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* 
 
 * * » 
 ^f * * » 
 
 
 THE RISE 
 
 OF ^ ^ ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 MUSIC !8 
 
 !? 
 
 * * * * 
 
 * * * 
 
 
" Motions flow 
 o one anofher, even as though 
 They were modulated so 
 To an unheard melody" 
 
 TeNNYSOH. 
 
Photo, F. Hanplnenol. 
 
 THE MUSIC LKSSOX. 
 
 FiKj.M TMJO Painting in the Nationat, Gau.eiiy hv Gabriei, Metsu 
 (native of Lkvuen ](]30-1667.) 
 
 Frontispiece. 
 
THE RISE OF MUSIC 
 
 BEING A CAREFUL ENQUIRY INTO THE 
 
 DEVELOPMENT OF THE ART FROM 
 
 ITS PRIMITIVE PUTTINGS FORTH IN 
 
 EGYPT AND ASSYRIA TO ITS 
 
 TRIUMPHANT CONSUMMATION 
 
 IN MODERN EFFECT. 
 
 PBCIALLY BRINGING OUT THE INFLUENCE OF THE CHURCH UPON 
 THE JOINT DEVELOPMENT OF HARMONY AND NOTATION— THE 
 IMPORTANCE OF THAT GREAT CENTRAL DEVELOPMENT 
 THE ENWEAVEMENT OF THE SCALES-THE CREATIVE 
 CONSEQUENCES OF THE CLAVIER TYPE OF INSTRU- 
 MENT AND THE EXPLANATION OF A NEW AND 
 PERFECT ORDER OF BEAUTY RESTING 
 UPON OUR TEMPERED SYSTEM. 
 
 BY 
 
 JOSEPH GODDARD. 
 
 Author of " Musical Development," "^A Study of Gounod's ' Redemption,' 
 " The Deeper Sources of the Beauty and Expression of Music," etc. 
 
 With Illustrations of Early Instruments, and Numerous Musical Examples 
 drawn from Ancient and Modern Sources. 
 
 LONDON : 
 WILLIAM REEVES, 83, CHARING CROSS ROAD, W.C. 
 
Printed by tbe New Temple Press, Croyilbn. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 Paet I. 
 THE PRE-CHRISTIAN PERIOD. 
 
 Intkoduotion xiii 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 The Gathering the Elements 3 
 
 Moving: ELud stimulating: sound a natural influenoe — The elements of musical 
 effect first oome upon in the natural pursuit of pleasurable sensation — When such 
 effects are intentionally reproduced a point of departure towards musical art is 
 arrived at, but when they are modified or added to for the sake of improvement 
 musical art is in evidence — ^Oertain fundamental inteivals of our present system 
 and the principle of the key-note^ entered probably into very early effects of 
 the art. 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 Ancient Egyptian Music 11 
 
 Description of ancient Egyptian musical instruments— Groupings of instru- 
 ments and singers — Ancient Egyptians had probably some kind of notation and 
 knowledge of harmonic effect ; but the more impressive effect of the art With them 
 would have been in all probability vocal effect, 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 Ancient Jewish Music 39 
 
 Hebrew music an outflow of that of the Egyptians and Assyrians — Besides the 
 more festal or ceremonial form suggested by various references to music in the 
 Bible, the Jews had a style which was adopted on the occasions of saying the 
 prayers and " reading the law " — In these cases the words were intoned ; hence 
 syllabic monotone, cantillation and a form of plain-song— developing ultimately 
 into a bardic intonation which became intensely expressive — Hebrew being a con- 
 
VI Contents. 
 
 Bonantal tongue neumes, or accents in the form of little strokes and points, came 
 into use about the sixth century in order to designate the vowels, this use pro- 
 bably embracing an ancient tradition — Instrumental music and vocal represented 
 probably different stages, and stood on different levels of development, the vocal 
 being on the way to the msiin path and higher ground — The striking examples of 
 respondent effect and repctifton of sentence^that occur in the Bible almost compel 
 us to conclude that the higher mnsio of the Jews was not confined to the bardic 
 style but assumed occasionally independent forms. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 Assyrian and Babylonian Music 64 
 
 Was of the same general character as Egyptian— The instruments mostly 
 descended from the same source as Egyptian — The primal " Alleluia " — An As- 
 syrian representation of a player holding a lyre tends to confirm the hypothesis 
 that both Assyrian and Egyptian musicians were familiar with the effect of melody 
 and aooompanimeut — The analysis of a living example of Oriental music sung by 
 a section of Dervishes in Constantinople reveals points which connect it with the 
 traditional chanting of the ancient Jews — This lends strength to the hypothesis 
 that the type of this example was that of early melody — The fact that at the 
 period of the Esrvptian monuments and representations the nations of the Orient 
 were highly civilised, suggests that with both the Egyptians and Assyrians music 
 at the respective periods of the arcbseological evidences had long been a highly 
 cultivated art. 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 Ancient Greek Music ... 81' 
 
 BTythical period — The primitive lyre — Instruments in general use — The Greek 
 theory of the development of the diatonic scale — Origin of the Greek modes — The 
 scale of Euclid — The final adjustment of the ratios of vibration of the diatonic 
 tones and semitones — The modern feeling of the key-note defined clearly by Aris- 
 totle — The Greek enharmonic and chromatjo modes— G. A. Macfarren's explanation 
 of their adoption examined — Greek notation — Examples of ancient Greek music — 
 The quBBtion of the possibility of a rhythm based on a 4 measure — The uncertainty 
 of interpretations by general rules, of ancient examples of rhythm — Remarks on 
 the effect of music in Greek drama — The closing period of Greek music — Greatly 
 increased development of flute and cithara playing- — That the Greeks must have 
 been familiar with the abstract effect of harmony is evident from Euclid's defini- 
 tion of the difference between a consonance and a dissonance — The corner turned 
 towards the modern system — Analysis of our system of overlapping scales — The 
 remarkable facilities it affords both for modulation and chromatic effect — The 
 special need of time for development in the case of musioal art — Within the Greek 
 period the foundations of the modern art were definitely laid. 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 Roman Music 135 
 
 The main benefit to the art contributed by the Romans was the keeping it in 
 large evidence until time was ripe for the next vital departure — The local music 
 of the early Romans (first come upon in connection with their religious cere- 
 monies) was a wave of the Asiatic tradition which, having flowed to them through 
 the Etruscans to the North, became subsequently influenced by the Greeks to the 
 South — The Dionysian artists appear in Rome, b.c. 167^Greek Orientat pantomime 
 
 accompanied by brilliant orchestras arrives in Rome from l*3gypt about b.c. 30 
 
 At the hands of Rome — in inflections new and old and voiced Toy instruments that 
 have descended from Egypt, Asia and Greece— music, broadened in form yet 
 strengthened in unity, passes into the Christian period. 
 
Contents. vii 
 
 Part II. 
 THE CHRISTIAN PERIOD. 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 The Continuity of the Aet cubing the Eaelt Cbntueies op 
 
 THE Cheistian Eea 143 
 
 Muaio pursues its course in the Christian period without break of continuity — 
 But at the beginning of that course, whilst it is resounding ordinarily at the 
 surface of life, in underground chambers of the catacombs or hidden country 
 places, an influence is developing destined to profoundly modify it, namely, the 
 singing of the early Christian hymns— The question of their origin — Evidence 
 tending to show that Oreco-Latin music continued both within and without the 
 Church as late as the ninth oentnry — The so-called ecclesiastical modes simply 
 portions of the fundamental scale — Their uses as separate bases of composition not 
 
 Srompted sesthetically but due to the restricted compass of the organ — That the 
 huroh music of this period was as plain and cold as these modes suggest is inoon- 
 sistent both with the circumstances and the enthusiastic aUusions to it which 
 have come down to us. 
 
 CHAPTER VIII; 
 
 Early Teacbs of the Oegan and the Viol : The Hezaohoedal 
 System 156 
 
 The organ erected in Winchester Cathedral by order of Bishop Elphege (died 
 951) suggests that at this period music was following the course of deTeiopmeDt 
 indicated by the scale of Euclid — The Hexaohordal system also evidences that at 
 this general period the principle of overlapping scales was operating — That it had 
 unfolded no further than is suggested by the B-flat in the Winchester organ and 
 hexachords of Guido and by the F-sharp in the scale of Huobald, is doubtful- 
 There is monumental evidence that by the eleventh century the viol family of 
 instruments had come upon the scene — The unfolding of harmony and notation 
 favoured by the organisation of the Christian ohurob. 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 The Development of Modern Notation 174 
 
 The qnestiou of the origin of neumee — Our system of diagrammatio notation 
 — Its evolution. 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 The Emergence op Plain Song 196 
 
 Ligatures — The question of the beginning of measured music— The evidence 
 duly considered suggests that the knowledge and practice of strict time have 
 existed from an indefinitely remote period— We have no direct knowledgre of the 
 musio sung' in the Church for six or seven hundred years after its first introduc- 
 tion By the end of the dark period a type of effect emerges composed of sustained 
 
 sounds of generally even length- From this type of effect, largely in virtue of the 
 
y 
 
 viii Consents, 
 
 material and moral circumstances attending it, tlie more higMy organised forms 
 that have made musio a serious, self-poised art, have arisen. 
 
 CHAPTER XI. 
 
 The Plain Chant the Spibitxjalised Basis of the Higher 
 Forms 207 
 
 There is much in common between the plain chant and early Jewish musio 
 notwithstanding the differences both in form and expression which they involve-^ 
 In both, the exhaustless pressure of the moral burthen so dominates the muaio 
 that the rhythm follows the lingual phrasing — The smooth basis of sustained and 
 generally even sounds continued as symmetrical constructions arose, still breathing 
 the full assured spirit of the plain chant but kindling warmer — This is evidencea 
 by the great Dutch masterpieces of the Hth and 15th centuries — The intensity of 
 expression and high musical beauty attained in these works — The dcTelopment of 
 the tie and the unfolding of flats and sharps. 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 Concluding Kemarks on Notation : The Lesson of its 
 Development ... 217 
 
 Precis of the development of our system of jiotation — Its triumph is connected 
 with its simplicity — This simplicity arrived at through a remarkable co-operation 
 of sensorial and psyohio action. 
 
 CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 Organum: Descant: Poltphont 225 
 
 The definite origin of Organum unknown— Its prevalence for at least three 
 centuries compels us to acknowledge that it must in some way have made a 
 peculiar appeal to musical feeling — Faux Bourdon probably a development of 
 Organum (as thirds and sixths became admitted) — The Plain Chant thus treated 
 exemplified the outward form of subsequent Plain Harmony but its effect tended 
 rather to destroy than increase the coherence between the different notes of the 
 melody — This was as far towards harmony as in this path could be got— Harmony 
 did not develop out of the principle of a succession of erections of super-posed 
 notes but from a subtle and inexplicable principle of melodio enrichment unfolded 
 in the rencontres of moving parts as' discovered in Desoant and Polyphony — Imita- 
 tion seems inherent in the musical instinct — It influenced musical development 
 organically — Whilst not interfering with freedom between the parts, it gave them 
 a common purpose and equal importance — Hence arose that great style of oboral 
 writing in which contrast and every variety is united in one general expression. 
 
 CHAPTER XIV.-V. 
 Harmony 244 
 
 The evolution of harmony — The chance unfolding of its salient intervals — 
 Prepared harmonic efleot — Definite chords applied to popular songs— The Volks- 
 lied, Choral and Madrigal— The contact of the Flemish and Italian schools — The 
 spirit of Italy — The use of chords in difiercnt positions unfolded gradually— Pro- 
 gress in clear tonality depended upon the use of harmony in connection 
 vfith melody and rhythm — Examples from Palestrina — The general harmonic 
 advance reacts upon Polyphony— Imitation and the enweavement of parts involve 
 
Contents, ix 
 
 definite harmonio progressions — The different inversions and degrees of complete- 
 ness of chords are SBflthetically different things — The chord of the dominant seventh 
 not the cause but a last and deciding factor of clear tonality— This chord, like so 
 many other important developments unfolded gradualbr — It also probably helped 
 in the reduction of the mediEBval modes to the modern major and minor--Its 
 special attribute is its inherent sssthetio power — The remarkable ascent in har- 
 monic effect which characterises the post-Haydn epoch probably due to the 
 Inspiration of new melody — Two other combinations were destined to stand out in 
 their capacity for unfolding under certain circumstances inordinate ceathetio 
 power ; the chord of the subdominant and that of the seoond Inversion of the 
 Oommon chord. 
 
 CHAPTER XVI. 
 
 Modulation 281 
 
 A chord, beyond the effects which lie in its use when a single key is kept to. 
 gives birth to new effect when appearing in another key before the influence of 
 the old has passed away — Examples referred to showing that the principle of 
 varying* the expression in both melody and harmony by the incorporation of notes 
 belonging to another key actuated the composers of the early Flemish period — In 
 modulation a distinctly raised effect occurs not to be accounted for by either the 
 melody or harmony m themselves— The general conditions which render this 
 possible involved in our system of overlapping scales — The action of modulation 
 not always distinct and positive — U{) to the Haydn ei)ooh modulation was largely 
 ooncerned with symmetric construction whilst the heightening of expression due 
 to it proceeded with a certain deliberation — But as the contact of effects between 
 removed keys became more developed it led to terser melody as well as to bar- 
 monio effect peculiarly brilliant and striking— Example from Weber. 
 
 CHAPTER XVII. 
 
 The Rise of Italian Melody: Thb Beginning of the 
 Abtistio Song 291 
 
 Melody with accompaniment, as a vehicle of special feeling was not a develop- 
 me^nt of the songs of troubadors or an^ traditional ditties, but unfolded from 
 Tooal part-music, generally polyphonic in form — This evolution occurred spon- 
 taneously in the various countries of Europe in which musical art was cultivated 
 — The employment of recitative in Opera and Oratorio generally considered as 
 due to the initiative of Feri and Caccini in their " Orpheus and Eurydioe," and 
 of Cavaliere in his *' BappresentaEione del anima e oorpq " — Too much importance 
 has been attached to these oases — The general instinct of musioians seems 
 at this period to have been pressing towards a more individualistic expression than 
 that peculiar to the part songs or songs for a single voice then existent — In this 
 as in most other cases of art-development ther path by which new expression was 
 reached was through extant form — This demonstrated by internal evidence of the 
 new music itself — The arbitrary confining of vocal expression to broken, exclam- 
 atory effect did not find favour with suooeeding composers — Uelody acquired a 
 -^ beauty all the more intense as it expressed individual feeling— The unique traits 
 of Ituian melody now begin to stand out clearly. 
 
 CHAPTER XVin, 
 
 The Fobeshadowing of Modern Oratorio .^ .., 306 
 
 Harmony was xnflaenoed hy the new inspiration which the dramatic spirit 
 gave to melody — At this period, in oratorio, individual feeling enters the chorus as 
 well as the solo — Striking example in Garissimi's *' Jephtha " — A comparison of 
 
X Contents. 
 
 the latter work and the '* Four PaBBions " of Heinrich Schiita— The dramatic spirit 
 in CarisBimi's recitative— The reOitative af Heinrich SchiitB containB the germ of 
 that style (oonspiouous in MendelBBohn and Spohr) which combines the beauty 
 and expression oi song with the declamatory effect and movement of language—- 
 Sugo-estive differences in the choral writing of Sohiitz and Oarissimi — The rich. 
 involved part-writing peculiar to the German school is absent from " Jephtha," 
 in which nevertheless we have the prototype of the double chorus and a suggestion 
 of that punctuating flowing pasHagea with massive harmonies of which Bach and 
 Handel make such brilliant use — Both works unite in foreshadowing modern ora- 
 torio — In " Jephtha " is the prototype of the Italian " Aria.'* 
 
 CHAPTER XIX. 
 
 Thk Art of Accompaniment 321 
 
 There can be scarcely any doubt that the instinct of accompaniment mani- 
 fested itself in the ancient playing of lyr&, harp and lute — Accompaniment in 
 evidence in the •prelude and ritornelle of the trouvferes and troubadors — Also in 
 the prelude drawn from the vocal parts, with which the early Church composers 
 ushered in the voices — The feeling for accompaniment in organ playing induced 
 by the use of the through bass (figured) — Accompaniment to early vocal solo con- 
 sisted largely of sustained chords — In Cavalli it is seen unfolding accessory articu- 
 lation, sometimes between the vocal phrases, sometimes in conjunction with them 
 —By the period of Alessandro Scarlatti two general kinds of accoiupaniment had 
 unfolded, intermingling but clearly distinguishable, the leading motive of one 
 being the support of the melody by chords (sustained or broken), that of the other 
 its fuller expression through an accessory strain — Accessory articulation in ac- 
 companiment sometimes instead of intertwining with the leading theme is semi- 
 independent, its function in the latter case being that of comment or interpreta- 
 tion—The intertwiniiis form gives rise to an effect which enters into the highest 
 developments both of vocal and instrumental music, in the mutual enhancement 
 of themes — This we term counter-melodic effect. 
 
 CHAPTER XX. 
 
 Thematic Treatment 339 
 
 The problem of the composition of an instrumental movement (the combining 
 variety and important dimensions with unity) was for a time effected by adherence 
 to the fugal prinoiple-^By the time of Emmanuel Bach this method of proceduro 
 had ])assed into another, called thematic treatment, in which the subject is so 
 conceived as to be fitted for far more varied treatment and to be suggestive 
 spiritually— ThVLB whilst it embraces imitation, counter-theme, free counterpoint 
 and counter -melodic effect all under conditions admitting of more enlarged 
 scope for melodic, harmonic and rhythmic display than in vocal music, it oper- 
 ates by means of other and subtler liens between the Bubject and subsequent 
 efiect. 
 
 CHAPTER XXI. 
 
 The Introduction into the Organ op the Intermediate 
 Semitones 347 
 
 Between ,tbe erection of the Winohester or^nn (about 961) and the oompletion 
 of the Halberstadt orgai) (1361) the remaining intermediate semitones had become 
 introduced, and represented upon the key-board — Thoagh the latter unique con- 
 trivance was by this time -rirtually acbiered its use was bttt dawning— It has 
 
Contents. xi 
 
 been the cuetom to look down on the k<^^'^'oard as an aid to theory but in the 
 aght of our system of enwoven soales out of the beginning of which it arose and 
 ■WI10S& development it aided, it is musical history and theory embodied 
 
 CHAPTER XXII. 
 
 The Connection between the Development of Vocal Music 
 AT THE Early Flemish Period and the Plan of the 
 Contemporary Organ 355 
 
 The mathematical relations of the typical diatonic scale — Our system of en- 
 woven scales is inconsistent with each corresponding exactly with the typical 
 scale — The pioneers in Polyphony were led into different scales by wsthetio feeling 
 — The scales in which the early Flemish composers wrote and those suggested by 
 the nomenclature of the chromatic keys of the Halberstadt organ correspond-^ 
 Notwithstanding at this period all the intermediate semitones were present in the 
 organ they were concerned with only a few scales — The scale-enweavement 
 developed thus far did not involve a material departure from Juat intonation. 
 
 CHAPTER XXIII. 
 
 The Creative Consequences of the Clavier Type of 
 Instruments 365 
 
 The development of an instrument of fixed sounds aide by side with the 
 progress the art had made at this period was a vital condition of its next great 
 unfolding — There can be little doubt that the key-board from its earliest use in 
 both organ and clavichord induced a style of composition peculiar to each of 
 these instruments — The new path thus opened up led to the unexpected and 
 creative — When all the soales had become enwoven and the system was fuller 
 because it was one, the composer's grasp of it was peculiarly facilitated by means 
 of the key-board — More particularly were his powers increased in the exploration 
 of harmony— The key-board further induced the construction and permitted the 
 plnying of more finely complex forms of combinative writing than could be con- 
 ceived for or executed by a choir— Among the larger consequences of this interior 
 culture of the art was the remarkable development of thematic treatment by 
 Ceethoyen, and that more striking efFect of modulation which is produced by the 
 close use of widely removed keys. 
 
 CHAPTER XXIV. 
 
 The Problem of the Use of Our System in Connection with 
 Just Intonation : The Psychic Factor ... 369 
 
 The early Flemish composers did not observe the difference between the large 
 and small tones of the typical scale but made directly for more highly organised 
 form — A system of scales dominated by the principle of strict mathematical uni- 
 formity is impossible as a basis of modern music — There is nothing unsound in 
 the principle of that irregularity which obtains in the intonation of the constitu- 
 ent scales of our system — The undoubted fact of a new masical creation of perfect 
 beauty resting upon a system, of which retrogression in the constituent scales is a 
 vital condition, as well as the distinctly successful use of intervals in our system 
 which are certainly a compromise, explained by the consideration of the action of 
 the pnyohic factor in our sensibility. 
 
xii Contents. 
 
 CHAPTER XXV. 
 Concluding Kemaeks 379 
 
 The deTelopment which formB the main distinction between modern and all 
 ancient mueical art is our system of enwoven scales — It seems far from improbable 
 (hat the determining factor in this great central development 'was the rise of the 
 Christian Ghuroh — Peculiar parallelism between music and architecture in fewness 
 of lending forma — This probably explained by the forms of neither being drawn 
 directly from Nature — That in each case the sug^estings of Nature that do occur 
 touch upon something generic or familiar in feeling', tends to explain their power 
 —^In music these euggestings are those gracious lineaments of strains that have 
 come down upon the stream of song and proved the " touch of nature " " in all 
 time " — Such auggrestings will probably go on— breathing the feeling of their 
 source — Thus music will not shake off its past — from which proceeds the ** spirit 
 feeling," and the note of which is concerned with inspiration — Musio and archi- 
 tecture are also largely similarly situated in that the religious enthusiasm that 
 aided ao largely to create them seems destined to become less concentrated and 
 intense — This reflection affects musio more deeply than architecture because the 
 latter is related to man's serious life in other ways than in connection with 
 religion, whilst the necessity of musio as a means of expressing the profound 
 emotions of man in relation to the religious aspect of existence has been always 
 its definite sanction as a high and serious art. 
 
 Errata 398 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 ■ji ji USIC is generally regarded as a modern art. 
 ■^"-■- Whilst Architecture and Sculpture in impres- 
 sive phases take back the mind to ancient Greece and 
 Rome, and Painting to the period of Rafaelle and 
 Michael Angelo, the masterpieces of Music resting 
 upon the ^ully constituted art, belong to the era this 
 side of John Sebastian Bach. Further, in the cases of 
 architecture, sculpture and painting, there are ancient 
 examples which speak to us much, though probably 
 not altogether, as they spoke to their first regarders. 
 In the case of poetry also, the voice of some of the 
 oldest (notably that of the Bible, which even thrills 
 through the deadening effect of a foreign tongue) 
 may be said to be as fresh and clear to us as it was to 
 the generations in which it arose. But hearkening back 
 in the case of music we soon cease to hear its living 
 
xiv Introduction. 
 
 sound, whilst from its primitive eifects comes no 
 echo, save through imagination — they are gone as 
 completely as their contemporary bird-notes. Yet dis- 
 tinct evidences of music appear as far in the past as 
 any light extends. Not only so but they impress dis- 
 tinctly that there is a continuity in musical art from 
 the very dawn of knowledge to the modern period. As 
 H. Lavoix* says, "we must not deceive ourselves, 
 there is no gap in musical history, there are only ignor- 
 ances. If the links of the chain appear broken it is 
 because historians have not discovered how to connect 
 them." 
 
 In the following chapters I shall endeavour to show 
 that this comparatively late maturing of the art has 
 been a result flowing naturally out of the conditions — 
 that certain vital departures in the development of 
 music's form rising out of special combinations of cir- 
 cumstances, demanded an indefinitely long course of 
 experiment and play of chance in order to come about ; 
 whilst the continuity, above referred to — a continuity 
 through time and change prevadibg in its course 
 
 widely different peoples, climes and eras, has been 
 
 _\ 
 
 * " Histoire de lamusique." 
 
Introduction. xv 
 
 essential to the formation of that spiritual foundation 
 from which music derives its manifold accent — its in- 
 finite notes of feeling. 
 
 I may here refer to the following points as specially 
 brought out in this work. 
 
 The influence of the Church upon the joint develop- 
 ment of Harmony and Notation. 
 
 The importance of that great central development — 
 the enweavement of the scales. 
 
 The creative consequences of the Clavier type of 
 instrument. 
 
 And the explanation of a new and perfect order of 
 beauty resting upon our tempered system. 
 
 It will be seen then that the present work is not a 
 history of music in the ordinary sense, but rather a 
 tracing of the organic unfolding of the musical art. At 
 the same time it presents a perspective of both the his- 
 tory and constitution of music, in which history is seen 
 to elucidate theory, and theory, history. 
 
PART I. 
 
 THE PRE-CHRISTIAN PERIOD. 
 
CHAPTER I. 
 
 The Gathering the Elements. 
 
 OOME power to produce sound and some sensitive- 
 *^ ness to sound are qualities pervading the greater 
 portion if not the whole of animate nature. The 
 ear of the cray-fish, though a far more restricted organ 
 than the ear of man, is planned on the same principle, 
 whilst the various means by which inferior animals 
 produce sound resemble as to the principle of procedure 
 those by which man produces it, that is to say : all sound 
 of animate origin is produced by the breath, or by the 
 action of one portion of the body upon another 
 or upon a separate object. The bird sings; the 
 mole-cricket produces a long, sustained, even note of a 
 definite pitch by the action of a delicate apparatus 
 
4 THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 connected with its wings ; the ape, as well as producing 
 vocal sound, beats hollow tree-trunks; man sings, claps 
 his hands to music, and plays instruments. 
 
 In the case of the inferior animals the production of 
 sound seems largely to subserve the almost opposite 
 purposes of calling or charming the female, and of 
 inspiring fear in an enemy.* At the same time it may 
 also be a nervous outlet or expression, and thus act as 
 a stimulus upon the nature generally. If this last is 
 the case then it would seem that for sound to have a 
 specially moving and generally stimulating influence 
 it is not essential that it should be conformed artisti- 
 cally. 
 
 The purely natural state of things in connection with 
 musical sound which is here suggested, is a necessary 
 antecedent to musical art, — which had no definite 
 beginning but which joins the great ocean of animate 
 soimd. Whether its earliest forms were rudiments of 
 song, or effects produced by some primitive instrument, 
 or both combined, the impulse which led to their pro- 
 
 * The question of the relation of this universal sensitiveness to 
 sound of its two main associations, terror and joy, to the musical 
 emotion in man, I have touched upon in a work entitled, '< The 
 Deeper Sources of Beauty and Expression in Music." 
 
THE RISE OF MUSIC. 5 
 
 duction would have first arisen in the far back course 
 of natural, as opposed to art, activity — as instanced by 
 the unpremeditated play of the human voice, or of 
 the hands, as in clapping or striking some sounding 
 object, or of the feet, as in deincing. 
 
 Yet though the facts are continuous we can conceive 
 that a point of departure in the direction of art was 
 arrived at when a particular effect of voice or instru- 
 ment was reproduced because it g^ave pleasure in itself. 
 And when such an effect was varied, modified, or 
 added to, in the same spirit, that is, for the sake of the 
 pleasure it gave, then we can further conceive that 
 musical art was in evidence. Such a primitive state 
 of things even as this would not come about easily. 
 It involves the co-operation of two antagonistic prin- 
 ciples — fixation and change. An effect produced by 
 such a sounding object as a horn or hollow tree-trunk 
 would be fixed and preserved by the object itself, but 
 this advantage would entail the drawback of little or 
 no power of development. Even when man advanced 
 to the construction of such an instrument as a primi- 
 tive harp or flute it would be devised for the produc- 
 tion of particular effects to which it would be almost, 
 or entirely, confined. On the other hand, a particular 
 
6 THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 succession of vocal tones would at such a primitive 
 period depend for preservation upon the uncertain 
 action of tradition, but the conditions involved in their 
 production so far from tending to bar further develop- 
 ment would, as we know, admit of it to an infinite 
 extent. 
 
 It is in harmony with certain facts (such as mon- 
 keys producing vocal sounds whilst striking hollow 
 tree-trunks, as described by Dr. Livingstone; and 
 negroes chanting to the sound of a drum or horn amid 
 universal clapping of hands, as described by H. M. 
 Stanley; and ancient Egyptian representations of 
 singers being accompanied by the clapping of hands 
 as well as by the playing of instruments) which are 
 suggestive in this connection, to assume that a very 
 early, if not the earliest, use of a musical instrument 
 was to accompany the voice. In this way might have 
 been ultimately brought about the commencement of 
 that harmonious co-operation of the principles of fixa- 
 tion and change upon which the whole progress of 
 music has hung. The freedom of the voice would 
 tend to the introduction of novelty; the fixed sounds 
 of the instrument would tend in themselves as well as 
 by their association with particular vocal phrases, to 
 
THE RISE OF MUSIC. 7 
 
 preserve past effects. The primitive Greek lyre of four 
 strings points to such a stage of development as this. 
 
 The opinion has been put forward that the earliest 
 manifestations of the musical instinct were purely 
 rhythmical actions, upon the assumption that the 
 pleasure the ear takes in rhythmical effect is a more 
 primitive feeling than its gratification by tune. But the 
 spontaneous play of the vocal organs is quite as rudi- 
 mentary, natural and easy as that of the limbs. The 
 two tendencies — to be pleased by rhythm and by pitch 
 effect, appear to be organically connected. It is there- 
 fore safer to assume they were together in the be- 
 ginning. 
 
 We may assume that if the intervals involved in a 
 considerable number of early pitch effects had been 
 compared it would have been found — as in the case 
 of all primitive musical effects that have been ex- 
 amined—that certain intervals would be repeated in 
 many exam'ples. There are some grounds for the 
 further assumption that these, so to speak, stock-in- 
 tervals would include some of the fundamental inter- 
 vals of our present system. Professor Helmholtz 
 suggests that the division of the octave C — F G — C, 
 found almost without exception everywhere, would 
 
8 THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 result naturally from the following two facts; (i) that 
 the first partial sound of the fifth of the scale is identi- 
 cal with the second partial sound of the fundamental 
 note; (2) that the second partial sound of the fourth 
 of the scale, is identical with the third partial sound 
 of the fundamental note. 
 
 Sncl parbial 1st partial Bound 3rd partial 2nd partial 
 
 sound of of fifth of soa'e. sound of sound of fourth 
 
 fundamental note. fundamental note. of scale. 
 
 m 
 
 IZSl 
 
 iz 
 
 The rationale of this suggestion is, that as in the 
 impression of the initiatory note one at least of the 
 elements of sensation due to the following note is 
 already present, a less extensive change in sensation 
 is involved in passing to this latter note than would 
 be the case, in most instances, in passing to another 
 note; or in other words, the course taken is the path 
 of least resistance. 
 
 Assuming then that primitive music embraced at 
 least these fundamental intervals of our system, they 
 would doubtless have been mingled with others 
 adopted arbitrarily either from choice or necessity. 
 
THE RISE OF MUSIC. 9 
 
 But the former through being more familiar to sensa- 
 tion or more easily and frequently hit upon, would 
 have been at the period in question, as they are now, 
 land-marks of form — points of departure and return — 
 elementary conditions of clearness. 
 
 The principle of a key-note must have betrayed 
 itself at an early period of musical development for it 
 is involved whenever a certain note occupies a central 
 or fundamental position in a design; it exists even 
 when the design is composed of but two or three notes 
 — in fact it must exist for there to be design at all. It 
 operates in language in the use of inflections — as when 
 in a sentence several of these bear a certain relation to 
 the last, whether this terminates upon a high, low, or 
 central note. 
 
 / We are led then by the foregoing considerations to 
 the following general conclusions concerning that pre- 
 historic course of musical activity which emerges the 
 definitive art-stream. 
 
 (i). That the specially moving and generally stimu- 
 lating influence of sound was in operation long before 
 sound was conformed artistically. 
 
 (2). That the elements of distinct musical activity 
 
10 THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 were first unfolded in purely natural activity; that is 
 to say, certain effects having a crude musical character 
 were first produced in the natural pursuit of pleasur- 
 able sensations. 
 
 (3). That a point of departure in the direction of 
 musical art was arrived at when a particular effect of the 
 kind just referred to, was intentionally repeated or re- 
 produced; and that when such an effect in repetition 
 was modified or added to for the purpose of improving 
 it, musical art was in evidence. 
 
 (4). That at this early stage the two opposing prin- 
 ciples — ^fixation and change — upon whose harmonious 
 development the whole progress of music has depended, 
 were in operation. 
 
 (5). That some of the fundamental intervals of our 
 present system probably entered into the early effects 
 of the art; whilst the principle of the key-note, being 
 the basis of design in pitch-effect, must have done so. 
 
THE RISE OF MUSIC. II 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 Ancient Egyptian Music. 
 
 'npHE most important archaeological evidences of 
 •*• musical art have been found in Egypt, where 
 they are not only more abundant but in part more 
 advanced in character than elsewhere. They are 
 mainly in the form of monumental carvings, and wall- 
 paintings, representing groups of players with their 
 instruments, whilst a few consist of the remains of 
 ancient instruments themselves. They embrace lyres 
 of seventeen, and harps of fourteen, strings (both being 
 coeval with about the middle of the period of the 
 Jewish captivity) and flutes, giving a diatonic scale, 
 of the period of Usertsen II.* 
 
 * B.C. 3366 (British Museum), b.c. 1550 (Sharp). 
 
12 THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 Civilization in its march from central Asia found 
 in Egypt conditions which enabled it to take a deeper 
 root, and put forth a fuller flower, than at the other 
 favoured points which invited settlement. On the 
 banks of the Tigris and Euphrates it was more ex- 
 posed to succeeding waves of migration than on the 
 banks of the Nile, where with the sea to the North and 
 the desert to the West it was exposed to the chance 
 of disturbance only on the South or by the Isthmus of 
 Suez. Besides this security the unique advantage 
 which Egypt enjoyed in possessing a soil which yielded 
 the maximum of increase for the minimum of rude 
 labour, was highly favourable to her attaining an ad- 
 vanced civilization in that it freed a large proportion 
 of the population from purely physical labour, whilst 
 the circumstances were such as to demand largely the 
 exercise of the mental faculties — as in the management 
 of the overflow, the calculationof time, and the measure- 
 ment of the land. Hence the special progress of the 
 Egyptians in engineering, astronomy and geometry. 
 And, that material affluence and the pursuit of the 
 exact sciences should be accompanied by the cultivation 
 of the liberal arts, is only iii the natural order of things. 
 The long contact between Egypt and outlying 
 
THE RISE OF MUSIC. 1 3 
 
 countries, which came about in the course of migratory 
 movements, trade and even warj tended to a common 
 admixture of musical as of other knowledge. The 
 archaeological and historical evidence which has become 
 unfolded concerning ancient Jewish and Assyrian musi- 
 cal instruments, betrays that these were mainly of the 
 same types as ancient Egyptian. Thus it appears 
 probable that the music of Egypt and of the more 
 civilized of neighbouring nations was of one general 
 character. The circumstances to which I have referred 
 which led to Egypt's attaining the highest pitch of 
 refinement among these nations, enabled her to continue 
 to maintain a leading position in this respect through- 
 out the whole historic period of the old world and until 
 well within the intellectual day of Greece. The music 
 of a particular people depends no doubt upon the 
 idiosyncrasy of that people as well as upon its circum- 
 stances, and perhaps in the case of each of these nations 
 special style was more or less developed. But bearing 
 in mind the superior character of the evidences of the 
 art found in Egypt, it seems not imlikely that her 
 relation to them as regarded music harmonised with 
 that she bore to them with regard to progress generally. 
 It is therefore probable that Egyptian, Babylonian, 
 
14 THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 Assyrian and Jewish music involved systems having 
 common features; if not one general system; and that 
 of these various schools the Egyptian, at least for a 
 considerable time, took the lead. 
 
 The principal instruments of the ancient Egyptians 
 were the 
 
 Harp Trumpet (The Harp 
 
 Lyre Sistrum and Lyre 
 
 Pipe Single Drum assume 
 
 and Double Tamboureen various 
 Flute Cymbals forms). 
 
 Lute Crotola 
 
 THE Harp. 
 
 The harp varied greatly as to size, shape, and the 
 number of strings. The largest — like those represented 
 in the frescoes discovered by the traveller, Bruce — were 
 higher than a man, and in form distinctly typical of 
 the modern instrument. These stood upon the ground, 
 for which position their bases were squared. Of the 
 medium sized, some stood upon the ground; others 
 were attached to a kind of support proceeding dia- 
 gonally from the ground in such a way as to be in- 
 clined towards the player, who, in both these circum- 
 
THE RISE OF MUSIC. 15 
 
 stances, knelt on one knee. Of the small, some were 
 placed upon a table before which the player stood, 
 others were played balanced upon the shoulder in 
 nearly a horizontal position. These were light instru- 
 ments with but a few strings. 
 
 The number of strings varied from four to twenty- 
 two but they did not always increase in the ratio of the 
 height of the instrument; some of the deep G-shaped 
 instruments had as many as the highest. The strings 
 (as in all Egyptian stringed-instruments) were of cat- 
 gut and at the top were wound round pegs passing 
 through the frame. By turning these pegs the instru- 
 ment was tuned as in modern stringed instruments. A 
 noticeable point in the construction of all Egyptian 
 harps is the absence of a post which in the modern 
 instrument strengthens and completes the frame. This 
 probably was not felt as a disadvantage owing to the 
 generally limited number of strings and to the char- 
 acter of the construction and material of the frame. 
 Something would depend upon the pitch demanded 
 of the longer strings. Egyptian harps were frequently 
 of graceful design, finished construction, and taste- 
 fully painted with lotus and other flowers. Those the 
 representation of which Bruce discovered, have each at 
 
i6 
 
 THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 the pediment carved figure heads — probably of the 
 kings of whose state these instruments formed a part, 
 the walls on which they are painted belonging to the 
 
 -^^^h=e' 
 
 FIG. I. FROM TOMBS OF THE KINGS. EPOCH OF 
 RAMESES III. ABOUT 1250 B.C. THEBES. 
 
 tombs of the kings of Egypt. The harpers are 
 officiating before Ao, one of the Egyptian deities. 
 These are far from the oldest harps represented in 
 
THE RISE OF MUSIC. 1/ 
 
 Egyptian sculptures. The oldest are ruder in form 
 and date probably nearly a thousand years earlier. 
 There are no instances of a double set of strings, or of 
 pedals, in Egyptian harps. In some of the representa- 
 tions, however, there are more pegs than strings — some- 
 times one, two and three more; sometimes double the 
 number. It has been suggested that this may point 
 to some provision for adding semitones. The feature 
 of the frame enlarging towards the base so as to become 
 a copious resonator is as marked in the larger Egyptian 
 harps as in our modern instruments. In the larger 
 and some of the smaller the form of the frame-shaft 
 though tapering upwards on every side, is undifferen- 
 tiated — the lines unbroken, as in the modern instru- 
 ment; but in others the lower part is distinctly differ- 
 entiated from the upper. In two instances the basal 
 portion is decorated in such a way as to resemble tor- 
 toise-shell, suggesting the idea that (as in the instance 
 of the Greek lyre) an early form of the frame may have 
 been the shell of a tortoise, a curved process being 
 attached to complete it. However this may have been, 
 this peculiar differentiation and apparent separateness 
 of construction in the frame seems to belong to a very 
 
 early stage in the development of this instrument. 
 
 C 
 
i8 
 
 THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 H. M. Stanley in " Darkest Africa " referring to various 
 evidences of a connection between the modern natives 
 of Africa and the ancient Egyptians, includes among 
 
 FIG. 2. ANCIENT EGYPTIAN FIG. 3. MODERN AFRICAN 
 INSTRUMENT FROM INSTRUMENT FROM 
 
 WILKINSON'S "ANCIENT H. M. STANLEY'S 
 
 EGYPTIANS." "DARKEST AFRICA." 
 
 these evidences a certain resemblance between the musi- 
 cal instruments of the two peoples. 
 
 The above illustrations will convey this resemblance 
 far better than any description could approach. 
 
 What is so striking and suggestive in this com- 
 parison is, as the reader will observe, the harp-like 
 native- African instrument has the peculiar differentia- 
 
THE RISE OF MUSIC. IQ 
 
 tion of the frame to which I have referred. This re- 
 semblance seems to suggest that either the African in- 
 strument is a descendant of the ancient Egyptian or 
 a survival of its prototype. The principle of this kind 
 of construction may be observed in some remains of 
 ancient Egyptian musical instruments in the British 
 Museum. In these the frame is of wood, the broad 
 part rounded and hollowed out, boat-like, the narrow 
 part curving from it being simply a rounded solid limb. 
 In one the broad part is covered in with a parchment- 
 like material. 
 
 The Lyre. 
 
 The Egyptian lyre, though constructed on the same 
 general plan as the Greek, was a heavier and appar- 
 ently more powerful instrument but not so symmetrical. 
 There are actual specimens (without strings) in the 
 museums of Berlin and Leyden. The total height of 
 the Berlin lyre is about two feet. The Leyden lyre is 
 somewhat smaller. It appears to have been customary 
 with the Egyptians to make one upright of the lyre 
 higher than the other and thus the bar to which the 
 strings were attached at top, diagonal, as in the fol- 
 lowing illustration (which the reader will observe is 
 
20 THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 without Strings) the object being probably to enable 
 
 FIG. 4. BERLIN MUSEUM. 
 
 the instrument to be tuned by sliding the strings up- 
 wards or downwards along the bar. 
 
 FIG. 5. THEBES. 
 The Egyptians twanged the strings both with the 
 plectrum and with the hngers, and sometimes, as in 
 the above illustration, they touched the strings 
 
TtiE RISE 6f MVSiC. 21 
 
 with the left hand whilst striking them with the plec- 
 trum held in the right. It seems far from improbable 
 that some special effect was got in this way. 
 
 The Pipe. 
 
 The pipe was a straight tube not exceeding a foot 
 and a half in length and having three or four holes. 
 It was held by both hands; a small piece of reed or 
 thick straw was inserted in the hollow at the mouth, 
 and so compressed as to leave only a narrow opening 
 for the breath. Its limited diameter, general simpli- 
 city, and the fact that many were made of reeds, sug- 
 gest its pastoral origin. After reed it was made of 
 box, lotus-thorn and other sonorous woods, or of horn, 
 bone, ivory and metal. 
 
 The double pipe was simply a pair of pipes. They 
 were so held as to diverge as they passed from the 
 mouth, and each was played with the corresponding 
 hand. In Egyptian illustrations both pipes appear to 
 be about the same length. A different general pitch, 
 however, might have been produced by the short reeds 
 or straws inserted at the mouths being of different 
 lengths. With the Greeks and Romans the pipes were 
 frequently of very different lengths. Whatever variety 
 
25 , THE RiSE OF MUSiC. 
 
 in effect was obtained by this double instrument there 
 can be little doubt that some effects of sounds in com- 
 bination must have arisen in the course of its use. 
 
 The flute was a larger and more musical pipe. In 
 one of the Theban pictures it is represented so long as 
 to reach from the player's mouth to beyond (by about 
 a fourth of itself) the length of his arm. Its general 
 pitch was thus deeper than that of the pipe. As in 
 the case of the pipe it appears to have been customary 
 to blow into the flute through a straw reed, this having 
 been found in tombs along with both instruments. But 
 judging by the way in which the instruments are held 
 in some of the representations they appear to have 
 been also played by blowing over the top. In drawing 
 conclusions, however, from these representations we 
 must always bear in mind that they were monumental 
 and thus probably only intended to be broadly sugges- 
 tive — not literally faithful. From the word Sebi 
 (which means thigh-bone) in hieroglyphics accompany- 
 ing the flute, it is supposed to have been made (as well 
 as of reed, bamboo, and other substances) of the leg- 
 bones of animals as was done subsequently in Boetia, 
 and is the practice in some countries in the present 
 day. 
 
the rise of music. 23 
 
 The Lute. 
 The lute or guitar (called Tambourah by the French) 
 is from the point of view of musical development 
 the most interesting of Egyptian instruments, as it 
 embodies the fundamental structural principle of all 
 those instruments in which the conditions necessary 
 for the production of a certain repertory of pitch-rela- 
 tions or' intervals, instead of being already prepared 
 and stereotyped, are brought about by the volition of 
 the player. I shall show in a future page that the 
 existence of such an instrument is calculated to be of 
 great importance when the repertory of pitch-relations 
 is (through the limited scope and quantity of musical 
 ideas) rudimentary or incomplete, in that its extension 
 upon this kind of instrument depends only upon the 
 jnind and action of the player, and does not demand 
 as a first necessity a new step in invention and manu- 
 facture, as in instruments of fixed sounds and which 
 also are confined to a particular repertory. The Egyp- 
 tian lute was a light, graceful instrument of the guitar 
 type, having usually three strings. The frame con- 
 sisted of a long, flat neck and hollow, oval body, some- 
 times covered with leather, the upper surface being 
 perforated in several places. The strings at the lower 
 
24 THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 end were fastened to a triangular piece of wood or 
 ivory, and at the upper, were secured by being passed 
 through holes in the neck, wound round the latter and 
 tied. In one of the representations to which we 
 have referred, of which Fig. 6 is a copy, the loose 
 ends of the strings are visible. In none is there 
 
 FIG. 6. THEBES. 
 
 any sign of the use of pegs, notwithstanding they 
 were, as we have seen, well-known to the Egyptians. 
 The instrument was held slopingly across the chest, 
 the player stopping the strings with the left hand 
 whilst with the right he or she twanged them with a 
 plectrum (which was usually suspended from the in- 
 strument) or with the fi.ngers. 
 
THE RISE OF MUSIC. 25 
 
 These four instruments — the harp, lyre, flute and 
 lute (or guitar) are all that have any interest from a 
 purely musical point of view. The trumpet* was used 
 principally as a military instrument. It was straight, 
 about a foot and a half long, and made apparently 
 of brass. Egypt, like most ancient nations, was well 
 supplied with instruments of percussion. These con- 
 sisted of cymbals — formed like those of the present 
 day but only about half a foot in diameter, and made 
 of brass or a compound of brass and silver — of cylin- 
 drical maces (a kind of metallic staff surmounted by 
 a head) which were struck one upon another; of the 
 tamboureen and the drum. 
 
 The tamboureen had three forms, circular, square (or 
 oblong) and two-squared — the squares separated by a 
 bar. In Egyptian representations no rings appear in 
 the frame but as in some the instrument is held up 
 apparently after having been struck, we are led to 
 imagine that it was furnished with metal rings. 
 
 * It is funnel-shaped — something like a modern toy trumpet. 
 An instrument of a peculiar and quite different shape that seems 
 being blown like a trumpet appears, however, once in the 
 representations. 
 
26 THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 Drums were some long — like the tom-tom of India — 
 and some cask-shaped. The former were beaten with 
 the hand at one end, the latter with sticks at each end. 
 
 An important instrument with the Egyptians, not for 
 musical purposes but for its use in religious ritual, 
 was the Sistrum — a. metal loop mounted on a handle, 
 the loop threaded loosely crosswise by three or four 
 metal bars bearing brass rings. As is obvious from 
 its construction it was shaken in order to produce a 
 jingling sound. It was sometimes of highly finished 
 design and construction, and decorated in a way em- 
 blematic of its sacred use. 
 
 Crotola (called also castanets) were shell-shaped 
 pieces of wood more powerful than castanets, and used 
 like modern clappers for frightening birds. 
 
 There are evidences of other instruments involving 
 the principle of the harp yet differing from it in 
 shape or in the way in which the strings are fastened 
 and tightened, or in both. In some of these instead 
 of pegs being used the strings are wound round a rod, 
 and tightened by this rod being turned; in others they 
 are wound round the fixed frame. Others have pegs 
 but in form resemble a lute of which the frame is bowed, 
 as in Fig. 7. 
 
T'llE RtSE OF MUSIC. 2^ 
 
 Actual remains of this last instrument may be seen 
 in the British Museum. Looked at superficially it 
 appears intermediate between the lute and the harp. 
 But it would seem to be an impossibility that an in- 
 strument such as the above could have come about by 
 modification of the lute, as of course if the frame of 
 the latter is in the slightest degree concave the strings 
 leave the fingerboard and the instrument embodies the 
 principle of the harp or lyre. 
 
 FIG. 7. BERLIN MUSEUM. 
 
 The question now arises : — What light does our 
 knowledge of these instruments throw upon the kind of 
 music they helped to produce? From the facts that 
 Pythagoras (B.C. 571-497) was the sole teacher among 
 the Greeks of the theory of sound as now accepted, 
 and that in his youth he spent some years in Egypt, 
 it has been concluded that it was there where he ac- 
 quired his knowledge of this subject. He has, how- 
 ever, been credited with that improvement of the Greek 
 
28 TIlE RISE OF Music. 
 
 system which led to its embracing a diatonic scale of 
 two octaves, and hence it has been further concluded 
 (it having been assumed that this was also a result of 
 his visit to Egypt) that the ancient Egyptians were 
 acquainted with the diatonic scale. That they were 
 cognizant of the effect of sounds proceeding diatonic- 
 ally has been recently placed beyond reasonable doubt. 
 Mr. Flinders Petrie whilst excavating in a rock cut 
 sepulchre at Kahun — a town which was built for the 
 accommodation of the workmen employed on the 
 Pyramid of Usertesen II., — discovered a pair of flutes 
 constructed out of reeds, each i8 inches long and ^^ 
 of an inch in diameter, one having three, the other four, 
 holes.* These flutes when discovered were too frail 
 to bear playing upon, but Mr. Southgate (who read a 
 paper upon them before the " Musical Association " at 
 the Royal Acadeniy), elicited by lip-blowing across 
 their mouths the following series of notes — 
 
 Three-holed Flute. Four-holed Flute. 
 
 ■I— t^ — II -ai*- 1 1— t— H- 
 
 $E^: 
 
 =^=g^^H ^^p^crf-- 
 
 * These flutes are fully described in the Proceedings of the 
 Musical Association, 1890-1891. 
 
THE RISE OF MUSIC. 29 
 
 From the fact that both the original flutes and fac- 
 similes spoke but faintly when blown in as described, 
 Mr. Southgate concludes that the originals were played 
 with a straw reed. Upon testing the fac-similes in 
 this way he produced between the two flutes the fol- 
 lowing scale : — 
 
 and then by varying the pressure of the wind, repro- 
 duced it respectively a fifth and an octave higher; 
 whilst Mr. Finn by similar means obtained from the 
 three-holed flute the complete diatonic scale of C. All 
 this latter evidence, it is true, is constructive evidence 
 and assumes the absence of irrelevant effects which 
 might have crept in through slight departures in the 
 duplicates, through special action of the particular 
 voice-reed used, or through the art of the modern 
 player. Yet under all the circumstances it remains 
 extremely plausible. In the first place very great care 
 was taken to make the fac-similes faithful, and with 
 the selection of the straw reeds; in the second place, 
 there is no doubt about the fact that the Egyptians 
 were in the habit of using voice-reeds, and there can be 
 
30 THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 but little, that they were expert in all the devices of 
 the player upon these simple instruments. It is, there- 
 fore, very far from improbable that with these flutes a 
 skilled Egyptian player would in the course of his or 
 her playing produce all the various notes which have 
 been specified as having been elicited from the 
 fac-similes, with perhaps many more. At the 
 same time this constructive evidence only sug- 
 gests the same general fact which the positive 
 evidence of the original instruments (which bear signs 
 of careful construction) places beyond any doubt at 
 all, namely, that the Egyptians were cognizant of dia- 
 tonic effect, that is to say, the effect of a series of 
 sounds of different pitch so related as for a semitone to 
 succeed or precede one, two or three tones. For the 
 most that can be concluded from all the evidence as 
 absolutely certain, is, that the latter kind of effect 
 entered into Egyptian music. From the constructive 
 portion of this evidence it has been too hastily, or rather 
 thoughtlessly, assumed that the scale of ancient Egypt 
 was the same as our own. Even admitting that our 
 major and minor scales could be produced on an 
 Egyptian flute it does not follow that the system of 
 the Egyptians was the same as ours, though it suggests 
 
THE RISE OF MUSIC. 3 1 
 
 the strong probability that many intervals were 
 common to both systems. 
 
 An important accessory to musical effect with the 
 Egyptians was clapping of the hands. The repre- 
 sentations on the walls of the tombs of their kings 
 show that this accompanied every kind of musical per- 
 formance, and suggest that it was a regular art. It 
 was used in connection with the solo voice, the flute, 
 harp, lute, the chorus and dancing; and sometimes it 
 accompanied dancing alone. In one of the representa- 
 tions four men are clapping their hands to a single 
 dancer. The fact that all four have their hands in the 
 same position would prove — what was most probably 
 the case — that they acted in strict concert if we had 
 not to remember that in many of these delineations the 
 feeling for naturalness is very imperfect. In one a 
 herd of goats appears to be marching in step. 
 
 In connection with this practice of clapping, Wilkin- 
 son refers to the passage in Psalm 47-1, "O clap your 
 hands together all ye people; O sing unto God with the 
 voice of melody," as suggesting a similar custom among 
 the Jews. In the light of this idea the coupling of the 
 two injunctions appears all the more natural and 
 
32 THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 appropriate, as, thus interpreted, they refer to the dedi- 
 cation to religion of deliberate art-action. 
 
 The following are a few of the combinations of in- 
 struments and means of effect to be found in the repre- 
 sentations to which I have referred : — 
 
 Harp of ten strings and double pipe. Harp of ■ 
 eight strings, lute and double pipe. Harp of seven 
 strings and smaller one of four. Harp of eight strings, 
 two lutes, double pipe and musician clapping. Two 
 harps of nine and ten strings respectively, flute, and 
 two men singing. Harp, lute, double pipe, lyre and 
 square tamboureen. Two lutes, harp of twelve strings 
 and woman clapping. A harper, two men behind and 
 a row of five behind them ; all but the harper have their 
 hands raised as if in clapping. Wilkinson interprets 
 the last combination as " a harper and blind choristers," 
 but H. Lavoix refers to it as "a small harp of seven 
 strings, five musicians clapping their harids, two 
 singers." 
 
 These various groupings throw little light upon the 
 style of Egyptian music but they are not alto- 
 gether unsuggestive. They reveal that the Egyptians 
 possessed at least a rudimentary sense of two elements 
 
THE RISE OF MUSIC- 33 
 
 of modern music : — the combination of effects of dif- 
 ferent kind, and (as has been already pointed out) 
 accentuation. They also tend to provoke curiosity as 
 to whether in such combinations as flute and harp, flute 
 and voice, large and small harp, the associated instru- 
 ments enunciated the same melody or gave forth a 
 melody and an accompaniment or a variation. I shall 
 speak more explicately on this point after treating of 
 Assyrian music. 
 
 i now come to the interesting question : — had these 
 players any knowledge of harmonic effect ? 
 
 With the consonance of an "octave" they must have 
 been familiar as it would have been heard whenever 
 women and men sang a melody together. That they 
 were ignorant of the consonance of a "fifth" is im- 
 probable ; of that of a " third " or " sixth," impossible. 
 
 Lute players by sounding simultaneously two differ- 
 ently stopped strings; or harpists, two strings; or 
 assemblages of singers, in the vicissitudes of practice; 
 must even by the law of chance, have sometimes experi- 
 enced all the above effects. And that (as in the case of 
 the infant Mozart) the thirds and sixths arrested atten- 
 tion by their peculiar sweetness, there can be hardly 
 any doubt. For that that feature of our sensibility in 
 
34 THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 virtue of which we realise these latter effects as ele- 
 ments of musical beauty, should have been absent in 
 the Egyptian race is a great assumption. 
 
 But to feel the elementary beauty of fragmentary 
 effects, and to be able to develop it in musical practice, 
 are things which may be a long way apart. In the first 
 place with a limited repertory of sounds — that is to 
 say a series of sounds embodying a digest of the inter- 
 vals in use — the simple knowledge of the above various 
 consonances could only be attended by a proportion- 
 ately limited development of harmonic effect. In the 
 second place, this limited development would only be 
 unfolded gradually. Harmonic effect, like melodic, is 
 at any stage the work of many minds. Suppose, for 
 instance, at a particular stage two octaves of our dia- 
 tonic scale enclosed the repertory and the knowledge of 
 all the consonant intervals then existent, it would by no 
 means follow that there would have been unfolded even 
 such harmonic effects as to the modern musical tyro are 
 quite rudimentary. Even rudimentary effects are por- 
 tion of "the long results of time," and particularly of 
 those more quickening periods which come about when 
 musicians in one country know what is doing in other 
 countries. On the principle then that harmonic develop- 
 
THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 35 
 
 ment (bound up with melodic) is part of the progress of 
 ideas, the scope of such development within the limits of 
 our diatonic scale must be considered as still unex- 
 hausted. The following uses of chords within this 
 limit, from Gounod, were when the passagfe was written 
 — some thirty years ago — if not special to that com- 
 poser, far from frequent. 
 
 Again, though the following progression may not in 
 itself be new, its use as a cadence has broadened greatly 
 in modern effect. 
 
 =§= 
 
 ?#= 
 
 EB^ 
 
 -ej— 
 
 
 So with the relation of the minor chord on the sixth 
 degree to the major chord on the tonic. Whilst the 
 progression of the major chord to the minor, may be 
 
36 THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 said to be not only old but hackneyed, that from the 
 minor to the major as used by Wagner in " Lohengrin," 
 sounds almost like a new effect. 
 
 ;i^S^=D 
 
 pp 
 
 ZJ" 
 
 zsiz 
 
 Then, whereas melody can be improvised, harmony as 
 enunciated by different voices or instruments cannot, but 
 requires experiment and deliberation, which to be car- 
 ried out easily and to any considerable extent demand 
 some system of notation. The question whether the 
 Egyptians had a notation cannot be answered positively. 
 Seeing they were highly advanced in astronomy and 
 geometry it seems improbable that they should pot have 
 made some attempt to represent musical effect by 
 written signs. But considering that the Greeks with 
 all their ingenuity and having access to Egyptian art 
 and learning, do not appear to have succeeded in con- 
 summating a simple and efficient system of notation, it 
 may be presumed that if the Egyptians did possess a 
 system it wasT like that of the Greeks, as we know it, 
 unwieldy and consequently of very limited use. 
 
THE RISE OF MUSIC. 37 
 
 We are thus on this point of harmony led to con- 
 clude (first), having regard to the evidence of the 
 varied instruments and their combined employment, 
 that the Egyptians were probably in the habit of utilis- 
 ing that knowledge of elementary harmonic effect which 
 it is difficult to conceive they did not possess; and 
 (secondly), having regard to the comparatively primi- 
 tive condition of their general system and the absence 
 of a notation combining simplicity and efficiency, that 
 their use of harmony, if it existed, was of a rudimentary 
 character. On this point also I shall speak further 
 after treating of Assyrian music. 
 
 In endeavouring to form an idea of a past condition 
 of musical art in the absence of intelligible written 
 effect much importance is necessarily attached to instru- 
 ments. But it should be borne in mind that whatever 
 may be their testimony — even supposing they revealed 
 definitely the kind of effect that was drawn from them 
 — this effect would, in the case of a stage of the art 
 when though diligently cultivated it was still young, 
 only be partially and imperfectly representative of the 
 music of the period in question. It would represent 
 not only one side but the lesser side. Even up to 
 about the middle of the 1 8th century the main develop- 
 
38 THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 ment and general expression of the art was represented 
 by vocal music. Now suppose this music was quite 
 hidden from the modern historian — as vocal music is 
 in the case of Egyptian music. Then that historian, 
 from mid- 1 8th century instrumental music alone, would 
 probably form a very imperfect idea of the develop- 
 ment of the art at even that comparatively recent period. 
 Yet at that time the leading modern instruments were 
 in use, and their essential features developed. But, as 
 the reader knows, whilst the musical instruments of the 
 ancient Egyptians — the leading ones, that is, the harp, 
 flute and lute — far from possessed the powers and 
 resources of their modern antitypes; and the more im- 
 portant modern instruments — the viol family — ^were 
 absent ; the human voice was then, as always, as perfect 
 as -it is now. Thus with this people it may well have 
 been, that the more weighty, dignified and expressive 
 effects of the art were vocal effects which have left no 
 trace behind. This idea some remarks I shall make on 
 the vocal effect of ancient Hebrew music, will tend to 
 further emphasize. 
 
THE RISE OF MUSIC. 39 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 Ancient Jewish Music. 
 
 O UCH literally solid evidence, mute as it is and in- 
 ^^ complete as it may be, as has assisted us in the 
 case of the Egyptians, fails us in that of the 
 Hebrews who in harmony with a mandate of 
 their religion, have left few graven images or like- 
 nesses of any kind. It may be remarked in passing 
 that the divorce thus occasioned in our minds, between 
 the Jews and art dealing in outward form, tends to 
 connect this people all the more closely with the more 
 ethereal arts of poetry and music, of which the one 
 has come down to us at their hands in such living, 
 evident power, whilst the other in their literature is 
 the subject of such frequent allusion and of such un- 
 mistakeable homage and enthusiasm. 
 
40 THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 It is to be assumed that the music of the Jews was an 
 outflow of that of the Egytians and Assyrians. The 
 names of instruments which occur in the Bible, — ^harp, 
 psaltery, cymbal, trumpet, — refer to instruments simi- 
 lar to Egyptian and Assyrian. H. Lavoix observes 
 concerning the following passage from the Book of 
 Daniel, that the names of the instruments are given in 
 the language of the conquerors, and that it is by this 
 we learn the Assyrian names. 
 
 " That at what time ye hear the sound of the cornet,* 
 flute, harp,t sackbut, psaltery, dulcimer, and all kinds 
 of musick, ye fall down and worship the golden image 
 that Nebuchadnezzar the king hath set up." 
 
 Something, however, like positive evidence of 
 Hebrew music exists in the inscriptions to the Psalms. 
 Mr. J. J. Stewart Perowne in the preface to his edition 
 of the " Book of Psalms " gives some results of his in- 
 vestigation of these inscriptions which are highly sug- 
 gestive. By this writer's research into the musical 
 
 * " Cornet " here refers to a kind of trumpet. 
 
 t " Harp " in our translation of this passage is " tambourah " in 
 the French. Sackbut which with us means a wind instrument is 
 given in the French, Sambuque, a species of harp. 
 
THE RISE OF MUSIC. 4 1 
 
 part of his subject the following interesting particu- 
 lars are brought to light : — That " A song " (Shir Miz- 
 mor) signifies "a psalm properly as sung with instru- 
 mental accompaniment." That some titles specify the 
 kind of instrument or instruments by which the psalm 
 is to be accompanied, as for instance, "to the flutes," 
 "with stringed instruments," or "upon a stringed in- 
 strument." That others refer to the measure; thus, 
 "after the manner of maidens." (Alamoth), Ps. xlvi : 
 Whilst others again are technical; thus, "upon the 
 octave below" (Sheminith) Ps. vi. and xii. The two 
 last mentioned kinds of reference occur in that portion 
 of the description of the carrying the ark from Obed- 
 edom which is contained in the following verses : — 
 
 "And Zechariah, and Aziel, and Shemiramoth, and 
 Jehiel, and Unni, and Eliab, and Maaseiah, and 
 Benaiah, with psalteries on Alamoth^ 
 
 " And Mattithiah, and Elipheleh, and Mikneiah, and 
 Obed-edom, and Jeiel, and Azaziah, with harps on the 
 Sheminith to excel." i. Chron., xv. 20-21. 
 
 With reference to the title "Song of degrees" 
 J. J. S. Perowne remarks, "Probably the songs with 
 this title were composed for the 'goings up' to 
 
42 THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 the yearly festivals at Jerusalem. Hence the title 
 'Song of the goings up,' 'A pilgrim's song.' That 
 the caravan went up with singing is evident from 
 Isaiah xxx. 29." 
 
 "Ye shall have a song as in the night when a holy 
 solemnity is kept; and gladness of heart, as when one 
 goeth with a pipe to come into the mountain of the 
 Lord " 
 
 Mr. Perowne interprets other titles as intended to 
 specify the particular melody of the psalm. Thus, 
 after the song beginning, "Hind of the Dawn." Ps. 
 xxii. "The silent dove in far off lands." Ps. Ivi. 
 These titles he considers were " probably the first words 
 of some well-known songs." 
 
 Opinions are much divided as to the explanation 
 of the word "Selah." Perowne, however, considers 
 that as it is most frequently introduced at the end of 
 a strophe it would seem more probably to imply the 
 intervention at the particular place of a musical sym- 
 phony. 
 
 These few inscriptions as thus interpreted are loop- 
 holes through which we catch glimpses of Jewish daily 
 life; we feel the soft freshness of the Syrian dawn — 
 hear the primitive music of the caravan as it toils up- 
 
THE RISE OF MUSIC. 43 
 
 hill, and almost catch the simple Temple hymn, 
 "after'' some popular strain. Also the fact impresses 
 itself upon us vividly that whatever the musical artv- 
 of the Jews really was, there mingled with their daily 
 life that wild growth of melody which seems almost 
 as inalienable an heritage of man as speech and move- 
 ment. 
 
 We may perhaps consider that the psalms were 
 connected with an advanced use of music by 
 the ancient Jews. Thus Professor H. Graetz in 
 his "History of the Jews," writes: "Through 
 Samuel (i 100-1067 B.C.), a new element was in- 
 troduced into the divine Service of the Israelites 
 — viz., songs of praise. Samuel, the ancestor of 
 the celebrated psalmists, 'the sons of Korah,' was 
 the first who composed songs of praise for divine 
 service. The charms of poetry and harmony were by" 
 Samuel brought to bear upon the service of religion, 
 and they left a lasting and ennobling impression on 
 the minds of the people. The employment of choirs of 
 Levites and singers rendered the sacrificial rite of 
 minor importance." Again : " The foster child, as he 
 was, of the Levitical choir, a poet and musician, David 
 (1055-1035 B.C.) — following Samuel's precedent — acted 
 
44 THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 as might have been expected, in introducing choral 
 singing into the solemn religious services. . . . Samuel's 
 creation of a spiritual divine service was thus firmly 
 established by David; and though he praised sacri- 
 ficial rites he also introduced psalms into part of the 
 services as being more adapted to elevate and purify 
 the mind." v 
 
 But another form of music than what I may term 
 lyrical (whatever it might have been like), was adopted 
 by the ancient Jews. This was connected with an occa- 
 sion for the use of music other than the occasion of 
 the sacrifices or than that of their ideal revival in a 
 higher spirit, namely, the saying of prayers and the 
 "reading of the law." This latter was in temple 
 times the main object for which the people assembled 
 in the synagogues. Concerning the style of the music 
 used in these circumstances, the Rev. Francis L. Cohen 
 (to whose interesting and instructive article "Song in 
 the Synagogue" which appeared in the "Musical 
 Times" of August i, 1899, 1 am indebted for my informa- 
 tion on this part of our subject) says: — "This (the in- 
 tonation of the prayers) was the custom already in 
 temple times when even the Levites in the Temple 
 Choir used to proceed to the synagogues to study and 
 
THE RISE OF MUSIC. 45 
 
 worship after taking part in the sacrificial ritual of the 
 Sanctuary. From the very earliest days of the Syna- 
 gogue the Jew has been exhorted to utter with the sing- 
 ing voice every word recited aloud in the Service. 
 Already, therefore, ages ago, syllabic monotone must 
 have begun to develop into cantillation, and a form of 
 plain-song to come into existence." 
 
 It is interesting to observe that there is a peculiar 
 agreement between Professor H. Graetz and the Rev. 
 Francis L. Cohen on the fact of music aiding to form 
 an influence that operated as a substitute for the sacri- 
 fices. As we have seen two allusions to this occur in 
 the passages recently quoted from Graetz in which he 
 states the respective shares in this reform of Samuel 
 and David. The reference to this subject by the Rev. 
 Francis L. Cohen is as follows : " In the dispersion, it 
 (the reading of the law) became even more the central 
 point of the Jewish ritual, for the recital of the sacri- 
 fices took the place of the sacrifices themselves, when 
 the Jews enjoyed access no longer to the one spot where 
 sacrifices were permitted." 
 
 Although musical instruments had been so largely 
 employed in the Temple of Jerusalem, after the fall 
 of the Jewish State the people for a long period volun- 
 
46 THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 tarily abstained from all use of music save in worship, 
 and thus had no secular association with instruments. 
 Perhaps it was in this spirit that the psalm, "By the 
 rivers of Babylon" was inspired. It may also have 
 been in the same spirit of particular regard for the past 
 under the sense of exile, that, at this period, to quote 
 Mr. Cohen, " a Rabbinical ' fence to the law ' came into 
 force, which prohibited the use of instruments on the 
 sacred days, on the ground of their then almost inevit- 
 ably needing repair or tuning, and so tempting the per- 
 former to turn from art, which is not in itself pro- 
 hibited on the Day of Rest, to labour, which is ; " Mr. 
 Cohen adds, " the practice of centuries has lent sanctity 
 to this protective prohibition; and thus the music of 
 the Synagogue is still chanted without accompaniment 
 on the Sabbath and the Festivals." 
 
 In the tradition of Jewish Worship music we have a 
 living clue not only to the style of ancient Hebrew 
 music but to that of ancient Eastern and early Western 
 music. In the time of the Temple — from the days of 
 Ezra* — ^the prayers, praises and lessons (Pentateuchal 
 and Prophetical) were chanted — at first by certain 
 
 * Arrived in Jerusalem from Babylon 459-458 b.c. 
 
THE RISE OF MUSIC. 47 
 
 private members of the congregation; but afterwards 
 it was found expedient that the recital of the lessons 
 should be entrusted to a well skilled reader, and that 
 the prayers should be led by an official who would be 
 certain because of his office to be provided with a manu- 
 script. Then, with the ever-growing accretion of adorn- 
 ments to the traditional chants, a professional Precentor 
 became necessary. Termed "Reader" in the Temple 
 he was known as " Messenger of the Congregation," or 
 "Overlooker" in the Synagogue. Then — still in the 
 days of the Sanctuary — this precentor inaugurated that 
 sequence of specialists in synagogical vocalisation by 
 whom the tradition has been perpetuated; and while 
 these have in each succeeding generation amplified their 
 repertory according to the tonal fashion of their day 
 the vigour of tradition in Jewish observance has 
 brought down to our own times many strains of hoar 
 antiquity.* 
 
 Hebrew like other Semitic tongues has an alphabet of 
 consonants only, read from right to left. In the more 
 
 * I have largely used Mr. Cohen's words in this description, as 
 well as in other places where facts relating to Jewish worship are 
 referred to. 
 
48 THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 ancient form, as in the scroll read by the officiant above 
 referred to, only the consonantal text would be given, 
 but after it became customary to designate the vowels 
 by little strokes and points added below or above the 
 consonants which they voice, the cantillation (and also 
 the syntax) was indicated by small dots, strokes or 
 curves (called neumes or accents) accompanying the 
 vowel points. This punctuation only came into general 
 use about the sixth century but it then probably 
 embraced the ancient tradition. At any time, the Jew, 
 who, whilst being assimilative is strongly conservative, 
 would in his music keep a firm hold upon the tradi- 
 tions of the past. We shall come upon an example of 
 this when speaking of the modal feeling in Hebrew 
 music. 
 
 The Jewish tradition connected with these signs 
 seems to throw light on their use in early Christian 
 music. One of two names which were applied to them 
 by the Jews, Neginotk (strings, musical notes), identi- 
 fies them with actual sounds. The other name is 
 Ta'amin (ornaments, tropes). Mr. Cohen adds: — "It 
 is pretty clear that they are literally a cheirography or 
 rough diagram of the movement of the voice in declam- 
 
THE RISE OF MUSIC. 49 
 
 ation as conventionally designated by the movements 
 of the teacher's hand, and their musical value gives us 
 a fair idea of that bardic intonation interpreting the 
 text chanted, which for the ancients constituted melody 
 as time does for us." 
 
 We have in fact in this kind of effect an embryo- 
 logical music in which melody and a regular accentua- 
 tion are nascent but which actually consists of melodic 
 touches, varieties in sustentation of sound and of pace, 
 and the two rhythms, duple and triple ; mingled irregu- 
 larly — these different elements of musical form being 
 as yet only held together — unified — by the accompany- 
 ing language, whose meaning and spirit it is their 
 whole object to express. The following short passage, 
 extracted from a very full illustration given by Mr. 
 Cohen, will enable the reader to form an idea of the 
 effect referred to. 
 
 She weep-eth sore in the lone - - - ly night, 
 
 We shall see later on some likeness of this primitive 
 
 form of expression, in early Christian music pointing 
 
 to the conclusion that that regular arrangement in sym- 
 
 E 
 
50 THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 metrical shape of the above mentioned elements, which 
 seems fundamental to modern effect, is a result of 
 gradual development. 
 
 What comes clearly out of this study is, that ancient 
 Jewish music was homophonal, oir melodic. In the 
 circumstances of Jewish worship that we have been con- 
 sidering the melodic form was the only possible outlet 
 because the entering into the spirit of the text was im- 
 perative — whilst harmonic effect, at most, could only 
 have been introduced tentatively and intermittently. 
 This fact may contribute to that exuberance of irregu- 
 larity which we find in this melody — an irregularity 
 which in more modern music would probably spring 
 out of excited feeling — passionate or joyful — or might 
 be used descriptively, but which in the actual circum- 
 stances expresses all feeling including the deepest and 
 most solemn. 
 
 Concerning the modal differentiation of this music, 
 that is, the scale forms it involves, Mr. Cohen gives us 
 the following valuable information : — " These modes," 
 he remarks, "are all of an antique or Oriental char- 
 acter, and include not only those tonalities familiar 
 to the students of the Church plain-song, but also 
 others preserved in the Byzantine and Armenian 
 
THE RISE OF MUSIC. 5 1 
 
 traditions, in the folk-song of Eastern Europe, or in 
 Perso-Arab and even Flindu melody. The modal feel- 
 ing of Jewish Worship music is thus still in many ways 
 reminiscent of the musical theory and practice of 
 Eastern Asia, which dominated the ancient world, and 
 still rules from the Slav lands of Europe away to 
 Southern India." 
 
 There can thus be no doubt whatever as to the type 
 to which the effect of ancient Hebrew music belonged. 
 The oriental character of that effect together with the 
 peculiar combination of bizarre form and earnest spirit 
 to which I have just referred, are perceivable even in 
 the following short extract, which is from the tran- 
 scription of a traditional rhapsody which Mr. Cohen 
 says is " replete with an emotion often transcending 
 mere verbal utterance." It is introduced in the recital of 
 the " Additional Service," on the most solemn of all the 
 occasions of Jewish worship, the Day of Atonement. 
 
 „ foco tiu ni'sso. pia ngendo. 
 
 f ^ _lnr:= ^ ^^ir^ 
 
 i 
 
 »: 
 
 ^g^^^^^^^^ 
 
 when they heard ah! 
 
 
 the diead 
 
52 
 
 THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 '7\ ^7> 
 
 -I— ^ 
 
 ,—^ m-<-0-r*-m-*m — a-#-F-^p-«F»-B-»-^ n 
 
 »./ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ir 
 
 
 rt ^:> 
 
 VP^ 8 > 
 
 :=> 
 
 "~^ 
 
 «V. 
 
 
 
 — tf]— 1 — - 
 
 — w — 
 
 •JCL-.B. 
 
 -p— •-•-•-»-•-•— p— 
 
 
 »i — l__;_j_, i.._j 
 
 M—~^~ 
 
 ■— £^^^bS^E= 
 
 JB 
 
 — • — 
 
 ^=.-= 
 
 -•^ 
 
 Priest. 
 / 
 
 ^ 
 
 Ahl. 
 
 =t"=F="=s=¥ 
 
 Ah!.... with 
 ; .^mf Tempo primo. 
 
 g^jgjgsg^ 
 
 EE 
 
 F=t?= 
 
 ho - ly awe and with ma - jes - ty, . 
 
 at that 
 
 Thus far we may be able to form some idea of 
 the kincj of development which ancient Jewish wor- 
 ship music represented, and of its effect. The 
 question will, however, perhaps suggest itself to the 
 reader: what was the musical form and the general 
 kind of effect of those seemingly freer and more inde- 
 pendent lyrical effusions which occur, or are alluded 
 to, so frequently in the Bible — in the rendering of 
 which large bodies of singers and instrumentalists 
 
THE RISE OF MUSIC 53 
 
 joined? Graetz thus refers to one of these perform- 
 ances : 
 
 "The festival celebrating the feast of the Passover 
 by the entire nation summoned by Josiah (621 B.C.) 
 was rendered especially inspiring by psalms accom- 
 panied by the singing and harp playing of the Levites. 
 One psalm (8ist) has been preserved." J. J. S. Perowne 
 gives the opening of this psalm thus : 
 
 [For the Precentor. Upon the Gittith.* (A psalm) 
 of Asaph.] 
 
 1. Sing joyfully unto God our strength. 
 Shout aloud unto the God of Jacob. 
 
 2. Raise a song and bring hither the timbrel, 
 The pleasant harp with the lute. 
 
 3. Blow (the) cornet in the new moon, 
 At the full moon, on our solemn feast. 
 
 Now in the study of Mr. Cohen's article, which has 
 so materially aided us in acquiring a clear idea of 
 ancient Jewish worship music, we shall I think find the 
 key to the style and effect of the more independent 
 effusions we are considering. The following passage 
 puts us on the track : 
 
 "The vocal interpretation of the accents used in the 
 
 * Either an instrument which toolc its name from the city of 
 Gatb, or a kind of measure or melody (? mode). 
 
54 THE RISE OF MUSlC. 
 
 poetical books, Psalms, Proverbs, Job, — ^was still re- 
 tained until about the fifteenth century; but it has 
 since been forgotten owing to the greater congrega- 
 tional advantage of an unvarying chant for poems con- 
 sisting of verses of fairly equal length." 
 
 According, then, to the official interpretation of the 
 accents up to the fifteenth century (which would be the 
 tradition in the synagogue representing the effect of 
 the ancient chant) this chant would vary with the dif- 
 ferent verses, in the case of the poetical books. Pre- 
 sumably then the effect of the varying chant belonged 
 (to use Mr. Cohen's words which we have already 
 quoted) "to that bardic intonation, interpreting the 
 text chanted, which for the ancients constituted 
 melody as tune does for us." 
 
 It will tend to support the above presumption if we 
 consider that metrical effect was not the leading feature 
 of the outward form or framework of Hebrew poetry 
 as it is of modern — that the sensorial charm it gives 
 to the latter was by the Hebrew poets supplied by 
 another kind of effect. Instead of symmetry of sound 
 there was a symmetry of sense. A "verse" consisting 
 of two members* embodying a certain parallelism of 
 * As a rule,- it may consist of three. 
 
THE RISE OF MUSIC. 55 
 
 expression, corresponded to the metrical " line." Thus 
 instead of a flow of accentuation filling up a definite 
 measure, as in the line : 
 
 " Brought death into the world and all our woe " 
 
 the outer sensorial charm depends upon a parallelism 
 of expression, as in, 
 
 " Therefore shall the strong people glorify Thee, 
 The city of the terrible nations shall fear Thee," 
 
 or a symmetry of thought, as in 
 
 '■ Day unto day uttereth speech, 
 and night unto night showeth knowledge." 
 
 Sometimes the order of the ideas in the two members 
 of the verse is reversed thus : 
 
 " Have mercy upon me, O God, 
 
 According to Thy loving kindness, 
 
 And according unto the multitudes of Thy tender mercies, 
 Blot out my transgressions."* 
 
 I have said perhaps more than sufficient to show that 
 the instinct of form with the ancient Hebrew poets did 
 not take the shape of a regularly measured accentua- 
 tion. It is therefore unlikely that this effect was a pro- 
 
 * This subject is treated more fully by R. G. Moulton in his work 
 ' ' The Ancient Classical Drama, " pp. 71 , 73. Also by S. R. Driver 
 in his " Introduction to the Literature of the Bible." 
 
S6 THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 minent feature in their vocal music. On the other hand 
 it seems probable that such rhythmical phrases as it 
 might have contained would, as in the examples of 
 worship music given, vary from our standard some- 
 what incongruously, and occur without system. We 
 must, then, in trying to imagine the effect of these vocal 
 musical utterances dismiss from our minds anything of 
 the nature of a sustained melody, or even of a strain of 
 free spirit and form, for the charm or impressiveness 
 would lie between the music and the language. It 
 might have been that at this period music in its 
 development in the direction of expression had not 
 freed itself from language. But supposing there were 
 definite musical phrases they would belong to one of 
 those ancient Oriental modes or scale-forms of which, 
 as Mr. Cohen says, those still used in the synagogue 
 are in many ways reminiscent. 
 
 As regards the instrumental contribution to the 
 effect it seems probable that though attending the 
 vocal, it would not enter organically into it. The two 
 would probably represent different stages in musical 
 development, the vocal being on the way to the main 
 path and higher ground, the instrumental remaining 
 primitive. On the occasion referred to in Psalms 68, 
 
THE RISE OF MUSIC. 57 
 
 25. "The singers went before, the players on instru- 
 ments followed after; among them were the damsels 
 playing with timbrels," a procession to, or in, the 
 Temple seems going on, in which circumstances the 
 respective effects contributed by the singers and players 
 though connected in order of succession might be quite 
 independent effects. 
 
 The trumpet played an important part in Jewish 
 sacred festivals. One of the forms it took (called the 
 shophar) is especially remarkable as being the only 
 Hebrew instrument which has been preserved to the 
 present day in the religious services of the Jews. It 
 is commonly made of cow's or ram's horns — in the 
 latter case, it is said, in remembrance of Abraham's 
 sacrifice which according to the Jewish tradition was 
 on the New Year's day.* Hence it is still blown, as 
 in time of old, at the Jewish New Year's festival. In 
 the ceremony of bringing the ark into the temple, as 
 ordered by Solomon, music played an important part. 
 It is thus described 2 Chronicles, 5. 12, 13. 
 
 "Also the Levites which were the singers, all of 
 them of Asaph, of Heman, of Jeduthun, with their 
 sons and their brethren, being arrayed in white linen, 
 * David Levi, " Rules and Ceremonies of the Jews." 
 
58 THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 having cymbals and psalteries and harps, stood at the 
 east end of the altar, and with them an hundred and 
 twenty priests sounding with trumpets." 
 
 Now returning to the question as to whether there 
 was an organic connection between the instrumental 
 and vocal portions of these great expressions, it will 
 be noticed that in the continuation of the above descrip- 
 tion such a connection is distinctly stated as existing 
 between the effects of the trumpets and the voices : 
 
 " It came even to pass, as the trumpeters and singers 
 were as one; to make one sound to be heard in praising 
 and thanking the Lord ; * * " 
 
 The effect of the lutes and harps in this concert we 
 may perhaps form some idea of by considering (i) 
 that if they gave forth melodies these would neces- 
 sarily be short (as only a little way, if any, could at 
 this period in the development of the art, have been 
 made in modulation) and they would be probably in- 
 troduced in the pauses of the voices, or before or after 
 them; (2) that if the playing of these instruments 
 mingled with the general effect, as frequently described 
 in the Bible, they would in all probability give forth 
 certain simple rudimentary effects at places where, as 
 in the case of the trumpets, such effects would be "as 
 
THE RISE OF MUSIC. 59 
 
 one," or in accord with the voices, for the sense of 
 consonance and dissonance, or of concord, which 
 prompted these people to bring this about in the case 
 of the trumpets would assuredly influence them simi- 
 larly in the case of the lute and harp. Of one thing 
 we may feel sure that whatever the artistic effect of 
 these musical utterances may have been they were in- 
 formed with the greatest earnestness and elevation of 
 spirit, as in the case of that just referred to, when the 
 ark of the covenant was brought "into the most holy 
 place, even under the wings of the cherubims." 
 
 Perhaps related in the Hebrew mind to the instinct 
 prompting the parallelism of expression to which I 
 have referred, is that strong feeling for antiphonal 
 effect so conspicuous in the bible and which in the 
 Psalms has led to the conclusion that the Jews prac- 
 tised alternate singing of this nature in their worship 
 in the temple. The cxxxvi. Psalm with its regular 
 repetition of the sentence " for His mercy endureth for 
 ever," is regarded as an evidence of this. J. J. S. 
 Perowne remarks concerning the arrangement of the 
 lines of this psalm that "According to an old rule of 
 writing observed in some of the most ancient MSS., the 
 two lines of the verses ought to be arranged each in a 
 
6o THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 separate column, or, as the phrase runs, 'half brick 
 upon half brick, brick upon brick,' thus : 
 
 O give thanks unto Jehovah, for he is good ; 
 
 For his loving-kindness (endureth) for ever. 
 O give thanks unto the God of Gods ; 
 
 For his loving kindness (endureth) for ever." 
 
 He also in a note quotes the following as suggesting 
 that in early Christian times it was the custom to sing 
 the above psalm antiphonally : 
 
 "One February night, A.D. 358, the great church at 
 Alexandria was bright with lights far into the night, 
 and still the congregation did not disperse. The 
 Bishop Athanasius was there, and the service was to 
 be prolonged till morning, for next day the Holy 
 Communion was to be celebrated, and it was the fre- 
 quent custom among the early Christians to spend the 
 preceding night in prayer and singing hymns. All 
 knew that further troubles were hanging over their 
 beloved Bishop, and that the time of his presence with 
 them would probably be very short. Suddenly a clash- 
 ing noise broke the stillness — the church was sur- 
 rounded by armed men — with calm presence of mind 
 Athanasius rose and gave out the 136th Psalm, which 
 has to every verse the response 'For His mercy, etc' 
 
THE RISE OF MUSIC. 6l 
 
 The whole congregation joined in thundering forth 
 those grand words, when the doors burst open, and 
 the imperial envoy at the head of a body of soldiers 
 walked up the aisle. For a moment the soldiers drew 
 back in awe at the solemn sound of the chanting, but 
 again they pressed on, and a shower of arrows flew 
 through the church. Swords flashed, arms rattled, 
 and rough shouts interrupted the music. Athanasius 
 retained his seat till the congregation had dispersed. 
 Then he too disappeared in the darkness, and no one 
 knew where he was gone. He found a refuge among 
 his own friends, the Hermits of Egypt."* 
 
 The io6th and ii8th Psalms open with the same 
 liturgical formula as the 136th. 
 
 Another example of the strong feeling in the Jews 
 for antiphonal effect, at least in their poetic expression, 
 is thus finely treated by R. G. Moulton : 
 
 "In the latter part of the twenty-fourth psalm the 
 summons to the everlasting doors to open, is as it were 
 met with a challenge from within : 
 
 Who is the King of Glory ? 
 to which there is the response — 
 
 * This incident is also described by Gibbon. See " The Decline 
 and Fall," etc. Vol. III., p. 381. 
 
62 THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 The Lord strong and mighty ; 
 The Lord, mighty in battle. 
 
 "Again — in a manner suggesting the passage from 
 one to another in a series of outposts — the summons is 
 repeated, and once more the challenge follows : th: 
 reply gathers force at each repetition : — 
 
 The Lord of Hosts 
 
 He is the King of Glory." 
 
 This leaning to the dramatic in poetic form, by the 
 Jews, would almost of itself suggest the improbability 
 of their failing to avail themselves in their sacred 
 musical outpourings of such an easily arranged yet 
 fundamental effect as antiphonal effect — an effect 
 which with us inevitably tells, whether within the 
 orchestra, within the chorus, or between the two; or 
 between a band in the orchestra and one on the stage; 
 or music before and behind the curtain. 
 
 If, however, the antiphorial verses to which I have 
 referred in the 136th, 11 8th and io6th Psalms were 
 sung alternately it follows that the music to the phrase 
 repeated — the answering phrase — would, like that 
 phrase, have a comparatively independent form — that 
 is, stand out from the musical context as the above 
 phrase does from the literary context. The same con- 
 
THE RISE OF MUSIC. 63 
 
 elusion is suggested by the repetition of the sentence, 
 " How are the mighty fallen," which occurs three times 
 in David's lamentation over Saul and his son Jonathan. 
 It is extremely probable, then, that the higher music 
 of the Jews was not confined entirely to the bardic 
 style, following the sense of the v/ords, but assumed oc- 
 casionally short forms which though allied to language 
 had a certain independence. J. J. S. Perowne's inter- 
 pretation of some of the titles of the psalms, to which 
 I have referred, seems to harmonise with this idea. It 
 is also probable that in both styles there occurred at 
 times at least touches of melodic beauty. 
 
 Through our familiarity with the Bible we are 
 so strongly impressed with the inherent poetic feel- 
 ing and deep spiritual earnestness of this people that 
 we cannot conceive but that these qualities within them 
 must have given an uward impulse to their ' musical 
 art. The fact that they made it such an important 
 accessory to their religious ritual tends to favour and 
 in a vague way confirm this idea. It seems more par- 
 ticularly probable that they developed vocal effect, as 
 this was certainly employed by them under circum- 
 stances remarkable and unique. 
 
64 THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 Assyrian and Babylonian Music. 
 
 i\ /! USICAL art seems to have been as prominent a 
 feature in the life of the Assyrians at Nineveh 
 and Babylon as in that of the Egyptians; and 
 of the same general character. Upon Assyrian bas- 
 reliefs figure representations of the harp, lyre, lute, 
 double flute, small drum (or timbrel struck by the hand, 
 which the Persians still use), long drum, with cymbals 
 and asor, — an instrument consisting of nine strings, 
 stretched over a horizontal sounding board, and held 
 before the player. 
 
 The interpretation of the bas-relief of this instru- 
 ment is somewhat confused. H. Lavoix, who terms it 
 asor, says that the instrument was played by the 
 strings being struck by two little hammers; but the 
 
THE RISE OF MUSIC. 65 
 
 copy of the bas-relief which he gives shows the player 
 with a small stick of no special shape (the function 
 of which might be that of a hammer or a plectrum) in 
 his right hand whilst with his left he seems to be 
 either twanging the strings or checking undesirable 
 vibration. Again, Carl Engel whilst agreeing that the 
 above interpretation constitutes about all we learn with 
 certainty from the bas-relief, calls the instrument a 
 dulcimer, and associates it with an instrument of high 
 antiquity in Persia, called Saniir, which in construction 
 and mode of treatment is almost identical with the 
 German Hackbret or Cimbal, of which the strings are 
 of wire and which is played with two little sticks 
 having small oval Iciobs at each end. 
 
 Whether the strings were twanged or struck, the in- 
 strument represented by the bas-relief in question may 
 be regarded as in principle the same as the psaltery of 
 the middle ages which gave rise successively to the 
 clavicembalum, clavichord, spinette, harpsichord and 
 piano. Assyrian instruments seem to have mostly 
 descended from the same source as Egyptian, but they 
 are inferior in design though less ancient, dating ten 
 centuries B.C. The harps have more strings but there 
 are fewer kinds, whilst the flutes are shorter. 
 
66 THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 The bas-relief in which the player above referred to 
 appears is the largest of those discovered. It is in 
 the British Museum but may perhaps with advantage 
 be here described. It is a musical procession of 
 Assyrians on their way to meet a conqueror. A harper 
 takes the lead ; behind him are two musicians walking 
 abreast, one playing a dulcimer, or asor (the instru- 
 ment we have been referring to), the other, a double 
 flute; then follow three more harpers, the last a 
 female; then come &ve more female musicians, three 
 playing upon harps, while one is blowing a double 
 pipe and the other is beating a small hand drum 
 covered only at the top; then fellows a chorus of 
 females and children, forming a double line, some 
 clapping their hands whilst the first and the last of 
 the females are holding up their hands as if marking 
 the time. But another of the females is holding her 
 hand to her throat " in the same manner " (Carl Engel 
 remarks) "as the women in Syria, Arabia and Persia 
 are in the habit of doing at the present day, when 
 producing on festive occasions those peculiarly shrill 
 sounds of rejoicing which have been repeatedly 
 noticed by oriental travellers." Concerning these 
 sounds he also quotes the following interesting 
 
THE RISE OF MUSIC. 6/ 
 
 remarks from a work entitled, "Travels in various 
 countries," by E. D. Clarke (Part II., p. 121). "They 
 are caused by trilling the tongue against the roof of 
 the mouth, without the utterance of any distinct 
 words. Yet this singular mode of expressing joy is 
 all that constitutes the Alleluia of the ancients. When 
 Lord Hutchinson first entered Cairo, after the capture 
 of the city, he was met by a number of women who 
 greeted him with Alleluia; they accompanied him 
 through the streets, clapping their hands, and making 
 this extraordinary noise in a loud and shrill tone. It 
 seems to be a constant repetition of the same sylla- 
 ble, al, uttered with the utmost rapidity." 
 
 The instrument I have been speaking of, which it 
 v/ill be convenient to call henceforth Dulcimer, seems, 
 so far as the representations go, to be the one kind of 
 instrument possessed by the Assyrians which the 
 Egyptians did not possess. But such merely negative 
 evidence would obviously be very weak ground on 
 which to form the latter conclusion. It is, however,, 
 not a kind of instrument so calculated to lead immedi- 
 ately to variety of form in musical effect as the lyre 
 or harp, on either of which the player has five notes 
 under the control of each hand to one in the case. of 
 
68 THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 the instrument in question. If, however, Egyptian 
 representations do not include a specimen of this in- 
 strument they include several of one far more import- 
 ant, namely, the lute or tambourah.' It will be con- 
 venient if henceforth we call this instrument tam- 
 boura. Only a single resemblance to it had been 
 discovered on Assyrian monuments up to towards the 
 end of the last century and that reveals no strings or 
 pegs but as it shows two tassels hanging from the 
 neck towards the end it had probably only two strings. 
 But the tamboura figures in Egyptian representations 
 so frequently and in such fullness of detail both as 
 regards the instrument itself — its completeness, finish 
 and elegance — and the evidence of expertness, versa- 
 tility, naturalness, grace and every subtle suggestive- 
 ness of ripe mastery, on the part of the player, as to 
 convince us that it was a most important if not the 
 leading instrument of the Egyptians. I have already 
 referred to the signal importance of this instrument . 
 from the point of view of musical development. It is 
 the one instrument of antiquity in which the possi- 
 bility of modulation is not barred at a certain distance 
 but is quite open. 
 
 Carl Engel suggests that the Assyrians possessed 
 
THE RISE OF MUSlC. 69 
 
 the taste for a softer music than the music of the 
 Egyptians, on the ground that in the respective 
 groups of instruments in the representations, instru- 
 ments of percussion are less prominent in the case of 
 the Assyrians than in that of the Egyptians. The 
 Rev. George Rawlinson* assumes that the music of the 
 former was superior to that of the latter on the ground 
 that the Egyptians were a stagnant people whereas the 
 Assyrians were a more progressive people, and braver 
 in war. To me the more pressing question for the 
 present seems to be, what kind of effect was that which 
 breathed from that development of the art which was 
 common to both these peoples ? for that the general 
 scope and broad character of musical effect was the 
 same in the cases of both, the almost perfect likeness 
 between their respective instruments leaves scarcely 
 any doubt. Honestly, straightly and taken as a whole, 
 this question cannot be answered. We do not know 
 what the effect of this music in its full manifestation 
 was like. But some things about it we may reason- 
 ably conclude. One is that this ancient music gener- 
 ally was not barbaric. Neither trumpet, drum nor 
 
 * In " The Five Great Monarchies of the Ancient World." 
 
;6 THE RISE OF MUSlC. 
 
 cymbal, figure in the principal groups- — except in the 
 case of a military band. The only penetrating instru- 
 ment is the double flute but that appears as a rule in 
 company with one, or more than one, harp, lyre, and 
 (in the case of the Egyptians), tamboura; whilst the 
 tamboureen appears but occasionally. There remains 
 the effect of the clapping of hands but this though 
 unique could not be overpowering. But the most im- 
 portant conclusion to be drawn from these represen- 
 tations is that this music embraced as well as melody 
 the application of harmony in accompaniment. When 
 we consider with what evident freedom and command 
 the musicians in so many cases in these representations 
 are playing on harp or lyre, with, it may be five 
 fingers in opposition to five, or five to a plectrum, it 
 is against all probability not to assume that they are 
 playing some kind of melody and accompaniment. A 
 child or savage if got to handle a harp or lyre as men 
 and women are doing in these representations, would 
 inevitably fall into devising some crude antiphonal 
 effect. This conclusion, however, is to a certain extent 
 supported by more direct evidence. Carl Engel, who in 
 his work "The Music of the most Ancient Nations," 
 takes a broad survey of the music and musical instru- 
 
THE RISE OF MUSIC. 71 
 
 ments of present uncivilised peoples, calls attention to 
 the strong resemblance between the form and method of 
 holding the Assyrian lyre in one of the representations, 
 and a lyre still in common use in Nubia, Abyssinia, and 
 one or two other parts of Eastern Africa. Both in- 
 struments are trapezate. In the Nubian instrument 
 (called Kissar) the strings (of which there are five) 
 are tied round the front bar, which is slanted to allow 
 of their being tuned. In the ancient instrument the 
 front bar is also slightly slanted, so the attachment 
 of the strings, which appear to have been four, was 
 probably the same, and more particularly as this was 
 the general way of attaching the strings of the ancient 
 instruments. Again in the modern case the player 
 uses the plectrum with his right hand and twangs the 
 strings with his left (using plectrum and fingers either 
 alternately or together), and these actions the attitude of 
 the player of the ancient instrument also points to. 
 Moreover there is some legendary evidence which tends 
 to associate the Kissar with the ancient lyres of Egypt 
 and Assyria. The modern Egyptians call it qytdrak 
 barbaryeh which indicates that it is considered the 
 ■national instrument of the Barrabras or Berbers, who 
 are believed to be the descendants of the original in- 
 
72 THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 habitants of Egypt; whilst the Abyssinians have a 
 tradition according to which it was introduced into 
 Ethiopia from Egypt by Thoth or Hermes, at a very 
 early period. 
 
 These two instruments then thus resembling one 
 another and being thus associated, a specimen of the 
 use of the modern instrument in actual music may 
 perhaps suggest something of the form of the music 
 produced by, or in connection with, both the ancient 
 Assyrian and Egyptian lyres. 
 
 * KiSSAR. 
 
 Accomp. with the fingers of the left hand. 
 
 :iiziL: 
 
 V — \ ? I i?~- 
 
 Accemp. with the plectrum of the right hand. 
 Voice. 
 
 * Carl Engel's description of the Kissar as well as the songs 
 given, called ghouna, are taken from a work by M. Villoteau 
 entitled " Description de 1' Egypte " (tome xiii. p. 365, and tome xiv. 
 p, 260.) M. Villoteau remarks that in the words of the above song 
 are found not only Arabic but also corrupted Italian words. 
 
THE RISE OF MUSIC. 73 
 
 - gtEKfc3F3g s^ ^^gE^^= H 
 
 Z-^- 
 
 niour el a guid ya signiour el ha - did. 
 
 S^*-^^*^*^^ I'^^w^ ^^^^i*^ r^^^^^^ ^. . ... 
 
 •ai"^-' ^a-* ^d-l **-• •^-T- 
 
 — # — ^£»--j-tf — *^o — ^— — *'^ — ]-^ — r~^ — * *— 
 
 ^ I 
 
 — 5? r 
 
 We must, of course, not regard the foregoing as 
 fairly illustrating the resources of musical effect 
 attained by either the Assyrians or the Egyptians. It 
 represents more probably an extremely primitive stage 
 in the development of the musical art of each. We have 
 to bear in mind the far more extended resources in- 
 volved in their harps, and the unlimited access to 
 musical possibilities which they had in the tamboura 
 and the human voice. We may, in fact, observe a like- 
 ness of that unlimited access in the case of the voice, 
 in the above example, in bar five* where though the 
 accompaniment is necessarily confined to the five notes 
 of the instrument the voice exerts its freedom to take 
 in more extended effect. What in virtue of these two 
 open avenues to effect, t combined with their other 
 resources, the reach and character of musical expres- 
 
 * At the Ft] 
 
 t Those involved in the possibilities of the tamboura and the 
 voice. 
 
74 THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 sion had got to be like with these peoples at the stage 
 of development to which in each case the musical in- 
 struments in the representations relate, we cannot, 
 as I have said, form a positive idea of ; but considering 
 the instruments, their combinations in the groups, the 
 expression in the attitudes, and the fact that at the 
 periods involved music had with both peoples long 
 been a cultivated art, the probability is that the reach 
 and character of its expression was in each case 
 something far larger than is exemplified in any 
 of the four examples of present Nubian music from 
 which the above is selected. With all this, how- 
 ever, we have to remember that this music whatever 
 its melodic or harmonic development might have been, 
 would necessarily take in but the outer threads of that 
 more extended kind of construction which depends 
 upon our system of related scales, and would conse- 
 quently lack a proportionate" fullness of expression as 
 well as certain notes of feeling peculiar to those 
 western peoples that were destined to inherit and pass 
 on the enlarging musical tradition. 
 
 Another striking example in which the living music 
 of an oriental people would seem to throw light on 
 ancient eastern music is the following. It is one of 
 
THE RISE OF MUSIC. 75 
 
 two choruses of the Mewlewi Dervishes, given by Carl 
 Engel in the work recently mentioned, and though 
 being monodic it is unsuggestive as to harmony or 
 accompaniment, it gives us a more extended view than 
 the preceding example of what I may term embryo- 
 logical growth in music. Concerning these two 
 choruses Carl Engel makes the following remark. 
 "The above two choruses of the Mewlewi Dervishes 
 are taken from the Abbe Stadler's reliable collection. 
 They form part of those choruses which are usually 
 performed at the religious dances of the above sect of 
 Dervishes in Constantinople. It will be observed, that 
 in order to convey a correct impression of their 
 rhythmical character, several peculiar means have been 
 resorted to in committing the music to paper — such as 
 the frequent employment of pauses, of different kinds 
 of bars, and of indications of change in the time." 
 
 A/.estoso, 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 AhlA-tesch ne • se-ned der Di - li ma il - la 
 
 ^ES3EL^g^ ^£ 
 
 ^*-!»*n 
 
 Hu, Hu, Hu. IIu 
 
 ■^t=r 
 
76 
 
 THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 piu mosso. 
 
 EE 
 
 ;!^3 
 
 ti:^ 
 
 Hei Jar ! Hei Dost ! Dscha-ni-men Dscha-na - ni men ! 
 Maestoso. 
 
 fe=gE 
 
 #he=e; 
 
 1 
 
 
 Ku - teh ni 
 
 kii - ned 
 
 men - si - li -ma 
 
 la 
 
 
 3C3C5= 
 
 Hu, Hu, IIu, Hu 
 fitt mosso. 
 
 ^^ 
 
 |^^i|=l^^g 
 
 -^ 
 
 ^; 
 
 :E 
 
 3^ 
 
 =t?=t 
 
 zjizHz 
 
 -J-*- 
 
 i 
 
 Hei Jar! Hei Dost! Dscha-ni-men Dscha-na -ni-men!Ger 
 Maestoso, 
 
 ^Z<t*.__»_|C 
 
 ±3^t 
 
 ^^ ■^^r-r-h^r- ^ni^bzr^ 
 
 St 
 
 lim Jan dschiimle Ta-bi ban ba - sched Hal - II 
 
 H 
 
 i F"— r-r- j 
 
 =t^=t=t=W 
 
 ^Ep 
 
 liU-ned miisch - ki 
 
 ma il 
 
 ---.--pz«:A 
 
 
 «^ 
 
 1^ 
 
 itPc; 
 
 la Hu, Hu, 
 
 piu mosso. 
 
 £r: 
 
 Hu, Hu, 
 
 P 
 
 ?gt 
 
 E^£^ 
 
 i^^? 
 
 Hei Jar! 
 
 Hei Dost! Dscha-ni-men Dscha - na ■ ni men! 
 
 Now in the foregoing chorus we observe in the first 
 
 bar a quite natural musical form of invocation; then 
 
 occupying respectively the next two bars, follow two 
 
 different phrases which as they occur several times in 
 
THE RISE OF MUSIC. JJ 
 
 the piece form as it were a salient feature of it. These 
 pass into a kind of raised strain in which melody is 
 prompted by a strenuous feeling for expression. In 
 the course of this strain, where the note G is reached 
 (in bar seven*), a quasi passing modulation into G is 
 felt. Then after bar seven, in which the augmented 
 second so characteristic of Eastern music is used, a 
 similar half modulation, but back to C, leads to two 
 characteristic phrases which seem to constitute a kind 
 of refrain'. These are followed by a new but shorter 
 melodic outflow which leads to another passing and 
 imperfect modulation into G. Now the matter in- 
 volved in the foregoing description constitutes the 
 whole of the original matter of the chorus, but it is 
 repeated, and thent come six bars in which certain of 
 the preceding phrases again recur and in the last 
 two are contracted forming a kind of stretto; 
 after which another repetition of the music above 
 given (less the first three bars), completes the piece, 
 which thus ends in the fifth of the key. This chorus 
 certainly supports the view that the musical instinct 
 is inherent in man and fundamentally the same all 
 the world over, for there is in it distinct beauty and 
 * (At the ^(tttSf). t (At the second ^ni OTus:.). 
 
78 THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 expression in melody, the feeling for modulation, for 
 form (in the relation of its larger sections), for cumu- 
 lative effect, and for unity. 
 
 At the same time the reader will not. fail to observe 
 how closely the above example — in the varying time, 
 the uncertain tonality, the use of the augmented 
 secohd, and the prompting to melody by strenuous 
 feeling for expression, resembles those I have given as 
 indicative of the character of ancient Jewish music; 
 and what strength these common points between an ex- 
 tant chorus of a section of Dervishes in Constantinople, 
 and the traditional chanting of the Jews — this corres- 
 pondence of evidence coming through such different 
 and widely separated channels — gives to the hypothesis 
 that in general form and effect the type of these 
 examples was actually that of early melody. 
 
 In closing my remarks on ancient Egyptian and 
 Asiatic music I may point out that the approximate 
 period of the Assyrian monuments would about syn- 
 chronise with that of the apogee of Jewish national 
 life — the period of Samuel and David.* 
 
 * H. Lavoix gives the date of the Assyrian monuments as 
 B.C. 1000. H. Graetz gives that of the apogee of Jewish national 
 life as between 1067 and 1055 ("■0.1 
 
THE RISE OF MUSIC. 79 
 
 Also it may not be irrelevant if I here attempt to 
 conjure up a feeling of the living atmosphere in which 
 the music we have been studying was heard, by 
 glancing for a moment at some of the surrounding cir- 
 cumstances. 
 
 First as regards the Egyptian monuments and repre- 
 sentations, the cuneiform tablets discovered only re- 
 cently at Tel-el-Amarna (to which place they had been 
 brought from Thebes) reveal that 150 years prior to the 
 date of the Egyptian harp and harpist a representa- 
 tion of which has been given, the nations of the Orient 
 were not isolated units cut off from one another, but 
 their mutual relations were as close and intimate as 
 those of modern Europe; for these tablets are the cor- 
 respondence of the Egyptian Foreign Office of the 
 time, and include letters from the kings of Babylonia, 
 Assyria, and Mesopotamia, besides from the Egyptian 
 governors and vassal princes in Canaan and Syria. 
 They also prove that as far as literature was concerned 
 this ancient world was as civilised as our own, for there 
 were schools and libraries all over it; and that the high 
 roads and postal service were alike well organised. 
 This would be about B.C. 1400, a full century before 
 the Israelitish Exodus. 
 
8o THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 Coming down to the period of the Assyrian repre- 
 sentations and of the apogee of Jewish national life, we 
 find the nations of the Orient still in intimate know- 
 ledge of one another, and general intercommunication; 
 for Solomon (B.C. 1015-977) "reigned over all the kings 
 from the river* even unto the land of the Philistines 
 and to the borders of Egypt." 
 
 The reader will not fail to observe that the above 
 circumstances tend to support the conclusion that has 
 been drawn from the similarity of the musical instru- 
 ments of these ancient eastern nations; namely, that a 
 single musical system was general among them. Also 
 that they further impress that whatever the effect of 
 this music may have been it was even at that far back 
 period portion of "the long results of time." 
 
 List of Dates Referred to in this Chapter. 
 
 Period of Tel-el-Amarna Tablets About b.c. 1400 
 
 „ „ Israelitish Exodus ,, „ 1300 
 
 ,, „ Egyptian Harp discovered by Bruce „ „ 1350 
 
 „ „ Assyrian Monuments , „ 1000 
 
 , „ Apogee of Jewish National Life ... Petween,, 1067 
 & 1055 
 
 * The Euphrates, 
 
THE RISE OF MUSIC. 8 1 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 Ancient Greek Music. 
 
 "PT^ROM Egypt and Assyria the historic stream of 
 
 ■*• music passes to Greece. But I must not convey 
 
 that musical art ceased among one people as it 
 
 passed to another. It continued in Egypt whilst the 
 
 instruments were sounding from which the bas-reliefs 
 
 of Nineveh and Babylon were copied. It mingled 
 
 daily with the busy life in both countries whilst the 
 
 Hosarma rose in the temple at Jerusalem; and still 
 
 persisted when this had ceased — when the Hebrew was 
 
 led into exile — and whilst a national style was rising 
 
 in Greece the development of which it was destined 
 
 to aid. 
 
 The history of early Grecian music is veiled in 
 
 myth. The struggles of the various races which in- 
 
 G 
 
82 THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 vaded Greece from all sides, are symbolised by the 
 strivings for supremacy of their respective popular 
 musical instruments. Thus the contact of Dorians 
 from the mountains of Thrace with peoples from 
 Egypt and Phoenicia is symbolised by Apollo, who 
 holds a primitive lyre, contending with Mercury who 
 bears a cithara of many strings. But in these myths 
 we observe certain features which are common to every 
 early phase of musical art. The musical promptings 
 of an isolated people centre and so to speak crystalize 
 in a certain instrument which becomes the only access 
 to their repertory of effect, and in the construction 
 of which their system or its salient points are fixed. 
 Now what does this suggest? Let us suppose the in- 
 struriient to be the early Greek lyre, which consisted 
 of four strings attached to the shell of a tortoise 
 covered with a tightly stretched skin for sounding 
 board. Preliminarily it may be remarked that it is 
 not improbable that the melody performed by aid of 
 this and similar primitive instruments was not always 
 ccn&ned to the notes of the instrument. These might 
 mark only certain points in the song or dance (with 
 both of which music in its earlier stages was almost 
 invariably connected) whilst serving to keep the 
 
THE RISE OF MUSIC, 83 
 
 voice up to pitch and to accentuate the rhythm. 
 Mr. Robert Charles Hope states that to the time of 
 Terpander (c. 780-700 B. C.) in consonance with Asiatic 
 custom, only the prelude was played upon the lyre. 
 As, however, Terpander is credited with having com- 
 posed for the priests at Delphi some hymns of which 
 the words were accompanied by the lyre, one note going 
 to each syllable, he appears to have initiated a practice 
 going at once to the ether extreme. The use of the 
 lyre in accompaniment is said to have begun to be in- 
 fluenced shortly afterwards by one Archilochus (c. 680 
 B.C.), who through contact with traders from Tyre in 
 Phoenicia had learned the use of a triangular shaped 
 instrument of the lyre type,* on which an independent 
 accompaniment was played. This statement bears a 
 character of probability in that it exemplifies that 
 action upon musical art which has been an essential 
 condition of its growth, namely the influence of differ- 
 ent peoples. To proceed — whatever might be the par- 
 ticular relation to the song, of the lyre when it was the 
 representative instrument of an isolated people, at such 
 a time the only avenue for an aspirant to the definite 
 
 * Probably an Asiatic sample of the Egyptian Trigon. 
 
84 THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 world of musical art would be through this instrument ; 
 and this avenue would be guarded by the guide, or 
 professional player, who would hold the message from 
 the past and thus occupy the standing ground of new 
 effort. For in the absence of a musical notation — that 
 is, when all music was tradition — the master — the 
 bard — who was singer and player — ^was the sole eyelet 
 to the muse's "wild universe"; he was the magician 
 who alone could raise the past. And an aspirant un- 
 able to gain access to him would be in somewhat the 
 same position as a person of the present day shut out 
 from the knowledge of extant music. 
 
 Further, in such circumstarices as we are considering 
 only the tradition connected with a particular kind of 
 instrument could come down to the learner, and what- 
 ever promptings he might have, or whatever potentiali- 
 ties of musical conception might be in him, which could 
 not be expressed or suggested by this kind of instru- 
 ment, would be lost. 
 
 Through the myths which clothe the history of early 
 Greece we see various communities thus isolated, some 
 of them having leading or representative instruments 
 of totally different characters. Music is unfolding at 
 various points — each a separate, small, shut in, world of 
 
THE RISE OF MUSIC 85 
 
 effect. Progress, where there is progtess, is one-sided. 
 At the same time this independent working favours the 
 development both of different instruments and differ- 
 ent lines of effect. 
 
 Imagination now takes easily a leap into the future. 
 We see men gathered in cities, and concourse takirig 
 place between musicians, from which we may conceive 
 ensues a broadening of effect — an opening up of in- 
 spiration—as the legacies of the past relating to differ- 
 ent peoples, countries and instruments become the 
 heritage of every musician. Yet, as history shows, 
 before all this came about, experiment, discovery and 
 general progress spreading over more than two thou- 
 sand years, had to be made. 
 
 To proceed with historic Greece, music as a definitely 
 constituted art again confronts us, and with nearer, 
 ampler, more vivid presence as it mingles with every 
 phase of life. Yet though we stand closer to it, see 
 more into the people's thoughts — almost catch the hum 
 of their life; and notwithstanding, in addition to 
 almost numberless representations of instruments in 
 painting and sculpture, we have the specific teaching 
 of their theorists, and allusions to the art by their and 
 succeeding philosophers, the positive effects of their 
 
86 THE RISE OF MUSIC 
 
 music is lost to us almost as completely as in the case 
 of the Egyptians and Assyrians. 
 
 Notwithstanding the lyre seems indigenous to Greece, 
 and the origin of flute playing among the Greeks is 
 lost in the mist of the past— one account fixing B.C. 850 
 as the period when the rules became fixed — Greek music 
 as I have already intimalted was strongly influenced by, 
 if it was not altogether a definite continuation and 
 development of, Egyptian. Lyre, flute, cithara, harp, 
 lute, trumpet, cymbals (large and small), sistre and 
 triangle, still persisted, but the three first mentioned 
 were the instruments chiefly in vogue among the 
 Greeks, and probably all but these, if not all without 
 exception, were originally derived from Egypt or 
 Assyria. An instrument called the magadi v/as also 
 imported into Greece from Egypt; its strings being 
 divided by a bridge at one third of their length, it 
 yielded the effect of the octave — hence the expression, 
 to magadise or play in octaves. 
 
 We have little definite knowledge of the details of 
 these various instruments, but I may mention a few 
 facts both general and incidental concerning them. 
 
 About B.C. 500, lyres had eight and nine strings; 50 
 years later, 11 and 12. In the "concourse of song" 
 
THE RISE OF MUSIC. 8/ 
 
 only those of four were admitted. This seems an un- 
 mistakable sign of academic conservatism. 
 
 The cithara was a more complex and sonorous as 
 well as a better constructed instrument than the lyre; 
 it had seven, eight and sometimes more strings. 
 
 Flutes were in great variety. There was a double 
 flute which demanded a great effort on the part of the 
 blower who for this reason sometimes bound his cheeks 
 in such a way as to be able to blow strongly without 
 distorting his face; a grave flute which was used to 
 accompany choruses of men; and a small flute giving 
 forth a wailing or mournful quality of sound, which 
 v/as used at funerals. 
 
 Flute-playing was an elaborate art and had a special 
 name (aulody). 
 
 The great harp, a distinctly Asiatic importation, had 
 as many as 35 strings. 
 
 The trumpet was employed by the Greeks less in 
 war than in sacrifices; the latter use tends to associate 
 itself in the mind with the fact that the Jews had a 
 sacred trumpet v,-hich, as has been said, is still employed 
 in the synagogue. 
 
 The various instruments of percussion were less 
 
88 THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 generally used by the Greeks than by the Egyptian 
 and Asiatic peoples. 
 
 As to the Greek system, I have intimated that for 
 investigating the subject of Greek music we have 
 the advantage (or disadvantage), of their theoretical 
 and philosophical treatises. Certainly if, as in the 
 case of the Egyptians and Assyrians, we had been 
 left with nothing but representations of instruments, 
 matters would have been considerably simplified. 
 Certain things however are clear. The system of the 
 Greeks first took tangible form in the structure of their 
 primitive instruments, and of these the four stringed 
 lyre became the most prevalent. The system set forth by 
 this instrument was a scale of four notes. The actual 
 pitch and relation of these notes in the primitive lyres 
 cannot be stated with any certainty— they probably 
 differed in different places — but the arrangement of 
 sounds which is considered to have become the nucleus 
 of the Greek as it seems to have been that of the 
 Egyptians and is of the modern system, is a semitone 
 followed by two tones. The Dorian lyre is said to 
 have been tuned in a way which may be represented 
 approximately as follows ; 
 
THE RISE OF MUSIC. 8g 
 
 -i & — 
 
 -&<- 
 
 The main subsequent development of this nucleus 
 consisted of the superposing on its fourth note a simi- 
 lar series, with the addition below of the octave of the 
 top-most note; which rendered the whole identical 
 with the melodic form of our minor scale descending* 
 
 
 (^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 J2Q 
 
 ■o- 
 
 -Q- 
 
 icH: 
 
 
 
 
 '> 
 
 
 
 
 
 ff*7^ 
 
 
 rj 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 * ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 II 
 
 This and a similar scale based upon E, F-sharp, and 
 G, together with transpositions of the three first of 
 these four scales a fourth lower, t represent the develop- 
 
 * But the ratio of the vibrations in the case of all the tones 
 was 8-9 and that of the two semitones, 243-256. Thus the tones 
 between the 4th and 5th, and the 7th and 8th degrees, were 
 slightly larger, and both semitones slightly smaller, than in our 
 scale of A minor. To put the matter exactly, yet quite simply ; — 
 suppose the tones between the above mentioned degrees in our 
 scale of A minor (the respective series of vibrations of which 
 proceed in the ratio 9-10') were so modified that 81 vibrations 
 took the place of 80, of the series answering to the upper notes 
 these tones would become Pythagorean, involving the ratio 8-9 
 And suppose the two semitones of our scale ithe respective series 
 of vibrations of which proceed in the ratio 15-16) were so modi- 
 fied that 81 vibrations tooli the place of 80 of the series 
 answering to the lower note, these semitones would become 
 Pythagorean, involving the ratio 243-256. 
 
 \ (The bases involving thus eight following degrees,) 
 
go THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 ment which resulted in the seven scales which formed 
 the Greek system. 
 
 These scales being a regular part of our system 
 admit of being so arrangea that, taking that on A as a 
 centre, tv/o (those on D and G) follow in the same order 
 as our scales with flats, and the remainder, as our 
 scales with sharps — that is to say in the case of each 
 scale all the degrees but one coincide either in the 
 unison or octave with those of the scales a fifth above 
 and below as far as the extent of the system admits. 
 Thus arranged, and expressed in our notation, they^ 
 appear as follows: — * 
 
 Mz 
 
 m^ 
 
 <9-22- 
 
 ^r- 
 
 
 m^^^m 
 
 nar? 
 
 e-^2^ 
 
 o-o- 
 
 ^j^^ 
 
 IZZ 
 
 X3-&- 
 
 .©-Q--^- 
 
 Si^^^^n 
 
 * The reader will understand that my object in thus arranging 
 the Greek scales is to show their relation to our system. 
 
THE RISE OF MUSIC. QI 
 
 With the different stages of this extension the names 
 of Terpander, Sappho c. B.C. 6io and Pythagoras, B.C. 
 580-500, are connected. As Terpander, who was a native 
 of Lesbos the then centre of Greek civilization, is stated 
 to have incorporated into his system certain scales which 
 prevailed in other parts of Greece; and Pythagoras 
 about the middle of the following century visited 
 Egypt, where, as has been shown, a kind of diatonic 
 scale existed ; there is some reason for concluding that 
 the actual source of the improvements associated with 
 the names of these two theorists was the varied prac- 
 tice of different peoples. The discovery that the 
 Egyptians were acquainted with the principle of our 
 diatonic scale taken in connection with the fact that 
 the Greeks regarded Egypt as the sacred land of art 
 and science, has led to the assumption that the Greeks 
 derived all their musical knowledge from the Egyp- 
 tians. But the gradual manner in which the Greek 
 system is said to have become formed suggests a spon- 
 taneous process, which, however, may have been helped 
 by piecemeal importation from Egypt. Judging by ana- 
 
 Whether the Greeks regarded these scales as forming a system, 
 or simply used them as we use different transpositions of the same 
 scale in singing anpremeditatedly at different pitches, is uncertain. 
 
92 THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 logy the probability is that the Greek scale Was an 
 assimilation of Creek and Egyptian elements — of 
 which the larger portion was Egyptian. 
 
 As the lyre possessed as a rule but seven or eight 
 strings the different transpositions of the scale de- 
 manded each a separate instrument, and as it was the 
 rule for melodies to be confined to the medium notes 
 of the voice the various instruments embraced the same 
 compass.* According to Mr. R. C. Hope the first 
 string of each lyre was tuned to A as represented by 
 the top line of our bass staff, the remaining notes being 
 those that would follow this A in the particular trans- 
 position which might be in question. Thus each lyre 
 would have a different entablature and on the surface 
 appear to embody a different mode. Hence much of 
 the confusion which has attended the subject. At the 
 same time it is not absolutely certain that the melodies 
 given forth by these various transpositions were invari- 
 ably based upon the kind, of scale fundamental to 
 them all — that is to say, that the same degree of this 
 scale was in every transposition regarded as the key 
 note. The scale fundamental to the different series of 
 notes given forth by the various lyres answered, as I 
 
 * In this connection it may be mentioned that flutes also were 
 constructed to give each a separate scale. 
 
THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 93 
 
 have said, to our scale of A minor. Now, as the reader 
 knows, with the notes and degrees of this scale we can 
 
 Mixo-Lydian, 
 
 m^z 
 
 Lydian. 
 
 ,J2-^^ 
 
 -Jlz 
 
 Zs^^ -^ . 
 
 -^^rfi:M 
 
 m 
 
 ^zzSit 
 
 ?zz* 
 
 SZZ^St 
 
 Phrygian. 
 
 iz3-.a5! 
 
 m 
 
 33= 
 
 ^- 
 
 ^^^ 
 
 Dobian or Hypo- 
 Mixo Lydian. 
 
 -s^^ 
 
 -.s^ 
 
 m 
 
 mi 
 
 %1E 
 
 522 
 
 Hypo-Lydian. 
 
 ^s^ 
 
 ,-®-^- 
 
 tMi 
 
 iit^ 
 
 Hypo- Phrygian. 
 
 ,-<^^-^4 
 
 gp^Jg?^'- 
 
 Hypo-Dorian. 
 
 ^=^^ 
 
 m 
 
 ■73-^ 
 
 Z2^S 
 
 r-cz: 
 
 
 E=-£=i 
 
 f 
 
 Portion applied to Lyre. 
 
 The scales really begin on the lowest note to the left outside 
 the vertical line and continue to the highest note on the right, 
 but the portion only between the lines could be appUed to the 
 lyres. The voices were in every mode restricted within the 
 limits of an octave. 
 
94 THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 produce effects belonging to the related major key, and 
 that the Greeks did not sometimes do this on the lyre, 
 harp or cithara, or with one of these instruments ac- 
 companying the voice, I think is extremely doubtful. 
 The above diagram* illustrates clearly the origin of 
 the seven Greek modes, as just described. 
 
 The reader will observe that the above scales are 
 simply transpositions of the scale of A minor on its 
 different degrees, only in lieu of the 3rd and 6th (C and 
 F) C-sharp and F -sharp are taken as bases, the reason 
 being that in the scales on C and F, the A comes flat 
 and thus could not stand for the sound of the first 
 string of the lyre, which according to the rule just re- 
 ferred to must sound A-natural. To extend the basal 
 scale of A minor to two octaves, and transpose the 
 above seven scales a fourth lower in order to bring the 
 octaves embraced by the lyres into the middle of the 
 voice, seem obvious enough things to do if thought de- 
 sirable, but R. C. Hope speaks of them as the special 
 work of Ptolemy (139 A.D.) 
 
 This was the state of things at the height of Greek 
 civilization. We may regard the early systems of Ter- 
 
 * Taken from " Mediaeval Music." By Robert Charles Hope. 
 
THE RISE OF MUSIC. 95 
 
 pander and Sappho as representing certain primitive 
 lyres or other instruments which gave forth the essen- 
 tial notes of the short and simple melodies of their time 
 and place ; and the fuller system of Pythagoras and its 
 adjustment and extension by Ptolemy, as the selection, 
 incorporation, and extension of previous systems; so 
 that the scale ultimately resulting formed an abstract 
 classification and digest of all the extant elements of 
 effect of its period, just as our system does of all ex- 
 tant elements of effect of the present. 
 
 It is also uncertain, notwithstanding, as we have seen, 
 this general system involved a short series of overlaid 
 scales, whether the Greeks attempted to make that use 
 of this important circumstance which we do when we 
 extend a melody over more keys than one. The em- 
 bodiment of each transposition by a separate instrument 
 would seem to suggest that it was not the custom at this 
 epoch to thus extend melody. Then there is the general 
 impression that ancient Greek melodies were short. 
 Helmholtz says that the melodies to Greek songs were 
 at first comprised in a tetrachord as many melodies of 
 the Roman liturgy still are, that later they embraced an 
 octave, and that even to-day the popular songs of 
 modern Greece involve a remarkably small compass. 
 
96 THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 At the saine time it is to be remembered there are many 
 traditions of instruments having more than eight 
 strings, and that it is improbable that the feeling for 
 modulation was manifested suddenly. However, in 
 the third century B.C. the scale appears in Euclid (of 
 Alexandria), as embracing two octaves with an optional 
 tetrachord based upon the eighth note ; it thus involves 
 modulation into the scale a fifth below, which points 
 clearly to the connected use of two scales thus related. 
 The following is Helmholtz's example of this scale 
 but expressed in modern notation and transposed an 
 octave higher. 
 
 i 
 
 p= 
 
 _„_^g,_B_ 
 
 i 
 
 ■s, . Q-:«i.::^_a -^nzzzzT- r:=— _^_Q^g 
 
 Pzs=Q= 
 
 It is probable that we have here evidence of the way 
 in which the departure came about to that system of 
 overlapping scales on which subsequent developm&it 
 was destined so largely to hang. 
 
 In the meantime the ratios of vibration involved by 
 the various degrees of the scale had been so adjusted 
 as to coincide with the melodic form of our minor scale 
 
THE RISE OF MUSIC. 97 
 
 descending; that is to say, between the fourth and 
 fifth, and seventh and eighth degrees, counting up- 
 ward, those ratios were changed from f to y , and 
 between the second and third, and fifth and sixth, they 
 were fixed at ^f . Notwithstanding this great improve- 
 ment was effected formally by Ptolemy (Fl. 139 A.D.) 
 in simply changing the order of the relations of the 
 tetrachord 
 
 si ut re mi 
 
 H ¥' § 
 
 (introduced by Didymus in the first century) to 
 
 si ut re mi 
 
 j;| f ^ ; and that 
 
 the former tetrachord is traceable to the discovery by 
 Archytas in the fourth century B.C. of the 
 true relation of the natural major third |, 
 as given by the series of harmonics, (in con- 
 tra-distinction to the sharper major third obtained 
 by tuning by fifths and involving two Pythagorean 
 tones); it rests at bottom upon assthetic feeling. For 
 this was the sanction of the adoption of the natural 
 major third in all the above cases, and this and not 
 
 H 
 
98 THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 the harmonic scale, is its sanction in our system* It 
 is thus in harmony with the whole spirit of musical 
 development that these improvements first appeared in 
 the concrete forms of spontaneous effects — that they 
 were recognized as conducing to beauty before their 
 mathematical constitution was discovered, just as the 
 ellipse was recognized and used as an element of 
 beauty in form before its geometrical constitution was 
 discovered. 
 
 That the Greeks not only possessed that feeling for 
 the key-note which is a natural part of the musical 
 susceptibility of modern European races, but that 
 it was reflected as a cardinal principle in their system, 
 are facts concerning which there is little room for 
 doubt in view of the evidence of the following pas- 
 sages from Aristotle : — 
 
 "When we change the central sound (the Mese) 
 having tuned the other strings, and play the instru- 
 ment, why does all sound bad — all seem false, not only 
 
 * It is not at all difficult to appreciate the difference of a 
 comma -fj in the performance of familiar airs in the different 
 timbres, and all musicians in whose presence I have made the 
 experiment have immediately recognised the difference. — 
 Helmholtz. 
 
THE RISE OF MUSIC. 99 
 
 when we come to the central sound, but in every other 
 part of the melody ? If on the contrary we change the 
 Lichanos* or any other sound the difference produced 
 is only felt in the case of these notes. Is there not a 
 good reason for this ? Because in all well written airs 
 the Mese returns frequently; all good composers 
 employ it frequently, and when they quit it they soon 
 come back again to it, which is not the case to the same 
 extent with regard to any other sound." 
 
 In another place he repeats the question to answer it 
 more effectually : — 
 
 "Why when we alter the Mese do all the other 
 strings seem false? When on the contrary, the Mese 
 remaining the same, we change the sound of another 
 string this only appears wrong. Is this the reason — 
 that the justness of all the strings is nothing else but 
 a certain relation with the Mese which gives the rank 
 of each string in the whole? If we suppress that 
 which serves as the foundation of correctness, that 
 which serves as the general link, order seems no longer 
 to exist at least to the same extent." 
 
 Nothing could be much clearer than this; and the 
 
 * The note touched by the index linger. 
 
100 THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 role of tonic could scarcely be better defined. But it 
 is difficult for us to realize it applied to the Greek 
 scale as formulated by modern experts. The note of 
 this scale having the character of tonic is referred to 
 by Aristotle as the Mese or central note. This accord- 
 ing to Mr. R. C. Hope had two meanings. In the case 
 of a single octave of the scale it referred to the sound 
 which lay midway between the two steps of a semitone 
 — at an exactly equal distance from each. In the case 
 of two octaves it referred to the eighth degree. In 
 each case it is the central note of the series. Thus of 
 a single octave of -the scale as represented by the 
 melodic form of our scale of A minor descending, D 
 would be the Mese; of two octaves, A, the eighth degree, 
 would be the Mese. To us, only the latter note has 
 anything of the character of a tonic. The actual scale 
 referred to by Aristotle, as given by Helmholtz, is that 
 portion of our melodic form of the scale of A minor 
 descending, lying between E — E, the Mese being re- 
 garded by Helmoltz as A. This does not quite agree 
 with Mr. Hope's rule which always brings out the Mese 
 as the fourth note of the scale to which the series of 
 notes involved belongs. Helmholtz leans to the opinion 
 
THE RISE OF MUSIC. lOI 
 
 that the Greeks set out from the Mese and terminated 
 on the fourth below — which suggests our practice in 
 recitative. 
 
 It is not easy for a modern musician to regard our 
 minor scale, even with the /th major, as answering to 
 the scale alluded to in the passages above quoted. The 
 principle of the key-note is not impressed vividly by 
 the minor scale in every part ; a subject moving in this 
 scale demands often the use of harmony to remove 
 ambiguity from the effect of some of the intervals. But 
 the role of key-note in our major scale could scarcely 
 be more distinctly suggested than it is in the above 
 quoted passages. 
 
 Another remark of Aristotle is suggestive — that in 
 which he says in effect, that opposed to the immediate 
 near sound, the Parhypate (F), the Hypate (E) is sung 
 without that effort of attention which the other notes 
 demand. Here again a special and peculiar effect in 
 our major scale is described — the effect of descending 
 from the 4th to the 3rd. In the absence of definite and 
 particular knowledge of the music to which Aristotle's 
 remarks had reference it would be open for a modern 
 to assume that the actual attunement and effect of the 
 
102 THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 system of sounds in question was virtually our major 
 scale or portion of it* On the other hand bearing in 
 mind what some musical historians hold — namely, that 
 our fundamental conceptions of musical beauty are 
 peculiar to ourselves, i.e., to certain modern European 
 peoples, the suitableness of his remarks to our major 
 scale might be regarded as a coincidence. Whatever 
 may be the truth as to this matter I question the sound- 
 ness of the doctrine to which I have just referred — ■ 
 that our fundamental conceptions of musical beauty 
 are a partial psychological phenomenon — peculiar to 
 particular races and to the modern era. The assump- 
 tion of a radical difference in the musical instincts of 
 
 * The following extract from Carl Engel's " The Music of the 
 most Ancient Nations " may be regarded as having some bearing 
 on the above remarks. 
 
 " Most national music is in major; of this I have had ample 
 opportunity of convincing myself by carefully examining all 
 accessible collections of tunes from every part of the world. 
 The generally maintained opinion that the popular songs of a 
 nation are usually in minor is altogether erroneous. There are 
 but few nations possessing more songs and other melodies in 
 minor than in major, while in the music of most nations the major 
 key decidedly predominates. Nor is this surprising, since the 
 major key appears to be the most natural of the two, to conclude 
 from the principal harmonics which are softly emitted with any 
 single tone, and which produce together the major chord." 
 
THE RISE OF MUSIC. IO3 
 
 different peoples has been also made too hastily in my 
 opinion in another instance. Referring to the Greek 
 enharmonic and chromatic scales the late G. A. Mac- 
 farren writing in the Encyclopaedia Britannica gives 
 the following examples: — 
 
 Enharmonic. Chromatic. 
 
 12345678 123 4S6 78 
 
 D E F A Bl7 D D E F F|; A Bl? Bif D 
 
 The reader will observe that in neither example are 
 there the 4th and 7th degrees, concerning which omis- 
 sion Mr. Macf arren remarks : — 
 
 "In the harmonic scale of nature the 7th from the 
 generator is too flat, and the nth is too sharp for ac- 
 cepted use; the rejection of these two notes indicates a 
 refinement of ear that shrank from the natural and 
 equally refused the artificial intonation of these de- 
 grees of the scale. Mr. C. Engel proves the rejection 
 of the 4th and 7th from the keynote by nations of high 
 civilization in remote parts of the world." 
 
 I will grant for the sake of argument that because 
 in the case of certain sounding bodies which give forth 
 a rich musical sound the 7th and nth partial sounds 
 can by extremely delicate tests be proved to exist, it 
 may therefore be assumed that the ear would realise 
 
104 THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 these two partial sounds* as clashing respectively with 
 the 7th and 4th of a diatonic scale based on the gener- 
 ating sound. But in actual music the 4th and /th of 
 the scale are not always reached by a jump ascending 
 from the ist. Suppose when we do arrive say at F or B, 
 by a leap from the C below, certain aural associations 
 are disturbed, surely this would not be the case when, 
 ascending, we arrive at B from G, or, very perceptibly, 
 at F from G ! The feeling of a fundamental note is a 
 very abstruse thing. What is clear is that at any point of 
 a melody a musician can (given time) summon up the 
 key-note if he turns his attention to it. But one not a 
 musician and who could not do this might realize and 
 enjoy the same melody quite as keenly. But whatever 
 may be the special influence of the key-note in the 
 mind of a person listening to a melody it is surely 
 going too far to assume that one so listening has a pre- 
 vailing sense of its higher partial sounds — a sense so 
 acute as for these ideal sounds to clash with the strong 
 objective sounds of the melody. Further, we know that 
 there are elements in sensation corresponding with partial 
 sounds in the case of an objective sound, but do these 
 
 * Notwithstanding their higher pitch. 
 
THE RISE OF MUSIC. 105 
 
 elements exist in the case of the idea of a sound ? In 
 
 the case of the opening of "When other lips" for 
 instance : — 
 
 3E 
 
 1= 
 
 has the listener underlying ideas of an extreme B-flat 
 and of a too sharp F — etheralised forms of some of the 
 finer elements in the sensation due to the as yet unheard 
 k6y-noe? And if he has, how is it that these ideas have 
 a stronger influence than the palpable overtones of G, 
 which note is actually sounded and with one of the 
 overtones of which the B is in exact attunement? 
 
 An explanation certainly much closer to hand, of 
 the omission of these degrees from the scales referred 
 to, is that such degrees were not wanted — that these 
 enharmonic and chromatic modes do not respectively 
 represent a general foundation for multitudinous 
 melodies, but the powers of an instrument devised 
 probably for the production of some particular melo- 
 dies. The fact that the chromatic mode in the example 
 given by Macfarren embraces both the major and 
 minor third, and the major and minor sixth, seems 
 to support this solution of the problem. The 
 absence of certain degrees in the formal pre- 
 
I06^ THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 sentation of a scale may also be due to a scholastic 
 tendency to preserve a past form of development, in 
 which case in actual practice the omissions are made 
 good — as, for instance, they were, until recently, with 
 regard to the approach to the last note in recitative. 
 Where the evidence is a musical instrument instead of 
 a scale the lagune might be due either to this conser- 
 vative tendency or to backwardness in manufacture 
 whilst in practice in this case also, it might be filled 
 in by the voice. In fact musical instruments them- 
 selves as well as works on theory, are not only ex- 
 tremely vague indices to the actual art-effects they sub- 
 serve but very insufficient evidence of the technical 
 principles those effects may involve. Theory, it is true, 
 is as a rule derived from practice, but practice is not 
 always in advance of theory in the same line of move- 
 ment, it may proceed in a different, and even an 
 opposite direction. 
 
 With regard to the assumption that the elements of 
 musical perception or the fundamental conceptions of 
 musical beauty, differ with different peoples, I may 
 add the following observation. Seeing we not only 
 have no positive knowledge of the effect of the 
 music of ancient peoples but can never be 
 
THE RISE OF MUSIC. lO/ 
 
 certain that we grasp any past system in its actual 
 application, when we meet among the musical traces of 
 such peoples with anything peculiar, or that seems to 
 contradict our elementary notions of propriety, it is 
 more reasonable to conclude that the evidence is partial 
 — the record imperfect, or the interpretation mistaken, 
 than that there should have existed people having 
 either on the one hand an inordinate, not to say im- 
 possible, fineness of ear, or on the other, an upside- 
 dowri conception of musical beauty. Musical, like 
 other art development, has been in the past, as it is in 
 the present, fringed by outlying, ineffectual effort 
 which here and there may assume a rude, imperfect, or 
 even grotesque form. But this is not inconsistent with 
 the doctrine that the sensibility which responds to 
 modern music is deep and inherent in human nature 
 though, with other qualities, it is no doubt through 
 special causes subject to modification, deterioration 
 and arrest. I therefore lean to the conclusion that not- 
 withstanding this sensibility may have been — as in 
 some countries it may still be — largely unappealed to, 
 or appealed to in crude or abortive musical effort, it is, 
 like reason, man's destined heritage, its germ being 
 fundamental. 
 
I08 THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 Whilst, however, there can be little doubt that the 
 Greeks were far from devoid of that sentiment of ton- 
 ality which lies at the root of our musical perception, 
 it would be rash to conclude that the key-note played 
 precisely the same role in their system that it does in 
 ours. Most probably the feeling of the key-note was 
 not so clear with them as it is with us. In fact it would 
 be only in accordance with the principle of develop- 
 ment that this feeling should have become articulate 
 gradually — that its articulation should have been 
 vague and ambiguous before it became precise.* Thus 
 ancient Greek music may, as another passage in Aris- 
 totle suggests, have terminated on the note correspond- 
 ing to our dominant (the Hypate, corresponding to E 
 in our scale of A minor) as has been largely the custom 
 in modern recitative. But if this may be regarded as evi- 
 dence of a musical instinct of a slightly different char- 
 acter from ours, it is also open to us to regard it as part 
 of the natural and historic growth of the latter instinct. 
 
 To return to our description of the Greek system, we 
 see that the diatonic scale is unfolded and appears in 
 seven keys. The departure is made toward modulation, 
 
 * Or, as is perhaps more probable, that its precise application 
 should have extended gradually to more notes. 
 
THE RISE OF MUSIC. IO9 
 
 and the feeling for the key-note is becoming defined. 
 To what point musical expression was carried in these 
 circumstances — how deep and intense it may have been 
 — we cannot say, but that the limitations in the system 
 were the reflection of certain limitations in the form of 
 the music, is in the natural order of things. 
 
 The subject of elaborateness of musical construction 
 is vitally connected with that of notation. The more 
 complex the former the greater need of simplicity in 
 the latter. The simpler the former the less inconveni- 
 ent is any imperfection which may exist in the latter. 
 The Greeks appear to have possessed a complete but 
 not a simple method of notation. It consisted of a 
 system of signs taken from their alphabet, one series 
 of letters indicating the sounds, another, their values, 
 another, rests. In all, some one hundred and fifty 
 signs were used. Further, the letters expressing instru- 
 mental music were rendered different from those that 
 related to vocal. These various series of letter-signs 
 were distinguished by the letters in each case being 
 placed differently : thus in one case they would be 
 placed upright, in another lengthways, in another up- 
 side down. Those placed upright referred, as a rule, 
 to vocal music; those placed sideways, to instrumental. 
 
no THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 How far the Greeks found this system of notation 
 efficient we cannot say. Consistently with a remark 
 just made, its elaborateness may point to simplicity in 
 the music to which it relates. That the development 
 of our system of notation has been a factor of which 
 the importance can scarcely be exaggerated in the 
 attainment by musical art of its present stature, I shall 
 shortly attempt to show. Before, however, man's 
 ingenuity and the play of coincidence, between them, 
 gave rise to this system in completeness nearly two 
 thousand years from the period of Aristoxenes (B.C. 
 320), the expounder of the Greek system, had to elapse. 
 
 Until recently only three examples of ancient 
 Greek music had come down to us. These with 
 their musical notation were first published by 
 Vincenzo Galileo, the father of the astronomer, at 
 Florence in 1581, having been taken from a MS. in the 
 Library of Cardinal St. Angelo at Rome. They are a 
 hymn to the muse, Calliope (attributed to Dionysius), 
 another to Helios, and another to Nemesis (the latter two 
 being attributed to Mesodemes). All are supposed to 
 date from the first half of the second century A.D. 
 
 It may be here added that Kircher published in his 
 Musurgia in 1650 the music to an ode of Pindar which 
 
THE RISE OF MUSIC. Ill 
 
 he states he discovered in a very ancient MS. of Pin- 
 dar's works, in the Library of the monastery of St. 
 Saviour, near Messina. The ode was written to cele- 
 brate a victory gained by Hieron, Tyrant of Syracuse, 
 at the Pythian games, 474 B.C. 
 
 Whereas in all the above cases the evidence consists 
 of MSS. which are assumed to be correct copies of cer- 
 tain supposed originals, in the two following cases it 
 consists of the originals themselves. 
 
 The first is, the discovery in 1882 at Tralles near 
 Ephesus of a small marble pillar with music and words 
 engraved upon it. The words are a kind of elegy re- 
 ferring to the shortness of life. The date is supposed 
 to be about 100 A.D. 
 
 The second is the discovery at Delphi in May, 1893, 
 by the French Archaeological School of Athens, of a 
 Hymn to Apollo engraved on marble, of which the date 
 is supposed to be about B.C. 279 or 278. It is considered 
 to have been written to celebrate the victory of the 
 Phocians over Brennus the Gaul.' The slab is in several 
 pieces, and the text in certain places not continuous. 
 
 I confine my attention to the last case as the 
 more important of the two. The great question is, can we 
 depend upon the modern interpretation of the music ? 
 
112 THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 Experts are not unanimous in replying distinctly in the 
 affirmative though some are confident in doing so. 
 Assuming that the notes are interpreted correctly as to 
 pitch there remains the question of rhythm. Concern- 
 ing this I have the impression — speaking as one out of 
 the circle of the initiated — that we have not the whole 
 secret. Mr. W. H. Wing whom I heard sing this Hymn 
 at the Queen's Hall, was extremely careful to observe 
 the I measure, with the result to me that there seemed 
 no definite measure, but only a halting and desultory 
 accent. Strictly speaking there can be no such thing 
 as a } measure or any other measure of five. Only by 
 arranging the five notes to two beats, that is by three 
 being considered a triplet, in which circumstances the 
 time is really duple, can the first of each series of five 
 become accented. If the five notes be given evenly the 
 simplest accentuation that can be applied to them is 
 that in which the accent occurs on every other note, and 
 on this system the first note of the second series of five 
 would be unaccented. This would also be the case if 
 the accent occurred after every three or every four notes. 
 By some occult law of our nature no other odd number 
 than three can be the unit of a system of regular accen- 
 tuation. If we attempt to make five or seven such a 
 
THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 "3 
 
 unit, in the one case a sixth, in the other an eighth pul- 
 sation is understood before the accent can recur. It is 
 possible to have a rhythm in which the first pulsation of 
 each five is accented, when it is dominated by one of 
 the natural orders of accentuation, as indicated in 
 musical notation in the two following examples : — 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 4 I 
 
 13 3 4 5 1 
 
 Sinn 
 
 * 3 4 S I a 
 
 nnn 
 
 3 4 5 1*3 
 
 nn 
 
 13 3 4 
 
 nn 
 
 5 I s 3 
 
 nn n n 
 
 4 5 « a 
 
 3 4 5 1 
 
 &c. 
 
 &c 
 
 Though the principle of musical time enters largely 
 into poetic rhythm the latter in its wholeness is a differ- 
 ent thing. The rhythmical faculties of the musician 
 and the poet respectively, though partly alike, are yet 
 different faculties. In the case of poetry a principle 
 of music leavens another order of effect, viz., language, 
 which it is a mistake to regard as a purely practical 
 form of demonstrativeness, for, as we know, language 
 may not only become pure art, as in poetry, but into the 
 ordinary use of language the artistic impulse may 
 largely enter. And as this art impulse is of as special 
 
 and distinct a character when operating in language as 
 
 I 
 
114 THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 when operating in music or painting, so in language it 
 works through a faculty as unique as in the case of 
 the two above mentioned arts. Thus notwithstanding 
 there is much in common between musical rhythm and 
 poetic rhythm they are in their respective wholenesses 
 different things and moved by different faculties. Thus 
 it is that some of the finest examples of poetic rhythm 
 are the work of poets who had little of the special 
 musical sense. In such cases the leaven of musical time 
 is rather less than it usually is in poetry, the accent 
 irregular, but somehow in consequence the general 
 effect fresher and richer. The following examples in 
 which this freedom may be observed occur to me : — 
 Shakespeare's lyrics, "Come unto these yellow sands," 
 and "I know a bank"; Milton's "Hymn on the 
 Nativity'' and Wordsworth's "Intimations of Immor- 
 tality." It is also exemplified frequently in Scott's 
 " Lay of the Last Minstrel " and Byron's " Siege of 
 Corinth " and " Parasina." In more recent poets it 
 becomes still more conspicuous, but its effect is often 
 impaired by being accompanied by obscurity of idea 
 and diffuseness of expression. Fine instances of its 
 use exist in Tennyson and Swinburne, though in 
 
THE RISE OF MUSIC. IIS 
 
 some cases in these poets it degenerates to fanciful- 
 ness and affectation. 
 
 These remarks may lend countenance to the sugges- 
 tion that some confusion may have arisen through in- 
 terpreting the musical by the poetic accent in the Greek 
 hymn under notice. The following supposition may be 
 regarded as an illustration of a similar possibility, 
 though it represents an extreme case. Suppose Byron 
 had written music to the opening lines of " The Corsair " 
 in a kind of notation like the Greek, and that the musi- 
 cal accentuation to the first line, 
 
 " O'er the glad waters of the dark blue sea." 
 
 involved the rhythm which its recitation suggests, i.e., 
 a triple rhythm. Suppose further this music and its 
 system to have become as obsolete as Greek music is now, 
 and that an expert attempted to interpret the music of 
 this first line. He might say naturally enough " There 
 is no doubt whatever about the metre of this poem. It 
 is heroic or deca-syllabic, and it is well known that in 
 this metre each line consists of five feet, and that each 
 foot embraces as a rule two syllables the first of 
 which is accented, the second unaccented; and, that 
 also as a rule, the five feet coincide with the syllables 
 
Il6 THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 thus: — four feet, with eight syllables beginning with 
 the second, whilst the first syllable, which is unac- 
 cented, and the last, which is accented, make up the 
 fifth foot as in the following line, 
 
 " Our thoughts as boundless and our souls as free." 
 
 The reader can form an idea how near to the true musi- 
 cal accentuation of the line -first quoted an interpreta- 
 tion of it based upon these rules would be. 
 
 As I have intimated, I have heard the Greek hymn 
 in question sung, and though it may be assumed that 
 owing to faultiness in the record and deficiency of 
 knowledge, the interpretation was far from correct, I 
 have the impression that it still conveyed something 
 of the spirit and effect of ancient Greek music. It also 
 tended to confirm me in an idea I have, namely, that 
 much that gives the historic Italian school its general 
 elevation of style is an inheritance and assimilation of 
 phases of old Greek spirit and form. Nobility of 
 phrase and an august spirit seem transmitted from the 
 far past in the effect of this hymn even as we interpret it. 
 
 Certain contingent circumstances may have had 
 something to do with the actual effect of Greek music. 
 Assuming that the Greeks did not employ harmony 
 
THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 ii; 
 
 (though, as they inherited ultimately the instruments 
 and musical culture of Asia, the probability is over- 
 whelming that they did) it seems not improbable 
 that the amplitude and richness of effect pro- 
 duced by voices (particularly male) of fine timbre, 
 went far to supply its place. The possibility sug- 
 gests itself in this connection that the Greeks may 
 have cultivated a species of melody or homophonal 
 effect which has been much neglected since the evolu- 
 tion of harmony. I refer to a style of melody in which 
 special character is aimed at rather than spontaneous 
 charm, a style which, with a certain peculiar propriety, 
 involves occasional chromatic intervals, and departs 
 from absolute symmetry of form. It thus would de- 
 mand peculiar nicety of ear and of vocal inflection — 
 qualities which the Greeks possessed probably in per- 
 fection. The following example from "Lohengrin" 
 may be an approach to the effect in question : 
 
 P Cello. 
 
 ff =rg_.Sztc2. 
 
 #=>- 
 
 t 
 
 '^rm^^ 
 
 '- -S:|3. 
 
 A 0~ 
 
 m 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^-=1: 
 
Il8 THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 There is not only a certain completeness in this kind 
 of effect, without harmony, but generally it is better 
 without it. 
 
 There is little of a 'special character to be said con- 
 cerning the position of music with the Greeks. The 
 niost suggestive fact is, that it figured generally not 
 as an independent art but as an element, and not the 
 leading element, in a composite art — poetry, music and 
 dancing, being all embraced by the term, music, whilst 
 sometimes in an ode and even a drama they would all 
 three be the work of a single person. That music 
 entered into the religious ceremonies and public form- 
 alities of the Greeks as well as into their indoor and 
 out-of-door recreation, is well known. To enumerate 
 these various occasions and animadvert upon the great- 
 ness of some of them, would be no doubt to present 
 the art as occupying on such occasions an imposing 
 position. But occasions however grand to which music 
 was accessory in a way that does not come home to 
 us, are from the point of view of my present purpose 
 less interesting than the simplest and humblest cir- 
 cumstance that tends to suggest the individual char- 
 acter of the music connected with it. The fact that 
 young girls and children walked in procession to school 
 
THE RISE OF MUSIC. IIQ 
 
 to the sound of the flute is such an incident. Here 
 we can form some idea of the actual effect; we know 
 it must have been rhythmic according to our conception 
 of rhythm; we feel it must have been tuneful, or it 
 would not have been played to young girls and 
 children. 
 
 The principal association of Greek music in the 
 modern mind is Greek drama. Yet notwithstanding 
 this subject has engaged the attention of many learned 
 investigators few if any have succeeded in conveying 
 a clear idea of its effect. The poetic — the moral and 
 philosophic ideas — in fact all the literary elements- 
 are no doubt understood thoroughly, but their dra- 
 matic presentation in the actual circumstances — the 
 large theatre, open to the sky, the masked actors, the sen- 
 sitive, mobile, many-sided, yet formal and mysterious 
 chorus, and the music of lyres, flutes and citharas — we 
 find it difficult if not impossible to realise. One por- 
 tion — perhaps it was a considerable portion — of the 
 musical effect we can perhaps form some idea of — that 
 connected with the chorus. This would comprise vocal 
 phrases as well as a suitable accompaniment to dancing 
 and walking in procession. The vocal phrases or their 
 accompaniment would probably sometimes possess 
 
I20 THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 /' 
 local colour. The chorus of sea-nymphs in "Pro- 
 metheus" and of the Furies in the "Eumenides" 
 present opportunities for this. As regards the proces- 
 sional music we can conceive its general form, and the 
 same may be said of the music to the dances though 
 here we must guard against the modern associatioiL A 
 writer in the "Edinburgh Review" some half century 
 back refers to a tradition that vestiges of the ancient 
 dancing as well as the ancient music v/ere then still to be 
 found in the East and in some parts of the kingdom of 
 Naples. Probably poetic declamation and the accom- 
 paniment to march and dance — as in the processional 
 odes^often conspired to produce a certain unique effect 
 in which the dancing was partly pantomimic — a poetry 
 of gesture which aided the expression very effectively. 
 To return to the vocal phrases of the chorus — ^we can 
 also to some extent imagine their effect as they broke 
 in upon, or joined in, the monologue or dialogue. Con- 
 sidering that the primitive chorus was a congregation 
 of people at a village festival marching round the 
 altar of their deity singing hymns, and that in the 
 subsequent drama the altar still figured standing in 
 the middle of the orchestra, it seems probable that 
 the choral music of Greek drama would always retain 
 
THE RISE OF MUSIC. 121 
 
 a religious spirit. Concerning, then, some of the music 
 connected with the chorus we can conceive certain quah'- 
 ties that it must have had — qualities fundamental to 
 the circumstances — a certain necessary form when it 
 was a march or dance, and certain fundamental accents 
 of awe or festal feeling which have been always recog- 
 nised by humanity generally. Our ideas, then, of this 
 music need not be altogether colourless. We feel that 
 it had much freedom and variety of character and 
 beat with the pulse of life. 
 
 As to the musical declamation by a single voice, it 
 seems impossible for a modern to conceive the effect of 
 this from the dramatic standpoint. Helmholtz re- 
 marks that vestiges of it might be found in the melo- 
 pceia of Italian reciters, and the chanting of Roman 
 priests. One effect of this recitative we can imagine, 
 namely, that of rendering the language audible — of 
 carrying it about the vast space. Possibly aided by 
 subtle play of gesture either in the speaker or reflected 
 by the chorus, this declamation from the point of view 
 of the religious drama, might have been very effective, 
 the movement and comment of the chorus contributing 
 that fulness and flexibility of expression — that world 
 
122 THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 of life — ^which the orchestral accompaniment gives to 
 recitative in Wagnerian drama. . 
 
 Incidentally I may here add that in the tragedies of 
 .^schylus the chorus alone represented the musical ele- 
 ment; that with Sophocles musical instruments and the 
 dance took part in the dramas ; but that the tragedies of 
 Euripides were altogether musical. 
 
 The period of Greek music is regarded as commenc- 
 ing about the beginning of the eighth century B.C. 
 Its apogee is supposed to have been soon after 
 500 B.C. The stage of development involved in Aris- 
 totle's allusions to the art would be that attained not 
 long subsequent to this. Influenced largely by the art 
 in Egypt and Asia it, at this time, resounded not only 
 throughout Greece but back to Egypt, and from the 
 Asiatic isles to Italy and even the coast of Barbary. 
 
 Towards the approach of the Christian era Greek 
 music begins to be lost to the historian as a national 
 art and to become dissipated amid that vast changing 
 of the old order and begiiming of the new, the Roman 
 empire. A period of innovation — of decadence the 
 purists considered it, certainly of great activity — seems 
 about B.C. 450 (when Aristotle would be approaching 
 middle age) to have set in ; and in this movement flute- 
 
THE RISE OF MUSIC. 123 
 
 playing (both solo and concerted), and cithara play- 
 ing, figured conspicuously. These two instruments 
 constituted the orchestra so far as instrumental music 
 was concerned when music as an element of Greek 
 Drama had risen to its highest importance. This would 
 include the period of Euripides and Sophocles, whose 
 lives, largely contemporaneous, extended through the 
 greater part of the fifth century B.C. Later on, when 
 the Dionysian artists (really strolling players) exploited 
 the Grecian comedy in the provinces they took with 
 them a flautist and cithara player. The law of change 
 and development and the no less inevitable tendency of 
 one civilization to act upon another — which influences 
 were no doubt operating definitely in the musical art of 
 the Greeks at this period — were destined about the 
 middle of the fourth century to receive a strong impetus 
 from the expeditions of Alexander the Great, for with 
 the introduction of Asiatic luxury thus occasioned came 
 greater knowledge and use of Asiatic instruments. At 
 this period the great Harp, to which I have already re- 
 ferred, is in evidence. Most probably also the Tam- 
 bourah (or some development of it in the Guitar and 
 Lute tribe of instruments), entered Greece at this time, 
 if it had not done so before. 
 
124 THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 In considering the general effect upon Greek music 
 of all the activity above referred to, it is to be remem- 
 bered that the, so to speak, classical instruments with 
 the Greeks — the instruments with which their patriotic 
 feelings were more particularly associated — remained 
 the Lyre and Cithara. The Persian wars had left with 
 the pure Greeks a horror of anything Asiatic — anything 
 that raised the remembrance of the heathen enemy. At 
 the same time the effect of that activity upon the musi- 
 cal art of this period, though that art may have ceased 
 to represent the national art of the Greeks, must have 
 been very great. That the flautists, if not the players 
 upon those instruments of the lute tribe to which I have 
 just referred as likely to have been imported at this 
 time, to some extent modulated, on the one hand, and 
 on the other, introduced what we should call chromatic 
 effect, seems certain. Some effects involving modula- 
 tion were no doubt, portion of the musical tradition 
 that descended to the Greeks from the Egyptians, who, 
 as we have seen, in the Tamboura, had free access to 
 various scales, and in the Flute, access into more than 
 one, whilst their great Harp of 35 strings suggests that 
 some provision for modulating existed in that instru- 
 ment. In contemplating the representations of instru- 
 
THE RISE OF MUSIC. 1 25 
 
 ments left by the Greeks on monuments, vases; in 
 pictures and sculpture; the most striking thing is the 
 negative fact, that there is no instrument that appears 
 so suggestive of modulation as the Tamboura of the 
 Egyptians and Assyrians. For the types of all the 
 instruments in these representations may be reduced to 
 two: the flute-type and lyre-type — the latter would, 
 of course, be involved by the Cithara and Harp. 
 
 The appearance of the Tamboura in Egyptian ancf 
 Assyrian representations is such a salient fact from the 
 point of view of musical development — this seeming 
 the one instrument of the highest antiquity* by which 
 on a few strings by means of a finger-board not only a 
 greater number of notes than were attainable on the 
 largest Harp could be produced, but every kind of 
 interval — that I give over page a representation of it. 
 
 Yet notwithstanding among the instruments of the 
 Greeks there may not appear any on the surface so sug- 
 gestive of modulation as the Tamboura, or even the 
 
 * It occurs In Egyptian representations of concerts of the 
 eighteenth dynasty which dates, according to Sir Gardner 
 Wilkinson, from b.c. 1575 to 1289; and in hieroglyphs at least 
 600 years earlier. See " An Introduction to the Study of the 
 Egyptian Hieroglyphs," by Samuel Birch, London, 1857, p. 225. 
 
126 THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 FIG. 8. TAMBOURA OR EGYPTIAN LUTE. 
 (NECROPOLIS OF THEBES.) 
 
 great Harp, this people may in practice in their use o£ 
 Flute and Cithara — and more particularly in their use 
 of either in connection with the human voice — have 
 developed largely whatever knowledge of modulation 
 may have come down to them. So also it seems prob- 
 able they would have further developed that knowledge 
 of harmony and accompaniment which we saw reason 
 to assume the Egyptians and Assyrians possessed. 
 That they must have been familiar with the abstract 
 effect of harmony is evident from Euclid's definition of 
 
THE RISE OF MUSIC. 1 27 
 
 the difference between a consonance and a dissonance : 
 " The consonance is the association of two sounds, one 
 acute, the other grave. The dissonance on the con- 
 trary is the inaptitude of two sounds to become associ- 
 ated without producing a hard impression upon the 
 ear." 
 
 To return to modulation — whatever the respective 
 shares of Egyptian, Assyrian or Greek, may have been 
 in the achievement — that in the third century B.C., the 
 point of departure to modulation had been found and 
 passed, the fact of the system of Euclid, to which I 
 have already called attention, definitely attests. In 
 this system, as I have pointed out, we find a scale and a 
 transposition of it so related that an essential portion 
 of one is identical with an essential portion of the 
 other, the particular relation in this case being the same 
 as that between a certain scale and the scale of its 
 subdominant, in our system. Thus we have here vir- 
 tually (notwithstanding the scale in the system of 
 Euclid is a minor scale), the initiation of our present 
 system of twelve major and twelve minor scales. 
 
 Now the difference in the extent of development 
 between this principle of overlapping or enwoven scales 
 in the case of the system of Euclid, and our system, 
 
128 
 
 THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 lies at the root of the difference so far as fulness of 
 form is concerned, between ancient Greek and modtem 
 music; the lagune between the two extents of develop- 
 ment may, in fact, be said to represent the creation, the 
 experiment, the practise — in fact, the whole musical 
 progress — ^between the close of the period of Greek 
 music and some two thousand years later when the 
 modern system became completed. This will be seen 
 more clearly in the light of the following analysis of 
 our system : 
 
 First, we have twelve major scales so related that 
 each sound of any one scale may function as an essen- 
 tial note of seven of those scalesj whilst the sound a 
 semitone distant from it, up or down, may function as 
 an essential note of the remaining five. For instance, 
 take the notes E and F, as being a semitone apart, the 
 following diagram shows (i) the scales of which they 
 are respectively essential notes. Thus : 
 
 E is the F is the 
 
 1st degree of E ist degree of F 
 
 7th 
 
 , F 
 
 7th 
 
 , Gb 
 
 6th 
 
 , G 
 
 6th 
 
 , A\, 
 
 5th 
 
 , A 
 
 5th 
 
 „ B\> 
 
 4th 
 
 , B 
 
 4th 
 
 , c 
 
 3rd 
 
 , c 
 
 3rd 
 
 , Db 
 
 and , 
 
 , D 
 
 2nd 
 
 , Eb 
 
THE RISE OF MUSIC. 1 29 
 
 And (2), that whichever list of scales we take, 
 whether that under E or that under F, the five scales 
 necessary to complete the series of twelve are contained 
 in the other list. 
 
 In the above example the step of a semitone corres- 
 ponds to one of the diatonic semitones of the scale of 
 C. Now this particular case further illustrates that 
 four degrees of every major scale — the 3rd, 4th, 7th 
 and 8th, as well as (in common with the other degrees), 
 being respectively available as essential notes of 
 seven scales, may lead by the step of a semitone to a 
 note capable of becoming an essential note of the com- 
 plementary five without that step involving a departure 
 from the sounds of the original scale. 
 
 Thus we see that in any major scale the sounds 
 involved in the two diatonic semitones, between them 
 thread the whole system, as do all the other sounds of 
 such scale in conjunction in each case with the chromatic 
 semitone above or below. 
 
 A still further order of variety arises out of the fore- 
 going enweavement of scales. Each note of a scale is 
 hedged in by a note a semitone distant above and 
 below. Now as well as these bordering notes being 
 
 capable as we have seen, of becoming essential notes of 
 
 K 
 
I30 
 
 THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 Other scales they may be treated as chromatic altera- 
 tions of the notes of the scale on which they abut, both 
 in melody and harmony, and far more than mere orna- 
 mentation and increased piquancy or even increased 
 intensity of expression is involved in the additional 
 power thus given to the scale. For instance, in the fol- 
 lowing strain the chromatic effect gives all the beauty 
 to the opening part 
 
 ^^gi 
 
 g 
 
 It— t 
 
 -a 
 
 1 
 
 whilst in the following, it is fundamental to its expres- 
 sion. 
 
 r- 
 
 ^ 
 
 ?===*•=? 
 
 So, in harmony ; as thus ; 
 
 ^:|ifrz=fs-J 
 
 
 =]^-=) H 
 
 %J 
 
 „ :i d: -.i. 
 
 
 
 &c. 
 
 z m '4 
 
 ^-£i^= 
 
 
 E=W-^=y 
 
 Thus through our system of overlapping scales each 
 scale has not only liens permitting more or less im- 
 
THE RISE OF MUSIC. 131 
 
 mediate modulation with the eleven other scales but 
 possesses, so to speak, a borderland where a world of 
 new effect may be touched upon without the old key 
 being left. 
 
 Now I have referred to the lagune between our system 
 and that of Euclid, as standing for the working of the 
 musical impulse during the two thousand years follow- 
 ing the Greek development amid all the varied phases 
 of life — the strenuous activities, the strife, the ming- 
 ling of peoples, and epoch-making events, that 
 occurred in that interval. I thus imply that the modern 
 system as just described is (as was that of Euclid) vir- 
 tually the result of practical musical activity the in- 
 spiration and main guide of which was aesthetic feeling. 
 It may be truly said that the simple knowledge of 
 musical sounds or of any system into which they may 
 be formed could only be a general and distant cause of 
 such a system as ours. The Greeks as we have seen, 
 knew of the diatonic scale; they also knew of the 
 chromatic scale, and of various combinations of both. 
 Further, Aristoxenes (pupil of Aristotle), arrived at 
 dividing the octave into twelve semitones by proceeding 
 by fifths and neglecting the slightly too great sharp- 
 ness of the ultimate sound. Here were, so to speak, 
 
132 THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 all the raw materials of our system. But neither this 
 nor any further knowledge or analysis, classification or 
 arrangement of its elements (that is to say : no action 
 of mere theorists), could have put it together. Nothing 
 could have done so but aesthetic feeling prompting 
 practical musical activity, aided by the play of circum- 
 stance. This explains the vast stretch of time involved 
 in the development of the modern system, as, in fact, it 
 does (as I said in the introduction to this work) that 
 involved in the whole development of musical eirt. One 
 of the essential differences between music and the other 
 arts (excepting architecture), is that whereas in them — 
 say in painting and sculpture — the elements of the form 
 are already extant in nature, in music those elements, — 
 that is, the constituent phrases, — are themselves creations 
 due in the first instance to aesthetic prompting. Thus 
 they can only increase through successive outflows 
 of that prompting in the ordinary course of 
 art activity the progress of which depends upon cir- 
 cumstance and time. I have said that the abstract fact 
 of harmony must have been known to the ancient 
 world, — as also it is virtually certain were some of its 
 applications in accompaniment and perhaps concerted 
 effect, — ^but, as we shall see as we proceed, a special pre- 
 
THE RISE OF MUSIC. 1 33 
 
 paration of circumstance had to form for the conditions 
 to come about that were destined to lead to its modern 
 development. So (to allude again to this), though 
 Aristoxenes in dividing the octave into twelve semi- 
 tones treated the ultimate note in the operation as a 
 true octave of the beginning note, it was aesthetic 
 prompting working in the formation and use of our 
 system of related scales, that sanctioned that proceeding. 
 These considerations reveal the need of all the effort 
 and play of circumstance that filled up the interval of 
 musical history between the period of the system of 
 Euclid and the beginning of the modern period when our 
 tonal system was completed. Thus we see how impossi- 
 ble it was for the ancient Greeks to produce musical art 
 approaching ours in fulness of form, and how largely 
 different from ours its effect must have consequently 
 been. Moreover, that certain phases of melodic expres- 
 sion with which we are familiar were absent in all ancient 
 music seems to follow from the consideration that 
 modern melody has been influenced profoundly by the 
 development of harmony — first generally, by this having 
 tended so greatly to strengthen the feeling of the key- 
 note, and secondly, by the special jesthetic effect of cer- 
 
134 THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 tain modern harmonic progressions — they having, so to 
 speak, induced melody to develop along certain lines. 
 As we know, in the Greek period, music in its more 
 serious efforts never became an independent art; but 
 that it arrived at beauty in song, dance and march — 
 with accent, expression, fulness and strenuousness of 
 effect — ^we cannot doubt. Although within this period 
 the conditions were not ripe for it to be more than an 
 accessory to poetry and movement yet the foundations 
 of the modern art were definitely laid — our diatonic 
 scale was unfolded ; the sense of the keynote had become 
 more or less clear; our system of overlapping scales 
 had begun to be formed ; and development in the direc- 
 tion of modulation begun. 
 
THE RISE OF MUSIC. 1 35 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 Roman Music. 
 
 'T^HE path of development in musical history passes 
 from Greece to Rome. Not because the Roman 
 mind supplied any new links that were vital to 
 that development but because it kept the art in large 
 evidence until the time arrived for circumstance in one 
 of its often unobtrusive ways to influence it. 
 
 As to the general history of music with the Romans 
 not much need be said here. It is first come upon in 
 connection with the religious ceremonies of a laborious 
 yet martial people whose priests performed their sac- 
 rifices to the sounds of the flute and double flute. 
 Located about the middle of the Italian peninsula they 
 had been influenced by the Asiatic musical tradition 
 through the Etruscans to the north, whence came their 
 knowledge of the above mentioned instruments. In all 
 
136 THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 their public eulogies of great men it was the flute that 
 accompanied the traditional songs, as it was the sounds 
 of the flute (small and large) that helped to voice the 
 weeping of young girls and women in their funeral 
 lamentations. 
 
 As the peninsula to the south was occupied by the 
 more refined of the Greeks it was natural that the 
 Romans should have been influenced by these musi- 
 cally as in other ways ; so that when subsequently they 
 vanquished them they soon assimilated their music and 
 the use of their instruments. 
 
 I referred in the previous chapter to the Dionysian 
 artists who took the Greek tragedies and comedies 
 about the then civilised world cind had among them a 
 flute and a cithara player. In the year B.C. 167 
 these players appeared for the first time in Rome. They 
 had been summoned (in order to celebrate his triumph) 
 by Anicius who had gloriously terminated the war with 
 Illyria (the provinces south and west of the Danube) 
 by the conquest of the nation and the captivity of its 
 king. 
 
 As the nation grew, and musical instruments of vari- 
 ous kinds poured into Rome from Greece, Asia, Africa 
 and even beirbarous countries, the flute remained the 
 
THE RISE OF MUSIC. 1 37 
 
 instrument essentially Roman, the trumpet, which was 
 the Roman instrument of war, and also regarded as a 
 sacred instrument — coming next. 
 
 Ultimately as regards music the Romans were so 
 H'elenised that it became fashionable with them to sing 
 in the Greek language to the accompaniment of lyre 
 and cithara, whilst the more celebrated teachers 
 throughout the empire were generally Greeks. 
 
 The general development of the art with the Romans 
 was thus the same as it was with the Greeks, but it was 
 applied somewhat differently. The Romans being a 
 people accustomed to worldly triumph and display 
 drew upon it mainly for its more imposing effects. 
 Under the emperors brilliant displays of this descrip- 
 tion took place in both public and private concerts. 
 Seneca, in describing a concert, refers to the accents of 
 women mingling with the voices of men, to flutes join- 
 ing in the chorus, and to the sounds of wind and other 
 instruments being opposed in such a way as to produce 
 a most agreeable combination. 
 
 It was as theorists rather than as practical musicians 
 that the Romans left their mark on musical develop- 
 ment. One of the most celebrated of these was the 
 architect Vitruvius in whose writings is found an early 
 
138 THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 reference to the organ the first mention of which occurs 
 in a description of it by Hero (Fl. 3rd century, B.C.), 
 who made some improvements in the instrument as 
 left by his father Ctestibus, the Greek physicist popu- 
 larly regarded as its inventor and who if we consider 
 the principle of the organ to be a combination of pipes 
 sounded by mechanical means probably was so. I shall 
 shortly make some further remarks on this important 
 instrument; the above referred to allusion to it, how- 
 ever, in its infant stage — stands out amid the some- 
 what pointless state of things with regard to musical 
 development which under the Roman regime I 
 have been describing. Another fact coming under 
 that regime and having somewhat particular in- 
 terest is the following. Towards the year B.C. 30 there 
 came to Rome from Egypt, a form of dramatic enter- 
 tainment which spreading quickly gave a great impulse 
 to musical art in its more varied application. This 
 was the Greek-oriental pantomime, tragic and comic, 
 in which music was a very important factor, the 
 dancers in it being accompanied by large and brilliant 
 orchestras. This form of dramatic representation 
 gradually replaced the ancient theatre. 
 
THE RISE OF MUSIC. 139 
 
 Thus resounding throughout the Roman empire in 
 accents and inflexions, new and old; systematised ; 
 voiced by flute, lute, lyre, harp and the human choir ; in 
 form infinitely varied within the limit of its develop- 
 ment; speaking of every feeling, and pulsing with the 
 abounding life; music that has been expanding from 
 the prime, and whilst broadening in form strengthen- 
 ing in unity, passes into the Christian period. 
 
PART II. 
 
 THE CHRISTIAN PERIOD. 
 
THE RISE OF MUSIC. 143 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 The Continuity of the Art during the Early 
 Centuries of the Christian Era. 
 
 ^"'HE reader is of course familiar with Milton's 
 " Hymn on the Nativity," and consequently with 
 the following beautiful lines: — 
 
 " The winds with wonder whist 
 Smoothly the waters kissed 
 Whispering new joys to the mild ocean. 
 
 » » * ♦ 
 
 The stars with deep amaze 
 Stand fixed in earnest gaze 
 Bending one way their precious influence." 
 
 Yet notwithstanding; when the hour struck that de- 
 cided the commencement of our era no unwonted 
 mystic thrill pervaded the human consciousness but the 
 moments flowed as before and after. So, under the 
 Roman regime, life in its mingled character and 
 
144 THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 strenuous activity passed from one epoch to the other 
 without break, pause or any kind of intermission. And 
 so we can have no doubt that at the beginning of the 
 first century of our era music resounded on the surface 
 of life and moved m.an much as I have endeavoured 
 • to indicate it did at the close of the last chapter. What 
 change it might have unfolded — ^how long a time 
 would have passed before a new departure came about 
 in the absence of that to which I am going to refer, 
 we can have no idea of. But, as I have hinted, special 
 circumstance in seeming obscure and unimportant 
 guise was imminent — ^was destined to touch music with 
 its fateful finger (fateful in creating as in destroying) 
 — and to decide the time and largely the character of 
 the art's ulterior development. While the empire shone 
 in all its splendour, and Rome re-echoed with strains 
 gay, gracious or triumphant from voice and instru- 
 ment, beneath, in the underground chambers of the 
 catacombs, or in secluded country places, the proscribed 
 Christians prayed, and sang their heart- felt hymns. ;- 
 Readers of musical history are familiar with the 
 assumption that the songs of the early Christian 
 church were the germs from which modern music 
 developed. If this assumption were the truth it would 
 
ST. CECILIA. 
 
 FnO.M AN EN(-iRAV[Ni; OF THE Pl( TLRE FAINTEh BV G I. J nO RENI. 
 
 (Born at Cai.venzano, Bdloc.na, 1.j7u, died lti42.> 
 
 Faciiia iviije lU. 
 
THE RISE OF MUSIC. 145 
 
 follow that those songs constituted the definite legacy 
 which ancient music bequeathed to modern. 
 
 Now the progress I have thus far made in impressing 
 the fact of the general continuity of -musical art, will 
 probably have prepared the reader for my stating that 
 the above inference represents far from the whole truth 
 of this matter. As we proceed, whilst pointing out 
 the epoch-making importance upon the art of that study 
 and systematic cultivation which the above songs 
 initiated, I shall bring forward some evidence to show 
 that they did not by far constitute the whole contribu- 
 tion of ancient to modern music. 
 
 How the early Christians came by these songs, what 
 the words were, and the actual effect of the music, we 
 do not know. To speak of the music, which is that 
 which mainly concerns us, was this Jewish, Greek, or 
 gathered from melody floating in the air? There are 
 certain facts which lend far from weak support to the 
 idea that some of the chants in question belonged to the 
 style and system of Hebrew music. The first Christians 
 were virtually a sect of the Jews, and the first fifteen 
 bishops of Jerusalem were all circumcised Jews. Some 
 reasons may also be given bearing against the sugges- 
 tion that Greek religious hymns mingled in the early 
 
146 THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 Christian songs. If Gibbon is a reliable guide there 
 was a strong repugnance on the part of the early 
 Christians to Greek music, as witness the following 
 passages : — 
 
 "Every art and every trade that was in the least 
 concerned in the framing and adorning of idols was 
 polluted by the stain of idolatry * * * Even the arts of 
 music and painting, of eloquence and poetry, flowed 
 from the same impure origin." Further, that spirit of 
 asceticism which animated the members of the early 
 Christian church probably also operated as a preventive 
 of its adopting the music found without, as witness 
 the following passages from the same writer : — 
 
 " The unfeeling candidate for heaven was Instructed 
 to resist not only the grosser allurements of the taste 
 or smell but even to shut his ears against the profane 
 harmony of sounds." * * * "In the censures of luxury 
 the fathers are extremely minute and circumstantial; 
 and among the various articles which excite their pious 
 indignation we may enumerate false hair, garments 
 of any colour except white, instruments of music." 
 
 It is thought that chanting antiphonally was one of 
 the forms which this music assumed, from the well- 
 known letter of the younger Pliny to the Emperor 
 
THE RISE OF MUSIC. 1 47 
 
 Trajan (about A.D. no), to the effect that the Christians 
 were in the habit of assembling before sunrise and 
 chanting a hymn to Christ as God "by turns among 
 themselves." This would seem to suggest the influence 
 of the Temple. 
 
 Music during the earlier centuries of our era is gener- 
 ally regarded by the historian not as simply veiled by 
 the penumbra of antiquity but as lost in total dark- 
 ness. As regards details the latter may be the case; 
 but as regards certain general facts we know some- 
 thing. As I have said we may assume that popular art 
 did not cease at the rise of Christianity — that as other 
 sides of life persisted so did the musical — that as the 
 mother still sang to her child, and peasant, mariner 
 and artisan, still threw off their snatches of melody or 
 trolled their roundelays, so musician and dilettante 
 neither ceased from the land nor contented themselves 
 with religious melodies. But besides knowing these 
 general facts we can draw some particular conclusions 
 from our recent study of antiquity. We have seen that 
 through some inherent relation between man and music 
 the art is not only continuous but pursues a particular 
 path of development. 
 
148 THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 That the cultivation of Greco-Latin music continued 
 long into the Christian period is evidenced by the fact 
 that about A.D. 500 Clovis, King of the Franks, ap- 
 plied to Theodoric, King of the Ostrogoths, for a 
 Greek Cithara; and that at most three centuries later 
 sacred and popular art, whatever the actual effect of 
 each may have been, were then, as they are now, one 
 language, is implied by the story of a Lombardian 
 Jongleur pleasing Charlemagne (who took a particular 
 interest in church music) by one day singing to him 
 an original composition. The following story points 
 also to the latter conclusion. 
 
 Adhelm, Bishop of Sherbournes (9th century) upon 
 entering his church one day, found it empty. Undis- 
 concerted, he procured a Harp, stationed himself out- 
 side, on the near bridge, and began to sing; then when 
 a crowd had collected he proceeded to preach. It might 
 be naturally supposed that the sacred and secular music 
 of this period involved (as the two styles in the known 
 portion of the art's history are seen to involve) the 
 same fundamental principles of form. Still it has 
 been so much the custom to regard the art as having 
 begun de novo in the early Christian church, with only 
 certain simple chants as a foundation, that the picture 
 
THE RISE OF MUSIC. 1 49 
 
 of the Bishop singing to his harp and drawing a crowd 
 of listeners in the public thoroughfare seems to possess 
 a novel suggestiveness — bringing home to us that the 
 music of the Church must have contained a popular 
 note. Even regarded only as traditions the above 
 stories are evidence that the oneness of musical effect 
 which they imply was considered a natural state of 
 things. 
 
 That the effect of sacred music about the period of 
 the 8th century was confined to that understood as 
 belonging to the early Christian chants is question- 
 able.. In the first place these chants, so far as our 
 knowledge of them is concerned, are incomplete and 
 consequently lifeless. L. A. Bourgault Ducoudray 
 speaks of them thus*: "these (melodies of plain-song) 
 divested to-day of their rhythm and primitive char- 
 acter, resemble mummies if we compare them with the 
 living melodies of the East." In the second place the 
 application of music to religious worship was, then, as 
 it is always, subject to certain conditions, and affected 
 by particular circumstances. The reader will remember 
 that the Greek modes as finally settled by Ptolemy 
 
 * In preface to " Melodies Populaires de Grece et d'Orient." 
 
150 THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 were based upon the scale of A minor (with the large 
 and small whole tones related as at present). They, 
 were in fact, simply the scale of A minor, extended 
 to two octaves, with its transpositions on the 
 succeeding seven degrees. Now Robert Charles Hope, 
 who, as we know, has made a special study of mediaeval 
 music, considers that these are the true Greek and real 
 mediaeval modes, and that the form and use of the 
 octave-scales in the Church in mediaeval times were due 
 to the limited compass of the organs used in the Church 
 at this period, which compass allowed part only of a 
 mode to be played upon them, and that out of these 
 circumstances what are called the ecclesiastical modes 
 arose — that part or particular octave of the general 
 system which was adopted (perhaps because it was 
 embraced by particular chants) getting to be regarded 
 as an independent scale. Thus, referring to the in- 
 troduction of the Organ into the West in the /th cen- 
 tury, with its limitation of notes, he says: — "A part 
 only of a mode could be accompanied or played upon 
 it, and this part, or octave scale, gradually came to be 
 looked upon as a complete mode, instead of being 
 but a portion of one; and the chants written in these 
 octave scales with their restricted compass, and the 
 
THE RISE OF MUSIC. 151 
 
 positions of their semitones varying in each, in course 
 of time, were known as the ' plain song ' chants of the 
 Church, and eventually were thought to possess some 
 sacred import." 
 
 The following remarks of Mr. Hope are also inter- 
 esting in this connection : — 
 
 "The earliest compilation of 'Plainsong' of which 
 there is any record is of the latter half of the eighth 
 century, and to this period also is assigned the first 
 mention of the scales in the form in which the 'Plain- 
 song' is written; and, further, that it was at this time 
 the modes were cast into that form in which we know 
 them. 
 
 " There is not a tittle of evidence, nor a shred of in- 
 formation of any kind which even suggests that any 
 alteration was intentionally made in the form or ar- 
 rangement of the scale as finally settled by Ptolemy 
 in the second century. The use of the Organ as an 
 accompaniment to the singing in its primitive form 
 must have compelled the arranging of the vocal music 
 in such a manner that it should conform to the 
 exigences of the instrument." * * * 
 
 "If the mediaeval system of music was not the direct 
 outcome of the necessarily restricted compass of the 
 
152 THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 primitive organ, we must fall back on the only other 
 feasible theory, viz., that the portions of the Greek 
 modes applied to the octave lyres were adopted, with 
 their semitones occurring in different positions in each 
 series of octaves." 
 
 This latter theory is easily conceivable. As the oc- 
 tave lyres of the Greeks were so conformed as for each 
 different scaled lyre to be suitable for certain melodies, 
 supposing some of these, or melodies resembling them, 
 to have been adopted by the Church, then (the compass 
 of the organ being restricted to an octave) the various 
 scales of the lyres on the one hand and of the organs 
 on the other would necessarily to a great extent respec- 
 tively coincide. 
 
 The series of octave-scales obtained by taking the 
 seven different positions of the scale of A minor — i.e., 
 by commencing the scale on each of its notes in turn 
 and reading upwards, Mr. Hope regards as false 
 Greek and false Mediaeval modes;* whilst the division 
 of these eight octave-scales into four authentic and 
 four plagal he considers a purely fanciful division. 
 
 # One Flaccus Albinus-Alcuin who was born in York and lived 
 c. 750, died 804, is the first to mention these scales ; he is credited 
 with having arranged them and cast them into form. 
 
THE RISE OF MUSIC. 1 53 
 
 That it is so seems obvious. One can understand that 
 the octave-scales based on the second and the sixth of 
 the minor scale should have been separated theoretic- 
 ally from the others, as the beginning note of the first 
 has an imperfect fifth and that of the second a plu- 
 perfect fourth, but as each of the others has a perfect 
 fifth followed by a perfect fourth, and vice versd, why 
 a melody should not involve their division into 5 -f- 4 
 or 4 + 5, according to the free prompting of the com- 
 poser seems — if these octave-scales are supposed to be 
 each an abstract repertory of intervals — unintelligible. 
 
 The foregoing particulars then suggest that we 
 should in all probability find a certain restriction of 
 form and character in the church themes of this period 
 even if we could properly realise their effect. But that 
 it was as plain and cold as attempted modern repro- 
 ductions of it, or as the ecclesiastical modes (in their 
 restrictedness in character and limited compass) them- 
 selves suggest seems inconsistent on the one hand with 
 the probability of some of the inspirations of Greek or 
 Greco-Latin music having been ultimately adopted by 
 the church, cind on the other, with certain enthusiastic 
 allusions to the sacred music of this period, which have 
 
154 THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 come down to us. Thus the venerable Bede (d. 735) 
 speaking of the appearance, playing and effect of the 
 organ of his time, refers to the player drawing from it 
 " a grand and most sweet melody." Then there is the 
 well known passage in St. Augustine's Confessions : 
 "I remember my tears at my conversion under the 
 melody of thy church, with which I am still affected." 
 In explanation of the absence of this beauty and poig- 
 nancy of expression from the mediaeval sacred effects 
 that have come down to us we must take into considera- 
 tion the fact that at this period the art was a long way 
 from that great achievement an effectual notation. It 
 seems quite possible that just as many pre-Palestrina 
 sacred works (as well as some of those of his contem- 
 poraries)* through special circumstances remained 
 buried many centuries in the dust of libraries yet have 
 recently been found to possess a warmth of spiritual 
 passion and chastened perfection of beauty scarcely 
 attained in the works of Palestrina himself, so the still 
 earlier sacred music to which I have been referring may 
 have contained a beauty and expression that through 
 imperfection of the record is now totally lost. 
 
 * Notably those of Ockeghem (i4ao-i5i2), Obrecht (1430-1584) 
 and Sweelinck (1563-1631). 
 
THE RISE OF MUSIC. 155 
 
 Thus much as to the continuity of the art in general 
 through the dark period of the early Christian cen- 
 turies. As we proceed we shall see that in the course 
 of those centuries while it persisted in the path it had 
 taken in the antique period it was met by circumstances 
 which not only confirmed its progress in that path but 
 unlocked a potentiality destined to enlarge its develop- 
 ment at every point, and almost transfigure it in the in- 
 crease of its power and grandeur — the potentiality 
 namely of modern harmony. 
 
156 THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 Early Traces of the Organ and the Viol: The 
 Hexachordal System. 
 
 •HP HAT music continued in the course of development 
 it was pursuing at the period of the scale of 
 Euclid may be clearly seen by glancing at the 
 practice of the Church in the tenth century. The musi- 
 cal scale as used in the Church at this period is re- 
 vealed in a poetical description, by a monk named 
 Wulstan, of an organ erected in Winchester Cathedral 
 by order of Bishop Elphege, who died A.D. 951; in 
 which the following suggestive passage occurs. " They 
 strike the seven differences of joyous sounds adding 
 the music of the lyric semitone." According to Dr. 
 E. J. Hopkins, the scale of this organ was the diatonic 
 scale corresponding to an octave of the white keys of 
 the pianoforte with only the addition of B-flat, to 
 which the music of the lyric semitone evidently refers. 
 
THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 157 
 
 The expression itself suggests that it was in the pursuit 
 of melodic effect that this development occurred. 
 
 Hitherto in the course of this work I have touched 
 but slightly on the organ, but at this point it is perhaps 
 not inappropriate to give a brief account of this impor- 
 tant instrument down to the period we have reached. 
 
 Although, according to William Chappell, the 
 Greeks derived the organ from Egypt, a land of reeds, 
 it is, as I have said, only directly traceable to Ctestibus 
 by whose son, the celebrated Heron or Hero, it was 
 improved and whose description of it is the first known 
 mention of it. The earliest known representations of 
 organs appear on medals of the third and fourth cen- 
 turies. I give copies of two of these. 
 
 ORGAN AS REPRESENTED ON THE MEDALLIONS CALLED 
 CONTORNIATES.* 
 
 * Supposed to have been ptruck in the reign of the Emperor 
 Constantine (a.d. 37a-337). 
 
158 THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 ORGAN AS REPRESENTED ON THE MEDALLIONS CALLED 
 CONTORNIATES. 
 
 In the larger of these representations, as the reader 
 will observe, eleven or twelve pipes appear mounted 
 on a case, and two men, one on each side, are indicated 
 working bellows. 
 
 The following is a translation of a poetic description 
 of the organ by the Emperor Julian (A.D. 331-363). 
 
 "Pipes of a particular kind present themselves to 
 my eyes, they are fixed upon a bronze chest. A strong 
 breath animates them, but it is not human breath. The 
 wind driven out of the hide of a bull that imprisoned 
 it passes to the bottom of the appropriately pierced 
 tubes. A skilful player with supple fingers directs by 
 his varying touch the valves attached to the tubes, 
 which, bounding gently under the action of his fingers, 
 give forth a sweet song." 
 
 St. Jerome (A.D. 374-420), and Cassidorous, Consul 
 of Rome (died A.D. 560, aged about ninety), also left 
 
THE RISE OF MUSIC. 1 59 
 
 descriptions of the Organ. It would seem that the 
 instrument in each of the three cases consisted of bel- 
 lows, chest, pipes and valves for eliciting the sounds. 
 In the description of St. Jerome fifteen pipes are men- 
 tioned. As to size, on the medals, as the reader may 
 perceive, the instrument appears to stand higher than 
 a man ; but portable organs such as could be carried from 
 house to house by the servants were largely used through- 
 out the middle ages for purposes of entertainment. 
 These were furnished with six, seven or eight notes. 
 
 The use of the organ in the Church appears to have 
 spread very gradually. The following few particulars 
 throw some light on the early connection of this in- 
 strument with the Church in Spain, Italy, Gaul, Ger- 
 many and England: — According to Julianus, a 
 Spanish bishop, it was in common use in his time, i.e., 
 about A.D. 450. A church in Grado, an ancient city in 
 Italy, is mentioned as containing an Organ prior to 
 A.D. 580. Then (in compliance with his request to the 
 Byzantine emperor, Constantine) an Organ was sent to 
 Pippin, the father of Charles the Great, about A.D. 757, 
 from which it has been inferred that before that time 
 there were no organs in Gaul or Germany. In the fol- 
 lowing century (A.D. 872) John VIII., bishop of Rome, 
 
l6o THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 writing to bishop Anno in Germany, asks him to send 
 the best organ that can be prepared, also a tutor. In 
 the next century, in England, St. Dunstan (A.D. 924- 
 988), who was a maker of organs, is reported to have 
 supplied many great churches; and St. Ethelwold, 
 bishop of Winchester (A.D. 963-984), was also a maker. 
 The remarkable organ erected in Winchester Ca,thedra] 
 by Bishop Elphege (to v,fhich I have already referred), 
 was, as the reader w,ill remember, also of this century. 
 This organ had four hundred pipes and forty keys; it 
 was played by two musicians, and supplied with air 
 by twenty-six bellows. The organs first used in the 
 Church were probably comparatively small instru- 
 ments. The larger kind came to be used as spacious 
 and lofty cathedral churches began to cover the land. 
 
 The first key-board applied to the organ is said to be 
 that introduced into the organ in the cathedral of 
 Magdeburgh, about the close of the nth century. 
 There were sixteen keys which are said to have been an 
 ell long and three inches broad. There were no black 
 keys and no pedals. 
 
 To resume my general argument — formulated evi- 
 dence that the principle of our system of overlapping 
 scales was preserved throughout the portion of the 
 
THE RISE OF MUSIC. l6l 
 
 Christian period which my remarks have thus far 
 embraced appears in the Hexachordal system which 
 was in use in the time of Guido Aretino (or Guy 
 D'Arezzo), born end of loth century, died towards A.D. 
 1050 — and which is associated with his name. 
 
 The basis of this system is a series of six notes com- 
 mencing on the lower G of the bass staff and related as 
 follows : 
 
 ^ 
 
 g 
 
 ___6>_a_: 
 
 -,TIZE2. 
 
 A similar series commences on the fourth degree (C) of 
 the above, and another on the fourth degree (F) of the 
 second, series. The third hexachord consequently in- 
 volves B-flat. These three hexachords being repeated 
 in the octave, and the first, in the second octave, the 
 whole constitutes a series of seven hexachords as shown 
 on next page : As the reader will observe, the successive 
 intervals in the case of each hexachord are the same. 
 This fact is expressed by applying the six syllables, Ut, 
 Re, Mi, Fa, Sol, La to each Hexachord. Thus a singer 
 having mastered the melodic relations of a single hexa- 
 chord can by means of the bridge (or common) tones 
 
 involved between the hexachords, and by mutation of 
 
 M 
 
l62 
 
 THE RISE OF MUSIC 
 
 the syllable, find easily the sound of any note in an 
 adjoining hexachord. 
 
 TABLE OF HEXACHORDS. 
 
 e e 
 d 
 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 
 - 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 La 
 
 Sol 
 
 La 
 
 c 
 
 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 Sol 
 
 Fa 
 
 b 
 
 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 
 Mi 
 
 bi> 
 a 
 
 
 • 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 5 
 
 Fa 
 Mi 
 
 Re 
 
 La 
 
 S 
 
 
 • 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 Sol 
 Fa • 
 Mi 
 R^ 
 
 Re 
 
 Ut 
 
 Ut 
 
 i 
 
 
 e 
 
 La 
 Sol 
 
 
 d 
 
 La 
 
 c 
 b 
 
 
 - 
 
 Sol 
 
 Fa 
 Mi 
 
 Ut 
 
 
 
 
 bl, 
 a 
 
 
 3 
 
 Fa 
 
 Mi' 
 
 Re 
 
 
 
 
 La 
 
 g 
 F 
 E 
 
 I 
 
 Sol 
 Mi 
 
 Re 
 
 Ut 
 
 Ut 
 
 
 
 
 
 La 
 
 
 D 
 
 Sol 
 
 Re 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 C 
 B 
 
 Fa 
 
 Mi 
 
 Ut 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 A 
 
 Re 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 G 
 
 Ut 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 These hexachords suggest a fact tha,t will be illus- 
 trated over and over again in the course of this wprk, 
 namely, that system is formed l>y practice; their princi- 
 
THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 163 
 
 pal use having been to facilitate the re-enunciation of 
 the subject of a fugue based upon a different degree of 
 the scale. 
 
 The following diagram shows clearly that the three 
 hexachords which form the basis of the seven, involve 
 the overlapping of the scales of C and F. 
 
 3RD 
 
 
 
 
 
 [Trt -0- -Q- 
 
 
 
 /■^S. ^ /J iri * 
 
 
 
 
 
 CHORD. 
 
 
 2ND 
 
 
 . IT-I ., . ....... 
 
 Hexa- 
 
 ■i^.— 
 
 
 ___„_©_c^ 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 IST 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■i(^i- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 2nd and 3rd Hexachords 
 involve scale of F. 
 
 „ e to « •°- 
 
 
 -^— 
 
 
 □-T=«- 
 
 _Q_ 
 
 
 1st and 2nd Hexachords 
 involve scale of C. 
 
 That the major scale was in use at the time of these 
 hexachords is visible at a glance. How long before 
 this period it came into use cannot be said. As sug- 
 gested in the remarks quoted from Aristotle and Carl 
 Engel it seems far from improbable that it did so in 
 man's earliest essays in melody. 
 
 That up to the beginning of the nth century no 
 
l64 THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 further progress had been made in the Church in the 
 development of our system of scales than is suggested 
 by the above hexachords is very doubtful. In the scale 
 of Hucbald (who died sixty years before Guide was 
 born), which embraces four tetrachords involving each 
 a similar succession of intervals, F-sharp as well as 
 B-flat appears, thus : — 
 
 , 
 
 ■*N 
 
 
 , . - — '-"r^^.f^-e-e- 
 
 Tnv 
 
 
 ^=^-^-^^^— — =^=-^^-^ 
 
 ^ ^^ 
 
 ~rr 
 
 -o-^- 
 
 
 o_c-!Z2. 
 
 
 
 
 Concerning the appearance of F-sharp in the above 
 scale, R. C. Hope remarks that he is not aware of any 
 composition of the period (the loth and nth centuries) 
 in which F-sharp was made use of. Its appearance in 
 a system is, however, to me conclusive evidence that it 
 entered to some extent into contemporary practice. 
 
 In reflecting upon what little progress in modulation 
 seems according to the evidence of Church music, to 
 have been made between the period of the scale of 
 Euclid and the appearance of B-flat in the organ 
 ordered to be made by Bishop Elphege for Winchester 
 Cathedral towards, as we have seen, the middle of the 
 loth century, we must consider the almost absolute fixed- 
 ness of religious ritual in general (which fixedness 
 
THE RISE OF MUSIC. 165 
 
 represents not mere conservatism but a vital principle) 
 and that this persistency of form extends largely to 
 details — in which music holds an important place. We 
 must also bear in mind the fact that we do not know 
 the actual limit of the development of the cirt as prac- 
 tised in the Church at this period, particularly as re- 
 gards chromatic effect and modulation. We have, 
 however, some evidence of the art as practised out of 
 the Church about this time, a portion of which is in the 
 highest degree both suggestive and interesting — sug- 
 gestive as regards contemporary secular music, and in- 
 teresting in the light of the arts' future general develop- 
 ment. 
 
 (i). At the end of a description of a concert, by 
 Aymeric, a scrivener of the loth century, the following 
 passage occurs : 
 
 "Others from Gascony skipped to the sound of the 
 Musette whilst their companions played the harp and a 
 last group with curved bow imitated the voice of 
 women with the Rebec." 
 
 (2). There is a curious scene sculptured over a 
 capital arch of the church of Bocherville (nth century) 
 in which a girl is dancing on her head to the accom- 
 paniment of an orchestra which includes two instru- 
 
1 66 
 
 THE RISE OF MUSlC. 
 
 ments of the viol type played by the bow; one being 
 held and played in the usual way, the other in an in- 
 verted position, and both apparently with perfect ease 
 and freedom. 
 
 SCENE SCULPTURED ON A CAPITAL ARCH OF THE 
 
 CHURCH OF SAINT GEORGE, BOCHERVJLLE. 
 
 (XITH CENTURY). 
 
THE RISE OF MUSIC. 167 
 
 This carving includes the most ancient form 
 of the organistrum (viele a roue et a manivelle) 
 an instrument of the hurdy-gurdy type. The instru- 
 ment as represented is large enough to rest upon the 
 laps of two players seated side by side, and consists 
 of a wheel worked upon three strings of which two are 
 drones whilst the third is manipulated by means of a 
 row of stoppers or tangents, which are pressed 
 inwards. 
 
 (3). There is a representation of an early viol over 
 the portal of the cathedral of Chartres (beginning of 
 13th century). It is of heavy structure and has three 
 strings. This instrument, the prototype of the violin, 
 seems to be derived from an ancient Welsh instrument, 
 the crwth or crowth, a kind of barbaric violin of heavy 
 construction having three strings, which were played 
 by a bow, and a finger-board. As in the case of the 
 Irish harp it is consistent with the supposed Asiatic 
 origin of the crowth that it should have existed from 
 the earliest times among a Celtic people in the West. 
 It is referred to as British in the following lines by 
 Venatius Fortunatus : — * 
 
 * Bishop of Poitiers (609), 
 
l68 THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 ' JlOMANUS(^E J^TI\A. J'lAUDAT TIBI ^AI^BAI^^US JiAF^PA 
 pRJRCVS /iCHILUACA CHROTTA ^f^ITANNA CANAT " 
 
 VIOL, XIIITH CENTURY. (CATHEDRAL OF CHARTRES). 
 
 Now if we compare these evidences with those I have 
 brought forward relating to antique music, even super- 
 ficially, we observe at once that an important parting 
 of the ways has occurred as regards the character of 
 the instruments in general use at the respective periods. 
 Though the Lyre and Cithara have disappeared their 
 
THE RISE OF MUSIC. 169 
 
 type is still visible in the Harp ; but the important fact 
 is that a type of instrument that seems to have been 
 quite missed by the ancients — the viol type — has come 
 upon the scene. Leaving the Organ for the time being 
 out of consideration and passing over the Bagpipe, we 
 see in the viol the first unfolding in the development 
 of the art in Europe of a means of producing sustained 
 sounds independently of the breath of man. That a 
 sense of novelty at this unfolding impressed the writer 
 of the description recently quoted is suggested by his 
 speaking of the effect of the Rebec played by the " curved 
 bow" as an imitation of the voice of women. But the 
 main suggestiveness in this description and in these 
 representations, is that in the Rebec and Viol we have 
 the precursors of a family of instruments admitting of 
 every interval and consequently of every scale : not 
 like the Egyptian and Assyrian Tamboura confined to 
 staccato effects but in infinite combinations of these 
 with sustentation and stress having a plasticity 
 approached by no other instrument. 
 
 From the foregoing evidence we learn indubitably 
 that the Viol in some form was in use in the nth cen- 
 tury, and as an instrument would be familiaj long 
 
1^0 THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 before it figured on monuments and in decoration, it 
 seems highly probable that it was in vogue long prior 
 to that period. The following is the description of 
 H. Lavoix (fils) of the position it occupied in the general 
 world of music in the nth and two following cen- 
 turies. "The Viol is in evidence from the nth century. 
 Very general in England, France, Germany and Italy it 
 varies in form according to the particular country and 
 time. Here it is heavy, almost round — to such a degree 
 that it is difficult to understand how the player made 
 the strings vibrate. There it is like the crowth over 
 the portal of the cathedral of Chartres but more ele- 
 gantly shaped. In the 13th century it is a magnificent 
 instrument — of rich and beautiful design — as in the 
 portal of the abbey of St. Denis. The number of its 
 strings varied from three to six. It was the favourite 
 instrument throughout the middle ages, and the chosen 
 one for accompanying lays, rounds and songs of chiv- 
 alry." It was with this instrument that those poet- 
 musicians called Trouveres in the north of France 
 and Troubadours in the midland provinces (some of 
 them singers, others, singers and composers), that 
 began to abourid towards the end of the 12th century, 
 accompanied therhselves. 
 
THE RISE OF MUSIC. 171 
 
 TROUVERE PLAYING THE VIOL. IlTH CENTURY. 
 MS. NATIONAL LIBRARY, PARIS. 
 
 Now the question with which we are here concerned 
 is: what influence this type of instrument is likely to 
 have had in furthering the development of our system 
 of scales? I have pointed out with what powers, 
 beyond those possessed by the Lyre, Cithara and Harp, 
 the Viol armed the singer in his efforts to conquer the 
 world of sound. When in addition to these, and its 
 prevalence, we consider that the goodly company of 
 Trouveres and Troubadours that played it included 
 the popular composers of the period, the likelihood of 
 its having widened the bounds of modulation seems 
 very great. 
 
172 THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 But two other factors necessary for the development 
 of our system of scales were also unfolding at this 
 period, namely, harmony and diagrammatic notation 
 the beginnings of which, as v/e shall see, had in them 
 a potentiality of adaptation to future, circumstances 
 quite undreamed of. In speaking just now of modula- 
 tion I did not refer to simple, bodily transposition 
 which there can be no doubt was practised by the Trou- 
 veres and Troubadours, but to the extending the 
 design of a melody over more keys than one. This 
 could not have been carried very far without harmony, 
 whilst harmony could not have been carried far with- 
 out a clear, simple method of notation. That some 
 rules or traditions of practical harmonisation and 
 accompaniment relating to various instruments were in 
 use at this period (some having perhaps descended 
 from antiquity) is far from improbable, but from our 
 knowledge of the circumstances under which the point 
 of departure to polyphony was hit upon, and of the 
 kind of practice which the development of harmony 
 involved, it is difficult to avoid the conclusion that the 
 above harmonisation and accompaniment must have 
 been either crude or very simple. That modern har- 
 mony would eventually have become unfolded irre- 
 
THE RISE OF MUSIC. 1 73 
 
 spective of the Christian Church is very probable; but 
 under what circumstcinces it would have done so and 
 how long a period would have had to pass before such 
 circumstances came about it is difficult for us to con- 
 ceive. All art requires systematic cultivation but the 
 development of harmony demanded such cultivation 
 under special circumstances, namely, recurring meetings 
 of either instrumentalists or singers. The latter con- 
 dition came about in the organization of music in the 
 Church ritual, in connection with which, moreover, arose 
 with special urgency the need of a suitable method of 
 notation. Thus it was in the atmosphere of the Church 
 that the path to modern harmony was discovered and 
 diagrammatic notation initiated. To the Church then 
 we must return in order to trace the rise and growth of 
 these two important factors in the development of our 
 tonal system. 
 
174 THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 The Development of Modern Notation. 
 
 ' I ""HE hypothesis is perhaps worth some attention 
 that the first origin of musical notes was the 
 strokes and points used to voice the consonants 
 in languages, which, as in the case of the Semitic, had 
 an alphabet of consonants only. The Jews at all 
 events who had necessarily been in the habit of using 
 such signs in their writing passed as early as the sixth 
 century to expressing the cantillation and syntax of the 
 lessons read in the religious service, by neumes, as cer- 
 tain small dots, strokes or curves were called. Lavoix 
 states, referring to Europe, that the earliest manuscripts 
 in which neumes are used date from about the eighth 
 century — ^when the invasions by the barbaric peoples had 
 ceased and each had settled' in its place. The facts : that 
 this would be when the Church had spread, and that the 
 evidences of the use of neumes are found principally 
 
THE RISE OF MUSIC. 1/5 
 
 in connection with manuscripts relating to the Church 
 service, are at all events consistent with the supposi- 
 tion that their use was derived originally from the 
 Jews. This suggestion, however, I put forth diffi- 
 dently. Some have supposed them to have had a 
 Northern origin. Paul Lacroix says they were un- 
 questionably imitations of the graphic signs that 
 formed a kind of shorthand of the Romans. As used 
 generally they embraced points, lines, hooks, curves, 
 angles, retorted figures and many other forms. Lavoix 
 states that they are all based on four signs used in 
 speech, which correspond to the French grave and cir- 
 cumflex accents and our comma and period. When 
 we consider that with us the marks of interrogation 
 and exclamation, the comma, colon, semicolon and 
 period, are all imperfect notes, the first indicating very 
 perceptibly change of pitch, the second, expression, 
 whilst all refer to some extent to pitch, expression and 
 relative lengths of silence, in certain combinations; it 
 does not seem at all antecedently improbable that 
 neumes were a development of signs of this nature. 
 The supposition that the word neumes is derived from 
 fneuma favours this hypothesis though there is another 
 suppositioH'-^that it is derived from nomen. 
 
176 THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 Whatever was the origin of neumes and whatever 
 their detailed meaning the thing of capital importance 
 connected with them from the point of view of this 
 work is the fact that their use in music initiated our 
 diagrammatic system of notation. 
 
 I may illustrate what I mean by diagrammatic in 
 this connection thus : 
 
 In both the following figures the differences of pitch 
 indicated, in being realised demand psychic action, but 
 in Fig. 2 that action is far more largely helped by the 
 sensorial impression than it is in Fig. i, the relative 
 .extent of the two musical intervals involved being in 
 Fig. 2 directly apparent by sight alone. 
 
 Fig. 1. Fig. 2, 
 
 — "~ 
 
 A, Q a M 
 
 Now in the earliest manuscripts of the Church the 
 neumes are placed at different heights above the words 
 of the text. Thus the position of the neume in the per- 
 pendicular dimension indicated in a general way the 
 pitch at which the word beneath it had to be sung. This, 
 though involving a new departure, the importance of 
 which cannot be overrated, was still a very vague method 
 
THE RISE OF MUSIC. 177 
 
 practically. Accordingly in the twelfth century we 
 find combined with it certain elements of the old sym- 
 bolical notation of the Greeks and Romans. The 
 Church had in the sixth century employed capitals of 
 the Roman alphabet to represent the sounds of their 
 simple chants, and between the seventh and ninth cen- 
 turies the range of riotes from the lower A of our bass 
 staff to C of our treble, was expressed thus : ■^- 
 
 a b c 
 ABCDEFGabcdefgabc 
 
 In order then to render the use of neumes as just 
 described, less vague, certain of these Roman letters 
 were placed at the commencement of each line, their 
 function being to indicate that the neumes on a line 
 with such letters were to be sung to the sounds the 
 latter represented. In this improvement the principle 
 of fosition on the staff in the dimension of height 
 representing pitch, became a step more defined. But 
 the next improvement — simply a means of adjustment 
 demanding the slightest inventive power — the drawing 
 a line from the indicative letter at the margin (to facili- 
 tate placing a series of neumes intended to be quite 
 level and at the same time to aid the eye in separating 
 
 them from others intended to occupy a different level) 
 
 N 
 
1/8 THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 was 'another creative step in musical history. It put the 
 first lineament of the actual staff in evidence. The first 
 line ran from the indicative letter F. The following 
 illustration contains the three steps in the direction of 
 modern notation which I have described : (i) neumes 
 written over the literary text at different heights; (2) 
 indicative Roman capitals at the commencement of the 
 line of neumes; (3) a line drawn from F. 
 
 
 jL^ 
 
 <tti&ef cmaCauoUaidtie dCrm- 
 
 A 
 A A A 
 
 ■ norqutcrucif?tuIiamlpcaaIiglaia,*Ditfo 
 
 c 
 
 tndoCrangparcetofiUiIce ligiuli!ulctdj^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 credin?meIodia< 
 
 BEGINNING OF THE PROSE SUNG AT THE FESTIVAL OF 
 THE HOLY CROSS. (MS. OF THE XIITH CENTURY.*) 
 
 The path of development was now found and in the 
 light of our present knowledge it may seem that the 
 consummation of the staff should have been a quick 
 
 * Copied from the Arts of the Middle Ages by Paul Lacroix. 
 
THE RISE OF MUSIC. 179 
 
 and easy process, but it was not destined to be so. It 
 was no doubt easy to add new lines, but new questions 
 arose. Should the lines be adhered to or would it be 
 better to use the spaces? Hucbald, the monk of St. 
 Amand in Flanders, to whom I have before alluded, 
 had early in the tenth century introduced a staff based 
 upon the latter alternative. 
 
 System of Hucbald. 
 
 T(A) 
 
 
 
 
 
 T(G) da/ 
 
 \ te / nuin\ 
 
 
 
 
 T (F) Lai. / 
 
 \ /mi \ de 
 
 C(E \ /lo\ 
 
 
 S (J£) 
 
 \do/ \e / 
 
 
 \ii / 
 
 \rum 
 
 T(D) 
 
 \ Cffilis / 
 
 
 \c<r/ 
 
 \ lau 
 
 T(C) 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 In Modern Notation. 
 
 
 
 
 fi?»^-s>-"-=^ 
 
 -" &'-V:3-<g— " Ori ^ ri—&- 
 
 r?" 
 
 -^n o 
 
 C3 o^. 
 
 -"te" 
 
 
 
 
 
 Lau -da - te do-mi-num de coe - lis coe - li coe - lo-ium lau 
 
 T 
 
 
 ta, 
 
 
 
 «i 
 
 T 
 
 Ec\ isra\ 
 
 / 
 
 s 
 
 ■ ce\ / 
 
 he 
 
 T 
 
 vere / 
 
 
 T 
 
 
 
 m- 
 
 -■g^zn— ^-e Q ° 
 
 n— e 
 
 zsszll. : 
 
 etc. 
 
 etc. 
 
 Ec - ce ve - te Is - ra - e - li - ta, 
 In this system the neume was got rid of, its place 
 being taken by the word or syllable of the text, but if 
 
l8o THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 this change had lasted a system of signs would still in 
 due course have been required to express the length 
 of the sounds, and thus the perception of their pitch 
 and length would have involved two distinctly separate 
 acts of attention. In the simple retention of the 
 neume there was the following development : whilst its 
 position denoted pitch its shape got to express length, 
 and these two qualities that give meaning to a musical 
 sound were so expressed that the impression of one 
 involved that of the other. Both were thus per- 
 ceptible at a single glance yet without possibility of 
 confusion. 
 
 Almost contemporaneously with this system of 
 Hucbald, in which the spaces alone are employed, 
 another appeared in which the spaces are left vacant 
 and only the lines used.* In this system the notes have 
 
 e ♦ 
 
 H ^ 
 
 Z ^ ♦ 
 
 I =;=!t=^t= --^^^ 
 
 7 — ^ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ 
 
 fl ^ ^ ^ 4 
 
 a — ♦ ♦ ♦ 
 
 * This system was described by Vincentio Galilei in 1518,9' 
 
THE RISE OF MUSIC. l8l 
 
 returned, being represented by points or diamond- 
 shaped notes, and the degrees of the scale are deter- 
 mined by Greek letters placed at the commencement of 
 the lines. 
 
 As early as the beginning of the eleventh century the 
 use of alternate lines and spaces is in evidence. In an 
 ancient office book once used in Winchester Cathedral 
 and now preserved in the Bodleian Library, the notes 
 of the Plain Chant are written upon the lines and in 
 the spaces of a regular four lined staff. At the same 
 time a considerable portion of this MS. is written in 
 the old style, i.e., in neumes without any staff at all, 
 but all seems written by the same hand. As the matter 
 of this MS. embraces a Litany in which there is an 
 allusion to Ethelred (died A.D. 1016), it is concluded 
 that it was written in his reign. 
 
 The following example, — taken from the celebrated 
 round, " Sumer is icumen in,'' the most ancient English 
 composition in harmony extant, and the period of 
 which is considered to be at least as early as the middle 
 of the thirteenth century, — is written in the lines and 
 spaces of a six lined staff. 
 
l82 
 
 THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 m 
 
 7T-^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^P t * y *y/ 
 
 -^-^ 
 
 
 JfE 
 
 ^= 
 
 la 4320 tunr Viao 'fiUo — 
 
 Solution in Modern Notation. 
 
 _ _ (2nd Voice infers.) 
 
 I 
 
 £; 
 
 ?2^5; 
 
 ^^^H§ 
 
 Sum-er is i - cu-men in 
 Per - spi - ce Chris- ti - co - la 
 
 (3rd Voice enters.) 
 
 Lhu-de sing cu ■ cii 
 Que dig - na ci - o 
 
 (4th Voice enters.) 
 
 i^i 
 
 :Q_ci: 
 
 =ct 
 
 ■pi^jz^iai 
 
 m 
 
 Grow-eth sed and blow-eth med and springeth wod - e nu 
 Ce - li - cus a - gri - co - la Pro • vi - tis vi - ci • o 
 
 i 
 
 li^i^ 
 
 Sing 
 
 cue 
 
 cu. 
 
 Awe blet- eth af - ter 
 
 Fi - 
 
 U - 
 
 0. 
 
 Non par- cens ex ■ pos - u 
 
 Traces of the staff of five lines appear as early as 
 the thirteenth century in a MS. tract by W. Odington, 
 a monk of Evesham, Worcestershire, but it was not 
 until the beginning of the sixteenth century that the 
 form of staff became settled definitely for the time- 
 being, four lines for sacred, five for secular music. 
 
THE RISE OF MUSIC. 183 
 
 A natural consequence of the development of 
 the staff was greater exactitude and regularity in^ 
 the shapes of the neumes. Thus gradually various 
 definitely shaped notes came into use, their forms 
 expressing their relative length, and hence the 
 principle in modern notation of the time of a note 
 being represented by its shape. 
 
 To us it seems curious that the pioneers in measured 
 music should have begun by making their standard or 
 longest note divisible into three not two shorter notes. 
 The reason of this might perhaps form an interesting 
 subject for speculation. It might be enquired whether 
 there is not a markedly lifted flow in a dignified triple 
 rhythm, and in comparison a somewhat halting motion 
 in duple, which may have been felt by peoples of en- 
 thusiastic temperament or in the more imaginative 
 mental stage of primal artistic awakening. Whatever 
 the cause, we find in the early record of the relative 
 length of notes the triple preceding the duple division 
 in order of arrangement. The following names and 
 shapes represented the different notes in order of lessen- 
 
 Large. Long. BixEve. Semibreve. 
 
184 THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 ing length, each of the first three having three tirties 
 the value of the next shorter note. 
 
 A note subject to this order of division was said to 
 be " perfect." 
 
 But the above names and forms stood also each for 
 two of the next shorter notes, subject to which order 
 of division a note was said to be " imperfect." 
 
 In the normal use of the above notes — in the absence 
 of any expression of modification — a note was con- 
 sidered to be perfect, but when either a long or a breve 
 was immediately preceded or followed by the next 
 shorter note it became worth only two notes of the 
 latter kind. In the following example the first and 
 last notes, they being considered perfect, would in 
 themselves be each worth three semibreves, but their 
 position (one being before and the other after the next 
 shortef note) reduces the value of each to two semi- 
 breves. 
 
 Written. Sung. 
 
 iEEP^^^ 
 
 :1£^ 
 
 When a dot was placed after a note rendered im- 
 perfect by position it indicated that, notwithstanding, 
 such note was to be considered perfect. Here we find 
 
THE RISE OF MUSIC. 1 85 
 
 the effect of the dot is to increase by one half the 
 length of the preceding note — but under special cir- 
 cumstances. Its use here, therefore, is not quite the same 
 as it is with us — to increase by one half the value of 
 the preceding note under all circumstances. 
 
 Thus in the following example the second note (a 
 breve) being succeeded by a semibreve would become 
 imperfect by position were it not followed by a dot, 
 while the fourth note as it follows a semibreve becomes 
 imperfect. 
 
 Written. Sung. 
 
 Another and much more complex use of the dot may 
 be thus illustrated: — the value of two breves being 
 reduced each to two semibreves through two of the 
 next shorter notes (semibreves) coming between them, 
 a dot placed after and a little above the first breve 
 not only restores the normal value to both breves, but 
 doubles that of the second semibreve, as in the fol- 
 lowing example. 
 
 Written. Sung. 
 
 The fact that the foregoing rules apply to particular 
 
1 86 THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 circumstances, suggests that they arose out of such cir- 
 cumstances. In the normal use, for instance, of the four 
 different notes (see Example on page 183), there is no 
 note that expresses the time of two of the subdivisions of 
 any of them. In the exigence, therefore, of having this 
 latter proportion of time to express, a composer might 
 naturally use the form for the perfect note subject to a 
 modified interpretation ; and such an exigence occurring 
 frequently under the same conditions may thus have 
 first given rise to the rule under which a perfect note 
 became imperfect. The reader will understand that I 
 assume these rules came into existence before time- 
 signatures. 
 
 There is another rule which seems to have first 
 arisen out of an immediate practical requirement; 
 It refers to the use of a red note, at a time (as it 
 seems), when the black note prevailed. The rule was that 
 a note coloured red lost a third of its value when per- 
 fect, a fourth when imperfect. Now the effect of this 
 rule upon a perfect note was in itself precisely similar 
 to that of the rule under which such a note was by 
 position rendered imperfect. In both cases the note 
 operated upon was reduced to two thirds of its normal 
 value. The difference between the rules was that the first 
 
THE RISE OF MUSIC. 1 87 
 
 mentioned was absolute. It was in duple time where the 
 special effect of the coloured note came into operation. 
 Here it enabled the composer to express at once three 
 quarters of the value of the note used. Thus a red 
 semibreve in duple time would have the value of three 
 half-minims. Now we can well imagine when the dot 
 was only used to restore value and before the use of 
 the tie, a composer hitting upon the expedient of the 
 coloured note as a quick and effectual way of supply- 
 ing the expression of time-value needed. 
 
 The foregoing rules of themselves betray distinctly 
 that contemporary composers were in the habit of 
 passing from one form of time to the other in the same 
 movement; but there is ample evidence of this in early 
 music itself. The reader will not fail to remember what 
 a conspicuous feature this practice is in the examples 
 I have given of traditional Jewish music, and in the 
 chorus of the Mewlewi dervishes. That the notation 
 in these examples is modern, and represents an attempt 
 to express the freedom of the originals as regards time 
 tends rather to strengthen than to weaken the con- 
 clusions to be drawn from the above resemblances, the 
 conclusions, namely (first) that the different kinds of 
 time were originally commingled^ cind (secondly) that 
 
1 88 THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 the generally keeping to one or the other kind in the 
 same movement is a development. 
 
 I have not referred to every fact in the history of 
 notation up to this point. There were some other rules 
 but they were of the same improvisate character. They 
 applied to particular circumstances. The great in- 
 terest connected with the details of this subject is their 
 revelation that notation grew as pztrt of concrete music 
 — that the regulation of time-values was at first an 
 inherent part of the general musical prompting. The 
 written signs stood for the whole effect however 
 vaguely and imperfectly they represented it. Develop- 
 ment was evolution. A note under certain circum- 
 stances lost a thirdj half or a fourth of its value. The 
 first note equally divisible by two is a result in the 
 practical working with notes divisible by three. So a 
 note divisible by two is arrived at in another way — in 
 the note that is doubled by a certain power of the dot. 
 So in the use of the red note we see (as well as — in 
 the case of perfect time — a third way of arriving at a 
 note divisible by two) a practical and ready means of 
 expressing three quarters of a note. Then the com- 
 mingling of triple and duple time betrays the same 
 process of organic differentiation. 
 
THE RISE OF MUSIC. 1 89 
 
 The number and variety of these instances is perhaps 
 sufficiently convincing that notation is the result of a 
 succession of purely practical expedients prompted, so 
 to say, at the moment in the expression of the concrete 
 effect; but there is another of peculiar interest. The 
 reader will observe in the example "Sumer is icumen 
 in " that a short upright stroke occurs in certain places. 
 Then referring to the solution, it will be found 
 that at each of these places an interval of time 
 the length of a bar intervenes, the lapse of such an in- 
 terval being necessary to. preserve the rhythmical sym- 
 metry. These strokes then are intended to indicate 
 the uncompleted measure of time not otherwise ex- 
 pressed. Thus they enclosed symmetrical (though not 
 always equal) measures of time and brought a strong 
 pulse of the rhythm upon the note immediately follow- 
 ing them. Here then we see in a device seemingly 
 thought of at the moment the first lineaments of bar- 
 lines fulfilling largely their important dual function. 
 There is scarcely a doubt that the relative orders 
 of accentuation and time-values represented by 
 the perfect and imperfect note were not only 
 commingled in early music, but in such a way that the 
 difference between triple and duple measure was fully 
 
igo THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 appreciated. This is evidenced in the following copy 
 of the signs at the beginning of the staff, of portion of 
 the " Credo " of a mass by Hobrecht. 
 
 ^^=C=0i 
 
 B^t 
 
 As the reader will see by reference to the table 
 below, the first sign, O, signifies that three semibreves 
 go to a breve ; the second, G , that three minims go to 
 a semibreve; the fourth, C, that two semibreves go to 
 a breve; and the fifth, (j5 that two minims go to a 
 semibreve. 
 
 The principle of the evolution of notation which 
 I am illustrating probably explains to some extent 
 the extremely, and at first sight unnecessarily, elab- 
 orate character of the means by which triple and duple 
 measure were respectively indicated. In the system 
 adopted the time-signatures were modified, as the dif- 
 ference between perfect and imperfect applied (ist) to 
 the large and long and the long and breve; (2ndly) 
 to the breve and semibreve; (3rdly) to the semibreve 
 and minim; then in each of the three cases the general 
 name for the subject was different. In the first case 
 
THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 191 
 
 it was called Mode, in the second Time, in the third 
 Prolation. The different signs in the three cases were 
 as follows : 
 
 MODE. 
 
 Greatbii Mode Perfect. Greater Mode Imperfect. 
 In which one Large goes to In which one Long goes to 
 
 three Longs. three Breves. 
 
 EB3 
 
 ©: 
 
 :ffl:G^i^ 
 
 Lesser Mode Perfect. 
 
 In which one Lsrge goes to 
 
 two Longs. 
 
 Lesser Modf, Imperfect. 
 
 Ill w.'iich one Lmg goes to 
 
 two Breves. 
 
 ^& 
 
 EffiEE 
 
 TIME. 
 Perfect Time. 
 In which one breve goes to three semibreves. 
 
 Or thus. Or thus. 
 
 Imperfect Time. 
 In which one breve goes to two semibreves. 
 
 Or thus. Or thus. 
 
 : ^EEg=flEEEe^=[i=ei 
 
^92 THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 PROLATION. 
 
 The Great Prolation. 
 In which one semibreve goes to three minims. 
 
 Or thus. Or thus. 
 
 ; ^EEEG^rE : EEEGEEEE : =03PE : 
 
 The Lesser Prolation. 
 In which one semibreve goes to two minims. 
 
 Or thtts. Or thus. 
 
 Now on the surface these different names for the same 
 process call for some explanation beyond pure love of 
 formality, and one natural explanation is that the dif- 
 ferent names arose as the process was applied at 
 different times or places. It would probably at all 
 events have been applied to the large and long before 
 it was applied to the breve and semibreve. Further, 
 we are indebted for our knowledge of these various 
 particulars concerning the subject of time to a work 
 entitled "Ars Musica Mensurabili" (considered the 
 Ccirliest on the subject) by one. Franco, a monk of 
 Cologne, about 1047-1083, and this work gives the im- 
 pression that it is intended as a compendium of the 
 
THE RISE OF MUSIC. 193 
 
 practice of the period. Thus it would be the summing 
 up of developments that arose at various antecedent 
 times. 
 
 The following are the principles operating in the 
 adoption of the various signs in the foregoing examples. 
 
 Rests show the proportion between the large, long 
 and breve. The circle, the figure 3, and the point or 
 dot denote "perfection." 
 
 The half-circle and the figure 2 denote "imper- 
 fection." 
 
 A bar through the circle or semi-circle indicates the 
 diminution of the standard note by half, as also does 
 the inversion of the figure, and in a few cases a double 
 bar used in the same way indicates the double diminu- 
 tion of the standard note. 
 
 For a considerable time the semibreve was the 
 shortest note used. The minim (from minimus, the least) 
 is said to have been invented in the thirteenth century, 
 but some are of opinion that it did not put in an ap- 
 pearance until the fourteenth century. It was, however, 
 soon followed by the half-minim (or crotchet) and the 
 quaver — first used as an ornament, hence its name. 
 The view that I have expressed — that the use of the 
 
 red note sprang out of necessity, is supported by the f ol- 
 
 O 
 
194 
 
 THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 lowing facts : ( i ), that when white-headed notes came to 
 be used, black-headed notes among white carried on the 
 function formally fulfilled by red among black; (2), 
 that both red and black fell into disuse as notes express- 
 ing shorter divisions of time appeared. White-headed 
 notes (always written on a staif of five lines), are found 
 as early as the beginning of the thirteenth century. 
 Towards the end of the thirteenth century both red 
 and black notes fell into disuse. Towards the end of 
 the fifteenth century the use of white notes little dif- 
 fering from the forms retained until the close of the 
 sixteenth century, seems to have been an accomplished 
 fact for some time, for the figures of these notes and 
 the corresponding rests are given in one of the earliest 
 works on music ever issued from the press — thePractica 
 
 Large. Long. Brbvb. 
 
 Greater Lesser 
 Semi- Semi- Semi-Minim Sbmi- 
 
 Breve. Minim. Minim, or Croma. Croma. 
 
 I 
 
 l=t= 
 
 -n^ 
 
 —o~—$- 
 
 m 
 
 Perfect 
 Large Rkst. 
 
 Imperfect 
 Large Rest. 
 
 Perfect 
 Long Rest, 
 
 Imperfect 
 Long Rest. 
 
 Breve 
 Rest. 
 
 BEiE§S3= EE^=P=^^=^ 
 
 Semibreve 
 Rest. 
 
 Minim 
 Rest. 
 
 Greater Semi- 
 Minim Rest. 
 
 Croma 
 Rest. 
 
 Semi-Croma 
 Rest. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 •1 
 
 -1 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 H 
 
 
 
 
 
 
THE RISE OF MUSIC. 1 95 
 
 Musicae of Franchinus Gafurius, printed at Milan, 
 1496. The foregoing is a plan of the notes and rests 
 that appear in this work. 
 
 As a matter of archaeological detail I may here add, 
 that according to R. C. Hope, the first printed notes 
 were open; the first book printed with round notes 
 was issued at Avignon in 1532, but round notes do not 
 again appear for 150 years; in England they began 
 to supersede square ones, about 1700. 
 
196 THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 A 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 The Emergence of Plain Song. 
 PECULIAR illustration of the fact I have 
 
 several times called attention to, that the early 
 musical scribes took the first way that suggested 
 itself of meeting a special exigence, is the way in 
 which they indicated that a series of notes had to be 
 sung by the continuous production of the voice, as in a 
 modern run. This effect they somewhat naively 
 though very graphically expressed by writing the notes 
 so closely together as almost to touch. Such series of 
 notes were called " ligatures." When the notes formed 
 a run they were placed as in the following example : 
 
 IVritten. Sung. 
 
 Ky - • ti ■ e. Ky • 
 
THE RISE OF MUSIC. 197 
 
 When they consisted of only two notes, ascending, 
 they were written one over the other, the lower being 
 always sung first; thus written, they were said to be 
 "bonded." See the following example. 
 
 Written. Sung. 
 
 But when consisting of only two notes, descending, 
 they were expressed by the following signs, — in which 
 the upper end of the figure is supposed to rest upon 
 the line or space denoting the first and higher of the 
 two notes, and the lower end, upon the line or space 
 denoting the second and lower of the two notes. 
 
 Written. Sung. 
 
 N=^=[^=i=ii-=S--="- •iiE] 
 
 By some historians ligatures are said to have come into 
 use before strict time was observed or, if there ever 
 was such a time, when music was unmeasured. Thus 
 R. C. Hope in introducing the subject of ligatures, 
 says : — " Strict time as now observed was quite un- 
 known in the music of the middle ages anterior to the 
 nth century," and W. S. Rockstro, also in reference 
 
igS THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 to ligatures, says, " In early times the notes of the plain 
 chant were all of even length." These two remarks 
 appear to me to demand some comment in order to 
 prevent their conveying a wrong impression and one 
 probably different from what the writers quite in- 
 tended to convey. The very rules given by these his- 
 torians, which evidently aim to prescribe the relative 
 lengths of some of the notes of ligatures, are evidence 
 that the effect to which they related was to some ex- 
 tent measured. That the latter was the case is more- 
 over clear from the fact that Franco names differently 
 those ligatures which began respectively with a breve, 
 long or semibreve; and also those of which the last 
 note is a long or a semibreve. But if the principle of 
 the "ligature" (which as we have seen relates to the 
 manner in which the sound is produced) works in con- 
 nection with the principle of "time" in Franco's ex- 
 amples, why should we not assume that it had always 
 done so? — that if some variation in the time entered 
 into the gliding production of sound in Franco's time it 
 had not done so from the very beginning of gliding 
 effect? Here we see how difficult it is to specify a 
 period when measured music did not exist. The simple 
 fact of notes expressing certain different yet definitely 
 
THE RISE OF MUSIC. 199 
 
 related time-values involves the existence of measure 
 in a certain degree, and not only at the earliest period 
 when such notes existed but before, as the thing would 
 precede the name, or sign. In the short extract from 
 " Sumer is icumen in " we find a quite decided measure 
 composed almost exclusively of two differently shaped 
 notes. This invaluable manuscript serves also to 
 illustrate — to pass to the question of the antiquity of 
 strict time — that the absence of strict time cannot be 
 inferred from the absence of its clear expression in 
 ancient manuscripts. For though in the manuscript 
 of the above round the time is fairly clear it is still 
 indicated far from precisely, and in some places 
 vaguely as in that corresponding to the following (the 
 fourth) bar of the " solution." 
 
 P--— 1»— a 
 
 Yet can we doubt that the conception of this Round in 
 the minds of its contemporary singers was as clear as 
 it is in ours? and that its effect when sung by them 
 was as sharply defined as in our interpretation of it? 
 Moreover, the very structural form of the Round rests 
 
200 THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 upon the observance of strict time, and thus points to 
 an indefinitely long period of development through- 
 out a large part of which the knowledge and practice 
 of strict time must have existed. 
 
 In considering the two remarks quoted, we should 
 also take into account the greatness of our ignorance 
 of the living effect of the music of the Church in the 
 ages vaguely referred to by these two writers — who 
 nevertheless are my principal authorities in attempting 
 to point out this ignorance. 
 
 First, then, R. C. Hope in contending that no inven- 
 tion of any system of notation can be attributed to St. 
 Gregory the Great, Bishop of Rome (590-604), refers to 
 certain facts which go to show that no written music 
 existed up to at least the beginning of the Qth century. 
 These facts are (i) that Isidore of Seville (d. 636) 
 distinctly declares that no means of recording music 
 existed in his day ; (2) that Amalarius Fortunatus (who 
 was sent by Lewis the Debonnaire to request of 
 Gregory IV., — Bishop of Rome, 827-844,;^a sufficient 
 number of singers to instruct the people) tells us, that 
 "neither were there in Gaul or at Rome any books 
 wherein it (the chant) had been written." 
 
 Secondly, W. S. Rockstro after making the remark 
 
THE RISE OF MUSIC. 201 
 
 quoted, says : " For nearly 400 years after its intro- 
 duction into the services of the Church, Plain Song 
 was transmitted from age to age by oral tradition 
 only." Then having stated as a positive fact that St. 
 Ambrose, Bishop of Milan (d. 397), " taking the praxis 
 of the Eastern Church as his model promulgated a 
 series of regulations which enabled his clergy to sing 
 the Psalms, Canticles and Hymns of the Divine Office 
 with a far greater amount of precision and purity than 
 had hitherto been attainable, proceeds thus : " It is 
 difficult now to determine the exact nature of the work 
 effected by this learned Bishop though it seems toler- 
 ably certain we are indebted to him for a definite elu- 
 cidation of the four Authentic Modes in which alone 
 all the more ancient melodies are written." Thus far, 
 then, we have according to this writer a certain kind 
 of musical effect called Plain Song, and referred to as 
 having been practised by the Church for 400 years. 
 In the following paragraph it is spoken of as "the 
 rich treasury of Plain Song Melodies bequeathed to 
 the Church by tradition." But we have not the 
 slightest direct knowledge of the effect of these 
 melodies. 
 
 Then, passing to St. Gregory the First as the next 
 
202 THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 great reformer of the plain chant, W. S. Rockstro 
 says : " During the two centuries which had elapsed 
 since the introduction of the Ambrosian Chant at 
 Milan innumerable hymns had been composed, and 
 innumerable melodies added to the already lengthy 
 catalogue. All these St. Gregory collected and care- 
 fully revised adding to them no small number of his 
 own compositions, and forming them into a volume 
 sufficiently comprehensive to suffice for the entire cycle 
 of the Church's Services. The precise manner in which 
 these melodies were noted down is open to doubt; but 
 that they were committed to writing in the celebrated 
 Antiphonarium * * is certain; and though the system 
 of Semiography then employed was exceedingly im- 
 perfect it cannot be doubted that this circumstance 
 tended greatly to the preservation of the Melodies 
 from the corruption which is inseparable from tradi- 
 tional transmission." 
 
 We are thus distinctly told, that up to the period of 
 St. Gregory (i.e., about 600 hundred years after the 
 introduction of plain song into the service of the 
 Church), no direct evidence whatever of its effect is 
 forthcoming; but at this period, in the antiphonarium 
 
THE RISE OF MUSIC. 203 
 
 of St. Gregory just referred to, such evidence at last 
 appears. 
 
 Now this latter fact R. C. Hope distinctly disputes. 
 He traverses the several traditional claims that have 
 been put forth by historian after historian on the part 
 of St. Ambrose and St. Gregory as musical reformers, 
 but as to the claim in question on the part of the latter 
 his argument rests mainly on the following state- 
 ments : — 
 
 First, in the year 589 the observance of Thursdays 
 by the Church was solemnly prohibited by the Council 
 of Narbonne. This prohibition remained in force 
 until the episcopacy of Gregory II., who occupied the 
 See of Rome, 716-731, and he enjoined the celebration 
 of the sacred rites on the Thursdays in Lent only. 
 This last detail is remarkably confirmed by the Litur- 
 gical books. The Gelasian Sacramentary at the end 
 of the seventh century does not provide a single mass 
 for any one of the Thursdays in Lent. 
 
 Now in the Sacramentary ascribed to St. Gregory I., 
 we find a Mass assigned to each of these days. 
 
 Secondly, the music of the above masses is not new 
 but is borrowed from the Sundays after Trinity, or as 
 they are termed in the Roman service books, " after 
 
204 THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 Pentecost." But these Sundays were unknown until 
 the end of the seventh or beginning of the eighth 
 century. 
 
 Thirdly, the attribution to St. Gregory of an anti- 
 phonarium rests on the sole and uncorroborated state- 
 ment of John the Deacon who flourished about 880 
 — that is, 286 years after the death of St. Gregory — 
 whilst all other ancient writers, including Isidore of 
 Seville (Gregory's contemporary), the venerable Bede 
 in the next century, and Paul Warnefried under the 
 Emperor Charles the Great, are quite silent on the sub- 
 ject, though the two flrst mentioned, — Isidore of Seville 
 and Bede, — were much interested and concerned with 
 the Liturgy, and both were musical writers. To this 
 R. C. Hope adds that the documents from which John 
 the Deacon bases his assertions do not in any particu- 
 lar agree with the calendar of the time of Gregory I., 
 whereas they do with that of the Roman Liturgy at 
 the beginning of the period 750. 
 
 Fourthly, R. C. Hope brings forward the 
 assertion of Mons. Gevaert, that it is quite 
 clear from internal evidence that the original of the 
 Antiphonarium erroneously attributed to St. Gregory 
 I. (of which there is an imaginary transcript in the 
 
THE RISE OF MUSIC. 205 
 
 monastery at St. Gall), cannot possibly be of earlier 
 date than the latter part of the 8th century. 
 
 As regards the Gregorian Sacramentary, R. C. Hope 
 states that the Abbe Duchesne, "the latest and best 
 authority on liturgical matters," assigns its date to the 
 8th century, and considers it the work not of St. 
 Gregory I., but of Adrian I., Bishop of Rome, 772-795. 
 Finally, R. C. Hope thus states the outcome of his 
 argument in this matter : " As St. Gregory died in 
 604 the Sacramentary and Antiphonary which bear his 
 name are at least a century and a half later than his 
 time." 
 
 Leaving this particular matter as above represented 
 respectively by these two authorities, the following is 
 clear : According to R. C. Hope we have no direct 
 knowledge whatever of the music sung in the Church 
 for at least 700 years after its first introduction; to 
 R. S. Rockstro, for 600 years, and that all idea of the 
 effect of the music sung at least before the period of 
 Gregory, must be based on that either first written down 
 or freshly composed subsequently. It must be then 
 from some of this latter music as given in the most 
 authentic and reliable records that W. S. Rockstro (who 
 was particularly qualified both by his position and 
 
206 THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 great erudition to judge), would arrive at the conclu- 
 sion expressed in his statement that in early times the 
 notes of the plain chant were all of even length — 
 implying that this regime of notes of even length 
 embraced the whole period from the rise of the Christian 
 Church to the period of Franco — over at least a 
 thousand years. 
 
 That a type of effect composed of evenly sustained 
 sounds largely of equal length had become rooted in 
 the Church by the end of the dark period there can 
 be no doubt. What it precisely was in its simplest and 
 primitive form, and how long that form prevailed, we 
 do not know, but that this general type of effect should 
 have been preserved in the Church throughout this long 
 period and emerge into the light of general know- 
 ledge in comparative integrity, seems almost as wonder- 
 ful a thing as the varied world of music that developed 
 from it, for — largely in virtue of the material and 
 moral circumstances that during this period attended 
 it — ^there was destined to arise out of this special 
 stream of musical energy those higher organised forms 
 that have made music a serious, self -poised art. 
 
THE RISE OF MUSIC. 20/ 
 
 CHAPTER XL 
 
 The Plain Chant the Spiritualised Basis of the 
 Higher Forms. 
 
 'T'HE following extract, quoted by W. S. Rockstro as 
 an example of Plain Chant, is from a work which 
 he states is generally considered to be the finest 
 copy of this kind of sacred song which we possess. It 
 is the first phrase of one of the proper melodies from 
 the oldest known edition of the Sursum Corda Mass, 
 dating from the year 1075. It is interesting to notice 
 that W. S. Rockstro speaks of this melody as being 
 "like the Credo and some other melodies we have 
 noticed, developed from a few simple phrases often 
 repeated and woven with due attention to the expres- 
 sion of the words, into a continuous whole." The 
 reader will not fail to observe that this remark applies 
 
208 THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 to most of the examples I have given of ancient Jewish 
 music as well as to the Chorus of the Mewlewi Dervishes, 
 and thus l>ow similarly the primal musical instinct 
 works in separate times, places and peoples. 
 
 "EXULTET" 
 
 FROM THE SURSUM CORDA MASS. 
 
 (Sung during the blessing of the Paschal Candle on 
 
 Holy Saturday). 
 
 i 
 
 — 7:,-1r3 |=2z= Qz: hr?r^:3 t:;^i3Ji^Le- „_,^rjg^ 
 
 Ex - ul • tet jam an - gel - i ■ ca tur - ba cce - lo - lum 
 
 i 
 
 ::^:4=a=i r? — |a |=g — „— o r1 n |= 
 
 zrj S2Z 
 
 ex • ul - tent di - vi - na mys - te - ri - a 
 
 i 
 
 =M=-si — =^ — pr~ »-Q— 
 
 et pro tan • - ti - Re - gis vie - to 
 
 i 
 
 =1=^ 
 
 H=a===2=— •-^— ©'— CJ- 
 
 tu • ba in • so - net sa ■ lu ta • ris 
 
 Notwithstanding the marked contrast between the 
 above example and those I have given of early Jewish 
 music — ^in the perfect preservation of the sustained 
 style, with its expression of assured feeling, of 
 
THE RISE OF MUSIC. 209 
 
 the one, and the broken style and often strongly 
 agitated feeling of the other— there is, as I 
 have marked, much in common between the music 
 in both cases. In both the exhaustless pressure 
 of the moral burthen, as expressed, by the words, 
 so dominates the music that the rhythmical form 
 of the latter follows the lingual phrasing. Notwith- 
 standing, too, in the above example the constituent notes 
 are so uniformly of even length, variety in sustentation 
 is largely used, whilst the dwelling on syllables and 
 the carrying the voice, are most important means of 
 expression. 
 
 As the music of the Church Liturgy comes clearly 
 into view, we find the type of effect of the above ex- 
 ample so far differentiated in the melodic direction as to 
 form constructions which, though still resting at bottom 
 on sustained sounds of generally even length, yet in 
 their broad features betray sufficient variety to unfold 
 vaguely the effect of art-symmetry. The extract on 
 the following page may be regarded as an example of 
 this kind of construction. 
 
 This smooth basis of long sustained and generally 
 even sounds continued as perfectly symmetrical con- 
 structions arose — still breathing the full assured spirit 
 
 p 
 
210 
 
 THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 HYMN TO THE HOLY SACRAMENT. 
 
 i 
 
 33= 
 
 zpS; 
 
 -j:iz 
 
 
 -^- 
 
 Tan - turn er - go 
 
 Sa - era 
 
 turn,.. 
 
 =J=:t 
 
 ;3EEE 
 
 SiEiEl 
 
 i-n^^- 
 
 -J±L 
 
 ii±Z 
 
 Ve 
 
 re - mur cer-nu-i,, 
 
 Et 
 
 3^ 
 
 ^^~ 
 
 icSz 
 
 ti --quum do - cu - men -tum No - vo ce - dat 
 
 i 
 
 i=g 
 
 rjtzSz 
 
 rit • u ■ i „ prse-stet fi ■ des sup • pie - men-tura 
 
 i== 
 
 q=* 
 
 ^ ^^B 
 
 -#-c(- 
 
 Sen-su - um de - fec-tu-i 
 
 of the primal chant but kindling warmer as 
 it became more articulate. Full and most conclu- 
 sive evidence of this exists in the great Dutch master- 
 pieces composed between the latter part of the 14th 
 and the end of the i6th centuries, which in 
 William Dufay, are linked to the Plain Chant in the 
 stage of descant. In some movements in these works 
 the fugal process unfolds, not in the excited, hurried 
 motion heedless of expression with which it is gener- 
 ally associated, but in deliberate movement of broad 
 
THE RISE OF MUSIC. 211 
 
 phrases based on long-breathed sounds. I was one of 
 the very small portion of the public that seized the 
 opportunity of listening to certain of these composi- 
 tions which were performed in London some years 
 back under the direction of Daniel De Lange of 
 Amsterdam assisted by a choir entitled "The Am- 
 sterdam a Cappella Choir" composed of the most 
 eminent musical talent that the Netherlands afforded. 
 I endeavoured at the time to express some of the im- 
 pressions I received. I here subjoin some of my re- 
 marks in order that, in so far as they reflect faithfully 
 the character and spirit of what I heard, they may 
 place the reader au courani with this deeply interesting 
 retrospective effect. It will be observed that they em- 
 phasise the two points to which I have just been referr- 
 ing — (i) the fact that the material of these construc- 
 tions is continuous — every line being composed of 
 sustained sounds, (2) their full-souled spirit. 
 
 "How shall I attempt to convey the effect of the 
 Agnus Dei of Jac. Obrecht (1430- 1524)? Long sus- 
 tained, full, pure harmonies breathing of feeling and 
 moving in massive, gracious phrases, in 'imitation' so 
 deliberate as to be consistent with the most intense ex- 
 pression ! Or of the Kyrie e Christe of Johan Okeg- 
 
212 THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 hem (1420-15 1 2), in which is neither sweet sentiment- 
 ality nor meaningless elaboration, but prayerful sim- 
 plicity, — a musical picture of a kneeling, awe-stricken 
 suppliant? Or of the Et Incarnatus Est of Josquin 
 des Pres (1445-1521)? — like the last, simple and ap- 
 propriate in form, and that form subordinate to the 
 master impulse of the composer — expression. Sung 
 almost in a whisper, it breathed of solemnity and mys- 
 tery. Only the phrase ' et homo f actus ' emerged from 
 the otherwise sustained fiano — just accentuating the 
 one suggestion of the natural world. Though art is 
 progressive in form let those who boast themselves in 
 this remember that the level attained by the musical 
 emotion does not, therefore, get correspondingly 
 higher. Certainly, as regards sacred effect, I felt that 
 the first listeners to these old masterpieces were under 
 no disadvantage as compared to ourselves. The beauty 
 of harmony they enjoyed in all fulness and in perfect 
 purity. Indeed, the return in thought to modern sacred 
 effect, particularly in its more elaborate forms, I felt 
 was in some respects a descent. As handled by these 
 Flemish masters the choir is an organ having the sus- 
 taining power of that instrument but infinitely purer 
 and more expressive intonation, combined with human 
 
THE RISE OF MUSIC. 213 
 
 articulation; and those who listened to it in the far 
 past entered the higher moments of musical experience. 
 As I came out after hearing this unaccompanied choir 
 I felt that in that virtually empty hall I had been close 
 to the spirit of music, and that to know that spirit I 
 needed not to hear another note." 
 
 The subject of the Plain Chant was led to, as the 
 reader will remember, by some remarks quoted in 
 connection with the ligature, the ligature being 
 an early, if not the first, form of differentiation in the 
 Plain Chant. 
 
 Another element in our system of notation, which 
 like the note, staff, clef, dot, bar4ine and time-signa- 
 ture, has a life-history, and of which the function 
 became extended far beyond that for which it was ori- 
 ginally devised, is the tie. The tie appears to have been 
 first thought of mainly for a rhythmical purpose. Morley 
 ("Practical Music," 1597), describes two kinds of 
 counterpoint, which he calls respectively long and 
 short, and short and long, in each of which a single 
 note alternates with two notes bound together, the sign 
 of the tie being formed like an ordinary bracket, as in 
 the following examples: 
 
214 
 
 THE RISE OF MUSlC. 
 Short and Long. 
 
 ::S=E2= 
 
 m-. 
 
 j—az 
 
 -Q- 
 
 IE2rS2 
 
 <^- Q 
 
 Long and Short. 
 
 (p^ =e=e q =5-gq=Q-gq=g=-^ q =Z2-Z-^ -e7|— Hr^- f] 
 
 ^=n=^3^=.^q=a:i^ 
 
 .C2. 
 
 -o-o-v rj 
 
 Now, it will be observed that in this use of the tie 
 the notes are simply lengthened, — in the above ex- 
 amples they are simply doubled in length. But even 
 this use was found to aid clearness of expression, irre- 
 spective of rhythm. Thus, before the tie was used, the 
 following passage 
 
 ii^E^e 
 
 ?ig3iii=0 
 
 had to be written thus : — 
 
 i 
 
 BE 
 
 ~&1 
 
 It 
 
 '2=jt. 
 
 iHn 
 
 But it was also found that the tie was of further use 
 than this. It met the same kind of exigence that 
 
THE RISE OF MUSIC. 215 
 
 prompted the invention of the coloured note, the ex- 
 igence of expressing an irregular length of sound, but 
 it met it under all circumstances. Notes expressing 
 the various smaller subdivisions of time having then 
 come into general use, it was found that a time- value 
 composed of any particular succession of them could 
 be expressed by means of the tie, as in the following 
 examples — the additional time not being limited, as in 
 the use of the dot, to one half, or, as in the case of the 
 double dot, to three quarters, of the antecedent note. 
 
 :t=;?=±=^- 
 
 B2E£|z-^&--£^ 
 
 And it was found still further that the added time- 
 value could be expressed before as well as after the 
 principal note. The following example illustrates this 
 use of the tie in combination with its original rhythmic 
 use: — 
 
 Allegro Vivace. 
 
 MUss^^sa^ 
 
 
 iii# 
 
 t 
 
 ^7^=^-=;^^^ 
 
 ^^ 
 
 i 
 
 Flats and sharps became unfolded in our system, in 
 
2l6 THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 the exigence of transposition in relation to a funda- 
 mental series of sounds. Taking the scale of A minor 
 as given by the white notes of the piano, the order of 
 the tones and semitones will of course be different, 
 starting from different degrees, but it follows from the 
 relation of the two diatonic semitones that the order of 
 the tones and semitones starting from any degree chosen 
 can be reproduced on the fourth note from that degree 
 ascending (or fifth descending) by moving one of the 
 semitones a step down, and on the fifth ascending (or 
 fourth descending) by moving the other semitone a 
 step up — in each case by a single alteration. Hence the 
 order in which the scales with flats and with sharps are 
 respectively arranged. In the "Tetrachord conjoined" 
 of the scale of Euclid we see the former process de- 
 finitely illustrated — in the rejection of B and the sub- 
 stitution of B-flat. In the table of the hexachords of 
 Guido we see the same process — in this case clearly 
 prompted by the exigence of transposition. In the 
 tetrachords of Hucbald we see that F-sharp is unfolded 
 in the transposition of a certain model tetrachord, but 
 whether or not this was its first appearance is quite 
 uncertain. 
 
THE RISE OF MUSIC. 217 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 Concluding Remarks on Notation: The Lesson 
 OF ITS Development. 
 
 T HAVE now shown how the principal elements of 
 * our system of notation came into existence. We 
 have seen that each was simply the readiest means 
 by which a present exigence could be met; yet not- 
 withstanding this each proved the germ or essential 
 unit of a function having a reach of action not dreamed 
 of by its original devisor. Thus from accents, or other 
 signs in the use of language, the neume was chosen as 
 a ready means of representing a sound, its indefinite 
 shape lending itself easily to modification, and thus to 
 differently formed notes. 
 
 Then the simple idea of placing the neumes at dif- 
 ferent heights above the text in order to indicate the 
 
2l8 THE RISE OF MUSIC 
 
 varying pitch of the voice in the singing it, contained 
 the great principle of the stajf. 
 
 Next, the placing at a certain height at the begin- 
 ning of each row of words a letter expressing (on the 
 old system) a certain definite pitch of sound, intro- 
 duced the principle of clefs; and next, the scratching 
 a straight horizontal line from this letter across the 
 parchment, in order to render the guidance of the clef 
 more precise, placed the first line of the staff in 
 evidence. 
 
 Further — as regards time — I have pointed out the 
 following instances of incidental beginnings leading 
 to important after developments : — 
 
 The primal instinct of rhythm led first to the tri-ple 
 division of the note, and in the use of this mode of 
 division the duple division became unfolded, this latter 
 division having been indicated in three ways : — ^by the 
 position of the note, by the doubling function of the 
 dot, and by the halving function of the red (and after- 
 wards the black) note. 
 
 The present function of the dot (of increasing the 
 length of the preceding note by half) was at first con- 
 fined to restoring value. The tie from being used to 
 connect two eVen-lengthed notes into one for the pur- 
 
THE RISE OF MUSIC. 219 
 
 pose of varying the character of a certain form of 
 counterpoint, became, as notes were more minutely sub- 
 divided, available for connecting any lengthed notes. 
 Thus (unlike the dot) the tie became available for 
 lengthening notes in any proportion immediately, 
 whilst it permitted the attaching the added length to 
 the beginning as well as the end of the note lengthened. 
 This simplest of devices begun in order to connect into 
 one note, two even-Iengthed notes — involving occasion- 
 ally the smoothest effect of syncopation — becomes indis- 
 pensable to the expression of the minutely elaborate 
 phrasing of Wagnerian accompaniment ! 
 
 A short, perpendicular stroke of the pen, made to in- 
 dicate the arrest of the music during a " foot " of the 
 poetic rhythm, initiated the important function of bar- 
 lines. 
 
 The triple and duple forms of accentuation, prompted 
 naturally in the poetic use of language, became ele- 
 ments of music at first (as in language), commingled 
 for purposes of immediate expression. Time-signatures 
 thus appear to have been commingled before they were 
 used separately. 
 
 Remarkable as it seems that beginning with the 
 neume and the principle of the staff, this series of de- 
 
220 THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 vices destined each to be subsequently so fruitful in 
 use should have been hit upon in the spirit of seizing 
 upon the first available means of meeting an exigence 
 — that modes of procedure involving the slightest 
 thought should have led directly to uses that the most 
 far-sighted could not have then contemplated — there is 
 a certain explanation of it — if it can be called an ex- 
 planation. It is, that such coincidences are essential to 
 the result that calls attention to them. Through our short 
 tenure of existence we regard coincidence as a kind of 
 freak of circumstance, yet it is a deep constructive prin- 
 ciple in nature, and, as we have just seen, may also 
 enter into man's operations. A little thought suggests 
 how largely all important development depends upon 
 it. It would take me too far out of our present path 
 to attempt to demonstrate this great fact, but we shall 
 come upon another and wonderful instance of its 
 action in music, as we proceed.* 
 
 I have pointed out that advanced musical effect de- 
 mands a simple system of notation. Thus the triumph 
 of our system is connected with its simplicity, which 
 
 * The consideration of this principle is entered into more 
 fully in my work " The Deeper Sources of the Beauty and 
 Expression of Music." 
 
THE RISE OF MUSIC. 221 
 
 is revealed in the ease and brevity with which its prin- 
 cipal features may be described ; thus : — 
 
 For pitch, mainly position has to be observed. As 
 to time-value, the white, or open, note is the longest. 
 A tail attached to such a note lessens it by half. All 
 other notes are black and all have tails, but only in 
 the case of one of these has the tail any significance : 
 with a tail a black note is half the length of the open 
 note with a tail. The relative lengths, — proceeding 
 always in the order of duple division, — of all the 
 other notes depend in inverse ratio upon the number 
 of half arrow-heads (called originally hooks) attached 
 to the tails, beginning with one, which indicates half 
 the value of the black note without this appendage to 
 the tail. Further, any note is lengthened by half when 
 followed by a dot; and two notes of the same pitch 
 connected by a tie express a single sound having their 
 sum time-value. Each note has a corresponding rest- 
 sign. 
 
 One peculiarity of our system of notation is very 
 suggestive. Notwithstanding the formation of our 
 system of overlapping scales, the staff presents as 
 simple an appearance to the eye as ever. The inter- 
 mediate degrees of pitch that are now used are ex- 
 
222 THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 pressed not by an extension of the diagrammatic prin- 
 ciple, but by a return to signs — by flats and sharps. 
 This is the iirst significant step in this development. 
 The second is, that (except where a scale is used only 
 incidentally) the signs modifying the purport of the 
 staff are placed once for all at the beginning of the 
 line of music after the clef, leaving the staff to the 
 eye as simple as ever. There is a remarkable co-opera- 
 tion here of sensorial with psychic action. It is found 
 that with a little practice the staff can be understood 
 subject to the altered meaning conveyed by the flats or 
 sharps of the signature, as easily as when altogether free 
 from them. This is an interesting illustration of the fact 
 that in the complex conditions of art (as in nature) 
 sometimes a principle, however important generally, 
 and fundamental to a particular process up to a certain 
 point, at that point yields the role of governing prin- 
 ciple to another. Though our system of notation de- 
 pends so largely for its clearness on the diagrammatic 
 principle, if that principle had been attempted to be 
 carried further (in order to indicate the intermediate 
 degrees of pitch resulting from the division of the 
 tones of the primary diatonic scale), the use of the 
 staff would obviously have become far more complex 
 
THE RISE OF MUSIC. 223 
 
 and difficult, instead of remaining as at present almost 
 as simple and easy as before sharps and flats were 
 adopted. 
 
 In this account of our system of notation we see 
 how each step arose out of the actual occasion of 
 having to record or indicate a practical effect, and thus 
 was tested and proved by practice — that its develop- 
 ment and that of the art itself, were largely synchronous 
 and interdependent. Hence the length of time — 
 nearly a thousand years — involved in its formation. 
 
 There is a certain analogy between musical notation 
 and the grammar of language in the fact that in both 
 a via media is arrived at between external and inward 
 guidance. In reading a sentence intelligently the rela- 
 tive position of words and sentences and the obvious 
 grammatical relations, have to be supplemented largely 
 by psychic action that is quite unrepresented. 
 
 Some interesting reflections regarding psychic action 
 are suggested if we analyse the combined functions 
 of the staff and the note. Though in the staff, armed 
 with the clef and signature, should there be one, the 
 general idea of the various degrees of a certain scale, 
 is called up, no sound is suggested. Nor of itself 
 
224 THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 does the note suggest sound ; but only time-value. But 
 the note on the staff brings sound, and sound of definite 
 pitch and length. It is the necessarily ever clear out- 
 ward distinction between these two attributes of the note, 
 position and shape — that gives the crown of simplicity 
 to our system. 
 
J^: h/mtjj^jl J)0r:I,Mm. (^^^i^^^^. /^^eJiekt^kJ^Meny 
 
 A LADY PLAYING UPON THE VIRGINALS. 
 
 From Title of Paethbnia the west music fo^ the Virginals, 
 
 Published in England in 1611* 
 
THE RISE OF MUSIC. 225 
 
 CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 Organum: Descant: Polyphony. 
 
 I HAVE remarked that the cultivation of harmonic 
 * effect could not proceed far in the absence of some 
 system of notation, and that it is antecedently 
 probable that the two developments necessarily acted 
 and reacted upon one another. As a matter of fact, 
 they marched largely together; signs of both emerge 
 from the darkness at the beginning of the 7th century, 
 and both attain virtually full stature at the beginning 
 of the 1 8th. 
 
 Two departures were involved in the development 
 precursory to Harmony. The first to meet our atten- 
 tion is the effect termed Organum, first described by 
 Hucbald, who died 930. That it was in use in the pre- 
 ceding century is proved by the fact that Scotus 
 Erigena, who died 880, refers to it for the purpose of 
 
226 THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 familiar illustration. In its simpler form (Parallel Or- 
 ganum) it consists of the addition to the Plain Chant 
 of another fart constructed by placing a series of notes 
 coinciding with the notes of the Chant, a fourth or a 
 fifth below, as in the following examples : — 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 in - per - i bus su - is. 
 -s- -Q- -Q -Q- -Q- -Q- -^ .&- Q ^ 
 
 Tu Pa - tris sem - pi - ter - nus es Fi li us. 
 
 I may here observe that though the term Organum, 
 like Coutiterpoint, is applied to the general effect into 
 which it enters it has (also like Counterpoint) a stricter 
 application. In this application the term Organum 
 refers particularly to the part added below. 
 
 When arranged for three voices the Organum was 
 doubled in the octave*; when for four, the Chant also 
 was doubled in the octave. 
 
 The definite origin of Organum is unknown. When 
 it was realised that the consonance of the fourth or the 
 fifth, heard isolatedly, had a fuller effect than the 
 
 * The part thus produced was called Triplum. Hence the 
 term Treble. 
 
THE RISE OF MUSIC. 227 
 
 unison, the question might naturally have been asked : 
 why should not a succession of fourths or fifths have 
 also a fuller and better effect than a succession of 
 unisons? Here we strike upon a distinction and a 
 truth; the distinction, namely, between stationary har- 
 mony and harmony in motion, and the truth that the 
 sense of harmony cannot be realised fully without 
 movement. Harmony is often understood as the effect 
 of notes in combination ; it should be understood as the 
 effect of successive combinations. In stationary har- 
 mony, as I have just said, the sense of harmony is only 
 partly realised. Even the theorists of the period of 
 Organum and Descant when they regarded harmonic 
 intervals with reference to their effect in moving parts 
 drew rules which proved useful and led to the true 
 path. Thus Franco classes sixths as discords but ad- 
 mits their use in Descant; and thus Marchetto, of 
 Padua (14th century), says that parts should not ascend 
 or descend in perfect consonances but may in imperfect. 
 It has been suggested that the rejection of the interval 
 of a third, with its inversion the sixth, in these first 
 attempts at combinative effect, may have been owing to 
 the persistence of the Pythagorian intonation, which, as 
 we have seen, made the major thirds based on the 
 
228 THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 3r(i and 6th of the then scale of A minor a comma (or 
 difference of 8i to 80) sharper, and consequently the 
 minor thirds on the 5th and the 1st, a comma flatter, 
 than in the case of the corresponding intervals of the 
 present minor scale. But, — assuming that the organs of 
 the period were tuned according to the Pythagorian 
 intonation, — that the above small difference should have 
 killed in the listener the natural appreciation of thirds 
 and sixths seems doubtful. 
 
 Perhaps the simple nomenclature of intervals, as 
 given by the early theorists, contains the true explana- 
 tion of their rejection of thirds and sixths. In this 
 nomenclature the intervals are ranged in the order of 
 the simplicity of the mathematical relations of their 
 constituent notes. Hence the octave, fifth and fourth 
 represent descending degrees of perfection beginning 
 with the unison. This explanation suggests that Or- 
 ganum was the offspring of acoustical science, or of 
 its domination with academic musicians, which church 
 musicians would probably be at the period of these 
 early attempts at harmonisation. If the foregoing is 
 the true explanation then it might naturally be sup- 
 posed that with experience in treating the Chant har- 
 monically these sequences of fourths and fifths would 
 
THE RISE OF MUSIC. 229 
 
 gradually be broken by progressions involving other 
 intervals. This to a certain extent was the case. Thus 
 in Hucbald's time (840-930) as the term "Parallel Or- 
 ganum" applied to the foregoing examples implies, 
 another kind of Organum was in existence in contra- 
 distinction to which the above term was used. In this 
 other kind, of which Hucbald gives the example below, 
 the use of seconds and thirds is permitted on condition 
 that two thirds do not succeed one another immediately. 
 But Hucbald permits even this provided the seconds 
 and thirds are only used to render the movement of 
 the fourths more regular. 
 
 Tu Pa - tris sem - pi ter - nus ej Fi li - us. 
 
 Then Guido (d. 1050) in the following century ob- 
 jects (on account of their harshness) to united fourths 
 and fifths in an Organum of three parts, as in the fol- 
 lowing example : 
 
 i 
 
 I 
 
 Mi - se - re 
 
 
230 THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 and recommends leaving out the upper part. At the 
 same time he proposes a new method called Occursus, 
 from the closeness of the parts as they approach the 
 conclusion of the melody, giving the following example : 
 
 -<3 (S) -_ f^ _ 
 
 IQ : r3 ^n in nm (^r-. &- 
 
 IS.- 
 
 Ve ■ ni ad do - cen - dum 
 
 — 'S' 
 
 lezza ggs Q. 
 
 = z:i-g 3zzggg-_zzi- B^::=5^^^0 
 
 V! am pru - den - ti - se. 
 
 Next Franco (circa 1047- 1083) says, it is better to 
 mix imperfect with perfect concords than to have suc- 
 cessions of either. 
 
 After Guido and Franco a long list of writers on 
 music contributed each something toward the stock of 
 knowledge on thesubject, and suggested improvements. 
 So, generally, what we supposed might naturally occur 
 on the assumption that Organum was largely the off- 
 spring of acoustical science does seem to have occurred. 
 Still, looking at the length of time covered by these 
 various modifications (made or suggested) in this form 
 of effect, during which time it more than held its own,* 
 
 * There are allusions to organizers in the minstrel laws of 
 Eberhard von Minden (1404), and even in a document of 1516, 
 preserved in Toledo. 
 
THE RISE OF MUSIC. 23 1 
 
 we cannot avoid acknowledging that it was a departure 
 of the greatest importance and must in some way have 
 made a peculiar appeal to the musical feeling. The 
 following considerations may perhaps throw some light 
 on this at first sight surprising result 
 
 In the first place Organum increased the amplitude 
 of each sound of the Chant in a way which involved 
 the unwonted effect of a succession of chords. Secondly, 
 the effect though generally hard and disjointed, some- 
 times approached harmony. For instance, in the case of 
 the second example, p. 226, if a fourth instead of a fifth 
 had been added to the last note of the Chant, or better if 
 it had ended with a unison ; as shown in the following 
 examples, the concluding part of the effect might have 
 been realised as striking in the highest degree as portion 
 of a first experience in moving harmony. As the musi- 
 cal reader will at once perceive, that impression of the 
 key-note which is suggested at the penultimate chord, 
 is in the original destroyed by the addition of D to 
 the last note. 
 
 .,__ 1^: a Q tj ^^ _ 
 
 ^_ _g_- .^_ _g^ _ _n -^^g_^Qi^ ^ H 
 
 Fi - li - us. Fi - li - us. 
 
232 THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 In the third place Organum accentuated the principle 
 of the simultaneous enunciation of different sounds. 
 
 We shall see as we proceed that it also gave a broader 
 basis for the Descant to move from and return to. 
 
 It was probably owing to these various circumstances 
 that notwithstanding its primal crudeness Organum 
 prevailed for at least three centuries — from about the 
 beginning of the gth to about the end of the nth, and 
 as modified in the effect called Faux Bourdon per- 
 sisted as late as the i6th century. I may here remark 
 parenthetically that if acoustical science was (as I have 
 suggested) largely responsible for the combinations 
 used in Organum, it is to that circumstance that much 
 of the harsh effect of the latter should be attributed. 
 On this assumption those expressions of repugnance on 
 the part of theorists, who have regarded it as a wholly 
 musical prompting, lose their point. This reminds us 
 that (as modern practice shows) all theorists have been 
 at fault who have disallowed sequences of naked con- 
 sonances under all circumstances. 
 
 On the surface it would be difficult to avoid the 
 assumption that Faux Bourdon, which appears in 
 the 14th century, descended lineally from Organum, 
 as structurally it is simply Organum with the sixth 
 
THE RISE OF MUSIC. 233 
 
 included in its intervals. The following example, 
 copied from a manuscript at Rome, is given by the 
 Rev. T. Helmore. 
 
 , <a Q Q a Q Q '-^- — «2 — Q- 
 
 J^!J:r=g--g=zgz=gz:rrg-_=g=feSz=i^=-_^ 
 
 Glo - ri - a Pa tri et Fi - li 
 -Q Q Ct — fs <s ^ — .-, 
 
 et Spi ■ ri ■ tu - i Sane - to. 
 EXAMPLE OF FAUX BOURDON: 15TH CENTURY. 
 
 If Faux Bourdon branched out of the Descant the 
 latter must in the process have quite lost its distin- 
 guishing principle, namely, melodic independence of 
 parts, and become invested with that of Organum, in 
 which the role of the subordinate part or parts is simply 
 to amplify the outline of the melody. But the doctrine 
 of the acoustical origin of Organum suggests the simple 
 and natural explanation of Faux Bourdon, that thirds 
 and sixths (which were well known at the beginning 
 of Organum) having been at first rejected in the con- 
 struction of the latter on the ground that they were im- 
 perfect consonances, with experience in their use became 
 admitted. 
 
 I referred to Organum as having accentuated the 
 
234 THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 principle of simultaneous sounds. Now Faux Bourdon 
 may certainly be regarded as the crude pattern and 
 type of a form of harmonic effect in which the parts, 
 marching with the melody or principal part, serve to 
 broaden and deepen it though they in themselves have 
 no melodic value — such an effect, for instance, as a 
 Choral in plain harmony. It must not be assumed, 
 however, that Faux Bourdon developed directly into 
 such a kind of effect as Plain Harmony, which could 
 only have arisen after certain experiences in melody, 
 harmony and rhythm, that to become unfolded them- 
 selves demanded a long course of effort taking its rise in 
 another and different kind of departure, that is, in Des- 
 cant ; in other words, after the rise and development of 
 Polyphony. During all this time, nevertheless. Faux 
 Bourdon still persisted, a standing evidence of its 
 special type of effect, ready to assimilate qualities 
 which it could not itself have unfolded. That it was 
 held in equal honour in England and France in the 
 15th century appears from treatises by Gulillmus 
 Monachus in the library of St. Mark, Venice. 
 
 I have pointed out that every progression contained 
 in Organum is not equally repugnant even to our taste. 
 
THE RISE OF MUSIC. 235 
 
 The examples, moreover, that have come down to us 
 are so few and meagre that we can form no positive 
 conclusion of the effect to which a broader survey even 
 of manuscripts would point; but assuming it to have 
 been largely of the character indicated by the examples 
 we possess, there might have been felt in it a certain 
 propriety by the early Christian congregations. I have 
 alreaay suggested that as a first experience of moving 
 harmony in composition, its effect might have 
 been very striking if not profound. But besides its 
 purely musical effect, its hollow resonance, the absence 
 of human articulateness, the shifting horizon caused by 
 its undefined tonality, were probably all felt as effects in 
 keeping with the order of the ideas which they attended 
 — ideas vague but impressive, relating to a state of 
 things involving the absence of earthly conditions. 
 
 At the opening of this chapter I said that two 
 departures were involved in the development pre- 
 cursory to Harmony, of which Organum was one. 
 The other was that effect I have recently referred to under 
 the term Descant, which was a different form of depar- 
 ture from Organum and which involved a different prin- 
 ciple. The impulse which prompted Organum was 
 
236 THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 harmonic, that which prompted Descant was melodic. 
 Practically, the one simply initiated Harmony, the 
 other led to its consummation. The principle o£ Or- 
 ganum, as I have said more than once, is the amplifiica- 
 tion of the melody by the supposition of a series of 
 accordant notes marching with it but having no melodic 
 value of their own. The principle of Descant is in- 
 dependence, — both melodic and rhythmic, — of parts. 
 We have no positive knowledge of the origin of 
 Descant. In the light of the principle so largely vis- 
 ible in this work the probability would be that it arose 
 in the normal course of art action. It is far from im- 
 probable that a rudimentary exemplification came about 
 accidentally. It might, for instance, have happened in 
 the course of the Church practice that whilst one 
 singer held on a note another passed from it, moving 
 up or down by degrees. This is not inconsistent with 
 the literal meaning of the word Descant. Such a form 
 of departure as this occurs in the following example 
 from Hucbald which might be regarded as Descant 
 based upon Organum. In the consonance of the octave 
 with which this example begins we observe that broader 
 basis for departure and return to which I have referred 
 as one of the constructive attributes of Organum. 
 
THE RISE OF MUSIC. 237 
 
 etc. 
 
 
 -^ 
 
 -«- 
 
 .Q. 
 
 -s- 
 
 JO. 
 
 .a. 
 
 -«- 
 
 ^. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \^J 
 
 C3 
 
 E3 
 
 in 
 
 ?3 
 
 E3 
 
 
 'J 
 
 
 The Descant was known in France and Flanders 
 towards the end of the nth century. One form of de- 
 velopment which it is said to have taken consisted of two 
 airs selected in virtue of their different character and so 
 arranged (by small modifications of pitch and rhythm) 
 as to produce when performed simultaneously a fairly 
 accordant effect. I have said that the definite origin 
 of Descant is uncertain. The free way in which it is 
 said to have been used in the secular field would seem 
 to point to its having originated in that field. One 
 thing, musical art throughout perhaps the main portion 
 of its progress has at any particular time been in some 
 respects more advanced in the secular field than in the 
 sacred. To one mass a composer would write probably 
 a dozen or more small secular works permitting of 
 greater freedom of form and expression. Hence 
 quicker growth in the smaller details of construction, 
 and all that variety and piquancy of expression result- 
 ing from closeness to life — from the feeling its varying 
 pulse. But in this connection we must not lose sight of 
 the fact that, as we have seen, favouring circumstances 
 
238 THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 of a different character attached to the sacred £eld, as, 
 for instance, the permanent choir, regular practice, the 
 heritage of the plain song, the conservation of past 
 forms and styles, and, last and greatest, the 
 spirit! embracing every beauty of earthly, combined 
 with the steadfast morale and eternal mystery of 
 religious, feeling. To these latter circumstances is 
 probably largely due that massive development which 
 as we shall see Descant, whether or not it originated in 
 the Church atmosphere, in its expansion of Polyphony 
 attained in that atmosphere. 
 
 Applied to the melodies of the Church the principle 
 of Polyphony is far less pronounced than it is applied 
 in the way recently described where the parts are ren- 
 dered as different as possible — in fact where it may be 
 said to be exaggerated. The following specimens of 
 early polyphony are taken from W. S. Rockstro's able 
 article in Grove's Dictionary 
 
 .a. 
 
 .-^_«_i?Q_„_ 
 
 —&— 
 
 
 
 =©^ 
 
 —&- 
 
 ■s- 
 
 \ 
 
 
 e^ 
 
 
 _C3_ 
 
 __^_ 
 
 
 
 
 
 J 
 
 m-.>- 
 
 - & — ^ — ^3— ST- 
 
 -Q" 
 
 
 
 — s>- 
 
 -n 
 
 — s- 
 
 ~e~H 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 -^-B 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 FROM AMBROSIAN COLLECTION AT MILAN. 
 (Eleventh or Twelfth Century). 
 
THE RISE OF MUSIC. 239 
 
 1/ . 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 fctii— £2 — 
 
 
 
 
 - rt 
 
 
 
 
 j^ ''-' 
 
 Mi 
 
 - ra le - 
 
 ge 
 
 mi 
 Q 
 
 ro mo - do, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■ W., n ,, 
 
 
 
 
 i 1 
 
 ^^f. S. ^=' 
 
 
 — ! 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 :=|- 
 
 De - us for - mat ho mi - num. 
 
 m 
 
 
 FROM A MS. IN THE PARIS LIBRARY. 
 (Fourteenth Century). 
 
 It is scarcely possible to comment with any confidence 
 on these records of old effects. It is difficult to be 
 quite sure that we interpret them rightly. For instance, 
 the melodic value of the parts in the above examples 
 is so slight that in neither can we realise them very 
 forcibly as examples of independent melodies. W. S. 
 Rockstro, however, whose opinion is entitled to the 
 greatest weight, asserts that the two parts in the case of 
 each of the above examples are independent melodies. 
 The following points may be noticed. In neither ex- 
 ample are the parts rhythmically independent whilst in 
 both the influence of Organum is noticeable in the strict 
 
^40 
 
 THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 confinement of the consonances to the octave, fifth and 
 fourth. At the same time the second example (as 
 would be likely from the long time between them), ex- 
 hibits great advance. Whereas in the first there are 
 as many as six intervals of a fourth (of which three 
 are arrived at in similar motion), the second consists 
 of octaves and fifths, with one third, all but one of 
 these intervals being arrived at in contrary motion and 
 that one in oblique motion. 
 
 -1— J- 
 
 W^EE 
 
 L'ome arme 
 
 ^■ 
 
 ,-Ci=S= 
 
 I r 
 
 ts 
 
 i=s= 
 
 -o~ 
 
 i4.--x^ 
 
 
 IS2I 
 
 i^= 
 
 — © 
 
 ^E^- 
 
 13); 
 
 
 W- 
 
 ^-r- 
 
 
 .t=L 
 
 ZZlZIZIZi^- 
 
 i|=; 
 
 DUFAY, D. 1432. 
 
 The foregoing example shows an immense leap in 
 achievement. It is a short extract from a mass 
 composed by Dufay (appointed to the papal choir, 
 1380, died 1432) upon a celebrated song entitled 
 
THE RISE OF MUSIC. 241 
 
 "L'Homme Armee." In order to render its reading 
 easier I have transcribed it from the original time of 
 three semibreves to three minims in a bar. 
 
 Now the reader who examines the above attentively 
 will observe (i), that the general form of the top part 
 contrasts perceptibly in the opening bars with that of 
 the subject, which appears in the tenor; (2), that the 
 parts do not all begin together but that the alto comes in 
 a beat and the bass a bar later than the other parts; (3), 
 that the alto and bass as they enter respectively imitate 
 the opening notes of the top part. This effect of 
 Imitation, as I pointed out in the previous chapter in 
 speaking of the early Flemish composers, was incor- 
 porated in the serious works of Dufay's successors. 
 That it was, however, in evidence one hundred and fifty 
 years before the rise of the Flemish school is evident by 
 the Round, " Sumer is icumen in." But that it was ini- 
 tiated in the practice of the Canon is doubtful. It may 
 have been. On the other hand the style of writing 
 represented in the example from Dufay may be itself 
 a tradition extending further backward than the Canon- 
 The tendency to imitate seems inherent in the musical 
 instinct. We can scarcely conceive musical art without 
 
 Imitation. For one thing : all that graphicness which it 
 
 R 
 
242 THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 gives to multitudinous utterance would be lost. But apart 
 from incidental expression Imitation influenced musi- 
 cal development organically. How it did so may be 
 thus briefly explained. In its strict use, as in the 
 Canon, the various parts involve the same subject yet 
 at every point where they synchronise there is neces- 
 sarily more or less marked independence. Thus whilst 
 preserving the freedom of Descant between the parts it 
 drew them into unity — gave them, so to say, a common 
 purpose and equal importance. Hence arose that great 
 style of choral writing in which contrast and every 
 variety of passing effect is united in one general 
 expression. 
 
 To summarise the principal points in this chapter. 
 In Organum a type of effect rises up for which con- 
 tingent circumstances are not altogether ripe yet which 
 in the fuller and subtler play of circumstance is seen 
 to have had its reason. The application of the perfect 
 consonance to the Plain Chant with all its resulting 
 hardness and tendency to, as it were, dislocate the 
 melodic intention and destroy the dim feeling of the 
 key-note, did give the unwonted experience of crude har- 
 monic effect, and put the principle of the simultaneous 
 
THE RISE OF MUSIC. 243 
 
 enunciation of accordant sounds in distinct evidence. 
 Subsequently, in Faux Bourdon the form of Plain Har- 
 mony became, so to speak, blocked out. This was as far 
 towards harmony as in this path could then be got. 
 There was as yet no way of so applying existing com- 
 binations as to render them not only coherent but pene- 
 trative with that full influence of harmony — in which 
 there is coalescence of harmonic and melodic beauty. 
 How the power of thus applying chords became 
 acquired I shall endeavour to show in the following 
 chapter. Curious as it seems, the land where the per- 
 fect beauty of harmony was destined to be found was 
 led to by the melodic impulse in the form of Descant — 
 a melodic departure from the song while the song went 
 on. As we shall see, it was in the ensuing enweave- 
 ment — in the rencontres of moving parts — that the ele- 
 ments of harmonic beauty became revealed and thus 
 the conditions under which it appears, discovered. The 
 rise of Imitation in the course of the above enweave- 
 ment and its influence upon the development of part- 
 writing I have treated so recently that I need here only 
 name it as not the least important of the remarkable 
 series of developments I have been describing. 
 
244 THE RIS? OF UV§IC. 
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 Harmony. 
 
 AT OW let us observe how the general enweavement 
 "^ ^ of themes described in the last chapter led to 
 the special art of harmony. Take our extract from 
 Dufay (p. 240). Besides the common chord of G 
 minor (at the opening of the first, third and fifth bars) 
 and of F and D major (of which the former occurs at 
 the beginning of bar two and the latter at the third 
 beat of bar three) as shown in the examples 
 following. 
 
 We have at the latter half of the second beat of bar 
 two the chord of C in the third position passing to that 
 important and expressive chord, the chord of the im- 
 perfect fifth, as shown on next page : 
 
THE RISE OF MUSIC. 245 
 
 Chord o( G minor. Chord of F. Chord of D. 
 
 Bars (I) 
 
 --^e 
 
 . (3) 
 
 (S) 
 
 -4^l,_ 
 
 (3) 
 
 B^Bi-lillll^il 
 
 p= 
 
 
 Olf^B 
 
 r|i:= 
 
 =tz 
 
 ;ll^ 
 
 EXAMPLES OF THE COMMON CHORD IN THE FIRST 
 
 POSITION.* 
 
 DUFAY ( 1 350-1432). 
 
 C( mmon Chord. 
 (3rd position). 
 
 Chord oi Impft. 5 h. 
 (2nd position). 
 
 -J 
 
 
 ->-- 
 
 DUFAY. 
 
 Then towards the latter part of bar five we have the 
 chord of the imperfect fifth in the key of C, also in 
 the second position, passing to the common chord of C 
 in the second position, and this passing to another 
 chord of the imperfect fifth (on E); as shown in the 
 following example : 
 
 * For convenience when the fundamental note of a chord 
 forms the bass I refer to that chord as. being in the istposition; 
 and when the second and third notes form the bass, to such 
 chords being respectively in the ^nd and 3rd positions. 
 
246 
 
 THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 Bar 5 (Latter half). 
 
 Z=ZZI\Z 
 
 ^ 
 
 Up- 
 
 
 @- 
 
 it: 
 
 -Xr- 
 
 DUFAY. 
 Then at the end of bar one is the chord of the ninth 
 on C (without root) or to use more rational nomencla- 
 ture, of the secondary seventh on E. 
 
 Chord of Ninth. 
 (Involved by the large notes). 
 
 :;2i=r=z== 
 
 I 
 
 Si 
 
 E2i: 
 
 DUFAY. 
 
 In this short extract then of only five bars we have not 
 only all these various combinations in themselves but 
 applied — they are formed in the recontres of moving 
 farts; thus we have the effect of the constituent notes 
 both in their melodic and harmonic roles, with the 
 result that each combination unfolds a power which 
 isolated it could not possibly betray. 
 
 The next great development on the path to modern 
 music which emerges is prepared harmonic effect due 
 
THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 247 
 
 to increased experience of passing combinations. The 
 short extract from the Flemish School which I have 
 given involves, as we have seen, several combinations 
 and progressions betraying aesthetic effect in various 
 degrees. But in the following extract this special 
 aesthetic effect is not only more marked, but there seems 
 a seeking to bring it about in the preparation of the 
 numerous suspensions. 
 
 $ 
 
 t^E^^E^. 
 
 
 
 ■ r 
 
 eel 
 
 ^ 
 
 tar. 
 
 zai 
 
 =fe 
 
 ra-e-JT^r: 
 
 Mm 
 
 _Jg 
 
 I 
 .a. 
 
 m=t^ 
 
 :aT 
 
 ^a. 
 
 -frr 
 
 zip: 
 
 1^; 
 
 
 r-\f^^- 
 
 
 
 t T V r; r 
 
 J. A A A J. 
 
 
 1S>- 
 
 ^Z 
 
 T 1 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 FROM PHILIPPUS DE MONTE'S MISSA. "MON CCEUR SE 
 RECOMMANDE A VOUS." — 1521. 
 
248 THE RISE OF Music. 
 
 In this gradual unfolding of definite harmonic pro- 
 gressions we see the first signs of an influence destined 
 to deepen and enhance inordinately the power of 
 melody or melodic design, as shown in the amalgama- 
 tion of the effects of a harmonic and melodic 
 progression. 
 
 The development I am describing was reflected in 
 the secular field. Flemish composers of masses and 
 motets were in the habit of selecting their themes from 
 popular airs as well as from the Church Melodies. 
 Dufay's mass, "L'homme arme," is an instance. But 
 they were also in the habit of developing the themes 
 of popular ditties into chansons for three or four 
 voices. Thus as definite chords became unfolded they 
 became applied to popular songs of various character. 
 Hence arose the Volkslied and harmonised Choral in 
 Germany. At the same time definite harmonic pro- 
 gression entered into the Madrigal in Italy. 
 
 The normal form of the Madrigal was that of the 
 Canon but towards the middle of the i6th century it 
 is found in plain harmony, witness the well-known 
 "Quando ritrovo" of Festa (1517-1 545) printed in 
 Arcadelt's third book of Madrigals (Venice) : — 
 
Tri£ RtSE OF iiuslc. 249 
 
 
 f 
 
 
 ^^^AJ^_ 
 
 
 .J__l 
 
 cfc 
 
 =7^=23: 
 
 FESTA (i490)-i545. 
 
 As I have implied, the form of the Madrigal was partly 
 due to the contact of the Flemish and Italian Schools. 
 Dufay was appointed to the Papal Choir in 1380 and 
 Adriano Will art (born Bruges, 1480), the founder of 
 the Venetian School was a pupil of Okeghem and Jos- 
 quin des Pr^s. The spirit of Italy has always been 
 peculiarly quickening when coming in contact with 
 important developments elsewhere : witness the massive 
 expression it gives to the fugal form, and the sweet ar- 
 ticulateness to the melody, in Handel ; also its influence 
 upon pre-romantic German Opera, and even upon the 
 Symphonies of Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven, in 
 many of the themes of which an ancient Italian charm 
 and grace linger. The soil of Italy has always been 
 rich in yielding melodic beauty and simple majesty of 
 contour. Marchetto of Padua who lived in the 13th 
 century shows that secular music was much cultivated 
 
250 THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 in his time. As I have expressed before it is difficult 
 not to connect the distinct character of the musical 
 spirit of Italy with the fact that it was for so long a 
 period a central area over which flowed the melodic 
 streams of the ancient world. 
 
 When definite chords first marched with melody, 
 melody was necessarily impressed with greatly in- 
 creased massiveness, but the very use of chords tended 
 frequently to render it stiff and cold. The art had to 
 be much further exercised and its effects transmitted 
 from mind to mind before harmonic progressions, 
 having in themselves a certain aesthetic effect, were so 
 introduced as to invest melody with a stronger coher- 
 ence and deeper expression. Although, as we have 
 seen, composers were frequently moved by aesthetic 
 effects attaching to certain progressions and combina- 
 tions, such of these as had been unfolded up to Festa, 
 Arcadelt and Palestrina had not then yielded a tithe 
 of the effect that it was in them to yield. Notwith- 
 standing that the principal combinations had emerged, 
 only their effects in certain relations had been 
 discovered. 
 
 Much of the effect of stiffness and coldness which 
 
THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 251 
 
 compositions of the latter half of the sixteenth century 
 have is due to want of greater freedom in the connec- 
 tion of the combinations. For instance, in the follow- 
 ing passage from Palestrina, the bass consists (except 
 in two cases) of the fundamental notes of the chords. 
 The two exceptions are the chord of B-flat at the 
 end of the sixth bar and the chord of G-minor at the 
 latter half of the seventh bar. 
 
 li^gi 
 
 t: 
 
 
 -r 
 
 :S=SE 
 
 =g: 
 
 '■m=^- 
 
 ^■^ 
 
 
 li^lE 
 
 
 A. 
 
 -o- 
 
 PALESTRINA. (B, BETWEEN 1515 AND 1 5 29; D. 1 594.) 
 
 The same tendency is observable in the plain harmony 
 of Festa and Carissimi. In the recent example from 
 the former and in the following from the latter the 
 bass in the case of every chord is the fundamental 
 
2$2 
 
 Ttit mst of kustc. 
 
 note. I should add that in other works of Carissimi 
 the chords are used more freely. 
 
 
 T 
 
 if—\ — i?-? 
 
 A - bi - it er 
 
 I N .N J 
 
 ^-•izrazra— »z 
 
 1/ 1/ 
 
 go in mon - tes 
 
 ^ > J J 
 
 n 
 
 
 li • a 
 
 r^-^^j. 
 
 -pg^^^-^F^fe^ 
 
 Jeph 
 
 I 
 
 -ptziz 
 
 :t== 
 
 QUARTET FROM "JEPHTHA" BY GIACOMO CARISSIMI. 
 1582 (SPIRIDIONE) 1604 (PITONI) — 1674. 
 
 But more than mere stiffness jars upon our taste in this 
 early use of definite chords. For instance, a feeling 
 as of passing too suddenly to a removed effect is pro- 
 duced in the example from Palestrina at the chord 
 of B-flat in the fourth bar and of A in the seventh 
 bar. These effects, due to a too sudden shifting of 
 the key-note, were not in all probability felt at the 
 time (in the new experience of applied chords) 
 as we feel them — that power of modulation by means 
 of which we soften and enhance such progressions, 
 
THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 253 
 
 having also demanded further general musical develop- 
 ment. 
 
 Further, let it be particularly noted that progress in 
 the effective conduct of tonality was not a question of 
 harmony alone but, as the next two examples will show, 
 depended upon the application of harmony in con- 
 nection with melody and rhythm which principles of 
 musical effect as well as harmony the composers of 
 this period were working steadily to develop. 
 
 1^ 
 
 -t=r 
 
 -r 
 
 di • di 
 
 ^^#r 
 
 Quod et 
 
 tra 
 
 «^ — 
 
 n^d^&ji,i 
 
 'm^ 
 
 --g-- 
 
 vo • bis, Quod 
 
 bis. 
 
 l-l-^\ 
 
 tri: 
 
 et 
 
 m^ 
 
 :^-j— j- 
 
 r- 
 
 di 
 
 ~3~z 
 
 di"" 
 
 ^-. 
 
 r3C2 
 
 ^r:^J_J_«s_ 
 
 '1 
 
 vo 
 
 1 
 
 bis. 
 
 ^ 
 
 "SI CANTA GIOBEDI SANTO ALLA MESSA." PALESTRINA. 
 Some perception of the influence of melodic and 
 rhythmic symmetry upon tonality is afforded by ob- 
 serving how the abrupt progression in the sixth baj- of 
 
254 
 
 THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 the foregoing extract is modified by the fact that it is 
 the exact counterpart, rhythmically and melodically, 
 of a portion of the general design which occurs in the 
 second bar. 
 
 Again, in the following extract from the same chorus 
 the abrupt progression from the fifth to the sixth bars 
 is modified by being the counterpart, rhythmically and 
 melodically, of that step in the general design which 
 occurs between the second and third bars : — 
 
 i 
 
 I 2 
 
 I 
 
 -X. 
 
 ^^^^^ 
 
 fts. 
 
 
 =t=- 
 
 m 
 
 J. 
 
 Dom 
 
 .11 I 
 
 Je • sus in 
 
 A 
 
 m, 
 
 ■^E 
 
 » — » — ©— 
 
 fca- 
 
 — 1=: 
 
 PJ- 
 
 
 Dom • i - nus Je 
 
 4EE 
 
 ppgSEE 
 
 -&i 
 
 1^ 
 
 In the meantime the general harmonic advance made 
 up to this point not only influenced plain melody in 
 both sacred and secular art but reacted upon poly- 
 
THE RISE OF MUSIC. 255 
 
 phony. Definite harmonic progression, which in Italy 
 became incorporated in the madrigal, in Germany 
 entered into the fugue. German orgcmists and choir- 
 masters, without abandoning the polyphonic style, were 
 moved by the clearer feeling for harmony, with the 
 result that part-writing entered upon a further and 
 higher development. Imitation and the enweavement 
 of parts could be all the more elaborate when involv- 
 ing definite harmonic progressions which amid increased 
 complexity suggested fundamental order. 
 
 I just now referred to a progression in the example 
 from Palestrina, which gives the feeling of passing too 
 suddenly to a removed effect, and mentioned the struc- 
 tural circumstance attending it as being a sudden shift- 
 ing of the key-note. To this kind of progression 
 occurring frequently is mainly due that impression of 
 incoherence which the harmonic constructions of this 
 period tend so largely to give. It has been the custom 
 with musical writers to regard this unsettled effect as 
 having been inevitable through want of knowledge of 
 a particular chord (that of the dominant seventh) 
 which, as it embraces the fourth, fifth and seventh 
 degrees of the scale the simultaneous presence of 
 which is only compatible with one key, impresses un- 
 
256 THE RISP OF MUSIC 
 
 equivocally a decided sense of the key-note whenever 
 it is heard. But this was not the case. The unsettled 
 effect I refer to was certainly inevitable but only from 
 want of fuller experience in the use of combinations 
 already existing, for with this fuller experience it 
 largely disappeared. As a language in its earlier 
 period is always found less clear than g-t a later period 
 when the thoughts expressed being better arranged the 
 various sentences and parts of sentences follow in a 
 more logical order, so it has been in the use of harmony, 
 in which clearness was led to by more ordered and 
 versatile expression. I may add that to this improved 
 expression increased knowledge of chords in their 
 different positions largely contributed. 
 
 I may here remark that when the various positions 
 (or inversions) of a chord are referred to by theorists 
 it should be understood that this is simply a convenient 
 way of classifying combinations made up of similar 
 elements. For instance, the expressions, first, second 
 and third positions are understood as all applying to a 
 single chord whose fundamental form is that general 
 arrangement of the constituent notes to which the term 
 first position applies. As the notes in each arrangement 
 involve the same degrees of the scale this mode pf 
 
THE RISE OF MUSIC. 257 
 
 classifying simply the diiferent general groupings of 
 those degrees is efficient. But the connection of the 
 groupings in this classification must not be regarded 
 as expressing their aesthetic relations to one another. 
 As portions of musical effect the different positions of 
 chords are different things. 
 
 In the case also of those combinations which are 
 termed incomplete chords it should be distinctly borne 
 in mind that the understood full chord and what is 
 regarded as its fragment are assumed to be thus con- 
 nected for the purpose of classification. In some cases 
 when figuring in actual music the two, the full chord 
 and its fragment, might no doubt be interchanged with 
 little detriment to the effect; but in highly artistic 
 composition to interchange them would be to ruin the 
 effect. A complete chord and the same chord incom- 
 plete (to adopt the usual terminology) are as elements 
 of aesthetic effect different things. For example, the 
 following progression often occurs in music, 
 
 and the musical grammarian would regard each com- 
 bination as an incomplete chord ; but the composer re- 
 
 s 
 
258 THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 gards them as quite different effects from those of the 
 complete chords which the grammarian has in mind 
 and with nothing incomplete about them. 
 
 Of course any effect may be presented in an incom- 
 plete or sketchy form, as when the key-note with its 
 fifth or its third only, does duty for the common chord, 
 or a portion of the chord of the dominant seventh for 
 the complete chord. It, however, does not follow from 
 this that the fuller are absolutely fundamental forms. 
 They may be fundamental in relation to the lesser 
 forms in these particular cases — in which the spirit of 
 the greater effects breathes in the lesser. But in other 
 circumstances the latter forms may give an impression 
 of completeness and breathe of no effect which is not 
 fully expressed. 
 
 The historical unfolding of these various harmonic 
 formations bears out this doctrine. To speak in the 
 language of the musical grammarian : First come 
 lineaments of chords, then complete chords so con- 
 nected as to play upon certain positions, then gradu- 
 ally fresh positions. If we compare the examples 
 from Festa and Palestrina with the following extract 
 from the "Four passions," by Heinrich Schiitz (1585- 
 1672) we observe that whereas in the former two ex- 
 
THE RISE OF MUSIC. 259 
 
 amples the bass (as already remarked) consists almost 
 entirely of the fundamental notes of the chords in- 
 volved, in the example from Schiitz, the various notes 
 of the chords alternate freely to form the bass* 
 
 Heinkich ShIttz (1585-1672). 
 mt Adagio. -:=_ cres. f ^ , 
 
 I v^ P ' ^ I P / tf i 
 
 Thanks be to our Lord,Thanks be to out Lord, to Je - sus Christ. 
 
 
 Now the force that this historical reference gives to 
 the view that what are classified as different posi- 
 tions and different portions of chords are aesthetically 
 different things lies in its exhibition of the fact that 
 one of these developments being accomplished time 
 and originating energy intervene before another occurs, 
 as in the case of every new aesthetical effect. 
 
 To resume the consideration of the influence of the 
 chord of the dominant seventh : this chord came in cer- 
 tainly 'as a last and deciding factor of clear tonality, 
 
 * This advance is far from representative of the general rate of 
 progress in music. Special circumstances (among which was the 
 earlier development of organ playing in Germany) had in this 
 case hastened that progress. 
 
260 THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 but it was simply the more complete expression of an 
 influence that had long been forming, whilst the chord 
 which took the leading part in the long progress to clear 
 tonality was that of the imperfect fifth, which contains 
 all but one of the notes of the dominant seventh. 
 
 Like so many other important developments to which 
 I have referred the chord of the dominant seventh did 
 not appear suddenly ; it so to speak dawned gradually 
 over the unfolding world of music, influencing it almost 
 from the beginning, and working homogeneously in 
 the general development of the art. Thus an import- 
 ant operative part of it, embracing the leading note and 
 supertonic, occurs in our extract from Busnois (1445- 
 1480) as shown in the middle bar of the following 
 
 example. 
 
 Busnois. 
 (B. supposed 1445 ; D. 1480]. 
 
 ^"^ — ^ *" 
 
 Then in our extract from Dufay (see the second and 
 third examples in this chapter) we have this part of 
 the chord (the leading note and supertonic) in com- 
 bination with the fourth of the scale, forming the chord 
 of the imperfect fifth of which, as I have said, the struc- 
 ture is identical with that of the combination involved 
 
THE RISE OF MUSIC. 26 1 
 
 by the three upper notes of the chord of the dominant 
 seventh, as illustrated below. 
 
 The reader will observe that in the above examples 
 from Dufay, the chord of the imperfect fifth forms 
 three times : on F-sharp, on B-natural and on E. In 
 the following illustration it appears on the last note. 
 
 *^ L-3--' Chord of 
 
 DIAGRAM SHOWING THE STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS WHICH 
 THE CHORD OF THE DOMINANT SEVENTH HAS IN COMMON 
 WITH THE CHORD OF THE IMPERFECT FIFTH, AND WITH 
 THE COMMON CHORD ON THE FIFTH DEGREE OF 
 THE SCALE. 
 
 The reader will observe that the chord of the imperfect 
 fifth in the second bar of our extract from Dufay 
 passes to the minor chord on the tonic. Now, concern- 
 ing this progression it is interesting to notice that, 
 waiving the circumstance of its passing to a minor tonic, 
 if the movement of the inner parts be interchanged, it 
 is precisely similar to one that Handel employs so fre- 
 quently in order to emphasise a passing period, as 
 shown in the following example. 
 
262. 
 
 THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 DUFAY. 
 Motion of inner parts interchanged. 
 
 Handel (1585 or 84-1759). 
 
 ^] 
 
 m±-- 
 
 ^y- 
 
 To proceed — in the examples from Festa and Caris- 
 simi we find the leading note and supertonic (inverted) 
 in combination with the fifth of the scale, forming 
 really the common chord of the dominant but used as a 
 half cadence or cadence of a section of the piece, thus : 
 
 $ 
 
 m 
 
 T 
 
 fe^£z 
 
 Fbsta. 
 
 zazzizxi. 
 
 
 m 
 
THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 263 
 
 Cakrissimi. 
 
 ElElz 
 
 S 
 
 x:^-^-r 
 
 2d= 
 
 ■^^4 A 4 
 
 M 
 
 :^:. 
 
 ^^^^ 
 
 It 
 
 ^ 
 
 In citing this example I have passed to the Italian 
 School which at this time as the reader is aware had 
 much in common with the Flemish. 
 
 Returning to the latter school we &nd some two or 
 three decades later the leading note and supertonic 
 in their natural position also combined with the fifth 
 of the scale and used as a full cadence, as at the ter- 
 mination of the example from Philippus de Monte. 
 
 P. Dn Monti. 
 
 ^^^ 
 
 U^- 
 
 Wz 
 
 =W: 
 
 In the course of these various examples then we find 
 the leading note and supertonic functioning first as 
 cadence alone, then as a passing cadence — in the latter 
 capacity frequently in combination with the fourth of 
 the scale, forming the chord of the imperfect fifth; 
 
264 
 
 THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 then in combination with the fifth of the scale both as 
 a passing and full cadence. Now, in the following 
 extract from the double chorus "Si Canta il Gioedi 
 Santo alia Messa" of Palestrina (who was contempor- 
 aneous with P. De Monte (1521) we find both these 
 effects combined. 
 
 Palbstrina. 
 
 i 
 
 ^$=^- 
 
 zaz 
 -e>- 
 
 4 J 
 
 —I 
 
 m 
 
 -Piz 
 
 ^m 
 
 ^^'- 
 
 -p- 
 
 -J.. 
 
 ^^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 J- 
 
 -•- 
 
 EEE 
 
 As I have shown, the penultimate combination in the 
 above extract might be regarded as the chord of the 
 imperfect fifth with the fifth degree of the* scale added, 
 or as the common chord on this latter degree with the 
 fourth degree of the scale added. 
 
 It is therefore not surprising that both chords having 
 been for some time used separately, the fact should 
 
THE RISE OF MUSIC. 265 
 
 sooner or later have been discovered that they could be 
 used in combination. 
 
 Thus, starting with the leading note and super- 
 tonic, the chord of the dominant seventh, unfolded 
 in portions at the hands of various composers 
 during a period extending from at latest about 
 the middle of the 15th to towards the end of the i6th 
 century. It does not, however, follow that it did not also 
 unfold in a way somewhat different from that I have 
 described and at some other point of musical activity, 
 which has always covered such a large area — embraced 
 so many countries — that development has been far 
 from regular. An effect which comes into use at a cer- 
 tain period may have been long anticipated in some 
 removed region of musical life. For instance, in the 
 following extract from Jean Mouton, a Frenchman, 
 born in 1461, the effect of the seventh of the chord I 
 am treating of occurs in various ways. This example 
 is extremely instructive, as showing how harmonic 
 effect is contributed to by the melodic impulse. 
 Thus in bar 2 the seventh from the dominant of 
 the scale is prompted purely by melodic feeling; in 
 bar 4 it comes in so to speak mechanically in the course 
 of accompanying the melody by sixths below; but in 
 
266 
 
 THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 bars 7 and 8 it occurs again as part of the melodic 
 design. It will also be observed that in bars 2 and 6 
 the combination of the dominant and its ninth occurs — 
 in the one case in preserving the design of sixths in the 
 upper parts, in the other through pure melodic prompt- 
 ing; also that at bar lO the imitation of the melody 
 gives rise to the discord of the second. 
 
 (I) 
 
 ::£fe. 
 
 ^"EE 
 
 Jean Mouton (born 1461). 
 (a) (3) (4) 
 
 (5) 
 
 '■^-- 
 
 ICC 
 
 iei= 
 
 r-r 
 
 »EE 
 
 :!i-fz 
 
 ^'" J^..i 
 
 (7) 
 
 -J 
 
 (8) -, 
 
 ^ 
 
 "P" 
 
 T tr t t 
 
 ^di=& 
 
 S 
 
 t 
 
 (9) 
 
 J 1- 
 
 :p=J^. 
 
 (II) 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 XT Y Y. 
 
 ^fc^-^^^^^=i 
 
 EEf 
 
 i 
 
 T .tr 
 
 3 — \-s- 
 
 — "-t — 
 
 EXAMPLES OF UNPREPARED SEVENTHS AND NINTHS. 
 PERIOD ABOUT END OF 1400, OR BEGINNING OF 1500. 
 
THE RISE OF MUSIC. 267 
 
 Several writers on music I have noticed seem, in 
 reference to the beginning of the use of the dominant 
 seventh, to attach much importance to the circumstances 
 under which it appears — that is as to whether it 
 is prepared or not, or intentional or not. The 
 reason would seem to be that if the effect is unprepared 
 yet not due to accident it argues a clearer exercise of 
 invention than if it is prepared. We have 
 seen, looking at the general harmonic unfold- 
 ing up to this point, that there is a tendency for the 
 various intervals of all chords to be prepared; thus 
 there would have been an antecedent probability of the 
 interval of the minor seventh on the dominant first 
 appearing in this way, that is to say, being led to in 
 the general harmonic construction, as in the case of the 
 example from Palestrina. The important question for 
 the philosophical student of musical history to me 
 seems to be : does the distinctive character of 
 the various intervals of the chord in question, 
 breathe in the combination however it may come 
 about ? 
 
 The reader is aware that the mediaeval modes 
 became gradually metamorphosed and digested 
 into the major and minor modes. In this 
 
268 THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 process the chord of the dominant seventh may 
 have been in some degree a factor. Helmholtz 
 points out that the use of the leading note led 
 largely to the coalescence of the old into the new 
 system. We have seen that the effect of the 
 dominant seventh as a cadence began to breathe in the 
 combination of the leading note and supertonic (as in 
 the example from Busnois). Now as the effect of the 
 chord developed by its also taking in the fourth and 
 fifth degrees of the scale, whenever this chord was used 
 all scope for difference of character in the same 
 degrees became necessarily confined to the third and 
 sixth degrees. This harmonises with the fact that it is 
 the character of the interval involved by the third and 
 sixth degrees of the scale which differentiates the major 
 and minor modes. The chord of the dominant seventh 
 may thus have helped to bring this metamorphosis and 
 digest of the various modes about. 
 
 I may here refer to a progression which Helmholtz 
 regards as embraced by neither our major nor minor 
 mode, but as an unassimilated remnant of one of the 
 old ecclesiastical modes. This progression is that of 
 the descending leading note, as in the following pas- 
 sage from Handel's chorus " And with His Stripes." 
 
THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 269 
 
 Adagio. 
 
 Handeu 
 
 i 
 
 '^^^- 
 
 m 
 
 zaz 
 
 <&■- 
 
 .UJ. 
 
 tat 
 
 m. 
 
 To me Helmholtz's contention that the true tonic of 
 this p2issage is C does not seem to hold, as the last 
 chord is not felt as final but as leading to the next 
 chorus, which begins with the chord of F. But as- 
 suming the keynote to be C the descending semitone 
 might be explained as involving one of those half-tone 
 intervals, which in the view of our system that I have 
 before explained, lead up or down, from every 
 degree of the scale, forming in the case of every scale 
 a borderland of chromatic effect The reader is aware 
 how largely modern music depends upon effects, termed 
 chromatic, that are neither contained in the scale from 
 which they are, so to speak, projected, nor realised as 
 belonging to a new scale, yet which, as I have illus- 
 trated in a former article, often constitute the salient 
 features — the very eye and centre of expression — of 
 the phrases in which they appear. Now if the notes 
 which compose our system of overlapping scales arc 
 
270 THE RISE OF MUSlC. 
 
 considered to have only one regular capacity, namely, 
 that in which they are the essential notes of scales, then 
 the notes composing the elements of such chromatic 
 effects have no definite place in our system. But if the 
 notes which at the distance of a semitone hedge in each 
 note of every major and minor scale are considered to 
 possess two regular capacities, in one of which they are 
 definite degrees, in the other, elements of a borderland 
 of sound available for chromatic effect, then the ele- 
 ments of the effects to which I allude have their allotted 
 place in our system. 
 
 My exposition of the development of the chord of 
 the dominant seventh and its effects, thus far, then, 
 goes to show that though these effects played an im- 
 portant part in the production of clear tonality as they 
 unfolded, the influence of the chord taken as a whole 
 upon that result has been very greatly exaggerated. 
 As I have said, clear tonality resulted from greater 
 freedom and facility in the use of means of expression 
 already in existence — such means of expression, for 
 instance, as the use of common chords in their various 
 positions in connection with rhythmic design — in illus- 
 tration of which I pointed out in an extract from 
 
THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 271 
 
 Palestrina how abrupt harmonic progressions may be 
 modified in the conduct of the melodic design. 
 
 It is in virtue of another power than simply con- 
 ducing to clearness that the influence of this chord has 
 been so great. Commingled with that influence is a 
 remarkable aesthetic power. To a considerable extent 
 it is true that in aesthetic power one chord is neither 
 before nor after another. It is the position of a chord 
 in the musical design which largely determines its in- 
 fluence. For instance, the generally unassertive chord 
 on the third of the scale produces at the end of the 
 following extract a certain quaint effect. 
 
 ill 
 
 3 
 
 - ^-r — 1- F 
 
 
 3=3= 
 
 :F=g=f 
 
 =5E^^ 
 
2/2 
 
 THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 But the chord of the dominant seventh is exceptional 
 as having a certain inherent assthetic power. In the 
 following extract we have the primitive breathing of 
 a certain use of this chord which use was destined 
 to take its place as one of the few stereotyped struc- 
 tural features of musical expression, in virtue of its 
 peculiar inherent beauty. W. S. Rockstro gives it as 
 an early example of the chord, with the seventh "un- 
 prepared." It is obvious, however, that in this example 
 both the ninth and the seventh are led to by melodic 
 prompting in connection with the harmony of the fifth 
 of the scale. Moreover, the clearness with which the 
 whole is laid out — the parenthetical harmony to the 
 ninth and the enhancement of the effect by the sus- 
 pension of the leading note — seems to suggest that this 
 is not the first appearance of the chord in this famous 
 r61e. 
 
 MONTEVERDE (1568-1643). 
 
 9 7 
 
 In the following example the reader will observe 
 
THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 273 
 
 that the effect of the passage centres upon the inherent 
 aesthetic power of the chord of the dominant seventh 
 and at last dwells upon it. 
 
 Sb; 
 
 J^^? 
 
 Haydn. 
 
 I 
 
 :*= 
 
 &sfe:^ 
 
 m 
 
 1^ 
 
 Re - joice in the Lord, the migh • ty God. 
 
 m — I — m ■• m •-- r « — 1 — ^^ — r— ^ — e- 
 
 Again in the third "Help, Lord," at the opening of 
 the first chorus in "Elijah" its special power stands 
 out in strong relief. Taking the form of the perfect 
 cadence it is used as a passing effect. That Handel 
 was conscious of an inherent expression due to the 
 seventh in this chord is shown in the following cases, 
 in the first of which the tenor, and in the second the 
 alto part, gives a peculiar pathos to the close. 
 
 Handel. 
 
 i 
 
 3^ 
 
 I 
 His bur - then 
 
 is 
 
 Ught. 
 JO. 
 
 SlnUi 
 
274 
 
 THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 i 
 
 Je 
 I 
 
 Aoikcio, Handel. 
 sus Christ. 
 
 mm 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 r-t 
 
 Christ. 
 £2 
 
 rai 
 
 I 
 
 Je 
 
 Christ. 
 
 An interesting detail in the aesthetic capacity of this 
 chord is the following. It relates to that species of 
 effect which is produced by the motion of a part or 
 parts against a holding note. When in this kind of 
 effect the holding note is the fundamental note of 
 the dominant seventh, we have (in virtue largely of 
 the inversion of the minor seventh) an expression pecu- 
 liarly searching yet perfectly smooth, as in the fol- 
 lowing passage. 
 
 Extract from the Funeral March in Beethoven's Sonata, Op. 26. 
 
 '^^ 
 
 ^$^ 
 
 i ^T!^^ — m 1 — m — ^- 
 
 -— S-— -S4 J-J^iiii 4=8br-"a: 
 
 ■^¥t- 
 
 =^---P 
 
 I have referred to the necessity of movement for har- 
 monic effect to be fully realised. It perhaps flows 
 
THE RISE OF MUSIC. 275. 
 
 out of this principle that the ineffably beauti- 
 ful, ineffably moving, touches of harmony only occur 
 in connection with fine melody. Thus it is probably 
 due largely to the inspiration of new melody that the 
 remarkable ascent in the power of harmony which 
 characterises the post-Haydn epoch in music has come 
 about. Whether altogether on this principle or partly, 
 as in the case of the chord of the dominant seventh, 
 in virtue of inherent power; two other combinations 
 were destined to stand out in their capacity under cer- 
 tain circumstances for unfolding inordinate assthetic 
 effect; namely, the chord of the subdominant and the 
 second inversion of the common chord. This exceptional 
 power is more particularly shown in their use as 
 climaxes. The following extract illustrates the use of 
 the subdominant as a climax. 
 
 " Crbation," Haydn. 
 
 i 
 
 =i=: 
 
 Springs up, springs up. 
 
 iil^e^^ 
 
 =1: 
 
 The second inversion of the tonic chord as a climax 
 is generally ushered in by the harmony of the sub- 
 
276 
 
 THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 dominant or of the supertonic, with or without seventh 
 (I am now leaving chromatic effect out of considera- 
 tion). In the following example it is ushered in by 
 the supertonic, with seventh. In this instance the 
 aesthetic effect of the progression is so great that it 
 seems to overshadow that of the ensuing cadence. This 
 is perhaps as strong an exemplification of the remark- 
 able power of the six-four chord on the tonic used as 
 a climax as there is in music. 
 
 " Elijah," Mendelssohn. 
 
THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 2;; 
 
 Of course in the case just illustrated the effect is en- 
 hanced in virtue of its happening to be at the same 
 time the sequel of a modulation. This circumstance 
 introduces a new principle on which all effect in both 
 melody and harmony is inordinately enhanced. 
 
 In the following extract we have the two effects in 
 succession, at "Thee" and "adore"— the first a little 
 overshadowed by the powerful effect of the tonic chord 
 when the third dominates. 
 
 As I have intimated, neither of these effects appear 
 
 to have been conspicuous before Haydn. Probably, 
 
 whatever may be their foundation, they were led to, — 
 
 as we have seen the effects of the seventh and ninth on 
 
 the dominant, in the example from Monteverde, were 
 
 led to, — by melodic feeling. 
 
 " Thb Redbmftion," Gounod. 
 
 ^:|*l 
 
 m 
 
 i^ 
 
 
 -^=^ 
 
 -r^^- 
 
 mm 
 
 ^- 
 
 Christ, Thee we 
 
 m^lii^Eii 
 
 ^^-^ 
 
 -ns* 
 
 n<- 
 
 I ' I 
 
 Str. 
 
 @ff^ 
 
 •^ — w« 
 
 T=F 
 
27? 
 
 THE RISE OF MUSIC, 
 
 
 if 
 
 dore,.... Thee we a - dote, 
 •- -•- -p: - 
 
 Slifc|^=fiii 
 
 ^ ^i ^ ^^^^^ 
 
 ta^'^'p" 
 
 A lesser but still marked aesthetic effect is produced 
 by the progression of the chord of the subdominant 
 or of the supertonic (with or without seventh), to the 
 chord of the dominant seventh, as in the following 
 examples : — 
 
 Cakissimi. 
 Supertonic to Duminant, 
 
 ^^ 
 
 "*F=7= 
 
 ^i=^ 
 
 I— 
 
 4- 
 
 i" 
 
 
 ^A 
 
 "pa- 
 
THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 279 
 
 Handel. 
 Subdominant to Uominant, 
 
 From the point of view of the theorist, the explana- 
 tion of the remarkable effects produced by the use of 
 the chord of the subdominant or of that of the super- 
 tonic (with or without seventh) when preceding either 
 the progression of the dominant seventh to the tonic 
 chord, or the second inversion of the latter as it ushers 
 in the dominant chord, lies in the fact that both the 
 subdominant and supertonic chords bring into evidence 
 the sixth degree of the scale, whilst all the other 
 degrees are heard in the dominant seventh and tonic 
 chords. But in the examples I have given that bring 
 in the harmony of the subdominant and supertonic 
 there is far more than a certain feeling of equilibrium 
 as regards tonality, or the use of the scale. I refer 
 once more to the great truth that the vital links in every 
 kind of development are those changes, that with the 
 advantages for the sake of which they were made and 
 which alone th?ir devisors were cognisant of, involve 
 
28o THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 a potentiality destined to be unfolded in the future. 
 This is evidenced in a remarkable way in the variouE 
 and great effects to which I have alluded, the 
 functioning chords of which were destined to 
 unfold an expression undreamed of by the first 
 users of those chords. In fact it is evidenced, as 
 we shall further see, largely and wonderfully by 
 the great world of harmonic treatment which our com- 
 plete system of overlapping scales, begun in the prompt- 
 ing of a local and finite purpose, has rendered possible. 
 To return to the chord of the dominant seventh, I 
 consider that the great cause of its influence on music 
 is its remarkable aesthetic power, though it probably 
 led to the coalescence of the ecclesiastical modes into 
 the modern major and minor, consolidated the feeling 
 of a definite key, and thus contributed largely to the 
 establishment of clear tonality. But it must be ob- 
 served that it appeared in portions, and that each 
 unfolding was part of a general construction possessing 
 other elements of effect making for clear tonality. 
 
THE RISE OF MUSIC. , 28 1 
 
 CHAPTER XVI. 
 
 Modulation. 
 
 T REMARKED in the previous chapter that the har- 
 "*• monic combinations discovered up to the time of 
 Palestrina had not then unfolded a tithe of the aesthetic 
 effect it was in them to unfold. In illustration of this 
 I pointed out that at that period the use of the common 
 chord was largely confined to the first position. In the 
 present chapter I shall show that beyond all the effects 
 which lie in the use of a chord when a single key is 
 kept to it is capable of putting forth what may be 
 termed a new birth of effect when appearing in another 
 key before the influence of the old has quite passed 
 away. This process, termed modulation, applies to 
 melody as well as harmony, and as we shall see, it led 
 the way to a vast extension of the art in form and power 
 — in fact, to an augmenting of its every factor of effect. 
 That the principle of varying the expression in both 
 nielody and harmony by the incorporation of notes 
 
282 
 
 THE RISK OF MUSIC. 
 
 belonging to another key actuated the composers of 
 the early Fleihish period is evident in the examples 
 I have already given. The following are two instances 
 contained in the examples already given from Dufay 
 and De Monte. 
 
 DUFAli. 
 
 m^ 
 
 —Zrz:i:tz 
 
 a=pa. 
 
 T" 
 
 :* 
 
 m 
 
 SeS 
 
 _-§:. 
 
 liiiirE. 
 
 itz: 
 
 .^ 
 
 Db Montb. 
 
 O • sui • na in ex • eel - sif 
 
 -<s> — i 
 
 J. 
 
 i 
 
 m^ 
 
 The principle of modulation is, however, in much 
 fuller and clearer evidence in the following example 
 from a work by Heinrich Schiitz (Henricus Sagittarius), 
 1 585-1672. It relates to a period which though chrono- 
 logically not much in advance of the period of Pales- 
 trina occupies the further side of a new departure, 
 namely, the application of harmony in the form of 
 accompaniment to recitative and song. That departure 
 however I shall treat of in a subsequent chapter. 
 
THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 283 
 
 t=t^ 
 
 SESt 
 
 M^^MJ^m. 
 
 
 Now when Je-sus was in Beth-a-ny there came un-to Him a 
 
 i^tr 
 
 ■ 
 
 1 — 
 
 H 1 " 
 
 
 foJii-i — 
 
 
 -=i^— 
 
 d i ,r? 
 
 J 
 
 
 
 
 . . 
 
 — s 1— <s 
 
 
 ^^B _ 
 
 H 
 
 — 
 
 — 1- 1 
 
 
 a tempo. 
 
 wo-man, hav-ing an a • la- bas-ter box with pre - ci - ous 
 
 -J.. 3- 
 
 i=.^ii 
 
 fcr^i 
 
 ipai 
 
 :g- 
 
 m 
 
 ■^f=!= 
 
 :^=Ci: 
 
 ^: 
 
 ^S!^E 
 
 l=iti 
 
 oint - ment. 
 
 and pour'd it on His head. 
 
 1^^ 
 
 i^^eIeB 
 
 -^r 
 
 =)=3= 
 
 ^^^Eg^EE^&a 
 
 r- 
 
 FROM THE "FOUR PASSIONS." HEINRICH SCHUTZ, 
 1585-1672. 
 
 The r^ad^r will observe tjiat the vocal part at the 
 
284 THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 second half of bar five — ^where the triplet occurs — is 
 harmonised by a progression proper to the key of 
 A-minor, and the notes to the words "poured it on," 
 by a progression proper to D-minor. Now the effect 
 of these melodic phrases being treated by harmony 
 belonging to those keys is : they take on a quite new 
 expression of which nevertheless the piquancy depends 
 largely upon the effect of the context in the old key. In 
 this process there is really involved a special aesthetic 
 principle in music by means of which the simplest pro- 
 gressions are heightened inordinately in power and 
 beauty when treated harmonically from the standpoints 
 of different keys. The effect is curiously analogous to 
 that which is given when part of a painting stands out in 
 a subtly prepared beam of sunlight. There is perfect 
 continuity between the shaded and the lit part of the 
 scene yet the latter is as it were glorified — revealed in 
 raised power, So in modulation a distinctly raised effect 
 occurs not to be accounted for by either the melody or 
 harmony in themselves. The general conditions which 
 render this possible in music are involved in our system 
 of overlapping scales the remarkable potentiality of 
 which was far from realised even when that system 
 ^^s formally completed as tjiis was qot later th.ap 
 
THE RISE OF MUSIC. 285 
 
 1 36 1, when all the intermediate semitones were 
 included in the Halberstadt organ. 
 
 The fact, of which the reader is aware, that the pres- 
 ence of the chord of the dominant seventh is decisive 
 of the key, renders that chord obviously a unique 
 means of modulation. Being introduced on such a 
 degree of the scale that one or more of its notes belong 
 to a new scale the impression of the old key is 
 destroyed, but simultaneously that of a new key is 
 created. Thus by means of this chord the text may 
 travel to a new key (or return from one to the old) 
 without the slightest weakening of coherence due to 
 lessened or suspended feeling of a key-note. 
 
 A slight examination of the last example will enable 
 the reader to perceive that, aided largely by the modu- 
 lations it contains, it embraces a certain long sweep of 
 design with, in places (as in the fifth and seventh bars) 
 greater variety (involving heightened expression) in 
 proportion to space. 
 
 Thus far I have referred to modulation in its clear 
 and definite action. But its action is not always 
 distinct and positive. This also may perhaps be illus- 
 trated by a reference to natural effect. Thus : as there 
 cire infinite minglings of the direct and indirect sun- 
 
286 
 
 THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 ray — as when in mist or under a light cloud- we may 
 feel, as a warmer glow breaks through the luminous haze, 
 that the direct ray is not all intercepted — so, in music, 
 we may feel the influence of a key that does not defin- 
 itely prevail. Sometimes the feelings of two keys are 
 mingled. Instances of this occur in listening to the 
 
 following extract (also from the "Four Passions") 
 
 G minor. 
 
 l^ 
 
 dud. 
 
 
 n r 
 
 -p-t 
 
 J. 
 
 
 m 
 
 :^=(ii" 
 
 — ) 1 « H 
 
 I 
 
 z^z^ 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 :t=:t 
 
 Bfiat. 
 
 l£j- 
 
 mn^i^^m^: 
 
 -: >>bi la = b 1 h — = 
 
 t0f3^^em 
 
 —m — m — P — i 
 
 !==op:w=rw=w=:m=::z:x=Si==:a 
 
 T — I — r 
 
 FROM A CHORUS IN "THE FOUR PASSIONS." H. SCHUTZ. 
 
THE RISE OF MUSIC. 28^ 
 
 where the lines overlap. The lines and letters de&ne 
 the passages in different keys. The reader will observe 
 in this extract that — notwithstanding the various changes 
 of tonality above referred to — the design is continuous 
 whilst there is much variety of phrase as well as of 
 expression. 
 
 That peculiar intensification of effect to which I 
 have recently referred, which is the soul of modula- 
 tion, is far from pronounced in the examples which 
 thus far I have given. Though it is felt definitely in 
 all effective modulation its more striking manifesta- 
 tions occur in modern music. To refer once more to 
 the principle that it is the future consequences which 
 give to any development the greater part of its import- 
 ance, perhaps nothing in the history of music illus- 
 trates that principle more forcibly than a comparison 
 of the effect of modulation in modern music with the 
 part it plays in the music of the latter half of the six- 
 teenth century. Notwithstanding it is in clear evi- 
 dence in Palestrina, as shown in the short examples I 
 have given, it is with this composer prompted to 
 subserve extended structure and broad antiphonal 
 effect rather than to intensify passing expression. 
 After PaJestrina it still continued to be largely conr 
 
288 THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 cerned in symmetric construction whilst the increased 
 expression due to it remained fairly evenly manifested 
 throughout the piece, as shown in the last example. 
 Yet as I have said and we shall see in due course, in 
 virtue of its power of giving special character to the 
 shortest phrase it led ultimately to a peculiarly terse 
 form of melody, and to harmonic effect so eclatant that 
 we can only describe it as an aesthetic revelation. 
 
 I may here refer to the, of course, well known fact 
 that the key about to prevail may be impressed by 
 melody alone. The fact that part of the effect of 
 melody is the fulfilling of expectation implies that it 
 also excites expectation. Thus modulation may aid 
 structural design and give increase of beauty in melody 
 alone. This is illustrated in the case of every easily 
 followed unaccompanied melody that covers more 
 than one key. Further, the melodic intention may be 
 so distinctly impressed as to annul the influence of 
 notes foreign to the key. Thus in the concluding 
 phrase of the last example, notwithstanding the B 
 natural the listener is still led to expect the close in F. 
 
 The last mentioned kind of effect may perhaps be 
 regarded as an early feeling towards a principle of ex- 
 pression destined to play a peculiar part in modern 
 
THE RISE OF MUSIC. 289 
 
 music. In the example just referred to the diverting 
 influence exists in both the vocal part and the accom- 
 paniment. But in the following, there is acute passing 
 antagonism betwreen the vocal part and the accompani- 
 ment. The former at the point involved is felt to be 
 the more strenuous and pronounced as it clashes with 
 the accompaniment the passing of which to more 
 accordant harmony followed by the descent of the 
 suspended note is an instance of the ineffable expres- 
 sion which may be produced by this means. 
 
 m 
 
 T- 
 
 ^=ifei= 
 
 dear • ly, dear 
 
 ^^usm^s^^: 
 
 igifrgzqzi^ Lu r rr -gzg^g^fLg^i 
 
 T=^ 
 
 t:S:=ES=B 
 
 Z7ZCZ 
 
 FROM " THERE IS A GREEN HILL." GOUNOD. 
 
 I have said that after Palestrina the heightening of 
 expression by modulation proceeded with a certain de- 
 liberation as it attended the structural development of 
 the period. But as the contact of effects between removed 
 
 keys became more developed, and modulation was 
 
 U 
 
290 
 
 THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 effected more rapidly — even instantaneously — that 
 heightening of effect to which I have referred became 
 unfolded in as it were a coruscation of beauty. 
 
 The example below, like the last, belongs to a period 
 far in advance of the general stage of musical develop- 
 ment at which we have arrived, but it illustrates forcibly 
 the special effect of modulation to which I now allude. 
 A melodic phrase consisting simply of a perfect fifth 
 starts on the seventh degree of the scale of C and cul- 
 minates on F-sharp to the harmony of the second in- 
 version of the major common chord on B. Thus the 
 inherent aesthetic power connected with the use of this 
 position of the common chord, to which I have called 
 special attention, rises suddenly (yet in perfect organic 
 continuity) in a key five removes distant. These are 
 the simple conditions of the remarkable intensification, 
 of effect that follows. 
 
 I 
 
 ■hh 
 
 C. M. Weber, 1786-1826. 
 
 la^g^^i^ 
 
 -ft# 
 
 M^ 
 
 1^ 
 
 M A 
 
 r 
 
 piifeil^^^P^ 
 
 M 
 
 mi 
 
THE RISE OF MUSIC. 2gi 
 
 CHAPTER XVII. 
 
 The Rise of Italian Melody: The Beginning of 
 THE Artistic Song. 
 
 XT OT the least curious of some of the facts that the 
 ■^ ^ study of musical history reveals is, that serious 
 individual expression in a song for a single voice, 
 as in the vocal solo of modern music, was not a 
 development of the songs of troubadours or any tradi- 
 tional ditties consisting of one part melodies. A parallel 
 fact is, that the beauties of harmony should have 
 been first revealed in the rencontres of fragments of 
 melody, for somewhat as unexpected as this is the fact 
 that melody with accompaniment, as a vehicle of 
 special feeling, should have unfolded from vocal part 
 music, generally polyphonic in form. This, however, 
 is what occurred, and not in one country only, but in the 
 
292 THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 various countries in Europe where musical art was cul- 
 tivated. In illustration I will first refer to the secular 
 songs of Italy before or about the beginning of the 
 period when the works of Flemish composers began 
 to get known in Italy. The first Italian publisher who 
 issued these works was Petrucci. This occurred in 
 1 502. At that period the vocal music in vogue in Italy 
 consisted of tuneful but frivolous part-songs, called 
 Frottole, and soiigs called Canzone Villanelle which 
 were sung as drinking songs and though popular in 
 style were imitative in form. Into the Canzone Villan- 
 ella passed gradually the gayer and merrier type of 
 Frottola whilst the more serious type passed into the 
 Madrigal. Mrs. Edmund Wodehouse to whose most 
 admirable and informing study on Song in Groves' 
 Dictionary I am much indebted in this part of the 
 present subject, mentions the case of a Frottola printed 
 in Junta's Roman collection of 1526, which evidently 
 became converted into a Villanella as it is still sung in 
 Venice with the same words and melody; this origin- 
 ally was a part-song with the melody in the tenor. 
 
 The first attempt (as it is supposed to have been) at 
 solo-singing with accompaniment is said to have been 
 made in an Intermezzo performed in 1539. In this 
 
THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 293 
 
 case, however, though the solo singer (in the character 
 of Silenus^ is said to have accompanied himself on the 
 violone, the music he sang was the upper part of a 
 Madrigal (by Corteccio) while the under parts, which 
 represented the six satyrs, were taken by wind instru- 
 ments and thus formed an accompaniment. That 
 these parts were as much independent voices as the 
 upper part may be observed in the following extract. 
 
 1ST Tenor (Sileno). 
 
 Corteccio (d. 1571). 
 
 zitaz 
 
 :g^ 
 
 O be - gi'an • ni de I'o 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^sa 
 
 ^'- 
 
 t- 
 
 E$E 
 
 ^^n 
 
 --iaz 
 
 $ 
 
 — g» — -g-— g- 
 
 rai 
 
 ^m 
 
 zaz 
 
 i 
 
 O se • col di - vo. 
 
 ^EiiipE^rpl^^^^ 
 
 ::^= 
 
 ^ 
 
 I 
 
 rj3Z 
 
 FROM AN INTERMEZZO PERFORMED IN 1 539. 
 
294 THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 Another attempt to give the effect of voice and 
 accompaniment was made in 1594. An opera entitled 
 " L'Amphiparnasso " by Orazzio Vecchio was per- 
 formed at Mantua and printed in Venice soon after- 
 wards. In this case the music consisted of a series of 
 madrigals for five voices, there being no instrumental 
 accompaniment and no ritornello. When a single 
 character occupied the stage the other four parts were 
 sung behind the scene in order to form the accompani- 
 ment; when two characters were on the stage the three 
 remaining parts were heard behind the scene. 
 
 It will be seen that in the above cases the madrigal 
 was so modified in performance as to give the effect of 
 there being a leading part or leading parts. 
 
 But modification in this direction was not proceeding 
 in the madrigal only. A similar process was going on 
 in various forms of part music. The villanella was 
 sometimes arranged to suit a single voice with lute 
 accompaniment. 
 
 The year 1600 is regarded as epochal in musical 
 history in virtue of two events that took place in it. 
 On October 6, at the Pitti Palace, Florence, the fable of 
 Orpheus and Eurydice put into verse by Ottavia 
 Rinuccini and set to music by Jacopo Peri (d. after 
 
THE RISE OF MUSIC. 295 
 
 1610) and Giulio Caccini (i 588-1640) was performed 
 for the first time, the occasion being portion of the fes- 
 tivities by which the marriage of Marie de Medicis 
 with Henry IV. was celebrated. In the same year (in 
 February) a mystery, entitled the " Rappresentazione 
 del anima e corpo," the words by Laura Guidiccini, the 
 music by Emilio del Cavaliere (1550-C.IS98) was 
 represented in Rome in the Church of the Oratoriens 
 of St. Mary in Vallicella. In the performance of this 
 opera recitative was for the first time put to a decisive 
 test, whilst the above oratorio was the first work of the 
 kind in which recitative was introduced — so the his- 
 torical tradition runs. 
 
 According to generally accepted accounts music for a 
 single voice as introduced in these works was the out- 
 come of the discussion and experiment which took place 
 at one of those artistic reunions which at this period 
 were held in every town in Italy at the house of some 
 noble dilettante, or some celebrated artist or writer. The 
 reunion now referred to met at the house of John Bardi, 
 Count of Verno, Florence, and included Peri, Caccini 
 and Cavaliere; this little circle of cognoscenti having 
 been for some time much occupied with the idea of re- 
 viving the musical declamation of ancient Greek drama 
 
296 THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 It is generally considered that the employment of 
 recitative in the opera and the oratorio to which I have 
 just referred was the initiative to which its modern 
 development is to be traced. There can be no doubt 
 that the attempt above referred to, to consummate a 
 new kind of effect in a clear art-space — free from all 
 old operations — to, in fact, begin de novo, turned out 
 in the circumstances to be a particularly happy idea. 
 It let into the art-atmosphere a breath of nature, which 
 stimulated intelligent development. At the same time 
 it is probable that too much importance has been 
 attached to this incident. If recitative and melody 
 for a single voice, should have been the special result 
 of the above gathering — a result involving an entirely 
 new form, disengaged from traditional procedure — 
 such a fact would be quite opposed to that process of 
 evolution which we have seen took place in the cases of 
 those other forms of musical effect which we have thus 
 far considered. There is scarcely any doubt that sooner 
 or later there would, out of the general course of art 
 activity, and thus quite independently of the gatherings 
 at Bardi's, have emerged a form more suitable for indi- 
 vidual expression, and more realistic than the idyllic 
 madrigal or more or less conventional part-song. I 
 
THE RISE OF MUSIC. 297 
 
 have already shown that in those definite though 
 peculiar attempts to use the madrigal for individual 
 expression which have been described, a process tend- 
 ing in the above directions had already begun to unfold 
 in the madrigal itself. Nor, as I have said, was this 
 tendency confined to Italy. A change of the same 
 kind was proceeding in France and Germany. In 
 P' ranee, to use the words of Mrs. Edmund Wodehouse, 
 " in the latter years of the sixteenth century, songs for 
 one voice began to find favour and to drive airs for 
 three, four, five or six voices from the ground which 
 they had occupied for more than one hundred and 
 fifty years, whilst in Germciny, Hans Leo Hassler 
 breathed into his songs the light spirit of Italian 
 Villanelle and Fa-la's, giving more prominence to the 
 melody than the other voice-parts; and like character- 
 istics are noticeable in Melchior Franks' and Reynold's 
 collections of songs." 
 
 Here, then, are evidences of a general movement 
 (consisting of a process of modification in multi- 
 voiced music) towards the evolution of a vocal solo 
 harmonised, which was going on before as well as at 
 the time of the Bardi gatherings. During this general 
 period the instinct of musicians seems to have been 
 
298 THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 pressing towards a style of work having a more drama- 
 tic and individual expression than the conventional 
 expression peculiar to part-songs or to such songs of 
 one part (with or without some slight accompaniment) 
 as no doubt have always existed. 
 
 It is not therefore surprising that the feeling just 
 described combined with that passion for antiquity 
 which at the time prevailed throughout the cultured 
 classes of Western Europe should have suggested to 
 the artistic circle that formed at the house of John 
 Bardi the idea of reviving the musical declamation of 
 the ancient Greek drama. But the important point is 
 that in this as in niost of the other cases of art- 
 development which I have traced, the path by which the 
 new expression was reached, was through extant form. 
 Nor is this simply a conclusion depending solely upon 
 the general historical facts to which I have referred, 
 but its truth may be demonstrated by internal evi- 
 dence in the new music itself. 
 
 The following extracts from the " Orpheus " of Peri 
 and the " Rappresentazione " by Cavaliere, though con- 
 taining some exclamatory effect, bear, in the frequency 
 of sustained notes and the regular form of the phrases, 
 evident traces of the madrigal. 
 
THE RISE OF MUSIC. 299 
 
 JacoPO Pbri (d. cirea 1610). 
 
 S5i^ 
 
 ::T=3= 
 
 Nel pur a - dor del - la piu bel - la stel - la 
 
 mi 
 
 zaz 
 
 =t:= 
 
 m 
 
 -W=¥=W- 
 
 ■F F h- 
 
 :5--=P2- 
 
 ^gg=gl 
 
 ■ rea so - eel ■ la di bcl foe ac-cen - di. 
 
 =3==^=^^^^^ 
 
 Id »= 
 
 FROM " ORPHEUS AND EURYDICE. 
 
 Emilio dbl Cavalieke (1550- ««a 1598}. 
 
 i 
 
 [23=1 
 
 f^ 
 
 =1=::3= 
 
 ^^^^ 
 
 • »■ - - -•■- -& -d- 
 Og • ni cor ama il be ne nes - sun \uul 
 
 ® 
 
 ^^BEg^Tz 
 
 E^= 
 
 :^:: 
 
 EE- 
 
 ii 
 
 ^^i^=s^r^ 
 
 star in pe • ne; quin-de mil - le de - si • iL 
 
 ^ 
 
 3^3eB 
 
 S> ^ U 
 
 6 * » 
 
 FROM THE "RAPPRESENTAZIONE DEL ANIMA E CORPO." 
 
300 THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 The publication by Caccini in 1601 of a collection 
 of compositions including airs for one voice, is also 
 regarded as an epoch in musical history. The airs 
 for one voice are considered to contain the germ of the 
 artistic song; they are looked upon as the first definite 
 embodiments in monodic effect of the principle of free 
 construction for the purpose of vivid and varied indi- 
 vidual expression. In the first two bars of the follow- 
 ing extract from this collection the note of individual 
 feeling is clearly perceptible, whilst, as bearing on our 
 recent statement that the new music shows traces of the 
 madrigal, the reader will observe in the last bar — in 
 the rhythmic uniformity of melody and bass, and the 
 generally stereotyped expression — unmistakable sug- 
 gestions of that form of composition. This illustra- 
 tion is rendered all the more forcible by the fact that 
 according to Domi, the historian, the new music of Cac- 
 cini embodied an advance in vocal solo. 
 FROM CACCINI'S "NUOVO MUSICHE." PUBLISHED 1601. 
 
 1=1=1=^ 
 
 =t=t 
 
 It 
 
 -cfcr 
 
 Di le li-vo - i le di me vi - ca - le 
 
 i^^^l^i 
 
 -n- 
 
 -jciz 
 
THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 301 
 
 11 
 
 ? 
 
 E=E 
 
 ^ 
 
 --^ 
 
 Ch'il mio gran ma 
 
 vien da gioc chi sbo 
 
 &±: 
 
 X 
 
 ^ 
 
 7 t6 Tdh £6 
 
 The influence of the madrigal explains that mingling 
 of song and recitative proper which appears in 
 this early monodic effect. Claude Monteverde (C. 
 1 570- 1 649), however, distinctly broke through this in- 
 fluence, confining melodic prompting to his ritornels 
 and making his recitative freely linguistic. The 
 advance in opera claimed for Monteverde, is the more 
 prominent position of music in relation to the literary 
 element in the general expression of the piece, together 
 with a bolder application of harmony. The following 
 extract is from his setting of " Orpheus and Eury- 
 dice," which was produced at Mantua in 1607, and the 
 score of which was published in Venice in 1609.* 
 
 MONTKVERDE {circa 1570-1649). 
 
 ^^ 
 
 ^^^i:^ 
 
 3: 
 
 E3E 
 
 Elr^ 
 
 Ro 
 
 sa del del 
 
 vi ■ ta del mon 
 
 m 
 
 :=3= 
 
 * For the sake of simplicity I have in this extract made the 
 length of the bar one semibreve instead of two as in the original. 
 
302 
 
 THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 SE 
 
 a -IS IS -N J ' ZSZZS— J-J— ^-I^-^ 
 
 Jfc^^3^^Ei3 
 
 *=^ 
 
 -S-d- 
 
 ■ do 
 
 £ deg-na pro • le di-lui cbi I'u-ni-Tcr-saaf • 
 
 m 
 
 $ 
 
 
 :i=ij: 
 
 -{«= 
 
 - he • Da 
 
 ^ 
 
 Sol 
 
 che'l tut - to cii - con - di e'l tutto 
 
 i 
 
 ^^ 
 
 E^:gg ^Egi g^^=g[ 
 
 Da gli stel • Ian - ti gi 
 
 ^ 
 
 REGIT. FROM SCENE IN " ORPHEUS," ACT 1. 
 
 This arbitrary confining vocal expression to the 
 broken, exclamatory effect of recitative proper, did not, 
 however, find favour with succeeding composers. In 
 fact it was soon found that melody acquired a beauty 
 all the more intense as it became the expression of 
 individual feeling. 
 
 This latter advance is evident in the two following 
 extracts. The first is from an oratorio by Domenico 
 Mazzocchi, produced in Rome, 1631. As the reader 
 
THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 303 
 
 will feel it is a high example of that continuous ex- 
 pression in which directly graphic effect alternates 
 with touches of gracious melody. 
 
 DoMBNico Mazzocchi [ctrca 1631). 
 
 I 
 
 f5=:ifc 
 
 '^W=f=f_ 
 
 iE^^^=^3 
 
 P=ii=-yr. 
 
 Ben vuol sa - nar - la 
 
 il re • den -to - re 'i 
 
 m 
 
 $ 
 
 ^^^^ 
 
 j»= 
 
 3EEgEft£ 
 
 E^^^ 
 
 EE 
 
 san - gue 
 
 ma indar- no spar • si 
 
 il pre - ti 
 
 Pi 
 
 E^^ 
 
 ':3EEz 
 
 EE=E 
 
 dMi 
 
 sa ra per lei di quel be 
 
 pm ¥m^^^^$^ 
 
 • a - to san - gue sen- za il do - glio - so hu - mor. 
 
 =)= 
 
 m. 
 
 E 
 
 ^E 
 
 tmz 
 
 E^ 
 
 E^E 
 
 FROM QUERIMONIA DI S. MARIA MADDELENA. 
 As a matter of passing though irrelevant interest 
 
304 THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 the reader will no doubt observe that the first phrase 
 of the above is identical with the opening phrase of 
 Beethoven's C minor Symphony. 
 
 The second extract is from "II Giasone," an opera, 
 produced in 1649, by Pietro Francesco Cavalli (1610 
 (1599)- 1 676) who studied under Monteverde. In even 
 this short example, as the reader will observe, the 
 unique traits of Italian melody stand out clearly ; with 
 its flowing simplicity there is a certain superb grace 
 and elevation of expression which renders its style 
 distinctive. It almost seems as if there had descended 
 to this people an accent from some transcendent lost 
 language, or some floating strains from a past music 
 of which we have no other knowledge, 
 
 Cavalli (1610 £iS99]-i676). 
 
 Viol. I 
 
 ;3= 
 
 m 
 
 \-^z. 
 
 7&~-w- 
 
 zzii 
 
 -jct. 
 
 jst- 
 
 De - li zie con ■ ten - ti che I'al -me be ■ a ■ ti 
 
 ^|M.:J. ' J J. J- J . I I J j_._^ _J- J-. J I 
 
 |g^= 
 
 zzsistzzazizzzztocn 
 
 fer - ma • - te, &c. 
 
 .feO- 
 
 73 Q- 
 
 ^^^E=:^^£Ei^Ei^:rE-3 
 
 I 1 &i— — -— 1 — e^—r 
 
 JQ- 
 
 FROM "XL GIASONE." 
 
THE RISE OF MUSIC. 305 
 
 CHAP<rER XVIII. 
 
 The Foreshadowing of Modern Oratorio. 
 
 I N describing the unfolding of recitative I pointed 
 out that it was not a local development but the 
 inevitable outcome of a general instinct in the 
 musicians of Germany and France as well as Italy 
 which sought a more individual and realistic form of 
 musical utterance than was then extant. I also showed 
 that when found the new form in certain peculiarities 
 bore distinct traces of the madrigal. 
 
 We should bear in mind that in this part of our 
 investigations although occupied immediately with 
 monodic effect we are still in the general path of har- 
 monic development, which development was necessarily 
 afFected by the new movement in the impulse the latter 
 tended to give to the inspiration of melody which, as 
 
 I have pointed out and as we shall further see, is the 
 
 X 
 
3o6 
 
 THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 crowning faxrtor in the constitution of harmony in its 
 more complete and striking effects. 
 
 We saw in the extract by Domenico Mazzocchi, given in 
 the last chapter, that expressive recitative had entered 
 oratorio by the period of Cavalli and Carissimi, who were 
 contemporaries of Mazzocchi though he was probably 
 the younger of the three. Now at this period we not only 
 find individual feeling and the dramatic spirit, in the 
 vocal solo of oratorio but also in the chorus. A signal 
 example of individual f eeling,^ — that is, of feeling per- 
 sonal in its character though it may be shared by many, — 
 occurs in the final chorus of Carissimi's "Jephtha," 
 " Plorate filii Israel." In this chorus from which I give 
 the following extract, there is a depth of feeling which 
 has broken through the crudeness of new development 
 and attained an expression which in its absolute truth 
 and beauty is independent of time and period. 
 
 la- men - .ta 
 
 CARISSIMI. 
 
 mi - ni 
 
 t-^^^ ^ 
 
 8 — S~" 
 
 =d-.gw=^ 
 
 ^ r r; r r 
 
 ■ ta - mi - ni la • men 
 
 - ta - mi-rii 
 
 -•- '.an 
 
 ^ r r ■• 
 
 la ■ men 
 . J. .1 
 
 ^^- 
 
 — le— I • — 
 
 \-Tn —m- p 
 
 t 
 
 r -r ■" 
 
 '-t i" — 1 — 
 
 tsi 
 
 la ■ men • 
 
THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 307 
 
 
 t 
 
 1 
 
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 /> 
 
 
 ?l J 1 J' J-^ 
 
 —- 1 
 
 — s!-f — 
 
 — _j — : 
 
 —J— 
 
 hE^~s 
 
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 - ta • mi - ni la - 
 
 J J^ f^ J 
 
 1 
 men 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 - u 
 
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 mi 
 
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 — & 1 — 
 
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 men • 
 
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 tt t d 
 
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 $ 
 
 -.j^- 
 
 mi 
 
 N 
 
 m 
 rit. 
 
 la 
 
 ^illE 
 
 -9—T 
 
 mi ■ ni 
 
 la 
 
 P 1 
 
 W^^fz 
 
 la 
 
 men • ta 
 mi - ni 
 
 T.az 
 
 —f=tz 
 
 la- men- 
 
 e A- A A 
 
 la 
 
 Adagia. 
 
 PP 
 mi 
 
 13 
 
 fe=l 
 
 FBE 
 
 :p^-«f=i,. 
 
 ta 
 — s>- 
 
 
 mi 
 mi 
 -pa- 
 
 nt, 
 ni. 
 
 5=* 
 
 ta 
 
 FROM "JEPHTHA." (FINAL CHOKUS), 
 
 The resemblance in general form and style between 
 the above chorus and that of " Hear Jacob's God " in 
 
308 THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 Handel's "Samson" combined with the presence in 
 both of coinciding passages seems to preclude all doubt 
 that the latter was modelled on the former. One in- 
 teresting fact that strikes the student in comparing 
 these two choruses is, that notwithstanding in Caris- 
 simi's the broad, massive style is less fully developed, 
 the majesty less unequivocal, than in Handel's, it has 
 yet in certain places a more modern expression, as, for 
 instance, in the expressive discord at the fourth bar of 
 the above extract and more particularly at the seventh 
 bar, where that distinctly modern effect, the harmonic 
 climax, is in evidence. 
 
 Notwithstanding the intense personal expression of 
 the beautiful melodic phrases towards the conclusion 
 of this chorus I doubt that in this case that expression 
 descends from the Rinuccini and Peri experiment. The 
 above phrases seem rather an independent though ex- 
 ceptional manifestation of the normal stream of ten- 
 dency in the Italian musical genius. 
 
 In chapter 16 I referred to and gave two 
 extracts from the German oratorio "The Four Pas- 
 sions" by Heinrich Shiitz who was a contemporary of 
 Carissimi. Now Heinrich Shiitz had studied under 
 Gabrielli in Venice until 1612, and in 1627 set to music 
 
THE RISE OF MUSIC. 309 
 
 Martin Opertz's translation into German of Rinuc- 
 cini's " Dafne." He would therefore be well abreast 
 of the state of the art in Italy. Yet notwithstanding 
 this work (" The Four Passions ") may ov/e much to the 
 influence of Italy that influence is so perfectly assimi- 
 lated as to be largely latent — it is of course observa- 
 ble here and there but on the whole the above work 
 gives the impression of being a natural, homogeneous 
 product of the German genius to which would belong 
 the habitude in imitation, the fervour of expression 
 in synchronous choral enunciation, and the rich, 
 involved part-writing which it contains. The example 
 at page 286 affords some idea of the second 
 of these qualities whilst the setting of the title 
 (a practice that existed in Italy as well as Germany 
 at this tin;ie), " The passion of our Lord and 
 Saviour as it is recorded in the holy gospel," — consti- 
 tuting an eloquent exordium to the work, — is a beautiful 
 if simple example of the last. Of course all these kinds 
 of effect alternate more or less in most of the choruses. 
 Now these two works having been composed, one in 
 Italy the other in Germany, at this particular period, a 
 comparison of them is extremely interesting both in 
 itself and in virtue of their revealing between them 
 
3IO THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 very clearly the prototype of so much in the form and 
 spirit of modem oratorio. 
 
 To resume then concerning " Jephtha " : perhaps its 
 most important feature is the recitative, in studying 
 which one is struck forcibly by the freshness and ful- 
 ness of the modern spirit and the strenuous feeling 
 towards modern treatment which animate it. The 
 composer accepts and observes strictly, — perhaps in the 
 enthusiasm attending a new departure, — the princi- 
 ple that recitative must differ sharply from all conven- 
 tional effect, yet notwithstanding — by use only of the 
 time and accent of language (or its careful imitation) 
 and a minimum of different musical intervals and har- 
 monic changes — he succeeds in charging his text with 
 most intense feeling whilst impressing graphically the 
 dramatic spirit of the various scenes. In one of these 
 — one of the various situations which the composer 
 defines musically by a change of style — he yields 
 momentarily to the melodic impulse but at the same 
 time, as it were, checks himself by the direction senza 
 tempo. This melodic touch is so beautiful and at the 
 repetition of the phrase the modulation so bold, 
 causing the phrase to ring with all the freshness of a 
 modern effect, that I quote it, 
 
$ 
 
 THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 FiLlA. p Aaagio [senza tempo). 
 
 Carissimi, 
 
 J?i^ 
 
 ■M-W. 
 
 - ri- 
 
 te, plo • ra - te col 
 
 Plo - ra 
 
 i 
 
 p= 
 
 jaz 
 
 ■m- 
 
 _J_ 
 
 w- 
 
 w^ 
 
 ud- 
 
 :|^ 
 
 m 
 
 ■ les, 
 
 ipqpC 
 
 =Ei 
 
 ( 
 
 do - le - te, do - le - te mon 
 
 tes 
 
 iS^^ 
 
 "ir 
 
 J- 
 
 rzi:!q= 
 
 I 
 
 T?r-\ 
 
 ^±t^= 
 
 r4-- 
 
 ^s; 
 
 zaz 
 
 "PLORATE COLES," FROM "JEPHTHA." 
 
 Now as an example of the dramatic feeling of this 
 composer I refer to that part of the work where the 
 daughter replies to her father's announcement that she 
 is doomed to sacrifice under his vow. Whereas 
 Jephtha's utterance is, naturally enough, set largely in 
 the minor key, when his daughter replies the major 
 key rings out ; her spirit rising to the heroic her note is 
 
312 
 
 THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 triumph, and it is heard — at once — in her very first 
 intonation — ^witness the following extract. 
 
 Cakissimi. 
 
 JEPTHA. Andante fatetico. 
 
 fe^=l^l^f^E^^.^^^*S 
 
 heu 
 
 li ■ a 
 
 me ■ a de •• cep - ta 
 
 \ 
 
 ESJ 
 
 ^^^'' 
 
 ara«i 
 
 ^i-- 
 
 m 
 
 ~3-= 
 
 i 
 
 rit. 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 de cep 
 
 ta 
 
 ^\ 
 
 ^ 
 
 tit. 
 
 ^- -f 
 
 m 
 
 ^ — i. 
 
 FiLIA. 
 
 Con esfressiont. 
 
 &-z4 g= ' ^a^fe 
 
 Pa - ter mi 
 
 pa - ter mi 
 
 EfeE 
 
 =P= 
 
 V 
 
 / 
 
 "PEU FILIA MEA," FROM "JEPHTHA" 
 
THE RISE OF MUSIC. 313 
 
 To pass now to the recitative of the " Four Passions." 
 We must of course bear in mind that though both 
 the works I am comparing are drawn from Scrip- 
 ture and involve the dramatic form, they differ largely 
 in the character of their conception. "Jephtha" is first 
 mainly a drama; "The Four Passions" is first and 
 mainly an expression of religious feeling. 
 
 Now in the recitative generally of the latter work 
 the composer by no means accepts and observes the 
 principle of separating recitative from melody. On 
 the other hand wherever expression prompts he falls 
 into melodic conformation and special harmonic treat- 
 ment. This is fairly illustrated in the extract at 
 page 283, in which, moreover, the reader will par- 
 ticularly not fail to observe that between the first 
 and the last chords there is gradual culmination 
 of harmonic effect. In this connection I am reminded of 
 the following remark of W. S. Rockstro concerning the 
 German School : " Unlike Peri and Monteverde the 
 German masters destroyed nothing. They were con- 
 tent to work on the old foundations ; introducing from 
 time to time whatever changes the spirit of the age 
 dictated." This seems distinctly borne out in the present 
 comparison of the recitatives of Carissimi and Heinrich 
 
314 THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 Shtitz. In virtue of that greater freedom of the recita- 
 tive in "The Four Passions" to which I have just 
 alluded, this recitative may be regarded as the proto- 
 type of that intelligent style which unites the beauty 
 and expression of song with the movement of language 
 and which (as well as the stricter and more descriptive 
 or declamatory style) is used largely by Handel and, 
 in modern oratorio, by Spohr and Mendelssohn. I 
 may add- in connection with the foregoing comparison 
 that in harmony with the specially religious character 
 of " The Four Passions " its recitative is generally more 
 restrained in expression than that of "Jephtha." 
 
 In the choral writing of these two works, there is 
 much in common yet at the same time some suggestive 
 differences. In both the dramatic impulse is peculiarly 
 alert and in the imitative form expressed with equal 
 fluency. But the rich, involved effect of which the open- 
 ing chorus of the "Passions" is an example, is absent 
 in "Jephtha." That higher development in this style, 
 which is peculiar to the German school, is considered 
 to be largely due to the special cultivation of organ 
 playing in which it was the fortune, of Germany at this 
 general period to take the lead. On the other hand th^it 
 
THE RISE OF MUSIC. 315 
 
 simple, clear, united choral enunciation in the form of 
 plain harmony which renders expression so direct and 
 convincing and which certainly has never been neglected 
 by the German school — witness its use by Handel, Bach 
 and Mendelssohn — is also conspicuous in "Jephtha." 
 But perhaps a more special choral feature in the Italian 
 work is the antiphonal effect between two divisions of 
 the chorus. We have here (though the division is 
 between three trebles, on the one hand, and alto, tenor 
 and bass, on the other) the prototype of the double 
 chorus, of which Handel makes such fine use. We have 
 also in the invocation to the Israelites (by Jephtha's 
 daughter) to raise the hymn of thanksgiving for her 
 father's victory, and its repetition by her companions, 
 a distinct suggestion of that broad type of effect of 
 which Handel and Bach make such brilliant use 
 — the punctuating flowing passages with massive 
 harmonies. 
 
 The traits I have referred to in Bach and Handel as 
 drawn from the " Jephtha " of Carissimi are those which 
 make for clearness and brilliancy — which, with expres- 
 sion through, beauty, are among the distinguishing 
 qualities of the Italian genius. Now if we again turn 
 to "The Four Passions" we shall there also observe 
 
3l6 THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 some eifects foreshadowing certain features in modern 
 oratorio. Preliminarily I may remark that one chorus 
 in this work, " Lord shall we smite them with the 
 sword," is distinctly in the Italian style, and in its con- 
 taining an example of the literal expression of an 
 idea by means of a certain figure or special conforma- 
 tion of notes, is particularly suggestive of Handel. 
 Both of these points may be observed in the following 
 extract which is simply the first two bars of the above 
 chorus. 
 
 Allegro ma nan tropfo. Marziale. HElNracH Shutz. 
 
 i 
 
 £^^£3!s=1fc^5eqfc^^r=^=a£::l^r=:15^Hfc 
 
 ji=*=*=s— ^■ 
 
 Lord,Lord,5hall we smite them with Ihe swoid, shall we smite them 
 
 f \ iS N S iN ,s ^ fl I 
 
 Lor.-I, Lord, shall we smite them with the sword, 
 
 FROM "THE FOUR PASSIONS" (CHORUS: "LORD SHALL 
 WE SMITE THEM.") 
 
 The effects, however, to which I was about to allude 
 are suggestive more of Bach and Mendelssohn than 
 Handel. The reader is no doubt aware that whereas 
 Handel usually expresses dramatic feeling through a 
 characteristic and frequently melodious subject which 
 
THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 317 
 
 in working yields a certain rounded fulness of effect, 
 Bach and Mendelssohn aim mainly at dramatic 
 directness in the subject. The respective choruses, " To 
 what purpose is this waste " in the Passion according to 
 St. Matthew and "Now this man" in St. Paul, are 
 examples of this style which as the following extract 
 serves to show is anticipated in "The Four Passions." 
 Allegro moderato. Heinrich Shutz, 
 
 i 
 
 m 
 
 Where wilt 
 
 E|^^^^|=gE^H^^ 
 
 It 
 
 r 
 
 Where wilt Thou that we pre • pare for Thee to eat. 
 
 Where wilt 
 
 Where wilt Thou that we pre- pare for Thee to eat 
 
 Thou that we pre - pare for Thee to eat 
 
 j^^j^^ 21-^^2: -rm -^xu 
 
 o • vet. 
 
 the Pass 
 
 CHORUS : " WHERE WILT THOU," FROM " THE FOUR 
 PASSIONS." 
 
 There is another style of writing in " The Four Pas- 
 sions" which has become an august type of choral 
 
3i8 
 
 THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 effect-=;^in which imitation subordinated to onward 
 moving treatment of the text and involving a free and 
 natural accentuation— forms simple, fervid musical 
 utterance. The two following extracts, the first from 
 "The Four Passions," the second from Mendelssohn's 
 "St. Paul" seem to me to involve a likeness in these 
 respects. 
 
 Adagio, qjiasi Andante, 
 
 IIeikrich Shuiz. 
 
 ^^^^^^f^ 
 
 we may still con • si - der, we may still con - si 
 died, we may still con - si 
 
 J , I ! J ^ 1. 
 
 1-l-^A- -e 
 
 &c. 
 
 i^S?-: 
 
 m^. 
 
 n~ 
 
 EEEE 
 
 i 
 
 died, we may still con- 
 
 FROM LAST MOVEMENT BUT ONE OF FINAL CHORUS OF 
 "THE FOUR PASSIONS." 
 
 AnuatUe sostenuto. 
 
 tlat 
 
 Mendelssohn. 
 we should be call-ed 
 
 Ei^, 
 
 3==t 
 
 m 
 
 sqenrr 
 
 =p=5=K 
 
 M^-- 
 
 That we should be call ■ ed God's own children,&c. 
 
 ±i£-tf 
 
 ^^ 
 
 "f^ 
 
 ■^^^^:. 
 
 FROM CHORUS : " SEE WHAT LOVE," " ST. PAUL." 
 In Grove's Dictionary is an article on Heinrich Shutz 
 
THE RISE OF MUSIC. 319 
 
 by th^ Rev. J. R. Milne From this article I quote the 
 following passage because though obviously written 
 quite independently of the remark of W. S. Rockstro 
 recently quoted — to the effect of its being a principle 
 of the German school to reject nothing that makes for 
 effectiveness — it harmonises peculiarly with it, as it 
 does with the impression calculated (in this connec- 
 tion) to be derived from the examples generally from 
 " The Four Passions *' which I have given. 
 
 "His importance in the history of music lies in the 
 mediating position he occupies between the adherents 
 of the old Ecclesiastical style and the followers of the 
 new Monodic style. While showing his thorough 
 appreciation of the new style so far as regarded the 
 importance of dramatic expression he had no desire to 
 lose anything of the beauty and power of the pure and 
 real a-cafella style'* 
 
 A noteworthy feature in " Jephtha " is : it contains 
 two vocal solos in which we can clearly observe the 
 prototypes of the Italian aria and bass song with 
 which we are so familiar in Handel. The one for bass 
 has a rudimentary stiffness of form, and both have a 
 certain naiveness of expression as well as a peculiar 
 smallness of dimension. At the same time both attain 
 
320 
 
 THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 perfect individuality. The style will be recognised in 
 the following extract from the soprano song. 
 
 Ex. 22. 
 
 FiLIA. AlUgretto melta modtrato. 
 
 Carissimi. 
 
 EEE^^^ 
 
 H^^^q^ 
 
 ^^m 
 
 Can • ta ■ te me-cum Do - mi - no, can- ta • te om- net 
 
 ES^ 
 
 J^ 
 
 5!=^ 
 
 E^gZ 
 
 -^^=.^ 
 
 ^=^- 
 
 ITVIO: 
 
 ia_,_ 
 
 I 
 
 pop - u • li lau • da - te bel - li prin • d - pern, qui, &e. 
 
 ^S_ 
 
 m. 
 
 ■-s^f^^F^ 
 
 &e. 
 
 ^- 
 
 T 
 
 "CANTATE MECUM." FROM "JEPHTHA." 
 
THE MUSIC HOLR. 
 
 Froji thk Painting uy Petkk de Hooch (or Hooci.') in the Rj.iks Muset; 
 
 Amstehdam. 
 (Born 1'Roi:aiilv in 1C30, BULiEVEn to ]ia\f, dieu in 1081.) 
 
 Fitc'ing 'I'firie. 321. 
 
THE RISE OF MUSlC. 32 1 
 
 CHAPTER XIX. 
 The Art of Accompaniment. 
 
 T ^ 7 E are I think more likely on the whole to 
 ' * underrate than to overrate the development 
 involved in a past condition of musical art, 
 at any period. What with the long imperfection of 
 notation, the loss of evidence, or want of evidence, in 
 manuscripts, and our ignorance of the practical musi- 
 cal skill of the past, the chances are that the living 
 effect of music at any period since the regular cultiva- 
 tion of the art began was less crude and imperfect— 
 in fact fundamentally more like it is now — than we 
 are apt to imagine. There can be little doubt that 
 with the singer who sang to lyre, harp or lute the 
 instinct of accompaniment always to some extent 
 manifested itself. As the chansons of the middle 
 
 ages consisted as a rule, so far as the instrumental 
 
 Y 
 
322 THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 melody was concerned, of a refrain introduced as a 
 change from recitation, so it was customary for 
 trouveres and troubadours to introduce their songs 
 with a prelude and finish them with a ritornelle. 
 Somewhat in the same way it was customary with the 
 early composers of church music to usher in the voices 
 with a prelude drawn from the vocal parts. 
 
 In the case of church music sustained by the organ 
 the following circumstances influenced the rise of 
 accompaniment. The use of the organ for a lor^ 
 time was limited to supporting the voices in the order 
 in which the parts were written. As a consequence 
 when the vocal bass was silent the bass of the organ 
 was also silent. Soon, however, the instinct of musi- 
 cians suggested a continuous or through bass; then 
 the idea occurred to them of indicating by figures 
 placed above this bass the harmony involved by the 
 various parts, so that the organist instead of playing 
 the parts played simply the harmony they involved; 
 and thus, as there was some scope for the player's taste 
 in the way of introducing these chords, the feeling 
 for accompaniment would necessarily be in some 
 degree called forth. This is one more instance of 
 Ihe creative influence of practical circumstances upon 
 
THE RISE OF MUSIC. 323 
 
 the art. Precise rules for through or thorough bass 
 were first published by Viadama in 1606. 
 
 Now the composers of the "new music," Peri, Cac- 
 cini, Cavaliere, etc., being mostly organists or chapel 
 masters, would be familiar with this kind of accom- 
 paniment. Thus when the characteristic vocal solo 
 came into existence the accompaniment adopted con- 
 sisted of extant harmonic progressions involving 
 largely sustained chords. But by the period of 
 Cavalli accompaniment began to acquire greater in- 
 individuality and independence. 
 
 By referring to the example from " II Giasone " (on 
 page 304), the reader will observe that at the 
 end of the second bar, where the vocal part ceases 
 for the time being, the accompaniment is followed by 
 an interlude (played by the violin) which begins by 
 repeating the opening strain and towards its ending 
 (at the fourth bar) enters into combination with the 
 vocal part as this recommences. Now just here we, 
 as it were, place the finger upon the beginning of a 
 development destined to lead to some of the most 
 beautiful effects in modern music. It consists in the 
 accompaniment unfolding here and there accessory 
 articulation, sometimes alone, sometimes in conjunc- 
 
324 
 
 THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 tion with the vocal part. A very short but perfect 
 instance of this development occurs in the following 
 extract from Alessandro Scarlatti in the phrase between 
 the fourth and fifth, as in that between the fifth and 
 sixth, bars — in each case close upon the word " Figlio." 
 In this example, which betrays a peculiar pliancy, 
 softness and tenderness of touch, — giving the minutest 
 shade of expression, — a salient development in 
 melodic form is attained. 
 
 Treble voice. Ai.esandro Scarlatti (1659- 1735). 
 
 $ 
 
 -f^- 
 
 ^^ 
 
 :^e^«|-:e?e^e^ 
 
 3?=*=^= 
 
 :M=M: 
 
 II mio fi ■ glio o v'e che fa do-ve 
 
 i4=M. 
 
 5_*Sr2-! 
 
 ^-^ 
 
 ^^^'■^t 
 
 1^ 
 
 ::j^^- 
 
 >- 
 
 ^^ 
 
 :Sz*d!- 
 
 sti la mia gio 
 
 il mio te • sor Fi -.(iUo 
 
 
THE RISE OF MUSIC. 325 
 
 a ^sm^^ s^ ^^. 
 
 l^. 
 
 o v'e che fa, Fi-glio chefa do-vesta? do-ve 
 
 
 '-^^?=.i^^F'Js^l 
 
 0- -m- 
 
 I may mention in passing that the son (Domenico) 
 of Alessandro Scarlatti who, as I have stated, studied 
 under Carissimi, became acquainted with Handel at 
 Venice, in 1708. This fact helps us to realise the per- 
 fect continuity that prevailed in that part of musical 
 activity which related to the Italian song throughout the 
 main course of its development — from about the middle 
 of the seventeenth, to that of the eighteenth century. 
 
 In the meantime while development in the kind of 
 accompaniment which I have thus far traced, was pro- 
 ceeding in Opera and Oratorio, that form consisting 
 of broken chords which, as we have seen, was in evi- 
 dence in Asia in the earliest uses of the lyre, harp and 
 lute had not ceased. Having spread to Europe with 
 the above type of instruments it attained ultimately 
 the greatest variety of form, particularly in the 
 rhythmic direction- As evidence of this I may 
 
326 
 
 THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 quote the following passage from the able article of 
 Mrs. Edmund Wodehouse to which I have referred. 
 Speaking of the songs of Andalusia, which she 
 remarks have a strongly marked Eastern character, 
 Mrs. Wodehouse says : — " In the Andalusian songs 
 there are often three different rhythms in one bar, none 
 predominating but each equally important, as the dif- 
 ferent voices are in polyphonic music. For example " : 
 
 :i4: 
 
 ■M=ft=fC 
 
 "^ - ^ - 
 
 m 
 
 m 
 
 ^ 
 
 h±=zt-i 
 
 i 
 
 :^2E»=£=?= 
 
 =P=?=F 
 
 -•— F- 
 
 s 
 
 ^ 
 
 ;13i 
 
 4=t 
 
 ^ 
 
 It 
 
 Then in reference to the Andalusian dance songs 
 — fandangos, rondeHas and malagfienas* she remarks : 
 "They usually consist of two divisions; viz., the cofla 
 (couplet) and the ritornel, which is for the accompany- 
 ing instrument and is frequently the longer and the 
 more important of the two, the skilful guitar player 
 liking to have ample scope." That this strain of 
 accompaniment from the East to some extent in- 
 
 * 3q i\ame4 afte;: tlt« towns Roitda and Malafa. 
 
THE RISE OF MUSIG 
 
 327 
 
 fluenced the development of the broken chord type 
 of accompaniment in regular art, lending it variety 
 and the freedom of a matured effect, seems evidenced 
 in the following extract from a short instrumental 
 movement by Michel Angelo Rossi (c. 1620-1660), 
 who was a pupil of Frescobaldi. My principal ob- 
 ject, however, in introducing this example is to indi- 
 cate the development which melody and accompani- 
 ment had attained in instrumental music by the period 
 of Cavalli. It is also interesting in that it fore- 
 sounds the note of Mozart, suggesting how distinctly 
 Italian that note was. 
 
 Michael Angelo Rossi (C 1620-1660). 
 
 P Leggero. 
 
 iJii ^l^fe^^pEg|S:§^ 
 
 
 FROM ANDANTINO ED ALLEGRO. 
 It will no doubt strike the reader that, allowing for 
 
328 THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 the special type of accompaniment, there is generally 
 in the above example such a maturity of form and 
 ripeness of style, that it is difficult to conceive its 
 having been vitally influenced by the rudimentary 
 monody of Peri and Caccini, which only began a 
 generation before. Such rapid development, how- 
 ever, if it occurred may perhaps be explained by the 
 fact to which I have already referred, namely, that 
 some results of a new departure are likely to be worked 
 out more rapidly in the lighter than in the more mas- 
 sive works of composers. As I have said, to one mass, 
 oratorio or opera, would probably be written a dozen 
 canzones, studios or dances. The smaller works, more- 
 over, would be less likely to be dominated by tradi- 
 tion or scholasticism than the larger. This process 
 is illustrated by an episode in the history of opera 
 itself. At the beginning of the eighteenth century 
 the dramatic spirit had become stagnant in serious 
 opera, which had got to consist of an interminable 
 series of airs. To relieve the dulness and monotony 
 of this state of things it became the practice in Italy 
 to introduce between the acts some intermedly — a 
 ballet or little comedy — in which the characters were 
 borrowed from the traditional Italifin Masques. The 
 
THE RISE OF MUSIC. 329 
 
 result was that freedom, naturalness and movement 
 re-entered the dramatic atmosphere attended by a 
 style of music in which feeling, intelligence, melodic 
 spontaneity and the spirit of the situation — all emin- 
 ently Italian qualities — were combined. Now it was 
 in these light interludes that the art took a new start. 
 They were the beginning of opera buffa, which 
 throughout the eighteenth century, was the true nursery 
 of dramatic music. Here we observe how two facts 
 which considered separately seem opposed may work 
 together : the continuity of musical development, and 
 the fact that forms and styles are shaped largely by 
 the exigencies and circumstances of the moment. 
 
 The influence of smaller or lighter kinds of work 
 on the serious development of the art is instanced 
 convincingly in dance and festal music. There can 
 be no doubt that in primitive times dance and song 
 were united, or closely connected, by a common oc- 
 casion, and that instrumental music of some kind 
 attended both; that then as each form grew a 
 dividing of the ways occurred, instrumental music 
 beginning to run in a channel of its own in connection 
 with dances, processions and ceremonial occasions 
 generally. Thus growing inspiration in the independent 
 
330 THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 instrumental field would take on the likeness of forms 
 prevailing on such occasions as the above. Another 
 instance of the influence of dance music is afforded 
 by the ballet having been an early formative element in 
 French opera. It seems far from improbable that to the 
 long exercise and experiment in graceful movement in- 
 volved in the cultivation of the ballet much of that 
 piquancy and variety of idiom which is characteristic 
 of the French school is due. 
 
 When we consider that in dance music little inde- 
 pendent pieces were always at hand (or could be played 
 from memory) in the house, it seems natural that they 
 should have been the earliest forms of chamber music. 
 It would have been a natural thing to play upon the 
 lute, viol or clavi-cembalo the tune of a dance in which 
 the player may have recently joined. Hence "suites" 
 and the various features suggestive of the dance, in 
 form, accent, or expression, which ajre so clearly visible 
 in the highest extant examples of instrumental music. 
 
 But instrumental music has been equally influenced 
 by song, both directly and indirectly. Indirectly 
 through the fact that dance music and ceremonial 
 music naturally in their progress assimilated the 
 general development as well as much of the feeling 
 
THE RISE OF MUSIC. 33 1 
 
 and expression of vocal music through being so closely 
 connected with it. Directly in that it received from 
 vocal music certain definite forms — as, for instance, 
 from vocal imitative polyphony the organ fugue, and 
 from the choral, further and freer organ effect. Thus 
 also from the madrigal and part-song descended the 
 primal instrumental quartet; and from the vocal solo, 
 such pieces as meditations, nocturnes, reveries, rhap- 
 sodies, etc., which in their many and varied characters 
 have a peculiarly idealistic expression. 
 
 To resume the subject of accompaniment, I have 
 shown that by the period of Alessandro Scarlatti two 
 general kinds of accompaniment had unfolded, both 
 more or less intermingling but clearly distinguishable, 
 the function of one being mainly the support and 
 enhancement of the melody by chords, sustained or 
 broken, that of the other, the fuller expression of the 
 melody by an accessory strain. The first kind is illus- 
 trated in the example from Rossi and may be regarded 
 as belonging to that type of accompaniment which, 
 whatever form it takes, is in its main office basal. The 
 second is illustrated in the example from A. Scarlatti 
 and, as I have said, is an accessory melodic articulation. 
 By continuing to trace this latter kind we shall find that 
 
332 
 
 THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 it is a strain of development that passes into the highest 
 forms, not only of vocal but instrumental music. 
 
 In the third and fourth bars of the following 
 example from the work to which I have so frequently 
 called the reader's attention, the " Four Passions " of 
 H. Shutz (which would be some half century anterior 
 to the period of A. Scarlatti) the reader will observe 
 in the upper part of the accompaniment a feeling for 
 the kind of effect I am speaking of. 
 
 KECIT. a tempt. Heinrich ShiTtz (1585-1672), 
 
 ;--ri 
 
 El^^g^^^ 
 
 fepj; 
 
 z^z-m 
 
 as Je-su had 
 
 11 
 
 ap ■ point • e d them, 
 I 
 
 sli^^ 
 
 J— 4-1 
 
 IeI 
 
 B: 
 
 i"^: 
 
 MfcB] 
 
 3: 
 
 =1- 
 
 ^^ 
 
 FROM THE "FOUR PASSIONS." 
 
 The reader will observe that where this kind of effect 
 comes in in the example from A. Scarlatti (at the second 
 syllable of "Figlio") it, as it were, only prompts or 
 anticipates the resumption of the melody, but if we 
 pass to the period of Handel we shall find it in far 
 more marked evidence. In the following example it 
 Qccurs tpw^rds the end gf the accessory articulatipn 
 
THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 333 
 
 which, though in this case illustrative, gives rise (where 
 the words "of them" occur) to an independent and 
 quite peculiar beauty. 
 
 ^^^^M^^^^^^^^^ 
 
 Handfl. 
 
 
 How beau - ti • ful are the feet of them that 
 
 'H 
 
 :i=»-^iEE 
 
 3=^--^! 
 
 fe 
 
 FROM THE "MESSIAH." 
 
 The following extract illustrates a kind of acces- 
 sory articulation which does not intertwine with the 
 original melody but, as it were, answers it antiphon- 
 ally, and whilst in form quite distinct from the vocal 
 part is also the main musical expression, the vocal 
 part being almost purely declamatory. 
 
 i 
 
 ±= 
 
 Vn. 
 
 J ^- 
 
 Handel. 
 
 tr 
 
 ^a 
 
 
 ■^■ 
 
 can be a - gainst us. f 
 -J. . J. J. 
 
 J- 
 
 S£fe=P- 
 
 ^ 
 
 y— F-F-£^^: 
 
 FROM THE "MESSIAH." 
 There is thus the following distinction between the 
 
334 THE RISE OF MUSIC 
 
 first two of these three examples and the last: Aat 
 whereas in the last the accessory articulation is semi-in- 
 dependent, having almost a distinct function — that of 
 musical comment or interpretation — in the first two the 
 original and the accessory articulations are closely com- 
 plementary in expression. 
 
 Now the latter kind of effect I regard as a special 
 feature in musical development, and I term it 
 "counter melodic effect" as distinguished from 
 ordinary counter theme, its use being the above mutual 
 enhancement of themes, involving an ineffable beauty 
 and completeness of expression. 
 
 This kind of effect also appears in instrumental music. 
 From its employment in the slow movements of 
 Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach (i 714- 1788), where it is 
 continually breaking out of the ordinary counter- 
 point, it would seem that it was in distinct evidence 
 in the instrumental music of his period. In fact, 
 here, as in the case of M. A. Rossi, the example 
 supposed to be initiatory has a certain character of 
 ripeness and freedom in manipulation suggestive of 
 the style of effect to which it refers having been some, 
 if not a long time, in vogue. In the following ex- 
 tract, at the beginning of the principal subject 
 
THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 335 
 
 (where the accessory articulation is largely ordinary 
 counterpoint) it is only in partial evidence, but it is 
 clearly defined towards the end. 
 
 C. P. E. Bach (1714-1788). 
 
 FROM SONATA IN A MINOR (SECOND MOVEMENT). 
 
 Counter melodic effect is a subtle influence in the 
 magic of Beethoven; it is in fact the most delicate im- 
 plement of expression for the composer who can handle 
 it that the art has hitherto unfolded. In the following 
 extract, for instance — where the F descends to the 
 E-flat — it is conjured up in ineifable beauty. 
 
 Beethoven. 
 
 SlEp Eg=52Ej=aH:^^^ 
 
 2 ViO. 
 
 3=^^^-=^ 
 
 iE^EMz 
 
 :it». 
 
 ■jtzzi 
 
 piiz. 
 
 Contra Basso. 
 
 ^. 
 
 Sl^ 
 
 pia. 
 
 3!=*= 
 
 ES^=3E 
 
 I^ 
 
336 
 
 THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 t^ 
 
 -r— W-v T~ 
 
 r^ 
 
 aj=>r= 
 
 r 
 
 jiE^^E^llglPP^'^ 
 
 
 i^=i. 
 
 35; 
 
 g^^ j 
 
 FROM ANDANTE CON MOTO, FIFTH SYMPHONY. 
 
 From the two types of accompaniment I have been 
 describing, in the first of which the accessory articu- 
 lation is an interlude, in the second a counter theme, 
 there shade off two others, — from the first, an inter- 
 lude illustrative ®f the spirit of the principal melody 
 but less an essential part of it;* from the second, that 
 in which the basal accompaniment or a counterpoint 
 connected with it is carved throughout into figures 
 more or less emblematic of the general expression. 
 
 Both of these are copiously illustrated in J. S. Bach. 
 The latter type is perhaps the more important of the 
 two as the former is often a kind of play upon the har- 
 mony, filling up organically occurring intervals of 
 the time. The following example, however, is an in- 
 stance of the former type of accompaniment conferring 
 in a very high degree the element of charm. 
 
 * Than in the case of pure counter melodic effect. 
 
THE RISE OF MUSIC. 337 
 
 J. S. Bach. 
 
 Lari;hilta. .m- J~^-, 
 
 a — ~ ^-v, -I- -•- -w- • 
 
 tfe?~i^^^E 
 
 ^^gEl!^ 
 
 :1b: 
 
 1 F-» — 1»— -I 1- 
 
 ^U-«;: 
 
 3^ 
 
 in ^ — ~ — IT— pa • ~ * 
 
 
 i 
 
 FROM CHORAL "WITH ALL THY HOSTS." CHRISTMAS 
 
 ORATORIO. (INTERLUDE BETWEEN FIRST AND 
 
 SECOND LINE.) 
 
 Just to touch in conclusion upon a few examples 
 in the modern period, I may cite how felicitously Men- 
 delssohn employs the figured or emblematic type of 
 accompaniment in some of his choruses — as, for in- 
 stance, "Happy and Blest," in "St. Paul," and "He 
 Watching over Israel," in " Elijah." 
 
 That part of the accompaniment to the " Inflam- 
 matus" in Rossini's "Stabat Mater," in which the fol- 
 lowing figure occurs is also a vivid instance of this 
 kind of effect, being suggestive of a trembling and 
 terror in the atmosphere. 
 
 Rossini. 
 
 ' fi r • • ■ • • -^ • ■ • • 
 ° ^ 3 .s 3 i ^ 
 
338 
 
 THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 In the following example from Meyerbeer the 
 figure recurs irregularly, giving a certain portentous 
 suggestiveness. 
 
 Meyerbeer. 
 
 :***: 
 
 :«:^^-^- 
 
 s^^ss 
 
 =1~ 
 
 3=f3^=^^ 
 
 ::i.l 
 
 dii el 
 
 i a^ 
 
 w- 
 
 w. 
 
 =trqi 
 
 FROM "VA DIT ELLE" ("ROBERT LE DIABLE.") 
 
 These last two examples may be somewhat out of 
 fashion in the wave of present taste, but the first pro- 
 ceeds from primal inspiration whilst the second is at 
 least organically prompted. Both have thus a deeper 
 source than ordinary descriptive effect, the occasion 
 for which passes so much music nowadays. 
 
THE RISE OF MUSIC. 339 
 
 CHAPTER XX. 
 
 Thematic Treatment. 
 
 I N our previous chapter I referred to the fact that 
 * instrumental music at the beginning of its inde- 
 pendent development took on largely the forms and 
 characters of dance-music and song, giving to the 
 various features of these latter far greater scope. In the 
 instrumental field there would obviously be no curtail- 
 ment of effect through the limits of the human voice; 
 both melodic and rhythmic effect would have more 
 play; whilst effects special to instrumentation would 
 enter. But freedom alone does not always make for 
 art, which being an object of human feeling and percep- 
 tion, must possess some particular form. The problem 
 of the composition of an instrumental movement was to 
 combine variety and important dimensions with unity. 
 For a time this was effected by the f ugal principle being 
 
340 
 
 THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 largely adhered to. But about the period of J. S. Bach 
 cind Handel this principle was, in the field of chamber 
 music, passing into another which has been named 
 thematic treatment. 
 
 In thematic treatment the composer first consum- 
 mates a theme or subject as in the case of a fugal struc- 
 ture, but with a more extended view. On this method 
 the subject is so conceived as to be fitted for far more 
 varied treatment than that arising from literal imita- 
 tion whilst in the finer examples it is suggestive, so to 
 say, spiritually as well as materially. The following 
 examples from Beethoven will render clear this method 
 of construction. I draw them from the sonata because 
 whilst the principle is particularly compact in that 
 form it is virtually the same as in the symphony. 
 
 hM-T-iH^ 
 
 =1-^=r 
 
 -J— p — 
 
 
 =3=^ 
 
 dolce. 
 
 -- i 
 
 
 
 -• — 
 
 " ^-i7- 
 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 © 
 
 
 — -&-f-tm 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 :t£t^i=; 
 
 1^ 
 
 l=E 
 
 ^ ^- ^^i 
 
 fe*. 
 
 ;E=E 
 
THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 341 
 
 The two foregoing extracts involve simple imitation. 
 
 In the following example counter-theme is so con- 
 formed as to embrace the freer resources of instru- 
 mentation. 
 
 Counler Theme. 
 
 $ 
 
 :e^ 
 
 :^ 
 
 
 Theme. 
 
 i neme. r*^ * • * » PT" 
 
 Free counterpoint is an important element in thematic 
 treatment, as in the following example: — 
 
 i-^^^^^^^rt 
 
 s=l= 
 
 -m- 
 
 E=iiE 
 
 Subject. 
 
 Counter-melodic effect (as exemplified in the extract 
 from Beethoven in iJie previous chapter) is also of 
 course a most important element in thematic treatment. 
 
 In this method, however, as thus far illustrated, it 
 will be observed that the effect to which the subject 
 gives rise is still connected with it through some form 
 
34? THE RISE OF Music. 
 
 of the art of counterpoint, the only difference being 
 that the conditions axe such as to permit wider range 
 and more varied form in the passages, and more en- 
 larged scope for harmonic and rhythmic display, than 
 in vocal music. But the ensuing examples show that 
 subsequent effect may on this principle be connected 
 with the theme by other and subtler liens thajj those 
 of counterpoint pure and simple, as thus : — 
 
 Where the subject gives rise to an onward flow of 
 melodic outline different from it in character. 
 
 Termination of ist subject. New form of outline. 
 
 ^ p 
 
 :=i^^^==? 
 
 ilSsiSli 
 
 :gB- 
 
 3^3^ 
 
 Where counter effect leads to a new form of outline. 
 Counter-effect leading to new form of outline. 
 
 ^ 1 if ' ' */ 
 
 m^^ m^^ m. 
 
 
 a^-aa-sp 
 
 Fiist wbjcct. 
 
THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 343 
 
 Where rhythmic effect alone, borrowed from the 
 subject, leads to new effect. 
 
 Subject. 
 
 |r^'-l:*=J:#j=:«=z=-ijfa_--| ' ' ' ^jB 
 
 m 
 
 ^f 
 
 — e» - 
 
 1--Hz:==b4 
 
 Rhythmic effect in bass, 
 suggested by last two 
 notes of subject. 
 
 ^r^^.l J,, 
 
 
 .q-_j_q--r5l: — 
 
 ^^^^^^mm^ 
 
 ^' 
 
 _-^_|-^b.- 
 
 :|=: 
 
 =tiS: 
 
 "^ 
 
 3_ 
 
 iiga^ 
 
 The same rhythmic effect with 
 counterpoint in imitation. 
 
 Where harmonic prompting having independent 
 effect is connected rhythmically with the subject. 
 
 tl: 
 
 Counter-effect. 
 -W- 
 
 ife9fe^=^^^5i"?^ras| 
 
 j -4Xj S4: 
 
 
 
 Subject 
 
 Harmonic prompting con- 
 taining rhythmic lineament 
 of subject. 
 
344 THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 The last extract, and that from Beethoven in the pre- 
 ceding chapter relating to counter melodic effect, may 
 be regarded as exemplifying that deeper suggesting 
 of the subject to which I have referred as belonging 
 to this principle of work. We are here again in con- 
 tact with that principle of continuity in musical de- 
 velopment that has been so largely visible in the course 
 of this investigation. We see that that beautiful and 
 varied world of new creation which is immediately 
 unfolded by thematic treatment is vitally linked to 
 the far back infantile strivings of descant. 
 
 The foregoing illustrations are of course only a few 
 out of many ways in which the most varied forms of 
 effect are by this method caused to unfold connectedly 
 and, as it were, from a common nucleus. In the case 
 of the orchestral work it is applied with far greater 
 freedom. The treatment is not confined to passages 
 suitable to one instrument or to a particular kind of 
 instrument. This freedom alone gives immense en- 
 largement of effect both as regards form and character, 
 as it multiplies greatly the composer's facilities for con- 
 necting with his theme new forms of outline, that is to 
 say of bringing into the field a far fuller assemblage 
 of beauties — it is in fact obvious that in the use of 
 
THE RISE OF MUSlC. 345 
 
 this principle by the orchestra the powers of both 
 melodic and harmonic effect are immeasurably height- 
 ened, every form of instrumental concerted effect is 
 rendered possible and every variety of rhythm rendered 
 definite, whilst the resources of the always remarkable 
 power of antiphonal effect are infinitely greater than 
 in the case of one instrument or a few instruments. 
 
 I referred a short space back to the special import- 
 ance, in the case of thematic treatment, attaching to 
 the conception of the subject. How in great examples 
 the subject is so conceived as to form, as it were, the 
 nucleus of such extended and deep expression perhaps 
 cannot be altogether explained. But looking at the 
 matter on the surface the fact appears to be that in 
 almost any fragment of wordless melody there is a 
 remarkable vital instability — to take an expression 
 from the physical realm — that would enable the ver- 
 satile composer to connect it organically at some point 
 (aided perhaps by a slight modification in rhythm, 
 melody or harmony) with new effect either in proceed- 
 ing from the subject or coming back to it. 
 
 Whilst there is thus in thematic treatment a travel- 
 ling further into the pure sound world the fact that 
 it reflects perceptibly the forms and methods of vocal 
 
34^ THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 music still gives to the general effect a certain dialeetie 
 character. Thus in some of the great symphonic move- 
 ments of Beethoven we feel as if the shadow of man 
 were projected upon the mystic tone world much as 
 that of the eairly priest of nature was upon the then 
 strange world of natural phenomena. 
 
THE RtSE OF MUSlC. 347 
 
 CHAPTER XXI. 
 
 The Introduction into the Organ of the 
 Intermediate Semitones. 
 
 IN tracing the structural development of music I 
 have, because that development is so continuous, 
 been obliged for a time to leave aside a 
 subject of great importance and interest, that is, the 
 introduction into the organ of the intermediate semi- 
 tones after B-flat (referred to as the "lyric semitone" 
 in Wulstan's description of the organ erected in Win- 
 chester Cathedral by Bishop Elphege, who died 951). 
 Now between this period and that of the erection of 
 the organ in Halberstadt Cathedral, which Pretorius 
 states was finished on February 23, 1361, these remain- 
 ing intervals of a semitone had been (probably gradu- 
 ally) introduced. As I have said, I think it probable 
 that even apart from the impulse to modulate which 
 must sometimes have visited playws upon instruments 
 
34^ THE RISE OP MUSIC. 
 
 of the viol and lute type (in which access to the inter- 
 mediate semitones was always mechanically available) 
 the necessity in accompanied song of that occasional 
 transposition which has always existed in unaccom- 
 panied, would have led to the use of these intervals. 
 How they became a definite portion of our system is a 
 very interesting question which I shall enter into more 
 fully in the next chapter. Certain of them would 
 probably first be improvised by the singer or 
 player, then be preserved by tradition or sign until 
 they entered into the technique of instruments in 
 which intonation is free, or into the construc- 
 tion of those in which the sounds are fixed. 
 Whether the first of these latter was the organ, 
 large or small, or the Clavi-cembalo, can only be con- 
 jectured. The earliest definite evidence of the exist- 
 ence in our system of all these intermediate notes is 
 that referred to at the outset of this chapter, namely, 
 the clavier of the Halberstadt Organ as described by 
 Pretorius. The Clavi-cembalo appears from the- 
 beginning of the fifteenth century, whilst the Regal or 
 portative Organ was in vogue during that emd the fol- 
 lowing century. Both therefore would be in use about 
 the period of the erection of the Halberstadt Organ. 
 
THE RISE OF MUSIC. 349 
 
 Then we have to consider that — as I have previously 
 remarked — the art would be generally more active in 
 the popular atmosphere (in which the smaller instru- 
 ments would principally figure) than in the Church. 
 In this connection it is pertinent to introduce the fol- 
 lowing valuable and interesting piece of information 
 given by Alfred James Hipkins in his article on the 
 Key-board in Grove's Dictionary. "There is a paint- 
 ing by Memling in the hospital of St. John at Bruges 
 (from which it has never been removed) dated 1479, 
 wherein the key-board of a regal is depicted exactly 
 as we have it in the arrangement of the upper keys, in 
 twos and threes, though the upper keys are of the same 
 light colour as the lower, and are placed farther back." 
 
 The following are some definite particulars of the 
 key-board of the Halberstadt Organ. 
 
 There were three claviers. 
 
 The keys of the upper were lettered as follows : 
 
 Chromatic Row. 
 
 C# Eb Ff G# Bt> 
 
 B C D E F G A B 
 
 Diatonic Row 
 
 The keys of the middle clavier bore the same letters 
 but the B flat was absent. 
 
350 THE RISE OF MUSlC. 
 
 The keys of the lower clavier also consisted of eight 
 diatonic notes and four chromatic, etnbracing the com- 
 pass of an octave (B to B) but the notes were unlettered. 
 
 The upper clavier gave the full orgah. 
 
 The middle clavier acted upon a sihgle row of pipes. 
 
 The lower claviet goverhed the lowest bass pipes. 
 
 The keys of the upper and middle clavier measured 
 four inches from centre to centre. The rows of 
 chromatic keys were so raised as for their surface to be 
 about two and a half inches above that of the diatonic 
 keys. The chromatic keys were two inches in width, 
 one inch in thickness, and had a fall of about an inch 
 and a quarter. 
 
 I may in this coniiection repeat the following definite 
 evidence : that towards the end of the next century 
 the keys of the Organ had been reduced to nearly their 
 present size. At that period, in the organs of the Bare- 
 footed Ffiaf's Church at Nuremburg, the Cathedral at 
 Erfurt, and the Collegiate Church at Brunswick, the 
 keys were of such a width that an octave was brought 
 within a note of its present span. 
 
 Notwithstanding the resemblance in principle 
 between the form of the clavier of the large organ 
 at the period of the Halberstadt orgsin, and that of the 
 
THE RISE OF MUSIC. 35 1 
 
 Regal or the Clavi-Cembalo, the respective claviers 
 of the large and small instruments may still have 
 developed separately. The principle of horizontal keys 
 placed parallel to one another and balanced or return- 
 ing though not adopted generally in organs till about 
 the eleventh century seems to have been known as early 
 as B.C. 1 60. This is to be inferred from the descrip- 
 tions of the organ that have come down from Hero and 
 Vitruvius. From these it appears that Hero applied to 
 the rulers or slides of the organ (by means of which the 
 wind was admitted to, or shut off from, the pipes), key- 
 cranks, with springs one arm of which projected hori- 
 zontally in order to be pressed down by the finger or 
 hand while the other projected downwards, the pressing 
 down of the former arm (which corresponded with our 
 key) causing the ruler to slide until its perforation came 
 vertically beneath that of the pipe, while upon the pres- 
 sure being removed the spring compelled the arm to 
 rise and the ruler to slide back to its former position.* 
 
 • This principle of horizontal balanced keys being known to 
 the ancients has been confirmed by the discovery of a terra-cotta 
 model of an organ at Carthage of which photographs are in the 
 possession of Miss Kathleen Schlesinger. Some interesting 
 remarks on this subject are to be found in an article on the 
 Hydraulic Organ of the Ancients by John W. Warman in 
 " Proceedings of the Musical Association 1903-1904." 
 
352 THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 The placing the chromatic keys in their places in 
 relation to the diatonic keys might, of course, have 
 occurred independently in the large and small instru- 
 ments, and as regards the level of the former 
 being above that of the latter this also may 
 have been an arrangement suggested independently 
 by the circumstances different as these were in the two 
 cases; for whilst, to take the Halberstadt organ, the 
 size of the keys in the large organ was as has been 
 described, in the Regals and Clavi-cembalo it was much 
 as it is in the modern piano. A. J. Hipkins states that 
 the space of eight keys of the key-board of a Ruckers* 
 harpsichord measures but a small fraction of an inch 
 less than an octave of a Broadwood or Erard Grand of 
 the present day. He makes further the suggestive 
 statement that there is reason to believe that the 
 little portable organ or regal may at first have had a 
 key-board derived from the T-shaped keys of the 
 Hurdy-Gurdy. 
 
 But however its design became suggested, when 
 
 * Flemish arpsichord makers; established at Antwerp by 
 Hans Ruckers, b. Mechlin (1555^ The instruments of this firm, 
 which are as a rule decorated with paintings and now very rare, 
 date from between 1579 and 1667. 
 
THE RISE OF MUSIC. 353 
 
 the necessity arose for the introduction of chromatic 
 
 keys into the key-board of the regal, clavi-cembalo 
 
 or spinette (whether one or more of the new keys 
 
 were introduced at a time) the difficulty would be 
 
 how to introduce them without interfering with either 
 
 the span of 'the octave or the width of the diatonic keys, 
 
 the retention of both of which would be demanded by 
 
 the established technique of those instruments. As we 
 
 know, this difficulty was overcome by taking space from 
 
 the length and width of the diatonic keys (starting 
 
 some distance from their front) and placing in it the 
 
 narrower and shorter chromatic keys, at the same time 
 
 raising the latter above the level of the diatonic as 
 
 otherwise there would not have been room for the 
 
 fingers to depress them or, easily, to find them. Thus 
 
 the problem was ingeniously solved and that unique 
 
 contrivance — so simple yet so profoundly suggestive — 
 
 the modem key-board perfected. How important its 
 
 influence has been on the development of modern music 
 
 will appear in the two following chapters. Yet it is a 
 
 remarkable fact that at the period I have been treating 
 
 of though the key-board was achieved, and fulfilled a 
 
 certain function, its use was but dawning, and the day 
 
 of that dawn was undreamed of. It has been much the 
 
 A A 
 
354 THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 custom to look down upon the key -board as an aid to 
 theory, but in the light of that full development of our 
 system of enwoven scales of which it but inaugurated 
 the beginning, it is musical history and theory 
 embodied. Through sight, touch and ear it is associ- 
 ated with both the structure and inter-relation of those 
 scales : in the picture, the feel and the sound of the 
 keys, which it gives to us it is a standing object-illustra- 
 tion of that fundamental differentiation of the con- 
 tinuous semitonal basis, upon which modern music 
 rests. 
 
THE RISE OF MUSIC. 355 
 
 CHAPTER XXII. 
 
 The Connection between the Development of 
 
 Vocal Music at the Early Flemish Period and 
 
 the Plan of the Contemporary Organ. 
 
 Tl T ATHEMATICAL science initiated and guided 
 by aesthetic feeling, has fixed the relations of the 
 notes in the typical scale — that is our scale in just 
 intonation — as follows : 
 
 Do Re Mi Fa Sol La Si Do 
 8-9 9-10 15-16 8-9 9-10 8-9 15-16 
 
 These relations, as I have said, were ultimately 
 decided by Ptolemy in the second century of our era, 
 but the system of Pythagoras still held until they were 
 rediscovered by Zarlino in the sixteenth. They have a 
 scientific foundation in the relations 4, 5, 6, in arith- 
 metical progression, which are also the relations of the 
 
3S6 THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 common chord in its simplest form. If we superpose 
 three common chords so that the top note of the first 
 is the root of the second, and the top note of the 
 second the root of the third, we obtain a series of seven 
 different sounds which, being arranged in order of 
 pitch and brought within the octave beginning with the 
 top note of the first triad, give the first seven notes of 
 our scale in perfect intonation. Thus the common 
 chords of the subdominant, tonic and dominant (each 
 of course representing correctly the relations 4, 5, 6), 
 being arranged and reduced as just described, give with 
 the addition of the octave of the first note in this 
 arrangement, all the intervals of our scale in perfect 
 intonation. It is necessary to begin on the subdomin- 
 ant because only on this degree can three common 
 chords in the same scale be superposed. 
 
 As regards the arrangement of the scales in our 
 system, the reader knows that starting with any scale 
 the next in order is that formed on the fifth degree 
 either ascending or descending, and that commencing 
 on either of those degrees the scale that follows is pre- 
 cisely like the first as regards the succession of tones 
 and semitones if, in ascending, a new note is substi- 
 tuted to form the seventh, or in descending. 
 
THE RISE OP MUSIC. 35^ 
 
 the fourth, of the new scale. Now with regard to the 
 succession of the large and small tones, the new scale 
 will also tally with the old except at one point. In 
 forming, for instance, the scale on G, starting from C, 
 we want a large tone between the first and second 
 degrees, that is between G and A; but between these 
 notes in the scale of C the interval is a small tone. A 
 new sound has thus to be substituted for this A, 
 namely, A raised a comma. So; the sixth of 
 the scale on F demands a sound a comma lower 
 than D of the scale of C,— a large tone being involved 
 between C and D in the scale of C whilst between these 
 notes in the scale of F a small tone is required. Now 
 it is clear, these new notes are demanded on the same 
 principle that F-sharp and B-flat are demanded in 
 forming the same scales, that is, the principle of mak- 
 ing the new scales tally exactly with the old. But there 
 is this difference between the two cases : whereas in the 
 latter, the difference between the old and the new 
 sounds is a musical interval, in the former, it is not, the 
 interval, for instance, between F and F-sharp may 
 enter into a musical construction but that between A 
 and A raised a comma cannot. 
 
 This slight incursion into the structure of the typical 
 
358 THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 scale and the relations involved (between the old and 
 new scale) by its transposition a fifth up or down, will 
 bring before the reader some of the theoretic circum- 
 stances which beset the composer at the beginning of 
 the overlaying of the scales. 
 
 Whatever theorists and acousticians may have done 
 it seems clear that the pioneers in polyphony were led 
 into the various scales by aesthetic feeling. A glance 
 at even the few examples which I have given bears this 
 out. Thus there seems scarcely any doubt that F- 
 sharp was first introduced in practical writing in some 
 phrase where it was leading note of G minor, as 
 between the second and third bars of the example from 
 Dufay; and C-sharp where it was leading note to D 
 minor, as between the fifth and sixth bars of the ex- 
 ample from P. de Monte. Then E-flat was probably 
 introduced as third of C minor or it may have been 
 introduced as fourth of B-flat, in both of which capa- 
 cities we see it in the example from P. de Monte 
 (second and third bars). 
 
 Now the scales suggested by the nomenclature of the 
 keys of the Halberstadt organ correspond generally 
 with the scales mentioned above. They would be the 
 
THE RISE OF MUSIC. 359 
 
 foregoing scales with the addition of that of A minor, 
 to which the key marked G-sharp probably points. 
 
 It would seem, therefore, that notwithstanding all 
 the scales may seem to have been, so to speak, blocked 
 out by the key-board of the Halberstadt organ, those 
 actually existent in musical practice were C and F major, 
 G and D minor, with perhaps A minor and C minor. In 
 this connection the following quotation seems apt. The 
 late Sir John Stainer as a result of his examination of 
 the MS. Canonici misc., 213, in the Bodleian Library, 
 Oxford, which has recently come to light, says, refer- 
 ring to Duf ay and his contemporaries : " These pages 
 show that the key of C had already become firmly 
 established. Some few write very definitely in the 
 key of F. Examples of D minor are less numerous. 
 Attempts to settle in the key of G minor are generally 
 very unsatisfactory; but Dufay who is always well 
 ahead of his contemporaries gives us a movement in 
 G minor containing a half close on its dominant D." 
 
 We should now glance at the facts that whilst the 
 influence of the large organ upon the musical system 
 has been thus shaping itself, the Portative organ and 
 Clavichord have in virtue of being also instruments of 
 
360 THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 fixed sounds been exerting an influence of the same 
 character and which (through the closer touch of these 
 smaller, more easily constructed, and more numerous, 
 instruments with every ripple of the art-stream) may 
 have been some steps in advance. And we should further 
 observe that side-by-side with the above instruments of 
 fixed sounds the Viol, which at the period of the capital 
 of St. George's Church, Bocherville (nth century) was 
 prominent among the instruments used to support the 
 voice in choral singing, has been developing. Thus 
 soon after the completion of the Halberstadt organ 
 viols of different compass begin to be heard of corres- 
 ponding to the different voices. Edward John Payne* 
 states that the construction of the viol type of instru- 
 ments with corner blocks and in various sizes, were 
 contemporaneous with the great development of poly- 
 phonic choral music in Germany and the Netherlands 
 in the 15th century. 
 
 Now, of course, the viol is as free as the human voice 
 to observe just intonation. So that at the general period 
 of Dufay there would have been existent two bases of 
 composition both derived from the typical scale yet not 
 
 * In his article on the Violin in Grove's Dictionary. 
 
THE RISE OF MUSIC. 361 
 
 quite identical : one (as represented by the organ and 
 clavichord) an extant system of fixed sounds, the other 
 (as represented by the vocal choir and viol) an ideal yet 
 living system plastic to sesthetic feeling. 
 
 At the same time there can be no doubt that these 
 two bases were always somehow in touch. At the 
 period of the plain chant this and the scale of the 
 organ would have been in touch, whilst at the time "I 
 am treating of, not only would the key-note of a choral 
 movement have been in unison with (or regulated 
 by) some one of the notes of the organ or clavichord 
 but the general form of every vocal composition would 
 probably have been representable by the sounds of 
 those instruments. 
 
 Now the use of the scales which I have mentioned 
 as suggested by the nomenclature of the chromatic keys 
 of the Halberstadt organ — that is C and F major, G and 
 D minor, C minor and A minor, did not involve prac- 
 tically a very great departure from just intonation. 
 Assuming the scale of C to represent the typical 
 scale, that of A minor would be in just intonation. So 
 would C minor if the major sixth were employed. 
 Then F major and D minor would be just except that 
 the D common to both should be a comma lower than 
 
362 THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 in C. And G minor would be just except that the G* 
 should also be a comma lower than in C. All these 
 departures arise from the non-tallying of the large 
 and small tones — and here we come upon the beginning 
 of the untrue intonation of instruments of fixed 
 sounds. But in harmony with my remark at the begin- 
 ning of this paragraph, at this point the departure was 
 not found to be inconsistent with the practical use of 
 the enwoven scales. It was in attempting the intro- 
 duction of A-flat, D-flat, D-sharp and A-sharp that 
 the difficulty of getting all the scales into the organ, 
 using only twelve divisions of the jDctave, became 
 acute. Now there may have been a reason for this 
 beyond the absolute fact that mutation between the 
 contiguous sharps and flats would have involved false 
 intonation. It seems probable from the connection 
 observable between the use of sharps and flats in the 
 early Flemish compositions on the one hand, 
 and the nomenclature of the chromatic keys of 
 the Halberstadt organ on the other, that the 
 sharp keys were first introduced as leading notes and 
 the flat keys, some as minor thirds, and some as fourths 
 
 * As it would be the sixth of B-flat major. 
 
THE RISE OF MUSIC. 363 
 
 of their scales. Now assuming the scale of C to be in 
 just intonation, let us suppose it was sought to intro- 
 duce A-flat as fourth of E-flat; then, if the attempt 
 were made to cause G-sharp (already in the organ*) to 
 function as A-flat (as the G-sharp and true A-flat would 
 necessarily overlapt) the semitone between the third 
 and fourth of the scale of E-flat would be diminished ; 
 so, supposing a true A-flat were introduced and 
 it were attempted to cause it to function as G- 
 sharp, then the distance between the tonic A 
 and its leading note would be lessened. Of course, 
 the same would be the case as regards the other con- 
 tiguous sharps and flats. So it may have been 
 that it was largely because the false intonation 
 affected such sensitive intervals of the scale as the 
 third and fourth and seventh and eighth that when A- 
 flat, D-flat, A-sharp and D-sharp came to be dealt with 
 it was found that mutation could not be satisfactorily 
 effected. How long this difficulty lasted in the con- 
 struction of the organ is evidenced by the following 
 facts : (i) In the organ built by Father Smith in 1682-3 
 for the Temple Church two of the black keys were 
 divided crosswise, the front and back halves of one 
 * As leading note to A. \ See p. 37a, line 8. 
 
364 THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 playing respectively G-sharp, A-flat; of the other, D- 
 flat, C-sharp— the back halves rising above the front 
 halves. (2) In the key-board of an old organ of the 
 Foundling Hospital there was a special mechanical 
 contrivance by means of which D-flat, A-flat, D-sharp, 
 A-sharp, could be substituted for C-sharp, G-sharp 
 E-flat, B-flat. The above additional notes were first 
 heard of in 1799. 
 
 We have seen then in this chapter that that inter- 
 weavement of scales which is organic in the works of 
 the early Flemish composers was formulated in the 
 plan of the contemporaneous organ. 
 
 That notwithstanding in the 14th century all the 
 chromatic keys were present in the organ they were 
 there as concerned with only a few scales. 
 
 And that the scale-enweavement in use at that 
 period did not involve a material departure from just 
 intonation. 
 
 In the following chapter I shall attempt to show how 
 greatly the organ though only reflecting the principle 
 of scale-enweavement to the above limited extent, was, 
 with its related instruments, destined to react on the 
 development of that principle. 
 
THE RISE OF MUSIC. 365 
 
 CHAPTER XXIII. 
 
 The Creative Consequences of the Clavier Type 
 OF Instruments. 
 
 T T 7 E have recently seen how the early Flemish 
 ' ^ composers by being led to adopt various de- 
 grees of the primary diatonic scale as new 
 bases of composition, or in a natural impulse to modu- 
 late, took into their melody or harmony beyond the 
 traditional B-flat, the remaining intermediate sounds. 
 We have also seen that as this went on, the organ (in 
 which from a very early period the diatonic scale was 
 objectively extant) gradually took in these inter- 
 mediate notes. Now the development of an instru- 
 ment of fixed sounds side by side with the progress 
 the art had made at this period, constituted 
 one of those fateful touches of circumstance to which 
 
366 THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 I have so often referred, for it was vital to the art's 
 unfolding a new order of effect. 
 
 There can be little doubt that the key-board from 
 its very earliest use in both organ and clavichord in- 
 duced a certain style of composition and a technique 
 of playing, peculiar to each instrument; and that as 
 time went on invention and execution in the paths 
 thus defined would have become gradually somewhat 
 more elaborate. This, however, would be in the natural 
 course of things. But the new paths of composition 
 that were thus opened up led (as true development 
 always leads) to the unexpected and creative. When 
 ultimately mutation became effected between those ad- 
 ditional sharp and flat notes referred to in the previous 
 chapter, which (having in the vocal domain been arrived 
 at from opposite directions) did not before quite coin- 
 cide; and the respective paths of progression by sharp 
 and flat keys thus met exactly, and joined, the conse- 
 quent homogeneous enweavement of all the scales, and 
 continuity of the whole system, led to effects in both 
 melody and harmony before undreamed of. But the 
 discovery of these effects, if not the effects themselves, 
 may be perhaps partly explained. Whilst the system was 
 fuller because it was one, — that is, because its various 
 
THE RISE OF MUSIC. 367 
 
 parts were joined, — the composer's grasp of it was pecu- 
 liarly facilitated by means of the key-board. More par- 
 ticularly were his powers increased in the exploration of 
 harmony, which by a choir or a quartet of viols cannot 
 be improvised, but on an instrument with a clavier, can. 
 Further the resources of the key -board induced the con- 
 struction and permitted the playing of more finely 
 
 complex forms of combinative writing than could be 
 
 * 
 conceived for, or executed by, a choir. 
 
 Some of the larger consequences of the above, so 
 to speak, interior culture of the art stand out in musi- 
 cal history. One is, that early cultivation of organ 
 playing in Germany which reacting upon vocal com- 
 position initiated the great German school of Part- 
 writing. Another is, that peculiar method of treatment 
 (thematic) which, as explained in a recent chapter, was 
 destined to lift abstract instrumental music to the 
 highest level of expression. Whilst a third is, that 
 peculiarly beautiful and striking kind of effect which 
 is produced when ordinary progressions in melody 
 or harmony embrace widely removed keys, as exem- 
 plified in our chapter on modulation. 
 
 The incalculable influence of chance in general, or 
 as manifested in genius, had no doubt much to do 
 
368 THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 with the above results appearing when they did. It 
 may, however, perhaps be regarded as suggestive that 
 the two last appeared about the time, or. soon after, 
 equal temperament (the basal division .of the octave 
 into twelve equal intervals) was accepted. 
 
 The adoption of equal temperament began in Ger- 
 many, — ^whose composers also took the lead in develop- 
 ing that process of thematic treatment to which I have 
 just referred as well as in the fuller and deeper unfold- 
 ing of harmony which is such a salient feature of modern 
 music. One Werckmeister, who in 1645 was an or- 
 ganist at Quedlingburgh, wrote a work entitled 
 "Musical Temperament," which was published in 
 Leipzig and Frankfort in 1691. Then John Sebastian 
 Bach, as is well known, applied equal temperament to 
 the Clavichord for which instrument his son, Karl 
 Philipp Emanuel, advocated its adoption in an im- 
 portant treatise. It may be added as perhaps also 
 suggestive of the influence of the completion of the 
 unification of the system, that in the sonatas of 
 K. P. E. Bach for the clavichord (by which works 
 Haydn in his youth was so strongly moved) the prin- 
 ciple of thematic treatment is found in distinct 
 development. 
 
1 W.-I, 
 
 
 
 
 
 nd 
 
 
 
 /'/mi(o, F. Himlxlneniil. 
 
 LADY AT THK CLAVIER. 
 
 From tmk Patxtixg kv Jan Mjensk Molenaer in thk Kijks Museum, 
 
 AiNiSTEilDAM. 
 
 (Date op birth unknown, died in 1668.) 
 
 Facing page 369. 
 
THE RISE OF MUSIC. 369 
 
 CHAPTER XXIV. 
 
 The Problem of the Use of our System of 
 Enwoven Scales in Connection with Just Intona- 
 tion: The Psychic Factor. 
 
 1 -ROM the particulars I have given recently of the 
 
 ■*■ relation between the notes of the Halberstadt 
 
 organ and contemporary compositions it is abund- 
 
 dantly clear that the musicians of this period did 
 
 not attempt to observe de rigeur the distinction between 
 
 the large and small tones. Yet this very departure 
 
 from just intonation — such is the latent insight 
 
 of aesthetic feeling — led to the highest achievements of 
 
 modern music. 
 
 The explanation would seem to be that as in the 
 
 minds of the early experimenters in Descant the feeling 
 
 B B 
 
3/0 THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 for fuller form dominated the sense of the hardness 
 and discord which it largely entailed, so in the early 
 Flemish composers the prompting for increased effect 
 over-rode their feeling for pure intonation. At all 
 events they made directly for more highly organised 
 form and this, as we have seen, led to the connection 
 of the different parts of the system and thus to its 
 also becoming organic in so far that it became out- 
 wardly delimited, inwardly continuous. 
 
 It will be remembered that, as I remarked recently, 
 whereas in our present system at each remove of a fifth 
 up or down the two scales correspond except in the 
 case of a single degree of each, in a system under just 
 intonation two degrees would fail to be interchange- 
 able. Thus whilst at the third remove up in our 
 system there would still be four notes common to the 
 scales of C and A, at the same remove in a system under 
 just intonation there would only be one. Of course, 
 at the next remove, up or down, whilst under the latter 
 system there would be no notes in common in ours 
 there would still be three. 
 
 A moment's consideration of these facts betrays how 
 rapidly just intonation carried out strictly makes for 
 disintegration of the system. But a full considera- 
 
THE RISE OF MUSIC. 371 
 
 tion of them by revealing this fact in detail necessarily 
 impresses it more graphically. 
 
 In the very ingenious and earnest attempt of Colin 
 Brown to devise an improved practical system such a 
 full consideration is given; I therefore select from it a 
 few points as representing some of the more striking 
 consequences which attach to a system based on just 
 intonation. 
 
 (i). The second degree of each major scale is a 
 comma higher than the sixth of the scale of its sub- 
 dominant. Thus the tonic of the relative minor of F 
 would be a comma lower than D, the second degree of 
 C. From this the following two points result. 
 
 (2). The major third of the sixth of a scale cannot 
 be used as leading note to the second. Thus the major 
 third of A as sixth of C does not lead to D the second 
 of C but to D the sixth of F. 
 
 (3). The tonic of the scale three removes ascending 
 (say, of A, starting from C) is a comma higher than 
 the sixth of C. Thus A major in the regular pro- 
 gression of the scales from C is based on a different 
 sound from the tonic of the relative minor of C. 
 
 (4). The tone is scientifically divided. If one 
 division is used as a diatonic semitone (15-16) — as 
 
ITi THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 when F-sharp is leading note to G — the other cannot be 
 so used as it can only contain the relation 128-135 
 which with 15-16 exhausts the tone F-G (8-g). This 
 smaller division Colin Brown terms the chromatic 
 semitone. 
 
 So A — B-flat being a diatonic semitone, B — B-flat is 
 a chromatic semitone. 
 
 (5). When the small tone (9-10) is so divided as for 
 one division to be a diatonic semitone — as when G- 
 sharp is leading note to A minor — the other division 
 can only contain the relation 24-25 which Colin Brown 
 terms an imperfect chromatic semitone. 
 
 Thus besides two kinds of tones (the large and the 
 small) there are in this system three kinds of semi- 
 tones, the diatonic, the chromatic and the imperfect 
 chromatic. 
 
 Involved in all the above consequences is the follow- 
 ing principle of this system : no interval stands for 
 another however slight the difference. Now as in our 
 system there is mutation respectively between every 
 tone and every semitone the acute contrast of principle 
 between the two systems here comes out clearly. The 
 almost opposite practical results are almost as dis- 
 tinctly apparent; whilst the accommodated intonation 
 
THE RISE OF MUSIC. 373 
 
 of our system makes for the close connection of the 
 scales just intonation works away from that very result 
 -r-that close union of the different parts which, as we 
 have seen, in our system it has been the work of time, 
 genius, and chance to conspire to bring about. 
 
 I should add the following concerning Colin 
 Brown's system in relation to actual music. 
 
 In the case of a piece confined to one key each in- 
 terval is represented in a simple and regular way 
 But in finding the intervals answering to a piece 
 that passes into another key we should have 
 occasionally to choose between sounds a comma 
 iapart. This necessity renders the system in ques- 
 tion (or any system involving the division of the 
 tones into large and small) under certain circumstances 
 quite inapplicable to actual music. These circum- 
 stances are liable to occur when a melody modulates 
 into the dominant or subdominant. Say a melody 
 modulates from the key of C to that of G and is so 
 constituted as to demand an enharmonic connection 
 between the sixth of C and second of G. The key 
 of the sound involved at first clear (as C) might 
 become for a time undefined or ambiguous and then 
 become clear again (as G). Or suppose the sound at 
 
374 THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 this place instead of being continuous recurred at in- 
 tervals, then if when the new key became established 
 the just note (say A raised a comma) were introduced 
 the effect of two sounds (say A and A raised a comma) 
 so closely succeeding yet differing only by a comma 
 would be distinctly unmusical. The reader may find 
 an illustration of these remarks in the simplest melody. 
 In these particular circumstances our system seems the 
 only practicable one. 
 
 Then sudden modulation between keys four 
 removes apart, as between C and E, cannot find foot- 
 hold in Colin Brown's system without the use of 
 auxiliary scales for the reason that two keys thus 
 related instead of as in our system being separated by 
 a major third are in his separated by a major third 
 and a comma. 
 
 Of course, the broad explanation of these differences 
 between the systems is, that whilst Colin Brown's is 
 (saving the single typical scale on which it is based) 
 dominated by the principle of strict mathematical 
 uniformity, ours is governed altogether by assthetical 
 effect. 
 
 And yet it is indispensable to our system that the 
 
THE RISE OF MUSIC. 375 
 
 scales which form it be something less than perfect in 
 their intonation, for, as we have recently seen, scales 
 true to the perfect type cannot form a system so com- 
 pacted as ours. This dependence of a new world of 
 music (as that outbreak of creativeness may be called 
 which occurred about the period when equal tempera- 
 ment began to be adopted) upon a system of scales not 
 one of which is true, has puzzled many musicians and 
 mathematicians. 
 
 There is one consideration that seems to have 
 been lost sight of in discussing this matter. 
 It is that the typical scale itself is a strong 
 example of irregularity as regards the constitution of 
 its elements. Thus, as we have just seen, we have first 
 two kinds of tones; then each of these is so divided, 
 that one division involves the relation 15-16 — pro- 
 ducing three kinds of semitone. Among other 
 results of the two kinds of tones we have (as well 
 as major and minor thirds), a grave minor third (con- 
 sisting of a small tone and a semitone) as in the case 
 of D-F in the key of C, and a small perfect fifth, as 
 in the case of D-A in the same scale. Yet these various 
 irregularities in the constitution of similar intervals 
 are accepted as a necessary arrangement due to aesthetic 
 
3/6 THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 feeling. But when the same feeling indites effects 
 based upon an arrangement of scales which demands 
 the mutation of corresponding intervals differing 
 by a comma that arrangement is demurred to 
 as scientifically irregular ! Why any amount of 
 arbitrary interference (by the aesthetic principle) 
 with scientific regularity should be accepted in 
 the constitution of the typical scale and none whatever 
 allowed in that of our system of scales (similarly 
 justified by aesthetic results) is not apparent. 
 
 There seems then nothing unsound in the principle 
 of irregularity in the intonation of the constituent 
 scales of our enwoven system. This may go some way 
 to explain the undoubted fact of a new musical crea- 
 tion of perfect beauty resting upon a system of which 
 retrogression in the constituent scales is a vital condi- 
 tion, and in this connection we have further to consider 
 that in actual musical effect only a portion of our system 
 is brought into operation at a particular time. But 
 perhaps a fuller explanation of the foregoing as well 
 as of the distinctly successful result of the use of in- 
 tervals in our system which are certainly a compromise, 
 is the following. The various musical intervals are to 
 us not simply sense-impressions but ferceftians, that is 
 
THE RISE OF MUSIC. 377 
 
 to say, they are based upon the comparison of previous 
 sense-impressions. Thus, our impressions of a fifth, 
 fourth and third, are the result of previous 
 comparison of these and other intervals. Now it is 
 well known that we may have a perfect perception 
 based upon details which are imperfect — the sense- 
 impression may be but a sketch which psychic action 
 fills in, or a sign which psychic action interprets. This 
 as every one knows, is largely the case with regard to 
 our visual impressions, in which we frequently do not 
 see all we think we see. It is also, as I submit, the case 
 with regard to the intervals which our tempered system 
 gives us. They are sufficiently near the truth to be by 
 psychic action realised as true. Thus, the circum- 
 stances being appropriate, the semitone which that 
 system gives may function as a diatonic, chromatic or 
 imperfect chromatic semitone, and the tone as a large 
 or small tone. The fact is, the psychic action involved 
 in realising even the technical elements of a musical 
 effect is immensely greater than it is generally supposed 
 to be. We know that the most harsh dissonance is 
 accepted by the ear and listened to with perfect 
 equanimity if its reason is clear to the mind. So, on 
 the same principle but in a far subtler way, in the 
 
378 THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 action of which I am speaking, the mind imputes to 
 what is given to the ear that which is intended to be 
 conveyed. 
 
 The foregoing considerations then would seem to 
 throw some light on the remarkable fact that in the 
 crude enweavement of the scales which the Organ and 
 Clavichord at last embodied aesthetic instinct found 
 the conditions of a new birth of effect unblemished. 
 
THE RISE OF MUSIC. 379 
 
 CHAPTER XXV. 
 
 Concluding Remarks. 
 T HAVE traced the development of music from its 
 primitive evidences to the point where modern 
 art is constituted in virtual completeness — where it 
 is in possession of those powers of which the newest 
 modern effects are simply fresh applications. It has 
 not been my intention to trace in detail the develop- 
 ment of particular forms, such as oratorio, opera, sonata 
 and symphony — though I have had to refer to certain 
 important features in all of these. Counter-theme, 
 Harmony, Modulation, Scale-enweavement, — these 
 coming about would necessarily involve certain par- 
 ticular forms and lead to others, all being shaped more 
 or less by circumstances and tradition. It has been 
 the unfolding the above four vital developments that 
 the real battle of the art has been about. 
 
38o THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 Since the period of Weber and Schubert there has 
 been no important addition to the texture of musical 
 effect. Mendelssohn, however, made a distinct aesthetic 
 advance by breathing a new feeling in melody and a 
 subtler expression in harmony, as well as by employing 
 the latter in discord with peculiar boldness and 
 strenuousness. 
 
 But there has been a new general application of 
 music, involving a departure from the form in which it 
 stands self -poised as in the Symphony and (notwith- 
 standing the words) in the Song. Even in Beethoven's 
 Ninth Symphony and the symphonic movements of 
 Mendelssohn's "Lobesang," notwithstanding there is a 
 large unity embracing both music and poem, the music 
 is still organic in itself. But in this new application, 
 the organic whole is not all musical. In the drjimas of 
 Wagner the large unity has ceased to exist in the music 
 and the connective effect it involved is supplied by 
 illustrative passages suggested by the literary text; it 
 has, in fact, passed to the poem, involving thus far a 
 return to the form of ancient Greek musical drama — 
 but with the musical element containing the results of 
 twenty-four succeeding centuries. 
 
 In this latter change there seems an increased recog- 
 
THE RISE OF MUSIC. 38 1 
 
 nition of the power of music to create an atmosphere 
 — almost the discovery that the principle of associating 
 music with scene and circumstance — ^with, in short, a 
 situation — may be carried further than it has been 
 hitherto* There can be no doubt that in the above 
 change music's broadly illustrative power is more ex- 
 tensively exemplified, if not more deeply impressed, 
 than it has ever been before. In the dramas of Wagner 
 and the oratorios of Elgar the illustrative power of 
 music is so deliberately and extensively drawn upon as 
 to make that power the foundation of a style. 
 
 This rendering music more broadly illustrative has 
 prompted a certain change in combinative writing. 
 Themes are combined not in the first place for the sake 
 of musical beauty but dramatic or illustrative effect. 
 In this there has, in fact, been something like a return 
 to polyphony (the wild in which the flowers of har- 
 mony were found) but in the light of extant harmonic 
 development, with the result that on the whole the 
 musical vocabulary has been rendered fuller and 
 richer. 
 
 • See statement of the principle of arbitrary association in 
 " The Deeper Sources of Beauty and Expression in Music," p. 98. 
 
382 THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 A single broad glance over the course we have 
 pursued in this work reveals as the salient feature 
 in that retrospect our system of interwoven scales. This 
 is the development which forms the main distinction 
 between modern and all ancient musical art. Yet how 
 much had to be done and to conspire for it to come 
 about ! The musical stream of the ancient world had 
 to flow well into the Christian period. The Church 
 had to spread among different peoples and races, enclos- 
 ing everywhere a peaceful atmosphere, and forming as 
 it were a many centred school tending to assimilate 
 and formulate effects drawn from the varied and con- 
 trasted life without. 
 
 I have frequently reflected how remarkable it seems 
 that so many vital departures should have been made 
 accidentally or for some immediate purpose and in 
 total blindness of their great consequences. Who 
 would have anticipated that the gambols of Descant 
 would have led to the threshold of harmony? Then, 
 when harmony had unfolded, who would have antici- 
 pated its effects from the standpoints of removed keys ? 
 
 It seems far from improbable that the determining 
 factor in the great central development to which I have 
 
THE RISE OF MUSIC. 383 
 
 referred was the rise of the Christian Church, in that, 
 as I have set forth, whilst its ritual demanded regu- 
 larly meeting choirs and the use of a practicable 
 notation (circumstances almost indispensable for the 
 development of harmony) it would tend to draw its 
 musical expression from a many-sided outward life 
 and diffuse it among the churches of different lands. 
 
 Looking at the many unanticipated developments 
 that have occurred in the past, it is obviously dangerous 
 to attempt to guage the scope of Music's future. There 
 are, however, two circumstances to which I may refer 
 that would seem to have a certain bearing on that 
 scope. One relates to a peculiarity which Music has in 
 common with architectural ornamentation. This 
 peculiarity is the fewness of leading forms in the 
 design. In architecture how many of the elements of 
 the ornamentation are simply the large structural 
 forms — such as arches, pillars, porches, alcoves, pin- 
 nacles and spires — in miniature ! whilst in Music who 
 can fail to notice at intervals the occurrence of effects 
 which it is a great part of the composer's task to work 
 up to in a new way — effects of such clear beauty and 
 decided moving power that they seem necessary and 
 
384 THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 fundamental ! The fact that in neither of these arts 
 is the form drawn directly from nature may have some- 
 thing to do with this parity. It would account for the 
 paucity of leading elements. At the same time, that in 
 each case the suggestings of nature that do occur touch 
 upon something generic or familiar in feeling, may 
 tend to explain their power. That in Architecture the 
 suggestiveness is of this character, is obvious ; whilst in 
 music the specially expressive of these effects would be 
 largely those gracious lineaments of strains, that have 
 come down upon the stream of song and proved the 
 "touch of nature" in all time. It is certain that in 
 Music (to con&ne myself now to this art), the above 
 influence, at least, on the side of expression, will go 
 on — breathing the feeling of its source, and thus forming 
 a bond between the past, the present and the future. 
 Indispensable as "a new way" is, let no would be 
 composer imagine that music can shake off its past. It 
 is the note of the past that gives the "spirit feeling" in 
 music, and the touching that note belongs to inspira- 
 tion.* 
 
 The other circumstance bearing upon the scope of 
 
 * See "The Deeper Sources, etc.," last paxagraph. 
 
THE RISE OF UVSIC. 3^5 ' 
 
 Music in the future is the change that in these latter 
 days has come over the relation of man to Religion, 
 Here, again, the arts of Music and Architecture are 
 largely similarly situated. Of course, no one can be 
 unaware of the fact that Architecture has always owed 
 a considerable portion of its inspiration and influence 
 to Religion — this having supplied the incentive, the 
 feeling, and the long pursuit of art of which the monu- 
 ments of remote antiquity, the classic temples, and the 
 mediaeval cathedrals are results ; whilst the special con- 
 nection between Music and Religion is equally obvious 
 to everyone. But Music in its relation to Religion 
 stands in one respect in a different position from Archi- 
 tecture. The latter is related to man's serious life in 
 other ways, but Music is not. Hence the special 
 importance to music of this particular association. In 
 contrast to the peculiar nature of Music's standing- 
 ground in the ordinary world, involved in its ethereal 
 form and intermittence, its necessity as a means of ex- 
 pressing the profound emotions of man in relation to 
 the religious aspect of existence has been always the 
 definite sanction of its recognition as a high and serious 
 art. 
 
 It is, however, the broad parity of these arts- in this 
 
 C C 
 
3^6 THE RISE OF MUSIC. 
 
 CQnoection which is the pregnant consideration here. 
 Both have rested long on the breast of Religion ; from 
 that breast they have drawn more largely than the 
 ather arts (with the possible exception of Painting), 
 the moral and material elements of their life; now both 
 are passing to a future in which the special enthusiasm 
 which aided so greatly to create than seems destined — 
 though it may never be lost — to become less concen- 
 trated and intense. 
 
 This work now terminated has, I hope, enabled the 
 reader to perceive the true inwardness of Music's his- 
 tory — to note amid the multitudinous musical activity 
 that has ever attended life, those vital departures 
 which had to be made, those constructive chances and 
 special developments,^ which had to occur for the 
 modern art to come about. 
 
INDEX. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 Abbk Duchesne, 205. 
 
 Abyssinia, 71. 
 
 Accent, 113, 149, 189. (See 
 Bar-lines). 
 
 Accompaniment, 126, 132, 151, 
 172, 321-38. 
 
 Ad helm (Bishop of Sher- 
 bourne), 148. 
 
 Adrian, I., 205. 
 
 .aJschylus, 122. 
 
 Africa, 136. 
 
 African Instrument (Modern), 
 18. 
 
 Alamoth. A musical direc- 
 tion (Psalm xlvi. See also 
 I. Ohron. xv., 20), 41. 
 
 Alexander the Great, 123. 
 
 Alexandria, 60. 
 
 Alleluia (of the ancients), 66, 
 67. 
 
 Amalarius Fortunatus, 200. 
 
 Ambrose, St., 201. 
 
 Ambrosian Chant, 202, 203. 
 
 Ambrosian Collection, 238, 
 239. 
 
 Amsterdam a Cappella Choir, 
 211. 
 
 Andalusia (Songs of), 326. 
 
 xVngelo, St., Cardinal, 110. 
 
 Anicius, 136. 
 
 Anno (German Bishop), 160. 
 
 Antiphonal effect, 59-63, 146. 
 
 Antiphonarium, 202, 204, 205. 
 
 Ape, -4. 
 
 Apollo, 82. 
 
 Apollo, Hymn to, 111. 
 
 Arcadelt, 248-50. 
 
 Archilochus, 83. 
 
 Architecture, 132. 
 
 Architecture, Analogy be- 
 tween Music and, 383-6. 
 
 Archytas, 97. 
 
 Aristotle, 98, 100, 101, 108, 
 122, 131, 163. 
 
 Aristoxenes, 110, 131, 133. 
 
 Artistic Song, The, 291, 319- 
 20. 
 
 Asaph. A singer appointed by 
 David. See I. Chron. xv., 
 19), 53, 57. 
 
 Asia, 12, 122, 136, 325. 
 
 Asiatic instruments, 123. 
 
 Asor, 64, 66. 
 
 Assyria, 79. 
 
 Assyrian (Monuments), 64, 78, 
 80. 
 
 Assyrian (Music), 14, 40, 64, 
 68, 69, 72-74, 81. 
 
 Assyrian (Mus. Insts.), 13, 65, 
 67,71. 
 
 Athanasius, Bishop, 60. 
 
 Athens, 111. 
 
 Augustine, St. (His Confes- 
 sions), 154. 
 
 Aulody, 87. 
 
 Aymeric (a scrivener, 10th 
 Century), 165. 
 
 Babylon, By the Rivers of, 46. 
 Babylonia, Kings of, 79. 
 Babylonian Music, 13, 64. 
 Bach, C. P. E., 335, 368. 
 
390 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Bach, J. S., 315-16, 335, 337, 
 340, 368. 
 
 Barbary, 122. 
 
 Bardi, John, 295, 298. 
 
 Barefooted Friar's Church, 
 Nuremberg (Organ of, to- 
 wards the end of 15th Cen- 
 tury), 350. 
 
 Bar-lines, 189, 213, 219. 
 
 Barrabras, 71. 
 
 Bede, The Venerable, 154, 204. 
 
 Beethoven, 249, 274, 335, 340- 
 1, 344, 346. 
 
 Beethoven, His Symphony in 
 C minor, 304, Ninth Sym- 
 phony, 380. 
 
 Berbers, 71. 
 
 Birch, Samuel (Writer on 
 Egyptian Hieroglyphs), 125. 
 
 Bocherville (Church of), 165, 
 166, 360. 
 
 Bodleian Library, 181, 359. 
 
 Bi-ennus, the Gaul, 111. 
 
 Brown, Colin (His Musical 
 System), 371-74. 
 
 Bruce, 15, 80. 
 
 Busnois, 260, 268. 
 
 Byron, 114-15. 
 
 Caccini, Giulio, 295, 300, 323, 
 
 328. 
 Cairo, 67. 
 
 Calliope, Hymn to, 110. 
 Canaan, 79. 
 Canon, 241-2, 248. 
 " Canonici misc " (MS. in 
 
 Bodleian Library), 359. 
 Canzone Villanella, 292, 294. 
 Carissimi, 251-2, 262-3, 278, 
 
 306, 308, 311-13, 315, 320, 
 
 325. 
 Carthage (Terra-cotta model 
 
 of organ discovered at), 351. 
 Cassidorus, 158. 
 Catacombs, 144. 
 Cathedral, Erfurt (Organ of 
 
 towards end of 15th Cen- 
 tury), 350. 
 
 Cavaliere, Bmilio del, 295, 
 
 298-9 323 
 Caval'li,' P. F., 304, 306, 323, 
 
 327. 
 Chansons of the Middle Ages, 
 
 321 
 Chappell, William, 157. 
 Charlemagne, 148, 204. 
 Chartres, Cathedral of, 167-8, 
 
 170. 
 Choral (a Psalm Tune), 234, 
 
 331. 
 Chord of Dominant Ninth, 
 
 266. 
 Chord of Dominant Seventh, 
 
 255, 259-68, 270-2^ 285. 
 Chord of Dominant Seventh 
 
 (Its EBsthetic power), 273-4, 
 
 280 
 Chord of Imperfect Fifth, 244- 
 
 6, 261. 
 Chord of Ninth, 246. 
 Chord of Secondary Seventh, 
 
 246. 
 Chords, 231, 244-6, 250-2, 256- 
 
 80. 
 Chords, Complete and Incom- 
 plete (So-called), 257-8. 
 Chords (Their Historical Un- 
 folding), 258-9. 
 Chorus, Greek, 120-1. 
 Christian Church (early), 144, 
 
 146, 148, 383. 
 Christian Era, 122, 147. 
 Christian Period, 141, 143, 
 
 148, 155, 161, 382. 
 Christians (early), 144-5. 
 Chromatic Effect, 124, 130, 
 
 165. 
 Chromatic Scale, 103, 131. 
 Chronicles II., Book of, 57. 
 Church, Music of the, 149, 156, 
 
 164-5, 209, 236, 248. 
 Cimbal (German), 65. 
 Cithara,, 82, 86-7, 94, 123-4, 
 
 126, li36-7, 148. 
 Clapping of the Hands, 31, 66. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 391 
 
 Clarke, E. D. (Author of 
 "Travels in various Coun- 
 tries"), 67. 
 Clavicembalum (Latin), Clavi- 
 cembalo (Italian), 65, 330, 
 348, 351-2. 
 
 Clavichord, 66, 359, 361, 366, 
 368, 378. 
 
 Clavier type of Instruments 
 (Creative consequences of), 
 365-8. 
 
 Clef, 178, 213, 218. 
 
 Clovis (King of the Pranks), 
 148. 
 
 Cohen, Francis L., 44-66. 
 
 Collegiate Church, Brunswick 
 (Organ of, towards end of 
 15th Century), 350. 
 
 Comma, 98, 228. 
 
 Common Chord, 245, 266-59. 
 
 Concerted Effect, 132, 137. 
 
 Concourse of Song, 86. 
 
 Consonance, 127. 
 
 Constantino, 159. 
 
 Constantinople Dervishes, 76. 
 
 Contorniates, 157-8. 
 
 Cornet (Assyrian), 40. 
 
 Corteccio, 293. 
 
 Council of Narbonne, 203. 
 
 Counter-melodic Effect, 334-5, 
 341. 
 
 Counterpoint, 213-4, 226, 342- 
 3. 
 
 Crayfish, 3. 
 
 Crotola (Castanets), 26. 
 
 Crwth or Crowth, 167, 170. 
 
 Ctestibus (Father of Hero), 
 138, 157. 
 
 Cuneiform Tablets, 79. 
 
 Cymbals, 68, 64, 86. 
 
 " Dapnb " (by Rinuccini), 309. 
 
 Daniel, Book of, 40. 
 
 David, 43, 45, 63, 78. 
 
 De Lange, Daniel, 211. 
 
 De Monte, P., 247, 263-4, 282, 
 
 358. 
 Delphi, 83, 111. 
 Denis, St., Abbey of, 170. 
 
 Dervishes (Constantinople), 
 
 78. 
 Des Pres, Josquin, 212, 249. 
 Descant, 210, 225, 232-8, 243, 
 
 344, 369, 382. 
 Diatonic Scale, 11, 28, 30, 91, 
 
 104, 131, 134, 156, 365. 
 Didymus, 97. 
 
 Dionysian Artists, 123, 136. 
 Dionysius, 110. 
 Dissonance, 377 (Definition of, 
 
 by Euclid), 127. 
 Domi, 300. 
 Dorians, 82. 
 
 Dot, 184-5, 187-8, 213, 218. 
 Drums, 26. 
 Ducoudray, L. A. Bourgault, 
 
 149. 
 Dufay, William, 210, 240-1, 
 244-6, 248-9, 260-2, 282, 358- 
 60. 
 Dulcimer, 40, 65-7. 
 Dunstan, St., 160. 
 Dutch Masterpieces, 210. 
 
 Ecclesiastical Modes 153. 
 Edinburgh Review, 120. 
 Egypt, 11-13, 27-8, 82, 86, 91, 
 
 122, 138, 167. 
 Egyptian Combinations of In- 
 struments, 32-3, 70. 
 Egyptian Harmonic Effect, 
 
 33, 37. 
 Egyptian Instruments. 
 
 Crotola, 26. 
 
 Drums, 26. 
 
 Flute, 22, 28, 30. 
 
 Harp, 17, 80. 
 
 Lute or Tamboura, 
 23, 68, 123-6. 
 
 Lyre, 19. 
 
 Pipe, 21. 
 
 Tamboureen, 26. 
 Egyptian Monuments, 79. 
 Egyptian Music (System), 14, 
 , 30, 40, 69, 72-4, 86. 
 Egyptian Notation, 36. 
 Elgar, 381. 
 
 "Elijah," Mendelssohn's, 273, 
 276, ' ' 
 
392 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Elphege, Bishop, 1S6, 160, 164, 
 347. 
 
 Engel, Carl, 65, 68, 70, 75, 
 102-3, 163. 
 
 Enharmonic Scale (Greek), 
 103. 
 
 Enwoven Scales, 127, 354, 364 
 (In connection with Intona- 
 tion), 357, 361-4, 369-76. 
 
 Ephesus, 111. 
 
 Equal Temperament, 368. 
 
 Ethelred, 181. 
 
 Ethelwold, St., 160. 
 
 Ethiopia, 72. 
 
 Etruscans, 135. 
 
 Euclid (of Alexandria), 96, 
 126-7, 131, 133, 156, 164, 216. 
 
 Eumenides (Furies in the), 
 120. 
 
 Euphrates', 12. 
 
 Euripides, 122-3. 
 
 Ezra (His Arrival in Jerusa- 
 lem from Babylon), 46. 
 
 Fa-La's, Italian, 297. 
 Fandango (Audalusian Dance 
 
 Song), 326. 
 Faux Bourdon, 232-4, 243. 
 Festa, 248-251, 258, 262. 
 Finn, 29. 
 
 Placcus Albinus-Alcuin, 152. 
 Flats and Sharps, 96, 156, 163- 
 
 4, 215-6, 222 (See Chromatic 
 
 Scale and Effect). 
 Flemish School, 210-213, 240-1, 
 
 244-9, 263, 282. 
 Flinders, Petrie, 28. 
 Flute, Assyrian, 40, 65. 
 Flute, Double. 66, 87, 135. 
 Flute, Egyptian, 22, 28, 30, 
 
 124. 
 Flute, Greek, 86-7, 126. 
 Flute Playing (Greek), 86-7, 
 
 122 
 Flute', Roman, 135-7, 139. 
 Folk-Song, 51. 
 "Four Passions," The (by H. 
 
 Shutz), 258-9, 286, 308-9, 
 
 313-19, 332. 
 Ffanohinus Qafurius, 195, 
 
 Frank's (Melchior), Collection 
 
 of Songs, 297. 
 Franco, 198, 206, 227. 
 French Opera, 330. 
 French School, 330. 
 Frescobaldi, 327. 
 Frottole, 292. 
 Fugue, 210, 255, 331. 
 
 Gaiilei Vincentio, 180. 
 
 Galileo Vincenzo, 110. 
 
 Gascony, 165. 
 
 Gaul, 200. 
 
 " Gelasian Sacramentary," 
 
 203. 
 German Opera, 249. 
 German School, 314-5. 
 Gevaert (Author of ' ' Les Ori- 
 
 gines du Chant Liturgique 
 
 de I'eglise latine"), 204. 
 Gibbon, 61, 146. 
 Gittith, 53. 
 Gounod, 35, 277, 289. 
 G;rado (Ancient City in Italy), 
 
 159. 
 Graetz, H. (Jewish Historian), 
 
 43, 45, 53, 78. 
 Greco-Latin Music, 148, 153. 
 Greece, 13, 81, 84, 86, 122-3, 
 
 135-6. 
 Greece (Modern), 96. 
 Greek Comedy, 123, 136. 
 Greek Drama, 119-20, 123, 136, 
 
 138, 295, 298, 380. 
 Greek Monuments, 125. 
 Greek Music, 85-6, 108, 110, 
 
 115-6, 118-9, 122, 124, 128, 
 
 134. 
 Greek System, 88, 91-2, 94, 
 
 103, 108, 110, 149-50. 
 Gregory,. St. (The Great), 200- 
 
 5. 
 Gregory II., 203. 
 Gregory IV., 200. 
 Grove's Dictionary, 238, 292, 
 
 318, 349. 
 Guidiccini, Laura, 295. 
 Guide Aretino (Guy 
 
 D'Arezzo), 161, 164, 216. 
 Guitar, 1?3. 
 
INBUX. 
 
 393 
 
 Gulillmus Monaohus, 234; 
 
 Hackbrbt (Germau Cymbal), 
 
 65. 
 Halberstadt Organ, The, 285, 
 
 347-50, 358-62, 369. 
 Handel. 249, 261-2, 269, 273-4, 
 
 279, 314-16, 319, 325, 332-3, 
 
 340. , 
 
 Handel's Chorus. "And with 
 
 His Stripes," 268-9. 
 Harmony, 132-3, 172-3, 225, 
 
 227. 234-6, 243-280, 305 
 
 379-80, 382-3. 
 Harp, 58, 148, 167, 321, 325 
 
 (See Assyrian and Asiatic 
 
 instruments). 
 Harp (the Great), 123-4, 126. 
 Harpsichord, 65. 
 Hassler, Hans Leo, 297. 
 Haydn, 249, 273^ 277, 368. 
 Hear Jacob's God (Handel's 
 
 Chorus) 307. 
 Hebrew' Music, 145 (See Jew- 
 ish Music). 
 Hebrew Poetry, 55. 
 Helios (Hymn to), 110. 
 Helmholtz, 7, 95-6, 100, 121, 
 
 268. 
 Helmore, Rev. T., 233. 
 Heman (II. Chronicles 5, v. 
 
 12), 57. 
 Hermes (Mercury, so-called by 
 
 the Greeks), 72. 
 Heroj 138, 157, 351. 
 Heroic Metre, 115. 
 Hexachordal System, 156, 
 
 161-2. 
 Hieroglyphs, Egyptian, 125. 
 Hieron (Tyrant of Syracuse), 
 
 Hipki'ns, A. J., 349, 352. 
 Hobrecht, 190. 
 Homophonal Effect, 117. 
 Hope, Robert Charles, 83, 92, 
 
 94, 100, 150-2, 164, 195, 197, 
 
 200, 203-5. 
 Hopkins, E. J., 156. 
 Hucbald, 104, 179, 216, 225, 
 
 §36-7, 
 
 Human Voice, 38, 63, 117, 126, 
 
 137, 139. 
 Hurdy-gurdy, 167. 
 Hutchinson, Lord, 67. 
 Hypate, 101, 108. 
 "Il Giasone" (Cavalli), 304, 
 
 323 
 Illyria, 136. 
 Imitation, 241-3, 309. 
 Intermediate Semitones (of 
 
 Diatonic Scale), 347-54, 362- 
 
 5- 
 
 "Intermezzo" (Performed in 
 
 1539), 292-3. 
 Intonation, 357, 360-64. 
 Inversion, Second, of Common 
 
 Chord (Its Inordinate ^is- 
 
 thetic Power), 275-8. 
 Inversions of Chords, 256-7. 
 Isaiah, Book of, 42. 
 Isidore of Seville, 200, 204. 
 Israelitish Exodus, 80. 
 Italian Masques, 328. 
 Italian Melody, 291-304, 315, 
 
 319-20. 
 Italian Reciters, 121. 
 Italian School, 116, 263. 
 Italy, Secular Songs of, 291-2. 
 Italy, Spirit of, 249-50. 
 
 Jeduthtjn (II. Chronicles 5, 
 
 V. 12), 57. 
 Jephtha (Carissimi's), 252, 
 
 306-7, 310-15, 319-20. 
 Jerome, St., 158-9. 
 Jerusalem (Bishops of), 145. 
 Jerusalem (Yearly Festivals 
 
 at), 42. 
 Jewish Captivity (in Egypt), 
 
 11. 
 Jewish Music, 39-63, 78, 81, 
 
 145, 187, 208. 
 Jewish Musical Instruments, 
 
 13. 
 Jewish National Life (Apo- 
 gee), 78, 80. 
 Job, 54. 
 John VIII. (Bishop of Rome), 
 
 159. 
 John the Deacon, 204. 
 
394 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Josiafa, 53, 
 
 Jos^uin des Pres, 212. 
 Julian, the Emperor, 158. 
 Julianus, 159. 
 
 "Junta's Bomaa Collection of 
 Songs," 292. 
 
 Kahun (Old Town of Egypt), 
 28 
 
 Key-board, 160, 350-4, 361-4, 
 366-7 (of Halberstadt Or- 
 gan), 349-50. 
 
 Key-note, 10, 101, 108, 109, 
 133-4, 361. 
 
 Kircher, 110. 
 
 Kissar (Modern Nubian Lyre), 
 71. 
 
 Korah, Sons of (Psalmists), 
 43. 
 
 Lacboix, Paul, 175. 
 
 " L'Amphiparnasso," 294. 
 
 Lavoix, H. (fils), 40, 64, 78, 
 
 170, 174, 175. 
 Lesbos, 91. 
 Levites, 43-4, 53, 57. 
 Lewis (the Debonnaire), 200. 
 " L'Homme Armee," 240-1. 
 Liohanos, 99. 
 Ligatures, 196. 
 Livingstone, Dr., 6. 
 Lohengrin, 36, 117. 
 Lute, 23-5, 58, 68, 86, 123, 
 
 139, 321, 325 330. 
 Lyre (Assyrian), 71. 
 Jjyre (Egyptian), 11. 
 Lyre (Greek), 7, 17, 82, 85, 87- 
 
 8, 92-4, 124, 137, 139, 321, 
 
 325. 
 
 Maoparren, G. a., 103, 105. 
 Madrigal, 248, 255, 292-4, 301, 
 
 305, 331. 
 Magadi, 86. 
 Magdeburgh (Cathedral of), 
 
 160. 
 Major Mode, 102, 163. 
 Malagiiena, 326 (Andalusian 
 
 Dance Song). 
 Marchetto (of Padua), 227, 
 
 249. 
 
 Mazzoechi, Doiaenico, 302-3, 
 306. 
 
 Measure (Five-four), 112 (See 
 Accent). 
 
 Measured Music, 183-195, 197- 
 200. .. 
 
 Mediffival Modes (their Grad- 
 ual Metamorphosis and 
 Digest into the Major and 
 Minor), 267-8. 
 
 Mediaeval System of Music, 
 151-4. 
 
 Melchior, Frank's, Collection 
 of Songs, 297. 
 
 Melewi Dervishes, 75, 187, 208. 
 
 "Melodies Populaires de 
 Grece d'Orient," 149. 
 
 Melody, 78 (See Italian Mel- 
 ody). 
 
 Melopoeia, 121. 
 
 Memling (Painting by — of 
 Key-board, 1479), 349. 
 
 Mendelssohn, 314-18, 337, 380 
 (His Lobesang, 380). 
 
 Mercury, 82. 
 
 Mese, the Key-notS of the 
 Greek Modes, 98-101. 
 
 Mesodemes, 110. 
 
 Mesopotamia, 79. 
 
 ■Messenger of the Congrega- 
 tion, 47. 
 
 Meyerbeer, 338. 
 
 Milne, Bev. J. R. (Writer of 
 an Article on H. Shiitz), 319. 
 
 Milton (His Hymn on the 
 Nativity), 114, 143. 
 
 Modern Music, 128, 144-5. 
 
 Modes, 50, 149-50, 152-3, 201. 
 
 Modulation, 78, 108, 124, 126- 
 7, 134, 164-5, 171-2, 281-90, 
 367, 379. 
 
 Mole Cricket, 3. 
 
 Monteverde, 272, 277, 301, 304, 
 313 
 
 Morle'y, 213. 
 
 Moulton, R. G., 55, 61. 
 
 Mouton, Jean, 265-6. 
 
 Mozart, 249, 327, 
 
INDEX. 
 
 Musette (Freach— a Speeies of 
 
 Small Bagpipe), 166. 
 Musical Declamation, 121. 
 
 Musical Instinct, 77. 
 Musurgia, 110. 
 
 Naples, 120. 
 
 Nebuchadnezzar, 40. 
 
 Neeinoth (Hebrew Word Sig- 
 nifying Strings), 48. 
 
 Nemesis (Hymn to), 110. 
 
 Neumes, 48, 174-183, 217, 219. 
 
 Nile, 12. 
 
 Nineveh, 81. 
 
 Notation, 109, 173-195, 213-25. 
 
 Notes, 174-195, 217. 
 
 Nubia, 71. ^ „^ 
 
 Nubian Music (Present), 74. 
 
 "Nuovo Musiche," 300. 
 
 Obbd-edom (House of — whence 
 Ark was Brought — I. Chron. 
 XV. 25), 41. 
 
 Obrecht (Old Flemish Com- 
 poser), 154, 211. , ^, 
 
 Oclkeghem, 366, 378 (Old Flem- 
 ish Composer), 154, 211, 249. 
 
 Odington, W. (a Monk of Eve- 
 sham), 182. 
 
 Opera, 325. 
 
 Opera Buifa, 329. 
 
 Opertz, Martin, 309. 
 
 Oratoriens, Church of (Rome), 
 295. 
 
 Oratorio, 305-20, 325. 
 
 Orazzio Veochio (an Italian 
 Composer circa 1694), 294. 
 
 Organ, 138, 150-52, 156-60, 164, 
 285, 322, 347-52, 355, 358-64. 
 
 Organistrum (Viol with Wheel 
 and Handle), 167. 
 
 Organum, 225-236, 239, 242. 
 
 Orpheus and Euridice (Monte- 
 verde), 301-2. 
 
 Orpheus and Euridice (Rinuc- 
 cini, Peri and Caccini), 294, 
 298-9. 
 
 Overlaid, Overlapping or En- 
 woven, Scales, 95-6, 127, 
 130, 134, 163, 221, 269-70, 
 280, 284. 
 
 Overlooker (in the Syna- 
 gogue), 47. 
 
 Painting, 132. 
 
 Palestrina, 154, 250-1, 253-5, 
 258, 264, 267, 281-2, 287, 289. 
 Pantomime, 1^. 
 Parhypate (Note next above 
 
 Dominant of Greek Scale), 
 
 101. 
 Part-Song, 331. 
 Payne, E. J., 360. 
 Pedals, 160. 
 Peri, Jacopo, 294-5, 298-9, 308, 
 
 313, 323, 328. 
 Perowne, J. J. S., 40, 59, 63. 
 Persia, 65. 
 
 Persian Small Drum, 64. 
 Persian Wars, 124. 
 Petrucci (Italian Publisher), 
 
 292. 
 Philistines (Land of the), 80. 
 Phocians, 111 (Inhabitants of 
 
 a Province of Ancient 
 
 Greece). 
 Phoenicia, 82-3. 
 Piano, 65. 
 Pindar, 110. 
 Pipe, 21. 
 
 Pipe, Double, 21, 66. 
 Pippin (Father of Charles the 
 
 Great), 159. 
 Pitch Signatures, 178. 
 Plain Harmony, 234, 243. 
 Plain Song (or Chant), 50, 
 
 149, 151, 181, 196, 201, 207, 
 
 210, 213, 226, 242, 361. 
 Plectrum, 65, 71. 
 Pliny (the Younger), 146. 
 "Plorate Filii Israel" (Caris- 
 
 simi), 306-8. 
 Polyphony, 172, 225, 234, 238, 
 
 255, 331, 358, 360, 381. 
 Portative Organ, 359 (See 
 
 Regal). 
 Practioa Musicse, 195. 
 Precentor (the Ancient Jew- 
 ish), 47, 53. 
 Pretorius, 347-8. 
 Prometheus, 120, 
 
396 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Proverbs (Book of), 54. 
 
 Psalms (Book of), 40, 42, 54, 
 57, 60-2. 
 
 Psaltery, 40, 58, 65. 
 
 Psychic Factor (The), in In- 
 tonation and Musical Effect 
 Generally), 376-8. 
 
 Ptolemy, 94-5, 97, 149, 151, 
 355 
 
 Pythagoras, 27, 91, 95, 355. 
 
 Pythagorian Intonation, 227- 
 8. 
 
 Pythian Games, 110. 
 
 Stjartet (Instrumental), 331, 
 
 367. 
 Queen's Hall, 112. 
 " Querimonia di~ S. Maria 
 
 Maddelena," 303. 
 Qytarah Barbaryeh (Modern 
 
 Egyptian Name for the 
 
 Nubian Kissar), 71. 
 
 Rameses III, 16. 
 
 " Rappresentazione del anima 
 e-corpo," 295, 298-9. 
 
 Rawlinson, Rev. George, 69. 
 
 Reader in the Temple, 47. 
 
 Reading of the Law, 44. 
 
 Rebec, 165, 169. 
 
 Recitative, 106, 296-8, 301-3, 
 • 306. 
 
 Redemption (Gounod's Ora- 
 torio), 277-8. 
 
 Regal (Portative Organ), 351- 
 3. 
 
 Religion (the Special Connec- 
 tion between it and Music), 
 385. 
 
 Rests, 193-5. 
 
 Reynold's Collection of Songs, 
 297. 
 
 Rhythm, 113, 149, 189, 218 
 (See Accent). 
 
 Rinuccini, Ottavia (Italian 
 Librettist), 294, 308. 
 
 Rockstro, W. S., 197, 200, 202, 
 205, 207, 238-9, 313, 319. 
 
 Roman Empire, 112, 139. 
 
 Roman Liturgy, 95. 
 
 Roman Music, 135. 
 
 Roman Priests, 121. 
 
 Rome, 110, 135-6, 138, 144, 200, 
 233, 295, 302. 
 
 Rondena (Andalusian Dance 
 Song), 326. 
 
 Rossi, M. A., 327, 331-2, 334. 
 
 Ruckers (Flemish Harpsichord 
 Makers, Established Ant- 
 werp 1555), 352. 
 
 Sabbath, 46. 
 Sackbut, 40. 
 
 Sacramentary (Gelasian), 203. 
 Sacramentary (Gregorian), 
 
 205. 
 Samuel (Ancestor of the Sons 
 
 of Korah), 43, 45, 78. 
 Sanctuary, 47. 
 Santir (a Persian Dulcimer), 
 
 65. 
 Sappho, 91, 95. 
 Saviour, St. (Monastery of), 
 
 Scale,' Diatonic, 11, 28, 30, 91. 
 
 Scale of Nature, 103. 
 
 Scale, The Typical (Relations 
 
 of Notes in), 355-7, 360. 
 Scale-Forms, 50, 74 (See 
 
 Egyptian and Greek Sys- 
 tems). 
 Scales, Arrangement of, in our 
 
 System, 356-7. 
 Scales, Systems of, 128-9, 131, 
 
 164, 172 (See Scale Forms). 
 Scarlatti, Alesandro, 324-5, 
 
 331-2. 
 Scarlatti, Domenico, 325. 
 Schubert, F. P., 380. 
 Scott, Sir Walter, 114. 
 Scotus Erigena, 225. 
 Sculpture, 132. 
 Selah (Hebrew — Probably a 
 
 Musical Direction), 42. 
 Semitic Alphabet, 174. 
 Seneca, 137. 
 
 Shakespeare (His Lyrics), 114. 
 Sharps, 103, 130, 164, 215-16. 
 Sheminith (Inscription to 
 
 Psalms), 41. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 397 
 
 Shophar (a Jewish Sacr«d 
 
 Trumpet), 57. 
 Shir, Mizmor (Inscription to 
 
 Psalms), 41. 
 Shutz, Heinrich, 258-9, 282-3, 
 
 286, 308, 313, 316-18, 332. 
 Signatures (Pitch), 178. 
 Sistrum, 26, 86. 
 Smith, Father (Built Organ 
 
 for Temple Church 1682-3), 
 
 363. 
 Solomon, 57, 80. 
 Song of Degrees, 41. 
 Song, the Artistic, 291-304. 
 Sophocles, 122-3. . 
 Southgate, T. L., 28-9. 
 Spohr, 314. 
 
 Stabat Mater (Bossini), 337. 
 Stadler, Abbe, 75. 
 Staff, 177-183, 213, 218-19. 
 Stainer, Sir John, 359. 
 Stanley, H. M., 6, 18. 
 Stewart Perowne, J. J., 40. 
 St. John (Hospital of — 
 
 Bruges), 349. 
 Subdominant, Chord of (Its 
 
 Inherent ./Esthetic Power), 
 
 276, 278-9. 
 Suez (Isthmus of), 12. 
 Suites, 330. 
 " Sumer is icumen in," 181-2, 
 
 189, 199, 241. 
 Supertonic Progression to 
 
 Dominant, 278. 
 Supertonic with Seventh (Its 
 
 Powerful Esthetic Effect), 
 
 276. , 
 "Sursum Corda" Mass, 207- 
 
 8. 
 Sweelinck (Flemish Com- 
 poser), 154. 
 Swinburne, 114. 
 Synagogue, 44-46, 50. 
 Syracuse, 111. 
 Syria, 79. 
 
 Ta'amin (Hebrew Expression 
 for Ornaments, Tropes, 
 etc.), 48. 
 
 Tamboura, 68, 123-6. 
 
 Tel-el-Amarna (Ancient City 
 of Upper Egypt where Cune- 
 iform Tablets have been Re- 
 cently Discovered), 79-80. 
 
 Temple of Jerusalem, 45-47, 
 57, 147. 
 
 Tennyson, 114. 
 
 Terpander. 83, 91, 94. 
 
 Tetrachords, 164. 
 
 Thebes, 24, 79, 126. 
 
 Thematic Treatment, 339-46, 
 367. 
 
 Theodoric (King of the Ostro- 
 goths), 148. 
 
 "There is a Green Hill" 
 (Gounod), 289. 
 
 Thoth (Egyptian God of Elo- 
 quence), 72. 
 
 Thrace, 82. . 
 
 Through or Thorough, Bass, 
 322-3. 
 
 Tie, 213, 218-9. 
 
 Tigris, 12. 
 
 Timbre, 117. 
 
 Timbrel, 64. 
 
 Time, 113, 183-195, 197-200, 
 218 
 
 Time Signatures, 190, 193, 213, 
 219 
 
 Time 'Values, 183-195, 198-9, 
 206. 
 
 Tonality, 253-6, 280. 
 
 Tonic, 100 fSee Key-note). 
 
 Trajan, 147. 
 
 Tralles (Near Ephesus), 111. 
 
 Triangle, 86. 
 
 Trigon, 83. 
 
 Triplum, 226. 
 
 Troubadors, 170-1, 322. 
 
 Trouveres, 170-1, 322. 
 
 Trumpet, 57-8, 86-7, 136. 
 
 Tyre, 83. 
 
 USBRTBSBN, 11, 28. 
 
 Vecchio, Orazzio (Italian 
 
 Composer), 294. 
 Venatius Fortunatus, 167. 
 Venetian School, 249. 
 Viadama, 323. 
 
39S 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Villanellft- (a . Popular kind of 
 Par4>Song in Italy about 
 1500), 292> 294, 297. 
 
 Viol, 166, 166, 169-71, 330, 
 
 ^ 360-1. 
 
 Violin, 167. 
 
 Vitruvius, 137, 351. 
 
 Vocal Effect, 63, 117, 126, 
 137, 139— (Development of 
 at Early Flemish Period, in 
 Relation to Organ), 355. 
 
 Volkslied, 248. 
 
 Wagnbb^ 36, 380-1. 
 Wagnerian Accompaniment, 
 
 219. 
 Wagnerian Drama. 122. 
 Warnefried, Paul (Ancient 
 
 Writer under Charlemagne), 
 
 204. 
 Weber, G. M., 290, 380. 
 Werckmeister (Wrote on Musi- 
 cal Temperament about 
 
 1645), 368. 
 Wilkinson, Sir Gardiner, 125. 
 Willart, Adriano, 249. 
 Winchester Cathedral, 156, 
 
 160, 164, 181. 
 Wing, W. H., 112. 
 Wodehouse, Mrs. Edmund, 
 
 292, 297, 326. 
 Wordsworth, H4j 
 Wulstan (A Monk, died 963), 
 
 156. 
 
 Zabuno, 355. 
 
 ERRATA. 
 
 Page 11, line 12, for Usertsen read Usertesen. 
 
 Page 105, line 7, for key-noe read key-note. 
 
 Page 277, line 7, after "adore" add "where the words come 
 
 in the second time." 
 Page 307, add ties between semibreves in the two bars before 
 
 last, of example. 
 
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 bevelled cloth, 6s. 
 " We may here take the opportunity of recommending a useful book to 
 all lovers of violins and violinists. Fiddlers, Ancient and Modern, is prac- 
 tically a little Biographical Dictionary, well arranged with some eicellent 
 portraits."— yortftern Whig. 
 
 SKETCHES OF GREAT VIOLINISTS AND GREAT PIAN- 
 ISTS. Biographical and Anecdotal, with Account of 
 the Violin and Early Violinists. Viotti, Spohr, Paga- 
 nini, De Beriot, Ole Bull, Clementi, Moscheles, Schu- 
 mann (Robert and Clara), Chopin, Thalberg, Gottschalk, 
 Liszt. By G. T. Fbrbib. Second Edition. Crown 8vo, 
 bevelled cloth, 3s. 6d. (or cloth, gilt edges, 4s. 6d.) 
 A very useful book for a prize or gift. 
 DICTIONARY OF 4,000 BRITISH MUSICIANS. From the 
 Earliest Times. By P. J. Cbowest. Crown 8vo, cloth, 
 2s. (paper. Is.) 
 A Dictionary of British Musicians— a work devoted exolusively to the 
 names of native oomposers, instrumentalists, vocalists, writers, etc., who 
 have contributed to the making of English musical art from the earliest 
 times to the present. Blank spaces are left to each letter for any addi- 
 tional names to be written in. 
 
8 BIOGBAPHICAL. 
 
 CHOPIN: AS REVEALED -BY EXTRACTS FROM HIS 
 DIARY. By Count Tarnowski. Translated from the 
 Polish by N. Janotha. Edited by J. J. Tanqueray. 
 With Eight Portraits. Crown 8vo, bevelled cloth, 
 Ss. 6d. net (or paper cover Is. 6d. net.) 
 
 " Throws many curious sidelights on the character of the great com- 
 poser." — Sunday Sun. 
 
 " The notes on Chopin were written by special request and under the 
 direction of Princess Marceline Czartoryska. From her, Count Tarnowski 
 received many interesting details as well as letters written by Chopin, in 
 which the master alludes to many of his compositions as well as to the 
 conditions under which they were written. Really an absorbing little 
 tome, etc." — Musical Standard. 
 
 " All devotees of OJiopin will feel gr?Aeful for the booklet, translated into 
 luoid English by the accomplished pianist, Mdlle. Janotha, whose portrait, 
 by the way, adorns its pages. The little, volume shows us clearly enough 
 that the man was, as his music ft, intensely poetic, romantic, yariable in 
 mood, and of a profound melancholy, lightened by occasional flashes of 
 childlike gaiety. His visit to England in 1848 is gone into at length. He 
 
 liked neither the country, the climate, nor the people '. According 
 
 to the evidence of Chopin's diary the novelist's (George Sand) characteristic 
 inconstancy was the sole cause of the weariness, and she is depicted as 
 being cruel enough to send him the proof sheets of the' book (Lucretia 
 Floriani) in which she told the story of their liason, and vivisected the 
 character of her forsaken lover. This hardly tallies with the version set 
 forth in some very recently discovered letters of George Band to her 
 ds^ugJtLter, which represents the rupture as being due to Ohopin's persistent 
 interference in her family affairs, but probably there. is a spice of truth in 
 both stories." — Western Mercury. 
 
 "A very interesting book on Chopin, contaiiiing sbmeth'ing about the 
 Polish musician which will delight his many admirers ..... the story is 
 here told from Chopin's own point of view'ofhis relations with George 
 
 Sand a somewhat humorous touch is given to the account of his 
 
 visit to Scotland. Among musicians of the future we must always reserve 
 a place for Chopin. He is the Wagn^ of .the pianoforte recital, which 
 consists of so many other composers and so mmih. Clhofpm, '.- . y.*'^-Mu8ic. 
 
 "..... it is an appreciation of the life and works of the famous com- 
 poser . . , . . the French Hevolution^of ,1848 drove Chopin to England. He 
 was feted and made much of, but he was ill and unhappy. His comments 
 on Society and its doings are not complimentary . . ... Chopin the man 
 and Chopin the artist are two different beings ..... it is interesting to 
 read and: nicely got up." — Birmingham Post. 
 
 " This 'is the story of the interesting life of CHOpin, a man * of a cheerful 
 mind but a sad heart.' In a marvellously clever manner is the childlike 
 but great nature of Chopin depicted. This book is one of keen interest, 
 written in simple flowing style, which not only interests the reader, but 
 leaves a very picturesque and affectionate (if melancholy) impression of 
 the life of Chopin." — Western' Morning News. 
 
 LIFE OF BEETHOVEN. By Loms Nohl. Translated by 
 John J. Lalob. Third Edition. With Portraits and 
 Facsimile, Crown 8vo, bevelled cloth, gilt edges, 3s. 6d. 
 " A standard biography." 
 
BIOGBAPHICAL. 9 
 
 FREDEKIC CHOPIN: HIS LIFE AND LETTERS. By 
 
 MoEiTZ Kabasowski. Translated by E. HhjL. New 
 Edition Revised and further Letters added written 
 during the composer's Sojourn in England and Scot- 
 land, 1848-9. Second and Bevised Edition. With 8 
 Portraits^ and a Facsimile. 2 volumes. Crown 8vo, 
 bevelled cloth, 10s. 
 " Chopin iB and remains the boldest and proudest poetio spirit- of the 
 
 ag!e." — HODRRT SCHTIMAMr. 
 
 The' author in his Fref aoe says : — Several years of friendship with the 
 family of Frederic Obopin have enabled me to have access to his letters and 
 to place them before the public. ... In compliance with the wishes qf 
 many of Chopin's friends and admirers I hare undertaken to 'sketch his 
 career from the materials afforded me by his one surviving sister, from his 
 letters, etc. ... in this work which contains full particulars about Chopin's 
 youth I have corrected the erroneous dates and mis-statements which have 
 found their way into all the German and French periodicals and books. 
 
 Grove's Dictionary of Musicians ' b&jb : — The truth about Chopin's birth, 
 family, health, character, friend'sliips, early training! and the dawn of his 
 career as a player and composer was not known until the publication of 
 Horitz Karasowski's recent and trustworthy biography. 
 
 " The first serious aitefmpt at a Biography of Chopin."— Pnor. Nieces. 
 
 " Gives bits of information found nowhere else and the Letters of Chopin 
 make the book invaluable to those who would really know the Fplish 
 master."— Jfusjcaj America. 
 
 MAKERS OF MUSIC. Biographical Sketches of the Great 
 Composers. With Chronological Summaries of their 
 Works and Facsimiles from Musical MSS. of Bach, 
 Handel, Purcell, Dr. Arne, Gluok, Haydn, Mozart, Beet- 
 hoven, Weber, Schubert, Berlioz, Mendelssohn, Chopin, 
 Schumann, Wagner, Verdi, Gounod, Brahms and Greig, 
 with General Chronological Table. By R. Farquharsom 
 Sharp. Portrait of Purcell. Third Edition. Crown 
 8vo, cloth, 5s. 
 
 The author's endoAvour throughout this work has been to convey -^n im- 
 pression of the personality of each composer, as well as to furnish bio- 
 graphical detail. . At the end of -each biography is a tabulated list of $he 
 composer's worlds and dates of production, together with a faosimile from 
 one of his original manuscripts.- A useful volume, got up in good style and 
 well adapted for a gift, or prise.. Has speedily run into three editions. 
 
 TEMPLETON AND MALIBRAN. Reminiscences of these 
 Renowned Singers, with Original Letters and Anec- 
 dotes. Three Authentic Portraits by Matall. 8vo, 
 cloth, 2s. 6d. •• ■ • ''-'" >'*' 
 
 SKETCHES OF ENGLISH GLEE COMPOSERS. Historical, 
 Biographical and Critical. From about 1735-1866. ' By 
 D. Baptie. Post 8vo, bevelled' eloth, 6s. 
 
10 BIOGBAPHICAL. 
 
 NOTICE OF ANTHONY STRADIVARI. The celebrated 
 Violin Maker, known by the name of Stradivarius, pre- 
 ceded 'by Historical and Critical Researches on the 
 origin and. Transformations of Bow Instruments, and 
 followed ;bj a Theoretical Analysis of the Bow and Re- 
 marks on Francis Tourte. By F. J. Fbtis. Trans- 
 lated by J. Bishop. Facsimile. 8vo, cloth, 5b. 
 The. gnater part of- the matter in above is the work of M. Yuillaume, 
 who spent the greater part of his life in studying-' the princdples which 
 guided ftradivarius in his labours. With th« aid of Fitif and his addi- 
 tional suggestions and matter the now celebrated work was produced. - 
 
 CHOPIN: THE MAN AND HIS MUSIC. By Jambs 
 
 HuNEKEft. Author of '* Mezzotints in Modern Music." 
 
 , With Miisical Examples. Thick crown 8vo, cloth, 10s. 
 
 " Mr. Huneker is a Ohopin enthusiast. Qe accords admiration to ^Brahms. 
 t,p, Wagner, to TohaikoTsky : his worship, is reserved for Chopin. Being 
 gifted with blear insight and imagination' wh^ch grasp many and direrse 
 
 moods Mr. Huneker i^ a sane critic a&d a maxily ,^here is no pre,- 
 
 tenoe ^t new'inaterial in the book. "Mr^ Huijeker has garnered all ibhat-has 
 been written about the composer and' )ie has threshed out the grain from 
 the ohafE. ■ The result' is, therefore, of value." — Musical Standard. 
 
 ** The volume will a^ once take its place in the front rank. of .books on 
 tJliopln. '.' .... the masterly chapter of 74 pages on the etudes will soop 
 be found indinpensable by all teachers and students of the pianoforte." — 
 Th* Nation (U.S.A.) , • 
 
 ■" A work of unique merit, q^, distinguished style, of profound insight 
 and sympathy' and of^tW most 'brilliant literary quality." — The New York 
 Times. ',■..■■' 
 
 LIFE OF CHOPIN. By Franz Liszt. New and very much 
 - Enlarged Edition. Translated in fjiU now for the first 
 time Ijy JoHisi Bro.^dhousb. Crown 8vo, cloth, 6s. 
 
 "" A. charmingly written and sympathetic sketch of Chopin's Life and 
 Work. It is a biirgraphythat musicians are sure to prize very highly, as 
 it affords the greatest help in understanding the nnderonrr^nt of emotion 
 which characterizes the works of Chopin." — W. H. Webbe, in The Pianist's 
 
 a.]b:c,[ ■ :' ■-, ' \ ; , 
 
 TCHAIKOVSKY. His ]Mfe and Works. With Extracts 
 from his, Writings aiid the Diary of his Tour Abroad in 
 1888. By Rosa Newmarch. With Index, List of Com- 
 positions and Portrait. J Second- Edition, with Addi- 
 ■ tiopal Chapters by E. Evans, 1907. Crown 8vo, cloth, 
 
 "■;,iBs."^; '. ' '■'' ■ 
 
 LIFE AND WORKS OF MOZART. By A. Whittinoham 
 Clptli, ls.,^d. (or^paper, Is.) 
 
 I4FE AND WORKS OF HANDEL. By A. Whittinoham. 
 
 CSoth, Is. 6d. (or. paper, Is.) 
 
BIOGBAPHICAL. 
 
 11 
 
 AUTOBIOGRAPHY OF LOUIS SPOHR. 2 vols in 1. Thick 
 
 8vo, cloth, 7s.^ 6d. net (pub. 15s.) 
 
 Ferris' Great Violinists says :~t-" One of the most fresh, racy and in- 
 teresting works of its kind ever written." 
 
 CHERUBINI. Memorials illustrative of his Jiife. By E. 
 Bellasis. Thick crown 8vo, cloth, 6s. 
 The standard biog-raphy of Cherubini. 
 
 BALFE: HIS LIFE AND WORKS. By W. A. Barebtt. 
 Crown 8vo, bevelled cloth, 3s. 6d. net (pub. 7s. 6d.) 
 
 FRANZ LISZT. By T. Oablaw Maktin. 6d. 
 
12 GENERAL. 
 
 GENEKAL. 
 
 THE BACH LETTERS. Letters of Samuel Wesley, relating 
 to the Introdubtion into England of the Works of Bach. 
 Ed. by E. Wesley. Second Edition. 8vo, cloth, 2s. 6d. 
 
 ENGLISH GLEE AND MADRIGAL WRITERS. By W. A. 
 
 Baeebtt. 8vo, cloth, 2s. 6d. 
 
 " Mr. Barrett is highly to be commended, no lesB for the vast amount of 
 reliable information which he has collated upon the subject in hand, than 
 for the concise manner in which, foi; the benefit of the reader, he has 
 compressed it into a small epace.'* — Monthly Musical Record. 
 
 NATIONAL SCHOOL OF OPERA IN ENGLAND. Being 
 the Substance of a Paper read before the Licentiates of 
 Trinity College, March, 1882. By Frank Austin. 
 Post 8vo, sewed, 6d. 
 
 RATIONAL ACCOMPANIMENT TO THE PSALMS. By F. 
 
 Gilbert Webb. Post 8vo, 6d. 
 
 THE MUSICAL STANDARD. A Newspaper for Musicians, 
 Professional and Amateur. Established nearly Half a 
 Century. The Organ of no Clique. Independent Criti- 
 cisms. Illustrated Supplement everyi week. Price 
 Twopence. Annual Subscription 10s. lOd. (Abroad 
 13s.) Terms for Advertisements on application to the 
 Manager. 
 
HISTOBY. 13 
 
 HISTORY. -^ 
 
 THE WORLD'S EARLIEST Ml^SIC. Traced to its Begin- 
 nings in Ancient lancjs. By, , collected Evidences of 
 Relics, Records, History and Musical Instruments, from 
 Greece, Etruri,a, Egypt, China, thraugh. Assyria, and 
 Babylonia to the Primitive Home, the Land of Akkad 
 and Sumer. By Hermann Smith. With Q5 full page 
 ., Illustriaf^ons and Cuts, nearly 400 pp. Crown 8vo, 
 
 cloth, 6s. 
 " I return the sheets you entrusted to me of ' The World's Farlicat 
 
 Musio.' There is nothing I could critioiEe in those interesting pages*. "— 
 
 A. J. HiPKiNS in a letter to the Author. 
 
 " It is fully and indeed admirabjly illustrated in every scotion of its 
 subject." — Westminster Review. 
 
 " Should be in 'the hands of every musician Most interesting is 
 
 his Chapter upon the musio of Japan." — Pall Mall Gazette. 
 
 " Teohnidally though it ecoaaionally must be, the book is one which 
 should oharm all' musio lovers." — Morning LeaSer. 
 
 "The book^'whic)i \a profusely illustrated, is moat interesting, and is, in 
 its handsome , cloth binding, well worth its published price, 6/-" — Th.e 
 Musical Star. 
 
 " 1 oonfeaa to a very considerable ignorance, natural and acquired, of 
 the ancient instruments; but it seems to me that Mr. Smith has got as near 
 the truth as a twentieth-century mortal can." — J. F. Kfnciman in The 
 Saturday ' Review, 
 
 " It is a pleasantly written volume denlingr with the earliest conditiona- 
 of music in. ancient lands. From rook carvings, wall paintings, tablets 
 and vases, sculptures, papyri and eo forth, Mr. Smith has drawn the 
 materials for a volume which has involved an immense amount of research 
 and containa a vast quantity of information conveyed in a very lucid and 
 readable manner." — H. A. Scott in The Academy. 
 
 " No more enthusiastic: worker, nor patient student, exists than Mr. 
 Hermann Smith. The structure, character and capabilities of every kind 
 of muaioal instrument have been the objects of his study for many years. 
 To an intense love of his subjects he adds an attractive style. . . . The 
 liking of the ear in m'usic is a liking by inheritance, transmitted as a 
 facial typo is. This view is new, etc." — Birmingham Daily Post. 
 
 THE RISE OF MUSIC. By Joseph Goddard. With numer- 
 ous Illustrations. In the Press. 
 
 HISTORY OF HUNGARIAN MUSIC. By J. Kaldt (Director 
 of the Hoyal Hungarian Opera), Crown 8vo, bevelled 
 cloth, 2s. 6d. net. 
 
 The Hungarians must have had a special love for music in their ori- 
 ginal home, for in their sacrifices and other religious ceremonies, in their 
 national festivals, before and after a battle, at banquets and funerals, 
 song, musio and dancing played an important part. 
 
 *' iDformstion not to be had anywhere else shoold be on every 
 
 musical shelf."— Internationalen Musikgesellschaft. 
 
14 mSTORY, 
 
 THE GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT OF MUSIC. 
 
 Pescribed in Chapters on th€> Study of Musical History, 
 By Edward piokiNSON. With an Annplated Guide to 
 Music Literature'.' Oyer 400 pp. Thick 8vo, cloth^'lOs. 
 
 Chaftebs : — 1. Primitive ]\ruaic. 2. ifueic of the Apcicnt Cultured 
 Nations: As'Syriaiiflr Egyptians, ITebrows, Greoks and 'Romans. 3. Song: in 
 the Eatly CKristiob Church. 4. The Catholic Liturgy. 5. The Oatholio 
 'Li%\^Tgia Ohaift. 6: .po^innings of lPolyj})iOinie. AIus^p.; Popular Musifi in the 
 Middle Ages. /;;'. The Age qf the Netherlanders, 1400-1550. '$^ Choral Musio 
 of the Sixteeirth Century. 9. Early German Protestant Musio. l6. Pro- 
 testant Church Mu«io in England. 11. The Madrigal — The OperarP^Modern 
 Tonality. 12. Ep-rly Grot^th xif Instrumental Music. 13. The Violin and 
 its Music: First Stages of the Suite apd 0pna1ja. 1^. Keyed , Chaimber In- 
 etraments : Progress of the Clavier Suite and Sonat^, ■ IS. The Italia^ Opera 
 in the Seventeenth Century. 16 The Opera Bu£Fa, Seventeenth and Eigh- 
 teenth d^ntnriea. 17. lliseof the Opera in France, Seventeenth dentury. 
 18. Italian Opera Seria in the^ Eighteenth Century. 19. Introduction of 
 the Italian Dramatic Forms into German Religious Mu&io. 20. Joliann 
 Sebastian Baoh, 1685-1750. 21. Handel, 16851759. 22. Opera-Comique in the 
 Eighteenth Century. 23. Gluck, 1714-1787. 24. Haydn, 1732-1809. 25. Mozart, 
 1756-1791. 26. Beethoven; 1770-1827. 37. The Oerm^^n Romantic OperaL. 
 Weber, 1786-1826. 28, The German Lied. Schubert, 1797-1828. 39. F^ano 
 Playing to about 1830. 30. Schumann, 1810-1856. 31. Mendelssohn. 1P09- 
 1847. 32. Chopin, 1809-1849. 33. Programme Musio. 34. Berlios, 1803-1869. 
 35. LisBt, 1811-1886. 36. The Opera in the Nineteenth Centhry to about 
 1850. I. Italian Opera. 37. The Opera in the Nineteenth Century 'to about 
 1850. II. French Opera. 38. Wagner, 1813-1883. 39. Recent Mhsic in Ger- 
 many and Austria. 40. Recent Music in France. 41. Recent Music in 
 Italy. 43. Recent Music in Russia, Bohemia and Scandinavia. 43. Recent 
 Mnsio in England and America. Bibliographical List; Index. 
 
 Mb. Dickinson in liis Pteface says : — The vastness and complexity of the 
 study of the history of music are bewildering to those who enter upon it 
 unassisted. This volume is intended to clear the way by indicating the 
 problems, the method and the- materials. The narrative and critical por- 
 tion gives a terse and oomprehensiTe summary of music history, showing 
 what are the iniportant subjeotd involved and their connections and rela> 
 tions. The bibliographical sections' lead the student to the best critical 
 commentaries in the English language on every phase ^nd detail of the 
 subject. 
 
 " Mr. Dickinson has written a book of anquestionable value the 
 
 author's critical judgment is highly discriminating." — Musical Standard. 
 
 Mb. Ebhest Newman in the Mancheeter Guardian writes: — Mr. Dickinson 
 has had the excellent idea of furnishing the musical student with a ^nide 
 
 to- the best literature in English upon the Art For Mr. Dickinson's 
 
 gen,eral treatment of his subject one can have nothing but praise. Hi^ 
 method is' to' take each vi&ge in the development ^^ musio separately, 
 oharaoterise it in a short but highly concentrated chapter and then give 
 references to the complete English literature upon the subject. His sum- 
 maries are models of sound judgment ai^d swift statement, no% more than 
 once or twice, perhaps, could one find fault with either their completeness 
 in every essential point or their cool and Qatholio impartiality. The 
 bibliographical guides are practically as full as they pould be made. .... 
 the total omissions are exceedingly trifling, while the extent and the 
 accuracy of' the information oonVeyed make the book 'indispensable to 
 itudentB and to-public lihtaries. ' 
 
HISTOBT. 15 
 
 THE STUDENT'S HISTORY OF MUSIC. History of Mimic, 
 from the Christian Era to the present time. By Dh. F. 
 L. RiTTER. Third Edition.. 478 pages of Letiterprees 
 and 72 Plates of Musical Illustrations. Thicl^ crown 
 8vo, cloth, 7s. 6d, „ ' 
 
 " To such as are preparing' for 'examination this Valnable work must 
 render great service." — ChrUtitin Age. "■ ' ■ ■' - 
 
 " A reliable guide to those students who aa he says ' feel the desire, the 
 want, of a deeper and more general knowledge of and information as to, 
 the growth and progress of their art than is common.' That this intention 
 has been successfully carried out in the present volume we oan oonscien- 
 tiously affirm." — Musical Times. 
 
 " With the exception of Mr. Hullah's Lectures, we oan recall no book 
 in the English language of recent date whioh attempts to cover the same 
 ground. Both as useful to the student as a work of reference, and as 
 interesting and instructive to the general reader on musical , subjects, this 
 work of Professor Bitter may confidently be recommended."— ifoiie*!!/ 
 Musical Record. 
 
 A HISTORY OF PIANOFORTE MUSIC. With Critical 
 Estimates of its Greatest Masters and Sketches of their 
 Lives. By John C. Fillmoeb. Edited with an Intro- 
 ductory Preface by Ridley Pkentioe. Crown 8vo, 
 cloth, 3s. 6d. 
 SzNOPSis : — The Pianoforte and its Immediate Precursors (the Harpsi- 
 chord and Clavichord) — Polyphonic Music (Bach, Handel, D. Scarlatti)— 
 Eomophonio Music (E. Bach, Haydn, Moeart)— The Emotional Content of 
 Music (Beethoven) — The Olassio an^ the Romantic in Musio (Weber, Schu- 
 bert, Mendelssohn, Chopin and Schumann) — Technique of the Pirst Clas- 
 sical Period— Technique of the Second Classical Period — Technique of the 
 Transition Period — Technique of the Romantic Period — Minor Coiuiposers 
 and Virtuosi of the Different Epochs — ^Index. 
 
 Dddlkz Buck says of it : — " In my judgment the work should be in the 
 hands of every earnest student." 
 
 MANUAL OF MUSICAL HISTORY. Prom the Epoch of 
 
 Ancient Greece to our present time. By Dk. F. L. 
 
 RiTTEK. Second Edition. Cr. 8vo, bevelled cloth, 2s. 6d, 
 ■• An agreeably and cogently written volume, dealing with a variety u! 
 topics whioh bear more or less directly on the history of music." — W. H. 
 Wbbbs in The Pianist's A. B. C. 
 
 '• Portable and well arranged * * • well up todatc and contains a useful 
 index. Students preparing for examinations will find the book distinotly 
 serviceable." — Teacher's Times. 
 CATECHISM OF MUSICAL HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 By F. J. Crowkst. Revised and Enlarged Edition. 
 
 Tenth Thousand. 187 pp. Post 8vo, cloth, 2s. (paper. Is.) 
 
 This work gives special attention to English musicians, and is brought 
 down to 1905. 
 
 Musical Education eaya :— " An excellent little book— yet not so little 
 since it contains an immense amount of information— historical, biographi- 
 cal and oritioal- in o very small compass." 
 
16 
 
 mS'IOBY. 
 
 ENGLISH HYMN TUNES. From the 16th Century to the 
 Present Time. By the Bbv. A./W, Malim. Containing 
 ^1, Musical Htastratibns. iSvo,. sewed. Is. 
 
 THE past' AND THE FUTURE. Inaugural tectur© at 
 Gresham College, Nov., 1890. By J. Frederick Bridge. 
 Mus. D'oc^ Crown 8vo, sewed, 6d. 
 
OBGAN. 17 
 
 OEGAN. 
 
 A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON ORGAN BUILDING. By F. 
 
 E. RoBERTSOK. With Working Drawings and Appen- 
 dices for ready calculation of all parts. Text in one 
 vol. Demy 8vo, and numerous plates in a, royal 4to 
 vol. 2 volumes, 31s. 6d. net. 
 
 " Many books upon Organ Building liave been published in recent years, 
 but for fulness of information not one approaches Mr. Robertson's work, 
 wherein practical details and directions are given iu evpry department of 
 Organ construction. The book is of course based upon old Don Bedos* 
 famous work, and contains the most v&luable portion of Dr. Topfer's Qer- 
 man treatise, together with his learned diagrams and illustrations." — 
 Hermann Smith's " The Making of Sound In the Organ and In the Or- 
 chestra." W. Reeves. 
 
 MODERN ORGAN TUNING, The How and Why, Clearly 
 Bxplainiiig the Nature of the Organ Pipe and the 
 System of Equal Temperament, Together with an His- 
 toric Record of the Evolution of the Diatonic Scale 
 from the Greek Tetrachord. By Hermann Smith. 
 Crown 8vo, cloth, 3s. 6d. 
 " I have read ' Modern Organ Taning ' with great interest. It is a 
 book of value and should find appreciative readers. It should bo a hand- 
 book with students of the organ and organ tuning." — A. J. Hipkins. 
 
 " Simple fidn-teohnical terms sets out with an attractiveness and liicidity 
 I have never seen surpassed the history of the evolution of the diatonic 
 scale from the Greek tetrachord * * * by no means intended for organ 
 students alone * * the historical explanations add to the fascination of 
 this volume." — Daily Telegraph, 
 
 " The book is just such another as its author's similar manual on the 
 tuning of pianos, a workmanlike handbook ; full of sound practical advice 
 fpr the craftsmen concerned." — Scotiman. 
 
 " Recommended to the notice of organists with the fullest confidence that 
 they would derive both pleasure and profit from its perusal." — Scottish 
 Ouardian. 
 
 THE INFLUENCE OF THE ORGAN IN HISTORY. By 
 
 Dudley Buck. Crown 8vo, sewed. Is. 
 
 A SHORT HISTORY OF THE ORGAN, Organists, and Ser- 
 vices of the Chapel of AUeyn's College, Diihvich. With 
 Extracts from the Diary of the Founder. By W. H. 
 Stocks. Crown 8vo, sewed, Is. 
 
 ANALYSIS OF MENDELSSOHN'S ORGAN WORKS. A 
 
 Study of their Structural Features. For the Use of 
 Students. By Joseph W. G. Hathav ay, Mus. B. Oxon., 
 127 Musical Examples. Portrait and Facsimiles. Crown 
 8vo, bevelled cloth, 4s. 6d. 
 
18 ORGAN. 
 
 RINK'S PRACTICAL ORGAN SCHOOL: A New Edition. 
 Carefully Revised. The Pedal Part printed on a Separ- 
 ate Staff, and the Preface, Remarks and Technical 
 Terms translated from the German expressly for this 
 Edition by John Hiles. The Six Books Complete, hand- 
 somely bound in red cloth, gilt edges, ob. folio, 10s. 6d. 
 net (issued at 20s.), or the six parts 7s. 6d. net (issued 
 at 6s. each.) 
 I'he best edition ever published of this Grand Olassioal work,. No other 
 edition will bear compariaon with it for oare and skill in, editing, nor for 
 beauty of engraving and excellence of printing. One special merit of this 
 edition, is that the bad lines are bold, and tha>t they are drawn right. through 
 the^ SGpre, instead of through each staS, as was the custom in days gone by. 
 The student who will take the trouble to test this edition again^t^. any 
 other, will at onoe perceive the advantage he gains from this clear and 
 distinct style of "barring"; to an advanced perfprnjfij the matter may be 
 perhaps of less importance, but even he cannot fail to appreciate the_ com- 
 fort of increased legibility. 
 
 As a royal road to thofdugh and sound Organ Playing in all styles, there 
 is DO other " School, which will bear comparison with this: a Beginner 
 oaivfolloW.no bptter course than to go through it slowly, allowing, say six 
 nidnths for thfe process, one month for each book. Sir Herbett Oakeley, 
 Mus. Doc, late Professor of Music in the University of Edinburghj says : — 
 Hink's fiame will always live as that of an executant, and of a safe gxiide 
 towards the formation of a sound and practical Organ-Player : his wot-ks 
 comprise many artistic studies," The illustrious French critic, F. J. 
 FetiSi writes, thus : — " In the, composition of .music for thp. Organ the l;alcnt 
 of, Eink was of a character peculiar to himself. His elegant .and simple 
 style was generaUy noble and . dignified. His harmony. haq much, about, it 
 that is uncommon and unexpected^ his melody, is sweet and touching. H^e 
 did not try to write 'difficulties,' his evident object was to work for pro-, 
 vincial organists, to form their tasks and to perfect their studies. He culti- 
 vated the Imitative style, but in a simple and natural manner; in the 
 elaborate Fugue style he wrote but little; in the course of a conversation'! 
 asked him the reason, and he made the sensible reply: — 'Bach is a 
 Colossus who dominates the musical world ; it is useless for anyone to hope 
 to follow him in his own peculiar domain, except at a distance ; he has 
 eclipsed everything, and, in that which he has done, he is inimitable." I 
 have, therefore,, always thought that in order to compose music worthy of 
 being heard and approved, a different path should be chosen.' " '' 
 
 REFORM IN ORGAN BUILDING. By Thomas Casson. 
 Crown 8vOj sewed, 6d ' - -i . ^ J ^ 
 
 ORGANS AND ORGANISTS IN PARISH ctfURCH^S, A 
 
 Handbook of the Law relating to.the Custody^ Control 
 and Use of Organs, and to the Position, Lights, and 
 Disabilities of Organists, to which is Added a -Chapter 
 on the Hiring of Pianos, and on **The Three Years 
 System." By William C. A. Blew, M.A., Oxon., of 
 the Inner Temple, Esq., Barrister-at-Law; Crown 8vo, 
 cloth, 2b. 6d. 
 
ORGAN. 19 
 
 ORGANIST'S QUARTERLY JOURNAL of Original Composi- 
 tions. Edited by Dr. W. Si'Akk, _5s. -per pai't. New 
 Series Volume, 160 large pages, oblong folio, bound in 
 cloth, 18s. 
 
 THE ORGAN PARTS OF MENDELSSOHN'S ORATORIOS 
 AND OTHER CHORAL WORKS. Analytically Con- 
 sidered. By Oklando A. Mansfield, Mus. Doc, 
 F.B.C.O. With numerous Musical Examples. Crown 
 8vo, cloth, 4s. 6d. 
 
 HENRY SMART'S ORGAN COMPOSITIONS ANALYSED. 
 
 By J. Beoadhouse. Crown 8vo, bevelled cloth, 2s. 6d. 
 
 THE EARLY ENGLISH ORGAN BUILDERS and their 
 
 " Works, from the 15th Century to the Period of the Great 
 
 Rebellion. An Unwritten Chapter on the History of 
 
 the Organ. By Dr. E. F. Rimbault. Well printed. 
 
 With woodcuts, post 8vo, cloth, 3s. 6d. 
 
 THE MAKING OF SOUND IN THE ORGAN AND IN THE 
 ORCHESTRA. With many illustrations. By Hermann 
 Smith. Crown 8vo, cloth, 7s. Gd. In the Press. 
 
 Highly reoommended by the late A. J. Hipkina. 
 
 THE PEDAL ORGAN: Its History, Design and Construe- 
 tion. By T. Casson. With Folding Plate. Svo, sewed, 
 Is. net. 
 
 CATECHISM for the Harmonium and American Organ. By 
 John HiLsa. Post Svo, sewed. Is. 
 
20 OBCHESTBAL. 
 
 ORCHESTRAL. 
 
 MODERN ORCHESTRAL INSTRUMENTS: Their Origiiij 
 Construction and Use. Together with "Precursors of 
 the Violin Family." By K. Schlesingbk. Being a 
 Practical Illustrated Handbook for the Use of Amateurs 
 or Students. Illustrated with numerous full-page 
 PlateSj Outs, Tables, etc., together with Appendix and 
 Explanatory Index. 8yo, cloth, 10s. In the Press. 
 
 ^ON CONDUCTING. By Richard Wagner. Translated by 
 B. Dannbbuthek. Second Edition, cr. , 8vo, cloth, 5s. 
 A Treatise on Style in the Execution of Classibal Music, written by a 
 practical master of- the grand style. 
 
 J^OTES ON CONDUCTING AND CONDUCT,ORS. By T, R. 
 
 Croger, F.R.G:^S., F.Z.S., also the Org?inising and Con- 
 ducting of Amateur Oi,'chestras, with three full-page 
 Illustrations of the Various "Beats" and Plan of the 
 Orchestra. Third Edition, Revised and Enlarged. 
 Crown 8vOj cloth, 2s. (paper. Is.) 
 '' A mine of good thingB.''-~Mu$ical Opinion. ■ ^ ■ 
 " One of the best guides to conducting.'* — Music Trades Review. . 
 " A capital little book brightly written and full not only of entertaining 
 and raoily-told anecdotes, -but also of clear and sensibly-expressed opinions 
 on musical matters." — The Stage.^ ,i, 
 
 " The book appeals particularly to conductors of prorincial sooieties, 
 whether instrumental or choral; i\ is writtep in a pleasant styile, and is 
 full of practical Hints by one who, knows his subjeot, well. "^ifontAZy 
 UusicttV-Reeord. 
 
 " Many practical hints on the organising and conducting, of amateur 
 orchestras and choral societies." — Morning Post. 
 
 HOW TO PLAY FROM SCORE. Treatise on Accompani- 
 ment from Score on the Organ or Pianoforte. By F. 
 Fetis. Translated by A. Whittingham. With 40 pages 
 of Musical Examples. Crown 8vo, bevelled cloth, 3s. Od. 
 Contents: — Tntrofluction. 1. On: the Different Arrangements of Voices 
 and Instruments in Scores (Partitions). 2. On Vocal Parts; Instrumental 
 Parts, their Fixed Pitch and the Manner in which they are Written. 3. 
 Concerning the Manner in which- the Acoompanist. should Read a Score in 
 order to grasp its SubsiJance and its Details. ,'4. The Mechanism of Ac- 
 companiment. 5. Concerning the Influence of ' the Accompanist on the 
 Vocalist. 6. On Difference of Style. 7. On the Accompaniment of Early 
 Music without Orchestra, the Duets and Trios of Clari, Durante, Handel 
 and the Psalms of Marcello. 8. On the Reproduction of Ancient Orches- 
 tral Accompaniments. 9. On the Modern Style of Accompaniment. 10. Op 
 Mozart, Cherubini, Mehul, Spontini, Rossini and the Modern School. 11. 
 Conclusion. 
 
 This popnlar,and useful book might have been entitled "The Art of 
 Making Arrangements for- the Organ or Pianoforte from Full Orchestral 
 and other Scores." It contains all that is necessary to know upon this 
 subject. 
 
PIANOFOBTE. 21 
 
 PIANOFORTE. 
 
 REEVES' VAMPING TUTOR. Art of Ex;)»mporaneoBs Ac- 
 companiment, or Playing by Ear on .the Pismoforte, 
 Ptapidly Ena,bling anyone having an Ear for Mjisic (with 
 or without a,ny knowledge of Musical Nptation) to Ac- 
 company with Equal Facility in any Key. By FnANCis 
 Taylor. Folio, 2s. 
 
 PIANOFORTE TEACHER'S GUIDE. By L. Plaidt. Trans- 
 lated by Fanny Raymond Ritier. Crown 8vo, boards, 
 Is. 
 
 " Evidently written by a pianist who is a thorough master of hia instra- 
 ment as well as a good tcaoher." — Educational Times. 
 
 " Some of the finest pianists of the day owe much of their teohnioat 
 facility to Plaidy's exoellent method." — Bazaar. 
 
 " The best possible advice of a veteran ; no teacher can read it without 
 benefit. Affixed is a Hot of stadies in order of difficulty. This la especiaUy 
 valuable."— Sc/iooimas tar. 
 
 DELIVERY IN THE ART OF PIANOFORTE PLAYIN^G, On 
 
 Rhythm, Measure, Phrasing, Tempo. By C. A. EIhkbn- 
 
 FEOHTER. Crown 8vo, bevelled cloth, 2s. 
 " D^Ig with rhythm, measure, phrasing and tempo as applied to piano- 
 forte playing * * explains the difference between the gubjecthc and objec- 
 tive in delivery and expresses his opinion that a performance of the born 
 artist must of necessity be subjective, while the wavering, undecided, and 
 uninspired amateur will be safest in giving an altogether objective render- 
 ing. The section with reference to accent is particularly good. There are 
 numerous illustrations from the works of the masters." — W. H- Webbe m 
 The Pianiifs A. B. C. 
 
 PIANO TEACHING. Advice to Pupils and Young Teachers. 
 
 By F. Lb Cottppby (Prof, in the Conservatory of Music, 
 
 Paris, etc.) Translated from the Third Frmich Edition 
 
 by M. A. BiEBSiADT. Post 8vo, cloth, 2s. 
 
 " Well worthy of perusal both by young teachers and popils. The book 
 
 contains sound advice, particularly applicable to the study of Pianoforte 
 
 playing."— W. H. Webbe in TKe Pidnr»t'» A. B. C. 
 
 THE DEPPE FINGER EXERCISES for Rapidly Developing 
 an Artistic Touch in Pianoforte Playing, carefully Ar- 
 ranged, Classified and Explained by Amy Fay (Pupil 
 of ,Tau?ig, KuUak, Liszt and Deppe). Folio, English 
 Fingering, Is. 6d. (Continental Fingering, Is. 6d.) p 
 The Musical Times says : — We are asked by a well-known pianist to say 
 that Herr Emil Sauer was trained up to his seventeenth year on the Deppe 
 system and that he owes his wonderful technique almost solely to that 
 method * * * Our oorrespondent adds that Herr Sauer speaks aa entbusias 
 tioally of the Deppe method aa did Miaa Amy Fay\ 
 
22 PIANOrOBT^. 
 
 TECHNICAL STUDY IN THE ART OF PIANOFORTE 
 PLAYING (Deppe's Principles), By C. A, Ehren- 
 PBCHTER. With numerous Illudtrations. Fourth Edi- 
 tion. Crown 8v0.j bevelled cloth, 2s. 6d. 
 
 Coi?TENTS :— Position — Arm— Wrist — Fingfere ; Touch (Tone Production) ; 
 Legato ; Equality of Tone ; Tension and Contraction ; Five Fing-er Exer- 
 ciaea; Skips; The Scale; Arpeggio Chorda; Firm Chords; High Baising of 
 the Arm ; Melody and its Accompaniment ; Connection of Firm Chords ; 
 The Tremolo; The Shake (Trill) ; The Pedal; Fingering. 
 
 ■ A detailed and exhaustive exposition of Deppe's principles of the Piano- 
 forte technic in all its features, notably with regard to touch and pas.- 
 sage playing, showing the immense advantage to be gained by their appli- 
 cation, from the elementary to the higher stages of technical development. 
 
 A profeaaiona^l musician who studied after this method, writes in an issue 
 of the Musicol Standard as follows : — " I am sure many must have felt 
 with me that- the old system of teaching was useless for the production of 
 a technique fit to grapple with the appalling difficulties of much of .the 
 music of .the modern romantic school of composers. Let all whom are 
 ambitious to overcome such difficulties attack them pn the lines laid down 
 by C.'A. Ehrenfechter, and I am convinced they wiil find, as I have done, 
 their deairea realised in a moat astonishing manner." 
 
 THE ART OF TUNING THE PIANOFORTE, A New and 
 
 Conipre'hensive Treatise to Enable the Musician to Tune 
 his Pianoforte' upon-the System founded on tHe Theory 
 of Equal Temperament. By Hermann Smith. Crown 
 8vo, limp clothj New Edition, thoroughly Revised, 2s. 
 
 Readers Will welcoriie this note of approval signed by A. J. Hipkins, a 
 name long associated with the Pianoforte and familiar to most musicians 
 in the musical literature of the present time. No better voucher could be 
 desired of the fair claims of this little book upon the reader's attention and 
 confidence. " I have had the privilege of reading the proofs of Mr. Her- 
 mann Smith's clear and exhaustive treatise on Pianofortp Tuning,, and, I 
 am satisfied that for the professional tuner, or the amateur who desires to 
 understand the. <aubject and put the knowledge, he acquires into, practice, 
 there is no book upon it yet published that may be compared with it. I 
 recommend all tuners or would-be tuners to study this unpretending and 
 excellent work, wherein the theory is laid down in clear and correct terms, 
 and tl^e practice, as far as this is possible:; is indicated judiciously." 
 
 AN ESSAY on the Theory and Practice of Tuning in General, 
 g-nd on Schiebler's, Invention of , Tuning. Pianofortes 
 and Organs by the Metronome in Particular. Trans- 
 lated by A. WbhrhaK., Crown 8vo, sewed, Is. 
 
 PRACTICE REGISTER for Pupil's Daily Practice. A 
 SpeGimen, Id., or Is. per 100, 
 
TECHNICAL AN D THEOBETICAL, ' 23 
 
 TECHNICAL AND THEOEETICAL. 
 
 THE STUDENT'S HELMHOLTZ. Musical Acoustics or the 
 Phenomena of Sound as Connected with Music. By 
 John Broadhouse. With more than 100 Illustrations. 
 Fourth Edition. Crown 8vo, cloth, 7s. 6d. 
 
 " In his Preface the author says :— ' The object of the present book is to 
 give, in one volume, a good general view of the eubjeot to those who can 
 neither spare time to read, nor money to buy a number of largv and 
 expensive works.' A perusal of the book justifies us in asserting that this 
 design is most satisfactorily carried out ; and it is not too much to say 
 that although the plan of the work excludes the possibility of minutely 
 dissecting every subject treated upon, any careful reader may obtain bo 
 clear an insight into the principle of acoustics, as to enable him not only 
 to pass an examination but to store up a large amount of general know- 
 ledge upon the phenomena of sound." — Musical Times. 
 
 " The Student's Helmholtz will be very useful to many musicians, to 
 Whom much in Helmholtz's work must appear obscure. I shall recommend 
 the book whenever an opportunity offers itself." — Dr. Ritteb. 
 
 THE ART OF MODULATING. A Series of Papers on Modu- 
 lating at the Pianoforte. By Henry C. Banister. 
 With 62 Musical Examples. Crown 8vo/limp cloth, 2s. 
 
 Moreover in writing a composition thero is time tq thinks devise 'and 
 oontrive ; but that which is the subject of the above work is promptness, 
 readiness, and quick thought under special circumstances. 
 
 Not only at examinations — viva voce — but in actual exx}erience, is ability 
 required to pass rapidly with very little " process " from one key to 
 another. 
 
 " A great portion of the book is taken up with analyses of the modula- 
 tions employed by the great composers in their most significant works — 
 these arc always scholarly and ingenious and certainly show how by prac- 
 tice wedded to adequate knowledge it may be possible to pass rapidly with 
 very little of what the writer calls * process ' from one key to another." — 
 London Musical Courier. 
 
 THE ART OF MODULATION. A Hand-book Showing at a 
 Glance the Modulations from one Key to any Other in 
 the Octave, consisting : of 1,008 Modulations. For the 
 Use of Organists and Musical Directors. Edited by 
 Dauli Zoeller. Second Edition. Roy, Svo, cloth, 4s. 
 (paper, 2s. 6d.) 
 
 COMPLETE PRONOUNCING DICTIONARY OF MUSICAL 
 TERMS. By Bu. Dudley Buck. Sixth Edition, with 
 the Pronunciation of each Term accurately given. 
 Edited and Revised by A. Whittingham. Crown Svo, 
 cloth. Is. (paper, 6d.) 
 A most valuable and useful little book to all musioal people. The method 
 
 adopted for giving the correct pronunciation of each texm is most concise 
 
 and clear. 
 
24 TEGENIG AL AND THEOBETICAL. 
 
 ELEMENTARY MUSIC. A Book for Beginners. , T^j Dk. 
 WEaiBEOOK. With Questions and Voca,l Exerqiges. 
 Thirteenth Edition. Crown 8vo, cloth, Is. Gd. ({laper, 
 Is.) 
 
 Contents :— 1. The Staff and its Clefs. 2. Notes and tKeir Rests. 3. 
 Bars and Time. 4. Accidentals. 5. Keys and Scales. 6. Intervals. 7. 
 Musical Pitch. 8. Accent. 9. Secondary Signs. 10. OrnamcntB and' Groups 
 of Notes. 11. Voices and Scores. 12. Church Modes. ^3. Italian and other 
 Directiong. 14. i'oreign Note-Names, 15. Questions. 16. Vocal Exercises 
 
 "His explanations are extremely clear. The questions at the end will 
 be found very useful." — Musical Times. 
 
 " This little primer is one of the best of its kind, and forms an admir- 
 able course of preparation for' the local examinations in music * * * * it 
 ensures, as far as a book can, an intelligent and thorough grasp of the 
 elements of musical knowledge. The questions at the end of the book will 
 be found invaluable to teachers." — Journal of Trinity College, London. 
 
 HOW TO MEMORIZE MUSIC. By C. F. Kenyon. With 
 
 numerous Musical Examples. Crown Svo, cloth, 2s. 
 
 ' ipaper, Is.) 
 
 " Mr. Eenyon proves himself an excellent guide ; and indeed we know 
 of no other work devoted to the subject with which he has dealt so thor- 
 oiighly and so successfully." — Glasgow Herald. 
 
 ■ " l*oints out the paramount importance of being' able to play frQni 
 memory. Many useful hints are given on the course of study to be 
 adopted.'* — Morning Post. 
 
 "A most valuable little book "^ of eight chapters, containing valuable 
 informatioil on the art of memorising, with many illuBtr&tioTXB."— Western 
 Morning News. 
 
 "May do much good inducing young pianists to exert, their brains to: 
 gether with their fingers." — Torkshire Post. 
 
 HARMONY AND THE CLASSIFICATION OF CHORDS, 
 
 With Questions and Exercises. By Dr. J. H, Lewis. 
 Vol. 1, 8vo, boards, cloth bA^pk, 5s. 
 Ditto, Vol. 2. 8vOj boards, cloth, back, 5s. 
 
 COUNTERPOINT : A Simple and Intelligible Treatise. Con- 
 taining the most Important Rules of all Text Books, in 
 Catechetical Form ; (Forming an Answer to the Question 
 "What is Counterpoint?") Intended for Beginners. 
 By A. Livingstone Hirst. Crown 8vo, sewed, 9d. 
 
 MUSIC, A First Book for Beginners, Embodying the. most 
 Recent English and Continental Teaching. By Alfred 
 Whittingham. Crown Svo, sewed, 3d. 
 The two principal objects kept in view in writing this little book were 
 Thoroughness of Definition and Regular Order in the arrahgerment' of Sub- 
 jects. It- differs from all other similar works in that all the technical 
 terms in music are introduced in the Answers not in the Questions. 
 
TECHNICAL AND THEOBETIGAL. 25 
 
 THE HAHMONISING OF MELODIES. A Text-Book for 
 Students and Beginners. By H. C. Banister. Third 
 Edition, with numerous Musical Examines. Crown 8vo, 
 limp cloth, 2s. 
 Ohaftebs : — lntrQ(JuctQry. The Resourcea of Harmony : Harmonising with 
 ComQion Chords Only, General Principles ; Couplets of Common Chords ; 
 Plan, Uhythmioal Structure, Phrases, Cadences; Cadences in Connection 
 with Modulation, Melodies in the Minor 3Iode ; Continuity, Congmity with 
 Words; Illustrations of .Harmonising the same Melody in. Different Ways 
 with Changed Mode ; Florid Melodies, Unessential Notes, Different Forms 
 of Harmonising; Pianoforte Accompanimjent to a Melody; Arpeggio Ac- 
 companiment ; Accidentals and Chromatic Passing Notes, A Caution, 
 Summary, 
 
 MUSICAL SHORTHAND for Composers, Students of Har- 
 
 mojiy, Counterpoint, etc., can be Written very Rapidly 
 
 and IS more Legible than printed Music, with Specimens 
 
 from Bach, Handel, Chopin, Wagner, Mendelssohn, 
 
 Spohr, Mozart, etc. By Feancib Taylor, 14 pages, 
 
 12mo, sewed, 6d. 
 
 " Oomposers and Students of Music expend a vast amount of time in mere 
 
 painful mechanism." We have only six totally unlike signs. These from 
 
 their simplicity can be written with great rapidity, one dip of the pen 
 
 sufiioing ior an entire page, and the writing being as legible as possible. — 
 
 Pre/aee. 
 
 TRANSPOSITION AT SIGHT. For Students of the Organ 
 
 and Pianoforte., By H. Ernst Nichol. Third Edition, 
 
 with numerous Musical Exercises. Crown 8vo, cloth, 
 
 Is. 6d. (paper. Is.) 
 
 There is no need to dwell upon the usefulness or even the necessity of 
 
 transposition to the organist or the accompanist of songs. The practice of 
 
 transposing upon the lines here laid down developes the " mental ear." 
 
 quickens the musical perception and gives ease in sight-reading; as it is 
 
 evident that, if the student can transpose at sight, he will not have much 
 
 difficulty in merely playing at sight. The author has made free nse of the 
 
 tonic sol-fa as well as the, old notation in his many musical examples. 
 
 MUSICAL ANALYSIS. A Handbook for Students. By 
 H. C. Banister. With Musical Illustrations. Crown 
 8vo, limp cloth, 2s. 
 
 This series of Papers has not been intended as a Treatise on its bound- 
 less subject : only illustrative of the way in which students may go to 
 work in the interesting process of Analysis. To work at it is much more 
 interesting and improving than to read Analysis already made for them. 
 The student shojild look out for beauties, even of the simpler kind, as 
 well as endeavour to solve recondite problems. Try and enjoy the land- 
 scape and not merely map out the country. 
 
 " This neatly-got-up volume is indispensable to all students of music. It 
 is at once thorough and popular, scientific and interesting, and whilst most 
 instructive, it is charmingly luminous." — GetiUemun'i Journal. 
 
S6 TECHNICAL AND TREOBETICAL. 
 
 EXERCISES ON CENERAL ELEMENTARY MUSIC ' -A 
 [ Book for Beginners,,. ;By Ev Paige. Fourth Edition, 
 Part}!.., PricB' 9d. Part II., price Is. Crown 8vo, 
 sewed (2 parts complete in cloth, 2s.'4d.) 
 .Contents of -Part- I.— i..Titch. 2- hmgth of Sounds. 3.' Time. 4. T5me 
 and Aocent. 5. IntjBrTala.^/^ 6. Scales. 7. Transposition. 8. Syncopation. 9. 
 Signs and. AbbreTlattons. -10< Not&tion. 11. Miscellaneous Qaestiong - and 
 Exercises. ' , ■. , 
 
 _ -Contents of Part II.— 1. Triads. 2. First Inversion of a Triad. ' 3. Second 
 • InTcrsion of a Triad. 4. Dissonances. 5. Suspensions. 6. Sequenoea. 7. 
 Oadences. 8. Dominant SeTenthfl, etc., etc. 
 
 " We have much praise not oiily for the g-eneral arrang-ement' of the book, 
 but for the lucid manner in which the questions are put. The Chapters on 
 Time g-nd Accent are exceeding-ly good^ and th6re,-are some useful exercises 
 to aecudtom the' pripil 'to tra'n^position. We are especially pleased, too, 
 ^ith tlie method of writing-iilcomplete bars, and aakSng the pupil to supply 
 the missing- ;g^yt8 w.i+h rests ; -also of requiring notes to be changed into 
 tests and rests into notes." — Musical Times. 
 
VIOLIN. 27 
 
 VIOLIN. 
 
 THE HISTORY OF THE VIOLIN and other Instruments 
 Played on with the Bow from the Remotest Times to the 
 Present. Also an Account of the Principal M^^ke^B, 
 English and Foreign. AYith Coloured Frpnti^iece and 
 numerous Full-page Illustrations and Cuts. By William 
 Sandys, P.S.A., and Simon Andhbw Forster. 390 
 pages, 8vo, cloth, 7s. 6d. net (published at 14s.) 
 
 THE VIOLIN, Its History and Construction. Illustrated 
 and Described from all Sources. Together with a List 
 of Tyrolese and Italian Makers. With Twenty-nine Il- 
 lustrations and Folding Example of the First Music 
 Issued for the Lute, Viol and Voice. From the German. 
 By John Broadhousb. Crown 8vo, clotl^,: 2s. 
 
 '* The learned and instruotiTe treatise of Ahele, skilfully rendered .by 
 J. Broadhouse and supplemented by a version of Niedcrheitmann'a list of 
 Italian and Tyrolese violin makers, a compilation invaluable to collectors 
 and connoisseurs of rare fiddles * * * a work wlfioh forms ,a noteworthy 
 addition to the small number of English books upon this interesting 
 subject." — ScoUman. 
 
 The importance of this work has been long recognised on the Continent, 
 where it is eagerly sought for at a high prioe. The above is a full trans- 
 lation, special attention has been given to a proper rendering of technical 
 portions. 
 
 INFORMATION FOR PLAYERS, Owners, Dealer^ and 
 Makers of Bow Instruments, Also for String Manu- 
 facturers. Taken from Personal Experiences, Studies 
 and Observations. By William Hepworth. "With Il- 
 lustrations of Stainer and Guarnerius Violins and Guage 
 of Millimetres and Centimetres, etc. Crown 8vo, cloth, 
 2s. 6d. 
 CoNTSNTs ;— The Pegs— Neck— Fingerboard— Bridge — Tail-Piece — Saddle- 
 Violin Holder — Tail-pin — Bar — Sound Post — On the- Stringing of Bow In 
 strMments in General Use — Strings — Bosin — Cleaning of the Instrument and 
 the Bridge— ^Bow-^Violin Case — Repairs — Preservataon— ^ontjlusibOi 
 
 HOW TO MAKE A VIOLIN, Practically Treated. By J. 
 Broadhouse. Two large Folding-plates and many Dia- 
 grams, Figures, etc. Post Svo, bevelled cloth, 3s. 6d. 
 
 ' Contents : — Introduotiort — The Parts of the Violin— On the Selecti6n of 
 Wood— The Tools Kequired— The Models— The' llould— The Side-pieces and 
 Side Linings— The Back— Of the Belly— The ThiokneSs of the' Back and 
 Belly— The Bass Bar— The Purfling— The Neck^The Fihger-Board- The 
 Nut and String Guard— Varnish,ing and ^olishing-^^YamisheB and^olp^r- 
 ing Matter — The^ VarniBh — A Sfathematfcal ' Method of Oonsfructing the 
 Outline-^The Kemaining Aisces^ories of the Violin. 
 
VIOLIN. 
 
 TECHNICS OF VIOLIN PLAjYlNO. By Karl Cotjrvoisier. 
 
 With Illustrations,, , Tenth Edition. ,Clo(th,:.2aj ..6d. 
 
 . (paper, Is.) ,', , i 
 
 "It, is my opinion that this book will oiler material aid to all violin 
 players.-" — JMcBiu. ' 
 
 "Ah fAr as words, aided b^ diagrams, can make clear so prabtjcal'i 
 /subject as the playing of a musical instrument, this little book leaves 
 npthing to.be desired. -The author,- who was a pupjl of Joachim, has 
 treated the subject in a most thorough, manner, and we can highly recom- 
 mend his little book." — Educational Times. 
 
 " IllU8t,rfated in tlie clearest possibly, manner, »by really admirable 
 drawings. "^Grayjftic. ' ' ' '^ 
 
 " Courroisier, a pupil of Joachim, has aimed at presenting an exposition 
 of the methods' ot that great master, in which attempt he has, according 
 to , Herr Jpaohi^'s own explicit declaration, been very successful." — 
 Scotsman, 
 
 " A' inost thorough exposition of everything connfcted with this difficult 
 instrument."— Scftooifiiaster. 
 
 TREATISE ON THE STRUCTURE AND PRESERVATION 
 OF THE VIOLIN and all other Bow Instruments. To- 
 gether with an Account .of the' most Celebrated Makers 
 and of the Genuine Characteristics of their Instruments. 
 By J. .^. Qtto, wit^ A4ditions by, J. Bishop. With 
 Diagrams and Plates. .Pourth Edition, further En- 
 larged. Crovcn 8vo, cloth, 3s. 
 ■ Contains instructions for the repair, preservation and bringing out the 
 
 tone of in8t^;]pients; trusi^g model for;, v)olin,inwtes an(l gddle^lders ; 
 
 list of cl&sdcal works ib'r stringed iiistrumeiits. This work is espebially 
 
 valuable for makers of violins. 
 
 HQW TO PLAY The FIDDLiE.' For Beginners on the 
 Violin. By.H. W. and G. Ghesswell. Eigtth' Edition. 
 Crown 8vo, cloth, 2s. (paper, Js.) 
 Joachim says :— " Containd many useful hints about violin , playing." 
 Contents :— General and Introductory — On Teaching the ^iolin-=On In- 
 struction Books — On Praetioef— Relating Tto the Purohase.of a Violin— Im- 
 portance 'of Brfying a Good One — How to Set .about Securing a .good Violin 
 —The Merits of Old Fiddles, Age and Use-^The Testing or Making frial 
 of a Fiddle — ^Preservation and Repair of Violins-rGeneral and Historical- 
 Few Short Remarks of a General Character — Short History of Some Cele- 
 brated Violin; Ma/kcrs — The Sound Bar ah4 the Sound Post— The Bifidgipr- 
 A .Few Wprds^ on the Pegs, Mute, IJesin and Fingerboard— The Strings — 
 tee Mode of ' Sti-inging— The ' idw— Bowing-!-th'c Metbod of ' Tuning the 
 Violin — Some Rules to b6 Observed in Plftiying — Double Stopping — Har- 
 monijqs — RemarjES on tl^e Shift— ;^h^, Shake-^On Playing with an Apoom- 
 pf^nimest — Concluding Observations. . 
 
 " Wb oan ooidially recommend this clever little work to all wbo are 
 gtadjiDg Xh& yibhn/'-rGraphic. i 
 
 FACTS, ABOUT FIDPLES. Violins Old and New. By J 
 Broadhquse. Foufth Edition. Grown 8vo, sewed, Stf 
 
VIOLIN. 
 
 29 
 
 PRECURSORS OF THE VIOLIN FAMILY. By K. 
 
 ScHliBsiNGEK. Many illustrsttions. 8vo, cloth. In the 
 Press. 
 
 VIOLIN MANUFACTURE IN ITALY and its German Origin. 
 By Db, E, Schebbk. Translated by AV. E. Lawson. 
 Second Editi-on. Square 12mo, sewed, Is. 
 
 HOW TO REPAIR VIOLINS and otlier Musical Instmments. 
 By Alfred F. Common. With Diagrams. CrowTi 8vo, 
 boards, Is. 
 
 SKETCHES OF GREAT VIOLINISTS AND GREAT 
 PIANISTS. See "Biographical Section." 
 
 LIFE OF STRADIVARIUS. See "Biographical Section." 
 
 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY OF FIDDLERS. See "Bio- 
 graphical Section." 
 
 THE VIOLIN TIMES. Edited by E. Polonaski. With Por- 
 trait Supplements. Yearly Volumes. 4to, cloth, 68; 
 each. Annual subscription 2s. 6d. (Abroad 3s.) 
 
30 ■ VOCAL. 
 
 VOCAL. 
 
 OBSERVATIONS ON THE FLORID SONG. Or Sentiments 
 on the Ancient and Modern Singers. By P- F. Tosi. 
 Translated by Mr. Galliard. With folding Musieal 
 Examples. 184 pages. A Beprint of this Celebrated 
 Book, first published in 1743. Crown 8vo, boards witn 
 veUum-lilj:e back, price 5s. (pub. 10s). ., - ■ ,vi i- 
 
 Recommended to all Students of the Italian Method of Singing ^^ *"^ 
 late Obarles Lnnn. 
 
 " The readers of the Etude have frequently been treated to quotations 
 from this remarkable work. To the teacher and student of ^'°.?'?f ," ?/,' j 
 a peculiar meiejige'. It stands for all that is sound and anal in th* phil- 
 osophy of sing-ing and shows that the esthetics and morals of the, art are 
 changeless. Those who need a healthful mental stimulus should read this 
 reprint of a worjs that, represents the best, thought ^nd practice of , the 
 old Italian sing-ers and singing masters."— ^3^ftc Etude. 
 
 "It is a. practical treatise on singing in which tjie aged teacher em-;: 
 bodies his own experienpe and ttat of his contemporaries at a time when 
 the art was probably more thoroughly taught than it has ever been since. 
 Many of its remarks would still be hi§:hly useful."— Grose's Dictionary^ o] 
 Music and Musioifms. '■- ' ' !■ 
 
 I.es principes de I'ancicnnc et 'belle Soole du chant italien Bont exposes 
 dans cet ouTj-a^^ avco.p(!j.rt^ et sent aocompfign^s d'obseryations qui demon- 
 trent que Tosi fut un" grand maltre dans cet art. Galliard a donni une 
 traduction anglaise de ce liTre accompagne de notes, a laquelle^ Bumey 
 accorde des Eloges, et que Hawkins critique amiirement.— Fet/s, Biographie 
 des Musiciens. 
 
 " The treatise of Tosi is altogether practical and contains a great number 
 of particulars respecting the management of the voice, and the method of 
 singing with grace and eloquence. Moreover it contains short memoirs 
 and general characters of t^e-, most celebrated singers, male and female, 
 of the author's time. Tosi was not only a very Sne singer, etc." — Dic- 
 tionary of Muaicians, 1827i 
 
 CATECHISM OF PART SINGING. And the Choral Services. 
 By John Hiles. Third Edition. Thick post 8vo, 
 sewed, price Is. ■ 
 
 Advice to singers on every point of interest in reference to the vocal 
 organs. 
 
 RUDIMENTS OF VOCAL MUSIC. With 42 Preparatory 
 Exercises, Rounds and Songs in the Treble Clef. By 
 T. Mbb Pattison. Second Edition. .Post 8vo, sewed, 4d. 
 
 VOICE PRODUCTION AND VOWEL ENUNCIATION. By 
 
 F. F. Mbwburn Levibn. Diagrams by Arthur C. Beh- 
 EBND. Post Svo, sewed, 6d. 
 
 VOCAL EXERCISES FOR CHOIRS AND SCHOOLS. By Db. 
 
 Wbstbbook. Post Svo, sewed, 2d. 
 
VOCAL. 31 
 
 TWELVE LESSONS ON BREATHING AND BREATH CON- 
 TROL. For Singers, Speakers and Teachers. By Geo. 
 
 E. Thokp. Crown 8vo, limp cloth, Is;' 
 
 TWENTY LESSONS ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE 
 VOICE. For Singers, Speakers and Teachers. By 
 Geo. E. Thorp. Crown 8vo, limp cloth, Is. 
 
 Mr. Thorp's two books have from time to time been recommended by 
 various emiaent vocal specialists as giving practical aid and advice for 
 the training, care and development of the voice. They are free from any 
 biased " system " or " discovery." 
 
 TREATISE ON THE TRAINING OF BOY'S VOICES. With 
 Examples and Exercises and Chapters on Choir-Organ- 
 ization. Compiled for the Use of Choirmasters. By 
 Gboegb T. Fleming. Crown 8vo, cloth, 2s. 
 
 GRADUATED COURSE OF EXERCISES FOR BOY 
 CHORISTERS. With Pianoforte Accompaniment. 
 For Use in Conjunction with Above. By G. T. 
 Fleming. 4to, album, sewed, Is. 
 
 Ditto, Boy's Voice Part only, 6d. 
 
 60 MUSICAL HINTS TO CLERGYMEN. Management of 
 Breath, Classification of Male Voices, Management of 
 the Voice, The Service. With twenty specially written 
 Exercises. By Geo. F. Groveu. Crown Svo, sewed. Is. 
 
 SOME FAMOUS SONGS. An Art Historical Sketch. By 
 
 F. R. Riiter. Svo, sewed, Is. 
 
 HOW TO MANAGE A CHORAL SOCIETY. By N. Kilbukn, 
 Mus. Bac. Third Edition, Revised. Crown Svo, sewed, 
 6d. 
 
 HOW TO SING AN ENGLISH BALLAD. By E. Philp, 
 
 Seventh Edition. Crown Svo, sewed, 6d. 
 
 " It would be difficult to find a casket of brighter gems than those which 
 lie within the cover of this little work." — Illustrated London News. 
 
30 VOCAL. 
 
 VOCAL. 
 
 OBSERVATIONS ON THE FLORID SONG. Or Sentiments 
 
 on the Ancient and Modern SingerjS. By P. F. Tosi. 
 
 Translated by Mr. Galliabd. With folding Musical 
 
 Examples. 184 pages. A Reprint of this Celebrated 
 
 Book, first published in 1743. Crown 8va, boards with 
 
 vellum-lil^e back, price 5s. (pub. 10s). ., 
 
 Recommended to all Students of the Italian Method of Singing by the 
 late Charles Lnnn. 
 
 " The readers of the Etude have frequently been treated to quotations 
 from this remttrkable work. To the teacher and student of singing it has 
 a peculiar message'. It stands'for all that is sound and final in the phil- 
 osophy of singing and shovrs that the sesthetics and morals of the art are 
 ohaugeless. Those who need a healthful mental stimulus should read this 
 reprint of a work that represents the_ best, thought and practice of the 
 old Italian singers and singing masters."— Tfie Etude. 
 
 "It is a, praotioal .treatise on singing in wi^ich ;t^e; aged i teacher em- 
 bodies his own experienpe and t&at of his contemporaries at a time when 
 the art was probably more thoroughly taught than it has ever been since. 
 Many of its remarks would still be highly useful. "^Grove's Dictionary of 
 Music and Musioians. '' t^-' . , .» : ■ J M : 
 
 lies principea de ranoicnne' et 'lielle' €cole du chaiit italien Sont dxpoaSs 
 dans cet ouvrage avec.plart6 et sont aocomppign^s d'obserTationa qui d^gion- 
 trent que Tosi fut un g-rand maltre dans cet art. Galliard a donn€ une 
 traduction anglaise de ce livre accompagne de notes, a laquelle^ Burney 
 aocorde des Eloges, et que Hawkins critique amkrement. — Fetis, Biographic 
 dee Musiciens. 
 
 " The treatise of Tosi is altogether practical and contains a great number 
 of particulars respecting the management of the Toice, and the method of 
 singing with grace and eloquence. MoreoTer it contains short memoirs 
 and general characters of tlie^ most celebrated singers, male and female, 
 of the author's time. Tosi was not only a very fine singer, etc." — Di'c- 
 tionary o1 Mu»ici(ms, I827.f^ 
 
 CATECHISM OF PART SINGING; And the Choral Services. 
 
 By John Hiles. Third Edition. Thick post 8vo, 
 
 sewed, price Is. 
 Advice to singers on every point of interest in reference to the vocal 
 organs. 
 
 RUDIMENTS OF VOCAL MUSIC. With 42 Preparatory 
 Exercises, Rounds' and Songs in the Treble Clef. By 
 T. Mbb Pattison. Second Edition. .Post 8vo, sewed, 4d. 
 
 VOICE PRODUCTION AND VOWEL ENUNCIATION. By 
 
 F. F. Mewburn Levibn. Diagrams by Arthur C. Bbh- 
 REND. Post 8vo, sewed, 6d. 
 
 VOCAL EXERCISES FOR CHOIRS AND SCHOOLS. By Dr. 
 
 Westbbook. Post 8vo, sewed, 2d. 
 
VOCAL. 31 
 
 TWELVE LESSONS ON BREATHING AND BREATH CON- 
 TROL. For Singers, Speakers and Teachers. By Geo. 
 
 E. Thorp. Crown 8vo, limp cloth, Is;' 
 
 TWENTY LESSONS ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE 
 VOICE. For Singers, Speakers and Teachers. By 
 Geo. E. Thorp. Crown 8vo, limp cloth, Is. 
 Mr. Thorp's two books have from time to time been recommended by 
 
 various eminent vocal specialists as giving* practical aid and advice for 
 
 the training, care and development of the voice. They are free from any 
 
 biased "system" or "discovery." 
 
 TREATISE ON THE TRAINING OF BOY'S VOICES. With 
 Examples and Exercises and Chapters on Choir-Organ- 
 ization. Compiled for the Use of Choirmasters. By 
 George T. Fleming. Crown 8vo, cloth, 2s. 
 
 GRADUATED COURSE OF EXERCISES FOR BOY 
 CHORISTERS. With Pianoforte Accompaniment. 
 For Use in Conjunction with Above. By G. T. 
 Fleming. 4to, album, sewed, Is. 
 
 — Ditto, Boy's Voice Part only, 6d. 
 
 50 MUSICAL HINTS TO CLERGYMEN. Management of 
 Breath, Classification of Male Voices, Management of 
 the Voice, The Service. With twenty specially written 
 Exercises. By Geo. F. Groveii. Crown 8vo, sewed. Is. 
 
 SOME FAMOUS SONGS. An Art Historical Sketch. By 
 
 F. R. Ritter. 8vo, sewed, Is. 
 
 HOW TO MANAGE A CHORAL SOCIETY. By N. Kilburn, 
 Mus. Bac. Third Edition, Revised. Crown 8vo, sewed, 
 6d. 
 
 HOW TO SING AN ENGLISH BALLAD. By E. Philp, 
 
 Seventh Edition. Ciown 8vo, sewed, 6d. 
 
 •' It would be difficult to find a cnakrt of brighter gems than those which 
 lie within the cover of this little work." — Illustrated London News. 
 
32 POBTBAIT GALLERIES. 
 
 POETEMT GALLEKIES. 
 
 SIXTY YEARS OF MUSIC. A Record of the Art in England 
 during the Victorian Era. Containing 70 Portraits of 
 the most Eminent Musicians. Oblong quarto, boards, 
 cloth back, 2s. 6d. 
 
 The Album is as complete a record of Victorian Music as is possible 
 within the limits of such a publication, it has been our endeavour to make 
 it Interesting to the general public as well as to the professional musician. 
 With that end in view we have included portraits of the greatest foreign 
 composers and executants, such as Chopin, Berlioz, Mendelssohn, lirahms, 
 WagnCr, Gounod, Tchaikovsky, Grieg, Liszt, Rubinstein, Paderewski, Jean 
 de Eeszke, ^lario and others, as well as of the great English composers and 
 musical educationalists. 
 
 NATIONAL PORTRAIT GALLERY OF BRITISH MUSI- 
 CIANS. By John Warbinbb, Mus.D. Trinity College, 
 Dublin. Introduction by Joseph Bennett. Over 500 
 Photo Portraits of well-known and eminent living Musi- 
 cians of Great Britain and Ireland, with short Bio- 
 graphical notice of each. The whole bound in one 
 handsome oblong folio volume, cloth lettered. Offered 
 for 7s. 6d. net, post free (or 8s. post free abroad), (pub- 
 lished 14s. net).