka- lies. Metals covered with it are shel- tered from oxidation, and effectually insulated on their surface from the elec- tric current. The coating is liquid in form, and applied like collodions, cither by the brush or by immersion or other suitable method. Paint Deadening. — In order to obtain an even dullness of large walls, proceed as follows: After all the dirt has been carefully swept off, oil with 2 parts linseed oil and 1 part turpentine and rub down the smooth places in the wet oil with pumice stone. When the oil coat- ing is dry, mix the ground paint, con- sisting of whiting, 2 parts; and white lead, 1 part; both finely ground and diluted as above. Do not apply the grounding too thin, because the chalk in itself possesses little covering power. It is not the mission of the chalk, however, to adulterate the material, but to afford a hard foundation for the subsequent coats. For the third coating take white lead, 1 part; and zinc white, 1 part; thin as above and blend with a soft hair pencil. For the final application use only zinc white, ground stiff in oil with any de- sired mixing color and thinned with turpentine and rain water. Mix the 492 PAINTS water and the turpentine with the color at the same time, and this coat may be dabbed instead of blended. By the ad- dition of water the paint becomes dull more slowly and is a little more difficult to lay on; but it does not show a trace of gloss after a few days and never turns yellow, even in places less exposed to the air, and besides excels by great perma- nency. Another way is to add white wax in- stead'of water to the last coating. This wax paint also gives a handsome dullness but is more difficult of treatment. A nice matt coating is also obtained by addition of Venetian soap, dissolved in water instead of the wax. This is very desirable for church decorations where exceptionally large surfaces are to be deadened. PAINT DRYERS: I. — Ordinary barytes. . . 25 pounds Whiting 4 pounds Litharge 2 pounds Sulphate of zinc .... 2 pounds Sugar of lead 2 pounds Boiled linseed oil. .. . 5 pounds Plaster of Paris J pound II. — Whiting 16 pounds Barytes 16 pounds White lead 3 pounds Boiled linseed oil . . . f gallon PAINTS FOR GOLD AND GILDING: Gold Paints. — The formulas of the various gold paints on the market are carefully guarded trade secrets. Essen- tially they consist of a bronze powder mixed with a varnish. The best bronze powder for the purpose is what is known in the trade as "French flake," a deep gold bronze. This bronze, as seen under the microscope, consists of tiny flakes or spangles of the bronze metal. As each minute flake forms a facet for the re- flection of color, the paint made with it is muchmore brilliant than that prepared from finely powdered bronze. For making gold paint like the so- called " washable gold enamel " that is sold by the manufacturers at the present time, it is necessary to mix a celluloid varnish with the French flake bronze powder. This varnish is made by dis- solving transparent celluloid in amyl acetate in the proportion of about 5 per cent of celluloid. Transparent cellu- loid, finely shred- ded 1 ounce Acetone, sufficient cruantity. Amyl acetate to malse 20 ounces. Digest the celluloid in the acetone until dissolved and add the amyl acetate. From 1 to 4 ounces of flake bronze is to be mixed with this quantity of varnish. For silver paint or "aluminum enamel," flake aluminum bronze powder should be used in place of the gold. The cellu- loid varnish incloses the bronze particles in an impervious coating, air-tight and water-tight. As it contains nothing that will act upon the bronze, the latter re- tains its luster for a long period, until the varnished surface becomes worn or abraded and the bronze thus exposed to atmospheric action. All of the "gold" or, more properly, gilt furniture that is sold so cheaply by the furniture and department stores is gilded with a paint of this kind, and for that reason such furniture can be offered at a moderate price. The finish is sur- prisingly durable, and in color and luster IS a very close imitation of real gold-leaf work. This paint is also used on picture frames of cheap and medium grades, tak- ing the place of gold leaf or the lacquered silver leaf formerly used on articles of the better grades; it is also substituted for "Dutch metal," or imitation gold leaf, on the cheapest class of work. A cheaper gold paint is made by using an inexpensive varnish composed of gutta percha, gum dammar, or some other varnish gum, dissolved in benzole, or in a mixture of benzole and benzine. The paints made with a celluloid-amyl- acetate varnish give off a strong banana- like odor 5vhen applied, and may be read- ily recognized by this characteristic. The impalpably powdered bronzes are called "lining" bronzes. They are chiefly used for striping or lining by car- riage painters; in bronzing gas fixtures and metal work; in fresco and other in- terior decoration, and in printing; the use of a very fine powder in inks or paints admits of the drawing or printing of very delicate lines. Lining bronze is also used on picture frames or other plastic ornamental work. Mixed with a thin weak glue sizing it is applied over "burnishing clay," and when dry is polished with agate bur- nishers. The object thus treated, after receiving a finishing coat of a thin trans- parent varnish, imitates very closely in appearance a piece of finely cast antique bronze. To add still more to this effect the burnishing clay is colored the green- ish black that is seen in the deep parts of real antique bronzes, and the bronze powder, mixed with size, is applied only to the most prominent parts or "hign lights" of the ornament. PAINTS 493 Since the discovery of the celluloid- amyl-acetate varnish, or bronze liquid, and its preservative properties on bronze powders, manufacturers have discon- tinued the use of liquids containing oils, turpentine, or gums, since their constitu- ents corrode the bronze metal, causing the paint finally to turn black. Gilding in Size. — The old painters and gilders used to prepare the gold size themselves, but nowadays it is usually bought ready made, barring the white of cgij additional. The best and most rehable, and especially suited for fine work, is undoubtedly the red French gold size. It is cleaned, as far as pos- sible, of all impurities, and powdered. For 'ii6 grains take 1 white of egg; put it into a glass, taking care to exclude the yiilk entirely — otherwise the burnish will show black spots. Beat the white of egg to a froth with a long, well-cleaned bristle brush; add the froth to the size and grind finely together, which is soon done. When grinding, a little water and red size, if necessary, may be added (use only water for thinning). After being ground, the size is forced through a very fine hair sieve into a perfectly clean vessel, and covered up well, for imme- diate or subsequent use. The raw stuff of the red size is bolus, which is dug in France and Armenia in excellent quality. Besides the red size there are yellow, white (pipe clay), blue, and gray (alumina), which are used for certain purposes, to enumerate which here would lead too far. For burnish gold, always take yellow size for ground work. Dip a finely ground bristle brush in the gold size pre- pared for use; fill a well-cleaned glass (holding 1 pint) half full of water, and add the size contained in the brush, also about -t to 5 spoonfuls of pure alcohol. It is advisable not to take too much size; the liquid, when applied, must hardly have a yellow tint. When this is dry soon after, commence applying the size, for which a hair pencil is used. The essentials are to paint evenly and not too thickly, so that the tone remains uniform. Apply three coats of size. When the size is laid on correctly and has become dry, brush the whole with a special brush, or rub with a flannel rag, so as to obtain the highest possible luster. The size must not stand too long; other- wise no gloss can be developed. After brushing, coat the work with weak glue water and wrap it up in tissue paper if thegilding is not to be done at once. Toe strictest cleanliness is essential, as the red gold size is very sensitive. The parts where the size has been applied must not be touched with the hand, else grease spots will ensue, which will make a flawless gloss in gilding impossible. The least relaxation of tne necessary attention may spoil the whole job, so that everything has to be ground off again. The necessary tools for the application of gold leaf are: Hair pencils of various sizes, tip, cushion, and gilding knife, as with oil-gilding. Take pure alcohol or grain brandy, and dilute with two-thirds water. When ready to apply the gold leaf, dip a hair pencil of suitable size into the fluid, but do not have it full enough that the alcohol will run on the .size ground. Moisten a portion of the ground surface us large as the gold leaf, which is laid on immediately after. Proceed in the same manner, first mois- tening, then applying the ready-cut gold leaf. The latter must not be pressea on, but merely laid down lightly, one leaf a little over the edge of the previous one, without using up too much gold. Tech- nical practice in gold-leaf gilding is presupposed; through this alone can any skill be acquired, reading being of no avail. The leaf of gold being applied, all dust must be swept off by means of a light, fine hair pencil (but never against the overlapping edges), and the burnishing is commenced. For this purpose there are special agate tools of tne shape of a horn. Flint stone, blood stone, and wolf's teeth are sometimes, but gradually more seldom, employed. Burnish till a full, fine luster appears; but very care- fully avoid dents and lines, not to speak of scratches, which would be very hard to mend. Gold Enamel Paints. — I. — Pure turps 6 pints Copal varnish 1 pint Good gold bronze. . . 6 J pounds Calcis hydrate (dry- slaked lime) J ounce Mix the varnish and turps at a gentle heat, then slake well with the lime, and settle for a few days, then pour off the clean portion and mix with the powder. II. — White hard varnish . 1 gallon Methylated spirit. . . J gallon Gold bronze 12 pounds Finely powdered mica 3 ounces Mix the varnish and the spirit, reduce the mica to an impalpable powder, mix with the gold, then add to the liquid. Many bronze powders contain a. goodly 494 PAINTS proportion of mica, as it imparts bril- liancy. Powdered mother-of-pearl is used also. GRAINING WITH PAINT: See also Wood. Oak Graining. — Prepare a paint of two-thirds of white lead and one-third of golden ocher with the requisite amount of boiled linseed oil and a little drier, and cover the floor twice with this mix- ture, which possesses great covering power. When the last coating is dry, paint the floor with a thinly liquid paint consisting of varnish and sienna, apply- ing the same in the longitudinal direc- tion of the boards. Treat a strip about 20 inches wide at a time, and draw at once a broad paint brush or, in the ab- sence of such, an ordinary brush or goose feather along the planks through the wet paint, whereupon the floor will acquire a nicely grained appearance. The paint requires several days to dij. A subsequent coating of varnish will cause the graining to stand out still more prominenfly. Birch. — Imitations of birch are use- fully employed for furniture. The ground should be a light, clean buff, made from white lead, stained with either yellow ocher or raw sienna in oil. In graining, brush over the surface with a thin wash of warm brown, making the panel of 2 or 3 broad color shades. Then take a large mottler and mottle the darker parts into the light, working slantwise, as for maple, but leaving a broad and stiff mark. While this is still wet soften the panel and then slightly mottle across the previous work to break it up. When thoroughly dry, carefully wet the work over with clean water and clean mottler, and put in darker over- grain with a thin oak overgrainer or overgrainer in tubes. Maple. — Sixty pounds white lead; 1 ounce deep vermilion; 1 ounce lemon chrome. Ash. — Sixty pounds white lead; 1 ounce deep vermilion; 1 ounce lemon chrome. Medium Oak. — Sixty pounds white lead; 2 pounds French ocher; 1 ounce burnt umber. Light Oak. — Sixty pounds white lead; 1 ounce lemon chrome; J pound French ocher. Dark Oak. — Sixty pounds white lead; 10 pounds burnt umber; IJ pounds medium Venetian red. Satin Wood. — Sixty pounds white lead; 1 ounce deep vermilion; 1 J pounds lemon chrome. Pollard Oak. — Seventy-five pounds white lead; 20 pounds French ocher; 3 pounds burnt umber; 2J pounds medium Venetian red. Pitch Pine. — Sixty pounds white lead; J pound French ocher; i pound medium Venetian red. Knotted Oak. — -Sixty pounds white lead; 9 pounds French ocher; 3J pounds burnt umber. Italian Walnut. — Sixty pounds white lead; 6 pounds French ocher; IJ pounds burnt umber; IJ pounds medium Vene- tian red. Rosewood. — ^Nine and one-half pounds burnt umber; 40 pounds medium Venetian red; 10 pounds orange chrome. Dark Mahogany. — Nine and one-half pounds burnt umber; 40 pounds medium Venetian red; 10 pounds orange chrome. Light Mahogany. — Sixty pounds white lead; 3 pounds burnt umber; 10 pounds medium Venetian red. American Walnut. — Thirty pounds white lead; 9 pounds French ocher; 4 pounds burnt umber; 1 pound medium Venetian red. LUMINOUS PAINTS. The illuminating power of the phos- phorescent masses obtained by heating strontium thiosulphate or barium thio- sulphate is considerably increased by the addition, before heating, of small quan- tities of the nitrates of uranium, bismuth, or thorium. Added to calcium thio- sulphate, these nitrates do not heighten the luminosity or phosphorescence. The product from strontium thiosul- Ehate is more luminous than that of the arium compound. Among the best luminous paints are the following: I. — Lennord's. — One himdred parts, by weight, of strontium carbonate; 100 Carts, by weight, of sulphur; 0.5 parts, y weight, of potassium chloride; 0.5 parts, by weight, of sodium chloride; 0.4 parts, by weight, of manganese chloride. The materials are heated for three-quarters of an hour to one hour, to about 2,372° F. The product gives a violet light. II. — Mourel's. — One hundred parts, by weight, of strontium carbonate; 30 parts, by weight, of sulphur; 2 parts, by weight, of sodium carbonate: 0.5 parts, by weight, of sodium chloride; 0.2 parts, by weight, of manganese sulphate. The method of treatment is the same as in the first, the phosphorescence deep yellow. PAINTS 495 III. — Vanino's. — Sijcty parts, by weight, of strontium thiosulphate; 12 parts, by weight, of a 0.5 per cent acidified alco- holic solution of bismuth nitrate; 6 parts, by weight, of a 0.5 per cent alcoholic solu- tion of uranium nitrate. The materials are mixed, dried, brought gradually to a temperature of '2,372° ¥., and heated for about an hour. The phosphorescence is emerald green. I V. — Balmain's. — Twenty parts, by weight, of calcium oxide (burnt lime), free from iron; 6 parts, by weight, of sul- phur; 2 parts, by weight, of starch; 1 part, by weight, of a 0.5 per cent solution of bismuth nitrate; 0.15 parts, by weight, of potassium chloride; 0.15 parts, by weight, of sodium chloride. The materi- als arc mixed, dried, and heated to 1,300° C. (2,372° F.). The product gives a vio- let light. — To make these phosphorescent sub- stances effective, they are exposed for a time to direct sunlight; or a mercury lamp may be used, rowerful incandes- cent gas light also does well, but requires more time. PAINTS FOR METAL SURFACES: Blackening Ornaments of Iron. — I. — To give iron ornaments a black-brown to black color, proceed in the following manner: The articles are treated with corrosives, cleaned of all adhering grease, and placed in a, 10 per cent solution of potassium bichromate, dried in the air, and finally held over an open, well-glow- ing, non-sooting fire for 2 minutes. The first coloring is usually black brown, but if this process is repeated several times, a pure black shade is obtained. Special attention has to be paid to removing all grease, otherwise the greasy spots will not be touched by the liquid, and the coloring produced will become irregular. Benzine is employed for that purpose and the articles must not be touciied with the fingers afterwards. II. — This process protects the iron from rust for a long time. The treat- ment consists in coating the objects very uniformly with a thin layer of linseed-oil varnish, and burning it off over a char- coal fire. During tne deflagration the draught must be stopped. The varnish will first go up in smoke with a strong formation of soot, and finally burn up entirely. The process is repeated, i. e., after one coating is burned off a new one is applied, until the parts exhibit a uni- formly handsome, deep - black color. Next, wipe off the covering with a dry rag, and heat again, but only moder- ately. Finally, the articles are taken from the fire and rubbed with a rag well saturated with linseed-oil varnish. The black turns completely dull, and forms a real durable covering for the objects. Black for Polished Iron Pieces. — Apply successive layers of a very concentrated solution of nitrate of manganese dis- solved in alcohol over a gentle fire and the water bath. The surfaces to be blackened should be previously heated. By repeating the layers all the tints be- tween brownish black and bluish black may be obtained. Glossy Black for Bicycles, etc. — Amber 8 ounces Linseed oil V ounces Asphaltura 1 J ounces Rosin 1 j ounces Oil turpentine S ounces Heat the linseed oil to boiling point, ;i(lil the amber, asphaltum, and rosin, and when all melted remove from the fire and gradually add the turpentine. Japan Black. — The following is a good japan black for metal surfaces: Take 12 ounces of amber and 2 ounces of asphaltum. Fuse by heat, and add i pint boiled oil and 2 ounces of rosin. Wnen cooling add 16 ounces of oil of turpentine. Brass and Bronze Protective Paint. — As a protective covering, especially for brass and bronze objects, a colorless celluloid solution is recommended, such as is found in trade under the name of "Zapon" (q. v.). Paint for Copper. — Dissolve 1 oupce of alum in 1 quart of warm soft water. When cold add flour to make it about the consistency of cream, then add J thimble of rosin and i ounce of sugar of lead. Priming Iron. — The following, if care- fully carried ojit, gives the best satis- faction: The first step consists in thor- oughly cleaning the surface of the iron, removing all adhesions in the way of dirt, rust, etc., before the question of priming is considered. As paint in this instance is applied more with a view of protecting the iron from atmospheric influences, rather than for a decorative effect, careful attention should be de- voted for securing a base or surface which is calculated to produce a thorough and permanent application. A great deal depends upon the nature of the metal to be painted. Common cast iron, for instance, possessing a rough exterior, 496 PAINTS with ordinary precautions can be more readily painted with the prospect of a permanent adhesion of the paint, than a planed steel or wrought-iron surface. With the latter it has been demonstrated that a hard and elastic paint is needed, while with regard to cast iron, other paints containing iron oxides are more suitable. For good drying and covering properties, as well as elasticity, a good boiled oil to which has been added an adequate proportion of red lead will be found to form an excellent paint for smooth metal surfaces. The primary object is to protect the surface of the iron from moisture for the purpose of avoid- ing rust. The priming must therefore be carried out so that it will stick, after which subsequent coats may be added if desired. It is advisable that articles made of iron should first be coated with linseed- oil varnish. It dries slowly, hardens, and enables the operator afterwards to exercise an effective control over the con- dition of his material. Iron must be absolutely dry and free from rust when it is to be painted. It is best to apply next a coating of hot linseed oil; when dry this should be followed by a priming of pure red lead in good linseed oil, and the iron should then be painted as de- sired, using ground oil paints and leav- ing an interval of a week between each coating. Cementing should be done after the red lead priming, but the last coat must not be given until the whole is thoroughly dry. Bright oil paints and an upper coating with plenty of oil resist the effects of heat better than thin coat- ings; moreover, rust can be detected in its early stages with the former. Coat- ings of tar and asphalt (asphalt dissolved in turpentine) are practicable for under- ground pipes, but are not adapted for pipes exposed to the air, as tney are quickly spoiled. Asphalt varnish, used for coating coal scuttles, fire screens, etc., consists of asphalt dissplved in linseed- oil varnish. Iron stoves and stovepipes are best coated with graphite. Galvanized Iron. — For galvanized iron there has been recommended a wash consisting simply of dilute hydrochloric acid, which produces chloride of zinc, that in combination with the oxygen of the air is said to produce a, film upon which oil color takes as good a hold as it would upon ordinary sheet iron. Another method which has been tested and found effective is to make a solution as follows: One ounce of chlo- ride of copper; 1 ounce nitrate of copper; 1 ounce sal ammoniac, dissolved in 2 quarts of soft water, to which is added 1 ounce of crude or commercial hydro- chloric acid. This solution should be made in an earthenware dish or pot, or in glass or stoneware, aS tin will precipi- tate the copper salts and make the solu- tion imperfect. To large surfaces this solution is applied with a broad brush, when the surface assumes a deep black color, which in drying out in from 12 to 24 hours becomes a gray white, upon which the properly prepared primer will take a permanent grip. On the film so produced a much tninner paint will cover very much better than a stouter paint would on the untreated galvanized or ordinary iron surface. A single trial will convince the craftsman that this treatment is a method that will give lasting results, provided he tries the same priming paint on the treated and un- treated surface. To Paint Wrought Iron with Graphite. — In order to make wrought iron look like new mix fine graphite with equal parts of varnish and turpentine oil, add- ing a little siccative. Paint the iron parts with this twice, allowing to dry each time. Especially the second coat- ing must be perfectly dry before further treatment. The latter consists in pre- paring graphite with spirit and applying it very thinly over the first coat. After the drying or evaporation of the spirit the graphite last applied is brushed vigorously, whereby a handsome, dura- ble gloss is produced. Paint for Iron Bodies Exposed to Heat. — Dilute 1 part soda water glass with 2 parts water and mix intimately with the following pigments : White. — White lead or sulphate of barium. Yellow. — Chromate of barium, ocher, or uranium yellow. Green. — Chromic oxide or ultramarine green. Blue. — Ultramarine. Brown. — Oxide of cadmium, oxide of manganese or terra di sienna. Red. — English red or chrome red. Bronze powder in a suitable quantity may be added to the mixture, but not more paint should be prepared than can be used up in a few hours. The bronze powder may also be strewn on the fresh paint, or applied with a dry brush, to enhance the gloss. This paint is not affected by heat, afld is inodorous. Protective Coating for Bright Iron Articles. — Zinc white, 30 parts; lamp- PAINTS 497 black, 2 parts; tallow, 7 parts; vaseline, 1 part; olive oil, 3 parts; varnish, 1 part. Boil together J hour and add J part of benzine and J part of turpentine, stirring the mass carefully and boiling for some time. The finished paste-like substance can be readily removed with a rag with- out the use of solvents. Rust Paints. — I. — A new rust paint is produced by the following process: Mix 100 parts dry iron sulphate and 87 parts sodium chlorate and heat to 1,500° to 1,800° F. The chlorine set free seems to have a very favorable action on the color of the simultaneously forming iron oxide. In order to avoid, however, too far-reaching an effect of the chlorine gas, about 18 pounds of a substance which absorbs the same mechanically, such as kaolin, ground pumice stone, ocher, etc., are added to the mixture. II. — A material known under the names of lardite, steatite, agalmatolite, pagodite, is excellently adapted as a sub- stitute for the ordinary metallic protec- tive agent of the pigments and has the property of protecting iron from rust in an effective manner. In China, lardite is used for protecting edifices of sand- stone, which crumbles under the action of the atmosphere. Likewise a thin layer of powdered .steatite, applied in the form of paint, has been found valuable there as a protector against the decay of obelisks, statues, etc. Lardite, besides, possesses the quality of being exceedingly fine-grained, which renders this material valuable for use in ship painting. Ground steatite i.s one of the finest ma- terials wliich can be produced, and no other so quickly and firmly adheres to the fibers of iron and steel. Furthermore, steatite is lighter than metallic covering agents, and covers, mixed in paint, a larger surface than zinc white, red lead, or iron oxide. Steatite as it occurs in Switzerland is used there and in the Tyrol for stoves, since it is fireproof. Steel. — An excellent coating for steel, imitating the blue color of natural steel, is composed of white shellac, 5 parts; borax, 1 part; alcohol, 5 parts; water, 4 f>arts; and a sufficient quantity of methy- cne blue. The borax is dissolved m water, the shellac in alcohol. The aqueous solution of the borax is heated to a boil and the alcoholic solution of the shellac i.s added with constant stirring. Next add the blue color, continuing to stir. Before this coating is applied to the steel, c. g., the spokes of a bicycle, the latter are first rubbed off with fine emery paper. The coat is put on with a soft rag. The quantity of pigment to be added is very small. By varying the quantity a paler or darker coloring of the steel can be produced. PAINTS FOR ROOFS AND ROOF PAPER: Carbolineum. — This German prepar- ation is made in three colors. I. — Pale. — Melt together in an iron kettle, over a naked fire, 30 parts of American rosin F and 150 parts of pale paraffine oil and stir in 10 parts of single rectified rosin oil. II. — Dark. — Melt 100 parts of an- thracene oil and 20 parts of American rosin F on a slow fire. Next stir in 2 parts of Para rubber solution (or solution of caoutchouc waste) and keep on boil- ing until all is dissolved. When this is done there should be still added 5 parts of crude concentrated carbolic acid and 5 parts of zinc chloride lye, 50° Be., stir- ring until cool. The last-named ad- mixture is not absolutely necessary, but highly advisable, owing to its extraor- dinary preservative and bactericidal properties. III. — Colored.— For red, melt 100 parts of coal-tar oil, then stir in 50 parts of pale paraffine oil, and finally 75 parts of bole or iron minium, and pass through the paint mill. Although the addition of iron minium is very desirable, it is con- siderably more expensive. For gray, proceed as above, with the exception that metallic gray is used in place of the bole. For green, metallic green is em- ployed. The colors are identical with those used in the manufacture of roof varnish. To increase the antiseptic properties of the colored carbolineum, any desired additions of phenol or zinc chloride solutions may be made, but the chief requirement in the case of colored carbolineum is good covering power of he coating. Paints for Roofs Covered with Tar Paper, for Roofing Paper, etc. — ■ I. — Distilled coal tar. ... 70 parts Heavy mineral oil (lubricating oil) . . 10 parts American rosin 20 parts II. — Distilled coal tar. ... SO parts Trinidad asphalt. .. 15 parts Mineral oil, contain- ing paraffine 10 parts Dry clay, finely ground 25 parts Imitation Oil Paint. — Schulz's German patent paint is cheap, and claimed to be 498 PAINTS durable, weatherproof, and glossy, like oil paint. The application consists of a ground coat, upon which the surface coat proper is applied after the former is dry. For the preparation of the ground- ing dissolve 1,000 parts, by weight, of Marseilles soap in 10,000 parts of boiling water and stir. In a separate vessel dissolve 2,000 parts of glue in 10,000 parts of boiling water, adding 17,500 parts of spirit of sal ammoniac. These two solutions are poured to- gether and well stirred. Then dis- solve 400 parts of chrome alum in 5,000 parts of water, and pour into the above mixture. To this mixture add 10,000 parts of pipe clay, stirring the whole well and tinting with earth colors, ocher, Vandyke brown, etc. The solid ingre- dients must be dissolved in boiling not water, and sifted so as to obtain a finely divided ground color. This priming is applied m a warm state. The coating proper is put on the ground coat after it IS dry, in about one-half to one hour. For this coat dissolve 2,000 parts of crys- tallized alum in 10,000 parts of boiling water and add to this liquid a solution of 2,000 parts of glue in 10,000 parts of water; in a special vessel prepare soap- suds of 1,000 parts of Marseilles soap in 12,000 parts of boiling water; dissolve 120 parts of chrome alum in 1,500 parts of boiling water, and mix the three solu- tions together with diligent stirring. This paint or liquid should also be put on hot, and assures a durable exterior paint. PAINTS, STAINS, ETC., FOR SHIPS. Anti-Fouling Composition. — Make an agglutinant by heating together By weight White lead, ground in oil 2 parts Red lead, dry 1 part Raw linseed oil. ..... 14 parts While hot stir in yellow ocher, kao- lin, baked clay in powder, or any inert body, such as silica, barytes, gypsum, etc., to form a stiff dough, and, without allow- ing this compound to become cold (the vessel should not be removed from the source of heat), dilute with more or less manganese linoleate to the required consistency. Marine Paint to Resist Sea Water. — First prepare the water-resisting agglu- tinant by heating together Dry white lead, car- bonate only 1 part Litharge 1 part Linseed oil (fluid measure) 14 parts Heat these and stir until of the con- sistency of thick glue, and for every 36 parts, by weight, of this compound add 3 parts, by weight, of turpentine, and 1 part, by weight, of mastic varnish (mas- tic rosin dissolved in turpentine); reheat the whole, and for every 32 parts, by weight, stir in and mix the following: Baked and powdered clay 4 parts Portland cement 16 parts Zinc white 1 part Red lead 1 part After well mixing, dilute with more or less turpentine (not exceeding 25 per cent of the whole), or linoleate of man- ganese, the latter being preferable, as it has greater binding power. For col- ored paints use red oxide of iron or green oxide of chrome, but do not use chrome green or lead, as they will not stand the action of the sea water. Compositions for Ships' Bottoms. — Green. Pale rosin 25 pounds Prepared mineral green 8 pounds D. L. zinc 13 pounds Boiled oil 2 pounds Mineral naphtha. . . 1 gallon ' Petroleum spirit .... 1 i gallons Prepared Mineral Green. Dry levigated min- eral green 28 pounds Turpentine 7 pounds Turpentine varnish . 7 pounds Refined linseed oil . . 7 pounds Copper Color. Pale rosin 25 pounds Light Italian ocher. . 15 pounds D. L. zinc 5 pounds Turkey red paint. . . J pound Petroleum spirit. ... l| pounds Mineral naphtha ... 1 pound Pink. Pale rosin 25 pounds D. L. zinc 16 pounds Deep vermilion 7 pounds Mineral naphtha. . . 1 gallon Petroleum spirit. ... 1 J gallons PAINTS FOR WALLS OF CEMENT, PLASTER, HARD FINISH, ETC. Coating for Bathrooms. — As a, rule cement plastering, as well as oil paint, suffices for the protection of walls and ceilings in bathrooms, but attention must be called to the destructive action of medicinal admixtures. For such rooms as well as for laboratories, an PAINTS 499 application of Swedish wood tar, made into a flowing consistency with a little oil of turpentine and put on hot, has been found very excellent. It is of advantage previously to warm*the wall slightly. To the second coat add some wax. A very durable coating is ob- tained, which looks so pleasing that it is only necessary to draw some stripes with a darker paint so as to divide the surface into fields. Cement, to Paint Over Fresh. — The wall should be washed with dilute sul- phuric acid several days before painting. This will change the surplus caustic lime to sulphate of lime or gypsum. The acid should be about one-half chamber acid and one-half water. This should be repeated before painting, and a coat of raw linseed oil flowed on freely should be given for the first coat. While this cannot be always guaranteed as eflFeetual for making the paint hold, it is the best method our correspondent has heard of for the purpose, and is worth trying when it is absolutely necessary to paint over fresh cement. Damp Walls, Coating for. — Thirty garts of tin are dissolvecTin 40 parts of ydrochloric acid, and 30 parts of sal ammoniac are added. A powder com- posed of freestone, 50 parts; zinc oxide, 20 parts; pounded glass, 15 parts; pow- dered marble, 10 parts; and calcined magnesia, 5 parts, is prepared, and made into a paste with the liquid above men- tioned. Coloring matter may be added. The composition may be used as a darap-proof coating for walls, or for repairing stonework, or for molding statues or ornaments. Facade Paint. — For this zinc oxide is especially adapted, prepared with size or casein. Any desired earth colors may also be added. The surfaces are coated 3 times with this mass. After the third application is dry, put on a single coat- ing of zinc chloride solution of 30° Be. to which 3 per cent bora.x is added. This coating is very solid, can be washed, and is not injured by hydrogen sulphide. Hard -Finished Walls. — The treatment for hard-finished walls which are to be painted in flat colors is to prime with a thin coat of lead and oil well brushed into the wall. Next put on a thin coat of glue size; next a coat mixed with § oil and § turpentine; next a coat of flat paint mixed with turpentine. If you use any dry pigment mix it stiff in oil and thin with turps. If in either case the f>aint dries too fast, and is liable to show aps, put a little glycerine in, to retard the drying. PAINTS, WATERPROOF AOT) WEATHERPROOF: See also Fireproof Paint. The following are claimed to be both waterproof and weatherproof: I. — In 50 parts, by weight, of spirit of 96 per cent, dissolve 16 parts, by weight, of shellac, orange, finely pow- dered; 3 parts, by weight, of silver lake, finely powdered; and 0.6 parts, by wei^nt, of gamboge, finely powdered. This paint may be employed without ad- mixture of any siccative, and is excel- lently adapted for painting objects which are exposed to the inclemencies of the weather, as it is perfectly weatherproof. II. — Mix glue water with zinc oxide (zinc white) and paint the respective object with this mixture. When this is dry (after about 2 hours) it is followed up with a coating of glue water and zinc chloride in a highly diluted state. Zinc oxide enters into a chemical combination with zinc chloride, which acquires the hardness of glass and a njirror-like bright surface. Any desired colors can be prepared with the glue water (size) and are practically imperishable. This zinc coating is very durable, dries quick- ly, and is 60 per cent cheaper than oil paint. Water- and Acid -Resisting Paint. — Caoutchouc is melted with colophony at a low temperature, after the caoutchouc has been dried in a drying closet (stove) at 158° to 176° F., until no more con- siderable increase in weight is percepti- ble, while the colophony nas completely lost its- moisture by repeated melting. The raw products thus prepared will readily melt upon slight heating. To the melted colophony and caoutchouc add in a hot liquid state zinc white or any similar pigment. Thin with a varnish consisting of 50 parts of perfectly an- hydrous colophony, 40 parts of absolute alcohol, and 40 parts of benzine. The whole syrupy mass is worked through in a paint mill to obtain a uniform product, at which operation more or less colo- phony varnish is added according to the desired consistency. Water- and Air-Proof Paint. — An air- proof and waterproof paint, the subject of a recent Frencn patent, is a compound of 30 parts, by weight, acetone; 100 parts acetic ether; 60 parts sulphuric ether; 100 parts camphor; 60 parts gum lac; 200 parts cotton; 100 parts paper 500 PAINTS (dissolved in sulphuric acid); 100 parts mastic in drops. These proportions may fluctuate according to need. The paper is reduced well and dissolved with- out heat with sufficient sulphuric ether; the cotton is dissolved in the acetone and the whole is mixed together with the other ingredients and stirred well. The application is performed as with any other varnish. The coating is said not to crack or shrink and to be particularly useful as a protection against moisture for all stufl^s. PAINTS FOR WOOD: See also Wood. Floor Coating. — A new paint for floors, especially those of soft wood: Mix to- gether 2.2 pounds joiners' glue; a little over 1 ounce powdered bichromate of potash; 3 J ounces aniline brown; and 10 J quarts water in a tin vessel. After 6 hours have elapsed (when the glue is completely soaked), heat gradually to the boiling point. The coating becomes perfectly water-tight after 2 or 3 days; it is not opaque, as the earthy body is lack- ing. The glue causes the wood fibers to be firmly united. It becomes in- soluble by the addition of bichromate of potash, under the influence of light. Without this admixture a simple glue coat has formerly not been found satis- factory, as it dissolves if cleaned with water. Durable House Paint. — I. — New houses should be primed once with pure linseed oil, then painted with a thin paint from white lead and chalk, and thus gradually covered. The last coat is prepared of well-boiled varnish, white lead, and chalk. The chalk has the mission to moderate the saponification of the linseed oil by the white lead. Mixing colors such as ocher and black, which take up plenty of oil, materially assist in producing a durable covering. II. — Prime with zinc white and let this be succeeded by a coating with zinc chloride in glue water (size). The zinc oxide forms with the zinc chloride an oxy-chloride of great hardness and glossy surface. By admixture of pig- ments any desired shade may be pro- duced. The zinc coating is indestruc- tible, dries quickly, does not peel, is free from the smell of fresh oil paint, and more than 5 per cent cheaper. Ivory Coating for Smooth, Light Wood. — In order to cover the articles, which may be flat or round, with this coating, thev must first be polished quite smooth and clean; then they are coated with thin, hot, white glue. When the coat is thoroughly dry, the glue is rubbed off again with fine glass paper. The mass is prepared as follows: Take 3 pounds (more or less, according to the number of articles) of the purest and best collo- dion; grind upon a clean grinding stone twice the quantity that can be taken up with the point of a knife of Krems white, with enough good pale linseed oil as is necessary to grind the white smooth and fine. Take a clean bottle, into which one-half of the collodion is poured; to this add the ground white, which can be removed clean from the stone by means of a good spatula and put in the bottle. Add about 100 drops of linseed oil, and shake the mass till it looks like milk. Now painting with this milky sub- stance may be commenced, using a fine hair pencil of excellent quality. The Eenpil is not dipped in the large bottle; ut a glass, is kept at hand with an open- ing of about 1 inch, so as to be able to immerse the pencil quickly. The sub- stance is not flowing like the alcohol lacquers, for which reason it may be put on thick, for the ether, chiefly consti- tuting the mass, evaporates at once and leaves but a very thin film which becomes noticeable only after about 10 such applications have been made. Shake the bottle well each time before filling the small glass, as the heavy Krems white is very apt to sink to the bottom of the bottle. If it is observed that the substance becomes too thick, which may easily occur on account of the evapora- tion, a part of the remaining ether is added, to which in turn 30 to 40 drops of oil are added, shaking it till the oil appears to be completely dissolved. The operator must put on the mass in quick succession and rather thick. After about 10 coats have been applied the work is allowed to rest several hours; then 3 or 4 coats of pure collodion, to which likewise several drops of oil have been added, are given. Another pause of several hours having been allowed to intervene, application of the mass is once more begun. When it is noticed that a layer of the thickness of paper has formed, the arti- cles, after drying thoroughly, should be softly rubbed off with very fine glass paper, after which they require to be wiped off well with a clean linen rag, so that no dust remains. Then coating is continued till the work seems serviceable. A few applications of pure collodion should be made, and when this has become perfectly hard, after a few hours, it can be rubbed down with a rag. PAINTS 601 tripoli, and oil, and polished by hand, like horn or ivory. This work can be done only in a room which is entirely free from dust. The greatest cleanliness must be observed. MISCELLANEOUS RECIPES, PAINTS, ETC.: Bathtub Paint. — Take white keg lead, tint to any desired color and then add, say, J boiled oil (pure linseed) to J hard drying durable body varnish. Clean the surface of the tub thoroughly before ap- plying the paint. Benzine or lime wash are good cleaning agents. Coat up un- til a satisfactorily strong, pure color is reached. This will give good gloss and will also wear durably. Coating for Name Plates. — A durable coating for name plates in nurseries is produced as follows: Take a woolen ra^, saturate it with joiners' polish, lay it into a linen one, and rub the wooden sur- face with this for some time. Rub down with sandpaper and it can be written on almost like paper. When all is dry, coat with dammar lacquer for better protection. If the wood is to receive a color it is placed in the woolen rag before rubbing down, in this case chrome yellow. To Keep Flies from Fresh Paint. — For the purpose of keeping flies and other insects away from freshly painted sur- faces mix a little bay oil (laurel oil) with the oil paint, or place a receptacle con- taining same in the vicinity of the painted objects. The pungent odor keeps off the flies. Heat -Indicating Paint. — A heat-indi- cating paint composed of a double iodide of copper and mercury was first dis- covered years ago by a German physi- cist. At ordinary temperatures the paint is red, but when heated to 206° F. it turns black. Paper painted with this composition and warmed at a stove ex- hibits the change in a few seconds. A yellow double iodide of silver and mer- cury is even more sensitive to heat, changing from yellow to dark red. To Keep Liquid Paint in Workable Condition.— To prevent liquid paint which, for convenience sake, is kept in small quantities and flat receptacles, from evaporating and drying, give the vessels such a shape that they can be placed one on top of the other without danger of falling over, and provide the under side with a porous mass — felt or very porous clay, etc. — which, if mois- tened, will retain the water for a long time. Thus, in placing the dishes one on top of the other, a moist atmosphere is created around them, which will inhibit evaporation and drying of the paint. A similar idea consists in producing covers with a tight outside and porous inside, for the purpose of covering up, during intermission in the work, clay models and like objects which it is desired to keep soft. In order to avoid the forma- tion of fungous growth on the constantly wet bottom, it may be saturated with non-volatile disinfectants, or with vola- tile ones if their vapors are calculated to act upon the objects kept underneath the cover. If the cover is used to cover up oil paints, it is moistened on the inside with volatile oil, such as oil of turpentine, oil of lavender, or with alcohol. Peeling of Paints. — For the preven- tion of peeling of new coatings on old oil paintings or lakes, the latter should be rubbed with roughly ground pumice stone, wet by means of felt rags, and to the first new coat there should be added fine spirit in the proportion of about iV of the thinning necessary for stir- ring (turpentine, oil, etc.). This paint dries well and has given good results, even in the most difiicult cases. The subsequent coatings are put on with the customary paint. Fat oil glazes for graining are likewise mixed with spirit, whereby the cracking of the varnish coating is usually entirely obviated. Polychroming of Figures. — This paint consists of white wax, 1 part, and pow- dered mastic, 1 part, melted together upon the water bath and mixed with rectified turpentine. The colors to be used are first ground stiffly in turpentine on the grinding slab, and worked into consistency with the above solution. Priming Coat for Water Spots. — A very simple way to remove rain spots, or such caused by water soaking through ceilings, has been employed with good results. Take unslaked white lime, dilute with alcohol, and paint the spots with it. When the spots are dry — which ensues quickly, as the alcohol evaporates and the lime forms a sort of insulating layer — one can proceed painting with size color, and the spots will not show through again. PAINT FOR PROTECTING CEMENT AGAINST ACID: See Acid-Proofing. PAINT, GREASE: See Cosmetics. 502 PAINTS— PAPER PAINT REMOVERS: See Cleaning Compounds. PALLADIUM ALLOYS: See Alloys. PALLADIUMIZING: See Plating. PALMS, THEIR CARE. Instead of washing the leaves of palms with water, many florists employ a mix- ture of milk and water, the object being to prevent the formation of disfiguring brown stains. Paper Paper Pads (see also Adhesives, under Glue). I. — Glue 3J ounces Glycerine 8 ounces Water, a sufficient quantity. Pour upon the glue more than enough water to cover it and let stand for several hours, then decant the greater portion of the water; apply heat until the glue is dissolved, and add the glycerine. If the mixture is too thick, add more water. II. — Glue 6 ounces Alum 30 grains Acetic acid J ounce Alcohol ij ounces Water 6J ounces Mix all but the alcohol, digest on a water bath till the glue is dissolved, allow to cool, and add the alcohol. Papier Machg. — The following are the ingredients necessary to make a lump of papier mache a little larger than an ordi- nary baseball and weighing 17 ounces: Wet paper pulp, dry paper, 1 ounce; water, 3 ounces; 4 ounces (avoirdupois); dry plaster Paris, 8 ounces (avoirdupois); hot glue, J gill, or 4 J tablespoonfuls. While the paper pulp is being pre- pared, melt some best Irish glue in the glue pot and make it of the same thick- ness and general consistency as that used by cabinet makers. On taking the paper pulp from the water squeeze it gently, but do not try to dry it. Put in a bowl, add about 3 tablespoonfuls of the hot glue, and stir the mass up into a soft and very sticky paste. Add the plaster of Paris and mix thoroughly. By the time about 3 ounces of the plaster have been used, the mass is so dry and thick that it can hardly be worked. Add the remainder of the glue, work it up again until it becomes sticky once more, and then add the remainder of the plaster. Squeeze it vigorously through the fingers to thoroughly mix the mass, and work it until free from lumps, finely kneaded and sticky enough to ad- here to the surface of a planed board. If it is too dry to stick fast add a few drops of either glue or water, and work it up again. When the paper pulp is f)oor and the mache is inclinecf to be umpy, lay the mass upon a smooth board, take a hammer and pound it hard to grind it up fine. If the papier mache is not sticky enough to adhere firmly to whatever it is rubbed upon, it is a failure, and requires more ghie. In using it the mass should be kept in a lump and used as soon as possible after making. Keep the sur- face of the lump moist by means of a wet cloth laid over it, for if you do not, the surface will dry rapidly. If it is to be kept overnight, or longer, wrap it up in several thicknesses of wet cotton cloth, and put under an inverted bowl. If it is desired to keep a lump for a week, to use daily, add a few drops of glycerine when making, so that it will dry more slowly. The papier mache made according to this formula has the following qualities: When tested by rubbing between the thumb and finger, it was sticky and cov- ered the thumb with a fine coating. (Had it left the thumb clean, it would have been because it contained too much water.) When rubbed upon a Eane of glass it sticks tightly and dries ard in 3 hours without cracking, and can only be removed with a knife. When spread in a layer as thin as writing paper it dries in half an hour. A mass actually used dried hard enough to coat with wax in 18 hours, and, without cracking, became as hard as wood; yet a similar quantity wrapped in a wet cloth and placed under an inverted bowl kept soft and fit for use for an entire week. Parchment Paper. — I. — Dip white un- sized paper for half a minute in strong sulphuric acid, specific gravity, 1.842, and afterwards in water containing a little ammonia. II. — Plunge unsized paper for a few seconds into sulphuric acid diluted with half to a quarter its bulk of water (this solution being of the same temperature as the air), and afterwards wash with weak ammonia. Razor Paper. — I. — Smooth unsized paper, one of the surfaces of which, while in a slightly damp state, has been rubbed over with a mixture of calcined peroxide of iron and emery, both in im- palpable powder. It is cut up into PAPER 503 f:^ pieces (about 5x3 inches), and solcj in packets. Used to wipe the razor on, which thus does not require stropping. II. — From emery and quartz (both in impalpable powder), and paper pulp (estimated in the dry state), equal parts, made into sheets of the thickness of drawing paper, by the ordinary process. For use, a piece is pasted on tne strop and moistened with a little oil. Safety Paper. — White paper pulp mixed with an equal quantity of pulp tinged with any stain easily affectea by chlorine, acids, alkalies, etc., and made into sheets as usual, serves as a safety ^ape^ on which to write checks or the ike. Any attempt to wash out the writ- ing affects the whole surface, showing plainly that it has been tampered with. Tracing Paper.— Open a quire of smooth, unsized white paper, and place it flat upon a table. Apply, with a clean sash tool to the upper surface of the first sheet, a coat of varnish made of equal parts of Canada balsam and oil of tur- pentine, and hang the prepared sheet across the line to dry; repeat the opera- tion on fresh sheets until the proper quantity is finished. If not sufficiently transparent, a second coat of varnish may be applied as soon as the first has become quite dry. Strengthened Filter Paper. — When or- dinary filter paper is dipped into nitric acid (specific gravity, 1.42), thoroughly washed and dried, it becomes a tissue of remarkable properties, and one that de- serves to be better known by chemists and pharmacists. It shrinks somewhat in size and in weight, and gives, on burn- ing, a diminished ash. It yields no ni- trogen, nor does it in the slightest man- ner affect liquids. It remains perfectly Cervious to liquids, its filtering properties eing in no wise affected, which, it is needless to say, is very different from the behavior of the same paper "parch- mented" by sulphuric acid. It is as supple as a rag, yet may be very roughly handled, even when wet, without tearing or giving way. These qualities make it very valuable for use in filtration under pressure or exhaust. It fits closely to the tunnel, upon which it may be used direct, without any supports, and it thus pre- vents undue access of air. As to strength, it is increased upward of 10 times. A strip of ordinary white Swedish paper, i of an inch wide, will sustain a load of from i to } of a pound avoirdupois, ac- cording to the quality of the paper. A similar strip of the toughened paper broke, in 3 trials, with 5 pounds, 7 ounces, and 3 drachms; 5 pounds, 4 ounces, and 36 grains; and 5 pounds, 10 ounces re- spectively. These are facts that deserve to be better known than they seem to be to the profession at large. Blotting Paper. — A new blotting paper which will completely remove wet as well as dry ink spots, after moistening the paper with water, is produced as follows: Dissolve 100 parts of oxalic acid in 400 parts of alcohol, and immerse porous white paper in this solution until it is completely saturated. Next hang the sheets up separately to dry over threads. Such paper affords great advantages, but in its characteristic application is serviceable for ferric inks only, while aniline ink spots cannot be removed with it, after drying. Carbon Paper. — Many copying papers act by virtue of a detachable pigment, which, when the pigmented paper is placed between two sheets of white paper, and when the uppermost paper is writ- ten on, transfers its pigment to the lower white sheet along lines which correspond to those traced on the upper paper, and therefore gives an exact copy of them on the lower paper. The pigments used are fine soot or ivory black, indigo carmine, ultramarine, and Paris blue, or mixtures of them. The pigment is intimately mixed with grain soap, and then rubbed on to thin but strong paper with a stiff brush. Fatty oils, such as linseed or castor oil, may be used, but the grain soap is pref- erable. Graphite is frequently used for black copying paper. It is rubbed into the paper with a cotton pad until a uniform light-gray color results. All superfluous graphite is then carefully brushed off. It is sometimes desired to make a copy- ing paper which will produce at the same time a positive copy, which is not required to be reproduced, and a negative or re- versed copy from which a number of direct copies can be taken. Such paper is covered on one side with a manifolding composition, and on the other with a simple copying composition, and is used between 2 sheets of paper with the mani- folding side undermost. The manifolding composition is made by mixing 5 ounces' of printers' ink with 40 of spirits of turpentine, and then mix- ing it with a fused mixture of 40 ounces of tallow and 5 ounces of stearine. When the mass is homogeneous, 30 ounces of the finest powdered protoxide of iron, first mixed with 15 ounces of pyrogallic 504 PAPER acid and 5 ounces of gallic acid, are stirred in till a perfect mixture is ob- tained. This mass will give at least 50 copies on damp paper in the ordinary way. The copying composition for the other side of the prepared paper consists of the following ingredients: Printers' ink 5 parts Spirits of turpentine. 40 parts Fused tallow 30 parts Fused wax 3 parts Fused rosin 2 parts Soot 20 parts It goes without saying that rollers or stones or other hard materials may be used for the purpose under consideration as well as paper. The manifolding mass may be made blue with indigotin, red with magenta, or violet with methyl violet, adding 30 ounces of the chosen dye to the above quantities of pigment. If, however, they are used, the bxide of iron and gallic acids must be replaced by 20 ounces of carbonate of magnesia. Celloidin Paper. — Ordinary polished celluloid and celloidin paper are dif- ficult to write upon with pen and ink. If, however, the face is rubbed over with a chalk crayon, and the dust wiped off with a clean rag, writing becomes easy. Cloth Paper. — This is prepared by covering gauze, calico, canvas, etc., with a surface of paper pulp in a Foudrinier machine, and then finishing the com- pound sheet in a nearly similar manner to that adopted for ordinary paper. Drawing Paper. — The blue drawing paper of commerce, which is frequently employed for technical drawings, is not very durable. For the production of a serviceable and strong drawing paper, the following process is recommended. Mix a solution of Gum arable 2 parts Ammonia iron citrate. 3 parts Tartaric acid 2 parts Distilled water 20 parts After still adding 4 parts of solution of ammonia with a solution of Potassium ferricyanide 2.5 parts Distilled water 10.0 parts allow the mixture to stand in the dark half an hour. Apply the preparation on the paper by means of a soft brush, in ar- tificial light, and dry in the dark. Next, expose the paper to light until it appears dark violet, place in water for 10 seconds, air a short time, wash with water, and finally dip in a solution of Eau de javelle 60 parts Distilled water 1,000 parts until it turns dark blue. Filter Paper. — This process consists in dipping the paper in nitric acid of 1.433 specific gravity, subsequently washing it well and drying it. » The paper there- by acquires advantageous qualities. It shrinks a little and loses in weight, while on burning only a small quantity of ash remains. It possesses no traces of nitro- gen and does not in any way attack the liquid to be filtered. Withal, this paper remains perfectly pervious for the most varying liquids, and its filtering capacity is in no wise impaired. It is difficult to tear, and still elastic and flexible like' linen. . It clings completely to the funnel. In general it may be said that the strength of the filtering paper thus treated increases 100 per cent. Fireproof Papers. — I. — Ammonium sulphate, 8 parts, by weight; boracic acid, 3 parts; borax, 2 parts; water, 100 parts. The temperature should be about 122° F. II. — For paper, either printed or un- printed, bills of exchange, deeds, books, etc., the following solution is recom- mended: Ammonium sulphate, 8 parts; boracic acid, 3 parts; sodium borate, 1.7 parts; water, 10,000 parts. The so- lution is heated to 122° F., and may be used when the paper is manufactured. As soon as the paper leaves the machine it is passed through this solution, then rolled over a warm cylinder and dried. If printed or in sheets, it is simply im- mersed in the solution, at a temperature of 122° F., and spread out to dry, finally pressed to restore the luster. Hydrographic Paper. — This is paper which may be written on with simple water or with some colorless liquid hav- ing the appearance of water. I.— A mixture of nut galls, 4 parts, and calcined sulphate of iron, 1 part (both perfectly dry and reduced to very fine powder), is rubbed over the surface of the paper, and is then forced into its pores by powerful pressure, after which the loose portion is brushed off. The writing shows black when a pen dipped in water is used. II. — A mixture of persulphate of iron and ferrocyanide of potassium may be employed" as in formula I. This writes blue. Iridescent Paper. — Sal ammoniac and sulphate of indigo, of each 1 part; sulphate of iron, 5 parts; nut galls, 8 parts; gum arable, J part. Boil them in water, and expose the paper washed with the liquid to (the fumes of) am- monia. PAPER 505 Lithographic Paper. — I. — Starch, 6 ounces; gum arable, 2 ounces; alum, 1 ounce. Make a strong solution of each separately, in hot water, mix, strain through gauze, and apply it while still warm to one side of leaves of paper, with a clean painting brush or sponge; a sec- ond and a third coat must be given as the preceding one becomes dry. The paper must be, lastly, pressed, to make it smooth. II. — Give the paper 3 coats of thin size, 1 coat of good white starch, and 1 coat of a solution of gamboge in water, the whole to be applied cold, with a sponge, and each coat to be allowed to dry before the other is applied. The solutions should be freshly made. Lithographic paper is written on with lithographic ink. The writing is trans- ferred simply by moistening the back of the paper, placing it evenly on the stone, and then applying pressure. A reversed copy is obtained, which, when printed from, yields corrected copies resembling the original writing or drawing. In this way the necessity of executing the writ- ing or drawing in a reversed direction is obviated. MARBLING PAPER FOR BOOKS. Provide a wooden trough 2 inches deep and the length and width of any desired sheet; boil in a brass or copper pan a Quantity of linseed and water until a thick mucilage is formed; strain it into a trough, and let cool; then grind on a marble slab any of the following colors in small beer: For Blue. — Prussian blue or indigo. Red. — Rose pink, vermilion, or drop lake. Yellow. — King's yellow, yellow ocher, etc. White.— Flake white. Black. — Burnt ivory or lampblack. Brown.. — Umber, burnt; terra di sienna, burnt. Black mixed with yellow or red also makes brown. Green. — Blue and yellow mixed. Orange. — Red and yellow mixed. Purple. — Red and blue mixed. For each color have two cups, one for the color after grinding, the otner to mix it with ox gall, which must be used to thin the colors at discretion. If too much gall is used, the colors will spread. When they keep their place on the sur- face of the trough, when moved with a quill, they are fit for use. All things in readiness, the colors are successively sprinkled on the surface of the mucilage in the trough with a brush, and are waved or drawn about with a quUI or a stick, according to taste. When the design is just formed, the book, tied tightly be- tween cutting boards of the same size, is lightly pressed with its edge on the sur- face of the liquid pattern, and then with- drawn and dried. The covers may be marbled in the same way, only letting the liquid colors run over them. In mar- bling paper the sides of the paper are gent- ly applied to the colors in the trough. The film of color in the trough may be as thin as possible, and if any remains after the marbling it may be taken off by ap- plying paper to it before you prepare for marbling again. To diversify the effects, colors are often mixed with a little sweet oil before sprinkling them on, by which means u light halo or circle appears around each spot. WATERPROOF PAPERS. I. — Wall papers may be easily ren- dered washaole, either before or after they are hung, by preparing them in the following manner: Dissolve 2 parts of borax and 2 parts of shellac in ■ii parts of water, and strain through a fine cloth. With a brush or a sponge apply this to the surface of the paper, and when it is dry, polish it to a nigh gloss with a. soft brush. Thus treated the paper may be washed without fear of removing the colors or even smearing or blurring them. II. — This is recommended for drawing paper. Any kind of paper is lightly primed with glue or a suitable binder, to which a finely powdered inorganic body, such as zinc white, chalk, lime, or heavy spar, as well as the desired coloring matter for the paper, are added. Next the paper thus treated is coated with soluble glass — silicate of potash or of soda — to which small amounts oi magnesia have been admixed, or else it is dipped into this mixture, and dried for about 10 days in a temperature of 77° F. Paper thus prepared can be written or drawn upon with lead pencil, chalk, colored crayons, charcoal, India ink, and lithographic crayon, and the writing or drawing may be washed off 20 or more times, entirely or partly, without changing the paper materially. It offers the convenience that anything may be readily and quickly removed with a moist sponge and imme- diately corrected, since the washed places can be worked on again at once. Wax Paper. — I. — Place cartridge paper, or strong writing paper, on a hot iron 506 PAPER Elate, and rub it well with a lump of eeswax. Used to form extempora- neous steam or gas pipes, to cover the joints of vessels, and to tie over pots, etc. II. — For the production of waxed or ceresine paper, saturate ordinary paper with equal parts of stearine and tallow or ceresine. If it is desired to apply a business stamp on the paper before sat- uration and after stamping, it should be dried well for 24 hours, so as to prevent the aniline color from spreading. Wrapping Paper for Silverware. — Make a solution of 6 parts of sodium hydrate in sufficient water to make it show about 20° B. (specific gravity, 1.60). To it add 4 parts zinc oxide, and boil together until the latter is dissolved. Now add sufficient water to reduce the specific gravity of the solution to 1.075 (10° B.). The bath is now ready for use. Dip each sheet separately, and hang on threads stretched across the room, to dry. Be on your guard against dust, as particles of sand adhering to the paper will scratch the ware wrapped in it. Ware, either plated or silver, wrapped in this paper, will not blacken. Varnished Paper. — Before proceeding to varnish paper, card- work, pasteboard, etc., it is necessary to give it 2 or 3 coats of size, to prevent the absorption of the varnish, and any injury to the color or design. The size may be made by dis- solving a little isinglass in boiling water, or by boiling some clean parchment cut- tings until they form a clear solution. This, after being strained through a piece of clean muslin, or, for very nice purposes, clarified with a little white of egg, is applied by means of a small clean brush called by painters a sash tool. A light, delicate touch must be adopted, especially for the first coat, lest the ink or colors be started or smothered. When the prepared surface is quite dry it may be varnished. Impregnation of Papers with Zapon Varnish. — -For the protection of impor- tant papers against the destructive in- fluences of the atmosphere, of water fungi, and light, but especially against the consequences of tne process of molding, a process has been introduced under the name of zapon impregnation. The zaponizing may be carried out by dipping the papers in zapon or by coating them with it by means of a brush or pen- cil. Sometimes the purpose may also be reached by dripping or sprinkling it on, but in the majority of cases a painting of the sheets will be the simplest method. Zapon in a liquid state is highly in- flammable, for which reason during the application until the evaporation of the solvent, open flames and fires should be kept away from the vicinity. When the drying is finished, which usually takes a few hours where both sides are coated, the zaponized paper does not so easily ignite at an open flame any more or at least not more readily than non-im- pregnated paper. For coating with and especially for dipping in zapon, a con- trivance which effects a convenient sus- pension and dripping off with collection of the excess is of advantage. The zapon should be thinned accord- ing to the material to be treated. Fee- bly sized papers are coated with ordinary, i. e., undfluted zapon. For dipping pur- poses, the zapon should be mixed with a diluent, if the paper is hard and well sized. The weaker the sizing, the more careful should be the selection of the zapon. Zapon to be used for coating purposes shoukl be particularly thick, so that it can be thinned as desired. Unsized papers require an undiluted coating. The thick variety also furnishes an excellent adhesive agent as cement for wood, glass, porcelain, and metals which is insoluble in cold and hot water, and binds very firmly. Metallic sur- faces coated with zapon do not oxidize or alter their appearance, since the coating is like glass and only forms a very thin but firmly adhering film, which, if ap- plied on pliable sheet metal, does not crack on bending. For the preparation of zapon the fol- lowing directions are given: Pour 20 parts of acetone over 2 parts of colorless celluloid waste — obtainable at the cellu- loid factories — and let stand several days in a closed vessel, shaking frequently, until the whole has dissolved into a clear, thick mass. Next admix 78 parts of amyl acetate and completely clarify the zapon varnish by allowing to settle forweeks. Slate Parchment. — -Soak good paper with linseed-oil varnish (boiled oil) and apply the' following mass, mentioned be- low, several times in succession: Copal varnish, 1 part, by weight; turpentine oil, 2 parts; finest sprinkling sand, 1 part; powdered glass, 1 part; ground slate as used for slates, 2 parts; and lampblack, 1 part, intimately mixed together, and repeatedly ground very fine. After drying and hardening, the plates can be written upon with lead or slate pencils. Paper Floor Covering.^The floor is carefully cleaned, and all holes and PAPER— PARAFFINE 507 cracks are filled up with a mass which is prepared by saturating newspapers with a paste that is made by mixing thoroughly 17f ounces wheat flour, 3.17 quarts water, and 1 spoonful of pulverized alum. The floor is coated with this paste throughout, and covered with a layer of manSla paper, or other strong hemp paper. If something very durable is desired, paint the paper layer with the same paste and put on another layer of paper, leaving it to dry thor- oughly. Then apply another coat of paste, and upon this place wall paper of any desired kind. In order to protect the wall paper from wear, give it 2 or more coats of a solution of 8J ounces white glue in 2.11 quarts hot water, allow them to dry, and finish the job with a coating of hard oil varnish. METALLIC PAPER. This paper, made by transferring, past- ing, or painting a coating of metal on ordinary paper, retains a comparatively dull and dead appearance even after glazing or polishing with the burnisher or agate. Galvanized or electroplated metal paper, on the other hand, in which the metal has penetrated into the most minute pores of the paper, possesses an extraordinarily brilliant polish, fully equal to that of a piece of compact polished metal. It is much more ex- tensively used than the kind first men- tioned. The following solutions are recom- mended for making "galvanized" metal paper: I. — For silver paper: Twenty parts argento-cyanide of potassium; 13 parts cyanide of potassium; 980 parts water. II. — For gold paper: Four parts auro- cyanide of potassium; 9 parts cyanide of potassium; 900 parts water. Moth Paper. — Naphthalene 4 ounces Paraffine wax 8 ounces Melt together and while warm paint unsized paper and pack away with the goods. Lead Paper. — Lay rough drawing paper (such as contains starch) on_ an 8 per cent potassium iodide solution. After a moment take it out and dry. Next, in a dark room, float the paper face downward on an 8 per cent lead ni- trate solution. This sensitizes the paper. Dry again. The paper is now ready for printing. This process should be car- ried on till all the detail is out in a grayish color. Then develop in a 10 per cent ammonium chloride solution. The tones obtained are of a fine blue black. Aluminum Paper. — Aluminum paper is not leaf aluminum, but real paper glazed with aluminum powder. It is said to keep food materials fresh. The basic material is artificial parchment, coated with a solution of rosin in alcohol or ether. After drying, the paper is warmed until the rosin has again sof- tened to a slight degree. The aluminum powder is dusted on and the paper then placed under heavy pressure to force the powder firmly into it. The metallic coating thus formed is not affected by air or greasy substances. PAPER, ALBUMEN: See photography. PAPER (ANTI-RUST) FOR NEEDLES: See Rust Preventives. PAPER CEMENTS: See Adhesives. PAPER DISINFECTANT: See Disinfectants. PAPER. FIREPROOF: See Fireproofing. PAPER, FROSTED: See Glass (Frosted). PAPER ON GLASS, TO AFFIX: See Adhesives, under Water-Glass Ce- ments. PAPERS, IGNITING: See Pyrotechnics. PAPER ON METALLIC SURFACES, PASTING: See Adhesives. PAPER AS PROTECTION FOR IRON AND STEEL: See Rust Preventives. PAPERHANGERS' PASTES: See Adhesives. PAPER, PHOTOGRAPHIC: See Photography. PAPER VARNISHES: See Varnishes. PAPER WATERPROOFING: See Waterproofing. PAPIER MACHE: See Paper. PARAFFINE: Rendering Paraffine Transparent.— A process for rendering paraffine and its mixtures with other bodies (ceresine, etc.) used in the manufacture of transparent candles consists essentially in adding a 508 PARAFFINE— PASSE-PARTOUT FRAMING naphthol, particularly beta-naphthol, to the material which is used for the manu- facture of the caudles, tapers, etc. The quantity added varies according to the material and the desired effect. One suitable mixture is made by heating 100 parts of paraffine and 2 parts of beta- naphthol at 175° to 195° F. The material can be colored in the ordinary way. Removal of Dirt from ParaflBne. — Fil- tration through felt will usually remove particles of foreign matter from paraf- fine. It may be necessary to use a layer of fine sand or of infusorial earth. If discolored by any soluble matter, try freshly heated animal charcoal. To keep the paraiBne fluid, if a large quantity is to be handled, a jacketed funnel will be required, either steam or hot water being kept in circulation in the jacket. Paraffine Scented Cakes. Paraffine, 1 ounce; white petrolatum, 2 ounces; heliotropin, 10 grains; oil of bergamot, 5 drops; oil of lavender, 5 drops; oil of cloves, 2 drops. Melt the first two substances, then add the next, the oils last, and stir all until cool. After settling cut into blocks and wrap in tin foil. This is a disseminator of perfume. It per- fumes where it is rubbed. It kills moths and perfumes the wardrobe. It is used by rubbing on cloth, clothes, and the handkerchief. PARAFFINE PAINT: See Paint. PARCHMENT AND PARCHMENT PAPER: See Paper. PARCHMENT CEMENT: See Adhesives. PARCHMENT PASTE: See Adhesives. PARE AITS: See Ice Creams. PARFAIT D'AMOUR CORDIAL: See Wines and Liquors. PARIS GREEN: See Pigments. PARIS RED: See Polishes. PARIS SALTS: See Disinfectants. PARISIAN CEMENT: See Adhesives. PASSE-PARTOUT FRAMING. It is hardly correct to call the passe- partout a frame, as it is merely a binding together of the print, the glass, and the backing with a narrow edge of paper. This simple arrangement lends to the picture wnen complete a much greater finish and a more important appearance than might be anticipated. In regard to the making of a passe- partout frame, the first thing is to decide as to the width of the mount or matt to be used. In some cases, of course, the print is framed with no mount being visi- ble; but, unless the picture is of large size, it will usually be found more be- coming to have one, especially should the wall paper be of an obtrusive design. When the print and mount are both neatly trimmed to the desired size, pro- cure a piece of clear white picture glass — most amateur framers will have dis- covered that there is a variance in the quality of this — and a piece of stout card- board, both of exactly the same dimen- sions as the picture. Next prepare or buy the paper to be used for binding the edges together. This may now be bought at most all stationery stores in a great variety of colors. If it is prepared at home a greater choice of colors is available, and it is by no means a diffi- cult task with care and sharp scissors. The tint should be chosen to harmonize with the print and the mount, taking also into consideration the probable sur- roundings — brown for photographs of brown tone, dark gray for black, pale gray for lighter tones; dark green is also a good color. All stationers keep col- ored papers suitable for the purpose, while plain wall papers or thin brown paper answers equally well. Cut the paper, ruling it carefully, into even strips an inch wide, and then into four pieces, two of them the exact length of the top and bottom of the frame, and the other two half an inch longer than the two sides. Make sure that the print is evenly sandwiched between the glass and the back. Cut some tiny strips of thin court-plaster, and with these bind the corners tightly together. Brush over the two larger pieces of paper with mount- ant, and with them bind tightly together the three thicknesses — print, glass, and cardboard — allowing the paper to pro- ject over about a third of an inch on the face side, and the ends which were left a little longer must be neatly turned over and stuck at the back. Then, in the same manner, bind the top and bot- tom edges together, mitering the cornfers neatly. It should not be forgotten, before binding the edges together, to make two shts in the cardboard back for the pur- PASTES— PERFUMES 509 Eose of inserting little brass hangers, aving flat ends like paper fasteners, which may be bought for the purpose; or, where these are not available, two narrow loops of tape may be used in- stead, .sticking the ends firmly on the inside of the cardboard by means of a little strong glue. These are the few manipulations necessary for the making of a simple passe-partout frame, but there are num- berless variations of the idea, and a great deal of variety may be obtained by means of using different mounts. Brown paper answers admirably as a mount for some subjects, using strips of paper of a darker shade as binding. A not too obtrusive design in pen and ink is occasionally drawn on tne mount, while a more am- bitious scheme is to use paint and brushes in the same way. An ingenious idea which suits some subjects is to use a piece of hand-blocked wall paper as a mount. PARQUET POLISH: See Polishes. PASTES: See Adhesives for Adhesive Purposes. Pastes, Razor. — I. — From jewelers' rouge, plumbago, and suet, equal parts, melted together and stirred until cold. II. — From prepared putty powder (levigated oxidie of tin), 3 parts; lard, 2 parts; crocus martis, 1 part; triturated together. III. — Prepared putty powder, 1 ounce; powdered oxalic acid, J ounce; pow- dered gum, SO grains; make a stiff paste with water, quantity sufficient, and evenly and thinly spread it over the strop, the other side of which should be covered with any of the common greasy mixtures. With very little friction this paste gives a fine edge to the razor, and its action is still further increased by slightly mois- tening it, or even breathing on it. Im- mediately after its use, the razor should receive a few turns on the other side of the strop. PASTE FOR PAPER: See Paper. PASTES FOR POLISHING METALS: See Soaps. PASTEBOARD CEMENT: See Adhesives. PASTEBOARD DEODORIZERS: See Household Formulas. PASTEBOARD WATERPROOFING: See Waterproofing. PASTILLES, FUMIGATING: See Fumigants. PATINAS: See Bronzing and Plating. PATENT LEATHER: See Leather. PEACH EXTRACT: See Essences and Extracts. PEARLS, TO CLEAN: See Cleaning Preparations and Meth- ods. PEGAMOID. Camphor, 100 parts; mastic, 100 parts; bleached shellac, 50 parts; gun cotton, 200 parts; acetone, 200 parts; acetic ether, 100 parts; ethylic ether, 50 parts. PEN METAL: See Alloys. PENCILS, ANTISEPTIC: See Antiseptics. PENCILS FOR MARKING GLASS: See Etching, Frosted Glass, and Glass. PENS, GOLD: See Gold. PEONY ROOTS, THEIR PRESERVA- TION: See Roots. PEPPERMINT CORDIAL: See Wines and Liquors. PEPSIN PHOSPHATE: See' Beverages. PERCENTAGE SOLUTION. Multiply the percentage by 5; the prod- uct is the number of grains to be added to an ounce of water to make a solution of the desired percentage. This is cor- rect for anything less than 15 per cent. "PEREPUSK": See Butter, Artificial. Perfumes DRY PERFUMES: Sachet Powders. — I. — Orris root 6 ounces Lavender flowers. . . 2 ounces Talcum 4 drachms Musk 20 grains Terpinol 60 grains II. — Orange peel 2 ounces Orris root 1 ounce Sandalwood 4 drachms Tonka 'i drachms Musk 6 grains 610 PERFUMES Lavender Sachets. — I. — Lavender flowers. . . 16 ounces Gum benzoin 4 ounces Oil lavender 2 drachms II. — Lavender flowers, 150 parts; orris root, 150 parts; benzoin, 150 parts; Tonka beans, 160 parts; cloves, 100 parts; "Neugenwerz," 50 parts; sandalwood, 50 parts; cinnamon, 50 parts; vanilla, 50 parts; and musk, i part. All is bruised finely and mixed. Violet Sachet.^ Powdered orris root 500 parts Rice flour 250 parts Essence bouquet. . . 10 parts Spring flowers ex- tract 10 parts Violet extract 20 parts Oil of bergamot ... 4 parts Oil of rose 2 parts Berated Talcum. — I. — Purified talcum, N. F 2 pounds Powdered boric acid 1 ounce To perfume add the following: Powered orris root. . 1 J ounces Extract jasmine .... 2 drachms Extract musk 1 drachm II. — A powder sometimes dispensed under this name is the salicylatea pow- der of talcum of the National Formulary, which contains in every 1,000 parts 30 parts of salicylic acid and 100 parts of boric acid. Rose. — I. — Cornstarch 9 pounds Powdered talc 1 pound Oil of rose 80 drops Extract musk 2 drachms Extract jasmine .... 6 drachms II. — Potato starch 9 pounds Powdered talc 1 pound Oil rose 45 drops Extract jasmine .... § ounce Rose Talc. — I. — Powdered talc 5 pounds Oil rose 50 drops Oil wintergreen .... 4 drops Extract jasmine .... 2 ounces II. — Powdered talc 5 pounds Oil rose 32 drops Oil jasmine 4 ounces Extract musk 1 ounce Violet Talc. — I. — Powdered talc 14 ounces Powdered orris root. 2 ounces Extract cassie J ounce Extract jasmine J ounce Extract musk 1 drachm II. — Starch 5,000 parts Orris root 1,000 parts Oil of lemon 14 parts Oil of bergamot . . 14 parts Oil of clove 4 parts Smelling Salts. — I. — Fill small glasses having ground stopper with pieces of sponge free from sand and saturate with a mixture of spirit of sal ammoniac (0.910), 9 parts, and oil of lavender, 1 part. Or else fill the bottles with small dice of ammonium sesquicarbonate and pour the above mixture over them. II. — Essential oil of lav- ender 18 parts Attar of rose 2 parts Ammonium car- bonate 480 parts Violet Smelling Salts. — I. — Moisten coarsely powdered ammonia carbonate, contained in a suitable bottle, with a mixture of concentrated tincture of orris root, 2J ounces; aromatic spirit of ammonia, 1 drachm; violet extract, 3 drachms. II. — Moisten the carbonate, and add as much of the following solution as it will absorb: Oil of orris, 5 minims; oil of lavender flowers, 10 minims; violet extract, 30 minims; stronger water of ammonia, 2 fluidounces. To Scent Advertising Matter, etc. — The simplest way of perfuming printed matter, such as calendars, cards, etc., is to stick them in strongly odorous sachet powder. Although the effect of a strong perfume is obtained thereby, there is a large loss of powder, which clings to the f)rinted matter. Again, there are often ittle spots which are due to the essential oils added to the powder. Another way of perfuming, which is used especially in France for scenting cards and other articles, is to dip them in very strong "extraits d'odeur," leaving them therein for a few days. Then the cards are taken out and laid between fil- tering paper, whereupon they are pressed vigorously, which causes them not only to dry, but also to remain straight. They remain under strong pressure until com- pletely dry. Not all cardboard, however, can be subjected to this process, and in its choice one should consider the perfum- ing operation to be conducted. Nor can the cards be glazed, since spirit dissolves the glaze. It is also preferable to have lithographed text on them, since in the case of ordinary printing the letters often partly disappear or the colors are changed. PERFUMES 511 For pocket calendars, price lists, and voluminous matter containing more leaves than one, another process is recommended. In a tight closet, which should be lined with tin, so that little air can enter, tables composed of laths are placed on which nets stretched on frames are laid. Cover these nets with tissue paper, and proceed as follows: On the Dottom of the closet sprinkle a strongly odorous and reperfumed powder; then cover one net with the prmted matter to be perfumed and shove it to the closet on the liilh. The next net again re- ceives powder, the following one printed matter, and so oh until the closet is filled. After tightly closing the doors, the whole arrangement is left to itself. This process presents another advantage in that all sorts of residues may be em- ployed for scenting, such as the filters of the odors and infusions, residues of musk, etc. These are simply laid on the nets, and will thus impart their perfume to the printed matter. Such a scenting powder is produced as follows : By weight Iris powder, finely ground 6,000 parts Residues of musk. . 1,000 parts Ylang-ylang oil. ... 10 parts Bergamot oil 60 parts Artificial musk .... 2 parts lonone 2 to 6 parts Tincture of benzoin 100 parts The powder may subsequently be employed for filling cheap sachets, etc. LIQXnD PERFUMES: Coloring Perfiunes. — Chlorophyll is a suitable agent for coloring liquid per- fumes green. Care must be taken to pro- cure an article freely soluble in the men- struum. As found in the market it is prepared (in form of solutions) for use m liquids strongly alcoholic; in water or weak alcohol; and in oils. Aniline greens of various kinds will answer the same purpose, but in a trial of any one of these it must be noted that very small quantities should be used, as their tinc- torial power is so great that liquids in which they are incautiously used may stain the handkerchief. Color imparted by chlorophyll will be found fairly permanent; this term is a relative one, and not too much must be expected. Colors which may suffer but little change by long exposure to diffused light may fade perceptibly by short ex- posure to the direct light of the sun. Chlorophyll may be purchased or it may be prepared as follows: Digest leaves of grass, nettles, spinach, or other green herb in warm water until soft; pour off the water and crush the herb to a pulp. Boil the pulp for a short time with a half per cent solution of caustic soda, and afterwards precipitate the chlorophyll by means of dilute hydro- chloric acid; wash the precipitate thor- oughly with water, press and dry it, and use as much for the solution asmay be necessary. Or a tincture made from grass as follows may be employed: Lawn grass, cut fine. . 2 ounces Alcohol 16 ounces Put the grass in a wide-mouthed bottio and pour the alcohol upon it. After standing a few days, agitating occasion- ally, pour off the liquid. The tincture may be used with both alcoholic and aqueous preparations. Among the anilines, spirit soluble malachite green has been recommended. A purple or violet tint may be pro- duced by using tincture of litmus or am- moniated cochineal coloring. The for- mer is made as follows: Litmus 2} ounces Boiling water 16 ounces Alcohol 3 ounces Pour the water upon the litmus, stir well, allow to stand for about an hour, stirring occasionally, filter, and to the filtrate add the alcohol. The aniline colors "Paris violet" or methyl violet B may be similarly em- ployed. The amount necessary to pro- duce a desired tint must be worked out by experiment. Yellow tints may best be imparted by the use of tincture of turmeric or saffron, fustic, quercitron, etc. If a perfumed spirit, a.s, for instance, a moutn wash, is poured into a wine- glassful of water, tne oils will separate at once and spread over the surface of the water. This liquid being allowed to stand uncovered, one oil after another will evaporate, according to the degree of its volatility, until at last the least vola- tile remains behind. This process sometimes requires weeks, and in order to be able to watch the separate phases of this evaporation correctly, it is necessary to use several glasses and to conduct the mixtures at certain intervals. The glasses must be numbered according to the day when set up, so that they may be readily identified. If we assume, for example, that a mouth wash is to be examined, we may probably prepare every day for one week a mixture of about 100 grams of water and 10 drops of the respective liquid. Hence, after a lapse of 7 days 512 PERFUMES we will have before us 7 bouquets, of dif- ferent odor, according to the volatility of the oils contained in them. From these different bouquets the qualitative com- position of the liquid may be readily recognized, provided that one is familiar enough with the character of the different oils to be able to tell them by their odors. The predominance of peppermint oil — to continue with the above example — will soon be lost and other oils will rise one after the other, to disappear again after a short time, so that the 7 glasses afford an entire scale of characteristic odors, until at last only the most lasting are perceptible. Thus it is possible with some practice to tell a bouquet pretty accurately in its separate odors. In this manner interesting results are often reached, and with some persever- ance even complicated mixtures can be analyzed and recognized in their dis- tinctiveness. Naturally the difficulty in recognizing each oil is increased in the case of oils whose volatility is approxi- mately the same. But even in this case changes, though not quite so marked, can be determined in the bouquet. In a quantitative respect this method also furnishes a, certain result as far as the comparison of perfumed liquids is concerned. According to the quantity of the oils C resent the dim zone on the water is roader or narrower, and although the size of this layer may be changed oy the admixture of other substances, one gains an idea regarding the quantity of the oils by mere smelling. It is necessary, of course, to choose glasses with equally large openings and to count out the drops of the essence carefully by means of a dropper. When it is thought that all the odors have been placed, a test is made by pre- paring a mixture according to the recipe resulting from the trial. Not pure oils, always alcoholic dilu- tions in a certain ratio should be used, in order not to disturb the task by a sur- plus of the different varieties, since it is easy to add more, but impossible to take away. It is true this method requires patience, perseverance, and a fine sense of smell. One smelling test should not be consid- ered sufficient, but the glasses should be carried to the nose as often as possible. Fixing Agents in Perfumes. — The secret of making perfumery lies mainly in the choice of the fixing agents — ^i. e., those bodies which intensify and hold the floral odors. The agents formerly em- ployed were musk, civet, and ambergris, all having a heavy and dull animal odor, which is the direct antithesis of a floral fragrance. A free use of these bodies must inevitably mean a perfume which requires a label to tell what it is intended for, to say nothing of what it is. To-day there is no evidence that the last of these (ambergris) is being used at all in the newer perfumes, and the other two are employed very sparingly, if at all. The result is that the newer perfumes possess a fragrance and a fidelity to the flowers that they imitate which is far superior to the older perfumes. Yet the newer per- fume is quite as prominent and lasting as the old, while it is more pleasing. It contains the synthetic odors, with bal- sams or rosinous bodies as fixatives, and employs musk and civet only in the most sparing manner in some of tne more sen- sitive odors. As a fixing agent benzoin is to be recommended. Only the best variety should be used, the Siamese, which costs 5 or 6 times as much as that from Sumatra. The latter has a coarse pun- gent odor. Musk is depressing, and its use in cologne in even the minutest quantity will spoil the cologne. The musk lingers after the lighter odors have disappeared, and a sick person is pretty sure to feel its effects. Persons in vigorous health will not notice the depressing effects of musk, but when lassitude prevails these are very unpleasant. Moreover, it is not a necessity in these toilet accessories, either as a blending or as a fixing agent. Its place is better supplied by benzoin for both purposes. As to alcohol, a lot of nonsense has been written about the necessity of ex- treme care in selecting it, such as certain kinds requiring alcohol made from grapes and others demanding extreme purification, etc. A reasonable attention to a good quality of alcohol, even at a slight increase in cost, will always pay, but, other things being equal, a good quality of oils in a poor quality of alcohol will give far better satisfaction than the opposite combination. The public is not composed of exacting connoisseurs, and it does not appreciate extreme care or expense in either particular. A good frade of alcohol, reasonably free from eavy and lingering foreign odors, will answer practically all the requirements. General Directions for Making Per- fumes. — It is absolutely essential for ob- taining the best results to see that all vessels are perfectly clean. Always em- ploy alcohol, 90 per cent, deodorized by PERFUMES 513 means of charcoal. When grain musk is used as an ingredient in liquid perfumes, first rub down with pumice stone, then digest in a little hot water for 3 or 3 hours; finally add to alcohol. The addition of 2 or 3 minims of acetic acid will improve the odor and also prevent accumulation of NH,. Civet and ambergris should also be thoroughly rubbed down with some coarse powder, and transferred directly to alcohol. Seeds, pods, bark rhizomes, etc., should be cut up in small pieces or pow- dered. Perfumes improve by storing. It is a good plan to tie over the mouth of the contaming vessel some fairly thick por- ous material, and to allow the vessel to stand for a week or two in a cool place, instead of corking at once. It is perhaps unnecessary to add that as large a quantity as possible should be decanted, and then the residue filtered. This obviously prevents loss by evapora- tion. Talc or kieselguhr (amorphous SiOa) are perhaps the best substances to add to the filter in order to render liquid perfumes bright and clear, and more especially necessary in the case of aro- matic vinegars. The operations involved in making per- fumes are simple; the chief thing to be learned, perhaps, is to judge of the quality of materials. The term "extract," when used in most formulas, means an alcoholic solu- tion of the odorous principles of certain flowers obtained by enfluerage; that is, the flowers are placed in contact with pre- pared grease which absorbs the odorous matter, and this grease is in turn macer- ated with alcohol which dissolves out the odor. A small portion of the grease is taken up also at ordinary temperatures; this is removed by filtering the "ex- tract" while "chilled" by a freezing mix- ture. The extracts can be either pur- chased or made directly from the pomade (as the grease is caHed). To employ the latter method successfully some experi- ence may be necessary. The tinctures are made with 95 per cent deodorized alcohol, enough men- struum being added through the marc when filtering to bring the finished prep- aration to the measure of the menstruum originally taken. The glycerine is intended to act as a "fixing agent — that is, to lessen the volatility of the perfumes. Tinctures for Perfumes. — a. Ambergris, 1 part; alcohol, 96 per cent, 15 parts. b. Benzoin, Sumatra, 1 part; alcohol, 96 per cent, 6 parts. c. Musk, 1 part; distilled water, io parts; spirit, 96 per cent, 25 parts. d. Musk, 1 part; spirit, 96 per cent, 50 parts; for very oleiferous composi- tions. e. Peru balsam, 1 part in spirit, 96 per cent, 7 parts; shake vigorously. /. Storax, 1 part in spirit, 96 per cent, 15 parts. p. Powdered Tolu balsam, 1 part; spirit, 96 per cent, 6 parts. h. Chopped Tonka beans, 1 part; spirit, 60 per cent, 6 parts; for composi- tions containing little oil. i. Chopped Tonka beans, 1 part; spirit, 96 per cent, 6 parts; for composi- tions containing much oil. J. Vanilla, 1 part; spirit, 60 per cent, 6 parts; for compositions containing little oil. k. Vanilla, 1 part; spirit, 96 per cent, 6 parts; for compositions containing much oil. I. Vanillin, 20 parts; spirit, 96 per cent, 4,500 parts. m. Powdered orris root, 1 part; spirit, 96 per cent, 5 parts. n. Grated civet, 1 part in spirit, 96 per cent, 10 parts. Bay Rum. — Bay rum, or more prop- erly bay spirit, may be made from the oil with weak alcohol as here directed: I. — Oil of bay leaves ... . 3 drachms Oil of orange peel ... i drachm Tincture of orange peel 2 ounces Magnesium carbon- ate h ounce Alcohol 4 pints Water 4 pints Triturate the oils with the magnesium carbonate, gradually adding the other ingredients previously mixed, and fil- ter. The tincture of orange peel is used chiefly as a coloring for the mixture. Oil of bay leaves as found in the mar- ket varies in quality. The most costly will presumably be found the best, and its use will not make the product ex- pensive. It can be made from the best oil and deodorized alcohol and still sold at a moderate price with a good profit. Especial care should be taken to use only perfectly fresh oil of orange peel. As is well known, this oil deteriorates rapidly on exposure to the air, acquiring an odor similar to that of turpentine. The oil should be kept in bottles of such size that when opened the contents can be all used in a short time. 514 PERFUMES II. — Bay oil, 15 parts; sweet orange oil, 1 part; pimento oil, 1 part; spirit of wine, 1,000 parts; water, 750 parts; soap spirit or quillaia bark, ad libitum. III. — Bay oil, 12.5 parts; sweet orange oil, 0.5 part; pimento oil, 0.5 part; spirit of wine, 200 parts; water, 2,800 parts; Jamaica rum essence, 75 parts; soap Eowder, 20 parts; quillaia extract, 5 parts; orax, 10 parts; use sugar color. Colognes. — In making cologne water, the alcohol used should oe that obtained from the distillation of wine, provided a first-class article is desired. It is pos- sible, of course, to make a good cologne with very highly rectified and deodorized corn or potato spirits, but the product never equals that made from wine spirits. Possibly the reason for this lies in the fact that the latter always con- tains a varying amount of oenanthic ether. I. — Oil of bergamot . . 10 parts Oil of neroli 15 parts Oil of citron 5 parts Oil of cedrat 5 parts Oil of rosemary. . . 1 part Tincture of am- bergris 5 parts Tincture of ben- zoin 5 parts Alcohol 1,000 parts II. — The following is stated to be the "original" formula: Oil of bergamot. 96 parts Oil of citron .... 96 parts Oil of cedrat. ... 96 parts Oil of rosemary . 48 parts Oil of neroli 48 parts Oil of lavender. . 48 parts Oil of cavella. ... 24 parts Absolute alcohol. 1,000 parts Spirit of rose- mary 25,000 parts III. — Alcohol, 90 per cent 5,000 parts Bergamot oil 220 parts Lemon oil 75 parts Neroli oil 20 parts Rosemary oil 5 parts Lavender oil, French 5 parts The oils are well dissolved in spirit and left alone for a few days with fre- quent shaking. Next add about 40 parts of acetic acid and filter after a while. IV. — Alcohol, 90 per cent 5,000 parts Lavender oil, French 35 parts Lemon oil 30 parts Portugallo oil ... . 30 parts Neroli oil 16 parts Bergamot oil. . . , . 15 parts Petit grain oil ... . 4 parts Rosemary oil 4 parts Orange water. . . . 700 parts Cologne Spirits or Deodorized Alco- hol. — This is used in all toilet prepara- tions and perfumes. It is made thus: Alcohol, 95 per cent . . 1 gallon Powdered unslaked lime 4 drachms Powdered alum 2 drachms Spirit of nitrous ether 1 drachm Mix the lime and alum, and add them to the alcohol, shaking the mixture well together; then add the sweet spirit of niter and set aside for 7 days, shaking occasionally; finally filter. Florida Waters. — Oil of bergamot. . . 3 fluidounces Oil of lavender ... 1 fluidounce Oil of cloves 1 J fluidrachms Oil of cinnamon . . 2 J fluidrachms Oil of neroli | fiuidrachm Oil of lemon 1 fluidounce Essence of jasmine 6 fluidounces Essence of musk. . 2 fluidounces Rose water 1 pint Alcohol 8 pints Mix, and if cloudy, filter through mag- nesium carbonate. Lavender Water. — -This, the most famous of all the perfumed waters, was originally a distillate from a mixture of spirit and lavender flowers. This was the perfume. Then came a compound water, or "palsy water," which was in- tended strictly for use as a medicine, but sometimes containing ambergris and musk, as well as red sanders wood. Only the odor of the old compound re- mains to us as a perfume, and this is the odor which all perfume compounders endeavor to hit. The most important precaution in making lavender water is to use well-matured oil of lavender. Some who take pride in this perfume use no oil which is less than 5 years old, and which has had 1 ounce of rectified spirit added to each pound of oil before being set aside to mature. After mixing, the perfume should stand for at least a month before filtering through gray fil- tering paper. This may be taken as a general instruction : I. — Oil of lavender IJ ounces Oil of bergamot .... 4 drachms Essence ambergris . . 4 drachms Proof spirit 3 pints PERFUMES 615 II. — English oil of laven- oer 1 ounce Oil of IxTnamot .... 1 J drachms Essence of musk (No. 2) J ounce Essence of amber- gris § ounce Proof spirit 2 pints III. — English oil of laven- der J ounce Oil of bergamot. ... 2 drachms Essence of amber- gri.s 1 drachm Essence of musk (No. 1) 3 drachms Oil of angelica 2 minims Attar of rose 6 minims Proof spirit 1 pint IV. — Oil of lavender 4 ounces Grain musk 15 grains Oil of bergamot .... 2i ounces Attar of rose 1 J drachms Oil of neroli ^ drachm Spirit of nitrous ether 2i ounces Triple rose water. .. 12 ounces Proof spirit 5 pints Allow to stand 6 weeks before filtering. LIQUID PERFUMES FOR THE HAND- KERCHIEF, PERSON, ETC. : Acacia Extract. — French acacia 400 parts Tincture of amber (lin 10)... 3 parts Eucalyptus oil 0.5 parts Lavenaer oil 1 part Bergamot oil 1 part Tincture of musk. . 2 parts Tincture of orris rout 150 parts Spirit of wine, 80 per cent 500 parts Bishop Essence. — Fresh green peel of unripe oranges . . 60.0 grams Cura^no orangi- peel 180.0 grams Malaga orange peel 90.0 grams Ceylon cinnamon. . 2.0 grams Cloves 7.5 grams Vanilla 11.0 grams Orange flower oil. . 4 drops Sp)ri^ of wine 1,500.0 grams Hungarian wine . . 720.0 grams A dark-brown tincture of pleasant taste and smell. Caroline Elouquet. — Oil of lemon 15 minims Oil of bergamot 1 drachm F.sscnCj of rose 4 ounces F Sioii'" • of tuberose . . 4 ounces K.ss' ^c ■ of violet 4 ounces ■ 'ure of orris 2 ounces Alexandra Bouquet. — Oil of bergamot 3i drachms Oil of rose geranium j drachm Oil of rose j drachm Oil of cassia 15 minims Deodorized alcohol.. . 1 pint Navy Bouquet. — Spirit of sandalwood.. 10 ounces Extract of patchouli . . 10 ounces Spirit of rose 10 ounces Spirit of vetivert 10 ounces Extract of verbena .. . 12 ounces Bridal Bouquet. — Sandal oil, 30 min- ims; ro.se extract, 4 fluidounces; jas- mine extract, 4 fluidounces; orange flower extract, 16 fluidounces; essence of vanilla, 1 fluidounce; essence of musk, 2 fluidounces; tincture of storax, 2 fluid- ounces. (The tincture of storax is pre- pared with liquid storax and alcohol [90 per cent], 1:20, by macerating for 7 days.) Irish Bouquet. — White rose essence . 5,000 parts Vanilla essence .... 450 parts Rose oil 5 parts Spirit 100 parts Essence Bouquet. — I. — Spirit 8,000 parts Distilled water ... 2,000 parts Iris tincture 250 parts Vanilla herb tinc- ture 100 parts Benzoin tincture ... 40 parts Bergamot oil 50 parts Storax tincture .... 50 parts Clove oil 15 parts Palmarosa oil 12 parts Lemon-grass oil . . . 15 parts II. — Extract of rose (2d) . . 64 ounces Extract of jasmine (2d) 12 ounces Extract of cassie (2d) . 8 ounces Tincture of orris (1 to 4) 64 ounces Oil of bergamot J ounce Oil of cloves 1 drachm Oil of ylang-ylang. ... J drachm Tincture of benzoin (1 to 8) 2 ounces Glycerine 4 ounces Bouquet Canang. — Ylang-ylang oil . . . 45 minims Grain musk 3 grains Rose oil 15 minims Tonka beans 3 Cassie oil 5 minims Tincture orris rhi- zome 1 fluidounce 516 PERFUMES Civet. 1 grain Almond oil J minim Storax tincture ... 3 fluidrachms Alcohol,90 per cent 9 fluidounces Mix, and digest 1 month. The above is a very delicious perfume. Cassie oil or otto is derived from the flowers of Acacia farnesiana Mimosa jarnesiana, L. (N. O. Leguminosse, sub- order Mimosese). It must not be con- founded with cassia otto, the essential oil obtained from Cinnamomum cassia. Cashmere Nosegay. — I. — Essence of violet, from pomade 1 pint Essence of rose, from pomade 1^ pints Tincture of benzoin, (lto4)..... i pint Tincture of civet (1 to 64) i pint Tincture of Tonka (1 to 4) i pint Benzoic acid J ounce Oil of patchouli .... J ounce Oil of sandal | ounce Rose water J pint II. — Essence violet 120 ounces Essence rose 180 ounces Tincture benjamin (1 in 4) 60 ounces Tincture civet (1 in 62) 30 ounces Tincture Tonka (1 in 4) 30 ounces Oil patchouli 3 ounces Oil sandalwood 6 ounces Rose water 60 ounces Clove Pink.— I. — Essence of rose 2 ounces Essence of orange flower 6 ounces Tincture of vanilla. . 3 J ounces Oil of cloves 20 minims II. — Essence of cassie. ... 5 ounces Essence of orange flower 5 ounces Essence of rose 10 ounces Spirit of rose 7 ounces Tincture of vanilla. . 3 ounces Oil of cloves. ...... 12 minims Frangipanni. — I. — Grain musk 10 grains Sandal otto 25 minims Rose otto 25 minims Orange flower otto (n e r o 1 i) 30 minims Vetivert otto .... 5 minims Powdered orris rhizome J ounce Vanilla 30 grains Alcohol (90 per cent) 10 fluidounces Mix and digest for 1 month. This is a lasting and favorite perfume. II. — Oil of rose 2 drachms Oil of neroli 2 drachms Oil of sandalwood . . 2 drachms Oil of geranium (French) 2 drachms Tincture of vetivert (IJtoS) 96 ounces Tincture of Tonka (1 to 8) 16 ounces Tincture of orris (1 to 4) 64 ounces Glycerine 6 ounces Alcohol 64 ounces Handkerchief Perfumes. — I. — Lavender oil 10 parts Neroli oil 10 parts Bitter almond oil . . 2 parts Orris root 200 parts Rose oil 5 parts Clove oil 5 parts Lemon oil 1 part Cinnamon oil 2 parts Mix with 2,500 parts of best alcohol, and after a rest of 3 days heat moder- ately on the water bath, and filter. II. — Bergamot oil 10 parts Orange peel oil 10 parts Cinnamon oil 2 parts Rose geranium oil . . 1 part Lemon oil 4 parts Lavender oil 4 parts Rose oil 1 part Vanilla essence 5 parts Mix with 2,000 parts of best spirit, and after leaving undisturbed for 3 days, heat moderately on the water bath, and filter. Honeysuckle. — Oil of neroli 12 minims Oil of rose 10 minims Oil of bitter almond. . 8 minims Tincture of storax. ... 4 ounces Tincture of vanilla. . . 6 ounces Essence of cassie 16 ounces Essence of rose 16 ounces Essence of tuberose . . 16 ounces Essence of violet 16 ounces Iridia. — Coumarin 10 grains Concentrated rose water (1 to 40) .... 2 ounces Neroli oil 5 minims Vanilla bean 1 drachm Bitter almond oil 5 minims Orris root 1 drachm Alcohol 10 ounces Macerate for a month. PERFUMES 517 Javanese Bouquet. — Rose oil 16 minims Pimento oil 20 minims Cassia oil S minims Neroli oil 3 minims Clove oil 2 minims Lavender oil . 60 minims Sandalwood oil 10 minims Alcohol 10 ounces Water 1 J ounces Macerate for 14 days. Lily Perfume. — f/Ssence of jasmine. . . 1 ounce Essence of orange flowers 1 ounce Essence of rose 2 ounces Essence of cassie 2 ounces Essence of tuberose . . 8 ounces Spirit of rose 1 ounce Tincture of vanilla. . . 1 ounce Oil of bitter almond . . 2 minims Lily of the VaUey.— I. — Acacia essence. . . 760 parts Jasmine essence. . 750 parts Orange flower es- sence 800 parts Rose flower es- sence 800 parts Vanilla flower es- sence 1,500 parts Bitter almond oil. 15 parts II. — Oil of bitter almond 10 minims Tincture of vanilla . . 2 ounces Essence of rose 2 ounces Essence of orange flower 2 ounces Essence of jasmine. . 2i ounces Essence of tuberose . 2i ounces Spirit of rose 2 J ounces III. — Extract rose 200 parts Extract vanilla .... 200 parts Extract orange. . . . 800 parts Extract jasmine . . . 600 parts Extract musk tinc- ture 150 parts Neroli oil 10 parts Rose oil 6 parts Bitter almond oil . . 4 parts Cassia oil 5 parts Bergamot oil 6 parts Tonka beans es- sence 160 parts Linaloa oil 12 parts Spirit of wine (90 per cent) 3,000 parts IV. — Neroli extract 400 parts Orris root extract . . 600 parts Vanilla extract. . . . 400 parts Rose extract 900 parts Musk extract 200 parts Orange extract. . . . 600 parts Clove oil 6 parts Bergamot oil 5 parts Rose geranium oil 15 parts Marfichal 5iel Rose. — In the genus of roses, outside of the hundred-leaved or cabbage rose, the Marechal Niel rose (Rosa Noisetteana Red), also called Noisette rose and often, erroneously, tea rose, is especially conspicuous. Its fine, piquant odor delifihts all lovers of pre- cious perfumes. In order to reproduce the fine scent of this flower artificially at periods when it cannot be had without much expenditure, the following recipes will be found useful: I. — Infusion rose I (from pomades) 1,000 parts Genuine rose oil. . 10 parts Infusion Tolu bal- sam 150 parts Infusion genuine musk 1 40 parts Neroli oil 30 parts Clove oil 2 parts Infusion tube- reuse I (from pomades) 1,000 parts Vanillin 1 part Coumarin 0.5 parts II. — Triple rose essence. . 50 grams Simple rose essence . 60 grams Neroli essence 30 grams Civet essence 20 grams Iris essence 30 grams Tonka beans essence '20 grams Rose oil 5 drops Jasmine essence. ... 60 grams Violet essence 50 grams Cassia essence 50 grams Vanilla essence 45 grams Clove oil 20 drops Bergamot oil 10 drops Rose geranium oil . . 20 drops May Flowers. — Essence of rose 10 ounces Essence of jasmine. . 10 ounces Essence of orange flowers 10 ounces Essence of cassie. ... 10 ounces Tincture of vanilla . . 20 ounces Oil of bitter almond. J drachm Narcissus. — Caryophyllin 10 minims Extract of tuberose. . 16 ounces Extract of jasmine. . 4 ounces Oil of neroli 20 minims Oil of ylang-ylang . . 20 minims Oil of clove 6 minims Glycerine 30 minims 518 PERFUMES Almond Blossom. — Extract of heliotrope 30 parts Extract of orange flower 10 parts Extract of jasmine. . 10 parts Extract of rose 3 parts Oil of lemon 1 part Spirit of bitter al- mond, 10 per cent 6 parts Deodorized alcohol . 40 parts Artificial Violet. — lonone is an arti- ficial perfume which smells exactly like fresh violets, and is therefore an ex- tremely important product. Although before it was discovered compositions were known which gave fair imitations of the violet perfume, they were wanting in the characteristic tang which distin- guishes all violet preparations. lonone has even the curious property possessed by violets of losing its scent occasionally for a short time. It occasionally hap- pens that an observer, on taking the stopper out of a bottle of ionone, per- ceives no special odor, but a few seconds after the stopper has been put back in the bottle, tne whole room begins to smell of fresh violets. It seems to be a question of dilution. It is impossible, however, to make a usable extract by mere dilution of a 10 per cent solution of ionone. It is advisable to make these prepara- tions in somewhat large quantities, say 30 to 50 pounds at a time. This en- ables them to be stocked for some time, whereby they improve greatly. When all the ingredients are mixed, 10 days or a fortnight, with frequent shakings, should elapse before filtration. The filtered product must be kept in well- filled and well-corked bottles in a dry, dark, cool place, such as a well-ventilated cellar. After 5 or 6 weeks the prepara- tion is ready for use. Quadruple Extract. — By weight Jasmine extract, 1st pomade 100 parts Rose extract, 1st pomade 100 parts Cassia extract, 1st pomade 200 parts Violet extract, 1st pomade 200 parts Oil of geranium, Spanish 2 parts Solution of vanil- lin, 10 per cent. . 10 parts Solution of orris, 10 per cent 100 parts Solution of io- none, 10 per cent 20 parts Infusion of musk . . 10 parts Infusion of orris from coarsely ground root 260 parts Triple Extract. — By weight Cassia extract, 2d pomade 100 parts Violet extract, 2d pomade 300 parts Jasmine extract, 2d pomade 100 parts Rose extract, 2d pomade 100 parts Oil of geranium, African 1 part lonone, 10 per cent 15 parts Solution of vanil- lin, 10 per cent. . 5 parts Infusion of orris from coarse ground root .... 270 parts Infusion of musk . . 10 parts Double Extract. — By ^veight Cassia extract, 2d pomade 100 parts Violet extract, 2d pomade 150 parts Jasmine extract, 2d pomade 100 parts Rose extract, 2d pomade 100 parts Oil of geranium, reunion 2 parts lonone, 10 per cent 10 parts Solution of vanil- lin, 10 per cent. . 10 parts ■ Infusion of am- brette 20 parts Infusion of orris from coarse ground root 300 parts Spirit 210 parts White Rose.— Rose oil 25 minims Rose geranium oil . . 20 minims Patchouli oil 5 minims lonone 3 minims Jasmine oil (syn- thetic) 5 minims Alcohol 10 ounces Ylang-Ylang Perfume. — I. — Ylang-ylang oil 10 minims Neroli oil 6 minims Rose oil 6 minims Bergamot oil 3 minims Alcohol 10 ounces One grain of musk may be added. II. — Extract of cassie (2d) 96 ounces Extract of jasmine (2d) 24 ounces PERFUMES 519 Extract of rose 24 ounces Tincture of orris. ... 4 ounces Oil of ylang-ylang . . 6 drachms Glycerine 6 ounces TOILET WATERS. Toilet waters proper are perfumed liquids designed more especially as re- freshing applications to the person — • accessories to the bath and to the opera- tions of the barber. They are used sparingly on the handkerchief also, but should not be of so persistent a char- acter as the "extracts ' commonlv used for that purpose, as they would tnen be unsuitable as lotions. Ammonia Water. — Fill a 6-ounce ground glass stoppered bottle with a rather wide mouth with pieces of am- monium carbonate as large as a marble, then drop in the following essential oils; Oil of lavender 30 drops Oil of bergamot .... 30 drops Oil of rose 10 drops Oil of cinnamon. ... 10 drops Oil of clove 10 drops Finally fill the bottle with stronger water of ammonia, put in the stopper and let stand overnight. Birch-Bud Water. — Alcohol (96 per cent), 350 parts; water, 70 parts; soft soap, 20 parts; glycerine, 15 parts; essen- tial oil of birch buds, 5 parts; essence of .spring flowers, 10 parts; chlorophyll, quantity sufficient to tint. Mix the water with an equal volume of spirit and dissolve the soap in the mixture. Mix the oil and other ingredients with the remainder of the spirit, add the soap solution gradually, agitate well, allow to stand for 8 days and filter. For use, dilute with an equal volume of water. Carmelite Balm Water. — Melissa oil 30 minims. Sweet marjoram oil 3 minims Cinnamon oil ... . 10 minims Angelica oil 3 minims Citron oil 30 minims Clove oil 15 minims Coriander oil ... . 5 minims Nutmeg oil 5 minims Alcohol (90 per cent) 10 fluidounces Angelica oil is obtained principally from the aromatic root of Angelica archangelica, L. (N. O. Umbelliferse), which is commonly cultivated for the sake of the volatile oil which it yields. Cypress Water. — Essence of ambergris J ounce Spirits of wine 1 gallon Water 2 quarts Distill a. gallon. Eau de Botot. — Aniseed 80 parts Clover 20 parts Cinnamon cassia . . 20 parts Cochineal 5 parts Refined spirit 800 parts Rose water 200 parts Digest for 8 days and add Tincture of amber- gris 1 part Peppermint oil. ... 10 parts Eau de Lais. — Eau de cologne 1 part Jasmine extract .... 0.5 parts Lemon essence 0.5 parts Balm water 0.5 parts Vetiver essence 0.5 parts Triple rose water. .. 0.5 parts Eau de Merveilleuse. — Alcohol 3 quarts Orange flower water 4 quarts Peru balsam 2 ounce.s Clove oil 4 ounces Civet IJ ounces Rose geranium oil . . J ounce Rose oil i drachms Neroli oil 4 drachms Edelweiss. — Bergamot oil 10 grams Tincture of am- bergris 2 grams Tincture of veti- ver (1 in 10).. . . 25 grams Heliotropin 5 grams Rose oil spirit (1 in 100) 25 grams Tincture of musk. 5 drops Tincture of angel- ica 12 drops Neroli oil, artifi- cial 10 drops Hyacinth, artifi- cial 15 drops Jasmine, artificial. 1 gram Spirit of wine, 80 per cent 1,000 grams Honey Water. — I. — Best honey 1 pound Coriander seed 1 pound Cloves 1 J ounces Nutmegs 1 ounce Gum benjamin 1 ounce Vanilloes, No. 4 . . . . 1 drachm The yellow rind of 3 large lemons. 520 PERFUMES Bruise the cloves, nutmegs, coriander seed, and benjamin, cut the vanilloes in pieces, and put all into a glass alembic with 1 gallon of clean rectified spirit, and, after digesting 48 hours, draw off the spirit by distillation. To 1 gallon of the distilled spirit add Damask rose water. 1 J pounds Orange flower water IJ pounds Musk 5 grains Ambergris 5 grains Grind the musk and ambergris in a glass mortar, and afterwards put all to- gether into a digesting vessel, and let them circulate 3 days and 3 nights in a gentle heat; then let all cool. Filter, and keep the water in bottles well stoppered. II. — Oil of cloves 2 J drachms Oil of bergamot .... 10 drachms English on of laven- der 2 J drachms Musk 4 grains Yellow sandalwood. 2 J drachms Rectified spirit 32 ounces Rose water 8 ounces Orange flower water 8 ounces English honey 2 ounces Macerate the musk and sandalwood in the spirit 7 days, filter, dissolve the oils in the filtrate, add the other ingredients, shake well, and do so occasionally, keep- ing as long as possible before filtering. Lilac Water. — Terpineol 2 drachms Heliotropin 8 grains Bergamot oil 1 drachm Neroli oil 8 minims Alcohol 12 ounces Water 4 ounces Orange Flower Water. — Orange flower es- sence 8 ounces Magnesium carbon- ate 1 ounce Water 8 pints Triturate the essence with the mag- nesium carbonate, add the water, and filter. To Clarify Turbid Orange Flower Water. — Shake 1 quart of it with J pound of sand which has previously been boiled out with hydrochloric acid, washed with water, and dried at red heat. This process doubtless would prove valuable for many other purposes. Violet Waters. — I. — Spirit of ionone, 10 per cent J drachm Distilled water 5 ounces Orange fiower water 1 ounce Rose water 1 ounce Cologne spirit 8 ounces Add the spirit of ionone to the alcohol and then add the waters. Let stand and filter. II. — Violet extract 2 ounces Cassie extraict 1 ounce Spirit of rose § ounce Tincture of orris. ... § ounce Green coloring, a sufficiency. Alcohol to 20 ounces. PERFUMED PASTILLES. These scent tablets consist of a com- pressed mixture of rice starch, mag- nesium carbonate, and powdered orris root, saturated with heliotrope, violet, or lilac perfume. Violet.— Ionone 50 parts Ylang-ylang oil 50 parts Tincture of musk, extra strong ...... 200 parts Tincture of benzoin . 200 parts Heliotrope. — Heliotropin 200 parts Vanillin 50 parts Tincture of musk. . . 100 parts Tincture of benzoin . 200 parts Lilac. — Terpineol 200 parts Muguet 200 parts Tincture of musk . . . 200 parts Tincture of benzoin . 200 parts Sandalwood 2 drachms Vetivert 2 drachms Lavender flowers ... 4 drachms Oil of thvme J drachm Charcoal 2 ounces Potassium nitrate. . . J ounce Mucilage of tragacanth, a sufficient quantity. Perfumes for Hair Oils. — I- — Heliotropin ,. . . 8 grains Coumarin l grain Oil of orris 1 drop Oil of rose 15 minims Oil of bergamot .... 30 minims II. — Coumarin 2 grains Oil of cloves 4 drops Oil of cassia 4 drops Oil of lavender flow- .^rs 15 minims Oil of lemon 45 minims Oil of bergamot .... 75 minims Soap Perfumes. — See also Soap. I- — Oil of lavender J ounce Oil of cassia 30 minims Add 5 pounds of soap stock. PETROLEUM 521 II. — Oil of caraway Oil of clove Oil of white thyme. . Oil of cassia Oil of orange leaf (neroli petit grain) Oil of lavender 1} drachms of each Add to 5 pounds of soap stock. PERFUMES (FUMIGANTS): See Fumigants. PERSPIRATION REMEDY: See Cosmetics. PESTLE CEMENTS: See Adhesives. Petroleum (See also Oils.) The Preparation of Emulsions of Crude Petroleum. — Kerosene has long been recognized as a most efficient insec- ticide, but its irritating action, as well as the very considerable cost involved, has prevented the use of the pure oil as a local application in the various parasitic skin diseases of animals. In order to overcome these objections various expedients have been resorted to, all of which have for their object the dilu- tion or emulsification of the kerosene. Probably the best known and most gen- erally employed method for accompRsh- ing this result is that which is based upon the use of soap as an emulsifying agent. The formula which is used almost uni- versally for making the kerosene soap emulsion is as follows: Kerosene 2 gallons Water 1 gallon Hard soap i pound The soap is dissolved in the water with the aid of neat, and while this solution is still hot the kerosene is added and the whole agitated vigorously. The smooth white mixture which is obtained in this way is diluted before use with sufficient water to make a total volume of 20 gallons, and is usually applied to the skin of animals or to trees or other plants by means of a spray pump. This method of applica- tion IS used because the diluted emulsion separates quite rapidly, and some me- chanical device, such as a self-mixing spray pump, is required to keep the oil in suspension. It will be readily understood that this emulsion would not be well adapted either for use as a dip or for application by hand, for in the one case the oil, which rapidly rises to the surface, would adhere to the animals when they emerged from the dipping tank and the irritating effect would be scarcely less than that produced by the plain oU, and in the second case the same separation of the kerosene would take place and necessa- rily result in an uneven distribution of the oil on the bodies of the animals which were being treated. Within recent years it has been found that a certain crude petroleum from the Beaumont oil fields is quite effective for destroying the Texas fever cattle ticks. This crude petroleum contains from 40 to 50 per cent of oils boiling below 300° C. (672° P.), and from 1 to 1.5 per cent of sulphur. After a number of trials of different combinations of crude oil, soap, and water, the following for- mula was decided upon as the one best suited to the uses in view: Crude petroleum 2 gallons Water } gallon Hard soap ^ pound Dissolve the soap in the water with the aid of heat; to this solution add the crude petroleum, mix with a spray pump or shake vigorously, and dilute with the desired amount of water. Soft water should, of course, be used. Various forms of hard and soft soaps have been tried, but soap with an amount of free alkali ecjuivalent to 0.9 per cent of sodium hydroxide gives the best emulsion. All the ordinary laundry soaps are quite sat- isfactory, but toilet soaps in the main are not suitable. An emulsion of crude petroleum made according to this modified formula re- mains fluid and can be easily poured; it will stand indefinitely without any ten- dency toward a separation of the oil and water and can be diluted in any propor- tion with cold soft water. After suffi- cient dilution to produce a 10 per cent emulsion, a number of hours are re- quired for all the oil to rise to the surface, but if the mixture is agitated occasionally, no separation takes place. After long standing the oil separates in the form of a creamlike layer which is easily mixed with the water again by stirring. It is therefore evident that for producing an emulsion which will hold the oil in suspension after dilution, the modified formula meets the desired re- quirements. In preparing this emulsion for use in the field, a large spray pump capable of mixing 25 gallons may be used with perfect success. In using the formula herewith given, it should DC borne in mind that it is recommended especially for the crude PETROLEUM— PICTURES petroleum obtained from the Beaumont oil fields, the composition of which has already been given. As crude petroleums from different sources vary greatly in their composition, it is impracticable to give a formula that can be used with all crude oils. Nevertheless, crude petroleum from other sources than the Beaumont wells may be emulsified by modifying the formula given above. In order to determine what modification of this formula is necessary for the emulsifica- tion of a given oil, the following method may be used: Dissolve J pound of soap in J gallon of hot water; to 1 measure of this soap solution add 4 measures of the crude petroleum to be tested and shake well in a stoppered bottle or flask for several minutes. If, after dilution, there is a separation of a layer of pure oil within half an hour the emulsion is imperfect, and a modifi- cation of the formula will be required. To accomplish this the proportion of oil should be varied until a good result is obtained. Petroleum for Spinning. — In order to be able to wash out the petroleum or render it "saponifiable," the following process is recommended: Heat the min- eral oil with 5 to 10 per cent of olein, add the proper amount of alcoholic lye and continue heating until the solvent (water alcohol) evaporates. A prac- tical way is to introduce an aqueous lye at 230° F. in small portions and to heat until the froth disappears. For clearness it is necessary merely to evaporate all the water. In the same manner, more olein may be added as desired if the admixture of lye is kept down so that not too much soap is formed or the petroleum be- comes too thick. After cooling, a uni- form gelatinous mass results. This is liquefied mechanically, during or after the cooling, by passing it through fine sieves. Soap is so finely and intimately distributed in the petroleum that the fin- est particles of oil are isolated by soap, as it were. When a quantity of oil is intimately stirred into the water an emulsion results so that the different parts cannot be distinguished. The same process takes place in washing, the soap contained in the oil swelling be- tween the fibers and the oil particles upon mixture with water, isolating the oil and lifting it from the fiber. Deodorized Petroleum. — Petroleum may be deodorized by shaking it first with 100 parts of chlorinated lime for every 4,500 parts, adding a little hydro- chloric acid, then transferring the liquid to a vessel containing lime, and again shaking until all the chlorine is removed. After standing, the petroleum is de- canted. Petroleum Briquettes. — Mix with 1,000 parts of petroleum oil 150 parts of ground soap, 150 parts of rosin, and 300 parts of caustic soda lye. Heat this mixture while stirring. When solidifi- cation commences, which will be in about 40 minutes, the operation must be watched. If the mixture tends to over- fiow, pour into the receiver a few drops of soda, and continue to stir until the solidification is complete. When the operation is ended, flow the matter into molds for making the briquettes, and place them for 10 or 15 minutes in a stove; then they may be allowed to cool. The briquettes can be employed a few hours after they are made. To the three elements constituting the mixture it is useful to ^dd per 1,000 parts by weight of the briquettes to be ob- tained, 120 parts of sawdust and 120 Carts of clay or sand, to render the riquettes more solid. Experiments in the heating of these briquettes have demonstrated that they will furnish three times as much heat as briquettes of ordinary charcoal, without leaving any residue. PETROLEUM EMULSION: See Insecticides. PETROLEUM JELLIES: See Lubricants. PETROLEUM SOAP: See Soap. PEWTER: See Alloys. PEWTER, TO CLEAN: See Cleaning Preparations and Meth- ods. PEWTER, AGEING: If it is desired to impart to modern ar- ticles of pewter the appearance of an- tique objects, plunge the pieces for several moments into a solution of alum to which several drops of hydrochloric or sulphuric acid have been added. PICTURES, GLOW. These can be easily produced by draw- ing the outlines of a picture, writing, etc., on a piece of white paper with a solution of 40 parts of saltpeter and 20 parts of gum arable in 40 parts of warm water, usin^ a writing pen for this purpose. All the lines must connect and one of them PHOSPHATE SUBSTITUTE— PHOTOGRAPHY 523 must run to the edee of the paper, where it should be marked with a fine lead- pencil line. When a burning match is held to this spot, the line immediately glows on, spreading over the whole de- sign, and the design formerly invisible finally appears entirely singed. This little tricK IS not dangerous. PHOSPHATE SUBSTITUTE. An artificial phosphate is thus pre- pared: Melt in an oven a mixture of 100 parts of phosphorite, ground coarsely, 70 parts of acid sulphate of soda; 20 parts of carbonate of lime; S2 parts of sand, and 607 parts of charcoal. Run the molten matter into a receiver filled with water; on cooling it will become granular. Rake out the granular mass from the water, and after drying, grind to a fine powder. The phosphate can be kept for a long time without losing its quality, for it is neither caustic nor hygroscopic. Wag- ner has, in collaboration with Dorscn, conducted fertilizing experiments for determining its value, as compared with superphospnate or with Thomas slag. The phosphate decomposes more rapidly in the soil than Thomas slag, and so far as the experiments have gone, it appears that the phosphoric acid of the new phos- phate exercises almost as rapid an action as the phosphoric acid of the superphos- phate soluble in water. PHOSPHORESCENT MASS. See also Luminous Bodies and Paints. Mix 2 parts of dehydrated sodium carbonate, 0.5 parts of sodium chloride, and 0.2 parts of manganic sulphate with 100 parts of strontium carbonate and 30 parts of sulphur and heat 3 hours to a white heat with exclusion of air. PHOSPHOR BRONZE: See Alloys, under Bronzes. PHOSPHORUS SUBSTITUTE. G. Graveri recommends persul fo- cvanic acid=Ha(CN)3Ss as meeting all the requirements of phosphorus on matches. It resists shock and friction, it is readily friable, and will mix with other substances; moreover, it is non- poisonous and cheaper than phosphorus. Photography DEVELOPERS AND DEVELOPING OF PLATES. No light is perfectly safe or non-actinic, even that coming through a combined ruby and orange window or lamp. Therefore use great care in developing. A light may be tested this way: Place a dry plate in the plate holder in total darkness, draw the slide sufficiently to expose one-half of the plate, and allow the light from the window or lamp, 12 to 18 inches distant, to fall on this exposed half for 3 or 4 minutes. Then develop the plate the usual length of time in total darkness. If the light is safe, there will be no darkening of the exposed part. If not safe, the remedy is obvious. The developing room must be a per- fectly dark room, save for the light from a ruby- or orange-colored window (or combination of these two colors). Have plenty of pure running water and good ventilation. Plates should always be kept in a dry room. The dark room is seldom a .s:ifo place for storage, because it is apt to he damp. Various developing agents give differ- ent results. Pyrogallic acid in combi- nation with carbonate of sodium or carbonate of potassium gives strong, vigorous negatives. Eikonogen and metol yield soft, delicate negatives. Hydro- chinon added to eikonogen or metol produces more contrast or greater strength. It IS essential to have a bottle of bro- mide of potassium solution, 10 per cent, in the dark room. (One ounce of bromide of potassium, water to 10 ounces.) Over- timed plates may be much improved by adding a few drops of bromide solu- tion to the developer as soon as the overtimed condition is apparent (a plate is overtimed when the image appears almost immediately, and then blackens all over). Undertimed plates should be taken out of the developer and placed in a tray of water where no light can reach them. If the detail in the shadows begins to ap- pear after half an hour or so, the plate can be replaced in the developer and de- velopment brought to a finish. Quick development, with strong solu- tions, means a lack of gradation or half- tones. A developer too warm or containing too much allcali (carbonate of sodium or potassium) will yield flat, foggy nega- tives. A developer too cold is retarded in its action, and causes thin negatives. Uniform temperature is necessary for uniform results. If development is continued too long, the negative will be too dense. In warm weather, the developer should be diluted; in cold weather, it should be stronger. su PHOTOGRAPHY The negative should not be exposed to white light until fixation is complete. The negative should be left fully 5 minutes longer in the fixing bath than is necessary to dissolve out the white bro- mide of silver. In hot weather a chrome alum fixing bath should be used to prevent frilling. Always use a fresh hypo or fixing bath. Hypo is cheap. Plates and plate holders must be kept free from dust, or pinholes will result. After the negative is fixed, an hour's washing is none too nJuch. The plate should be dried quickly in warm weather else the film will become dense and coarse-grained. Do not expect clean, faultless negatives to come out of dirty developing and fix- ing solutions and trays. Pyro and Soda Developer. — I. — Pure water 30 ounces Sulphite soda, crys- tals 5 ounces Carbonate soda, crystals 2i ounces II. — Pure water 24 ounces Oxalic acid 15 grains Pyrogallic acid 1 ounce To develop, take of Solution No. 1 1 ounce Solution No. II J ounce Pure water 3 ounces More water may be used in warm weather and less in cool weather. If solution No. I is made by hydrom- eter test, use equal parts of tne follow- ing: Sulphite soda testing, 80°. Carbonate soda testing, 40°. One ounce of this mixture will be equiv- alent to 1 ounce of solution No. I. Pyro and Potassium Developer. — I. — Pure water 32 ounces Sulphite soda, crys- tals 8 ounces Carbonate p o t a s - slum, dry 1 ounce II. — Pure water 24 ounces Oxalic acid 15 ounces Pyrogallic acid. ..... 1 ounce To develop, take of Solution No. 1 1 ounce Solution No. II J ounce Pure water 3 ounces When the plate is fully developed, if the lights are too thin, use less water in the cleveloper; if too dense, use more water. Pyro and Metol Developer. — Good for short exposures: I. — Pure water 57 ounces Sulphite soda, crys- tals 2 J ounces Metol 1 ounce II. — Pure water 57 ounces Sulphite soda, crys- tals 2 J ounces Pyrogallic acid j ounce III. — Pure water 57 ounces Carbonate p o t a s - slum 2 J ounces To develop, take of Pure water 3 ounces Solution No. 1 1 ounce Solution No. II 1 ounce Solution No. III. ... 1 ounce This developer may be used repeat- edly by adding a little fresh developer as required. Keep the used developer in a separate bottle. Rodinal Developer. — One part rodinal to 30 parts pure water. Use repeatedly, adding fresh as re- quired. Bromo-Hydrochinon Developer. — For producing great contrast and intensity, also for developing over-exposed plates. I. — Distilled or ice water 25 ounces Sulphite of soda, crys- tals 3 ounces Hydrochinon J ounce Bromide of potas- sium J ounce Dissolve by warming, and let cool be- fore use. II. — Water 25 ounces Carbonate of soda, crystals 6ounces Mix Nos. I and II, equal parts, for use. Eikonogen Hydrochinon Developer. — I. — Distilled or pure well water 32 ounces Sodium sulphite, crystals 4 ounces Eikonogen 240 grains Hydrochinon 60 grains II. — Water 32 ounces Carbonate of potash 4 ounces To develop, take No. 1 2 ounces No. II 1 ounce ♦Water 1 ounce *For double-coated plates use 6 ounces of water. PHOTOGRAPHY 526 By hydromelier: I. — Sodium sulphite. solution to test 30 34 ounces Eikonogen 240 grains Hydrocninon 60 grains II. — Carbonate of pot- ash solution to test 50 To develop, take No. I 2 ounces No. II 1 ounce ♦ Water 1 ounce Hydrochinon Developer. — I. — Hydrochinon 1 ounce Sulphite of soda, crystals 5 ounces Bromide of potas- sium 10 grains Water (ice or dis- tilled) 55 ounces II. — Caustic potash 180 grains Water 10 ounces To develop: Take of I, 4 ounces; II, } ounce. Af- ter use pour into a separate bottle. This can be used repeatedly, and with uni- formity of results, by the addition of 1 drachm of I and 10 drops of II to every 8 ounces of old developer. In using this developer it is important to notice the temperature of the room, as a slight variation in this respect causes a very marked difference in the time it takes to develop, much more so than with Eyro. The temperature of room should e from 70° to 75° F. Metol Developer. — I. — Water 8 ounces Metol 100 grains Sulphite of soda, crystals 1 ounce II. — Water 10 ounces Potassium carbonate 1 ounce Take equal parts of I and II and 6 parts of water. If more contrast is needed, take equal parts of I and II and 3 parts of water, with 5 drops to the ounce of a tV solution of bromide of potassium. Metol and Hydrochinon Developer. — I.— Pure hot water 80 ounces Metol 1 ounce Hydrochinon J ounce Sulphite soda, crys- tals 6 ounces •For double-coated plates use 6 ounces of water. II. — Pure water 80 ounces Carbonate soda, crystals 5 ounces To develop, take of Pure water 2 ounces Solution No. 1 1 ounce Solution No. II 1 ounce Hetol -Bicarbonate Developer. — Thor- oughly dissolve Metol 1 ounce In water 60 ounces Then add Sulphite of soda, crystals 6 ounces Bicarbonate of soda. 3 ounces' To prepare with hydrometer, mix Sulphite of soda so- lution, testing 75.. 30 ounces Bicarbonate of soda solution, testing 50 30 ounces Metol 1 ounce Dissolved in 12 ounces water. Ferrous -Oxalate Developer. — For transparencies and opals. I. — Oxalate of potash. . . 8 ounces Water 30 ounces Citric acid 60 grains Citrate of ammonia solution 2 ounces II. — Sulphate of iron .... 4 ounces Water 32 ounces Sulphuric acid 16 drops III. — Citrate of ammonia solution saturated. Dissolve 1 ounce citric acid in 5 ounces distilled water, add liquor ammonia un- til a slip of litmus paper just loses the red color, then add water to make the whole measure 8 ounces. Add 1 ounce of II to 2 oM, and J ounce of water, and 3 to 6 drops of 10 per cent solution bromide pota.ssium. To develop, first rinse developing dish with water, lay film or plate down, and flow with sufficient developer to well cover. Careful attention must be given to its action, and when detail is just showing in the face, or half-tone lights in a view, pour off developer, and well wash the film before placing in the fixing bath. Tolidol Developer. — Standard formula for dry plates ana films: Water 16 ounces Tolidol 24 grains Sodium sul- phite 72 (144) grains Sodium car- bonate 96 (240) grains The figures in parenthesis are for crys- tals. It will be seen that in every case 526 PHOTOGRAPHY the weight of sulphite required in crys- tals is double that of dry sulphite, while the weight of carbonate crystals is 2 J times as much as dry carbonate. For tank development Dr. John M. Nicol recommends the standard formula diluted with 6 times the amount of water, and the addition of 1 drop of retarder to every ounce after dilution. To obtain very strong negatives: Water 16 ounces Tolidol 50 to 65 grains Sodium sul- phite 80 (160) grains Sodium car- •bonate 120 (300) grains On some brands of plates the addition of a little retarder will be necessary. If stock solutions are preferred, they may be made as follows: Solution A Water 32 ounces Tolidol 1 ounce Sodium sulphite. . 1 (2) ounce Solution B Water 32 ounces Sodium sulphite. . 2 (4) ounces Solution C Water • 32 ounces Sodium carbonate 4 (10) ounces If preferred, stock solutions B and C can be made by hydrometer, instead of by weight as above. The solutions will then show: Solution B Sodium sulphite. ... 40 Solution C Sodium carbonate . . 75 Or if potassium carbonate is preferred instead of sodium: Solution C Potassium carbonate 60 For standard formula for dry plates and films, mix Solution A 1 part Solution B 1 part Solution C 1 part Water 7 parts For strong negatives (for aristo-pla- tino) : Solution A 1 i to 2 parts Solution B 1 part Solution C 1 part Water 4 to 4 J parts For tank development: Solution A . 1 part Solution B 1 part Solution C 1 part Water 35 parts Por.developing paper:. Solution .4 2 parts Solution B 2 parts Solution C 1 part The reading of the hydrometer for stock solutions is the same whether dried chemicals or crystals are used. No water is used. Pyrocatechin-Phosphate Developer. — Solution A Crystallized sulphite of soda 386 grains Pyrocatechin 77 grains Water 8 ounces Solution B Ordinary crystal phosphate of so- dium 725 grains Caustic soda (puri- fied in sticks).. . . 77 grains Water 8 ounces Mix 1 part of A with 1 part of B and from 1 to 3 parts of water. If the ex- posure is not absolutely normal we recommend to add to the above develop- er a few drops of a solution of bromide of potassium (1.10). Pyrocatechin Developer (One Solu- tion). — Dissolve in the following range: Sulphite of soda crys- tallized 25i drachms Caustic soda (puri- fied in sticks) .... 3 J drachms Distilled water 14 ounces Pyrocatechin 308 grains The pyrocatechin must not be added until the sulphite and caustic soda are entirely dissolved. For use the con- centrated developer is to be diluted with from 10 to 20 times as much water. The normal proportion is 1 part of developer in 15 parts of water. Vogel's Pyrocatechin Combined De- veloper and Fijdng Solution. — Sulphite of soda crystallized 468 grains Water 2| ounces Caustic potash (purif ie d in sticks) 108 grains Pyrocatechin 108 grains Mix for a formally fixing plate of 5x7 inches. Developer 3 drachms Fixing soda solution (1:5) 5\ drachms Water 1 ounce The process of developing and fixing with this solution is accomplished in a PHOTOGRAPHY 627 few minutes. The picture first appears usually, strengthens very quickly, and shortly after the fixing is entirely done. Ellon's Pyrocatechin Developer. — Pyrocatechin, 2 per cent solution (2 grams pyrocatechin in 100 cubic centi- nuliTs of water). Carbonate of potassium, 10 per cent solution ^10 grams carbonate in 100 cubic centimeters of water). For use take equal parts and add water as desired. Imperial Standard Pyro Developer. — I. — Metabisulphite of potassium 120 grains Pyrogallic acid. ... 55 grains Bromide of potas- sium 20 grains Metol 45 grains Water 20 ounces II. — Carbonate of soda. 4 ounces Water 20 ounces For use mix equal parts I and II. Bardwell's Pyro -Acetone Developer. — Water 4 ounces Sulphite of sodium (saturated s o I u - tion) 4 drachms Acetone 2 drachms Pyro 10 grams Haufi's Adurol Developer. — One so- lution. Water 10 ounces Sulphide of sodium, crystals 4 ounces Carbonate of potas- sium 3 ounces Adurol. i ounce For studio work and snap shots take 1 part with 3 parts water. For time exposures out-door take 1 part with 5 parts water. Glycin Developer. — I. — Hot water 10 ounces Sulphite of sodium, crystals IJ ounces Carbonate of sodium | ounce Glycin i ounce Add to water in order given. II. — Water 10 ounces Carbonate of potash 1 J ounces For normal exposure take I, 1 ounce; II, 2 ounces; water, 1 ounce. Imogen Developer. — I. — Hot water. ....... 9 ounces Sulphite of sodium, crystals 385 grains Imogen 123 grains II. — Hot water 4 J ounces Carbonate of sodium 2 ounces For use take i! ounces of I and 1 ounce of II. Diogen Developer. — Water .... 9 ounces Sulphite of sodium. . 3i ounces Diogen 7 drachms Carbonate of potas- sium 4} ounces For normal exposure take 4 drachms of this solution; dilute with 2 ounces, 1 drachm of water, and add 2 drops bromide of potassium, 10 per cent solution. Ortol Developer. — Formula by Pent- large. I. — Water 1 ounce Metabisulphite of potassium 4 grains Ortol 8 grains II. — Water 1 ounce Sulphite of sodium. . 48 grains Carbonate of potas- sium 16 grains Carbonate of sodium 3'i grains For use take equal parts I and II, and an equal bulk of water. Metacarbol Developer. — Metacarbol 26 grains Sulphite of soda, crystals 100 grains Caustic soda 50 grains Water 10 ounces Dissolve the metacarbol in water, then add the sulphite, and when dissolved add the caustic soda and filter. DEVELOPING POWDERS. By weight I. — Pyrogallol 0.3 parts Sodium bisulphite . . l.'i parts Sodium carbonate . . 1. '2 parts II. — Eikonogen 1.1 parts Sodium sulphite. ... 2.4 parts Potassium carbonate 1.5 parts III. — Hydroquinone 0.6 parts Sodium sulphite. ... 3.4 parts Potassium bromide . 0.3 parts Sodium carbonate . . 7.0 parts These three formulas each vield one powder. The powders should be put up 111 oiled paper, and carefully inclosed, besides, in a wrapper of black paper. For use, one powder is dissolved in about 60 parts of distilled water. DEVELOPING PAPERS. Light. — The paper can be safely banifled 8 feet from the source of lighti 528 PHOTOGRAPHY which may be Welsbach gas light, cov- ered with post-office paper, incandes- cent light, ordinary gas fight, kerosene light, or reduced daylight, the latter pro- duced by covering a window with one or more thicknesses of orange post-office paper, as necessitated by strength of light. Expose by holding the printing frame close to gas, lamp, or incandescent light, or to subdued daylight. Artificial light is recommended in preference to day- light because of uniformity, and it being in consequence easier to judge the proper length of time to expose. Exposure. — The amount of exposure required varies with the strength of the light ; it takes about thesame time with an ordinarygas burner and an incandescent light; a Welsbach gas light requires only about one-half as much time as the ordi- nary gas burner, and a kerosene light of ordinary size about three times as much as an ordinary gas burner. If day- light is to be used the window should be covered with post-office paper, in which a sub-window about 1 foot square for making the exposure may be made. Cover this window first with a piece of white tissue paper, then with a piece of black cloth or post-office paper to ex- clude the white light when not wanted. Make exposure according to strength of light at from 1 to 2 feet away from the tissue paper. Keep_ the printing frame when artificial light is used constantly in motion during exposure. Timing the Exposure. — The time necessary for exposing is regulated by density of negative and strength of light. The further away the negative is from the source of light at the time of ex- posure the weaker the light; hence, in order to secure uniformity in exposure it is desirable always to make the exposure at a given distance from the light used. With a negative of medium density exposed 1 foot from an ordinary gas burner, from 1 to 10 minutes' exposure is required. A test to ascertain the length of ex- posure should be made. Once the proper amount of exposure is ascer- tained with a given light, the amount of exposure required can be easily approx- imated by making subsequent exposures at the same distance from the same light; the only difference that it would then be necessary to make would be to allow for variation in density of different negatives. Fixing. — Allow the prints to remain in the fixing solution 10 to 20 minutes, when they should be removed to a tray con- taining clear water. Washing. — Wash 1 hour in running water, or in 10 or 12 changes of clear water, allowing prints to soak 2 to 3 minutes in each cnange. Pyrocatechin Formula. — Solution A Pyrocatechin 2 parts Sulphite of soda, crystals 2.5 parts Water 100 parts Solution B Carbonate of soda . 10 parts Water 100 parts Before using mix 20 parts of Solution A, and J part of Solution B. Metol Quinol. — Water 10 ounces Metol 7 grains Sodium sulphite, crystals, pure J ounce Hydroquinone 30 grains Sodium carbonate, dessicated 200 grains (or 400 grains of crystallized carbonate). Ten per cent bro- mide of potassium solution, about. . . 10 drops Amidol Formula. — Water 4 ounces Sodium sulphite, crystals, pure . . . 200 grains Amidol, about 20 grains Ten per cent bro- mide of potas- sium solution, about 5 drops If the blacks are greenish, add more amidol; if whites are grayish, add more bromide of potassium. Hypo -Acid Fixing Bath. — Hypo 16 ounces .Water 64 ounces Then add the following hardening solution : Water $ ounces Sodium sulphite, crystals J ounce Commercial acetic acid (containing 25 per cent pure acid) 3 ounces Powdered alum J ounce Amidol Developer. — Amidol 2 grains Sodium sulphite .... 30 grains Potassium bromide . 1 grain Water 1 ounce PHOTOGRAPHY 529 With a fairly correct exposure this will be found to produce prints of a rich black tone, and of good quality. The whole secret of successful bromide frinting lies in correctness of exposure, t is generally taken for granted that any poor, flat negative is good enough to yield a bromide print, but this is not so. A negative of good printing quality on printing-out paper will also yield a good print on bromide paper, but considerable care and skill are necessary to obtain a good result from a poor negative. The above developer will not keep in solution, and should be freshly prepared as re- quired. The same formula will also be found useful for the development of lantern plates, but will only yield black- toned slides. PLATINUM PAPERS: General Instructions. — To secure the most brilliant results the sensitized paper, before, during, and after its exposure to light, must be kept as dry as possible. The paper is exposed to daylight, in the printing frame, for about one-third of the time necessary for ordinary silver paper. The print is then immersed in the developer for about 30 seconds, then cleared in 3 acid baths containing 1 part of muriatic acid C. P. to 60 parts of water, washed for a short time in running water, the whole operation of printing, clearing, and wasning being complete in about half an hour. As a general rule all parts of the pic- ture except the highest lights should be visible when the exposure is complete. When examining the prints in the printing frames, care should be taken not to expose them unduly to light; for the degradation of the whites of the paper due to slight action of light is not visible until after development. Ansco Platinum Paper. — Print until a, trace of the detail desired is slightly visi- ble in the high lights. Develo'pmenl. — Best results are ob- tained with the temperature of the de- veloper from 60° to 80° F. Immerse the print in the developer with a quick sweeping motion to prevent air bells. Develop in artificial or weak daylight. The development of a print from a nor- mal negative will require 40 seconds or more. Formula for Developer. — Water 60 ounces Neutral oxalate of potash 8 ounces Potassium p h o s - phate (monobasic) 1 ounce Care must be used to obtain the mono- basic potassium phosphate. Immediately after prints are devel- oped, place them face down in the first acid bath, composed of Muriatic acid, C. P. 1 ounce Water 60 ounces After remaining in this bath for a pe- riod of about 5 minutes, transfer to the second acid bath of the same strength. The prints should pass through at least 3 and preferably 4 acid baths, to re- move all traces of iron that may re- main in the pores of the paper. When thoroughly cleared, the print should be washed from 10 to 20 minutes in running water. If running water is not available, several changes of water in the tray will be necessary. "Water Tone" Platinum Paper. — "Water tone" platinum paper is very easily affected by moisture; it will, there- fore, be noticed when printing in warm, damp weather that the print will show quite a tendency to print out black in the aeep shadows. This must not be taken into consideration, as the same amount of exposure is necessary as in dry days. Print by direct light (sunlight pre- ferred) until the shadows are clearly out- lined in a deep canair color. At this stage the same detail wUl be observed in the half tones that the finished pfint will show. For developing, use plain water, heated to 120° F. (which will be as hot as they can bear). The development will be practically instantaneous, and care must be taken to avoid air bubbles forming upon the sur- face of the prints. Place prints, after developing, directly into a clearing bath of muriatic acid, 1 drachm to 12 ounces of water, and let them remain in this bath about 10 minutes, when they are ready for the final washing of IS minutes in running water, or 5 changes of about 3 minutes each. Lay out between blot- ters to dry, and mount by attaching the corners. Bradley Platinum Paper. — Developer. A. — For black tones: Neutral oxalate potas- sium 8 ounces Potassium phosphate. . 1 ounce Water 30 ounces B. — For sepia tones: Of above mixed solu- tion 8 ounces Saturated bichloride mercury solution . . 1 ounce Citrate soda 5 grains 530 PHOTOGRAPHY If deep red tones are desired add to B Nitrate uranium 10 grains Then filter and use as a developer. W. & C. Platinotype. — Development. — The whole contents of the box of the W. & C. developing salts must be dis- solved at one time, as the salts are mixed; and if this be not done, too large a pro- portion of one of the ingredients may be used. Development should be conducted in a feeble white light, similar to that used when cutting up the paper, or by gas light. It may take place immediately after the print is exposed, or at the end of the day's printing. Develop by floating the print, exposed side downwards, on the developing solu- tion. Development may take 30 seconds or more. During the hot summer days it is not advisable to unduly delay the develop- ment of exposed prints. If jjossible develop within 1 hour after printing. Either porcelain or agate — preferably porcelain — dishes are necessary to hold the developing solution. To clear the developed prints: These must be washed in a series of baths (not lesfe than three) of a weak solution of muriatic acid C. P. This solution is made by mixing 1 part of acid in 60 parts of water. As soon as the print has been removed from the developing dish it must be im- mersed face downwards in the first bath of this acid, contained in a porcelain dish, in which it should remain about 5 minutes; meanwhile other prints follow until aU are developed. The prints must then be removed to a second acid bath for about 10 minutes; afterwards to the third bath for about 15 minutes. While the prints remain in these acid baths they should be moved so that the solution has free access to their surfaces, but care should be taken not to abrade them by undue friction. Pure muriatic acid must be used. If commercial muriatic acid be used, the prints will be discolored and turn yellow. For each batch of prints fresh acid baths must be' used. After the prints have passed through the acid baths they should be well washed in three changes of water during about a half hour. It is advisable to add a pinch of washing soda to the second washing water to neutralize any acid remaining in the print. Do not use water that contains iron, as it tends to turn paper yellow. Soft water is the best for this purpose. W. & C. Sepia Paper. — With a few exceptions the method of carrying out the operations is the same as for the "black" kinds of platinotype paper. The following points should be attended to: The "sepia" paper is more easily affected by faint light, and, therefore, increased care must be taken when printing. To develop, add to each ounce of the developing solution IJ drachms of sepia solution supplied for this purpose, and proceed as described for black paper. The solution must be heated to a temperature of 150° to 160° F., to obtain the greatest amount of brilliance and the warmest color, but very good results can be obtained by using a cooler developer. Variations of the Sepia Developer. — Primarily the object of the sepia solution in the developer is to increase the brightness of the prints, as, for example, when the negative is thin and flat, or pense and flat, the addition of the sepia solution to the developer clears up, to some extent, the flatness of the print by taking out traces of the finer detail in the higher lights, which is often a decided improvement. If, however, the nega- tive be dense, with clear shadows, the sepia solution may be discarded alto- gether. This will prevent the loss of any of the finer detau and greatly reduce harshness in the prints. Sometimes a half, or even a (juarter, of the quantity of the sepia solution recommended as an addition to the developer will be sufii- cient, depending altogether upon the strength of the negatives. Prints de- veloped without the solution have less of the sepia quality but are very agreeable nevertheless. It should be remembered that the sepia paper is totally different from the black, and will develop sepia tones on a developer to which no sepia solution has been added. The sepia solution clears up and brightens the flat, muddy (to some extent, not totally) effects from the thinner class of nega- tives. The Glycerine Process. — The "glyc- erine process," or the process of de- veloping platinotype prints by applica- tion of the developing agent with the brush, is perhaps one of the most inter- esting and fascinating of photographic processes, owing to its far-reaching possibilities. PHOTOGRAPHY 531 t By this method of developing platino- type paper, many negatives which have been discarded on account of the dim, flat, non-contrasty results which they ^ield, in the hands of one possessing a ittle artistic skill, produce snappy, ani- mated pictures. On the other hand, from the sharp and hard negative, soft, sketchy effects may be secured. There are required for this process: Some glass jars; some soft brushes, vary- ing from the fine spotter and the Japan- ese brush to the IJ-inch duster, and sev- eral pieces of special blotting paper. Manipulation. — Print the paper a trifle deeper than for the ordinary method of developing. Place the print face up on a piece of clean glass (should the print curl so that it is unmanageable, moisten the glass with glycerine), and, with the broad camel's-hair brush, thinly coat the entire print with pure glycerine, blotting same off in 3 or 4 seconds; then recoat more thickly such portions as are desired especially restrained, or the details partly or entirely eliminated. Now brush or paint such portion of the print as is first desired with solution of 1 part flycerine and 4 parts normal developer, lotting the portion being developed from time to time to avoid developing too far. Full strength developer (with- out glycerine) is employed where a pro- nounced or deep shade is wanted. When any part of the print has reached the full development desired, blot that portion carefully' with the blotter and coat with pure glycerine. A brown effect may be obtained by using saturated solution of mercury in the developer (1 part mercury to 8 parts developer). By the use of diluted mer- cury tne "flesh tones" are produced in portraits, etc. When print has reached complete development, place in hydrochloric (muriatic) acid and wash as usual. Eastman's Sepia Paper. — This paper is about 3 times as rapid as blue paper. It should be under rather than over printed, and is developed by washing in plain water. After 2 or 3 changes of water fix 5 minutes in a solution of hypo (Ij grains to the ounce of water), and afterwards wash thoroughly. Short fixing gives red tones. Longer fixing produces a brown tone. Development of Platinum Prints. — In the development of platinotype prints by the hot bath process, distinctly warmer tones are obtained by using a bath which has been several times heated, colder blacks resulting from the use of a freshly prepared solution, and colder tones still if the developing solution be faintly acidified. The repeated heating of the solution of the neutral salt ap- Earentljr has the effect of rendering the ath slightly alkaline by the conversion of a minute proportion of the oxalate into potassium carbonate. If this be the case, it allows a little latitude in choice of tone which may be useful. Some photographers recommend the use of potassium phosphate with the neutral oxalate, stating that the solution should be rendered acid by the addition of a small proportion of oxalic acid. When the potassium phosphate was first recommended for this purpose, probably the acid salt; KHaPOi, was intended, by the use of which cold steely black tones were obtained. The use of the oxalic acid with the ordinary phosphate KaHP04, is probably intendecf to produce the same result. THE .CARBON PROCESS. The paper used is coated on one surface with a mixture of gelatin and some pigment (the color of which de- pends upon the color the required print IS to be), and then allowed to dry. When required for printing it is sensitized by floating upon a solution of bichromate of potassium, and then again drying, in the dark this time. The process is based upon the action of light upon this film of chromatized gelatin; wherever the light reaches, the gelatin is rendered insol- uble, even in hot water. The paper is exposed in the usual way. But as the appearance of the paper be- fore and after printing is precisely the same, it is impossible to tell when it is printed by examining the print. This is usually accomplished by exposing a piece of gelatino-chloride paper under a negative of about the same density, and placing it alongside of the carbon print. When the gelatino-chloride paper is printed, the carbon will be finished. The paper is then removed from the printing frame and immersed in cold water, which removes a great deal of the bi- chromate of potassium, and also makes the print lie out flat. It is then floated on to what is known as a support, and pressed firmly upon it, face down- wards, and allowed to remain for 5 or 10 minutes. Then the support, together with the print, is placed in hot water for a short time, and when the gelatin commences to ooze out at the edges the print is removed by stripping from the support, this process leaving the greater quantity of the gelatin and pigment 532 PHOTOGRAPHY upon the support. The gelatin and pigment are then treated with hot water by running the hot water over the face of the support by means of a sponge. This removes the soluble gelatin, and leaves the gelatin, together with the pigment it contains, which was acted upon by light; this then constitutes the picture. The reason for transferring the gela- tin film is quite apparent, since the greater portion of the unacted-upon gel- atin will be at the back of the film, and in order to get at it to remove it, it is necessary to transfer it to a support. In this condition the print can be dried and mounted, but on consideration it will be seen that the picture id in a reversed position, that is to say, that the right- hand side of the original has become the left, and vice versa. If the picture be finished in this con- dition, it is said to have been done by the single transfer method. In some in- stancesthis reversal would be of no con- sequence, such as some portraits, but with views which are known this would never do. In order to remedy this state of affairs, the picture is transferred once more, by pressing, while wet, upon an- other support, and allowed to dry upon it; when separated, the picture remains upon the latter support, and is in its right position. This is what is known as the double transfer method. When the double transfer method is used, the first support consists of a specially pre- pared support, which has been waxed in order to prevent the pictures from ad- hering permanently to it; this is then known as a temporary support. The paper upon which the print is finally received is prepared with q, coating of gelatin, and is known as the final sup- port. LANTERN SLIDES. The making of a good slide begins with the making of the negative, the operations in both cases being closely allied, and he who has mastered the first, which is the corner stone to all successful results in any branch of photography, may well be expected to be able to make a good lantern slide. A slide is judged not by what it appears to be when held in the hand, but by its appearance when magnified two to Ave thousand times on the screen, where a small defect in the slide will show up as a gross fault. Patience and cleanliness are absolutely necessary. The greatest caution should be observed to keep the lantern plates free from dust, both before and after exposure and development, for small pin- holes and dust spots, hardly noticeable on the slide, assume huge proportions on the screen and detract materially from the slide's beauty. The high lights in a slide should, in rare cases only, be represented by clear glass, and the shadows should always be transparent, even in the deepest part. The balance between these extremes should be a delicate gradation of tone from one to the other. The contrast between the strongest high light and the deepest shadow should be enough to give brilliancy without hardness and delicacy or softness without being flat. This is controlled also, to some extent, by the subject summer sunshine requiring a inore vigorous rendering than hazy autumn effects, and herein each indi- vidual must decide for himself what is most necessary to give the correct por- trayal of the subject. It is a good idea to procure a slide, as near technically perfect as possible, from some slide- making friend, or dealer, to use it as a standard, and to make slide after slide from the same negative until a satis- factory result is reached. A black tone of good quality is usu- ally satisfactory for most slides, but it is very agreeable to see interspersed a va- riety of tone, and beautiful slides can be made, where the subject warrants, in blue, brown, purple, and even red and green, by varying the exposure and de- velopment and by using gold or uranium toning baths and other solutions for that purpose, the formulas and materials for which are easily obtainable from the magazines and from stock dealers, re- spectively. It must be understood, however, that these toning solutions generally act as intensifiers, and that if toning is contem- plated, it should be borne in mind at the time of developing the slide, so that it may not finally appear too dense. Ton- ing will improve otherwise weak slides, but will not help under-exposed ones, as its tendency will be in such case to in- crease the contrast, which in such slides is already too great. Another method of getting a fine quality of slides is to make rather strong exposures to over- develop, and then to reduce with persul- phate of ammonium. The popular methods of making the exposure are: First, by contact in the printing frame, just as prints are made on velox or other developing paper, pro- vided the subject on the negative is of the right size for a lantern slide; and the other and better method is the camera PHOTOGRAPHY 533 method, by which the subject of any negative, large or small, or any part thereof, can be reduced or enlarged, and thus brought to the proper size de- sired for the slide. This is quite a knack, and should be considered and studied by the slide maker very care- fully. Hard and inflexible rules cannot be laid down in this relation. Portrait studies of bust or three-fourths figures or baby figures need not be made for a larger openinp; than IJ by 2 inches, and often appear to good advantage if made quite a bit smaller. Figure or group compositions, with considerable back- { [round or accessories, may, of course, lave a larger opening to suit the par- ticular circumstances. Monuments, tall buildings, and the like should have the ln'iiefit of the whole height of mat open- in;,' of i'l inches, and should be made of a size to fill it out properly, providing, however, for sufficient foreground and a proper sky line. Landscapes and marine views generally can be made to fill out the full length of mat opening, which, however, should not exceed 2J inches, and may be of any height to suit the sub- ject, up to 2J inches. The subject should be well centered on the plate and the part intended to be shown as the picture should be well within the size of the mat opening de- cided upon, so that with a slight varia- tion of the placing of the mat no part of the picture will be cut off by the carrier in the stereopticon. The horizon line in a landscape, and more particularly in a marine view, should always be in proper position, either below or above the center line of the slide, as may suit the subject, but should never divide the picture in the middle and should not appear to be run- ning either up or down hm. And the ver- ticil! lines in the pictures should not be leaning, but should run parallel with the side lines of the mat; this refers espe- cially to the vertical lines in architecture, except, however, the Tower of Pisa and kindred subjects, which should in every case be shown with their natural inclina- tions. .Vs to time of exposure, very little can be said. That varies with the different makes of plates, with the quality of the light, and the nature and density of each individual negative. Therefore every one must be a judge unto himself and make as good a guess as he can for the first trial from each negative and gauge further exposures from the results thus obtained; but this much may be said, that a negative strong in contrast should be given a long exposure, close to the light, if artificial fight is used, or in strong daylight, and developed with a weak or very much diluted developer to make a soft slide with full tone values. And a flat, weak negative will yield bet- ter results if exposed farther from the light or to a weaker light, and developed by a normal or more aggressive de- veloper. Over exposure and under ex- posure show the same results in slide plates as in negative plates, and the treat- ment should be similar in both kinds of plates except that, perhaps, in cases of under exposure of slide plates, the better plan would be to cast them aside and make them over, as very little can be done with them. For getting bright and c^ear effects it is now well understood that better and more satisfactory results are obtained by backing the slide plates as well as by backing negative plates. This is accomplished by coating the back or glass side of the plate with the follow- ing mixture: Gum arabic J ounce Caramel 1 ounce Burnt sienna '2 ounces Alcohol 'i ounces Mix and apply with small sponge or wad of absorbent cotton. It should coat thin and smooth and dry hard enough so it will not rub off when handled. If the plates are put into a light-proof grooved box as fast as backed, they can be used about half an hour after being coated. Before devel- oping, this backing should be removed; this is best done by first wetting the film side of the plate under the tap, which will prevent staining it, and then letting the water run on the backing, and, with a little rubbing, it will disappear in a few moments, when development may proceed. Other preparations for this purpose, ready for use, may be found at the stock houses. The mat should be carefully selected or cut of a size and shape to show up the subject to best advantage, and should cover every- thing not wanted in the picture. The opening should not exceed 2J x 2J inches in any case, and must not be ragged or fuzzy, but clean cut and symmetrical. The lines of the opening of square mats should be parallel with the outside lines of the plate. Oval, or round, or other variously shaped mats, should be used sparingly, and in special cases only where the nature of the subject will war- rant their use. Statuary shows up to best advantage when the background is blocked out. PHOTOGRAPHY This is easily done with a small camel's- hair artist's brush and opaque or india ink, in a retouching frame, a good eye and a steadj; hand Deing the only addi- tional requirements. This treatment may also be applied to some flower studies and other botanical subjects. Binding may be performed with the aid of a stationer's spring clamp, such as is used for holding papers together, and can be purchased for 10 cents. Cut the binding strips the length of the sides and ends of the slide, and gum them on separately, rubbing them firmly in con- tact with the glass with a piece of cloth or an old handkerchief, which might be kept handy for that purpose, so that the binding may not loosen or peel off after the slides are handled but naif a dozefl times. Before storing the slides away for future use they should be properly labeled and named. The name label should be affixed on the right end of the face of the slide as you look at it in its proper position, and should contain the maker's name and the title of the slide. The thumb label should be affixed to the lower leftrhand corner of the face of the slide, and may show the number of the slide. HOW TO UTILIZE WASTE MA- TERIAL. Undoubtedly spoiled negatives form the greatest waste. The uses to which a ruined negative may be put are mani- fold. Cut down to 3} inches square and the films cleaned off, they make excellent cover glasses for lantern slides. An- other use for them in the same popular branch of photography is the following: If, during development, you see that your negative is spoiled through uneven density, over exposure, or what not, ex- pose it to the light and allow it to blacken all over. Now with sealing wax fasten a needle to a penholder, and by means of this little tool one can easily manufacture diagram slides from the darkened film (white lines on black ground). Take a spoiled negative, dissolve out all the silver with a solution of potassium ferricyanide and hypo. Rinse, dry, rub with sandpaper, and you will have a splendid substitute for ground glass. Remove the silver in a similar manner from another negative, but this time wash thoroughly. Squeegee down on this a print, and an opaline will be your reward. Prom such an opaline, by ce- menting on a few more glasses, a tasteful letter weight may soon be made. An- other way in which very thin negatives may be used is this: Bleach them in bichloride of mercury, back them with black paper, and positives will result. Old negatives also make good trimming boards, the film preventing a rapid blunt- ing of the knife, and they may be suc- cessfully used as mounting tables. Clean off the films, polish with French chalk, and squeegee your prints thereto. When dry they may be removed and will have a fine enameled, if hardly artistic, appearance. Many other uses for them may also be found if the amateur is at all ingenious. Users of pyro, instead of throwing the old developer away, should keep some of it and allow it to oxidize. A thin nega- tive, if immersed in this for a few min- utes, will be stained a deep yellow all over, and its printing quality will be much improved. Old hypo baths should be saved, and, when a sufficient -quantity of silver is thought to be in solution, reduced to recover the metal. Printing paper of any sort is another great source of waste, especially to the inexperienced photographer. Prints are too dark or not dark enough success- fully to undergo the subsequent opera- tions. Spoiled material of this kind, however, is not without its uses in photography. Those who swear by the "combined bath," will find that scraps of printing-out paper, or any silver paper, are necessary to start the toning action. Spoiled mat surface, printing -out paper, bromide paper, or platinotype should be allowed to blacken all over. Here we have a dead-black surface use- ful for many purposes. A leak in the bellows when out in the field may be repaired temporarily by moistening a piece of mat printing-out paper and stick- ing it on the leak; the gelatin will cause it to adhere. These papers may also be used to back plates, platinotypes, of course, requiring some adhesive mixture to make them stick. In every photographer's possession there will be found a small percentage of stained prints. Instead of throwing these away, they may often be turned to good account in the following manner: Take a large piece of cardboard, some mountant, and the prints. Now proceed to mount them tastefully so that the corners of some overlap, arranging in every case to hide the stain. If you have gone properly to work, you will have an artistic mosaic. Now wash round with india ink, or paint a border of leaves, and the whole thing will form a, very neat "tit bit." Keep the stiff bits of cardboard be- PHOTOGRAPHY 535 tween wnich printing paper is packed. They are useful in many ways — from opaque cards in the dark slide to parti- tions between negatives in the storing boxes. In reclaiming old gold solutions, all liquids containing gold, with the excep- tion of baths of which cyanide forms a part, must be strongly acidulated with chlorhydric or sulphuric acid, if they are not already acid in their na'ture. They are afterwards diluted with a large pro- portion of ordinary water, and a solution of sulphate of ferroprotoxide (green vitriol) is poured in "in excess. It is recognized that the filtered liquid no longer contains gold when' the addition of a new qnantity of ferric sulphate does not occasion any cloudiness. Gold precipitated in the form of a reddish or blackish powder is Collected on a filter and dried in an oven with weights equal to its own of borjix, saltpeter, and car- bonate of potash. The mass is after- wards introduced gradually into a fire- proof crucible and carried to a white-red heat in a furnace. When all the matter has been introduced, a stronger blast is given by closing the furnaee, so that all the metal collects at the bottom of the crucible. On cooling, a gold ingot, chemically pure, will be obtained. This mode of reduction is also suitable for impure chloride of gold, and for the re- moval of gilding, but not for solutions containing cyanides, which never give up all the gold they contain; the best means of treating the latter consists in evaporat- ing them to dryness in a cast-iron boiler, and in calcining the residue in an earthen crucible at the white red. A small quantity of borax or saltpeter may be added for facilitating the fusion, but it is not generally necessary. The gold separated collects at the bottom of the crucible. It is red, if saltpeter is em- ployed; and green, if it is borax. To reclaim silver place the old films, plates, paper, etc., in a porcelain dish, so arranged that they will burn readily. To facilitate combustion, a little kerosene or denatured alcohol poured over the con- tents will be found serviceable. Before blowing off the burnt paper, place the residue in an agateware dish, the bottom of which is covered with a solution of saltpeter and water. Place the whole on the fire, and heat it until the silver is separated as a nitrate. The solution being complete, add to the mass a little water and hydrochloric acid, when in a short time the serviceable silver chloride will be obtained. If the films should not give up their silver as freely as the plates, then add a little more hydrochloric acid or work them up separately. Silver reclaimed in this way is eminently suitable for silver-plating all sorts of objects. FIXING AND CLEARING BATHS: The Acid Fixing and Clearing Bath. — Add 2 ounces of S. P. C. clarifier (acid bisulphite of sodium) solution to 1 quart of hypo solution 1 in 5. Combined Alum and Hypo Bath. — Add saturated solution of sulpliite of sodium to saturated solution of alum till the white precipitate formed remains un- dissolved, and when the odor of sul- phurous acid beef)mes perceptible. , Mix this solution with an e(|ual hulk of freshly prepared hypo solution 1 in '>, and filter. This bath will remain clear. Clearing Solution (Edward's). — Alum 1 ounce avoirdupois Citric acid.. 1 ounce avoirdupois Sulphate of iron, crys- tals 3 ounces avoirdupois Water 1 imperial pint This should be freshly mixed. Clearing Solution. — Saturated solution of alum iO ouna}jii). Olive Gray. — Two hundred parts white lead; 2 parts lampblack; 1 part medium chrome green. Pure Gray. — One hundred parts white lead; 1 part drop black. Pearl Gray. — One hundred parts white lead; 1 part ultramarine blue; 1 part drop black. Silver Gray. — One hundred and fifty parts white lead; 2 parts lampblack; 3 parts Oxford ocher. Warm Gray. — One hundred parts white lead; 3 parts drop black: 2 parts French ocher; 1 part light Venetian red. Note. — For inside work and whenever desirable, the white lead may be replaced by zinc white or a mixture of the two white pigments may be used. Be it also remembered that pure colors, as a rule, will produce the cleanest tints and that fineness of grinding is an important factor. It wdl not be amiss to call at- tention to the fact that the excessive use of driers, especially of dark japans or liquid driers, with delicate tints is bad practice, and liable to ruin otherwise good effects in tints or delicate solid colors. COLOR TESTING. Expense and trouble deter many a painter from having a color examined, 560 PIGMENTS although such an examination is often very necessary. For the practical man it is less important to know what per- centage of foreign matter a paint con- tains, but whether substances are con- tained therein, which may act injuriously in some way or other. If a pigment is to be tested for arsen- ic, pour purified hydrochloric acid into a test tube or a U-shaped glass vessel which withstands heat, add a little of the pigment or the colored fabric, wall paper, etc. (of pigment take only enough to strongly color the hydrochloric acid simply in the first moment), and finally a small quantity of stannous chloride. Now heat the test tube with its contents moderately over a common spirit lamp. If the liquid or mass has assumed a brown or brownish color after being heated, arsenic is present in the pigment or fabric, etc. An effective but simple test for the durability of a color is to paint strips of thick paper and nail them on the wall in the strongest light possible. A strip of Eaper should then be nailed over one- alf of the samples of color so as to pro- tect them from the light. On removing this the difference in shade between the exposed and unexposed portions will be very apparent. Some colors, such as the vermilionettes, will show a marked difference after even a few weeks. Testing Body Colors for Gritty Ad- mixtures. — The fineness of the pow- dered pigment is not a guarantee of the absence of gritty admixtures. The latter differ from the pigment proper in their specific gravity. If consisting of metallic oxides or metallic sulphides the sandy admixtures are lighter than the pigments and rise to the surface upon a syste- matic shaking of the sample. In the case of other pigments, e. g., aluminas and iron varnish colors, they collect at the bottom. For carrying out the test, a smoothly bored metallic tube about J to f inch in diameter and 6 to 7 inches long is used. Both ends are closed with screw caps and at one side of the tube some holes about ^ of an inch in diameter are bored, closed by pieces of a rubber hose pushed on. The tube is filled with the pigment powder, screwed up and feebly shaken for some time in a vertical position (the length of time vary- ling according to the fineness of the pow- der). Samples may now be taken from all parts of the tube. Perhaps glass tubes would be preferable, but lateral apertures cannot be so readily made. After the necessary samples have been collected in this manner, they must be prepared with a standard sample, which is accomplished either by feeling the pow- der between the fingers or by inspecting it under a microscope, or else by means of the scratching test, which last named is the usual way. The requisites for these scratch tests consist of two soft, well-polished glass plates (2ix 2i inches) which are fixed by means of cement in two stronger plates of hard wood suit- ably hollowed out. The surface of the glass must project about J inch over the wooden frame. If a sample of the pig- ment powder is placed on such a glass plate, another plate is laid on top and both are rubbed slowly together; this motion will retain a soft, velvety charac- ter in case the pigment is free from gritty admixtures; if otherwise, the glass IS injured and a corresponding sound becomes audible. Next the powder is removed from the plate, rubbing the latter with a soft rag, and examining the surface with a microscope. From the nature of the scratches on the plate the kind of gritty ingredients can be readily determined. The human finger is suffi- ciently sensitive to detect the presence of gritty substances, yet it is not capable of distinguishing whether they consist of im- perfectly reduced or badly sifted grains of pigment or real gritty admixtures. To Determine the Covering Power of Pigments. — To determine the covering power of white lead, or any other pig- ment, take equal quantities of several varieties of white lead and mix them with a darker pigment, black, blue, etc., the latter also in equal proportions. The white lead which retains the lightest color is naturally the most opaque. In a similar manner, on the other hand, the mixing power of the dark pigments can be ascertained. If experiments are made with a variety of white lead or zinc white, by the admixture of dark pig- ments, the color which tints the wnite lead or zinc white most, also possesses the greatest covering or mixing power. To Detect the Presence of Aniline in a Pigment. — Lay a little of the color upon letter paper and pour a drop of spirit on it. If it is mixed with aniline the paper is colored right through there- by, while a pure pigment does not alter the shade of the paper and will never penetrate it. Vehicle for Oil Colors. — Petroleum, 20 to 30 pounds; tallow, 3 to 5 pounds; cotton-seed oil, 5 to 7 pounds; col- ophony, 5 to 7 pounds. The pigments PIGMENTS— PLASTER 561 having been ground up with this niix- ture, the mixed paint can be made still better by adding to it about a sixth of its weight of the following mixture: Vegetable i)il, 8 to 20 pounds; saponified rosm, 6 to 16 pounds; turpentine, 4 to 30 ounces. Frankfort Black.— Frankfort black, also known as German black, is a name applied to a superior grade of lamp- black. In .some districts of Germany it is said to be made by calcining wine lees and tartar. The material is heated in large cylindrical vessels having a vent in the cover for the escape of smoke and vapors that are evolved during the proc- ess. When no more smoke is observed, the operation is finished. The residuum in the vessels is then washed several times in boiling water to extract the salts con- tained therein and finally is reduced to the proper degree of fineness by grinding on a porphyry. Paris Green. — Emerald or Paris green is rather permanent to light, but must not be mixed with pigments containing sulphur, because of the tendency to blacken when so mixed. It will not re- sist acids, ammonia, and caustics. PIGMENT PAPER: See Photography. PILE OINTMENTS. I. — "Extract" witch- hazel 2 fluidounces Lanum 2 ounces Petrolatum 6 ounces Glycerine -1 fluidounces Tannic acid 1 drachm Powdered opium. 1 drachm II. — Tannic acid 20 grains Bismuth s u b n i - trate 1 drachm Powdered opium. 10 grains Lanum 3 drachms Petrolatum 5 drachms PINE SYRUP: See Essences and Extracts. PINEAPPLE ESSENCE: See Essences and Extracts. PINEAPPLE LEMONADE: See Beverages. PING PONG FRAPPE: See Beverages, under' Lemonades. PINS OF WATCHES: See Watchmakers' Formulas. PINION ALLOY: See Watchmakers' Formulas. PINK SALVE: See Ointments. PINKEYE: See Veterinary Formulas. PIPE-JOINT CEMENT: See Cement. PIPE LEAKS: See Leaks. PIPES, RUST -PREVENTIVE FOR: See Rust Preventives. PISTACHIO ESSENCE: See Essences and Extracts. PIVOT^ REPAIRING OF: See Watchmakers' Formulas. PLANTS: Temperature of Water for Watering Plants. — Experiments wore made sev- eral years ago at the Wisconsin Agri- cultural Experiment Station to determine whether eold water was detrimental to plants. Plants were grown under glass and in the open field, and in all eases the results were similar. Thus, coleus planted in lots of equal size and vigor were watered with water at 3.5°, .00°, 65°, and 86° F. At the end of 60 days it was impossible to note any difference, and when the experiment was repeated with water at 32°, 40°, 70°, and 100° I'., tlie result was the same. Beans watered with water at 3i>°, 40°, 70°, and 100° P., were e(|ually vigorous; in fact, water at 32° and 40° F. gave the best results. Lettuce watered with water at 3'2° F. yielded slightly more than the other lots. From these experiments it was concluded that for vegetable and flowering plants com- monly grown under glass, ordinary well or spring water may be used freely at any time of the year without warming. PLANT PRESERVATIVES: See Flowers. Plaster (See also Gypsum.) Therapeutic Grouping of Medicinal Plasters. — The vehicle for medicated plasters requires some other attribute than simply adhesiveness. From a study of the therapy of plasters they may be put in three groups, similarly to the ointments with reference to their general therapeutic uses, which also governs the selection of the respective vehicles. 1. — Epidermatic: Supportive, protec- tive, antiseptic, counter-irritant, vesi- cant. Vehicle: Rubber or any suitable 562 PLASTER adhesive. Official plasters: Emp. ad- hesivum, E. capsici. 2. — Endermatic: Anodyne, astrin- gent, alterative, resolvent, sedative, stimulant. Vehicle: Oleates or lead plaster, sometimes' with rosins or gum rosins. Official plasters: Emp. Bella- donnse, E. opii, E. plumbi, E. saponis. 3. — Diadermatic: For constitutional or systemic effects. Vehicle: Lanolin or plaster-mull. Official plasters : Emp. hydrargyri. Methods of Preparing Rubber Plas- ters. — Mechanic Roller Pressure Method. — This method of incorporating thcTub- ber with certain substances to give it the necessary body to serve as a vehicle is at present the only one employed. But since it requires the use of the heaviest ma- chinery — some of the apparatus weighing many tons — and enormous steam power, its application for pharmaceutical pur- poses IS out of the question. As is well known, the process consists in: 1. Purification of the rubber by mascerating and pressing it and re- moving foreign impurities Dy elutriating it with water. 2. Forming a homoge- neous mass of the dried purified rubber by working it on heated revolving rollers and incorporating sufficient quantities of orris powder and oleoresins. 3. In- corporating the medicinal agent, i. e., belladonna extract, with the rubber mass by working it on warmed revolving rollers. 4. Spreading the prepared plaster. Solution in Volatile Solvents. — This process has been recommended from time to time, the principal objection being the use of so relatively large quan- tities of inflammable solvents. The German Pharmacopoeia Method. — The following is the formula of "Arz- neibuch fiir das Deutsche Reich," 1900: Emplastrum adhesivum: Lead plaster, waterfree, 40 parts; petrolatum, 2.5 parts; liquid petrolatum, 2.5 parts, are melted together, and to the mixture add rosin, 35 parts; dammar, 10 parts, previously melted. To the warm mixture is added caoutchouc, 10 parts; dissolved in ben- zine, 75 parts, and the mixture stirred on the water-bath until all the benzine is lost by evaporation. The Coleplastrum adhesivum of the Austrian Society is still more complex, the formula containing the following: Rosin oil, empyreumatie, 150 parts; co- paiba, 100 parts; rosin, 100 parts; lard, 50 parts; wax, 30 parts; dissolved in ether, 1,200 parts, in which caoutchouc, 250 parts, has been previously dissolved; to this is then added orris powder, 220 parts; san- darac, 60 parts; ether, 400 parts. The mixture, when uniform, is spread oa cloth. Solution of Rubber in Fixed Solvent: Petrolatum and Incorporation with Lead Acetate. — India rubber dissolves, though with difficulty, in petrolatum. The heat required to melt the rubber being com- paratively Kigh, usually considerably more than 212° F., as stated in the U. S. P., it is necessary to melt the rubber first and then add the petrolatum, in order to avoid subjecting tne latter to the higher temperature. The mixture of equal parts of rubber and petrolatum is of a soft jelly consistence, not especially adhesive, but when incorporated with the lead oleate furnishes a very adhesive plaster. While at first 5 per cent of each rubber and petrolatum was used, it has been found that the petrolatum would melt and exude around the edges of the plaster when applied to the skin, and the quantity was tnerefore reduced to 2 per cent of each. This mass affords a pfas- ter which is readily adhesive to the body, does not run nor become too soft. Plas- ters spread on cloth have been kept for months exposed to the sun in the sum- mer weather without losing their stabil- ity or permanency. The lead oleate made by the inter- action of hot solution of soap and lead acetate, thoroughly washed with hot water, and freed from water by working the precipitated oleate on a hot tile, is much to be preferred to the lead plaster made by the present official process. The time-honored method of boiling litharge, olive oil, and water is for the requirements of the pharmacists most tedious and un- satisfactory. Since in the beginning of the process, at least, a temperature higher than that of 212° F. is required, the water bath cannot be employed, and in the ab- sence of this limiting device the product is usually "scorched." When the steam bath under pressure can be used this objection does not apply. But the boiling process requires from 3 to 4 hours, with more or less attention, while the precipitation method does not take over half an hour. Besides, true litharge is difficult to ob- tain, and any other kind will produce un- satisfactory results. The following is the process employed: Lead oleate (Emplastrum plumbi): Soap, granular and dried 100 parts Lead acetate 60 parts Distilled water, a sufficient quan- tity. PLASTER 56S Dissolve the soap in 350 parts hot distilled water and strain the solution. Dissolve the lead acetate in 250 parts hot distilled water and filter the solution while hot into the warm soap solution, stirriiiK constantly. When the precipi- tate which has formed has separated, decant the liquid and wash the precipi- tate thoroughly with hot water. Remove the precipitate, let it drain, free from water completely by kneading it on a warm slab, form it into rolls, wrap in paraffine paper, and preserve in tightly closed con- tainers. Emplastrum adhesivum: Rubber, cut in small pieces 20 parts Petrolatum 20 parts Lead plaster 960 parts Melt the rubber at a temperature not exceeding 302° P., add the petrolatum, and continue the heat until the rubber is dissolved. Add the lead plaster to the hot mixture, continue the neat until it becomes liquid; then let it cool and stir until it stiffens. Court Plaster or Sticking Plaster. — I. — Brush silk over with a solution of isin- glass, in spirits or warm water, dry and repeat several times. For the last ap- ' plication apply several coats of balsam of Peru. Tliis is used to close cuts or wounds, by warming and applying it. It does not wash off until the skin par- tially heals. II. — Isinglass, 1 part; water, 10 parts; dissolve, strain the solution, and gradu- ally add to it of tincture of benzoin, 2 Earts; apply this mixture gently warmed, y means of a camel's-hair brush, to the surface of silk or sarcenet, stretched on a frame, and allow each coating to dry before applying the next one, the appli- cation being repeated as often as neces- sary; lastly, give the prepared surface a. coating of tincture of lienzoin or tincture of balsam of Peru. Some manufacturers apply this to the unprepared side of the plaster, and others add to the tincture a few drops of essence of ambergris or essence of musk. III. (Deschamps).- — A piece of fine muslin, linen, or silk is fastened to a flat board, and a thin coating of smooth, strained flour paste is given to it; over this, when dry, two coats of colorless gelatin, made into size with water, quantity sufficient, are applied warm. Said to be superior to the ordinary court plaster. Coloring of Modeling Plaster. — I. — If burnt gypsum is stirred up with water con- taining formaldehyde and with a little alkali, and the tjuantity of water necessary for the induration of the plaster contain- ing in solution a reducible metallic salt is added thereto, a plaster mass ofperfectly uniform coloring is obtained. Tne hard- ening of the plaster is not affected there- by. According to the concentration of the metallic salt solutions and the choice of the salts, the most varying shades of color, as black, red, brown, violet, pearl gray, and bronze may be produced. The color effect may be enhanced by the addition of certain colors. For the production of a gray-colored gypsum mass, for example, the mode of pro- cedure is as follows: Stir 15 drachms of plaster with one-fourth its weight of water, containing a few drops of formal- dehyde and a little soda lye and add 10 drops of a one-tenth normal silver solu- tion, which has previously been mixed with the amount of water necessary for hardening the gypsum. The mass will immediately upon mixing assume a F carl-gray shade, uniform throughout, n order to produce red or copper-like, black or bronze-like shades, gold salts, copper salts or silver salts, bismuth salts or lead salts, singly or mixed, are used. Naturally, these colorings admit of a large numhtr of modifications. In lieu of formaldehyde other reducing agents may be employed, such as solu- tions of sulphurous acid or hydrogen peroxide with a little alkali. Metals in the elementary state may likewise be made use of, e. g., iron, which, stirred with a little copper solution and plaster, produces a brown mass excelling in special hardness, etc. This process of coloring plaster is distinguished from the former methods in that the coloration is caused by metals in the nascent state and that a very fine division is obtained. The advantage of the dyeing method consists in that colorings can be produced with slight quantities of a salt; besides, the fine contours of the figures are in no way affected by this manner of coloring, and another notable advantage lies in the mass being colored througnout, whereby a great durability of the color against outside actions is assured. Thus a peel- ing off of the color or other way of be- coming detached, such as by rubbing off, is entirely excluded. II. — Frequently, in order to obtain colored plaster objects, ocher or pow- dered colors are mixed with the plaster. This method leaves much to be desired, because the mixture is not always per- fect, and instead of the expected uniform color, blotches appear. Here is a. more 564 PLASTER certain recipe: Boil brazil wood, log- wood, or yellow wood, in water, according to the desired color, or use extracts of the woods. When the dye is cold mix it with the plaster. The dye must be passed through a cloth before use. One may also immerse the plaster articles, medals, etc., in this dye, but in this case they must be left for some time and the oper- ation repeated several times. Treatment of Fresh Plaster. — Freshly Elastered cement surfaces on walls may e treated as follows: The freshly plastered surface first remains without any coating for about 14 days; then it is coated witn a mixture of 50 parts water and 10 parts ammonia carbonate dissolved in hot water; leave this coat alone for a day, paint it again and wait until the cement has taken on a uniform gray color, which takes place as a rule in 12 to 14 days. Then prime the surface thus obtained with pure var- nish and finish the coating, after drying, with ordinary varnish paint or turpentine paint. Plaster for Foundrjr Models. — Gum lac, 1 part; wood spirit, 2 parts; lamp- black in sufficient quantity to dye. Plaster from Spent Gas Lime. — Spent lime from gas purifiers, in which the sul- phur has been converted into calcium sulphate, by exposure to weather, if necessary, is mixed with clay rich in alumina. The mixture is powdered, formed into balls or blocks with water, and calcined at a temperature below that at which the setting qualities of cal- cium sulphate are destroyed. Slaked lime, clay, and sand are added to the calcined product, and the whole is finely powdered. Plaster Mold. — Nearly all fine grades of metals can be cast in plaster molds, provided only a few pieces of the cast- ings are wanted. Dental plaster should be used, with about one-half of short asbestos. Mix the two well together, and when the mold is complete let it dry in a warm place for several days, or until all the moisture is excluded. If the mold is of considerable thickness it will answer the purpose better. When ready for casting, the plaster mold should be warmed, and smoked over a gas light; then the metal should be poured in, in as cool a state as it will run. Cleaning of Statuettes and Other Plaster Objects. — Nothing takes the dust more freely than plaster objects, more or less artistic, which are the modest orna- ments of our dwellings. They rapidly contract a yellow-gray color, of unpleas- ant appearance. Here is a practical method for restoring the whiteness: Take finely powdered starch, quite white, and make a thick paste with hot water. Apply, when still hot, with a flexible spatula or a brush on the plaster object. The layer should be quite thick. Let it dry slowly. On drying, the starch will split and scale off. All the soiled parts of the plaster will adhere, and be drawn off with the scales. This method of cleaning does not detract from the fineness of the model. Hardening and Toughening Plaster of Paris. — I. — Plaster of Paris at times sets too rapidly; therefore the following recipe for toughening and delaying dry- ing will be useful. To calcined plaster of Paris add 4 per cent of its weight of powdered marshmallow root, which will keep it from setting for about an hour, and augment its hardness when set, or double the quantity of marshmallow root powder, and the plaster will become very firm, and may ae worked 2 or 3 hours after mixing, and may be carved and polished when hard. It is essential that these powders, which are of different densities and specific gravities, should be thoroughly mixed, and the plaster of Paris be quite fresh, and it must be passed through fine hair sieves to ensure its being an impalpable powder. To ensure thorough mixing, pass the com- bined powders through tne hair sieve three times. Make up with water suffi- cient for the required model or models. Should any of the powder be left over it may be kept by being put in an air-tight box and placed in a warm room. The marshmallow root powder may be replaced by dextrin, gum arable, or glue. The material treated is suitable while yet in a soft state, for rolling, glass- tube developing, making plates, etc. II. — Plaster of Paris may be caused to set more quickly if some alum be dis- solved in the water used for rendering it plastic. If the gypsum is first moistened with a solution of alum and then again burned, the resulting compound sets very quickly and becomes as hard as marble. Borax may be similarly employed. The objects may also be be treated with a solu- tion of caustic baryta. But it has been found that no matter how deep this pen- etrates, the baryta is again drawn toward the surface when the water evaporates, a portion efflorescing on the outside, and only a thin layer remaining in the outer shell, where it is converted into carbonate. This at the same time PLASTER— PLATING 565 stops up the pores, rendering it impos- sible to repeat the operation. It was Inter found that the whole mass of the east might be hardeneil by applying to it with a brush made of glass bristles, a hot solution of baryta. To prevent sepa- ration of the frystallized oaryta at the surface, the object must be raised to a temperature of 140° to 175° F. To pro- duce good results, however, it is neces- sary to add to the plaster before casting certain substances with which the baryta can combine. These are silicic acid in some form, or the sulphates of zinc, magnesium, copper, iron, aluminum, etc. With some of these the resulting object may be colored. As it is, how- • ever, difficult to insure the production of uniform tint, it is better when employing salts producing color, to mix the plaster with about 5 per cent of quicklime, or, better, to render it plastic with milk of liiiir, and then to soak the object in a solution of metallic .sulphate. Preservation of Plaster Casts.— Upon complete drying, small objects arc laid for a short while in celluloid varnish of i per cent, while large articles are painted with it, from the top downward, using a soft brush. Articles set up outside and exposed to the weather are not protected by this treatment, while others can be readily washed off and cleaned with water. To cover 100 square feet of surface, IJ pints of celluloid varnish are required. To Arrest the Setting of Plaster of Paris. — Citric acid will delay the setting of plaster of Paris for several hours. One ounce of acid, at a cost of about 5 cents, will be sufficient to delay the setting of 100 pounds of plaster of Paris for "i or 3 hours. Dissolve the acid in the water before mixing the plaster. Weatherproofing Casts. — I. — Bre- thauer's method of preparing plaster of Paris casts for resisting the action of the weather is as follows: Slake 1 part of finely pulverized lime to a paste, then mix Rvpsuin with limewater and intimately mix both. From the compound thus prepared the figures are cast. When ftcrfectly dry they are painted with hot inseed oil, repeating the operation sev- eral limes, then with linseed-oil varnish, and finally with white oil paint. Stat- ues, etc., prepared in this way have been constantly exposed to the action of the weather for i years without suffering any change. II. — Jacob.sen prepares casts which retain no dust, and can be washed with lukewarm soap water by immersing them or throwing upon them in a fine spray a hot solution of a soap prepared from stearic acid and soda lye in ten times its quantity, by weight, of hot water. Reproduction of Plaster Originals. — This new process consists in making a plaster mold over the original in the usual manner, .\fter the solidification of the plaster the mass of the original is removed, as usual, by cutting out and rinsing out. The casting mold thus obtained is next filled out with a ceramic mass consisting of gypsum, 1 part; pow- dered porcelain, .5 parts; and flux, 1 part. After the mass has hardened it is baked in the mold. This renders the latter brittle and it falls apart on moistening with water while the infusion remains as a firm body, which presents all the de- tails of the original in a true manner. PLASTER ARTICLES, REPAIRING OF: .Sec Aillicsives and Lutes. PLASTER GREASE: See Lubricants. PLASTER, PAINTS FOR: See Paints. PLASTER OF PARIS, MOLDS FOR CASTING: See Casting. PLASTIC COMPOSITIONS: See Celluloid and Matrix Mass. PLASTER, IRRITATING : See Ointments. PLATES, CARE OF PHOTOGRAPHIC : See Photography. PLATINA, BIRMINGHAM: See Alloys, under Brass. Plating The plating of metal surfaces is ac- complished in four different ways: (1) By oxidation, usually involving dipping in an acid bath; (2) by electrodeposition, involving suspension in a metallic solu- tion, through which an electric current is passed; (3) by applying a paste that is fixed, as by burning in; (4) by pouring on molten plating metal and rolling. For convenience the methods of plating are arbitrarily classified below under the fol- lowing headings: 1. Bronzing. 2. Coloring of Metals. 3. Electrodeposition Processes. 4. Gilding and Gold- Plating. 566 PLATING 5. Oxidizing Processes. 6. Patina Oxidizing Processes. 7. Platinizing. 8. Silvering and Silver-Plating. 9. Tinned Xead- Plating. 10. Various Recipes. BRONZING: Art Bronzes. — These are bronzes of different tints, showing a great variety according to the taste and fancy of the operator. I. — After imparting to an object a coating of vert anticjue, it is brushed to remove the verdigris, and another coat is applied with the following mixture: Vinegar, 1,000 parts, by weight; pow- dered bloodstone, 125 parts, by weight; plumbago, 25 parts, by weight. Finish with a waxed brush and a coat of white varnish. II. — Cover the object with a mixture of vinegar, 1,000 parts, by weight; pow- dered bloodstone, 125 parts, by weight; plumbago, 25 parts, by weight; sal am- moniac, 32 parts, by weight; ammonia, 32 parts, by weight; sea salt, 32 parts, by weight. Finish as above. Antique Bronzes. — In order to give new bronze castings the appearance and patina of old bronze, various composi- tions are employed, of which the follow- ing are the principal ones: I. — Vert Antique: Vinegar, 1,000 parts, by weight; copper sulphate, 16 parts, by weight; sea salt, 32 parts, by weight; sal ammoniac, 32 parts, by weight; mountain green (Sanders green), 70 parts, by weight; chrome yellow, 30 parts, by weight; ammonia, 32 parts, by weight. II. — Vert Antique: Vinegar, 1,000 parts, by weight; copper sulphate, 16 parts, by weight; sea salt, 32 parts, by weight; sal ammoniac, 32 parts, by weight; mountain green, 70 parts, by weight; ammonia, 32 parts, by weight. III. — Dark Vert Antique: To obtain darker vert antique, add a little plum- bago to the preceding mixtures. IV. — Vinegar, 1,000 parts, by weight; sal ammoniac, 8 parts, by weight; potas- sium bioxalate, 1 part, by weight. Brass Bronzing. — I. — Immerse the articles, freed from dirt and grease, into a cold solution of 10 parts of potassium permanganate, 50 parts of iron sulphate, 5 parts of hydrochloric acid, in 1,000 parts of water. Let remain 30 seconds; then withdraw, rinse off, and dry in fine, soft sawdust. If the articles have be- come too dark, or if a reddish-brown color be desired, immerse for about 1 minute into a warm (60° C. or 140° F.) solution of chromic acid, 10 parts; hy- drochloric acid, 10 parts; potassium per- manganate, 10 parts; iron sulphate, 50 parts; water, 1,000 parts. Treat as be- fore. If the latter solution alone be used the product will be a brighter dark yellow or reddish-brown color. By heat- ins in a, drying oven the tone of the colors is improved. II. — Rouge, with a little chloride of platinum and water, will form a choco- late brown of considerable depth of tone and is exceedingly applicable to brass surfaces which are to resemble a copper bronze. ' Copper Bronzing. — I. — After cleaning the pieces, a mixture made as follows is passed over them with a brush: Castor oil, 20 parts; alcohol, 80 parts; soft soap, 40 parts; water, 40 parts. The day after application, the piece has become bronzed; and if the time is prolonged, the tint will change. Thus, an affinity of shades agreeable to the eye can be procured. The piece is dried in hot saw- dust, and colorless varnish with large ad- dition of alcohol is passed over it. This formula for bronzing galvanic apparatus imparts any shade desired, from Bar- boaienne bronze to antique green, pro- vided the liquid remains for some time in contact with the copper. II. — Acetate of copper, 6 parts; sal ammoniac, 7 parts; acetic acidf, 1 part; distilled water, 100 parts. Dissolve all in water in an earthen or porcelain vessel. Place on the fire and heat slightly; next, with a brush give the objects to be bronzed 2 or 3 coats, according to the shade desired. It is necessary that each coat be thoroughly dry before applying another. Bronzing of Gas Fixtures. — Gas fix- tures which have become dirty or tar- nished from use may be improved in appearance by painting with bronze paint and then, if a still better finish is required, varnishing after the paint is thoroughly dry with some light-colored varnish that will give a hard and brilliant coating. If the bronze paint is made up with ordinary varnish it is liable to become discolored from acid which may be present in the varnish. One method proposed for obviating this is to mix the varnish with about 5 times its volume of spirit of turpentine, add to the mixture dried slaked lime in the proportion of about 40 grains to the pint, agitate well. PLATING 567 repeating the agitation several times, and finally allowing the suspended matter to settle and decanting the clear liquid. The object of this is, of course, to neu- tralize any acid which may be present. To determine how effectively tnis has been done, the varnish may be chem- ically tested. Iron Bronzing. — I. — The surface of a casting previously cleaned and polished is evenly painted with a vegetable oil, c. g., olive oil, and then well heated, care btiiig taken that the temperature does not rise to a point at which the oil will burn. The cast iron absorbs oxygen at the moment when the decomposition of tlie oil begins, and a brown layer of oxide is formed which adheres firmly to the surface and which may be vigorously polished, giving a bronze-like appearance to the surface of the iron. II. — To give polished iron the ap- pearance of Dronze commence by clean- ing the objects, then subject them for about 5 minutes to the vapor of a mix- ture of concentrated hydrochloric and nitric acids; then smear them with vase- line and heat them until the vaseline be- gins to decotapose. The result is a fine bronzing. Liquid for Bronze Powder.— Take 2 ounces gum animi and dissolve in J pint linseed oil by adding gradually while the oil is being heated. Boil, strain, and dilute with turpentine. Bronzing Metals. — I. — The following composition is recommended for bronz- ing metal objects exposed to the air: Mix about equal parts of siccative, recti- fied oil of turpentine, caoutchouc oil, and dammar varnish, and apply this com- position on the objects, using a brush. This bronze has been found to resist the influences of the weather. II.— Cover the objects with a light layer of linseed oil, and then heat over a coal fire, prolonging the heat until the de- sired shade is reached. III. — Expose the objects to be bronzed for about 5 minutes to the vapors of a bath composed of 50 part^ of nitric acid and 50 parts of concentrated hydro- chloric acid. Then rub the articles with vaseline and heat until the vaseline is decomposed. The objects to be bronzed must always be perfectly polished. IV. — To bronze iron articles they should be laid in highly heated coal dust; the articles must be covered up in the glowing dust, and the heat must be the same throughout. The iron turns at first yellow, then blue, and finally rather black. Withdraw the objects when they have attained the blue shade or the black color; then while they are still hot, rub them with a wad charged with tallow. V. — For electrolytic bronzing of metals the baths employed differ from the brass baths only in that they contain tin in solution instead of zinc. Accord- ing to Eisner, dissolve 70 parts, by weight, of cupric sulphate in 1,000 parts of water and add a solution of 8 parts of stannic chloride in caustic lye. For a positive pole plate put in a bronze plate. The bath works at ordinary tempera- ture. VI. — \ good bath consists of 10 parts of potash, 2 parts of cupric chloride, 1 part of tin salt, 1 part of cyanide of potas- sium dissolved in 100 parts of water. VII. — Mix a solution of 32 parts of copper sulphate in 500 parts of water with 64 parts of cyanide of potassium. .Vftcr the solution lias become clear, add 4 to .5 parts of stannic chloride dissolved in potash lye. VIII. — Precipitate all soda from a solution of blue vitriol by phosphate of sodium, wash the precipitate well, and dissolve in a concentrated solution of pyrophosphate of copper. Also, satu- rate a solution of the same salt with tin .salt. Of both solutions add enon;jli in such proportion to a solution of 50 parts, by weight, of pyrophosphate of sodium in 1,000 parts of water until the solution appears clear and of the desired color. A cast bronze plate serves as an anode. From time to time a little soda, or if the f)recipitate turns out too pale, copper so- ution should be added. Tin Bronzing. — The pieces are well washed and all grease removed; next plunged into a solution of copperas (green vitriol), 1 part; sulphate, 1 part; water, '20 parts. When dry they are plunged again into a bath composed of verdigris, i parts; dissolved in distilled wine vinegar, 11 parts. Wash, dry, and polish with English red. Zinc Bronzing. — The zinc article must be first electro-coppered before proceed- ing to the bronzing. The process used is always the same; the different shades are, however, too numerous to cover all of them in one explanation. The bronzing of zinc clocks is most frequently done on a brown ground, by mixing graphite, lampblack, and sanguine stirred in water in which a little Flanders Dutch glue is dissolved. The application is made by means of a brush. When it is dry a 568 PLATING spirit varnish is applied; next, before the varnish is perfectly dry, a little powdered bronze or sanguine or powdered bronze mixed with sanguine or with graphite, according to the desired shades. For green bronze, mix green sanders with chrome yellow stirred with spirit in which a little varnish is put. When the bronzing is dry, put on the varnish and the powdered bronze as above described. After all has dried, pass the brush over a piece of wax, then over the bronzed article, being careful to charge the brush frequently with wax. COLORING OF METALS: Direct Coloration of Iron and Steel by Cupric Selenite. — Iron precipitates cop- per and selenium from their salts. Im- mersed in a solution of cupric selenite, acidulated with a few drops of nitric acid, it precipitates these two metals on its sur- face in the form of a dull black deposit, but slightly adherent. But, if the object is washed with water, then with alcohol, and rapidly dried over a gas burner, the deposit becomes adherent. If rubbed with a cloth, this deposit turns a blue black or a brilliant black, according to the composition of the bath. The selenite of copper is a greenish salt insoluble in water, and but slightly soluble in water acidulated with nitric or sulphuric acid. It is preferable to mix a solution of cupric sulphate with a solu- tion of selenious acid, and to acidulate with nitric acid, in order to prevent the precipitation of the selenite of copper. This process, originated by Paul Mal- herbe, is quite convenient for blackening or bluing small objects of iron or steel, such as metallic pens or other small pieces. It does not succeed so well for objects of cast iron; and the selenious acid is costly, which is an obstacle to its employment on large metallic surfaces. The baths are quickly impoverished, for insoluble yellow selenite of iron is deposited. Brilliant Black Coloration. — Selenious acid, 6 parts; cupric sulphate, 10 parts; water, 1,000 parts; nitric acid, 4 to 6 parts. Blue- Black Coloration. — Selenious acid, 10 parts; cupric sulphate, 10 parts; water, 1,000 parts; nitric acid, 4 to 6 parts. By immersing the object for a short time the surface of the metal can be col- ored in succession yellow, rose, purple, violet and blue. Coloration of Copper and Brass with Cupric Selenite. — When an object of copper or brass is immersed in a solution of selenite of copper acidulated with nitric acid, the following colors are ob- tained, according to the time of the im- mersion: Yellow, orange, rose, purple, violet, and blue, which is the last color which can be obtained. In general, the solution should be slightly acid; other- wise the color is fugacious and punctate. a. h. Selenious acid 6.5 2.9 parts Sulphate of copper 12.5 20.0 parts Nitric acid. .. . 2.0 2.5 parts Water 1,000.0 1,000.0 parts Production of Rainbow Colors on Metals (iron, copper, brass, zinc, etc.) — I. — The 'following process of irisation is due to Puscher. It allows of covering the metals with a thick layer of metallic sulphide, similar to that met with in na- ture — in galena, for example. These compounds are quite solid and are not attacked by concentrated acids and alkalies, while dilute reagents are without action. In 5 minutes thousands of objects of brass can be colored with the brightest hues. If they have been previously cleaned chemically, the colors deposited on the surface adhere with such strength that they can be worked with the burnisher. Forty-five parts of sodium hyposulphite are dissolved in 500 parts of water; a solution of 15 parts of neutral acetate of lead in 500 parts of water is poured in. The clear mixture, which is composed of a double salt of hyposulphite of lead and of sodium, possesses, when heated to 212° F., the property of decomposing slowly and of depositing brown flakes of lead sulphide. If an article of gold, silver, copjjer, brass, tombac, iron, or zinc is put into this bath while the precipitation IS taking place, the object will be covered with a film of lead sulphide, which will give varied and brilliant colors, according to its thickness. For a uniform colora- tion, it is necessary that the pieces should be heated quite uniformly. However, iron assumes under this treatment only a blue color, and zinc a bronze color. On articles of copper the first gold color which appears is defective. Lead and tin are not colored. By substituting for the neutral acetate of lead an equal quantity of cupric sul- phate and proceeding in a, similar way, brass or imitation gold is covered with a very beautiful red, succeeded by an imperfect green, and finally a magnifi- cent brown, with iridescent points of greenish red. The latter coating is faurly permanent. Zinc is not colored in this solution, and PLATING 569 precipitates in it a quantity of flakes of greenish brown (cupric sulphide), but if about one-third of the preceding so- lution of lead acetate is added, a solid black color is developed, which, when covered with a light coating of wax, fains much in intensity and solidity, t is also useful to apply a slight coating of wax to the other colors. II. — Beautiful designs may be ob- tained, imitating marble, with sheets of copper plunged into a solution of lead, thickened by the addition of gum traga- canth, and heated to 212° F. After- wards they are treated with the ordinary lead solution. The compounds of an- timony, for example the tartrate of anti- mony and potash, afford similar colora- tions, but require a longer time for their development. The solutions mentioned do not change, even after a long period, and may be employed several times. III.- — By mixing a solution of cupric sulphate with a, solution of sodium hypo- sulphite, a double hyposulphite of sodi- um and of copper is obtained. If in the solution of this double salt an article of nickel or of copper, cleaned with nitric acid, then with soda, is im- mersed, the following colors will appear in a few seconds: Brilliant red, green, rose, blue, and violet. To isolate a color, it is sufficient to take out the object and wash it with water. The colors obtained on nickel present a moire appearance, similar to that of silk fabrics. IV. — Tin sulphate affords with so- dium hyposulphite a double salt, which is reduced by heat, with production of tin sulphide. The action of this double salt on metallic surfaces is the same as that of the double salts of copper and lead. Mixed with a solution of cupric sulphate, all the colors of the spectrum will be readily obtained. V. — Coloration of Silver. — The ob- jects of copper or brass are first covered with a layer of silver, when they are dipped in the following solution at the temperature of 205'' to '212° F.: Water, 8,000 parts; sodium hyposulphite, 300 parts; lead acetate, 100 parts. VI. — Iron precipitates bismuth from its chlorhydric solution. On heating this deposit, the colors of the rainbow are obtained. Coloration by Electrolysis. — I.— Col- ored Rings by Electrolysis (Nobili, Bec- t^uerel). — In order to obtain the Nobili rings it is necessary to concentrate the current coming from one of the poles of the battery through a platinum wire. whose point alone is immersed in the liquid to be decomposed, while the other pole is connected with a plate of metal in the same liouid. This plate is placed perpendicularlv to the direction of the wire, and at about 0.04 inches from the point. Solutions of sulphate of copper, sul- phate of zinc, sulphate of manganese, ace- tate of lead, acetate of copper, acetate of potassium, tartrate of antimony and potash, phosphoric acid, oxalic acid, carbonate of soda, chloride of manga- nese, and manganous acetate, may be em- ployed. II. — A process, due to M. O. Mathey, allows of coloring metals by precipitating on their surface a transparent metallic peroxide. The phenomenon of electro- chemical coloration on metals is the same as that which takes place when an object of polished steel is exposed to heat. It first assumes a yellow color, from a very thin coating of ferric oxide formed on its surface. By continuing the heating, this coating of oxide in- creases in thickness, and appears red, then violet, then blue. Here, the color- ation is due to the increase in the thick- ness of a thin coating of a metallic oxide precipitated by an alkaline solution. The oxides of lead, tin, zinc, chromium, aluminum, molybdenum, tungsten, etc., dissolved in potash, may be employed; also protoxide of iron, zinc, cadmium, cobalt, dissolved in ammonia. Lead Solution. — Potash, 400 parts; litharge or massicot, 125 parts. Boil 10 minutes, filter, dilute until the solution marks 25° Be. Iron Solution. — Dissolve ferrous sul- phate in boiling water, and preserve sheltered from air. When desired for use, pour a quantity into a vessel and add ammonia until the precipitate is redis- solved. This solution, oxidizing rapidly in the air, cannot be used for more than an hour. III. — Electro-chemical coloration suc- ceeds very well on metals which are not oxidizable, such as gold and platinum, but not well on silver. This process is employed for coloring watch hands and screws. The object is placed at the pos- itive pole, under a thickness of IJ inches of the liquid, and the negative electrode is brought to the surface of the bath. In a few seconds all the colors possible are obtained. Generally, a ruby-red tint is sought for. IV. — Coloration of Nickel. — The nickel piece is placed at the positive pole in a solution of lead acetate. A netting 570 PLATING of copper wires is arranged at the nega- tive pole according to the contours of the design, and at a short distance from the object. The coloration obtained is uni- form if the distance of the copper wires from the object is equal at all points. Coloring of Brass. — I.— (a) Brown bronze : Acid solution of nitrate of silver and bismuth or nitric acid, (i) Light bronze: Acid solution of nitrate of silver and of copper, (c) Black: Solution of nitrate of copper. In all cases, however, the brass is colored black, if after having been treated with the acid solution, it is placed for a very short time in a solution of potassium sulphide, of ammonium sulphydrate, or of nydrogen sulphide. II. — The brass is immersed in a dilute solution of mercurous nitrate; the layer of mercury formed on the brass is con- verted into black sulphide, if washed several times in potassium sulphide. By substituting for the potassium sulphide the sulphide of antimony or that of ar- senic, beautiful bronze colors are ob- tained, varying from light brown to dark brown. III. — Clean the brass perfectly. Af- terwards rub with sal ammoniac dissolved in vinegar. Strong vinegar, 1,000 parts; sal ammoniac, 30 parts; alum, 15 parts; arsenious anhydride, 8 parts. IV. — A solution of chloride of plati- num is employed, which leaves a very light coating of platinum on the metal, and the surface is bronzed. A steel tint or gray color is obtained, of which the shade depends on the metal. If this is burnished, it takes a blue or steel gray shade, which varies with the duration of the chemical action, the concentration, and the temperature of the bath. A dilute solution of platinum is prepared thus: Chloride of platinum, 1 part; water, 5,000 parts. Another solution, more concentrated at the temperature of 104° F., is kept ready. The objects to be bronzed are attached to a copper wire and immersed for a few seconds in a hot solution of tartar, 30 parts to 5,000 parts of water. On coming from this bath they are washed 2 or 3 times with ordinary water, and a last time with distilled water,' and then put in the solution of platinum chloride, stirring them from time to time. When a suitable change of color has been secured, the objects are passed to the concentrated solution of platinum chloride (40°). They are stirred, and taken out when the wished-for color has been reached. They are then washed 2 or 3 times, and dried in wood sawdust. V. — To give to brass a dull black color, as that used for optical instruments, the metal is cleaned carefully at first, and covered with a very dilute mixture of neutral nitrate of tin, 1 part; chloride of gold, 2 parts. At the end of 10 min- utes this covering is removed with a moist brush. If an excess of acid has not been employed, the surface of the metal will be found to be of a fine dull black. The nitrate of tin is prepared by de- composing the chloride of this metal with ammonia and afterwards dissolving in nitric acid the oxide of tin formed. VI. — For obtaining a deposit of bis- muth the brass is immersed in a boiling bath, prepared by adding 50 to 60 parts of bismuth to nitric acid diluted with 1,000 parts of water, and containing 32 parts of tartaric acid. VII. — The electrolysis of a cold solu- tion of 25 to 30 parts per 1,000 parts of the double chloride of bismuth and am- monium produces on brass or on copper a brilliant adherent deposit of bismuth, whose appearance resembles that of old silver. Production of Rainbow Hues. — Var- ious colors. — I. — Dissolve tartrate of antimony and of potash, 30 parts; tar- taric acid, 30 parts; water„ 1,000 parts. Add hydrochloric acid, 90 to 120 parts; pulverized antimony, 90 to 120 parts. Immerse the object of brass in this boil- ing liquid, and it will be covered with a film, wnich, as it thickens, reflects quite a series of beautiful tints, first appearing iridescent, then the color of gold, copper, or violet, and finally of a grayish blue. These colors are adherent, and do not change in the air. II. — The sulphide of tin may be depos- ited on metallic surfaces, especially on brass, communicating shades varying with the thickness of the deposit. For this purpose, Puscher prepares the fol- lowing solutions: Dissolve tartaric acid, 20 parts, in water, 1,000 parts; add a salt of tin, 20 parts; water, 125 parts. Boil the mixture, allow it to repose, and filter. Afterwards pour the clear portion a little at a time, shaking continually, into a solution of hyposulphite of soda, 80 parts; water, 250 parts. On boiling, sul- phide of tin is formed, with precipitation of sulphur. On plunging the pieces' of brass in the liquid, they are covered, according to the period of immersion, with varied shades, passing from gold yellow to red, to crimson, to blue, and finally to light brown. III. — The metal is treated with the PLATING 671 following composition: Solution A. — Cotton, well washed, 50 parts; salicylic acid, 2 parts, dissolved in sulphuric acid, 1,000 parts, and bichromate of potash, 100 parts._ Solution B. — Brass, 20 parts; nitric acid, density 1.51, 350 parts; nitrate of soda, 10 parts. Mix the two solutions, and dilute with 1,500 Earts of water. These proportions may e modified according to the nature of the brass to be treated. This prepara- tion is spread on the metal, wnicn im- mediately changes color. When the desired tint is obtained, the piece is quickly plunged in an alkaline solution; a soda salt, 50 parts; water, 1,000 parts. The article is afterwards washed, and dried with a piece of cloth. Beautiful red tints are obtained by placing the objects between 2 plates, or better yet, 2 pieces of iron wire-cloth. IV. — Put in a flask 100 parts of cupric carbonate and 750 parts of ammonia and shake. This liquid should be kept in well-stoppered bottles. When it has lost its strength, this may be renewed by pouring in a little ammonia. The objects to be colored should be well cleaned. They are suspended in the li(iuid and moved back and forth. After a few minutes of immersion, they are washed with water and dried in wood sawdust. Generally, a deep-blue color is obtained. V. — Plunge a sheet of perfectly clean brass in a dilute solution of neutral acetate of copper, and at the ordinary temperature, and in a short time it will be found coveroil with a fine gold yellow. VI. — Immerse the brass several times in a very dilute solution of cupric chlo- ride, and the color will be deadened and bronzed a greenish gray. A plate of brass neated to 302° P. is colored violet by rubbing its surface gently with cotton soaked with cupric chloride. VII. — On heating brass, perfectly polished, until it can be no longer held m the hand, and then covering it rapidl)' and uniformly with a solution of an- timony chloride by means of a wad of cotton, a fine violet tint is communi- cated. VIII. — For greenish shades, a bath may be made use of, composed of water, 100 parts; cupric sulphate, 8 parts; sal ammoniac, i parts. IX. — For orange-brown and cinna- mon-brown shades: Water, 1,000 parts; potassium chlorate, 10 parts; cupric sulphate, 10 parts. X.— -For obtaining rose-colored hues, then violet, then blue: Water, 400 parts; cupric sulphate, 30 parts; sodium hypo- sulphite, 20 parts; cream of tartar, 10 parts. XI. — For yeUow, orange, or rose- colored shades, then blue, immerse the objects for a longer or shorter time in the following bath: Water, 400 parts; ammoniacal ferrous sulphate, 20 parts; sodium hyposulphite, 40 parts; cupric sulphite, 30 parts; cream of tartar, 10 Earts. By prolonging the boiling, the lue tint gives place to yellow, and finally to a fine gray. .XII. — A yellowish brown may be ob- tained with water, SO parts; potassium chlorate, 5 parts; nickel carbonate, 2 parts; sal nickel, 5 parts. XIII. — A dark brown is obtained with water, 50 parts; sal nickel, 10 parts; potassium chlorate, .5 parts. XIV. — A yellowish brown is obtained with water, 350 parts; a crystallized sodium salt, 10 parts; orpiment, .5 parts. XV. — Metallic moire is obtained by mixing two liquids: (a) Cream of tar- tar, 5 parts; cupric sulphate, 5 parts; water, 250 parts. (6) Water, 125 parts; sodium hyposulphite, 15 parts. XVI. — A beautiful color is formed with one of the following baths: (a) Water, 140 parts; ammonia, 5 parts; po- tassium sulphide, 1 part, (i) Water, 100 parts; ammonium sulphydrate, 2 parts. Bronzing of Brass. — The object is boiled with zinc grains and water satu- rated with ammoniacal chlorhydrate. A little zinc chloride may be added to facilitate the operation, which is com- pleted as above. It may also be terminated by plunging the object in the following solution: Water, 2,000 parts; vinegar, 100 parts; sal ammoniac, 475 parts; pulverized verdigris, 500 parts. ELECTRODEPOSITION PROCESSES. The electrodeposition process is that used in electroplating and electrotyping. It consists in preparing a bath in which a metal salt is in solution, the articles to be plated being suspended so that they hang in the solution, but are insulated. The bath being provided with an anode and cathode for the passing of an elec- tric current, and the article being con- nected with the cathode or negative pole, the salts are deposited on its sur- face (on the unprotected parts of its surface), and thus receive a coating or plating of the metal in solution. 1572 PLATING When a soft metal is deposited upon a hard metal or the jlatter upon a metal softer than itself, the exterior metal should be polished and not burnished, and for this reason: If silver is deposited upon lead, for instance, the great pres- sure which is required in burnishing to produce the necessary polish would cause the softer metal to expand, and conse- quently a separation of the two metals would result. On the other hand, silver being softer than steel, if the burnisher is applied to silver-coated steel the ex- terior metal will expand and sepai-ate from the subjacent metal. Many articles which are to receive deposits require to have portions of their surfaces topped off, to prevent the deposit spreading over those parts; for instance, in taking a copy of one side of a bronze medallion, the opposite side must be coated with some kind of var- nish, wax, or fat, to prevent deposition; or, in gilding the inside of a cream jug which has been silvered on the outside, varnish must be applied all around the outer side of the edge, for the same reason. For gilding and other hot so- lutions, copal varnish is generally used; but for cold liquids and common work, an ordinary varnish, such as engravers use for similar purposes, will do very well. In the absence of other sub- stances, a solution of sealing wax, dis- solved in naphtha, may be employed. Plating of Aluminum. — The light metal may be plated with almost any other metal, but copper is most com- monly employed. Two formulas for cop- pering aluminum follow: I. — Make a bath of cupric sulphate, 30 parts; cream of tartar, 30 parts; soda, 25 parts; water, 1,000 parts. After well scouring the objects to be coppered, im- merse in the bath. The coppering may also be effected by means of the battery with the following mixture : Sodium phos- phate, 50 parts; potassium cyanide, 50 parts; copper cyanide, 50 parts; distilled water, 1,000 parts. II. — -First clean the aluminum in a warm solution of an alkaline carbonate, thus making its surface rough and porous; next wash it thoroughly in run- ning water, and dip it into a hot solution of hydrochloric acid of about 5 per cent strength. Wash it again in clean water, and then place it in a somewhat concen- trated acid solution of copper sulphate, until a uniform metallic deposit is formed; it is then again thoroughly washed and returned to the copper sul- phate bath, when an electric current is passed until a coating of copper of the required thickness is obtained. Brassing. — The following recipe is recommended for the bath: Copper ace- tate, 50 parts, by weight; dry zinc chlo- ride, 26 parts, by weight; crystallized sodium sulphite, 250 parts, by weight; ammonium carbonate, 35 parts, by weight; potassium cyanide, 110 parts, by weight. Dissolve in 3,000 parts of water. Coppering. — I. — This is the DessoUe process for the galvanic application of copper. The special advantage claimed is that strong currents can be used, and a deposit obtained of 0.004 inch in IJ hours. After having cleaned the object to be coppered, with sand or in an acid bath, a first coat is deposited in an ordi- nary electrolytic bath; then the object is placed in a final bath, in which the elec- trolyte is projected on the electrode, so as to remove all bubbles of gas or other impurities tending to attach themselves to the surface. The electrolyte employed is simply a solution of cupric sulphate in very dilute sulphuric acid. For the pre- liminary bath the double cyanide of potas- sium and copper is made use of. II. — Those baths which contain cya- nide work best, and may be used for all metals. The amount of the latter must not form too large an excess. The ad- dition of a sulphide is very dangerous. It is of advantage that the final bath contain an excess of alkali, but only as ammonia or ammonium carbonate. For a copper salt the acetate is pref- erable. According to this, the solution A is prepared in the warm, and solution B is added with heating. Solution A: Neutral copper acetate, 30 parts, by weight; crystaUized sodium sulphite, 30 parts, by weight; ammonium carbonate, 5 parts, by weight; water, 500 parts, by weight. Solution B: Potassium cyanide (98 to 99 per cent), 35 parts, by weight; and water, 500 parts, by weight. Coppering Glass. — I. — Glass vessels may be coated with copper by electro- lytic process, by simply varnishing the outer surface of the vessel, and when the varnish is nearly dry, brushing plum- bago well over it. A conducting wire is then attached to the varnished surface, which may be conveniently done by em- ploying a small piece of softened gutta percha or beeswax, taking care to employ the plumbago to the part which unites the wire to the plumbagoed surface. II. — Dissolve gutta percha in essence of turpentine or benzine; apply a coat of the solution on the glass in the places to PLATING 673 be coppered and allow to dry; next rub it with graphite and place in the electric bath. The rubber solution is spread with a brush. Coppering Plaster Models, etc. — Busts and similar objects may be coated by saturating them with linseed oil, or bet- ter, with beeswax, then well blacklead- ing, or treating them with phosphorous, silver and gold solutions, attaching a number of guiding wires, connected with alt the most hollow and distant parts, and then immersing them in the sulphate of copper solution and causing just suffi- cient copper to be deposited upon them, by the battery process, to protect them, but not to obliterate the fine lines or features. Coppering Zinc Plate. — The zinc plate should first be cleaned with highly di- luted hydrochloric acid and the acid completely removed with water. Then prepare an ammoniacal copper solution from 3 parts copper sulphate, 3 parts spirits of sal ammoniac, and 50 parts water. If possible the zinc articles are. dipped into this solution or else the sur- face is coated a faw times quickly and uniformly with a flat, soft brush, leaving to dry between the coats. When suffi- cient copper has precipitated on the zinc, brush off the object superficially. Cobaltizing of Metals. — Following are various processes for cobaltizing on cop- per or other metals previously coppered: I. — Cobalt, 50 parts, by weight; sal am- moniac, 'iH parts; liquid ammonia, 15 parts; distilled water, 1,000 parts. Dis- solve the cobalt and the sal ammoniac in the distilled wattT. and add the liquid ammonia. 11. — Pure potash in alcohol, 50 parts, by weight; cobalt chloride, 10 parts; distilled water, 1,000 parts. Dissolve the cobalt in half the distilled water and the potash in the other half and unite the two. III. — Potassium sulphocyanide, 13 parts, by weight; cobalt cnloride, 10 parts; pure potash in alcohol, 2 parts; distilled water, 1,000 parts. Proceed as described above. All these baths are used hot and require a strong current. Kickel Plating with the Battery.— The nickel bath is prepared according to the following formula: I. — Nickel and ammo- nium sulphate.. . 10 parts Boracic acid 4 parts Distilled water .... 175 parts A sheet of nickel is used as an anode. Perfect cleanliness of the surface to be coated is essential to success. With nickel especially is this the case, as traces of oxide will cause it to show dark streaks. Finger marks will in any case render the deposit liable to peel off. Cleansing is generally accomplished either by boiling in strong solution of potassium hydrate, or, when possible, by heating to redness in a blow-pipe flame to burn off any atlhcsive grease, and then soaking in a pickle of dilute sul- phuric acid to remove any oxide formed during the heating. In either ciisc it is necessary to subject the article to a process of scratch brushing afterwards; that is, long-continued friction with wire brushes under water, which not only removes any still adhering oxide, but renders the surface bright. To certain metals, as iron, nickel, and zinc, metallic deposits do not readily adhere. This diraculty is ovcrcoine by first coating them with copper in a bath composed as follows: II. — Potassium cyanide. '2 parts Copper acetate, in crystals 2 parts Sodium carbonate, in crystals '2 parts Sodium bisulphite . . ^2 parts Water 100 parts Moisten the copper acetate with a small quantity of water and add the so- dium carbonate dissolved in '20 parts of water. When reaction is complete, all the copper acetate being converted into carbonate, add the sodium bisulphite, dissolved in another '20 i;arts of water; lastly, aild tlie potassimn cyanide, dissolvefl in the remaimler of tlie water. The finislied product should be a colorless liquid. If a dynamo is not available for the Croduction of a eiirrent, a Daniell's attery is to be recommended, and the "tank" for a small operation may be a glass jar. The jar is crossed by copper rods in connection with the battery; the metal to be deposited is suspended from the rod in connection with the posi- tive pole, and is called the anode. The articles to be coated are suspended by thin copper wires from the rod in con- nection with the negative pole; these form the cathode. The worker should bear in mind that it is very difficult to apply a thick coating of nickel without its peeling. Replating with Battery. — It is well known to electro-metallurgists that met- als deposited by electricity do not adhere so firmly to their kind as to other metals. Thus gold will adhere more tenaciously ■674 PLATING to silver, copper, or brass, than it will to gold or to a gilt surface, and silver will attach itself more closely to copper or brass than to a silver-plated surface. Consequently, it is the practice to re- move, by stripping or polishing the sil- ver from old plated articles before elec- troplating them. If this were not done, the deposited coating would in all prob- ability "strip," as it is termed, when the burnisher is applied to it — that is, the newly deposited metal would peel off the underlying silver. It must be understood that these remarks apply to cases in which a good, heavy deposit of silver is required, for, of course, the mere film would not present any remarkable peculiarity. Silver Plating. — The term silver de- posit designates a coating of silver which is deposited upon glass^porcelain, china, or other substances. This deposit may be made to take the form of any desired design, and to the observer it has the ap- Cearance (in the case of glass) of having een melted on. Practically all of the plated articles are made by painting the design upon the glass or other surface by means of a mixture of powdered silver, a flux and a liquid to make the mixture in the form of a paint so that it may be readily spread over the surface. This design is then fired in a muffle until the flux melts and causes the silver to become firmly attached to the glass. A thin silver deposit is thus produced, which is a con- ductor of electricity, and upon which any thickness of silver deposit may be pro- duced by electroplating in the usual cya- nide silver-plating bath. To be successful in securing a lasting deposit a suitable flux must be used. This flux must melt at a lower tempera- ture than the glass upon which it is put, in order to prevent tne softening of the articles by the necessary heat and the accompanying distortion. Second, a suitable muffle must be had for firing the glass articles upon which the design has been painted. Not only must a mufile be used in which the heat can be abso- lutely controlled, but one which allows the slow cooling of the articles. If this is not done they are apt to crack while cooling. The manufacture of the flux is the most critical part of the silver deposit process. Without a good flux the oper- ation will not be a success. This flux is frequently called an enamel or frit. After a series of experiments it was found that the most suitable flux is a borate of lead. This is easily prepared, fuses before the glass softens, and ad- heres tenaciously to the glass surface. To make it, proceed as follows: Dis- solve i pound of acetate of lead (sugar of lead) in 1 quart of water and heat to boiling. Dissolve J pound of borax in 1 quart of hot water and add to the sugar of lead solution. Borate of lead follows as a white precipitate. This is filtered out and washed until free from impuri- ties. It is then dried. The precipitated borate of lead is then melted in a porcelain or clay crucible. When in the melted condition it should be poured into a basin of cold water. This serves to granulate and render it easily pulverized. After it has been poured into water it is removed and dried. Before using in the paint it is necessary that this fused borate of lead be ground in a mortar as fine as possible. Unless this is done the deposit will not be smooth. The silver to be used should be finely powdered silver, which can be purchased 'in the same manner as bronze powders. The mixture used £or painting the de- sign upon the glass is composed of 2 parts of the powdered silver, and 1 part of the fused borate of lead. Place the parts in n mortar and add just enough oil of lavender to make the mass of a paint-like consistency. The whole is then ground with the pestle until it is as fine as possible. The amount of oil of lavender which is used must not be too great, as it will then be found that a thick layer cannot be obtained upon the glass. The glass to be treated must be cleaned by scouring with wet pumice stone and washing soda. The glass should be rinsed and dried. The design is then painted on the glass with a brush, painting as thick as possible and yet leaving a smooth, even surface. The glass should be allowed to dry for 24 ours, when it is ready for firing. When placed in the gas muffle, the glass should be subjected to a tempera- ture of a very low red heat. The borate of lead will melt at this temperature, and after holding this heat a short time to enable the borate of lead to melt and attach itself, the muffle is allowed to cool. After cooling, the articles are removed and scratch brushed and placed in a silver bath for an electro deposit of silver of a thickness desired. Before the plating the glass article is dipped into a cyanide dip, or, if found necessary, scoured lightly with pumice PLATING 575 stone and cyanide, nnd then given a dip in the customary blue dip or mercury solution, so as to quickly cover all parts of the surface. It next passes to the regular cyanide silver solution, and is allowed to remain until the desired de- posit is obtained. A little potassium cyanide and some mono-basic potassium citrate in powder form is added from time to time to the bath generally u.sed, which is prepared by dissolving freshly precipitated silver cya- nide in a potassium cyanide solution. .Vftcr this the glass is rinsed and dried, and may be finished by buffing. Steel Plating. — The following is a solution for dipping steel articles before electroplating: Nitrate of silver, 1 part; nitrate of mercury, 1 part; nitric acid (specific gravity, 1.384), 4 parts; water, 120 parts. The article, free fr.om grease, is dipped in the pickle for a second or two. The following electroplating bath is used: Pure crystallized ferrous sulphate, 40 parts, by weight, and ammonium chloride, 100 parts, by weight, in 1,000 parts, by weight, of water. It is of ad- vantage to add to this 100 parts, by weight, of ammonium citrate, in order to prevent the precipitation of basic iron salts, especially at the anode. Tin Plating by Electric Bath. — IMost solutions give a dead-white film of tin, and this has to be brightened by friction of some sort, either by scratch brushing, burnishing, polishing, or rubbing witn whiting. The bright tin plates are made bright by rolling with polished steel rollers. Small articles may be bright- tinned by immersion in melted tin, after their surfaces have been made chemically clean and bright, all of which processes entail much time and labor. Benzoic acid, boric acid, or gelatin may be tried with a well-regulated current and the solution in good working order, but all will depend upon the exact working of the solution, the same conditions being set up as are present in the deposition of other metals. These substances may be separately tried, in the proportion of 1 ounce to each gallon of the tin solution, by boiling the latter and adding either one during the boiling, as they dissolve much easier with the tin salts than in water separately. Tin articles are usu- ally brightened and pplishcd with Vienna lime or whiting, the first being used with linen rags and the latter with chamois leather. Tin baths must be used hot, not below 75° F., with a suitable current ac- cording to their composition. Too strong a current produces a bad color, and the deposit does not adhere well. A current of from 'i to 6 volts will be sufficient. Small tinned articles are brightened by being shaken in a leather bag containing a ((uantity of bran or by revolving in a barrel with the same substance; but large objects have to be l>rightened by other means, such as scratch brushing and mopping to give an acceptable finish to the deposited metal. GILDING AITO GOLD PLATDfG : Genuine gilding readily takes up mer- cury, while imitation gilding does not or only very slowly. Any coating of var- nish present should, however, be re- moved before conducting the test. Mcr- curous nitrate has no action on genuine gold, but on spurious gilding a white spot will form which quickly turns dark. A solution of neutral copper chloride does not act upon genuine gold, but on alloys containing copper a black spot will result. Gold fringe, etc., retains its luster in spirit of wine, if the gilding is genuine; if not, the gilding will burn and oxidize. Imitation gilding might be termed "snuff gilding, ' as in Ger- many it consists of dissolved brass, snuff, saltpeter, hydrochloric acid, etc., and is used for tin toys. An expert will im- mediately see the difference, as genuine gilding has a different, more compact pore formation and a better color. There are also some gold varnishes which are just as good. The effect of motion while an article is receiving the deposit is most clearly seen during the operation of gilding. If a watch dial, for instance, be placed in the gilding bath and allowed to remain for a few moments undisturbed and the solu- tion of gold has been much worked, it is probable that the dial will acquire a dark fox-red color; but if it be quickly moved about, it instantly changes color and will sometimes even assume a pale straw color. In fact, the color of a de- posit may be regulated greatly by motion of the article in the bath — a fact which the operator should study with much attention, when gilding. The inside of a vessel is gilded by filling the vessel with the gilding solu- tion, suspending a gold anode in the liquid, and passing the current. The lips of cream jugs and the upper parts of vessels of irregular outline are gilded by passing the current from a gold anode througli a rag wetted with the gilding solution and laid upon the part. Sometimes, when gilding the insides of mugs, tankards, etc., which are richly 576 PLATING chased or embossed, it will be found that the hollow parts do not receive the de- posit at all, or very partially. When this is the case, the article must be rinsed and well scratch brushed, and a little more cyanide added to the solution. The anode must be slightly kept in motion and the battery power increased until the hollow surfaces are coated. Frequent scratch brushing aids the de- posit to a great extent by imparting a slight film of brass to the surface. In gilding chains, brooches, pins, rings, and other articles which have been repaired, i. e., hard soldered, sometimes, it IS found that the gold will not deposit freely upon the soldered parts; when such is the case, a little extra scratch brushing applied to the part will assist the operation greatly and it has some- times been found that dry scratch brush- ing for an instant — that is, without the stream of beer usually employed — ren- ders the surface a better and more uni- form conductor and consequently it will more readily receive the deposit. In fact, dry scratch brushing is very useful in many cases in which it is desirable to impart an artificial coating of brass upon an article to which silver or gold will not readily adhere. In scratch brushing without the employment of beer or some other liquid, however, great care must be taken not to continue the operation too long, as the minute particles of metal given off by the scratch brush would be likely to prove prejudicial to the health of the operator, were he to inhale them to any great extent. The following solutions are for gilding without a battery: I. — In 1,000 parts of distilled water dissolve in the following order: Crystalline sodium pyrophosphate .... 80 parts Twelve per cent solu- tion of hydrocyanic acid. . . .• 8 parts Crystalline gold chlo- ride 2 parts Heat to a boiling temperature, and dip the article, previously thoroughly cleaned, therein. II. — Dissolve in boiling distilled water, 1 part of chloride of gold and 4 parts of cyanide of potassium. Plunge the objects into this solution, while still hot, and leave them therein for several hours, keeping them attached to a copper wire or a very clean strip of zinc. They will become covered with a handsome gold coating. Aluminum Gilding. — I. — Dissolve 6 parts of gold in aqua regia and dilute the solution with distilled water; on the other hand, put 30 parts of lime in 150 Carts of distilled water; at the end of 2 ours add the gold solution to the lime, shake all and allow to settle for 5 to 6 hours, decant and wash the precipitate, which is lime aurate. Place this aurate of lime in 1,000 parts of distilled water, with 20 parts of hyposulphite of soda; put all on the fire for 8 to 10 minutes, without allowing to boil; remove and filter. The filtered liquor serves for gilding in the cold, by plunging into this bath the aluminum articles previously pickled by passing through caustic pot- ash and nitric acid. This gilding is ob- tained without the aid of the battery. II. — The gold bath is prepared with gold dissolved in the usual way, and the addition of salts, as follows: Gold, 20 parts, by weight; sulphate of soda, 20 parts; phosphate of soda, 660 parts; cyanuret of potassium, 40 parts; water, 1,000 parts. The bath ought to be of the temperature of 68° to 77° F. Amalgam Gold Plating. — Gold amal- gam is chiefly used as a plating for silver, copper, or brass. The article to be plated is washed over with diluted nitric acid or potash lye and prepared chalk, to remove any tarnish or rust that might prevent the amalgam from adhering. After having been polished perfectly bright, the amalgam is applied as evenly as possible, usually with a fine scratch brush. It is then set upon a grate over a charcoal fire, or placed into an oven and heated to that degree at which mer- cury exhales. The gold, when the mer- cury has evaporated, presents a dull yellow color. Cover it with a coating of pulverized niter and alum in equal parts, mixed to a paste with water, and heat again till it is melted, then plunge into water. Burnish up with a steel or bloodstone burnisher. Brass Gilding. — On brass, which is an electropositive metal, an electromagnetic metal, such as gold, can be deposited very cheaply from the dilute solutions of its salts. The deposit is naturally very thin, but still quite adhesive. In f)reparing it, the proportions stated be- ow have to be accurately observed, otherwise no uniform, coherent coating will result, but one that is uneven and spotted. I. — In 750 parts, by weight, of water dissolve: Phosphate of soda, 5 parts, and caustic potash, 3 parts, and in 250 parts of water, gold chloride, 1 part, and po- tassium cyanide, 16 parts. Mix both PLATING 0( ( solutions well and cause the mixture to boil, whereupon the brass articles to be gilded are immersed. The gold in the mixture can be utilized almost entirely. When the solution does not gild well any more a little potassium cyanide is added, and it is used for pre-gilding the articles, which can then be gilded a^ain in a fresh solution. This solution is very weak. A stronger one can be prepared mechan- ically by dissolving 2 to 3 parts of gold chloride in very little water to which 1 part of sa-ltpeter is added. Into this solution dip linen rags, let them dry in a dark place, and cause them to char into tinder, which is rubbed up in a porcelain dish. Into the powder so made, dip a soft, slightly charred cork, moistened with a little vinegar, or else use only the finger, and rub the gold powder upon the brass articles. II. — To Give Brass a Golden Color, it is dipped until the desired shade is ob- tained into a solution of about 175° F., produced as follows: Boil 4 parts of caustic soda, 4 parts of milk sugar, and 100 parts of water for 15 minutes; next add 4 parts of blue vitriol, dissolved in as little water as possible. Copper and Brass Gilding. — The solu- tions used to gild copper can be gener- ally used also for brass articles. Copper gilding acquires importance because in order to gild iron, steel, tin, and zinc, they must first be coated with copper, if the boiling method is to be employed. Fol- lowing is Langbein's bath for copper and brass: Dissolve 1 part, by weight, of chloride of gold and 16 parts, by weight, of potas- sium cyanide in 250 parts, by weight, of water; dissolve also and separately, 5 parts, by weight, of sodium phosphate and 3 parts, by weight, of caustic potash in 750 parts, hy weight, of cold water. Mix these solutions and bring them to a boil. If the action subsides, add from 3 to 5 parts, by weight, more potassium cyanide. The polished iron and steel objects must first be copper-plated by dipping them into a solution of 5 parts, by weight, of blue vitriol and 2 parts, by weight, of sulphuric acid in 1,000 parts, by weight, of water. They may now be dipped into a hot solution containing 6 parts, by weight, of gold chloride and 22i parts, by weight, of soda crystals in 75 parts, by weight, of water. This coating of gold may be polished. Cold Chemical Gilding. — The chem- ical gilding by the wet process is accom- plished byE. E. Stahl with the aid of three oaths: A gold bath, a, neutralization bath, and a reduction bath. The gold bath is prepared from pure hydrochloric acid, 200 parts; nitric acid, 100 parts; and pure gold. The gold solution evap- orated to crystallization is made to con- tain li per cent of gold by diluting with water. The neutralization bath con- sists of soda lye of 6°, of pure sodium hydroxide, and distilled water. The reduction bath contains a mixture of equal parts of 90 per cent alcohol and distilled water, wherein pure hydrogen has been dissolved. The gilding proper is conducted by first entering the article in the gold bath, next briskly moving it about in the neutralization bath, and finally adding the reducing l)ath with further strong agitation of tlio liquid. The residues from the gilding are melted with 3 parts each of potash, powdered borax, and potash niter, thus recovering the superfluous gold. The gilding or silvering respectively produces a deposit of gold or silver of very slight thickness and of the luster of polishing gold. Be- sides the metal solution an "anti-reducer" is needed, consisting of 50 grams of recti- fied and rosinified turpentine oil and 10 grams of powdered roll sulphur. From this is obtained, by boiling, a .syrupy balsam, to which is added, before use, lavender oil, well-ground basic bismuth nitrate, and the solution for gilding or silvering. The last takes place by a hydrochloric solution of aluminum with the above balsam. Colored Gilding.- — A variety of shades of green and red gold can be obtained by the electro-chemical process, wliioh method may be employed for the decora- tion of various objects of art. In order to produce red gold in the different shades, a plate of pure copper is hung into a rather concentrated gold bath (5 to 6 parts,, bv weight, per 1,000 parts of liquid), which is connected with the battery in such a manner that gold is deposited on the ar- ticle immersed in the bath. By the action of the electric current copper is dissolved as well from the copper plate and is sepa- rated simultaneously^ with the gold, so that, after a certain time, a deposit con- taining a gold copper alloy, conforming in color to the quantities of gold and copper contained in it, is obtained by the electric process. When the desired shade of color of the deposit is reached the copper plate is taken out and replaced by another con- sisting of the copper gold alloy, likewise produced by electrodeposition, and the articles are now gilt in this liquid. In some large manufactories of gold articles this last coloring is used even for pure 578 PLATING gold articles, to give them a popular color. To produce green gold (alloy of gold and suver), a silver plate is first employed, which is dipped into the gold batn and from which enough silver is dis- solved until the separating alloy shows the desired shade. The silver plate is then exchanged for a gold-silver plate of the respective color, and the articles are gilt with green gold. Gilding German Silver.— In gilding German silver the solution may be worked at a low temperature, the solu- tion being weakened and a small sur- face of anode exposed. German silver has the power of reducing gold from its solution in cyanide (especially if the solution be strong) without the aid of the battery; therefore, the solution should be weaker, in fact, so weak that the Ger- man silver will not deposit the gold per se ; otherwise the deposit will take place so rapidly that the gold will peel off when being burnished or even scratch brushed. Gilding of Glass. — I. — In order to produce a good gilding on glass, the gold salt employed must be free from acid. Prepare three solutions, viz.: a. 20 parts acid-free gold chloride in 150 parts of distilled water. 6. 5 parts dry sodium hydrate in 80 parts of distilled water. c. 2i parts of starch sugar in 30 parts distilled water; spirit of wine, 20 parts; and commercial pure 40 per cent alde- hyde, 20 parts. These liquids are quickly mixed together in the proportion of 200, 60, and 5 parts, whereupon the mixture is poured on the glass previously cleaned with soda solution, and the gilding will be effected in a short time. The gold coating is said to keep intact for years. II. — Coat the places to be gilded thinly with a saturated borax solution, lay the gold leaf on this and press down well and uniformly with cotton-wool. Heat the glass over a spirit flame, until the borax melts, and allow to cool off. If the glass is to be decorated with gilt letters or designs, paint the places to be gilded with water-glass solution of 40° B^.; lay on the gold leaf, and press down uniformly. Then heat the ob- ject to 86° F., so that it dries a little, sketch the letters or figures on with a lead pencil, erase the superfluous gold, and allow the articles to dry completely at a higher temperature. Green Gilding. — This can be obtained conveniently by the galvanic process, by means of anodes of sheet platinum with the following composition: Water, 10,000 parts, by weight; sodium phos- phate, 200 parts; sodium sulphate, 35 parts; potassium carbonate, 10 parts; 1 ducat gold from gold chloride, potas- sium cyanide (100 per cent), 20 parts. Dissolve the first three salts in 10,000 parts of cold water and add, with stir- ring, the gold chloride and potassium cyanide. Before the first use boil down the solution thoroughly about one-half, replacing the evaporating water and filter after cooling, in case a sediment should appear. To this gold bath very carefully add some silver bath. The platinum sheets which are to serve as anodes are employed 1| inches long, J inch broad, and tott of an inch thick. With these anodes the gold tone can be somewhat regulated by nanging more or less deeply into the solution during the gilding. The current should have a tension of 3 to 4 volts. In the case of batteries three Busen elements are connected for current tension. It is difGcult to pro- duce old gold on silver, especially if the raised portions are to appear green. It is most advantageous first to lightly copper the silver goods, taking the cop- Cer off again on the high places by rushing with pumice stone. After that hang at once in the above gold bath. If the embossed portions should be too mat, brighten slightly by scratching with a very fine brass wire brush. In this manner a handsome brown shade is obtained in the deep places and a green color on the raised portions. This proc- ess requires practice. Since this method will produce only a very light gilding, a coating of white varnish will protect the articles from tarnishing. Incrusting with Gold. — The article is first made perfectly bright, and those places which are to be gilt are covered with a matt consisting of white lead ground with gum water, made into a paste which can be applied like a thick paint by means of a pen or brush. Those places of the metal surface not covered by the paint are coated with asphalt varnish — a solution of asphaltum in benzine to which oil of turpentine is added to render it less volatile. After this is done lay the article in water, so that the white lead paint comes off, and put it into a gilding bath. By the elec- tric current gold is precipitated on the bright parts of the metal. When the layer of gold is thick enough lift the ob- ject from the bath, wash, let dry and lay it into a vessel filled with benzol. The asphalt dissolves in the benzol, and the PLATING o79 desired design appears in gold on the bronze or silver ground. This operation may also be performed by coating the whole article with asphalt varnish and executing the design by means of a blunt graver which only takes away the var- nish covering without scratching the metal itself. On the parts thus bared gold is deposited by the electric current and the varnish coating is then removed. Ivory Gilding. — I. — The pattern is painted with a fine camel's-hair pencil, moistened with gold chloride. Hold the ivory over the mouth of a bottle in wliieh hydrogen gas is generated (by the action of dilute sulphuric acid on zinc waste). The hydrogen reduces the auric chloride in the painted places into metallic gold, and the gold film precipi- tated in this manner will quickly obtain a considerable luster. The gold film is very thin, but durable. II. — This is especially suitable for monograms. Take gold bronze and place as much as can be taken up with the point of a knife in a color-cup, moistening with a few drops of genuine English gold paint. Coat the raised portions sparingly with gold, using a fine pencil; next, coat the outer and inner Dorders of the design. When the work is done, and if the staining and gilding have been unsuccessful, which occurs frequently at the outset, lay the work for 5 or 10 minutes in warmed lead water and brush off with pumice stone. By this process very fine shades are often obtained which cannot be produced by mere staining. Since the gold readily wears off on the high places of the work, it is well to lightly coat these portions with a thin shellac solution before gild- ing. This will cause the gilding to be more permanent. Mat Gilding. — To obtain a handsome mat gilding the article, after having been neatly polished, is passed through a sand-blast, such as is found in glass- grinding and etching establishments; next, the object is carefully cleansed of fine sand (if possible, by annealing and decocting), whereupon it is gilt and subsequently brushed mat with the brass brush. Where there is no sand-blast, the article is deadened with the steel wire brush, which will produce a satis- factory result, after some practice. After that, treatment is as above. The above- mentioned applies in general only to silver articles. In case of articles of gold, brass, or tombac, it is better to previously silver them strongly, since they are too hard for direct treatment with the steel wire brush, and a really correct mat cannot be attained. The brushes referred to are, of course, cir- cular brushes for the lathe. Dead -Gilding of an Alloy of Copper and Zinc. — The parts whicn are to be deadened must be isolated from those which are to be polished, and also from those which are to be concealed, and which therefore are not to be gilded. For this purpose they are coated with a paste made of Spanish white mixed with water. The articles prepared in this manner are then attached by means of iron wire to an iron rod and suspended in a furnace constructed for this process. The floor of this furnace is covered on four sides with plates of enameled earth- enware for receiving the portions spat- tered about of the salt mixture given off later. In the middle is an oven constructed like a cooking stove, on which is an iron tripod for carrying the deadening pan; this latter is cemented into a second pan of cast iron, the intervening space being filled up with stove cement. In the mid- dle of the pan is the bottom or sill, pro- vided with a thick cast-iron plate, form- ing the hearth. On all four sides of the latter are low brick walls, connecting with the floor of the furnace, and the whole is covered with thick sheet metal. On the side of the furnace opposite- the side arranged for carrying the pans, is a boiler in which boiling water is kept. On the same side of the furnace, but out- side it, is a large oval tub of a capacity of about 700 or 800 quarts, which is kept filled with water. The upper portions of the staves of this tub are covered with linen to absorb all parts that are spat- tered about. Powder for Gilding Metals. — I. — In a solution of perchloride of gold soak small pieces of linen which are dried over the solution so that the drops fall- ing therefrom are saved. When the rags are dry burn them, carefully gather- ing the ashes, which ashes, stirred with a little water, are used for gilding either with pumice stone or with a cork. For the hollows, use a small piece of soft wood, linden, or poplar. II. — Dissolve the pure gold or the leaf in nitro-muriatic acid and then precipi- tate it hy a piece of copper or by a solu- tion of iron sulphate. The precipitate, if by copper, must be digested with dis- tilled vinegar and then washed by pour- ing water over it repeatedly and dried. This precipitate will be in the form of very fine powder; it works better and is 580 PLATING more easily burnished than gold leaf ground with honey. Gilding Pastes. — I. — A good gilding paste is prepared as follows: Slowly melt an ounce of pure lard over the fire, add i a teaspOonful of juice of squills, and stir up the mixture well, subse- quently adding 10 drops of spirit of sal ammoniac. If the mixture is not stiff enough after cooling, the firmness may be enhanced by an admixture of J to J ounce of pure melted beef-tallow. A larger addition of tallow is necessary if the white of an egg is added. After each addition the mixture should be stirred up well and the white of egg should be added, not to the warm, but almost cold, mixture. II. — Alum, 3 parts, by weight; salt- peter, 6 parts; sulphate of zinc, 3 parts; common salt, 3 parts. Mix all into a thick paste, dip the articles into it, and heat them, until nearly black, on a piece of sheet iron over a clear coke or char- coal fire; then plunge them into cold water. Red Gilding. — This is obtained by the use of a mixture of equal parts of verdi- gris and powdered tartar, with which the article is coated; subsequently burning it off on a moderate coal fire. Cool in water, dip the article in a pickle of tartar, scratch it, and a handsome red shade will be the result, which has not attacked the gilding in any way. Regilding Mat Articles. — In order to regenerate dead gold trinkets without having to color them again — which is, as a rule, impossible, because the gold is too weak to stand a second coloring — it is advisable to copper these articles over before gilding them. After the copper has deposited all over, the object, well cleaned and scratched, is hung in the gilding. By this_ manipulation much time and vexation is saved, such as every jeweler will have experienced in gilding mat gold articles. The article also ac- quires a faultless new appearance. Here are two recipes for the preparation of copper baths: I. — Distilled boiling water, 2,000 parts, by weight; sodium sulphate, 10 parts; potassium cyanide, 15 parts; cu- pric acetate, 15 parts; sodium carbonate, 20 parts; ammonia, 12 parts. II. — Dissolve crystallized verdigris, 20 parts, by weight, and potassium cyanjde, 42 parts, in 1,000 parts of boiling water. Silk Gilding. — This can only be ac- complished by the electric process. The fiber is first rendered conductive by im- pregnation with silver nitrate solution and reduction of same with grape sugar and diluted alkali, or, best of all, with Raschig's reduction salt. In place of the silver nitrate, a solution of lead acetate or copper acetate may be employed. The Silk thus impregnated is treated in the solution of an alkaline sulphide, e. g., sodium sulphide, ammonium sulphide, or else with hydrogen sulphide, thus pro- ducing a conductive coating of metallic sulphide. Upon this gold can be pre- cipitated by electrodeposition in the usual way. Spot Gilding. — Gilding in spots, pro- ducing a very fine appearance, is done by putting a thin coat of oil on those parts of the metal where the gilding is not to appear; the gold will then oe deposited in those spots only where there is no oil, and the oil is easily removed when the work is finished. Gliding Steel. — Pure gold is dissolved in aqua regia; the solution is allowed to evaporate until the acid in excess has gone. The precipitate is placed in clean water, 3 times the quantity of sulphuric acid is added and the whole left to stand for 24 hours in a well-closed flask, until the ethereal gold solution floats on top. By moistening polished steel with the solution a very handsome gilding is ob- tained. By the application of designs with any desired varnish the appearance of a mixture of gold and steel may be im- parted to the article. Wood Gilding. — I. — The moldings, ledges, etc., to be gilded are painted with a strong solution of joiners' glue, which is left to harden well, whereupon 8 to 10 coatings of glue mixed with whitening are given. Each coat must, of course, be thoroughly dry, before commencing the next. After this has been done, paint with a strong mixture of glue and minium, and while this is still wet, put on the gold leaflets and press them down with cotton. To impart the fine gloss, polish with a burnishing agate after the superfluous gold has been removed. II. — Proceed as above, but take silver leaf instead of gold leaf, and after all is thoroughly dry and the superfluous silver has been removed, apply a coating of good gold lacquer. The effect will be equally satisfactory. Zinc Gilding. — I. — Gilding by means of zinc contact may be accomplished with the following formula: Two parts, by weight, of gold chloride; 5 parts, by weight, of potassium cyanide; 10 parts, PLATING 581 by weight, of sulphite of soda; and 60 parts, by weight, of sodium phosphate arc dissolved in 1,000 parts of water. When used the bath must be hot. A cold bath without the addition of potas- sium cyanide may also be used for gild- ing, and this consists of 7 parts, by weight, of gold chloride; 30 parts, by weight, of yellow prussiate of potash; 30 parts, by weight, of potash; 30 parts, by weight, of common salt in 1,000 parts of water. II. — To gild zinc articles, dissolve '20 parts of gold chloride in 20 parts of distilled water, and 80 parts of potassium cyanide in 80 parts of water, mix the solutions, stir a few times, filter, and add tartar, 5 partsj and fine chalk, 100 parts. The resulting paste is applied with a brush. Objects of copper and brass are previously coated with zinc. This is done in the following manner: Heat a concentrated sal ammoniac solution to the boiling point with addition of zinc dust and immerse the thoroughly cleaned objects until a uniform zinc coating has formed. Or boil the articles in a con- centrated caustic soda solution with zinc dust. OXIDIZING PROCESSES: Aluminum Plating. — I. — To plate iron and other metals with pure aluminum, deoxidize the pieces with a solution of borax and place them in an enameling oven, fitted for receiving metallic vapors. Raise the temperature to 1,832° to ^,732° F. Introduce the aluminum vapors generated by heating a quantity of the metal on the sand bath. When- the vapors come in contact with the metallic surfaces, the aluminum is deposited. The vapors that have not been used or arc exhausted may be conducted into a vessel of water. To Copper Aluminum, take II. — Sulphate of copper. 30 parts Cream of tartar. ... 30 parts Soda *. . 25 parts Water 1,000 parts The articles to be coppered are merely dipped in this bath, but they must be well cleaned previously. Antimony Baths. — I. — By dissolving 15 parts, by weight, of tartar emetic and 15 parts of prepared tartar in 500 parts of hot water and adding 45-60 parts of hydrochloric acid and 45-60 parts of powdered antimony, brass be- comes coated in the boiling liquid with beautiful antimony colors. In this manner it is possible to impart to brass golden, copper-red, violet, or bluish-gray shades, according to a shorter or longer stay of the objects in the liquid. These antimony colors possess a handsome luster, are permanent, and never change in the air. 11. — Carbonate of soda, 200 parts, by weight; sulphide of antimony, 50 parts; water, 1,000 parts. Heat the whole in a porcelain capsule for 1 hour, keeping constantly in ebullition; next, filter the solution, which, on cooling, leaves u. fjrecipitatc, which boil again with the iquid for one-half hour, whereupon the bath is ready for use. To Coat Brass Articles with Antimony Colors. — Dissolve 15 parts, by weight, of tartar emetic and 15 parts, by weight, of powdered tartar in .JOO parts, by weight, of hot water and add 50 parts, by weight, of hvdrochloric acid, and 50 parts, by weight, of powdered antimony. Into this mixture, heated to a boil, "the im- mersed articles become covered with luster colors, a golden shade appearing at first, which is succeeded by one of copper red. If the objects remain longer in the liouid, the color passes into violet and finally into bluish gray. Brassing. — I. — To brass small articles of iron or steel drop them into a quart of water and J ounce each of sulphate of copper and protochloride of tin. Stir the articles in this solution until desired color is obtained. II. — Brassing Zinc, Steel, Cast Iron, etc. — Acetate of copper, 100 parts, by weight; cyanide of pota.ssium, 250 parts; bisulphite of soda, 200 parts; liquid am- monia, 100 parts; protochloride of zinc, 80 parts; distilled water, 10,000 parts. Dissolve the cyanide of potassium and the bisulphite of soda. On the other hand, dissolve the ammonia in three- fourths of the water and the proto- chloride of zinc in the remaining water; next, mix the two solutions. This bath is excellent for brassing zinc and is used cold. III. — Acetate of copper, 125 parts, by weight; cyanide of potassium, 400 parts; protochloride of zinc, 100 parts; liquid ammonia, 100 parts; distilled water, 8,000 to 10,000 parts. Proceed as above described. IV. — Acetate of copper, 150 parts, by weight; carbonate of soda, 1,000 parts; cyanide of potassium, 550 parts; bisul- phite of soda, 200 parts; protochloride of zinc, 100 parts. Proceed as above. This bath serves for iron, cast iron, and steel, and is used cold. 582 PLATING Colored Rings on Metal. — Dissolve 200 parts, by weight, of caustic potash in 2,000 parts of water and add 50 parts of litharge. Boil this solution for half an hour, taking care that a little of the litharge remains undissolved. When cold, pour off the clear fluid; it is then ready for use. Move the object to and fro in the solution; a yellow-brown color appears, becoming in turn white, yellow, red, and finally a beautiful violet and blue. As soon as the desired color is obtained, remove the article quickly from the solution, rinse in clean water, and dry in sawdust. Green or Gold Color for Brass. — French articles of brass, both cast and made of sheet brass, mostly exhibit a, golden color, which is produced by a copper coating. This color is prepared as follows: Dissolve 50 parts, by weight, of caustic soda and 40 parts of milk sugar in 1,000 parts of water and boil a quarter of an hour. The solution finally acquires a dark-yellow color. Now add to the mixture, which is re- moved from the fire, 40 parts of concen- trated cold blue vitriol solution. A red precipitate is obtained from the vitriol, which falls to the bottom at 167° F. Next a wooden sieve, fitted to the vessel, is put into the liquid with the polished brass articles. Toward the end of the second minute the golden color is usually dark enough. The sieve with the arti- cles is taken out and the latter are washed and dried in sawdust. If they remain in the copper solution they soon assume a green color, which in a short time passes into yellow and bluish green, and finally into the iridescent colors. These shades must be produced slowly at a temperature of 133° to 135° F. To Give a Green Color to Gold Jew- elry. — Take verdigris, 120 parts, by weight; sal ammoniac, 120 parts; ni- trate of potassium, 45 parts; sulphate of zinc, 16 parts. Grind the whole and mix with strong vinegar. Place on the fire and boil in it the articles to be col- ored. Nickeling by Oxidation. — I. — Nickel- ing may be performed on all metals cold, by means of nickelene by the Mitressey process, without employing electrical apparatus, and any desired thickness deposited. It is said to be more solid than nickel. First Bath. — Clean the objects and take 5 parts, by weight, of American potash per 25 parts, by weight, of water. If the pieces are quite rusted, take 2 parts, by weight, of chlorhydric acid per 1 part, by weight, of water. The bath is employed cold. Second Bath.— Put 250 parts, by weight, of sulphate of copper in 25,000 parts, by weight, of water. After dis- solution add a few drops of sulphuric acid, drop by drop, stirring the liquid with a wooden stick until it becomes as clear as spring water. Take out the pieces thus cleaned and Clace them in what is called the copjper ath, attaching to them leaves of zinc; they will assume a red tint. Then pass them into the nickeling bath, which is thus composed: By weight Cream of tartar 20 parts Sal ammoniac, in powder 10 parts Kitchen salt 5 parts O.xychlorhydrate o f tin 20 parts Sulphate of nickel, single 30 parts Sulphate of nickel, double 50 parts Remove the pieces from the bath in a few minutes and rub them with fine sand on a moist rag. Brilliancy will thus be obtained. To improve the appearance, apply a brass wire brush. The nickel- ing is said to be more solid and beauti- ful than that obtained by the electrical method. Brilliancy may be also imparted by means of a piece of buff glued on a wooden wheel and smeared with Eng- lish red stuflf. This will give a glazed appearance. II. — Prepare a bath of neutral zinc chloride and a neutral solution of a nickel salt. The objects are immersed in the bath with small pieces of zinc and kept boiling for some time. This process has given satisfactory results. It is easy to prepare the zinc chloride by dissolving it in hydrochloric acid, as well as a saturated solution of ammo- niacal nickel sulphate in the proportion of two volumes of the latter to one of the zinc chloride. The objects should be boiled for 15 minutes in the bath. Nickel salt may also be employed, pref- erably in the state of chloride. Pickling Solutions. — Oxidized copper, brass, and German silver articles must be cleansed by acid solutions. In the case of brass alloys, this process, through which the object acquires a dull yel- low surface, is known as dipping or yellowing. The treatment consists of PLATING 583 several successive operations. The ar- ticle is first boiled in a lye composed of 1 part caustic soda and 10 parts water, or in a solution of potash or soda or in linu'water; small objects may be placed in alcohol or benzine. When all the grease has been removed, the article is well rinsed with water, and is then ready for the next pickling. It is first plunged into a mixture of 1 part sulphuric acid and 10 parts water, and allowed to re- main in it till it acquires a reddish tinge. It is then immersed in 40° Be. nitric acid, for the purpose of removing the red tinge, and then for a few seconds into a bath of 1 part nitric acid, 1.25 parts sulphuric acid of 66° Be., 0.01 part com- mon salt, and 0.02 parts lampblack. The article must then be immediately and carefully washed with water till no trace of acid remains. It is then ready for galvanizing or drying in bran or beech .sawdust. When articles united with soft solder are pickled in nitric acid, the solder receives a gray-black color. Palladiumizing Watch Movements. — Palladium is successfully employed for coating parts of timepieces and other pieces of metals to preserve them against oxidation. To prepare a palladium bath use the following ingredients: Chloride of palladium, 10 parts, by weight; phosphate of ammonia, 100 parts; phosphate of soda, 300 parts; benzoic acid, 8 parts; water, 2,000 parts. Metal Browning by Oxidation. — The article ought first to be cleaned with either nitric acid or muriatic acid, then immersed in an acid affecting the metal and dried in a warm place. A light coating is thus formed. For a second coating acetic or formic acid is used preferably for aluminum, nickel, and copper; but for iron and steel, muriatic or nitric acid. After cleaning, the arti- cle is placed in a solution of tannin or gallic acid, and is then dried in a warm place as before. The second coating is of a yellowish-brown color. On placing it near the fire, the color can be deepened until it becomes completely black; care must be taken to withdraw it when the desired shade is produced. Instead of the acids employed for the first coating, ammonia may be used. Silvering by Oxidation. — The oxidiz- g of silver darkens it, and gives an an- tique appearance that is highly prized. I. — ^Tlie salts of silver are colorless when the acids, the elements of which ing enter into their compo.sition, are not col- ored, but they generally blacken on ex- posure to light. It is ea.sy, therefore, to blacken silver and obtain its oxide; it is sufficient to place it in contact with a sulphide, vapor of sulphur, sulphohydric acids, such as the sulphides or polysul- phides of potash, soda, dissolved in water and called eau de barige. The chlorides play the same part, and the chloride of lime in solution or simply Javelle water may be used. It is used hot in order to accelerate its action. The bath must be prepared new for each operation for two reasons: (1) It is of little value; (2) the sulphides precipitate rapidly and give lust effects only at the time of their direct precipitations. The quantity of the reagent in solution, forming the bath, depends upon the thickness of the deposit of silver. When this is trifling, the oxi- dation penetrates the entire deposit and the silver exfoliates in smaller scales, leaving the copper bare. It is iieees- sary, therefore, in this case to operate with dilute baths inclosing only about 4.5 grains of oxidizant at most per quart. The operation is simple: Heat the nec- essary quantity of water, add the sul- phide or chloride and afjitatc to effect the solution of the mixture, and then at once plunge in the silver-plated articles, leaving them immersed only for a few seconds, wliich exposure is sufficient to cover it with a, pellicle of deep black-blue silver. After withdrawing they are plunged in clean cold water, rinsed and dried, and either left mat or else pol- ished, according to the nature of the articles. Should the result not be satisfactory, the articles are brightened by immersing them in a lukewarm solution of cyanide of potassium. The oxide, the true name of which would be the sulphuret or chloruret, can be raised only on an obiect cither entirely of silver or silver plated. II. — Rub the article with a mixture of graphite, 6 parts, itnd powdered blood- stone, 1 part, moistened with oil of tur- pentine. .\Uow to dry and brush with soft brushes passed over wax. Or else, brush with a soft brush wet with alco- holic or aqueous platinic chloride solu- tion of 1 in 20. III. — Sulphurizing is effected with the following methods: Dip in a solution heated to about 175° F., of potassium sulphide, 5 parts, by weight; ammo- nium carbonate, 10 parts; water, 1,000 parts; or, calcium sulphide, 1 to 2 parts; sal ammoniac, 4 parts; water, 1.000 parts. 584 PLATING IV. — In the following solution articles of silver obtain a warm brown tone: Copper sulphate, 20 parts, by weight; potassium nitrate, 10 parts; ammonium chloride, 20 parts. By means of bro- mine, silver and silver alloys receive a black coloring. On engraved surfaces a niello-like effect may be produced thereby. Oxidized Steel. — I. — Mix together bis- muth chloride, 1 part; mercury bichlo- ride, 2 parts; copper chloride, 1 part; hy- drochloric acid, 6 parts; alcohol, 5 parts; and water, 5 parts. To use this mixture successfully the articles to be oxidized must be cleaned perfectly and freed from all grease, which is best accom- plished by boiling them in a soda solu- tion or by washing in spirit of wine. Care should be taken not to touch the article with the fingers again after this cleaning. However clean the hand may be, it always has grease on it and leaves spots after touching, especially on steel. Next the object is dipped into the liquid, or if this is not possible the solution is applied thin but evenly with a brush, pencil, or rabbit's foot. When the liquid has dried, the article is placed for a half hour in simple boiling water. If a very dark shade is desired the proc- ess is repeated until the required color is attained. II. — Apply, by means of a sponge, a solution of crystallized iron chloride, 2 parts; solid butter of antimony, 2 parts; and gallic acid, 1 part in 5 parts of water. Dry the article in the air and repeat the treatment until the desired shade is reached. Finally rinse with water, dry, and rub with linseed-oil varnish. Tinning by Oxidation. — A dipping bath for tinning iron is prepared by dis- solving 300 parts, by weignt, ammonia alum (sulphate of akimina and sulphate of ammonia) and 10 parts of melted stannous chloride (tin salt) in 20,000 parts of warm water. As soon as the solution boils, the iron articles, previ- ously pickled and rinsed in fresh water, are plunged into the fluid; they are im- mediately covered with a layer of tin of a beautiful dull-white color, which can be made bright by treatment in a tub or sack. Small quantities of tin salt are added from time to time as may be re- quired to replace the tin deposited on the iron. This bath is also well adapted for tinning zinc, but here also, as with iron, the deposit is not sufficient to pre- vent oxidation of the metal below. Larger articles tinned in this way are polished by scratch brushing. In tin- ning zinc by this process, the ammonia alum may be replaced by any other kind of alum, or aluminum sulphate may be used alone; experience has shown, how- ever, that this cannot be done with iron, cast iron, or steel. If it is desired to tin other metals besides iron and zinc in the solution which we have described, the battery must be resorted to; if the latter is used, the above solution should be ap- plied in preference to any other. PATINA OXIDIZING PROCESSES: Patina of Art Bronzes. — For all patinas, whether the ordinary brown of commerce, the green of the Barye bronzes, or the dark-oranee tint of the Florentine bronzes, a brush is used with pigments varying according to the shade desired and applied to the metal after it is warmed. Recipes are to be met with on every hand that have not been pat- ented. But the details of the operation are the important thing, and often the effect is produced by a handicraft which it is difficult to penetrate. I. — A dark tint may be obtained by cleaning the object and applying a coat of hydrosulphate of ammonia; then, after drying it, by rubbing with a brush smeared with red chalk and plumbago. The copper may also be moistened with a dilute solution of chloride of platina and warmed slightly, or still by plunging it in a warm solution of the hydrocnlo- rate of antimony. For the verde an- tique a solution is recommended com- posed of 200 grams of acetic acid of S° strength, the same quantity of common vinegar, 30 parts, by weight, of car- bonate of ammonia; 10 parts, by weight, of sea salt; with the same quantities of cream of tartar and acetate of copper and a. little water. To obtain the bronze of medals several processes afford a selection: For example, the piece may be dipped in a bath consisting of equal parts of the perchloride and the sesquia- zotate of iron, warming to the evapora- tion of the liquid, and rubbing with a waxed brush. II. — Dissolve copper nitrate, 10 parts, by weight, and kitchen salt, 2 parts, in 500 parts of water and add a solution of ammonium acetate obtained by neu- tralization of 10 parts of officinal spirit of sal ammoniac with acetic acid to a faintly acid reaction, and filling up with water to 500 parts. Immerse the bronze, allow to dry, brush off superficially and repeat this until the desired shade of color has been obtained. PLATING 585 A Permanent Patina for Copper. — Green. — I. — Sodium chloride. 37 parts Ammonia water. . 75 parts Ammonium chlo- ride 37 parts Strong wine vin- egar 5,000 parts Mix and dissolve. Apply to object to he treated, with a camel's-hair pencil. Repeat the operation until the desired shade of green is reached. Yellow Green. — II. — Oxalic acid 5 parts Ammonium chlo- ride 10 parts Acetic acid, 30 per cent dilution. . . . 500 parts Mix and dissolve. Use as ahove in- dicateil. The following will produce the same result: III. — Potassium oxalate, acid 4 parts Ammonium chlo- ride 16-17 parts Vinegar contain- ing 6 per cent of acetic acid 1,000 parts IV. — Bluish Green. — After using the first formula (for green) pencil over with the following solution: Ammonium chlo- ride . 40 parts Ammonium car- bonate I'.'O parts Water 1,000 parts Mix and dissolve. Greenish Brown. — V. — I'otassium s u 1 - phuret 5 parts Water 1,000 parts Mix and dissolve. With this, pencil over object to be treated, let dry, then pencil over with 10 parts a mixture of a saturated solution of ammonia water and acetic acid and 5 parts of ammonium chloride thinned with 1,000 parts of wiiter. Let dry again, then brush off wclj. Repeat, if necessary, until the desired hue is attained. Another Blue Green. — VI. — Corrosive sublimate. 25 parts Potassium nitrate. . 86 parts Borax 56 parts Zinc oxide 113 parts Copper acetate . . .'i'i0-'ii5 parts Mix and heat together on the surface of the object under treatment. 3 parts yil- — Brown. — The following is a Parisian method of producing a beau- tiful deep brown: Potassium oxalate, acid Ammonium chlo- ride 15 parts Water, distilled 280 parts Mix and dissolve. The object is pen ciled over with this several times, eacli time allowing the solution to dry he- fore putting on any more. The process IS slow, but makes an elegant finish. Green Patina Upon Copper. — Tci pro- duce a green patina upon copper take tartaric acid, dilute it half and half with boiling water; coat the copper with this; allow to dry for one dav and rub the ap- plied layer off again the next day with oakum. The coating mu.st be done in dr^ weather, else no success will be ob- tained. Take hydrochloric acid and dilute it half and half with boiling w ater, but the hydrochloric acid should be poured in the water, not vice- versa, which is dangerous. In this hydro- chloric acid water dissolve as much zinc as it can solve and allow to settle. The clear liquid is again diluted half with boiling water and the copper is coated with this a few times. Black Patina. — Black patina is ob- tained hy coating with tallow the pieces to be oxidized and lighting with a rosin torch. Finally, wipe the reliefs and let dry. Blue-Black Patina. — Use a dilute so- lution of chloride of antimony in water and add a little free liydrochloric acid. Apply with a soft brush, allow the article to dry and rub with a flannel. If ex- pense is no object, employ a solution of chloride of palladium, which gives a magnificent blue black. It is necessary, however, to previously clean the articles thoroughly in a hot solution of carbon- ate of soda, in order to remove the dirt and greasy matter, which would prevent the patina from becoming fixed. Red Patina. — The following is a new method of making a red patina, the so- called blood bronze, on copper and copper alloys. The metallic object is first made red hot, whereby it becomes covered with a coating consisting of cupric oxide on the surface and cuprous oxide beneath. After cooling, it is worked upon with a polishing plate until the black cupric oxide coating is removed and the cuprous oxide appears. The metal now shows an intense red color. 586 PLATING with a considerable degree of luster, both of which are so permanent that it can be treated with chemicals, such as blue vitriol, for instance, without being in the least affected. If it is desired to produce a marbled surface, instead of an even red color, borax or some chemical having a similar action is sprinkled upon the metal during the process of heating. On the places covered by the borax, oxidation is pre- vented, and after polishing, spots of the original metallic color will appear in the red surface. These can be colored by well-known processes, so as to give the desired marbled appearance. PLATINIZING: Platinizing Aluminum. — Aluminum vessels coated with a layer of platinum are recommended in place of platinum vessels, when not exposed to very high temperatures. The f)rocess of platin- izing is simple, consisting in rubbing the aluminum surface, previously polished, with platinic chloride, rendered slightly alkaline. The layer of platinum is made thicker by repeated application. Potash lye is carefully added to a solution of 5 to 10 per cent of platinic chloride in water till a slightly alkaline reaction is produced on filtering paper or a porce- lain plate by means of pnenolphthalein. This solution must always be freshly prepared, and is the best for the purpose. Neither galvanizing nor amalgamating will produce the desired result. Special care must be taken that the aluminum is free from iron, otherwise black patches will arise which cannot be removed. Vessels platinized in this way must not be cleaned with substances such as sea- sand, but with a 5 to 10 per cent solution of oxalic acid in water, followed by thor- ough rinsing in water. These vessles are said to be specially suitable for evap- orating purposes. Platinizing Copper and Brass. — I. — ^The articles are coated with a thin layer of platinum in a boiling solution of platinum sal ammoniac, 1 part; sal ammoniac, 8 parts; and water, 40 parts, and next pol- ished with chalk. A mixture of equal parts of platinum sal ammoniac and tar- tar may also be rubbed on the objects. Steel and iron articles can be platinized with an ethereal solution of platinic chloride. For small jewelry the boiling solution of platinic chloride, 10 parts; cooking salt, 200 parts; and water, 1,000 parts, is employed, which is rendered alka- line with soda lye. In this, one may also work with zinc contact. II. — Heat 800 parts of sal ammoniac and 10 parts of platinum sal ammoniac to the boiling point with 400 parts of water, in a porcelain dish, and place the articles to be platinized into this, where- by they soon become covered with a coating of platinum. They are then re- moved from the liquid, dried and pol- ished with whiting. Platinizing on Glass or Porcelain. — First dissolve the platinum at a moder- ate temperature in aqua regia, and next evaporate the solution to dryness, ob- serving the following rules: When the solution commences to turn thick it is necessary to diminish the fire, while carrying the evaporation so far that the salt becomes dry, but the solution should not be allowed to acquire a brown color, which occurs if the heat is too strong. The result of this first operation is chloride of platina. When the latter has cooled off it should be dissolved in alcohol (95 per cent). The dissolution accomplished, which takes place at the end of 1 or 2 hours, throw the solution gradually into four times its weight of essence of lavender, then put into a well- closed flask. For use, dip a brush into the solution and apply it upon the objects to be plat- inized, let dry and place in the muffle, leaving them in the oven for about one- half hour. In this operation one should be guided as regards the duration of the taking by the hardness or fusibility of the objects treated. The platiniza- tion accomplished, take a cotton cloth, dipped into whiting in the state of pulp, and rub the platinated articles with this, rinsing with water afterwards. Platinizing Metals. — Following are several processes of platinizing on met- als: It is understood that the metals to be covered with platinum must be copper or coppered. All these baths require strong batteries. I. — ^^Take borate of potash, 300 parts, by weight; chloride of platina, 12 parts; distilled water, 1,000 parts. II. — Carbonate of soda, 260 parts, by weight; chloride of platina, 10 parts; dis- tilled water, 1,000 parts. III. — Sulphocyanide of potash, 12 parts, by weight; chloride of platina, 12 parts; carbonate of soda, 12 parts; dis- tilled water, 1,000 parts. IV. — Borate of soda, 500 parts, by weight; chloride of platina, 12 parts; dis- tilled water, 1,000 parts. PLATING 587 SILVERING, SILVER-PLATING, AND DESILVERING : See also Silvering by Oxidation, under Oxidation I'locc.'.ses, under Plating. Antique Silver — There are various processes for producing antique silver, either fat or oxidized: To a little copal varnish add some finely powdered ivory black or graphite. Thill with spirits of turpentine ana rub with a brush dipped into this varnish the objects to be treated. Allow to dry for an nour and wipe off the top of the articles with some rag, so that the black remains only in the hollows. If a softer tint is desired, apply again with a dry brush and wipe as the first time. The coating of black will be weaker and the shade handsomer. Britannia Silver -Plating. — I. — The article should first be cleaned and then rubbed by means of a wet cloth with a pinch of powder obtained by mixing to- gether: Nitrate of silver, 1 part; cyanide of potassium, 2 parts; chalk, 5 parts. Then wipe with a dry cloth, and polish well with rouge to give brilliancy. IT. — By the electric method the metal is simply plunged into a hot saturated solution of crude potassium carbonate, and the plating is then done directly, using a strong elc2 pounds Tallow iO pounds Caustic soda 5 pounds Water o gallons Dissolve the soda in water and add to the tallow; when saponified, stir in the others, pressing as before. Ill- — Saponified cocoanut on 56 pounds Kieselguhr li pounds Alum 5J pounds Flake white 5 J pounds Tartaric acid l| pounds Make as before. IV. — Tallow soap 98 pounds Liquid glycerine soap 14 pounds Whiting 18 pounds Levigated flint 14 pounds Powdered pipe clay. 14 pounds POLISHES 595 METAL POLISHES: Polishing Pastes. — I. — W h i t e petroleum jelly 90 pounds Kieselguhr 30 pounds Refined para£Sne wax 10 pounds Refined chalk or whiting 10 pounds Sodium hyposulphite 8 pounds Melt wax and jelly, stir in others and grind. It is an undecided point as to whether a scented paste is better than one with- out perfume. The latter is added merely to hide the nasty smell of some of the greases used, and it is not very nice to have spoons, etc., smelling, even tasting, of mirbane, so perhaps citronelle is best for this purpose. It is likely to be more pure. The dose of scent is usually at the rate of 4 ounces to the hundred- weight. II. — Dehydrated soda.. 5 parts Curd soap..' 20 parts Emery flour 100 parts To be stirred together on a water bath with water, 100 parts, until soft. III. — Turpentine 1 part Emery flour 1 part Paris red 2 parts Vaseline 2 parts Mix well and perfume. IV. — Stearine 8 to 9 parts Mutton suet 32 to 38 parts Stearine oil 2 to 2.5 parts Melt together and mix with Vienna chalk, in fine powder, 48 to 60 parts; Paris red, 20 parts. V. — Rotten stone 1 part Iron subcarbonate.. 3 parts Lard oil, a, suflScient quantity. VI. — Iron oxide 10 parts Pumice stone 3'2 parts Oleic acid, a sufficient quantity. \'1I. — Soap, cut fine 16 parts Precipitated chalk. . i parts Jewelers' rouge .... 1 part Cream of tartar. ... 1 part Magnesium carbon- ate 1 part Water, a sufficient quantity. Dissolve the soap in the smallest quantity of water over a water bath. Add the other ingredients to the solu- tion while still hot, stirring all the time to make sure of complete homogeneity. Pour the mass into a box with shallow siilcs, and afterwards cut into cubes. Non-Explosive Liquid Metal Polish. — Although in a liquid form, it does not necessarily follow that a liquid polish is less economical than pastes, because the efficiency of both is dependent upon the amount of stearic or oleic acid they con- tain, and a liquid such as that gi>-en be- low is as rich in this respect as most of the pastes, especially those containing much mineral jelly and earthy matters which are practically inert, and can only be considered as filling material. Thus it is a fact that an ounce of fluid polish may possess more polishing potency than an equal weight of the paste. Propor- tions are: Sixteen pounds crude oleic acid; 4 pounds tasteless mineral oil; 5 pounds kieselguhr; 1 J ounces lemon oil. Make, the earthy matter into a paste with the mixed fluids and gradually thin out, avoiding lumps. Apply with one rag, and finish witn another. Miscellaneous Metal Polishes. — I. — Articles of polished copper, such as clocks, stove ornaments, etc., become tarnished very auickly. To restore their brilliancv dip !i brush in strong vinegar and brush the objects to be cleaned. Next puss through water and' dry in sawdust. .\ soap water, in wliich some carbonate of soda has been dissolved, will do the same service. II. — This is recommended for ma- chinery by the chemical laboratory of the industrial museum of Batavia: Oil of turpentine 15 parts Oil of stcarino '25 parts Jewelers' red 25 parts Animal charcoal, of superior quality. ... 45 parts Alcohol is added to that mixture in such a quantity as to render it almost liquid, then by means of a brush it is put on those parts that are to be polished. When the alcohol has dried, the remain- ing cover is rubbed with a mi.\ture of 45 parts of animal charcoal and 25 parts jewelers' red. The rubbed parts will become quite clean and bright. III. — The ugly spots which frequently show themselves on nickel-plated ob- jects may be easily removed with a mix- ture of 1 part sulphuric acid and 50 parts alcohol. Coat the spots with this solu- tion, wipe off after a few seconds, rinse off thoroughly with clean water, and rub dry with sawdust. IV. — Crocus, dried and powdered, when applied with chamois leather to nickel-plated goods, will restore their brilliancy without injuring their surface. V. — Articles of tin should be ground 596 POLISHES and polished with Vienna lime or Span- ish white. The former may be spread on linen rags, the latter on wash leather. Good results may be obtained by a mixture of about equal parts of Vienna lime, chalk, and tripoli. It should be moistened with alcohol, and applied with a brush. Subsequent rubbing with roe skin (chamois) will produce a first-rate polish. Tin being a soft metal, the above polishing substances may be very fine. VI. — To polish watch cases, take two glasses with large openings, preferably two preserving jars with ground glass covers. Into one of the glass vessels pour 1 part of spirit of sal ammoniac and 3 parts water, adding a little ordi- nary barrel soap and stirring everything well. Pill the other glass one half with alcohol. Now lay the case to be cleaned, with springs and all, into the first-named liquid and allow to remain therein for about 10 to 20 seconds. After pro- tracted use this time may be extended to several minutes. Now remove the case, quickly brush it with water and soap and lay for a moment into the alco- hol in the second vessel. After drying off with a clean cloth heat over a solder- ing flame for quick drying and the case will now look almost as clean and neat as a new one. The only thing that may occur is that a polished metal dome may become tarnisned, but this will only happen if either the mixture is too strong or the case remains in it too long, both of which can be easily avoided with a little practice. Shake before using. VII. — This is a cleanser as well as polisher: Prepared chalk 2 parts Water of ammonia 2 parts Water sufficient to make. 8 parts The ammonia saponifies the grease usually present. It must be pointed out that the alkali present makes this preparation somewhat undesirable to handle, as it will affect the skin if allowed too free contact. The density of the liquid might be increased by the addition of soap; the solid would, of course, then remain longer in suspension. VIII. — Serviettes Magiques. — These fabrics for polishing articles of metal con- sist of pure wool saturated with soap and tripoli, and dyed with a little coralline. They are produced by dissolving 4 parts of Marseilles soap in 20 parts of water, adding 2 parts of tripoli and saturating a piece of cloth 3 inches long and 4 inches wide with it, allowing to dry. IX. — In order to easily produce a mat polish on small steel articles use fine powdered oil stone, ground with turpen- tine. Polishes for Pianos. — I. — Alcohol, 9^ per cent. . 300 parts Benzol 700 parts Gum benzoin 8 parts Sandarac 16 parts Mix and dissolve. Use as French polish. II. — Beeswax 2,500 parts Potassium carbon- ate 25 parts Oil of turpentine. . . . 4,000 parts Water, rain or dis- tilled 4,500 parts Dissolve the potassium carbonate in 1,500 parts of the water and in the solu- tion boil the wax, shaved up, until the latter is partially saponified, replacing the water as it is driven off by evapora- tion. When this occurs remove from the fire and stir until cold. Now add the turpentine little by little, and under con- stant agitation, stirring until a smooth, homogeneous emulsion is formed. When this occurs add the remainder of the water under constant stirring. If a color is wanted use alkanet root, letting it macerate in the oil of turpentine be- fore using the latter (about an ounce to the (juart is sufficient). This prepara- tion is said to be one of the best polishes known. The directions are very simple: First wash the surface to be polished, rinse, and dry. Apply the paste as even- ly and thinly as possible over a portion of the surface, then rub oS well with a soft woolen cloth. Polishes for Silverware. — The best pol- ish for silverware — that is, the polish that, while it cleans, does not too rapidly abrade the surface — is levigated chalk, either alone or with some vegetable acid, like tartaric, or with alum. The usual metal polishes, such as tripoli (diatomace- ous earth), finely ground pumice stone, etc., cut away the surface so rapidly that a few cleanings wear through ordinary plating. I. — White lead 5 parts Chalk, levigated 20 parts Magnesium carbon- ate 2 parts Aluminum oxide .... 5 parts Silica 3 parts Jewelers' rouge 2 parts Each of the ingredients must be re- duced to an impalpable powder, mixed carefully, and sifted through silk several POLISHES 597 times to secure a perfect mixture, and to avoid any possibility of leaving in the powder anything that might scratch the silver or gold surface. This may be left in the powder form, or incorporated with soap, made into a paste with glycer- ine, or other similar material. The ob- jection to mixtures with vaseline or greasy substances is that after cleaning the object must be scrubbed with soap and water, while with gljrcerine simple rinsing and running water instantly cleans the object. The following is also a good formula: II. — Chalk, levigated. ... 2 parts Oil of turpentine. ... 4 parts Stronger ammonia water 4 parts Water 10 parts Mix the ammonia and oil of turpen- tine by agitation, and rub up the chalk in the mixture. Finally rub in the water gradually or mix by agitation. Three parts each of powdered tartaric acid and chalk with 1 part of powdered alum make a cheap and quick silver cleaning powder. III. — Mix 2 parts of beechwood ashes with xhs "f ^ ?"•''* °^ Venetian soap and 2 parts of common salt in 8 parts of rain water. Brush the silver with this, using a pretty stiff brush. A solution of crys- taUized permanganate of potash is often recommended, or even the spirits of hartshorn, for removing the grayish violet film which forms upon the surface of the silver. Finally, when there are well-determined blemishes upon the surface of the silver, they may be soaked 4 hours in soapmakers' lye, then cover them with finely powclered gypsum which has been previously moistened with vinegar, drying well before a fire; now rub tliem with something to remove the powder. Finally, they are to be rubbed again with very dry bran. POLISHES FOR STEEL AND IRON. The polishing of steel must always be preceded by a thorough smoothing, either with oilstone dust, fine emery, or coarse rouge. If any lines are left to be erased by means of fine rouge, the oper- ation becomes tedious and is rarely suc- cessful. The oilstone dust is applied on an iron or copper polisher. Wnen it is desired to preserve the angles sharp, at a shoulder, for instance, the polisher should be of steel. When using dia- mantine an iron polisher, drawn out and flattened with a hammer, answers very well. With fine rouge, a bronze or bell- metal polisher is preferable for shoul- ders; and for flat surfaces, discs or large zinc or tin polishers, although glass is preferable to either of these. After each operation with oilstone dust, coarse rouge, etc., the polisher, cork, etc., must be changed, and the object should be cleaned well, preferably by soaping, perfect cleanliness being essential to success. Fine rouge or diamantine should be made into a thick paste with oil; a little is then taken on the polisher or glass and worked until quite dry. As the object is thus not smeared over, a black polish is more readily obtained, and the process gets on better if the surface be cleaned from time to time. ' For Fine Steel. — Take equal parts (by weight) of ferrous sulphate — green vitriol — and sodium chloride — cooking salt — mix both well together by grind- ing in a mortar and subject the mix- ture to red heat in a mortar or a dish. Strong fumes will develop, and the mass begin to flow. When no more fumes arise, the vessel is removed from the fire and allowed to cool. A brown substance is obtained with shimmering scales, resembling mica. The mass is now treated with water, partly in order to remove the soluble salt, partly in order to wash out the lighter portions of the non-crystallized oxide, which yield an excellent polishing powder. The fire must be neither too strong nor too long continued, otherwise the powder turns black and very hard, losing its good qualities. The more distinct the violet-brown color, the better is the powder. For polishing and cleaning fenders, fireirons, horses' bits, and similar arti- cles: • Fifty-six pounds Bridge water stone; 28 pounds flour emery; 20 pounds rotten stone; 8 pounds whiting. Grind and mix well. To make iron take a bright polish like steel, pulverize and dissolve in 1 quart of hot water, 1 ounce of blue vitriol; 1 ounce of borax; 1 ounce of prussiate of potash; 1 ounce of charcoal; J pint of salt, all of which is to be added to one gallon of linseed oil and thoroughly mixed. To apply, bring the iron or steel to the proper heat and cool in the soluti(^n. Stove Polish. — The following makes an excellent graphite polish: I. — Ceresine 12 parts Japan wax 10 parts Turpentine oil 100 parts Lampblack, best.. . 12 parts Graphite, levigated 10 parts Melt the ceresine and wax together, remove from the fire, and when half 598 POLISHES cooled off add and stir in the graphite and lampblack, previously mixed with the turpentine. II. — Ceresine 23 parts Carnauba wax .... 6 parts Turpentine oil 220 parts Lampblack 300 parts Grapnite, finest levigated 25 parts Mix as above. III. — Make a mixture of water glass and lampblack of about the consistency of thin syrup, and another of finely levi- gated plumbago and mucilage of Soudan gum (or other cheap substitute for gum arable), of a similar consistency. After getting rid of dust, etc., go over the stove with mixture No. I and let it dry on, which it will do in about 24 hours. Now go over the stove with the second mix- ture, a portion of the surface at a time, and as this dries, with an old blacking brush give it a polish. If carefully done the stove will have a polish resembling closely that of new Russian iron. A va- riant of this formula is as follows : Mix the graphite with the water glass to a smooth paste; add, for each pound of paste, 1 ounce of glycerine and a few grains of aniline black. Apply to the stove with a stiff brush. POLISHES FOR WOOD: See also Polishes for Furniture, Floors and Pianos. In the usual method of French pol- ishing, the pad must be applied along curved lines, and with very slight pres- sure, if the result is to be uniform. To do this requires much practice and the work is necessarily slow. Another dis- advantage is that the oil is apt to sweat out afterwards, necessitating further treatment. According to a German patent all difficulty can be avoided by placing between the rubber and its cov- ering a powder composed of clay or loam, or better, the powder obtained by grinding fragments of terra cotta or of yellow Dricks. The powder is mois- tened with oil for use. The rubber will then give a fine polish, without any special delicacy of manipulation and with mere backward and forward rub- bing in straight lines, and the oil will not sweat out subsequently. Another ad- vantage is that no priming is wanted, as the powder fiUs up the pores. The presence of the powder also makes the polish adhere more firmly to the wood. Oak Wood Polish. — The wood is first carefully smoothed, then painted with the following rather thickly liquid mass, using a brush, viz.: Mix IJ parts, by weight, of finely washed chalk (whiting), ^ part of dryer, and 1 part of boiled hn- seed oil with benzine and tint (umber with a little lampblack, burnt sienna). After the applied mixture has become dry, rub it down, polish with glass pow- der, and once more coat with the same mixture. After this filling and after rubbing off with stickwood chips or fine sea grass, one or two coats of shellac are put on (white shellac with wood alcohol for oak, brown shellac for cherry and walnut). This coating is cut down with sandpaper and given a coat of var- nish, either polishing varnish, which is polished off with the ball of the hand or a soft brush, or with interior varnish, which is rubbed down with oil and pumice stone. This polish is glass hard, transparent, of finer luster, and resistive. Hard Wood Polish. — In finishing hard wood with a wax polish the wood is first coated with a "filler," which is omitted in the case of soft wood. The filler is made from some hard substance, very finely ground; sand is used by some man- ufactures. The polish is the same as for soft wood. The simplest method of apply- ing wax is by a heated iron, scraping off the surplus, and then rubbing with a cloth. It is evident that this method is especially laborious; and for that reason solution of the wax is desirable. It may be dissolved rather freely in turpentine spirit, and is said to be soluble also in kerosene oil. The following recipes give varnish-like polishes: I. — Dissolve 15 parts of shellac and 16 parts of sandarac in 180 parts of spirit of wine. Of this liquid put some on a ball of cloth waste and cover with white linen moistened with raw linseed oil. The wood to be polished is rubbed with this by the well-known circular motion. When the wood has absorbed sufficient polish, a little spirit of wine is added to the polish, and tne rubbing is continued. The polished articles are said to sustain no damage by water, nor show spots or cracks. II. — Orange shellac, 3 parts; sandarac, 1 part; dissolved in 30 parts of alcohol. For mahogany add a little dragon's blood. III. — Fifteen parts of oil of turpen- tine, dyed with anchusine, or undyed, and 4 parts of scraped yellow wax are stirred into a uniform mass by heating on the water bath. POLISHES 599 IV. — Melt 1 part of white wax on the water bath, and add 8 parts of petro- leum. The mixture is applied hot. The petroleum evaporates ancf leaves behind a tliin layer of wax, which is subse- quently rubbed out lightly with a dry cloth rag. V. — Stearine 100 parts Yellow wax 25 parts Caustic potash .... 60 parts Yellow laundry soap 10 parts Water, a sufficient quantity. Heat together until a homogeneous mixture is formed. VI. — Yellow wax 25 parts Yellow laundry soap 6 parts Glue 12 parts Soda ash 25 parts Water, a sufficient quantity. Dissolve the soda in 400 parts of water, add the wax, and boil down to 250 parts, then add the soap. Dissolve the glue in 100 parts of hot water, and mix the whole with the saponified wax. VII. — This is waterproof. Put into a stoppered bottle 1 pint alcohol; 2 ounces gum benzoin; J ounce gum sandarac, and J ounce gum anime. Put the bottle in a sand bath or in hot water till the solids are dissolved, then strain the solu- tion, and add J gill best clear poppy oil. Shake well and the polish is ready for use. VIII. — A white polish for wood is made as follows: White lac 1 J pounds Powdered borax. .. . 1 ounce Alcohol 3 pints The lac should be thoroughly dried, especially if it has been kept under water, and, in any case, after being crushed, it should be left in a warm place for a few hours, in order to remove every trace of moisture. The crushed lac and borax are then added to the spirit, and the mixture is stirred frequently, until solution is effected, .ifter which the polish should be strained through muslin. IX. — To restore the gloss of polished wood which has sweated, prepare a mixture of 100 parts of linseed oil, 750 parts of ether, 1,000 parts of rectified oil of turpentine, and 1,000 parts of petro- leum benziiif, perfumed, if desired, with a strongly odorous essential oil, and colored, it required, with cuicuma, or- lean, or alkanna. The objects to be treated are rubbed thoroughly with this mixture, using a woolen rag. MXSCELLAITEOUS POLISHING AGENTS: Polishing A^ent which may also be used for Gilding and Silvering. — The following mediums hitherto known as possessing the aforenamed properties, lose these c|ualities upon having been kept for some time, as the metal salt is partly reduced. Furthermore, it has not been possible to admix reducing sub.stances such as zinc to these former polishing agents, since moisture causes the metal to precipitate. The present invention obviates these evils. The silver or gold salt is mixed with chalk, for instance, in a dry form. To thi.s mixture, fine dry powders of one or more salts (e. g., am- monia compounds) in whose solutions the metal salt can enter are added; if re- quired, a reducing body, such as zinc, may be added at the same time. The composition is pressed firmly together and forms briquettes, in which condition tlie mass keeps well. For use, all that is necessary is to scrape off a little of the substance and to prepare it with water. Silver Polishing Balls. — .This polishing agent is a powder made into balls by means of a Binding medium and enjoys much popularity in Germany. It is prepared by adding 5 parts of levigated chalk to '2 parts of yellow tripoli, mixing the two powders well and making into a stiff paste with very weak gum water — 1 part gum arable to 12 parts of water. This dough is finally shaped by hand into balls of the size of a pigeon's egg. The balls are put aside to dry on boards in a moderately warm room, and when completely hard are wrapped in tin-foil paper. To Prepare Polishing Cloths. — The stuff must be pure woolen, colored with aniline red, and then put in the follow- ing: Castile soap, white. . 4 parts Jewelers' red 2 parts Water 20 parts JNIix. One ounce of this mixture will answer for a cloth 12 inches square, where several of them are saturated at the same time. For the workshop, a bit of chamois skin of the same size (a foot square), is preferable to wool, on account of its durability. After impregnation with the soap solution, it should be dried in the air, being manipulated while drying to preserve its softness and suppleness. To Polish Delicate Objects. — Rub the objects with a sponge charged with a mixture of 28 parts of alcohol, 14 parts of water, and 4 parts of lavender oil. 600 POLISHES Polish for Gilt Frames. — Mix and beat the whites of 3 eggs with one-third, by weight, of javelle water, and apply to the gilt work. Steel Dust as a Polishing Agent. — Steel dust is well adapted for polishing pre- cious stones and can replace emery with advantage. It is obtained by spraying water on a bar of steel brought to a high temperature. The metal becomes fria- ble and can be readily reduced to pow- der in a mortar. This powder is dis- tinguished from emery by its mordanting properties and its lower price. Besides, it produces a finer, and consequently, a more durable polish. Polishing Bricks. — Stir into a thick pulp with water 10 parts of finely pow- dered and washed chalk, 1 part of Eng- lish red, and 2 parts of powdered gyp- sum; give it a square shape and dry. Polishing Cream. — Denaturized alcohol 400 parts Spirit of sal ammo- niac 75 parts Water 150 parts Petroleum ether .... 80 parts Infusorial earth 100 parts Red bole or white bole 50 parts Calcium carbonate. . 100 parts Add as much of the powders as de- sired. Mirbane oil may be used for scent- ing. Polishing Paste. — Infusorial earth (Kieselguhr) .... 8 ounces Paraffine 2 ounces Lubricating oil ... . 6 fluidounces Oleic acid 1 fluidounce Oil mirbane 30 minims Melt the paraffine with the lubricating oil, and mix with the infusorial earth, then add the oleic acid and oil of mir- bane. To Polish Paintings on Wood. — ^Ac- cording to the statements of able cabinet makers who frequently had occasion to cover decorations on wood, especially aquarelle painting, with a polish, a good coating of fine white varnish is the first necessity, dammar varnish being em- ployed for this purpose, This coat is primarily necessary as a protective layer so as to preserve the painted work from destructive attacks during the rubbing for the production of a smooth surface and the subsequent polishing. At all events, the purest white polishing varnish must be used tor the polish so as to pre- vent a perceptible subsequent darkening of the white painting colors. Naturally the success here is also dependent upon the skill of the polisher. To polish paint- ing executed on wood it is necessary to choose a white, dense, fine grained wood, which must present a well-smoothed surface before the painting. After the painting the surface is faintly coated vrith a fine, quickly drying, limpid varnish. When the coating has dried well, it is carefully rubbed down with finely pulver- ized pumice stone, with tallow or white lard, and now this surface is polished in the usual manner with a good solution prepared from the best white shellac. Polishing Mediums. — For iron and steel, stannic oxide or Vienna lime or iron oxide and sometimes steel powder is employed. In using the burnisher, first oil is taken, then soap water, and next Vienna lime. For copper, brass, German silver, and tombac, stearine oil and Vienna lime are used. Articles of brass can be pol- ished, after the pickling, in the lathe with employment of a. polish consisting of shellac, dissolved in alcohol, 1,000 parts; powdered turmeric, 1,000 parts; tartar, 2,000 parts; ox gall, 50 parts; water, 3,000 parts. Gold is polished with ferric oxide (red stuff), which, moistened with alco- hol, is applied to leather. For polishing silver, the burnisher or bloodstone is employed, using soap water, thin beer, or a decoction of soap wort. Silver-plated articles are also polished with Vienna lime. To produce a dull luster on gold and silver ware, glass brushes, i. e., scratch brushes of finely spun glass threads, are made use of. Pewter articles are polished with Vienna lime or whiting; the former on a linen rag, the latter on leather. If embossed articles are to be pol- ished, use the burnisher, and for polish, soap water, soap-wort decoction, ox gall with water. Antimony-lead alloys are polished with burnt magnesia on soft leather or with fine jewelers' red. Zinc is brightened with Vienna lime or powdered charcoal. Vienna lime gives a light -colored polish on brass, while ferric oxide im- parts a dark luster. Rouge or Paris Red. — This appears in commerce in many shades, varying from brick red to chocolate brown. The color, however, fs in no wise indicative of its purity or good quality, but it can be accepted as a criterion by which to de- POLISHES— PORCELAIN 601 termine the hardness of the powder. The darker the powder, the greater is its degree of hardness; the red or red- dish is always very soft, wherefore the former is used for polishing steel and the latter for softer metals. For the most part, Paris red consists of ferric oxide or ferrous oxide. In its production advantage is taken of a pe- culiarity common to most salts of iron, that wiien heated to a red heat they separate the iron oxide from the acid combination. In its manufacture it is usual to take commercial green vitriol, copperas crystals, and subject them to a moderate heat to drive off the water of crystallization. When this is nearly accomplished they will settle down in a white powder, which is now placed in a crucible and raised to a glowing red heat till no more vapor arises, when the residue will be found a soft smooth red powder. As the temperature is raised in the crucible, the darker will become the color of the powder and the harder the abrasive. Should an especially pure rouge be desired, it may lie made so by boiling the powder we have just made in a weak solution of soda and afterwards washing it out repeatedly and thoroughly with clean water. If treated in this way, all the impurities that may chance to stick to the iron oxide will be separated from it. Should a rouge be needed to put a specially brilliant polish upon any object its manufacture ought to be conducted according to the following formula: DLssolvc commercial green vitriol in water; dissolve also a like weight of sor- rel salt in water; filter both solutions; mix them well, and warm to 140° F.; a yellow precipitate, which on account of its weight, will settle immediately; decant the fluid, dry out the residue, and after- wards heat it as before in an iron dish in a moderately hot furnace till it glows red. By this process an exceptionally smooth, deep-red powder is obtained, which, if proper care has been exercised in the various steps, will need no elutria- tion, but can be used for polishing at once. With powders prepared in this wise our optical glasses and lenses of fin- est quality are polished. POLISHES FOR THE LAUNDRY: See Laundry Preparations. POMADE, PUTZ: See Cleaning Preparations and Meth- ods. POMADES: Sec Cosmetics. POMEGRANATE ESSENCE: See Essences and Extracts. PORCELAIN: See also Ceramics. Mending Porcelain by Riveting (see Adhesives for methods of mending Porcelain by means of cements). — Porcelain and glass can be readily pierced with steel tools. Best suited are hardened drills of ordinaiv shape, moistened with oil of turpentine, if the glazed or vitreous body is to be pierced. In the case of majolica and glass without enamel the purpose is best reached if the drilling is done under water. Thus, the vessel should previously be filled with water, and placed in a receptacle ((mtaiiiing water, so tnat the drill is used under water, and, after piercing the clay liody, reaches the water again. In the case of objects glazed on the inside, instead of filling them with water, the spot where the drill must come through may be underlaid with cork. The pressure with which the drill is worked is deter- mined by the hardness of the material, but when the tool is about to reach the other side it should gradually decrease and finally erase almost altogether, so as to avoid chipping. In order to enlarge small bore holes already existing, three- cornered or four-square broaches, ground and polished, are best adapted. These are likewise employed under water or, if the material is too hard (glass or enam- el), moistened with oil of turpentine. The simultaneous use of oil of turpen- tine and water is most advisable in all cases, oven where the nature of the article to be pierced does not admit the use of oil alone, as in the case of majolica and non-glazed porcelain, which absorb the oil, without the use of water. Porcelain Decoration. — \ brilliant yel- low color, known as "gold luster," may be produced on porcelain by the use of paint prepared as follows: Melt over a sand bath 30 parts of rosin, add 10 parts of uranic nitrate, and, while con- stantly stirring, incorporate with the liquid 35 to 40 parts of oil of lavender. After the mixture has become entirely homogeneous, remove the source of heat, and add 30 to 40 parts more of oil of lavender. Intimately mix the mass thus obtained with a, like quantity of bis- muth glass prepared by fusing together equal parts of oxide of bismuth and crystallized boric acid. The paint is to be burned in in the usual manner. PORCELAIN, HOW TO TELL POT- TERY AND PORCELAIN: See Ceramics. 602 PRESERVATIVES— PRESERVING PORTLAND CEMENT: See Cement. PORTLAND CEMENT, SIZE OVER: See Adhesives. POSTAL CARDS, HOW TO MAKE SENSITIZED : See Photography, under Paper-Sensi- tizing Processes. POTASSIUM SILICATE AS A CE- MENT: See Adhesives, under Water-Glass Ce- ments. POTATO STARCH: See Starch. POTTERY: See Ceramics. POULTRY APPLICATIONS: See Insecticides. POULTRY FOODS AND POULTRY DISEASES AND THEIR REME- DIES: See Veterinary Formulas. POULTR.Y WINE: See Wines and Liquors. POUNCE: See Cleaning Preparations and Meth- ods, under Ink Eradicators. POWDER FOR COLORED FIRES: See Pyrotechnics. POWDER, FACE: See Cosmetics. POWDER, ROUP: See Roup Powder. POWDERS FOR STAMPING: See Stamping. POWDERS FOR THE TOILET: See Cosmetics. Preservatives (See also Foods.) Preservative Fluid for Museums. — Formaldehyde solu- tion 6 parts Glycerine 12 parts Alcohol 3 parts Water 100 parts The addition of glycerine becomes necessary only if it is desired to keep the pieces in a soft state. Filtering through animal charcoal renders the liquid per- fectly colorless. For dense objects, such as lungs and liver, it is best to make in- cisions so as to facilitate the penetration of the fluid. In the case of very thick pieces, it is best to take 80 to 100 parts of formaldehyde solution for above quantities. Preservative for Stone, etc. — A new composition, or paint, for protecting stone, wood, cement, etc., from the effects of damp or other deleterious in- fluences consists of quicklime, chalk, mineral colors, turpentine, boiled oil, galipot, rosin, and benzine. The lime, chalk, colors, and turpentine are first flxed and then made into a paste with the boiled oil. The paste is finely ground and mixed with the rosins previously dissolved in the benzine. Preservative for Stuffed Animals. — For the exterior preservation use Arsenic 0.7 parts Alum 15.0 parts Water 100.0 parts For sprinkling the inside skin as well as filling bones, the following is em- ployed: Camphor 2 parts Insect powder 2 parts Black pepper 1 part Flowers of sulphur. . . 4 parts Alum 3 parts Calcined soda 3 parts Tobacco powder 3 parts Preservatives for Zoological and Ana- tomical Specimens. — The preparations are first placed in a solution or mixture of Sodium fluoride 5 parts Formaldehyde (40 per cent) 2 parts Water 100 parts After leaving this fixing liquid they are put in the following preservative solution: Glycerine (28° Be.).. . 5 parts Water 10 parts Magnesium chloride. . 1 part Sodium fiuoride 0.2 parts In this liquid zoological preparations, especially reptiles, retain their natural coloring. Most anatomical preparations likewise remain unchanged therein. PRESERVATIVES FOR WOOD: See Wood. Preserving Canning. — There should be no trou- ble in having canned fruit keep well if perfect or "chemical cleanliness" is ob- served in regard to jars, lids, etc., and if the fruit or vegetables are in good order, not overripe or beginning to ferment \yhere bruised or crushed. Fruit will PRESERVING 603 never come out of jars better than it goes in. It is better to put up a little fruit at a time when it is just ripe than to wait for a large amount to ripen, when the first may be overjipe and fermenting and likely to spoil tne whole lot. Use only the finest flavored fruit. Have everything ready before begin- ning canning. Put water in each jar, fit on rubbers and tops, and invert the jnr on the table. If any water oozes out try another top and rubber until sure the jar is air-tight. Wash jars and tops, put them in cold water and bring to a boil. When the fruit is cooked ready take a jar from the boiling water, set it on a damp cloth laid in a soup plate, dip a rubber in boiling water, and fit it on firmlv. Fill the jar to over- flowing, wipe tne brim, screw on the top, and turn it upside down on a table. If any syrup oozes out empty the jar back into the Kettle and fit on a tighter rub- ber. Let it stand upside down till cold, wipe clean, wrap in thick paper, and keep in a cool, dry place. These general directions are for all fruits and vegetables that are cooked before putting in the jars. Fruit keeps its shape better if cooked in the jars, which should be prepared as above, the fruit carefully loofcea over and filled into the jars. If a juicy fruit, like black- berries or raspberries, put the sugar in with it in alternate layers. For cherries the amount of sugar depends on the acidity of the fruit and is best made into a syrup with a little water and poured down through them. Peaches and pears after paring, are packed into the jars and a syrup of about a quarter of a pound of sugar to a pound of fruit poured over them. Most fruits need to be cooked from 10 to 15 minutes after the water around them begins to boil. Red raspberries ought not to be boiled. Put them into jars as gently as possible: they are the tenderest of all fruits and will bear the slightest handling. Drop them in loosely, fold a saucer into a clean cloth, and lay over the top, set on a perforated board in a boiler, pour water to two-thirds, cover and set over a slow fire. As the fruit settles add more until full. When it is cooked soft lift the jar out and fill to the top with boiling syrup of equal parts of sugar and water, and seal. Do not can all the fruit, for jams and jellies are a welcome change and also easier to keep. Raspberries and cur- rants mixed make delicious jam. Use the juice of a third as many currants and J of a pound of sugar to a pound of fruit. The flavor of all kinds of fruit is injured by cooking it long with the sugar, so heat the latter in the oven and add when the fruit is nearly done. Jelly is best made on a clear day, for small fruits absorb moisture, and if picked after a rain require longer boiling, and every minute of unnecessary boiling gives jellv a less delicate color and flavor. When jell^ is syrupy, it has been boiled too long; if it drops from the spoon with a spring, or wrinkles as you push it with the spoon in a saucer while cooling, it is done enough. Try it after 5 minutes' boil. Cook the fruit only until the skin is broken and pulp softened. Strain without squeezing for jelly, and use the last juice you squeeze out for jam. Measure the juice and boil uncovered, skimming off. For sweet fruits } of a pound of sugar is enough to u pint of juice. Heat the sugar in the oven, add to the boiling juice; stir till dissolved. When it boils up, draw to the back of the stove. Scald tne jelly glasses, fill and let stand in a clean, cool place till next day; then cover. Blackoerries make jelly of a delicious flavor and jelly easily when a little underripe. Currants shoulil be barely ripe; the ends of the bunches may be rather green. A highly prized way of canning cher- ries: Stone and let them stand overnight. In the morning pour off the juice, add sugar to taste, and some water if there is not much juice, and boil and skim till it is a rich syrup. If the cherries are sweet a pint of juice and J of a pint of sugar will be right. Heat tne jars, put in the un- cooked cherries till they are nearly full; then pour over them the boiling syrup and fasten on the covers. Set the jars in a washboiler, fill it with very hot water and let it stand all night. The heat of the syrup and of the water will cook the fruit, but the flavor and color will be that of fresh and uncooked cherries. Canning without Sugar. — I. — In order to preserve the juices of fruit merely by sterilization, put the juice into the bottles in which it is to be kept, filling them very nearly full; place the bottles, unstop pered, in a kettle filled with cold water, so arranging them on a wooden perfor ated "false Dottom," or other like con- trivance, as to prevent their immediate contact with the metal, thus preventing unequal heating and possible fracture. Now heat the water, gradually raising the temperature to the boiling point, and maintain at that until the juice attains a boiling temperature; then close the bot ties with perfectly fitting corks, which 604 PRESERVING have been kept immersed in boiling water for a short time before use. The corks should not be fastened in any way, for if the sterilization is not complete, fermentation and consequent explosion of the bottle might occur, unless the cork should be forced out. The addition of sugar is not necessary to secure the suc- cess of the operation; in fact a small pro- portion would have no antiseptic effect. If the juice is to be used for syrup as for use at the soda fountain, the best method is to make a concentrated syrup at once, using about 2 pounds of refined sugar to 1 pint of juice, dissolving by a gentle heat. The syrup may be made by sim- ple agitation without heat and a finer flavor thus results, but its keeping qual- ity would be uncertain. II. — Fruit juices may be preserved by gentle heating and after protection from the air in sterilized containers. The heat required is much below the boiling point. Professor Miiller finds that a temperature of from 140° to 168° F., maintained for IS minutes, is sufficient to render the fermenting agents present inactive. The bottles must also be heated to destroy any adherent germs. The juices may be placed in them as ex- pressed and the container then placed in a water bath. As soon as the heating is finished the bottles must be securely closed. The heating process will, in consequence of coagulating certain sub- stances, produce turbidity, and if clear liquid is required, filtration is, of course, necessary. In this case it is better to heat the juice in bulk in a kettle, filter through felt, fill the bottles, and then heat again in the containers as in the first instance. It is said that grape juice prepared in this manner has been found unaltered after keeping for many years. Various antiseptics nave been proposed as preservatives for fruit juices and other articles of food, but all such agents are objectionable both on ac- count of their direct action on the system and their effect in rendering food less digestible. While small quantities of such drugs occasionally taken may exert no appreciable effect, continuous use is liable to be more or less harmful. CRUSHED FRUIT PRESERVING: Crushed Pineapples. — Secure a good brand of canned grated pineapple and drain off about one-half of the liquor by placing on a strainer. Add to each f)ound of pineapple 1 pound of granu- ated sugar. Place on the fire and bring to boiling point, stirring constantly. Just before removing from the fire, aud to each gallon of pulp 1 ounce saturated alcoholic solution salicylic acid. Put into air-tight jars until wanted for use. Crushed Peach. — Take a, good brand of canned yellow peaches, drain off liquor, and rub through a No. 8 sieve. Add sugar, bring to the boiling point, and when ready to remove from fire add to each gallon 1 ounce saturated alcoholic solution of salicylic acid. Put into jars and seal hermetically. Crushed Apricots. — Prepared in similar manner to crushed peach, using canned apricots. Crushed Orange. — Secure oranges with a thin peel and containing plenty of juice. Remove the outer or yellow peel first, taking care not to include any of bitter peel. The outer peel may be used in making orange phosphate or tincture sweet orange peel. After re- moving the outer peel, remove the inner, bitter peel, quarter and remove the seeds. Extract part of the juice and grind the pulp through an ordinary meat grinder. Add sugar, place on the fire, and bring to the boiling point. When ready to re- move, add to each gallon 1 ounce satu- rated alcoholic solution of salicylic acid and 1 ounce glycerine. Put 'into jars and seal. Crushed Cherries. — If obtainable, the large, dark California cherry should be used. Stone the cherries, and grind to a pulp. Add sugar, and place on the fire, stirring constantly. Before removing, add to each gallon 1 ounce of the satu- rated solution of salicylic acid. Put into jars and seal. Dry Sugar Preserving. — The fruits are embedded in a thick layer of dry, powdered sugar to which they give up the greater part of the water contained in them. At the same time, a quantity of sugar passes through the skins into the interior of the fruits. Afterwards, the fruits are washed once, wiped, and completely dried. Fruit Preserving. — Express the juice and filter at once, through two thick- nesses of best white Swedish paper, into a container that has been sterilized im- mediately before letting the juice run into it, by boiling water. The better plan is to take out of water in active ebullition at the moment you desire to use it. Have ready some long-necked, 8-ounce vials, which should also be kept in boiling water until needed. Pour the juice into these, leaving room in the upper part of the body of the vial to re- PRESERVING 605 ceive a teaspoonful of the best olive oil. Pour the latter in so that it will trickle down the neck and form a layer on top of the juice, and close the neck with a wad of antiseptic cotton thrust into it in such manner that it does not touch the oil, and leaves room for the cork to be put in without touching it. Cork and cap or seal the vial, and put in a cool, dark place, and keep standing upright. If carried out faithfully with due atten- tion to cleanliness, this process will keep the juice in a perfectly natural condition for a very long time. The two essentials are the careful and rapid filtration, and the complete asepticization of the con- tainers. Another process, in use in the French Navy, depends upon the rapid and careful filtering of the juice, and the addi- tion of from 8 to 10 per cent of alcohol. Raspberry Juice.— A dark juice is obtained by adding to the crushed rasp- berries, before the fermentation, slight quantities of sugar in layers. The ethyl-alcohol forming during the fermen- tation is said to cause a better extracfion of the raspberry red. Furthermore, the boiling should not be conducted on a naked fire, but by means of super- heated steam, so as to avoid formation of caramel. Finally, the sugar used should be perfectly free from ultramarine and lime, since both impurities detract from the red color of the raspberries. Spice for Fruit Compote. — This is greatly in demand in neighborhoods where many plums and pears are pre- served. Parts Parts Lemon peel 15 or ... Cinnamon, ordi- nary 15 or 50 Star aniseed .... 10 or 15 Coriander 3 or 100 Carob pods 5 or Ginger root, peeled 2 or 200 Pimento or 100 Licorice or 100 Cloves, without stems or 30 Spanish peppers. . . or 2 Oil of lemon or i Oil of cinnamon ... or 2 Oil of cloves or 2 All the solid constituents are pow- dered moderately fine and thoroughly mixed; the oils dropped in last, and rubbed into the powder. Strawberries. — Carefully remove the stems and calyxes, place the strawber- ries on a sieve, and move the latter about in a, tub of water for a few mo- ments, to remove any dirt clinging to them. Drain and partially dry spon- taneously, then remove from the sieve and put into a porcelain-lined kettle provided with a tight cover. To every pound of berries take a half pound of sugar and 2 ounces of water and put the same in a kettle over the fire. Let re- main until the sugar has dissolved or become liquid, and then pour the same, while still not, over the berries, cover the kettle tightly and let it stand overnight. The next morning put the kettle over the fire, removing the cover when the berries begin to boil, and let boil gently for 6 to 8 minutes (according to the mass), removing all scum as it arisi-s. Remove from the fire, and with a perforated spoon or dipper take the fruit from the syrup, and fill into any suitable vessel. Replace the syrup on the fire and boil for about the same length of time as before, then pour, all hot, over the berries. The next day empty out the contents of the vessel on a sieve, and let the berries drain off; remove the syrup that drains off, add water, put on the fire, and boil until you obtain a syrup which flows but slowly from the stirring spoon. ,Vt this point add the berries, ana let boil gently for a few moments. Have your pre- serve jars as hot as possible, by putting them into a pot of cold water anci bring- ing the latter to a boil, and into them fill the berries, hot from the kettle. Cool down, cover with buttered paper, and immediately close the jars hermetically. If corks are used, they should be pro- tected below with parchment paper, and afterwards covered with wet bladder stretched over the top, securely tied and waxed. The process seems very trou- blesome and tedious, but all of the care expended is repaid by the richness and pureness of the fiavor of the preserve, which maintains the odor and taste of the fresh berry in perfection. Hydrogen Peroxide as a Preservative. — Hydrogen peroxide is one of the best, least harmful, and most convenient agents for preserving syrups, wine, beer, cider, and vinegar. For this purpose 2i flui- drachms of the commercial peroxide of hydrogen may be added to each quart of the article to be preserved. Hydrogen Ceroxide also affords an easy test for acteria in water. When hydrogen per- oxide is added to water that contains bacteria, these organisms decompose it, and consequently oxygen gas is given off. If the water be much contaminated the disengagement of gas may be quite brisk. 606 PRESERVING— PUTTY To Preserve Milk (which should be as fresh as possible) there should be added enough hydrogen peroxide to cause it to be completely decomposed by the en- zymes of the milk. For this purpose 1.3 per cent, by volume, of a 3 per cent hydrogen peroxide solution is required. The milk is well shaken and kept for 5 hours at 122° to 125° F. in well-closed vessels. Upon cooling, it may keep fresh for about a month and also to retain its natural fresh taste. With this process, if pure milk is used, the ordinary disease germs are killed off soon after milking and the milk sterilized. Powdered Cork as a Preservative. — Tests have shown that powdered cork is very efficacious for packing and pre- serving fruits and vegetables. A bed of cork is placed at the bottom of the case, and the fruits or vegetables and the cork are then disposed in alternate layers, with a final one of cork at the top. "Care should be taken to fill up the interstices, in order to prevent friction. Fruit may thus be kept fresh a year, provided any unsound parts have been removed pre- liminarily. When unpacking for sale, it suffices to plunge the fruit into water. Generally speaking, 50 pounds of cork go with 1,000 or 1,200 pounds of fruit. The cork serves as a protection against cold, heat, and humidity. Various fruits, such as grapes, mandarines, tomatoes, and early vegetables, are successfully packed in this way. PRESSURE TABLE: See Tables. PRINT COPYING: See Copying. PRINTERS' See Oil. OIL: PRINTING ON PHOTOGRAPHS: See Photography. PRINTS, RESTORATION OF: See Engravings. PRINTS, THEIR PRESERVATION: See Engravings. PRINTING OILCLOTH AND LEATHER IN GOLD: See Gold. PRINTING -OUT PAPER, HOW TO SENSITIZE: See Photography, under Paper-Sen- sitizing Processes. PRINTING-ROLLER COMPOSITIONS: See Roller Compositions for Printers. PRUWELLE CORDIAL: See Wines and Liquors. PRUSSIC ACID: See Poisons. PTOMAINE POISONING: See Antidotes. PUMICE STONE. While emery is used for polishing tools, polishing sand for stones and glass, ferric oxide for fine glassware, and lime and felt for metals, pumice stone is more frequently employed for polishing softer objects. Natural pumice stone pre- sents but little firmness, and the search has therefore been made to replace the natural product with an artificial one. An artificial stone has been produced by means of sandstone and clay, designed to be used for a variety of purposes. No. 1, hard or soft, with coarse grain, is designed for leather and waterproof garments, and for the industries of felt and wool; No. 2, hard and soft, of aver- age grain, is designed for work in stucco and sculptors' use, and for rubbing down wood before painting; No. 3, soft, with fine grain, is used for polishing wood and tin articles; No. 4, of average hardness, with fine grain, is used for giving to wood a surface previous to polishing with oil; No. 5, hard, with fine grain, is employed for metal work and stones, especially lithographic stones. ' These artificial products are utilized in the same manner as the volcanic products. For giving a smooth surface to wood, the operation is dry; but for finishing, the product is diluted with oil. PUMICE-STONE SOAP: See Soaps. PUNCHES: See Ice Creams. PUNCTURE CEMENT: See Cement. PURPLE OF CASSIUS: See Gold. Putty (See also Lutes, under Adhesives and Cements.) Common putty, as used bv carpenters, painters, and glaziers, is whiting mixed with linseed oil to the consistency of dough. Plasterers use a fine lime mortar that is called putty. Jewelers use a tin oxide for polishing, called putty powder or putz powder. (See Putz Powder, under Jewelers' Polishes,under Polishes.) PUTl'Y 607 Acid-Proof Putty.— I.— Melt 1 part of gum elastic witli i parts of linseed oil and mix with the necessary tjuantity of white bole by continued kneading to the desired consistency. Hydrochloric acid and nitric acid do not attack this putty, it softens somewhat in the warm and does not dry readily on the surface. The dry- ing and hardening is effected by an admix- ture of J part of litharge or red lead. II. — A putty which will even resist boiling sulphuric acid is prepared by melting caoutchouc at a moderate heat, then adding 8 per cent of tallow, stirring constantly, whereupon sufficiently slaked lime is added until the whole has the consistency of soft dough. Finally about 20 per cent of red lead is still added, which causes the mass to set im- mediately and to harden and dry. A solution of caoutchouc in double its weight of linseed oil, added by means of heat and with the like quantity (weight) of pipe clay, gives a plastic mass which likewise resists most acids. Black Putty. — Mix whiting and an- timony sulphide, the latter finely pow- dered, with soluble glass. This putty, it is claimed, can be polished, after narden- ing, by means of a burnishing agate. Durable Putty. — According to the "Gewerbeschau, ' mix a handful of burnt lime with 4 J ounces of linseed oil; allow this mixture to boil down to the consist- ency of common putty, and dry the ex- tensible mass received, in a place not accessible to the rays of the sun. When the putty, which has become very hard through the drying, is to be used, it is wiirmcd. Over the flame it will become soft and pliable, but after having been applied and become cold, it binds the various materials very firmly. Glaziers' Putty. — I. — For puttying panes or looking glasses into picture irames a mixture prepared as follows is well adapted: Make a solution of gum elastic in benzine, strong enough so that a syrup-like fluid results. If the solu- tion be too thin, wait until the benzine evaporates. Then grind white lead in linseed-oil varnish to u stiff paste and add the gun:\ solution. This putty may be used, Desides the above purposes, for the tight puttying-in of window panes into their frames. The putty is applied on the glass lap of the frames and the panes are firmly pressed into it. The glass plates thereby obtain a good, firm support and stick to the wood, as the putty adheres both to the glass and to the wood. II. — A useful putty for mirrors, etc., is prepared by dissolving gummi elasti- cum (caoutchouc) in benzol to a syrupy solution, _ and incorporating this "latter with a mixture of white lead and linseed oil to make a stiff pulp. The putty adheres strongly to both gla.ss and wood, and may therefore be applied to the framework of the window, mirror, etc., to be glazed, the glass being then pressed firmly on the cementing layer thus formed. Hard Putty. — This is used by carriage Eainters and jewelers. Boil 4 pounds rown umlier and 7 pounds linseed oil for 2 hours; stir in 2 ounoes beeswax; take from the fire and mix in 5 J pounds chalk and 11 pounds white lead; the mixing must be done very thoroughly. Painters' Putty and Rough Stuff. — Gradually knead sifted dry clialk (whit- ing) or else rye flour, powdered white lead, zinc white, or lithopone white with good liiiseed-oil varnish. The best putty is produced from varnish with plenty of chalk and some zinc white. This mixture can be tinted with earth colors. These oil putties must be well kneaded t(ij;ether and rather compact (like glaziers' putty). If flour paste is boiled (this is best produced by scalding with hot water, pouring in, gradually, the rye flour which has been previously dissolved in a little cold water and stirring constantly until the proper consistency is attained) and dry sifted chalk and a little varnish are added, a good rough stuff for wood or iron is obtained, which can be rubbed. This may also be produced from gla- ziers' oil putty by gradually kneading into it flour paste and a little more sifted dry chalk. To Soften Glaziers' Putty.— I.— Gla- ziers' putty which has become hard can be softened with the following mixture: ^lix carefully equal parts of crude pow- dered potash and freshly burnt lime and make it into a paste with a little water. This dough, to which about J part of soft soap IS still added, is applied on the putty to be softened, but care has to be taken not to cover other paint, as it would be surely destroyed thereby. Af- ter a few hours the hardest putty will be softened by this caustic mass and can be removed from glass and wood. II. — A good way to make the putty soft and plastic enough in a few hours so that it can be taken off like fresh puttv, is by the use of kerosene, which entirely dissolves the linseed oil of the putty, 608 PUTTY— PYROTECHNICS transformed into rosin, and quickly pen- etrates it. Substitute for Putty. — A cheap and effective substitute for putty to stop cracks in woodwork is made by soaking newspapers in a paste made by boiling a pound of flour in 3 quarts of water, and adding a teaspoonful of alum. This mixture should be of about the same consistency as putty, and should be forced into the cracks with a blunt knife. It will harden, like papier mache, and when dry may be painted or stained to match the boards, when it will be almost imperceptible. Waterproof Putties. — I. — Grind pow- dered white lead or minium (red lead) with thick linseed-oil varnish to a, stiff ' paste. This putty is used extensively for tightening wrought-iron gas pipes, for tightening rivet seams on gas meters, hot-water furnaces, cast-iron flange pipes for hot-water heating, etc. The putty made with minium dries very slowly, but becomes tight even before it is quite hard, and holds very firmly after solidifi- cation. Sometimes a little ground gyp- sum is added to it. The two following putties are cheaper than the above - mentioned • red lead putty: II. — One part white lead, 1 part manganese, one part white pipe clay, prepared with linseed-oil varnish. III. — Two parts red lead, 5 parts white lead, 4 parts clay, ground in or prepared with linseed-oil varnish. IV. — Excellent putty, which has been found invaluable where waterproof closing and permanent adhesion are desired, is made from litharge and glycerine. The litharge must be finely pulverized and the glycerine very concen- trated, thickly liquid, and clear as water. Both substances are mixed into a viscid, thickly liquid pulp. The pegs of kero- sene lamps, for instance, can be fixed in so firmly with this putty that they can only be removed by chiseling it out. For put- tying in the glass panes of aquariums it is equally valuable. As it can withstand higher temperatures it may be success- fully used for fixing tools, curling irons, forks, etc., in the wooden handles. The thickish putty mass is rubbed into the hole, and the part to be fixed is inserted. As this putty hardens very quickly it cannot be prepared in large quantities, and only enough for immediate use must be compounded in each case. V. — Five parts of hydraulic lime, 0.3 parts of tar, 0.3 parts of rosin, 1 part of horn water (the decoction resulting from boil- ing horn in water and decanting the lat- ter). The materials are to be mixed and boiled. After cooling, the putty is ready for use. This is an excellent cement for glass, and may be used also for reservoirs and any vessels for holding water, to ce- ment the cracks; also for many other purposes. It will not give way, and is equally good for glass, wood, and metal. VI. — This is especially recommended for boiler leaks: Mix well together 6 parts of powdered graphite, 3 parts of slaked lime, 8 parts of heavy spar (barytes), and 8 parts of thick linseed-oil varnish, and apply in the ordinary way to the spots. PUTTY FOR ATTACHING SIGN-LET- TERS TO GLASS: See Adhesives, under Sign-Letter Ce- ments. PUTTY, TO REMOVE: See Cleaning Preparations and Meth- ods. PUTZ POMADE: See Cleaning Preparations and Meth- ods. PYROGALLIC ACID: See Photography. PYROGALLIC ACID STAINS, TO RE- MOVE, FROM THE SKIN: See Cleaning Preparations and Meth- ods and Photography. PYROCATECHIN DEVELOPER: See Photography. P3rrotechiucs FIREWORKS. The chief chemical process is, of course, oxidation. Oxidation may be produced bj the atmosphere, but in many cases this is not enough, and then the pyrotechnist must employ his knowledge of chemistry in selecting oxidizing agents. The chief of these oxidizing agents are chlorates and nitrates, the effect of which is to promote the continuance of com- bustion when it is once started. They are specially useful, owing to their solid non-hygroscopic nature. Then ingredi- ents are needed to prevent the too speedy action of the oxidizing agents, to regulate the process of combustion, such as calomel, sand, and sulphate of potash. Thirdly, there are the active ingredients that produce the desired effect, prominent among which are substances that in contact with flame impart some special color to it. Brilliancy and brightness are imparted by steel, zinc, and copper PYROTECHNICS 609 filings. Other substances employed are lampblack with gunpowder, and, for theatre purposes, lycopodium. Fireworks may be classified under four heads, viz.: 1. Single fireworks. 2. Terrestrial fireworks, which are placed upon the ground and the fire issues direct from the surface. 3. Atmospheric fireworks, which begin their display in the air. i. Aquatic fireworks, in which oxida- tion is so intense that they produce a flame under water. Rockets. — First and foremost among atmospheric fireworks are rockets, made in different sizes, each requiring a slightly different percentage composition. A good formula is Sulphur 1 part Carbon, wood 2 parts Niter 4 parts Meal powder 1 part Meal powder is a fine black or brown dust, which acts as a diluent. Roman Candles. — Roman candles are somewhat after the same principle. An average formula is: Sulphur t parts Carbon 3 parts Niter 8 parts Pin Wheels. — These are also similar in composition to the preceding. The formula for the basis is Sulphur 6 parts Niter 9 parts Meal powder 15 parts Color as desired. Bengal Lights. — Bengal lights have the disadvantage of being poisonous. A typical preparation can oe made ac- cording to this formula: Realgar 1 part Black antimony 5 parts Red lead 1 part Sulphur 3 parts Niter 1-i parts COLORED FIRES. The compounds should be ignited in a small pill box resting on a plate. All the ingrements must be dried and powdered separately, and then lightly mixed on a sheet of paper. Always bear in mind that sulphur and chlorate of potassium explode violently if rubbed together. Smokeless Vari-Colored Fire.— First take barytes or strontium, and bring to a glowing heat in a suitable dish, remove from the fire, and add the shellac. The latter (unpowdered) will melt at once. and can then be intimately mixed with the barytes or strontium by means of a spatula. After cooling, pulverize. One may also add about i\ per cent of pow- dered magnesium to increase the effect. Take for instance 4 parts of barytes or strontium and 1 part of shellac. The following salts, if finely powdered and burned in an iron ladle with a little spirits, will communicate to the flame their peculiar colors. Potassium nitrate or sodium chlorate, yellow. Potassium chlorate, violet. Calcium chloride, orange. Strontium nitrate, red. Barium nitrate, apple greon. Copper nitrate, emerald green. Borax, green. Lithium chloride, purple. The colored fires are used largely in the production of various theatrical effects. Blue Fire.^ I. — Ter-sulphuret of antimony 1 part Sulphur 2 parts Nitrate of potassium 6 parts n. — Sulphur 15 parts Potassium sulphate 15 parts Ammonio-cu pric sulphate l.> parts Potassium nitrate.. 27 parts Potassium chlorate 28 parts III. — Chlorate of potash. 8 parts Calomel 4 parts Copper sulphate. . . 6 parts Shellac 3 parts IV. — Ore pigment 2 parts Charcoal 3 parts Potassium chloride 5 parts Sulphur. 13 parts Potassium nitrate.. 77 parts V. — Potassium chlorate 10 parts Copper chlorate. . . 20 parts Alcohol 20 parts Water 100 parts VI. — Copper chlorate. . . 100 parts Copper nitrate .... 50 parts Barium chlorate. . . 25 parts Potassium chlorate 100 parts Alcohol 500 parts Water 1.000 parts Green. — I. — Barium chlorate. . . 20 parts Alcohol 20 parts Water 100 parts II. — Barium nitrate. ... 10 parts Potassium chlorate 10 parts Alcohol 20 parts Water 100 parts 610 PYROTECHNICS III. — Shellac 5 parts Barium nitrate. ... IJ parts Pound after cooling, and add Barium chlorate, 2 to 5 per cent. Red.— I. — Shellac 5 parts Strontium nitrate 1 to 1.2 parts Preparation as in green fire. In damp weather add 2 to 4 per cent of potassium chlorate to the red flame; the latter causes a little more smoke. II. — Strontium nitrate . . 20 parts Potassium chlorate 10 parts Alcohol 20 parts Water 100 parts Yellow.— I. — Sulphur 16 parts Dried carbonate of soda 23 parts Chlorate of potas- sium 61 parts II. — Sodium chlorate. . . 20 parts Potassium oxalate . 10 parts Alcohol 20 parts Water 100 parts Violet.— I. — Strontium chlorate. 15 parts Copper chlorate. . . 15 parts Potassium chlorate 15 parts Alcohol 50 parts Water 100 parts ■ II. — Potassium chlorate 20 parts Strontium chlorate. 20 parts Copper chlorate. . . 10 parts Alcohol 50 parts Water 100 parts Lilac. — Potassium chlorate 20 parts Copper chlorate. : . 10 parts Strontium chloride. 10 parts Alcohol 50 parts Water 100 parts Mauve. — Chlorate of potash . 28 parts Calomel 12 parts Shellac 4 parts Strontium nitrate. . 4 parts Cupric sulphate ... 2 parts Fat 1 part Ptirple. — Copper sulphide. . . 8 parts Calomel 7 parts Sulphur 2 parts Chlorate of potash. 16 parts White.— I. — Gunpowder 15 parts Sulphur 22 parts Nitrate of potassium 64 parts II. — Potassium nitrate. . . 30 parts Sulphur 10 parts Antimony sulphide (black) 5 parts Flour 3 parts Powdered camphor. 2 parts III. — Charcoal 1 part Sulphur 11 parts Potassium sulphide. 38 parts IV. — Stearine 1 part Barium carbonate . . 1 part Milk sugar 4 parts Potassium nitrate .... 4 parts Potassium chlorate. 12 parts As a general rule, a corresponding quantity of shellac may be taken instead of the sulphur for inside fireworks. The directions for using these solu- tions are simply to imbibe bibulous pa- pers in them, then carefully dry and roll tightly into rolls of suitable length, accord- ing to the length of time they are to burn. Fuses. — For fuses or igniting papers, the following is used: Potassium nitrate. . . 2 parts Lead acetate 40 parts Water 100 parts Mix and dissolve, and in the solution place unsized paper; raise to nearly a boil and keep at this temperature for 20 minutes. If the paper is to be "slow," it may now be taken out, dried, cut into strips, and roUed. If to be "faster," the heat is to be continued longer, according to the quickness desired. Care must be taken to avoid boiling, which might dis- integrate the paper. In preparing these papers, every pre- caution against fire should be taken, and their preparation in the shop or house should not be thought of. In making the solutions, etc., where heat is neces- sary, the water bath should invariably be used. PYROTECHNIC MAGIC. [Caution. — When about to place any lighted material in the mouth be sure that the mouth is well coated with saliva, and that you are exhaling the breath con- tinuously, with greater or less force, according to the amount of heat you can bear. If the lighted material shows a ten- dency to burn the mouth, do not attempt to drap it out quickly, but simply shut the lips tight, and breathe through the nose, and the fire must go out instantly. In the Human Gas Trick, where a flame 10 to 15 inches long is blown from the mouth, be careful after lighting the PYROTECHNICS 611 cas, to continue to exhale the breath. When you desire the gas to go out, sim- Ely shut the lips tight and hold the reath for a few seconds. In this trick, until the gas is well out, any inhalation is likely to be attended with the most serious results. The several cautions above given may lie examined with a lighted match, first removing, after lighting the match, any brimstone or phosphorus from its end.] To Fire Paper, etc., by Breathing on it. — This secret seems little known to conjurers. Pay particular attention to the caution concerning phosphorus at the head of this article, and the caution respecting the dangerous nature of the prepared fluid given. Half fill a half-ounce bottle with car- bon disulphide, and drop in 1 or i frag- ments of phosphorus, each the size of a pea, which will quickly dissolve. Shake up the liquid, and pour out a small tea- spoonful onto a piece of blotting paper. The carbon disulphide will quickly evap- orate, leaving a film of phosphorus on the paper, which will quickly emit fumes and burst into flame. The once-popu- lar term Fenian fire was derived from the supposed use of this liquid by the Fenians for the purpose of setting fire to houses by throwing a bottle down a chimney or through a window, the bottle to break and its contents to speedily set fire to the place. For the purpose of experiment this liquid should only be prepared in small quantities as above, and any left over should be poured away onto the soil in tlie open air, so as to obviate the risk of fire. Thin paper may be fired in a sim- ilar manner with the acid bulbs and powder already mentioned. The pow- der should be formed into a paste, laid on the paper, and allowed to dry. Then the acid bulb is pasted over the powder. Burning Brimstone. — Wrap cotton around two small pieces of brimstone and wet it with gasoline; take between the fingers, squeezing the surplus liquid out, light it with a candle, throw back the head well, and put it on the tongue blaz- ing. Blow fire from mouth, and observe that a freshly blown-out candle may be lighted from the flame, which makes it more effective. After lighting candle chew up brimstone and pretend to swallow. Blazing Sponge Trick. — Take 2 or 3 small sponges, place them in a ladle; pour just enough oil or gasoline over them to wet them. Be very careful not to have enough oil on them to cause them to drip. Set fire to the sponges and take one of them up with the tongs, and throw the head back and drop the blazing sponge in the mouth, expelling the breath all the time. Now close your mouth quickly; this cuts off the air from the flame and it immediately goes out. Be careful not to drop the sponge on the face or chin. Remove sponge under cover of a handkerchief before placing the second one in the mouth. Burning Sealing Wax. — Take a stick of common sealing wax in one hand and a candle in the other, melt the wax over the candle, and put on your tongue while blazing. The moisture of the mouth cools it almost instantly. Care should be taken not to get any on the lips, chin, or hands. Demon Bowls of Fire. — The performer has three 6J-inch brass bowls on a table, and openly pours ordinary clean water (may be drunk) into bowls, until each is about half full. Then by simply passing the hand over bowls they eacli take fire and produce a flame 12 to '20 inches high. Each bowl contains about 2 tta- spoonfuls of ether, upon which is placed a small piece of the metal potassium, about the size of a pea. If the ether be pure the potassium will not be acted upon. Wlien the water is poured into the bowl the ether and potassium float up, the latter acting vigorously on the water, evolving hydrogen and setting fire thereto, and to tlic ether as well. The water may be poured into the bowl and lighted at command. In this case the potassium and ether are kept separated in the bowl, the former in a little cup on one side, and the latter in the body of the bowl. The water is poured in, and on rocking the bowl it is caused to wash into the little cup, the potassium floats up, and the fire is pro- duced. N. B. — The above tricks are not safe in any but specially made bowls, i. e., bowls with the wide flange round edge to prevent the accidental spilling of any portion of the burning ether. The Burning Banana. — Place some alcohol in a ladle and set fire to it. Dip a banana in the blazing alcohol and eat it while it is blazing. As soon as it is placed in the mouth the fire goes out. Sparks from the Finger Tips. — Take a small piece of tin about J inch wide and IJ inches long. Bend this in the shape of a ring. To the center of this piece solder another small piece of tin bent in the shape of a letter U; between the 612 PYROTECHNICS ends of this U place a small piece of wax tape about J inch Ions. Take a piece of small rubber tubing about 2 feet in length and to one end of this attach a hollow rubber ball, which you must partly fill with iron filings. Place the ruober ball containing the iron filings under the arm and pass the rubber tube down through the sleeve of the coat to the palm of the hand; now place the tin ring upon the middle finger, with the wax taper inside of the hand. Light this taper. By pressing the arm down sharply on the rubber ball, the force of the air will drive some of the iron filings through the rub- ber tube and out through the flame of the burning taper, when they will ignite and cause a beautiful shower of sparks to ap- pear to rain from the finger tips. To Take Boiling Lead in the Mouth. — The metal used, while not unlike lead in appearance, is not the ordinary metal, but is really an alloy composed of the following substances: Bismuth 8 parts Lead 5 parts Tin 2 parts To prepare it, first melt the lead in a crucible, tnen add the bismuth and finally the tin, and stir well together with a piece of tobacco pipe stem. This " fusible metal" will melt in boiling water, and a teaspoon cast from the alloy will melt if very hot water be poured into it, or if boiling water be stirred with it. If the water be not quite boiling, as is pretty sure to be the case if tea from a teapot is used, in all probability the heat will be insufficient to melt the spoon. But by melting the alloy and adding to it a small quantity of quicksilver a compound will be produced, which, though solid at the ordinary temperature, wilfmelt in water very much below the boiling point. Another variety of easily fusible alloy is made by melting together Bismuth 7 to 8 parts Lead 4 parts Tin 2 parts Cadmium 1 to 2 parts This mixture melts at 158°, that given above at 208° F. Either one of the several alloys above given will contain considerably less heat than lead, and in consequence be the more suitable for the purposes of a "Fire King." When a body is melted it is raised to a certain temperature and then gets no hotter, not even if the fire be increased — all the extra heat goes to melt the re- mainder of the substance. Second Method. — This is done with a ladle constructed similarly to the tin cup in a previous trick. The lead, genuine in this case, is, apparently, drunk from the ladle, which is then tilted, that it may be seen to be empty. The lead is con- cealed in the secret interior of the ladle, and a solid piece of lead is in conclusion dropped from the mouth, as congealed metal. To Eat Burning Coals. — In the first place make a good charcoal fire in the furnace. Just before commencing the act throw in three or four pieces of soft pine. When burnt to a coal one cannot tell the difference between this and char- coal, except by sticking a fork into it. This will not burn in the least, while the genuine charcoal will. You can stick your fork into these coals without any diflSculty, but the charcoal is brittle and hard; it breaks before the fork goes into it. Chain of Fire. — Take a piece of candle wick 8 or 10 inches long, saturated with kerosene oil, squeeze out surplus oil. Take hold of one end with your fire tongs, light by furnace, throw back your head, and lower it into your mouth while ex- haling the breath freely. When all in, close your lips and remove in handker- chief. Note. — Have a good hold of the end with the tongs, for if it should fall it would probably inflict a serious burn; for this reason also no burning oil must drop from the cotton. Biting Off Red-Hot Iron.— Take a piece of hooj) iron about 2 feet long, place it in a vise and bend it backwards and forwards, about an inch from the end, until it is nearly broken off. Put this in a furnace until it becomes red hot, then take it in your right hand, grasp the broken end in your teeth, being careful not to let it touch your lips or your tongue, make a "face" as though it was terribly hard to bite off, and let the broken end drop from between your teeth into a pail of water (which you should always have at hand in case of fire), when the hissing will induce the belief that the portion bitten off is still "red hot" — it may be, for that matter, if the iron be nearly broken off in the first place and if you have good teeth and are not afraid to injure them. Water Stirred Yellow, Scarlet, and Colorless. — Obtain a glass tube with one end hermetically sealed and drawn into a fine point that will break easily. Into an ale glass put a solution of mercury bi- QUICK-WATER— RAT POISONS 613 chloride (corrosive sublimate, a deadly )ioison) and into the tube a strong solu- tion of potassium iodide so adjusted in strenKlli that it will redissolve the scarlet |)re(ipitate formed by the union of the two liquids. While stirring the solution in the glass the bottom of the tube (ap- parently a glass rod) is broken and a small portion of its contents allowed to escape, which produces a beautiful scar- let. The balance of the fluid in the tube is retained there by simply keeping the thumb on the open top end. Continue the stirring, allowing tne balance of the contents of the tube to escape, and the scarlet fluid again becomes colorless. Before the scarlet appears the liquid is yellow. To heighten the effect, another ale glass, containing only clean water and a solid glass stirring-rod, may be handed to one of the company, with instructions to do the same as the performer; the result is amusing. QUICK-WATER: See Alloys. QUILTS, TO CLEAN: See Cleaning Preparations and Meth- ods. QUmCE EXTRACT: See Essences and Extracts. RAGS FOR CLEANING AND POLISH- ING: See Cleaning Preparations and Meth- ods. RASPBERRY CORDIAL: See Wines and Liquors. RASPBERRYADE POWDER: See Salts, Effervescent. RASPBERRY SYRUP: See Essences and Extracts. Rat Poisons (See also Turpentine.) Poisons for rats may be divided into two classes, quick and slow. Potassium cyanide and strychnine belong to the ■ first, and phosphorus and arsenic to the second. Both should be kept away from children, do^s, and cats, and this is best done by putting them in places too narrow for anything larger than a rat to squeeze into. If the poison is too quick, the effect of it is visible to the same rats which saw the cause, and those which have not eaten of the bait will leave it alone. On the other hand, if it is too slow, the poisoned rat may spread it to edible things in the pantry, by vomiting. Slow poisons generally cause the rat to seek water, and when they are used water should not be left about promis- cuously. The substances most useful as rat poisons, and which are without danger to the larger domestic animals, are plas- ter of Pans and fresh squills. Less dan- gerous than strychnine and arsenic are the baryta preparations, of which the most valuable is barium carbonate. Like plaster of Paris, this substance, when used for the purpose, must be mixed with sugar and meal, or flour, and as a decoy some strong-smelling cheese should be added. In closed places there should be left vessels containing water easily accessible to the creatures. One advantage over these substances possessed by the squill is that it is greed- ily eaten by rats and mice. When it is used, however, the same precaution as to water, noted above, is necessary, a, circumstance too frequently forgotten. In preparing the souill for this purpose, by the addition of oacon, or fat meat of any kind, the use of a decoy like cheese is unnecessary, as the fats are suffi- ciently appetizing to the rodents. It is to be noted that only fresh squills should be used for this purpose, as in keeping the bulb the poisonous principle is de- stroyed, or, at least, is so modified as to seriously injure its value. Squill Poisons. — The preparation of the squill as a rat poison can be effected in several different ways. Usually, af- ter the removal of the outer peel, the bulb is cut up into little slices and mixed with milk and flour; these are stirred into a dou^h or pa.ste. which, with bits of bacon rind, is put into the oven and baked. Another plan is to grate the squill on a grater and mingle the gratings with mashed, boiled, or roasted potato. This method of preparing them necessi- tates the immediate use of the poison. The following is, however, a stable prep- aration that keeps well: I. — Hog's lard 500 grams Acid salicylic. . . 5 grams Squill 1 bulb Beef suet 50 to 100 grams Barium carbon- ate 500 grams Solution of am- monium cop- per acetate, 20 percent 50 grams Cut or grate the squill into very small pieces, and fry it in the lard and suet un- til it has acquured a dark-brown color and 614 RAT POISONS the fats have taken up the characteristic squill odor; then to the mess add the other substances, and stir well together. II. — Squill, bruised 4 ounces Bacon, chopped fine 6 ounces Flour or meal, enough. Water, enough. Make into a stiff mass, divide into small cakes, and bake. Phosphorus Poisons. — Next to the squill in value as a poison comes phos- phorus in the shape of an electuary, or in pills. For readily preparing the electuary, when needed or ordered, it is a good plan to keep on hand a phos- phorated syrup made as follows: To 200 parts of simple syrup, in a strong flask, add 50 parts of phosphorus and 10 parts of talc powder; place the container in a suitable vessel and sur- round it with water heated to 120° to 130° F., and let it stand until the phos- phorus is melted. Now, cork the flask well, tie down the cork, and agitate until the mixture is completely cold. As a measure of precaution, the flask should be wrapped with a cloth. To make the poison take 50 parts of rye flour and mix with it 10 parts of pow- dered sugar. To the mixture add about 40 parts of water and from 30 to 40 parts of the phosphorated syrup, and mix the mass thoroughly. While it is best to make the phosphor- ated syrup . fresh every time that it is required, a stable syrup can be made as follows: Heat together very carefully in a water bath 5 parts of phosphorus, 3 parts of sublimed sulphur, ana 30 parts of water, until the phosphorus is completely melted and taken up; then add 30 parts of wheat flour and 6 parts of ground mustard seed, and work up, with the ad- dition of warm water from time to time, if necessary, into a stiff paste, finally adding and working in from 1 to 2 parts of oil of anise. Borax in powder, it may be noticed, is also useful as a preservative of phos- phorated paste or the electuary. Miihsam gives the following formula for an electuary of phosphorus for this purpose: I. — Phosphorus, granu- lated 1 part Rye flour 30 parts Simple syrup 10 parts Mustard seed, pow- dered 1 part Sublimed sulphur. . . 1 part Water 10 parts Proceed as indicated above. Hager's formula for "Phosphorus globules" is as follows: II. — -Phosphorus, amor- phous 10 parts Glycerine 20 parts Linseed, powdered 100 parts Meat extract 15 parts Quark, recently coagulated, quan- tity sufficient. Mix, and make a mass, and divide into 200 globules, weighing about 15 grains each. Roll in wheat flour, in which a little powdered sugar has been mixed. Phosphorus electuary, made as indi- cated above, may be smeared upon bits of fried bacon, which should be tacked firmly to a bit of board or to the floor. It is essential that either flour or sugar, or both, be strewn over the surface of the phosphorus. The most convenient in practice, on the whole, are the phosphorus globules, either made after Hager's formula, or, more readily, by adding rye flour and sugar to the electuary and working up to a pill mass, or barium carbonate and plaster may be added. Arsenical Poisons. — The following are some of the formulas given by Hager for preparing globules, or pills, of arsenic: I. — Arsenic, white, pow- dered 100 parts Soot from the kitch- en 5 parts Oil of anise 1 part Lard, sufficient. Wheat flour, sufficient. Make into 400 globules. II. — Beef suet 500 parts Rye flour 500 parts Arsenic, white, pow- dered 50 parts Ultramarine 10 parts Oil of anise 1 part Melt the suet, and add to the flour, mix in the other ingredients, and work up while hot, beating the mass with a roller. Make 1,000 globules. Strychnine Poisons. — The strychnine preparations are also valuable in the destruction of rats and mice. The first of these in point of usefulness is strych- nine-wheat, or strychnine-oats (Strych- ninweizen or Strychninhafer), in the pro- portion of 1 part of strychnine to 100 or 150 parts of wheat or oat flour, prepared by dissolving 1 part of strychnine in 40 to 50 parts of hot water, mixing well up with the flour, and drying in tne water RAZOR PASTES— REFRIGERANTS 615 bath. Strychnine may also be used on fresh or salted meat, sausage, etc., by insertion of the powder, or the heads of fried fish are opened and the powder strewn on the inside. The latter is an especially deadly method, since the odor of the fish acts as a powerful lure, as also do the bits of bacon or other fats used in fryinc fish. Strong cheese is also a good vehicle for strychnine, acting as a power- ful lure for the rodents. Strychnine sulph 1 drachm Sugar milk 3 drachms Prussian blue 5 grains Sugar J ounce Oat flour J ounce Nux Vomica Poison. — Oatmeal 1 pound Powdered nux vomica 1 ounce Oil of anise 6 drops Tincture of asafetida. 5 drops Barium Poison. — Barium carbonate.. . . 4 ounces Sugar 6 ounces Oatmeal 6 ounces Oil of anise 4 drops Oil of caraway 4 drops RAZOR PAPER: See Paper. RAZOR PASTES: See also Pastes. The razor pastes, razor creams, etc., on the market, have for their cutting, or shArpening, agent jewelers' rouge, or rouge and emery. When emery is used it snould be ground to an impalpable powder and levigated. I. — The simplest formula is a mixture in equal parts of rouge and emery pow- der, rubbed up with spermaceti ointment. Coke is also used as a cutting agent. Suet, prepared lard, in fact, any greasy or soapy substance, will answer for the vehicle. II.— Melt 1,000 parts of beef tallow and pour 250 parts of oil to it. To this mixture, which is uniformly combined by thorough stirring, add in the same manner 150 parts of washed emery, 100 parts of tin ashes, and 50 parts' of iron oxide. The stirring of these ingredients must be continued until the mass is cool, as otherwise they would be unevenly distributed. The leather of the strop should be rubbed with this grease, ap- plying only small quantities at a time. This renders it possible to produce a very uniform coating, since little quanti- ties penetrate the fibers of the leather more easily. III.— Tin putty (tin ashes) 2 parts Colcothar 2 parts Forged iron scales or filings 1 part Pure levantine hon- ing stone finely powdered 7 parts Beef suet 3 parts All the ingredients with the exception of the suet should be finely powdered. The suet is melted, the ingredients poured in, and the whole thoroughly mixed to form a doughy mass. IV. — Colcothar H parts Pumice stone 1 1 parts Graphite i\ parts Bloodstone (red hematite) i parts Iron filings 1 part These ingredients are finely powdered, washed, and mixed with the following: Grafting wax 2 parts Soap 2 parts Lard '2 parts Olive oil 2 parts Naturally the fatty ingredients are to be heated before the solid substances are commingled with them. The side of the blade to be polished should be treated witli the following compositions: a. Tin ashes (tin putty) rubbed down to a fine powder on a honing stone and mixed with axle grease. b. Washed graphite mingled with olive oil. REDUCERS: See Photography. REDUCING PHOTOGRAPHS, FOR: See Photography. SCALE REFLECTOR METAL: See Alloys. REFRIGERANTS. I. — Potassium nitrate. . . Ammonium chloride Water 2 2 5 pounds pounds pints II. — Potassium nitrate. . . Ammonium chloride Sodium sulphate. . . . Water 2* 2i 4 9 pounds pounds pounds pints III. — Ammonia nitrate . . . Water 4 4 pounds pints IV.- -Sodium sulphate. . . . Dilute hydrochloric acid 5 8 parts parts 616 REFRIGERATION— RHUBARB V. — Snow 1 part Water 1 part Sulphuric acid 4 parts VI. — Snow 3 parts Calcium chloride ... 4 parts Refrigeration If water to be frozen is placed in a tin bucket or other receptacle it can be readily congealed by putting it in a pail containing a weak dilution of sulphuric acid and water. Into this throw a handful of common Glauber salts, and the resulting cold is so great that water immersed in the mixture will be frozen solid in a few minutes, and ice cream or ices may be quickly and easily prepared. The cost is only a few cents. The same process in an ice-cream freezer will do the trick for ice cream. Home-Made Refrigerators. — I. — ^Partly fill with water a shallow granite-ware pan. Place it in an open, shady window where there is a good draught of air. In this put bottles of water, milk, and cream (sealed), wrapped with wet cloths reach- ing into the water. Put butter in an earthen dish deep enough to prevent water getting in. Over this turn an earthen flower-pot wrapped with a wet cloth reaching into the water. The pan should be fixed every morning and evening. With several of these pans one can keep house very comfortably without ice. II. — Procure a wire meat-safe — that is, a box covered by wire netting on three sides, with a fly-proof door. On top place a deep pan filled with water. Take a piece of burlap the height of the pan and safe, and of sufiBcient length to reach around the entire safe. Tack it fast where the door opens and closes. Tuck the upper edge in the water. Place it where there is a draught and where the dripping will do no damage. This con- stitutes a well-ventilated refrigerator that costs nothing but water to maintain. III. — Take a store box, any convenient size, and place in this a smaller box, having the bottom and space around the sides packed with sawdust. Have a galvanized iron pan made, the size of the inside box and half as deep, to hold the ice. Have the pan made v/ith a spout 6 inches long to drain off the water as the ice melts. Bore a hole the size of the spout through the double bottom and sawdust packing to admit the spout. Short legs may be nailed on the siaes of the box and a vessel set underneath to catch the drippings. Put on a tight board cover. A shelf may be placed in the box above the ice. This box will keep ice for three days. IV. — Select a large cracker box with a hinged cover. Knock out the bottom and cut windows in each side, leaving a 3-inch frame, over which tack wire gauze. In the coolest part of the cellar dig away the earth to a level depth of 3 inches and fit the box into the space. Mix plaster of Paris to a consistency of thick cream and pour into the box for a J-inch thick bottom. Twenty-four hours will harden it sufficiently. Put a hook and catch on the lid. A box of this sort can be cleaned easily, and insects cannot penetrate it. To Drain a Refrigerator. — I. — Have a stout tin funnel made, 7 inches in diam- eter at the top. The tube portion should be at least 8 inches long and of uniform diameter. Bore a hole through the floor directly under the drain-pipe of the refrigerator; insert the funnel, then force a piece of rubber tubing (a tight fit) over the funnel from the cellar side. Pass the tubing through a hole cut in the screen frame of a cellar window, and drain into any convenient place. This avoids the necessity of continually emp- tying the drain-pan, and prevents the overflow that frequently occurs when it is forgotten. II. — This simple device saves the in- convenience of having a drip-pan under the refrigerator: If the refrigerator is placed near the outer wall get a piece of rubber hose long enough to reach from the waste pipe to the outside of the wall. Bore a hole through the wall under the refrigerator, where baseboard and floor meet. Attach the hose to the waste-pipe and pass through the hole in the wall. A small trough outside should carry the water away from the house. REFRIGERATORS, THEIR CARE: See Household Formulas. REPLATING: See Plating. RESILVERING OF MIRRORS: See Mirrors. RETOUCHING PASTE FOR PAINT- INGS: See Paintings. REVOLVER LUBRICANTS: See Lubricants. RHUBARB AS A REMEDY FOR CHOLERA: See Cholera Remedies. ROLLER COMPOSITIONS— ROPES 617 RHUBARB ROOTS, THEIR PRESER- VATION: See Roots. RIBBONS FOR TYPEWRITERS: See Typewriter Ribbons. RICE PASTE: See Adhesives. RICE POWDER: See Cosmetics. RIFLE LUBRICANTS: See Lubricants. RING, HOW TO SOLDER A JEWELED : See Solders. RINGS ON METAL, PRODUCING COL- ORED: See Plating. ROACH EXTERMINATORS: See Insecticides. ROBURITE: See Explosives. RODINAL DEVELOPER: See Photography. ROLLER COMPOSITIONS FOR PRINT- ERS. Rollers for transferring ink to types have to possess special properties, which have reference Doth to the nature of the ink and that of the types to which it is to be transferred. They must be as little liable as possible to changes of tem- perature. They must be sticky, but only just sticky enough, and must have elasticity enough to exert u, uniform pressure over the varying surface with which they meet in the form. Origi- nally, the composition was one of glue and molasses in varying proportions, and the only practical improvement that has been made is the addition of glycerine. This being slightly hygroscopic, helps to keep the roller at tne right degree of softness, and being practically unfreez- able, it is a great assistance in keeping the rollers from hardening in cold weather. The recipes given in technical works for printing roller compositions are numerous and very different. All con- tain glue and molasses, and it is the prac- tice to put a larger proportion of glue in rollers to be used in the summer than in those intended for winter use. The fol- lowing is a selection of recipes: I. — Soak 8 pounds of glue in as much water as it will absorb. When there is no visible water, treat the glue till melted^ and add 7 pounds of hot molasses. II. — Glue (summer).. . . 8 pounds Glue (winter) 4 pounds Molasses 1 gallon III. — Molasses 12 pounds Glue 4 pounds IV. — Molasses 24 pounds Glue 16 pounds Paris white 2 pounds V. — Glue or gelatin. ... 64 pounds Water 48 pounds Linseed oil 96 pounds Molasses or sugar. 64 to 96 pounds Chloride of calcium 3 pounds Powdered rosin ... 8 pounds Soak the glue in the water and then liquefy by heat. Then stir in the oil, first heated to 150° F. Then add the molasses and the chloride of calcium, and finally the fused rosin. The latter ingredient is only to be added when very tough rollers are required. This ncipe is interesting from tne inclusion in it of the hygroscopic salt, chloride of calcium, the object of which is obviously to keep the rollers moist. ROOFS, HOW TO LAY GALVANIZED. See Household Formulas. ROOFS, PREVENTION OF LEAKAGE: See Household Formulas. ROOF PAINTS: See Paint. ROOM DEODORIZER: See Household Formulas. ROPES. To protect ropes, cordage, and cloths made of flax and hemp against rot, it lias been recommended to li-avc them for 4 days in a solution of copper sulphate, 20 parts by weight to a liter, then allow them to dry, and then, to prevent the copper sulphate being washed away by the water, place in tar or a solution of soap — 1 to 10. In the latter case an insoluble copper soap is formed. To secure the same result with twine, the following process has been recom- mended: Place the string for an hour in a solution of glue, then allow to dry, and place in a solution of tannin. After removal from the tannin, again dry, and soak in oil. The process first described has been shown by experience to be very effective; but to prevent the washing away of the copper sulphate, it is ad- visable to use the solution of soap in preference to the tar, as articles steeped m the latter substance are apt to become stiff, and consequently brittle. The 618 ROT— RUBBER treatment with glue and tannin in the second process has the drawback that it tends to make the string too stiff and inflexible, and thus impair its usefulness. ROPE LUBRICANTS: See Lubricant. ROPES, WATERPROOFING: See Waterproofing. ROSE CORDIAL: See Wines and Liquors. ROSEWOOD: See Wood. ROSE POWDERS: See Cosmetics. ROSIN, TESTS FOR, IN EXTRACTS: See Foods. ROSIN OIL: See Oil. ROSIN STICKS: See Depilatories. ROT: Remedies for Dry Rot. — A good remedy for dry rot is petroleum. The sick parts of the wood are painted with it, which causes the fungi to die, turn black, and finally drop off. The best preventive of dry rot is plenty of draught. If the por- tions are already affected so badly that they must be removed and renewed, the freshly inserted wood is coated with "car- bolineum" to prevent a fresh appearance of dry rot. Another remedy is ordinary salt, which is known to have a highly hygroscopic action. It absorbs the moist- ure of the wood, whereby it is itself dis- solved, thus gradually impregnating the planks, etc. In order to combat dry rot with salt, proceed as follows: Throw salt into boiling water until a perfectly satu- rated solution is obtained. With this repeatedly wash the wood and masonry afflicted with dry rot. Wherever practi- cable the salt may be sprinkled direct upon the affected place. ROUGE: See Cosmetics. ROUGE FOR BUFF WHEELS. The rouge employed by machinists, watchmakers, and jewelers, is obtained by directly subjecting crystals of sul- phate of iron or copperas to a high heat by which the sulphuric acid is expelled and the oxide of iron remains. Those portions least calcined, when ground, are used for polishing gold and silver. These are of bright crimson color. The darker and more calcined portions are known as "crocus," and are used for polishing brass .and steel. Others pre- fer for the production of rouge the per- oxide of iron precipitated by ammonia from a dilute solution of sulphate of iron, which is washed, compressed until dry, then exposed to a low red heat and ground to powder. Of course, there are other substances besides rouge which are employed in polishing, as powdered emery, kieselguhr, carborundum, rotten stone, etc. ROUGE POWDER: See Polishes. ROUGH STUFF: See Wood. ROUP CURES: See Veterinary Formulas. Rubber ARTIFICLAL RUBBER. Austin G. Day tried hundreds of ex- periments and took out many patents for rubber substitutes. He was in a measure successful, his "Kerite" com- pound proving of great value and being a result of his seeking for something that would wholly supplant rubber. As far back as 1866 he made public the results of some of his work, giving as formulas for rubber substitutes the following compounds: I. — Linseed oil 2 pounds Cottonseed oil 1 pound Petroleum 2 pounds Raw turpentine .... 2 pounds Sulphur 2 pounds Boil 2 hours. II. — Linseed oil 2 pounds Cottonseed oil 1 pound Petroleum 1 pound Raw turpentine 2 pounds Castor oil 1 pound Sulphur 2 pounds Boil J hour. III. — Linseed oil 2 pounds Cottonseed oil 1 pound Petroleum 1 pound Raw turpentine .... J pound Liquid coal tar 3 pounds Peanut oil 1 pound Spirits turpentine. . . 1 pound Sulphur 4 pounds Boil 35 minutes. IV. — Linseed oil 2 pounds Cottonseed oil 1 pound Petroleum 2 pounds Raw turpentine ... J pound Liquid coal tar 2 pounds RUBBER 619 Spirits turpentine. . . 1 pound Hubber pound Siilpbur... .2 pounds Boil 1 hour. In 1871 Mr. Day had broupht his experimenting down to the following formula: V. — Cottonseed oil 14 pounds Lin.seed oil 14 pounds Asphaltum 8 pounds Coal tar 8 pounds Sulphur 10 pounds Camphor J pound In this the tar and asphaltum were first mixed with the cottonseed oil, after which was added the linseed oil and camphor, and, last of all, the sulphur, when the temperature was about 270° F. A substitute designed to be used in rubber compounding in place, say, of re- claimed rubber, was made as follows: VI. — Cottonseed oil 27 pounds Coal tar 30 pounds Earthy matter 5 pounds To be mixed and heated to 300° P., and then strained and cooled to 200° F. Then were added 27 pounds linseed oil, the heat raised to 220° F., and 15 to 18 pounds of sulphur added, the heat being continually raised until the mass was sul- phurized. When the heat reached 240° F., 1 to IJ ounces of nitric acid were added, and at 270° to 280° F., from 1 to 3 ounces camphor were added to help the sulphurization. The resultant com- pound was used on the following basis: VII. — Para rubber 20 pounds Litharge 5 pounds Sulphur 1 pound Above com- pound 20 to 40 pounds Mr. Day did not insist on the com- pound quoted, but advised that the pro- portions be varied as widely as the exi- seneies of the case might demand. Whiting, barytes, infusorial earth, white lead, blacks, in fact almost any of the oxides, carbonates, or earthy materials commonly used in compounding, were used in connection with his substitute, as also were any grades of crude rubber. Among other ingredients that he found of use in making his substitutes were vegetable and animal waxes, together with ozokerite and paraffine. These were only used in small quantities, and always in connection with the linseed and cottonseed oils, and generally as- phaltum or coal tar. One of his compounds also called for a quantity of golden sulphuret of antimony, presum- ably to assist in the sulphurization. and a small amount of tannic acid. Another line of experimenting that is interesting, and that will yet produce good resiilts, although so far it has not amounted to much, is in the use of cellu- lose. A very simple formula is of French origin and calls for the treating of cellulose with sulphuric acid, washing, drying, granulatinf,', treating with resi- nate of soda — whieli is afterwards pre- cipitated by sulphate of alumina — then drying and molding under pressure. As a matter of fact, the resultant mass would not be mistaken for rubber. .\n Eng- lish formula is more like it. This con- sists of VIII. — Cellulose 15 pounds Pitch 25 pounds Asphalt 20 pounds Silica 20 pounds IMastic 5 pounds Bitumen 5 pounds Rosin 10 pounds Coal tar 12 jjounds This makes a thick gummy varnish which is of little use except as for its waterproof qualities. Allen's formula for a cellulose substitute might have a value if it were carried furtner. It is made up of 100 pounds of rosinous wood pulp treated with animal gelatin, 100 pounds asphalt, and 10 pounds asphalt oil, all heated and molded. The Greening i)rocess, which is Eng- lish, is more elaborate than Allen's, but seems a bit laborious and c or 6 parts of "ivory" soap, shaved up, and melted with 2 or 3 parts of water, is better than common soft soap), pipe clay, and ultramarine. Finally strain through a hair-cloth sieve. This preparation, it is said, leaves abso- lutely nothing to be desired. A good deal of stilfness may be imparted to the leather by it. The addition of a little glycerine would remedy this. The old application should be wiped away before a new one is put on. This preparation is suitable for military shoes, gloves, belts, and uniforms requiring a white dressing. SHOE LUBRICANT: See Lubricants. SHOES, WATERPROOFING: See Waterproofing. SHIO LIAO: See Adhesives, under Cements. SHIP COMPOSITIONS AND PAINTS: See Paints. SHOW BOTTLES FOR DRUGGISTS: See Bottles. SHOW CASES. Dents in show cases and counters, and, indeed, almost all forms of "bruises" on shop and other furniture, may be re- moved by the exercise of a little patience, and proceeding as follows: Sponge the place with water as warm as can be borne by the hand. Take a piece of filtering or other bibulous paper large enough to fold 6 or 8 times and yet cover the bruise, wet in warm water and place over the spot. Take a warm (not hot) smoothing iron and hold it on the paper until the moisture is evaporated (re- newing its heat, if necessary). If the bruise does not yield to the first trial, re- peat the process. .\ dent as large as a 636 SICCATIVES dollar and } inch deep in the center, in black walnut of toleraoly close texture, was brought up smooth and level with the surrounding surface by two applica- tions of the paper and iron as described. If the bruise be small, a sponge dipped in warm water placed upon it, renewing the warmth from time to time, will be all-sufficient. When the dent is removed and the wood dry, the polish can be re- stored by any of the usual processes. If the wood was originally finished in oil, rub with a little boiled linseed cut with acetic acid (oil, 8 parts; acid, 1 part). If it was "French polished," apply an al- coholic solution of shellac, and let dry; repeat if necessary, and when completely dry proceed as follows: Rub the part covered with shellac, first with crocus cloth and a few drops of olive oil, until the ridges, where the new and old polish come together, disappear; wipe with a slightly greased but otherwise clean rag and finish with putz pomade. SHOW-CASE SIGNS: See Lettering. SHOW-CASES, TO PREVENT DIM- MING OF: See Glass. Siccatives The oldest drier is probably litharge, a reddish - yellow powder, consisting of lead and oxygen. Formerly it was ground finely in oil, either pure or with admixture of white vitriol and added to the dark oil paints. Litharge and sugar of lead are used to-day only rarely as drying agents, having been displaced by the liquid manganese siccatives, which are easy to handle. E. Ebelin, however, is of the opinion that the neglect of the lead compounds has not been beneficial to decorative painting. Where these mediums were used in suitable quantities hard-drying coatings were almost always obtained. Ebelin believes that formerly there used to be less lamentation on account of tacky fioors, pews, etc., than at the present time. Doubtless a proposition to grind litharge into the oil again will not be favorably received, although some old master painters have by no means dis- carded tnis method. Sugar of lead (lead acetate) is likewise used as a drier for oil paint. While we may presume in general that a siccative acts by imparting its oxygen to the Un- seed oil or else prepares the linseed oil in such a manner as to render it capable of readily absorbing the oxygen of the air. it is especially sugar of lead which strengthens us in this belief. If, ac- cording to Leuchs, a, piece of charcoal is saturated with lead acetate, the charcoal can be ignited even with a burning sponge, and burns entirely to ashes. (Whoever desires to make the experi- ment should take 2 to 3 parts, by weight, of sugar of lead per 100 parts of char- coal.) This demonstrates that the sugar of lead readily parts with its oxygen, which though not burning itself, sup- ports the combustion. Hence, it may be assumed that it will also as a siccative freely give off its oxygen. Tormin reports on a siccative, of which he says that it has been found valuable for floor coatings. Its produc- tion is as follows: Pour 1 part of white lead and IJ parts each of litharge, sugar of lead and red lead to 12J parts of fin- seed oil, and allow this mixture to boil for 8 to 10 hours. Then remove the kettle from the fire and add to the mix- ture 20 parts of oil of turpentine. During the boiling, as well as during and after the pouring in of the oil turpentine, diligent stirring is necessary, partly to prevent anything from sticking to the kettle (which would render the drier im- pure) and partly to cause the liquid mass to cool off sooner. After that, it is allowed to stand for a few days, whereby the whole will clarify. The upper layer is then poured off and added to the light tints, while the sediment may be used for the darker shades. If white vitriol (zinc sulphate or zinc vitriol) has been introduced among the drying agents, this is done in the en- deavor to create a non-coloring admix- ture for the white pigments and also not to be compelled to add lead compounds, which, as experience has shown, cause a yellowing of white coatings to zinc white. For ordinary purposes. Dr. KoUer recommends to add to the linseed oil 2 per cent (by weight) of litharge and i per cent of zinc vitriol, whereupon the mixture is freely boiled. If the white vitriol is to be added in powder foim, it must be deprived of its constitutional water. This is _ done in the simplest manner by calcining. The powder, wnich feels moist, is subjected to the action of fire on a sheet-iron plate, whereby the white vitriol is transformed into a vesicu- lar, crumbly mass. At one time it was ground in oil for pure zinc white coat- ings only, while for the other pigments litharge is added besides, as stated above. As regards the manganese prepara- tions which are employed for siccatives, it must be stated that tney do not possess SICCATIVES 637 certain disadvantages of the lead prepar- ations as, for instance, that of being actoJ upon by hydrogen sulphide gas. The ordinary brown manganese driers, however, are very liable to render the paint yellowish, which, of course, is not desirable for pure white coatings. In case of too large an addition of the said siccative, a strong subsequent yellowing is perceptible, even if, for instance, zinc white has been considerably " broken " by blue or black. But there are also manganese siccatives or drying prepara- tions offered for sale which are colorless or white, and therefore may unhesitatingly be used in comparatively large quanti- ties for white coatings. A pulverulent drying material of this kind consists, for example, of equal parts of calcined (i. e., anhydrous) manganese vitriol, man- ganous acetate, and calcined zinc vitriol. Of this mixture 3 per cent is added to the zinc white. Of the other manganese compounds, especially that containing most oxygen, viz., manganic peroxide, is extensively employed. This body is treated as follows: It is first coarsely powdered, feebly calcined, and sifted. Next, the substance is put into wire gauze and suspended in Unseed oil, which should be boiled slightly. The weight of the linseed oil should be 10 times that of the manganese peroxide. According to another recipe a pure pulverous preparation may be produced by treating the manganic peroxide with hydrochloric acid, next filtering, precipi- tating with hot borax solution, allowing to deposit, washing out and finally dry- ing. Further recipes will probably be unnecessary, since the painter will hardly prepare his own driers. Unless for special cases driers should be used but sparingly. As a rule 3 to 5 per cent of siccative suffices; in other words, 8 to 5 pounds of siccative should be added to 100 pounds of ground oil paint ready for use. As a standard it may be proposed to endeavor to have the coating dry in '■24 hours. For lead colors a slight addition of drier is ad- visable; for red lead, it may be omitted altogether. Where non-tacky coatings are desired, as for floors, chairs, etc., as well as a priming for wood imitations, lead color should always be employed as foundation, and as a drier also a lead f)reparation. On the other hand, no ead compounds should be used for pure zinc- white coats and white lacquering. le Testing Siccatives. — Since it was dis- covered that the lead and manganese compounds of rosin acids had a better and more rapid action on linseed oil than the older form of driers, such as red lead, litharge, manganese dioxide, etc., the number of preparations of the former class has increased enormously. Man- ufacturers are continually at work en- deavoring to improve the quality of these compounds, and to obtain a prep- aration which will be peculiarly their own. Conseouently, witn such a large variety of substances to deal with, it becomes a matter of some difficulty to distinguish the good from the bad. In addition to the general appearance, color, hardness, and a few other such physical properties, there is no means of ascer- taining the quality of these .substances except practical testing of their drying properties, that is, one must mix the driers with oil and prove their value for oneself. Even the discovery of an ap- parently satisfactory variety does not end the matter, for experience has shown that such preparations, even when they appear the same, do not give similar results. A great deal depends upon their preparation; for example, manga- nese resinate obtained from successive consignments, and containing the same percentage of manganese, does not al- ways give identical results with oil. In fact, variation is the greatest drawback to these compounds. With one prepar- ation the oil darkens, with another it remains pale, or sometimes decomposi- tion of the oil takes place in part. The addition of a small proportion of drier has been known to cause the separation of 50 per cent of the oil as a dark viicous mass. One drier will act well, ard the oil will remain thin, while with another, the same oil will in the course of i few months thicken to the consistercy of stand oil. These various actions may all be obtained from the same compound of rosin with a metal, the source only of the drier varying. The liquid siccatives derived from these compounds by solution in turpen- tine or benzine also give widely divergent, results. Sometimes a slight foot will separate, or as much as 50 per cent may go to the bottom of the pan, and at times the whole contents of the pan will settle to a thick, jelly-like mass. By increas- ing the temperature, this mass will be- come thin and clear once more, and dis- tillation will drive over pure unaltered turpentine or benzine, leaving behind the metallic compound of rosin in its original state. The compounds of metals with fatty acids which, in solution in turpentine, have been used for many years by var- 638 SICCATIVES nish-makers, show even greater variation. At the same time, a greater drying power ' is obtained from them than from rosin acids, quantities being equal. As these compounds leave the factory, they are often in solution in linseed oil or turpen- tine, and undoubtedly many of the prod- ucts of this nature on the market are of very inferior quality. The examination of these bodies may be set about in two wajrs: A. — By dissolving in linseed oil with or without heat. B. — By first dissolving the drier in turpentine and mixing the cooled solu- tion (liquid siccatives) with linseed oil. Before proceeding to describe the method of carrying out the foregoing tests, it is necessary to emphasize the important part which the linseed oil plays in the examination of the driers. As part of the information to be gained by these tests depends upon the amount of solid matter which separates out, it is essential that the linseed oil should be uniform. To attain this end, the oil used must always be freed from muci- lage before being used for the test. If this cannot readily be obtained, ordinary linseed oil should be heated to a temper- ature of from 518° to 57i° F., so that it breaks, and should then be cooled and filtered. With the ordinary market linseed oil, the amount of solid matter which separates varies within wide limits, so that if this were not removed, no idea of the separation of foot caused by the driers would be obtained. It is not to be understood from this that unbroken linseed oil is never to be used for ordinary paint or varnish, the warn- ing being only given for the sake of ar- riving at reliable values for the quality of the driers to be tested. A. — Solution of Drier in Linseed Oil. — The precipitated metallic compounds of rosin (lead resinate, manganese res- inate and lead manganese resinate) dis- solve readily in linseed oil of ordinary .temperature (60° to 70° F.). The oil is mixed with IJ per cent of the drier and subjected to stirring or shaking for 24 hours, the agitation being applied at intervals of an hour. Fused metalhc res- inates are not soluble in linseed oil at or- dinary temperatures, so different treat- ment is required for them. The oil is heated in an enameled pan together with the finely powdered drier, until the latter is completely in solution, care being taken not to allow the temperature to rise above 390° F. The pan is then re- moved from the fire and its contents allowed to settle. The quantity of drier used should not exceed IJ to 3 per cent. In the case of metallic linoleates (lead linoleate, manganese linoleate and lead- manganese linoleate), the temperature must be raised above 290° F. before they will go into solution. In their case also the addition should not be greater than 3 per cent. Note, after all the tests have settled, the amount of undissolved matter which is left at the bottom, as this is one of the data upon which an idea of the value of the drier must be formed. B. — Solution of Drier in Turpentine or Benzine. — For the preparation of these liquid siccatives 1 to 1.4 parts of the metallic resinate or linoleate are added to the benzine or turpentine and dis- solved at a gentle heat, or the drier may first be melted over a fire and added to the solvent while in the liquid state. The proportion of matter which does not go into solution must be carefully noted as a factor in the valuation of the drier. From 5 to 10 per cent of the liquid sicca- tive is now added to the linseed oil, and the mixture shaken well, at intervals dur- ing 24 hours. Samples of all the oils prepared as above should be placed in small clear bottles, which are very narrow inside, so that a thin layer of the oil may be ob- served. The bottles are allowed to stand for 3 or 4 days in a temperate room, without being touched. When sufficient time has been allowed for thorough set- tling, the color, transparency, and con- sistency of the samples are carefully ob- served, and also the quantity and nature of any precipitate which may have settled out. A note should also be made of the date for future reference. Natu- rally the drier which has colored the oil least and left it most clean and thin, and which shows the smallest precipitate, is the most suitable for general use. The next important test is that of drying power, and is carried out as follows: A few drops of the sample are placed on a clear, clean glass plate, 4x6 inches, and rubbed evenly over with the fingers. The plate is then placed, clean side up, in a sloping position with the ' upper edge resting against a wall. In this way any excess of oil is run off and a very thin equal layer is obtained. It is best to start the test early in the morning as it can then be watched throughout the day. It should be remarked that the time from the "tacky" stage to complete dry- ness is usually very short, so that the ob- server must be constantly on the watch. If a good drier has been used, the time may be from 4 to 5 hours, and should not be more than 12 or at the very highest SIGN CLEANING— SILVER 639 15. The bleaching of the layer should also l)e noted. Many of the layers, even after they have become as dry as they .seem capable of becoming, show a slight .stickiness. These tests should be set aside in a du.st-free place for about 8 days, and then tested with the finger. SIGN CLEAHmG: See Cleaning Preparations and Meth- ods, under Miscellaneous Methods. SIGN LETTERS: To Remove Black Letters from White Enameled Signs. — It frequently hap- pens that a change has to be made on such signs, one name having to be taken off and another substituted. Priming with white lead followed by dull and glossy zinc white paint always looks like a daub and stands out like a pad. Lye, glass paper or steel chips will not attack the burned-in metallic enamel. The quickest plan is to grind down carefully with a good grindstone. SIGN -LETTER CEMENTS: See Adhesives, under Cements. SIGNS, TO REPAIR ENAMELED: See Enamels. SILK: Artificial "Rubbered" Silk,— A solu- tion of caoutchouc or similar gum in acetone is added, in any desired propor- tion, to a solution of nitro-cellulose in acetone, and the mixture is made into threads by passingit into water or other suitable liquid. The resulting threads are stated to be very brilliant in appear- ance, extremely elastic, and very resistant to the atmosphere and to water. The product is not more inflammable than natural silk. Artificial Ageing of Silk Fabrics.— To give silk goods the appearance of age, exposure to the sun is tne simplest way, but as this requires time it cannot always be employed. A quicker method con- sists in preparing a dirty-greenish liquor of weak soap water, with addition of a little blacking and gamboge^ solution. Wash the silk fabric in this liquor and dry as usual, without rinsing in clean water, and calender. Bleaching Silk. — The Lyons process of bleaching slceins of silk is to draw them rapidly through a sort of aqua regia bath. This bath is prepared by mixing 5 parts of hydrochloric acid with 1 of nitric, leaving the mixture for 4 or 5 days at a gentle heat of about 77° F., and then diluting with about 15 times its volume of water. This dilution is effected in large tanks cut from stone. The tem- perature of the bath should be from 68° to 85° F., and the skeins should not be in it over IS minutes, and frequently not so long as that; they must be tept in motion during all that time. When taken out, the silk is immediately im- mersed successively in 2 troughs of water, to remove every trace of the acid, after which they are dried. Hydrogen peroxide is used as a silk bleach, the silk being first thoroughly washed with an alkaline soap and ammo- nium carbonate to free it of its gummy matter. After repeated washings in the peroxide (preferably remlerod alkaline with ammonia and soda), the silk is "blued" with a solution of blue aniline in alcohol. Washing of Light Silk Goods.— The best soap may change delicate tints. The following method is therefore pref- erable: First wash the silk tissue in warm milk. Prepare a lifjht bran infusion, which is to be decanted, and after resting for a time, passed over the fabric. It is then rinsed in this water, almost cold. It is moved about in all directions, and afterwards dried on a napkin. SILK SENSITIZERS FOR PHOTO- GRAPHIC PURPOSES: See Photography, under Paper-Sen- sitizing Processes. Silver Antic^ue Silver (see also Plating).- the polished silver articles with -Coat a thin paste of powdered graphite, 6 parts; pow- dered bloodstone, 1 part; and oil of tur- pentine. After the drying take off the superfluous powder with a soft brush and rub the raised portions bright with a linen rag dipped in spirit. By treatment with various sulphides an old appearance is likewise imparted to silver. If, for ex- ample, a solution of 5 parts of liver of sul- phur and 10 parts of ammonium carbonate are heated in 1 quart of distilled water to 180° F., placing the sOver articles therein, the latter first turn pale gray, then dark gray, and finally assume a deep black-blue. In the case of plated ware, the silvering must not be too thin; in the case of thick silver plating or solid silver 1 quart of water is sufficient. The colors will then appear more quickly. If the coloring is spotted or otherwise imperfect dip the olbjects into a warm potassium cyanide solution, whereby the silver sulphide formed is immediately 640 SILVER dissolved. The bath must be renewed after a while. Silver containing much copper is subjected, previous to the col- oring, to a blanching process, which is accomplished in a boiling solution of 15 parts of powdered tartar and 30 parts of cooking salt in 2 pints of water. Ob- jects which are to be mat are coated with a paste of potash and water after the blanching, then dry, anneal, cool in water, and boil again. Imitation of Antique Silver.-^Plated articles may be colored to resemble old objects of art made of solid silver. For this purpose the deep-lying parts, those not exposed to friction, are provided with a blackish, earthy coatine, the promi- nent parts retaining a leaden but bright color. The process IS simple. A thin paste is made of finely powdered graphite and oil of turpentine (a little blood- stone or red ocher may be added, to imi- tate the copper tinge in articles of old silver) and spread over the whole of the previously plated article. It is then allowed to dry, and the particles not ad- hering to the surface removed with a soft brush. The black coating should then be carefully wiped off the exposed parts by means of a linen rag dipped in alco- hol. This process is very effective in making imitations of objects of antique art, such as goblets, candlesticks, vessels of every description, statues, etc. If it is desired to restore the original bright- ness to the object, this can be done by washing with caustic soda or a solution of cyanide of potassium. Benzine can also be used for this purpose. Blanching Silver. — I. — Mix pow- dered charcoal, 3 parts, and calcined borax, 1 part, and stir with water so as to make a homogeneous paste. Apply this paste on the pieces to be blanched. Put the pieces on a charcoal fire, taking care to cover them up well; when they have acquired a cherry red, withdraw them from the fire and leave to cool off. Next place them in a hot bath composed of 9 parts of water and 1 part of sul- phuric acid, without causing the bath to boil. Leave the articles in for about 1 hour. Remove them, rinse in clean water, and dry. II. — If the coat of tarnish on the sur- face of the silver is but light and super- ficial, it suiBces to rub the piece well with green soap to wash it thoroughly in hot water; then dry it in hot sawdust and pass it through alcohol, finally rub- bing with a fine cloth or brush. Should the coat resist this treatment, brush with Spanish white, then wash, dry, and pass through alcohol. The employment of Spanish white has the drawback of shining the silver if the application is strong and prolonged. If the oxidation has withstood these means and if it is desired to impart to the chain the hand- some mat appearance of new goods, it should be annealed in charcoal dust and passed through vitriol, but this operation, for those unused to it, is very dangerous to the soldering and consequently may spoil the piece. Coloring Silver. — A rich gold tint may be imparted to silver articles by plung- ing them into dilute sulphuric acid, saturated with iron rust. Frosting Polished Silver. — Articles of polished silver may be frosted by putting them into a bath of nitric acid diluted with an equal volume of distilled water and letting them remain a few minutes. A better effect may be given by dipping the article frequently into the bath until the requisite degree of frosting has been attained. Then rinse and place for a few moments in a strong bath of potas- sium cyanide; remove and rinse. The fingers must not be allowed to touch the article during either process. It should be held with wooden forceps or clamps. Fulminating Silver. — Dissolve 1 part of fine silver in 10 parts of nitric acid of 1.36 specific gravity at a moderate heat; pour the solution into 20 parts of spirit of wine (85 to 90 per cent) and heat the liquid. As soon as the mixture begins to boil, it is removed from the fire and left alone until cooled off. The fulminic silver crystallizes on cooling in very fine needles of dazzling whiteness, which are edulcorated with water and dried care- fully in the air. Hollow Silverware. — A good process for making hollow figures consists in covering models of the figures, made of a base or easily soluble metal, with a thin and uniform coating of a nobler metal, by means of the electric current in such a way that this coating takes approximate- ly the shape of the model, the latter being then removed by dissolving it with acid. The model is cast from zinc in one or more pieces, a well-chased brass mold being used for this purpose, and the separate parts are then soldered together with an easily fusible solder. The figure is then covered with a galvanized coating of silver, copper, or other metal. Before receiving the coating of silver, the figure IS first covered with a thin deposit of copper, the silver being added afterwards in the required thickness. But in order SILVER 641 that the deposit of silver may be of the same thickness throughout (this is es- sential if the figure is to keep the right sliape), silver anodes, so constructed and arranged as to correspond as closely as possible to the outlines of the figure, should be suspended in the solution of silver and cyanide of potassium on both sides of the figure, and at equal distances from it. As soon as the deposit is suflB- ciently thick, the figure is removed from the bath, washed, and put into a bath of dilute sulphuric or hydrochloric acid, where it is allowed to remain till the zinc core is dissolved. The decomposition of the zinc can be accelerated by adding a pin of copper. The figure now requires only boiling in soda and potassic tartrate to acquire a white color. If the figure is to be made of copper, the zinc model must be covered first with a thin layer of silver, then with the copper coating, and then once more with a thin layer of silver, so that while the zinc is being dissolved, the copper may be protect- ed on either side by the silver. Similar precautions must be taken with other metals, regard being paid to their pecu- liar properties. Another method is to cast the figures, entire or in separate parts, out of some easily fusible alloy in chased metal molds. The separate por- tions are soldered with the same solder, and the figure is then provided with a coating of copper, silver, etc., by means of the galvanic current. It is then placed in boiling water or steam, and the inner alloys melted by the introduction of the water or steam through holes bored for this purpose. Lustrous Oxide on Silver (see also Plat- ing and Silver, under Polishes). — Some experience is necessary to reproduce a handsome black luster. Into a cup filled with water throw a little liver of sulphur and mix well. Scratch the silver article as bright as possible with the scratch brush and dip into the warm liquid. Remove the object after 2 minutes and rinse off in water. Then scratch it up again and return it into the liquid. The process should be repeated 2 or 3 times, wnereby a wonderful glossy black is obtained. Ornamental Designs on Silver. — Select a smooth part of the silver, and sketch on it a monogram or any other design with H sharp lead pencil. Place the article in a gold solution, with the battery in good working order, and in a short time all the parts not sketched with the lead pencil will be covered with a coat of gold. After cleaning the article the black lead is easily removed with the finger, whereupon the silver ornament is disclosed. A gold or- nament may be produced by reversing the process. Separating Silver from Platinum Waste. — Cut the waste into small pieces, make red hot to destroy grease and organic substances, and aissolve in aqua regia (hydrochloric acid, 3 parts, and nitric acid, 1 part). Platinum and all other metals combined with it are thus dis- solved, while silver settles on the bot- tom as chloride in the shape of a gray, spongy powder. The solution is then drawn off and tested by oxalic acid for gold, which is precipitated as a fine yel- lowish powder. The other metals re- main untouched thereby. The plati- num still present in the solution is now obtained by a gradual addition of sal ammoniac as a yellowish-gray powder. These different precipitates are washed with warm water, dried, and transformed into the metallic state by suitable fluxes. Platinum filings, however, have to be previously refined. The^ are also first annealed. All steel or iron filings are removed 'vvith a magnet and the rest is dipped into concentrated sulphuric acid and heated with this to the boiling point. This process is continued as long as an action of the acid is noticeable. The remaining powder is pure platinum. Hot sulphuric acid dissolves silver with- out touching the platinum. The liquid used for the separation of the platinum is now diluted with an equal quantity of water and the silver expelled from it by means of a saturated cooking salt solu- tion. The latter is added gradually until no more action, i. e., separation, is perceptible. The liquid is carefully drawn off, the residue washed in warm water, dried and melted with a little soda ashes as flux, which yields pure me- tallic silver. The old process for separating silver from waste was as follows: The refuse was mixed with an equal quantity of charcoal, placed in a crucible, and sub- jected to a bright-red heat, and in a short time a silver button formed at the bot- tom. Carbonate of soda is another good flux. Silvering Glass Globes. — Take J ounce of clean lead, and melt it with an equal weight of pure tin; then immediately add J ounce of bismuth, and carefully skim off the dross; remove the alloy from the fire and before it grows cold add 5 ounces of mercury, and stir the whole well together; then put the fluid amal- gam into a clean glass, and it is fit for use. When this amalgam is used for silvering SILVER let it be first strained through a linen rag; then gently pour some ounces thereof into the globe intended to be silvered; the alloy should be poured into the globe by means of a paper or glass funnel reaching almost to the bottom of the globe, to prevent it splashing the sides; the globe should be turned every way very slowly, to fasten the silvering. Silvering Powder for Metals. — Cop- per, brass, and some other metals may be silvered by rubbing well with the follow- ing powder: Potassium cyanide, 12 parts; silver nitrate, 6 parts; calcium carbonate, 30 parts. Mix and keep in a well-closed bottle. It must be applied with hard rubbing, the bright surface being afterwards rinsed with water, dried, and polished. Great care must be ex- ercised in the use of the powder on account of its poisonous nature. It should not be allowed to come in con- tact with the hands. Silver Testing. — For this purpose a cold saturated solution of potassium bichromate in pure nitric apid of 1.2 specific gravity is employed. After the article to be tested has been treated with spirit of wine for the removal of any varnish coating which might be present, a drop of the Jibove test liquor is applied by means of a glass rod and the resultant spot rubbed on with a little water. A testing solution of potassium bi- chromate, 1 ounce, pure nitric acid, 6 ounces, and water, 2 ounces, gives the following results on surfaces of the metals named: Metal. Color in one minute. Color of mark left. Pure silver Bright blood-red Grayish white .925 silver Dark red Dark brown .800 silver Chocolate Dark brown .500 silver Green Dark brown German silver Dark blue Light gray Scarcely any Nickel Turquoise blue Copper Very dark blue Cleaned copper Brass Dark brown Light brown Lead Nut brown Leaden Tin Reddish brown Dark Zinc Light chocolate Steel gray Aluminum Yellow No stain Platinum Vandyke brown No stain Iron Various Black 9-carat gold Unchanged No stain The second column in the table shows such change of color as the liquid — not the metal — undergoes during its action for the period of 1 minute. The test liquid being then washed off with cold water, the third column shows the nature of the stain that is left. In the case of faintly silvered goods, such as buttons, this test fails, since the slight quantity of resulting silver chro- mate does not become visible or dis- solves in the nitric acid present. But even such a thin coat of silver can be recognized with the above test liquor, if the bichromate solution is used, diluted with the equal volume of water, or if a, small drop of water is first put on the ar- ticle and afterwards a little drop of the undiluted solution is applied by means of a capillary tube. In this manner a distinct red spot was obtained in the case of very slight silvering. A simpler method is as follows: Rub the piece to be tested on the touchstone and moisten the mark with nitric acid, whereupon it disappears. Add a little hydrochloric acid with a, glass rod. If a white turbidness (silver chloride) ap- pears which does not vanish upon addi- tion of water, or, in case of faint silvering or an alloy poor in silver, a weak opal- escence, the presence of silver is certain. Even alloys containing verjf little silver give this reaction quite distinctly. Pink Color on Silver. — To produce parts of dis- tilled water. Dissolve the aniline dye and the dextrin in the distilled water, over a water bath, and add 7 parts of refined glycerine, 28° Be. Other colors may be made according to the same formula, substituting the following <|uantities of dyes for the water-blue: Methyl violet 3 B, 0.0'2 parts; diamond fiiclisine 1, 0.02 parts; aniline green D, 0.04 parts; vesuvine B, 0.05 parts; phenol black, 0.03 parts. Oleagi- nous colors are mostly used for metallic stamps, but glycerine colors can be used in case of necessity. Oleaginous Stamping Colors. — Mix 0.8 parts of indigo, ground fine with 2.5 parts of linseed-oiI varnish, and 0.5 parts of olein. Add 2 parts of castor oil and 5 parts of linseed oil. For other colors accord- ing to the same formula, use the following quantities: Cinnabar, 2J parts; verdigris, 24 parts; lampblack, 1.2 parts; oil-soluble aniline blue A. 0.35 parts; oil-soluble aniline scarlet B, 0.3 parts; aniline yellow (oil-soluble), 0.45 parts; oil-soluble aniline black L, 0.6 parts. Stamping Liquids and Powders. — Dis- solve 1 drachm each of rosin and copal 680 STAMPING— STARCH in 4 fluidounces of benzine and with a little of this liquid triturate J drachm of Prussian blue and finally mix thoroughly with the remainder. Ultramarine, to which has been added a small proportion of powdered rosin, is generally used for stamping embroidery patterns on white goods. The powder IS dusted through the perforated pattern, which is then covered with a paper and a hot iron passed over it to melt the rosin and cause the powder to adhere to the cloth. The following are said to be ex- cellent powders: I. — White. — One part each of rosin, copal, damar, mastic, sandarac, borax, and bronze powder, and 2 parts white lead. II. — Black. — Equal parts of rosin, dam- ar, copal, sandarac, Prussian blue, ivory black, and bronze powder. III. — Blue. — Equal parts of rosin, damar, copal, sandarac, Prussian blue, ultramarine, and bronze powder. In all these powders the gums are first to be thoroughly triturated and mixed by passing through a sieve, and the other ingredients carefully added. Other colors may be made by using chrome yellow, burnt or raw sienna, raw or burnt umber, Vandyke brown, etc. For stamping fab- rics liable to be injured by heat, the stamping is done by moistening a suitable powder with alcohol and using it like a stencil ink. Stamping Powder for Embroideries. — "Stamping powders" used for outlining embroidery patterns are made by mixing a little finely powdered rosin with a suit- able pigment. After dusting the powder through the perforated pattern it is fixed on the fabric by laying over it a piece of paper and then passing a hot iron care- fully over the paper. By this means the rosin is melted and the mixture adheres. When white goods are to be "stamped," ultramarine is commonly used as the pigment; for dark goods, zinc white may be substituted. Especial care should be taken to avoid lead compounds and other poisonous pigments, as they may do mischief by dusting off. On velvets or other materials likely to be injured by heat, stamping is said to be done by moistening a suitable powder with alco- hol and using it as stencil paint. A small addition of rosinous matter would seem required here also. Starch Black Starch. — Add to the starch a certain amount of logwood extract be- fore the starch mixture is boiled. The quantity varies according to the depth of the black and the amount of starch. A small quantity of potassium bichro- mate dissolved in hot water is used to bring out the proper shade of black. In place of bichromate, black iron liquor may be used. This comes ready pre- pared. Starch Gloss. — I. — Melt 2i pounds of the best paraffine wax over a slow fire. When liquefied remove from the fire to stir in 100 drops of oil of eitronella. Place several new pie tins on a level table, coat them slightly with sweet oil, and pour about 6 tablespoonfuls of the melted parafiine wax into each tin. The pan may be floated in water sufficiently to permit the mixture to be cut or stamped out with a tin cutter into small cakes about the size of a peppermint lozenge. Two of these cakes added to each pint of starch will cause the smooth- ing iron to impart the finest possible finish to muslin or linen, besides perfum- ing the clothes. II. — Gum arable, pow- dered 3 parts Spermaceti wax .... 6 parts Borax, powdered. . . 4 parts White cornstarch ... 8 parts All these are to be intimately mixed in the powder form by sifting through a, sieve several times. As the wax is in a solid form and does not readily become reduced to powder by pounding in a mor- tar, the best method of reducing it to such a condition is to put the wax into a bottle with some sulphuric or rectified ether and then allow the fiuid to evap- orate. After it has dissolved the wax, as the evaporation proceeds, the wax will be deposited again in the solid form, but in fine thin flakes, which will easily break down to a powder form when rubbed up with the other ingredients in a cold mortar. Pack in paper or in cardboard boxes. To use, 4 teaspoon- fuls per pound of dry starch are to be added to all dry starch, and then the starch made in the usual way as boiled starch. Refining of Potato Starch. — A suit- able quantity of chloride of lime, fluc- tuating according to its quality between 4 to 1 part per 100 parts of starch, is made with little water into a thick paste. To this paste add gradually with con- stant stirring 10 to 15 times the quantity of water, and filter. The filtrate is now added to the starch stirred up with water; J part of ordinary STARCH— STEEL 681 hydrochloric acid of 20° Be. previously diluted with four times the quantity of water is mixed in, for every part of chloride of lime, the whole is stirred thoroughly, and the starch allowed to stand. When the starch has settled, the supernatant water is let off and the starch is washed with fresh water until all odor of chlorine has entirely disappeared. The starch now obtained is the resulting final product. If the starch thus treated is to be worked up into dextrin, it is treated in the usual manner with hydrochloric acid or nitric acid and will then furnish a dex- trin perfectly free from taste and smell. In case the starch is to be turned into "soluble" starch proceed as usual, in a similar manner as in the production of dextrin, with the single difference that the starch treated with hydrochloric or nitric acid remains exposed to a temper- ature of 212° F., only until a test with tincture of iodine gives a bluish-violit reaction. The soliible starch thus pro- duced, which is clearly soluble in boiling water, is odorless and tasteless. Starch Powder. — Finelv powdered starch is a very desirable absorbent, ac- cording to Snively, who says that for toilet preparations it is usually scented by a little otto or sachet powder. Frangi- panin powder, used in tne proportion of 1 part to 30 of the starch, he adds, gives a satisfactory odor. STARCHES: See Laundry Preparations. STARCH m JELLY, TESTS FOR: See Foods. STARCH PASTE: See Adhesives. STATUE CLEANING: See Cleaning Preparations and Meth- ods. STATUETTES, CLEANING OF: See Plaster. STATUETTES OF LIPOWITZ METAL: See Alloys. Steel (See also Iron and Metals.) ANNEALING STEEL: See also Hardening Steel and Temper- ing Steel. This work requires the use of sub- stances which yield their carbon readily and quickly to the tools on contact at a high temperature. Experience has shown that the best results are obtained by the use of yellow blood-lye salt (yel- low prussiate of potash), which, when brought in contact with the tool at a cherry-red heat, becomes fluid, and in this condition has a strong cementing effect. The annealing process is as fol- lows: The tool is heated to a cherry red and the blood-lye salt sprinkled over the surface which is to be annealed. A fine sieve should be used, to secure an even distribution of the substance. The tool is then put back into the fire, heated to the proper temperature for tempering, and tempered. If it is desired to give a higher or more thorough tempering to iron or soft steel, the annealing process is repeated i or 3 times. The surface of the tool must, of course, be entirely free from scale. Small tools to which it is desired to impart a considerable degree of hardness by annealing with blood-lya salt are tempered as follows: Blood-lye salt is melted in an iron vessel over a moderate fire, and the tool, heated to a brown-red heat, placed in the melted salt, where it is allowed to remain for about 15 minutes. It is then heated to the hardening temperature and hardened. A similar but milder effect is produced in small, thin tools by making them re- peatedly red hot, immersing them slowly m oil or grease, reheating them, and finally tempering them in water. To in- crease the effect, soot or powdered char- coal is added to the oil or grease (train oil) till a thick paste is formed, into which the red-hot tool is plunged. By this means the tool is covered with a thick, not very combustible, coating, which produces a powerful cementation at the next heating. By mixing flour, yellow blood-lye salt, saltpeter, horn shavings, or ground hoofs, grease, and wax, a paste is formed which serves the same purpose. A choice may be made of any of the preparations sold as a "hardening paste"; they are all more or less of the same composition. This is a sample: Melt 500 grains of wax, 500 grains tal- low, 100 grains rosin, add a mixture of leather-coal, horn shavings, and ground hoofs in equal parts till a paste is formed, then add 10 grains saltpeter and 50 to 100 grains powdered yellow blood-lye salt, and stir well. The tools are put into this paste while red hot, allowed to cool in it, then reheated and tempered. More steel is injured, and sometimes spoiled, by over-annealing than in any other way. Steel heated too hot in an- nealing will shrink badly when being hardened; besides, it takes the life out of it. It should never be heated above a 682 STEEL low cherry red, and it should be a lower heat than it is when being hardened. It should be heated slowly and given a uniform heat all over and through the piece. This is difficult to do in long bars and in an ordinary furnace. The best way to heat a piece of steel, either for anneal- ing or hardening, is in red-hot, pure lead. By this method it is done uniformly, and one can see the color all the time. Some heating for annealing is done in this way: Simply cover up the piece in sawdust, and let it cool there, and good results will be obtained. Good screw threads cannot be cut in steel that is too soft. Soft annealing produces a much greater shrinkage and spoils the lead of the thread. This mixture protects the appearance of polished or matted steel objects on heating to redness: Mix 1 part of white soap, 6 parts of chemically pure boracic acid, and 4 parts of phosphate of soda, after pulverizing, and make with water into a paste. For use, apply this to the article before the annealing. COLORING STEEL: Black. — I. — Oil or wax may be em- ployed on hard steel tools; with both methods the tool loses more or less of its hardness and the blacking process there- fore is suited only for tools which are used for working wood or at least need not be very hard, at any rate not for tools which are employed for working steel or cast iron. The handsomest glossy black color is obtained by first polishing the tool neatly again after it has been hardened in water, next causing it to assume on a grate or a hot plate the necessary tempering color, yellow, vio- let blue, etc., then dipping it in molten, not too hot, yellow wax and burning off the adhering wax, after withdrawal, at a fire, without, however, further heating the tool. Finally dip the tool again into the wax and repeat the burning off at the flame until the shade is a nice lustrous black, whereupon the tool ma^ be cooled off in water. The wax is sup- posed to impart greater toughness to the tool. It is advisable for all tools to have a trough of fat ready, which has been heated to the necessary tempering de- gree, and the tools after hardening in water are suspended in the fat until they have acquired the temperature of the fat bath. When the parts are taken out and slowly allowed to cool, they will be a nice, but not lustrous, black. II. — The following has been suggested for either steel or iron: Bismuth chloride. . . 1 part Mercury bichloride . 2 parts Copper chloride. . .. 1 part Hydrochloric acid . . 6 parts Alcohol 5 parts Water sufficient to make 64 parts. Mix. As in all such processes a great deal depends upon having the article to be treated absolutely clean and free from grease. Unless this is the case uniform results are impossible. The liquid may be applied with a swab, or a brush, but if the object is small enough to dip into the liquid better results may thus be obtained than in any other way. The covering thus put on is said to be very lasting, and a sure protection against oxidation. Blue. — I. — Heat an iron bar to redness and lay it on a receptacle filled with water. On this bar place the objects to be blued, with the polished side up. As soon as the article has acquired the desired color cause it to fall quickly into the water. The pieces to be blued must always previously be polished with pum- ice stone or fine emery. II. — For screws: Take an old watch barrel and drill as many holes into the head of it as the number of screws to be blued. Fill it about one-fourth full of brass or iron filings, put in the head, and then fit a wire long enough to bend over for a handle, into the arbor holes — head of the barrel upward. Brighten the heads of the screws, set them, point downward, into the holes already drilled, and expose the bottom of the barrel to the lamp until the screws assume the color you wish. III. — To blue gun-barrels, etc., dis- solve 2 parts of crystallized chloride of iroj; 2 parts solid chloride of antimony; 1 part gallic acid in 4 or 5 parts of water; apply with a small sponge, and let dry in the air. Repeat this two or three times, then wash with water, and dry. Rub with boiled linseed oil to deepen the shade. Repeat this until satisfied with the result. IV. — The bluing of gun barrels is effected by heating evenly in a muffle until the desired blue color is raised, the barrel being first made clean and bright with emery cloth, leaving no marks of frease or dirt upon the metal when the luing takes place, and then allow to cool in the air. It requires considerable experience to obtain an even clear blue. Brown. — I. — The following recipe for browning is from the United States Ord- nance Manual: Spirits of wine, IJ STEEL 683 ounces; tincture of iron, IJ ounces; cor- rosive sublimate, IJ ounces; sweet spirits of niter, IJ ounces; blue vitriol, 1 ounce; nitric acid, J ounce. Mix and dissolve in 1 quart of warm water and keep in a glass jar. Clean the barrel well witn caustic soda water to remove grease or oil. Then clean the surface of all stains and marks with emery paper or cloth, so as to produce an even, bright surface for the acid to act upon, and one without finger marks. Stop the bore and vent with wooden plugs. Then ap- ply the mixture to every part with a sponge or rag, and expose to the air for 24 hours, when the loose rust should be rubbed off with a steel scratch brush. Use the mixture and the scratch Ijrush twice, and more if necessary, and finally wash in boiling water, dry quickly, and wipe with linseed oil or varnish with shellac. II. — Apply four coats of the following solution, allowing each several hours to dry. Brush after each coat if necessary. After the last coat is dry, rub down hard. Sulphate of copper. . . 1 ounce Sweet spirits of niter. . 1 ounce Distilled water 1 pint mello. — This is a brightly polished metal, which is provided with a black or blue-black foundation by heating, is cov- ered with a design by the use of a suitable matrix and then treated with hydro- chloric acid in such a manner that only the black ground is attacked, the metal underneath remaining untouched. Next, the acid is rinsed ofl and the reserve is removed with suitable solvents. The parts of the metal bared by the acid inay also be provided with a galvanic coating of silver or other metal. Another method is to plunge the articles for a few minutes into a solution of ox- alic acid and to clean them by passing them through alcohol. In this way the polish can even be brought back with- out the use of rouge or diamantine. Whitening or Blanching. — If dissatis- fied with the color acquired in tempering, dip the article into an acid bath, which wnitens it, after which the bluing opera- tion is repeated. This method is of great service, but it is important to remember always thoroughly to wash after the use of acid and then allow the object to re- main for a few minutes in alcohol. Sul- f)huric acid does not whiten well, often eaving dark shades on the surface. Hy- drochloric acid gives better results. Small pieces of steel are also whitened with a piece of pith moistened with dilute sul- phuric acid, else the fine steel work, surh as a watch hand, is fi,xed with lacquer on a plate and whitened by means of pith and polishing rouge, or a small stiff brush is charged with the same material. It is then detached by heating and cleaned in hot alcohol. TEMPERING STEEL. The best temperature at which to quench in the tempering of tool steel is the one just above the transformation point of the steel, and this temperature may be accurately determined in the fol- lowing manner, without the use of a pyrometer. The pieces of steel' are in- troduced successively at equal intervals of time into a muffle heatecf to a temper- ature a little above the transformation point of the steel. If, after a tertain time, the pieces be taken out in the re- ver.se order tlicy will at first show pro- gressively iiirrciising degrees of brightness, these pieces bein^ at tne transformation point. AVhen this point is passed the pieces again rapidly acquire a brightness superior to that of their neighbors, and should then be immediately quenched. I. — Heat red hot and dip in an un- guent made of mercury and the fat of bacon. This produces a remarkable degree of hardness and the steel pre- serves its tenacity and an elasticity which cannot be obtained by other means. II. — Heat to the red white and thrust quickljf into a stick of sealing wax. Leave it a second, and then change it to another place, and so continue until the metal is too cool to penetrate the wax. To pierce with drills hardened in this way, moisten them with essence of turpentine. To Temper Small Coil Springs and Tools. — To temper small coil springs in a furnace burning wood the springs are exposed to the heat of the flame and are quenched in a composition of the follow- ing preparation: To a barrel of fish oil, 10 quarts of rosin and 12 quarts of tallow are added. If the springs tempered in this mixture break, more tallow is added, but if the break indicates brittleness of the steel rather than excessive hardness, a ball of yellow beeswax about 6 inches in diameter is added. The springs are drawn to a reddish purple by oeing placed on a frame having horizontally radiating arms like a star which is mounted on the end of a vertical rod. The springs are laid on the star and are lowered into a pot of melted lead, being held there for such time as is required to draw to the desired color. It is well known that the addition of 684 STEEL certain soluble substances powerfully affects the action of tempering water. This action is strengthened if the heat- conducting power of the water is raised by means of these substances; it is re- tarded if this power is reduced, or the boiling point substantially lowered. The substance most frequently used for the purpose of increasing the heat-conduct- ing power of tempering water is common salt. This is dissolved in varying pro- portions of weight, a saturated solution being generally used as a quenching mixture. The use of this solution is always advisable when tools of com- plicated shape, for which a considerable degree of hardness is necessary, are to be tempered in large quantities or in fre- quent succession. In using these cooling fluids, care must be taken that a suffi- cient quantity is added to the water to prevent any great rise of temperature when the tempering process is pro- tracted. For this reason the largest possible vessels should be used, wide and shallow, rather than narrow and deep, vessels being selected. Carbonate of soda and sal ammoniac do not increase the tempering action to the same extent as common salt, and are therefore not so frequently employed, though they form excellent additions to tempering water in certain cases. Tools of very complicated construction, such as fraises, where the danger of fracture of superficial parts has always to be kept in view, can with advantage be tempered in a solution of soda or sal ammoniac. Acids increase the action of tempering water consider- ably, and to a far greater extent than common salt. They are added in quan- tities up to 2 per cent, and frequent- ly in combination with salts. Organ- ic acids (e. g., acetic or citric) have a milder action than mineral acids (e. g., hydrochloric, nitric, or sulphuric). Acid- ulous water is employed in tempering tools for which the utmost degree of hardness is necessary, such as instru- ments for cutting exceptionally hard ob- jects, or when a sufficiently hard surface has to be given to a kind of steel not capable of much hardening. Alcohol lowers the boiling point of water, and causes so vigorous an evaporation when the water comes in contact with the red- hot metal, that the tempering is greatly retarded (in proportion to the amount of alcohol in the mixture). Water con- taining a large quantity of alcohol will not temper. Soap and soap, suds will not temper steel; this property is made use of in the rapid cooling of steel for which a great degree of hardness is not desirable. When certain parts of com- pletely tempered steel have to be rendered soft, these parts are heated to a red heat and then cooled in soap suds. This is done with the tangs of files, knives, swords, saws, etc. Soluble organic sub- stances retard the tempering process in proportion to the quantity used, and thus lessen the effect of pure water. Such substances (e. g., milk, sour beer, etc.) are employed only to a limited extent. To Caseharden Locally. — In case- hardening certain articles it is sometimes necessary, or desirable, to leave spots or sections in the original soft uncarbonized condition while the remainder is carbon- ized and hardened. This may be ef- fected by first covering the parts to be hardened with a protecting coat of japan, and allowing it to dry. Then put the piece in an electroplating bath and de- posit a heavy coat of nickel over the parts not protected by the japan. The piece thus prepared may be treated in the usual manner in casehardening. The coat of nickel prevents the metal beneath being carbonized, so it does not harden when dipped in the bath. A plating of copper answers the same purpose as nickel and is often used. A simpler plan, where the shape of the piece permits, is to protect it from the action of the carbonizing material with an iron pipe or plate closely fitted or luted witn clay. Another scheme is to machine the parts wanted soft after carbonizing but before hardening. By this procedure the carbonized material is removed where the metal is desired soft, and when heated and dipped these parts do not harden. To Harden a Hammer. — To avoid the danger of "checking" a hammer at the eye, heat the hammer to a good uniform hardening heat and then dip the small end almost up to the eye and cool as quickly as possible by moving about in the hardening bath; then dip the large end. To harden a hammer successfully by this method one must work quickly and cool the end dipped first enough to harden before the heat is lost on the other end. Draw the temper from the heat left about the eye. The result is a hammer hard only where it should be and free from "checks." Hardening Steel Wire. — Pass the steel wire througn a lead bath heated to a temperature of 1,200° to 1,500° F. after it has previously been coated with a paste of chalk, so as to prevent the formation STEEL 685 of oxides. The wire is thus heated in a uniform manner and, according to whether it is desired hard or elastic, it is cooled in water or in oil. Hardening of Springs. — A variety of steel must Be chosen which is suitable for the production of springs, a very tough quality with about 0.8 per cent of carbon being probably the best. Any .steel works of good reputation would no doubt recommend a certain kind of steel. Ill shaping a spring, forging and ham- mering should be avoided if possible. In forging, an uneven treatment can scarcely be avoided; one portion is worked more than the other, causing tensions which, especially in springs, must be guarded against. It is most advantageous if a material of the thickness and shape of the spring can be obtained, which, by bending and pressing through, is shaped into the desired spring. Smce this also entails slight tension, a careful annealing is advisable, so as to prevent cracking or distorting in hardening. The annealing is best conducted with exclusion of the air, by placing the springs in a sheet-iron box provided with a cover, smearing all the joints well up with loam. The heat- ing may be done in a muffled furnace; the box, with contents, is, not too slowly, heated to cherry red and then allowed to cool gradually, together with the stove. The springs must only be taken out when they have cooled off enough that they will give off no hissing sound when touched by water. In order to uniform- ly heat tne springs for hardening, a muffle furnace is likewise employed, wherein they are heated to cherry-red heat. For cooling liquid, a mixture of oil, tallow, and petroleum is employed. A mass consisting of fish oil, tallow, and wax also renders good service, but one should see to it that there is a sufficient quantity of these cooling liquids, so that tne springs may be moved about, same as when cooled in water, without causing an appreciable increase in the tempera- ture of the liquid. In most cases too small a quantity of the liquid is responsi- ble for tne many failures in hardening. When the springs have cooled in the hardening liquid, they are taken out, dried off superficially, and the oil still adhering is Durned off over a charcoal fire. This enables one to moderate the temper according to the duration of the burning off and to produce the desired elasticity. An even heating being of great importance in hardening springs, the electric current has of late been suc- cessfully employed for this purpose. To Temper a Tap. — After the tap has been cut and finished heat it in a pair of tongs to a blood-red heat over a charcoal fire or the blue flame of a Bunsen burner or blow pipe, turning it around so that one point does not get heated before another. Have ready a pail of clean, cold water, into which a handful of com- mon salt has been put. Stir the water in the pail so that a whirlpool is set up. Then plunge the tap, point first and vertically, into the vortex to cool. The turning of the tap during heating, a.s well as the swirl of tne quenching water, pre- vents distortion. In tempering, the tem- per of the tap requires to be drawn to a light straw eolor, and tliis may bo done as follows: Get a piece of east-iron tube about 3 inches in diameter and heat it to a dull-red heat for about 4 inches of its length. Then hold the tap, with the tongs, up the center of the tube, mean- while turning the tap around until the straw color appears all over it. Then dip the tap in the water, when it will be found perfectly hard. The depth of the color, whether light or dark straw, must be determined by the nature of the cast steel being used, which can be gained only from experience of the steel. Scissors Hardening. — The united legs of the scissors are uniformly heated to a dark cherry red, extending from the point to the screw or rivet nole. This may be done in the naked fire, a feeble current of air being admitted until the steel commences to glow. Then the fire is left to itself and the scissor parts are drawn to and fro in the fire, until all the parts to be hardened show a uniform dark cherry red. The two legs are hardened together in water and then tempered purple red to violet. The simultaneous heating, hardening, and tempering of the parts belonging together is necessary, so that the degree of heat is the same and the harder part does not cut the softer one. In accordance with well-known rules, the immersion in the hardening bath should be done with the point first, slowly and vertically up to above the riveting hole. Hardening without Scaling. — Articles made of tool steel and polished may be hardened without raising a scale, thereby destroying the polish, by the following method: Prepare equal parts in bulk of common salt and (fine) corn meal, well mixed. Dip the article to be hardened first into water, then into the mixture and place it carefully into the fire. When hot enough to melt the mixture, take from 686 STEEL the fire and dip or roll in the salt and meal, replace in the fire and bring to the required heat for hardening. Watch the piece closely and if any part of it shows signs of getting dry, sprinkle some of the mixture on it. The mixture, when exposed to heat, forms a flux over the surface of the steel which excludes the air and prevents oxidation, and when cooled in water or oil comes off easily, leaving the surface as smooth as before heating. Borax would possibly give the same result, but is sometimes difficult to remove when cold. Hardening with Glycerine. — I. — The glycerine employed must be of the density of 1.08 to 1.26 taken at the temperature of 302° F. Its weight must be equal to about 6 times the weight of the pieces to be tempered. For hard temper add to the glycerine J to 4 per cent of sulphate of potash or of manganese, and for soft temper 1 to 10 per cent of chloride of manganese, or 1 to 4 per cent of chloride of potassium. The temperature of the tempering bath is varied according to the results desired. II. — ^Glycerine, 8,000 parts, by weight; cooking salt, 500 parts, by weight; sal ammoniac, 100 parts, by weight; con- centrated hydrochloric acid, 50 parts; and water, 10,000 parts, by weight. Into this liquid the steel, heated, for example, to a cherry red, is dipped. A reheating of the steel is not necessary. To Remove Burnt Oil from Hardened Steel. — To remove excess oil from parts that have been hardened in oil, place the articles in a small tank of gasoline, which, when exposed to the air, will dry off immediately, allowing the part to be polished and tempered without the con- fusing and unsightly marks of burnt oil. VARIOUS RECIPES: To Put an Edge on Steel Tools. — Aluminum will put an edge on fine cut- ting instruments such as surgical knives, razors, etc. It acts exactly like a razor- hone of the finest quality. When steel is rubbed on the aluminum, as, for in- stance, in honing a knife blade, the met- al disintegrates, forming an infinitely minute powder of a greasy unctuous quality that clings to steel with great tenacity and thus assists in cutting away the surface of the harder metal. So fine is the edge produced that it can in no wise be made finer by the strop, which used in the ordinary way merely tends to round the edge. To Restore Burnt Steel. — To restore burnt cast steel heat the piece to a red heat and sprinkle over it a mixture of 8 parts red chromate of potassium; 4 parts saltpeter; J part aloes; J part gum arable; and { part rosin. To Remove Strains in Metal by Heat- ing. — In making springs of piano wire, or, in fact, any wire, if the metal is heated to a moderate degree the spring will be improved. Piano or any steel wire should be heated to a blue, brass wire to a degree sufficient to cause tal- low to smoke. Heating makes the met- al homogeneous; before heating, it is full of strains. If a piece of metal of any kind is straightened cold and then put into a, lathe and a chip turned off, it will be far from true. Before turning, it was held true by the strain of the particles on the outside, they having changed position, while the particles near the axis are only sprung. The outside particles being removed by the lathe tool, the sprung particles at the center return to their old positions. If, after straightening, the metal is heated to a temperature of 400° F., the particles settle together and the strains are re- moved. This is the case in the manufacture of saws. The saw is first hardened and tempered and then straightened on an anvU by means of a hammer. After it is hammered true, it is ground and polished a little, then blued to stiffen it and then is subjected to the grinding process. Before bluing, the metal is full of strains; these are entirely removed by the heat required to produce the blue color. Often a piano-wire spring will not stand long wear if used witnout heating, while, if heated it will last for years. To Render Fine Cracks in Tools Visi- ble. — It is often of importance to recog- nize small cracks which appear in the metal of the tools. For this purpose it is recommended to moisten the fissured surface with petroleum; next rub and dry with a rag and rub again, but this time with chalk. The petroleum which has entered the cracks soon comes out again and the trace is plainly shown by the chalk. To Utilize Drill Chips. — There is one modern machining process that produces a shaving that has more value tnan that of mere scrap, and that is drilling rifle barrels with the oil-tube drill. The cutting edge of this drill is broken up in- to steps and the chips produced are liter- ally shavings, being long hair-like threads of steel. These shavings are consider- ably used in woodworking factories for smoothing purposes. STEEL 687 To Remove Fragments of Steel from Other Metals. — The removal of broken spiral drills and taps is an operation which even the most skillful machinist has to perform at times. A practical process for removing such broken steel pieces consists in preparing in a suitable Kettle (not iron) a solution of 1 part, by weight, of commercial alum in 4 to 5 parts, by weight, of water and boiling the object in this solution until the piece which is stuck works itself out. Care must be taken to place the piece in such a position that the evolving gas bubbles may rise and not adhere to the steel to protect it from the> action of the alum solution. Testing Steel.— A bar of the steel to be tested is provided with about nine notches running around it in distances of about g of an inch. Next, the foremost notched piece is heated in a forge in such a manner that the remaining por- tion of the bar is heated less by the fire proper than by the transmitted heat. When the foremost piece is heated to burning, i. e., to combustion, and the color of the succeeding pieces gradually passes to dark-brownish redness, the whole rod is hardened. A test with the file will now show that the foremost burned piece possesses the greatest hard- ness, that several softer pieces will follow, and that again a piece ordinarily situ- ated in the second third, whose tempera- ture was the right one for hardening, is almost as hard as the first one. If the different pieces are knocked off, the fracture of the piece hardened at the correct temperature exhibits the finest grain. This will give one an idea of the temperature to be employed for harden- ing the steel in question and its behavior in general. Very hard steel will readily crack in this process. Welding Compound. — Boracic acid, ■ilj parts; common salt 35 parts; ferro- cyanide of potassium, 20 parts; rosin, 7i parts; carbonate of sodium, -t parts. Ileat the pieces to be welded to a light- red heat and apply the compound; then heat to a strong yellow heat and the welding may be accomplished in the usual manner. The precaution should be observed, the same as with any of the cyanides, to avoid breathing the poisonous fumes. Softening Steel. — Heat the steel to a brown rea and plunge into soft water, river water being the best. Care should be taken, however, not to heat over brown red, otherwise it will be hard when im- mersed. The steel will be soft enoueh to be cut with ease if it is plunged in the water as soon as it turns red. Draw-Tempering Cast Steel. — First heat the steel lightly by means of char- coal until of a cherry-red shade, where- upon it is withdrawn to be put quickly into ashes or dry charcoal dust untd completely cooled. The .steel may also be heated in the forge to a red cherry color, then hammered until it turns blue and then plunged into water. Drilling Hard Steel. — To accomplish the object quickly, a drill of cast steel should be made, the point gradually heated to the red, the scales taken off, and the extremity of the point immersed at once. in quicksilver; then the whole quenched in cold water. Thus prepared, the drill is equal to any emergency; it will bore througn the hardest pieces. The quantity of quicksilver neeiicd is trifling. Engraving or Etching on Steel. — Dis- solve in 150 parts of vinegar, sulphate of copper, 30 parts; alum, 8 parts; kitchen salt, 11 parts. .Vdd a few dr(>i)s of nitric acid. According to whether this liquid is allowed to act a longer or shorter time, the steel may lie engraved upon deeply or the surface may be given a very ornamental, frosted appearance. To Distinguish Steel from Iron. — Take a very clean file and file over the flame of an alcohol lamp. If the filed piece is made of steel, little burning and crack- ling sparks will be seen. If it consists' of iron, the sparks will not crackle. STEEL, BROWNING OF: See Plating. STEEL, DISTINGUISHING LRON FROM: See Iron. STEEL ETCHING: See Etching. STEEL-HARDENING POWDER: See Iron. STEEL, OXIDIZED: See Plating. STEEL PLATING: See Plating. STEEL POLISHES: See Polishes. STEEL, TO CLEAN: See Cleaning Preparations and Meth- ods. 688 STEREOCHROMY— STONE STENCILS FOR PLOTTING LETTERS OF SIGN PLATES: See Enameling. STENCIL INKS: See Inks. STEREOCHROMY. Stereochromatic colors can be bought ground in a thickly liquid water-glass solution. They are only diluted with water-glass solution' before application on the walls. The two solutions are generally slightly dissimilar in their composition, the former containing less silicic acid, but more alkali, than the latter, which is necessary for the better preservation of the paint. Suitable pig- ments are zinc white, ocher with its different shades of light yellow, red, and dark brown, black consisting of a mix- ture of manganese and lampblack, etc., etc. White lead cannot be used, as it coagulates with the water glass, nor vermilion, because it fades greatly under the action of the light. The plastering to be coated must be porous, not fresh, but somewhat hardened. Otherwise the caustic lime of the plaster will quickly decompose the water glass. This circumstance may account for the un- satisfactory results which have fre- quently been obtained with water-glass coatings. Before applying the paint the wall should first be imj^egnated with a water-glass solution. The colors may be kept on hand ground, but must be protected from contact with the air. If air is admitted a partial separation of silica in the form of a jelly takes place. Only pure potash water glass, or, at least, such as only contains little soda, should be used, as soda will cause efflor- STEREOPTICON SLIDES: See Photography. STEREOTYPE METAL: See Alloys. STERILIZING WITH GAS: See Preserving. STONE, ARTIFICIAL. The following is a process of manu- facture in which the alkaline silicates prepared industrially are employed. The function of the alkaline silicates, or soluble glass, as constituents of arti- ficial stone, is to act as a cement, forming with the alkaline earths, alumina, ana oxide of lead, insoluble silicates, which weld together the materials (quartz sand. pebbles, granite, fluorspar, and the waste of clay bricks). The mass may be colored black by the addition of a quantity of charcoal or graphite to the extent of 10 per cent at the maximum, binoxide of manganese, or ocher; red, by 6 per cent of coTcothar; brick red, by 4 to 7 per cent of cinnabar; orange, by 6 to 8 per cent of red lead; yellow, by 6 per cent of yellow ocher, or 5 per cent of chrome yellow; green, by 8 per cent of chrome green; blue, by 6 to 10 per cent of Neuwied blue, Bremen blue, Cassel blue, or Napoleon blue; and white, by 20 per cent, at the maximuni, of zinc white. Chrome green and zinc oxide pro- duce an imitation of malachite. An imitation of lapis lazuli is obtained by the simultaneous employment of Cassel blue and pyrites in grains. The metallic oxides yield the corresponding silicates, and zinc oxide, mixed with cleansed chalk, yields a brilliant marble. The ingredients are mixed in a kind of mechanical kneading trough, furnished with stirrers, in variable proportions, according to the percentage of the solu- tion of alkaline silicate. The whole is afterwards molded or compressed by the ordinary processes. The imitation of granite is obtained by mixing lime, 100 parts; sodium silicate (42° Be.), 35 parts; fine quartz sand, 120 to 180 parts; and coarse sand, 180 to 250 parts. Artificial basalt may be prepared by adding potassium sulphite and lead acetate, or equal parts of antimony ore and iron filings. To obtain artificial marble, 100 pounds of marble dust or levigated chalk are mixed with 20 parts of ground glass and 8 parts of fine lime and sodium silicate. The coloring matter is mixed in proportion depending on the effect to be produced. A fine product for molding is obtained by mixing alkaline silicate, 100 parts; washed chalk, 100 parts; slaked lime, 40 parts; quick lime, 40 parts, fine quartz sand, 200 parts; pounded glass, 80 parts; infusorial earths, 80 parts; fluorspar, 150 parts. On hardening, there is much contraction. Other kinds of artificial stone are prepared by mixing hydraulic lime or cement, 60 parts; sand, 200 parts; sodium silicate, in dry powder, 50 parts; the whole is moistened with 10 per cent of water and molded. A hydraulic cement may be employed, to which an alkaline silicate is added. The stone or object molded ought to be covered with a layer of fluosilicate. STONE 689 A weather-proof water-resisting stone is manufactured from sea mud, to which 5 per cent of calcic hydrate is added. The mass is then dried, lixiviated, and dried once more at 212° F., whereupon the stones are burned. By an admixture of crystallized iron sulphate the firmness of these stones is still increased. Sand-Lime Brick. — In a French patent for making bricks from pitch and coal tar, powdered coke and sea sand are gently heated in a suitable vessel, and 20 per cent of pitch and 10 per cent of coal tar added, with stirring. The pasty mass obtained is then molded under pressure. The product obtained may be employed alone, or together with a framework of iron, or with hydraulic lime or cement. According to u French patent for veining marble, etc., in one or more colors, coloring matters of all kinds are mixed with a sticky liquid, which is then spread in a very thin layer on the surface of another immiscible and heavier liq- uid. By agitating the surface, colored veins, etc., are obtained, which are then transferred to the object to be decorated (which may be of most varied kind) by applying it to the surface of the heavy liquid. A suitable composition with which the colors may be mixed consists of; Oil of turpentine, 100 parts; colo- phony, 10 parts; linseed oil, 10 parts; aiccahf soleit, 5 parts. The heavy liq- uid may be water, mercury, etc.; and any colors, organic or mineral, may be used. CONCRETE. Concrete is the name applied to an artificial combination of various mineral substances which under chemical action become incorporated into a solid mass. There are one or two compositions of comparatively trifling importance which receive the same name, though differing fundamentally from true concrete, their solidification being independent of chem- ical influence. These compositions only call for passing mention; they are: Tar concrete, made of broken stones (mac- adam) and tar; iron concrete, composed of iron turnings, asphalt, bitumen, and Eitch; and lead concrete, consisting of roken bricks set in molten lead. The last two varieties, with rare exceptions, are only used in connection with military engineering, such as for fortifications. Concrete proper consists essentially of two groups or classes of ingredients. The first, termed the aggregate, is a hetero- geneous mass, in itself inactive, of mineral material, such as shingle, broken stone, broken brick, gravel, and sand. These are the substances most com- monly in evidence, but other ingredients are also occasionally employed, such as slag from iron furnaces. Burnt clay, in any form, and earthenware, make ad- mirable material for incorporation. The second class constitutes the active agency which produces adhesion and solidifica- tion. It is termed the matrix, and con- sists of hydraulic lime or cement, com- bined with water. One of the essential features in good concrete is cleanliness and an entire absence of dirt, dust, greasy matter, and impurities of any description. The ma- terial will preferably be sharp and angu- lar, with a rough, porous surface, to which the matrix, will more readily adhere than to smooth, vitreous sub- stances. The specific gravity of the ag- gregate will depend upon the purpose for which the concrete is to be used. For beams and lintels, a light aggregate, such as coke breeze from gasworks, is per- missible, especially when the work is designed to receive nails. On the other hand, for retaining walls, the heaviest possible aggregate is desirable on the ground of stability. The aggregate by no means should be uniform in size. Fragments of different dimensions are most essential, so that the smaller material may fill up the interstices of the larger. It is not in- frequently stipulated by engineers that no individual fragment shall be more than 4 inches across, and the material is often specified to pass through a ring 1 \ to 2 inches in diameter. The absolute limits to size for the aggregate, however, are determinable by a number of con- siderations, not the least important of which is the magnitude and bulk of the work in which it is to be employed. The particles of sand should also be of vary- ing degrees of coarseness. A fine, dust- like sand is objectionable; its minute subdivision prevents complete contact with the cement on all its faces. Another desideratum is that the particles should not be too spherical, a condition brought about by continued attrition. Hence, pit sand is better in many cases than river sand or shore sand. The matrix is almost universally Portland cement. It should not be used in too hot a condition, to which end it is usually spread over a wooden floor to a depth of a few inches, for a few days prior to use. By this means, the alumin- ate of lime becomes partially hydrated, and its activity is thereby modified. 690 STONE Roman cement and hydraulic lime may also be used as matrices. Portland cement will take a larger proportion of sand than either Roman cement or hydraulic lime; but with the larger ratios of sand, its tenacity is, of course, correspondingly reduced. One part of cement to 4 parts of sand should therefore be looked upon as the upper limit, while for the strongest mortar the proportion need hardly exceed 1 part of cement to 1 J or 2 parts of sand. In the ensuing calculations there is assumed a, ratio of 1 to 3. For impermeability, the proportion of 1 to 2 should be observed, and for Roman cement this proportion should never be exceeded. The ratio will even advantageously be limited to 2 to 3. For hydraulic lime equal parts of sand and cement are suitable, though 2 parts of sand to 1 part of cement may be used. The quantity of mortar required in reference to the aggregate is based on the vacuities in the latter. For any particu- lar aggregate the amount of empty space may be determined by filling a tank of known volume with the mmerals and then adding sufficient water to bring to a level surface. The volume of water added (provided, of course, the aggregate be impervious or previously saturated) gives the net volume of mortar required. To this it is necessary to make some ad- dition (say 10 per cent of the whole), in order to insure the thorough flushing of every part of the work. Assuming that the proportion of interstices is 30 per cent and adding 10 for the reason just stated, we derive 40 parts as the quantity of mortar to 100 — 10 = 90 parts of the aggregate. An allowance of J volume for shrinkage brings the volume of the dry materials (sand and cement) of the mortar to 40 + 40/3 = S3 J parts, which, divided in the ratio of 1 to 3, yields: 531 Cement —7^ = 13J parts Sand, i X 53J = 40 parts Aggregate 90 parts Total 143J parts As the resultant concrete is 100 parts, the total shrinkage is 30 per cent. Expressed in terms of the cement, the concrete would have a. composition of 1 part cement, 3 parts sand, 7 parts gravel and broken stone, and it would form, approximately, what is commonly known as 7 to 1 concrete. There are other ratios depending on the proportion of sand. Thus we have: Cement Sand Aggregate 1 IJ 4i 1 2 5 1 2i 6 1 3 7 1 3i 7i 1 4 8i The cost of concrete may be materially reduced without affecting the strength or efficacy of the work, by a plentiful use of stone "plums" or "burrs." These are bedded in the fluid concrete during its deposition in situ, but care must be taken to see that they are thoroughly sur- rounded by mortar and not in contact with each other. Furthermore, if they are of a porous nature, they should be well wetted before use. The mixing of concrete is important. If done by hand, the materials forming the aggregate will be laid out on a plat- form and covered by the cement in a thin layer. The whole should be turned over thrice in the dry state, and as many times wet, before depositing, in order to bring about thorough and complete amalgamation. Once mixed, the con- crete is to be deposited immediately and allowed to remain undisturbed until the action of setting is finished. Deposition should be effected, wher-^ver possible, without tipping from a height of more than about 6 feet, as in greater falls there is a likelihood of the heavier portions of the aggregate separating from the lighter. In extensive undertakings, concrete is more economically mixed by mechanical appliances. The water used for mixing may be either salt or fresh, so far as the strength of the concrete is concerned. For surface work above the ground level, salinity in any of the ingredients is objectionable, since it tends to produce efflorescence — ■ an unsightly, floury deposit, difficult to get rid of. The quantity of water re- cjuired cannot be stated with exactitude; it will depend upon the proportion of the aggregate and its porosity. It is best determined by experiment in each par- ticular case. Without being profuse enough to "drown" the concrete, it should be plentiful enough to act as an efficient intermediary between every particle of the aggregate and every particle of the matrix. Insufficient moisture is, in fact, as deleterious as an excess. Voids. — The strength of concrete de- pends greatly upon its density, and this is secured by using coarse material which contains the smallest amount of voids or empty spaces. Different kinds of sand. STONE 691 gravel, and stone vary greatly in the amount of voids they contain, and by judiciously mixing coarse and fine material the voids may be much reduced and the density increased. The density and percentage of voids in concrete ma- terial may be determined by filling a box of 1 cubic foot capacity and weighing it. One cubic foot of solid quartz or lime- stone, entirely free from voids, would weigh 165 pounds, and the amount by which a cubic foot of any loose material falls short of this weight represents the proportion of voids contained in it. For example, if a cubic foot of sand weighs 115i pounds, the voids would be 49i-165ths of the total volume, or 30 per cent. The following table gives the per cent of voids and weight per cubic foot of some common concrete materials: Per Cent Wt. per Voids Cu. Ft. Sandusky Bay sand. 32.3 111.7 pounds Same tnrough 20- mesh screen 38.5 101.5 pounds Gravel, J to J inch. ...42.4 95.0 pounds Broken limestone, egg-size 47.0 87.4 pounds Limestone screen- ings, dust to i inch 26.0 122.2 pounds It will be noted that screening the sand through a 20-mesh sieve, and thus taking out the coarse grains, consider- ably increased the voids and reduced the weight; thus decidedly injuring the sand for making concrete. The following figures show how weight can be increased and voids reduced by mi.\ing fine and coarse material: Per Cent Wt. per Voids Cu. Ft. Pebbles, about 1 inch 38.7 101.2 pounds Sand, 30 to 40 mesh . 35.9 105.8 pounds Pebbles plus 38.7 per cent sand, by vol. . 19.2 133.5 pounds Experiments have shown that the strength of concrete increases greatly with its density; in fact, a slight increase in weight per cubic foot adds very de- cidedly to the strength. The gain in strength obtained by adding coarse material to mixtures of cement and sand is shown in the fol- lowing table of results of experiments made in Germany by R. Dykerhoff. The blocks tested were 2i-inch cubes, 1 day ia air and 27 days in water. Proportionfl by Measure. Per Cent. Cement. Com- pression Strength. Cement. Sand. Gravel. By Volume. Lbs. per Sq. In. o 2 3 3 4 4 "s 33 12.6 25.0 9.5 20.0 7.4 2,125 2,387 1,383 1,516 1.053 1,204 These figures show how greatly the strength is improved by adding coarse material, even though the proportion of cement is thereby reduced. A mixture of 1 to 12J of properly proportioned sand and gravel is, in fact, stronger than 1 to 4, and nearly as strong as 1 to 3, of cement and sand only. In selecting materials for concrete, those should oe chosen which give the greatest density. If it is practicable to mix two materials, as sand and gravel, the proportion which gives the greatest density should be determined oy ex- periment, and rigidly adhered to in making concrete, whatever proportion of cement it is decided to use. Well-pro- portioned dry sand and gravel or sand and broken stone, well shaken down, should weigh at least 125 pounds per cubic foot. Limestone screenings, owing to minute pores in the stone itself, are somewhat lighter, though giving equally strong concrete. They should weigh at least 120 pounds per cubic foot. If the weight is less, there is probably too much fine dust in the mixture. The density and strength of concrete are also greatly improved by use of a liberal amount of water. Enough water must be used to make the concrete thoroughly soft and plastic, so as to quake strongly when rammed. If mixed too dry it will never harden properly, and will be light, porous, and crum- bling. Thorough mixing of concrete materials is essential, to increase the density and give the cement used a chance to produce Its full strength. The cement, sand, and gravel should be intimately mixed dry, then the water added and the mixing continued. If stone or coarse gravel is added, this should be well wetted and thoroughly mixed with the mortar. Materials for Concrete Building Blocks. — In the making of building blocks the spaces to be filled with concrete are gen- erally too narrow to permit the use of very coarse material, and the block- 692 STONE maker is limited to gravel or stone not exceeding J or J incn in size. A con- siderable proportion of coarse material is, however, just as necessary as in other kinds of concrete work, and gravel or screenings should be chosen which will give the greatest possible density. For good results, at least one-third of the material, by weight, should be coarser than J inch. Blocks made from such gravel or screenings, 1 to 5, will be found as good as 1 to 3 with sand only. It is a mistake to suppose that the coarse fragments will snow on the surface; if the mixing is thorough this will not be the case. A moderate degree of rough- ness or variety in the surface of blocks is, in fact, desirable, and would go far to overcome the prejudice which many architects hold against the smooth, life- less surface of cement work. Sand and gravel are, in most cases, the cheapest material to use for block work. The presence of a few per cent of clay or loam is not harmful provided the mixing is thorough. Stone screenings, if of good quality, give fully as strong concrete as sand and gravel, and usually yield blocks of somewhat lighter color. Screen- ings from soft stone should be avoided, also such as contain too much dust. This can be determined from the weight per cubic foot, and by a sifting test. If more than two-thirds pass J mch, and the weight (well jarred down) is less than 120 pounds, the material is not the best. Cinders are sometimes used for block work; they vary greatly in quality, but if clean and of medium coarseness will give fair results. Cinder concrete never de- velops great strength, owing to the por- ous character and crushability of the cinders themselves. Cinder blocks may, however, be strong enough for many purposes, and suitable for work in which great strength is not required. Lime. — It is well known that slaked lime is a valuable addition to cement mortar, especially for use in air. In sand mixtures, 1 to 4 or 1 to 5, at least one-third of the cement may be replaced by slaked lime without loss of strength. The most convenient form of lime for use in block-making is the dry-slaked or hydrate lime, now a common article of commerce. This is, however, about as expensive as Portland cement, and there is no great saving in its use. Added to block concrete, in the proportion of J to J the cement used, it will be found to make the blocks lighter in color, denser, and decidedly less permeable by water. Cement. — Portland cement is the only hydraulic material to be seriously con- sidered by the blockmaker. Natural and slag cements and hydraulic lime are useful for work which remains constantly wet, but greatly inferior in strength and durability when exposed to dry air. A further advantage of Portland cement is the promptness with which it hardens and develops its full strength; this quality alone is suflScient to put all other cements out of consideration for block work. Proportions. — There are three im- portant considerations to be kept in view in adjusting the proportions of materials for block concrete — strength, permea- bility, and cost. So far as strength goes, it may easily be shown that concretes very poor in cement, as 1 to 8 or 1 to 10, will have a crushing resistance far be- yond any load that they may be called upon to sustain. Such concretes are, .however, extremely porous, and absorb water like a sponge. The blocks must bear a certain amount of rough hand- ling at the factory and while being carted to work and set up in the wall. Safety in this respect calls for a much greater degree of hardness than would be needed to bear the weight of the building. Again, strength and hardness, with a given pro- portion of cement, depend greatly on the character of the other materials used; blocks made of cement and sand, 1 to 3, will not be so strong or so impermeable to water as those made from a good mixed sand and gravel, 1 to 5. On the whole, it is doubtful whether blocks of satisfactory quality can be made, by hand mixing and tamping, under ordinary factory conditions, from a poorer mixture than 1 to 5. Even this proportion requires for good results the use of properly graded sand and gravel or screenings, a liberal amount of water, and thorough mixing and tamping. When suitable gravel is not obtainable, and coarse mixed sand only is used, the proportion should not be less than 1 to 4. Fine sand alone is a very bad material, and good blocks can- not be made from it except by the use of an amount of cement which would make the cost very high. The mixtures above recommended, 1 to 4 and 1 to 5, will necessarily be some- what poroas, and may be decidedly so if the gravel or screenings used is not properly graded. The water-resisting qua.ities may be greatly improved, without loss of strength, by replacing a part of the cement by hydrate lime. This is a light, extremely fine material, and a given weight of it goes much further than the STONE 693 same amount of cement in filling the pores of the concrete. It has also the effect of making the wet mixture more plastic and more easily compacted by ramming, and gives the finished blocks a lighter color. The following mixtures, then, are to be recommended for concrete blocks. By "gravel" is meant a suitable mix- ture of sand and gravel, or stone screen- ings, containing grains of all sizes, from fine to i inch. 1 to 4 Mixtures, by Weight. Cement, 150 parts; gravel, 600 parts. Cement, 125 parts; hydrated lime, 25 parts; gravel, 600 parts. Cement, 100 parts; hydrated lime, 50 parts; gravel, 600 parts. 1 to 5 Mixtures, by Weight. Cement, 120 parts; gravel, 600 parts. Cement, 100 parts; hydrated lime, 20 parts; gravel, 600 parts. Proportion of Water. — This is a matter of the utmost consequence, and has more effect on the quality of the work than is generally supposed. Blocks made from too dry concrete will always remain soft and weak, no matter how thoroughly sprinkled afterwards. On the other hand, if blocks are to be re- moved from the machine as soon as made, too much water will cause them to stick to the plates and sag out of shape. It is perfectly possible, how- ever, to give the concrete enough water for maximum density and first-class hardening properties, and still to remove the blocks at once from the mold. A good proportion of coarse material allows the mixture to be made wetter without sticking or sagging. Use of plenty of water vastly improves the strength, hardness, and waterproof qual- ities of blocks, and makes them decid- edly lighter in color. The rule should be: Use as much water as possible with- out causing the blocks to stick to the plates or to sag out of shape on removing from the machine. The amount of water required to pro- duce this result varies with the materials used, but is generally from 8 to 9 per cent of the weight of the dry mixture. A prac- ticed blockmaker can judge closely when the right amount of water has been added, by squeezing some of the mixture in the hand. Very slight variations in propor- tion of water mjike such a marked differ- ence in the quality and color of the blocks that the water, when the proper quantity for the materials used has been deter- mined, should always be accurately meas- ured out for each batch. In this way much time is saved and uncertainty avoided. Facing. — Some blockmakers put on a facing of richer and finer mixture, making the body of the block of poorer and coarser material. As will be ex- plained later, the advantage of the prac- tice is, in most cases, questionable, but facings may serve a good purpose in case a colored or specially waterproof surface is required. Facings are generally made of cement and sand, or fine screenings, gassing a J-inch sieve. To get the same ardness and strength as a 1 to S gravel mixture, at least as rich a facing as 1 to 3 will be found necessary. Probably 1 to i will be found better, and if one- third the c-ement be replaced by hydrate lime the waterproof qualities and ap- pearance of the mocks will be improved. A richer facing than 1 to 2 is liable to show greater shrinkage than the body of the block, and to adhere imperfectly or develop hair-cracks in consequence. Poured Work. — The above sugges- tions on the question of proportions of cement, sand, and gravel for. tamped blocks apply equally to concrete made very wet, poured into the mold, and allowed to harden a day or longer before removing. Castings in a sand mold are made by the use of very liquid concrete; sand and gravel settle out too rapidly from such thin mi.\tures, and rather fine limestone screenings are generally used. Mixing.— To get the full benefit of the cement used it is necessary that all the materials shall be very thoroughly 'mixed together. The strength of the block as a whole will be only as great as that of its weakest part, and it is the height of folly, after putting a liberal measure of cement, to so slight the mixing as to get no better result than half as much ce- ment, properly mixed, would have given. The poor, shoddy, and crumbly blocks turned out by many small-scale makers owe their faults chiefly to careless mi.xing and use of too little water, rather than to too small proportion of cement. The materials should be mixed dry, until the cement is uniformly distributed and perfectly mingled with the sand and gravel or screenings; then the water is to be added and the mixing continued until all parts of the mass are equally moist and every particle is coated with the cement paste. Concrete Mixers. — Hand mixing is always imperfect, laborious, and slow. 694 STONE and it is impossible by this method to secure the thorough stirring and knead- ing action which a good mixing machine fives. If a machine taking 5 or 10 orse-power requires 5 minutes to mix one-third of a yard of concrete, it is of course absurd to expect that two men will do the same work by hand in the same time. And the machine never gets tired or shirks if not constantly urged, as it is the nature of men to do. It is hard to see how the manufacture of concrete blocks can be successfully carried on without a concrete mixer. Even for a, small business it will pay well in economy of labor and excellence of work to install such a machine, which may be driven by a small electric motor or gasoline engine. In work necessarily so exact as this, requiring perfectly uniform mixtures and use of a constant percentage of water, batch mixers, which take a meas- ured quantity of material, mix it, and discharge it, at each operation, are the only satisfactory type, and continuous mixers are unsuitaijle. Those of the pug-mill type, consisting of an open trough with revolving paddles and bot- tom discharge, are positive and thorough in their .action, and permit the whole operation to be watched and controlled. They should be provided with exten- sible arms of chilled iron, which can be lengthened as the ends become worn. Concrete Block Systems. — For smaller and less costly buildings, separate blocks, made at the factory and built up into the walls in the same manner as brick or blocks of stone, are simpler, less ex- pensive, and much more rapid in con- struction than monolithic work. They also avoid some of the faults to which solid concrete work, unless skillfully done, is subject, such as the formation of shrinkage cracks. There are two systems of block mak- ing, differing in the consistency of the concrete used: 1. Blocks tamped or pressed from semi-wet concrete, and removed at once from the mold. 2. Blocks poured or tamped from wet concrete, and allowed to remain in the mold until hardened. Tamped Blocks from Semi-Wet Mix- ture. — These are practically always made on a block machine, so arranged that as soon as a block is formed the cores and side plates are removed and the block lifted from the machine. By far the larger part of the blocks on the market are made in this way. Usually these are of the one-piece type, in which a single block, provided with hollow cores, males the whole thickness of the wall. Another plan is the two-piece system, in which the face and back of the wall are made up of different blocks, so lapping over each other as to give a bond and hold the wall together. Blocks of the two-piece type are generally formed in a hand or hydraulic press. 'Various shapes and sizes of blocks are commonly made; the builders of the most popular machines have, however, adopted the standard length of 32 inches and height of 9 inches for the full-sized block, with thickness of 8, 10, and 12 inches. Lengths of 24, 16, and 8 inches are also obtained on the same machines by the use of parting plates and suitably divided face plates; any intermediate lengths and any desired heights may be produced by simple adjustments or blocking off. Blocks are commonly made plain, rock-faced, tool-faced, paneled, and of various ornamental patterns. New de- signs of face plates are constantly being added by the most progressive machine makers. Block Machines. — There are many good machines on the market, most of which are of the same general type, and differ only in mechanical details. They may be divided into two classes: those with vertical and those with horizontal face. In the former the face plate stands vertically, and the block is simply lifted from the machine on its base plate as soon as tamped. In the other type the face plate forms the bottom of the mold; the cores are withdrawn horizon- tally, and by the motion of a lever the block with its face plate is tipped up into a vertical position for removal. In case it is desired to put a facing on the blocks, machines of the horizontal-face type are considered the more convenient, though a facing may easily be put on with the vertical-face machine by the use of a parting plate. Blocks Poured from Wet Concrete. — As already stated, concrete made too dry is practically worthless, and an ex- cess of water is better than a deficiency. The above-described machine process, in which blocks are tamped from damp concrete and at once removed, gives blocks of admirable hardness and quality if the maximum of water is used. A method of making blocks from very wet concrete, by the use of a large number of separable molds of sheet steel, into which the wet concrete is poured and In which the blocks are left to harden for 24. STONE 693 hours or lonfrer, has come into consider- able use. By this method blocks of excellent hardening and resistance to water are certainly obtained. Whether the process is the equal of the ordinary niacnine method in respect of economy and beauty of product must be left to the decision of those who have had actual experience with it. The well-known cast-stone process consists in pouring liquid concrete mix- ture into a sand mold made from a pattern in a manner similar to that in which molds for iron castings are pro- duced. The sand absorbs the surplus water from the liquid mixture, and the casting is left in the mold for 24 hours or longer until thoroughly set. This process necessitates the making of a new sand mold for every casting, and is neces- sarily much less rapid than the machine method. It is less extensively used for building blocks than for special orna- mental architectural work, sills, lintels, columns, capitals, etc., and for purposes of this kind it turns out products of the highest quality and beauty. Tamping of Concrete Blocks. — This is generally done by means of hand rammers. Pneumatic tampers, operat- ed by an air compressor, are in use at a few plants, apparently with considerable saving in time and labor and improve- ments in quality of work. Hand tamping must be conscientious and thorough, or poor work will result. It is important that the mold should be filled a little at a time, tamping after each addition; at least four fillings and tampings should be given to each block. If the mixture is wet enough no noticeable layers will be formed by this process. Hardening and _ Storage. — Triple- decked cars to receive the blocks from the machines will be found a great sav- ing of labor, and are essential in factories of considerable size. Blocks will gener- ally require to be left on the plates for at least 24 hours, and must then be kept under roof, in a well-warmed room, with frequent sprinkling, for not less than 6 days more. They may then be piled up out of doors, and in dry weather should be wetted daily with a hose. Alternate wetting and drying is especially favor- able for the hardening of cement, and concrete so treated gams much greater strength than if kept continuously in water or dry air. Blocks should not be used in building until at least 4 weeks from the time they are made. During this period of sea- souing, blocks willl)e found to shrink at least iV inch in length, and if built up in a wall when freshly made, shrinkage cracks in the joints or across the blocks will surely appear. Efflorescence, or the appearance of a white coating on the surfaces, sometimes takes place when blocks are repeatedly saturated with water and then dried out; blocks laid on the ground are more liable to show this defect. It results from diffusion of soluble sulphates of lime and alkalies to the surface. It tends to dis- appear in time, and rarely is sufficient in amount to cause any complaint. Properties of Concrete Blocks — Strength. — In the use of concrete blocks for the walls of buildings, the stress to which they are subjected is almost en- tirely one of compression. In compres- sive strength well-made concrete does not differ greatly from ordinary building stone. It is difficult to find reliable records of tests of s;ind and gravel con- crete, 1 to 4 and 1 to 5, such as is u-sed in making blocks; the following figures show strength of concrete of approxi- mately this richness, also the average of several samples each of well-known building stones, as stated by the author- ities named: Limestone, Bedford, Ind. (Indiana Geographical Survey) 7,792 pounds Limestone, jMarblclioail, Ohio (Q. \. Gillmore) 7,393 pounds Sandstone, N. Amher.st, Ohio (Q. A. Gill- more) 5,831 pounds Gravel concrete, 1:1.6- :2.8, at 1 year (Cand- lot) 5,500 pounds Gravel concrete, 1:1.6- :3.7, at 1 year (Cand- lot) 5,050 pounds Stone concrete, l:'i:4 at 1 year (Boston El. R. R.) 3,904 pounds Actual tests of compression strength of hollow concrete blocks are difficult to make, because it is almost impossible to apply the load uniformly over the whole surface, and also because a block 16 inches long and 8 inches wide will bear a load of 150,000 to 200,000 pounds, or more than the capacity of any but the largest testing machines. Three one- quarter blocks, 8 inches long, 8 inches wide, and 9 inches high, with hollow space equal to one-third of the surface, tested at the Case School of Science, showed strengths of 1,805, 2,000, and 696 STONE 1,530 pounds per square inch, respec- tively, when 10 weeks old. Two blocks 6X8X9 inches, 22 months old, showed crushing strength of 2,530 and 2,610 pounds per square inch. These blocks were made of cement li parts, lime J part, sand and gravel 6 parts, and were tamped from damp mixture. It is probably safe to assume that the minimum crushing strength of well-made blocks, 1 to 5, is 1,000 pounds per square inch at 1 month and 2,000 pounds at 1 year. A block 12 inches wide and 24 inches long has a total surface of 288 square inches, or, deducting J for openings, a net area of 192 inches. Such a block, 9 inches high, weighs 130 pounds. As- suming a strength of 1,000 pounds and a factor of safety of 5, the safe load would be 200 pounds per square inch, or 200 X 192 = 38,400 pounds for the whole surface of the block. Dividing this by the weight of the block, 130 pounds, we find that 295 such blocks could be placed one upon another, making a total height of wall of 222 feet, and still the pressure on the lowest block would be less than one-fifth of what it would actually bear. This shows how greatly the strength of concrete blocks exceeds any demands that are ever made upon it in ordinary building construction. The safe load above assumed, 200 pounds, seems low enough to guard against any possible failure. In Taylor and Thompson's work on concrete, a safe load of 450 pounds for concrete 1 to 2 to 4 is recommended; this allows a factor of safety of SJ. On the other hand, the Building Code of the city of Cleveland permits concrete to be loaded only to 150 pounds per square inch, and limits the height of walls pf 12-inch blocks to 44 feet. The pressure of such a wall would be only 40 pounds per square inch; adding the weight of two floors at 25 pounds per square foot each, and roof with snow and wind pressure, 40 pounds per square foot, we find that with a span of 25 feet the total weight on the lowest blocks would be only 52 pounds per square inch, or about one- twentieth of their minimum compression strength. Blocks with openings equal to only one-third the surface, as required in many city regulations, are heavy to handle, especially for walls 12 inches and more in thickness, and, as the above figures show, are enormously stronger than there is any need of. Blocks with openings of 50 per cent would be far more acceptable to the building trade. and if used in walls not over 44 feet high, with floors and roof calculated as above for 25 feet span, would be loaded only to 56 pounds per square inch of actual surface. This would give a factor of safety of 18, assuming a minimum com- pression strength of 1,000 pounds. There is no doubt that blocks with one-third opening are inconveniently and unnecessarily heavy. Such a block, 32 inches long, 12 inches wide, and 9 inches high, has walls about 3 J inches thick, and weighs 180 pounds. A block with 50 per cent open space would have walls and partitions 2 inches in thickness, and would weigh about 130 pounds. With proper care in manu- facture, especially by using as much water as possible, blocks with this thickness of walls may be made thoroughly strong, sound, and durable. It is certainly better for strength and water-resisting qualities to make thin-walled blocks of rich mixture, rather than heavy blocks of poor and porous material. Filling the voids with cement is a rather expensive method of securing waterproof qualities, and gives stronger concretes than are needed. The same may be accomplished more cheaply by replacing part of the cement by slaked lime, which is an extremely flne-grained material, and therefore very effective in closing pores. Hydrate lime is the most convenient material to use, but nearly as costly as Portland cement at present prices. A 1 to 4 mixture in which one-third the cement is replaced by hydrate lime will be foftnd ecjual to a 1 to 3 mixture without the lime. A 1 to 4 concrete made from cement, 1; hydrate lime, i; sand and gravel, 6 (by weight), will be found fairly water-tight, and much superior in this respect to one of the same richness consisting of cement, 1§; sand and gravel, 6. The cost of lime may be greatly re- duced by using ordinary lump lime slaked to a paste. The lime must, how- ever, be very thoroughly hydrated, so that no unslaked fragments may remain to make trouble by subsequent expan- sion. Lime paste is also very diflScult to mix, and can be used successfully only in a concrete mixer of the pug-mill type. Ordinary stiff lime paste contains about 50 per cent water; twice as much of it, by weight, should therefore be used as of dry hydrate lime. Waterproof pualities. — The chief fault of concrete building blocks, as ordinarily made, is their tendency to absorb water. In this respect they are generally no STONE 697 worse than sandstone or common brick; it is well known that stone or brick walls are too permeable to allow plastering di- rectly on the inside surface, and must be furred and lathed before plastering, to avoid dampness. This practice is gen- erally followed with concrete l)locks, but their use and popularity would be greatly increased if tney were made sufficiently waterproof to allow plastering directly on the inside surface. For this purpose it is not necessary that blocks should be perfectly water- proof, but only that the absorption of water shall be slow, so that it may pene- trate only part way through the wall during a long-continued rain. Walls made entirely water-tight are, in fact, objectionable, owing to their tendency to "sweat" from condensation of moisture on the inside surface. For health and comfort, walls must be slightly porous, so that any moisture formed on the in- side may be gradually absorbed and carried away. Excessive water absorption may be avoided in the following ways: 1. Use of Properly Graded Materials. ■ — It has been shown by Feret and others that porosity and permeability are two different tilings; porosity is the total proportion of voids or open spaces in the mass, while permeability is the rate at which water, under a given pressure, will piiss through it. Permeabdity depends on the size of the openings as well as on their total amount.' In two masses of the same porosity or percentage of voids, one consisting of coarse and the other of fine particles, the permeability will be greater in the case of the coarse material. The least permeability, and also the least porosity, are, however, obtained by use of a suitable mixture of coarse and fine particles. Properly graded gravel or screenings, containing plenty of coarse fragments and also enough fine material to fill up the pores, will be found to give a much less permeable concrete than fine or coarse sand used alone. 2. Use of Rich Mixtures. — All con- cretes are somewhat permeable by water under sufficient pressure. Mixtures rich in cement are of course much less permeable than poorer mixtures. If the amount of cement used is more than sufficient to fill the voids in the sand and gravel, a very dense concrete is obtained, mto which the penetration of water is extremely slow. The permeability also decreases considerably with age, owing to the gradual crystallization of the cement m the pores, so that concrete which is at first quite absorbent may be- come practically impermeable after ex- posure to weather for a. few weeks or months. There appears to be a very decided increase in permeability when the cement is reduced below the amount necessary to fill the voids. For example, a well-mixed sand and gravel weighing 123 pounds per cubic foot, and therefore containing 25 per cent voids, will give a fairly impermeable concrete in mixtures up to 1 to 4, but with less cement will be found quite absorbent. \ 'travel with only 20 per cent voids would give about equally good results with a 1 to .> mix- ture; such gravel is, however, rarely met with in practice. On the other hand, the best sand, mixed fine and coarse, seldom contains less than 33 jier cent voids, and concrete made from surh material will prove permeable if poorer than 1 to 3. 3. Use of a Facing. — Penetration of water may be effectively prevented by giving the blocks a facing of richer mixture than the body. For the sake of smooth appearance, facings are generally made of eement and fine sand, and it is often noticed that these do not harden well. It should be remembered that a 1 to 3 sand mixture is no stronger and little if any better in water absorption than a 1 to 5 mixture of well-graded sand and gravel. To secure good hardness and resistance to moisture a facing as rich as 1 to i should be used. i. Use of an Impervious Partition. — When blocks are made on a horizontal- face machine, it is a simple matter, after the face is tamped and cores pushed into place, to throw into each opening a small amount of rich and rather wet mortar, spread this fairly evenly, and then go on tamping in the ordinary mixture until the mold is filled. A dense layer across each of the cross walls is thus obtained, which effectually prevents moisture from passing beyond it. A method of ac- complishing the same result with vertical- face machines, by inserting tapered wooden blocks in the middle of the cross walls, withdrawing these blocks after tamping, and filling the spaces with rich mortar, has been patented. In the two- piece system the penetration of moisture through the wall is prevented by leaving an empty space between the web of the block and the inside face, or by filling this space with rich mortar. 5. Use of Waterproof Compounds. — There are compounds on the market, of a fatty or waxy nature, which, when mixed with cement to the amount of 698 STONE only 1 or 2 per cent of its weight, in- crease its water-resisting qualities in a remarkable degree. By thoroughly mix- ing 1 to 2 pounds of suitable compound with each sack of cement used, blocks which are practically waterproof may be made, at very small additional cost, from 1 to 4 or 1 to S mixtures. In purchasing waterproof compound, how- ever, care should be taken to select such as has been proved to be permanent in its effect, and some of the materials used for this purpose lose their effect after a few days' exposure to weather, and are entirely worthless. 6. Application to Surface after Erect- ing. — Various washes, to make concrete and stone impervious to water, have been used with some success. Among these the best known is the Sylvester wash of alum and soap solution. It is stated that this requires frequent re- newal, and it is hardly likely to prove of any value in the concrete industry. The writer's experience has been that the most effective remedy, in case a concrete building proves damp, is to give the out- side walls a very thin wash of cement suspended in water. One or two coats will be found sufficient. If too thick a coating is formed it will show hair cracks. The effect of the cement wash is to make the walls appear lighter in color, and if the coating is thin the ap- pearance is in no way injured. General Hints on Waterproof Quali- ties. — To obtain good water-resisting properties the first precaution is to make the concrete sufficiently wet. Dry- tamped backs, even from rich mixture, will always be porous and absorbent, while the same mixture in plastic con- dition will give blocks which are dense, strong, and water-tight. The difference in this respect is shown by the following tests of small concrete blocks, made by the writer. The concrete used was made of 1 part cement and 5 parts mixed fine and coarse sand, by weight. No. 1. With 8 per cent water, rather dryer than ordinary block concrete, tamped in mold. No. 2. With 10 per cent water, tamped in the mold, and the mold removed at once. No. 3. With 25 per cent water, poured into a mold resting on a flat surface of dry sand; after 1 hour the sur- face was troweled smooth; mold not removed until set. These blocks were allowed to harden a week in moist air, then- dried. The weights, voids, and water absorption were as follows: 1 2 3 Damp- Wet- pou^ed tamped tamped Weight, per cubic foot, pounds 122.2 123.9 110.0 Voids, calculated, per cent of volume 25.9 24.9 33.3 Water required to fill voids, per cent of weight 9.8 9.4 12.5 Water absorbed, af- ter 2 hours, per centof weight. .. 8.8 6.4 10.5 The rate at which these blocks ab- sorbed water was then determined by drying them thoroughly, then placing them in a tray containing water J inch in depth, and weighing them at intervals. 12 3 Damp- Wet- -pr^^^^j tamped tamped ^°"'™ i hour 2.0 0.9 1.8 1 hour 3.2 1.1 2.5 2 hours 4.1 1.6 3.2 4 hours 5.2 2.0 3.8 24 hours 6.1 3.4 7.0 48 hours 6.4 4.3 7.5 These ^ures show that concrete which is sufficiently wet to be thoroughly plastic absorbs water much more slow- ly than dryer concrete, and prove the importance of using as much water as possible in the damp-tamping process. Cost. — Concrete blocks can be sold and laid up at a good profit at 25 cents Cer cubic foot of wall. Common red rick costs (at this writing) generally about $12 per thousand, laid. At 24 to the cubic foot, a thousand brick are equal to 41.7 cubic foot of wall; or, $12, 29 cents per cubic foot. Brick walls with pressed brick facing cost from 40 cents to 50 cents per cubic foot, and dressed stone from $1 to $1.50 per foot. The factory cost of concrete blocks varies according to the cost of materials. Let us assume cement to be $1.50 per barrel of 380 pounds, and sand and gravel 25 cents per ton. With a 1 to 4 mixture, 1 barrel cement will make 1,900 pounds of solid concrete, or at 130 pounds per cubic foot, 14.6 cubic feet. The cost of materials will then be: Cement, 380 pounds $1.50 Sand and gravel, 1,500 pounds. . . 0.19 Total $1.69 or 11.5 cents per cubic foot solid con- crete. Now, blocks 9 inches high and 32 inches long make 2 square feet of face of wall, each. Blocks of this height STONE 699 and length, 8 inches thick, make IJ cubic feet of wall; and blocks 12 inches thick make 2 cubic feet of wall. From these figures we may calculate the cost of inuterials for these blocks, with cores or openings equal to ^ or i the total volume, as follows: Per cubic foot of block, J open- ing. . . 7.7 cts. Per cubic foot of block, J open- ing 5.8 cts. Block 8 X 9 X 33 inches, J open- ing 10.3 cts. Block 8 X 9 X 32 inches, J open- ing 7.7 cts. Block 12 X 9 X 32 inches, J opening 15.4 cts. Block 12 X 9 X 32 inches, i opening 11.6 cts. If one-third of the cement is replaced by hydrate lime the quality of the olocks will be improved, and the cost of material reduced about 10 per cent. The cost of labor required in manufac- turing, handling, and delivering blocks will vary with the locality and the size and equipment of factory. With hand mixing, 3 men at an average of $1.75 each will easily make 75 8-incn or 50 1'2-inch blocks, with J openings, per day. The labor cost for these sizes of blocks will therefore be 7 cents and 10 J cents respectively. At a factory equipped with power concrete mixer and cars for trans- porting blocks, in which a number of machines are kept busy, the labor cost will be consideraoly less. An extensive industry located in a large city is, how- ever, subject to many expenses which are avoided in a small country plant, such as high wages, management, office rent, advertising, etc., so that the total cost of production is likely to be about the same in both cases. A fair estimate of total factory cost is as follows: Material Labor Total 8 X 32 inch, J space 10.3 7 17.3 cts. 8 X 32 inch, J space 7.7 6 13.7 cts. 12 X 32 inch, i space 15.4 10.5 25.9 cts. 12 X 32 inch, i space 11.6 9 20.6 cts. With fair allowance for outside ex- penses and profit, 8-inch blocks may be sold at 30 cents and 12-inch at 40 cents each. For laying 12-inch blocks in the wall, contractors generally figure about 10 cents each. Adding 5 cents for teaming, the blocks will cost 55 cents each, erected, or 27 J cents per cubic foot of wall. This is less than the cost of common brick, and the above figures show that this price could be shaded somewhat, if necessary, to meet com- petition. — S. B. Newberry in a monograph usued by the American Association a} Port- land Cement Manujacfwers. Artificial Uarbles. — I. — The mass used by Beaumel consists of alum and heavy spar (barium sulphate) with addition of water and the requisite pigments. The following proportions have been found to be serviceable: Alum, 1,000 parts; heavy spar, 10 to 100 parts; water, 100 parts; the amount of heavy spar being governed by the degree of translucence desired. The alum is dissolved in water with the use of heat. As soon as the solution boils the heavy spar is mixed in, stirred with water and the pigment; this is then boiled down until the mixture has lost about 3 per cent of its weight, at which moment the mass exhibits a density of 34° Be. at a temperature of 212° F. The mixture is allowed to cool with constant stirring until the substance is semi-liquid. The resultant mass is poured into a mold covered on the inside with several layers of collodion and the cast permitted to cool completely in the mold, whereupon it is taken out and dried entirely in an airy room. Subsequently the object may be polished, patinized, or finished in some other way. II. — Imitation Black Marble. — A black marble of similar character to that exported from Belgium — the lat- ter product being simply prepared slate — may be produced in the following manner: The slate suitable for the pur- pose is first smoothly polished with a. sandstone, so that no visible impression is made on it with a chisel — this being rough — after which it is polished finely with artificial pumice stone, and lastly finished with extremely light natural pumice stone, the surface then present- ing a soft, velvet-like appearance. After drying and thoroughly heating the finely Eolisned surface is impregnated with a eated mixture of oil and fine lampblack. This is allowed to remain 12 hours; and, according to whether the slate used is more or less gray, the process is repeated until the gray appearance is lost. Pol- ishing thoroughly with emery on a linen rag follows, and the finishing poUsh is done with tin ashes, to which is added some lampblack. A finish being made thus, wax dissolved in turpentine, with some lampblack, is spread on the polished plate and warmed again, which after a while is rubbed off vigorously with a 700 STOPPERS— STOVE POLISH clean linen rag. Treated thus, the slate has the appearance of black marble. STONE CEMENTS: See Adhesives. STONE CLEANING: See Cleaning Preparations and Meth- ods. STONES FOR SHARPENING: See Tool Setting and Whetstones. STONES (PRECIOUS), IMITATION OF: See Gems, Artificial. STONEWARE: See Ceramics. STONEWARE CEMENTS: See Adhesives and Lutes. STOPPERS. I. — To make an anti-leak and lubri- cating mixture for plug-cocks use 2 parts of tried suet and 1 part of beeswax melted together; stir thoroughly, strain, and cool. II. — A mixture for making glass stop- pers tight is made by melting together equal parts of glycerine and parafiBne. To Loosen a Glass Stopper. — I. — Make a mixture of Alcohol 2 drachms Glycerine 1 drachm Sodium chloride 1 drachm Let a portion of this stand in the space above the stopper for a few hours, when a slight tap will loosen the stopper. n. — A circular adjustable clamp, to which is attached a strip of asbestos in which coils of platinum wire are im- bedded, is obtained. By placing this on the neck of the bottle, and passing a cur- rent of electricity through the coils of wire, sufficient heat will be generated to expand the neck and liberate the stopper. •Heat may also be generated by passing a yard of cord once around the bottle neck and, by taking one end of the cord in each hand, drawing it rapidly back and forth. Care should be taken that the contents of the bottle are not spilled on the hand or thrown into the face when the stopper does come out — or when the bottle breaks. STOPPER LUBRICANTS: See Lubricants. STOVE POLISH: See also Polishes. The following formula gives a liquid stove blacking: Graphite, in fine pow- der 1 pound Lampblack 1 ounce Rosin 4 ounces Turpentine 1 gallon The mixture must be well shaken when used, and must not be applied when there is a fire or light near on account of the inflammability of the vapor. This form may be esteemed a con- venience by some, but the rosin and tur- pentine will, of course, give rise to some disagreeable odor on first heating the stove, after the liquid is applied. Graphite is the foundation ingredient in many stove polishes; lampblack, which is sometimes added, as in the fore- going formula, deepens the color, but the latter form of carbon is of course much more readily burned off than the former. Graphite may be applied by merely mixing with water, and then no odor follows the heating of the iron. The coating must be well rubbed with a brush to obtain a good luster. The solid cakes of stove polish found in the market are made by subjecting the powdered graphite, mixed with spirit of turpentine, to great pressure. They have to be reduced to powder and mixed with water before being applied. Any of them must be well rubbed with a brush after application to give a hand- some finish. STOVE CEMENT: See Cement. STOVE CLEANERS: See Cleaning Compounds. STOVE LACQUER: See Lacquers. STOVE VARNISHES: See Varnishes. STRAMONIUM, ANTIDOTE FOR: See Atropine. STRAP LUBRICANT: See Lubricant. STRAW FIREPROOFING : See Fireproofing. STRAWBERRIES, FROZEN: See Ice Creams. STRAWBERRY JUICE: See Essences and Extracts. STRAW -HAT CLEANERS: See Cleaning Preparations and Meth- ods. STRAW -HAT DYES: See Hats. STYFnCS— SYRUPS 701 STRAW -HAT VARNISHES: Sop Varnishes. STROPPING PASTES: Sec Razor Pastes. STUCCO PAINT: See Paint. STYPTICS. Styptics are substances which arrest local bleeding. Creosote, tannic acid, alcohol, alum, and most of the astringent salts belong to thiis class. Brocchieri's Styptic. — A nostrum con- sisting of the water distilled from pine tops. Helvetius's Styptic. — Iron filings (fine) and cream of tartar mixed to a proper consistence with French brandy. • Eaton's Styptic. — A solution of sul- phate disguised by the addition of some unimportant substances. Helvetius's styptic was for a, long time employed under this title. Styptic Paste of Gutta Percha. — Gutta percna, 1 ounce; Stockholm tar, IJ or '2 ounces; creosote, 1 drachm; shellac, 1 ounce; or quantity sufficient to render it sufficiently nard. To be boiled together with constant stirring, till it forms a ho- mogeneous mass. For alveolar hemor- rhage, and as a styptic in toothache. To be softened by molding with the fingers. SULPHATE STAINS, TO REMOVE: See Cleaning Preparations and Meth- ods. SULTANA ROLL: See Ice Creams. SUNBURN REMEDIES: See Cosmetics. SUTURES OF CATGUT, THEIR PREP- ARATION: See Catgut. SYNDETICON: See Adhesives. Sjrrups (See also Essences and Extracts.) The syrups should either be made from the best granulated sugar, free from ultramarine, or else rock-candy syrup. If the former, pure distilled water should be used in making the syrup, as only in this manner can a syrup be ODtained that will be free from im- purities and odor. There are two meth- ods by which syrup can be made, namely, by the cold process, or by boiling. The advantage of the former is its con- venience; of the latter, that it has better keeping qualities. In the cold process, the sugar is either stirred up in the water until it is dissolved, or water is percolated or filtered through the sugar, thus forming a solution. In the hot process, the sugar is simply dissolved in the water by the aid of heat, stirring until solution is effected. The strength of the syrup for fountain use should be about 6 pounds in the gallon of finished syrup; it is best, however, to make the stock syrup heavier, as it will keep much better, u.sing 15 pounds of granulated sugar, and 1 gallon of water. When wanted for use it ran be diluted to the proper den.sity with water. The syrups of the market are uf this con- centrated variety. Unless the apart- ments of the dispenser are larger than is usual, it is often best to buy the svrup, the difference in cost being so small that when the time is taken into considera- tion the profit is entirely lost. Foamed syrups should, however, never be pur- chased; they are either contaminated with foreign flavor, or are more prone to fermentation than plain syrup. Fruit Syrups. — These may be pre- pared from fruit juices, and tlie desired quantity of syrup, then adding soda foam, color, and generally a small iiinoiint of fruit-acid solution. They may also be made by reducing the con- eentrateil fruit syrups of the market with syrup, otherwise proceeding as above. As the fruit juices and eoncentrated syrups always have a tried formula at- tached, it is needless to use space for this purpose. When a flavor is weak it may be forti- fied by adding a. small amount of flav- oring extract, but under no condition shoidd a syrup flavored entirely with an essence be handed out to the consumer as a, fruit syrup, for there is really no freat resemblance between the two. ^ruit syrups may be dispensed solid by adding the syrup to the soda water and stirring with a spoon. Use nothing but the best ingredients in making syrups. Preservation of Syrups. — The preser- vation of syrups is purely a pharma- ceutical question. They must be made right in order to keep right. Syrups, particularly fruit syrups, must be kept aseptic, especially when made without heat. The containers should be made of glass, porcelain, or pure block tin, so that they may be sterilized, and should be easily and quickly removed, so that the operation may be effected with promptness and facility. As is well known, the operation of sterilization is 702 SYRUPS very simple, consisting in scalding the article with boiling water. No syrup should ever be filled into a container without first sterilizing the container. The fruit acids, in the presence of sugar, serve as a media for the growth and develop- ment of germ life upon exposure to the air. Hence the employment of heat as pasteurization and sterilization in the pre- serving of fruits, etc. A pure fruit syrup, filled into a glass bottle, porcelain jar, or block-tin can, which has been rendered sterile with boiling water, maintained at a cool tem- fierature, will keep for any reasonable ength of time. All danger of fracturing the glass, by pouring water into it, may be obviated by first wetting the interior of the bottle with cold water. The fruits for syrups must not only be fully ripe, but they must be used imme- diately after gathering. The fruit must be freed from stems, seeds, etc., filled into lightly tied linen sacks, and thus sub- jected to pressure, to obtain their juices. Immediately after pressure the juice should be heated quickly to 167° F., and filtered through a felt bag. The filtrate should fall directly upon the sugar neces- sary to make it a syrup. The heating serves the purpose of coagulating the al- buminous bodies present in the juices, and thus to purify the latter. Syrups thus prepared have not only a most agreeable, fresh taste, but are very stable, remaining in a good condition for years. Hints on Preparation of S3rrups. — Keep the extracts in a cool, dark place. Never add flavoring extracts to hot syrup. It will cause them to evaporate, and weaken the flavor. Keep all the mixing utensils scrupulously clean. Never mix fruit syrups, nor let them stand in the same vessels in which sarsa- parilla, ginger, and similar extract flavors are mixed and kept. If possible, always use distilled water in making syrup. Never allow a syrup containing acid to come in contact with any metal except pure block tin. Clean the syrup jars each time before refilling. Keep all packages of concentrated syrups and crushed fruits tightly corked. Mix only a small quantity of crushed fruit in the bowl at a time, so as to have it always fresh. How to Make Simple Syrups — Hot Process. — Put 25 pounds granulated sugar in a large pail, or kettle, and pour on and stir hot water enough to make 4 gallons, more or less depending on how thick the syrup is desired. Then strain while hot through fine cheese cloth. Cold Process. — By agitation. Sugar, 25 pounds; water, 2 gallons. Put the sugar in a container, add the water, and agitate with a wooden paddle until the sugar is dissolved. An earthenware jar with a cover and a faucet at the bottom makes a very convenient container. Cold Process. — By percolation. A good, easy way to keep syrup on hand all the time: Have made a galvanized iron percolator, 2 feet long, 8 inches across top, and 4 inches at base, with a 4-inch wire sieve in bottom. Finish the bottom in shape of a funnel. Put a syrup faucet in a barrel, and set on a box, so that the syrup can be drawn into a gallon measure. Bore a hole in the barrel head, and insert the percolator. Fill three- fourths full of sugar, and fill with water. As fast as the syrup runs into the barrel fill the percolator, always putting in plenty of sugar. By this method 20 to 25 gal- lons heavy syrup can be made in a day. Rock-Candy Syrup. — Sugar, 32 pounds; water, 2 gallons. Put the sugar and water in a suitable container, set on stove, and keep stirring until the mixture boils up once. Strain and allow to cool. When cool there will be on top a crust, or film, of crystallized sugar. Strain again to remove this film, and the prod- uct will be what is commonly known as rock-candy syrup. This may be reduced with one-fifth of its bulk of water when wanted for use. COLORS FOR SYRUPS: Caramel. — Place 3 pounds of crushed sugar in a kettle with 1 pint of water, and heat. The sugar will at first dis- solve, but as the water evaporates a solid mass will be formed. This must be broken up. Continue to heat, with constant stir- ring, until the mass has again become liquefied. Keep on a slow fire until the mass becomes very dairk; then remove the kettle from the fire and pour in slowly 3 pints of boiling water. Set the kettle back on the fire and permit contents to boil for a short time, then remove, and cool. Add simple syrup to produce any required consistency. Blue. — I. — Indigo carmine 1 part Water 20 parts Indigo carmine may usually be ob- tained commercially; n. — Tincture of indigo also makes a harmless blue. SYRUPS— TABLES 703 Sap Blue. — Dark blue 3 parts Grape sugar 1 part WatiT 6 parts Green. — TIic addition of indigo-car- mine solution to any yellow solution will give various shades of green. Indigo carmine added to a mixture of tincture of crocus and glycerine will give a fine green color. A solution of commercial chlorophyll yields grass-green shades. Pink.— I. — Carmine 1 part Liquor potassEe .■ 6 parts Rose water to make.. 48 parts Mix. If the color is too high, dilute with distilled water until the required tint is obtained. II. — Soak red-apple parings in Cali- fornia brandy. The addition of rose leaves makes a fine flavoring as well as coloring agent. Red.— Carmine, No. 40 ... . 1 part Strong ammonia water .• 4 parts Distilled water to make 2-t parts Rub up the carmine and ammonia water ana to the solution add the water under trituration. If, in standing, this sliows a tendency to separate, a drop or two of water of ammonia will correct the trouble. This statement should be put on the label of the bottle as the volatile ammonia soon escapes even in glass-stoppered vials. Various shades of red may be obtained by using fruit juices, such as black cherry, raspberry, etc., and also the tinctures of sudbear, alkanet, red saunders, erythroxylon, etc. Orange. — Tincture of red sandal- wood 1 part Ethereal tincture of Orlean, q. s. Add the orlean tincture to the sandal- wood gradually until the desired tint is obtained. A red color added to a yellow one gives an orange color. Purple. — A mixture of tincture of indigo, or a solution of indigo carmine, added to cochineal red gives a fine purple. Yellow. — Various shades of yellow may be obtained by the maceration of saffron or turmeric in alcohol until a strong tincture is obtained. Dilute with water until the desired tint is reached. SYRUP^ TABLE: See Tables. Tables ALCOHOL DILUTION. The following table gives the per- centage, by weight, of alcohol of 95 per cent and of distilled water to make 1 liter (about 1 quart), or 1 kilogram {i.i pounds), of alcohol of various dilutions. TABLE FOR THE DILUTION OF ALCOHOL. 1 Liter >, 1 Kilogram contains contains S,"j *> o ^ g'S . u"^ a. — II s "Sfc ol ! o C ~%i 1 s < a* c "3 1 Gms. Gras. Gms. Gms. 5 42.87 960.13 0.993 43.17 956.83 3.99 10 85.89 900.11 0.986 87.11 912.89 8.05 15 128.87 852.13 0.981 131.37 868.63 12.14 20 171.83 804.17 0.976 176.06 823.94 16.27 25 214.77 756.23 0.971 221.18 778.82 20.44 30 257.93 707.07 0.965 287.28 732.72 24.70 35 300.74 658.26 0.969 313.60 686.40 28.98 40 343.77 608.23 0.952 361.10 638.90 33.37 45 386.75 557.25 0.944 409.09 590.31 37.86 50 429.65 604.35 0.934 460.01 639.99 42.51 55 472.64 451.36 0.924 511.62 488.48 47.27 60 615.60 398.40 0.914 664.11 436.89 62.13 65 658.61 343.39 0.902 619.30 380.70 67.23 70 601.56 288.46 0.890 676.90 324.10 62.46 75 644.68 232.42 0.877 734.98 265.02 67.92 80 687.67 176.43 0.864 795.80 204.20 73.54 85 730.51 119.49 0.850 859.43 140.67 79.42 90 773.53 0.47 0.834 927.49 72.61 85.71 Capacities of Common Utensils. — For ordinary measuring purposes a wine- glass may be said to hold 2 ounces. .V tablespoon, \ ounce. A dessertspoon, J ounce. .V teaspoon, \ ounce, or 1 drachm. A teacupful of sugar weighs \ pound. Three tablespoonfuls weigh J pound. Cook's Table. — Two teacupful.s (well heaped) of coffee and of sugar weigh 1 pound. Two teacupfuls (level) of granulated sugar weigh 1 pound. Two teacupfuls soft butter (well packed) weigh 1 pound. One and one-third pints of powdered sugar weigh 1 pound. Two tablespoonfuls of powdered sugar or flour weigh 1 pound. Four teaspoonfuls are equal to 1 table- spoon. Two and one-half teacupfuls (level) of the best brown sugar weigh 1 pound. Two and three-fourths teacupfuls (level) of powdered sugar weigh 1 pound. One tablespoonful (well heaped) of granulated or best brown sugar equals 1 704 TABLES One generous pint of liquid, or 1 pint finely chopped meat, packed solidly, weighs 1 pound. Table of Drops.— Used in estimating the amount of a flavoring extract neces- sary to flavor a gallon of syrup. Based on the assumption of 450 drops being equal to 1 ounce. One drop of extract to an ounce of syrup is equal to 2 drachms to a gallon. Two drops of extract to an ounce of syrup are equal to 4^ drachms to a gallon. Three drops of extract to an ounce of syrup are equal to 6 J drachms to a gallon. Four drops of extract to an ounce of syrup are equal to 1 ounce and 1 drachm to a gallon. Five drops of extract to an ounce of syrup are equal to 1 ounce and 3 J drachms to a gallon. Six drops of extract to an ounce of syrup are equal to 1 ounce and 5 J drachms to a gallon. Seven drops of extract to an ounce of syrup are equal to 2 ounces to the gallon. Eight drops of extract to an ounce of syrup are equal to 2 ounces and 2 J drachms to a gallon. Nine drops of extract to an ounce of syrup are equal to 2 ounces and 4 J drachms to a gallon. Ten drops of extract to an ounce of syrup are equal to 2 ounces and 6| drachms to a gallon. Twelve drops of extract to an ounce of syrup are equal to 3 ounces and 3 J drachms to a gallon. Fourteen drops of extract to an ounce of syrup are equal to 4 ounces to a gallon. Sixteen drops of extract to an ounce of syrup are equal to 4 ounces and 4J drachms to a gallon. Eighteen drops of extract to an ounce of syrup are equal to 5 ounces and 1 drachm to a gallon. Note. — The estimate 450 drops to the ounce, while accurate and reliable enough in this particular relation, must not be relied upon for very exact purposes, in which, as has frequently been demon- strated, the drop varies within a very wide range, according to the nature of the liquid, its consistency, specific gravity, temperature; the size and shape of the aperture from which it is allowed to escape, etc. Fluid Measure. — XJ. S. Standard, or Wine Measure. — Sixty minims are equal to 1 fluidrachm. Eight fluidrachms are equal to 1 fluid- ounce. Sixteen fluidounces are equal to 1 pint. Two pints are equal to 1 quart. Four quarts are equal to 1 gallon. One pint of distilled water weighs about 1 pound. Percentage Solutions. — To prepare the following approximately correct solu- tions,' dissolve the amount of medicament indicated in sufficient water to make one imperial pint. For sV per cent, or 1 in 5,000 solution, use If grains of the medicament. For 1^ per cent, or 1 in 2,000 solution, use 4| grains of the medicament. For ^„- per cent, or 1 in 1,000 solution, use 8| grains of the medicament. For i per cent, or 1 in 400 solution, use 21J grains of the medicament. For J per cent, or 1 in 200 'solution, use 43| grains of the medicament. For 1 per cent, or 1 in 100 solution, use 87 J grains of the medicament. For 2 per cent, or 1 in 50 solution, use 175 grains of the medicament. For 4 per cent, or 1 in 25 solution, use 350 grains of the medicament. For 5 per cent, or 1 in 20 solution, use 437 J grains of the medicament. For 10 per cent, or 1 in 10 solution, use 875 grains of the medicament. To make smaller quantities of any solution, use less water and reduce the medicament in proportion to the amount of water employed; thus J imperial pint of a 1 per cent solution will require 43f grains of the medicament. Pressure Table. — ^This table shows the amount of commercial sulphuric acid (H2SO4) and sodium bicarbonate neces- sary to produce a given pressure: 120 Pounds Pressure. Water, gallons 10 20 30 40 50 Soda Bicar., Av. ounces 86 123 161 198 236 Acid Sulph., Av. ounces 50 71 93 118 138 135 Pounds Pressure. Water, Soda Bicar., Acid Sulph., gallons Av. ounces Av. ounces. 10 96 56 20 134 73 30 171 100 40 209 122 50 246 144 ir marble dust be used, reckon at the rate of 18 ounces hot water for use. Syrup Table. — The following table shows the amount of sjrup obtained from 1. The addition of pounds of sugar to 1 gallon of water; and the rABLKS— TERRA COITA SlliS'irn TES 705 2. Amount of sugar in each gallon of syrup resulting therefrom: Pounda of susar added to Quant ity of Byrup obtained. actually Pounds of sugar one gallon of cold water. Gallons. Pints. Fluid- ounces. in one gallon of syrup. 1 _ 10 .93 3 1 4 1.73 3 1 14 2.43 4 2 3 3.05 5 3 2 3.6 6 3 12 4.09 7 4 6 4.52 8 5 — 4.92 9 5 10 5.28 10 6 4 5. (12 11 6 14 5.1)2 12 7 8 6.18 13 ■■z — 2 6.38 14 2 — 12 6.7 15 2 1 e 6.91 TABLE-TOPS, ACID-PROOF: See Acid- Proofing. TABLES FOR PHOTOGRAPHERS: See Photography. TAFFY: See Confectionery. TALCUM POWDER: See Cosmetics. TALLOW: See Fats. TALMI GOLD: See Alloys. TAMPRING: See Tampring, under Steel. TAN REMEDY: See Cosmetics. TANK: To Estimate Contents of a Circular Tank. — The capacity of a circular tank may be determined by multiplying the diameter in inches by itself and by .7854 and by the length (or depth) in inches, which gives the capacity of the tank in inches, and then dividing by 231, the number of cubic inches in a United States gallon. TANNING: See Leather. TAPS, TO REMOVE BROKEN. First clean the hole by means of a small squirt gun filled with kerosene. All broken pieces of the tap can be re- moved with a pair of tweezers, which should be as large as possible. Then insert the tweezers bt-tween the hole and flutes of the tap. By slowly working back and forth and occasionally blowing out with kerosene, the broken piece is easily released. TAR PAINTS: See Wood. TAR-SPOTS ON WOODWORK: See Paint. TAR -SULPHUR SOAP: See Soap. TAR SYRUP: See Es-icnces and Extracts. TATTOO MARKS, REMOVAL OF. Apply a highly concentrated tannin solution on the tattooed places and treat them with the tattooing needle as the tattooer does. Next viKoroiisly rub the places with a lunar caustic stick and allow the silver nitrate to act for .some time, until the tattooed portions liavc turned entirely black. Then take off by dabbing. .\t first a silver tannate forms on the upper layers of the skin, which dyes the tattooing black; with slight symptoms of inflammation a scurf ensues which comes off after 14 to 16 days, leaving beliind a reddish scar. The latter assumes the natural color of the skin after some time. The process is said to have given good results. TAWING: See Leather. TEA EXTRACT: See Essences and Extracts. . TEETH, TO WHITEN DISCOLORED. Moisten the corner of a linen hand- kerchief with hydrogen peroxide, and with it rub the teeth, repeating the rub- bing occasionally. Use some exceed- ingly finely pulverized infusorial earth, or pumice ground to an impalpable powder, in connection with the hydrogen peroxide, and the job will be quicier than with the peroxide alone. TELESCOPE METAL: See Alloys. TEMPERING OF STEEL: See Steel. TERRA COTTA SUBSTITUTE. A substance, under this name, designed to take the place of terra cotta and plaster of Paris in the manufacture of small orna- mental objects, consists of 706 THERMOMETERS— TIN Albumen 10 parts Magnesium sulphate . 4 parts Alum 9 parts Calcium sulphate, cal- cined 45 parts Borax 2 parts Water 30 parts The albumen and alum are dissolved in the water and with the solution so obtained the other ingredients are made into a paste. This paste is ipolded at once in the usual way and when set the articles are exposed in an oven to a heat of 140° F. TERRA COTTA CLEANING: See Cleaning Preparations and Meth- ods. TEXTILE CLEANING: See Cleaning Preparations and Meth- ods and Household Formulas. Thermometers Table Showing the Comparison of f^e Readings of Thermometers. Celsius, or Centigrade (C). Reaumur (R). Fahrenheit (F). c. R. F. c. R. F. -30 -24.0 -22.0 23 18.4 73.4 -25 -20.0 -13.0 24 19.2 75.2 -20 -16.0 - 4.0 25 20.0 77.0 -15 -12,0 + 5.0 26 20.8 78.8 -10 - 8.0 14.0 27 21,6 80.6 - 5 - 4.0 23.0 28 22,4 82.4 - 4 - 3.2 24.8 29 23,2 84.2 - 3 - 2.4 26.6 30 24,0 86,0 - 2 - 1.6 28.4 31 24,8 87,8 - 1 - 0.8 30.2 32 26.6 89,6 33 26,4 91,4 Freezing point o: water. 34 27.2 93,2 35 28.0 96,0 0.0 32.0 36 28.8 96.8 1 0.8 33.8 37 29.6 98.6 2 1.6 35.6 38 30.4 100,4 3 2.4 37.4 39 31.2 102,2 4 3.2 39.2 40 32.0 104,0 5 4.0 41.0 41 32,8 105,8 6 4.8 42.8 42 33,6 107.6 7 5.6 44.6 43 34,4 109.4 8 6.4 46.4 44 36,2 111.2 9 7.2 48.2 45 36,0 113.0 10 8.0 50,0 60 40.0 122,0 11 8.8 51,8 55 44.0 131,0 12 9.6 53,6 60 48.0 140,0 13 10.4 55,4 66 52,0 149,0 14 11.2 67.2 70 56,0 158,0 15 12.0 59,0 75 60,0 167,0 16 12.8 60,8 80 64,0 176.0 17 13.6 62,6 85 68,0 185,0 18 14.4 64,4 90 72,0 194,0 19 15.2 66,2 95 76,0 203.0 20 16.0 68,0 100 80.0 212.0 21 16.8 69,8 22 17.6 71.6 Boilini ; point < jf water. Readings on one scale can be changed into another by the following formulas. in which t° indicates degrees of temper- ature : R^au. to Fahr. (°R + 32''-(''F R6au to Cent. 5i°R = i»C 4 Cent, to Fahr. 9 J(°C + 32°=<° F 5 Cent, to R^au. ^(»C = «°R Fahr. to Cent. |/«»F-32°)=«°C Fahr. to R^au. g(i°F-32°)=<°R THREAD: See also Cordage. Dressing for Sewing Thread. — For colored thread: Irish moss, 3 pounds; gum arabic, 2i pounds; Japan wax, § pound; stearine, 185 grams; borax, 95 grams; boil together for \ hour. For white thread: Irish moss, 2 pounds; tapioca, 1 J pounds; spermaceti, | pound; stearine, 110 grams; borax, 95 grams; boil together for 20 minutes. For black thread: Irish moss, 3 pounds; gum Senegal, 2 J pounds; ceresin, 1 pound; borax, 95 grams ; logwood extract, 95 grams; blue vitriol, 30 grams; boil together for 20 minutes. Soak the Irish moss in each case overnight in 45 liters of water, then boil for 1 hour, strain and add the other ingredients to the resulting solution. It is of advantage to add the borax to the Irish moss before the boiling. THROAT LOZENGES: See Confectionery. THYMOL: See Antiseptics. TICKS, CATTLE DIP FOR: See Insecticides. TIERCES: See Disinfectants. TILEMAKERS' NOTES: See Ceramics. Tin Etching Bath for Tin. — The design is either freely drawn upon the metal with a needle or a lead pencil, or pricked into the metal through tracing paper with a needle. The outlines are filled with a varnish (wax, colophony, asphalt). The varnish is rendered fluid with tur- pentine and applied with a brush. The article after having dried is laid in a \ solution, of nitric acid for \\to% hours. It is then washed and dried with blotting TIN— TINFOIL 707 paper. The protective coating of as- phalt is removed by heating. The zinc oxide in the deeper portion.s is cleaned away with a silver soap and brush. Recovery of Tin and Iron in Tinned- Plate Clippings. — The process of utiliz- ing tinnea-plate scrap consists essentially in the removal of the tin. This must be very completely carried out if the re- mamine iron is to be available for cast- ing. The removal of the outer layer of pure tin from the tinned plate is an easy matter. Beneath this, however, is an- other crystalline layer consisting of an alloy of tin and iron, which is more dif- ficult of treatment. It renders the iron unavailable for casting, as even 0.2 per cent of tin causes brittleness. Its removal is best accomplished by elec- trolysis. If dilute sulphuric acid is used as an electrolyte, the deposit is spongy at first, and afterwards, when the acid has been partly neutralized, crystalline. After 6 hours the clippings are taken out and the iron completely dissolved in dilute sulphuric acid; the residue of tin is then combined with the tin obtained by the electrolysis. Green vitriol is there- fore a by-product in this process. Gutensohn's process has two objects: To obtain tin and to render the iron fit for use. The tin is obtained by treating the tinned plate repeatedly with hydro- chloric acid. The tin is then removed from the solution by means of the electric current. The tinned plate as the positive pole is placed in a tank made of some in- sulating material impervious to the action of acids, such as slate. A copper plate forms the cathode. The bichloride of tin solution, freed from acid, is put round the carbon cylinder in the Bunsen ele- ment. Another innovation in this proc- ess is that the tank with the tinned- plate clippings is itself turned into an electric battery with the aid of the tin. A still better source of electricity is, how- ever, obtained during the treatment of the untinned iron which will be de- scribed presently. The final elimination of the tin takes place in the clay cup of the Bunsen elements. Besides the chloride of tin solution (free from acid), another tin solution, preferably chromate of tin, nitrate of tin, or sulphate of tin, according to the strength of the current desired, may be used. To render the iron of the tinned plate serviceable the acid is drawn off as long as the iron is covered with a thin layer of an alloy of iron and tin. The latter makes the iron unfit for use in rolling mills or for the precipitation of copper. Fresh hydro- chloric acid or sulphuric acid is there- fore poured over the plate to remove the alloy, after the treatment with the bi- chloride of tin solution. This acid is also systematically used in different vats to the point of approximate saturation. This solution forms the most suitable source of electricity, a zinc-iron element being formed by means of a clay cell and a zinc cylinder. The electrical force developed serves to accelerate the solu- tion in the next tank, which contains tinned plate, either fresh or treated with hydrochloric acid. Ferrous oxide, or spongy metallic iron if the current is very strong, is liberated in the iron bat- tery. Both substances are easily oxi- dized, and form red oxide of iron when heated. The remaining solution can be crystallized by evaporation, so that fer- rous sulphate (green vitriol) or ferric chloride can be obtained, or it can be treated to form red oxide of iron. Tin in Powder Form. — To obtain tin in powder form the metal is first melted; noxt pour it into a box whose sides, etc., are coated with powdered chalk. Agitate the box vigorously and without discon- tinuing, until the metal is entirely cold. Now pass this powder through a sieve and keep in a closed flask. This tin powder is eligible for various uses and makes a handsome effect, especially in bronzing. It can be browned. TINFOIL: See also Metal Foil. By pouring tin from a funnel with a very long and narrow mouth upon a linen surface, the latter being tightly stretched, covered with a mixture of chalk and white of egg, and placed in a sloping position, very thin sheets can be produced, and capable of being easily transformed into thin foil. Pure tin should never be used in the preparation of foil intended for packing tobacco, chocolate, etc., but an alloy containing 5 to 40 per cent of lead. Lead has also been recently plated on both sides with tin by the fol- lowing method: A lead sheet from 0.64 to .80 inches thick is poured on a casting table as long as it is hot, a layer of tin from 0.16 to 0.20 inches in thickness add- ed, the sheet then turned over and coated on the other side with tin in the same manner. The sheet is then stretched between rollers. Very thin sheet tin can also be made in the same way as sheet lead, by cutting up a tin cylinder into spiral sections. Colored tinfoil is pre- pared by making the foil thoroughly bright by rubbing with purified chalk 708 TINFOIL— TOOL SETTING and cotton, then adding a coat of gela- tin, colored as required, and covering the whole finally with a transparent spirit var- nish. In place of this somewhat trouble- some process, the following much simpler method has lately been introduced: Ani- line dyes dissolved in alcohol are applied on the purified foil, and the coat, when dry, covered with a very thin layer of a colorless varnish. This is done by pour- ing the varnish on the surface and then inclining the latter so that the varnish may reach every part and flow off. TIN, SILVER-PLATING: See Plating. TIN VARNISHES: See Varnishes. TINNING: See Plating. TIRE: Anti-Leak Rubber Tire. — Pneumatic tires can be made quite safe from punc- tures by using a lioeral amount of the following cheap mixture: One pound of sheet glue dissolved in hot water in the usual manner, and 3 pints of molasses. This mixture injected into the tire through the valve stem, semi-hardens into an elastic jelly, being, in fact, about the same as the well-known ink roller com- position used for the rollers of printing presses. This treatment will usually be found to effectually stop leaks in punc- tured or porous tires. TIRE CEMENTS: See Adhesives, under Rubber Cements. TISSIER'S METAL: See Alloys. TITANIUM STEEL: See Steel. TODDY, HOT SODA: See Beverages. TOILET CREAMS, MILKS, POWDERS, ETC. : See Cosmetics. TOLIDOL DEVELOPER: See Photography. TOMATO BOUILLON EXTRACT: See Condiments. TOMBACK: Seef Jewelers' Formulas. TONING BATHS: Sec Photography. TONKA EXTRACT: See Essences and Extracts. TONKA, ITS DETECTION IN VANILLA EXTRACTS: See Vanilla. TOOL SETTING. The term "setting" (grinding) is ap- plied to the operation of giving an edge to the tools designed for cutting, scrap- ing, or sawing. Cutting tools are rubbed eitiier on flat sandstones or on rapidly turned grindstones. The wear on the faces of the tools diminishes their thick- ness and rendeis the cutting angle sharper. Good edges cannot be ob- tained except with the aid of the grind- stone; it is therefore important to select this instrument with care. It should be soft, rather than hard, of fine, smooth grain, perfectly free from seams or flaws. The last condition is essential, for it often happens that, under the in- fluence of the revolving motion, a de- fective stone suddenly yields to the centrifugal force, bursts and scatters its pieces with such violence as to wound the operator. This accident may also happen with perfectly formed stones. On this account artificial stones have been substituted, more homogeneous and coherent than the natural ones. Whatever may be the stone selected, it ought to be kept constantly moist during the operation. If not, the tools will soon get heated and their temper will be impaired. When a tool has for a certain time undergone the erosive action of the stone, the cutting angle becomes too acute, too thin, and bends over on itself, constituting what is called "the feather edge." This condition renders a new setting necessary, which is usually ef- fected by bending back the feather edge, if it is long, and whetting the blade on a stone called a "setter." There are several varieties of stones used for this purpose, though they are mostly com- posed of calcareous or argilaceous mat- ter, mixed with a certain proportion of silica. The scythestone, of very fine grain, serves tor grinding off the feather edge of scythes, knives, and other large tools. The Lorraine stone, of chocolate color and fine grain, is employed with oil for carpenters' tools. American carborun- dum is very erosive. It is used with water and with oil to obtain a fine edge. The lancet stone is not inferior to any of the preceding. As its name indicates, it is used for sharpening surgical instru- ments, and only with oil. The Levant stone (Turkish sandstone) is the best of all for whetting. It is gray and semi- transparent; when of inferior quality, it TOOTHACHE— TRANSPARENCIES 709 is somewhat spotted with red. It is usually quite sort. To restore stones and efface the in- equalities and hollows caused by the friction of the tools, they are laid flat on a marble or level stone, spread over with fine, well-pulverized sandstone, and rubbed briskly. When tools have a curved edge, they are subjected to a composition formed of pulverized stone, molded into a form convenient for the concavity or convexity. Tools are also whetted with slabs of walnut or aspen wood coated with, emery of different numbers, which produces an excellent setting. TOOL LACQUER: See Lacquers. TOOL LUBRICANT: See Lubricant. Toothache TOOTHACHE GUMS: See also Pain Killers. L— Paraffine 94 grains Burgundy pitch. . .800 grains Oil of cloves i fluidrachm Creosote i fluidrachm Melt the first two ingredients, and, when nearly cool, add the rest, stirring well. May be made into small pills or turned out in form of small cones or cylinders. II. — Melt white wax or spermaceti, 2 parts, and when melted add carbolic- acid crystals, 1 part, and chloral-hydrate crystals, 2 parts; stir well until dissolved. While still liquid, immerse thin layers of carbolized absorbent cotton wool and allow them to dry. When required for use a small piece may be snipped off and slightly warmed, wnen it can be in- serted into the hollow tooth, where it will solidify. Toothache Remedy. — Camphor 4 drachms Chloral hydrate. . 4 drachms Oil of cloves 'i drachms Oil of cajeput. . . . '2 drachms Chloroform 1'2 drachms Tincture of capsi- cum a drachms TOOTH CEMENTS: Sec Cements. TOOTH PASTES, POWDERS, SOAPS, AND WASHES: See Dentifrices. TORTOISE-SHELL POLISHES: See Polishes. TOOTH STRAIGHTENING: See Watchmakers' Formulas. TOUCHSTONE, AQUAFORTIS FOR THE: See Aquafortis. TOY PAINT: See Paint. TRACING-CLOTH CLEANERS : See Cleaning Preparations and Meth- ods. TRAGACANTH, MUCILAGE OF: See Adhesives, under Mucilages. TRANSPARENCIES: See also Photography. A good method of preparing hand- some London transparencies is as fol- lows: White paper is coated with a liquid whose chief constituent is Iceland moss strongly boiled down in water to which a slight quantity of previously dissolved gelatin is added. In applying thv mass, which should always be kept in a hot condition, the paper should be covered uniformly throughout. After it has been dried well it is smoothed on the coated side and used for a proof. The trans parent colors to be used must be ground in stronger varnish than the opaque ones. In order to produte a handsome red, yellow lake and red sienna are used; the tone of the latter is considerably warmer than that of the yellow lake. Where the cost is no consideration, aurosolin may also be employed. For pale red, madder lakes should be employed, but for darker shades, crimson lakes and scarlet cochi- neal lakes. The vivid geranium lake gives a magnificoiit shade, which, how- ever, is not at all fast in sunlight. The most translucent blue will always be Berlin blue. For purple, madder pur- ple is the most reliable color, but pos- sesses little gloss. Luminous effects can be obtained with the assistance of aniline colors, but these are only of little permanence in transparencies. Light, transparent green is hardly avail- able. Recourse has to be taken to mix- ing Berlin blue with yellow lake, or red sienna. Green chromic oxide may be used if its sober, cool tone has no dis- turbing influence. Almost all brown coloring bodies give transparent colors, but the most useful are madder lakes and burnt umber. Gray is produced by mixing purple tone colors with suitable brown, but a gray color hardly ever oc- 710 TRANSPARENCIES— TRANSFER PROCESSES curs in transparent prints. Liquid sic- cative must always be added to the colors, otherwise the drying will occupy too much time. After the drj'ing, the prints are varnished on both sides. For this purpose, a well-covering, quickly drying, colorless, not too thick varnish must be used, which is elastic enough not to crack nor to break in bending. Frequently the varnishing of the pla- cards is done with gelatin. This imparts to the picture an especially handsome, luminous luster. After an equal quantity of alcohol has been added to a readily flowing solution of gelatin, kept for use in a zinc vessel, the gelatin solution is poured on the glass plates destined for the transparencies. After a quarter of an hour, take the placard, moisten its back uniformly, and lay it upon a gela- tin film which has meanwhile formed on the glass plate, where it remains 2 to 3 days. When it is to be removed from the plate, the edge of the gelatin film protruding over the edge of the placard IS lifted up with a dull knife, and it is thus drawn off. A fine, transparent gloss remains on the placard proper. In order to render the covering waterproof and pliable, it is given a coating of collodion, which does not detract from the trans- parence. The glass plates and their frames must be cleaned of adhering gela- tin particles before renewed use. TRANSFER PROCESSES: To Transfer Designs. — Designs can be transferred on painted surfaces, cloth, leather, velvet, oil cloth, and linen sharply and in all the details with little trouble. Take the original design, lay it on a layer of paper, and trace the lines of design accurately with a packing needle, the eye of which is held by a piece of wood for a handle. It is necessary to press down well. The design be- comes visible on the back by an eleva- tion. When everything has been accu- rately pressed through, take, e. g., for dark objects, whiting (formed in pieces), lay the design face downward on the knee and pass mildly with the whiting over the elevations; on every elevation a chalk line will appear. Then dust off the superfluous whiting with the fingers, lay the whiting side on the cloth to hold it so that it cannot slide, and pass over it with a soft brush. For light articles take powdered lead pencil, which is rubbed on with the finger, or limewood charcoal. For tracing use oil paint on cloth and India ink on linen. To Copy Engravings. — To make a facsimile of an engraving expose it in a warm, closed box to the vapor of iodine, then place it, inkside downward, on a smooth, dry sheet of clean white paper, which has been brushed with starch water. After the two prepared surfaces have been in contact for a short time a facsimile of the engraving will be reproduced more or less accurately, ac- cording to the skill of the operator. To Transfer Engravings. — The best way to transfer engraving from one piece to another is to rub transfer wax into the engraved letters. This wax is made of beeswax, 3 parts; tallow, 3 parts; Canada balsam, 1 part; olive oil, 1 part. If the wax becomes too hard, add a few drops of olive oil, and if too soft, a little more beeswax. Care should be taken that the wax does not remain on the surface about the engraving, otherwise the impression would be blurred. Then moisten a piece of paper by draw- ing it over the tongue and lay it on the engraving. Upon this is laid another piece of dry paper, and securing both with the thumb and forefinger of the left hand, so they will not be moved, go over the entire surface with a bur- nisher made of steel or bone, with a pointed end. This will press the lower paper into the engraving and cause the wax to adhere to it. Then the top paper is removed and the corner of the lower one gently raised. The whole is then carefully peeled off, and underneath will be found a reversed, sharp impres- sion of the engraving. The edges of the paper are then cut so it can be fitted in a position on the other articles similar to that on the original one. When this is done lay the paper in the proper posi- tion and rub the index finger lightly over it, which will transfer a clear likeness of the original engraving. If due care is taken two dozen or more transfers can be made from a single impression. TRICKS WITH FIRE: See Pyrotechnics. TUBERS, THEIR PRESERVATION: See Roots. TUBS: TO RENDER SHRUNKEN TUBS WATER-TIGHT: See Casks. TUNGSTEN STEEL: See Steel. TURMERIC IN FOOD: See Foods. TURPENTINE STAINS: See Wood. TYPEWRITER RIBBONS— VAT^VES 711 TURTLE (MOCK) EXTRACT: See Condiments. TWI5E: See also Thread and Cordage. Tough twine may be greatly strength- ened by dissolving plenty of alum in water and laying tne twine in this solu- tion. After drying, the twine will have much increased tensile strength. Typewriter Ribbons (See also Inks.) The constituents of an ink for type- writer ribbons may be broadly diviaed into four elements: 1, the pigment; 2, the vehicle; 3, the corrigent; 4, the solvent. The elements will differ with the kind of ink desired, whether permanent or copy- ing- Permanent (Record) Ink. — Any finely divided, non-fading color may be used as the pigment; vaseline is the Ijest vehicle and wax the best corrigent. In order to make the ribbon last a long time with one inking, as much pigment as feasible should be used. To make black record ink: Take some vaseline, melt it on a slow fire or water bath, and incorporate by constant stirring as much lampblack as it will take up without becoming granular. Take from the fire and allow it to cool. The ink is now practically finished, except, if not entirely suitable on trial, it may be improved by adding the corrigent wax in small quantity. The ribbon should be charged with a very thin, evenly divided amount of ink. Hence the necessity of a solvent — in this instance a mixture of equal parts of petroleum benzine and rectified spirit of turpentine. In this mixture dissolve a sufficient amount of the solid ink by vigorous agitation to make a thin paint. Try the ink on one extremity of the ribbon; if too soft, add a little wax to make it harder ; if too pale, add more color- ing matter; if too hard, add more vaseline. If carefully applied to the ribbon, and the excess brushed off, the result will be satisfactory. On the same principle, other colors may be made into ink; but for delicate colors, albolene and bleached wax should be the vehicle and corrigent, respectively. The various printing inks may be used if properly corrected. They require the addition of vaseline to make them non- drying on the ribbon, and of some wax if found too soft. Where printing inks are available, they will be found to give excellent results if thus modified, as the pigment is well milled and finely divided. Even black cosmetic may be made to answer, by the addition of some lamp- black to the solution in the mixture of benzine and turpentine. After thus having explained the prin- ciples underlying the manufacture of permanent inks, we can pass more rapidly over the subject of copying inks, which is governed by the same general rules. For copying inks, aniline colors form the pigment; a mixture of about 3 parts of water and 1 part of glycerine, the vehicle; transparent soap (about } part), the corrigent; stronger alcohol (about 6 parts), the solvent. The desired aniline color will easily dissolve in the hot vehicle, soap will give the ink the neces- sary body and counteract the hygro- scopic tendency of the gljcerine, and in the stronger alcohol the ink will readily dissolve, so that it can be applied in a finely divided state to the ribbon, where the evaporation of the alcohol will leave it in a tnin film. There is little more to add. .Vfter the ink is made and tried — if too soft, add o little more soap; if too hard, a little more glycerine; if too pale, a little more pigment. Printer's copy- ing ink can be utilized here likewise. Users of the typewriter should so set a fresh ribbon as to start at the edge near- est the operator, allowing it to run back and forth with the same adjustment until exhausted along that strip; then shift the ribbon forward the width of one letter, running until exhausted, and so on. Finally, when the whole ribbon is ex- hausted, the color will have been equably used up, and on reinking, the work will appear even in color, while it will look patchy if some of the old ink has been left here and there and fresh ink applied over it. UDDER INFLAMMATION: See Veterinary Formulas. UNHAIRING: See Leather. VALVES. The manufacturers of valves test each valve under hydraulic pressure before it is sent out from the factory, yet they frequently leak when erected in the pipe lines. This is due to the misuse of the erector in most cases. The following are the most noteworthy bad practices to be avoided when fitting in valves: I. — Screwing a valve on a pipe very tightly, without first closing the valve. Closing the valve makes the body much 712 VALVES more rigid and able to withstand greater strains and also keeps the iron chips from lodging under the seats, or in the working parts of the valves. This, of course, does not apply to check valves. II. — Screwing a long mill thread into a valve. The threads on commercial pipes are very long and should never be screwed into a valve. An elbow or tee will stand the length of thread very well, but a suitable length thread should be cut in every case on the pipe, when used to screw into a valve. If not, the end of pipe will shoulder against the seat of valve and so distort it that the valve will leak very badly. III. — The application of a pipe wrench on the opposite end of the valve from the end which is being screwed on the pipe. This should never be done, as it m- variably springs or forces the valve seats from their true original bearing with the disks. IV. — Never place the body of a valve in the vise to remove the bonnet or center- piece from a valve, as it will squeeze together the soft brass body and throw all parts out of alignment. Properly to remove the bonnet or centerpiece from a valve, either screw into each end of the valve a short piece of pipe and place one piece of the pipe in the vise, using a wrench on the square of bonnet; or if the vise is properly constructed, place the square of the bonnet in same and use the short piece of pipe screwed in each end as a lever. When using a wrench on square of bonnet or centerpiece, use a Stillson or Trimo wrench with a piece of tin between the teeth of the jaws and the finished brass. It may mark the brass slightly, but this is preferable to round- ing off all the corners with an old monkey wrench which is worn out and sprung. As the threads on all bonnets or center- pieces are doped with litharge or cement, a sharp jerk or jar on the wrench will start tne bonnet much more quickly than a. steady pull. Under no circum- stances try to replace or remove the bonnet or centerpiece of a valve without first opening it wide. This will prevent the bending of the stem, forcing the disk down through the seat or stripping the threads on bonnet where it screws into body. If it is impossible to remove bon- net or centerpiece by ordinary methods, heat the body of the valve just outside the thread. Then tap lightly all around the thread with a soft hammer. This method never fails, as the heat expands the body ring and breaks the joint made by the litharge or cemept. V. — The application of a large monkey wrench to the stuffing box of valve. Many valves are returned with the stuffing boxes split, or the threads in same stripped. This is due to the fact that the fitter or engineer has used a large- sized monkey wrench on this small part. VI. The screwing into a valve of a long length of unsupported pipe. For example, if the fitter is doing some re- pair work and starts out with a run of 2-inch horizontal pipe from a 2-inch valve connected to main steam header, the pipe being about 18 feet long, after he has screwed the pipe tightly into the valve, he leaves the helper to support the Eipe at the other end, while he gets the anger ready. The helper in the mean- time has become tired and drops his shoulder on which the pipe rests about 3 inches and in consequence the full weight of this 18-foot length of pipe bears on the valve. The valve is badly sprung and when the engineer raises steam the next morning the valve leaks. When a valve is placed in the center of a long run of pipe, the pipe on each side, and close to the valve, should be well supported. VII. — The use of pipe cement in valves. When it is necessary to use pipe cement in joints, this mixture should always be placed on the pipe thread which screws into the valve, and never in the valve itself. If the cement is placed in the valve, as the pipe is screwed into the valve it forces the cement between the seats and disks, where it will soon harden and thus prevent the valve from seating properly. VIII. — Thread chips and scale in pipe. Before a pipe is screwed into a valve it should be stood in a vertical position and struck sharply with a hammer. This will release the chips from the thread cutting, and loosen the scale inside of pipe. When a pipe line containing valves is connected up, the valves should all be opened wide and the pipe well blown out before they are again closed. This will remove foreign sub- stances which are liable to cut and scratch the seats and disks. IX. — Expansion and contraction. Ample allowance must be provided for expansion and contraction in all steam lines, especially when brass valves are included. The pipe and fittings are much more rigid and stiff than the brass valves and in consequence the expan- sion strains will relieve themselves at the weakest point, unless otherwise pro- vided for. VALVES— VANILLA 713 X. — ^The use of wrenches or bars on valve wheels to close the valves tightly. This should never be done, as it springs the entire valve and throws all parts out of alignment, thus making the valve leak. The manufacturer furnishes a wheel sulGcicMitly large properly to close against any pressure for which it is suitable. If the valves cannot be closed tightly by this means, there is something between the disks and seats or they have been cut or scratched by foreign substances. VANADIUM STEEL: See Steel. Vanilla (See also Essences and Extracts.) The best Mexican vanilla yields only in the neighborhood of 1.7 per cent of vanillin; that from Reunion and Gua- deloupe about 2.5 per cent; and that from Java 2.7.') per cent. There seems to be but little connection between the quantity of vanillin contained in vanilla pods and their quality as u flavor pro- ducer. Mexican beans are esteemed the best and yet they contain far less than the Java. Those from Brazil and IVru contain much less than those from Mexico, and yet they are considered in- ferior in quality to most others. The vanillin of the market is chiefly, if not entirely, artificial and is made from the coniferin of such pines and firs as abics cxcelsa, a. pectinata, pinus cembra, and p. strobus, as well as from the eugenol of cloves and allspice. Vanillin also ex- ists in asparagus, lupine seeds, the seeds of the common wild rose, asafetida, and gum benzoin. A good formula for a vanilla extract is tlie following: Vanilla 1 ounce Tonka 2 ounces Alcohol, deodor- ized 32 fluidounces Syrup 8 fluidounces Cut and bruise the vanilla, afterwards adding and bruising the Tonka; macerate for 14 days in 16 fluidounces of the alco- hol, with occasional agitation; pour off the clear liquid and set aside; pour the remaining alcohol on the magma, and heat by means of a water bath to about 168° F., in a closely covered vessel. Keep it at that temperature for 2 or 3 hours, then strain through flannel with slight pressure; mix the two portions of liauid and filter through felt. Lastly, add the syrup. To render this tinc- ture perfectly clear it may be treated with pulverized magnesium carbonate, using from J to 1 drachm to each pint. To Detect Artificial V anillin in Vanilla Extracts (see also Foods). — There is no well-defined test for vanillin, but one can get at it in a negative way. The artificial vanillin contains vanillin iden- tical with the vanillin contained in the vanilla bean; but the vanilla bean, as the vanilla extract, contains among its many "extractive matters" which enter into the food and fragrant value of vanilla extract, certain rosins which can be identified with certainty in analysis by a number of de- termining reactions. Extract made with- out true vanilla can be detected by nega- tive results in all these reactions. Vanilla beans contain 4 to 1 1 per cent of this rosin. It is of a dark red to brown color and furnishes about one-half the color of the extract of vanilla. This rosin is soluble in SO per cent alcohol, so that in extracts of high grade, where sufficient alcohol is used, all rosin is kept in solution. In cheap extracts, where as little as 20 per cent of alcohol by volume is sometimes used, an alkali — usually potassium bicarbonate — is added to aid in getting rosin, gums, etc., in solution, and to prevent subsequent turpidity. This treatment deepens the color very materially. Place some of the extract to be exam- ined in a glass evaporating dish and evaporate the alcohol on the water bath. When alcohol is removed, make up about the original volume with hot water. If alkali has not been used in the manu- facture of the extract, the rosin will ap- pear as a flocculent red to brown residue. Acidify with acetic acid to free rosin from bases, separating the whole of the rosin and leaving a partly decolorized, clear supernatant liquid after standing a short time. Collect the rosin on a filter, wash with water, and reserve the filtrate for further tests. Place a portion of the filter with the attached rosin in a few cubic centimeters of dilute caustic potash. The rosin is dissolved to a deep-red solution. Acid- ify. The rosin is thereby precipitated. Dissolve a portion of the rosin in alcohol; to one fraction add a few drops of fer- ric chloride; no striking coloration is groduced. To another portion add ydrochloric acid; again tnere is little change in color. In alcoholic solution most rosins give color reactions \yith fer- ric chloride or hydrochloric acid. To a portion of the filtrate obtained above add a few drops of basic lead acetate. The precipitate is so bulky as to almost 714 VANILLA— VARNISHES solidify, due to the excessive amount of organic acids, gums, and other extractive matter. The filtrate from this precipi- tate is nearly, but not quite, colorless. Test another portion of the filtrate from the rosin for tannin with a solution of gelatin. Tannin is present in varying but small quantities. It should not be present in great excess. To Detect Tonka in Vanilla Extract. — The following test depends on the chem- ical difference between coumarin and vanillin, the odorous principles of the two iaeans. Coumarin is the anhydride of coumaric acid, and on fusion with a caus- tic alkali yields acetic and salicylic acids, while vanillin is methyl protocatechin aldehyde, and when treated similarly yields protocatechuic acid. The test is performed by evaporating a small quan- tity of the extract to dryness, and melting the residue with caustic potash. Trans- fer the fused mass to a test tube, neu- tralize with hydrochloric acid, and add a few drops of ferric chloride solution. If Tonka be present in the extract, the beautiful violet coloration characteristic of salicylic acid will at once become evi- dent. Vanilla Substitute. — A substitute for vanilla extract is made from synthetic vanillin. The vanillin is simply dis- solved in diluted alcohol and the solution colored with a little caramel and sweet- ened perhaps with syrup. The follow- ing is a typical formula: Vanillin 1 ounce Alcohol 6 quarts Water 5 quarts Syrup 1 quart Caramel sufficient to color. An extract so made does not wholly represent the flavor of the bean; while vanillin is the chief flavoring constituent of the bean, there are present other sub- stances which contribute to the flavor; and connoisseurs prefer this combina- tion, the remaining members of which have not yet been made artificially. VANILLA CORDIAL: See Wines and Liquors. VANILLIN: See Vanilla. Varnishes (See also Enamels, Glazes, Oils, Paints, Rust Preventives, Stains, and Water- proofing.) Varnish is a solution of resinous matter forming a clear, limpid fluid capable of hardening without losing its transparency. It is used to give a shining, transparent, hard, and preservative covering to the finished surface of woodwork, capable of resisting in a greater or less degree the influence of the air and moisture. This coating, when applied to metal or mineral surfaces, takes the name of lacquer, and must be. prepared from rosins at once more adhesive and tenacious than those entering into varnish. The rosins, commonly called gums, suitable for varnish are of two kinds— the hard and the soft. The hard vane- ties are copal, amber, and the lac rosins. The dry soft rosins are juniper gum (commonly called sandarac), mastic, and dammar. The elastic soft rosins are benzoin, elemi, anime, and turpentine. The science of preparing varnish con- sists in combining these classes of rosins in a suitable solvent, so that each conveys its good qualities and counteracts the bad ones of the others, and in giving the desired color to this solution without affecting the suspension of the rosins, or detracting from the drying and harden- ing properties of the varnish. In spirit varnish (that made with alco- hol) the hard and the elastic gums must be mixed to insure tenderness and solidity, as the alcohol evaporates at once after applying, leaving the varnish wholly dependent on the gums for the tenacious and adhesive properties; and if the soft rosins predominate, the varnish will remain tacky" for a long time. Spirit varnish, however good and convenient to work with, must always be inferior to oil varnish, as the latter is at the same time more tender and more solid, for the oil in oxidizing and evaporating thickens and forms rosin which continues its softening and binding presence, whereas in a spirit varnish the alcohol is promptly dissi- pated, and leaves the gums on the sur- face of the work in a more or less granu- lar and brittle precipitate which chips readily and peels off. Varnish must be tender and in a manner soft. It must yield to the movements of the wood in expanding or contracting with the heat or cold, and must not inclose the wood like a sheet of glass. This is why oil varnish is superior to spirit varnish. To obtain this supple- ness the gums must be dissolved in some liquid not highly volatile like spirit, but one which mixes with them in substance permanently to counteract their extreme friability. Such solvents are the oils of lavender, spike, rosemary, and turpen- tine, combined with linseed oil. The vehicle in which the rosins are dissolved must be soft and remain so in order to VARNISHES 715 keep the rosins soft which are of them- selves naturally hard. Any varnish from which the solvent has completely dried out must of necessity become hard and elassy and chip off. But, on the other hand, if the varnish remains too soft and "tacky," it will "cake" in time and destroy the effect desired. Asiae from this, close observers if not chemists will agree that for this work it is much more desirable to dissolve these rosins in a liquid closely related to them in chemical composition, rather than in a liquid of no chemical relation and which no doubt changes certain properties of the rosins, and cuts them mto solution more sharply than does turpentine or linseed oil. It is a well-known fact that each time glue is liquefied it loses some of its adhesive properties. On this same principle it is not desirable to dis- solve varnish rosins in a liquid very un- like them, nor in one in which they are quickly and highly soluble. Modern ef- fort has been bent on inventing a cheap varnish, easily prepared, that will take the place of oil varnish, and the market is flooded with benzine, carbon bisul- phide, and various ether products which are next to worthless where wearing and durable properties are desired. Alcohol will hold in solution only about one-third of its weight in rosins. Turpentine must be added always last to spirit varnish. Turpentine in its clear recently distilled state will not mix with alcohol, but must first be oxidized by exposing it to the air in an uncorked bottle until a small quantity taken there- from mixes perfectly with alcohol. This usually takes from a month to six weeks. Mastic must be added last of all to the ingredients of spirit varnish, as it is not wholly soluble in alcohol but entirely so in a Solution of rosins in alcohol. Spirit varnishes that prove too hard and brittle may be improved by the addition of either of the oils of turpentine, castor seed, lavender, rosemary, or spike, in the proportion required to bring the varnish to the proper temper. Coloring "Spirit" Varnishes. — In modern works the following coloring substances are used, separately and in blends: Saffron (brilliant golden yellow), dragon's blood (deep reddish brown), gamooge (bright yellow), Soco- trine or Bombay aloes (liver brown), asphalt, ivory, and bone black (black), sandalwood, pterocarpus santalinus, the heartwood (dark red), Indian sandal- wood, pterocarpus indica, the heart- wood (orange red), brazil wood (dark yellow), myrrh (yellowish to reddish brown; darkens on exposure), madder (reddish brown), logwood (brown), red scammony rosin (light red), turmeric (orange yellow), and many others ac- cording to the various shades desired. ManufacturLog Hints. — Glass, coarse- ly powdered, is often added to varnish when mixed in large quantities for the purpose of cutting the rosins and pre- venting them from adheriiiK to the bot- tom and sides of the container. When possible, varnish should always be com- pounded without the use of heat, as this carbonizes and otherwise changes the constituents, and, besides, danger always ensues from the highly inflammable nature of the material employed. How- ever, when heat is necessary, a water bath should always be used; tlic varnish should never fill the vessel over a half to three-fourths of its capacity. The Giuns Used in Making Varnish. — Juniper gum or true sandarac comes in long, yellowish, dusty tears, and requires a high temperature for its manipulation in oil. The oil must be so hot as to scorch a feather dipped into it, before this gum is added; otnerwise the gum is burned. Because of this, juniper gum is usually displaced in oil varnisn by cum dammar. Both of these gums, by their dryness, counteract the elasticity of oil as well as of other gums. The usual sandarac of commerce is a brittle, yellow, transparent rosin from Africa, more soluble in turpentine than in alcohol. Its excess renders varnish hard and brit- tle. Commercial sandarac is also often a mixture of the African rosin with dam- mar or hard Indian copal, the place of the African rosin being sometimes taken by true juniper gum. This mixture is the pounce of the shops, and is almost insoluble in alcohol or turpentine. Dammar also largely takes the place of tender copal, gum anime, white amber, white incense, and white rosin. The latter three names are also often applied to a mixture of oil and Grecian wax, sometimes used in varnish. When gum dammar is used as the main rosin m a varnish, it should be first fused and brought to a boiling point, but not thawed. This eliminates the property that renders dammar varnish soft and "tacky" if not treated as above. Venetian turpentine has a tendency to render varnish "tacky" and must be skillfully counteracted if this effect is to be avoided. Benzoin in varnish exposed to any degree of dampness has a ten- 716 VARNISHES dency to swell, and must in such cases be avoided. Elemi, a fragrant rosin from Egypt, in time grows hard and brittle, and is not so soluble in alcohol as anime, which is highly esteemed for its more tender qualities. Copal is a name given rather indiscriminately to various gums and rosins. The East Indian or African is the tender copal, and is softer and more transparent than the other varieties; when pure it is freely soluble in oil of turpentine or rosemary. Hard copal comes in its best form from Mexico, and is not readily soluble in oil unless first fused. The brilliant, deep-red col- or of old varnish is said to be oased on dragon's blood, but not the kind that comes in sticks, cones, etc. (which is always adulterated), but the clear, pure tear, deeper in color than a carbuncle, and as crystal as a ruby. This is sel- dom seen in the market, as is also the tear of gamboge, which, mixed with the tear of dragon s blood, is said to be the basis of the brilliant orange and gold varnish of the ancients. Of all applications used to adorn and protect the surface of objects, oil var- nishes or lacquers containing hard ros- ins are the best, as they furnish a hard, glossy coating which does not crack and IS very durable even when exposed to wind and rain. To obtain a varnish of these desirable qualities the best old linseed oil, or varnish made from it, must be combined with the residue left by the dry distilla- tion of amber or very hard copal. This distillation removes a quantity of vola- tile oil amounting to one-fourth or one- fifth of the original weight. The residue is pulverized and dissolved in hot linseed- oil varnish, forming a thick, viscous, yellow-brown liquid, which, as a, rule, must be thinnecf with oil of turpentine before being applied. Hard rosin oil varnish of this sort may conveniently be mixed with the solution of asphalt in the oil of turpentine with the aid of the simple apparatus described below, as the stiffness of the two licjuids makes hand stirring slow and laborious. A cask is mounted on an axle which projects through both heads, but is inclined to the axis of the cask, so that when the ends of the axle are set in bear- ings and the cask is revolved, each end of the cask will rise and fall alternately, and any liquid which only partly fills the cask will be thoroughly mixed and churned in a short time. The cask is two-thirds filled with the two thick var- nishes (hard rosin in linseed oil and asphalt in the oil of turpentine) in the desired proportion, and after these have been intimately mixed by turning the cask, a sufficient qjuantity of rectified oil of turpentine to give proper consistence is added and the rotation is continued until the mixture is perfectly uniform. To obtain the best and most durable result with this mixed oil, rosin, and as- phalt varnish it is advisable to dilute it freely with oil of turpentine and to apply 2 or 3 coats, allowing each coat to dry before the next is put on. In this way a deep black and very glossy surface is obtained which cannot be distinguished from genuine Japanese lacquer. Many formulas for making these mixed asphalt varnishes contain rosin — usually American rosin. The result is the production of a cheaper but inferior varnish. The addition of such soft rosins as elemi and copaiba, however, is made for another reason, and it im- proves the quality of the varnish for certain purposes. Though these rosins soften the lacquer, they also make it more elastic, and therefore more suitable for coating leather and textile fabrics, as it does not crack in consequence of repeated bending, rolling, and folding. In coloring spirit varnish the alcohol should always be colored first to the desired shade before mixing with the rosin, except where ivory or bone black is used. If the color is taken from a gum, due allowance for the same must be made in the rosins of the varnish. For instance, in a varnish based on mastic, 10 parts, and tender copal, 5 parts, in 100 parts, if this is to be colored with, say, 8 parts of dragon's blood (or any other color gum), the rosins must be reduced to mastic, 8 parts, and tender copal, 4 parts. Eight parts of color gum are here equivalent to 3 parts of varnish rosin. This holds true with gam'boge, aloes, myrrh, and the other gum rosins used for their color. This seeming dis- proportion is due to the inert matter and gum insoluble in alcohol, always present in these gum rosins. Shellac Varnish. — This is made in the general proportion of 3 pounds of shellac to a gallon of alcohol, the. color, temper, etc., to be determined by the require- ments of the purchaser, and the nature of the wood to which the varnish is to be applied. Shellac varnish is usually tem- pered with sandarac, elemi, dammar, and the oil of linseed, turpentine, spike, or rosemary. Various impurities held in suspension in shellac varnish may be entirely pre- cipitated by the gradual addition of some VARNISHES 717 crystals of oxalic acid, stirring the varnish to aid their solution, and then setting it aside overnight to permit the impurities to settle. No more acid should he used than is really necessary. Rules for Varnishing. — 1 . Avoid as far as possible all manipulations with the varnishes; do not dilute them with oil of turpentine, and least of all with siccative, to expedite the drying. If the varnish has become too thick in consequence of faulty storing, it should be heated and receive an addition of hot, well-boiled linseed-oil varnish and oil of turpentine. Linseed-oil varnish or oil of turpentine added to the varnish at a common tem- perature renders it streaky (flacculent) and dim and has an unfavorable influ- ence on the drying; oil of turpentine takes away the gloss of varnish. 2. Varnishing must be done only on smooth, clean surfaces, if a fine, mirror- like gloss is desired. ]j 3. Varnish must be poured only into 1 1 clean vessels, and from these never back into the stationary vessels, if it has been in contact with the brush. Use only dry brushes for varnishing, which are not moist with oil of turpentine or linseed oil or varnish. 4. Apply varnishes of all kinds as uni- formly as possible; spread them out evenly on the surfaces so that they form neither too thick nor too thin a layer. If the varnish is put on too thin the coat- ing shows no gloss; if applied too thick it does not get even and does not form a smooth surface, but a wavy one. 5. Like all oil-paint coatings, every coat of varnish must be perfectly dry before a new one is put on; otherwise it is likely that the whole work will show cracks. The consumer of varnish is only too apt to blame the varnish for all defects which appear in his work or develop after some time, although this can only be proven in rare cases. As a rule, the ground was not prepared right and the different layers of paint were not sufficiently dry, if the surfaces crack after a comparatively short time and have the appearance of maps. The cracking of pamt must not be confounded with the cracking of the varnish, for the cracking of the paint will cause the varnish to crack prematurely. The varnish has to stand more than tne paint; it protects the latter, and as it is transparent, the de- fects of the paint are visible through the varnish, which frequently causes one to form the erroneous conclusion that the varnish has cracked, 6. All varnish coatings must dry slowly, and during the drying must be absolutely protected from dust, flies, etc., until they have reached that stage when we can pass the back of the hand or a finger over them without sticking to it. The production of faultless varnishing in most cases depends on the accuracy of the varnisher, on the treatment of his brush, his varnish pot, and all the other accessories. A brush which still holds the split points of the bristles never var- nishes clear; they are rubbed off easilv and spoil the varnished work. A brush which has never been used does not pro- duce clean work; it should be tricil several times, and when it is found that the var- nishing accomplished by its use is neat and satisfactory it should be kept very carefully. The preservation of the brush is thus accomplished: First of all do not place it in oil or varnish, for this would form a skin, parts of which would adhere to it, rendering the varnished surface unclean and grainy; besides these skins there are other particles which accumulate in the corners and cannot be removed by dust- ing off; these will also injure the work. In order to preserve the brush properly, insert it in a glass of suitable size through a cork in the middle of which a hole has been bored exactly fitting the handle. Into the glass pour a mixture of equal parts of alcohol and oil of turpentine, and allow only the point of the brush to touch the mixture, if at all. If the cork is air-tight the brush cannot dry in the vapor of oil of turpentine and spirit. From time to time the liquids in the glass should be replenished. If the varnish remains in the varnish receptacle, a little alcohol may be poured on, which can do the varnish no harm. At all events the varnish will be pre- vented from drying on the walls of the vessel and from becoming covered by a skin wliich is produced by the linseed oil, and which indicates that the varnish is both fat and permanent. No skin forms on a meager varnish, even when it drys thick. After complete drying of the coat of varnish it sometimes happens that the varnish becomes white, blue, dim, or blind. If varnish turns white on ex- posure to the air the quality is at fault. The varnish is either not fat enough or it contains a rosin unsuitable for exterior work (copal). The whitening occurs a few days after the drying of the varnish and can be removed only by rubbing off the varnish. Preventing Varnish from Crawling. — Rub down the surface to be varnisned 718 VARNISHES with sharp vinegar. Coating with strong- ly diluted ox gall is also of advantage. Amber Varnish. — This varnish is cap- able of giving a very superior polish or surface, and is especially valuable for coach and other high-class work. The amber is first bleached by placing a quantity — say about 7 pounds — of yel- low amber in a suitable receptacle, such as an earthenware crucible, of suffi- cient strength, adding 14 pounds of sal gemmse (rock or fossil salt), and then pouring in as much spring water as will dissolve the sal gemmse. When the lat- ter is dissolved more water is added, and the crucible is placed over a fire until the color of the amber is changed to a perfect white. The bleached amber is then placed in an iron pot and heated over a common fire until it is completely dissolved, after which the melting pot is removed from the fire, and when suffi- ciently cool the amber is taken from the pot and immersed in spring water to eliminate the sal gemmse, after which the amber is put back into the pot and is again heated over the fire till the amber is dissolved. When the operation is finished the amber is removed from the pot and spread out upon a clean marble slab to dry until all the water has evap- orated, and is afterwards exposed to a gentle heat to entirely deprive it of hu- midity. Asphalt Varnishes. — Natural asphalt is not entirely soluble in any liquid. Al- cohol dissolves only a small percentage of it, ether a much larger proportion. The best solvents are benzol, benzine, rectified petroleum, the essential oils, and chloroform, which leave only a small residue undissolved. The em- ployment of ether as a solvent is im- practicable because of its low boiling point, 97° F., and great volatility. The varnish would dry almost under the brush. Chloroform is not open to this objection, but it is too expensive for ordinary use. Rectified petroleum is a good solvent of asphalt, but it is not a desirable ingredient of varnish because, though the greater part of it soon evaporates, a small quantity of less volatile substances, which is usually present in even the most thoroughly rectified petroleum, causes the varnish to remain . "tacky" for a considerable time and to retain a, disagreeable odor much longer. Common coal-tar benzine is also a good solvent and has the merit of cheapness, but its great volatility makes the varnish dry too quickly for convenient use, especially in summer. The best solvent, probably, is oil of turpentine, which dissolves asphalt al- most completely, producing a varnish which dries quickly and forms a perfect coating if the turpentine has been well rectified. The turpentine should be a "water white," or entirely colorless, liquid of strong optical refractive power and agreeable odor, without a trace of smokiness. A layer i of an inch in depth should evaporate m a short time so com- pletely as to leave no stain on a glass dish. But even solutions of the best Syrian asphalt in the purest oil of turpentine, if they are allowed to stand undisturbed for a long time in large vessels, deposit a thick, semi-fluid precipitate which a large addition of oil of turpentine fails to convert into a uniform thin liquid. It may be assumed that this deposit con- sists of an insoluble or nearly insoluble Cart of the asphalt which, perhaps, has een deprived of solubility by the action of light. Hence, in order to obtain a uniform solution, this thick part must be removed. This can be done, though imperfectly, by carefully decanting the solution after it has stood for a long time in large vessels. This tedious and troublesome process may be avoided by filtering the solution as it is made, by the following simple and quite satis- factory method: The solution is made in a large cask, lying on its side, with a round hole about 8 inches in diameter in its upper bilge. This opening is pro- vided with a well-fitting cover, to the bottom of which a hook is attached. The asphalt is placed in a bag of closely woven canvas, which is inclosed in a second bag of the same material. The diameter of the double bag, when filled, should be such as to allow it to pass easily through the opening in the cask, and its length such that, when it is hung on the hook, its lower end is about 8 inches above the bottom of the cask. The cask is then filled with rectified oil of turpentine, closed, and left undis- turbed for several days. The oil of tur- pentine penetrates into the baa and dis- solves the asphalt, and the solution, which is heavier than pure oil of turpentine, exudes through the canvas and sinks to the bottom of the cask. Those parts of the asphalt which are quite insoluble, or merely swell in the oil of turpentine, cannot pass through the canvas, and are removed with the bag, leaving a perfect solution. When all soluble portions have been dissolved, the bag, with the cover, is raised and hung over the open- ing to drain. If pulverized asphalt has VARNISHES 719 been used the bag is found to contain only a small quantity of semi-fluid residue. This, thinned with oil of turpentine and applied with a stiff brush and considerable force, forms a thick, weather-resisting, and very durable coat- ing for planks, etc. The proportion of asphalt to oil of turpentine is so chosen as to produce, in the cask, a pretty thick varnish, which may be thinned to any desired degree by adding more turpentine. For use, it should be just thick enough to cover bright tin and entirely conceal the metal with a single coat. When dry, this coat is very thin, but it adheres very firmly, and continually increases in hardness, probably because of the effect of light. This supposition is supported by the diffi- culty of removing an old coat of asphalt varnish, which will not dissolve in tur- pentine even after long immersion, and usually must be removed by mechanical means. For a perfect, quick-drying asphalt varnish the purest asphalt must be used, such as Syrian, or the best Trinidad. Trinidad seconds, though better than some other asphalts, yield an inferior varnish, owing to the presence of impur- ities. Of artificial asphalt, the best for this purpose is the sort known as "mineral caoutchouc," which is especially suit- able for the manufacture of elastic dressings for leather and other flexible substances. For wood and metal it is less desirable, as it never becomes as hard as natural asphalt. FORMULAS: I. — A solution of 1 part of caoutchouc in 16 parts of oil of turpentine or kero- sene is mixed with a solution of 16 parts of copal in 8 parts of linseed-oil varnish. To the mixture is added a solution of 2 parts of asphalt in 3 or 4 parts of lin- seed-oil varnish diluted with 8 or 10 parts of oil of turpentine, and the whole is filtered. This is a fine elastic varnish. II. — Coal-tar asphalt, American as- f)halt, rosin, benzine, each 20 parts; inseed-oil varnish, oil of turpentine, coal- tar oil, each 10 parts; binoxide of man- ganese, roasted lampblack, each '2 parts. The solid ingredients are melted to- gether and mixed with the linseed-oil varnish, into which the lampblack has been stirred, and, finally, the other liquids are added. The varnish is strained through tow. Bicycle Varnish. — This is a spirit var- nish, preferably made by a cold proc- ess, and requires less technical knowl- edge than the preparation of fatty var- nisnes. The cnief dependence is upon the choice of the raw materials. These raw materials, copal, shellac, etc., are first broken up small and placed in a barrel adapted for turning upon an axis, with a hand crank, or with a belt and pulley from a power shaft. The barrel IS of course simply mounted in a frame of wood or iron, whichever is the most con- venient. After the barrel has received its raw material, it may be started and kept revolving for H hours. Long in- terruptions in the turning must be care- fully avoided, particularly in summer, for the material in the barrel, when at rest, will, at this season, soon form a large lump, to dissolve which will con- sume much time and labor. To prevent the formation of a semi-solid mass, as well as to facilitate the dissolving of the gum, it would be well to put some hard, smooth stones into the barrel with the varnish ingredients. Bicycle Dipping Varnish (Baking Var- nish). — -Take 50 parts, by weight, of Syrian asphalt; 50 parts, by weight, of copal oil; 50 parts, oy weight, of thick varnish oil, and 105 parts, by weight, turpentine oil, to which add 7 parts, by weight, of drier. When the asphalt is melted through and through, add the copal oil and heat it until the water is driven off, as copal oil is seldom free from water. Now take it off the fire and allow it to cool; add first the sicca- tive, then the turpentine and linseed oil, which have been previously thoroughly mixed together. This bicycle varnish does not get completely black until it is baked. Black Varnishes. — Black spirit lacquers are employed in the wood and metal in- dustries. Different kinds are produced according to their use. They are called black Japanese varnishes, or black brill- iant varnishes. Black Japanese Varnish. — I. — Sculpture varnish, 5 parts; red acaroid varnish, i parts; aniline black, J part; Lyons blue, .0015 parts. If a sculpture varnish pre- Eared with heated copal is employed, a lack lacquer of especially good quality is obtained. Usually 1 per cent of oil of lavender is added. II. — Shellac 4 parts Borax 2 parts Glycerine 2 parts .\niline black 5 parts Water 50 parts Dissolve the borax in the water, add 720 VARNISHES the shellac, and heat until solution is effected; then add the other ingredients. This is a mat-black varnish. For Blackboards. — For blackening these boards mix J liter (1.05 pints) good alcohol, 70 grams (1,080 grains) shellac, 6 grams (92 grains) fine lampblack, 3 grams (46 grains) fine chalk free from sand. If red lines are to be drawn, mix the necessary quantity of red lead in alcohol and shellac. Bookbinders' Varnishes. — I II III IV V Per Per Per Per Per Cent Cent Cent Cent Cent Shellac 14.5 6.5 13.5 6.3 8.3 Mastic 6.0 2.0 1.1 Sandarac... 6.0 13.0 1.3 1.1 Camphor... 1.0 0.5 1.5 Benzoin 13.7 Alcohol 72.5 78.5 86.0 79.2 75.8 Scent with oil of benzoin, of lavender, or of rosemary. Other authors give the following recipes: VI VII VIII IX Per Per Per Per Cent Cent Cent Cent Blond shellac. 11.5 13.0 9.0 White shellac. 11. 5 Camphor 0.7 Powdered sugar 0.7 Sandarac . . 18.0 6.6 Mastic 13.0 Venice turpen- tine 2.0 6.6 Alcohol 77.0 85.6 71.0 73.8 All solutions may be prepared in the cold, but the fact that mastic does not dissolve entirely, must not be lost sight of. Bottle Varnish. — Bottles may be made to exclude light pretty well by coating them with asphaltum lacquer or varnish. A formula recommended for this purpose is as follows: Dissolve asphaltum, 1 part, in light coal-tar oil, 2 parts, and add to the solution about 1 per cent of castor oil. This lacquer dries somewhat slowly, but adheres very firmly to the glass. As- phaltum lacquer may also be rendered less brittle by the addition of elemi. Melt together asphaltum, 10 parts, and elemi, 1 part, and dissolve the cold fused mass in light coal-tar oil, 12 parts. Amber-colored bottles for substances acted upon by the actinic rays of light may be obtained from almost any manu- facturer of bottles. Can Varnish. — Dissolve shellac, 15 parts, by weight; Venice turpentine, 2 parts, by weight; and sandarac, 8 parts, by weight, in spirit, 75 parts, by weight. Copal Varnish. — Very fine copal var- nish for those parts of carriages which require the highest polish, is prepared as follows: I. — Melt 8 pounds best copal and mix with 20 pounds very clear matured oil. Then boir4 to 5 hours at moderate heat until it draws threads; now mix with 35 pounds oil of turpentine, strain and keep for use. This varnish dries rather slowly, there- fore varnishers generally mix it one-half with another varnish, which is prepared by boiling for 4 hours, 20 pounds clear linseed oil and 8 pounds very pure, white anime rosin, to which is subsequently added 35 pounds oil of turpentine. II. — Mix the following two varnishes: (a) Eight pounds copal, 10 pounds lin- seed oil, J pound dried sugar of lead, 35 pounds oil of turpentine. (6) Eight pounds good anime rosin, 10 pounds linseed oil, J pound zinc vitriol, 35 pounds oil of turpentine. Each of these two sets is boiled separately into varnish and strained, and then both are mixed. This varnish dries in 6 hours in winter, and in 4 hours in summer. For old articles which are to be re-varnished black, it is very suitable. Elastic Limpid Gum Varnishes.^— I. — In order to obtain a limpid rubber varnish, it is essential to have the rubber entirely free from water. This can be obtained by cutting the rubber into thin strips, or better, into shreds as fine as possible, and drying them, at a temper- ature of from 104° to 122° F., for several days or until they are water free, then proceed as follows : II. — Dissolve 1 part of the desiccated rubber in 8 parts of petroleum ether (benzine) and add 2 parts of fat copal varnish and stir in. Or, cover 2 parts of dried rubber with 1 part of ether; let stand for several days, or until the rubber has taken up as much of the ether as it will, then liquefy by standing in a vessel of moderately warm water. While still warm, stir in 2 parts of linseed oil, cut with 2 parts of turpentine, oil. ENAMEL VARNISHES: Antiseptic Enamel. — This consists of a solution of spirituous gum lac, rosin, and copal, with addition of salicylic acid, etc. Its purpose is mainly the preven- tion or removal of mold or fungous formation. The salicylic acid contained in the mass acts as an antiseptic during the painting, and destroys all fungi present. VARNISHES 721 Bath-Tub Enamel Unaffected by Hot Water. — I. — In order to make paint hold on tlic zinc or tinned copiier lining of a bath tub, a wash must be used to produce a film to which oil paint will adhere. First remove all grease, etc., with a solution of soda or ammonia and dry the surface thoroughly; then apply with a wide, soft brush equal parts, by weight, of chloride of copper, nitrate of copper, and sal ammoniac, dissolved in 64 parts, by weight, of water. When dissolved add 1 part, by weight, of commercial muri- atic acid. This solution must be kept in glass or earthenware. It will dry in about 12 hours, giving a grayish-black coating to which paint will firmly adhere. The priming coat should be white lead thinned with turpentine, with only just sufficient linseed oil to bind it. After this is thoroughly dry, apply one or more coats of special bath-tub enamel, or a gloss paint made by mixing coach colors ground in Japan with hard-drying varnish of the best quality. Most first-class manufacturers have special grades that will stand hot water. II. — The following preparation pro- duces a brilliant surface on metals and is very durable, resisting the effect of blows without scaling or chipping off, and being therefore highly suitable for cycles and any other articles exposed to shock: For the manufacture of H gallons, 1 1 pounds of red copper, 8.8 pounds of yel- low copper, 4.4 pounds of hard steel, and 4.4 pounds of soft steel, all in a com- minuted condition, are well washed in petroleum or mineral spirit, and are then treated with concentrated sulphuric acid in a lead-lined vessel, with continued stirring for 2 hours. After li hours' rest the sulphuric acid is neutralized with Javel extract, and the fine powder left in the vessel is passed through a silk sieve to remove any fragments of metal, then ground along with linseed oil, ivory black, and petroleum, the finely divided mass being afterwards filtered through flannel and incorporated with a mixture of Bombay gum, 2'2 pounds; Damascus gum, 11 pounds; Judea bitumen, 2'2 pounds; Norwegian tar rosin, 11 pounds; and 11 pounds of ivory black ground very fine in refined petroleum. _ When perfectly homogeneous the mass is again filtered, and is then ready for use. It is laid on with a brush, and then fixed by exposure to a temperature of between 4(10° and 800° P. The ivory black may be replaced by other coloring matters, according to requirements. A Color Enamel. — On the piece to be enameled apply oil varnish or white lead, and add a powder giving brilliant re- flections, such as diamantine, brilliantine, or argentine. Dry in a stove. Apply a new coat of varnish. Apply the powder again, and finally heat in the oven. Afterwards, apply several layers of varnish; dry each layer in the oven. Apply pumice stone in powder or-tripoli, and finally apply a layer of Swedish varnish, drying in the oven. This enamel does not crack. It adheres per- fectly, and is advantageous for the pieces of cycles and other mobiles. Cold Enameling. — This style of enam- eling is generally employed for repairing purposes. The various colors are either prepared with copal varnish and u little oil of turpentine, or else they are melted together with mastic and a trifle of oil of spike. In using the former, the surface usually settles down on drying, and ordinarily the latter is preferred, which is run on the cracked-off spot by warming the article. After the cooling, file the cold enamel off uniformly, and restore the gloss by quickly drawing it through the Same. For black cold enamel melt mastic together with lampblack, which is easily obtained by causing the flame of a wick dipped into linseed oil to touch a piece of tin. White. — White lead or flake white. Red. — Carmine or cinnabar (vermil- ion). Blue. — Ultramarine or Prussian blue. Green. — Scheele's green or Schwein- furt green. Brown. — Umber. Yellow. — Ocher or chrome yellow. The different shades are produced by mixing the colors. Enamel for Vats, etc. — Two different enamels are usually employed, viz., one for the ground and one for the top, the latter being somewhat harder than the former. Ground enamel is prepared by melting in an enameled iron kettle 625 parts brown shellac, 1'25 parts French od of turpentine, with 80 parts colophony, and warming in another vessel 4,500 parts of spirit (90 per cent). As soon as the rosins are melted, remove the pot from the fire and add the spirit in portions of 250 parts at a time, seeing to it that the spirit added is completely combined with the rosins by .stirring before adding any more. When all the spirit is added, warm the whole again for several min- utes on the water bath (free fire should 722 VARNISHES be avoided, on account of danger of fire), and allow to settle. If a yellow color is desired, add yellow ocher, in which case the mixture may also be used as floor varnish. The top enamel (hard) consists of 500 parts shellac, 125 parts French oil of tur- pentine, and 3,500 parts spirit (90 per cent). Boiling in the water bath until the solution appears clear can only be of advantage. According to the thick- ness desired, one may still dilute in the cold with high-strength spirit. Tinting may be done, as desired, with earth colors, viz., cofifee brown with umber, red with English red, yellow with ocher, silver gray with earthy cerussite, and some lampblack. Before painting, dry out the vats and putty up the joints with a strip of dough which is prepared from ground enamel and finely sifted charcoal or brown coal ashes, and apply the enamel after the putty is dry. The varnish dries quickly, is odorless and tasteless, and extraordinarily durable. If a little annealed soot black is added to this vat enamel, a fine iron varnish is obtained which adheres very firmly. Leather '(spattering leather on car- riages) can also be nicely varnished with it. Finishing Enamel for White Furni- ture. — Various methods are practiced in finishing furniture in white enamel, and while numerous preparations in- tended for the purpose named are gen- erally purchasable of local dealers in paint supplies, it is often really difficult, and frequently impossible, to obtain a first-class ready-made enamel. To prepare such an article take J pint of white lead and add to it i pint of pure turpentine, J gill of pale coach Japan, and J gill of white dammar varnish. Mix all the ingredients together thor- oughly. Apply with a camel's-hair brush, and for large surfaces use a 2-inch double thick brush. There should be at least three coats for good work, applied after an interval of 24 hours between coats; and for strictly high-class work four coats will be necessary. Each coat should be put on thin and entirely free from brush marks, sandpapering being carefully done upon each coat of pigment. Work that has been already painted or varnished needs to be cut down with, say. No. J sandpaper, and then smoothed fine with No. j paper. Then thin white lead to a free working consistency with turpentine, retaining only a weak binder of oil in the pigment, and apply two coats of it to the surface. Give each coat plenty of time to harden (36 hours should suflice), after which sandpapering with No. IJ paper had best be done. Ordinarily, upon two coats of white lead, the enamel finish, as above detailed, may be successfully pro- duced. For the fine, rich enamel finish adapted to rare specimens of furniture and developed in the mansions of the multimillionaires, a more elaborate and complex process becomes necessary. Quick -Drying Enamel Colors. — En- amel colors which dry cjuickly, but re- main elastic so that applied on tin they will stand stamping without cracking off, can be produced as follows: In a closed stirrer or rolling cask place 21.5 parts, by weight, of finely powdered pale French rosin, 24^ parts, by weight, of Manila copal, as well as 35 parts, by weight, of denaturized spirit (95 per cent), causing the cask or the stirrer to rotate until all the gum has completely dissolved, which, according; to the tem- perature of the room in which the stirrer is and the hardness of the gums, re- quires 24 to 48 hours. When the gums are entirely dissolved add to the mix- ture a solution of 21^ parts, by weight, of Venice oil turpentine in 0.025 parts, by weight, of denaturized spirit of 95 per cent, allowing the stirrer to run another 2 to 3 hours. For the purpose of removing any impurities present or any undis- solved rosin from the varnish, it is poured through a hair sieve or through a three- fold layer of fine muslin (organdie) into suitable tin vessels or zinc-lined barrels for further clarification. After 10 to 14 days the varnish is ready for use. By grinding this varnish with the corre- sponding dry pigments the desired shades of color may be obtained; but it is well to remark that chemically pure zinc white cannot be used with advan- tage because it thickens and loses its covering power. The grinding is best carried out twice on an ordinary funnel mill. Following are some recipes: I. — Enamel White. — Lithopone, 2 parts, by weight; white lead, purest, i part, by weight; varnish, 20 parts, by weight. II. — Enamel Black. — Ivory black, 2 parts, by weight; Paris blue, 0.01 part, by weight; varnish, 23 parts, by weight. III. — Pale Gray. — Graphite, 2 parts, by weight; ultramarine, 0.01 part, by weight; lithopone, 40 parts, by weight; varnish, 100 parts, by weight. IV.— Dark Gray. — Graphite, 3 parts, by weight; ivory black, 2 parts, by weight; lithopone, 40 parts, by weight; varnish, 110 parts, by weight. VARNISHES 723 v.— Chrome Yellow_, Pale. — Chrome yellow, 2 parts, by weight; lithopone, 2 parts, bv weight; varnish, 40 parts, by weight; benzine, IJ parts, by weight. VI. — Chrome Yellow, Dark. — Chrome yellow, dark, 2 parts, by weight; chrome orange, J part, by weight; lithopone, 1 part, by weight; varnish, 35 parts, by weight; benzine, 1 part, by weight. VII. — Pink, Pale. — Carmine, J part, by weight; lithopone, 15 parts, by weight; varnish, 40 parts, by weight; benzine, li parts, by weight. VIII. — Pink, Dark. — Carmine, J part, by weight; Turkey red, 1 part, by weight; lithopone, 15 parts, by weight; varnish, 40 parts, by weight. IX.— Turkey Red. — Turkey red, pale, 2 parts, by weight; lithopone, 1 part, by weight; Turkey red, dark, 1 part, by weight; white lead, pure, J part, by weight; var- nish, 18 parts, by weight; benzine, § part, by weight. X. — Flesh Tint. — Chrome yellow, pale, IJ parts, by weight; graphite, J part, by weight; lithopone, 15 parts, by weight; Turkey red, pale, 2 parts, by weight; varnish, 42 parts, by weight; benzine, j part, by weight. XI. — Carmine Red. — Lead sulphate, 6 parts, by weight; Turkey red, pale, 6 parts, by weight; carmine, IJ parts, by weight; orange minium, 3 parts, by weight; vermilion, 2 parts, by weight; varnish, 60 parts, by weight; benzine, IJ parts, by weight. XII. — Sky Blue. — Ultramarine, 5 parts, bv weight; lithopone, 6 parts, by weight; ultramarine green, 0.05 parts, by weight; varnish, 30 parts, by weight; benzine, 1 part, by weight. XIII. — Ultramarine. — Ultra blue, 5 parts, by weight; varnish, 12 parts, by weight; benzine, J part, by weight. XIV. — Violet. — Ultramarine, with red tinge, 10 parts, by weight; carmine, O.o parts, by weight; varnish, 25 parts, by weight. XV. — Azure. — Paris blue, 10 parts, by weight; lithopone, 100 parts, by weight; varnish, 300 parts, by weight. XVI. — Leaf Green. — Chrome green, pale, 5 parts, by weight; varnish, 25 parts, by weight; benzine, J part, by weight. XVII.— Silk Green.— Silk green, 10 parts, by weight; chrome yellow, pale, J part, by weight; lead sulphate, 5 parts, by weight; varnish, 30 parts, by weight; benzine, i part, by weight. XVIII.— Brown. — English red, 10 parts, by weight; ocher, light, 3 parts, by | weight; varnish, 30 parts, by weight; benzine, J part, by weight. XIX. — Ocher. — French ocher, 10 parts, by weight; chrome yellow, dark, i part, by weight; varnish, 30 parts, by weight; benzine, J part, by weight. XX. — Chocolate. — Umber, 10 parts, by weight; Florentine lake, J part, by weight; varnish, 25 parts, by weight; benzine, J part, by weight. XXI. — Terra Cotta. — Chrome yellow, pale, 10 parts, by weight; Turkey red, dark, 3 parts, by weight; varnish, 85 parts, by weight. XXII. — Olive, Greenish. — French ocher, 5 parts, by weight; Paris blue, J part, by weight; graphite, J part, by weight; varnish, 25 parts, by weight; lithopone, 5 parts, by weight. XXIII. — Olive, Brownish. — Chrome orange, 5 parts, by weight; Paris blue, 2 Earts, by weight; lead sulphate, 10 parts, y weight; English red, 1 part, by weight; varnish, 40 parts, by weignt; benzine, li parts, by weight. XXI v.— Olive, Reddish.— Turkey red, dark, 75 parts, by weight; sap green, 75 parts, by weight; ocher, pale, 5 parts, by weight; varnish, 300 parts, by weight; benzine, IJ parts, by weight. ENGRAVERS' VARNISHES. In copper-plate engraving the plate must be covered witn a dark-colored coating which, though entirely unaffected by the etching fluid, must be soft enough to allow the finest lines to be drawn with the needle and must also be susceptible of complete and easy removal when the etching is finished. Varnishes which possess these properties are called "etch- ing grounds.' They are made accord- ing to various formulas, but in all cases the principal ingredient is asphalt, of which only the best natural varieties are suitable for this purpose. Another com- mon ingredient is beeswax, or tallow. Etching grounds are usually made in small quantities, at a single operation, by melting and stirring the solid ingredients together and allowing the mass to cool in thin sheets, which are then dissolved in oil of turpentine. The plate is coated uniformly with this varnish through which the engraver's tool readily pene- trates, laying bare the metal beneath. After the lines thus drawn have been etched by immersing the plate in acid, the varnish is washed off with oil of turpentine. "The following formulas for etching grounds have been extensively used by engravers: 724 VARNISHES I II III IV Yellow wax 50 30 110 40 parts Syrian asphalt. . . 20 20 25 40 parts Rosin • 20 parts Amber 20 . . parts Mastic 25 25 25 ..parts Tallow 2 parts Bergundy pitch 10 parts FLOOR VARNISHES. I. — Manila copal, spirit- soluble 12 parts Ruby shellac, pow- dered 62 parts Venice, turpentine.. . . 12 parts Spirit, 96 per cent .... 250 parts The materials are dissolved cold in a covered vat with constant stirring, or better still, in a stirring machine, and filtered. For the pale shades take light ocher; for dark ones, Amberg earth, which are well ground with the varnish in a paint mill. II. — Shellac, A C leaf, 1.2 parts; san- darac, 8 parts; Manila copal, 2 parts; rosin, 5 parts; castor or linoleic acid or wood oil acid, 1.50 parts; spirit (96 per cent), 65 parts. French Varnish. — So-called French varnish is made by dissolving 1 part of bleached or orange shellac in 5 parts of alcohol, the solution being allowed to stand and the clear portion then being de- canted. The varnish may be colored by materials which are soluble in alcohol. For red, use 1 part of eosin to 49 parts of the bleached shellac solution. For blue, use 1 part of aniline blue to 24 parts of the bleached shellac solution, as the orange shellac solution would impart a greenisn cast. For green, use 1 part of aniline green (brilliant green) to 49 parts of the orange shellac solution. For yel- low, use either 2 parts of extract of tur- meric or 1 part of gamboge to 24 parts of the solution, or 1 part of aniline yellow to 49 parts of the^ solution. For golden yellow, use 2 parts of gamboge and 1 part of dragon's blood to 47 parts of the orange sheflac solution. The gamboge and dragon's blood should be dissolved first in a little alcohol. Golden Varnishes. — I. — Powdered benzoin. . 1 part Alcohol enough to make 10 parts. Pure saffron, roughly broken up, about 6 threads to the ounce. Macerate 3 days and filter. Vary the quantity of saffron according to the snade desired. Mastic and juniper gum may be added to this varnish if a heavier body is desired. II. — Benzoin, juniper gum, gum mas- tic, equal parts. . Dissolve the gums in 9 times their weight of alcohol (varied more or less according to the consistency wanted), and color to the desired shade with threads of pure saffron. This varnish is very brilliant and dries at once. India -Rubber Varnishes. — I. — Dissolve 10 pounds of India rubber in a mix- ture of 10 pounds of turpentine and 20 pounds of petroleum by treating same on a water bath. When the solution is completed add 45 pounds of drying oil and 5 pounds of lampblack and mix thoroughly. II. — Dissolve 7 pounds of India rub- ber in 25 pounds of oil of turpentine. By continued heating dissolve 14 pounds of rosin in the mixture. Color while hot with 3 pounds of lampblack. Inlay Varnish. — Ozokerite 17 parts Carnauba wax 3 parts Turpentine oil 15 parts Melt the ozokerite and Carnauba wax, then stir in the turpentine oil. This varnish is applied like a polish and im- parts to the wood a, dark natural color and a dull luster. Japanning Tin. — The first thing to be done when a vessel is to be japanned, is to free it from all grease and oil, by rub- bing it with turpentine. Should the oil, however, be linseed, it may be allowed to remain on the vessel, which must in that case be put in an oven and heated till the oil becomes quite hard. After these preliminaries, a paint of the shade desired, ground in linseed oil, is applied. For brown, umber may be used. When the paint has been satisfactorily applied it should be hardened by heat- ing, and then smoothed down by rubbing with ground pumice stone applied gently by means of a piece of felt moistened with water. To be done well, this re- quires care and patience, and, it might be added, some experience. _ The vessel is next coated with a var- nish, made by the following formula: Turpentine spirit .... 8 ounces Oil of lavender 6 ounces Camphor 1 drachm Bruised copal. 2 ounces Perhaps some other good varnish would give equally satisfactory results. After this the vessel is put in an oven and heated to as high a temperature as it will bear without causing the varnish to VARNISHES 725 blister or run. When the varnish has become hard, the vessel is taken out and another coat is put on, which is submitted to heat as before. This process may be repeated till the judgment of the opera- tor tells him that it is no longer advisable. Some operators mix the coloring mat- ter directly with the varnish; when this is done, care should be taken that the pig- ment is first reduced to an impalpable powder, and then thoroughly mixed with the liquid. LABEL VARNISHES. I.— Sandarac 3 ounces av. Mastic J ounce av. Venice turpentine 150 grains Alcohol 16 fluidounces Macerate with repeated stirring until solution is effected, and then filter. The paper labels are first sized with diluted mucilage, then dried, and then coated with this varnish. If the labels have been written with water-soluble inks or color, they are first coated with 2 coats of collodion, and then varnished. II. — The varnished labels of stock ves- sels often suffer damage from the spilling of the contents and the dripping after much pouring. Formalin gelatin is capable of with- standing the baneful influence of ether, benzine, water, spirit of wine, oil, and most substances. The following method of applying the preservative is recom- mended: Having thoroughly cleaned the surface of the vessel, paste the label on and allow it to dry well. Give it a coat of thin collodion to protect the letters from being dissolved out or caused to run, then after a few minutes paint over it a coat of gelatin warmed to fluidity — 5 to 25 — being careful to cover in all the edges. Just before it solidifies go over it with a tuft of cotton dipped into a 40 per cent formalin solution. It soon dries and becomes as glossy as varnish, and may be coated again and again without danger of impairing the clear white of the label or decreasing its transparency. Leather Varnishes. — I. — ^An excellent varnish for leather can be made from the following recipe: Heat 400 pounds of boiled oil to 212° F., and add little by little 2 pounds of bichromate of potash, keeping the same temperature. The addition of the bichromate should take about 15 minutes. Raise to 310° F., and add gradually during 1 hour at that temperature, 40 pounds Prussian blue. Heat for 3 hours more, gradually raising to iS'2° to 572° F., with constant stirring. In the meantime, heat together at 892° F., for ^ an hour, 25 pounds linseed oil, 35 pounds copal, 75 pounds turpentine, and 7 pounds ceresine. Mix the two varnishes, and dilute, if necessary, when cold with turpentine. The varnish should require to be warmed for easy application with the brush. II. — Caoutchouc, 1 part; petroleum, 1 part; carbon bisulphide, 1 part; shellac, 4 parts; bone black, 2 parts; alcohol, 20 parts. First the caoutchouc is brought together with carbon bisul- phide in a well-closed bottle and stood aside for a few days. As soon as the caoutchouc is soaked add the petroleum and the alcohol, then the finely powdered shellac, and heat to about 125° F. When the liquid appears pretty clear, which indicates the solution of all substances, the bone black is added by shaking thoroughly and the varnish is at once filled in bottles which are well closed. This pouch composition excels in drying quickly and produces upon the leather a smooth, deep black coating, which pos- sesses a certain elasticity. METAL VARNISHES. The purpose of these varnishes is to protect the metals from oxidation and to render them glossy. Aluminum Varnish. — The following is a process giving a, special varnish for aluminum, out it mny also be employed for other metals, giving a coating unal- terable and indestructible by water or atmospheric influences: Dissolve, prefer- ably in an enameled vessel, 10 parts, by weight, of gum lac in 30 parts of liquid ammonia. Heat on the water bath for about 1 hour and cool. The aluminum to be covered with this varnish is care- fully cleaned in potash, and, having applied the varnish, the article is placed in a stove, where it is heated, during u certain time, at a suitable temperature (about 1062° F.). Brass Varnishes Imitating Gold. — I. — An excellent gold varnish for brass ob- jects, surgical or optical instruments, etc., is prepared as follows: Gum lac, in grains, pulverized, 30 parts; dragon's blood, 1 part; red sanders wood, 1 part; pounded glass, 10 parts; strong alcohol, 600 parts; after sufficient maceration, filter. The powdered glass simply serves for accelerating the dissolving, by inter- posing between the particles of gum lac and opal. II. — Reduce to powder, 160 parts, by weight, of turmeric of best quality, and pour over it '2 parts, by weight, of saffron. 726 VARNISHES and 1,700 parts, by weight, of spirit; digest in a warm place 24 hours, and filter. Next dissolve 80 parts, by weight, of dragon's blood; 80 parts, by weight, of sandarac; 80 parts, by weight, of elemi gum; 50 parts, by weight, of gamboge; 70 parts, by weight, of seedlac. Mix these substances with 250 parts, by weight, of crushed glass, place tnem in a flask, and pour over this mixture the alcohol colored as above described. Assist the solution by means of a sand or water bath, and filter at the close of the operation. This is a fine varnish for brass scientific instru- ments. Bronze Varnishes. — I. — The follow- ing process yields a top varnish for bronze goods and other metallic ware in the most varying shades, the varnish ex- celling, besides, in high gloss and dur- ability. Fill in a bottle, pale shellac, best quality, 40 parts, by weight; pow- dered Florentine lake, 12 parts, by weight; gamboge, 30 parts, by weight; dragon's blood, also powdered, 6 parts, by weight; and add 400 parts, by weight, of spirit of wine. This mixture is al- lowed to dissolve, the best way being to heat the bottle on the water bath until the boiling point of water is almost reached, shaking from time to time until all is dissolved. Upon cooling, decant the liquid, which constitutes a varnish of dark-red color, from any sediment that may be present. In a second bottle dis- solve in the same manner 24 parts, by weight, of gamboge in 400 parts, by weight, of spirit of wine, from which will result a varnish of golden-yellow tint. According to the hue desired, mix the red varnish with the yellow variety, pro- ducing in this way any shade from the deepest red to the color of gold. If re- quired, dilute with spirit of wine. The application of the varnish should be con- ducted as usual, that is, the article should be slightly warm, it being necessary to adhere strictly to a certain temperature, which can be easily determined by trials and maintained by experience. In order to give this varnish a pale-yellow to greenish-yellow tone, mix 10 drops of picric acid with about 3 parts, by weight, of spirit of wine, and add to a small quantity of the varnish some of this mix- ture until the desired shade has been reached. Picric acid is poisonous, and the keeping of varnish mixed with this acid in a closed bottle is not advisable, because there is danger of an explosion. Therefore, it is best to prepare only so much varnish at one time as is necessary for the immediate purpose. Brown Varnish. — An excellent and quickly drying brown varnish for metals is made by dissolving 20 ounces of gum kino and 5 ounces of gum benjamin in 60 ounces of the best cold alcohol; 20 ounces of common shellac and 2 ounces of thick turpentine in 36 ounces of alcohol also give a very good varnish. If the brown IS to have a reddish tint, dissolve SO ounces of ruby shellac, 5 ounces balsam of copaiba, and 2 to 5 ounces of aniline brown, with or without J to 1 ounce of aniline violet, in 150 ounces of alcohol. Copper Varnishes. — These two are for polished objects: I. — One hundred and ten parts of sandarac and 30 parts of rosin, dissolved in sufficient quantity of alcohol; 5 parts of glycerine are to be added. II. — Sandarac 10 parts Rosin 3 parts Glycerine i part Alcohol, a sufficient quantity. Dissolve the two rosins in sufficient alcohol and add the glycerine. Decorative Metal Varnishes. — I II III IV Per Per Per Per Cent Cent Cent Cent Seed lac 11.5 Amber 7.6 .. .. 13.5 Gamboge. ...7.6 Dragon's blood 0.18 Saffron 0.16 Sandarac 11.2 15.9 16.6 Mastic 6.5 14.0 3.4 Elemi 3.3 Venice tur- pentine .. 1.0 3.4 Camphor. ... , . 1.5 Aloe 7.0 Alcohol 72.96 77.5 66.1 63.2 As will be seen, only natural colors are used. The so-called "gold lacquer" is composed as follows: Sandarac, 6.25 parts; mastic, Sparts; shellac, 12.5 parts; Venice turpentine, 2.5 parts; aloe, 0.75 parts; gamboge, 3 parts; alcohol, 72 parts. The solution is filtered. Ap- plied in a thin coating this varnish shows a handsome golden shade. Other metal varnishes have the following composi- tion: V VI VII Per Per Per Cent Cent Cent Shellac 17.5 . . 18.0 Yellow acaroid gum. . 13. 1 25.0 Manila 8.0 9.0 Alcohol 69.4 67.0 63.0 VARNISHES 727 Gold Varnish. — I. — A good gold var- nish for coating moldings which pro- duces great brUliancy is prepared as follows: Dissolve 3 pounds of shellac in SO quarts of alcohol, 6 pounds of mas- tic m 6 quarts of alcohol, 8 pounds of sandarac in 5 quarts of alcohol, 6 pounds of gamboge in 5 quarts of alcohol, 1 pound of dragon's blood in 1 quart of akohol, 3 pounds of Saunders in 5 quarts of alco- hol, 3 pounds of turpentine in 3 quarts of alcohol. After all the ingredients have been dissolved separately in the given Quantity of absolute alcohol and filtered, the solutions are mixed at a, moderate heat. 11. — A varnish which will give a .splendid luster, and any gold color from deep red to golden yellow, is prepared by takmg 50 ounces pale shellac, 15 pounds Florentine lake (precipitated from cochi- neal or redwood decoction by alum onto strach, kaolin, or gypsum), 25 ounces of sandalwood, and 8 ounces of dragon's blood. These in fine powder are dis- solved on the water bath, in 500 ounces rectified spirit. The spirit must boil and remain, with occasional shaking, for 2 to 8 hours on the bath. Then cool and decant. In the meantime heat in an- other flask on the bath 30 ounces of gamboge in 500 ounces of the same spirit. The two liquids are mixed until the right color needed for the particular purpose in hand is obtained. Dilute with spirit if too thick. The addition of a Httle picric acid gives a greenish-yellow bronze but makes the varnish very liable to ex- plode. These varnishes are applied to gently warmed surfaces with a soft bristle brush. Gold Varnish for Tin. — ^This is obtained in the following manner: Spread out 5 parts, by weight, of finely powdered crystallized copper acetate in a warm spot, allowing it to lie for some time; then grind the powder, which will have ac- quired a light-brown shade, with oil of turpentine and add, with stirring, 15 Earts, by weight, of fat copal varnish eated to 140° F. When the copper acetate has dissolved (in about J hour), the mass is filled in a bottle and allowed to stand warm, for several days, shaking frequently. The gold varnish is then ready for use. Coat the articles uni- formly with it, and heat in a drying chamber, whereupon, according to the degree of temperature, varying colora- tions are obtained, changing from green to yellow, then golden yellow, and finally orange to brown. When good copal var- nish is employed, the varnish will adhere very firmly, so that the article can be pressed without damage. Iron Varnishes. — I. — A varnish ob- tained by dissolving wax in turpentine is useful. It gives a fairly hard coat, but has the drawback of filling up fine grooves, and so injuring the appearance of many metal ornaments. H- — Shellac, 15 pounds; Siam benja- min, 13 pounds; alcohol, 80 pounds; formylchloride, 20 pounds. Ill- — Sierra Leone copal, 6 pounds; dammar, 18 pounds; oleic acid, 3 pounds; alcohol, 40 pounds; oil of turpentine, 20 pounds; formylchloride, 15 pounds. The formylchloride not only effects the rapid drying necessary to prevent the varnish gravitating into hollows, but enables the alcohol to make a perfect solution of the rosin. The varnishes are excessively volatile, and must be stored accordingly. Stove Varnishes. — Shellac 12 parts Manila copal 14 parts Rosin 12 parts Gallipot 2 parts Benzoin 1 part Lampblack 5 parts Nigrosin, spirit-sol- uble 1 J parts Alcohol 250 parts Tin Varnishes; — I. — For Tin Boxes. — In 75 parts of alcohol dissolve 15 parts of shellac, 2 parts of Venice turpentine, and 8 parts of sandarac. II. — For Trays and Other Tinware. — The ground is prepared bv adding to the white lead the tinting colors ground in good rubbing varnish and half oil of turpentine. For drier an admixture of "terebine" is recommended. With this lean and dull paint, coat the tins 2 or 3 times and blend. Next, grain with water or vinegar glaze, and varnish with pure Zanzibar copal varnish, or finest amber table-top varnish. There are other tried methods for varnishing tin, which are applicable for new goods, manufactured m large quantities, while they are less advantageous for the res- toration of old, repeatedly used articles. VARNISH SUBSTITUTES. A substitute for varnish is produced by adding to 100 parts of casein 10 to 25 parts of a 1 to 10 per cent soap solu- tion and then 20 to 25 parts of slaked lime. The mixture is carefully kneaded until a perfectly homogeneous mass re- sults. Then graduallj; add 25 to 40 parts of turpentine oil and sufficient 728 VARNISHES— VETERINARY FORMULAS water for the mass to assume the con- sistency ot varnish. If it is desired to preserve it for some time a little ammonia is added so that the casein lime does not separate. The surrogate is considerably cheaper than varnish and dries so quick- ly that paint ground with it may be ap- plied twice in quick succession. Zapon Varnishes. — In the case of many articles which have been colored mechanically or by the battery, par- ticularly with large pieces, an opacjue varnish is used as a protection against atmospheric influences. The so-called brassoline, of a brown color, negroline, black, and zapon, which is colorless, are employed, according to the color of the article. The last-named varnish is most commonly used, and gives a fine and durable coating, insoluole in almost all liquids which would come into consider- ation here, except that it will wash ofif in soap and water. Zapon varnish is a solution of collodion cotton and camphor in amyl acetate and amyl alcohol, and was formerly used to preserve old manu- scripts and legal documents. In the process of zaponizing, the article is slightly warmed and immersed in the varnish, or the latter is applied with a brush. The solution is very durable, and has the advantage that after drying it will not show edges, rings, or spots. Zapon varnish which has become too thick must be diluted, and the brushes must be kept from becoming dry. If it is desired to give an especially warm tone, the article is treated with brushes which have been drawn over beeswax or mineral wax. For the production of zapon or celluloid varnish, pour 20 parts of acetone over 2 parts of colorless celluloid waste, allow- mg it to stand for several days in a closed vessel, stirring frequently until the whole has dissolved into a clear, thick mass. Admix 78 parts of amyl acetate and clarify the zapon varnish by allowing it to settle for weeks. VARinSH, HOW TO POUR OUT: See Castor Oil. VARNISHES, INSULATING : See Insulation. VARNISHES, PHOTOGRAPHIC RE- TOUCHING: See Photography. VARNISH REMOVERS: See Cleaning Preparations and Meth- ods. VASELINE SOAP: See Soap. VASELINE STAINS, TO REMOVE FROM CLOTHING: See Cleaning Preparations and Meth- ods. VASOLIMENTUM. This unguent is of two kinds, liquid and semi-solid. The former is prepared by mixing 500 parts of olein, 250 parts of alcoholic ammonia, and 1,000 parts of liq- uid parafSne, the whole being warmed until completely dissolved, and any loss in weight made up by addition of spirit. The semi-solid preparation is made of the same ingredients, except the parafEne salve is substituted for the liquid. The product is used as a basis for ointments in place of vasogene, and can be in- corporated with a number of medica- ments, such as 10 per cent of naphthol, 20 per cent of guaiacol, 25 per cent of juniper tar, 5 .per cent of tniol, 6 per cent of iodine, 5 per cent of creosote, 10 per cent of ichthyol, 5 per cent of creolin, 2 per cent of menthol, etc. VAT ENAMELS AND VARNISHES: See Varnishes. VEGETABLES, TESTS FOR CANNED: See Foods. VEGETABLE PARCHMENT: See Parchment. VICHY: See Waters. VICHY SALT: See Salts (Effervescent). Veterinary Formulas FOR BIRDS: Asthma in Canaries. — Tincture capsicum ... 5 Spirits chloroform ... 90 Iron citrate, soluble. . 45 Fennel water 3J Give a few drops on lump of the cage once daily. Colas. — Tincture ferri per- chloride 1 Acid hydrochloric, dil. J Glycerine 1 J Aqua camphor, q. .-, . . 1 Use 3 to 6 drops in drinking Ointment for Healing. — Peru balsam 60 Cola cream 1 Apply. drachms minims grains ounces sugar in drachm drachm drachms ounce water. grains ounce VETERINARY FORMULAS 729 Constipation in Birds. — F. E. senna 2 drachms S^rup manna 1 ounce Fennel water, q. ». . . . 4 ounces Give a few dro^s on sugar in cage once daily. Diairhcea. — Tincture iron chloride 2 drachms Paregoric 2 drachms Caraway water 3i ounces Give few drops on lump of sugar once daily. Mocking-Bird Food. — Crackers 8 ounces Corn 9 ounces Rice 2 ounces Hemp seed 1 ounce Capsicum 10 grains Mix and reduce to a coarse powder. Foods for Red Birds. — Sunflower seed 8 ounces Hemp seed 16 ounces Canary seed 10 ounces Cracked wheat 8 ounces Unshelled rice 6 ounces Mix and grind to a coarse powder. Canary-Bird Food. — Yolk of egg (dry) .... 2 ounces Poppy heads (pow- dered) 1 ounce Cuttlefish bone (pow- dered) 1 ounce Sugar 2 ounces Powdered crackers. . . 8 ounces Bird Tonic. — Powdered capsicum. . 20 grains Powdered gentian.. . . 1 drachm Ferri peroxide J ounce Powdered sugar j ounce Syrup, q. s. Put a piece size of pea in cage daily. Tonic. — I. — Tincture cinchona ... J drachm Tincture iron 2 drops Glycerine 1 drachm Caraway water 1 ounce Put a few drops on lump of sugar in cage daily. II. — Compound t i n c t ure cinchona 2 drachms Compound tincture gentian 2 drachms Syrup orange 1 ounce Simple elixir 2 J ounces Put a few drops on lump of sugar in the cage daily. Antiseptic Wash for Cage Birds. — Chinosol, F 2 drachms Sugar (burnt) 20 minims Aqua cinnamon 4 ounces Aqua 20 ounces Add 1 or 2 teaspoonfuls to the bath water and allow the birds to use it, when it will quickly destroy all parasites or germs in the feathers. To wash out the cages, use a mixture of 1 tablespoonful in a pint of hot water. Mixed Bird Seed. — Sicily canary 10 ounces German rape 2 ounces Russian hemp 1 ounce German millet 3 ounces FOR HORSES AND CATTLE: Blistering. — Tincture cantharides, 1 ounce; camphorated oil, J ounce. Apply a portion with friction 3 times a day un- til a blister shows. As it subsides apply again. Horse -Colic Remedy. — I. — In making a horse-colic remedy containing tincture of opium, ether and chloroform, to be given in tablespoonful doses, apportion the ingredients about equally, and mix the dose with a pint of water. Other formulas are: II. — Chloroform anodyne 1 ounce Spirit of nitrous ether 2 ounces Linseed oil 13 ounces Give in one dose and repeat in an hour if necessary. Condition Pdwders. — I. — Sulphur, 2 pounds; Glauber salts, 1 pound; black antimony, J pound; powdered blood- root, 4 ounces; copperas, J pound; rosin, J pound; asafetida, 2 ounces; saltpeter, j pound. Powder and mix well. II. — Gentian, 4 ounces; potassium ni- trate, 1 ounce; sulphur, 4 ounces; ginger (African), 4 ounces; antimony, 4 ounces; rosin, 2 ounces; Fcenugreek, 2 ounces; capsicum, 2 ounces; serpen taria, 2 ounces; sodium sulphate, 9 ounces; flaxseed meal, 16 ounces. All ingredients in fine pow- der. Dose: 1 tablespoonful in feed twice a, day. Veterinary Dose Table. — For a colt 1 month old give -^ of the full dose; 3 months old, iV; 6 months old, J; 1 year old, J; 2 years old, i; 3 years old, J. Fluids for cattle usually the same dose as for the horse. Solids for cattle usu- ally 1 J times the dose for the horse. 730 VETERINARY FORMULAS Drug. Aloes Alum Aqua ammonia ..... Ammonia bromide . . Ammonia carbonate. Ammonia iodide .... Antimony black .... Areca nut Arsenic Asafetida Belladonna leaves . . . Buchu leaves Calaber bean Camphor Cantnarides Capsicum Catechu Chalk preparation.. . Chloral hydrate Chloroform Cinchona Copper sulphate Creolin Creosote Digitalis leaves Dover powder Ergot Ether Ex. belladonna fluid . Extract buchu fluid . Extract cannabis in- dica Fcenugreek Gallnuts Gentian Ginger Ipecac Iron carbonate Iron sulphate Juniper berries Limewater Magnesia sulphate. . . Mustard Nux vomica Oil castor Oil Croton Oil juniper Oil linseed Oil olive Oil savin Oil turpentine Opium Potassium iodide. . . . Potassium nitrate . . . Potassium sulphide. . Quinine Rhubarb Santonine Sodium hyposulphite Sodium sulphate . . . . Sodium sulphite .... Spirits ammonia, aro- ma tic Spirits chloroform. . . Spirits nitrous ether . Spirits peppermin't . . Strychnine sulphite. . Sulphur Tincture aconite .... Tincture asafetida . Tincture belladonna Tincture cantharides Tincture columbo. . . Tincture digitalis Tincture iron Tincture ginger Tincture nux vomica Tincture Opium Tobacco Vinegar Whisky White vitriol Horses. Ito 8 dr. 1 to 3 dr. 3 to 5 dr. i to 2 oz. Ito 3 dr. i to 3 dr. 15 to 50 gr. 3 to 5 dr. 5tol2gr. Ito 4 dr. I to 2 oz. I to 3 oz. 4 to 12 gr. i to 2 dr. 6 to 25 gr. 1 to 2 dr. Ito 2 dr. 2 to 3oz. i to li oz. I to Idr. Ito 3 dr. ito 2 dr. Ito 5 dr. 15 to 30 min. 10 to 20 gr. 4 to 2 dr. 1 to 1 oz. J to 2i oz. i to 2 dr. 1 to 5 dr. i to J dr. 1 to 3 oz. 2 to 4 dr. 2 to 6 dr. 3 to 5 dr. i to 2 dr. 1 to 2 dr. J to 2 dr. 1 to 2 oz. 3 to 6 oz. i to 3 lb. 2 to 4 dr. *to Idr. i to 1 pt. 10 to 20 min. J to 2 dr. 1 to 1 pt. J to 2 pt. Ito 3 dr. i to 2 oz. i to ^dr. 2 to 4 dr. 1 to 2 oz. Ito 2 dr. 10 to 30 KT. Ho 1 oz. 15 to 40 gr. to 1 oz. to 21b. to loz. to to 2oz. loz. to 3oz. 1 to 2oz. ito Igr. 2 to 4oz. 5 to 30 min Ito 4 dr. 1 to 3 dr. 1 to 2oz. + to 2oz. 1 to 3 dr. 1 to 2oz. ito 2oz. 2to 4 dr. ' to ; to 3oz. Idr. to 3oz. 2 to 10 oz. 5 to 15 gr. Cattle. i to 2 oz. 1 to 3 dr. 3 to 5 dr. i to 2 oz. 2 to 5 dr. Ito 5 dr. 5 to 12 gr. i to 2 oz. i to 2 oz. 1 to 4 oz. 4tol2gr. 2 to 3 dr. 12 to 30 gr. 1 to 3 dr. 2 to 4 dr. 2 to 4oz. 1 tolioz. 4 to 2 dr. i to 2 oz. i to 3 dr. 2 to 5 dr. 1 to 2 dr. 20 to 50 gr. i to 2 dr. i to 1 oz. 1 to 3 oz. 2 to 4 dr. i to 1 dr. 1 to 3 oz. i to 1 oz. i to 1 oz. i to 2 oz. i to 3 dr. 1 to 3 dr. 1 to 3 oz. 3 to 6 oz. i to 3 lb. 2 to 6 dr. 2 to 3 dr. i to 1 pt. 1 to 2 dr. i to 2 dr. ito 2pt. 1 to 2 pt. 1 to 3 dr. i to 2 oz. i to 2 dr. 2 to 6 dr. 1 to 2 oz. 1 to 2 dr. 20 to 40 gr. 1 to 2 oz. i to 1 dr. 1 to 3 oz. Ito 21b. 1 to 3 oz. 1 to 3 oz. 1 to 2 oz. 1 to 3 oz. 1 to 2 oz. 1 to 3 gr. 2 to 4 oz. 5 to 20 min. Astringent. — I. — Opium 12 grains Camphor J drach: 2 to 4 dr. i to 1 oz. 1 to 2 oz. 2 to 4 dr. 1 to 2 oz. 1 to 2 oz. i to 1 oz. 1 to 3 oz. i to 1 dr. 2 to 6oz. 5 to 15 gr. Catechu. One dose. 1 drachm II.— Opium 12 grains Camphor 1 arachm Ginger -^ 2 drachms Castile soap 2 drachms Anise 3 drachms Licorice 2 drachms Contracted Hoof or Sore Feet. — I. — Lard Yellow wax Linseed oil [-Equal parts. Venice turpentine.. . . Tar Apply to the edge of the hair once a day. II. — Rosin 4 ounces Lard 8 ounces Melt and add Powdered vertigris. . . 1 ounce Stir well; when partly cool add Turpentine 2 ounces Apply to hoof about 1 inch down from the hair. Cough. — I. — Sodii bromide 180 grains' Creosote water 2 ounces Fennel water 4 ounces Half tablespoonful 4 times daily. II. — Ammonia bromide. . . 180 grains Fennel water 4 ounces Syrup licorice 4 ounces Teaspoonful 4 times daily. Cow Powder. — Powdered catechu ... 60 grains Powdered ginger 240 grains Powdered gentian. . . . 240 grains Powdered opium 30 grains CUTS, WOUNDS, SORES. I. — Tincture opium, 2 ounces; tannin, J ounce. II. — Tincture aloes, 1 ounce; tincture of myrrh, J ounce; tincture of opium, J ounce; water, 4 ounces. Apply night and morning. III. — Lard, 4 ounces; beeswax, 4 ounces; rosin, 2 ounces; carbolic acid, J ounce. Diarrhoea. — I. — Opium 15 grains Peppermint J ounce Linseed meal 1 ounce Give half in morning and remainder in evening in a pint of warm water. VETERINARY FORMULAS ".M II. — Prepared chalk 6 ounces Catechu 3 ounces Opium IJ ounces Ginger 3 ounces Gentian 3 ounces One powder 3 times a day in half a pint of warm water. One-sixth of dose lor calves. Diuretic Ball. — I. — Oil juniper J drachm Rosin 2 drachms Saltpeter 2 drachms Camphor J drachm Castile soap 1 ounce Flaxseed meal 1 ounce Make 1 pill. II. — Rosin 90 grains Potassium nitrate. . . 90 grains Po buchu leaves. ... 45 grains Dose: 1 twice a day. Drying Drink. — Powdered alum 6 ounces Armenian bole 2 ounces Powdered juniper ber- ries J ounce Once daily in 1 quart of warm gruel. Epizooty or Pinkeye. — Sublimed sulphur .... J ounce Epsom salt 1 ounce Charcoal J ounce Extract licorice 1 ounce Fever. — I. — Salicylic acid J ounce Sodium bicarbonate. . J ounce Magnesium sulphate. 10 ounces Give half in quart of warm bran water at night. II. — Spirits niter 3 ounces Tincture aconite 2 drachms Fluid extract bella- donna i ounce Nitrate potash 2 ounces Muriate ammonia ... 2 ounces Water, q. » 1 quart Dose: Teaspoonful every 2 or 3 hours till better. Heaves. — I. — Balsam copaiba, 1 ounce; spirits of turpentine, 2 ounces; balsam fir, 1 ounce; cider vinegar, 16 ounces. Tablespoonful once a day. II. — Saltpeter, 1 ounce; indigo, § ounce; rain or distilled water, 4 pints. Dose: 1 pint twice a day. Hide Bound. — Elecampane 2 ounces Licorice root 2 ounces Foenugreek 2 ounces Rosin 2 ounces Copperas i ounce Ginger 2 drachms Gentian 1 drachm Saltpeter 1 drachm Valerian 1 drachm Linseed meal 8 ounces Sublimed sulphur. ... 1 ounce Black antimony 4 drachms Tablespoonful twice a day. HORSE EMBROCATIONS AND LINI- MENTS. I. — Camphor 1 ounce Acetic acid 15 ounces Alcohol 18 ounces Oil turpentine 61 ounces Eggs 6 Distilled witch hazel. 45 ounces II. — Iodine 50 grains Pot iodide 125 grains Soap liniment 6 ounces INFLUENZA. I. — Ammonia muriate. . . IJ ounces Gum camphor j ounce Pot chloride 1 ounce Extract licorice, pow- dered 2 ounces Molasses, q. s. Make a mass. Dose: Tablespoonful in form of pill night and morning. II. — Ammonium chloride. 30 parts Potassium nitrate.. .. 30 parts Potassium sulphate in little crystals 100 parts Licorice powder 65 parts Mix. Dose: A tablespoonful, in a, warm mash, 3 times daily. INFLAMMATION OF THE UDDER. I. — Salicylic acid 40 grains Mercurial ointment. . 1 ounce Liniment of camphor 3J ounces Apply and rub the udder carefully twice a day. II. — Belladonna root 1 drachm Oil turpentine 1 ounce Camphor 1 drachm Solution green soap, q. s. 6 ounces Mix and make a liniment. Bathe the udder several times with hot water. Dry and apply above liniment. MANGE. Sulphur is a specific for mange; the trouble consists in its application. The 732 VETERINARY FORMULAS old-fashioned lotion of train oil and black sulphur serves well enough, but for stabled animals something is wanted which will effectually destroy the para- sites in harness and saddlery without injury to those expensive materials. The creosote . emulsions and coal-tar derivatives generally are fatal to the sarcopts if brought into actual contact, but a harness pad with ridges of ac- cumulated grease is a sufficient retreat for a few pregnant females during a per- functory disinfection, and but a few days will be needed to reproduce a new and vigorous stock. A cheap and efficient application can be made by boiling to- gether flowers of sulphur and calcis hydras in the proportion of 4 parts of the forme,r to 1 of the latter, and 100 of water, for half an hour. It should be applied warm, or immediately after washing with soft soap. Milk Powder for Cows. — For increas- ing the flow of milk, in cows, Hager rec- ommends the following mixture: Potassium nitrate. ... 1 part Alum 1 part Sublimed sulphur. ... 1 part Prepared chalk 1 part White bole 2 parts Red clover 5 parts Anise 10 parts Fennel 10 parts Salt 10 parts All should be in tolerably fine powder and should be well mixed. The direc- tions are to give 1 or 2 handfuls with the morning feed. LAXATIVES. I. — Aloes 1 drachm Soap 12 drachms Caraway 4 drachms Ginger 4 drachms Treacle, q. ». Make 4 balls. Dose: 1 daily. II. — Rochelle salts 2 ounces Aloes, powdered 150 grains Linseed meal 150 grains One dose, given in warm water. Lice. — Crude oil 1 ounce Oil tar 1 ounce Oil cedar 1 drachm Cottonseed oil 5 ounces Apply to parts. DOMESTIC PETS. The sarcoptic itch of the dog, as well as that of the cat, is transmissible to man. The Tinea tonsurans, the so-called barbers' itch, due to a trychophyton, and affecting both the dog and cat, is highly contagious to man. Pavus, Tinea favos, caused by achorion schoenleini, of both animals, is readily transmissible to hu- man beings. The dog carries in his intestines many kinds of tcenia (tape- worm), among them Tcenia echinococ- cus, the eggs of which cause hydatic cysts. Hydatic cysts occur in persons who are always surrounded with dogs, or in constant contact with them. Aviar diphtheria (i. e., the diphtheria of birds), caused by at least two microbes (bacillus of Klebs-Loeffler and bacillus coli), may easily be transmitted to man and cause in him symptoms analogous to those of true diphtheritic angina. Parrots are subject to an infectious enteritis which may be communicated to human beings, giving rise to the so- called psittacosis (from the Greek, psitta, a parrot), of which there have been a number of epidemics in France. It is determined by the bacillus of No- card. Human tuberculosis is certainly trans- mitted to dogs, cats, and birds. Cadiot, Gibert, Roger, Benjamin, Petit, and Basset, as well as other observers, cite cases where dogs, cats, and parrots, presenting all the lesions of tuberculosis, were shown to have contracted it from contact with human beings; while there are no recorded cases, there can scarcely be a natural doubt that man may, in a similar manner, become attainted through them, and that their tuberculosis con- stitutes an actual danger to man. Need we recall here the extraordinary facility with which hydrophobia is com- municated to man through the dog, cat, etc.? We may, therefore, conclude that we should not permit these animals to take up so much space in our apartments, nor should they be petted and caressed either by adults or children in the reck- less manner common in many house- holds. The disgusting habit of teaching animals to take bits of food, lumps of sugar, etc., from between the lips of members of the family is also to be shunned. Finallv, any or all of them should be banished from the house the moment that they display certain morbid symp- toms. Besides, in certain cases, there should be a rigid prophylaxis against certain diseases — as echinococcus, for instance. Worms. — In • cats and dogs, round worms, of which ascaris mystax is the VETERINARY FORMl LAS 733 most common in cats, are found chiefly in young animals. This worm has hir- sute appenduKcs somewhat resembling a mustache. To treat an animal in- fected with such "guests," the patient should be made to fast for 24 hours. For a small kitten J grain of santonin, up to a grain or two for large cats, fol- lowed in an hour by a dose of castor oil, is recommended. To avoid spilling the oil on the animal's coat the "doctor" should have it heated and whipped with warm milk. Another Way to get cats to take it is to smear it on the bottoms of their front feet, when they will lick it off. Areca nut, freshly ground by the drug- gist himself and administerecf in liberal doses, say 30 to 60 grains, will usually drive out any worms in the alimentary canal. It is important that animals success- fully treated for worms once should undergo the treatment a second or third time, as all the parasites may not have been killed or removed the first time, or their progeny may have developed in the field vacated by the parents. The following is an effective formula: German wormseed, powdered 1 drachm Fluid extract of spi- gelia 3 drachms Fluid extract of senna. 1 drachm Fluid extract of vale- rian 1 drachm Syrup of buckthorn . . i ounces Do.se: From J to 1 teaspoonful night and morning. Foot Itch.— The itch that affects the feet of poultry is contagious in a most insidious way. The various birds of a poultry yara in which the disease is prevalent, rarely contract it until after a comparatively long period of exposure, but sooner or later every bird will con- tract it. One infected bird is enough to infect a whole yard full, and once in- fected, it is exceedingly diflScult to get rid of. The disease, however, affects birds only. The treatment is simple. Having softened the feet by keeping them for some minutes in tepid water, the scabs that cover them are carefully detached, avoiding, as far as possible, causing them to bleed, and taking the precaution of throwing every scab into the fire. The feet are then carefully dried, with a bit of soft cotton material, which should after- wards be burned; then the entire surface is covered with ointment (U nguentum sul- phuris kalinum). An alcoholic solution of Canada balsam is preferred by some. Protect the ointment by a proper ap- pliance, and allow it to remain in contact 2 or 3 days. At the end of this time re- move the applications and wash off with tepid suds. The bird will generally be found cured, but if not, repeat the treat- ment — removing the remaining scabs, which will be found soft enough without resorting to soaking in tepid water, and apply the ointment directly. There is another method of treatment that has been found successful, which not only cures the infected birds but prevents the infection of others. It is simply providing a sand bath for the birds, under a little shed, where they can indulge themselves in rolling and scratch- ing, the bath being composed of equal parts fine sand, charcoal in fine powder, ashes, and flowers of sulphur, sifted together. The bath should be renewed every week. In the course of a few weeks the cure is complete. Foods. — I. — Powdered egg shell or phosphate of lime. 4 ounces Iron sulphate i ounces Powdered capsicum., t ounces Powdered Foenugreek '2 ounces Powdered black pep- per 1 ounce • Silver sand i ounces Powdered lentils .... 6 ounces A tablespoonful to be mixed with sufficient feed for 20 hens. II. — Oyster shell, ground. 5 ounces Magnesia 1 ounce Calcium carbonate . . 3 ounces Bone, ground li ounces Mustard bran 1 j ounces Capsicum 1 ounce Powders. — I. — Cayenne pepper 2 parts Allspice 4 parts Ginger 6 parts Powder and mix well together. .V teaspoonful to be mixed with every pound of food, and fed 2 or 3 times a week. Also feed fresh meat, finely chopped. II. — Powdered egg shells. . 4 parts Powdered capsicum. . 4 parts Sulphate of iron 4 parts Powdered Foenugreek 2 parts Powdered black pep- per 1 part Sand 2 parts Powdered dog biscuit 6 parts A tablespoonful to be mixed with suflScient meal or porridge to feed 20 hens. 734 VETERINARY FORMULAS— VINEGAR Lice Powders. — I. — Sulphur 4 ounces ToDacco dust 6 ounces Cedar oil 1 ounce White hellebore 4 ounces Crude naphthol 1 ounce Powdered chalk, q. s. 2 pounds II. — Sulphur 1 ounce Carbolic acid J ounce Crude naphthol 1 ounce Powdered chalk 1 pound Roup.or Gapes. — Roup in poultry is caused by the presence of parasites or entozoa in the windpipe. Young birds are most commonly affected. The best method of treatment is to expose the affected bird to the fumes of heated carbolic acid until on the point of suffo- cation. The bird may be placed in a box with a hot brick, and carbolic acid placed thereon. The fowls soon re- cover from the incipient suffocation, and are almost always freed from the disease. Care must be taken to burn the parasites coughed out, and the bodies of any birds which may die of the disease. The following powders for the treatment of "roup" in poultry have been recom- mended: I. — Potassium chlorate . . 1 ounce Powdered cubebs.. . . 1 ounce. Powdered anise J ounce Powdered licorice.. . . IJ ounces Mix a teaspoonful with the food for 20 hens. II. — Ammonium chloride. 1 ounce Black antimony J ounce Powdered anise | ounce Powdered squill J ounce Powdered licorice. ... 2 ounces Mix and use in the foregoing. FOR SHEEP: Dips. — For the prevention of "scab" in sheep, which results from the burrow- ing of an acarus or the destruction of the parasite when present, various prepara- tions of a somewhat similar cnaracter are used. . The following formulas for sheep dips are recommended by the United States Department of Agriculture : I. — Soap 1 pound Crude carbolic acid. . 1 pint Water 50 gallons Dissolve the soap in a gallon or more of boiling water, add the acid, and stir thoroughly. II. — Fresh skimmed milk . . 1 gallon Kerosene 2 gallons Churn together until emulsified, or mix and put into the mixture a force pump and direct the stream from the pump back into the mixture. The emulsification will take place more rapidly if the milk be added while boil- ing hot. Use 1 gallon of this emulsion to each 10 gallons of water required. Constipation. — I. — Green soap 150 grains Linseed oil li ounces Water '■ 15 ounces Give i every § hour till action takes place. II. — Calomel li grains Sugar 15 grains One dose. Loss of Appetite. — Sodium sulphate, dried 90 grains Sodium bicarbonate. . 30 grains Rhubarb 30 grains Calamus 90 grains Form the mass into 6 pills. Give one twice daily. Inflammation of the Eyes. — Zinc sulphate 20 grains Mucilage quince seed. 4 ounces Distilled water 4 ounces Bathe eyes twice daily. VINE BLACK: See Pigments. Vinegar I. — Into a hogshead with a large bung- hole put 1,500 parts, by weight, of honey, 125 parts of carob-pods, cut into pieces, 50 parts of powdered red or white potassium bitartrate, 125 parts of pow- dered tartaric acid, 2,000 parts of raisin stems, 400 parts of the best brewers' yeast, or 500 of leaven rubbed up in water; add 16,000 parts of triple vinegar and 34,000 parts of 40 per cent spirit, containing no fusel oil. Stir all vigor- ously together; fill up the hogshead with hot water (100° F.), close the bunghole with gauze to keep out insects, and let the contents of the cask stand for from 4 to 6 weeks or until they have turned to vinegar. The temperature of the room should be from 77° to 88° F. Draw off half the vinegar," and fill the hogshead up again with 15 parts of soft water and 1 part of spirit (40 per cent). Do this 4 times, then draw off all the vinegar and begin the first process over again. This method of making vinegar is suitable for households and small dealers, but would not suffice for whole- VINEGAR 735 sale manufacturers, since it would take too long to produce any large amount. II. — Put into an upright wine cask open at the top, 14,000 parts, by weight, of lukewarm water, 2,333 parts of 60 per cent alcohol, 500 parts of brown sugar, 125 parts of powdered red or white Eotassium bitartrate, 250 parts of good rewers' yeast, or 125 parts of leaven, 1,125 parts of triple vinegar, and stir until the substances are dissolved. Lay a cloth and a perforated cover over the cask and let it stand in a temperature of 72° to 77° F. from 4 to 6 weeks; then draw off the vinegar. The thick deposit at the bottom, the "mother of vinegar," so called, can be used in making more vinegar. Pour over it the same quan- tities of water and alcohol used at first; but after the vinegar has been drawn off twice, half the first quantity of sugar and potassium bitartrate, and the whole quantity of yeast, must be added. This makes excellent vinegar. III. — A good strong vinegar for house- hold use may be made from apple or pear peelings. Put the peelings in a stone ]ar (not glazed with lead) or in a. cask, and pour over them water and a little vinegar, fermented beer, soured wine, or beet juice. Stir well, cover with a linen cloth and leave in a warm room. The vinegar will be ready in 2 or 3 weeks. IV. — Two wooden casks of any desired size, with light covers, are provided. They may be called A and B. A is filled with vinegar, a tenth part of this is poured off into B, and an equal amount of fermented beer, wine, or any other sweet or vinous liquid, or a mixture of 1,12:) parts, by weight, of alcohol, 11,500 to 14,000 parts of water, and 1,125 parts of beet juice, put into A. When vinegar is needed, it is drawn out of B, an equal quantity is poured from A into B and the same quantity of vinegar-making liquids put into A. In this way vinegar is constantly being made and the process may go on for years, provided that the casks are large enough so that not more than a tenth of the contents of A is used in a week. If too much is used, so that the vinegar in the first cask becomes weak, the course of the vinegar making is disturbed for a long time, and this fact, whose import- ance has not been understood, prevents this method — in its essential principles the best — from being employed on a large scale. The surplus in A acts as a fermentative. Aromatic Vinegar. — I. — Sixteen ounces glacial acetic acid, 40 drops oil of cloves, i 40 drops oil of rosemary, 40 drops oil of bergamot, 16 drops oil of neroli, 30 drops oil of lavender, 1 drachm benzoic acid, J ounce camphor, 30 to 40 drops compound tincture of lavender, 3 ounces spirit of wine. Dissolve the oils, the ben- zoic acid, and the camphor in the spirit of wine, mix with acetic acid and snake until bright, lastly adding the tincture of lavender to color. II. — Dried leaves of rosemary, rue, wormwood, sage, mint, and lavender flowers, each J ounce; bruised nutmegs, cloves, angelica root, and camphor, each J of an ounce; rectified alcohol, 4 ounces; concentrated acetic acid, 16 ounces. Macerate the materials for a day in the alcohol; then add the acid and digest for 1 week longer at a temperature of 490° F. Finally press out the now aromatised acid and filter it. Cider Vinegar. — By "artificial vine- gar " is meant vinegar made by the ciuick method with beechwood shavings. This cannot be carried out with any economy on a small scale, and requires a plant. A modification of the regular plan is as follows: Remove the head from a good tight whisky barrel, and put in a wooden faucet near the bottom. Fill the barrel with corn cobs and lay an empty coffee sack over them. Moisten the cobs by sprinkling them with some good, strong, natural vinegar, and let them soak for a few hours. After the lapse of 2 or 3 hours draw off the vinegar and again moisten the cobs, repeating this until they are rendered sour throughout, addling each time 1 quart of high wines to the vinegar before throwing it back on the cobs. This prevents the vinegar from becoming flat, by the absorption of its acetic acid by the cobs. Mix a gallon of molasses with a gallon of high wine and 14 gallons of water and pour it on the cobs. Soak for 8 hours, then draw off and pour on the cobs again. Repeat this twice daily, until the vinegar becomes sour enough to suit. By hav- ing a battery of barrels, say 4 barrels prepared as above, the manufacture may be made remunerative, especially if the residue of sugar casks in place of mo- lasses, and the remnants of ale, etc., from the bar-rooms around town are used. All sugar-containing fruit may be utilized for vinegar making. VINEGAR, TESTS FOR: See Foods. VINEGAR, TOILET: See Cosmetics. 736 WARTS— WATCHMAKERS' FORMULAS VIOLET AMMONIA: See Cosmetics. VIOLET WATER: See Perfumes. VIOLIN ROSIN: See Rosin. VIOLIN VARNISH: See Varnishes. VISCOSE: See Celluloid. VOICE LOZENGES: See Confectionery. VULCANIZATION OF RUBBER: See Rubber. WAGON GREASE: See Lubricants. WALLS, DAMP: See Household Formulas. WALL AND WALL-PAPER CLEAN- ERS: See Cleaning Preparations and Meth- ods, also Household Formulas. WALL-PAPER DYES: See Dyes. WALL-PAPER PASTE: See Adhesives. WALL PAPER, REMOVAL OF: See Household Formulas. WALL WATERPROOFING: See Waterproofing and Household For- mulas. WALL PRIMING: See Paints. WALNUT: See Wood. WARMING BOTTLE: See Bottles. WARPING, PREVENTION OF: See Wood. Warts Wart Cure. — The following is espe- cially useful in cases where the warts are very numerous: I. — Chloral hydrate 1 part Acetic acid 1 part Salicylic acid 4 parts Sulphuric ether 4 parts Collodion 15 parts Mix. Directions: Every morning ap- ply the foregoing to the warts, painting one coat on another. Should the mass fall off without taking the warts with it, repeat the operation. Take, internally 10 grains of Durnt magnesia daily. II. — Sulphur 10 parts Acetic acid 5 parts Glycerine 25 parts Keep the warts covered with this mixture. WASHING FLUIDS AND POWDERS: See Laundry Preparations. WASTE, PHOTOGRAPHIC, ITS DIS- POSITION: See Photography. WATCH -DIAL CEMENTS: See Adhesives, under Jewelers' Ce- ments. WATCH GILDING: See Plating. Watchmakers' Formulas WATCH MANUFACTURERS' ALLOYS. Some very tenacious and hard alloys, for making the parts of watches which are not sensitive to magnetism, are as follows: I II III IV V VI VII Platinum. 62.75 62.75 62.75 64.32 0.5 0.5 — Copper, . . 18 16.20 16.20 16 18.5 18.5 25 Nickel.. . . 18 18 16.50 24.70 — 2 1 Cadmium. 1.25 1.25 1.25 1.25 -- — — Cobalt.... — — 1.50 1.96 — Tungsten. — 1.80 1.80 1.77 — ~- — Palladium — — — — 72 72 70 Silver.... — — — — 6.5 7 4 Rhodium. — — — — 1 — — Gold — — — — 1.5— — A non-magnetic alloy for watch- springs, wheels, etc. : Gold, 30 to 40 parts; palladium, 30 to 40 parts; copper, 10 to 20 parts; silver, 0.1 to 5 per cent; cobalt, 0.1 to 2.5 per cent; tungsten, 0.1 to 5 per cent; rhodium, 0.1 to 5 per cent; plati- num, 0.1 to 5 per cent. An Alloy for Watch Pinion Sockets. — Gold, 31 parts; silver, 19 parts; co.pper, 39 parts; palladium, 1 part. Replacing Rubies whose Settings have Deteriorated. — Enlarge, with the squarer (steel brooch for enlarging holes), the hole of the old setting, and adjust it, with hard rubbing, to the extremity of a stem of pierced brass wire. Take the stem in an American nippers, and set the ruby at the extremity (the setting may be driven back by usiiig a flat burnishing tool, very gently). Then take off with a cleaving file the part of the stem where the ruby is set, and diminish it to the thickness desired, by filing on the finger, or on cork. These operations finished. WATCHMAKERS' FORMULAS 737 a set stopper is obtained which now needs only to be solidly fixed at the suitable height, in the hole prepared. To Straighten Bent Teeth. — Bent teeth are straightened by means of the screw- driver used as a levor against the root of the adjacent teeth, and bent pivots may be held in the jaws of the pliers and the pinion bent with the fingers in the direc- tion and to the extent required. For such a purpose, pliers having the jaws lined with brass are used so that the pivot is not bruised, and the bending has to be done with great care. To Renew a Broken Barrel Tooth.— Frequently, in consequence of the break- ing of a spring, a, tooth of a barrel is broken. Sometimes it may only be bent, in which case the blade of a penknife may be used with care. If 2 or 3 suc- cessive teeth are lacking, the best way is to change the barrel, but a single tooth ma^ be easily renewed in this way: Drill a hole through the thickness of the tooth, taking care not to penetrate the drum; then fit in a piece of metal tightly and give it, as well as possible, the cor- rect form of the tooth. To assure solidity, solder it; then clean and round the edges. Properly executed the repair will scarcely be noticed. Heated Sawdust. — Sawdust is known to have been employed from time im- memorial by watchmakers and gold- smiths for the purpose of drying rmsed articles. The process of drying can be accelerated four-fold if the sawdust is heated before use. This must, however, be done with great caution and constant stirring. To Repair a Dial, etc., with Enamel Applied Cold. — There are two kinds of false enamel for application, when cold, to damaged dials. The first, a mixture of white rosin and white lead, melts like sealing wax, which it closely resembles. It is advisable when about to apply it to gently heat the dial and the blade of a knife, and with the knife cut the piece of enamel of the requisite size and lay it on the dial. The new enamel must project somewhat above the old. When cold the surface is leveled by scraping, and a shining surface is at once produced by holding at a little distance from, the flame of a spirit lamp. It is necessary to be very careful m conducting this operation, as the least excess of heat will burn the enamel and turn it yellow. _ It is, however, preferable to the following although more difficult to apply, as it is harder and does not become dirty so soon. The second false enamel con- tains white lead mixed with melted white wax. It is applied like cement, neatly filling up the space and afterwards rubbing with tissue paper to produce a shining surface. If rubbed with a knife blade or other steel implement its surface will be discolored. Lettering a Clock Dial. — Painting Roman characters on a clock dial is not such a difficult task as might at first be imagined. If one has a set of drawing instruments and properly proportions the letters, it is really simple. The letters should be proportioned as follows: The breadth of an "I" and a space should equal J the breadth of an '"X," that is, if the _ X" is * inch broad, the "I" will be -\\ inch broad and the space between letters i^j inch, thus making the "I" plus one space equal to J inch or half the breadth of an "X." The "V's" should be the same breadth as the "X's." After the letters have been laid off in pencil, outline them with » ruling pen and fill in with a small camel's-hair brush, using gloss black paint thinned to the proper consistency to work well in the ruling pen. Using the ruling pen to outline the letters gives sharp straight edges, which it would be impossible to obtain with a brush in the hands of an inexperienced person. Verification of the Depthings. — In the verge watches, the English watches, and those of analogous caliber, it is often difficult to verify the depthings, except by the touch. For this reason we often find the upper plate pierced over each depth. In the jeweled places, instead of perforating the upper plate, it suffices to aeposit a drop of very limpid oil on the ruby, taking care that it does not scatter. In this manner a lens is formed and one may readily distinguish the depthing. To Make or Enlarge a Dial Hole. — By wetting the graver or the file with spirit of turpentine, cracks may be avoided and the work will be accomplished much quicker. To Repair a Repeating Clock-Bell. — When the bell is broken, whether short off or at a distance, file it away and pierce it, and after having sharpened a little the stem of the spring whicn remains, push by force, in tne hole just made, a thin piece of solder (pewter). The sound will not have changed in any appreciable manner. A seconds pendulum of a regulator, which has no compensation for temper- ature will cause the clock to lose about 738 WATCHMAKERS' FORMULAS 1 second per day for each 3 degrees of increase in heat. A watch without a compensation balance will lose 6.11 seconds in 24 hours for each increase of 1° F. in heat. To Remedy Worn Pinions. — Turn the leaves or rollers so that the worn places upon them will be toward the arbor or shaft and fasten them in that position. If they are "rolling pinions," and they cannot be secured otherwise, a little soft solder should be used. Watchmakers' Oil. — I. — Put some lead shavings into neat's foot oil, and allow to stand for some time, the longer the better. The lead neutralizes the acid, and the result is an oil that never corrodes or thickens. II. — Stir up for some time best olive oil with water kept at the boiling point; then after the two fluids have separated, decant the oil and shake up with a little freshly burned lime. Let the mixture stand for some weeks in a bottle ex- posed to the sunlight and air, but pro- tected from wet and dirt. When filtered, the oil will be nearly colorless, perfectly limpid, and will never thicken or be- come rancid. To Weaken a Balance Spring. — A bal- ance spring may need weakening; this is effected by grinding the spring thinner. Remove the spring from the collet and lace it upon a piece of pegwood cut to t the center coil. A piece of soft iron wire, flattened so as to pass freely be- tween the coils and charged with a little powdered oilstone, will serve as a grinder, and with it the strength of the sprmg may soon be reduced. Operations will be con- fined to the center coil, for no other part of the spring will rest sufiiciently against the wood to enable it to be ground, but this will generally suffice. The effect will be rather rapid; therefore care should be taken or the spring may be made too weak. To Make a Clock Strike Correctljr. — Pry the plates apart on the striking side, slip the pivots of the upper wheels out, and having disconnected them from the train, turn them partly around and put them back. If still incorrect, repeat the experiment. A few efforts at most will get them to work properly. The sound in cuckoo clocks is caused by a wire act- ing on a small bellows which is connected with two small pipes like organ pipes. To Reblack Clock Hands. — One coat "of asphaltum varnish will make old rusty hands look as good as new, and will dry in a few minutes. t To Tighten a Ruby Pin. — Set the ruby pin in asphaltum varnish. It will be- come hard in a few minutes and be much firmer and better than the gum shellac, generally used. To Loosen a Rusty Screw in a Watch Movement. — Put a little oil around the screw; heat the head lightly by means of a red-hot iron rod, applying the same for 2 or 3 minutes. The rusty screw ma^ then be removed as easily as though it had just been put in. Gilding Watch Movements. (See also Gilding.) — In gilding watch movements, the greatest care must be observed with regard to cleanliness. The work is first to be placed into a weak solution of caustic potash for a few minutes, and then rinsed in cold water. The movements are now to be dipped into pickling acid (nitrous acid) for an instant, and then plunged immediately into cold water. After being finally rinsed in hot water, they may be placed in the gilding bath and allowed to remain therein until they have re- ceived the required coating. A few seconds will generally be sufficient, as this class of work does not require to be very strongly gilt. When gilt, the move- ments are to be rinsed in warm water, and scratch-brushed; they may then be returned to the bath, for an instant, to give them a good color. Lastly, rinse in hot water and place the movements in clean box sawdust. An economical mode of gilding watch movements is to employ a copper anode — working from the solution, add 10 parts of cream of tartar and a corresponding quantity of elutriated chalk to obtain a pulp that can be put on with the brush. The gilding or silvering obtained in this manner is pretty, but of slight durability. At the present time this method is only seldom employed, since the electroplat- ing affords a means of producing gilding and silvering in a handsome and com- paratively cheap manner, the metallic coating having to be but very thin. Gold and silver for this kind of work are used in the form of potassium cyanide of gold or potassium cyanide of silver solutions, it being a custom to copper the zinc articles previously by the aid of a battery, since the appearance will then be much hand- somer than on zinc alone. Gilding or silvering with leaf metal is done by pol- ishing the surface of the zinc bright and coating it with a very tough linseed-oil varnish diluted with 10 times the quan- tity of benzol. The metallic leaf is then laid on and polished with an agate. WATER 739 WATCHMAKERS' CLEANIITG PREP- ARATIONS: See Cleaning Preparations and Meth- ods. WATCH MOVEMENTS, PALLADIUM PLATING OF: See Plating. Water, Natural and Artifi- cial In making an artificial mineral water it must be remembered that it is sel- dom possible to reproduce the water by merely combining its chemical com- ponents. In other words, the analysis of the water cannot serve as a basis from which to prepare it, because even though all of the components were put together, many would be found insoluble, and others would form new chemical com- binations, so that the result would differ widely from the mineral water imitated. For example, carbonate of magnesia and carbonate of lime, which are im- portant ingredients in most mineral waters, will not make a clear solution unless freshly precipitated. Hence, when these are to be reproduced in a mineral water it is customary to employ other substances which will dissolve at once, and which will, upon combining, produce these salts. The order in which the salts are added is also a, very im- portant matter, for by dissolving the salts separately and then carefully com- bining them, solutions may be effected which would be impossible were all the salts added together to the water in the portable fountain. In this connection the following table will be found useful: Group 1 Ammonium carbon- Sodium ate. Sodium Ammonium chloride. Sodium Sodium borate (bo- Sodium rax). Sodium Potassium carbon- Sodium ate. Sodium Potassium chloride. phate Potassium nitrate. Sodium Potassium sulphate. Sodium Sodium bromide. Group 2 Lithium carbonate. Group 3 Aluminum chloride. Magnesium chlo- Barium chloride. ride. Calcium bromide. Magnesium nitrate. Calcium chloride. Strontium chloride. Calcium nitrate. Lithium chloride. carbonate, chloride, fluoride, iodide, nitrate, phosphate, pyrophos- silicate. sulphate. Group 4 Magnesium s u 1 - Alum (potassa or pnate. soda alum). Group 5 Lime carbonate. Lime sulphate pre- Magnesium carbon- cipitate. ate hydrate. Group 6 Lithium carbonate. Iron pyrophosphate. Acid hydrochloric. Iron sulphate. Acid sulphuric. Manganese chloride. Iron chloride. Manganese sulphate. Group 7 Sodium arscniate, or sodium sulphide, or acid hydrosulphuric. Explanation of Groups. — The explana- tion of the use of these groups is simple. When about to prepare an artificial mineral water, first ascertain from the formula which of the ingredients belong to group 1. These should be dissolved in water, and then be filtered and added to distilled water, and thoroughly agitated. Next the substance or suD.stances be- longing to group '2 should be dissolved in water, then filtered and added to the water, which should again be agitated. And so the operation should proceed; whatever ingredients are required from each group should be taken in turn, a solution made, and this solution, after being filtered, should be separately add- ed to the fountain, and the latter be well agitated before the following solution is added. For groups 1, 3, and 4, the salts should be dissolved in 5 times their weight of boiling, or 10 times their weight of cold, water. For group '2 (lithium carbonate) the proportions should be 1 part of lithium carbonate to about 130 parts of cold or boiling water. The substances mentioned in group 5 are added to the portable fountain in their solid state, and dissolve best when freshly precipitated. As carbonic acid gas aids their solution, it is best to charge the fountain after they are added, and agitate thoroughly, blow- ing off the charge afterwards ifnecessary. In group 5 the lithium carbonate is dissolved in the acids (see also group 2), the iron and manganese salts are dis- solved in 5 parts of boiling, or 10 parts of cold, water, the solution quickly filtered, the acids added to it, and the whole mixture added to the fountain already charged with gas, the cap being quickly taken off, and the solution poured in. The iron and manganese salts easily oxidize and produce turbidity, therefore the atmospheric air should be carefully 740 WATER blown o£F under high pressure several times while charging fountains. The substances mentioned in group 7 are never put into the fountain, except the arseniate of sodium in the case of Vichy water, which contains but a trifling amount of this compound. Most of the solutions may be prepared beforehand and be iised when required, thus saving considerable time. Formulas for various waters will be given at the end of this article. A question which arises in preparing mineral waters is: What is the best charging pressure? As a general rule, they are charged to a lower pressure than plain soda; good authorities even recommend charging certain mineral waters as low as 30 pounds pressure to the square inch, but this seems much too low a pressure for the dispensing counter. From SO to 120 pounds pressure would be a good limit, while plain soda may be served out as high as 180 pounds. There must be enough pressure completely to empty the fountain, while enabling sufficient gas to be retained by the water to give it a thorough pungency. Moreover, a high pressure to the mineral water enables a druggist at a pinch, when he runs out of plain soda, to use his Vichy water, in- stead, with the syruped drinks. The taste of the Vichy is not very perceptible when covered by the syrup, and most custom- ers will not notice it. ApoUinaris Water. — Sodium carbonate. . . . 2,835 grains Sodium sulphate 335 grains Sodium silicate 10 grains Magnesium chloride. 198 grains Calcium chloride 40 grains Potassa alum 57 grains Magnesium carbon- ate hydrate 158 grains Iron sulphate 21 grains Hunyadi Water. — Magnesium sulphate. 400 parts Sodium sulphate 400 parts Potassium sulphate . . 2 parts Sodium chloride 31 parts Sodium bicarbonate.. 12 parts Water 1 quart Lithia Water. — Lithium Carbonate. . . 120 grains Sodium bicarbonate . 1 , 1 00 grains Carbonated water. . . . 10 gallons For "still" lithia water, substitute lithium citrate for the carbonate in the above formula. Seltzer Water. — Hydrochloric acid (chemically pure), 2,520 grains; pure water, 40 ounces. Mix and add marble dust, 240 grains; carbonate of magnesium, 420 grains. Dissolve, and after 1 hour add bicarbonate of sodium, 2,540 grains. Dissolve, then add sufficient pure water to make 10 gallons. Filter and charge to 100 pounds pressure. Vichy Water. — ^^The following formula, based on the analysis of Bauer-Struve, yields an imitation of Vichy {Grande Grille). Sodium iodide 0.016 parts Sodium bromide. .. . 0.08 parts Sodium phosphate . . 2 parts Sodium silicate 80 parts Potassium sulphate . 125 parts Sodium chloride .... 139 parts Sodium carbonate. . . 6,792 parts . Aluminum chloride. 1 part Strontium chloride. . 1 part Ammonium chloride 3 parts Magnesium chloride 24 parts Calcium chloride. . . 170 parts Manganese sulphate 0.46 parts Iron sulphate 1 part Sulphuric acid 40 parts Water to inake 10 gallons Mix the first 7 ingredients with about 10 times their weight of water and filter. In the same manner, mix the next 5 ingredients with water and filter; and then the last 3 ingredients. Pour these solutions into sufficient water contained in a fountain to make 10 gallons, and charge at once with carbon dioxide gas. Waters like the above are more cor- rectly named "imitation" than "arti- ficial," as the acidic and basic radicals may bear different relations to one an- other in the natural and the other. PURIFYING WATER. See also Filters. If an emulsion of clay is poured into a soap solution, the clay gradually separates out without clarifying the liquid. When a few drops of hydrochloric acid, how- ever, are added to a soap solution and a small quantity — about 1.5 per cent — of a clay emulsion poured in, the liquid clarifies at once, with formation of a plentiful sediment. Exactly the same process takes place when the waste waters from the combing process in spinning are treated with clay. The waters which remain turbid for several days contain 500 to 800 grams of fatty substances per cubic meter. If to 1 liter of this liquid 1 gram of clay is added, with 15 to 20 per cent of water, the liquid clarifies with separation of a sediment and assumes a golden-brown WATEK— WATERPROOFING 741 color. Besides the fatty substances, this deposit also contains a certain quantity of nitroRcnous bodies. Dried at (100°C.) ili° F., it weighs about 1.6 grams and contains 30 per cent of fat. The grease obtained from it is clear, of good quality, and deliquesces at 95° P. After removal of this fat, the mass still contains 1.19 per cent of nitrogen. Sterilization of Water with Lime Chloride. — In order to disinfect and sterilize 1,000 parts of drinking water, 0.15 parts of dry chloride of lime are sufficient. The lime is stirred with a little water into a thin paste and intro- duced, with stirring, into the water to be disinfected and a lew drops of officinal hydrochloric acid are added. After i hour the clarification and disinfection is accomplished, whereupon 0.3 parts of calcium sulphite are added, in order to kill the unpleasant smell and taste of the chlorine. Clarifying Muddy Water. — The water supply from rivers is so muddy at times that It will not go through the filter. When this happens agitate each barrel of water with 2 pounds of phosphate of lime and allow it to settle. This will take but a few minutes, and it will be found that most of the impurities have been carried down to the bottom. The water can then be drawn off carefully and filtered. Removal of Iron from Drinking Water. — The simplest method for re- nioving the taste of iron in spring water is to pass the water through a filter con- taining a layer of tricalcic phosphate cither in connection with other filtering materials or alone. The phosphate is first recovered in a gelatinous form, then dried and powdered. For Hardness. — A solution perfectly adapted to this purpose, and one which may be kept a long time, is prepared as follows: Thirty-five parts of almond oil are mixed with 50 parts of glycerine of 1.26 specific gravity and 8.5 parts of 50 per cent soda lye, and boiled to saponifi- cation. To this mixture, when it has cooled to from 85° to 90° C. (185° to 194° F.), are added 100 to I'iS parts of boiling water. After cooling again, 500 parts of water are added, and the solution is poured into a quart flask, with 94 per cent alcohol to make up a quart. After standing 2 months it is filtered. Twenty hydrolimeter degrees of this solution make, with 40 parts of a solution of 0.55 Rrams of barium chloride in 1 quart of water, a dense lather 1 centimeter high. WATER (COPPER): See Copper. WATER ICES: See Ice Creams. WATER, TO FREEZE: See Refrigeration. WATER JACKETS, ANTI -FREEZING SOLUTIONS FOR: See Freezing Preventives. WATER SPOTS, PRIMING FOR: See Paint. WATER STAINS: See Wood. WATER-LILY ROOTS: See Pyrotechnics. WATER, STIRRED YELLOW, SCAR- LET AND COLORLESS: See Pyrotcrhnics. WATERS (TOILET): See Cosmetics. WATER-GLASS CEMENTS: See Adhesives. WATER GLASS IN STEREOCHRO- MATIC PAINTING: See Stereochromy. Waterproofing (See .ilso Enamels, Glazes, Paints, Preservatives, Varnishes.) Waterproofing Brick Arches. — Water- proofing of brick arches is done in the following manner: The masonry is first smoothed over with cement mortar. This is then covered with a special compound on which a layer of Hydrcx felt IS laid so as to lap at least I'i inclirs on the transverse seams. Five layers of compound and 5 of felt are used, and special attention is paid to securing tightness around the drain pipes and at the spandrel walls. In fact the belt is carried up the back of the latter and turned into the joint under the coping about '•2 inches, where it is held with cement mortar. The waterproofing on the arches is protected with 1 inch of cement mortar and that on the walls with a single course of brickwork. Waterproofing Blue Prints. — Use re- fined paraffine, and apply by immersing the print in the melted wax, or more conveniently as follows: Immerse in melted paraffine until saturated, a number of pieces of an absorbent cloth a foot or more square. When withdrawn and cooled they are ready for use at any time. 742 WATERPROOFING To apply to a blue print, spread one of the saturated cloths on a smooth surface, place the dry print on it with a second waxed cloth on top, and iron with a moderately hot flatiron. The paper immediately absorbs paraffine until sat- urated, and becomes translucent and highly waterproofed. The lines of the print are intensified by the process, and there is no shrinking or distortion. As the wax is withdrawn from the cloths, more can be added by melting small pieces directly under the iron. By immersing the print in a bath of melted paraffine the process is hastened, but the ironing is necessary to remove the surplus wax from the surface, unless the paper is to be directly exposed to the weather and not to be handled. The irons can be heated in most offices by gas or over a lamp, and a supply of saturated cloths obviates the necessity of the bath. This process, which was originally applied to blue prints to be carried by the engineer corps in wet mines, is equally applicable to any kind of paper, and is convenient for water- proofing typewritten or other notices to be posted up and exposed to the weather. Waterproof Coatings. — I. — Rosin oil, 50 parts; rosin, 30 parts; white soap, 9 parts. Apply hot on the surfaces to be protected. II. — It has been observed that when gluten dried at an ordinary temperature, hence capable of absorbing water, is mixed with glycerine and heated, it becomes water-repelling and suitable for a waterproof paint. One part of gluten is mixed with 1 J parts of glycerine, where- by a slimy mass is obtained which is ap- plied on fabrics subsequently subjected to a heat of 248° F. The heating should not last until all glj^cerine has evaporated, otherwise the coating becomes brittle and peels off. Waterproofing Canvas. — I. — The can- vas is coated with a mixture of the three solutions named below: 1. Gelatin, 50 parts, by weight, boiled in 3,000 parts of water free from lime. 2. Alum, 100 parts, dissolved in 3,000 parts of water. 3. Soda soap dissolved in 2,000 parts of water. II. — Prepare a zinc soap by entirely dissolving 56 parts of soft soap in 125 to 150 parts of water. To the boiling liquid add, with constant stirring, 28 to 33 parts of zinc vitriol (white vitriol). The zinc soap floats on top and forms, after cooling, a hard white mass, which is taken out. In order to clean it of admixed carbonic alkali, it must be re- melted in boiling fresh water. Next place 232.5 parts of raw linseed oil (free from mucus) in a kettle with 2.5 parts of best potash, and 5 parts of water. This mass is boiled until it has become white and opaque and forms a liquid, soap-like compound. Now, add sugar of lead, 1.25 parts; litharge, 1 part; red lead, 2 parts; and brown rosin, 10.5 parts. The whole is boiled together about 1 hour, the temperature not being allowed to exceed 212° F., and stirring well from time to time. After this add 15 parts of zinc soap and stir the whole until the metal soap has combined with the oil, the tempera- ture not exceeding 212° F. When the mixture is complete, add a solution of caoutchouc, 1.2 parts, and oil of turpen- tine, 8.56 parts, which must be well in- corporated by stirring. The material is first coated on one side by means of a brush with this composition, which must have a temperature of 158° F. There- upon hang it up to dry, then apply a second layer of composition possessing the same temperature, which is likewise allowed to dry. The fiber is now filled out, so that the canvas is waterproof. Waterproofing Corks. — For the pur- pose of making corks as impervious as possible, while at the same time keeping them elastic, saturate them with caout- chouc solution. Dissolve caoutchouc in benzine in the ratio of 1 part of caout- chouc to 19 parts of benzine. Into this liquid lay the corks to be impregnated and subject them to a pressure of ISO to 180 pounds by means of a force pump, so that the liquid can thoroughly enter. The corks thus treated must next be ex- posed to a strong draught of air until all trace of benzine has entirely evaporated and no more smell is noticeable. WATERPROOFING FABRICS. It will be convenient to divide water- proof fabrics into two classes, viz., those which are impervious to water, and those which are water-repellent. It is im- portant to make this distinction, for, although all waterproof material is made for the purpose of resisting water, there is a vast difierence between the tWo classes. The physical diflference be- tween them can De briefly summed up as follows: Fabrics which are completely impervious to water comprise oil-skins, mackintoshes, and all materials having a water-resisting film on one or both sides, or in the interior of the fabric. Those coming under the second heading of water-repellent materials do not possess WATERPROOFING 743 this film, but have their fibers so treated as to offer less attraction to the water than the water molecules have for them- selves. The principal members of the first group are the rubber-proofed goods; in these the agent employed is rubber in greater or less quantity, together with other bodies of varying properties. Be- fore enlarging on this class, it will be necessary to give a short description of the chemical and physical properties of rubber. Rubber, or caoutchouc, is a natural gum exuding from a lar^e number of plants, those of the Euphorbiacew being the chief source for the commercial va- riety. The raw material appears on the market in the shape of blocks, cakes, or bottle-shaped masses, according to the manner in which it has been collected. It possesses a dark-brown — sometimes nearly black — exterior; the interior of the mass is of a lighter shade, and varies from a dingy brown to a dirty white, the color depending on the different brands and sources. In the raw state its prop- erties are very different from what they are after going through the various man- ufacturing processes, and it has only a few of the characteristics which are generally associated with India rubber. Chemically it is a complex hydrocarbon with the formula C<>Hag, and appears to consist of a highly porous network of cells having several different rosins in their interstices. It is perfectly soluble in no single solvent, but will yield some of its constituents to many different solvents. At a temperature of 10° C. (50° F.) raw caoutchouc is a solid body and possesses very little elasticity. At 36° C. (97° F.) it IS soft and elastic to a high degree, and is capable of being stretched 16 times its length. Further increase of temperature lessens its elas- tic properties, and at 120° C. (248° F.) it melts. While in the raw condition it has several peculiar properties, one of which is: After stretching, and cooling suddenly while stretched, it retains its new form, and only regains its former shape on being warmed. Another strik- ing feature is its strong adhesive capacity; this property is so powerful that the rubber cannot be cut with a knife unless the blade is wet; and freshlv cut portions, if pressed together, will adhere and form a homogeneous mass. From these facts it will be seen how it differs from rubber in the shape of a cycle tire or other manu- factured form. The most valuable property possessed by raw caoutchouc is tnat of entering into chemical combination with sulphur, after which its elasticity is much increased; it will then bear far greater gradations of heat and cold. This chemical treatment of caoutchouc with sulphur is known as "vulcanizing," and, if properly carried out, will yield either soft vulcanized rub- ber or the hard variety known as vulcan- ite. On the other hand, caoutchouc, after vulcanizing, has lost its plastic nature, and can no longer be molded into various shapes, so that in the production of stamped or molded objects, the cus- tomary method is to form them in un- vulcanized rubber and then to vulcanize them. Raw caoutchouc contains a number of natural impurities, such as sand, twigs, soil, etc.; these require removing before the manufacturing processes can be carried out. The first operation, after rough washing, is to shred the raw material into small strips, so as to en- able the impurities to be washed out. This process is carried out by pressing the rubber against the surface of a re- volving drum (A, Fig. 1), carrying a Fig. 1 number of diagonally arranged knives, B, on its surface. A lever, C, presses the rubber against the knives; D is the fulcrum on which C works, E being a weight which throws back the lever on the pressure being removed. During FiQ. 2. 74.4 WATERPROOFING this operation a jet of water is kept play- ing onto the knives to cool and enable them to cut. Following this comes the passage between a pair of corrugated steel rollers (as shown in Fig. 2). These rollers have each a different speed, so that the rubber gets stretched and squeezed at the same time. Immediately over the rollers a water pipe is fixed, so that a steady stream of water washes out all the sand and other extraneous matter. In Fig. 2, A A are the steel rollers, while S is a screw working springs which regulate the pressure between the rollers. The power is transmitted from below from the pulley, C, and thence to the gearing. The next operation, after well drying, is to thoroughly masticate the shredded rubber between hot steel rollers, which resemble those already described, but usually have a screw-thread cut on their surfaces. Pig. 3 shows the front view Fia. 3. of this masticating machine, A being the rollers, while the steam pipe for heating is shown at B. Fig. 3a gives a top view I Jul i Fig. 3A. of the same machine, showing the two rollers. After passing several times through these, the rubber will be in the form of homogeneous strips, and is then ready either for molding or dissolving^ As we are dealing solely with waterproofed textiles, the next process which concerns us is the dissolving of the rubber in a suitable solvent. Benzol, carbon bi- sulphide, oil of turpentine, ether, and absolute alcohol, will each dissolve a certain amount of rubber, but no one of them used alone gives a thorough solu- tion. The agent commonly employed is carbon bisulphide, together with 10 per cent of absolute alcohol. Whatever solvent is used, after being steeped in it for some hours the caoutchouc swells out enormously, and then requires the addi- tion of some other solvent to effect a complete solution. A general method is to place the finely shredded rubber in a closed vessel, to cover it with carbon bisulphide, and allow to stand for some hours. Toward the end of the time the vessel is warmed by means of a steam coil or jacket, and 10 parts absolute alcohol are added for every 100 parts of carbon bisulphide. The whole is then kept gently stirred for a few hours. Fig. 4 shows a common type of the vessel used for dissolving rubber. In this diagram A is the interior of the vessel, and B a revolving mixer in the same. The whole vessel is surrounded by a steam jacket, C, with a steam inlet at D and a tap for condensed water at E. F is the cock by which the solution is drawn off. After the rubber is dissolved, about 12 to 24 per cent of sulphur is added, and thorou^ly incorporated with the solu- tion. The sulphur may be in the form of chloride of sulphur, or as sulphur pure and simple. A very small quantity of sulphur is required to give the necessary result, 2 to 3 per cent being sufficient to effect vulcanization; but a large quantity is always added to hasten the operation. Even after prolonged treatment with the two solvents, a solution of uniform consistency is never obtained: clots of a thicker nature will be found floating in the solution, and the next operation is to knead it up so as to obtain equal WATERPROOFING r4.5 density throughout. Fi(j. 5 will give an idea of how this mixing is done. Fia. 5. At the top of a closed wooden chamber is a covered reservoir, A, containing the solution of rubber. A long slit at the base of this reservoir allows the solution to fall between sets of metal rollers, BBB below. Neighboring rollers are revolv- ing in opposite directions, and at differ- ent speeds, so that, after passing all three sets of rollers, and emerging at the bottom, the solution should be of uni- form consistency. CCC are the guiding funnels, and EE are scrapers to clear the solution from the rollers. D is a wedge- shaped plug worked by a rack and pinion, ana regulates the flow of the solution. It now remains to apply the rubber to the fabric and vulcanize it. Up to this stage the sulphur has only been mechan- ically mixed with the rubber; the aid of heat is now required to bring about chemical combination between the two. This process, which is known as "burn- ing," consists in subjecting the rubber- covered fabric to a temperature of about 248" F. Sulphur itself melts at 239° F., Fig. 6. and the temperature at which combina- tion takes place must be above this. Fig. 6 shows one of the methods of spreading the rubber on the cloth. A is the tank containing the solution with an outlet at the bottom arranged so as to regulate the flow of solution. The fabric passes slowly underneath this, re- ceiving as it travels a thin coating of the waterproofing. The two rollers at B press the solution into the fabric and distrib- ute the proofing evenly over the entire surface. After leaving the two squeezing rollers, the cloth travels slowly through a. covered chamber, C, having a series of steam pipes, EE, underneath, to evaporate the solvent; this condenses on the upper por- tion of the chamber, which is kept cooled, and flows down the sides into suitable receptacles. After this the proofed cloth is vulcanized by passing round metal cylinders heated to the necessary temper- ature, or by passing through a heated chamber. Fig. 7 shows the spreading of ©3 FiQ. 7. rubber between two fabrics. The two cloths are wound evenly on the rollers, BB; from this they are drawn conjointly through the rollers, D, the stream of proofing solution flowing down between the rollers, which then press the two fabrics together with the rubber inside. The lower rollers marked CC are heated to the necessary degree, and cause the rubber and sulphur to combine in chem- ical union. ' So far the operation of proofing has been described as though pure rubber only was used; in practice the rubber forms only a small percentage of the C roofing material, its place being taken y cheaper bodies. One of the common ingredients of proofing mixtures is boiled linseed oil, together with a small quantity of litharge; this dries very quickly, and forms a glassy flexible film. Coal tar, shellac, colophony, etc., are all used,- to- gether with India-rubber varnish, to make 746 WATERPROOFING different waterproof compositions. Oil of turpentine and benzol form good solvents for rubber, but it is absolutely essential that both rubber and solvent be perfectly anhydrous before mixing. Oil of turpen- tine, alcohol, etc., can be best deprived of water by mixing with either sulphuric acid or dehydrated copper sulphate, and allowing to stand. The acid or the copper salt will absorb the water and sink to the bottom, leaving a supernatant layer of dehydrated turpentine or what- ever solvent is used. All the sulphur in a rubber-proofed cloth is not in com- bination with the rubber; it is frequently found that, after a lapse of time, rubber- proofed material shows an eflBorescence of sulphur on the surface, due to excess of sulphur, and occasionally the fabric becomes stiff and the proofing scales off. Whenever a large proportion of sulphur is present, there is always the danger of the rubbers forming slowly into the hard vulcanite state, as the substance com- monly called vulcanite consists only of ordinary vulcanized rubber carried a stage further by more sulphur being used and extra heat applied. If after vulcanizing, rubber is treated with caus- tic soda, all this superfluous sulphur can be extracted; if it is then well washed the rubber will retain its elasticity for a long period. With the old methods of proofing, a sheet of vulcanized rubber v/as cemented to a fabric with rubber varnish, and frequently this desulphuriz- ing was performed before cementing to- gether. The result was a flexible and durable cloth, but of great weight and thickness, and expensive to produce. The chemistry of rubber is very little understood; as mentioned previously, rubber is a highly complex body, liable to go through many changes. These changes are likely to be greater in rub- ber varnish, consisting of half a dozen or more ingredients, than in the case of rubber alone. The action of sunlight has a powerful effect on rubber, much to its detriment, and appears to increase its tendency to oxidize. Vulcanized rubber keeps its properties better under water than when exposed to the air, and changes more slowly if kept away from the light. It appears as though a slight decomposition always takes place even with pure rubber; but the presence of so many differently constituted substances as sometimes occur in rubber solutions no doubt makes things worse. When- ever a number of different bodies with varying properties are consolidated to- gether by heat, as in the case of rubber compositions, it is only reasonable to expect there will be some molecular re- arrangement going on in the mass; and this can be assigned as the reason why some proofings last as long again as others. Some metallic salts have a very injurious action on rubber, one of the worst being copper sulphate. Dyers are frequently warned that goods for rubber- proofing must be free from this metal, as its action on rubber is very powerful, though but little understood. As is generally known, grease in any form is exceedingly destructive to rubber, and it should never be allowed in contact in the smallest proportion. Some composi- tions are made up by dissolving rubber in turpentine and coal tar; but in this case some of the rubber's most valuable properties are destroyed, and it is doubt- ful if it can be properly vulcanized. Owing to rubber being a bad conductor of heat, it requires considerable care to vulcanize it in any thickness. A high degree of heat applied during a short Eeriod would tena to form a layer of ard vulcanite on the surface, while that, immediately below would be softer and would gradually merge into raw rubber in the center. The different brands of rubber vary so much, especially with regard to solu- bility, that it is always advisable to treat each brand by itself, and not to make a solution of two or more kinds. Oilskins and tarpaulins, etc., are mostly proofed by boiled linseed oil, with or without thickening bodies added. They are not of sufficient interest to enlarge upon in this article, so the second, or "water- repellent," class has now to be dealt with. All the shower-proof fabrics come under this heading, as well as every cloth which is pervious to air and repulsive to water. The most time-honored recipe for proofing woollen goods is a mixture of sugar of lead and alum, and dates back hundreds of years. The system of using this is as follows: The two ingre- dients are dissolved separately, and the solutions mixed together. A mutual de- composition results, the base of the lead salt uniting with the sulphuric acid out of the alum to form lead sulphate, which precipitates to the bottom. The clear solution contains alumina in the form of acetate, and this supplies the proofing quality to the fabric. It is applied in a form of machine shown in Fig. 8, which will be seen to consist of a trough con- taining the proofing solution, C, with a pair of squeezing rollers. A, over the top. The fabric is drawn down through the solution and up through the squeezers in the direction of the arrows. At the WATERPROOFING 747 back of the machine the cloth automatic- allv winds itself onto a roll, B, and then only requires drying to develop the water- Fia. 8. resisting power. D is a weight acting on a lever which presses the two rollers, A, together. The water-repelling property is gained as follows: Drying the fabric, which is impreg- nated with acetate of alumina, drives off some of the volatile acetic acid, leaving a film of basic acetate of alumina on each wool fiber. This basic salt is very diffi- cult to wet, and has so little attraction for moisture that in a shower of rain the drops remain in a spheroidal state, and fall off. In a strong wind, or under pres- sure, water eventually penetrates through fabrics proofed in this manner; but they will effectually resist a sharp shower. Unfortunately, shower-proofed goods, with wear, gradually lose this property of repelling water. The equation repre- senting the change between alum and sugar of lead is given below. In the case of common alum there would, of course, be potassium acetate in solution besides the alumina. Alum. Sugar of lead. AlaKa(So,)4 -I- 4Pb(C,H3 0j)? Lead Potassium Aluminum sulphate. acetate. acetate. - 4PbSo, -f 2KCjH,Oa + Ala(C,H,O0(. Now that sulphate of alumina is in common use, alum need not be used, as the potash in it serves no purpose in proofing. There are many compositions con- ferring water: resisting powers upon tex- tiles, but unfortunately they either af- fect the general handle of the material and make it stiff, or they stain and dis- color it, which is equally bad. A large range of waterproof compositions can be got by using stearates of the metals; these, in nearly every case, are insoluble bodies, and when deposited in the in- terior of a fabric form a water-resisting "filling" which is very effective. As a rule these stearates are deposited on the material by means of double baths; for example, by passing the fabric through (say) a bath of aluminum acetate, and then, after squeezing out the excess of liquid, passing it through a bath of soap. The aluminum salt on the fabric de- composes the soap, resulting in a deposit of insoluble stearate of alumina. This system of proofing in two baths is clean- er and more economical than adding all the ingredients together, as the stearate formed is just where it is required "on the fibers," and not at the bottom of the bath. One of the most important patents now worked for waterproofing purposes is on the lines of the old alumina process. In this case the factor used is rosin, dissolved in a very lar^e bulk of petro- leum spirit. The fabrics to be proofed (usually dress materials) are passed through a bath of this solution, and carefully dried to drive off the solvent. Following this, the goods are treated by pressing with hot polished metal rollers. This last process melts the small quan- tity of rosin, which is deposited on the cloth, and leaves each single fiber with an exceedingly thin film of rosin on it. It will be understood that only a very attenuated solution of rosin is per- missible, so that the fibers of the threads and not the threads themselves are coated with it. If the solution contains too much rosin the fabric is stiffened, and the threads cemented together; whereas if used at the correct strength (or, rather, weakness) neither fabric nor dye suffers, and there is no evidence of stickiness of any description. Fia. 9. Pig. 9 shows a machine used for spreading a coat of either proofing or any other fluid on one side of the fabric. 748 WATERPROOFING This is done by means of a roller, A, running in the proofing solution, the material to be coated traveling slowly over the top and just in contact with the roller, A, which transfers the proofing to it. should the solution used be of a thick nature, then a smooth metal roller will transfer sufficient to the fabric. If the reverse is the case, and the liquid used is very thin, then the roller is covered with felt, which very materially adds to its carrying power. As shown in Fig. 9, after leaving the two squeezing rollers, BB, the fabric passes slowly round a large steam-heated cylinder, C, with the coated side uppermost. This dries the proofing and fastens it, and the cloth is taken off at D. Besides stearates of the metals, glues and gelatins have been used for proof- ing purposes, but owing to their stiffen- ing effect, they are only of use in some few isolated cases. With glue and gelatin the fixing agent is either tannic acid or some metallic salt. Tannic acid converts gelatin into an insoluble leather-like body; this can be deposited in the interstices of the fabric by passing the latter through a gelatin bath first, and then squeezing and passing through the tannic acid. Bichromate of potash also possesses the property of fixing the proteid bodies and rendering them in- soluble. The following are special processes used to advantage in the manufacture of waterproof fabrics: I. — Ordinary Fabrics, Dressing Ap- parel, etc. — Immerse in a vat of acetate of alumina (5° Be.) for 12 hours, lift, dry, and let evaporate at a temperature of from 140° to 149° F. II. — Sailcloth, Awnings, Thick Blank- ets, etc. — Soak in a 7 per cent solution of gelatin at 104° F., dry, pass through a 4 per cent solution of alum, dry again, rinse in water, and dry. III. — Fabrics of Cotton, Linen, Jute, and Hemp. — Put into a bath of am- moniacal cupric sulphate of 10° Be. at a temperature of 87° F. ; let steep thorough- ly, then put in a bath of caustic soda (20° Be.) and dry. To increase the im- permeability, a bath of sulphate of al- umina may be substituted for the caustic- soda bath. IV. — Saturate the fabrics with the fol- lowing odorless compound, subjecting them several times to a brushing machine having several rollers, where the warp threads will be well smoothed, and a waterproof product of fine sheen and scarcely fading will be the result. The compound is made with 30 parts, by weight, of Japan wax, 22i parts, by weight, of paraffine, 12 parts, by weight, of rosin soap, 35 parts, by weight, of starch, and 5 parts, by weight, of a 5 per cent solution of alum. Fabrics thus pre- pared are particularly adapted to the manufacture of haversacks, shoes, etc. V. — White or Light Fabrics. — Pass first through a bath of acetate of alumina of 4° to 5° Be. at a temperature of 104° F., then through the rollers to rid of all liquid; put into a warm solution of soap (5 parts, by weight, of olive-oil soap to 100 parts, by weight, of fresh water) and finally pass through a 2 per cent solution of alum, dry for 2 or 3 days on the drop- ping horse, and brush off all particles of soap. VI. — Dissolve IJ parts, by weight, of gelatin in 50 parts, by weight, of boil- ing water, add li parts, by weight, of scraped tallow soap and 2i parts, by weight, of alum, the latter being put in fraaually; lower the temperature of the ath to 122° F., lift out the fabric, dry, and calender. VII. — Tent Cloth. — Soak in a warm solution of 1 part, by weight, of gelatin, 1 part, by weight, of glycerine, and 1 Eart, by weight, of tannin in 12 parts, y weight, of wood vinegar (pyroligne- ous acid) of 12° Be. The whole . is melted in a kettle and carefully mixed. The mass is poured into the receiver of the brushing machine, care being taken to keep it liquid. For a piece of 500 feet in length and 20 inches in width, 50 to 80 parts, by weight, of this com- pound are needed. VIII. — To freshen worn waterproof material, cover with the following: Fifty- five thousand parts, by weight, of gelatin; 100 parts, by weight, of oichromate of potash; 100 parts, by weight, of acetic acid (to keep glue from congealing), and from 3,000 to 5,000 parts," by weight, of water; to this add 500 parts, by weight, of peroxide of ammoniacal copper, 100° Be. This compound is put on the fabric with a brush and then exposed to air and light. IX. — Soft Hats.— The hats are stiffened as usual, then put through the following three baths: Dissolve J part, by weight, of tallow soap in from 40 to 50 parts, by weight, of warm water (140° F.). Put 3 to 4 dozen hats into this solution, leave them in it for half an hour, then take out and put them as they are into another bath prepared with 40 to 50 parts, by weight, of water and J part, by weight, of alum and heated to 86° to 104° F. After WATERPROOFING 749 having been left in the second bath for i or i hour, take out as before, put into the third bath of 40 to 60 parts, by weight, of water, J part, by weight, of alum, and about 13 parts, by weight, of fish glue. In this cold bath the hats are left for another i hour or more until they are completely saturated with the liquid, then dried and the other operations con- tinued. X. — Woolen cloth may be soaked in a vat filled with aluminum acetate, of .5° Be., for 12 hours, then removed, dried, and dried again at a temperature of 140° F. XI. — Wagon covers, awnings, and sails are saturated with a 7 per cent gelatin solution, at a temperature of 104° F., dried in the air, put through a 4 per cent solution of alum, dried aeain in the air, carried through water, and dried a third time. XII. — Cotton, linen, jute, and hemp fabrics are first thoroughly saturated in a bath of ammonio-cupric sulphate, of 10° Be., at a temperature of 77° F., then put into a solution of caustic soda, 2° Be., and dried. They may be made still more impervious to water by substituting a solution of aluminum sulphate for the caustic soda. XIII. — White and light-colored fabrics are first put into a bath of aluminum acetate, 4° to 5° B6., at a temperature of 102° F., the superfluous liquid being re- moved from the fabric by press rollers. The fabric is put into a soap solution (5 parts of good Marseilles soap in 100 parts of soft water). Finally it is put through a 2 per cent alum solution, and left to dry for 2 or 3 days on racks. The adhering particles of soap are removed by brushing with machinery. XIV. — Dissolve 1.5 parts of gelatin in 50 part.s of boiling water, add 1 .5 parts of shavings of tallow grain soap, and gradually, 2.5 parts of alum. Let this cool to 122° F., draw the fabric through it, dry and calender. XV. — Cellular tissues are made water- proof by impregnating them with a warm solution of 1 part, by weight, of gelatin, 1 part, by weight, of glycerine, and 1 part, by weight, of tannin, in 12 parts, by weight, of wood vinegar, 12° Be. XVI. — Linen, hemp, jute, cotton, and other fabrics can be given a good odor- less waterproof finish by impregnating them, and afterwards subjecting them to the action of several mechanical brush rollers. By this process the fabric is brushed dry, the fibers are laid smooth, the threads of the warp brought out, and a glossy, odorless, unfading waterproof stuff results. Fabrics manufactured in the usual way from rough and colored yarns are put through a bath of this waterproof finish, whose composition is as follows: Thirty parts, by weight, of Japanese wax; 22.5 parts, by weight, of paraffine; 15 parts, by weight, of rosin soap; 35 parts, oy weight, of starch, and 5 parts, by weight, of a 5 per cent alum solu- tion. The first three components are melted in a kettle, the starch and, lastly, the alum added, and the whole stirred vigorously. XVII. — One hundred parts, by weight, of castor oil are heated to nearly 204° F., with 50 parts, by weight, of caustic potash, of 50° Be., to which 50 parts, by weight, of water have previously been added. Forty parts, by weight, of cooler water are then added slowly, care being taken to keep the temperature of the mixture constant. As soon as the liquor begins to rise, 40 parts, by weight, of cooler water are again added, with the same precaution to keep the temperature from falling below 204° F. At tne same time care must be taken to prevent the liquor boiling, as this would produce too great saponification. By the prolonged action of heat below the boiling point, the oil absorbs water and caustic potash without being changed, and the whole finally forms a perfectly limpid, nearly black liquid. This is diluted with 5 times its weight of hot or cold water, and is then ready for use without any further preparation. Other vegetable oils may be employed besides castor oil, and the quantity of unsaponified oil present may be increased by stirring the prepared liquid with a fresh quantity of castor or otner vegetable oil. The product is slight- ly alkaline, but wool fiber is not injured, as the oiling may be done in the cold. The solution is clear and limpid, and will not separate out on standing like an emul- sion. This product in spinning gives a 10 per cent better utilization of the raw material owing to the greater evenness and regularity with which the fibers are oiled; in weaving less oiling is required. The product can be completely re- moved by water, preferably by cold water, and scouring of the goods subse- quently with soap, soda, or fuller's earth can thus be dispensed with. XVIII. — Cloth may be rendered water- f)roof by rubbing the under side with a ump of beeswax until the surface presents a uniform white or grayish appearance. This method it is said renders the cloth 750 WATERPROOFING practically waterproof, although still leav- ing it porous to air. XIX. — Coating the underside of the cloth with a solution of isinglass and then applying an infusion of galls is another method, a compound being thus formed which is a variety of leather. XX. — An easy method is the formation of aluminum stearate in the fiber of the cloth, which may readily be done by im- mersing it in a solution of aluminum sulphate in water (1 in 10) and without allowing it to dry passing through a solu- tion of soap made from soda and tallow or similar fat, in hot water. Reaction between the aluminum sulphate and the soap produces aluminum stearate and sodium sulphate. The former is insoluble and remains in the fiber; the latter is re- moved by subsequently rinsing the fabric in water. XXI. — A favorite method for cloth is as follows: Dissolve in a, receptacle, preferably of copper, over a bright coal fire, 1 liter (1.76 pints) of pure linseed oil, 1 liter (1.76 pints) of petroleum, J liter (0.88 pints) of oil turpentine, and 125 grams (4.37 ounces) of yellow wax, the last named in small bits. As there is danger of fire, boiling of this mass should be avoided. With this hot solution re- moved from the fire, of course the felt material is impregnated; next it is hung up in a warm, dry room or spread out, but in such a manner that the uniform temperature can act upon all parts. Waterproofing Leather. — I. — Ten- ning's process is as follows: Melt together equal parts of zinc and linseed oil, at a temperature not above 225° F. Put the leather in the molten mixture and let it remain until saturated. The "zinc soap" is made by dissolving 6 parts of white soap in 16 parts of water, and stirring into the solution 6 parts of zinc sulphate. To make sure of a homogeneous mixture remelt the whole and stir until it begins to cool. The process, including the satu- ration of the leather, requires about 48 hours. Instead of zinc sulphate, copper or iron sulphate may be used. The phi- losophy of the process is that the mois- ture and air contained in the pores of the leather are driven out by the heat of the soap mixture, and their place is taken, on cooling, by the mixture. The surface of the leather is scraped after cooling, and the article is dried, either by heating over an open fire or by hanging in a drying room, strongly heated. II. — Prideaux' process consists in sub- mitting the leather to treatment with a solution of caoutchouc until it is thor- oughly saturated with the liquid. The latter consists of 30 parts of caoutchouc in 500 parts of oil of turpentine. Com- plete impregnation of the leather re- quires several days, during which the solution must be frequently applied to the surface of the leather and rubbed in. III. — Villon's process consists in ap- plying a soap solution to the leather, about as follows: The leather is first treated to a solution of 62 parts of soap, 124 parts of glue, and 2,000 parts of water. When it has become saturated with the solution, it is treated to rubbing with a mixture of 460 parts of common salt and 400 parts of alum, in sufficient water to dissolve the same. After this it is washed with tepid water and dried. This process is much the quickest. The application of the soap requires about 2 nours, and the subsequent treat- ment about as much more, or 4 or 5 hours in all. Oilskins. — The art of painting over textile fabrics with oily preparations to make them waterproof is probably nearly as old as textile manufacture itself, an industry of prehistoric, nay, geologic, origin. It is certainly more ancient than the craft of the artistic painter in oils, whose canvases are nothing more nor less than art oilskins, and when out of their frames, have served the usual purpose of those things in protecting goods or the human body before now. The art of water- proofing has been extended beyond the domain of the oilskin by chemical processes, especially those in which alum or lead salts, or tannin, are used, as well as by the discovery of India rubber and gutta percha. These two have revolu- tionized the waterproofing industry in quite a special manner, and the oilskin manufacture, although it still exists and is in a fairly flourishing condition, has found its products to a very large extent replaced by rubber goods. The natural result has been that the processes used in the former industry have remained now unchanged for a good many years. They had already been brought to a very per- fect state when the rubber- waterproofing business sprang up, so that improve- ments were even then difficult to hit upon in oilskin making, and the check put upon the trade by India rubber made people less willing to spend time and money in experimenting with a view to improving what many years had already made it difficult to better. Hence the three cardinal defects of the oilskin: its weight, its stiffness, and the liability of WATERPROOFING 751 its folds to stick together when it is wrapped up, or in the other extreme to crack, still_ remains. The weight, of course, is inevitable. An oilskin must be heavy, comparatively, from the very essence of the process by which it is made, but there seems no reason why it should not in time be made much more pliable (an old-time oilskin coat could often stand up on end when empty) and free from the danger of cracking or being compacted into a solid block when it has been stored folded on a shelf. Probably the best oilskins ever made are those prepared by combining Dr. Stenhouse's process (patented in 1864) with the ordinary method, which con- sists in the main of painting over the fabric with two or more coats of boiled linseed oil, allowing each coat to dry before the next is applied. This, with a few variations in detail, is the whole method of making oilskins. Dr. Sten- house's waterproofing method is to im- Eregnate the fabric with a mixture of ard parafHne and boiled oil in propor- tions varying according to circum- stances from 95 per cent of paraffine and 6 of oil to 70 per cent of the former and 30 of the latter. The most usual per- centages are 80 and 20. The mixture is made with the aid of heat, and is then cast into blocks for storage. It is ap- Elied to the cloth stretched on a hot plate y rubbing the fabric thoroughly all over with a block of the composition, which may be applied on one or both sides as may be wished. The saturation is then made complete, and excess of composition is removed by passing the cloth between hot rollers. When the cloth is quite cold the process is com- plete. Tne paraffine and the drying oil combine their waterproofing powers, and the paraffine prevents the oil from ex- erting any injurious action upon the material. Drying oil, partly on account of the metallic compounds in it, and partly on account of its absorbing oxygen from the atmosphere, has a decided slow weakening effect upon textile fibers. Dr. Stennouse points out that the in- flammability of oilskins may be much lessened by the use of the ordinary fire- proofing salts, such as tungstate of soda, or alum, either before or after the water- proofing process is carried out. The following are some of the best recommended recipes for making oil- skins: I. — Dissolve 1 ounce of yellow soap in li pints of boiling water. Then stir in 1 quart of boiled oil. When cold, add i pint of gold size. II. — Take fine twilled calico. Soak it in bullock's blood and dry it. Then give it 2 or 3 coats of boiled oil, mixed with a little litharge, or with an ounce of gold size to every pint of the oil. III.— Make ordinary paint ready to be applied thin with a strong solution of soap. IV. — Make 96 pounds of ocher to a thin paste with boiled oil, and then add 16 pounds of ordinary black paint mixed ready for use. Apply the first coat of this with soap, the subsequent coats without soap. V. — Dissolve rosin in hot boiled oil till it begins to thicken. VI. — Mix chalk or pipe clay in the finest powder, and in the purest state obtainable to a thin paste with boiled oil. VII. — Melt together boiled oil, 1 pint; beeswax and rosin, each, 2 ounces. VIII. — Dissolve soft soap in hot water and add solution of protosulphate of iron till no further precipitate is produced. Filter off, wash, and dry, and form the mass into a thin paste with boiled oil. All these compositions are painted on with an ordinary painter's brush. The fabric should be slightly stretched, both to avoid folds and to facilitate the pene- tration of the waterproofing mixture. To aid the penetration still further, the mixture should be applied hot. It is of the greatest importance that the fabric should not be damp when the composi- tion is applied to it. It is best to have it warm as well as the composition. If more than one coat is applied, which is practically always the case, three being the usual number, it is essential that the last coat should be perfectly dry before the next is applied. Neglect of this precaution is tne chief cause of sticki- ness, which frequently results in serious damage to the oilskins when they have to be unfolded. In fact, it is advisable to avoid folding an oilskin when it can be avoided. 'They should be hung up when not in use, whenever practicable, and be allowed plenty of room. It goes without saying that no attempt should be made to sell or use the oilskin, whether garment or tarpaulin, until the final coat of composition is perfectly dry and set. It is unadvisable to use artificial heat in the drying at any stage in the manu- facture. Waterproofing Paper. — Any conven- ient and appropriate machinery or ap- paratus may be employed; but the best method for waterproofing paper is as follows: The treatment may be applied 752 WATERPROOFING while the pulp is being formed into paper, or the finished paper may be treated. If the material is to be treated while being formed into paper, then the better method is to begin the treatment when the web of pulpy material leaves the Foudrinier wire or the cylinders, it then being in a damp condition, but with the larger per- centage of moisture removed. From this point the treatment of the paper is the same whether it be pulp in a sheet, as above stated, or finished paper. The treatment consists, first, in satu- rating the paper with glutinous material, preferably animal glue, and by preference the bath of glutinous material should be hot, to effect the more rapid absorption and more perfect permeation, impregna- tion, and deposit of the glutinous ma- terial within all the microscopic inter- stices throughout the body of the paper being treated. By preference a suitable tank is provided in which the glutin- ous material is deposited, and in which it may be kept heated to a constant temperature, the paper being passed through the tank and saturated during its passage. The material being treated should pass in a. continuous sheet — that is, be fed from a roll and the finished product be wound in a roll after final treatment. This saves time and the patentee finds that the requisite permea- tion or incorporation of glutinous mat- ter in the fiber will with some papers — for instance, lightly sized manila hemp — require but a few seconds. As the paper passes from the glutin tank the surplus of the glutinous matter is removed from the surface by mechani- cal means, as contradistinguished from simply allowing it to pass off by gravity, and in most instances it is preferred to pass the paper between suitable pres- sure rolls to remove such surplus. The strength and consistency of the glutinous bath may be varied, depending upon the material being treated and the uses for which such material is designed. It may, however, be stated that, in a ma- jority of cases, a hot solution of about 1 part of animal glue to about 10 parts of water, by weight, gives the best results. After leaving the bath of glutinous ma- terial and having the surplus adhering to the surfaces removed, the paper be- fore drj'ing is passed into or through a solution of formaldehyde and water to "set" the glutinous material. The strength of this solution may also be variable, depending, as heretofore stated, upon the paper and uses for which it is designed. In the majority of cases, however, a solution of 1 part of formalde- hyde (35 percent solution) to 5 parts of water, by weight, gives good results, and the best result is attained if this bath is cold instead of hot, though any particu- lar temperature is not essentially neces- sary. The effect of the formaldehyde solution upon the glutin-saturated paper is to precipitate the glutinous matter and render it insoluble. As the material comes from the formal- dehyde bath, the surplus adhering to the surfaces is removed by mechanical means, pressure rolls being probably most convenient. The paper is then dried in any convenient manner. The best result in drying is attained by the air- blast, i. e., projecting blasts of air against both surfaces of the paper. This drying removes all the watery constituents and leaves the paper in a toughened or greatly strengthened condition, but not in practical condition for commercial uses, as it is brittle, horny, and stiff, and has an objectionable odor and taste on account of the presence of the alde- hydes, paraldehydes, formic acid, and other products, the result of oxidation. Hence it needs to be "tempered." Now while the glutinous material is rendered insoluble — that is, it is so acted upon by formaldehyde and the chemical action which takes place while the united solu- tions are giving off their watery constit- uents that it will not fully dissolve — it is, however, in a condition to be acted on by moisture, as it will swell and ab- sorb, or take up permanently by either chemical or mechanical action a per- centage of water, and will also become improved in many respects, so that to temper and render the paper soft and pliable and adapt it for most com- mercial uses it is subjected to moisture, which penetrates the paper, causing a welling in all directions, filling the interstices perfectly and resulting in "hydration" throughout the entire cel- lular structure. Two actions, mechanical and chemical, appear to take place, the mechanical action being the temporary absorption of water analogous to tne ab- sorption of water by a dry sponge, the chemical action being the permanent union of water with the treated paper, analogous to the union of water and tapioca, causing swelling, or like the chemical combination of water with lime or cement. For this purpose it is pre- ferred to pass the paper into a bath of hot water, saturated steam or equiva- lent heat-and-moisture medium, thus causing the fibers and the non-soluble glutinous rnaterial filling the interstices to expand in all directions and forcing WATERPROOFmG— WAX 753 the glutinous material into all the mi- croscopic pores or openings and into the masses of fiber, causing a commingling or thorough incorporation of the fibers and the glutinous compound. At the same time, as heretofore indicated, a change (hydration) takesjplace, whereby the hardened mass of fiber, glutinous material, and formaldehyde become tempered and softened and the strength imparted by the previous treatment in- creased. To heighten the tempering and softening effect, glycerine may, in some instances, be introduced in the temper- ing bath, and in most cases one two- hundredths in volume of glycerine gives the best results. The p5.per may be dried in any con- venient manner and is in condition for most commercial uses, it being greatly strengthened, more flexible, more im- pervious to moisture, acids, grease, or alkalies, and is suitable for the manufac- ture of binding-twine, carpets, and many novelties, for dry wrappings and lining packing cases, etc., but is liable to have a disagreeable taste and may carry traces of acids, rendering it impracti- cable for some uses — for instance, wrap- ping butter, meats, cheese, etc., after receiving the alkali treatment. The paper is also valuable as a parking for joints in steam, water, and other pipes or connections. For the purpose, there- fore, of rendering the material absolutely free from all traces of acidity and ajl taste and odors and, in fact, to render it absolutely hygienic, it is passed through a bath of water and a volatile alkali (am- monium hydrate), the proportion by pref- erence in a majority of cases being one- hundredth of ammonium hydrate to ninety-nine one-hundredths of water by volume. A small percentage of wood alcohol may be added. This bath is preferably cool, but a variation in its temperature will not interfere to a seri- ous extent with the results. The effect of this bath followed by drying is to com- plete the chemical reaction and destroy all taste or odor, removing all traces of acids and rendering the paper hy- gienic in all respects. The material may he calendered or cut and used for any of the purposes desired. If the material is to be subjected to the volatile alkali bath, it is not necessary to dry it be- tween the tempering and volatile alkali baths. The paper made in accordance with the foregoing will, it is claimed, be found to be greatly strengthened, some ma- terials being increased in strength from 100 to 700 per cent. It will be non- absorbent to acids, greases, and alkalies, and substantially waterproof, and owing to its component integrate structure will be practically non-conductive to elec- tricity, adapting it as a superior insu- lating material. It may with perfect safety be employed for wrapping butter, meats, spices, groceries, and all materials, whether unctuous or otherwise. The term "hydration" means the sub- jecting of the material (after treatment with glutinous material and formalde- hyde and drying) to moisture, whereby the action described takes place. A sheet or web of paper can be treated by the process as rapidly as it is manu- factured, as the time for exposure to the action of the glutinous material need not be longer than the time required for it to become saturated, this, of course, vary- ing with different thicknesses and densities, and the length of time of ex- posure may be fixed without checking the speed by making the tank of such length that the recjuisite time will elapse while the sheet is passing through it and the guides so arranged as to maintain the sheet in position to be acted on by such solution the requisite length of time. Four seconds' exposure to the action of formaldehyde is found sufficient in most cases. Waterproof Ropes. — For making ropes and lines impervious to weather, the process of tarring is recommended, which can be done either in the separate strands or after the rope is twisted. An addi- tion of tallow gives greater pliability. Waterproof Wood. — I. — Soak in a mixture of boracic arid, 6 parts; ammo- nium chloride, 5 parts; sodium borate, 3 parts, and water, 100 parts. II. — Saturate in a solution of zinc chloride. Wax Adulteration of Wax. — Wax is adulter- ated with the following among other substances: Rosins, pitch, flowers of sul- phur, starch, fecula, stearine, paraffine, tallow, palm oil, calcined bones, yellow ocher, water, and wood sawdust. ■ Rosins are detected by cold alcohol, which dissolves all rosinous substances and exercises no action on the wax. The rosins having been extracted from the alcoholic solution by the evaporation of the alcohol, the various kinds may be distinguished by the odors disengaged by burning the mass several times on a plate of heated iron. All earthy substances may be readily 754 WAX separated from wax by means of oil of turpentine, which dissolves the wax, while the earthy matters form a residue. . Oil of turpentine also completely sepa- rates wax from starchy substances, which, like earthy matters, do not dissolve, but form a residue. A simpler method consists in heating the wax with boiling water; the gelatinous consistency assumed by the water, and the blue coloration in presence of iodine, indicate that the wax contains starchy substances. Adultera- tion by means of starch and fecula is quite frequent. These substances are sometimes added to the wax in a pro- portion of nearly 60 per cent. To sepa- rate either, the suspected product is treated hot with very dilute sulphuric acid (2 parts of acid per 100 parts of water). All amylaceous substances, con- verted into dextrin, remain dissolved in the liquid, while the wax, in cooling, forms a crust on the surfaice. It is taken off and weighed; the difference between its weight and that of the product analyzed will give the quantity of the amylaceous substances. Flowers of sulphur are recognized readily from the odor of sulphurous acid during combustion on red-hot iron. Tallow may be detected by the taste and odor. Pure wax has an aromatic, agreeable taste, while that mixed with tallow is repulsive both in taste and smell. Pure wax, worked between the fingers, grows soft, preserving a certain cohesion in all parts. It divides into lumps, which adhere to the fingers, if it is mixed with tallow. The adulteration may also be detected by the thick and nauseating fumes produced when it is burned on heated iron. Stearic acid may be recognized by means of boiling alcohol, which dissolves it in nearly all proportions and causes it to deposit crystals on cooling, while it is without action on the wax. Blue litmus paper, immersed in alcohol solution, reddens on drying in air, and thus serves for detecting the presence of stearic acid. Ocher is found by treating the wax with boiling water. A lemon-yellow deposit results, which, taken up with chlorhydric acid, yields with ammonia a lemon-yellow precipitate of ferric oxide. The powder of burnt bones separates and forms a residue, when the wax is heated with oil of turpentine. Artificial Beeswax. — This is obtained by mixing the following substances, in ap- proximately the proportions stated: Paraf- fine, 45 parts, by weight; white Japan vegetable wax, 30 parts, by weight; rosins, or colophonies, 10 parts, by weight; white Citch, 10 parts, by weight; tallow, 5 parts, y weight; ceresine, colorant, 0.030 parts, by weight; wax perfume, 0.100 parts, by weight. If desired, the paraffine may be replaced with ozokerite, or by a mixture of vaseline and ozokerite, for the purpose of varying the fusing temperature, or rendering it more advantageous for the various applications designed. The fol- lowing is the method of preparation: Melt on the boiling water bath, shaking constantly, the paraffine, the Japan wax, the rosins, the pitch, and the tallow. When the fusion is complete, add the colorant and the perfume. When these products are perfectly mingled, remove from the fire, allow the mixture to cool, and run it into suitable molds. The wax thus obtained may be employed specially for encaustics for furniture and floors, or for purposes where varnish is employed. Waxes for Floors, Furniture, etc. — I.— White beeswax 16 parts Colophony 4 parts Venice turpentine . . 1 part Melt the articles together over a gentle fire, and when completely melted and homogeneous, pour into a sizable earthen- ware vessel, and stir in, while still warm, 6 parts of the best French turpentine. Cool for 24 hours, by which time the mass has acquired the consistence of soft butter, and is ready for use. Its method of use is very simple. It is smeared,, in small quantities, on woolen cloths, and with these is rubbed into the wood. This is the best preparation, but one in which the beeswax is merely dissolved in the turpentine in such a way as to have the consistence of a not too thin oil color, will answer. The wood is treated with this, taking care that the surface is evenly covered with the mixture, and that it does not sink too deeply in the orna- ments, corners, etc., of the woodwork. This is best achieved by taking care to scrape oft from the cloths all excess of the wax. If, in the course of 24 hours, the sur- face is hard, then with a stiff brush go over it, much after the way of polishing a boot. For the corners and angles smaller brushes are used; when necessary, stiff pencils may be employed. Finally, the whole is polished with plush, or velvet rags, in order not to injure the orig- inal^ polish. _ Give the article a good coat of linseed oil or a washing with petro- leum before beginning work. II. — Articles that are always exposed to the water, floors, doors, especially of oak, should, from time to time, be satu- WAX 756 rated with oil or wax. A house door, plentifully decorated with wood carving, will not shrink or warp, even where the sun shines hottest on it, when it is fre- quently treated to saturation with wax and oil. Here a plain dosage with lin- seed oil is sufficient. Varnish, without the addition of turpentine, should never be used, or if used it should be followed by a coat of wax. III. — A good floor wax is composed of 2 parts of wax and 3 parts of Venice turpentine, melted on the water bath, and the mixture applied while still hot, using a pencil, or brush, for the application, and when it has become solid and dry, diligently rubbed, or polished down with a woolen cloth, or with a floor brush, especially made for the purpose. IV. — An emulsion of 5 parts of yellow wax, 2 parts of crude potassium carbon- ate, and 12 parts of water, boiled to- gether until tney assume a milky color and the solids are dissolved, used cold, makes an excellent composition for floors. Any desired color may be given this dressing by stirring in the powdered col- oring matter. Use it exactly as de- scribed for the first mass. Gilders' Wax. — For the production of various colorings of gold in fire gilding, the respective places are frequently covered with so-called gilders' wax. These consist of mixtures of various chemicals which have an etching action in the red heat upon the bronze mass, thus causing roughness of unequal depth, as well as through the fact that the com- position of the bronze is changed some- what on the surface, a relief of the gold color being effected in consequence of these two circumstances. The gilding wax is prepared by melting together the finely powdered chemicals with wax ac- cording to the following recipes: I II III IV V Yellow wax 32 32 32 96 36 Red chalk 3 24 18 48 18 Verdigris 2 4 18 32 18 Burnt alum 2 4 — — — Burnt borax — — 2 13 Copper ash — 4 6 20 8 Zinc vitriol — — — 32 18 Green vitriol — — — 1 6 Grafting Wax. — I. — Beeswax 7 parts Purified rosin 12 parts Turpentine 3 parts Rape oil 1 part Venice turpentine. . . . 2.5 parts Zinc white 2.5 parts Color yellow with turmenic. II. — Japan wax 1 part Yellow wax 3 parts Rosin 8 parts Turpentine 4 parts Hard paraffine 1 part Suet 3 parts Venice turpentine. ... 6 parts Harness Wax. — Oil of turpentine 90 parts Wax, yellow 9 parts Prussian blue 1 part Indigo 0.5 parts Bone black 5 parts Dissolve the wax in the oil by aid of a low heat,_ on a water bath. Mix the re- maining ingredients, which must be well powdered, and work up with a portion of the solution of wax. Finally, add the mixture to the solution, and mix thor- oughly on the bath. When a homogene- ous liquid is obtained, pour into earthen boxes. Modeling Wax. — I. — Yellow wax, 1,000 parts; Venice turpentine, 130 parts; lard, 65 parts; bole, 725 parts. The mixture when still liquid is poured into tepid water and kneaded until a plastic mass is obtained. II. — Summer Modeling Wax. — White wax, 20 parts; ordinary turpentine, 4 parts; sesame oil, 1 part; vermilion, 2 parts. III. — Winter INIodeling Wax. — White wax, 20 parts; ordinary turpentine, 6 parts; sesame oil, 2 parts; vermilion, 2 parts. Preparation same as for Formula I . Sealing Waxes. — The following for- mulas may be followed for making seal- ing wax: Take 4 pounds of shellac, 1 pound of Venice turpentine, and 3 pounds of vermilion. Melt the lac in a copper pan suspended over a clear charcoal fire, then add the turpentine slowly to it, and soon afterwards add the vermilion, stir- ring briskly all the time with a rod in either hand. In forming the round sticks of sealing wax, a certain portion of the mass should be weighed while it is duc- tile, divided into the desired number of pieces, and then rolled out upon a warm marble slab by means of a smooth wooden block like that used by apothecaries for rolling a mass of pills. The oval and square sticks of sealing wax are cast in molds, with the above compound, in a state of fusion. The marks of the lines of junction of the mold box may be afterwards removed by holding the sticks over a clear fire, or Sassing them over a blue gas flame, larbled sealing wax is made by mixing 756 WAX— WEATHER FORECASTERS two, three, or more colored kinds to- gether while they are in a semi-fluid state. From the viscidity of the several portions their incorporation is left in- complete, so as to produce the appearance of marbling. Gold sealing wax is made simply by adding gold chrome instead of vermilion into the melted rosins. Wax may be scented by introducing a little essential oil, essence of musk, or other perfume. If 1 part of balsam of Peru be melted along with 99 parts of the seal- ing-wax composition, an agreeable fra- grance will be exhaled in the act of sealing with it. Either lampblack or ivory black serves for the coloring matter of black wax. Sealing wax is often adulterated with rosin, in which case it runs into thin drops at the flame of a candle. The following mistakes are some- times made in the manufacture of sealing wax: I. — Use of filling agents which are too coarsely ground. II. — Excessive use of filling agents. III. — InsuflScient binding of the pig- ments and fillings with a suitable ad- hesive agent, which causes these bodies to absorb the adhesive power of the gums. IV. — Excessive heating of the mass, caused by improper melting or faulty admixture of the gummy bodies. Tur- pentine and rosin must be heated before entering the shellac. If this rule is in- verted, as is often the case, the shellac sticks to the bottom and burns partly. Great care must be taken to mix the coloring matter to a paste with spirit or oil of turpentine before adding to the other ingredients. Unless this is done the wax will not be of a regular tint. Dark Blue Wax. — Three ounces Vene- tian turpentine, 4 ounces shellac, 1 ounce rosin, 1 ounce Prussian blue, J ounce magnesia. Green Wax. — Two ounces Venetian turpentine, 4 ounces shellac, IJ ounces rosin, i ounce chrome yellow, J ounce Prussian blue, 1 ounce magnesia. Carmine Red Wax. — One ounce Vene- tian turpentine, 4 ounces shellac, 1 ounce rosin, colophony, 1 J ounces Chinese red, 1 drachm magnesia, with oil of turpen- tine. Gold Wax. — Pour ounces Venetian turpentine, 8 ounces shellac, 14 sheets of genuine leaf gold, J ounce bronze, i ounce magnesia, with oU of turpentine. White Wax. — I. — The wax is bleached by exposing to moist air and to the sun. but it must first be prepared in thin sheets or ribbons or in grains. For this purpose it is first washed, to free it from the honey which may adhere, melted, and poured into a tin vessel, whose bot- tom is perforated with narrow slits. The melted wax falls in a thin stream on a wooden cylinder arranged below and half immersed in cold water. This cylinder is turned, and the wax, rolling round in thin leaves, afterwards falls in- to the water. To melt it in grains, a vessel is made use of, perforated with small openings, which can be rotated. The wax is projected in grains into the cold water. It is spreacT on frames of muslin, moistened with water several times a day, and exposed to the sun until the wax assumes a fine white. This whiteness, however, is not perfect. The operation of melting and separating into ribbons or grains must be renewed. Finally, it is melted and flowed into molds. The duration of the bleaching may be abridged by adding to the wax, treated as above, from 1.25 to 1.75 per cent of rectified oil of turpentine, free from rosin. In 6 or 8 days a result will be secured which would otherwise re- quire 5 or 6 weeks. II. — Bleached sKellac 28 parts Venetian turpentine.. 13 parts Plaster of Paris 30 parts WAX FOR BOTTLES: See Photography. WAX, BURNING, TRICK: See Pyrotechnics. WAXES, DECOMPOSITION OF: See Oil. WAX FOR IRONING: See Laundry Preparations. WAX FpR LINOLEUM: See Linoleum. Weather Forecasters (See also Hygrometers and Hygroscopes.) I. — It is known that a leaf of blotting paper or a strip of fabric made to change color according to the hygrometric state of the atmosphere has been employed for weather indications in place of a barometer. The following compound is recommended for this purpose: One part of cobalt chloride, 75 parts of nickel oxide, 20 parts of gelatin, and 200 parts of_ water. _ A strip of calico, soaked in this solution, will appear green in fine weather, but when moisture intervenes the color disappears. WEATHER FORECASTERS 757 II. — Copper chloride. . .. 1 part Gelatin 10 parts Water 100 parts in. — This is a method of making old- fashioned weather glasses containing a liquid that clouds or solidifies under certain atmospheric conditions: Camphor 2 J drachms Alcohol 11 drachms Water 9 drachms Saltpeter 38 grains Sal ammoniac. .. . 38 grains Dissolve the camphor in the alcohol and the salts in the water and mix the solutions together. Pour in. test tubes, cover with wax after corking and make a hole through the cork with a red-hot needle, or draw out the tube until only a pin hole remains. When the camphor, etc., appear soft and powdery, and almost filling the tube, rain with south or southwest winds may be expected; when crystalline, north, northeast, or north- west winds, with fine weather, may be expected; when a portion crystallizes on one side of the tube, wind may be expected from that direction. Fine weather: The substance remains entirely at bottom of tube and the liquid per- fectly clear. Coming' rain: Substance will rise gradually, liquid will be very clear, with a small star in motion. A coming storm or very high wind: Sub- stance partly at top of tube, and of a leaflike form, liquid very heavy and in a fermenting state. These effects are noticeable 24 hours before the change sets in. In winter: Generally the substance lies higher in the tube. Snow or white frost: Substance very white and small stars in motion. Summer weather: The substance will lie quite low. The sub- stance will lie closer to the tube on the opposite side to the quarter from which the storm is coming. The instrument is nothing more than a scientific toy. WEATHERPROOFING : See Paints. WEED KILLERS: Sej Disinfectants. Weights and Measures miERlNATIONAL ATOMIC WEIGHTS. Thfi International Committee on Atom/ic Weights have presented this table as corrected: 0=16 H=l Aluilninum Al 27.1 26.9 Antimony Sb 120.2 119.3 Aigjon A 39.9 39.6 0-16 Arsenic As 75 Barium Ba 137.4 Bismuth Bi 208.5 Boron B 11 Bromine Br 79.96 Cadmium Cd 112.4 Caesium Cs 132.9 Calcium Ca 40. 1 Carbon C 12 Cerium Ce 140.25 Chlorine CI 35.4.5 Chromium Cr 52. 1 Cobalt Co 59 Columbium.. . . Cb 94 Copper Cu 63.6 Erbium Er 166 Fluorine F 19 Gadolinium.. . . Gd 156 Gallium. .... (Ja 70 Germanium... (ie 72..') Glucinum orative power of fuels. Combustion of fuel and chimney draft; with formulas explained or practi- cally computed. 255 pages; 179 illustrations. $3.00. BYRON. Physics and Chemistry of Mining For the vse of all preparing for examinations in Mining or qualifying for Colliery Managers' Certificates. $2.00. COCKIN. Practical Coal Mining An important work, containing 428 pages and 213 illustrations, complete with practi- cal details, which will intuitively impart to the reader, not only a general knowledge of the principles of coal mining, but also considerable insight into allied subjects, including chemistry, mechanics, steam and steam engines, and electricity. In elucidating the vari- ous divisions incorporated in this excellent work, the author has started at the task from the very inception, and has ignored all obsolete methods, excepting where they illustrate fixed principles or are in touch with the march of modem improvements. The treatise is positively up to date in every instance, and should be in the hands of every colliery engineer, geologist, mine operator, superintendent, foreman, and all others who are inter- ested in or connected with the industry. $2.50. FOWLER. Locomotive Breakdowns and Their Remedies This work treats in full all kinds of accidents that are likely to happen to locomotive en^nes while on the road. The various parts of the locomotives are discussed, and every accident that can possibly happen, with the remedy to be appHed, is given. The various' types of compound locomotives are included, so that every engineer may post himself in regard to emergency work in connection with this cl^ of engine. For the rauroad man, who is anxious to know what to do and how to do it under all the various circumstances that may arise in the performance of his duties.lthis book will be an invaluable assistant and guide. 250 pages, fidly illustrated. Si. 50. FOWLER. Boiler Room Chart An educational chart showing in isometric perspective the mechanisms belonging in a modem boiler-room. The equipment consists of water-tube boilers, ordinary grates aad mechanical stokers, feed-water heaters and pumps. The various parts of the appli- ances are shown broken or removed, so that the internal construction is fully illustrated. Each part is given a reference number, and these, with the corresponding name, are given ia a ^ossary printed at the sides. The chart, therefore, serves as a dictionary of the boiler- room, the names of more than two hundred parts being given on the list. 25 cents. GRIMSHAW. Saw Filing and Management of Saws A practical handbook on filing, gumming, swaging, hammering, and the brazing of band saws, the speed, work, and power to run circular saws, etc., etc. Fully illustrated. Cloth, fi.oo. GRIMSHAW. "Shop Kinks" This book is entirely different from any other on machine-shop practice. It is not descriptive of universal or common shop usage, but shows special ways 01 doing work better, more cheaply, and more rapidly than usual, as done in fifty or more leading shops in Eu- rope and America. Some of its over 500 items and 222 illustrations are contributed di- rectly for its pages by eminent constructors; the rest has been gathered by the author in his thirty years' travel and experience. Fourth edition. Nearly 400 pages. Cloth, $2 jo. GRIMSHAW. Engine Runner's Catechism Tells how to erect, adjust, and run the principal steam engines in the United States. uescnD^ the prmcipal features of various special and well-knows makes of engines. Sixth edition. 336 pages. Fully illustrated. Cfoth, $2.00. Publications of The Norman W. Henley Publishing Co. GRIMSHAW. Steam Engine Catechism A series of direct practical answers to direct practical questions, mainly intended for young engineers and tor examination questions. Nearly 1,000 questions with their an- swers. Fourteenth edition. 413 pages. Fully illustrated. Cloth, $2.00. GRIMSHAW. Locomotive Catechism This is a veritable encyclopaedia of the locomotive, is entirely free from mathematics, and thoroughly up to date. It contains 1,600 questions with their answers. Twenty- fourth edition, greatly enlarged. Nearly 450 pages, over aoo illustrations, and la large folding plates. Cloth, $2.00. HARRISON. Electric Wiring, Diagrams and Switchboards A thorough treatise covering the subject in all its branches. Practical every-day problems in wiring are presented and the method of obtaining intelligent results clearly shown. 270 pages, 105 illustrations. $1.50. Henley's Twentieth Century Book of Receipts, Formulas and Processes Edited by G. D. Hiscox. A complete work giving ten thousand formulas which will be of value to the housewife, the painter, the carpenter, the metal worker, the farmer, the soap and candle maker, the photographer, the jeweller, the watchmaker, the electroplater, the electrotyper, the tanner, the mechanic, the engineer, and the manufacturer. 900 pages. $3.00. Henley's Encyclopedia of Practical Engineering and Allied Trades Edited by Joseph G. Horner. The scope of this work is indicated by its title, as being both practical and encyclopaedic in character. All the great sections of engineering practice and enterprise receive sound and concise treatment. Complete in live volumes. Each volume contains soo pages and 500 illustrations. Bound in half morocco. Price, $6.00 per volume, or $35.00 for the complete set of five volumes. HISCOX. Gas, Gasoline, and Oil Engines Every user of a gas engine needs this book. Simple, instructive, and right up to date. The only complete work on this important subject. Tells all about the running and man- agement of gas engines. Full of general information about the new and popular motive power, its economy and ease of management. Also chapters on horseless vehicles, electric lighting, marine propulsion, etc. 450 pages Illustrated with 351 engravings. Fifteenth edition, revised, enlarged, and reset. $2. 50 HISCOX. Compressed Air in All Its Applications This is the most complete book on the subject of Air that has ever been issued, and its thirty-five chapters include about every phase of the subject one can think of. Beginning with a history of the progress that has been made in this 1 ne, it takes up the properties of air, gives tables of its volume and weight, both dry and saturated, as well as numerous other conditions. Step by step the reader finds how it is used, the various methods of compression and apparatus employed, its use in transmitting power, air motors and their efficiency, and a host of other information in this connection. Pneumatic tools and their uses receive ample attention, as do the sand-blast, pneumatic tube_ transmission, and other applications, such as raising water, ice machines and liquid air, while the air brake and air signal also come in for their share. Taken as a whole it may be called an encycloptedia of compressed air. It is written by an expert, who, in its 825 pages, has dealt with the sub- ject in a comprehensive manner, no phase of it being omitted. S4S illustrations, 820 pages. Price, $5.00. HISCOX. Horseless Vehicles, Automobiles and Motor Cycles, Operated by Steam, Hydro-Carbon, Electric, and Pneumatic Motors A practical treatise of 459 pages and 3 16 illustrations for Automobilists, Manufacturers, Capitalists, Investors, Promoters, and everyjone interested in the development, care, and use of the Automobile. /..,.» Nineteen chapters. Large 8vo. 316 illustrations. 460 pages. Cloth, $1.50. HISCOX. Mechanical Movements, Powers, and Devices This work of 400 pages contains 1,800 specially made illustrations with descriptive text. It is a Dictionary of Mechanical Movements, Powers, Devices, Md Appliances, embracing an illustrated description of the greatest variety of Mechanical Movements and Devices in any language. A new work on illustrated Mechanics, Mechanical Movements and Devices, covering nearly the whole range of the practical and inventive field for the use of Machinists, Mechanics, Inventors, Engineers, Draughtsmen, Students, and aU others interested in any way in the devising and operation of mechanical works of any kind. {3.00. Publi cations of The Norman W. Henley Publishing Co. HISCOX. Mechanical Appliances, Mechanical Movements and Novelties of Construction The many editions through which the first volume of "Mechanical Movements" has passed, are more than a sufficient encouragement to warrant the publication of a second volume of 400 pages, containing 1,000 larger and specially-made illustrations, which are more special in scope than those in the fijst volume, inasmuch as they deal with the pecul- iar requirements of the various arts and manufactures, and more detailed in their ex- planations, because of the greater complexity of the machinery illustrated and described. I3.00. HISCOX. Modern Steam Engineering in Theory and Practice This book has been specially prepared for the use of the modem steam engineer, the technical students, and all who desire the latest and most reliable information on steam and steam boilers, the machinery of power, the steam turbine, electric power and Ughting plants, etc. 450 octavo pages, 400 detailed engravings. $3.00. HORNER. Modern Milling Machines: Their Design, Construction and .Operation This work of 304 pages is fully illustrated and describes and illustrates the Milling Machine from its early conception to the present time. $4.00. HORNER. Practical Metal Turning A work covering the modem practice of machining metal parts in the lathe. Fully illustrated. $3.50. HORNER. Tools for Machinists and Wood Workers, Including Instru- ments of Measurment A practical work of 340 pages fully illustrated, giving a general description and classi- fication of tools for machinists and woodworkers. $3.50. Inventor's Manual ; How to Make a Patent Pay This is a book designed as a guide to inventors in perfecting their inventions, taking out their patents and disposing of them, iig pages. Cloth, $1.00. KRAUSS. Linear Perspective Self-Taught The underlying principle by which objects may be correctly represented in perspec- tive is clearly set forth in this book; everything relating to the subject is shown in suitable diagrams, accompanied by full explanations in the text. Price $2.50. LE VAN. Safety Valves; Their History, Invention, and Calculation Illustrated by 69 engravings, 151 pages. $1.50. LEWES AND BRAME. Laboratory Note Book A practical treatise prepared for the Chemical Student. 170 pages. Cloth, $1.00. MATHOT. Modem Gas Engines and Producer Gas Plants A practical treatise of 320 pages, fidly illustrated by 175 detailed illustrations, setting forth the principles of gas engines and producer design, the selection and installation of an engine, conditions of perfect operation, producer-gas engines and their possibilities, the care of gas engines and producer-gas plants, with a chapter on volatile hydrocarbou and oil engines. $2.50. MEINHARDT. Practical Lettering and Spacing Shows a rapid and accurate method of becoming a good letterer with a little practice. Oblong. Paper cover. 60 cents. PARSELL & WEED. Gas Engine Construction A practical treatise describing the theory and principles of the action of gas engines of various types, and the design and construction of a half-horse-power gas engine, with illustrations of the work in actual progress, together with dimensioned working drawings giving clearly the sizes of the various details. Third edition, revised and enlarged. Twen- ty-five chapters. Large 8vo. Handsomely illustrated and bound. 300 pages. $2.50. PERRIGO, Modern Machine Shop Construction, Equipment and Man- agement The only work published that describes the Modem Machine Sho;} or Manufacturing Plant from the time the grass is growing on the site intended for it until the finished prod- uct is shipped. By a careful study of its chapters the practical man may economically biuld, efficiently equip, and successfully manage the modern machine shop or manufact- uring establistunent. Just the book needed by those contemplating the erection of modern shop buildtngs, the rebuilding and reorganization of old ones, or the introduction of Modem Shop Methods, Time and Cost Systems. It is a book written and illustrated by a practical shop man for practical shop men who are too busy to read theories and want facts. It is the most complete all-around book of its kind ever published, 400 large quarto pages, 225 original and specially-made illustrations. $5.00. Publications of The Norman W. Henley Publishing Co. PERRIGO. Modern American Lathe Practice A new book describing and illustrating the very latest practice in lathe and boring null operations, as well as the construction of and latest developments in the manufact- ure of these important classes of machine tools. 300 pages, fully illustrated. $2.50. REAGAN, JR. Electrical Engineers' and Students' Chart and Hand< Book of the Brush Arc Light System Illustrated. Bound in cloth, with celluloid chart in pocket. 50 cents. SAUNIER. Watchmaker's Hand-Book Just issued, 7th edition. Contains 498 pages and is a workshop companion for those engaged in watchmaking and allied mechanical arts. 350 engravings and 14 plates. $3.00. SLOANE. Electricity Simplified The object of "Electricity Simplified" is to make the subject as plain as possible and to show what the modem conception of electricity is. 158 pages. Illustrated. Twelfth edition. $1.00. SLOANE. How to Become a Successful Electrician It is the ambition of thousands of young and old to become electrical engineers. Not every one is prepared to spend several thousand dollars upon a college course, even if the three of four years requisite are at their disposal. It is possible to become an electrical engineer without this sacrifice, and this work is designed to tell "How to Become a Suc- cessful Electrician" without the outlay usually spent in acquiring the profession. Twelfth edition. 189 pages. Illustrated. Cloth, $1.00. SLOANE. Arithmetic of Electricity A practical treatise on electrical calculations of all kinds, reduced to a series of rules, all of the simplest forms, and involving only ordinary arithmetic ; each rule illustrated by one or more practical problems, with detailed solution of each one. Nineteenth edition. Illustrated. 138 pages. Cloth, $1.00. SLOANE. Electrician's Handy Book An up-to-date work covering the subject of practical electricity in all its branches, being intended for the every-day working electrician. The latest and best authority on all branches of applied electricity, Pocketbook size. Handsomely bound in leather, with title and edges m gold. 800 pages. 500 illustrations. Price, $3.50. SLOANE. Electric Toy Making, Dynamo Building, and Electric Motor Construction This work treats of the making at home of electrical toys, electrical apparatus, motors, dynamos, and instruments in general, and is designed to bring within the reach of young and old the manufacture of genuine and useful electrical appliances. Eighteenth edition. Fully illustrated. 140 pages. Cloth, $1.00 SLOANE. Rubber Hand Stamps and the Manipulation of India Rubber A practical treatise on the manufacture of all kinds of rubber articles. 146 pages. Second edition. Cloth. $1.00. SLOANE. Liquid Air and the Liquefaction of Gases Containing the full theory of the subject and giving the entire history of liquefaction of gases from the earliest times to the present. It shows how liquid air, like water, is carried hundreds of miles and is handled in open buckets. It tells what may be expected from it in the near future. 365 pages, with many illustrations. Handsomely bound in buckram. Second edition. $3.00. SLOANE. Standard Electrical Dictionary A practical handbook of reference, containing definitions of about 5,000 distinct words, terms, and phrases. An entirely new edition, brought up to date and greatly enlarged. Oomplete, concise, convenient. 682 pages. 393 ulustrations. Handsomely bound in eloth. Svo. $3.00. STARBUCK. Modern Plumbing Illustrated A comprehensive and up-to-date work illustrating and describing the Drainage and Ventilation of dwellings, apartments, and public buildings, etc. The very latest and most approved methods in all branches of samtary installation are ^ven. Adopted by the Imited States Government in its sanitary work in Cuba, Porto Rico, and the Philippines, and by the principal boards of health of the United States and Canada. The standard book for master plumbers, architects, builders, plumbing inspectors, boards of he alth, boaids of plumbing examiners, and for the property owner, as well as for the workman and his apprentice. 300 pages, so full-page illustrations. $4.00. USHER. The Modem Machinist A practical treatise embracing the most approved methods of modem machin^hop practice, and the applications of recent improved appliances, tools, and devices for facdU- tating, duplicating, and expediting the construction of machines and their parts. A new book from cover to cover. Fifth edition. ai7 engravings. 322 pages. Cloth, $3.50. Publications of The Norman W« Henley Publishing Co, VAN DERVOORT. Modern Machine Shop Tools; Their Construction, Operation, and Manipulation, Including Both Hand and Machine Tools An entirely new and fully illustrated work of 555 pages and 673 illustrations, describ- ing in every detail the construction, operation, and manipulation of both Hand and Machine Tools; being a work of practical instruction in all classes of machine-shop practice. In- cluding chapters on filing, fitting, and scraping surfaces; on drills, reamers, taps, and dies; the lathe and its tools; planers, shapers, and their tools; milling machines andcutters; gear cutters and gear cutting; drilling machines and drill work; grinding machines and their work; hardening and tempering; gearing, belting, and transmission machinery; useful data and tables. Fourth edition. $4.00. WALLIS- TAYLOR. Pocket Book of Refrigeration and Ice Making This is one of the latest and most comprehensive reference books published on the sub- ject of refrigeration and cold storage. It explains the properties and refrigerating effect of the different fluids in use, the management of refrigerating machinery and the construc- tion and insulation of cold rooms, with their required pipe surface for different degrees of cold; freezing mixtures and non-freezinfe brines, temperatures of cold rooms for aU kinds of provisions; cold-storage charges for aHl classes of goods, ice-making and storage of ice, data and memoranda for constant reference by refrigerating engineers, with nearly one hundred tables containing valuable references to every fact and condition required in the instalment and operation of a refrigerating plant. $1.50. WOOD, Walschaert Locomotive Valve Gear The only work issued treating of this subject of valve motion. 150 pages, illustrated. Cloth $1.50. WOODWORTH. American Tool Making and Interchangeable Manu- facturing A practical treatise of 560 pages, containing 600 illustrations on the designing, con- structing, use, and installation 01 tools, jigs, fixtures, devices, special appliances, sheet-metal working processes, automatic mechanisms, and labor-saving contrivances; together with their use in the lathe, milling machine, turret lathe, screw machine, boring mill, power press, drill, subpress, drop hammer, etc., for the working of metals, the production of in- terchangeable machine parts, and the manufacture of repetition articles of metal. $4.00 WOODWORTH. Dies, Their Construction and Use for the Modem Working of Sheet Metals A complete treatise of 384 pages and 505 iUtatrations upon the designing, constructing, and use of tools, fixtures, and devices, together with the manner in wmch they should be used in the power :press, for the cheap and rapid production of the great variety of sheet- metal articles now m use. It is designed as a guide to the production of sheet-metal parts at the minimum of cost with the maximum of output. The hardening and tempering of Press tools and the classes of work which may be produced to the best advantage by the use of dies in the Power press are fully treated. The engravings show dies, press fixtures, and sheet-metal working devices, from the simplest to the most intricate, and the descriptions are so clear and practical that all metal- working mechanics will be able to understand how to design, construct and use them. $3.00. WOODWORTH. Hardening, Tempering, Annealing, and Forging of Steel A new book containing special directions for. the successful hardening and tempering of aU steel tools. MiUing cutters, taps, thread dies, reamers, both solid and shell, hollow mills, punches and dies, and all kinds of sheet-metal working tools, shear blades, saws, fine cutlery and metal-cutting tools of all descriptions, as well as for all implements of steel, both large and small, the simplest and most satisfactory hardening and tempering processes are presented. The uses to which the leading brands of steel may be adapted are con- cisely presented, and their treatment for working under different conditions explained, as are also the special methods for the hardening and tempering of special brands. 320 pages. 350 illustrations, $2.50. WOODWORTH. Punches, Dies and Tools for Manufacturing in Presses A work of 500 pages, and illustrated by nearly 700 engravings, being an encyclopaedia of die-making, punch-making, die-sinking, sheet-metal working, and making of special tools, subpresses, devices and mechanical combinations for punching, cutting, bending, forming, piercing, drawing, compressing, and assembling sheet-metal parts and also articles of other materials in machine tools. $4.00, WRIGHT. Electric Furnaces and Their Industrial Application This is a book which will prove of interest to many classes of people ; the manufacturer who desires to know what product can be manufactured successfufly in the electric furnace, the chemist who wishes to post himself on electro-chemistry, and the student of science who merely looks into the subject from curiosity. The book is not so scientific as to be of use only to the technologist, nor so unscientific as to suit only the tyro in electro-chemistnr; it is a practical treatise of what has been done, and of what is being done, both experi- mentally and commercially, with the electric furnace. 288 pages. $3.00. JUST PUBLISHED Practical STEAM AND HOT=WATER HEATING and Ventilation Practical ' Steam*--' HOT WATEf^ Heating By ALFRED Q. KINO Octavo. 367 Pages. Containing over 300 detailed Illus- trations. The larger part of them, having been made from original diagrams, specially drawn for the book PRICE $3.00 The Most Elaborate and Complete Work That Has Ever Been Pub- lished for the Use of Heating Contractors, Journeymen Steam Fitters, Steam Fitters' Apprentices, Architects and Builders THIS book is the standard and latest work published on the subject and has been prepared for the use of all engaged in the business of steam, hot-water heating and ventilation. It is an original and exhaustive work. Tells how to get heating con- tracts, how to install heating and ventilating apparatus, the best business methods to be used, with ' ' Tricks of the Trade " for shop use. Rules and data for estimating radiation and cost and such tables and information as makes it an indispensable work for everyone interested in steam, hot- water heating and ventilation. It describes all the principal systems of steam, hot-water, vacuum, vapor and vacuum-vapor heating, together with the new accelerated systems of hot- water circulation, including chapters on up-to-date methods of ventilation and the fan or blower system of heating and ventilation. You should secure a copy of this book, as each chapter contains a mine of practical information. CONTAININQ CHAPTERS ON I. Introduction. II. Heat. III. Evolution of Artlflclal Heating Apparatus. IV. Boiler Surface and Settings. V. The Chimney Flue. VI. Pipe and Fittings. VII. Valves, Various Kinds. VIII. Forms of Radiating Surfaces. IX. Locating of Radiating Surfaces. X. Estimating Radiation. XI. Steam-Heating Apparatus. XII. Exhaust-Steam Heating. XIII. Hot-Water Heating. XIV. Pressure Systems of Hot-Water Work. XV. Hot-Water Appliances. XVI. Greenhouse Heating. XVII. Vacuum Vapor and Vacuum Exhaust Heating. XVIII. Miscellaneous Heating. XIX. Radiator and Pipe Connections. XX. Ventilation. XXI. Mechanical Ventilation and Hot-Blast HeaUng. XXII. Steam Appliances. XXIII. District Heating. XXIV. Pipe and Boiler Covering. XXV. Temperature Regulation and Heat Control. XXVI. Business Methods. XXVII. Miscellaneous. XXVIII. Rules, Tables and Useful Information. Valuable Data and Tables Used for Estimating, Installing and Testing of Steam and Hot-Water and Ventilating Apparatus Are Given. The Norman W. Henley Publishing Company 132 NASSAU STREET, NEW YORK, U. S. A. JUST PUBLISHED Modern Plumbing Illustrated By R. M. STARBUCK Author of "Questions and Answers on the Practice and Theory ol Sanitary Plumbing " 400 Large Quarto Pages. Fully Illustrated by Fifty- five full pages of detailed engravings, which have been made specially for this book PRICE, $4.00 The Only Thorough and Practical Work Issued on the Modern and Most Approved Methods of Plumbing Construction. Illustrating and Describing the Drainage and Ventilation of Dwellings, Apart- ments and Public Buildings, etc. The Standard Work for Plumbers, Architects, Builders, Property Owners, and for Boards of Health and Plumbing Examiners. THE author of this book, Mr. R. M. Starbuck, is one of the leading authorities on plumbing in the United States. The book represents the highest standard of plumb- ing work. It has been adopted and used as a reference book by the United States Government, in its sanitary work in Cuba, Porto Rico and the Philippines, and by the principal Boards of Health of the United States and Canada. It gives Connections, Sizes and Working Data for All Fixtures and Groups of Fixtures. It is helpful to the Master Plumber in Demonstrating to His Customers and in Figuring of Work. It gives the Mechanic and Student quick and easy Access to the Best Modem Plumbing Practice. Suggestions for Estimating Plumbing Construction are contained in its pages. This book represents, in a word, the latest and best up-to-date practice, and should be in the hands of every architect, sanitary engineer and plumber who wishes to keep himself up to the minute on this important feature of construction. CONTAINS FOLLOWINQ CHAPTERS, EACH ILLUSTRATED WITH A FULL-PAGE PLATE 1 Kitchen Sink, Laundry Tubs, Vegetable Wash Sink 2 Lavatories— Pantry Slnks.Oontents of Marble Slabs S Bath Tub— Foot and Sitz Bath, Shower Bath 4 Water Closets— Venting of Water Closets 5 Low-Down Water Closets— Water Closets Oper- ated by Plush Valves— Water Closet Range 6 Slop sink— Urinals— The Bidet 1 Hotel or Restaurant Sink— Orease Trap 8 Refrigerators— Safe Wastes— Laundry Waste 9 Lines of Refrigerators, Bar Sinks— Soda Fountain sinks 10 Horse stall, Frost-Proof Wat«r Closets 11 Connections for S Traps, Venting 12 Connections for Drum Traps 13 Soil Pipe Connections 14 Supporting of Soil Pipe 15 Main Trap and Fresh Air Inlet 16 Floor Drains and Cellar Drains— Subsoil Drainage 17 Water Closets and Floor Connections 18 Local Venting 19 Connections for Bath Rooms 30 Connections for Bath Rooms, Continued 21 Connections for Bath Rooms, Continued 23 Connections for Bath Rooms, Continued 23 Examples of Poor Practice 34 Roughing-Work Ready for Test 25 Testing of Plumbing System 26 Method of Continuous Venting 37 Continuous Venting for Two-Floor Work 28 Continuous Venting for Two Lines of Fixtures on Three or More Floors 29 Continuous Venting of Water Closets 30 Plumbing for Cottage House 31 Construction for Cellar Piping 32 Plumbing for Residence— Use of Special Fittings 33 Plumbing for Two-Flat House 34 Plumbing for Apartment Building 35 Plumbing for Double Apartment Building 36 Plumbing for Office Building 37 Plumbing for Public Toilet Rooms 38 Plumbing for Public Toilet Rooms, Continued 39 Plumbing for Bath Establishment 40 Plumbing for Engine House- Factory Plumbing 41 Automatic Flushing for Schools, Factories, etc. 42 Use of Flushing Valves 43 Urinals for Public Toilet Rooms 44 The Durham System — The Destruction of Pipes by Electrolysis 45 Construction of Work Without Use of Lead 46 Automatic Sewage Lift — Automatic Sump Tank 47 Country Plumbing 48 Construction of Cesspools 49 Septic Tank and Automatic SewagaSlphon 50 Country Plumbing 51 Water Supply for Country House 53 Thawing of Water Mains and Service by Electricity 53 Double Boilers 54 Hot Water Supply of Large Buildings 55 Automatic Control of Hot Water Tank Suggestions for Estimating Plumbing Construction The Norman W. Henley Publishing Company 132 NASSAU STREET, NEW YORK, U. S. A.