1115 C55 ^S/4 6i- ^ ; 110 Co"'o CORNELL UNIVERSITY LIBRARY Cornell University Library BL 1115.C55 Vedic Hinduism and the Arva Samai ;an ai 3 1924 023 165 602 Cornell University Library The original of this book is in the Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924023165602 Grea t Indian Questions of the Bay. JS'o. J. VEDIC HINDUISM ANB THE ARYA SAMAJ. AN APPEAL TO EDUCATED HINDUS. 5atyam Jayati. Truth Conquers. Htt/i'iki-ii Pntrr)bt •What is not TRUE is not PATRIOTIC." ^ir Madhavn Row , " From the unreal lead me to the real. From darkness lead me to lig^ht, From death lead me to immortality." Brihad Aranya Vpamshari. "O Father, touch the Ea«t, with light, The light that shone when Hope was born." Temiyson. FIRST EDITION, 2,000 COPIES. THE CHRISTIAN LITEHATCRE SOCIETY FOR INDIA LONDON AND MADRAS, 19~0 2. :SiL ;/^5'*' - t^ PKEFATORY NOTE. The ol)jo(t oi' the following pagefs is to give educated Hindus a clear idea of tiio Vedas, tlie most ancient and sacred books of their rehgion. TJiore are explanatory remarks from some of the best oriental scholars, and twenty-nine of the' most important hymns are translated in whole or in part. It will be found, on careful examination, that while the hymns contain some noble sentiments, their religious ideas are not suited to the present day. There is, however, a section of Hindus in North India who seek to make the Vedas the basis of a National Religion. The movement originated with the late Dayanand Saraswati. He was a man of considerable ability, but had not received an English education. He rejected the Puranas and advocated several reforms. He claimed that the Vedas are eternal ; that their teaching is monotheistic, and that they contain the germs of some great modern inventions. His followers are called Arya Samajists. Some remarks are made about his system. .1. MrRDOCH. Madras, April -dOth, 1902. ^ /o3 ■ CONTENTS. Page VEDIC HINDUISM ... .. i INTEODUCTION ... ... ... ... l GENERAL VIEW OE THE YEDAS ... 4 The Eig-Veda, 4 : Yajnr Veda, ■> ; Sama Veda, 6 ; Atharva- Veda, 7 ; Metres and Language, 7 ; When composed, 10 ; Handed down by Tradition 11. Social Life in Vedic Times ... 18 THE GODS OF THE VEDAS ... ... ... 20 Dyans and Prithivi, 21 ; Varuna, 22 ; Indra, 28 ; Agni, 25 ; Solar Deities, 27 ; Mitra, 28 ; Surya, 28 ; Savitri, 28 ; Vishnu, 29; Pushan, 29; Ushas, 30; Soma, 30; Eudra, 31 ; Yama, 31 ; Gods lesS frequently mentioned, 31 ; Gods not mentioned in the Vedas, 32. THE OFEEEINGS AND SACEIFICES OF THE VEDAS ... ... ... ... 32 Soma, 35 ; x^nimal Sacrifices, 36 ; Human Sacrifices, 37 ; Eeaction against Sacrifices, 38. SELECT HYMNS FROM THE VEDAS ... 40 FEOM THE EIG-VEDA ... ... 40 To Agni, 40 ; Indra, 44 ; Varuna, 48 ; Soma, 51 ; Va5'u, 52 ; Pushan, 53 ; Ushas, 53 ; Vishnu, 54 ; Eudra, 54 ; Visvedevas, 55 ; Goddesses, 55 ; Yama, 55 ; Widow Marriage, 56 ; Origin of the Gods, 57 ; Creation, 58 ; Purusha, 58. Sama Veda .. ... ... ... ... 60 Atharva-Veda ... ... ... 61 REVIEW... ... ... ... ... 62 THE GODS OF THE VEDAS ... 02 The Eeligion of the Vedas Polytheistic, 62 ; Character of the Vedic Gods, 67 ; The Eelation of the Worshippers to the Gods, 68 ; The Blessings asked, 69, The Supposed Wisdom of the Ancients 70 IV Page Admitted Excellencies OF THE Vedas ... ... 71 EEASONS WHY THE VEDAS CANNOT BE AC- CEPTED AS A DIVINE EEVELATION 73 Estimates of the Vedas ... ... ... 78 A EETUEN TO VEDIC HINDUISM IMPOSSIBLE ... 79 A National Eeligion ... ... ,^ ,;.... ... 80 The Eeligion which India Needs ... ,81 The Claims of Christianity to Attention... ... 82 Some of the Doctrines and Duties op Christianity... 83 THE AEYA SAMAJ ... ... 86 Examination of Dayanand Sabaswati's Opinions ... 88 Features in Dayanand Saraswati's Cbaracter not to be imitated ... ...- ... 92 Eemarks on the Arya Sama.i ... ... ... 92 APPENDIX, List of Publications ... ... ... 94 VEDIC HINDUISM. INTKODUCTION. India the "Land of the Veda."— The Vedas occupy such a prominent place in India, that the country has been designated the " Land of the Veda." Frazer thus shows the estimation in which the Vedas were held, and the care taken to preserve their being known to any except the twice-born castes : " To all orthodox Hindus they are held as having beea breathed forth as a divine revelation from before all time. The reducing of them to writing, and even the hearing of their recitation by foreigners, or by any but the twice-born castes, is still looked upon as sacrilege and profanation by those who claim the sole right to hear their sacred sound. " Gautama, the first of a long line of priestly legislators who strove to reduce all the laws and customs of the people of India to ideals founded on priestly ordinances, declared* that a Sudra, or one of non-Aryan blood, who dared to listen to the recitation of the Vedic Hymns, should have his ears filled with molten lead or lac ; should the Sudra repeat the words he had heard, his tongue should be cut out ; should he remember the sound, his body should be split in twain."! The Hymns of the Vedas are deeply interesting as containing some of the earliest recorded religious aspirations of our race. Hindus should seek to gain a clear knowledge of the foundation of their religion. Meaning of Term.— Veda is from the Sianskrit vid, 'know,' kindred with the Latin vid, and the English to wit. In its general sense it is sometimes applied by the Brahmans to the whole body of their most ancient sacred literature. More strictly, it denotes four collections of hymns^ which are respectively known by the names of Eig-Veda, Yajur-Veda, Sama-Veda, and Atharva-Veda. They are supposed to contain the science, as teaching that knowledge which, of all others, is best worth acquiring. " The general form of the Vedas is that of lyric poetry. They contain the songs in which the first ancestors of the Hindu people, at the very dawn of their existence as a separate nation, while they were still only on the threshold of the great country which they were afterwards to fill with their civilization, praised the gods, extolled heroic deeds, and sung of other matters which kindled their poetical fervour." \ * Gautama, Chap. xii. 4—6. f Literary History of India, p. ,3. ♦ Whitney's Oriental and Linguistic Studies, Vol. I., p. 5, 2 VEDIC HINDUISM. The Vedas the highest Hindu Authorities—The Hindu sacred books are divided into two great classes, called Sriiti and t^mrifi. Srnti, which means hearing, denotes direct revelation ; Sinriti, recollection, includes the gq,ared books which, are admitted to have been composed by human authors. ' ^ _ . Professor Max Miiller thus shows the estimation m which the Vedas are held : " According to the orthodox views of Indian theologians, not a single line of the Veda was the work of human authors. The whole Veda is in some way or other the work of the Deity, and even those who received the revelation, or, as they express it, those who saw it, were not supposed to be ordinary mortals, but beings raised above the level of common humanity, and less liable therefore to error in the reception of revealed truth. . . . The human element, called Paurusheyatva in Sanskrit, is drawn out of every corner or hiding-place, and as the Veda is held to have existed in the mind of the Deity before the beginning of time, every allii- sion to historical events, of which there are not a few, is explained away with a zeal and ingenuity worthy of a better cause." " The laws of Manu, according to the Brahmanic theology, are not revelation ; they are not Sr-uti, but only Smriti. If these laws or any other work of authority can be proved on any point to be at variance with a single passage of the Veda, their authority is at once overruled."* The inspiration of the Veda, says Monier Williams, is regarded as so self-convincing, " as to require no proof, and to be entirely beyond the province of reason or argument." Hindu Ignorance of the Vedas.— Although the Vedas are held in the highest estimation by the Hindus, their real character is almost entirely unknown to them. Very fe-*^^ copies of them existed until they were printed in Europe. The later books were studied by the learned in India instead of the Vedas themselves. ' ' When Rammohun Eoy was in London, ' ' says Max Miiller, " he saw at the British Museum a young G-erman scholar, Friedrich Rosen, busily engaged in copying MSS. of the Rig-Veda. The Rajah was surprised, but he told Rosen that he ought not to waste his time on the Hymns, but that he should study the text of the Upanishads."! Publication of the Vedas.— For a long time it was very diffi- cult for European scholars to gain a knowledge of the Vedas. " All other Sanskrit MSS. were freely communicated to Englishmen resident in India, but not the MSS, of the Veda. And even in cases where such MSS. had fallen into their hands, the Pandits declined to translate them for them. Colebrooke alone seems to have overcome all these difi&culties, and his Essays ' On the Vedas or the Sacred Writings of the Hindus,' though published in ISOs', are still extremely valuable." • Chips from a German Wwlcslio'p, Vol, I. t Max Miiller, Biogra2iMcal Essays, p. 39. INTRODUCTION^, '6 Rosen published a specimen of the Hymns of the Eig-Veda in 1830. He died soon after, and only the first book of ^ the Eig- Veda, translated into Latin, was finished by him, and published after his death in 1888. In 1845 Max Miiller was in Paris, copying the text of the Eig-Veda, with the commentary of Sayana Acharya. Sayana was brother of Madhavacharya, the prime minister of the Eaja of Vijayanagara, in the 14th century. His commentary was, no doubt, prepared with the assistance of the most learned Brahmans of the time. Max Miiller was authorised by the East India Com- pany to bring out an edition of both at its expense. The first volume appeared in 1849. The editing occupied about '2(J years. The price of the 6 quarto volumes is ^15. 'A new edition, in 4 volumes, at the expense of the Maharaja of Vizianagram, was published a few years ago. The price is '2 guineas per volume. The text of the Eig-Veda, in Roman character, was printed in Berlin in 1861. An English translation of the Eig-Veda, based on the com- mentary of Sayana, was prepared by the late Professor Wilson. Part of it was published after his death. It is expensive, the price of the 6 volumes being ii6-19s. There is a new English translation by Mr. E. T. H. Griffith, formerly Principal of the Sanskrit College, Benares. A popular - commentary is also given, explaining, as far as possible, difficult passages. The opinions of Sayana, Max Miiller, Muir, and other oriental scholars are quoted, where they throw light on the sub- ject, in addition to valuable original notes. The translator has had the advantage of the labours of his predecessors' and of a long residence at Benares in close connection with some of the best Pandits in India. He is also a poet, and has sought, as far as possible, to imitate the rhythm of, the original. Second Edition in two volumes, Es. 14 ; postage 12 As. All students who can afford it should possess copies of this recent and accurate translation of the Vedas. It should be accessible in all Public and Mission Libraries in India. A translation by Max Miiller, entitled Vedic Hymns, is in course of publication in The Sacred Books of the East. Some of the Hymns have been translated by Professor Peterson of Bombay. Bengali translations of the Eig-Veda have been published. Before his death Dayanand Saraswati had completed a translation into Hindi of one-half of the Vedas. 4 VEDIC HINDUISM. GENERAL VIEW OF THE VEDAS. This in given below before entering into details. The Kig-Veda. Rig- Veda. — The name means the Veda of hymns of praise. Rich, which before the initial soft letter of Veda, is changed into Big, is derived from a root which in Sanskrit means to celebrate. When standing by itself, rich becomes rik. The hymns are called Mantras or Suktas (praises). The entire number form the Sanhita (or Hainhita) collection. They are arranged in two methods. One divides them amongst eight Khandas (portions), or Astakas (eighths), each of which is again subdivided into eight Adhyayas, lectures. The other plan classes the Suktas under ten Mandalas, circles, subdivided into rather more than a hundred Anuvakas, or sub-sections. A further sub- division of the Suktas into Vargas, or paragraphs of about five stanzas each, is common to both classifications.* At an early period systematic indexes to various portions of Vedic literature were prepared. They are known as Anukramanis, from ann, along, and kram, to step. The most perfect is that of Katya'yana on the Itig-Veda. It gives the first words of each hymn, the number of verses, the names and family of the poets, the names of the deities, and the metres of every verse. As early as about 600 h.c. every verse, every word, every syllable had been carefully counted. The number of verses varies frouj 10,402 to 10,(j'22 ; that of the 2Jadas or words, is 153,826 ; that of the syllables, 482,000. The ten books form separate collections, each belonging to one of the ancient families of India. The first seven books resemble each other in character and arrangement. They begin with hymns addressed to Agni, and these hymns, with the excep- tion of the tenth Mandala, are invariably followed by hymns addressed to Indra. After the hymns addressed to these two deities, we generally meet with hymns addressed to the Visva Uevas, or ' all the gods.' This shows that the Mandalas do not represent collections made independently by different families • but collections carried out simultaneously in different localities' under the supervision of one central authority. The eighth Mandala contains 92 hymns, assigned to a great number of different authors ; hymns of the same author do not always stand together, and of any internal arrangement according Pi-o£cbBor Wilsou's Inlioductiori, p. xiv. GENERAL VIEW OF THE VEDAS. 5 to divinities there is no trace. The ninth Mandala contains 114 hymns addressed to the Soma, the intoxicating drink prepared from the Soma plant. The tenth Mandala wears the appearance of being a later appendage to the collection. The first half is arranged upon no apparent system ; the second commences with the longer hymns and diminishes their length regularly to the close. Many of the hymns do not diifer from the mass of those found in the earlier books, but others are evidently of a later date and conceived in another spirit. The Kig-Veda is an historical collection intended to preserve from further corruption those ancient songs which the Aryans had brought with them, as their most precious possession from the earliest seats of the race. In the eyes of historical students the Rig-Veda is the Veda par excellence. The other Vedas contain chiefly extracts from the Rig- Veda, together with sacrificial formulas, charms, and incantations. The Rig- Veda contains all that had been saved of the ancient, sacred, and popular poetry, a collection made for its own sake, and not for the sake of any sacrificial performances. The priests who specially recited the verses of the Rig-Veda were called Hotris. Yajuk-Veda. The name comes from Yaj, sacrifice. It contains the for- mulas and verses to be muttered by the priests and their assist- ants who had chiefly to prepare the sacrificial ground, to dress the altar, slay the victims, and pour out the libations. The first sentences in one of the two divisions were to be uttered by the priest as he cut from a particular tree a switch with which to drive away the calves from the cows whose milk was to furnish the material of the offering. Composed at a later period than the Rig- Veda, the Aryans had gone more to the eastward : the Indus is no longer men- tioned. The country of the Kurus, in the middle of Northern India, called Kurukshetra, is specifically the holy land of the Yajur Veda. There are two principal texts of the Yajur-Veda, called respectively the White and the Black, or the Vajasaneyi and Taittiriya Sanhitas. The Vishnu Purana gives the following explanation of their names : Vaisampayaha, a pupil of the great Vyasa, was the original teacher of the Black Yajur-Veda. Yajnavalkya, one of his disciples, having displeased him, was called upon by his master to part with the knowledge which he had acquired from him. He forthwith vomited the Yajur-Veda. The other disciples of Vaisampayana. assuming tJie form of partridges (tittiri), picked up from the ground its several dirtied texts. From this circumstance it received the name of Taittiriya 6 - . VEDIC HINDUISM. Krishna Yajur-Veda. A mote rational explanation is that Vaisampayana taught it to Yaska, who taught it to Tittm, who also became a teacher. Yajnavalkya afterwards, by the performance of severe penances, induced the Sun to impart to him those Yajur texts which his master had not possessed. The Sun then assumed the form of a horse (Vajin), and communicated to him the desired texts. Hence the Sanhita was called Vajas^aneyi, and also White (or bright> because it was revealed by the Sun. Another explanation of the names is that the Vajasaneyins called their collection the White on account of its clear arrange- ment, while they applied the term Black, for the opposite reason, to the texts of the older school. The Black and White Yajus differ in their arrangement. In the former the sacrificial formulas are for the most part immedi- ately followed by their explanation ; in the latter they are entirely separated from one another. A large portion of the materials of the Yajur-Veda is derived from- the Eig-Veda, to about the half of which it is equal in both forms united. But it contains prose passages which are new. As the manual of the priesthood, it became the great subject of study, and it has a great number of different Sukhas or Schools. The priests who used it were called Adhwaryus, offerers. The text of both divisions has been printed either in India or in the West. The Texts of the White Yajur Veda have been translated, with a popular commentary, by Mr. E. T. H. Griffith, published by Messrs. Lazarus and Co., Benares. Price Es. 3f. Sama-Veda. This is wholly metrical. It contains 1-547 verses, only 78 of which have not been traced to the Eig-Veda. It consists of verses meant to be chanted at the ceremonies of the soma sacrifices. Eemoved from the Eig-Veda, they are strung together without internal connection, their significance depending solely on their relation to particular rites. The verses differ from those in the Eig-Veda only in the way of marking the accent. The Sama- Veda is the book of words employed by the Udgatri priests at the soma sacrifice. The verses assume their proper character of musical sdmans or chants, only in the various song books, called ganas, which indicate the prolongation, the repetition, and other modifications prescribed. The priests who recited the Sama-Veda were called IJdgatris, Chanters. The Sama-Veda is divided into two books. The verses of the first twelve decades are addressed to Agni, those of the last eleven to Soma, while those of the intermediate thirty-six are chiefly invocations of Indra, the great son:(a-drinker. GENEEAL VIEW OF THE VEDAS. The text has been printed, and there is an Enghsh tran by Mr. R. T. H. Griffith, published by Lazarus & Co., b] Price lis. 4 cloth ; Rs. 3^ paper cover. Athaeva-Veda. This Veda is of later origin than the others. It attained its position as the fourth Veda only after a long struggle. Manu speaks of only the Three Vedas. So far as subject matter is concerned, there may be said to be only two Vedas— the Eig and the Atharva-Veda. The other two consist almost entirely of selections from the Eig- Veda, differently arranged for sacrificial purposes. This Veda derives its name from a priest named Atharva, who is spoken of in the Eig- Veda as the first priest ' who rubbed Agni forth', or produced fire by attrition. Its form is similar to the Eig-Veda, consisting for the most part of metrical hymns, many of which are taken from the last book of the older collection. In spirit, however, it is not only entirely different from the Eig- Veda, but represents a much more primitive stage of thought. While the Eig-Veda deals almost exclusively with the higher gods as conceived by a comparatively advanced and refined sacerdotal class; the Atharva-Veda is, in the main, a book of spells and incantations, appealing to the demon world, and teems with notions about witchcraft current among the lower grade of the population, and derived from an immemorial antiquity. Taken as a whole, it is a heterogenous collection of spells. Its most salient teaching is sorcery, for it is mainly directed against hostile agencies, such as diseases, noxious animals, demons, wizards, foes, oppressors of Brahmans. But it also contains many spells of an auspicious character, such as charms to secure harmony in family and village life, reconciliation of enemies, long life, health and prosperity, besides prayers for protection in journeys, and for luck in gambling. Thus it has a double aspect, being meant to appease and bless as well as to curse.* The text has been printed, and there is an English transla- tion by Mr. E. T. H. Griffith published by Lazarus and Co., Benares. In 2 Vols, each Es. 6 cloth ; Es. 5| paper covers. Metees and Language of the Vedas. Metres.— Great importance is attached to the Metres used. They were supposed to have a magical influence, depending upon their length. Dr. Haug says : " The Gdyatri metre, which consists of three times eight syllables, is the most sacred, and is the proper metre for Agni, the god of fire, and Maodonell's Sanskrit Liierat'ure, pp. 30) 185, ^' VEDIC HINDUISM. chaplain of the gods. It expresses the idea of Brahma: therefore the sacrifieer must use it when he wishes anything closely connected with Brahma, such as acquirement of sacred knowledge, and the thorough understanding of all problems of theology. The Trishtubh, which consists of four times eleven syllables, expi-esses the idea of strength and royal power ; thence it is the proper metre by which Indra, the king of the gods, is to be invoked. Any one wishing to obtain strength and royal power, principally a Kshattriya, must use it. A variety of it, the Ushnih metre of 28 syllables, is to be employed by a sacrifieer who aspires for longevity, for 28 is the symbol of life. The Jagati, a metre of 48 syllables, expresses the idea of cattle. Any one who wishes for wealth in cattle, must use it. The same idea (or that of the sacrifice) is expressed by the Pankti metre (five times eight syllables). The Brihati, which consists of 36 syllables, is to be vised when a sacrifieer is aspiring to fame and renown ; for this metre is the exponent of those ideas. The Anushtubh metre, of 32 syllables, is the symbol of the celestial world ; thence a candidate for a place in heaven has to use it. The Viraj of 30 syllables, is food and satisfaction ; thence one who wishes for plenty of food, must employ it." " The metres," says Max Miiller, " were originally connected with dancing and music. The names for metre in general confirm this, Chh^ndas, metre, denotes stepping ; vritta, metre from vrit, to turn, meant originally the last three or four steps of a dancing movement, to turn, the verms which determined the whole character of a dance and of a metre. THshtubh, the name of a common metre in the Veda, meant three steps, because its turn, its vritta, or versus, consisted of three steps, one short and two long. " The laws regulating the succession of long and short syllables within the limits of the hemistich are in general any- thing but strict ; all that is aimed at seems to be to give the whole a kind of rhythmical flow, or general metrical movement, on which the four last syllables shall stamp the peculiar character ; their quantity is much more definitely established, yet even among them exceptional irregularities are by no means rare." Metres. The Gdyatri. — This is a common metre. Nearly one-fourth of all the stanzas in the Rig- Veda are composed in it. It is so called because the Gayatii, the most sacred text in the Vedas, is composed in it. It contains three times eight syllables. The first hymn is in this metre. The following is the first verse ; Agnim ile pur6hitam Yajnisya devim ritvljam H6taram ratnadhd. tamam. GENERAL VIEW OF THE VEDAS. 7 The text has been printed, and there is an EngHsh translation by Mr. E. T. H. Griffith, published by Lazarus & Co., Benares. Price Rs. 4 cloth ; Rs. 8| paper cover. Athabva-Veda. This Veda is of later origin than the others. It attained its position as the fourth Veda, only after a long struggle. Manu speaks of only the Thj:;ee Vedas. So far as subject matter is concerned, there may be said to be only two Vedas — the Eig and the Atharva- Veda. The other two consist almost entirely of selections from the Eig- Veda, differently arranged for sacrificial purposes. This Veda derives its name from a priest named Atharva, who is spoken of in the Rig-Veda as the first priest ' who rubbed Agni forth', or produced fire by attrition. Its form is similar to the Eig- Veda, consisting for the most part of metrical hymns, many of which are taken from the last book of the older collection. In spirit, however, it is not only entirely different from the Eig- Veda, but represents a much more primitive stage of thought. While the Eig-Veda deals almost Qxclusively with the higher gods as conceived by a comparatively advanced and refined sacerdotal class ; the Atharva-Veda is, in the main,, a book of spells and incantations, appealing to the demon world, and teems with notions about witchcraft current among the lower grade of the population, and derived from an immemorial antiquity. Taken as a whole, it is a heterogenous collection of spells. Its most salient teaching is sorcery, for it is mainly directed against hostile agencies, such as diseases, noxious animals, demons, wizards, foes, oppressors of Brahmans. But it also contains many spells of an 'auspicious character, such as charms to secure harmony in family and village life, reconciliation of enemies, long life, health and prosperity, besides prayers for protection in journeys, and for luck in gambling. Thus it. has a double aspect, being meant to appease and bless as well as to curse.* The text has been printed, and there is an English transla- tion by Mr. E. T. H. Griffith published by Lazarus and Co., Benares. In 2 Vols, each Es. 6 cloth ; Es. 5| paper covers. Metres and Language of the Vedas. Metres. — Great importance is attached to the Metres used. They were supposed to have a magical influence, depending upon their length. Dr. Haug: says : " The GAyatri metre, which consists of three times eight syllables, is the most sacred, and is the proper metre for Agni, the god of fire, and ♦ Maodonell's Sanskrit Literaki/re, pp. 30) -185. '■ B' VEDIC HINDUISM. chaplain of the godSj It expresses the idea of Brahma : therefore the sacrificer must use it when he wishes anything closely connected with Brahma, such as acquirement of sacred knowledge, and the thorough understanding of all problems of theology. The Trishtubh, which consists of four times eleven syllables, expresses the idea of strength and royal power ; thence it is the proper metre by which Indra, the king of the gods, is to be invoked. Any one wishitig to obtain strength and royal power, principally a Kshattriya, ipiist use it. A variety of it, the Ushnih metre of 28 syllables, is to be employed by a sacrificer who aspires for longevity, for 28 is the symbol of life. The Jagati, a metre of 48 syllables, expresses the idea of cattle. Any one who wishes for wealth in cattle, must use it. The same idea (or that of the sacrifice) is expressed by the Pankti metre (five times eight syllables). The Brihati,; which consists of 36 syllables, is to be used when a sacrificer is aspiring to fame and renown ; for this metre is the exponent of those ideas. The Anushtiibh metre, of 32 syllables, is the symbolof the celestial world ; thence a candidate for a place, in heaven has to use it. The Viraj of 30 syllables,, is food and satisfaction ; thence one who wishes for plenty of food, must employ it." " The metres," says Max Miiller, " were originally connected with dancing and music. The names for metre in general confirm this. Chliandas, metre, denotes stepping ; vritta, metre from vrit, to turn, meant originally the last three or four steps of a dancing movement, to turn, the versus which determined the whole character of a dance and of a metre. Tnshtubh, the name of a common metre in the Veda, meant three steps, because its turn, its vritta, or versus, consisted of three steps, one short and two long. ■ " The laws regulating the succession of long and short syllables within the limits of the hemistich are in general any- thing but strict ; all that is aimed at seems to be to give the whole a kind of rhythmical flow, or general metrical movement, nn which the four last Syllables shall stamp the peculiar character ; their quantity is much more definitely established, yet even among them exceptional irregularities are by no means rare." Metres. The Gdyatri. — This is a common metre. Nearly one-fourth of all the stanzas in the Rig- Veda are composed in it. It is so called because the Gayatii, the most' sacred text in the Vedas, is composed in it. It contains three times eight syllables. The first hymn is in this metre. The following' is the first verse : Agnlm lie pur6hitam Yajnfi,sya devim ritvijam H6taram ratnadhd. tamam. GENERAL VIEW OF THE VEDAS. 9 I praise Agni, domestic priest, God, minister of sacrifice, Herald, most prodigal of wealth.* Trisktubh. — This is the commonest metre. It consists of four times eleven syllables. The name means three stfeps, one short and two long. Anushtubh. — This contains 32 syllables. A candidate for a place in heaven has to use it. Jagati. — This metre of 48 syllables is said to " express the idea of cattle. Any one who wishes for wealth in cattle must use it." Max Miiller gives a list, according to Saunaka, of the metres employed in the Eig-Veda. The number of verses in which the principal occur are as follows : Trishtubh, 4,2.58 ; Gayatri, 2,4.51 ; Jagati, 1,348 ; Anushtubh, 855 ; Ushnih, 341 : Pankti, 312 ; various, 849; total, 10,409.1 No intelligent man of the present day believes that metres have, of themselves, any influence. ILaagaage. — The language of the Vedas is an older dialect, varying very considerably, both in its grammatical and lexical character, from the classical Sanskrit. Its grammatical peculi- arities run through all departments. It is untrammeled by the rules by which Sanskrit after it passed into oblivion as a vernacu- lar dialect was forced, as it were, into a mould of regularity by long grammatical treatment, and received a development which ■ is in some respects foreign and unnatural, The dissimilarity between the two in respect of the stock of words of wliich each is made up is not less marked. Not single words alone, but whole classes of derivatives and roots, which the Veda exhibits in familiar use, are wholly wanting, or have left but faint traces in the classical dialect, t All living languages change in course of time. The follow- ing is a specimen of English from Chaucer, considered the " Father of Enghsh poetry," written about 500 years ago : " A Clerk ther was of Oxenforde also, That unto logike hadde long ygo. As lene was his hors as is a rake, And he was not right fat I undertake ; But looked holwe, and thereto soberly." The hymns of the Eig-Veda were undoubtedly composed in the language of the time. As the people of Italy, Who once spoke Latin, now speak Italian, derived from Latin, so in India, * Macdonell's Sanskrit Literature, p. 56, t Ancient Sanskrit Literature, p. 222. } Abridged from Whitney. 9. 10 VEDIC HINDUISM. Sanskrit merged into what are called the Prakrits. In the time of Buddha, about 500 b.c, Sanskrit had ceased to be a spoken language. But it became a written language, polished by grammarians, and during the last 2,000 years it has remained substantially the same. The Time when the Vedas were composed. The Cambridge Professor of Sanskrit says, " The very word; history has no corresponding Indian expression. From the very earliest ageis down to the present time, the Hindu mind seems never to have conceived such an idea as an authentic record of past facts based on evidence." Hindu writers framed their chronology, like their geography and astronomy, out of their own heads. It was as easy to write a crore of years as a century, and the former was the more marvellous. There is no date in India known with certftinty till the time of Chandragupta, about 300 B.C., which was ascertained through the Greeks. The precise time when the Vedas wer6 written cannot, therefore, be known with certainty. Indeed, their com- position probably extended over several centuries. Max Miiller estimates that they were composed, such as we now have them, about 1500 B.C.* In hifi Hihherl Lecturea (p. 340), he expresses the opinion that the Samhita (collection) was closed about 1000 B.C. The Vedas at first handed down by Tradition. The oldest inscriptions in India are those of Asoka, the Buddhist king, who reigned from 2.59 to 222 B.C. Nearchus, the admiral of Alexander the Great, who sailed down the Indus (325 B.C.), mentions that the Indians wrote letters on cotton that had been well beaten together, "but that their laws were not written." Writing was used by merchants and others, but not for literary purposes. In a volume of the Berlin Encyclopaedia, Dr. Biihler gives an interesting account of the origin of Indian writing. It seems to date farther back than is supposed by some. Max Miiller says ; " There is not one single allusion in these hymns (of the Eig-Veda) to any thing connected with writing." "Pure Brahmans never speak of their granthas or books. They speak of their Veda, which means ' knowledge.' They speak of their SrU'ti, -which means what they have heard with their ears. They speaik of Smriti, which means what their fathers have declared unto them. India, What ean il teach us 1 p. 53. GENERAL VIEW OF THE VEDAS. 11 We meet with Brdhmanas, i.e., the sayings of Biahmans ; with Sutras, i c, the strings of rales ; with Vedangas, i.e., the members of the Veda ; with Pravaohanaa, i.e., preachings; with Sastraa, i.e., teachings; with Darsaiias, i.e., demonstrations : but we never meet with a book, or a volume, or a page."" The Vedas, for many centuries, were handed down entirely by memory. The Guru recited a portion, and his pupils repeated it after him. There is a reference to this in the hymn about the frogs : " the one repeats the sounds of the other, as a pupil the words of his teacher." The following account of the method of iiisrtuction is abridged from Max Miiller : "How then was the Veda learnt? It was learnt by every Brahman during 12 years of his studentship or Brahmacharya. This, according to Gautama, was the shortest period, sanctioned only for men who wanted to marry and to become Grihasthas. Brahmans who did not wish to marry were allowed to spend 48 years as students. The Prdtisikhya gives us a glimpse into the lecture-rooms of the Brahmanic Colleges. 'The Guru,' it is said, 'who has himself formerly been a student, should make his pupils read. He himself takes his seat either to the east, or the north, or the north-east. If he has lio more than one or two pupils, they sit at his right hand. If he has more, they place themselves according as there is room. They then embrace their master and say, 'Sir, read! ' The master gravely says, 'Om,' i.e., ' Yes.' He then begins to say a prasna (a question), which consists of 3 verses. In order thstt no word may escape the attention of his pupils, he pronounces all with the high accent, and repeats certain words twice, or he says 'so' {iti) after these words.' " It does not seem as if several pupils were allowed to recite together, for it is stated distinctly that the Guru first tells the verses to his pupil on the right, and that every pupil, after his task is finished, turns to the right, and walks round the tutor. This mvist occupy a long time every day, considering that a lecture consists of 60 or more prasnas, or of about 180 verses. The pupils are not dismissed till the lecture is finished. At the end of the lecture, the tutor, after the last half-verse is finished says, ' Sir,' the pupil replies " Yes, sir." He then repeats the proper verses and formulas, which have to be repeated at the end of every reading, embraces his tutor, and is allowed to withdraw."! Years were spent in learning the books by rote. Some selected certain books ; others different ones ; so that, in this way, hymns were preserved from generation to generation. " A Brahman," says Max Miiller, " is not only commanded to pass his apprenticeship in the house of his Guru, and to learn from his mouth all that a Brahman is bounded to know, but the ' Aiicienl Sanskrit Literature, pp. 497, 512. + Ancient Sanskrit Literature, pp. SOS, 506. 12 VEDIC HINDUISM. fiercest imprecations are uttered against all who would presume to acquire their knowledge from written sources. In the Maha- bharata we read, ' Those who sell the Vedas, and even those who write them, those also who defile them, they shall go to hell. Kumarila says, ' That knowledge of the truth is worthless which has heen acquired from the Veda, if the Veda has, not been rightly comprehended, if it has been learnt from writing, or been received from a Sudra.' "* The Brahmans persuaded the people to regard the Vedas with such superstitious awe, that a mere error of pronunciation was supposed to mar their miraculous power. Professor Whitney thus explains why it was forbidden to write the Vedas : " It is not very difficult to conjecture a reason why the Brahmans may, while acquainted with letters, have rigorously ignored them, and interdicted their confessed use in connection with the sacred literature. The Brahman priesthood was originally a class only, which grew into a close hereditary caste on the strength, mainly, of their special possession of ancient hymns, and their knowledge of how these were to be employed with due effect in the various offices of religion. The hymns had unquestionably long been handed down by oral tradition from gener- ation to generation, in the custody of certain families or branches of the caste; each family having chiefly in charge the lyrics which. its own ancestors had first sung. These were their most treasured possession, the source of their influence and authority. It might, then, naturally be feared that, if committed to the charge of written documents, when writing came to be known and practised among the more cultivated of the people — a class which could not be entirely restricted to the Brah- manic caste — and if sufl'ered to be openly copied and circulated, passed from hand to liand, examined by profaned eyes, the sacred texts would become the property of the nation at large, and the Brahmanic mono- poly of them would be broken down. If, on the contrary, the old method of oral instruction alone in sacred things were rigidly kept up, if all open and general use of written texts were strictly forbidden, it is clear that the schools of Brahmanic theology would flourish, and remain the sole medium of transmission of the sacred knowledge, and that the doctrines and rites of religion would be kept under the control of the caste. "f \i The Druids, the ancient British priests, acted exactly in the same way. Csesar says that some of them spent twenty years in learning a large number of verses by heart, and that they considered it wrong to commit them to writing. The Vedas were first printed by European Scholars. Some of the editions have already been noticed. * Ancient Sati'ikrit LUeralure, p. 50-2. t Oriental and Linguistic Studies, pp. 86, 87. SOCIAL LIFE IN VBDIC TIMES. 13 SOCIAL LIFE IN VEDIC TIMES. The original seat of the Aryans is disputed. Until a few years ago it was generally supposed to be in Central Asia. Some scholars now contend that it was in Eastern Europe. Max Miiller still adheres to " Somewhere in Asia." It was colder than India, for they counted their years by winters.. In the Vedic prayers for long life, the worshipper asks for a hundred winters {himas). Like the northern tribes, they laid great stress upon the ashvamedha, or horse-sacrifice. Compared with their neighbours, they had a white or fair complexion. When the Aryans increased in number so that their original home was unable to support them, they emigrated in bands. Some went westward towards the setting sun, and peopled Europe. Others turned their faces eastwards,- and advanced towards the valley of the Indus. They marched in a large body, with their families, their servants, their cattle. India was probably entered by the mountain passes near Peshawar. Rivers were forded at conveniently shallow places, or, if deep, they were crossed in boats. The greater part of India was then covered with forest, with scattered villages and towns belonging to the aboriginal tribes, who were of a dark complexion, and spoke a strange language. The Aryas had the pride of race in an extravagant degree, show- ing great contempt and hatred of the other nations with whom they came in contact. They called the aborigines the " black- skin," and as their noses were not so large as theirs, they were described as "goat-nosed" or "noseless." The aborigines were also called Dasyus, a word supposed to mean enemies. So many of thein., were enslaved, that the word dasa was afterwards applied to a servant Some of the Dasyus were like the Bhils.or other wild tribes of India at present ; others had a partial civilization. In several of the Vedic hymns the wealth of the Dasyus is mentioned, e.g. : " Subdue the might of the Dasa ; may we through Indra divide his collected wealth." They had forts and cities. " Indra and Agni, by one effort together ye have shattered 90 forts belonging to the Dasyus." . " Indra, impetuous, thou didst shatter by thy bolt 99 cities for Puru." The Aryans, as they advanced, gradually established themselves in the forests, fields, and villages of the aborigines. The latter contended as bravely as they could against their invaders. Their black complexion, barbarous habits, rude speech, and savage yells during their night attacks, made the Aryas speak of them as demons. ' The Aryans were the more powerful. The Dasyus were either driven before them or wei'e reduced to slavery. The first "reat distinction in India was between the white and dark races, 14 VBDIG HINDUISM. the conquerorfe anql the conquered, ithe freeman and the slave. One of the earliest aboriginal tribes brought under subjection was called Sudras, and the name was extended to the whole race. The war invasion lasted for centuries, nor were the aborigines, as a whole, subjugated at any period. ' The Indus is the great river of the Vedas. The name India was derived from Sindhu, the frontier river. The Ganges, literally the Go, Go, is only twice named in the Vedas. Several smaller rivers are mentioned. By degrees the Aryas spread east- ward till they reached the Sarasvati, which was the boundary in Vedic times. The state of society among the Aryans, as ijidicated by the hymns, will now be described. Villages and Towns. — The invaders gradually Settled in the Panjab. Villages were placed near watercourses, in positions favourable for pasturage and agriculture. The villages in some cases grew into towns, and these into cities. The houses in general, as at present, were built of mud. Some were of so frail a construction that they trembled as the Maruts passed, that is, when the fierce winds blew. In tracts bordering on the hills, where stone was abundant, that material was sometimes used. Indra is said to have demolished a hundred cities of stone. Iron cities or fortifications are mentioned. Rajas and Headmen. -The country occupied by the Aryas was peopled by various tribes, and divided unto numerous principalities. Many names of kings occur in the Rig- Veda. Their meetings, whether friendly or hostile, are mentioned. Indra is represented as living in the society of his wives like a king. When Mitra is said to occupy a great palace with a thousand pillars and a thousand gates, we may suppose that this is but an exaggerjttBd description of a royal residence such as the poet had seen. The kings or chiefs did not acknowledge one superior. Hence some- times an Aryan leader fought with an Aryan leader. Mention is made of purpati, lords of cities, and grainani, heads of villages. Domestic Relations.— In Vedic times the marriage of one wife seems to have been the rule. In some cases, from the Svayamvara ceremony, the bride could choose her husband. This shows that early marriage did not prevail. There was also more or less •polygamy. A Rishi is said to have married in one day ten damsels. Two gods, the Ashvins, together took one wife. " Thus," says Dr. Rajendralala Mitra, " you have in the Rig- Veda, self-choice, polygamy, and polyandry." Widows were permitted to marry. The general opinion of the female sex steems to have been that put into the mouth of Indra : " Indra himself hath said, The mind of woman brooks not discipline. Her intellect hath little weight " R. V. viii. m, 17. SOCIAL LIFE IN VEDIC TIMES. 15 Dress.— Eeferences are made to well-dressed females and to well-made garments. From these passages and others relating to jewels, it may be gathered that considerable attention was already paid to personal decoration. The materials of the clothing were probably cotton and wool. The form of the garments was much the same as among the modern Hindus. A turban is mentioned. Eeferences to the needle and sewing suggest that made dresses were not unknown. rood.-^Foremost came the products of the cow. Butter and curds were essential at every meal. Fried grain, mixed with milk, was particularly relished. Barley and wheat were ground and baked into cakes. Unt flesh wsls considevedi the best food. The Satapatha Brahmana says : Etad u ha vai paramam annddyam yan mdmsam* 'Indeed, the best food is flesh.' One of the most remarkable changes in Hindu customs since Vedic times is that with regard to the use of certain kinds of animal food. The late Dr. Eajendralala Mitra occupies the highest rank among Indian scholars, and he investigated the subject simply to give the real facts of the case. In his Indo-Aryans, he has a chapter headed, " Beef in Ancient India." It begins as follows ; " The title of this paper will, doubtless, prove highly offensive to most of my countrymen ; but the interest attached to the enquiry in connexion with the early social history of the Aryan race on this side of the Himalaya, will, I trust, plead my excuse. The idea of beef — the flesh of the earthly representative of the divine Bhagavati — as an article of food is so shocking to the Hindus, that thousajids over thousands of the more orthodox among them never -repeat the counterpart of the word in their vernaculars, and many and dire have been the sauguinary conflicts which the shedding of the blood of cows has caused in this country. And yet it would seem that there was a time when not only no com- punctious visitings of conscience had a place in the mind of the people in slaughtering cattle — when not only the meat of that animal was actually esteemed a valuable aliment — when not only was it a mark of generous hospitality, as among the ancient Jews, to slaughter the ' fatted calf ' in honor of respected guests, — but when a supply of beef was deemed an absolute necessity by piotis Hindus in their journey from this to another world, and a cow was invariably killed to be burnt with the dead. To Englishmen, who are familiar with the present temper of the people on the subject, and to a great many of the natives themselves, this remark may appear startling ; but the authorities on which it is founded are so authentic and incontrovertible tbat they cannot, for a moment, be gainsaid." Dr. K. Mitra quotes Colebrooke as follows : " It seems to have been anciently the custom to slay a cow on that occasion (the reception of a guest) and a guest was therefore called a goghna, or ' cow "killer;' " In the " TJttara-Bdma-charitra the venerable old Quoted by Bev. F^ Kittel on Sacrifice, p. 48. 16 VEDIC HINDUISM. poet and hermit Valraiki, when preparing to receive his' brother sage Vasishtha, the author of one of the original law books (Smritis) which regulates the religious life of the people, and a prominent character even in the Vedas, slaughtered a lot of calves expl-essly for the entertainment of his guests. Vasishtha, in his turn, likewise slaughtered the ' fatted calf ' when entertain- ing ViSvamitra, Janaka, Satananda, Jamadagnya, and other sages and friends." * In the JRig-Veda, 1st Ashtaka, 4th Adhyaya, 29th Varga^ the following prayer is addressed^to Indra : "Hiirl thy thunderbolt against this Vritra and sever his joints, as (butchers cut up) a covi' that the rains many issue from him." The late Mr. Kunte, B.A., of Poona, author of the Suddar- shana Chintanika, says in his Prize Essay on The Vici.isitude.i of Aryan Civilization in India: "Hospitality was the rule of life, and guests were received with great ceremony : cows were specially killed for them." (p. 196). The sacrifice of oxen and cows, gomedha, will be noticed under another head. Intoxicating liquors are mentioned in the hymns. Nfearly a whole Mandala of the Eig- Veda is devoted to the praise of the Soma juice. Wine or spirit, svra, was also in use. " The earliest Brahman settlers," says Dr. R. Mitra, "were a spirit^drinking race, and indulged largely both in Soma beer and strong spirits. To their gods the most acceptable and grateful offering was Soma beer, and wine or spirit was pubUcly sold in shops for the use of the community. In the Rig- Veda Sanhita a hymn occurs which shows that wine was kept in leather bottles and freely sold to all comers. The sura of the Saiitrdviani and the Vajapaya was no other than arrack, manufactured from rice meal. In the Eama- yana the great sage Visvaraitra is said to have been entertained with maireya and .s«ra by his host Vasishtha. In the Mahabha- rata, thp Yadavas are represented as extremely addicted to drinking. Buddhism must have contributed much to check the spread of drunkenness in India, as it did in putting down the consump- tion, of flesh meat; but it was never equal to the task of sup- pressing it.f Grades of Society.— The two great divisions of the people in Vedic times were the Aryans and the aborigines, afterwards called Sudras. The chief occupations of the Aryans were fighting and cultivating the soil. Those who fought gradually acquired influ- ence and rank, and their leaders appear as Rajas. Those who did * Indo-Aryans, Vol. I. pp. 356-358. f Abridged from the Indo-Aryans, Vol. I. pp. 889 — 399 SOCIAL Lll'E IN VEDIC TIMES. 17 not share in the fighting were culled Vis, Vaisyas, or house- holders. At first any one might preside at a sacrifice. In the Vedas there are kings who composed their own hyihns to the gods, Kajarishis, who united in their person the power, both of king and priest, \'isvamitra, the author of the Gayatri, was a Kshatriya. The Brahman was at first simply an assistant at sacrifices ; afterwards he became apiirohita, or family priest, and thus acquired influence. Fighting and cultivation were (sometimes united. Mr. Kunte says : " The patriarch and his sons and perhaps grandsons quietly cultivated their land ; but, when necessary, they mounted their horses, and, sword in hand, marched against their enemies. As yet the Brahmana was not afraid of wielding a sword, nor was the Kshatriya ashamed of tilling the land."* Max Miiller says : " The system of castes, in the ordinary sense of the word, did not exist during the Vedic age. What we may call caste in the Veda is very different even from what we find in the laws of Manu, still more from what exists at the present day." + Professions and Trades. — Dr. Wilson, in hih India Tlirei Thvusand Years Ago, gives the following sketch of the Social Life of the Aryas : " The' Aryas, in the times of the Vedas, were principally pastoral, tbough to a certain «xtent an agricultural, people. Their flocks and berds and their sheep, goats, cows, buffaloes, horses, camels, and teamb uf oxen, with the hump on their :shoulders, are frequently mentioned, a,)id made the subjects of supplication and thanksgi\ang. both to godw and men. A daughter among them in the earliest time^^ was designated Juliitri, or milkmaid (the English word daughter has the same origin) ; aud a Gopa and Gopal, or keeper of cattle, among them, came to mean a protector in general, no doubt from the owners or keepers of uows having great importance in the community." ■' Gotra, cow-house, was applied to the fences erected to protect the herd from violence or prevent the cattle from straying. The Brahman boasting of his sacred blood and divine generation speaks of the parti- cular gotra, to which he belongs, little dreaming that the word is itself a testimony that the fathers of his race were herdsmen. "^ " That the Aryans were not, however, merelj a nomadic peojjle i:-. very evident. As well as their enemies, they bad their villages and towns as well as cattle-pens ; and many of tlie appliances, conveniences, luxuries, and vices, found in congregated masses of the human family. They kne\v the processes of spinning and ^ve