BOUGHT WITH THE INCOME . FROM THE SAGE ENDOWMENT FUND THE GIFT OF 1891 .A ..^2-^. ^ J-J. - 3^i^,. J. g' 9963 Cornell University Library arV13406 Industries and w?,?l»l,°,' ,IlS,iiSSi 3 1924 031 229 200 olin,anx The original of tliis book is in tine Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924031229200 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS -330 — — 320 - -310 — WEALTH PER INHABITANT. -290- -280- -270- -260- - 250- -240- -230- - 220- -210- -200- -190- -180- - 170- ■ 160 - -160- -110- -130- -120- -110- -100- - 90- a. « 60- -50- 40 - -20 -10- INDUSTEIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS MICHAEL G. MULHALL FELLOW OF THE ROYAL STATISTICAL ToCLETY ; MEMBER OF THE COMMITTEE OF THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION AUTHOR OF "THE DICTIONARY OF STATISTICS" " Agriculture, Manufactures, and Commerce are the springs of national wealth."— CAopta?. "Wealth consists of nothing else than an abundance of those commodities that minister to the wants of human life" —Bupin. LONGMANS, GEEEN, AND CO. LONDON, NEW YOEK, AND BOMBAY 1896 All rights reserved -D BY THE SAME AUTHOR. THE DICTIONAEY OF STATISTICS. THIRD EDITION. SIXTH THOUSAND. The only work of the kind in any language. It is uniform with Ckambers^s iJncyclopcedia, 630 pp. royal 8vo, with Index of 4400 items. Price £1, lis. 6d. " This admirable dictionary."— ^mi^e de Laveleye. " We want an edition in French."— I''ues Quyot. " Inexhaustible treasury of facts."— J^coTwmiste Frangais. " Most reliable statistics."— £aro7i Malortie. " The figures (on United States) are remarkably correct."— Cmted States Secretary of State. " An unrivalled arrangement of statistics."— ^Icademy. " This wonderful work stands alone."— -Boi-ton Beacon. " It is both trustworthy and uniqne."— Scotsman. " No book of reference has higher claims."— Gte&e. " The result of laborious and skilled research."— Confemporary Jieview. *' The work is fascinating from tlie wealth of information."— Grai/Aic " Compiled in a convenient and intelligible form."— Spectator. Printed by Ballantyne, Hanson & Co. At the Ballantync Press TO HIS FELLOW-WORKERS IN THE FIELD OF STATISTICAL RESEARCH ZbiB Uttic asooh IS DEDICATED AS A TOKEN OP PROFOUND ESTEEM BY THE AUTHOR. PEEFACE There is nothing original in the present work, which simply brings into a narrow compass the result of the labours of hundreds of able writers, whose works are not accessible to the general public. The conviction that this task could have been better accomplished by someone else has not deterred me from taking it in hand ; and the years that I have devoted to it, let me hope, may prove to have been as useful as they have been to me delightful. Shakespeare says, "No profit goes wherein no pleasure's ta'en." The public and the Press have heretofore treated me with such kindness that I feel profoundly grateful. MICHAEL G. MULHALL. KiLLINET, DnBLIN, August 15, 1896. " The principal value of Statistics is for purposes of comparison, and they must often cover the debateable ground between ascertained facts and reasonable conjecture." — Jevons. " We must avoid the absurdity of limiting Statistics to ascertained facts, for in many cases this branch of science can reach only approximate results." — Leroy-BeavZieu. CONTENTS CHAP. I. INTEODDCTION . PAGE I n. NATIONS OF CHRISTENDOM 14 HI. UNITED KINGDOM .... . 58 BRITISH MANUFACTURES . 69 WEALTH OF UNITED KINGDOM 95 IV. FRANCE , 109 V. GERMANY . . 135 VI. RUSSIA . 156 vn. AUSTRIA-HUNGARY . 173 VIII. ITALY , 188 IX. SPAIN . 200 X. PORTUGAL . 211 XI. SWEDEN AND NORWAY 219 XII. DENMARK . 232 XIII, HOLLAND . . 240 XIV. BELGIUM . 249 XV. SWITZERLAND ..... . 259 XVI. DANDBIAN STATES , . 266 CONTENTS CHAP. XVII. GRBBCE ..... PAGE . 275 XVIII. UNITED STATES . . 281 XIX. CANADA . . . . . 315 XX. AUSTRALIA .... . 331 XXI. SOUTH AFRICA .... . 353 XXII. ARGENTINA .... . 361 XXIII. URUGUAY . 371 COMPARATIVE TABLES . 377 APPENDIX . 394 A minute Index will be found at the end. ERRATUM. The earnings of Australia are incorrectly stated at page 51 ; correctly at page 346. DIAGEAMS 1. Wealth per Inhabitant . 2. Population, Urban, Rural 3. Occupations of Mankind . 4. Energy oe Nations . 5. Steam-powee 6. Areas Cultivated 7. Agricultural Capital 8. Agricultural Products . 9. Product per Hand . 10. Grain Crops 11-12. Value of Manufactures 13. Minerals .... 14-15. Precious Metals . 16-17. Price-levels. 18-19. Commerce 20. Shipping .... 21. Railways .... 22. Monet .... 23. Earnings .... . Frontispiece to face page 16 I) )j 18 „ 20 22 5> » 24 28 34 36 40 44 46 48 50 xii DIAGRAMS 24-26. Wealth . to face page 52 27. Taxes and Debt 54 28. United Kingdom .„ » 58 29. United Kingdom and France „ „ no 30. Germany „ 136 31. United States „ 281 32. Canada, Australia . „ 331 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS INTRODUCTION It is unquestionably of the highest importance to ascertain approximately the earnings and wealth of the various nations of Christendom. In all leading countries, within the last fifty years, numerous economists and statisticians have published essays on the subject as far as concerned their respective countries, which is suflScient evidence that a careful and com- prehensive work of this description is most desirable. The method to be adopted for carrying out such a task must depend on the taste and judgment of the author. It may, meantime, be questioned whether the work might not be better done if undertaken collectively by three or four European Governments, each appointing a Commissioner for the purpose, and the Commissioners holding session for two years in suc- cession at Paris and London. If they were to work harmo- niously, the result of their labours would be of the highest value, but it is possible that some points of discord might arise and render their labours nugatory. The field of inquiry is vast, since it embraces two genera- tions, for the object is not merely to arrive at the earnings and wealth of nations in the final decade of the nineteenth century, but also to trace the growth of industries during the last sixty years. It is no less important to compare the wealth of Great Britain at present with that of France or the United xii DIAGRAMS 24-26. Wealth . to face page 52 27. Taxes and Debt .54 28. United Kingdom 58 29. United Kingdom and Fbance „ 110 30. Germany .... „ 136 31. United States „ 281 32. Canada, Australia . „ 331 INDUSTEIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS I INTEODUCTIOl^ It is unquestionably of the highest importance to ascertain approximately the earnings and wealth of the various nations of Christendom. In all leading countries, within the last fifty years, numerous economists and statisticians have published essays on the subject as far as concerned their respective countries, which is sufficient evidence that a careful and com- prehensive work of this description is most desirable. The method to be adopted for carrying out such a task must depend on the taste and judgment of the author. It may, meantime, be questioned whether the work might not be better done if undertaken collectively by three or four European Governments, each appointing a Commissioner for the purpose, and the Commissioners holding session for two years in suc- cession at Paris and London. If they were to work harmo- niously, the result of their labours would be of the highest value, but it is possible that some points of discord might arise and render their labours nugatory. The field of inquiry is vast, since it embraces two genera- tions, for the object is not merely to arrive at the earnings and wealth of nations in the final decade of the nineteenth century, but also to trace the growth of industries during the last sixty years. It is no less important to compare the wealth of Great Britain at present with that of France or the United 2 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS States, than to ascertain what progress we have made since the days of Porter and M'Culloch. Nor would it be possible to estimate correctly the earnings of a nation unless we were first to gauge their various industries. These depend on popu- lation, energy, means of transport and other factors, all which, in like manner, call for consideration. The plan, therefore, of the present work may best be explained by passing in review the items of which it is made up. 1. Population. — Without population there can be no wealth. The immense territories watered by the Amazon are not at present worth sixpence an acre, because they are untenanted : on the other hand the little island of Barbadoes, although inhabited by negroes, is most valuable. Perhaps the most striking illustration in this way is the State of Colorado, which was a desert until 1858, when a group of 200 persons settled there: the census of that State in 1890 showed pro- perty to the value of 239 millions sterling, all created in thirty-two years. It has been estimated by Dr. Farr, that a man aged 20, as an element, or rather a creator of wealth, is worth, in a new country, £234, and Engel estimates him at .£200. In e£Fect it will be seen that there has been a rapid accumulation of wealth in the United States and the British Colonies, where a great influx of immigrants took place, of working-age, that is, between the ages of 15 and 60. In most countries the ratio of persons of working-age, male and female, is about 60 per cent, of the population. 2. Energy. — This is the working-power of a nation, consist- ing of many kinds, such as human beings, horses, oxen, wind, water, steam, and electricity. Human energy is by common consent fixed at 300 foot-tons daily for a man, 200 for a woman, 100 for a child between 10 and 16 years of age. For all practical purposes we may omit women and children, the first being usually occupied in domestic cares, the second seldom employed in the business of life. Human energy, counting only men up to 60, will be found in most countries equivalent to 90 foot-tons daily per head of the whole popula- INTRODUCTION 3 tion. The working-power of a horse, according to Smeaton and others, is about 5000 foot-tons daily, but the agricultural statistics of countries include horses of all ages, for which reason we cannot take the average working-power higher than 3000 tons, or equal to that of ten men. Mules are in all cases counted as horses, but no account is taken of asses. French economists sometimes compute the power of oxen, which in certain countries are used for ploughing and other rural labours, but they are not used in Great Britain and other leading countries, and hence for purposes of comparison must be omitted. It is unfortunately necessary to exclude wind- mills, since their number or power in various countries is unknown, but the omission is, after all, of little importance, as they are going out of fashion everywhere except in Holland, where there are still 9000, used mostly for pumping. Water- power offers the same difficulty as windmills, since there are but scanty returns as to its use in factories. The United States census for 1880 showed 55,000 water-wheels, with a collective force of 1,225,000 horse-power, an increase of 8 per cent, since 1870 : if we suppose a like increase in the ensuing decade, the force of water-wheels in 1890 would be 1,320,000 horse-power. The exclusion of this element of energy makes the following difference in the United States : — Million Foot-Tons Foot-Tons per Daily. Inhabitant. Including water . 133,980 1,920 Excluding water . 128,700 1,850 The exclusion of water reduces the apparent working-power of the American people by no more than 4 per cent. In Switzerland water is relatively of more importance, the last census showing water-wheels with an aggregate of 120,000 horse-power, or 17 per cent, of the energy of the nation. As regards other countries water plays an insignificant r61e. The new force of electricity has not yet been measured, but its use increases every day, and it threatens before long to supplant steam. 4 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS 3. Steam. — This item of energy calls for separate notice, representing as it does more than half the working-power of the world. It is of three kinds : fixed engines, locomotives, and steamboats, the aggregate last year amounting to 55 million horse-power. Each unit of horse-power is considered equal to 4000 foot-tons daily, or one-third more than a living horse, because steam never tires, never suffers from sickness, and is therefore able to accomplish more than the same number of horses. The latest general statement of fixed engines is that made by Engel in 1878, but the principal countries have published much later returns : where such do not exist we may go on the hypothesis that the increase of fixed engines since 1878 has been in the same ratio as that of the con- sumption of raw material, or that of the number of factory operatives. The power of locomotives, in all but mountainous countries, ranges from 250 to 350 horse : in Switzerland it is 420. Whenever it is impossible to ascertain the number or force of locomotives in any country, a safe estimate will be 80 horse-power for every lineal mile of railway, or else one horse of steam to every 50 miles run in the year by loco- motives. The third kind of steam-power is that used in shipping. If we were to take merely the nominal power of the engines, it would be so far below the reality as to mislead. A vessel of 1000 nominal horse-power may often be found to have engines that possess double or treble that force. When Engel made his statement in 1878, he gave to British steamers a horse-power equal to three-fourths of their registered tonnage : in the present work the power and registered tonnage are supposed to be numerically equal; that is, a steamer of 3000 tons is counted as 3000 horse-power. As vessels of war have no direct bearing on trade or the creation of wealth, their steam-power is not included. 4. Employment of Energy. — It is well to distinguish in the various countries the amount of energy expended in production, from what is employed for transport or distribution. Tlie plan followed is this : we count as productive energy that INTRODUCTION 5 whicli is human, the whole power of fixed engines, and half that of horses; distributive energy, therefore, includes the other half of horses, and all the power of railway locomotives and steamboats. It will be seen hereafter that distributive energy has in the last fifty years increased three times faster than productive, causing a remarkable reduction in the cost of transport, but for which the increase of production would have been much less than it has been, as it would not have been profitable to produce many things at the freight charges of former years. 5. Agriculture.- — This is the chief occupation of mankind, employing 49 per cent, of the working population of nations, the number of hands in Europe alone exceeding 86 millions. It comprises both tillage and pastoral pursuits. The prin- cipal points of comparison are, the area under crops, the weight of grain produced, the number of hands, the food- supply of all kinds, the amount of capital represented by farms, and the annual value of products. Some points deserve particularly to be remembered. The quantity of grain pro- duced is not wholly available for food, a deduction of 10 per cent, being necessary to provide for seed. Not quite half the grain produced is used for human sustenance, and hence it occurs that a country like France may raise 20 bushels of grain per inhabitant and yet be obliged every year to import largely. In order to compare the production of food in the various countries it wUl be necessary to reduce all kinds to the common denominator of bushels of wheat, for which pur- pose the following is a convenient formula : — 4 tons of flour or malt equal to 5 of wheat or barley ; 3 tons of potatoes to 1 of wheat ; 100 gallons of wine to 1 ton of wheat ; and 1 of meat to 8 of wheat. As regards the production of meat, the slaughter and the weight of carcase are variously estimated in different countries, but it may be taken as a general rule that 1000 live cattle will give yearly 50 tons of meat, 1000 sheep 10 tons, and 1000 pigs 40 tons, the usual slaughter being 20 per cent, of cattle, 30 of sheep, and 90 of pigs. In the 6 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS United Kingdom the product per thousand head is fully 10 per cent, more than the foregoing general formula, Major Craigie's estimate being as high as 67 tons of beef and 12| of mutton. In countries like Spain, where goats are numerous, their meat is included with mutton, on the basis of 3 tons per thousand living goats. Importations of live cattle are esti- mated at the rate of 750 lbs. each for oxen and 90 lbs. for sheep. Tables of meat-supply in the present work do not include fowl, game, &c., owing to the difficulty of arriving at the annual consumption. Some chicken-farmers assert that Great Britain consumes 80 million home-grown fowl yearly, besides what is imported : altogether, the consumption of fowl and game in this country may reach 5 lbs. yearly per inhabitant. Dairy products were for some years the subject of angry discussion, but it seems now to be admitted that cows give 350 gallons of milk yearly, that 6000 gallons make a ton of butter, or 2200 a ton of cheese. Dairy products range from £6 per cow yearly in some countries to £12 in others. As regards the annual value of farm products, esti- mates have been made from time to time in all countries of Europe and in the United States : in some cases, however, only crops have been considered, to the exclusion of pastoral products; in others the value of grain has been set down, and that of straw omitted. In the estimates of agriciiltural wealth it will be seen in the ensuing pages that sundries (including implements) are allowed for as 9 per cent, of the total, which cannot be considered excessive, seeing that Chaptal allowed 14 per cent. 6. Forestry. — Some writers include forest products among agricultural, because many farmers are also wood-cutters, but it is better to regard it as a distinct branch of industry. It appears to give constant occupation to at least 4 millions of men, the average weight of timber cut being close on 3 million tons daily, and representing a value of £800,000. About two-thirds are used for firewood, and only one-third is timber properly so called. If the value of forest products were in- INTRODUCTION y eluded with agriculture it would disturb the ratio of yearly product per acre devoted to farming. 7. Fisheries. — The harvest of the seas varies from 2J to 3 million tons of fish yearly, and the average take of each fisherman rarely passes 4 tons. In fact the number of hands does not reach a million, and the annual product of their labours is about 39 millions sterling. It is, therefore, rela- tively, a very small industry. 8. Textile Manufactures. — This is the foremost among manufactures, occupying 5J million operatives, who turn out goods to the value of about £2,700,000 daily. M'OuUoch estimated the output at three times the value of raw material consumed, but improved machinery has so far reduced the cost of production, that at present the ratio between raw material and manufactured goods is as 10 to 33. Cotton and wool have long competed for supremacy ; at present cotton is ahead, standing for 35, while wool is only 32, per cent, of the total value of textile manufactures. 9. Hardware. — This term in the present work excludes stone, &c., and is applied only to metallic industries, com- prising every kind of manufactures in which iron, copper, lead, or other metal forms a principal component, such as rails, arms, cutlery, implements, machinery, steamboats, &c. It has been often said in England that any attempt to estimate the output of this branch of industry would be illusory, but such is not the case. We know the quantity and value of iron, steel, and copper goods exported, as well as the weight of metal retained for home manufacture and consumption. The official value of steel manufactures exported from Great Britain in 1894 was £26, 10s. per ton : we may be permitted to put down iron manufactures at half that price. On this basis the manufactures of iron and steel in the United Kingdom in 1894 will be found to sum up a value of 116 millions sterling. As regards copper, lead, and tin, the manufactured output may be taken, as M'Culloch would have it, at three times the value of metal consumed. The total hardware industries of 8 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS the Tlnited Kingdom would thus amount to 142 millions sterling, equal to an annual output of £114 per operative, according to the number engaged in this branch of industry at the census of 1891. 10. Leather. — The production of leather in each country depends more or less on the numher of live-stock. A hide weighing 100 lbs. will produce 60 lbs. of leather, and the weight of hides produced yearly compared with the number of living animals will be found as follows : — 1000 cattle, 5 tons ; 1000 sheep, 1| ton; 1000 pigs, 3 tons; 1000 horses, 1 ton. When the total yield is ascertained, a deduction of 10 per cent, should be made for what is lost or used on farms. Tanned leather has a normal value of £170 per ton : boots, shoes, saddlery, &c., are worth over £500 a ton. In m^ost countries boots and shoes constitute half the value of leather manufactures. 11. Clothing. — The value of clothing produced in any country will be found to be about 75 per cent, of that of textile manufactures retained for home use, and this formula is adopted in the present work as regards all countries. 12. Food Manufactures. — These consist mainly of flour, beer, sugar, &c. We have accurate returns as to France, Russia, and Belgium, but incomplete as to other countries, and in their case such manufactures may be put down at one- third of the value of food consumed. 13. Houses and Furniture. — The value of houses built and furniture made yearly in the United Kingdom, as will be shown hereafter, is about 3 per cent, on the existing value of all houses and furniture. The same formula may be applied to other countries, there being no other means to arrive approximately at the annual product of these two industries. 14. Small Manufactures. — There are a hundred small indus- tries in every country that come under none of the preceding heads, and they may in every case be put down as 20 per cent, of the annual manufacturing output of a nation. 15. Mining, — This includes, besides subterranean work, all INTRODUCTION 9 gold-washings, salt-pans, stone and slate quarries, and similar works above ground. The value is taken at the pit's mouth, except as regards precious metals, gold being worth £140,000 per ton, silver valued at the current price in the London market. Mining is an important industry, employing 3,100,000 men, who raise 2^ million tons of stuff daily. 16. Transpcn-t. — The carrying-trade of the world may be considered under three heads: 1st, shipping; 2nd, railways; 3rd, highroads and canals. No fewer than 8^ million men are employed in this calling — that is to say, there is one carrier for twenty-three men engaged in other industries. The weight of goods moved daily appears to exceed 10 million tons, each carrier moving twenty times his own weight. It will be seen, later on, that carriers' earnings average almost £4,000,000 daily,- or 9 shillings a man, but this must not be confounded with the wages paid them ; earnings, of course, include the gross receipts of railways and shipping. Carriers' capital is enormous, and increases by more than 200 millions sterling per annum. If we consider the carriers' earnings of the United Kingdom, they seem to amount approximately to 169 millions sterling; viz. : — By Goods, £. Passengers, £. Total, £. Rail . . 47,800,000 36,500,000 84,300,000 Sea . . . 28,600,000 25,400,000 54,000,000 Highroad, &o. . 17,400,000 13,300,000 30,700,000 Total . . 93,800,000 75,200,000 169,000,000 In the above table the railway returns are official, the earnings on sea are taken at £2 per ton of carrying-power, and those on highroads, &c., at £70 per carrier. Port-entries of the United Kingdom in 1894 were 95,200,000 tons; the sea-freight, therefore, as given in the above table was equal to 6 shillings per ton, including foreign and coasting trade. The earnings on highroads, &c., include £3,600,000 by tram- ways, £9,700,000 by cabs and coaches, and an allowance of 10 pence per ton for the use of carts in loading or discharging 10 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS 420 million tons of merchandise carried in 1894 by ship or rail. This total of 169 millions sterling is just double the earnings of the railways of the United Kingdom. It is, moreover, equivalent to a fixed toll of 10^ per cent, on the value of the whole internal trade of the kingdom, and for this reason in the present work this formula is adopted re- garding all countries. The shipping of various nations may be valued at £6 per ton of sailing vessels, and £15 per ton of steamers, including furniture, stores, machinery, &c. — ^the gross earnings at £2 per ton of carrying-power, which means the nominal tonnage of sailing-vessels and four times that of steamers. Eailways have been already referred to in dealing with steam-power : it only remains to be added that they should in all cases be state-property, like the post-office or telegraph services, as they become a terrible monopoly in the hands of joint-stock companies. 17. Commerce. — By this is understood the interchange of merchandise between nations, exclusive of bullion. The weight of sea-borne merchandise may be considered identical with the tonnage of port-entries. It is true that 20 per cent, of all port-entries among nations, as shown hereafter, are in ballast, and that tonnage entries are often repeated, by reason of a vessel calling at two or three ports on the same voyage ; but it is no less certain that cargo steamers usually carry more than their registered tonnage, and these circumstances balance one another. 18. Internal Trade. — This is much more important than external trade, and presents the best gauge of a nation's industry and prosperity. It comprises the value of all mer- chandise handled by the inhabitants; agricultural products, manufactures, minerals, forestry, fish, and the imports from other countries retained for consumption. The aggregate value of human industry — that is, of all products (excluding transport charges) — was in 1894 nearly 10 milliards sterling, that of goods interchanged between nations IJ milliard, from which it appears that nations consume at home 85 per cent INTRODUCTION il of their products of every description, and barter 15 per cent, with their neighbours. In other words the products of in- dustry average £31,000,000 daily, of which £26,400,000 are kept for home consumption and £4,600,000 exported. Each man in the great workshop of the world produces goods to the value of 36 pence daily : the food for himself and his family costs about 15 pence, the transport of himself and his pro- ducts 5 pence, and the rest goes in clothing, house-rent, cattle- food, taxes, &c., except 4 pence which goes to accumulation of wealth. 19. Banlcs and Money. — The banking-power of a country may be said to consist of the paid-up capital of its banks, the deposits exclusive of savings-banks, and the amount of con- vertible paper money. With regard to money we can count only gold, silver, and convertible notes, the amount represented by nickel and copper being insignificant. Inconvertible notes, to use Leon Say's words, are dishonest money, and not to be counted. 20. Earnings. — To determine the annual earnings of a nation, take — Agricultural : 60 per cent, of gross annual product. Manufacturing : 50 per cent, of output of mills and artisans. Minerals, forestry, iisheries: total annual value produced. Commercial: 10 per cent, on aggregate internal trade. Transport: lOJ per cent, on same. House-rent: 6 per cent, on value of houses. Domestic wages : two-thirds of house-rent. Public service: 50 per cent, of national revenue. Professions: 10 per cent, on sum of all preceding. The above formula is followed throughout in the present work. 21. Wealth. — For the purpose of the present inquiry wealth is classified under ten headings. Land is capitalised at thirty times the annual assessed value. Cattle are taken usually at official estimate (except in the case of Austria) where such is found to exist. Farm implements, &c., aie computed as 10 12 INDUSTRTES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS per cent, on the aggregate value of land and stock, thus form- ing 9 per cent, of farming capital. Houses are capitalised at 16J times the rental. Furniture, on the basis of London insurance, is estimated at 50 per cent, of the value of the house to which it belongs, and, moreover, includes pictures books, jewellery, clothing, carriages, &c. Eailways^ are put down at their cost of construction. Factories are valued at one-third of their annual output, this ratio being found to exist in France and the United States. Bullion estimates are according to the latest official statements. Merchandise com- prises the aggregate value of all agricultural, manufacturing mining, fishing, and forestry products, as well as imported goods, existing at any time in a country, which may be taken as 50 per cent, of the annual amount.^ Sundries embrace all other components of wealth, and in the present work are estimated at 20 per cent, of the total, because in the case of France they form that ratio. In all cases, meantime, when Frobate returns enable us to determine the exact amount of wealth, as in the United Kingdom, the item of Sundries will be found simply to express the balance unaccounted for or undefinable. 22 Taxation.--Fov greater clearness taxation must be con- sidered from three points of view : first, the national revenue of a countiy ; secondly, the amount levied yearly by taxation, excluding all pubhc services; thirdly, the total burthen of taxes, general and local. In some countries the receipts from State railways constitute the largest item of revenue. In order to arrive at the amount of taxation we must exclude Pntf'offl *^!.^^™'°f f S*^*« '•^ilWs, but also those of the Post-Office, Crown lands, &c. The annual burthen borne by a nation consists of the collective amount of national and ocal taxes, and the incidence of same should be calculated Ir^ lu° f °^ *° '^'^"^"^^' ^"^tead of counting how many shillings per head of the population. ^ ^ The United States Census Commission has adopted 75 per cent. INTRODUCTION 13 23. Debt. — On this point a similar method as in taxes is to be followed : first, the nominal amount of national debt in a country ; secondly, the debt after deduction of the value of State railways ; thirdly, the burthen of real debt, national and local. The incidence of debt is to be computed not at so much per inhabitant, but in the ratio it bears to the wealth of the nation. Note. — The whole scheme of the book is based on the tables in the Appendix, which will for this reason be found to elucidate the several subjects that are treated in succession. None but English weights and measures are employed. American money is reduced to the pound sterling at 4 dols. 80 cents, French at 25 francs, Austrian and Dutch at 12 florins or guilders, Russian at 10 roubles. A ton is always a long ton, that is, 2240 lbs. or 1000 kilogrammes. Acres are in all cases English statute acres, and grain is taken as 8 bushels to the quarter, 5 quarters or 40 bushels to the ton. A milliard signifies one thousand millions. For sake of brevity the Austro-Hungarian monarchy is termed Austria, and in a few cases the ancient title Scandinavia is used to comprehend Sweden, Nor- way, and Denmark. British Colonies ^ comprises only Canada and Australia, the rest being outside the scope of survey. OfS.cial returns are as a rule adopted, unless in a few cases where they are manifestly incorrect, but even then the ofScial figure is given, sub- ject to protest, as occurs in the cotton manufactures of Spain. ^ The only exception is as regards population on page 14, where South Africa is included. II NATIONS OF CHEISTENDOM There has never been a period of ancient or modern times wherein the population of civilised nations has increased so rapidly as in the last sixty-five years, that is about the length of an ordinary Kfe-time, viz. : — 1831. 1896. Increase. Per Cent. United Kingdom 24,200,000 39,500,000 15,300,000 63 Prance 32,500,000 38,400,000 5,900,000 18 Germany 29,800,000 52,200,000 22,400,000 75 Russia 55,000,000 105,800,000 50,800,000 92 Austria 29,900,000 43,400,000 13,500,000 45 Italy . 21,000,000 31,200,000 10,200,000 4S Other countries 36,000,000 58,500,000 369,000,000 22,500,000 62 Europe 228,400,000 140,600,000 62 United States 9,700,000 70,400,000 60,700,000 626 British Colonies 1,900,000 11,600,000 9,700,000 211,000,000 510 Total 240,000,000 451,000,000 88 So unprecedented a development of population was remark- able for three special circumstances. First, the emigration of 30 million Europeans to America and Australia; second, the influx of 10 millions of rural population into towns; third, the growing preponderance of the English language, now spoken by 120 million persons, as compared with 35 millions in 1831. If we inquire into the causes that impelled 40 millions of Europeans to break up their homes and either cross the seas or migrate into cities, we find that it was a social movement which may be said to date from 1848. The eman- cipation of serfs and the breaking up of noblemen's estates NATIONS OF CHRISTENDOM 15 in Prussia, Austria, Russia, and other countries, completely changed the face of Europe, placing the masses of the people in a much better position than before. Fifty years ago the Continent of Europe counted 100,000 nobles, 1,700,000 soldiers, 11 million persons living in towns, and 205 millions of rural peasantry, the last class for the most part in a state of bondage, ignorance, and destitution, not unlike that of the Helots in ancient Greece. The revolution of 1848, which shook every throne from the Mediterranean to the Baltic, and was accomplished without bloodshed, converted millions of serfs into freemen. At the same time the introduction of railways and of improved agricultural implements enabled the rural population to augment the product of their farms, to find markets everywhere, and to adopt a better standard of living. Steam multiplied the productive energy of nations ; manu- factures and commerce grew with amazing rapidity ; and the condition of Europe underwent in a single generation a greater change than previous centuries had wrought. Men are now better housed, better fed, and better clad than before. The use of sawdust as an ingredient of bread is no longer heard of ; corvee has been abolished ; the schoolmaster is a pro- minent feature in the social world, and except for military service and the overcrowding of the poorer classes in large cities, the aspirations of Christian philanthropy have been in a great degree accomplished. Meantime the improved con- dition of the masses acted as a stimulus among the young and adventurous to seek their fortunes in new worlds, and thus we have seen in forty years no fewer than 25 million Europeans emigrate to America and the British Colonies, viz. : — From 1816-60. 1861-93. Total. United Kingdom . , 2,369,000 8,601,000 10,970,000 Germany . 1,130,000 5,360,000 6,490,000 Italy . 320,000 4,020,000 4,340,000 Other countries . 1,177,000 . 4,996,000 8,693,000 9,870,000 Total 26,674,000 31,670,000 i6 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OP NATIONS Of the emigration since 1851 the United States took 63, South America 13, the British Colonies 11, and other parts of the world 13 per cent., that is to say, the American Continent took 21|^ millions, leaving 5 millions to other parts. We see the result in the extraordinary development of industry and wealth in the United States, Canada, and some of the Spanish American Republics. Nevertheless, 90 per cent, of the American Continent is still uninhabited, and in many parts the traveller may go, for hundreds of miles, through lands of the richest fertility without seeing a house, a human being, or a head of cattle, although wood and water abound. If the present population of the Continent of Europe were trans- ported to Spanish America the average would still be less than 22 inhabitants per square mile, which suffices to show that for centuries to come the western hemisphere will offer an almost unlimited field for the surplus population of the Old World. The rapid growth of cities and towns in the last sixty years is no less true of the United States and Australia than of Europe : the number of cities over 50,000 souls has quad- rupled since 1831, viz. : — Number of Cities. Europe. TJ. States. Brit. Colonies. TotaL 1831 .... 85 4 89 1861 .... 148 16 4 168 1891 .... 255 66 9 320 Cities of this description have quadrupled their inhabitants in Europe since 1831, but in the United States they have multiplied 23-fold, viz. : — Population of Cities. Europe. United States. Colonies. Total. 1831 . 10,700,000 610,000 11,210,000 1861 . 22,600,000 3,100,000 400,000 26,100,000 1891 . 44,800,000 11,700,000 1,700,000 58,200,000 Thus cities (over 50,000 souls) show an increase of 470 per cent, in 60 years, while the population outside them has risen URBAN AND RURAL POPULATION COMPARED IN 1891. U. Kingdom France Germany wa ^ ^ K. ■*-■■■ <: Russia ^H 1 Spain ■ ■ U. States I ■ m m ^ *** . .: Holland H ■ Canada 1 ■ ■ ^^ m Italy ■ Belgium ^^ vt I Urban is shaded. J NATIONS OF CHRISTENDOM jj only 70 per cent., the former growing 6^ times faster than the latter. Europe, as we have seen, has 255 cities of this class, whose aggregate population, it will be found, rose from 25;^ millions in 1861 to 45 millions in 1891. The natural in- crease of these cities in thirty years would have been 8^ millions, from which it appears that at least 10 million persons of the rural population must have flocked into the cities in that interval. They were attracted mostly by higher wages, the earnings of factory hands and domestic servants exceeding those of rustic labourers. At the same time even among the educated classes this migration from country to city has been general, and Laveleye feelingly deplores it as injurious to rural interests. If we distinguish all population under three heads — first, cities of 50,000 upwards; secondly, towns between 10,000 and 50,000; thirdly, rural— we find in 1891 as follows : — Cities. Towns. Rural. Total U. Kingdom . 13,200,000 7,400,000 17,200,000 37,800,000 Eur. Continent . 31,700,000 24,900,000 262,800,000 319,400,000 V. States . . 11,700,000 5,700,000 45,200,000 62,600^000 Total . . 56,600,000 38,000,000 325,200,000 419,800,000 Rural population constitutes in the United Kingdom 45, on the European Continent 82, and in the United States 72, per cent, of the total. There is no country in Europe except Great Britain where urban population exceeds rural By urban we understand the aggregate of all towns and cities over 10,000 souls, and in 1891 the position of the principal countries of Europe was in this respect as follows : — Urban. Rural. Urban Ratio Total. Per Cent. IT. Kingdom 20,600,000 17,200,000 37,800,000 55 France 9,200,000 29,100,000 38,300,000 24 Germany . 15,600,000 86,600,000 52,200,000 30 Russia 10,900,000 86,900,000 97,800,000 11 Austria 5,600,000 35,800,000 41,400,000 14 Italy 5,300,000 25,400,000 30,700,000 17 Other countries 10,000,000 49,000,000 280,000,000 59,000,000 17 Europe , 77,200,000 357,200,000 22 ' See table in Appendix. 1 8 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS Vital statistics for five years ending 1892 show that five countries of Europe have a birth-rate under, and fifteen coun- tries over, 30 per thousand, those under being France, Ireland, Spain, Sweden, and Switzerland ; they also show that death- rate exceeds 20 per thousand in all countries except the United Kingdom and Scandinavia. The mean density of population in Europe is 93 to the square mile; all countries, however, are above 100 except Norway, Sweden, Russia, and Spain. The ratios of the various countries show as follows, per square mile : — Sweden . 28 Scotland . . 140 Italy. . 272 Russia . 50 Austria . 169 Holland . . 374 Spain . 96 France . 188 England . . 530 Ireland . 138 Germany . . 248 Belgium . . 550 Density of population has no necessary effect on the pros- perity of a country, or even on the rate of wages. Scotland and Ireland are almost equal in the number of inhabitants to the square mile, yet the wealth of the former country, as wiU be shown hereafter, exceeds that of the latter by 60 per cent. England has three times as dense a population as France, and wages are, nevertheless, nearly equal in the two countries. Spain is thinly, Italy thickly, populated, and both countries are poor. Belgium has the maximum, Sweden the minimum, per square mile, and both are remarkably prosperous. The number of workers is usually found to be 45 per cent, of the population, and the total for Europe, United States, and the British Colonies is over 201 millions, viz. : — Agriculture. Manufactures. Various. Total U. Kingdom . 2,530,000 9,030,000 5,260,000 16,820,000 France . . 7,220,000 4,720,000 5,350,000 17,290,000 Germany . 9,350,000 9,230,000 6,320,000 23,900,000 Austria . 12,940,000 4,620,000 3,090,000 20,650,000 Other States' 54,250,000 17,080,000 15,840,000 87,170,000 Europe . . 86,290,000 44,680,000 34,860,000 165,830,000 United States . 10,740,000 5,950,000 14,920,000 31,610,000 British Colonies . 1,580,000 1,170,000 1,450,000 4,200,000 Total . 98,610,000 51,800,000 51,230,000 201,640,000 ' These are detailed in the Appendi.x. III. OCCUPATIONS OF MANKIND. G. Britain Ireland France X ■ X X X X X X X X y X X Germany X X X X Italy U. States ^ • • X X X B'' ■ • X X X X • • H X X X Russia ix X X X . RJ ^?c Canada X X • • •■ ^Hx X X X X • • • • ^ X X X Austria ^ • • ■ X X X X ,x* ■ s ^'^^ -S 1 ^ Belgium • ' • '■: X X X X X X X M X X X •• X X X X ^^« XXX ^jP'ficuiiure.^^^^^^ Manujaciitres &■ Minut^.^ X X Commer-ce, ib-c. < NATIONS OF CHRISTENDOM 19 One-half of the world is engaged in agricultural pursuits, one-fourth in manufactures, one-tenth in trade and transport, and the remainder (15 per cent.) in professions, public service, or other useful occupation. ENERGY In little more than half-a-century the ■working-power of nations has trebled in Europe, and multiplied eight-fold in the United States, viz. : — Millions of Foot-Tons Foot-Tons per Daily. Inhabitant. 1840. 1895. 1840. 1895 United Kingdom 9,720 61,410 360 1,570 France . n,460 32,460 330 850 Germany . 10,360 46,360 310 900 Russia . . 44,020 82,700 740 780 Austria . 11,670 23,790 350 560 Italy . 4,160 12,030 220 390 Other countries . 14,260 34,740 350 420 640 Europe . 105,650 293,490 800 United States . 17,360 128,760 1,020 1,850 British Colonies 1,050 18,710 800 2,020 Total . . 124,050 440,960 460 990 Taking the nations of Christendom in the aggregate, the average energy per inhabitant has more than doubled since 1840, that is to say, five men can now do as much as eleven could fifty years ago. This prodigious increase is mainly due to the development of steam, which has grown 35-fold in the interval, the total energy being made up as follows : — Millions of Foot-Tons Daily. Hand. Horse. Steam. Total. 1840 . . . 23,400 93,900 6,750 124,050 1895 . . 38,760 179,880 222,320 440,960 In 1840 steam was in its infancy, and constituted only 5 per cent, of the working-power of Christendom ; in 1895 it 20 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OP NATIONS was equal to the aggregate force of the men and horses of all nations, and as it is much cheaper than horse or hand-power, its use has greatly tended to a fall of prices, owing to reduc- tion of cost not only in production, but also in freight and distribution. The horse-power of steam at various dates in the nations of Christendom summed up approximately thus : — steam, Horae-Power. 1840. 1870. 1895. Kxed . . . 832,000 4,167,000 11,340,000 Railway . 489,000 10,876,000 32,235,000 Steamers . . 326,000 2,746,000 12,006,000 Total . 1,647,000 17,789,000 56,580,000 Steam-power has grown with accelerated speed in late years; thus in thirty years, down to 1870, the annual increase was 540,000 horse-power, but in twenty-five years, since 1870, it has been 1,510,000. In round numbers railway locomotives stand for 60, steamboats 20, and manufactures, mines, &c, 20 per cent, of the steam-power of the world. During the last thirty or forty years so marvellous a change has taken place in the industries and habits of civilised nations, coincident with a great increase of commerce and travelling, that whereas power was formerly used chiefly for production, in one form or other, it is now principally utilised for distribution, that is for the conveyance of passengers and merchandise. The following table shows the amount of energy : — MiUlons of Foot-Tons Daily. Production. Distribution. TotjiL 1840 .... 73,700 50,300 124,000 1895 .... 174,120 266,840 440,960 In fifty-five years the power used for production has risen 140 per cent., that for distribution or locomotion 430 per cent. The following table distinguishes animal energy from that pro- duced by steam, as well as what is used for production from that used in transport or distribution : — IV. Hundreds of Foot-Tons. Foot-Tons ENERGY. Daily per Inhabitant. LB 3 5 1 1 1 S 8 B ! U. States 3 J in "^ bXI IT ° -u >. o 1 13 V : 1 i 1 ° " Tl f9 = * .3 < "3 . >. tn a * ^ NATIONS OF CHRISTENDOM Millions of Foot-Tons DaUy. Animal. Steam. Total. Production. Difitribution. TJ. Kingdom 9,530 51,880 61,410 15,160 46,250 Trance . 12,800 19,660 32,460 11,400 21,060 Germany . 15,760 80,600 46,360 18,800 27,560 Russia . 71,500 11,200 82,700 41,700 41,000 Austria . 14,230 9,560 23,790 10,800 12,990 Italy . . 6,550 5,480 12,030 5,300 6,730 Other States 16,540 18,200 34,740 13,410 21,330 Europe . 146,910 146,580 293,490 116,570 176,920 U. States . 61,000 67,760 128,760 49,460 79,300 Brit. Colonies 10,730 7,980 18,710 8,090 10,620 Total . 218,640 222,320 440,960 174,120 266,840 It appears, therefore, that 40 per cent, of the working- power of the world is used for production, 60 per cent, for transport or distribution, which is exactly the reverse of the ratios in 1840. AGRICULTURE Under this general term is embraced all field industry, whether tillage or pastoral, connected with the great business of the food supply of nations. It has always been the chief occupation of mankind, but the methods in use until the middle of the present century were for the most part rude.. Whether owing to frequent wars, or to the enslaved condition of European peasantry, little or no improvement took place during a thousand years, from the age of Charlemagne till the revolutionary epoch of 1848. Famines were so frequent that Walford gives a list of 160, in which many millions of persons perished. Even after the fall of Buonaparte, in 1815, tillage was in most countries as in the time of the Pharaohs; wooden ploughs were in use, and grain was threshed by driving horses over it. Reaping-hooks and scythes may still be seen in some countries, but the introduction of machinery during the last forty years has been so general that labour is more effective. The production of food in Europe in 1895 shows 22 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS an increase of 76 per cent, in grain, and 38 per cent, in meat, since 1840, viz. : — Grain, Tone. Me.it, Tons. 1840 . . . 82,800,000 B,800,000 1895 . . . 146,000,000 9,.380,000 In the above interval population rose 44 per cent., from wHch we see that the production of meat is less, that of grain more, per inhabitant than in 1840. In order to compare the pro- duction in different countries it is convenient to reduce all kinds of food to a common denominator as bushels of grain, taking a ton of meat as equal to 8 tons of grain, and 3 tons of potatoes, or 100 gallons of wine, equal to a ton of grain. The following table shows the ordinary production for the several countries and the number of bushels to each farming hand : — Mill ions of Bushels. Bushels Grain. Sundries. Total. Hand. United Kingdom . 301 435 736 290 France 724 908 1,632 227 Germany 682 942 1,624 174 Russia . 2,120 948 3,068 89 Austria 780 565 1,345 104 Otlier States 1,126 1,519 5,317 2,645 130 Europe 5,733 11,050 128 United States . 3,575 1,658 5,233 486 Total 9,308 6,975 16,283 168 As regards the capability of a country for supporting popu- lation, it may be said as a rule that the number of inhabitants should not exceed half the number of acres in the productive area; that is to say, for every 100 acres not more than 50 souls. The following table shows that there are seven Euro- pean countries over-populated, viz., Belgium, England, Hol- land, Scotland, Italy, Germany, and Switzerland : — Inhabitants per 100 Productive Acres. United States 20 Sweden . 40 Italy . 60 Russia . 22 France . 43 Scotland 86 Ireland . 30 Austria . 50 Holland 95 Denmark 33 Switzerland 58 England 112 Spain . 35 Germany 59 Belgium 115 VI. AGRICULTURE. Relative Areas of Crops, Pasture and Waste. G. Britain Ireland France Germany V V V V V V V V V V V V V V V V V V V V V V V V V V V V V V V ■ • V V V Austria Italy V V V V V V V V V ^ BB i ■ 1 V V V V Spain V V V V V V V V V V V t4 Denmark Holland Belgium V V V V V 1 i ^ Crops. V V V V • V V V Pasture. '. : '. Waste. \/v/ V V V V V ■' • •' ■ ■ • • • Waste includes forests, mountains, &'<:. VII. VALUE OF AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS. ■PJ^ir'-^^^^ ' ' """"">■ ^^■-■^^^^ \i ■^ ^ j^ si ^ V V » ^'^^^ (^ ""' -J "^ ^ ^1 . -i ^ O I o V :■•::: « 1, ' . V \::^^ ' V QEBMANV ?^ rOS' ,s\f" '^^ \^'- -S. -it^ Tillax-c. 223 Pasture. X V NATIONS OF CHRISTENDOM 23 It will be seen hereafter that those countries which have more than 50 souls to 100 productive acres are obliged to import food largely. The productive area of Europe comprises 580 million acres of tillage, and 527 million of pasture. If we consider the product per acre of the area under tillage in various countries, as regards the value of crops, we find the ratio is very low in the United States — only 43 shillings, as compared with 84 in France and 126 in the United Kingdom; but it pays better in the United States, because each farming hand cultivates 21 acres, against 9 in France and 8 in the United Kingdom. The following table shows the area under crops, the collective value of grain and green crops, and the ratio per acre : — Million Acres. Millions £. £ per Acre. United Kingdom . 20 126 6-3 Prance 67 284 4-2 Germany 65 262 4-0 Russia . . 255 370 1-5 Other States . 173 . 580 627 3-6 Europe 1,669 2-9 United States . 226 486 2-2 British Colonies . 36 55 1-5 Total . . .842 2,210 2-6 The area under crops has risen from 402 million acres in 1840 to 842 millions in 1894, the number of hands at present employed being 98 millions, which gives an average of 8| acres to each. But if the economy of labour were as well understood in all countries as in the United States, where each hand cultivates 21 acres, the tilled area would be 2^ times as great as it is. The production of food, as already shown, reducing all kinds to a grain denominator, is equivalent in the United States to 12 tons, in Europe to 3 tons, per farming hand, which shows what an enormous waste of labour there is in Europe, for want of improved agricultural machi- nery. European peasants undergo more severe toil than the American farmers, yet four of them produce no more food than one agricultural hand in the United States. The value of all farming products in 1894 was approximately as follows: — 24 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS Millions £ Sterling. United Kingdom Continent . Grain. 50 801 Green Crops. 76 742 Meat. 55 352 Bundriee. 49 440 ToteL 230 2,335 United States . 217 269 163 164 813 British Colonies . 31 24 19 53 127 Total . . 1,099 1,111 589 706 3,505 It must here be observed that the above total of 3505 millions sterling does not represent solely articles of food, since green crops include cotton, flax, &c., and under the head of sundries are included hides, wool, and other articles used for clothing or manufactures. Jloreover, the above table comprises the values of all products consumed by cattle, so that when all deductions are made we find the value of human food does not reach 2400 millions sterling, or two-thii-ds of the total. The population of the above countries being, as we have seen, 450 millions, it follows that the consumption of grain, potatoes, meat, dairy products, &c. (taking their value on the farm), hardly exceeds £5 per head yearly, or 2 shillings a week. Pastoral industry, as already shown, has not kept pace in Europe with population. If we compare the actual numbers of live-stock with those in 1850, we find that 100 inhabitants of Europe have now only 30 horned cattle and 58 sheep, as compared with 34 cattle and 78 sheep in 1850. The total value of pastoral products in Europe last year was approxi- mately 896 millions sterling, while those of tillage were 1681 millions. The values compared in various countries thus ; — MilUons £ Sterling. Tillage. Pastoral. Total. United Kingdom 126 104 2S0 France 284 132 41 fi Germany . 262 155 417 Russia 370 170 540 Austria . 210 109 319 Other States . 417 226 643 Europe . . . 1,669 896 2,566 VIII. AGRICULTURAL CAPITAL. Millions £ g i5 3 "00 '- _ 3,000 \ - 2,800 \ 1—. 1 c 2 ..,0 >. ^. :. c -I < 1 1 ''00 ■ * 1 - 1.000- 1 « i^ -a S £ « c (,nf. p '^ 'hn 3 rt a COO y ^ ^ < ,c1 & 1 I "^ 200 1 1 1 1 ll 1 1 C s,s AGRICULTURAL CAPITAL PER INHABITANT. — 110 — rt — — 105 -| — b Q — 96 < — nn V I : i i ta — r5 S— 70 S — 65 ^ "" c rt 1 trt c 1 •3 M -^ ,s rt 60 • ° ^ X ^t3 "iJ 'C ^ 3 IXI M_ SO .2 i; rt a 3 H -40-^ 3 « 1 □ 1 1 IX. Uusliels. AGR Production ICL of LTURE. Grain per Acre. — 38 — 36 —34 — 32 — 30 — 28 "^6 TJ P3 1 i 1 — S 1 (4 ; ? * 1 C £ 1 J — ~ — ■ 1 !>> f t t3 5 — — 22—- — 20 — — 18 — -16 -J s I 3 ■c \ t b ^ 1 c 3 5 ,5 3 s 2 >, c "« i^' 'rt -' en -4 — . Bushels. - 500 FOOD PRODUCTION— Bush els of Grain per Farming Hand. i3~ t3- ■g JS .§ — 380 -360 - 340 s — B r li W 3 ^ i [ % — 240 c r^ is 1' « ^ C -200 % — — 7 — 'c r C t " s t I n - 140 - t —120—'] . •1 ^ = — 80 — — — — 40 — — — 20 — In thU latter table all khids of food are reduced to a gram denominator. \ £ stg. AGRICULTURE. Product per Farming Hand, Value. ci —140 5 —120 Jd B 1 Den :ate — 80 H I 1 n § 3 XT & 33 Si o .5 — 40— t SO— < '3 o tr W B 1 1 10° 1 1 i 10 1 1 Shilling:s. PRODUCT PER ACRE, VALUE. — 150 ^ g o w- M —130 — -120 — 110 — 100 — m ^ > d i 1 i C 5 fe rt b i 9 80 — 70— J —60 -J — 50—1: — 40 — = -^ ri a - a ' s 1 i 1 1 — u ■3 — s + — «0 — — 10 — z 1 1 1^ 1 NATIONS OF CHRISTENDOM 25 The farm products of Europe sum up a value of 2565 millions, or three times as much as those of the United States, but the former occupy 86 million persons, the latter hardly 11 millions, so that the average product per hand is three times as great in the United States as in Europe, as regards value, the average as regards weight of food being four to one, as already shown. Hence it appears that farm products are much cheaper in the United States than in Europe. Agricultural capital in the nations of Christendom exceeds 21,000 millions sterling, land representing more than 80 per cent, of the total. The principal countries show as follows : — Millions £ Sterling. £ Laud. Cattle, &o. Total. Inhab. United Kingdom 1,686 891 2,077 53 France . 2,580 613 3,093 80 Germany 1,977 531 2,508 48 Russia . 2,113 597 2,710 26 Austria . 1,473 324 1,797 41 Italy . 1,180 219 1,399 45 Other States . 2,803 543 3,346 56 Europe . 13,812 3,118 16,930 46 United States 3,314 828 4,142 59 British Colonies 466 231 697 75 Total . 17,592 4,177 21,769 48 The value of all farm products being, as already shown, approximately 3505 millions, the ratio of gross product to capital is about 16 per cent. The ratio, as a rule, is high where land is cheap, and vice versa ; thus it is 11 per cent, in the United Kingdom, 16 on the European Continent, 20 in the United States, and 1 8 in the British Colonies. Comparing the above statement with a similar one for 1840, we find : — Millions £ Sterling. 1894. Europe . U. States Colonies Land. . 6,471 400 44 Cattle, &o. 1,695 196 11 Total. 8,166 596 55 Land. 13,812 3,314 Cattle, &o. Total. 3,118 16,930 828 4,142 231 697 Total 6,915 1,902 8,817 17,592 4,177 21,769 26 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS If we compare agricultural capital and product with the number of hands engaged, the result will be as follows : — MUlioQS £. No. of , Hands. £per Hand. Capital. Product. Capital. Product. U. Kingdom . . 2,077 230 2,530,000 820 91 Eur. Continent . 14,853 2,335 83,760,000 177 28 United States . 4,142 8!3 10,740,000 3S5 76 Colonies 697 127 1,580,000 441 220 80 Total . 21,769 3,505 98,610,000 35 The amount of capital and of product per hand is higher in the United Kingdom than in the United States, and higher also than the average for the British Colonies. FOEESTS AND FISHERIES These are industries of minor note, occupying an indeter- minate number of persons. A large number of the farming population in Russia, Norway, Canada, and some other coun- tries spend a portion of the year in felling timber, and in those countries like Norway, which have an extensive sea- board, many of the farmers are also fishermen. The aggregate value of the two industries does not reach 300 millions ster- ling per annum ; hence the total number of persons employed can hardly exceed 6 millions. The annual product may be summed up thus : — United Kingdom France Germany Russia Austria Scandinavia Other States Forestry. £ . 2,000,000 14 000,000 13,000,000 40,200,000 18,000,000 13,000,000 . 15,800,000 Fishing. £ 7,500,000 4,800,000 1,000,000 2,200,000 300,000 5,000,000 3,200,000 Total. £ 9,500,000 18,800,000 14,000,000 42,400,000 18,300,000 18,000,000 19,000,000 Europe United States . British Colonies , 116,000,000 120,000,000 . 21,000,000 24,000,000 9,400,000 5,600,000 140,000,000 129,400,000 26,600,000 Total . 257,000,000 39,000,000 296,000,000 NATIONS OF CHRISTENDOM 27 The felling of timber in Europe reaches 20 million tons monthly, and in the United States is estimated at the high figure of 50 million tons a month. Moreover, the cutting in Canada by latest returns was nearly 4 million tons monthly. Thus it appears that the forests of the above countries yield 3 million tons of timber daily. The following table shows the actual forest area, the weight of timber cut yearly, and the possible yield : — Forest. Cutting. Cwt. Possible Yield. Million Million per Million Acres. Tons. Acre. Tons. Russia . 498 130 5 374 Scandinavia . . 64 18 6 48 Other States . . 146 82 11 110 Europe . . 708 230 7 532 United States . . 466 600 26 350 Canada . . 218 48 4 164 Total . 1,392 878 12 1,046 Where afforestation is carefully attended to, the product (between firewood and timber) may reach 15 cwt. yearly per acre without diminishing the forest area. Thus Europe could yield more than double what the forests now produce. On the other hand the United States are rapidly consuming their forest capital, the actual felling of timber being 70 per cent, more than the normal growth ; hence it will be necessary in the coming century to take measures to limit the destruction of forests, and preserve a minimum of 200 million acres, that is, 1 acre per inhabitant of the probable population one hun- dred years hence. In the above table the forest area of Canada is that of the old provinces, exclusive of the North- West, which has 1030 million acres under timber. The product of all European forests is equal to a value of 40 pence an acre yearly, but if Russia were excluded the average would be 85 pence. The forests of the United States yield 62 pence, those of Canada 18 pence, per acre. The countries which stand pre-eminent in fisheries are the United States, Great Britain, France, Canada, and Norway. NATIONS OF CHRISTENDOM 29 Wool and cotton were nearly equal as regards weight down to 1840, but since that year the latter has rushed ahead, and at present more than doubles wool. Jute came first into notice in 1850, the consumption now exceeding 600,000 tons yearly. The value of all textile manufactures is approxi- mately 826 millions sterling per annum, an average of £170 for every ton of fibre consumed. The shares corresponding to the principal nations in the output of textiles are shown approximately as follows : — Millions £, Sterling. Year. U. King. France. Germany. U. States. Various. Total. 1840 . . 92 52 22 15 65 246 1894 . . 191 115 108 161 251 826 In 1840 the United States held the lowest rank as regards textiles among the four great manufacturing nations, but since then the Union has passed both France and Germany in the race, and bids fair to rival Great Britain before long. In the manufactures of the world textiles stand for one-seventh of the total. Their value in various countries is approximately as follows : — Millions £. Cottons. Woollens. Silks. Linens, &c. Total. United Kingdom 92 62 6 31 191 France 22 45 28 20 115 Germany 35 42 17 14 108 Russia 20 29 3 24 76 Austria 18 15 5 18 66 Other States 42 30 17 23 112 Europe 229 223 76 130 658 United States . 56 44 18 43 161 Total . 285 267 94 173 819 The value of textiles made in the Oolonies added to the above brings up the total to 826 millions. The consumption of fibre in the world's factories averages 440,000 tons monthly, or almost 20,000 tons daily, and the output of goods is nearly 3 millions sterling each day. Cotton represents more than half the total weight, wool only one- 3° INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS fifth. The consumption of is as follows, yearly : — fi.bre among the principal nations U. Kingdom France Germany Russia Austria . Other countries Europe . United States . Other countries Total Cotton. 696,000 165,000 260,000 150,000 135,000 300,000 1,706,000 520,000 314,000 Wool. 246,000 170,000 160,000 110,000 55,000 117,000 858,000 210,000 18,000 Flax, (ko. 460,000 195,000 110,000 200,000 180,000 179,000 1,324,000 220,000 112,000 Total. 1,402,000 530,000 530,000 460,000 370,000 596,000 3,888,000 950,000 444,000 Lbs. per Inhabi- tant. 80 30 23 10 20 14 22 30 2,540,000 1,086,000 1,656,000 5,282,000 Europe consumes nearly four times as much fibre as it produces, the other parts of the world having a great surplus; the production may be summed up thus ; — Tons. Wool. Cotton. Flax, iSic. Total. Europe . 351,000 754,000 1,105,000 United States 135,000 1,950,000 60,000 2,145,000 Australia 305,000 305,000 Argentina 120,000 15,000 135,000 The East, &c. 175,000 590,000 827,000 1,592,000 Total 1,086,000 2,540,000 1,656,000 5,282,000 Hardware. — This industry has grown more than twice as fast as that of textiles, the production of iron being now ten times as great as in 1840, showing as follows : — Iron, Tons. U. Kingdom. 1840 . 1,390,000 1893 . 6,750,000 U. states. Germany. Otber State*. Tot-il. 290,000 170,000 830,000 2,680,000 7,120,000 4,830,000 7,310,000 26,010,000 Fifty years ago Great Britain produced more than half the world's supply of iron, her share at present being one-fourth ; she holds, moreover, the second place, her production beimr NATIONS OF CHRISTENDOM 31 much less than that of the United States. Down to the year 1860 France held next place after Great Britain, producing twice as much iron as Germany, but now the position of these countries is reversed, the make of iron in Germany being more than double the French. Comprehending under the term hardware all manufactured goods in which iron, steel, copper, or other metal forms the chief component, it may be said that Great Britain makes one-fourth, the United States one-third, and other nations the remainder, the output comparing with that of 1840 as follows : — Millions £ Sterling. U. King. U. States. Germany. France. Other States. Total. 1840 . 30 10 12 12 26 90 1894 . 142 229 105 47 80 603 The value of metallic ores raised yearly averages 70 millions sterling; it appears, therefore, that the hardware produced represents nearly nine times the value of the original mineral. Leather. — This is the third great staple of manufacturing industry; it employs more than 4 million hands, the annual output of whose labours amounts to 450 millions sterling, or about £1,500,000 a day. The actual weight of leather con- sumed is not known, but that of hides produced yearly gives ground for a well-reasoned estimate, 100 lbs. of hide yielding 60 lbs. of leather. The production and consumption of hides is as follows : — Tons Produced. ■■ Sheep- ^ Consumption Cowhide. skin. Pigskin, ifec. Total. Tons Hides. U. Kiogdom . 49,000 40,000 13,000 102,000 196,000 France 58,000 27,000 20,000 105,000 150,000 Gernaany , 79,000 18,000 36,000 133,000 220,000 Hussia 124,000 65,000 48,000 237,000 190,000 Other countries 156,000 82,000 60,000 297,000 366,000 Europe 465,000 232,000 177,000 874,000 1,122,000 United States . 228,000 57,000 135,000 420,000 510,000 Other countries 267,000 321,000 28,000 616,000 278,000 Total . 960,000 610,000 340,000 1,910,000 1,910,000 32 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS The consumption of hides in Europe greatly exceeds pro- duction, the deficit being covered by supplies from Australia and Argentina. If we reduce the hides to their equivalent in leather, it will be seen that the annual consumption of the latter, compared with population, averages 7 lbs. per inhabi- tant in the United Kingdom, 5 lbs. in France, 6 lbs. in Germany, 2 lbs. in Russia, and 4 lbs. for the whole of Europe, while the average in the United States reaches 10 lbs. per inhabitant. The world consumes almost 1,200,000 tons of leather yearly, or 100,000 tons monthly, and Great Britain stands for one-tenth of the total. The total manufacturing output of nations at various dates has been approximately as follows : — Millions £ Sterling. 1820. 1840. I860. 1S94. United Kingdom 290 387 577 876 France 240 330 430 696 Germany . 1S5 305 410 690 Austria . 105 175 232 328 Other States 340 517 710 1,076 Europe . . 1,160 1,711 2,359 3,566 United States . 55 96 392 1,952 Total . . 1,215 1,810 2,751 5,518 The United States produce about one-third of the manufac- turing total of nations, as they do also of grain and meat, while their population is less than one-sixth. The value of American manufactures is artificially raised, by Protective tariffs, fully 33 per cent, over the real value; the latter amounts, therefore, to about 146-t millions sterling, or the value conjointly of British and French manufactures. Ameri- can manufactures have multiplied just twenty-fold since 1840, while those of Europe have only doubled. Nearly all American manufactures are produced by machinery, while in Europe more than half is hand-work ; the result is that the output per hand in the United States is much greater, viz. : — NATIONS OF CHRISTENDOM 33 Value, Millions £.. Hands. £ per Hand. United Kingdom 876 8,185,000 107 France . . 696 4,480,000 133 Germany. . 690 8,830,000 79 Austria . . 328 4,470,000 73 Other States 1,076 12,435,000 86 Europe . 3,566 38,400,000 93 United States . 1,952 5,400,000 360' The fixed steam-power of nations is approximately thus : Europe 63, United States 37, per cent. ; and manufacturing output : Europe 65, United States 35, per cent, of total. At the same time the number of operatives in the United States is only 12 per cent., while that in Europe is 88 per cent., of the total, showing a great economy of labour in the former, due to the universal use of improved machinery. As regards the consumption of manufactured goods, if we consider only three of the most important, we find as follows : — Millions £ Sterling per Annum. Shillings Textiles. Hardware. Leather. Total. per Inhab. United Kingdom 122 96 56 274 138 France 91 46 37 174 90 Germany . 92 94 60 246 96 Russia 76 22 57 165 30 Other countries . 157 538 61 319 107 317 325 48 Europe 1,174 63 United States . 182 222 108 512 148 Total . . 720 541 425 1,686 76 The aggregate value of the above manufactures consumed in Europe averages 2 pence a day per inhabitant ; the ratio varies from 1 penny in Russia to 3 pence in France or Germany, and 4 pence in the United Kingdom per inhabitant. It would seem to be still higher in the United States, but if we deduct one-fourth the nominal value, for inflation of prices arising from a Protective tariff, we find that the ratio in that country is only 111 shillings, or 3 J pence daily. ^ If we suppose the inflation of prices in the United States by the action of Protective tariffs to be, as already stated, 33 per cent, over the real value, the ratio of manufactures per operative will be £270, or three times the European average. C 34 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OP NATIONS MINING This age is specially remarkable for the development of subterranean industry, for while agriculture has only doubled, and manufactures have quadrupled, since 1840, the output of mining has multiplied thirteen-fold. The principal features of this industry are shown approximately since 1820 as follows: — Tear. Han da. Tons raised £ Value. £ per Hand. 1820 260,000 26,100,000 17,800,000 70 1840 442,000 56,200,000 31,500,000 70 1860 1,016,000 182,600,000 76,000,000 75 1880 1,760,000 420,400,000 149,000,000 85 1894 3,130,000 746,000,000 302,000,000 96 Coal constitutes 70, other minerals 30 per cent, of the total •weight raised. Such progress has been made in machinery that the average output per miner is now 240 tons, as com- pared with 125 tons in 1840; thus, while the mines have gone deeper, we find that one man now raises as much mineral stuff as two could fifty years ago. In point of value no country approaches the United States, but in weight of mineral Great Britain is ahead. It may be said as regards weight, that Great Britain raises one-third, the United States one-third, and all other nations collectively one-third of the minerals of the world. The weight and value of minerals, and the number of miners, in 1894 were : — MilUon MUUons £per Tons per Tons. £. Miners. Miner. Miner. Great Britain . 240 78 840,000 93 285 TJuited States . 230 94 580,000 162 400> Germany . 115 34 400,000 85 287 France . . 38 16 180,000 90 210 Other States . . 123 80 1,130,000 71 110 Total . 746 302 3,130,000 96 240 The money value of product per miner is higher in Great Britain than among other European nations, but is greatly ' The exact number of miners is not known. See chapter on Jlining in t)ie TJnited States. The ratio in 1880 was even higher, viz., 440 tons per miner. XIII. WEIGHT OF MINERAL RAISED YEARLY. VALUE OF MINERAL PRODUCED YEARLY. NATIONS OF CHRISTENDOM 35 surpassed by the ratio in the United States, perhaps because in the latter country the difficulties of extraction are less. Coal. — This is the great lever of industrial progress, and the production has grown thirty-fold since 1820, showing as follows : — 1820. 1894. Great Britain, tons . . 12,500,000 188,300,000 United States, „ . , 500,000 152,500,000 Germany, „ . . 1,500,000 99,000,000 Other States, „ . 2,700,000 91,200,000 Total . . 17,200,000 531,000,000 The consumption of coal has quadrupled since 1860, and there is every indication that the demand will go on increas- ing. The supply, meantime, is practically inexhaustible, the British coalfields having enough to meet the requirements of all Europe, at the present rate, for 230 years, the German for 100 years, the United States for many centuries, without counting other countries, such as Canada, Australia, and China, where coal-mining is in its infancy. Ironstone. — This mineral comes next in magnitude after coal, and has multiplied eight-fold in half-a-century, the output showing : — 1840. 1894. Great Britain, tons . . 3,500,000 12,400,000 United States, „ . 600,000 17,000,000 Germany, „ . . 400,000 12,400,000 Other States, „ . . 2,000,000 11,200,000 Total. . . . 6,400,000 53,000,000 Miscellaneous ores, such as lead, copper, zinc, &c., make up an annual total of 7 million tons, from which are extracted about a million tons of metal. Precious Metals. — ^The production of gold and silver in forty- four years was as follows : — Weight, TouB. Value, Millions £,. Gold. SilTer. Gold. Silver. 1851-70 3,903 21,157 546 187 1871-90 . 3,340 54,037 467 412 1891-94 865 18,620 121 103 44 years . 8,108 93,714 1,134 702 36 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS According to the tradition of the older class of bi-metaUists the production of silver should be sixteen times the weight of that of gold, in order to maintain the equilibrium of value between the two metals. If this principle be admitted the production of gold since 1851 has been relatively excessive, that of silver short, the production of the latter to the former, in weight, having been only twelve to one. Hence, if the pro- duction of the two metals determined their value, silver ought to be now worth 33 per cent, more than in 1850, whereas, on the contrary, it has fallen 50 per cent. The countries which produced these metals since 1850 show thus : — Gold, MUUons Silver, MillionB Tons. £. Tons. £. United States 2,873 = 402 United States 30,350 = 217 Australia . 2,678 374 Mexico 29,910 226 Kuesia 1,377 193 South America 13,410 103 Other States 1,180 165 Other States . 20,044 156 Total 8,108 =1,134 Total . 93,714 = 702 The production of gold and silver in the years 1891-94 gave an average exceeding the annual yield in any decade of the world's history, namely, 216 tons of gold and 4630 of silver. Even in the decade 1851-60, when OaUfomia and Australia were in their apogee, the world's production of gold did not exceed 202 tons yearly. Everything indicates that the concluding decade of the century, 1891-1900, wiU surpass in this respect anything in the records of the human race. The production in 1894 was as follows : — Value, £. Weight, Tons. Gold. Silver. Total? Gold. SJlvar. United States 8,200,000 6,100,000 14,300,000 59 1,540 Span, America 3,200,000 9,900,000 13,100,000 23 2,480 Australia . 8,700,000 2,200,000 10,900,000 63 560 South Africa 8,400,000 8,400,000 61 Russia 5,700,000 6,700,000 42 Other States 3,500,000 2,300,000 5,800,000 25 580 Total . 37,700,000 20,500,000 68,200,000 273 5,160 XIV, Increase of Gold and Silver since 1800. ISSf STOCK OF GOLD AND OF SILVER, RELATIVE WEIGHT. 7af8 Gold — shaded. Silver — unshaded. XV. XVI. PRICE-LEVELS OF 10 AND OF 20 PRINCIPAL ARTICLES. 1794 1800 1810 1820 1830 1840 1850 1860 1870 1880 1800 1895 [ *'80 1 \ \ 260 \ 950 / i 1 / \ // \ / \\ / \ 1 "00 \ \ 100 1 A / w // k 170 w // ij v\ y 7 1 V V \ j \| ,\ \ j \ \ 1 ^\ \1 \ \ \ \ Price-level of lo articles. ^ Price-level 0/20 article s.^'''-'^''''''^,^.'^-^ XVII. NATIONS OF CHRISTENDOM 37 There has been in recent years a remarkable increase in the production of silver, which now averages 5000 tons, whereas in twenty years, down to 1870, it averaged only 1050 tons yearly. Gold quartz varies so much in yield that no exact statement can be made of the quantity crushed, the product "of gold being equivalent in Australia to 40 shillings, in Russia to 5 shillings, a ton. Silver ore usually gives £20 worth a ton. According to Soetbeer, and other eminent authorities, the manufacturing industries of the world consume yearly about 100 tons of gold, and 500 of silver. The stock of precious metals, coined and uncoined, at various dates was approxi- mately as follows : — Gold, Tons. SUver, Tons. Coined. Uncoined. Total. Coined. Uncoined. Total. 1800 . . 908 1,822 2,730 42,000 46,000 88,000 1848 . . 1,125 2,450 3,575 45,200 67,800 113,000 1894 . . 5,840 3,460 9,300 92,000 89,000 181,000 The stock of silver compared to gold in 1848 was as thirty- two to one, whereas at present it is less than twenty to one, and yet silver has fallen 50 per cent, in price, a sufficient proof that the relative stocks of the two metals have no perceptible connection with their value as regards one to another. In the mining product of the world the precious metals last year stood for 58 millions sterling, or one-fifth of the whole. TRANSPOET It is to the rapid increase of the means of transport by land and sea that the wonderful development of all industries in the last half-century is mainly due. The number of persons actually engaged in the carrying trade is over 8J millions, and (apart from passenger traffic) the value of goods handled is approximately 11,200 millions sterling, being an average of £1300 to each carrier. The number of carriers is approxi- mately as follows : — 8 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS By Rail. By Sea.l By Eoad, &c. TotaL United Kingdom 230,000 520,000 440,000 1,190,000 Eur. Continent 1,350,000 840,000 3,740,000 5,930,000 United States. 870,000 120,000 330,000 1,320,000 Colonies . . 90,000 30,000 80,000 200,000 Total . 2,540,000 1,510,000 4,590,000 8,640,000 The transport earnings in the various countries sum up a total of 1173 millions sterling, or £135 for each hand employed, which covers not only the wages of carriers, but also the main- tenance of draught horses, and the numerous expenses on railways, shipping, &c., over and above wages. The earnings are shown approximately as follows : — By Rail. MilUon By Sea. s £ Sterling. By Koad, ic. Total. United Kingdom . 84 54 31 169 France 55 5 66 126 Germany . . 71 9 62 142 KuBsia . 35 3 70 108 Other countries . 73 18 171 262 Europe 318 89 400 807 United States . 223 23 81 327 Colonies . . 19 5 15 39 Total . 560 117 496 1,173 Railways and shipping perform at present the bulk of the carrying trade, the weight of merchandise carried by them having multiplied seven-fold in the last twenty-four years, viz. : — Millions of Tons. Tear. By Rail. By Ship. Total. 1860 222 45 267 1880 . 1,070 113 1,183 1894 . 1,790 176 1,966 The actual traflSc by rail and ship is equal to 5,500,000 tons daily, in the transport of which, as we have seen, are employed ' This includes not only sailors on the high seas, but also those engaged in coasting, harbours, inland waters, &c. NATIONS OF CHRISTENDOM 39 4,050,000 men ; that is to say, each carrier of these two classes moves IJ ton daily. Taking the working year as 310 days, the sum paid daily for freight, in one or other form, is £3,800,000, by 193 million persons engaged in various in- dustries : thus each worker in the human family of the civilised nations of Christendom pays 5 pence a day for freight, or one-tenth of the fruits of his industry. The number of carriers compared to other workers is as four to ninety, and the amount of capital employed in their calling represents 11 per cent, of the aggregate wealth of mankind, being approximately as follows : — MilUone £. Railways 6,745 Shipping 246 Horses, waggons, &c. ..... 459 Total . . . .7,450 The capital represented by each hand employed in carrying is nearly £900 ; the wealth of all the rest of the world divided among the other workers (193 million hands) is only £320 each. The earnings of each carrier, as we have seen, average £135 a year; those of the other workers of the world only reach £52 each. Hence it appears that the carrying trade shows a very high ratio of capital and earnings to the number of hands employed. This subject of transport is treated in further detail under the headings of Shipping and Railways. COMMERCE AND SHIPPING The international trade of the world has grown six-fold since 1840, the aggregate value of imports and exports of merchandise showing as follows : — Millions £ Sterling. G. Britain. France. Germany. U. States. Other States, Total. 1840 . 114 66 52 41 301 574 1894 . 682 277 346 322 1,678 3,305 4o INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS The exports of one country become the imports of another, but in the latter form merchandise assumes a higher value, the difference being caused by freight, insurance, commission, &c. Thus in the decade 1871-80 imports appeared to exceed exports by 13J per cent., but in the decade ending 1890 the excess was only 8 per cent. A reduction in freights and charges has been the cause, merchants being now able to work with a relatively smaller capital, since telegraphs facilitate business, and often save the necessity for shipments of specie. The weight and value of searborne merchandise at various dates were approximately as follows : — Tear. Tong. Millions £. £ per Ton. 1840 . . . H,700,000 266 18-1 1860 . . . 44,500,000 695 15-6 1880 . . . 112,800,000 1,435 127 1893 . . 176,300,000 1,620 9-2 The average value of a ton of merchandise is now only half what it was fifty years ago, which means that a large portion of merchandise now exchanged among nations is relatively of so cheap a nature that in former times it would not have paid to carry it from one country to another, apart from the fact that since 1840 there has been a notable fall in prices. In order to measure the alterations of price-level, the method of index numbers has been for many years followed by various writers. If we take the prices in England of ten principal articles of merchandise (namely, beef, butter, coffee, copper, iron, silk, sugar, tallow, timber, and wheat), the aggregate for 1895 being represented by the figure 1000, the comparisoil with previous dates will be found to stand thus : — 1794 . . 1,717 1830 . 1,371 1870 . . 1,523 1800 . . 2,440 1840 . . 2,128 1880 . 1,400 1810 . . 2,580 1850 . 1,351 1890 . 1,180 1820 . . 1,933 1860 . 1,765 1895 . . 1,000 It appears from this table that 20 shillings will now buy as much as 28 would in 1880, or 42 in 1840. The above fall in prices is mainly the result of machinery and easier transport, XVIII. INTERNATIONAL COMMERCE. Proportions corresponding to Principal Nations. 28S4: Proportions of Sea-Borne Merchandise. ISfiJ XIX. NATIONS OF CHRISTENDOM 41 not an increased appreciation of gold, since we see that wages, salaries, and house-rents have risen in all countries since 1850. The following table shows the articles of most bulk in sea- borne merchandise : — Tons. 1S40. 1860. 189S. Coal . 1,400,000 10,800,000 61,000,000 Grain . 1,900,000 4,300,000 24,100,000 Timber 4,100,000 6,600,000 18,600,000 Metals 1,100,000 3,200,000 12,400,000 Sundries 6,200,000 20,600,000 60,200,000 Total 14,700,000 44,500,000 176,300,000 Thus we see that four articles of relatively low value con- stitute two-thirds of the weight of merchandise exchanged between nations. If the imports and exports of nations be added together we shall have, of course, a sum representing more than double the value of merchandise exchanged. This value, as we have seen, was 1620 millions sterling in 1893; the annual average of trade in five years preceding, between imports and exports, was 3380 millions, the currents of trade between the various countries showing as follows : — Millions £ Sterling. G. Britain. France. Germany. U. States. Other states. Total. Great Britain . 67 56 140 465 728 France . . 67 28 26 195 316 Germany . . 56 28 36 235 S55 United States . 140 26 36 148 350 Other States . 465 195 235 148 688 1,631 Total . 728 316 355 350 1,631 3,380 Great Britain stands alone in the magnitude of her trade, which is more than double that of any other country, the second place being closely contested by Germany, United States, and Trance. The preceding tables have reference only to merchandise. As regards the value of specie sent over sea, in the last thirty-four years, we find as follows : — 42 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS Millions £ Sterling. Gold. Silver. 612 474 504 427 738 436 Total 1861-70 ... 612 474 986 1871-80 ... 504 427 931 1881-94 ... 738 436 1,174 34 years . . 1,754 1,337 3,091 The above includes all gold and silver, coined and uncoined ; the amounts imported and exported by the principal nations in the whole term of thirty-four years, according to official returns, were as follows : — Millions £ Sterling. G. Britain. TJ. States. France. Other States. Total.1 Imported . . 946 245 797 1,103 3,091 Exported . . 836 482 534 1,239 3,091 France and Great Britain have had a great influx of precious metals, the United States a large outflow. Among the other States it is worthy of notice that Australia exported 251 millions, Spanish America 261 millions, the former all gold, the latter four-fifths silver. On the other hand, India and China absorbed no less than 106 millions gold, and 551 millions sterling of silver. It is doubtless due to telegraphs that the amount of bullion, as compared with merchandise, sent over sea has declined in a remarkable manner, showing as follows in yearly averages : — MillloTis £ per Annum. Specie , » , Ratio, Mercliandise. Specie. Per Cent. 1861-70 . . 830 99 12 1871-80 . . . 1,216 93 8 1881-94 . . . 1,555 84 5J Thus for all purposes of international commerce £45 in bullion now do as much work as £100 in the decade ending 1870, a fact which bi-metallists seem to overlook. For greater clearness on this point we may exclude silver, and take account only of sea-borne gold, the annual averages of which compare thus with merchandise since 1861 : — ' Detailed tables will be found in the Appendix. NATIONS OF CHRISTENDOM 43 JUlliona'£ per Annum. Gold ^ -^ ^ Ratio, Merchandise. Gold. Per Cent. 1861-70 ... 830 61 6-1 1871-80 . . . 1,216 50 4-1 1881-94 . . . 1,655 52 S'S We see that while commerce has doubled since the decade 1861-70, the amount of gold sent over sea is unaltered, show- ing that one ounce of gold now serves as efficiently in inter- national exchanges as two ounces did thirty years ago. Shipping. — ^The registered tonnage of shipping on the high seas in 1894 was more than double the total in Lloyd's Register for 1840 ; the carrying-power has quintupled, viz. : — Tons. Steam. Sail. Total. Carrying-power. 1840 . 368,000 9,012,000 9,380,000 10,480,000 1894 . 10,150,000 10,100,000 20,250,000 50,700,000 In the computation of carrying-power a steamer of given tonnage is considered equal to four times the same tonnage of sailing-vessels, because it is found by ship-owners that a steamer makes three long-sea or ten short voyages for one of a sailing-vessel. The nominal tonnage and effective carrying- power of the sea-going merchant-navies in 1894 were : — Flag. Nom. Tons. Carrying-power. Ratio British . 10,380,000 29,560,000 58-2 Scandinavian 2,380,000 4,030,000 8-0 German . 1,550,000 4,220,000 8-3 United States ^ 1,880,000 3,220,000 6-3 French . 890,000 2,360,000 4-7 Spanish . 680,000 2,120,000 4-2 Italian . 780,000 1,410,000 2-8 Various . 1,760,000 3,800,000 7'5 Total . 20,260,000 50,720,000 100-0 The annual increase of carrying-power in the merchant- navies of the world between 1880 and 1894 was 1 million ' This is only sea-going shipping ; if vessels on internal waters were included, the United States merchant-navy would reach 4,680,000 tons register and 11,260,000 carrying-power. 44 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS tons, while the nominal tonnage showed no increase, because in those fourteen years sailing-vessels summing up 4,400,000 tons were lost or broken up, and their place was taken by steamers aggregating an equal tonnage, but representing 18 million tons of carrying-power. This change still goes on, Lloyd's Register showing the nominal tonnage of vessels built in Europe and America in 1894 as follows : — steamers. Sailing. Total, Tons. British . . 965,000 82,000 1,047,000 Other flags . . 203,000 74,000 277,000 Total . . 1,168,000 156,000 1,324,000 In the preceding tables British includes also Colonial ship- ping, the latter constituting 13 per cent, of nominal tonnage, and 9 per cent, of carrying-power, of the British merchant- navy. It is often asserted that there are too many vessels afloat for the commerce of the world, but the assertion is at best doubtful. There are many steamers with antiquated machinery, which it is not found convenient to employ in trade ; but the ratio of entries in ballast, which may be con- sidered a fair test, shows no increase since 1882. The following table shows the total port-entries in Europe and the United States, and the entries in ballast : — Entries, Tons. Ballast, Tons. Ratio per Cent 1882 . 112,690,000 22,100,000 20 1892 . 146,300,000 29,800,000 20 The merchant-navies of the world (exclusive of fishing-boats) repmsent an approximate value of 246 millions sterling, of which British (excluding Colonial) stands for 108 millions. Internal Trade. — This is the real trade of a country, com- prising the total value of agricultural, manufacturing, and mining products handled by the people, and the value of imported goods from foreign countries that are consumed. The amounts in 1894 were approximately as follows : — XX. NATIONS OF CHRISTENDOM 45 Millions £ Sterling. Agricul- Manu- Forestry, ~" ture. factures. Mining. &o. Imports. Totol. United Kingdom . 230 876 78 9 417 1,610 France . 416 596 16 19 154 1,201 Germany . . 417 690 34 14 198 1,353 Russia . 540 380 12 42 56 1,030 Other States . 962 1,024 29 169 S6 140 437 2,508 Europe . 2,565 3,566 1,262 7,702 United States . 813 1,952 94 130 136 3,125 British Colonies . . 127 168 19 26 52 382 Total . .3,505 5,676 282 296 1,450 11,209 The above table shows at a glance the merchandise produced yearly by nations, but it will be observed that the column of imports is a repetition, and that the actual value of mer- chandise is 9759 millions. Of this amount 85 per cent, is kept for home use, namely, 8419 millions, and 1340 millions are exported, which latter acquire 8 per cent, additional value by transport and trade, and figure as 1450 millions in the above table under the column of imports. EAILWAYS These may be considered a distinctive feature of the second half of the century, although a few were made in the first half. The total length in traffic in 1850 was only 23,500 miles, and since then nearly 400,000 miles have been con- structed, at an average annual outlay of 140 millions sterling. The progress in the various parts of the world since 1860 is shown in the number of miles open then and now, viz. : — Miles. Cost, Millions £. 1860. 1894. 1860. 1804. Europe . . 31,890 150,580 797 3,499 America 33,040 224,880 268 2,770 Asia 840 23,660 8 249 Africa . 270 7,440 4 88 Australia 250 13,620 2 139 Total 66,290 420,180 1,079 6,745 NATIONS OF CHRISTENDOM 47 This shows an annual saving of 2286 millions sterling in the above countries, equal to a dividend of 38 per cent, on the sum spent (6000 millions) in the construction of their rail- ways. There are in active service 110,000 locomotives, with an aggregate power of 32 million horses, and 2,540,000 men. The life of a locomotive is fifteen years, in which time it will run 270,000 miles, carry 900,000 passengers or 600,000 tons of merchandise, and earn £80,000 ; its ordinary power is 300- horse, and its first cost £2000. The rails on existing lines sum up 62 million tons, 75 per cent, of steel, which rail is 10 per cent, lighter than iron and has 150 per cent, more durability, the life of an iron rail being sixteen, of a steel one forty, years. The annual consumption of rails reaches 4 million tons, equally divided between the laying of new lines and the replacing of old rails. The saving in the wear-and-tear of rails by the introduction of steel amounts to 1,600,000 tons yearly, worth 6 millions sterling, which adds 2^ per cent, to annual profits ; in other words, where a shareholder formerly received a dividend of £200 he ought now to receive £205. If we reduce the goods traffic of all countries to a common denominator, that is a mean haulage of 100 miles, we find that the daily traffic in 1893-94 was as follows : — Lbs. per Lbs. per Tons. Inhab. Tons. Inhab. U. states 2,840,000 95 1 Austria . . 180,000 10 Germany 470.000 21 Russia . 150,000 4 U. Kangdom . 340,000 19 Belgium . . 50,000 18 France . 280,000 17 Italy . 45,000 4 The total haulage, on the mean of 100 miles, amounted to 4,530,000 tons daily, the United States standing for almost two-thirds. The only country in Europe which surpasses Great Britain in goods traffic per inhabitant is Germany, and close upon our heels come Belgium and France. So pro- digious is the goods traffic in the United States, that the rail- ways carry every day in merchandise a weight exactly equal to what the whole population of 70 million persons would amount to if they could all be placed in a single train. 48 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS The increase of railway traffic in recent years is shown as follows : — Millions of Passengers. Goods, Million Tons. 1860. 1894. 1860. 1894. United Kingdom 180 912 82 325 France 57 337 22 97 Germany . 48 522 24 242 Belgium 17 97 7 45 Austria 12 199 7 215 Other States 25 339 225 8 150 144 Europe 2,292 1,068 United States . 60 541 70 638 Other countries . 14 302 2 84 Total 413 3,135 222 1,790 The railway traffic of the world in 1894 averaged 10 million passengers, and 6 million tons of merchandise daily ; the re- ceipts averaged 14 pence per passenger, and 55 pence per ton of goods carried. As regards the amount of railway capital to population, we find as follows : — £per £per £per Inhab. Inbab. Inhab Canada . . 36 France . 17 Austria . . 9 Australia . . 33 Belgium . 12 Italy . 6 United States . 32 Germany . 11 Spain . 6 United Kingdom 25 Holland . . 10 Russia . 3 Although Canada, Australia, and United States show a higher ratio than the United Kingdom, it must be borne in mind that a great portion of their lines was made with British capital. BANKS AND MONEY Banking-power multiplied eleven-fold in half-a-century, showing as follows : — Millions £ Sterling. 1840, 1894, G. Britain. . 132 . 960 U. States. 90 1,030 France. 16 356 Germany. 12 231 Other States. Total 68 808 760 3,337 XXII. V • Kiagdoin MONEY. U. States X X Germany Italy ^ ^ Belgium XXX ^^H X X X X H X X X f Russia rjm Spain ::• X X X X X X X X Canada • ; ;■ '4 X X France X X X X X X XXXV ■Scanc inavia r- W- X X B -v.. f -#■ Australia 'GoiJ Sliver XXX Paper NATIONS OF CHRISTENDOM 49 We have already seen that in the above interval manufac- tures only quadrupled and international commerce hardly increased six-fold, from which it appears that banking has out- stripped other branches of business in its rate of progress. The rapid increase of banking in later times may be seen in the fact that the specie reserve of the great banks o'f Europe and United States rose from 154 millions in 1870 to 450 millions sterling in 1890. Money. — The amount of money in use has by no means increased in the same degree as banking or commerce, since cheques and bills have in a great measure come to supply its place. Money has in fact not trebled since 1848, showing as follows in millions £ : — Gold. Silver. Paper. Total. 1848 .. . 157 388 260 805 1895 . . 822 707 775 2,304 The above is exclusive of "dishonest" money, that is in- convertible notes, common in Russia, Italy, and South America. The currency above stated in 1895, according to Mr. Probyn, showed as follows in millions sterling : — Gold. Silver. Paper. Total. In Bank . . .446 232 105 783 Circulation . . 376 475 670 1,521 Total . . 822 707 775 2,304 Of bond-fide money in circulation about 56 per cent, is coin, 44 per cent, paper, and the specie reserves held in banks and government offices are more than the total convertible notes in circulation. The money in use in certain countries is shown as follows in millions £ : — Gold. Silver. Paper. Total. £ per Inhab. United Kingdom 85 24 41 150 3-8 France . 187 140 140 467 12-0 United States 130 131 243 504 7-5 Germany 132 45 61 238 4-8 Other States . 288 822 367 707 290 775 945 3-1 Total . 2,304 4-1 D 50 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OP NATIONS Although Great Britain is by far the richest country in Europe, the most commercial, and that which possesses the greatest banking power, the amount of money which she uses is relatively very small, hardly one-third of the sum per head that is used in France, and only half of the ratio in the United States. It may be more to the purpose to compare the internal trade of countries with the amount of money in circulation, viz. : — Millions £ SterliDg. United Kingdom France . Germany Austria United States Canada Australia Internal Trade. Money. Ratio of Money, 1,619 150 9-4 1,201 467 39-0 1,353 238 17-6 733 119 16-2 3,125 504 161 205 13 6-3 177 34 19-2 The following table shows in aliquot parts how the money of the principal countries is composed : — Gold. Silver. Paper. Total United Kingdom . . 567 160 273 1,000 France . . . .400 300 300 1,000 Germany . . . .555 190 255 1,000 United States . 258 260 482 1,000 General summary 357 307 336 1,000 The preponderance of gold in Great Britain and Germany is remarkable, while the volume of paper money in the United States is nearly double the stock of gold. EARNINGS AND WEALTH The following table shows approximately the earnings of nations in 1894. For greater convenience it is necessary to include Mining, Forestry, and Fisheries in one column ; in like manner Commerce comprises both trade earnings and trans- port, and the item of Professions includes also Domestics and the Public service ; but all these items will be found set out separately in the chapters that treat of the several countries in their order : — XXIII. ^,^ ^ , EARNINGS PER INHABITANT. £ St£. Per An. ._2 < -44 —^ rt m 1- .J, 40 « 3" O c1 1 31 « 3" ■■ a E —30 ^-i „3 J § 1 U. 3 '5 n =: o — . 5 & d B 26 « S O „1 < ■? 1 M , s rn n A 1 — 20 , -18 J ^-4 ^ 1 1 >, 12 1 '^ « l°-L shiiii,^ FOOD EXPENDITURE YEARLY PER INHABITANT. 1 is Britain V —180 &- ^o Si S 8 a m J —160 1 — u & 1 I *i lie I 3 : _ c < _■« _iio 'I E 1 1 -70 1 fW> J _ ^_ ___ NATIONS OF CHRISTENDOM Millions £ Sterling. 51 Agricul- Manufac- Mining, Com- House- Pro- ^ ture. tures. &c. moreial. rents. fessions, & c. Total. tJ. Kingdom . 138 438 87 330 150 280 1,423 France 250 298 35 246 118 252 1,199 Germany 250 345 48 277 92 272 1,284 Kussia . 324 190 64 211 47 178 1,004 Austria . 192 164 28 149 37 137 707 Italy 122 95 8 92 27 92 436 Other States . 264 252 49 272 62 190 1,089 Europe . 1,640 1,782 309 1,577 533 1,401 7,142 United States 488 976 224 640 267 521 3,116 Canada . 34 49 26 41 7 26 183 Australia 42 30 19 36 21 46 194 Total . 2,104 2,837 578 2,294 828 1,994 10,635 It will be observed that in the United Kingdom agricul- tural earnings are less than 10 per cent, of the total, whereas in other countries they usually stand for 20 or even 30 per cent. Wealth. — The aggregate wealth of nations is almost 70 milliards sterling, or sis times as much as the earnings. Real estate (that is lands and houses) represents 32^, personal property 37|^, milliards ; in other words, real estate forms 46 per cent., personal property 54 per cent., of the total. The principal items are shown approximately as follows : — Millions £ Sterling. Cattle, Eail- Merchan Land. &o. Houses. ways. dise. Sundries. Total. U. Kingdom 1,686 391 2,490 985 805 5,449 11,806 France . 2,580 513 2,159 663 601 3,174 9,690 Germany 1,977 531 1,755 555 677 2,557 8,052 Russia . 2,113 697 1,019 349 515 1,832 6,425 Austria . 1,473 324 719 371 367 1,258 4,512 Italy 1,180 219 503 184 223 851 3,160 Other States ^ 2,803 543 3,118 1,189 392 3,499 666 3,854 2,102 7,695 Europe . 13,812 9,834 17,223 51,340 United States 3,314 828 4,446 2,260 1,563 3,939 16,350 Brit. Colonies ' 466 231 4,177 319 325 6,084 191 6,608 547 2,079 Total 17,592 14,599 21,709 69,769 ' These States are given in detail in the Appendix. " Canada and Australia only. 52 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS The United Kingdom stands for almost one-fourth of the wealth of Europe, although it has only one-ninth of the popu- lation. The United States hold the foremost place as to amount of earnings and of wealth, but the ratios of wealth to population are higher in the United Kingdom, Australia, and France, viz. : — £, per Inhabitant. £ per Inhabitant. Earnings. United Kingdom 36 Australia . . 46 France . . 31 United States . 44 Daily earnings average about 30 pence per inhabitant in Australia and United States, 24 pence in the United Kingdom and Canada, 20 pence in France, 16 pence in Germany, H pence in Austria, and 10 pence in Italy. Wealth. Earnings. Wealth. 302 Canada 36 196 256 Germany . . 25 156 252 Austria 17 104 234 Italy . . 14 101 FINANCES The increase of public revenue and expenditure since 1830 has been much greater than that of population, but much less than that of commerce or manufactures. The revenues are shown at the two periods thus : — Millions £, Stg. MiUlons £ SIg. 1830. 1805. ISSO. 1895. United Kingdom 55 102 Austria . . 18 97 France . 41 128 Italy . 12 67 Germany 16 163 Spain 9 30 Russia . 23 112 United States . 3 81 The aggregate revenue of the above eight countries more than quadrupled, rising from 177 millions in 1830 to 780 millions in 1895 ; but it must not be supposed that taxation quadrupled, a large portion of revenue in 1895 ai-ising from State railways, which had no existence in 1830. Excluding State railways, the revenues in 1895 and the ratio per inhabi- tant were as follows : — WEALTH OF NATIONS (In 1894.) XXIV. The British Colonies in the above figure include only Aiisnalia and Canada. WEALTH OF UNITED KINGDOM. lasf J894 XXV. WEALTH OF NATIONS. Proportions of Real and Personal Property. U. King dom France Germany U. States Belgium ^r :>N ^ ■ K ■:-^ sr ■- Russia ■"tV ^ f^^= ;'■""-'■ #^ S^; Spain ■ 'r^ ^7^ •H^ Australia . ' I. M-.J-t-: ^ 1 Austria "^ , - — 1 1 Holland 'l-' :rr S.S >§:" Canada ^^H m Real Personal — iitishaded. XXVI. WEALTH OF NATIONS. Rural and Non-Rural. x^msBmiamSnA U. States p ._ Germany >:<' N - =■ ' France -1 if— I'M „«— ; im m RussiE Austria ' ■ 1 ^^ *:s; ^"i: Australia Rural >y IMI i ■ .■I.-" Canada '-"•-S :.; •■ N SS J?<-*s Non-Rural — not shaded. NATIONS OF CHRISTENDOM 53 Millions £per Millions £per £,. luhab. £. Inhab United Kingdom 102 2-6 Austria . 82 1-9 France . .126 3-3 Italy . . 62 2-0 Germany . . 101 2-0 Spain . . 30 1-8 Kussia . . 105 I'O United States . 81 1-2 If we were to judge by the ratio of revenue per inhabitant, it would appear that France and Great Britain were the heaviest taxed, Russia the lightest, which is by no means the fact. In order to arrive at the incidence of taxation we must take first the approximate earnings of the people in each country, then the total amount of national and local taxes, and ascertain the ratio of the latter to the former. Taxation, of course, excludes post-office and other public services, national as well as local, and such sources of revenue as Crown lands, forests, &c. The amounts are approximately as follow : — Eai-nings, ATillinn^ Million £ Sterling. Batlo of HI 1 1 1 n^no £.. Nat. Taxes. Local. Total. Tax. United Kingd om . 1,423 79 43 122 8-6 France . . 1,199 102 42 144 12-0 Germany . 1,284 85 45 130 10-1 Russia . . 1,004 84 11 95 9-5 Austria . 707 69 15 84 11-9 Italy 436 56 27 83 19-0 Spain 273 29 7 36 13-3 Other States 816 52 28 80 9-8 Europe . . 7,142 556 218 774 10-8 United States . 3,116 65 98 163 6-2 Total . 10,268 621 316 937 It may be laid down as a rule that taxation is heavy when it exceeds 10 per cent, of national earnings, and light when under that ratio. Thus it appears that Italy, France, Spain, and Austria are overtaxed ; while Germany and Russia have relatively light burthens, but Russia loses the benefit in this respect by the unscrupulous conduct of the government in issuing "dishonest" money, inconvertible notes, whose value is so variable as to prove a national curse. The incidence of taxation in the United States is one-third less than in the 54 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS United Kingdom, and although we are still under the dividing line between light and heavy taxation, the tendency is mani- festly in an ascending, rather than a descending, direction. Debt. — Taking the aggregate of national and local debt in the various countries, we find that the total has nearly quad- rupled since 1848, rising from 1666 to 6200 milHons, viz. : — United Kingdom France Germany . Bussia Austria Italy Other States . Europe United States . British Colonies Total 1848. isro. 1895. 773 921 850 260 504 1,400 69 148 604 90 342 703 125 340 555 36 333 553 298 577 801 1,651 3,165 5,466 10 485 425 5 54 309 3,704 6,200 The above is exclusive of the debts of Turkey, Egypt, India, and South America. It is to be observed that in the fore- going table the debts of some countries in 1895 are largely made up of sums spent on State railways, the net proceeds of which considerably swell the public revenues. If we deduct the cost of such railways (which makes up an aggregate of 1418 millions) so as to arrive at the real debt in those countries, the account will stand in comparison with national wealth thus :— Millions £. Austria Italy . U. States . B. Colonies Millions £. U. Kingdom France Germany . Russia Wealth. Debt, ot Debt. 11,806 850 7-2 9,690 1,370 14-0 8,052 117 1-4 6,425 495 77 WeiUth. Debt. ofDebt. 4,512 324 7-2 3,160 423 13-4 16,350 425 2-5 2,079 164 8-0 In the above table British Colonies include only Australia and Canada. Here again we may lay down the rule that when a nation's debt, including local, exceeds 10 per cent, of the people's XXVII. TAXES AND EARNINGS COMPARED. Percentage of former to latter. >. I 1", *^ O 9. — 14 V -.3 -^ 13 S ^ W H -E t ^^ >. c fc, < 1 c -^ ^ c^ — 1^ - - - 3 2 10 s g «; i F -— ; 2 7 "" ' — — u I m . N ^ "^ - ■ 1 7a.r« incluiie lioth National and Loral — see tabic in ^^pptiiilix-. DEBT AND WE Percentage of Debt, after ded A LI ucti i — "H COMPARED. ng State Railways, to Wealth. Si £ 5_- >-. c 1" -a a- t< rt < 1 l_| o -■§ c « 1 p 5 D 9 'C i 8 -c ^ 'c ^ ' s — 5— P § 1 ^_ ., ? 4 — 3 3 ^n ^ ■-— 1 1 1 1^ r? ^ ^_„ 1 NATIONS OF CHRISTENDOM 55 fortune, it is desirable in every way to avoid any further in- crease of indebtedness. France and Italy are supporting at present a heavy burthen in this respect, the incumbrance having been chiefly caused in both cases by military expendi- ture. The only nations of first-class importance that are practically unburthened with debt are Germany and the United States, the German debt being only as 1|- per cent., the American 2J per cent, of wealth. The relative weight of debt in the British Colonies is not much greater than in the Mother Country, and is far from heavy. FOOD SUPPLY As might be expected, we find the richest nations are the best fed, that is to say, they consume less grain than poorer States, and more of everything else. Thus it comes to pass that while food is cheaper in Great Britain than in most countries, the expenditure is, nevertheless, higher per inhabi- tant than elsewhere. The following table shows the value of food consumed yearly in various countries : — MiUions £ Sterling. Millions £. Grain, Meat. Sundries. Total. Native. Imported United Kingdom 56 91 234 381 224 167 France . 95 62 183 340 292 48 Germany 102 72 232 406 354 52 Kussia , 151 86 157 394 387 7 Austria 76 45 123 244 238 6 Italy . 45 18 94 157 150 7 Other States 102 627 75 449 178 365 274 81 Europe . 1,201 2,277 1,919 358 United States 90 129 306 625 477 48 Total. . 717 578 1,607 2,802 2,396 406 Grain may be said to stand for one-fourth the expenditure, although in the United Kingdom it is only one-seventh. Meat, on the other hand, holds a higher ratio in the United Kingdom than in other countries. The average cost of food per inhabitant, at wholesale prices, shows thus : — 56 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS Shillings per Head. Grain. Meat. Dairy, Liquor. Sundries. Total United Kingdom 28 46 28 47 45 194 France 49 32 23 34 37 175 Germany . 39 28 24 28 38 157 Russia 28 16 8 4 17 73 Austria 35 21 17 13 27 113 Italy . 30 12 13 24 25 104 Belgium 48 23 28 41 23 163 Scandinavia 44 31 20 15 20 130 Other States 30 25 25 14 18 112 Europe 34 24 17 21 27 123 United States 26 37 24 18 45 150 The foregoing tables apply to food only for human beings, excluding all grain that is used for feeding cattle. The quantities of grain of all kinds and of such food as is the immediate product of agriculture have been already set forth in the chapter on agriculture, and will be found fully detailed in the appendix. If we compare the amount spent on food with the earnings of each nation we find as follows, counting the year as 365 days : — MiUiona £ Sterling Pence daily per per Annum. RafSn of Inhabitant. Earnings. Food. lULLIO UI Food. Earnings. Food. Great Britain . 1,331 357 26-8 25-3 6-8 Ireland . 92 24 381 261 26-8 13-5 23-9 3-5 United Kingd om . 1,423 6-4 France . . 1,199 340 28-3 20-5 6-8 Germany . 1,284 406 31-6 16-2 5-1 Russia . 1,004 394 39-2 6-2 2-4 Austria . . 707 244 34-5 11-0 3-8 Italy 436 157 36-0 9-2 3-3 Spain . 273 103 37-7 10-2 3-8 Portugal 64 23 36-0 8-9 3-2 Scandinavia 202 69 29-0 14-7 4-3 Holland . 124 38 29-7 17-0 5-2 Belgium , 181 61 27-7 19-0 5-3 Switzerland 70 21 29-1 lo-4 4-6 Roumania, &c . 175 60 34-3 31-9 8-5 12-7 2-9 Europe . . 7,142 2,277 4-0 United States . 3,116 525 16-8 29-0 4-9 NATIONS OF CHRISTENDOM 57 It appears that in Europe one-third of the earnings of peoples goes to pay for food, but in Great Britain the ratio is little over one-fourth, and in the United States it is only one-sixth. At the same time the average earnings per inhabitant are much higher in the United States and in Great Britain than in the other countries of the above list. This shows that the economic conditions of the British and American peoples is much better than on the European Continent. The retail cost of food would be 25 per cent, over the above figures; thus the actual cost daily per head in the United Kingdom is 8 pence, in B,ussia 3 pence, and so on. While the economic condition of Great Britain, as regards national earnings and expenditure on food, is highly satis- factory, the case is far otherwise in Ireland, which country has been in a chronic state of misery since the close of the reign of George II. (excepting a brief interval from 1855 to 1875). The expenditure on food is only 3|- pence daily, or half what it is in Great Britain. It seems strange that Ireland should, per inhabitant, spend less on food than either Spain or Austria, seeing that the average earnings of the Irish people are much higher than those of Austrians or Spaniards; but we must bear in mind the fact that Ireland has to pay a tribute of at least £2,000,000 a year to absentee landlords, and the recent report on Financial Relations shows that her share of taxation is £1,800,000 over what it ought to be. These are unquestionably the two great causes of suffering and discontent in the Sister-Kingdom. III. UNITED KINGDOM In little more than half -a- century the United Kingdom has risen 50 per cent; in population, besides sending out 10 millions of settlers to new countries. The number of inhabi- tants in 1896 compares with the figures for 1841 as follows: — Population. Per Square Mile. England . Scotland . Ireland . 1841. . 16,038,000 . 2,620,000 . 8,197,000 1896. 30,700,000 4,200,000 4,500,000 1841. 1896. 275 530 86 140 256 138 United Kingdom . 26,865,000 39,400,000 220 324 England and Scotland are over-populated, being unable to raise sufficient food for their people. Ireland, on the contrary, produces food for nearly 50 per cent, more than her popula- tion. England is now the densest peopled country in Europe, except Belgium. In a period of forty-four years, ending December 31, 1894, the number of emigrants nearly reached 9 millions, viz. : — To EngUsh. Scotch. Irish. TotaL United States . 2,360,000 478,000 2,935,000 5,773,000 Australia 827,000 260,000 408,000 1,495,000 Canada 603,000 215,000 202,000 1,020,000 Other parts . 338,000 95,000 35,000 468,000 Total . 4,128,000 1,048,000 3,580,000 8,756,000 The English and Scotch do not appear to have survived in the same ratio as the Irish. The latest census returns showed the numbers still resident in the above new countries as follows : — 58 XXVIII. THE UNITED KINGDOM. Population UNITED KINGDOM 59 In Britiah. Irish. Total. United States . 1,251,000 1,872,000 3,123,00a Australia 765,000 275,000 1,040,000 Canada 327,000 149,000 476,000 Total . . 2,343,000 2,296,000 4,639,000 In the period of forty-four years to end of 1894 the I'atio of Irish emigration to the total from the United Kingdom was only 43 to 100, but according to the latest census returns the Irish settlers formed 49^ per cent, of all British subjects resident in the above new countries. It may be, at the same time, that the numbers of English and Scotch returning to their native land has been relatively larger than of Irish. The number of persons returning to the United Kingdom has greatly increased in late years, averaging 106,000 per annum from 1890 to 1894 inclusive, against 64,000 in the years 1880 to 1884. There is a growing preponderance of females in the United Kingdom, which might be supposed to result from emigration; but this can hardly be the case, seeing that the ratio of males has risen very remarkably both in Scotland and Ireland, viz. : — Females to 1,000 Males. 1821. 1861. 1891. England . . 1,050 1,052 1,064 Scotland . . 1,128 1,112 1,072 Ireland . . 1,033 1,045 1,028 United Kingdom . 1,053 1,057 1,060 Vital statistics show that the span of life in Ireland is much longer than in Great Britain, which is perhaps partly due to the fact that the Irish marry at a more mature age than the English or Scotch. Average Age when Marrying. In '" England . Scotland .... Ireland .... It is to be observed that the difference of age between husband and wife is greater in Ireland than in the sister kingdoms, which promotes a stronger race. The relative Husband. Wife. Both. . 27-7 25-5 26-6 , 28-6 25-7 27-2 , 29-9 25-2 27-6 6o INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS occupations and the working-power of the three kingdoms in 1891 are shown in aliquot parts as follows : — England. Scotland. Ireland. U. Kingdom Agriculture . 80 15 56 151 Manufactures 436 62 39 537 Trade . 83 10 6 99 Professions . 55 7 12 74 Domestics . 113 12 14 139 Total . . 767 106 127 1,000 Agriculture occupies a much smaller ratio of people than in other countries ; in fact it supports only 10 per cent, of the population of England, or 15 per cent, of that of the United Eangdom. Occupations have undergone a striking change in the last half-century, the returns for the whole United King- dom in 1891 comparing with those in 1841 as follows : — Number. Ratio. 1841. 1891. 1841. 1891. Agriculture 3,401,000 2,527,000 37-8 15-1 Manufactures 3,137,000 9,026,000 34-8 53-7 Trade . 684,000 1,676,000 7-6 9-9 Professions . 223,000 1,245,000 2-5 7-4 Domestics . 1,556,000 2,342,000 17-3 13-9 Total . . 9,001,000 16,816,000 lOO'O lOQ-O Fifty years ago the number of agricultural hands was greater than that of persons employed in manufactures, whereas at present the latter are 3J times as numerous as the former. The decline of rural industry and rapid increase of manufactures have been attended with a great rise in urban population. If we take the aggregate population of the ten principal cities of the United Kingdom in 1821 and compare it with 1894, we shall see how much greater has been the in- crease than in the rest of the kingdom, viz. : — Increase. 1821. 1894. Per Cent Ten Cities . . 2,310,000 8,602,000 270 Rest of U. Kingdom 18,674,000 30,284,000 62 Total pop. . 20,984,000 38,786,000 85 UNITED KINGDOM 6i It appears that in the last seventy-three years urban popu- lation has grown four times as fast as rural, and every suc- ceeding census shows that cities engross more and more the pursuits and energies of our people. The working-power of the United Kingdom grows much faster than population : it has multiplied six-fold since 1840, viz. : — M Lillions of I ?oot-Tons Dai iiy. Foot-Tons Per In- habitant. Hand. Horse. Steam. Total. 1840 . . 2,220 5,100 2,400 9,720 370 1860 . . 2,430 6,500 8,600 16,530 570 1880 . . 2,940 5,700 31,200 39,840 1,130 1895 . . 3,200 6,330 51,880 61,410 1,570 The average power per inhabitant has quadrupled since 1840, which signifies that one man can now do as much as four could half-a-century ago. The energy of the three king- doms in 1895 was distributed approximately thus : — Millions of Foot-Tons Daily. England. Scotland. Ireland. U. Kingdom. Hand . 2,480 330 390 3,200 Horse . 4,020 630 1,680 6,330 Steam . 41,400 8,620 1,860 51,880 Total . 47,900 9,580 3,930 61,410 Steam works much cheaper than horse or hand, and hence the incalculable advantage that Great Britain possesses over Ireland. We find that 86 per cent, of all work done in Eng- land, 90 per cent, in Scotland, and only 47 per cent, in Ireland, is done by steam. The total energy compared with population shows 2300 foot-tons daily per inhabitant in Scotland, 1570 in England, and 860 in Ireland, from which it follows that 10 Scotchmen can do as much as 14 Englishmen or 27 Irish- men. The steam-power of the three kingdoms is approximately as follows :- Horse -Power. England Scotland Ireland Fixed. 1,740,000 315,000 145,000 Railway. 4,100,000 510,000 190,000 Steamboats. 4,510,000 1,330,000 130,000 Total. 10,350,000 2,155,000 465,000 U. Kingdom 2,200,000 4,800,000 5,970,000 12,970,000 62 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS The steam-power of the United Kingdom is a little m(jre than that of France and Germany combined, and is only sur- passed by that of the United States : it is one-fifth of that of the world. AGKICULTURE It was observed by Lord Liverpool that the most prosperous periods of British agriculture were sometimes those in which the general condition of the British people was unsatisfactory, from which it may be inferred that agricultural depression may exist while the general progress of the country is unin- terrupted. Thus the last half-century has witnessed an un- precedented increase of commerce, manufactures, and wealth, and at the same time agriculture has been either stationary, or in some respects retrograde. If we compare Porter's and M'Culloch's estimates of the area under crops in their times with the official returns for 1895 we find as follows : — Acres under Crops. 1827. England . . 11,140,000 Scotland . . 2,550,000 Ireland 5,450,000 1846. 1895. 13,300,000 12,550,000 3,390,000 3,510,000 5,240,000 3,990,000 United Kingdom 19,140,000 21,930,000 20,050,000 The area under crops has declined by 2 million acres since 1846, but this has been in a manner compensated by the increase of pastoral industry, the whole productive area of the United Kingdom showing a rise of 3 million acres, Year. Grain. Green Crops. Pasture. Total 1846 . 11,600,000 10,380,000 22,940,000 44,870,000 1895 . 8,870,000 11,180,000 27,830,000 47,8SO,000 The average of crops and meat production in the last three years was as follows ; — UNITED KINGDOM 63 Tons. England. Scotland. Ireland. U. Kingdom. Wheat . 1,170,000 35,000 35,000 1,240,000 Barley . 1,470,000 190,000 160,000 1,820,000 Oats, &o. . 2,340,000 955,000 1,165,000 4,460,000 Grain . 4,980,000 1,180,000 1,360,000 7,520,000 Potatoes . 2,500,000 800,000 2,800,000 6,100,000 Turnips . 20,600,000 6,200,000 4,500,000 30,300,000 Hay . . 6,750,000 850,000 4,700,000 12,300,000 Meat. . 610,000 150,000 340,000 1,100,000 Notwithstanding that the price of grain has fallen 40 per cent, since 1846, the gross value of farm products is greater now than it was fifty years ago. The value during the last three years averaged 230 millions sterling, against M'OuUoch's estimate of 218 millions in 1846, viz. : — Value £ Sterling. 1846. 1893-95. Grain 77,000,000 38,200,000 Green crops . 41,600,000 43,800,000 Hay and straw . 19,000,000 44,000,000 Meat . 46,500,000 55,200,000 Dairy . 19,400,000 33,000,000 Sundries . 14,500,000 . 218,000,000 15,800,000 Total . 230,000,000 While the value of products shows an increase of 5^ per cent, as compared with 1846, the number of hands has been reduced by one-third, this being mainly due to the introduc- tion of machinery. The figures stand thus : — Tear. Hands. Product, £. £, per Hand. 1846 . . 3,519,000 218,000,000 62 1895 . . 2,527,000 230,000,000 91 It appears that two hands now produce as much in value as three did fifty years ago, and seeing that prices have fallen no less than 40 per cent, it may be said that two men now produce in quantity as much as five did then. The value of farm products in the years 1893-94-95 averaged as follows : — 64 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS EDgUnd, &. Scotland, £. Ireland, £. U. Kingdom, £ Grain . 26,600,000 5,200,000 6,400,000 38,200,000 Straw . 9,100,000 1,500,000 1,600,000 12,200,000 Potatoes 8,800,000 2,400,000 7,000,000 18,200,000 Hay 20,300,000 2,100,000 9,400,000 31,800,000 Sundries 18,200,000 3,800,000 3,600,000 25,600,000 Tillage . 83,000,000 15,000,000 28,000,000 126,000,000 Meat . 83,200,000 7,400,000 14,600,000 55,200,000 Dairy . 21,000,000 3,600,000 8,400,000 33,000,000 Sundries 9,800,000 147,000,000 2,000,000 4,000,000 55,000,000 15,800,000 Total 28,000,000 280,000,000 The concentration of landed property in the hands of a few is a special characteristic of the United Kingdom, and may constitute an obstacle to agricultural progress. Two-thirds of England, nine-tenths of Ireland, and nineteen-twentieths of Scotland, are held in ownership by a small group of persons. This system of land-tenure is quite at variance with what prevails in other countries (except Portugal). At present the United Kingdom, excludiag estates of less than 10 acres, is held as follows : — Estates. Nnmber. Acres. Average. Large . . 19,275 57,890,000 8,008 SmaU . 157,640 18,600,000 86 Total 176,915 71,490,000 Agricultural capital rose steadily from 1780 until 1880, but since the latter year it has fallen so rapidly that it is now little more than it was fifty years ago : — Value, Millions £ Sterling, 1780. 1812. 1846. 1880. 1896. Land . 702 1,101 1,705 2,086 1,686 Cattle . . 86 146 150 209 202 Sundries . 79 125 185 230 189 Total . 867 1,372 2,040 2,525 2,077 Landowners and farmers have lost 460 millions of capital since 1880 — that is, an average of 30 millions yearly. The distribution of capital in 1894 was approximately thus: — UNITED KINGDOM 65 Millions £ Sterling. England. Scotland. Ireland. U. Kingdom. Land . . 1,202 188 296 1,686 Cattle . . 118 25 59 202 Sundries . . 132 21 36 189 Total . . 1,452 234 891 2,077 If we compare the agricultural capital in each of the three kingdoms in 1894 with what it was in 1846, we find a dimi- nution in England, and an increase both in Scotland and Ireland. The following table shows the capital and product at the above dates in each of the kingdoms, and the ratio of product to capital : — Millions £ Sterling. Capital. Product. Product Ratio. 184 England Scotland Ireland U. Kingdom 2,040 2,077 218 230 10-7 11-1 Here we find that the gross product in the United Kingdom represents a higher percentage on capital than it did in 1846, but this would not warrant us to infer that the farmers' profits are larger ; we have no means for ascertaining what the net profits were then, or are at present. At various periods estimates have been made in England as to the cost of working a farm of 100 acres, 40 arable, 60 pasture, viz. : — £ Sterling. 1846. 1894. 1,486 1,452 213 234 341 391 1846. 1894. 1846. 1894. 142 147 9-5 10-1 28 28 13-1 12-0 48 55 14-1 14-1 Rent. 1790 . . 88 1813 . . 118 1888 . . 120 Taxes. Team 39 67 70 99 42 100 Labour. Sundries. Total. 85 110 389 118 121 526 125 63 450 The gross product of the above farm in 1895 would have been as follows : — Tillage Pasture Acres. 40 . 60 Shillings per Acre, £ 132 264 84 262 Total . . 100 103 516 E 66 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS This would leave a balance of £66, or 13 shillings an acre, that is 25 shillings a week for support of the farmer and his family. Rent and taxes absorb a larger proportion of the gross product in England than in the sister kingdoms, viz. : — Millious £ Sterling. England Scotland . Ireland U. Kingdom Product. 147'0 28-0 55-0 2300 Rent. 40-1 6-3 10-8 57-2 Ratio of Bent and ^ Taxes. Taxes. Balance. Per Cent. 16-2 90-7 38 1-9 19-8 29 2-7 41-5 25 20-f 1520 34 The advantage of farming in Ireland is, meantime, unreal ; the tenant in that country has to build offices and make im- provements, which are done in England by the landlord. Moreover, the money-product per acre is much less in Ireland than in Great Britain, viz. : — Acres, Productive. . 27,800,000 4,900,000 . 15,200,000 Product, UiUions £. ShiUings per Acre. England Scotland Ireland . Gross. 147 28 55 230 Net 91 20 41 152 Gross. Net 106 65 114 82 72 54 U. Kingdom . . 47,900,000 96 63 In the eighteenth century the British Islands had usually a surplus of grain, beef, butter, and cheese, and these articles formed considerable items in the yearly exports, but in the last half-century so rapid has been the increase of population that the agricultural products have been insufficient to feed the inhabitants of the United Kingdom. The annual con- sumption of wheat since 1831 has been as foUows : — Period. 1831-50 1851-70 1871-90 1891-95 trillions of Bushels. Native. Imported. Total. 113 14 127 101 55 156 85 135 220 51 192 243 UNITED KINGDOM 67 The quantity of home-grown wheat is now less than the requirement for three months' consumption. The decline of tillage is, of course, one of the results of the enormous im- portation of grain, but a result of far greater magnitude has been the cheapening of food for the people. During a period of five years, ending December 1895, the average price of wheat in England was less than £7 per ton, and the annual consumption reached 360 lbs. per inhabitant, whereas in the decade ending 1860 the average price was nearly £14, and the consumption did not exceed 311 lbs. If we reduce all food to a common denominator, we find that the actual pro- duction in the United Kingdom is equivalent to 18J million tons of grain, the averages for the years 1893-94-95 having been as follows : — Tons Yearly. Equivalent Bushels in Tons per In- Grain. Potatoes. Meat. Grain. habitant. England . 5,000,000 2,500,000 610,000 10,710,000 14 Scotland . 1,200,000 800,000 150,000 2,670,000 25 Ireland . 1,360,000 2,800,000 340,000 5,020,000 44 U. Kingdom 7,560,000 6,100,000 1,100,000 18,400,000 20 England raises food sufficient to support her people only 5J months, Scotland 10 months, but Ireland produces enough to feed 7,000,000 persons all the year, or 50 per cent, over her actual population. More than half the grain consumed in the United Kingdom is imported ; the average consump- tion, after deducting from native crops what is required for seed, shows as follows in 1891-95 : — Tons. Native, Imported. Total. Wheat . . 1,230,000 4,800,000 6,030,000 Barley . . . 1,750,000 1,100,000 2,850,000 Oats, &o. . . 4,400,000 2,800,000 7,200,000 Total . . 7,380,000 8,700,000 16,080,000 In order that the United Kingdom should produce sufiicieat grain for consumption, so as not to import any, it would be necessary to put under cereals 19,100,000 acres, that is 68 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS 10,200,000 more than at present. While the production of grain has declined 25 per cent, since 1846, that of meat has increased 20 per cent, j the quantities were as follows : — Product, Tons. Tear. Beef. Mutton. Pork. TotaL 1846 . . . 440,000 310,000 170,000 920,000 1895 . . 590,000 320,000 190,000 1,100,000 This increase has, however, fallen short of requirements. Not only has our population increased by 12 million souls in the above interval, but the average consumption of meat per inhabitant has risen 40 per cent. Thus it comes to pass that the quantity of meat consumed yearly has doubled, showing as follows : — Consumption, Tona. Year. Native. Imported. Total. Lbs. per Head. 1846 . . 920,000 920,000 75 1895 . . 1,100,000 780,000 1,880,000 108 Ireland exports live cattle to Great Britain equivalent to 280,000 tons of dead meat yearly, leaving for home use only 60,000 tons, say 30 lbs. per inhabitant, but this is probably so far supplemented by foreign meat as to raise the consump- tion in that country to 40 lbs. per inhabitant. The produc- tion and consumption of meat in the three kingdoms are shown approximately as follows : — Production, Tona. ConsumptlOQ, Tons. 1,620,000 180,000 80,000 Beef. Mutton. Pork. Total. England . 285,000 200,000 125,000 610,000 Scotland . 65,000 80,000 5,000 150,000 Ireland . 240,000 40,000 60,000 340,000 U. Kingdom 590,000 320,000 190,000 1,100,000 1,880,000 The home production is sufficient to give to each inhabitant of the United Kingdom 63 lbs. yearly, and this ought to be enough, for it is observed that the span of Ufe is much longer in Ireland, where the consumption of meat per inhabi- tant is less than half what it is in England. There are not wanting medical authorities to affirm that the consumption of meat in England is excessive. UNITED KINGDOM 69 FORESTS AND FISHEEIES The forest area of the United Kingdom and the approxi- mate value of product are shown as follows : — Acre3. Product, £. England .... 1,800,000 1,200,000 Scotland .... 900,000 600,000 Ireland 300,000 200,000 United Kingdom . . . 3,000,000 2,000,000 The area under timber has increased by 200,000 acres since 1887, but is still insufficient. The annual consumption of timber exceeds 550 million cubic feet, of which only one-fourth is of native growth. The fisheries of the United Kingdom are shown thus : — Fishermen. Tons Fish. Value, £, England. . . 43,000 360,000 5,430,000 Scotland. . . 50,000 310,000 1,830,000 Ireland . . 27,000 30,000 270,000 United Kingdom . 120,000 700,000 7,530,000 The net imports of fish average £600,000 per annum, which brings up consumption to £8,100,000, equal to 4 shillings per inhabitant. The weight consumed gives an average of 40 lbs. per inhabitant, as compared with 108 lbs. meat. Comparing the value of fish taken with the number of fishermen, it shows £10 per man in Irish waters, £78 in British, the average all round being £63 per man, which is a poor return for so dangerous a calling. MANUFACTURES The total output of British manufactures at the beginning of the present century was valued by Eden and Stevenson at not more than 105 millions sterling ; those writers appear, 70 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS however, to have taken account only of factories, and to have left out what the French call "small industries." The real value of our manufactures in 1810 was double the above estimate. Textiles. — ^The advance of this branch of industry is best measured by the consumption of fibre, the weight being shown as follows : — Tons of Fibre. Year. Cotton, Wool. Flax, &o. Total. 1810 . . 51,000 55,000 74,000 180,000 1850 . . 252,000 83,000 184,000 519,000 1895 . . 696,000 246,000 460,000 1,402,000 The value of manufactured goods has by no means kept pace with the consumption of fibre ; improvements connected with machinery have caused a great fall in prices, besides the fact that all descriptions of raw material are cheaper now than in years gone by. The output of textiles has been approximately as follows : — Valae, Millions £ Sterling. Year. Cottons. Woollens. Linens, &c. Silks. Total. 1810 . 20 18 13 5 56 1850 . 49 28 18 12 107 1895 92 62 31 6 191 For many centuries woollen manufactures held the foremost rank in England, but about the beginning of the nineteenth cotton rushed to the front, and it has ever since maintained undisputed pre-eminence. Cotton Goods. — Although Manchester merchants, as Roberts shows, made stujBfs out of Smyrna and Cyprus cotton in the days of Charles I., this industry may be said to date from 1790. In that year Arkwright's spinning-jenny was invented, and in 1791 the first invoice of American cotton arrived, con- sisting of 91 tons. The chief impetus, however, was given in 1801, when Oartwright's power-loom was first brought into use at Monteith's mill, in Pollokshaws, near Glasgow. Cotton mills multiplied in Great Britain, and in the course of years such improvements of machinery have been introduced UNITED KINGDOM 71 that, as Yeats says, a mule-frame that used to work 20 spindles now works 3000, and each spindle produces fifty times as much as in 1820. So great has been the effect of machinery in cheapening goods that a pound of yarn which cost 38 shillings in 1786 may now be bought for a shilling. Coming down to our own time, we find that although the price of raw cotton in the last five years was the same (5|d. per lb.) as in the decade ending 1850, the price of cotton cloth has fallen 36 per cent., namely, from £25 to £16 per statute mile. The following table shows approximately the consumption of cotton cloth at various dates : — Engliali Statute Miles. 1820. 1860. 1895. United Kingdom 101,000 790,000 1,320,000 India and China 9,000 656,000 1,410,000 South America 32,000 301,000 440,000 Various . 80,000 623,000 1,030,000 Total . . 222,000 2,370,000 4,200,000 Estimates have been made at various times as to the amount of capital and wages, and the value of output. Ellison's table for 1887 compares with Baines's for 1833 as follows : — Tear. Cotton, £. Wages, £.. Output, £. Capital, £. 1833 . 7,000,000 10,400,000 31,300,000 34,000,000 1887 . 34,500,000 29,400,000 101,400,000 105,000,000 The value of exported goods and of home consumption in 1895 was as follows : — Exports .... . £64,500,000 Home use 37,600,000 Total output £92,100,000 We consumed also £2,500,000 of imported cotton goods, bringing up the total consumption to £40,100,000, equal to 20 shillings per inhabitant. The value of goods produced annually averages £175 per hand. If we suppose that for efficiency a child counts as one- third, and a woman two-thirds, of a man, the result will be: — 72 IMDVSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS No. Product, £. £ per Hand. Men .... 186,000 43,100,000 231 Women . . . 295,000 45,300,000 154 Children . . . 48,000 8,700,000 77 Total . . . 529,000 92,100,000 175 The mills at present turn out daily 14,000 miles of cotton cloth, and the daily wages of the operatives are about £100,000 sterling. Hosiery. — Stockings are a modern invention, for we read that in the reign of George II. they were worn in England by not more than 13,000 persons. In the early years of George III. there were only two factories, one at Nottingham, the other at Balbriggan, but the use of stockings became so general in the beginning of the present century, that when Felkin made his report in 1833 there were 33,000 stocking frames at work, and the output reached 42 million pairs yearly. The factories now produce about 150 million pairs yearly, of which 12 millions are exported. Woollen Goods. — The manufacture of woollens was con- sidered for centuries the sheet-anchor of British industry. Kings and parliaments surpassed one another in arbitrary edicts for its encouragement : it was forbidden to wear clothes made abroad, or to export wool, or to shear a sheep within three miles of the sea. It was commanded to bury corpses in woollen shrouds. All the woollen factories in Ireland were closed by the English Parliament in 1690, in order to compel Irishmen to use English woollen goods. Some of these tyran- nical edicts were repealed in 1810, the latest in 1825, and since the latter year this branch of industry, far from declin- ing, has grown apace. Stevenson's and M'Culloch's estimates compare with the present output thus : — Year. Home Use, £. Export. Total Output. 1816 . . . 10,200,000 7,800,000 18,000,000 1834 . . . 16,800,000 5,700,000 22,500,000 1895. . 34,800,000 26,900,000 61,700,000 The number of operatives in woollen, worsted, and shoddy UNITED KINGDOM 73 factories is 302,000, and the output averages £208 per hand, as compared with £176 in the cotton industry. Owing to improved methods and machinery the consumption of wool per hand rose from 1360 lbs. in 1870 to 1702 lbs. in 1893, which means that three operatives now do as much work as four could do in 1870. This economy of labour, as well as the fall in price of wool, has tended to cheapen woollen goods, extend the markets of such commodities, and give increased activity to our mills, which now consume twice as much wool as in 1870. Down to the year 1850 the greater portion of the wool used in our factories was home-grown, but at present three-fourths are imported. The home-clip averages 5 lbs. per sheep, say 66,000 tons, of which one-fifth is exported. The consumption of wool in our mills is shown thus : — Tons of Wool Consumed. 1840. 1860. 1880. 1898. British . . . 37,000 45,000 60,000 53,000 Imported . . 21,000 46,000 101,000 193,000 Total . 58,000 91,000 151,000 246,000 Besides home-made woollens we consume foreign fabrics, mostly French, to the value of £9,800,000, which brings up the total consumption in the United Kingdom to £44,600,000, equal to 23 shillings per inhabitant, as compared with 14 shillings in the time of M'Culloch. Linens. — This branch of manufacture flourished in Ireland and Scotland before it was known in England. Irish linen was famous in the reign of Queen Anne. The first cargo of Russian flax in Scotland was imported for the Dundee mills in 1745. The production of linen has been approximately as follows : — Millions of Yards, Yearly. Period. England. Scotland. Ireland. Total. 1791-1800 13 22 42 77 1821-1830 24 60 90 174 1861-1870 54 140 204 398 1891-1893 42 130 172 344 74 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS The system of bounties which had existed for 140 years was abolished in 1830, whereupon the mill-owners introduced improved machinery, the result of which was greater efficiency, economy, and production. The consumption of flax is no more than it was forty years ago, the weight being shown as follows : — Tons of Flax Consumed. Year. Native. Imported. Total. 1850 . . 21,000 89,000 110,000 1895 . . 12,000 100,000 112,000 The output in 1895 was not quite 400 million yards, of which 205 millions were exported ; the value of output was about £13,000,000. Of late years the linen trade has been declining, especially as regards home consumption, which averaged 8 yards per inhabitant in 1840, and is now less than 5 yards ; this decline is doubtless due to the increasing use of Crimean or woollen shirts. There is one serious draw- back connected with linen manufacture, that it is most hurtful to operatives, of whom, as Dr. Purdon shows in his Factory Report, not less than 60 per cent, die of lung diseases ; he adds that their span of life after entering the factory is only seventeen years. Hemp. — This is a manufacture of minor importance ; there is no mention of it in Porter's " Progress of the Nation," but M'OuUoch says that in 1835 the Dundee, mills consumed 6500 tons of Russian hemp. The following table shows the quan- tities imported and retained for consumption, as well as the approximate value of articles manufactured : — Tear. 1830 1850 1895 An attempt was made to grow hemp in Ireland, in 1810, when 320 acres were put under it, but without success. Jute. — This fibre is first mentioned in the trade reports of India in 1835, in which year 600 tons were exported from Tons. Manufacture, £. 26,000 2,100,000 54,000 4,900,000 70,000 5,200,000 UNITED KINGDOM 75 that country. Soon afterwards it was largely consumed in the flax mills of Dundee, which city is the principal seat of this manufacture. The growth of this industry has been very rapid, viz. : — Tear. 1850 . 1870 . 1895 About one-sixth of jute manufactures is exported. Silks. — This industry rose steadily during the first half of the century, and reached its highest point in 1857, since which date it has declined. Jute, Tone. Output, £. 19,000 900,000 98,000 5,800,000 272,000 12,300,000 Tear. Silk Consumed, Lbs. Output, &. 1823 . . 2,470,000 6,200,000 1857. . 10,750,000 21,500,000 1895. 3,900,000 6,000,000 The annual consumption of silk manufactures reaches a value of £19,000,000, the net import of silk fabrics reaching £13,000,000 per annum. The consumption averages 10 shillings per inhabitant, the same as in France. Hardware. — ^The consumption of metals gives us the measure of the growth of this industry, which falls little short of that of textile manufactures in importance : — Tons of Metal Utilised. Year. Iron. Copper. Lead. Zinc, &o. Total. 1806 , 243,000 10,000 24,000 4,000 281,000 1850 , 1,970,000 42,000 70,000 24,000 2,106,000 1870 . . 5,210,000 54,000 182,000 36,000 5,482,000 1894 . 6,600,000 80,000 178,000 79,000 6,987,000 The above table represents not the production, but the weight of metals converted in the United Kingdom into manufactured goods in the years expressed. This weight in 1894 was equal to 390 lbs. per inhabitant, a ratio not equalled in any other country. Iron. — The rise of this industry may be said to date from 1740, when the Dudley process for smelting iron with coal was introduced, but it was just 100 years later that the 76 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OP NATIONS commencement of the construction of railways raised British iron to unprecedented importance in the economy of the world. The following table shows the production, the quantities ex- ported, &c. : — Tons of Iron. Tear. Make. Export Pig. Do. Manufactures. Home Use. 1835 700,000 20,000 160,000 520,000 1850 . 2,250,000 280,000 930,000 1,040,000 1870 . 5,960,000 750,000 2,080,000 3,130,000 1880 . 7,750,000 1,630,000 2,160,000 3,960,000 1894 . 7,430,000 830,000 1,880,000 4,720,000 The consumption of iron at the above dates was the "make," less the quantity of pig-iron exported. Thus it appears that although the "make" of iron was greater in 1880 than at present, the quantity used for manufactures was less; the consumption in 1894 was 6,600,000 tons, against 6,120,000 in 1880. The greatest production of iron on record was in the year 1882, namely 8,590,000, but of this amount no less than 1,760,000 tons were exported as pig-iron, leaving to be converted into British manufactures 6,830,000 tons, or about 3 per cent, more than we consume at present. The decline, therefore, of this branch of manufacture is more apparent than real. One-half of the iron made is converted into steel, and the quantities exported and retained in 1894 are shown thus : — Tons. Iron. Steel. Total. Exported . . 1,490,000 1,220,000 2,710,000 Eetained . . 2,260,000 2,460,000 4,720,000 Total . 3,750,000 3,680,000 7,430,000 It has been frequently asserted that the magnitude and variety of the iron and steel industries defy any attempt to ascertain their annual value even approximately ■ this is, how- ever, not the case. We know the quantity and value of iron and steel goods exported, also the weight of metal retained for home manufacture. The official value of steel manufactures UNITED KINGDOM 77 in Great Britain in 1894 was £26 '7 per ton, and we may be permitted to put down manufactures of iron at half that figure. The total output of iron and steel industries in 1894 was, therefore, approximately as follows : — Tons. £,, Value. Steel manufactures . . 2,460,000 65,700,000 Iron manufactures . . 2,260,000 30,100,000 Exports, steel and iron . 2,710,000 20,200,000 Total output . . . 7,430,000 116,000,000 The above, of course, includes machinery, implements, arms, cutlery, shipbuilding and all manufactures in which steel or iron is the principal raw material. The production of steel has increased prodigiously of late years, viz. : — Period. Tons Made. Per Annum. 1851-60 900,000 90,000 1861-80 . 10,200,000 510,000 1881-93 . 36,000,000 2,770,000 The first use of steel for railway bars was in 1862, at Chalk Farm station, near London, and proved so successful that iron bars are no longer used in constructing railways, and when worn out are replaced by steel ones. Ships were built of steel at Glasgow in 1879, when it was found that they could carry 20 per cent, more cargo than iron vessels of equal size ; this led to a revolution in shipbuilding, steel wholly taking the place of iron. In some of the smaller industries, likewise, steel plays a chief part ; thus 10 tons weekly are converted into steel pens at Birmingham, each ton producing 1,500,000 pens. The following is a summary of the iron and steel trade for forty-four years : — Millions £ Sterling. Millions £ sterling. Period. Iron. SteeL Total. Home Use. Exports Totaf. 1851-60 . 383 56 439 261 178 439 1861-70 540 97 637 377 260 637 1871-80 . 729 341 1,070 656 414 1,070 1881-90 . 518 504 1,022 561 461 1,022 1891-94 . 170 270 440 264 176 440 44 years .2,340 1,268 3,608 2,119 1,489 3,608 78 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS Copper. — The production of copper from British ores rose from 6000 tons in 1810 to 13,000 in 1840, but began to decline in the ensuing decade, and has now fallen so low that the average for the years 1892-94 did not exceed 450 tons. British ore gives only 7 per cent, of metallic copper, whereas Australian gives 12, and American still more. At present we import about 250,000 tons of regulus or half-smelted ore from Chili and other countries, which yielded last year about 135,000 tons of pure copper. The production has more than doubled since 1850, showing thus : — Tons. Year. BritiBh. Imported. TotaL 1850 . . 12,000 51,000 63,000 1894 . . 500 135,000 135,500 Copper ingots were exported last year to the amount of 55,000 tons, leaving 80,000 tons for home manufactures, the total representing a value of £14,000,000. Stevenson esti- mated the copper manufactures in 1814 at £3,000,000. Lead. — This industry, like that of copper, depends almost wholly on imported metal. The product of British mines rose steadily during the present century until 1870, when it reached its maximum, but since then the Austrian and Spanish mines have yielded so abundantly, and at less cost, that our production has fallen by more than one-half. The consumption has been as follows : — Tons of Lead. Tear. British. Imported. TotaL 1830 . . . 48,000 5,000 53,000 1894 . . . 30,000 148,000 178,000 The value of goods manufactured is only £5,000,000, almost entirely for home consumption. Tin. — Great Britain passes through her factories two-thirds of the tin produced in the world. Our mines in Cornwall have been declining since 1871, and our manufacture is mostly dependent on metal imported from Java and Australia. The output has been as follows : — UNITED KINGDOM 79 Tons of Tin. Year. British. Imported. Total. 1850 . . . 6,000 500 6,500 1894 . . . 8,000 16,000 24,000 One-fourth of the tin produced in 1894 was exported un- wrought, leaving 18,000 tons for home manufactures. The value of goods manufactured last year was £4,000,000. Zinc. — The consumption of this metal has increased four- teen-fold in little more than half a century. The product of the mines in Wales and Isle of Man has increased prodigiously, but we still derive seven-eighths of our supply from abroad, as shown thus : — Tons of Zinc. Year. British. Imported. Total. 1831 ... 700 4,000 4,700 1894 . . . 8,000 53,000 61,000 The value of zinc manufacture last year was nearly £3,000,000. Hardioare Summary. — The growth in money value of our metallic manufactures has been more than ten-fold in a cen- tury, as will be seen on comparing the output of 1894 with M'Pherson's and Stevenson's estimates, showing as follows : — MilUons £ SterUng. Year. Iron and Steel. Copper, ort8. 68 Exports. S Total. 15 Austria has so little coast-line and so few seaports that most of her foreign trade is done not by shipping but by railway. The returns for four years ending 1894 give the following averages : — Millions £ Storl iiig. Imports from. Exports to. Total. Hatio. Germany . Great Britain . . 20 . 6 35 6 55 10 46-3 8-4 Italy Other Countries . 4 . 25 4 21 8 46 67 88-6 Total 54 65 119 100-0 Trade relations with Germany are nearly equal to those with all other nations collectively. The foreign trade of Austria is much greater than that of Russia, although the population of the latter empire is more than double. Shipping. — ^The Austrian Lloyd's Co., specially intended to trade in the Levant, was formed in 1833, the Danube Steam- boat Co. in 1850 : the latter owns 186 steamers and 700 iron AUSTRIA-HUNGARY 183 barges, which during certain seasons ply between Ratisbon and Galatz, 1500 miles. The merchant-shipping of the empire is insignificant; between sea-going and internal it hardly reaches 250,000 tons register, with 640,000 carrying-power. Internal Trade. — This is greatly facilitated by 18,000 miles of railway, 99,000 of excellent carriage-roads, and 7200 of inland navigation, in all 124,000 miles. It amounted approximately at various dates as follows : — Millions £ Sterling. 1880. 1800. 1894. Agriculture . . 186 270 319 Manufactures . 167 232 328 Minerals and forestry . 8 13 28 Imports 7 21 58 Total . . . .868 536 733 The shares that corresponded to Austria and Hungary in 1894 were approximately : — Millions £ Sterling. Austria. Hungury. Total. Agriculture . . 166 154 319 Manufactures . 180 148 328 Minerals, &c. . 17 11 28 Imports . 34 24 58 Total . . . .396 337 733 Hallways. — ^A horse railway was opened from Linz to Budweis in 1829, but the first for locomotives in 1836. The active construction of railways began after the emancipation of the serfs, since which time 17,000 miles have been opened, being an average of 400 miles of new line yearly. The length open in 1850 and at present is shown thus : — Miles Open. Year. Austriii. Hungary. Total. 1850 .... 820 140 960 1895 .... 10,100 8,220 18,320 There are 12,270 miles of State railways, 6050 belonging to companies ; the average cost per mile all round was £20,300, having been £21,500 in Austria, and £18,700 in Hungary, 1 84 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS The traffic returns per mile of the railways of the empire compare with those of Russia and Germany thus : — Receipts, £. Expenses, £, Profit, £. Austrian .... 1,510 860 650 Russian 1,620 990 630 German 2,564 1,664 900 The Austrian returns are nearly the same as the Russian, and a long way behind the German. Net profit is equal to 3J per cent, on capital. Goods traffic is equivalent to 55 million tons carried 100 miles. Banlcs. — The Imperial Bank, founded at Vienna in 1861, has a capital of 9 millions sterling, and possesses sole right of issue. There are 224 other joint-stock banks. In 1887 the banking-power of the empire was 147 millions sterling, or half that of France. EARNINGS AND WEALTH The earnings of the Austro-Hungarian people at various dates were approximately as follows : — Agricultural Manufacturing Mining and forests Trade . Transport House-rent . Domestics . Public service Professions . Total . MilUona & Sterling. 1834. 1860. 1894. 112 162 192 83 116 164 8 13 28 37 54 73 39 56 76 13 20 37 9 13 25 8 18 48 31 45 64 340 497 707 The above earnings for 1894 give an average of nearly £17 per inhabitant ; Neumann Spallart's estimate in 1880 having given £16 per head. The shares that correspond to the two portions of the monarchy are as follows : — AUSTRIA HUNGARY 185 Agricultural Manufacturing Mining and forests Trade . Transport House-rent . Domestics Public service Professions . Total . Millions £ Sterling Austria. Hungary. Total. 99 93 192 90 74 164 17 11 28 39 34 73 41 35 76 28 9 37 19 6 25 28 20 48 36 . 397 28 310 64 707 The average earnings to population are 14 shillings per head higher in Hungary than in Austria. Wealth. — The components of wealth in 1895 were approxi- mately as follows : — Land . Cattle, &e. Houses Furniture Railways Factories Merchandise Bullion Sundries Total . . 2,706 1,806 4,512 Professor Sternegg in 1892 valued Austria (without Hun- gary) at 2500 millions sterling. Beer's valuation in 1880 for the whole empire was 3330 millions sterling, from which it would appear that the increase of wealth in the last fifteen years has averaged 79 millions, or about 40 shillings per inhabitant, as compared with 68 shillings in France. Land. — The value of land in 1893 was approximately as follows : — ■ Millions £ Sterling. Austria. Hungary. Total. 796 677 1,473 176 148 324 460 IBO 610 230 75 305 217 154 371 60 49 109 198 169 367 28 23 61 541 361 902 Acres (OOO's omitted). Austria, Arable . 25,100 Pasture . 14,200 Forest . 22,800 Hungary. 27,300 18,900 22,600 Total. 52,300 33,100 45,400 Millions £, Sterling. Austria. Hungai-y. Total. 527 436 963 149 161 300 120 90 210 Total 62,100 68,700 130,800 796 677 1,473 1 86 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS In 1892 Professor Fellner valued the land of Hungary at 650 millions sterling. The average price of arable land per acre is £21 in Austria and only £16 in Hungary, although the Hungarian land is of better quality ; the difference, per- haps, arises from the fact that the population is denser in Austria, viz., 56 per square mile, against 45 in Hungary. Houses. — In 1892 SchifiE valued the houses of Austria at 320, Fellner those of Hungary at 110, millions sterling, but these estimates were evidently much too low. The house-tax of Austria in 1892 was supposed to be 10 per cent, on the real rental, being 15 per cent, on the nominal assessment: it amounted to £2,760,000, representing therefore a rental of £27,600,000 and a capital value of £460,000,000 sterHng. The valuation of house- property in Vienna in 1886 was £88,000,000, say £80 per inhabitant. When Fellner made his estimate in 1892 the assessments of houses in Hungary were equal to about one-third of the amount in Austria ; the value would, therefore, be about £150,000,000. This would make the total for the monarchy 610 millions sterling, or £15 per inhabitant, as compared with £30 in Germany. FINANCE Revenue has increased six-fold since 1840, the amount in millions sterling showing as follows : — Year. 1840 .... 1895 .... Revenue. Debt 16 125 97 543 Besides the special budgets for Austria and Hungary there is one for the joint monarchy. The special in 1895 together made up £92,500,000,that of the united monarchy£12,3a0,000, but the latter included contributions from the two States pro- vided out of their budgets, and amounting to £8,300,000, so that the total of revenues sums up £96,500,000 : — AUSTRIA-HUNGARY 187 Railways . Crown estates . Taxes Customs . Austria. £ 8,100,000 6,400,000 39,200,000 2,300,000 Hungary. £ 6,800,000 6,000,000 26,000,000 1,700,000 Monarchy. 14,900,000 12,400,000 65,200,000 4,000,000 Total. . 56,000,000 40,500,000 96,600,000 The last item in the above table is the General Customs, an imperial tax, which averages 2 shillings per inhabitant. The expenditure comprises 24 millions for service of debt, 16 for the army, and 56 for civil service and other internal expenses. In 1892 the provincial taxes of Austria (without Hungary) amounted to £5,200,000, and the municipal taxes of forty- nine cities to £4,600,000, making altogether about 10 millions sterling. The local taxation in Hungary is less than in Austria, and may reach 5 millions sterling. Thus the total revenue raised by taxation, national and local, makes up 84 millions sterling, which is equal to 12 per cent, of national earnings, the incidence of taxation being 6 shillings less in Hungary than in Austria, per head of the population. Debt. — The total debt of the empire, funded and unfunded, consists of 1210 millions of gold florins (121 millions sterling), and 5210 millions in silver or paper (435 millions sterling), distributed thus : — Millions of Florins. General. Austrian. Hungarian. Total. Millions £. Gold . 500 710 1,210 121 Silver . 400 1,000 1,200 2,600 217 Paper . . 2,170 270 170 2,610 217 Total . 3,070 1,270 2,080 6,420 555 In apportioning the general debt it was agreed to consider 70 per cent, of it Austrian, 30 per ceno. Hungarian, and in this way the total debt of Austria comes to be 291, that of Hungary 264, millions sterling. If we deduct the value of State railways, the figures are reduced to 184 and 140 millions respectively, or £8 per inhabitant in both countries. The total net debt of 324 millions sterling is equal to 7 J per cent, of the wealth of the monarchy. VIII ITALY Population has increased 45 per cent, since 1830, the follow- ing table preserving the ancient denominations for sake of comparison : — Populat ion. PerSq. Mile. State. 1830. 1893. 1830. 1893. Piedmont . 3,760,000 4,230,000 180 302 Pap»l StatCT . 2,710,000 3,790,000 160 aio Naples 7,490,000 11,470,000 180 285 Lomb. Venetiii . 4,280,000 6,980,000 225 S67 Duchies 2,770,000 4,070,000 126 185 Total . . 21,000,000 30,540,000 175 270 The increase of population has been too rapid for the resources of the kingdom, being now 50 per cent, more to the square mile than in France. The productive area is only 53 million acres, barely sufficient to raise food for 27 million souls, the population being therefore 15 per cent, in excess of what the country can conveniently carry. Hence there has been for many years a strong current of emigration, Carpi and other authorities showing thus : — Period. To U. States. S. America. All Countries. Per Annum. 1861-80 . 59,000 610,000 1,829,000 91,500 1881-92 . 349,000 910,000 1,904,000 158,700 32 years . 408,000 1,520,000 3,733,000 117,000 At present the annual emigration is just half the natural increase from surplus of births over deaths. In this country, as elsewhere, urban population has risen much faster than rural, the aggregate of four principal cities showing an increase ITALY 189 of 140 per cent., while the rest of Italy has increased only 40 per cent., since 1830, viz. : — Year. Naples. Rome. Milan. Turin. 1830 . 354,000 128,000 125,000 114,000 1892 . 530,000 440,000 430,000 330,000 While the number of foreign residents in Italy is only 60,000, that of Italians residing abroad is nearly 2 millions, namely 1,010,000 in South America, 286,000 in the United States, and 620,000 in the East and other countries. The census of 1881 gave the occupations (see Appendix) of all persons over 9 years of age. If we consider only persons between 15 and 60, and allow for increase of population, the numbers employed in 1895 would be as follows : — Men. Women. Total. Ratio. Agriculture 4,350,000 2,490,000 6,840,000 62-6 Manufactures . 1,880,000 1,550,000 3,430,000 26-4 Commerce 510,000 110,000 620,000 4-8 Professions, &e. 1,270,000 900,000 2,170,000 13,060,000 16-2 Total 8,010,000 5,050,000 100-0 The working-power of the nation has almost doubled since 1870, viz. :— Millions of Foot-Tons Daily. ' ■ " V Foot-Tons Year. Hand. Horse. Steam. Total. per Inhab. 1870 . . 2,410 3,060 1,320 6,790 260 1893 . . 2,750 3,800 5,520 12,030 400 This rapid increase is chiefly owing to the development of steam-power, viz. : — steam Horse-Power. Year. Fixed. Locomotives. Steamboats. Total. 1870 . . 45,000 250,000 35,000 330,000 1893 . . 160,000 1,000,000 210,000 1,370,000 The steam-power is little more than one-fourth of that of France, although the population is as four to five. igo INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS AGRICULTURE Italians, except in some of the southern provinces, are the most laborious people in Europe, with special aptitude for tillage and gardening, bnt agriculture is by no means pros- perous. One-third of the kingdom consists of forest or waste lands, improved machinery is little known, and taxes in every form oppress the husbandman. There has been, nevertheless, remarkable progress in the last half -century, as may be seen on comparing the official returns for 1894 with Schnabel's estimate for 1840, as follows : — Acres. Yeai". Vineyards. Grain, &c. Forest, &e. Total. 1840 . . 3,900,000 17,600,000 52,000,000 73,500,000 1894 . . 8,520,000 29,680,000 32,590,000 70,790,000 In fifty-two years the peasantry have reclaimed 18 million acres, and doubled the cultivated area. The returns for 1892, according to the old denominations, showed thus : — state. Grain. Wine. Sundries. Total. Piedmont 1,660,000 750,000 1,580,000 3,990,000 Papal States . 3,290,000 2,070,000 2,100,000 7,460,000 Naples . 7,300,000 2,340,000 4,390,000 14,030.000 Lomb. Venetia 3,780,000 1,550,000 2,360,000 7,690,000 Duchies 2,660,000 1,930,000 2,010,000 6,600,000 Total . 18,690,000 8,640,000 12,440,000 39,770,000 The grain crops are light, seldom exceeding 13 bushels per acre, and for more than thirty years Italy has had to import cereals : the deficit in this respect increases with population, and whereas the imports twenty years ago were equal to eight days' supply, Italy has now to subsist on imported grain forty- two days in the year. The following table shows the total average grain crop, from which one-eighth has to be reserved for seed, and the quantity imported yearl)' in tons : — ITALY IQI Period. Crop. Imports. Consumption 18t)8-77 . 6,400,000 120,000 5,520,000 1891-93 . 6,100,000 710,000 6,810,000 The annual production of meat is about 390,000 tons, of which 20,000 are exported, the balance allowing a supply of only 27 lbs. per inhabitant, the lowest ratio in Europe : this is insufficient for the proper maintenance of the people, and partly accounts for the high death-rate (26"5), which is 38 per cent, more than in the United Kingdom. Dr. De Renzi states that 4 per cent, of the people die of impoverishment of the blood, for want of meat. All the food raised in Italy (except fruit) being reduced to a grain denominator shows thus : — Quantity. Eqniv. in Grain Grain, tons . . 6,100,000 6,100,000 Potatoes, ,, 760,000 250,000 Rice, „ . 480,000 600,000 Meat, „ . 390,000 3,120,000 Wine, gallons . 726,000,000 7,260,000 Total 17,330,000 This is equivalent to little more than half a ton per inhabi- tant, whereas the ratio in France is over a ton ; it demon- strates that the agricultural resources are utterly inadequate to support a population of 31 millions, and that emigration ought to be encouraged and facilitated. An official valuation of farm products in the years 1891-92-93 showed an average of 172 millions sterling, but appears to have been too low, hay being omitted, and fruits and vegetables under-estimated (see Appendix). The value approximately in 1870, and in 1893, was as follows : — Millions £ sterling. Year. Grain. Wine. Sundries. Pastoral. Total. 1870 ... 56 31 51 34 172 1893 . .63 34 54 63 204 The product compared with the jaroductive area gives an average of 77 shillings per acre, against 92 in France and 75 io Austria. There is apparently a great waste of labour for want of machinery, the product being only £30 per hand 192 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS employed, as compared with £59 in France. Small farms are the rule in Northern Italy, whereas in Central and Southern the estates average 100 acres. In 1870 the proprietors and area showed thus : — Proprietors. Acres, Average. North . . . 909,000 22,500,000 25 Papal States . . 80,000 10,800,000 136 Naples . . . 276,000 24,900,000 90 Total . . 1,265,000 68,200,000 46 Since 1870 many large estates have been broken up, and in 1882 the number of landowners had risen to 1,610,000, with an average of 36 acres each. Agricultural capital seems to have trebled since 1840, showing approximately as follows: — Millions £ Sterliog. Tear. Land. Cattle. Sundries. Total. 1840 ... 377 30 41 448 1890 . . . 1,180 92 127 1,399 If the capital were divided among the number of agricul- tural hands it would give an average of £165 each, as com- pared with £430 in France. The sum of farm products in 1893 was nearly 15 per cent, on the above capital. FORESTS AND FISHERIES^ The area under timber is a little over 10 million axires, or one-seventh of the kingdom. The cutting is about 9 million tons, of which 5 millions are firewood, the rest timber, the sup- ply of the latter being so far short of requirements that Italy imports 1 million tons yearly. Forest products are valued officially at £3,500,000 per annum, say 7 shillings an acre, as compared with 8 shillings in Germany. There are 70,000 men employed in the fisheries, who take fish to the value of £700,000 per annum. Italy, moreover, imports 50,000 tons of fish, valued at £1,500,000; her con- sumption is about 100,000 tons, an average of 7 lbs. per inhabitant. ITALY 193 MANUFACTURES Textile manufactures show great progress, the weight of fibre consumed having quadrupled in thirty-two years, as shown thus : — Tons of Fibre. Tear. Cotton. Wool. Flax, &c. Total. 1862 . . 12,000 14,000 20,000 46,000 1894 . 105,000 22,000 65,000 192,000 Cottons. — The mills count 82,000 workmen, who turn out goods to the value of 13 millions sterling, but this is not sufficient, for Italy has to import cotton fabrics to the value of £900,000 yearly. Woollens. — This industry has been almost stationary for the last fifteen years. The wool consumed is half native, half imported, and the output is worth 6 millions sterling. Here again the supply is short of requirements, and goods to the value of =£1,200,000 are imported. Silli's. — This industry is one of primary importance, the factories counting more than 1^ million spindles. The quantity of silk spun yearly is about 4000 tons, most of which is exported to France. Between the value of spun silk exported and that of silk goods made for home use this industry stands for 9 millions sterling. Flax. — The mills consume 65,000 tons of flax and hemp, or about two-thirds of the crop, the rest being exported : output about 8 millions sterling. Hardware. — The consumption of iron and steel hardly reaches 200,000 tons, one-third imported, and of lead 20,000 tons, the total output of hardware manufactures not exceeding 4 millions sterling. Leather. — About 32,000 tons are consumed, one-third made from imported hides ; the value of goods made is about 16 millions, an average of only 10 shillings per inhabitant, against 18 shillings in France. N 194 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS Summary. — The total value at various dates is shown approximatel}' thus : — Textiles . Hardware . Leather Food . Clothing Houses and furniture Sundries Total 94 MillionB £ Sterling 1830. 1860. 1894. 6 20 37 1 2 4 8 10 16 33 44 52 14 18 23 13 17 20 19 28 38 139 190 MINERALS Between mines and quarries there are 67,000 hands, who turn out a total value of 3 millions sterling, viz. : — Tons. Value, £. Hands. Sulphur 370,000 1,100,000 36,000 Ores . 830,000 1,100,000 11,000 Marble . 260,000 1,000,000 20,000 Total . . . 1,460,000 3,200,000 67,000 There are 610 sulphur mines working in Sicily, but the industry is a poor one, the product per miner not exceeding £30 a year. The want of coal-fields is a great drawback : Italy has to import 4 million tons yearly, of which quantity the factories consume two-thirds, railways and steamboats the rest. COMMERCE Foreign trade rose considerably after the expulsion of the Austrians and Grand Dukes, and is now more than double what it was forty years ago, showing as follows : — Millions £ Sterling. Year. 1850 1894 Imports. '23 . 44 Exports. Total. 15 38 41 85 The returns for five years, to December 1892, give the following averages :^ ITALY 195 Millions £ Storlii 'g- Imports Exporta from. to. Total. Eatio. Great Britain . 11. 5 16 17-6 France . . 8 8 16 17-6 Germany . 6 5 11 12-0 Other countries . 27 21 48 52-8 Total . . . 52 39 91 100-0 Shipping. — Italians- have a genius for navigation, and their length of coast-line gives them every facility to cultivate maritime enterprise, yet port-entries show that 75 per cent. of Italian trade is done on foreign bottom, mostly British. The merchant-shipping under the Italian flag numbers only 780,000 tons register, with a carrying-power of 1,410,000 tons, hardly 5 per cent, of the carrying-power of the British flag. Internal Trade. — The amount at various dates was approxi- mately as follows : — Millions £ Sterling. 1830. 1860. 1894. Agriculture . . 96 160 204 Manufactures . 94 139 190 Mines, forestry, &e. 2 5 8 Imports . 13 33 44 Total . . .205 337 446 The ratio of internal trade to population is only £15 per head, as compared with £30 in France and £42 in the United Kingdom. Railways. — A short line of 13 miles was opened in 1839, but little was done in the way of construction during twenty ensuing years. Between 1865 and 1890 there were opened to traffic 5600 miles of new lines, an average of 220 miles a year, and at present Italy has 8800 miles, representing a cost of 184 millions sterling, which includes 6400 miles of State railways. Traffic returns per mile compare with those of Austrian railways thus : — Receipts, £. Expenses, £. Profit, £. Italian . 1,265 858 407 Austrian . . 1,510 860 650 ITALY 197 This gives an average in 1894 of £14 per inhabitant, as compared with £17 in Austria and £25 in Germany. Wealth. — Probate returns show that the amount of property which paid succession duty in the years 1884-89 was equal to £71 for each person that died in those six years. Pantaleoni applied this rule to the living, by which the national wealth in 1892 would be 2130 millions, but Italians are so clever in eluding taxation that it appears one-third of the property escaped either through omission or under-value. The above figure represents only two-thirds of the national wealth, which reaches 3160 millions sterling, made up approximately thus: — Millions £ Sterling. Land . .1,180 Cattle, &c. . 219 Railways . 184 Houses . 440 Furniture . 220 Factories . 63 Merchandise 223 Sundries . 631 Total . 3,160 Acres. Millions £. £ per Ac 22,600,000 597 26-0 10,800,000 115 10'6 24,900,000 468 18-8 Land. — -An official report in 1844 estimated the value of cultivated land at £11, uncultivated at £5, per acre, according to which the landed value in that year would be 377 millions sterling. The report of 1882 was as follows : — North Papal States Naples Total . . 58,300,000 1,180 20-3 Houses. — The assessed rental of house-property in 1892 was £26,400,000, equal to a capital value of 440 millions : the Archivio estimate in 1880 was 380 millions sterling, but was manifestly too low. The total value of real estate is officially put down at 1708 millions sterling, which is equal to 54 per cent, of the esti- mated total (3160 millions) in the preceding table: the ratio of real estate in France is only 49 per cent. It appears from the Probate returns that the average wealth per head of persons who died in the years 1872-75 was only £57, as ITALY 197 This gives an average in 1894 of £14 per inhabitant, as compared with £17 in Austria and £25 in Germany. Wealth. — Probate returns show that the amount of property which paid succession duty in the years 1884-89 was equal to £71 for each person that died in those six years. Pantaleoni applied this rule to the living, by which the national wealth in 1892 would be 2130 millions, but Italians are so clever in eluding taxation that it appears one-third of the property escaped either through omission or under-value. The above figure represents only two-thirds of the national wealth, which reaches 3160 millions sterling, made up approximately thus: — Millions £ Sterling. Land . . 1,180 Cattle, &c. . 219 Railways . 184 Houses . 440 Furniture . 220 Factories . 63 Merchandise 223 Sundries . 631 Total . 3,160 Land. — An official report in 1844 estimated the value of cultivated land at £11, uncultivated at £5, per acre, according to which the landed value in that year would be 377 millions sterling. The report of 1882 was as follows : — Acres. Millions £. £ per Acre. North . . . 22,600,000 597 26-5 Papal States . 10,800,000 115 10'6 Naples . . . 24,900,000 468 IS'S Total . . 58,300,000 1,180 20-3 Houses. — The assessed rental of house-property in 1892 was £26,400,000, equal to a capital value of 440 millions : the Archivio estimate in 1880 was 380 millions sterling, but was manifestly too low. The total value of real estate is officially put down at 1708 millions sterling, which is equal to 54 per cent, of the esti- mated total (3160 millions) in the preceding table : the ratio of real estate in France is only 49 per cent. It appears from the Probate returns that the average wealth per head of persons who died in the years 1872-75 was only £57, as 198 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS compared with £71 in 1885-89 : applying the same ratio to the living, this gives an increase of 20 shillings yearly per inhabitant, against 68 shillings in France. FINANCE The aggregate revenues and debt of the States that now compose the kingdom of Italy were at various dates as follows : — 1830. £. 1861, £. 1895, £. Revenue . 8,300,000 38,000,000 67,200,000 Debt . . 48,300,000 97,000,000 505,000,000 If we deduct the amount expended for State railways, we iind that since 1861 the aggregate of deficits has been 260 millions sterling, or 8 millions yearly. Schools, high-roads, and other public works will account for some of these deficits, but a good deal must be set down to extraordinary military and naval expenditure arising from the Triple Alliance The budgets of 1875 and 1895 compare as follows : — Revenue (OOO's omitted). Expend. (OOO's omitted) 1875, £. 1896, £. 1875, £. 1895, £. Customs . 6,600 11,400 Debt . 20,100 30,500 Taxes . . 33,100 47,600 Army . 7,800 13,600 Sundries . 4,100 8,200 Government 15,300 28,400 Total . 43,800 67,200 Total . 43,200 72,500 If we deduct from the revenue and expenditure of 1894 the sums received and expended on State railways, we find the revenue 62, the expenditure 68, millions sterling, showing a deficit of 6 millions. The amount raised by taxation in 1894 was 56 millions, to which, adding 27 millions for local taxes, the total becomes 83 millions, say 54 shillings per head. The incidence of tax compared with national earnings is very eavy . MUUons £ sterling. Tiix R,itio. Earnings. Tax.ition. Per Cent. Italy .... 436 83 19 France .... 1,199 144 12 ITALY 199 Debt. — Although the debt is nominally 505 millions we may deduct the value of State railways, 130 millions, which brings it down to 375 millions sterling : there are also Com- munal debts amounting to 48, so that the total debt may be said to be 423 millions, and this, if compared with national wealth, shows a lighter ratio than in France ; the amounts are as follows :^ Millions £ Sterling. , ■ , Debt Ratio. Wealth. Debt. Per Cent. Italy. . . . 3,160 423 IKJ France . . . 9,690 1,370 14 Unfortunately the Italian debt must go on increasing, by the piling up of deficits, unless military expenditure be curtailed. IX SPAIN" This country is thinly populated, the census of 1887 showing 17,300,000 inhabitants, being only 90 to the square mile, as compared with 270 in Italy. Etaigration has increased in recent years, viz. : — Period. To S. America. All Countries. Per Annum. 1861-85 . . . 205,000 515,000 20,600 1886-92 . . . 185,000 505,000 72,000 32 years . . 390,000 1,020,000 32,000 There are only 51,000 foreigners residing in Spain, while the number of Spaniards living abroad is over 600,000, mostly in South America. To judge by the returns for the five largest cities, urban population has exactly doubled since 1830, while rural has risen hardly 50 per cent. Spain has only twenty-five cities with more than 30,000 souls, making up an aggregate of 2,300,000 souls, or 13 per cent, of the population. The census of 1877, in giving the occupations only of males, showed 4,107,000 workers, to which must be added 50 per cent., in each class, for female, giving the following result : — Agriculture. JIanufaetures. Commerce. Total. Men . . 2,720,000 1,170,000 220,000 4,110,000 Women . 1,360,000 580,000 110,000 2,050,000 Total . 4,080,000 1,750,000 330,000 6,160,000 Here there is no allowance for professions and sundry occupations, which in other countries average 16 per cent, of SPAIN 201 total : this would be 1,170,000, making a total of 7,330,000, and as the population of working- age (15-60) amounts to 10,500,000, it would appear that 30 per cent, of the adult inhabitants have no visible or useful means of livelihood. The working-power of the nation was as follows : — ]\Iillions of Foot-tons D.^ily. Foot-tona per Year. Hand. Horse. Steam. Total. InLabitant. 1870 . . 1,510 2,400 1,100 5,010 305 1894 . 1,590 2,640 4,520 8,750 505 Steam-power has quadrupled since 1870, viz. : — steam Horse-power. Year. Fixed. Loeomotives. Steamboats. Total. 1870. . . 20,000 210,000 45,000 275,000 1894 . . . 50,000 600,000 480,000 1,130,000 The steam-power nearly approaches that of Italy, although the population of Spain is 40 per cent. less. AGRICULTUEE According to the Registro of 1803 Spain had then 60 million acres under crops, but this was an official exaggera- tion. Malchus in 1828 put down the cultivated area at 23 million acres. Coming down to our own time we find Neumann Spallart's estimate in 1876, of 32 million acres under tillage, and grain crops summing up 8,100,000 tons. On the other hand, an official return for 1890 estimates 41 million acres under grain : if this were true the grain crop would exceed 12 million tons, whereas Juraschek's " Uebersichten " (1893) makes the total 5 million tons. The area of Spain may be set forth approximately as follows : — Acres Cultivated. Uneultivated. Grain . . . 20,800,000 Pasture . . 21,000,000 Forest . . 16,400,000 Desert . . 55,700,000 Vineyards. 4,200,000 Other crops 7,200,000 Total 32,200,000 Total . . 93,100,000 202 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS Thus it would appear that only one-fourth of the kingdom is cultivated. The production of wheat down to 1878 usually left an annual surplus of 130,000 tons for exportation, but during the last three years, ending 1894, there has been a deficit of 330,000 tons yearly; that is to say, Spain subsists on imported wheat during fifty days in the year. Increased attention has been of late years devoted to vineyards, the export of wine in the last six years averaging 170 million gallons, as compared with 48 millions in the quinquennium ending 1877. The ordinary vintage in recent years has been 610 million gallons. Reducing all food to a grain denomi- nator, the production is approximately as follows : — Grain, tons , Potatoes, ,, . Meat, „ . Wine, gallons Total 15,700,000 This is equivalent to 36 bushels per inhabitant, which shows that however small the cultivated area, Spain raises enough food for her population ; but as one- third of it is in the form of wine, some of this has to be exported, to pay for imported wheat and stockfish. The value of all farm products was estimated by ArgUelles in 1832 at 102 millions sterling; it is now approximately 135 millions, viz. : — Quantity, Equiv. in Grain. 5,800,000 5,800,000 1,500,000 500,000 430,000 3,400,000 600,000,000 6,000,000 Grain Wine Green crops Meat Dairy and sundries £39,200,000 33,600,000 21,200,000 20,200,000 21,000,000 Total .... £135,200,000 The productive area being 53 million acres, this gives a mean product of 51 shillings per acre, against 77 in Italy, and an average of £33 per hand, .against £30 in Italy. The Registro for 1877 showed 596,000 landowners, holding 65 million acres, an average of 110 acres per estate. There were SPAIN 203 3900 hidalgos or country gentlemen whose rent-roll exceeded £400 a j-ear. Agricultural capital in 1890 compared with the official statement for 1832 as follows : — Millions £ Sterling. Lfiud. Cattle. Sundries. Total. 1832 . . 724 34 76 834 1890 . . 3,056 46 110 1,212 Dividing the capital among the number of hands, it gives an average of £295 each, against £430 in France. The annual product of farms is equal to 11 per cent, on the agri- cultural capital, the same ratio as in the United Kingdom. FOEESTS AND FISHERIES The forest area is 16,400,000 aci'es, but there are no returns as to the annual product, or the number of men employed in wood-cutting. If we suppose an average yield of 4 shillings per acre (that is, half the ordinary European yield), the annual product will reach £3,300,000. This, of course, would include cork, the export of which reaches £900,000 a year. The consumption of firewood probably averages a value of 2 shillings per inhabitant, as in Italy, and this would amount to £1,800,000. As regards timber for building, Spain seems to rely mostly on foreign supplies, importing nearly 2 million tons yearly. Fishing is carried on by 10,200 boats, counting 40,000 fishermen, who take 50,000 tons of fish, value about £600,000 sterling. This is, however, insufficient for home consumption, the import of codfish reaching 45,000 tons, valued at £960,000. MAJSrUFAOTURES Spain, so famous in the Middle Ages for her manufactures, now ranks low in this branch of industry. Protective tariffs have in some respects shut out foreign goods, but smuggling 204 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS is carried on so extensively that Contrabandistas are the only gainers. Textile factories have, nevertheless, made consider- able progress in late years, the consumption of fibre having nearly doubled since 1872, as shown thus : — Tons of Fibre. Year. Cotton. Wool. Flax, &c. Total. 1872 . 28,000 21,000 10,000 59,000 1894 . 65,000 25,000 10,000 100,000 Cottons. — An official statement in 1833 showed that the mills had 800,000 spindles and consumed 8000 tons of cotton. The latest report, published in 1886, showed 1,800,000 spindles, 53,000 operatives, and an output estimated at £12,400,000. This was, however, a fictitious value, the quantity of fibre consumed showing that the real value could not exceed 9 millions. Cotton goods are exported to the annual value of 2 millions sterling. Woollens. — This industry is so backward, in spite of Pro- tection, that Spain is unable to consume her own wool, or even to produce woollen fabrics sufficient for her population. The clip averages 30,000 tons, of which one-fourth is exported, and the consumption in the mills, including some imported wool, is about 25,000 tons : there are 25,000 operatives, and the output appears to be 6^ millions sterling. The value of woollen goods imported in the years 1891-94 averaged £800,000. Linens. — This industry is declining, and the importation of linen goods has doubled since 1872. The latest official report showed 6000 operatives, and an output estimated at £1,100,000, equal to £180 per operative. Sillcs. — The consumption of raw silk is under 300 tons yearly, more than half being imported. The factories count 8000 hands, and the official report values the output at £2,800,000, a manifest exaggeration, which the Bulletin Statistique reduces to 1 million sterling. Silk goods are, moreover, imported to the value of £400,000 a year. SPAIN 205 Hardtvare. — Althougli Spain is so rich in iron-fields she gets much of her hardware from England. The production and consumption of pig-iron are shown thus : — Tous of Iron. Production . Imported 1S30. . 20,000 . 20,000 1870. 70,000 80,000 1S93. 180,000 70,000 Consumption . 40,000 150,000 250,000 The value of iron and steel goods made in the country is about 4 millions sterling, or two-thirds of the consumption, which latter averages 7 shillings per inhabitant. The manu- factures of copper, lead, and zinc do not make up a million sterling, the greater part of the ores raised and metal extracted being sent to other countries for elaboration. Leather. — Cordoba is no longer a flourishing centre of this trade, which is now of secondary importance. The annual con- sumption of leather in Spain is about 28,000 tons, one-fifth imported, and the value of this branch of manufacture is about 14 millions sterling. Summary. — The value of goods manufactured was at various dates approximately as follows : — Millions £ Sterling. 1840. 1870. 1894 Textiles . . 6 10 19 Hardware 1 3 5 Leatlier . 9 16 14 Food . 20 30 34 Clotliing . 7 10 14 Houses and furniture 7 9 11 Sundries . 13 20 24 Total . . 63 98 121 According to an ofiicial statement in 1860 the output of the factories reached £63,200,000, without counting the work of artisans. 2o6 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS MINERALS Mining industry has increased ten-fold in the last thirty years, the weight showing as follows : — Tons of Mineral. Tear. Ironstone. Copper Ore. Lead, &c. Coal. Total. 1863 . . 170,000 140,000 420,000 320,000 1,050,000 1894 . . 5,400,000 2,400,000 1,300,000 1,700,000 10,800,000 The value of minerals in 1894 was £3,900,000, the number of miners 59,000, showing an output of £66 per man. COMMERCE Foreign trade has more than doubled since 1860, viz. : — Year. Imports £. Exports £. Total £. 1860 . . . 14,500,000 10,700,000 25,200,000 1894' . . . 32,200,000 26,900,000 59,100,000 Commercial relations with France are greater than with any other country, the returns for five years down to December 1892 giving the following averages : — e Britain . Millions £ Sterling Total. 26 15 Trano Great Imports from. . 11 . 7 Exports to. 15 8 Hatio. 377 217 Other countries . 17 11 28 40-6 Total . . 35 34 69 100 '0 The foreign trade of Spain is relatively gi-eater than that of Italy, being £4 per inhabitant against £3, which is perhaps owing to the fact that Spain has so many colonies. Shipping. — Merchant-shipping has quadrupled in carrying- power in the last twenty years, the tonnage being as follows :— SPAIN 207 Year. Steam. Sail. Tons Register. Carrying-power. 1872 . . 45,000 340,000 385,000 620,000 1893 . . 480,000 200,000 680,000 2,120,000 Notwithstanding this remarkable increase Spain would re- quire double her present shipping to carry on her trade, since only 44 per cent, of the tonnage of Spanish port-entries and clearances is under the national flag. Internal Trade. — ^The amount at various dates was approxi- mately as follows : — Millions £ Sterling. 1832. 1860. 1894. Agriculture . 102 140 135 Manufactures . . 50 78 121 Mining, forestry, &c. 3 5 8 Imports .... 4 15 32 Total . . . .159 238 296 Internal trade averages £17 per inhabitant, against £15 in Italy and .^30 in France. Railways. — The first line was one of 18 mUes, from Barce- lona to Matar6, opened in 1848, and the length of railways working in January 1894 was 6710 mUes, representing a cost of 108 millions sterling. There are no State railways, but the various companies received subsidies, the amount of which down to 1880 reached 28 millions sterling, equal to 40 per cent, of the sum spent until then on railways. Traffic returns per mile compare with those of Italian lines thus : — ■ Eeeeipts, £. Expenses, £. Profit, £,. Spanish .... 1,201 524 677 Italian .... 1,265 858 407 The profit on Spanish lines is 4J, on Italian 2, per cent. Working-expenses are lower in Spain than in any other part of the world, only 43 per cent, of receipts. Barildng. — Spain was described by a modern traveller as a country of three banks and one hundred bull-rings. Bank- ing-power in 1889 was 47 millions sterling; hardly £3 per inhabitant. 2o8 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS EARNINGS AND WEALTH The earnings of the Spanish people at various dates were approximately as follows : — MilUons £ Sterling 1832. 1860. 1894. Agricultural Manufacturing 62 25 84 40 81 60 Mining, forests, &c. Trade . 3 16 5 24 8 30 Transport House-rent . . 17 7 25 10 31 14 Domestics 5 7 9 Public service 4 10 15 Professions 14 21 25 Total . 153 226 273 The earnings are equal to £15 per inhabitant, against £14 in Italy and £30 in France. Wealth. — The valuation by the Junta de Medios in 1832 was very incomplete, making real estate 923 millions, personal property 186, total 1109 millions sterling. We may take the real estate to have been correct, but the personal property would seem to have amounted to 547 millions, making a total of 1470, the figures comparing with those at present thus : — Millions £ Sterling. Land Cattle, &c. Houses . ^Turniture Factories Railways Bullion . Merchandise Sundries Total .... 1,470 2,380 910 From this it would appear that the increase of wealth has been only 61 per cent, in the same number of years, whereas 1S32. 1893. Increase 686 1,056 370 106 156 50 175 240 65 87 120 33 22 40 18 108 108 20 38 18 80 148 68 294 474 180 SPAIN 209 M'Culloch says that it ought to be 100 per cent, in fifty years in countries that are fairly prosperous. The average accumu- lation has been about 20 shillings yearly per inhabitant, as compared with 68 shillings in France and 92 shillings in England. Land. — If we take the real rental in 1890 as 10 per cent. over the assessment (£32,000,000) and capitalise it at thirty times same, the land will now represent a value of 1056 millions sterling, an increase of 55 per cent, since 1832, being at present approximately as follows : — Class. Acres. Value, £. £ per Acre. Irrigated . . 2,500,000 225,000,000 90 Ordinary arable . 29,700,000 594,000,000 20 Pasture and forest . 37,400,000 237,000,000 6J Waste 65,700,000 Total . 125,300,000 1,056,000,000 Houses. — The assessed rental has nearly doubled, rising from 7 millions in 1832 to 12 millions sterling in 1890 : the real rental is probably 20 per cent, higher, say £14,400,000, equal to a capital value of 240 millions sterling. Distribution.- — There are altogether 3,430,000 estates in Spain, but this includes house-property, the number of land- owners not exceeding 596,000, according to the survey of 1877. The landed estates cover '65 million acres, or half the area of the kingdom, giving an average of 110 acres to each estate. There are 3900 hidalgos or country gentlemen with a rent-roll exceeding £400 a year. The total land and house property is approximately as follows : — No. Rental, £. Value, £. Average Value, £. 440,000 17,600,000 528,000,000 1,200 1,210,000 18,100,000 508,000,000 420 1,780,000 8,400,000 260,000,000 150 3,430,000 44,100,000 1,296,000,000 378 The number of persons owning lands or houses is probably half that of properties, say 1,720,000, or one-tenth of the population, which is a very high ratio. 210 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS FINANCE The finances of Spain during sixty years showed deficits amounting to 380 millions sterling, that being the excess of expenditure over revenue, as shown thus in millions £ sterling : — Year. 1831-70 1871-90 60 years Revenue. Expenditure. 530 735 628 803 1,158 1,538 Excess. 205 175 380 In 1840, after the first Carlist War, Queen Isabella repu- diated the debt, compelling the bond-holders to take new scrip for old at the rate of 30 for 100. A second repudiation occurred under Alfonso XII. in 1882, when bond-holders had to accept new scrip at 40 for 100. By these repudiations the debt, which would otherwise have been 776 millions, was reduced to 220 millions sterling. The budget shows little variation in the last thirty years, viz. : — Revenue (OOO's omitted). Expenditure (OOO's omitted). 1866, £. 1896, £. 1866, £. 1896, £. Customs . 10,000 12,200 Debt. . . 5,100 12,700 Taxes . 7,700 12,600 Army . . 5,400 6,500 Sundries . 9,800 5,500 Government 17,000 11,100 Total . 27,500 30,300 Total 27,500 30,300 The budget is reliable only as regards revenue, the estimates of expenditure being illusory. According to the Statesman's Year-book the public debt (including 10 millions for Cuba) amounts to 293 millions sterling; the annual interest is £12,700,000, equal to 14 shillings per inhabitant, whereas the interest on national debt in the United Kingdom is only 8 shillings per inhabitant. X POETUGAL This little kingdom is on a par with Ireland as to area and population. The census of 1890 showed 4,700,000 inhabitants, being 144 to the square mile, but however thin the population it seems too much for the resources of the country. There has been during half a century a constant outflow of emigration, and in a period of forty years down to 1890 we find that 460,000 persons left Portugal, of whom 380,000 went to Brazil, the rest to the United States. At present the ordinary emigration is 30,000 yearly, and the number of returning emigrants about 15,000. Urban population is hardly 11 per cent, of the total, there being only two cities, Lisbon and Oporto, and twelve small towns. While the other cities of Europe have doubled or quadrupled their number of inhabi- tants in the last sixty years, we find that the aggregate of Lisbon and Oporto has not risen one-fourth, viz. : — Year. Lisbon. Oporto. Total. 1830 . 202,000 80,000 282,000 1890 . 242,000 106,000 348,000 There is perhaps no country in Europe where the surplus of females is so large as in Portugal, the number being as 1092 to a thousand males, which is probably the result of emigration. No census has ever been taken as to the occupations of the people, but an ofiicial return in 1860 showed 870,000 adults engaged in agriculture, the population of working-age (15 to 60) being as follows : — Men. Women. Total. Urban . . 130,000 140,000 270,000 Rural . . . 1,050,000 1,150,000 2,200,000 Total . . 1,180,000 1,290,000 2,470,000 211 212 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS The working-power of the nation has increased 50 per cent, since 1870, viz. : — Millions of Fnot-tonB Daily. Foot-tons , * s per Year. Hand. Horyc. Steam. Total. Inliabitaut. 1870 . . 310 400 180 890 210 1890 . . 350 420 560 1,330 290 Steam-power is triiling, summiilg up no more than 140,000 horse-power, of which 120,000 stand for railway locomotives. AGRICULTURE This is the chief occupation of the people, and yet is so backward that hardly one-fifth of Portugal is under cultiva- tion. If we compare the latest estimates with those of Malchus, nearly seventy years ago, we find that the produc- tion of grain has increased, but wine shows little progress, viz. : — year. Tons, grain. Wine, gallons. 1827 . . . 520,000 75,000,000 1890 . 740,000 80,000,000 Juraschek's estimate of the grain-crop, as given above, is 20 per cent, less than Neumann Spallart's. Notwithstanding the fertility of the soil the production of grain and animal food is short of requirements, and imports average 140,000 tons of the former and 20,000 of the latter. Reducing all food to a grain denominator the production is as follows : — Quantity. Equiv. in grj Grain, tons 740,000 740,000 Potatoes, „ 270,000 90,000 Meat „ 100,000 800,000 Wine, gallons 80,000,000 800,000 Total . . , 2,430,000 This is equivalent to no more than half a ton per inhabi- tant. If we deduct the grain necessary for seed it will be found that the people live on native grain during ten months, and depend on what is imported for the other two months of PORTUGAL 213 the year. Their meat supply is equivalent to 48 lbs. per inhabi- tant, and is supplemented by 1 lbs. (per head) of imported stock- fish, and a small quantity of foreign meat. Wine is the most valuable crop, the quantity exported having more than doubled in twenty years, viz. : — Gallons. £ value. 1872 .... 9,500,000 2,100,000 1892 . . . 22,100,000 3,100,000 The quantity exported is only one-fourth of the vintage, the home consumption averaging 12 gallons per inhabitant. Agricultural products are equal to 16 per cent, on capital : the capital and products may be summed up thus : — Capital. Products, Land . . £138,400,000 Cattle . . 10,500,000 Sundries . . 14,900,000 Total . . 163,800,000 Wine . . . £6,700,000 Grain, &c. . 11,200,000 Animal products . 8,100,000 Total . . 26,000,000 The latest official valuation of farm products was £18,000,000 for grain, wine, &o., and £5,200,000 for animal products, in all £23,200,000. The productive area being 11,600,000 acres, the product is equal to 45 shillings per acre, against 51 in Spain and 77 in Italy. It is stated by Portuguese writers that the kingdom consists of 5 million acres cultivated, 10 million idle but suit- able for tillage, and 5 million of mountain waste. There is, however, no prospect of the available land being cultivated so long as the present system of land tenure exists. More than half the kingdom, in fact 13 million acres, or 60 per cent, of the whole area, is in the hands of noblemen who have neither the capital nor the energy to develop their estates. If it were possible for the Government to do as was done in Austria and Prussia, namely to purchase from the nobles one-half of their estates, say 6,300,000 acres, and distribute the same in thirty- acre lots among the peasantry, the cultivated area would be doubled in a few years. According to an official report there are 870,000 adults engaged in agriculture, among whom a 214 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS division of the products would give an average of £30, as com- pared with £30 in Italy and £33 in Spain. There are 490,000 small farms, averaging 18 acres, and after allowing for the value of noblemen's estates the average of agricultural capital corresponding to these little farms is about £210 each. FOEESTS AND FISHERIES There are 1,200,000 acres of forest, the most valuable pro- duct being cork, of which 25,000 tons are exported yearly, worth £600,000. Firewood and timber wUl probably bring up the total to £1,200,000. There is no record as to fisheries, which must be worth close on a million sterling, since the ex- ports of sardines and other tinned fish amount to 20,000 tons yearly, worth £300,000. On the other hand Portugal imports 20,000 tons of codfish, valued at £400,000, a cheap article of food for the peasantry. MANUFACTURES AND MINERALS There are 115 cotton, woollen, and flax mills, with steam- power of 2000 horse in the aggregate, consuming 22,000 tons of fibre, that is three times the consumption of the year 1872, and turning out goods to the value of 4 millions sterling. The supply of these goods is not sufficient, and the value of imported fabrics usually exceeds £500,000. As regards hard- ware the foundries consume 50,000 tons of imported iron. The silversmiths of Oporto make handsome jewellery, but this, like all manufactures in Portugal, is of trifling value. Leather consumption averages 7000 tons. The approximate value of manufactures is as follows : — Textiles . . £4,800,000 Clothing . £3,900,000 Hardware . 600,000 Houses and furn. 3,000,000 Leather 3,400,000 Sundries . 6,000,000 Eood . . 7,300,000 Total . 29,000,000 PORTUGAL 215 Coal is known to exist, near Oporto, but the only mineral produced is copper, of which 120,000 tons in ore are exported yearly. The salt-pits at Setubal yield 300,000 tons, and of this quantity one-half is exported. Altogether the value of minerals, according to Pery, is only £270,000 a year. COMMERCE Portuguese trade with foreign nations in the year 1842 hardly reached 4 millions sterling; in 1894 it exceeded 14 millions. The aggregate of five years down to 1892 gives the following averages : — Imports from, £. Exports to, £. Total, £. Great Britain . 3,000,000 1,800,000 4,800,000 France . 1,400,000 800,000 2,200,000 Brazil . 400,000 800,000 1,200,000 Otlier countries . 4,400,000 . 9,200,000 1,600,000 6,000,000 Total . 5,000,000 14,200,000 Shipping. — The Portuguese flag, in the fallen fortunes of the kingdom, has almost disappeared from the high seas ; no less than 70 per cent, of the vessels that clear from the ports of Portugal carry the British or other foreign flag. According to a statement published in 1888 the merchant-navy of Por- tugal counted 78,000 tons register, as compared with 80,000 tons in Lloyd's Register for 1842. Internal trade. — ^This comprised in 1893 approximately 26 millions of agricultural products, 29 millions manufactures, 2 millions of forest and fishery products, and 8 millions imports, making up 65 millions sterling, which gives an average of £14 per inhabitant, against £17 in Spain and £15 in Italy. Communications. — Fifty years ago there were neither high- roads, railways, nor mail-coaches; nothing but mule-tracks, along which even nobles travelled on horseback and ladies in palanquins. An ox-cart with a pipe of wine, drawn by two oxen, usually took ten days for a journey of 60 miles. The 2i6 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS first high-road was made in 1849 from Elvas to Vendas, the first railroad in 1854 from Lisbon to Carregado, 22 miles. In 1893 the kingdom possessed 1420 miles of railway, 2500 of high-road, and 480 of navigable rivers, making a total of 4400 miles. The cost of the railways is supposed to have been at the same rate as those of Spain, say £16,000 a mile, which would sum up 23 millions sterling : there are 910 miles of State railways, and the remainder was made by companies to which the Government gave subsidies. The net product of State lines in 1893 was £350,000, but the annual charge to the Treasury for loans contracted for their construction was £700,000. Traffic earnings on all lines compare with Spanish, per mile, as follows ; — Receipts, £. Expenses, £. Profit, £ Portuguese . 850 450 400 Spanish . 1,201 524 677 Banking. — There are thirty-eight banks, with an aggregate banking-power of 25 millions sterling. The amount of paper money in circulation in 1895 was 14 millions sterling, or £3 per inhabitant, that is relatively three times as much as in Great Britain. EAENINGS AND WEALTH Earnings and wealth may be summed up approximately as follows : — Ea-niings. WcaUh. Agricultural . . £1.1,600,000 Tnnd £138.400,000 Manufacturing . 14,500,000 Cattle 10,5uii,000 Forestry, &o. 2,200,000 Implements, &c. 14,900,000 Trade . 6,r.00,000 Houses . 67,300,000 Transport 6,800,000 Furniture 33,700,000 House-rent 4,000,000 Railways 23,000,000 Domestics 2,700,000 Merchandise . 32,000,000 Public service . 5,300,000 Factories 9,200,000 Professions 5,800,000 Sundries Total S2,000,n00 Total . £63,J00,000 £111,000,000 PORTUGAL 217 Real estate.- — The latest land assessment is that of 1872, wliich amounted to £4,200,000 : the real rental may be taken 10 per cent, higher, say £4,620,000, which would represent a capital value of 138 millions sterling, viz. : — Clasa. Acres. Vtilue, £,. £ per Acre. Cultivated . 3,800,000 76,000,000 20 Pasture, &c. . 7,800,000 62,400,000 8 Waste . . . 9,200,000 Total 20,800,000 138,400,000 As regards houses the same assessment valued urban house- property at £900,000 per annum, equal to a capital value of £15,000,000 sterling, or £40 per head of the urban popula- tion. Nothing is known of rural house-property. It may be assumed that house-property for the whole kingdom bears the same ratio as in Spain to population, that is £14 per inhabi- tant, which would amount to 67 millions sterling. This makes the total real estate approximately 205 millions sterling, or 50 per cent, of the wealth of the kingdom, as compared with 49 per cent, in France. Ratio per head. — The average of earnings is under £14, that of wealth is only £87, per inhabitant, showing that Portugal is relatively one of the poorest nations in Europe. FINANCE Between 1825 and 1867 there was so loose a system of finance that expenditure was usually 40 per cent, over revenue, and thus the debt rose from 7 to 47 millions sterling. In the subsequent period of twenty-seven years things have been much worse, and deficits piled one on another to the amount of 101 millions, the debt now amounting to 148 millions sterling. The average revenue and expenditure since 1868 are shown as follows, per annum : — 2i8 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS Period. Revenue, £. Expenditure, £. Deficit, £,. 1868-80 . . 6,100,000 9,700,000 3,600,000 1881-95 . . 7,700,000 10,400,000 2,700,000 Thus during the last quarter of a century deficits have averaged more than 3 millions sterling, but this includes the outlay for construction of State railways, amounting to 15 millions : if this sum be deducted, the actual debt of Portugal will be reduced to 133 millions sterling. The budgets of 1868 and 1893 compare as follows : — • Revenue (OOO's omitted). Expend. (OOO's omitted). 1808, £. 1895, £. 1808, £. 189.5, £. Customs . 2,000 4,900 Debt . 1,300 3,200 Taxes . . 1,200 3,700 Army . 800 2,000 Sundries 600 1,900 Government . 3,000 5,300 Total 3,800 10,500 Total 5,100 10,500 The amount of taxation is X8,600,000, equal to 13J per cent of the earnings of the people ; and the debt, after deducting for railways, to 33 per cent, of national wealth, a state of things that leaves room for some anxiety. XI SWEDEN AND NORWAY These two kingdoms are constitutionally distinct, but in all economical and industrial interests ma)' be considered together. The population approaches 7,000,000 souls, being densest in Sweden, viz. : — Sq. Miles. Population. Per Sq. Mile. Sweden . . 67,700 4,100,000 61 Norway . . 81,300 1,800,000 22 Lapland . . 146,000 900,000 6 Total . . 295,000 6,800,000 23 Although the population is sparse it is quite as much as the country can support with a very limited area under crops. The outflow of emigration in the last ten years averaged 60,000 yearly, that is about three-fourths of the natural increase. Since 1851 more than 1,200,000 persons have emigrated, viz. : — Period. Swedes. Norwegians. Total. 1851-80 . . . 288,000 202,000 490,000 1881-93 . . 462,000 258,000 720,000 43 years . . . 750,000 460,000 1,210,000 The American census of 1890 shows that 805,000 of the above emigrants were then living in the United States, of whom 670,000 were farmers in the Western prairies, espe- cially Minnesota and Illinois. According to official returns, 80 per cent, of emigrants go to the United States, 20 per cent, to Denmark. The urban population of Sweden and Norway rose 300 per cent., the rural 60 per cent., between 219 Sweden, Norway. Total. 1,070,000 330,000 1,400,000 380,000 180,000 560,000 140,000 90,000 280,000 570,000 460,000 1,030,000 2,160,000 1,060,000 3,220,000 220 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS the years 1831 and 1891. The occupations of the people at the last census were : — Agriculture Manufactures . Commerce Various . Total The working-power of these kingdoms has doubled since 1870, viz. :— Millions of Foot-tons Daily. Foot-tons ,- -^ -^ per Year. Sweden. Norway. Total. Inhabitant. 1870 . . . 2,080 760 2,840 470 1894 . 8,810 1,900 5,710 840 The components of power in 1894 were approximately as follows : — Millions of Foot-tons Daily. Foot-tons . ' s per Hand. Horse. Hteam. Total. Inhabitant. Sweden . 430 1,500 1,880 3,810 780 Norway . 170 450 1,280 1,900 970 Total . 600 1,950 3.160 5,710 840 The total steam-power of the two kingdoms was equal to 790,000 horse in 1894, having quintupled since 1870 : it is now as 115 horse-power per thousand inhabitants, as com- pared with 150 horse-power in Germany. AGRICULTURE When Bernadotte came to the throne in 1818 he found that 30 noblemen owned Norway, and 1200 gentlemen Sweden, under whom there were 70,000 farmers with lots averaging 20 acres, the whole cultivated area of the two kingdoms not exceeding 1,400,000 acres. The grain-crops seldom reached 50,000 tons, or 1 bushel per inhabitant, for which reason the bread of the rural population was made of sawdust and rye. The nobles lived in riotous extravagance, until the banks would lend them no more money : thereupon a crisis ensued. SWEDEN AND NORWAY 221 and many large estates were brought to the hammer. More than 10,000,000 acres were sold to the peasants, at prices averaging 17 pence per acre, and when Lang visited Sweden and Norway in 1830 he was surprised to find that "the con- dition of the rural classes was better than in Scotland." In 1840 the peasants had acquired no less than 16,000,000 acres, and the area under tillage was 5,200,000 acres, having quad- rupled in twenty years. At present the production of grain averages 3,100,000 tons yearly, which is short of the require- ment. Sweden had an annual surplus of about 300,000 tons down to 1882, since which year she has usually imported 70,000 tons per annum. Norway has so unfavourable a climate that she has never been able to raise enough grain for her people ; the supply during five months consists of imported grain, that is 250,000 tons. Keducing all food to a grain denominator, we find the annual production as follows : — Weight Tons. Grain Equivalent. Sweden. Norway. Sweden. ^orwuy. Grain . . 2,750,000 450,000 2,750,000 450,000 Potatoes 1,440,000 660,000 480,000 220,000 Meat . . 160,000 70,000 1,280,000 560,000 Total . ... ... 4,510,000 1,230,000 The area under crops in Norway is almost the same as it was thirty years ago, viz., 600,000 acres : on the other hand the Norwegian farms in the Western States of North America cover 2,400,000 acres, from which it appears that agriculture in Norway is a declining industry on account of the climate. The areas of the two kingdoms are made up thus : — Crops Pasture . Sweden. 8,400,000 3,900,000 Norway. 600,000 2,200,000 Total. 9,000,000 6,100,000 Productive Unproductive . 12,300,000 98,400,000 2,800,000 76,900,000 15,100,000 175,300,000 Total 110,700,000 79,700,000 190,400,000 222 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS The total value of farm products is approximately as follows ; — Millions £ Sterling. Grain. Sundi-ies. Meat. Dairy, &c. TotaL Sweden ... 13 7 8 9 37 Norway ... 2 1 3 3 9 Total . . 15 8 11 12 46 The value of farm products, compared with the productive area, is equal to 60 shillings per acre in Sweden and 64 in Norway, as compared with 96 in Germany. The product per hand is £35 in Sweden and £27 in Norway, against £i4= in Germany. The agricultural capital of the two kingdoms may be set down approximately thus : — Value, Millions £. Sterling. Sweden. Norway. Tobil. 154 58 212 29 12 41 18 7 25 Land .... Cattle .... Sundries .... Total .... 201 77 278 In 1837 the agricultural wealth of Sweden was only 51 millions, and if Norway bore then the same ratio to the sister- kingdom as at present, her rural capital would have been 19 millions, together making 70 millions sterling. It appears, therefore, that in little more than half a century the farmers (who previously lived on sawdust and fish) have been enabled, by the breaking up of the nobles' estates, to add 208 millions sterling to the national wealth. In Sweden there are 245,000 farms, covering 12,300,000 acres of cleared and improved land, in Norway 130,000 farms with 2,800,000 acres. Nobles still own the half of these kingdoms, and often let portions of their vast estates to tenants : such a portion is called " mantal," which comprises 400 acres, and there are 40,000 mantal- holders in Sweden alone. SWEDEN AND NORWAY 223 FORESTS AND FISHERIES The forest area is 65 million acres, which extent, in the European continent, is surpassed only in Russia. The cutting averages 18 million tons or 900 million cubic feet, one-third firewood, the rest being used for timber : the production and consumption are approximately as follows : — Tons. Value, Sweden. 800,000 2,700,000 6,500,000 £ Sterling. Firewood . Timber, home Do., exported Sweden. Norway. . 4,900,000 2,000,000 . 3,000,000 1,400,000 5,600,000 1,100,000 Norway. 300,000 1,300,000 1,500,000 Total . 13,500,000 4,500,000 10,000,000 3,100,000 Most of the farmers being also wood-cutters it is impossible to ascertain how many hands are employed in forestry, but the number is certainly over 200,000. The forest industry of Sweden is more than 40 shillings per inhabitant, as compared with 5 shillings in Germany. Fisheries constitute another great industry, the value of which is approximately as follows : — Sweden, £,. Norway, £. Total. Home consumption . 700,000 900,000 1,600,000 Export .... 500,000 2,200,000 2,700,000 Total . . . 1,200,000 8,100,000 4,300,000 Norway has 120,000 fishermen, whose take gives little more than £25 a year to each, notwithstanding the hazardous nature of their lives, about 120 men, or 1 per thousand, being drowned every year. Swedish fisheries occupy 30,000 men, whose take averages £40 per man. MANUFACTURES The Gustavus tariff during the first quarter of the century imposed prohibitory duties on imports with the view of pro- tecting native industry, but it was not until the abolition of 224 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS this tariff, in 1828, that manufactures began to exhibit any sign of vitality. A report published in 1839 showed that this branch of industry had grown 35 per cent, since the change of tariff. The latest ofl&cial estimate is that of 1876, which gives the output of all factories in Sweden as J10,200,000, and if the work of artisans and small industries had been included the value would probably have doubled. As regards Norway most of the manufactures are of the simplest char- acter ; the peasantry during the long winter make all neces- saries for domestic use, except cutlery and pottery, which they get from England, while there are also some factories in the large towns. Textiles. — The consumption of fibre in the two kingdoms rose from 25,000 tons in 1872 to 52,000 in 1894, Sweden in the latter year standing for two-thirds, Norway one-third, of the total. The mills consumed in 1894 as follows : 22,000 tons of cotton, 13,000 of wool, and 5000 of flax, hemp, &c., the total output reaching an approximate value of 7^ millions sterling. Hardware. — In the earlier years of the century Sweden produced as much iron as Germany ; at present the production is as one to ten. Swedish iron is specially suited for making steel; the output of iron is nearly 500,000 tons, of which one- fifth is converted into steel. The production of iron has quadrupled since 1850. Leather. — The annual consumption of leather is about 17,000 tons, one-third made from imported hides. The value of manufactures is 8 millions sterling, Sweden standing for three-fourths. Paper. — This industry has of late years sprung into im. portance in Sweden, wood-pulp being the chief material ; the export of wood-pulp and paper rose from 8000 tons in 1872 to 130,000 in 1894. Sundries. — Distilleries and breweries turn out yearly 20 million gallons of potato-brandy and 30 millions of beer, worth 4 millions. The Jonkoping match factories have trebled their SWEDEN AND NORWAY 225 output since 1872, and now export 16,000 tons of matches, worth £400,000. Shipbuilding amounts to 2 millions sterling per annum, Norway standing for two-thirds. The value of manufactures in 1894 was approximately as follows : — Sweden, £. Norway, £. Total, £. Textiles 4,900,000 2,700,000 7,600,000 Hardware . 6,200,000 1,200,000 7,400,000 Leather 6,000,000 2,000,000 8,000,000 Food . 9,800,000 3,900,000 13,700,000 Clothing 4,800,000 1,900,000 6,700,000 Houses cSc furniture 4,300,000 1,600,000 5,900,000 Sundries 9,000,000 3,300,000 12,300,0001 Total . 45,000,000 16,600,000 61,600,000 The manufacturing output has more than doubled in twenty years. Sweden possesses a great advantage in cheap and abundant water-power, supplying the place of steam, which accounts for the steady increase of her manufactures. MINERALS Sweden has an inexhaustible supply of the richest iron ore, the ordinary yield being 48 per cent, of metal, against 40 in England. There are 200 mines and 1400 smelting-works, which employ 20,000 men. The quantity of ore raised in 1893 was 1,500,000 tons, of which one-third was exported. The richest ore is found at Dannemora and Tuberg, the latter a mass of magnetic iron. There are also zinc and copper mines, the quantity of metal extracted from these ores being 20,000 and 1200 tons respectively. Coal-mines are worked in the southern provinces, but nine-tenths of the coal used in Sweden is imported from England, the annual consumption being 2,400,000 tons, and the quantity raised seldom exceeding 200,000. The annual value of all mining products (including £300,000 for Norway) is just 2 millions sterling, and the number of miners 32,000, that is an average of £62 each man. p 226 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS COMMERCE The united commerce of these kingdoms has quintupled since 1850, showing as follows : — Minions £. Sterling. Tear. Imports. Exports. Total 1850 .... 5 6 11 189i .... 31 24 55 Forty years ago, when Scandinavia was poor, there was a surplus of exports ; but in later times, as always happens when nations become prosperous and have a valuable carrying- trade, there has been a large excess of imports. Taking the aggregate trade of the two countries in the past five years, we find the averages thus : — Millions £ Sterling. Great Britain . Imports from. . 9 Exports to. 10 Total 19 Ratio. 34-5 Germany . Denmark . . 9 . 3 3 a 12 5 21-8 9-1 Other countries . 10 9 19 84-6 Total . . 31 24 55 100-0 During the said five years (1888-92) the shares of the above total that corresponded to the two kingdoms were : — Millions £ Sterling. Sweden. Norway. Total. Imports .... 20 11 31 Exports .... 17 7 24 Total ... 37 18 55 Shipping. — Norwegians have always been famous as a sea- faring people, and their merchant-shipping, as compared with population, is relatively double in carrying-power to the British. If we put Norwegian and Swedish together, the carrying-power of the shipping of these kingdoms is 50 per cent, over that of Franco, and holds the next place below that SWEDEN AND NORWAY 227 of Germany. The growth of Scandinavian shipping is shown as follows : — Tons Eeglater. Carrying- power, Tear. Norwegian, Swedish. Total. Tons. 1837 . 210,000 120,000 330,000 330,000 1872 . 1,120,000 390,000 1,510,000 1,740,000 1894 . 1,600,000 650,000 2,050,000 8,310,000 The united shipping comprises 420,000 tons register of steamers and 1,630,000 of sailing-vessels : the carrying-power that corresponds to Norway is 2,220,000, to Sweden 1,090,000 tons. Internal Trade. — This may be summed up for 1894 briefly thus : — Millions £ Sterling. Norway. Total. 9 46 17 62 6 19 11 31 Sweden. Agricultural products . 37 Manufactures ... 45 Torests, fisheries, &c. . . 13 Imports 20 Total .... 115 43 168 This is an average of £24 per inhabitant in Sweden and £22 in Norway, against £26 in Germany. Railways. — The first line in Norway was opened in 1854, from Christiania to Moesen, 40 miles, and in Sweden in 1856. A system of State railways, mostly narrow-gauge, was begun in Norway in 1862 and completed in twenty years, with a length of 930 miles. Two systems were begun in Sweden in 1870, by the State and by joint-stock companies, with the result that 5000 miles had been constructed in 1890. At present the length of railways working and the sum spent in construction in the two countries are : — Miles. Millions £. £ per Mile. Sweden .... 5,730 33 5,800 Norway . . . 1,000 7 7,300 Total . . . 6,730 40 6,000 228 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS Sweden has more railways for population than any other country in Europe, namely a mile for 870 inhabitants, whereas in the United Kingdom we have only a mile for 1900. State railways in Sweden are one-third of the total length ; in Nor- way they all belong to the State, except the Moesen line above mentioned. Thus the aggregate total is 2780 miles of State lines, 3640 of companies. In both countries the State lines are run less with a view to profit than for the benefit of in- ternal trade, and hence the net product on capital is only 2| per cent, in Sweden, less than 1 per cent, in Norway, while the companies' lines in Sweden yield i^, the Moesen line in Norway 7, per cent, net yearly. If we put together both State and companies' lines the traffic per mile in the two countries will be found much lower than even on Russian lines, viz. : — Rcceipta, £. Expenses, £. Profit, d£. Swedish ... 531 329 202 Norwegian ... 517 387 130 Russian . . . 1,610 970 640 Tariffs are fixed so low that Swedish railways are made to give a gross return of 52 pence, Norwegian 36 pence, per mile run by locomotives, as compared with 73 pence in Grermany. Canals and Roads. — A complete system of canals has been constructed, beginning with the Gotha Canal, which.was opened in 1800 : this system communicates by way of Lake Malar with the Gulf of Bothnia, forming a complete water-way of 700 miles from Gotten burg as far as Tornea in the Arctic Circle. More than 70,000 vessels passed through the canals in 1892. There are, moreover, 12,400 miles of royal highways, besides 19,000 of departmental roads. BanJts. — The banking-power of Sweden is 34, of Norway 12, millions sterling. There is a State-bank in each country which issues up to 3 millions sterling : the issue averages 30 shillings per inhabitant in Norway, 13 in Sweden, as compared with 21 shillings in the United Kingdom. The Enskilda or joint-stock banks were begun in Sweden in 1830, and are now found all over the kingdom : there are thirty-five similar SWEDEN AND NORWAY 229 banks in Norway. Savings-bank deposits amount to 18 millions sterling in Sweden, 12 in Norway, that is nearly £4: per inhabitant in the first, £6 in the second, country. EAENINGS AND WEALTH The earnings of the two nations are approximately as follows : — Millions £ Sterling. Sweden. Norway. Total Agricultural . 22 6 28 Manufacturiug . 23 8 31 Forests, fisheries, &c. 13 6 19 Trade . 12 4 16 Transport . 13 4 17 House-rent 6 2 8 Domestics 4 1 5 Public service . 3 2 5 Professions . 10 3 13 Total 106 36 142 This gives an average of £22 per inhabitant in Sweden, £18 in Norway, as compared with £25 in Germany. Wealth. — The principal components of wealth are approxi- mately as follows : — Millions £ Sterling. Land Sweden. . 154 Norway. 58 Total 212 Cattle, &c. . 47 19 66 Railways Shipping Houses . . 33 5 96 7 12 35 40 17 131 Turniture 48 17 65 Pactories 15 6 21 Merchandise . 58 22 80 Sundries . 114 44 158 Total . . 570 220 790 Land. — The official valuation in 1893 was 140 millions sterling for Sweden, 58 for Norway, but Professor Fahlbeck considers that the real landed value in Sweden is 154 millions. 230 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS According to a valuation in 1836 the land then stood for 33 millions, from which it would appear that this item has quin- tupled in haK a century. Homes. — The official returns of 1893 show the value of houses in Sweden to be 96, in Norway 35, millions sterling. Thus the total value of real estate gives an average of £52 per inhabitant in Sweden, £47 in Norway, showing that in point of wealth to population the condition of the two countries differs but slightly. FINANCE The finances of these two Scandinavian kingdoms offer an agreeable contrast to those of the nations of Southern Europe, as if climate or race had something to do with the thrifty or careless handling of public money. If we put together the budgets of both countries we find the revenue has risen 200 per cent, in the last thirty years, viz. : — Customs Excise Taxes, &c. Total Revenue, Millions £. 1865. 1895. 1-4 2-8 0'6 1-5 0-8 4-1 2-8 8-4 Debt . Army Government Total . Expenditure, MilliODR £. , ' , 1865. 1895. 0-4 0-8 1-1 2-4 1-3 5-2 2-8 8-4 The revenue for 1895 shows £5,400,000 for Sweden, £3,000,000 for Norway ; that is 23 shillings per inhabitant in the first, and 30 shiUings in the second, kingdom. Local taxes amount to £3,700,000 in Sweden, and £1,100,000 in Norway. Between national and local taxes the total amount raised yearly by taxation is £7,500,000 in Sweden, £3,100,000 in Norway, from which it appears that the incidence of taxa- tion as compared with earnings is 7 per cent, in Sweden, 8J per cent, in Norway, against 12 per cent, in France. Debt. — ^The total debt of Sweden, national and communal, sums up 26 millions sterling, but the national debt of 16 SWEDEN AND NORWAY 231 millions is wholly represented by State railways, so that the real debt is only 10 millions, say 2 per cent, of the national wealth. The net proceeds of the State railways average £360,000, and as their construction imposes a yearly charge on the Treasury of £600,000, the deficit of £240,000, which is met by taxation, is equivalent to 1 shilling per inhabitant. The Norwegian national debt is 7 millions sterling, which is in like manner represented by State railways, which give a net profit of £30,000 yearly, leaving a deficit of £180,000, equivalent to a tax of 22 pence on each inhabitant. XII DENMABK This little kingdom was a Power of some importance when the century began : the loss of Norway in 1814, and of the Sleswig-Holstein duchies in 1864, has reduced it to 15,000 square miles, say double the area of Yorkshire, with a popu- lation of 2,200,000 : this is equal to 146 to the square mile, against 248 in Germany. Although the cultivated area and the production of food, as compared with population, are much greater than in any other European country, there is a steady emigration to North America, which takes away one-third of the natural increase yearly; since 1890 the average number of emigrants yearly has been 10,000, and the returns for twenty-five years show that 137,000 proceeded to the United States, and only 9000 to other countries. These returns are evidently below the real number, since the American census of 1890 showed 133,000 Danes, of whom 115,000 were farmers in Iowa and other Western States. There are 75,000 foreigners resident in Denmark, half being Swedes, the other half Germans. If we compare the census of 1890 with that of 1880 we find that in the interval there was an increase of 4 per cent, in rural, 29 per cent, in urban, population. The only city of note is Copenhagen, which, in relation to the rest of the kingdom, is the largest metropolis in the world, since it counts for one-sixth of the total ; its population quadrupled between 1830 and 1890, and now reaches 380,000. The census of 1890 divides the people of Denmark into classes, of which 45 per cent, may be considered workers, viz. : — DENMARK 233 Manu- Afrriculture. factures. Commerce. Various. Total. Population . 880,000 540,000 210,000 540,000 2,170,000 Workers . 400,000 245,000 95,000 245,000 985,000 The working-power was as follows, approximately, in millions of foot-tons daily : — Tear. Hand. Horse. Steam. Total. 1870 . . 160 1,050 220 1,440 1893 . . 200 1,240 840 2,280 Steam-power lis about 210,000 horse, of which 120,000 in steamboats, 80,000 in locomotives, and 10,000 fixed. AGEICT7LTUEB The reform of land-tenure has been attended with the most astonishing transformation. In the eighteenth century Den- mark consisted of 614 hovedgards or estates, belonging to the same number of noblemen, ranging from 10,000 acres upwards. On each estate there were two or three hundred tenants, called bondsmen, whom an English traveller described as "dirty, devoid of energy, and not so well fed as Jamaica negroes." At the assembly of Roskilde the nobles declared their right to flog the farmers' wives, and at the same time the peasantry were bought and sold on the estates, like cattle. Reforms projected by Count Struensee were carried out after his death, the first being a law against landlords selling their bondsmen. In 1808 another reform was introduced by Frederic VI., which compelled the nobles to sell farms to their tenants at £6 an acre, and an official return in 1840 showed that in thirty years the peasantry had bought up half the kingdom. Those who had not bought farms were termed huusmen, or tenants, whom the law protected by an enact- ment that the landlord could neither raise the rent nor evict them so long as they paid it. In 1861 Bishop Mourad's law gave still further facilities to the peasantry for the 234 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OP NATIONS purchase of land. The tenure is at present approximately as follows : — Owners. Number. Aerea. Average. Nobles ... 550 1,400,000 2,500 Peasants . 71,000 4,300,000 60 The latter are subject to a land-tax of 3 shillings an acre, and the productive area has risen from 5,600,000 acres in 1866 to 7,100,000 in 1890. Climate and soil being equally suited to tillage or grazing, the farmers pay great attention to both, and the crops are much heavier than in most countries, the average yield showing thus : — Bushels per Acre. * , Denmark. France. Germany. Wheat 37 18 23 Oats 34 25 30 Barley 32 20 22 It is doubtless owing to improved method and machinery that the ordinary grain-crop is now 20 per cent., the potato crop 50 per cent., greater than in the decade ending 1880. Reducing all food to a grain denominator, the averages for 1891-93 showed thus :— Quantity. Equiv. in Grain. Grain, tons .... 2,100,000 2,100,000 Potatoes, „ . . . . 450,000 150,000 Meat, „ . . . . 130,000 1,040,000 Total .... . . 3,290,000 The consumption of grain by live-stock is so considerable that, although the crop exceeds 1 ton per inhabitant, there is no surplus for exportation. Down to the year 1884 Denmark used to export about 200,000 tons of grain, but since that year she has been obliged to import largely; in 1893 no less than 190,000 tons. Meantime there is a great surplus of pastoral products, the exports of meat, butter, and eggs amounting to a yearly value of 10 millions sterling. The value of all farm products yearly, and the amount of agricul- tural capital, are shown approximately as follows : — DENMARK 235 Products. Millions £. Capital. Millions £,. Grain ... 12 I Land . . .205 Other cropa . . 7 Animal products . 16 Total ... 35 Cattle ... 26 Sundries . . 23 Total . 254 From this it would appear that the annual product is 14 per cent, on capital, and gives an average of 99 shillings per acre, against 96 in Germany ; it is equal to £88 for each hand employed, against £48 in Germany and £59 in Prance ; the higher ratio is explained by the fact that the latest and best machinery is more generally in use in Denmark than in in any other country of the European continent. The ofiicial value of the crops in 1894 was £15,000,000, but this was considerably under the real value : possibly hay and straw were omitted. FORESTS AND FISHERIES The forest area is 500,000 acres, the product of which is about £300,000 a year, but the supply of timber is so short that Denmark has to import to the value of a million sterling. The fisheries occupy 15,000 men, who take a yearly value of about £600,000 ; the export reaches 15,000 tons, value £250,000. Thus the total earnings from forests and fisheries are about a million sterling. MANUFACTURES The Danes are so much absorbed in farming pursuits that they can spare little attention for manufactures. An ofiicial report in 1880 showed 720 factories, with an aggregate of 10,000 horse-power. Denmark depends almost wholly on imported goods as regards textiles and hardware. The output of distilleries and sugar-mills is little over 1 million sterling. Leather manufactures consume 6000 tons yearly. The approximate value of manufactures in 1894 was as follows : — 236 INDUSTRTBS AND WEALTH OF NATIONS Textiles . £1,400,000 Clothing £2,300,000 Hardware . 600,000 Houses and furn. 2,800,000 Leather 3,000,000 Sundries . 3,800,000 Food . . 5,300,000 Total 19,200,000 There is no mineral of any description, and the consumption of imported coal is only a million tons yearly, or half a ton per inhabitant. COMMERCE Foreign trade has quadrupled since 1850, the returns show- ing thus : — Year. Imports, £, Exports, £. Total, £. 1850 . . 4,700,000 3,100,000 7,800,000 1894 . 19,400,000 14,600,000 34,000,000 Here, as in all prosperous countries, imports are considerably in excess of exports. The foreign trade of Denmark is rela- tively large, £14 per inhabitant, as compared with £7 in France and Germany. The countries with which trade is carried on, according to the average of five years ending 1892, are as follow : — Millions £ Sterling. Imports Exports Total. Ratio. from. to. Great Britain . 4 7 11 35-5 Germany . 6 3 9 290 Other countries . 8 3 11 35-5 Total ... 18 13 31 lOO'O Shipping. — The abolition of the Sound dues, in 1857, appears to have favoured the growth of Danish shipping, which has quintupled in carrying-power in forty years : — Tons Register. ., Carrying Year. Sail. Steam. Total. power. 1850 . 153,000 ... 153,000 153,000 1894 . 190,000 140,000 330,000 760,000 Denmark is short of shipping, only 55 per cent, of the trade of her ports being done on vessels bearing the Danish flag. DENMARK 237 Internal Trade. — This amounts to 74 millions sterling, made up of 35 millions for agriculture, 19 for manufactures, 1 million for forestry and fisheries, and 19 for imports. Railways. — In 1847 a short line, of 20 miles, was made by a joint-stock company. A system of State railways, 1070 miles in length, was begun in 1862 and completed in 1885. The length of companies' lines is 300, making in all 1370 miles, which have cost 14 millions sterling. Traific returns per mile compare with those of Sweden thus : — Eeoelpts, £. Expenses, £. Profit, £ Denmark . 890 727 163 Sweden 531 329 202 Gross earnings per mile run by locomotives are the same as in Sweden, 52 pence. Working expenses are so heavy (82 per cent.) that the net profit is only a trifle over IJ per cent, on capital. Banking. — The Eiks-bank, founded in 1814, has sole right of emission, its issue reaching £4,300,000, say £2 per inhabi- tant. Joint-stock banks were begun in 1857, and now there are forty of them, making up, with the Riks-bank, a total banking-power of more than 20 millions sterling. Savings- bank deposits amount to 29 millions sterling, or £13 per inhabitant, against £4 in the United Kingdom. EARNINGS AND WEALTH The following table shows approximately the earnings and wealth of the Danish people ; — Earnings. Agricultural . Manufacturing Fisheries, kc. Trade . Millions & . 21 , 10 . 1 . 7 Wealth. Land . Cattle, &;c. . Railways Houses . Millions £ . 205 . 49 . 14 . 63 Transport House-rent 7 i Furniture Factories . 31 6 Domestics 3 Merchandise . . 37 Professions, &c. 7 Sundries . 101 Total 60 Total , 506 238 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS The above earnings give an average of £27 per inhabitant, against £25 in Germany and £31 in France. As regards wealth Falbe's estimate in 1885 was 429 millions sterling, which would give £204 per inhabitant, the present ratio, according to the above table, being £230 ; this would indicate an increase of 52 shillings yearly per inhabitant, against 68 shillings in France. The ratio of wealth per head of the population is higher than in any other country of Continental Europe, except France. Eeal Estate. — According to Falbe the value of real estate quadrupled in less than forty years, rising from 65 millions in 1848 to 257 millions in 1885. The valuation of landed properties made in 1818, by order of Frederick VI., amounted to no more than 15 millions; that of 1886 showed an average price of £29 per acre, say 205 millions sterling, or fourteen times as much as in 1818. Nor does the latter valuation appear exaggerated, since the assessed rental in 1886 was 8 millions sterling, which would be in England equivalent to a capital value of 240 millions. As regards house-property the official valuation in 1886 was 48 millions, but Falbe considered the real value was 63 millions. The wealth of Denmark seems to be : real estate 274, personal 232, millions sterling ; that is to say, real estate stands for 54 per cent, of the total, as compared with 49 per cent, in France and 46 per cent, in Germany. This would lead us to infer that the price of land in Denmark is relatively too high, doubtless because the king- dom is of such limited dimensions. The average of wealth to population is 46 per cent, higher in Denmark than in Germany, viz., as £230 to £156 per inhabitant. FINANCES Denmark lost one-fourth of her revenue when Germany annexed the duchies of Sleswig-Holstein. Nevertheless, her finances have been so carefully administered that the national debt has been reduced by one-third since 1866, at present DENMARK 239 amounting to no more than 1 1 millions sterling. This debt, moreover, is represented by 1000 miles of State railways, so that it would be almost correct to say that Denmark has no debt. Meantime these railways have imposed on the Treasury an obligation of £370,000 a year, while their net product is only £160,000, loving a deficit of £210,000 to be met by taxation, equal to 2 shillings per inhabitant. The national revenue in 1895 was £3,700,000, of which £2,800,000 was raised by taxation : add to this the local taxes, which will bring up the total to £4,900,000, equivalent to 8 J per cent, of national earnings, or almost the same ratio as in the United Kingdom. XIII HOLLAND This kingdom, though not much bigger than Wales, is of considerable importance in the economy of Europe, owing to the thrift, energy, and enlightenment of its people. It is densely inhabited, counting 374 persons to the square mile, against 248 in Germany. The papulation has nearly doubled since the secession of Belgium, the increase in cities and towns being much greater than in rural districts, viz. : — Increase 1830. 1893. per Cent. Urban . . . 640,000 1,800,000 180 Rural . . 1,980,000 2,930,000 48 Total . . 2,620,000 4,730,000 80 The cultivated area being little more than 1 acre per inhabitant, the agricultural resources of the kingdom are insufficient ; population is 50 per cent, in excess of what the country could conveniently carry. Yet there is practically no emigration, the people as a rule being in a prosperous con- dition. Emigration has in late years averaged 5000, that is 1 per thousand of the population yearly, as compared with 8 per thousand in Norway, Emigrants go wholly to the United States, in which country the census of 1890 showed 82,000 Dutch settlers, mostly in the "Western Prairies, including 30,000 farmers in Michigan. The number of foreigners liv- ing in Holland is 48,000, mostly Germans. No census that has been taken shows the occupations of the people, but that of 1880 showed that there were 840,000 persons residing on HOLLAND 241 farms. At present the working population may be estimated approximately thus : — Agricultural 460,000 Commercial, &c 1,700,000 Total 2,160,000 The working-power of the nation was as follows : — Millions of Foot-tons Dally. Tear. Hand. Horse. Steam. Total Foot-tons per Inhabitant. 1860 . 300 750 220 1,270 380 1894 . 420 810 2,300 3,530 750 Holland is so deficient in horses that her working-power would be very low but for steam, which has increased 150 per cent, since 1870, viz. :— steam, Horse-power. Tear. Fixed. Locomotive. Steamboat. Total. 1870 . . 30,000 160,000 30,000 220,000 1894 . . 80,000 320,000 175,000 575,000 The ratio of steam-power to TOGO inhabitants is 120 horse, against 150 in Germany. AGRICULTUEE One-fourth of the kingdom is below sea-level, protected by dykes or polders, behind which the industrious natives have pastoral and tillage farms. Every inch of the country is drained and irrigated by means of canals, which have a length of 1,900,000 miles ; and as the total area is under 8 million acres, there are 420 yards of canal to every acre. The pastures are of such fertility that lean kine imported from Germany grow fat in a few months, often attaining a ton in weight, while the cereal crops are equally prolific. The average yield 442 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS per acre in four years ending 1892 compares with Germany as follows : — Bushels per Acre. Wheat. Oats. Barley. Bye. Mean. Holland . . 27 46 40 21 33 Germany . . 23 30 22 16 23 Thus it appears that 2 acres in Holland produce as much as 3 in Germany. Dairy farming is a most important feature : there are 900,000 milch cows, which give 100,000 tons of butter and cheese yearly, or 250 lbs. per cow, a resiilt unequalled in any other part of the world. The cows are kept in the swampy meadows till November, when they are lodged in sumptuous sheds, ranged along tite-a-iete, their tails tied up behind by means of pulleys from the roof. The Dutch, meantime, do not depend wholly on the cows for production of butter, being largely aided by margarine, of which they import 35,000 tons yearly. The quantity of butter and cheese exported in 1893 was 103,000 tons, or a trifle more than the total product of the dairies, without taking account of 30,000 tons for home consumption : the apparent discrepancy is explained by the importation of margarine. Meat-supply exceeds con- sumption, fat cattle being exported equivalent to 30,000 tons of dead meat. There is, on the other hand, an increasing deficit of grain, for we find that, whereas thirty years ago the importation was only three months' supply, Holland now sub- sists during five months in the year on foreign grain, viz.: — Consumption, Tons. Period. Native. Imported. Total. 1861-62 . 680,000 220,000 900,000 1890-93 . . 790,000 650,000 1,440,000 The above consumption may seem excessive, being equal to 12 bushels per inhabitant, but it appears that 10 per cent, is given to cattle, which leaves the balance for human food equivalent to 7 bushels per head of the population. It is to be observed that cows have increased 22 per cent, in number since 1860, and this partly explains why the consumption of HOLLAND 243 grain is now much greater, compared with population, than it was thirty years ago. Reducing all food to a grain denomi- nator, the production in 1893 was : — Quantity. Equiv. in Grain. Grain .... 1,050,000 1,050,000 Potatoes .... 2,250,000 750,000 Meat. . . . 130,000 1,040,000 Total . . ... 2,840,000 The above quantity would hardly suffice for more than two- thirds of the present population. The value of all farm pro- ducts yearly, and the amount of agricultural capital, are shown approximately as follows : — Products. Millions £. Capital. MiUions £ Grain 6 Land . 240 Other crops . 12 Cattle . 28 Animal . 18 Sundries . 27 Total . . 36 Total . . 295 The annual product appears to be only 12 per cent, on capital, because land commands an artificial value, much beyond what it could have if the kingdom of Holland were not so diminutive and so densely populated. Meantime it must be admitted that the land, from being so admirably drained and irrigated, is highly productive : the value of products is equal to 142 shillings per acre of productive area, against 92 in France and 96 in the United Kingdom. The product, compared with the number of hands employed in farming, gives an average of £78 each, against £58 in France and £87 in Denmark. There are 167,000 farms, averaging 34 acres and employing 3 hands each : the tenure is as follows : — Estates. Number. Acres. Average. Large . . . 7,000 2,270,000 325 Medium . . 48,000 2,310,000 48 Small . . . 112,000 1,140,000 10 Total. . 167,000 5,720,000 34 244 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS The above area comprises 2,250,000 acres tillage, 2,800,000 pasture, and 670,000 unproductive. A farm of 50 acres is preferred, carrying 15 cows, 20 sheep, and a horse, and re- quiring 2 farm-servants. An oflBcial return for 1892 shows that 3 million acres (say half the kingdom) are cultivated hy the owners, the rest by meejers or tenants. Lands held by meejers descend by right of primogeniture, and the landlord can neither disturb the meejer nor raise his rent. If we divide the agricultural wealth of Holland among the number of farms, it gives £1800 to each, as compared with .£880 in France. Land-tax averages 4 shillings an acre, and is in all cases paid by the owner of the estate. The condition of the rural population is prosperous. FORESTS AND FISHERIES There are 600,000 acres of forest, the product of which is about £300,000 yearly. Holland has to import 2 million tons of timber yearly, value £2,500,000. The fisheries were of such importance in times gone by that it used to be said Amsterdam was built of herring-bones. Injudicious taxes have blighted the industry, and now the number of fishing- boats is reduced to 5200, manned by 17,000 fishermen, whose take does not reach in value 1 million sterling. MANUFACTURES Holland has 4010 factories, including 520 distilleries, em- ploying steam to an .aggregate of 80,000 hoi-se-power. The mills consume 52,000 tons of fibre, which is three times the weight consumed by them thirty years ago. Hardware is almost wholly imported, the value of goods made in the country hardly reaching one-sixth of what is used. The con- sumption of leather reaches 10,000 tons, including 4000 HOLLAND 245 made from imported hides. The manufacture of gin reaches 3 millions, paper 2 millions, sterling. The value of manu- factures in 1894 was approximately as follows : — Clothing . . £4,900,000 Houses & furniture 7,300,000 Sundries . . 9,900,000 Total . . 49,000,000 The only mineral wealth is a small coal-field in Limburg, which produces 70,000 tons yearly. Textiles . £8,100,000 Hardware . 1,200,000 Leather 5,000,000 Food . . 12,600,000 COMMERCE The Dutch are a nation of merchants, and their foreign trade averages £45 per inhabitant, as compared with £17 in the United Kingdom. As the nation has been gener- ally prosperous we find that imports have always exceeded exports : — Millions £ Sterling. rear. 1843 1870 1894 Imports. 15 39 121 Exports. 11 32 93 Total. 26 71 214 £per Inhabitant. 9 19 45 Trade returns for five years to December 1892 give the following averages : — Millions £ Sterling. Germany . Great Britain Belgium . Dutch Colonies Other countries Total . Imports from. 22 24 15 14 33 108 Exports to. 44 25 12 5 6 92 Total. 66 49 . 27 19 39 200 Eatlo. 33 24-5 13-5 9-5 19-5 1000 Shipping. — Holland, which had for so long the carrying- trad'e of the world, is now so low in shipping that only 30 per cent, of vessels entering Dutch ports carry the national flag. The registered tonnage of Dutch shipping is little more than 246 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS it was fifty years ago, but as steamers have largely taken the place of sailing-vessels the carrying-power has nearly trebled : — Tons Eegister. xTear Steam. Sail. Total. Carrying-power. 1840 5,000 255,000 260,000 275,000 1894 '. 180,000 110,000 290,000 830,000 Internal Trade. — This amounts approximately to 207 millions sterling, of which imports figure for 121, agricultural products 36, forestry and fisheries 1 million, and manufactures 49. It gives a ratio of £43 per inhabitant, against £30 in France. Raihoays. — A short line of 10 miles was made in 1839. The Government began to make a system of State railways in 1863, which was completed in 1890, with a length of 890 miles, at a cost of 22 millions sterling : these lines give a net profit of 2| per cent, on capital, leaving a deficit which is met by taxation, say £80,000, equal to 4 pence per inhabitant. There are also 1430 miles of companies' lines, the cost of which averaged only £17,000 a mile, or two-thirds of the cost of State lines. Taking in the aggregate the trafiic of all Dutch lines, the averages per mile compare with those of Germany as follows : — Receipts, £. Expenses, £. Profit, £. Holland . . 1,340 740 600 Germany . . . 2,564 1,664 900 The return on Dutch lines averaged 3 per cent, on cost of construction. Cajials and Roads. — Much of the prosperity of Holland is due to her facilities for internal trafiic, which are unrivalled. There are 2700 miles of navigable waterways, 17,600 of ad- mirable high-roads, made of hard-burnt klinkers, and 2300 of railway, in all 22,600 miles, or 2 miles of route for every square mile of territory. The Dutch have, moreover, spent 300 millions sterling in construction of the polders or sea-dykes. Banlcing. — The visible banking-power in 1894 was only 25 millions sterling, nine-tenths of which corresponded to the Netherlands Bank, founded in 1814 : this bank has an issue HOLLAND 247 of 17 millions sterling, minimum bullion reserve 40 per cent. So many Dutch capitalists lend money that the real banking- power is probably double what it appears, or about 50 millions sterling. The amount of coin in use is officially estimated at 18 millions sterling. EARNINGS AND WEALTH The earnings and wealth of the Dutch people are approxi- mately as follows : — Earnings. Millions £ Wealth. MiUions £ Agricultural . 22 Land . . 240 Manufacturing . 25 Cattle . 28 Forests and fisheries 1 Implements . . 27 Trade . . 21 Railways . 46 Transport 22 Houses . . 162 House-rent . . 10 Furniture . 81 Domestics 7 Merchandise . 104 Public service 5 Factories . 16 Professions . . 11 Sundries . 176 Total . . 124 Total . . 880 Earnings. — The above amount gives an average of £26 per inhabitant, against £25 in Germany. Wealth. — The official estimate of national wealth in 1894 was 880 millions sterling, which gives the high ratio of £183 per inhabitant, being £27 more than in Germany. Eeal estate constitutes 47 per cent, of the total. The assessed land rental, as we have seen, is £8,020,000, that of houses £9,730,000, according to which the capital value would be: of the first 240, of the second 162, together 402 millions sterling. Leaving aside uncultivated land as valueless, the cultivated area of 5 million acres stands for £48 an acre, as compared with £44 in England, yet this is apparently the normal value in Holland, for we find that in the Government Message of 1894 for emptying the Zuyder Zee the land to be recovered is valued at £56 an acre. 248 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS ■ FINANCES Before the secession of Belgium in 1830 the united revenue of the whole kingdom was £6,400,000. In 1840 the revenue of Holland was £4,700,000, from which time it rose rapidly to £9,600,000 in 1866, but has remained nearly stationary during the last thirty years. The budgets of 1866 and 1895 compare thus : — Revenue, MUlions £. Debt . Army . Government Expenditnie, MiUions £. Excise Income-tax Sundries 1866. 1896. . 2-0 3-5 . Vi 2-9 . 0-2 4-3 1866. IS95. . 3-0 3-0 . 1-7 3-1 4-1 5-3 Total 9-6 10-7 Total 8-8 11-4 The amount of revenue raised by taxation is £9,200,000, to which adding £6,900,000 for local taxes, the total becomes 16 millions sterling, or 67 shillings per inhabitant, the highest ratio per head in Europe. The incidence of taxation is equal to \2\ per cent, of national earnings, as compared with 8 J in the United Kingdom. The debt is nominally 92 millions, but this includes 22 millions for State railways, leaving the real debt 70 millions sterling, say 8J per cent, of national wealth, against 8 in the United Kingdom. Inhabitants. Per Sq. Mile. 4,340,000 3S0 6,260,000 550 XIV BELGIUM This kingdom is even smaller than Holland, its area not exceeding 11,400 square miles, or one-third of that of Ireland. Although the most densely populated country in the world, its career, since its separation from Holland in 1830, has been one of remarkable prosperity. The population has risen nearly 50 per cent, in half a century, viz. : — Year. 1846 1893 The agricultural resources suffice to maintain no more than 4 million persons, or two-thirds of the population. If we compare the figures for 1893 with those for 1830 we see that the principal towns have increased in population 240 per cent., the rest of Belgium 40 per cent., from which it would appear that urban population has been growing six times as fast as rural, owing to the influx of peasantry into the towns. Emigration is insignificant, about 20,000 yearly : there are 460,000 Belgians settled in France, 25,000 in the United States. The occupations of the people, according to the last census, are so confused as to be unintelligible (see Appendix), but when properly classified give the following result : — Men. Women. Total. Agriculture. . 480,000 240,000 720,000 Manufactures , 1,010,000 375,000 1,385,000 Commerce, &c. 570,000 265,000 835,000 Total . . 2,060,000 880,000 2,940,000 =49 2 so INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS The working-power of the nation was as follows : — Millions of Foot-tons Daily. Foot-tons per Year. Hand. Horse. Steam. Total. Inhabitant. 1860 . . .420 780 680 1,880 400 1893 . . 560 810 3,800 5,170 830 Steam-power has increased 24-fold in the last half-century, viz. : — steam, Horse-power. Year. Fixed. Locomotives. Steamboats. Total. 1840 , 30,000 10,000 40,000 1860 . 100,000 65,000 5,000 170,000 1893 . . 380,000 500,000 70,000 950,000 The ratio of steam-power to population is a Kttle higher than in Germany, being 154 horse to 1000 inhabitants and 150, respectively. AGRICTJLTUKE Belgium is a country of kitchen-gardens, with a cultivated area of 5^ million acres, or 10 per cent, more than in Holland : the farms are very productive, but so small that the amount of labour expended is out of all proportion to the result. There are, as we have seen, 720,000 persons employed, who cultivate 7^ acres each ; the same number of hands in the Western States of America would produce thrice as much food. The peasantry are laborious, but ill-fed, subsisting on rye-bread, buttermilk, and potatoes, with some bacon on Sundays. Reducing all food to a grain denominator, the production in the years 1890-93 averaged thus : — Quantity. Equiv. in Grain. Grain, tone . . 1,850,000 1,850,000 Potatoes, „ . . 3,600,000 1,200,000 Meat „ . . 110,000 880,000 Total ... . . 3,930,000 Population has increased so much that Belgium has now to import grain for five months' supply, whereas thirty years ago she only depended during two months in the year on BELGIUM 251 foreign grain. If we deduct what is required for seed, the quantity of grain consumed yearly is shown as follows : — Consumption, Tons. Period. Niitive. Imported, Total. 1860-62 . . . 1,400,000 260,000 L660,000 1890-93 . . 1,650,000 1,130,000 2,780,000 There is also a deficit in meat supply, the importation, including live cattle, being equivalent to 50,000 tons of dead meat, or four months' supply. Thus it comes to pass that Belgium pays yearly 9 millions sterling for imported food, say 30 shillings per head of population. In 1880 an official report showed that the average value, during the preceding ten years, of all farm products was 66 millions sterling, but prices have since fallen, and the average for the years 1890-93 was not more than 44 millions. The value of products and the amount of agricultural capital are shown approximately as follows : — Products. Millions £ Capital. Millions £. Grain . 12 Land . . 800 Other crops , . 17 Cattle . . 22 Animal . . 15 Sundries . 82 Total ... 44 Total . . .354 The product on capital is 12 per cent., the same as in Holland. The average product per acre is 160 shillings, the highest obtained in any country of the world, but the con- dition of the farmers is not so prosperous as in Holland or Denmark, the farms being too small. Moreover, only 40 per cent, of the cultivated area is in the hands of owners, the rest being let to tenants at rents ranging from 20 to 40 shillings an acre. An official report shows that rented farms cover 3,200,000, and farms in hand 2,300,000, acres, the latter for the most part under 12 acres. The latest statement of tenure was in 1880, viz. : — Class. Farms. Acres. Average. Large .... 15,600 2,450,000 160 Medium . . 74,200 1.900,000 26 Small . . 226,000 1,150,000 5 Total . . . 315,800 5,500,000 17 252 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS The price of land is much too high, the Government valua- tion giving a medium of £55 per acre, as compared with £33 in France. Land-tax averages 6 shillings an acre. The yearly product of agriculture gives an average of £61 to each hand employed, against £58 in France and £78 in Holland. FORESTS AND FISHERIES There is no country in which forests are so productive as Belgium, owing to the special care that is given to them, the average yield being 14 shillings per acre, viz. :— Shillings Forests. Acres. Product, £. per Acre. Public .... 440,000 250,000 11 Private .... 770,000 620,000 16 Total . . . 1,210,000 870,000 14 Nevertheless the country is so populous that Belgium has to import 800,000 tons of timber yearly. The fisheries are insignificant, employing only 300 boats. The importation of fish reaches 50,000 tons, from Norway and other countries, value £900,000 yearly. MANUFACTURES Belgium is now one of the great manufacturing nations of Europe, her rise in this branch of industry during the last half-century being very remarkable. The total of her steam- power in factories and mines in 1830, the year of her eman- cipation from the yoke of Holland, was only 20,000 horse- power ; in 1887 it reached 340,000. An ofiioial report in 1880 showed the yearly output of manufactures to be 81 millions sterling ; the amount is at present approximately 99 millions. Textiles. — The horse-power used in textile mills rose from 4300 in 1846 to 33,000 in 1880. The weight of fibre con- sumed in 1894 was 120,000 tons, as compared with 48,000 in 1862, so that it may be said textile industry has nearly trebled in thirty years. The output is about 1 7 millions sterling, of which almost one-fourth is exported. The consumption of BELGIUM 253 fibre and the value of goods produced are shown approximately as follows : — Fibre, Tons. Output, £. Cotton .... 37,000 5,200,000 Wool .... 20,000 5,300,000 S'lax, &o 53,000 5,400,000 Silk 300 900,000 Total .... 110,300 16,800,000 The value of linen and woollen exports reaches 4 millions sterling — ^not all manufactured goods, but chiefly yarn. Hardzvare. — The production of iron has multiplied 22-fold since 1830, and now reaches 770,000 tons, made almost wholly from Luxemburg ore, which gives 40 per cent, of iron. The production is equal to 270 lbs. per inhabitant, a ratio surpassed only in Great Britain. The Belgians are much indebted to Mr. John Cockerill, who introduced in 1816 the system of smelting with coke, and established at Seraing one of the finest ironworks in Europe. In 1894 there were 420 foundries and ironworks, consuming yearly 500,000 tons of iron and 400,000 of steel. Li&ge is become one of the great Continental factories, turning out arms to the value of a million sterling per annum. The output of all iron and steel wares is about 13 millions sterling. There are copper manufactures, con- suming about 7000 tons of that metal, besides those of zinc, consuming 15,000 tons. Total hardware manufactures, 19 millions sterling. Leather. — The consumption averages 12,000^tons, more than one-half made from imported hides, and the value of goods produced is 6 millions sterling. Liquor. — There are 1450 breweries and distilleries, pro- ducing 5 million barrels of beer and 13 million gallons of spirits, together worth 12 millions. All is used for home con- sumption, which averages 2 gallons of spirits and 31 of beer per inhabitant. Miscellaneous. — The production of sugar has quadrupled in twenty years : there are 160 mills, turning out 270,000 tons, valued at 4 millions, one-half being exported, and the home 254 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS consumption averaging 40 lbs. per inhabitant. Glass factories have an output of 4 millions sterling, one-half of which is exported. Paper and printing represent an equal amount. Summary. — The approximate value of all manufactures was as follows : — Millions £ Sterling. 1860. 18S0. 1894. Textiles . 10 14 17 Hard ware . . 7 14 19 Leather . 4 5 6 Food . . 22 32 36 Clothing 7 10 10 Houses and furniture . 4 5 6 Sundries 11 20 24 Total 65 100 118 The output in 1894 gives an average of X93 per operative, against £106 in the United Kingdom. MINERALS Coal is the most important mineral, the production having multiplied ten-fold since 1836, and at present reaching 2U million tons, nearly 3^ tons per inhabitant — the highest ratio in any country except Great Britain. The production and consumption have more than doubled in thirty years : — Tons of Coal. Year. Prudnctiuii. Consumption. 1860 .... 9,600,000 6,100,000 1894 . . . 20,500,000 16,100,000 There are 124 mines, employing 117,000 colliers, and the quantity raised averages 167 tons per miner, against 126 in 1850 : the coal is valued at 8 shillings, the net profit being only 3 pence, per ton. The output per miner is only two- thirds of what it is in Great Britain, but perhaps the great depth of Belgian coal-mines is the reason ; the Lambert, for instance, is 3500 feet deep, whereas the deepest in Great Britain, the Rosebridge, is only 2500. Zinc mines give half BELGIUM 255 a million tons of ore, from which are obtained 85,000 tons of metal, and of this quantity only one-fifth is kept for home use, the rest being exported. The total value of minerals (including the product of stone quarries) is 10 millions sterling per annum. COMMERCE Foreign trade has multiplied nearly six-fold since 1850, showing as follows : — Millions £ Sterling. Year. 1850 1870 1894 Imports. 10 37 63 Exports. 11 28 52 Total. 21 65 115 In Belgium, as in all prosperous countries, imports greatly exceed exports, and it is the more remarkable because Belgium is so destitute of shipping that she has to pay other nations to to do the carrying-trade for her. The averages for five years ending 1892 show thus ; Millions £ Sterling. Imports Exports from. to. Total. Ratio. France . . 12 14 26 21-5 Great Britain . 8 10 18 14-8 Germany . 7 11 18 14-8 Holland . 8 8 16 13-2 Other countries . 30 13 43 35-7 Total . 65 56 121 100-0 Foreign trade averages £19 per inhabitant, against £17 in the United Kingdom. Shipping. — The merchant navy is insignificant, and consists wholly of steamers, with a nominal register of 75,000 tons, and 300,000 carrying-power. Port-entries show 20 per cent. Belgian, 40 British, and 40 of other flags. Internal Trade. — This comprises agriculture 44, manu- factures 118, minerals &c., 11, and imports 63, in all 236 millions sterling, equal to £38 per inhabitant, as compared with £41 in the United Kingdom and £30 in France. 256 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS Railways. — The second line opened on the Continent was that from Brussels to Malines, 17 miles, in 1835, and in the ensuing fifty years nearly 2000 miles of State railways were constructed at a cost of 58 millions sterling. At present the total length of lines is 2820 miles, including 800 miles belong- ing to companies : the outlay has been 75 millions, or £26,500 per mile. Traffic returns compare with those of Holland, per mile, as follows :^- Becelpts, £ Expenses, £. Profit, £. Belgium . . . 2,566 1,467 1,099 Holland . . 1,340 740 600 Belgian lines yield nearly 4J per cent, on capital, Dutch only 3 per cent. Between railways, high-roads, and navigable water-ways, Belgium has 9600 miles of route. Banking. — The banking-power is about 60 millions sterling, represented by fifty-four banks. The Bank of Belgium, founded in 1850, has sole right of issue, and its circulation amounts to 18 millions sterling : the other banks, between capital and deposits, show an aggregate power of 24 millions. These are irrespective of saving.s-banks, which hold 1 6 millions of deposits. The amount of coin in use is 22 millions sterling, or 70 shil- lings per head, whereas in the United Kingdom the ratio is only 55 shillings. EARNINGS AND WEALTH The earnings and wealth of the Belgian people are approxi- mately as follows : — Earnings. Millions £ Gipltal. MllUons £, Agricultural . 26 Land . . 300 Manufacturing 59 Cattle . . 22 Mining, &c. . 11 Implements, &c. . . 32 Trade . 21 Railways . 75 Transport 25 Factories . 39 House-rent " . 8 Houses . 136 Domestics 5 Furniture . 68 Public service 7 Merchandise . . 118 Professions . 16 Sundries . 198 Total 181 Total 988 BELGIUM 257 Earnings. — The above gives a ratio of £28 annual earn- ings to each inhabitant, against £26 in Holland and £25 in Germany. Wealth. — Massalski estimates the wealth of Belgium at 1180, Graux at 1360, millions sterling, but they are certainly over the mark. Probate returns for six years show that the amount of property which paid succession and legacy dues was equal to £151 for each person who died. Applying the same ratio to the living we have a total of 966 millions ster- ling, or 2 per cent, less than the estimate on preceding page. Beal Estate. — Minister Malou's estimate is 300 millions for land and 136 for houses, together 436 millions sterling, and if we include factories the total of real estate will be 48 per cent, of national wealth, Malou estimates the house-property at twenty-three times the assessed rental, which would be about eighteen times the annual renting value. Average. — The average of wealth per head is £154, as com- pared with £156 in Germany and £183 in Holland. FINANCES The revenue after secession from Holland in 1830 was under 4 millions sterling ; it showed an increase of nearly 70 per cent, in 1865, and since the latter year it has more than doubled. The budgets for 1865 and 1895 compare thus : — BevenuQ Expenditure (OOO's Dinitted). (OOO's omitted) 1865, £. 1895, £. 1866, £. 1896, £,. Customs . 500 1,000 Debt . 1,600 4,400 Excise . 1,100 1,700 Army . 1,400 1,900 Railways 1,300 5,800 P. Works . 1,200 700 Taxes . . 1,200 4,300 Communes . 600 1,400 Sundries . 2,300 1,500 Government 1,600 5,900 Total 6,400 14,800 Total 6,400 14,300 More than one-third of the revenue arises from earnings of State railways, which give a net anmial profit of £2,300,000, R 258 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS say 4 per cent, on cost, so that they involve no burthen on the treasury beyond that of sinking-fund. The amount of revenue raised by taxation is 7 millions, and of local taxes 6, making in all 13 millions sterling, which is equal to 7 per cent, of national earnings, against 8J per cent, in the United Kingdom. Debt. — -This is nominally 88 millions, of which 58 millions correspond to State railways, which give, as shown above a net profit that fully covers the interest on the loans for their construction. The real debt is therefore 30 millions sterling or 3 per cent, of national wealth. XV SWITZEELAND This little republic, which is half the size of Portugal, affords a striking example of what an industrious and intelligent people can do. It has no sea-coast, no navigable rivers, no mineral wealth, no large cities ; three-fourths of its area are occupied by Alpine ranges, and the remainder is not sufficient to raise food for its population. Nevertheless the country is prosperous, and the condition of the people enviable. Some of the Cantons speak German, others French or Italian ; some are Roman Catholic, others Protestant, but the wheels of government work smoothly, the people are friendly and patriotic, forming, as it were, one family. The population is 3,050,000, or 197 per square mile, as compared with 190 in France. The number of emigrants is about 8000 yearly, almost all to the United States, the American census of 1890 showing 104,000 Swiss settlers, including 70,000 farmers in the Western States. On the other hand, Switzerland has attracted a large number of foreign residents, at last census 230,000, of whom one-half were Germans, one-fourth French. Urban population has increased 320, rural only 30, per cent, since 1830. The occupations of the people, according to the census of 1888, showed, as in Belgium, a larger number engaged in manufactures than in agriculture, viz. : — Agriculture. Manufactures. Commerce. Various. Total. Men . . 400,000 325,000 100,000 35,000 860,000 Women . 90,000 195,000 40,000 25,000 .350,000 Total . 490,000 520,000 140,000 60,000 1,210,000 =59 26o INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS Working-power has more than doubled since 1860, as shown thus : — Millions of Foot-tons Daily. Foot-tons , -' > per Year. Hand. Horse. Steam. Total. Inliabitant, 1860 . . 220 270 480 970 400 1893 . . 270 300 1,520 2,090 700 Steam-power at present reaches 380,000 horse, of which 40,000 in factories, the rest in railway locomotives. Owing to the mountainous character of the country the locomotives are of extraordinary power, averaging 420 horse. The above table of energy, meantime, does not express the full working- power, because Switzerland has a valuable contingent of force in 2700 mountain-streams, some of which supply the place of steam, the motive -power in factories being about 160,000 horse, three-fourths water. If this be taken into account the energy of Switzerland will be about 2500 millons of foot-tons daily, or 830 per inhabitant, the same ratio as in Belgium. AGRICULTUEE The productive area is only 5,200,000 acres, of which three- fourths are used for pasture. With so limited an area it is not surprising that the production of grain suffices only for four months, of meat for eight months, in the year. Deduct- ing grain used for seed the food-supply is as follows : — Grain, tons. Meat, tons. "Wine, gallons. Native . . . 260,000 80,000 22,000,000 Imported . . 490,000 40,000 24,000,000 Consumption . 750,000 120,000 46,000,000 Switzerland pays 8 millions sterling yearly for imported food, but gets back one -third of this sum in payment for 40,000 tons of cheese and condensed milk, which she exports, dairy-farming being a special industry in some of the Cantons. The value of products and amount of agricultural capital are approximately as follows : — SWITZERLAND 261 Products. Millions £ Capital. Millions £ Grain . . 2 Land . 138 Other crops . . 7 Cattle . . 18 Animal . . 11 Sundries . 16 Total . . . 20 Total . . .172 The product is 12 per cent, on capital, as compared with 13J in France and 16J in Germany. The official valuation of farm products in 1890 was £20,200,000. The land is divided among 300,000 farms, averaging 17 acres, two-thirds culti- vated, one-third pasture; the average value of each farm is £490, against £880 in France. The product is equal to £41 per hand, as compared with £61 in Belgium and £58 in France. FORESTS AND FISHERIES The forest area is 2,100,000 acres, in which about 20,000 wood-cutters find employment, the product in timber and fire- wood being of the approximate value of 1 million sterling. The supply of timber is short, being supplemented by 100,000 tons imported yearly. There are no fisheries of any im- portance. MANUFACTURES In 1894 Switzerland had 4600 factories, employing 150,000 hands, besides 420,000 artisans, producing altogether an annual output of 40 millions sterling, equal to £78 per operative, nearly 40 per cent, of the hands being women. Textiles. — There are 1900 mills, with 90,000 operatives, consuming 38,000 tons of fibre, as compared with 14,000 tons in the years 1880-82 : this branch of industry has, therefore, increased 170 per cent, in twelve years, the output reaching 12 millions sterling, of which two-thirds are exported, viz.: — Silks. Cottons, &c. Total. Output . £6,400,000 £5,400,000 £11,800,000 Export 5,600,000 2,300,000 7,900,000 262 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS Woollen mills do not produce enough for home consump- tion, and goods of this class are imported yearly up to a million sterling. Hardware. — About two-thirds of the wares used are made in the country, the annual consumption of iron and steel in 550 foundries and ironworks reaching 180,000 tons. Miscellaneous. — Geneva, according to Prof. Zehden, has 40,000 watchmakers, who turn out 3 million watches yearly : the annual export of watches is 4 millions sterling. There are 4000 tanners at Zurich and Lucerne, and leather manu- factures are of importance. The approximate value of manufactures in 1894 was as follows : — Textiles . £11,800,000 Clothing . £4,300,000 Hardware . 2,400,000 Houses and furn. . 3,600,000 Leather 3,200,000 Sundries . 8,200,000 Food . 7,300,000 Total . . 40,800,000 The mineral products are trifling, viz., 20,000 tons of coal, 30,000 of salt, yearly : there are some good quarries of slate and marble. COMMERCE Forty years ago this was a poor country, and her exports exceeded imports : at present the position is reversed, viz. : — Year. 1855 . 1894 . Imports, £. Exports, £,. Total, £. 14,400,000 19,600,000 34,000,000 35,200,000 26,900,000 62,100,000 3 trade of five years gives the following averages : — Millions £ Sterling. Germany France . Italy . Great Britain . Other countries Imports Exports from. to. Total. Ratio .11 7 18 27-3 .10 5 15 22-7 . 5 2 7 10-6 . 2 4 6 91 . 10 10 20 30-3 Total 38 28 66 1000 SWITZERLAND 263 Internal Trade. — This amounts to 97 millions, of which agriculture stands for 20, manufactures 41, forestry 1 million, and imports 35 millions, sterling; this is equal to £32 per inhabitant, against £30 in France and £38 in Belgium. Eailways. — Notwithstanding natural difficulties there is a complete network of railways, 2270 miles in length, which have cost 44 millions sterling. The first line was opened in 1844. Traffic compares with German lines, per mile, as follows : — Receipts, £,. Expenses, £. Profit, £. Swiss .... 1,857 1,107 750 German . . . 2,564 1,664 900 Swiss lines give almost 4 per cent, net profit on cost of construction, and all belong to companies. Banks. — Switzerland has the largest banking-power com- pared with population of any country of Continental Europe, viz., 36 millions, or £12 per head, as compared with £8 per head in Trance. There are thirty-five banks, all with right of issue, which is a great facility to trade ; these banks in December 1893 showed an aggregate of discounts, or bills in portfolio, amounting to £35,800,000; deposits 23 millions sterling, issue 7 millions. EARNINGS AND WEALTH The earnings and wealth of the Swiss people are approxi- mately as follows : — Earnings. Agricultural . Manufacturing Forests . Millions £. . 12 . 20 1 Trade . . 10 Transport House- rent . 10 . 5 Domestics . 3 Public service . 3 Professions . . 6 Total . 70 Wealth. Millions £. Land , . 138 Cattle, &c. . . 34 Houses . . 77 Furniture . 38 Railways 44 Merchandise . 49 Factories . 14 Sundries 98 Total 492 264 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS Earnings. — The above earnings show an average of £23 per inhabitant, as compared with £31 in France and £25 in Germany. Eeal Estate. — If we capitalise the assessed rental of Switzer- land in 1880, which was £7,640,000, it may be said to repre- sent £229,000,000. According to Sir F. Adams the value of land was £138,400,000. This -would leave a balance of £90,600,000 for houses and factories. The Canton of Berne, which is said to possess one-fourth of the wealth of Switzerland, showed in 1882 a total of real estate amounting to £59,000,000. It will be seen that real estate constitutes 47 per cent, of the wealth of the Swiss Confederation, the ratio being 48 per cent. in Belgium and 46 in Germany. Land. — The value of cultivated land appears to average £35 per acre, against £33 in France : the figures are approximately as follows : — Acres, £ Sterling. Cultivated . . . 3,100,000 108,400,000 Pasture, forest . . 3,700,000 30,000,000 Total . . . 6,800,000 138,400,000 Houses. — Excluding factories the value of houses, as shown above, is £78,600,000, which gives a ratio of £26 per inhabi- tant, against £31 in Germany and £48 in France. No country is richer in hotels, of which there are 7640, valued at £20,500,000, containing 82,000 beds, employing 27,000 waiters, receiving 1,230,000 guests, who paid for board and lodging £4,400,000. Thus the magnificent lake and Alpine scenery is a valuable source of income. It appears from the above statement of the "Schweizer Verein" that hotels stand for one-fourth of the house-property of Swit- zerland. Average Wealth. — The wealth of the nation shows an average of £16 per inhabitant, which is £8 more than the average in Germany ; the condition of the Swiss people is, moreover, much better than that of the German. In Switzerland there SWITZERLAND 265 are neither great fortunes nor poverty ; what Goldsmith said of the Swiss 150 years ago is still true : — " Though poor the peasant's hut, his feasts though small, He sees his little lot the lot of all." Sir Francis Adams says : "It would be difficult in Europe to find a more industrious and contented people than the Swiss." FINANCES The Swiss republic is in realif/ a confederacy of twenty- two diminutive republics, each Canton being autonomous, and all held together for mutual protection and external interests. National or Federal revenue does not exceed 3 millions sterling, or .£1 t>p,r inhabit.a.Tit',. huh if -mn inMnrlo f.Vi^ KinA«.^*-" '-C -i-i-- ERRATUM Page 264, third line from foot of page, instead of " ;^i6 " read " £,\(>e,:^ Wealth of Nations. XVI THE DANUBIAN STATES These three States, recently detached from the Ottoman Empire, might be constituted into a compact kingdom of some importance, but for the jealousy of the principal European powers. They form one continuous territory, watered by the Danube for more than 600 miles, from Belgrade to the Black Sea, with an area equal to that of Italy, viz. : — Sq. Miles. Population. Per Sq. Mile. Roumania . . 50,600 5,800,000 115 Servia . . . 18,700 2,300,000 123 Bulgaria . . . 86,900 3,300,000 90 Total . . . 106,200 11,400,000 108 The population is almost wholly rural, the only towns of importance being Bucharest, Jassy, Belgrade, and Sofia, collec- tively counting 410,000 souls. There is a great mixture of races, Slavonic predominating, the rest consisting of Greeks, Jews, Gypsies, and Turks. According to Zehden the agricultural element forms nearly three-fourths of the population. As persons in active work are in most countries about 45 per cent, of the number of inhabitants, the actual workers may be put down approxi- mately thus : — Occupation. Roumania. Servia. Bulgaria. Total. Agricultural . 1,900,000 730,000 1,050,000 3,680,000 Various . . 710,000 300,000 440,000 1,450,000 Total . 2,610,000 1,030.000 1,490,000 5,130,000 266 Koumania . Servia . Bulgaria Hand. 520 200 300 Horse. 1,770 490 600 Steam. 480 100 160 Total. 2,770 790 1,060 THE DANUBIAN STATES 267 The working-power of the three States is as follows : — Millions of Foot-tons Daily. Foot-tons per Inhab. 470 350 820 Total . 1,020 2,860 740 4,620 410 This is a very low ratio of energy, owing to the fact that the total steam-power is less than 200,000 horse, and this consists almost wholly of railway locomotives. AGRICULTUEE The condition of all three States is similar : in Roumania one-third, in Servia one-half, and in Bulgaria two-fifths, of all the lands have been broken up into small farms and given to the emancipated serfs, subject to a land-tax of 2 shillings an acre. The tenure of these peasant farms is as follows : — Farms. Acres. Average. Roumania . 600,000 9,000,000 15 Servia . . 800,000 6,000,000 20 Bulgaria . 400,000 10,000,000 25 The farms are small, the method of agriculture is rude, but the soil is very fertile ; the quantity of food raised is much in excess of what is needed for the home consumption, and there is always a large amount for exportation. There is, meantime, a great waste of labour, the number of hands employed being nearly half that which is in the United States of America, and the result nowise comparable. The cultivated area might be much extended. Acres. Cultivated. Uncultivated. Total. Roumania . . 11,700,000 20,700,000 32,400,000 Servia . . '4,900,000 7,300,000 12,200,000 Bulgaria . . 6,500,000 17,100,000 23,600,000 Total . 28,100,000 45,100,000 68,200,000 iThe official return for Servia shews 6,100,000 acres cultivated, but is unreliable. 268 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS The collective area under grain is 17,800,000 acres, under other crops 5,300,000, and the remaining area comprises 20,900,000 of pasture and 24,200,000 of forest or wilderness. The ordinary grain-crop sums up 6^ million tons, of which three-fifths are retained for home consumption, and two-fifths, say 2,500,000 tons, are exported. Reducing all food to a grain denominator, the production is as follows : — Qaantity. Equivalent in Grain. Grain, tons . . . 6,900,000 6,900,000 Meat, ,, . . . 400,000 3,200,000 Wine, gallons . . 120,000,000 1,200,000 Total . . ... 11,300,000 This is equivalent to 1 ton of grain per inhabitant, or 2| tons per hand employed, which cannot be considered a satisfactory result. The production in the three States is ordinarily as follows : — Grain, Tons Meat, Tons., Wine, Gallons Roumania . . 4,200,000 200,000 30,000,000 Servia . . . 900,000 100,000 60,000,000 Bulgaria . . 1,800,000 100,000 80,000,000 Total . 6,900,000 400,000 120,000,000 The aggregate grain-crop comprises 2,500,000 tons of wheat, 2,500,000 of maize, and the rest of barley, rye, &c. ; repre- senting a value of 38 millions sterling, exports amounting to 13 millions. Not more than 30 milHon gallons of wine are exported, home consumption averaging 10 gallons per inhabi- tant. The production of meat comprises 170,000 tons of beef, 150,000 mutton, and 80,000 pork, and the exportation of cattle is small, the home consumption of meat averaging 75 lbs. per inhabitant. Fruit is largely cultivated in Servia, which country has 180,000 acres under orchards, producing particularly a famous plum called Slivovitz ; of this there are 20,000 tons exported yearly, to make brandy. The aggregate area under vineyards in the three States is 1,100,000 acres, the vintage THE DA NUBIAN STATES 269 averaging 130 gallons per acre. The value of all products is approximately as follows : — Grain . Other crops . Meat . Sundries Total ... 45 16 22 83 The total product is equal to 38 shillings per productive acre, and £21 for each hand employed. Agricultural wealth is approximately as follows : — Millions £ Sterling. Millions £ Sterling. Roumania. . 23 . 8 . 8 . 6 Servia. Buli^aria. 5 10 5 6 4 4 2 2 Total. 88 19 16 10 Roumania. Servia, Bulgaria. Total. Land . . 200 90 130 420 Cattle . 22 10 10 42 Sundries . 22 10 14 46 Total . . .244 110 154 508 The number of farms in the three States is, as we have seen, 1,300,000, so that the average capital is £384, as com- pared with £880 in Prance, and the product £65 per farm. Hence it may be inferred that the condition of the farmers is fairly prosperous. FORESTS AND FISHERIES The Danubian States are thickly wooded. According to Obedenaire, whose work turns chiefly on agriculture, the forests of Roumania cover 5,050,000 acres and yield an annual product, between firewood and timber, of £5,900,000, but this is apparently an exaggeration : a more recent writer makes it only £3,800,000, and even this is very high, being equivalent to 15 shillings per acre. It is not credible that the yield can exceed 10 shillings an acre (the average in the adjacent Austrian Empire being only 8 shillings), and therefore it may be concluded that the forest products of the three State.= 270 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS amount to 5 millions sterling, Roumania standing for one- half. The export of lumber is small, only 30,000 tons from Roumania and 10,000 from Servia. There are no fisheries. MANUFACTURES Textile mills consume yearly in the Danubian States about 26,000 tons of fibre, the collective output being about £4,800,000. Hardware is nearly all imported, the consump- tion of iron being under 50,000 tons. The most important industry is leather, of which 16,000 tons are consumed, one- half in Roumania. In these States, as Zehden observes, domestic articles of the coarsest description are the chief manufactures. The approximate value of such industries is as follows : — Roumania, £. Servia, £. Bulgaria, £. Total, £. Textiles . 1,800,000 800,000 1,600,000 4,200,000 Hardware 200,000 100,000 100,000 400,000 Leather . 4,500,000 2,500,000 3,000,000 10,000,000 Food . . 9,800,000 4,500,000 6,000,000 20,300,000 Clothing . 2,300,000 900,000 1,300,000 4,500,000 Houses and furniture . 2,700,000 1,100,000 1,500,000 5,300,000 Sundries . 5,300,000 2,500,000 3,400,000 11,200,000 Total . 26,600,000 12,400,000 16,900,000 56,900,000 These countries possess few minerals. Roumania has petroleum and salt, exporting 100,000 barrels of the former yearly. Coal is found in Servia, but nothing has been done in the way of mining : an English company has established works at Maidanpek to develop an iron and copper mine there. COMMERCE The foreign trade of the three States in 1894 showed thus : — Roumania . Servia Bulgaria Total . . 22 300,000 16,500,000 38,800,000 Imports, £. Exports, £. Total, £. 16,900,000 11,800,000 28,700,000 1,400,000 1,800,000 3,200,000 4,000,000 2,900,000 6,900,000 THE DANUBIAN STATES -271 The averages for five years down to 1892 show the currents of trade thus : — Millions £ Sterling. Iniports from. Exports to. Total. Ratio. Great Britain .5 7 12 33-3 Germany ... 5 1 6 16-7 Austria ... 3 1 4 ll'l Other countries . . 7 7 14 38-9 Total . . 20 16 36 100-0 Internal trade. — This amounts approximately to 138 millions sterling, viz. : — Millions £ Sterling. Agricnl- Manufac- ture. tures, &c. Imports. Total. Roumania . 45 29 17 91 Servia . . 16 14 1 31 Bulgaria 22 18 4 44 Total ... 83 61 22 166 Internal trade is only £15 per inhabitant as compared with £18 in Austria. Raihoaijs. — In 1869 the first line was made by a joint-stock company, to a length of 150 miles, and afterwards sold to the Government of Roumania. The railway system of the three States has now a total length of 2460 miles, which represent a cost of 36 millions sterling. No traffic returns are published. The following table shows the mileage of railways, highroads, and navigable waterways : — Railways. Highroads. Water. Total. Roumania . .1,600 3,400 500 5,500 Servia. . . 340 3,500 400 4,240 Bulgaria . 520 2,400 500 3,420 Total . 2,460 9,300 1,400 13,160 These States are still deficient in ways of communication, the length of route to 100 square miles of territory being in Eoumania 11, in Servia 22, and in Bulgaria 9, miles. The Danube is, of course, the main artery of foreign trade, the port-entries of Roumanian ports reaching 8,400,000 tons. 272 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS EARNINGS AND WEALTH The earnings of the three States are approximately as follows : — Millions £ Sterling, Eoumauia. Agricultural . . 27 Manufacturing, &c. . 16 Trade ... 9 Servia. 10 7 3 Bulgaria. 13 10 4 Total 50 33 16 Transport. . . 9 Rent and servants . 6 3 2 4 3 16 11 Professions, &c. . 11 4 6 21 Total 78 29 40 147 The average of earnings to population is £14 in Roumania, £13 in Servia, and £12 in Bulgaria, as compared with £17 in Austria and £10 in Russia. Wealth. — The principal components in 1894 were approxi- mately as follows : Millions £ Sterling. Roumania. Servia. Bulgaria. Total Land 200 90 130 420 Cattle, &c. . 44 20 24 88 Houses 60 24 33 117 Furniture . 80 12 16 58 Factories . 9 4 6 19 Railways . 26 4 6 36 Merchandise . 46 16 22 83 Sundries . . 104 42 59 205 Total . 519 211 296 1,026 The above gives an average of £90 in Roumania, £92 in Servia, and £90 in Bulgaria, per inhabitant. These ratios are low, but it must be remembered that thirty years ago these States had hardly emerged from barbarism ; the peasantry, until 1864, were serfs on the estates of the Boyars. Land. — The assessed rental of lands in Roumania is £6,700,000, which is equivalent to a capital value of 201 millions sterling, say £12 for cultivated, and £3 uncultivated, THE DA NUBIAN STATES 273 per acre. If we suppose the same prices per acre in Servia and Bulgaria, the account will stand thus : — f Millions £ Sterling. Roumania. Servia. Bulgaria. Total. Cultivated . . .140 73 78 291 Forest, &o. . . . 60 17 52 129 Total . . .200 90 130 420 Houses. — The assessed rental of Eoumania in 1893 for house-property was £3,300,000, which would make the pro- bable letting-value .£3,630,000 per annum, representing a capital value of 60 millions. At the same ratio per inhabitant the houses of Servia would be worth 24, of Bulgaria 33, millions, there being no means to ascertain their value. FINANCES The revenues and expenditure of the three States in 1895 were as follows : — Revenue, £ Sterling, Roiimania. Servia. Bulgaria. Customs . . 2,500,000 400,000 900,000 Taxes . 1,500,000 1,100,000 1,700,000 Sundries . 4,400,000 1,000,000 1,000,000 Total . . 8,400,000 2,500,000 3,600,000 Expenditure, £ Sterling. Roumania. Servia. Bulgaria. Debt . 2,900,000 900,000 800,000 Army . 1,600,000 500,000 900,000 Government . 3,900,000 1,100,000 1,900,000 Total . 8,400,000 2,500,000 3,600,000 Between national and local charges the total amounts paid in taxes in the above States are £9,100,000 in Roumania, £2,300,000 in Servia, and £3,700,000 in Bulgaria, which shows the incidence of taxation as compared with earnings 274 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS in the several States to be — in the first 11^, in the second 8, in the third 9\, per cent. Debt.- — Much of the existing debts is represented by State railways, the value of which being deducted we find the real debt, as shown in the following table, compared with national wealth : — Jlillions £ Sterling. — . Debt Batio. Xoiii, Debt. Resil. Wealth. Per Cent. Roumauia ... 47 21 520 4 Servia . . 14 8 211 4 Bulgaria . 6 4 296 IJ Total . 67 33 1,027 3J It appears, therefore, that one-half of the aggregate debts of the three States has arisen from the construction of State railways, and that the real amount of indebtedness is coti- paratively small. These States paid annual tribute to the Sultan down to 1878, when it was abolished, except as re- garded Bulgaria, but as a matter of fact the Bulgarians have paid no tribute over since. XVII GEEECE This kingdom, which dates from 1830, has an area of 25,000 square miles, with a population of 2,200,000 souls, say 88 per square mile, being about the same ratio as in Spain. No less than 98 per cent, are Greeks. Greece has the peculiarity of a surplus of males, namely, 1076 to 1000 females, whereas the European average of sexes is the reverse. There is not much emigration, except to the Levant. Rural population forms 85 per cent, of the total, there being only twelve towns, with an aggregate of 310,000 souls, and of this number Athens counts for one-third. The kingdom of Greece includes only one-fourth of the Greek people, of whom 6 millions are scattered over the Levant and the Ottoman Empire. It is probably owing to the demoralising effects of the Turkish yoke under which the country groaned for so many centuries that little progress has been made in the sixty-five years that have elapsed since its emancipation. The census of 1889 gives the occupations of males, and if we add half the number of females in each class, we find as follows : — Agriculture. Manufactures. Commerce. Various. Tot:tl. Males . . 440,000 60,000 120,000 100,000 720,000 Females. . 220,000 30,000 60,000 50,000 360,000 Total . 660,000 90,000 180,000 150,000 1,080,000 The working-power of the people in millions of foot-tons daily is: hand, 200; horse, 300; steam, 700; in all, 1200 millions, or 550 foot-tons per inhabitant. Steam-power amounts to 175,000 horse, of which steamboats stand for three-fourths : fixed steam-power is insignificant, comprising a few engines at the Laurium mines and some factories. 276 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS AGRICULTURE Until recently the want of roads and the abundance of brigands checked all internal progress. Only thirty years ago it was cheaper to import grain from the Black Sea to Athens than to convey it from Marathon, 25 miles by land. The acquisition of Thessaly, 5000 square miles, in 1881, added to the agricultural capacity of Greece, and this must be borne in mind when comparing Bickford's figures for 1889 with those of Bikelas for 1860, as follows : — Acres, Year. Grain. Sundries. Uncultivated. Total. 1860. . 560,000 250,000 10,590,000 11,400,000 1889. . 1,210,000 880,000 13,810,000 15,900,000 The area of land that might be made productive is 8 million acres, or nearly four times that which is actually under cultivation. According to an official report for 1893 the cultivated area has risen to 2,340,000 acres : as this is little more than an acre per inhabitant the production of food is insufficient to feed the people. The usual grain-crop is 400,000 tons, one-half wheat, the rest made up of maize, barley, and rye ; the currant-crop averages a ton per acre, say 160,000 tons. Official returns put down the vintage at 66 million gallons, but the Moniteur Vinicole does not believe it exceeds 36 millions. If we reduce all food to a grain denominator we find:— Quantity. Equiv. in Graiu. Grain, tons . . . 400,000 400,000 Potatoes, ,, . . . 240,000 80,000 Meat, 60,000 480,000 Wine, gallons . . . 36,000,000 360,000 Total , . 1,320,000 The inhabitants have to import 100,000 tons of graiu and 3000 tons of meat yearly, the latter in the form of live cattle. The chief progress observable in late years is in the cultivation of currants, the crop of which rose from 40,000 tons in 1861 GREECE 277 to 160,000 in 1893 : in the latter year the export reached 120,000 tons. Vineyards cover 340,000 acres, but the wine is nearly all used for home consumption, the export not ex- ceeding 3 million gallons. The value of all products and the amount of capital in agriculture are approximately as follows : — Grain Other crops Meat, &o. £2,400,000 6,600,000 5,000,000 Land Cattle . Sundries £94,000,000 5,000,000 10,000,000 Products . . £14,000,000 Capital . £109,000,000 This shows the product to be about 13 per cent, on capital, the same as in Spain. One-third of the kingdom consists of small farms, averaging 33 acres, held by 147,000 peasant pro- prietors ; there are also 1600 large estates, belonging to nobles, say 4,000,000 acres, and the rest is Crown land, for the most part barren mountains. The total productive area, including 5,900,000 acres used for pasture, is 8,200,000 acres, and the annual value of farm products shows an average of 35 shillings per acre, as compared with 79 shillings in Austria. FORESTS AND FISHERIES Forests cover 2 million acres, the product of which may be estimated at £800,000, but the supply of timber is insufficient, the import averaging a value of £300,000 per annum. The fisheries are so unimportant that Greece imports£130,000 worth of fish yearly. MANUFACTURES Greece depends mostly on imported goods, from England and elsewhere. The approximate value of local manufactures is as follows : — Textiles . £ 900,000 Clothing £ 900,000 Shipbuilding 400,000 Houses and furn. 1,300,000 Leather . 1,500,000 Sundries 2,100,000 rood . 1 T • . 3,300,000 . • _ _ _ _i Total . ctnn r\nr\ i _r * 10,400,000 i__j The Laurium mines produce 260,000 tons of iron, lead, and zinc ores. 278 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS COMMERCE Foreign trade has trebled in the last thirty years, the averages for five years ending December 1892 amounting to £8,900,000, against £2,700,000 in 1861. These averages show as follows : — Millions £ Sterling. Imports Exports ^ from. to. Total. Ratio. Great Britain 1-3 1-5 2-8 31-4 France 0-4 0-8 1-2 13-5 Turkey 0-8 0-3 1-1 12-4 Russia 0-9 0-1 10 H-3 Various 1-6 1-2 2-8 31-4 Total . . .5-0 3-9 8-9 100-0 Shipping. — Much of the commerce of the Levant is in Greek hands, and their flag is seen in all Eastern ports, the carrying-power of Greek shipping having trebled in the last twenty years : — Tons Begister. ^— — ^ Year. Sail. Steam. Total. Carrying-power. 1872 . 234,000 6,000 240,000 258,000 1894 . 340,000 135,000 475,000 880,000 Internal Trade. — This amounts to no more than 29 millions sterling, including 14 for agriculture, 10 for manufactures, 1 million for forestry and fisheries, and 4 for imports : the total gives an average of about £13 per inhabitant, the same as in Portugal. Railways. — -The first line opened was from Piraeus to Athens, 7 miles, in 1855 : at present there are 570 miles, including a Government line of 90 miles. Bickford says that 2300 miles of high-roads have been made since 1868, at a cost of £1,600,000. Banldng. — Dishonest money is the curse of the country, and the result of extravagant finances. In order to meet re- peated deficits the Government has given forced currency to GREECE 279 "shin-plasters" since 1877 (except a brief interval of eight months in 1885). The issue exceeds 142 million drachmas, including 88 millions by the joint-stock banks to represent advances made by them to the Government. Gold is at 50 per cent, premium. EARNINGS AND WEALTH The earnings and wealth of the people of Greece are shown approximately thus : — Earning S. Wealil I. Agricultural . . £8,400,000 Land £94,000,000 Manufacturing . 5,200,000 Cattle, &o. . 15,000,000 Forestry, &c. . 900,000 Railways 6,000,000 Trade . . 2,900,000 Shipping 2,500,000 Transport . 3,000,000 Houses . 28,000,000 House-rent . 1,700,000 Furniture 14,000,000 Domestics . 1,100,000 Factories 3,400,000 Public service . . 1,900,000 Merchandise 14,500,000 Professions . 2,500,000 Sundries 44,400,000 Total £27,600,000 Total £221,800,000 The official report for 1888 makes the national earnings £26,800,000, and the amount of wealth £213,000,000. Land is officially valued at £94,000,000,house-property £28,000,000 : which brings up the total of real estate to 122 millions sterling, or 56 per cent, of the wealth of the kingdom, against 49 per cent, in France. The average of earnings is only £13, of wealth £100, per inhabitant, as compared with £13 and £83 respectively in Portugal, these being two of the poorest countries in Europe. FINANCES For sixty years the financial condition of Greece has been deplorable, every successive Government plunging the king- dom deeper into debt. Since 1879 things have been no better Missing Page Missing Page 282 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS If we study the increase of American-born population, we find as follows : — Period. Increase. Mean Pop. Annual Increase. 1831-60 . 8,435,000 17,500,000 24-1 per 1000 1851-70 . 12,015,000 31,100,000 19-3 1871-90 . 20,380,000 50,400,000 20-2 The first census which distinguished American-born children of foreigners was that of 1860, since which time it has been possible to classify the population of the United States under four heads. If we compare the figures for 1890 with those for 1860 we find that the negro element is declining in ratio, forming at present less than 12 per cent, of the total, as compared with 14|^ per cent, in 1860. The foreign element has increased much more rapidly than that of white Ameri- cans, VIZ. : Increase Ratio, 1860. 1890. per Cent. White Americans . 17,727,000 34,476,000 95 Negroes . . 4,486,000 7,470,000 66 Foreigners . . 4,139,000 9,250,000 123 Their children . 5,091,000 11,426,000 124 Total . . 31,443,000 62,622,000 99 The negro population has lost ground everywhere except in the New England States, to which there has been an influx since the abolition of slavery, as we see by comparing la.st census with that of 1850 : — Negroes in 1000 Inhabitants. New Middle Tear. England. States. South. West. Union. 1850. . 9 49 380 24 157 1890. . 10 39 349 18 119 At the same time the European element has increased in ratio in all parts of the Union, the number of foreign-born persons showing thus : — Foreignei-s in 1000 Inhabitants. "New Middle — Tear. England. Slates. South. West, Union. 1850 _ . 110 160 21 125 97 1890 . . 243 203 22 190 148 THE UNITED STATES 283 Although the foreign element is relatively strongest in New England, the greatest strength numerically is in the Western States, which have absorbed nearly 5 million Europeans, or more than half the total number in the Union, as shown in the following table : — states. Gennans. Irish. British. Others. Total. N. England . 63,000 413,000 176,000 490,000 1,142,000 Middle. . 896,000 860,000 456,000 661,000 2,873,000 South . . 136,000 61,000 48,000 159,000 404,000 West . . 1,690,000 538,000 571,000 2,032,000 4,831,000 Total . 2,785,000 1,872,000 1,251,000 3,342,000 9,250,000 Among foreign nationalities Germans hold the first rank in all parts of the Union, except New England, where the Irish are first. The British are second in the Western States, the only section where they outnumber the Irish. According to the census of 1890, of every thousand inhabitants in the Union 852 were American-born, 45 Germans, 30 Irish, 20 British, and 53 of other nationalities. The foreign-born population included, besides Europeans, 981,000 Canadians and 107,000 Chinese, the latter forming 6 per cent, of the population of California. As regards the distribution of sexes the census of 1840 showed that males were 3| per cent, more than females, and in 1890 the excess rose to 5 per cent., the increase of the male ratio being, doubtless, the result of immigration. Mean- time New England shows a female surplus of 3 per cent., while the Western States have an excess of 10 per cent, males. The latest report on vital statistics is that by the Com- missioner, Dr. Billings, in 1886, on the previous census, 1880, from which it appears that the death-rate was 15 '1 per thou- sand. Dr. Billings states that 1000 women between the ages of 15 and 49 gave birth to 127 children yearly among whites, and 164 among the negro race; that is to say, 3 coloured women have as many children as 4 white. So great, however, is infant mortality among negroes that the growth of coloured population, as we have already seen, is much slower than that 284 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS of white. He computes the birth-rate for the whole Union at 34 per thousand, but it would seem to be 35, since the growth of American-born population between 1870 and 1890, as already shown, averaged a fraction over 20, and the death-rate in 1880 was 15-1 per thousand. These figures compare with those of two other new countries as follows, per thousand of population yearly :- U. States. Australia. Canada. Births . . 35-3 35-0 28-3 Deaths . . 151 14-0 14-1 Natural increase . . 20-2 21-0 U-2 The most striking feature of American life in the last thirty years is the rapid growth of urban population, which has increased almost four times as fast as rural ; by the term urban is understood in the United States all cities and towns over 8000 souls, and the figures compare as follows : — Increase 1860. 1S90. per Cent. Urban . 5,072,000 18,265,000 260 Rural . 26,371,000 44,357,000 68 The surplus of births over deaths in the rural population during the above term of thirty years at the foregoing rate of 202 per thousand would have been 21,420,000, so that if there had been no immigration the rural population in 1890 should have amounted to 47,791,000, or 3^ millions more than it was. It appears, therefore, that even with the aid of im- migration the rural districts have relatively lost ground, such was the attraction which manufacturing industry and high wages in the cities held out to the working classes. Take, for example, the four largest cities of the Union, which we find to have almost quintupled since 1850; in the following table New York includes the suburbs of Brooklyn, Hoboken, and Jersey City, which are as integral parts of the former as Southwark and Kensington are of London i — Year. New York. Chicago. Philadelpliin. St. Louis. Four Cities. 1850 . 652,000 30,000 340,000 78,000 1,100,000 1890 . 2,528,000 1,091,000 1,047,000 452.000 5,118,000 THE UNITED STATES 285 The population of the Union in 1895 was very close on 70 millions, that is almost as much as the aggregate of France and Great Britain, having risen 40 per cent, since 1880; the distribution in 1895 is approximately in comparison with 1880 as follows :— Year. New England. Middle. South. West. Total. 1880 . 4,011,000 11,757,000 15,256,000 19,132,000 50,156,000 1895 . 5,100,000 15,400,000 20,100,000 29,100,000 69,700,000 While the density of population for the whole Union is only 23 per square mile, the older parts are as thickly popu- lated as many countries of Europe, the ratio for the Middle States being 135 per square mile, and for the Continent of Europe only 80. No census showing occupations has been published since that of 1880, since which year the population has risen 40 per cent., and therefore the number of working hands in 1895 may be estimated to compare with the number in 1880 approximately as follows : — Year. Agriculture. Manufactures. Various. Total. 1880 . 7,670,000 3,840,000 11,060,000 22,570,000 1895 . 10,740,000 5,380,000 15,490,000 31,610,000 The energy or working-power of the people has multiplied nearly eight-fold since 1840, viz. : — Millions of Foot-tons Daily. Foot-tons ^ — ^ _., per Year. Hand. Horse. Steam. Total. Inhabitant. 1840 . 1,406 12,900 3,040 17,346 1,020 1860 . 2,805 22,200 14,000 39,005 1,240 1895 . 6,400 54,600 67,700 128,700 1,850 The collective power has more than trebled since 1860, steam-power having multiplied five-fold in the last thirty-five years, the strength being shown approximately thus : — Horse-power of Steam. Horse-power per Year Fixed. Locomotives. Steamboats. Total. 1,000 Pop. 1860 . 800,000 1,800,000 900,000 3,500,000 110 1895 . 3,940,000 10,800,000 2,200,000 16,940,000 242 286 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS More than three-fourths of steam-power is employed for traction purposes, on railways and in steamboats, which is not surprising when we consider that the area of activity is as vast as Europe, and that the merchandise transported by rail appears, from official returns, to be double the goods traffic by rail of all other countries in the world collectively. It has been already shown that the average of energy in the United States is 1940 foot-tons daily per inhabitant, which is more than double the European average, so that it may be said 70 millions of Americans represent as much working-power as 150 millions of Europeans. AGRICTILTURE The growth of American agriculture in haK a century has been unparalleled in any age or nation, the production of grain showing as follows : — Tons. Year. Wheat. Maize. Oats, &c. TotaL 1840 . 2,100,000 9,500,000 3,800,000 15,400,000 1895 . 11,700,000 53,800,000 23,900,000 89,400,000 The grain-crop of 1895 was equal to 8 tons per hand em- ployed in farming, the average in Europe being 2 tons : the superiority of the American agriculturist is due to improved machinery. Nevertheless all parts of the Union have a deficit of grain, except the Western States ; but for the surplus crops from those prairies it would be necessary to import 8 million tons yearly for the food of men and animals. The ordinary crop of the Western States is 56 million tons, of which a little less than 50 millions is consumed in the United States, the quantity of grain exported from the country in the last three years averaging 6,500,000 tons. The area under all crops quadrupled between 1850 and 1895, as the following table shows, in acres : — Year. Grain. Cotton. Me.idow, &c. Total. 1850 . 34,200,000 6,100,000 11,050,000 51,350,000 1895 . 149,950,000 23,740,000 51,800,000 225,490,000 THE UNITED STATES 287 The area under grain is larger than the German Empire, that under hay is the size of Great Britain, and the cotton- fields cover more than the kingdoms of Holland and Belgium put together. Besides the area under crops there are 133 million acres under pasture, bringing up the total improved area to 358 million acres, or nearly one-fifth of the extent of the United States (excluding Alaska). The following table shows the whole Union under three heads, improved, unimproved, and unoccupied : the actual area of farms includes the first two classes, together 623 million acres : — Millions of Acres. States. Improved. Unimproved. Unoccupied. Total. New England . 11 9 24 44 Middle 36 13 24 73 South . 104 147 271 522 West 207 96 980 1,283 Union . 358 265 1,299 1,922 The Homestead Law of 1862 has had a powerful influence in promoting agriculture : by this law in thirty-two years no less than 164 million acres (an area larger than France, Belgium, Holland, and Denmark collectively) have been given gratis to immigrants in farm lots of 160 acres, and in the same interval settlers have bought 67 million acres from railway companies. The result is, that the area of improved lands showed an increase of 194 million acres between 1860 and 1890, or 6^ millions yearly. Pastoral interests are inferior in importance to those of tillage, the value of products in 1893 showing as 40 to 60 in this respect. Nevertheless there has been in the last forty- four years a great advance in the number and value of live- stock, and this is the more remarkable^ seeing that population has trebled in the interval, and that there has been in late years a great demand of meat and cattle for exportation to Europe. The numbers of live-stock show thus : — Tear. Cattle. Sheep. Pigs. Horses. 1850 . . 17,800,000 21,700,000 30,400,000 4,900,000 1894 . . 53,100,000 45,100,000 45,200,000 18,400,000 288 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS The value of live-stock in 1894 was 451 millions, against 113 millions sterling in 1850. Iowa is relatively the richest State in this respect, possessing live-stock to a value of £22 per inhabitant, which is surpassed only in Australia, where the average is £30 to each inhabitant. The following table shows the number of cattle, sheep, and pigs to 100 inhabitants in the great sections of the Union, and also to each thousand acres of the farming area of 1890 : — Per 100 Inhabitants. Per 1000 Acres. states. Cattle. Sheep. Pigs- Cattle Sheep. Pigs. New England 80 18 7 72 42 17 Middle 32 22 16 92 63 46 South . 87 48 94 64 36 69 West . 122 127 100 102 106 83 Union . 80 67 67 84 72 72 The farms of the Western States are so heavily stocked that if those in other parts of the Union had the same number of animals per thousand acres there would be in the United States 11 millions more cattle, 22 millions more sheep, and 7 millions more pigs. The occupied lands, as already shown, comprise only 32^ per cent, of the Union : if we suppose the unoccupied to be capable of carrying half the stock of the former per acre, say 42 cattle, 36 sheep, 36 pigs, and 15 horses per thousand acres, the pastoral resources of the United States might be more than doubled. The follow- ing table shows the live-stock on existing farms, and what could be carried by unoccupied lands on the above basis : — On Farms. Unoccupied. TofciL Cattle . 53,100,000 55,500,000 108,600,000 Sheep . 45,100,000 47,200,000 92,300,000 Pigs . . 45,200,000 47,300,000 92,500,000 Horses . 18,400,000 19,200,000 37,600,000 At present the annual production of meat is about 4,830,000 tons, of which 460,000 are exported, leaving for consumption 4,370,000, equal to 140 lbs. per inhabitant. Neither New England nor the Middle States raise enough meat for con- sumption, their deficit amounting to 1,020,000 tons, but the THE UNITED STATES ■ 289 Southern and Western have a surplus of 1,480,000 tons. The exportation to Great Britain includes 220,000 tons of beef and 180,000 of pork, besides 130,000 tons of meat sent to other countries. If we reduce all food to a grain denominator, the production in 1895 will stand thus : — Equivalent in Grain, Quantity, Tona. Tons. Grain .... 89,400,000 89,400,000 Potatoes . . 7,480,000 2,490,000 Meat .... 4,830,000 38,640,000 Wine, gallons . . 30,000,000' 300,000 Total 130,830,000 But for the great development of tillage and pastoral industry in the United States some European countries, especially England, would come short of grain and meat. At present the United States raise one-third of the food produced in the world, viz. : — - „ ' Tons. U. states. Buropo. Other Countries. Total ' Grain . 89,400,000 141,500,000 23,300,000 254,200 000 Meat . 4,830,000 9,880,000 1,290,000 15,500,000 The meat product of the United States consists approxi- mately of 2,410,000 tons of beef, 2,050,000 of pork, and 370,000 of mutton, the whole representing a value of 163 millions sterling. Notwithstanding the great fall, in recent years, of prices for all farming products, the value of these products in the United States has doubled since 1860. The following table is an approximate statement of these values : — Mmions £ Sterling. 1840. 1860. 1893. Millions £ Sterling. 1840. 1860. 1893. Grain . . 62 172 217 Meat . . 29 68 163 Cotton . . 15 40 56 Dairy . . 14 34 87 Hay . . 20 83 119 Poultry . . 7 17 42 Sundries . 28 48 94 Hides, &o. . 5 13 35 Tillage. . 125 288 486 Animal prod. 55 182 327 This makes for 1893 a total value of 813 millions sterling, the official valuation in 1886 having amounted to 777 millions sterling, and this was the last made. The Western States T 290 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS stand for nearly 55 per cent, of the total, the amounts that correspond to the various sections of the Union, and the number of hands employed, being approximately as follows : — Millions £ Sterling. States. Tillage. Pastoral. Total. No. of Hands. £per Hand. New England . 20 13 33 545,000 60 Middle 65 47 112 1,705,000 66 South . . 152 72 224 3,650,000 61 West . . 249 195 444 4,840,000 92 Union . . 486 327 818 10,740,000 75 The value compared with the productive area gives an average of 46 shillings per acre, against 96 in the United Kingdom. About one-sixth of the agricultural products are exported, as shown by the customs returns, from which fact it may be asserted that 1,800,000 persons are exclusively occupied in producing food for exportation to Europe. The value of products consumed at home and of those exported were at various dates as follows : — Millions £ Sterling. 1840. 1860. 1880. 1SS6. 1893. Exported . . 19 53 143 101 128 Home use . . 161 867 566 674 685 Total . . 180 420 699 775 813 When we compare the total value of farm products with the area under farms, we find that the gross product per acre is not much more than forty years ago, whUe the price of land is higher, but there is some compensation in the fact that the reduced cost of transport, since the construction of railways, is equivalent to 10 per cent, on the yearly value of products. The following table shows the value of land and of products at various dates, the same per acre, and the ratio of product to land-value : — Millions £. £ per Acre. Ratio of Product. Year. Land. Product Land. Product. 1850 . 681 246 6-0 2-2 36-7 1870 . . 1,543 495 8-2 2-6 31-7 1893 . . 2,765 813 7-7 2-3 29-4 THE UNITED STATES 291 There has been such an improvement of agricultural ma- chinery in late years that the area of cultivation per farming hand rose from 32 acres in 1870 to 37 in 1880. Not quite three-fourths of the farms are in the hands of owners, the census of 1890 showing that owners are 72, tenants 10, and metayer or partnership farms 18, per cent, of the total, this last class not paying rent in money, but giving half or other portion of the crops to the owner of the land. FORESTS AND FISHERIES The forest area is about the same extent as that of Russia, showing (without Alaska) a total of 466 million acres, equal to 7 acres per inhabitant, the average in Europe being hardly 2 acres. The forests of the United States show thus : — Acres per states. Acres. Population. 100 Population. New England . 19,000,000 5,100,000 372 Middle . . 18,000,000 15,400,000 117 Southern . . 233,000,000 20,100,000 1,160 Western 196,000,000 29,100,000 672 Total . 466,000,000 69,700,000 670 It was computed in 1888 that 30,000 acres of timber were felled daily : the annual output of the sawmills of Maine was 12 million tons, that of the Michigan mills 19 millions. The domestic consumption for firewood and fences would seem to exceed 400 million tons, the total felling in 1888 being esti- mated at 600 million tons, value £120,000,000 sterling. The lumber industry has just kept pace with the growth of popula- tion ; it was equal to nearly $10, or £2 sterling, per inhabitant in 1870, and the same in 1888, viz. : — Millions of Dollars. 1870. ISSS. Firewood . 72 104 Fences . . 150 210 Planks, sleepers, &o. 184 241 Export .... 14 21 Total . . . 370 576 292 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS The lumber industry of the United States exceeds in value by 4 millions sterling that of all European countries in the aggregate. Fisheries do not show much progress in late years, the returns for 1892 comparing with those of 1880 as follows : — Year. Hands. Take, £ Sterling. £ per Man. 1880 . . 131,000 8,600,000 66 1892 . . 192,000 9,400,000 49 There is probably no industry that gives so poor a return per hand in the United States as this. MANUFACTURES The first complete census of manufactures was that of 1850, and the returns for 1890 show that they increased in value nine-fold in forty years : in the same period the number of operatives multiplied only five-fold, one operative now pro- ducing nearly as much as two did in 1850. The following table shows the value of goods manufactured, the number of operatives, and the average output per hand : — Tear. MUlions £. Operatives. £ per Hand. 1850 . . 212 958,000 220 1870 . . 705 2,054,000 348 1890 . 1,952 4,713,000 414 Manufactures may be said to have their home in New England, where they constitute the chief occupation of the people, but it is in the Western States that the greatest relative progress has been made, and hence it comes to pass that New England stood in 1890 for only one-sixth of the manufacturing output of the Union, whereas it represented 28 per cent, in 1850. The value of goods manufactured in the various sections of the United States was as follows : — Sliliions £ Sterliufr. Tear. N. England. Middle. South. West. Total. 1850 . . 69 98 21 34 212 1890 . . 312 760 147 733 1,952 THE UNITED STATES 293 In the census of 1890 operatives figured for 13 per cent, of the able-bodied population, whereas in 1860 they were only 7^ per cent. The rapid increase of manufactures in the last thirty years fully explains the abnormal growth of urban population. Textiles. — If we compare the output of 1890 with that of 1850 as regards value, we find that it multiplied more than five-fold, showing as follows : — Millions £ Sterling. Tear. Cottons. Woollens. Sundries. Total. 1850 ... 14 10 5 29 1890 ... 56 44 61 161 Cotton has always occupied the foremost rank in this class of manufactures. The first cotton-mill was built at Providence, Rhode Island, in 1790, and the number of mills in 1850 was 1094, but many of the smaller ones have disappeared, only 905 existing in 1890. The growth of this industry in fifty years is shown thus : — Tear. Spindles. Operatives. Cotton, Tons. Output, £. 1840 . . 2,200,000 72,000 60,000 9,600,000 1890 . . 14,000,000 222,000 520,000 55,800,000 New England stands for £38,400,000, or 70 per cent, of the total output : the average product per operative in Massa- chusetts is £274, and in the other States £240. The cotton goods made are almost wholly consumed at home, the value exported never reaching 2 millions sterling. Each operative turns out about 14 miles of cotton cloth yearly, the output of 1890 reaching about 3,100,000 miles, or one-fourth of the world's product. Woollen manufactures multiplied ten-fold between 1840 and 1893, as shown by the consumption of wool, as follows : — Tons of Wool. Year. Native. Imported. Total. 1840 .... 16,000 5,000 21,000 1893 .... 135,000 75,000 210,000 294 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS Woollen operatives in 1890 showed an average product of £385 each, as compared with £251 for cotton operatives, which is explained by the superior value of raw material in the former case. The cotton operative received 6 cents, the woollen 12 cents, on every pound of raw material that passed through his hands ; the wages of the former averaged £66, of the latter £80, per hand. Meantime if we compare wages with output we find the cotton operatives received a higher share, namely, 26 per cent., while the woollen operative took only 21 per cent, of the value produced by him. SilJc is comparatively a new branch of manufacture, the output having more than doubled in ten years : it rose from 8 millions in 1880 to 18 millions in 1890. In the latter year there were 51,000 operatives, the average value of goods pro- duced by each operative having risen in ten years from £275 to £354, a sign that the industry is improving and likely to prosper. Most of the silk-mills are in and about New York. Flax, Hemp, ^c. — The weight of flax and hemp grown in the United States averages 60,000 tons yearly, besides which the mills consume 160,000 tons of flax, hemp, and jute im- ported, the total output in 1894 being of the approximate value of 22 millions sterling. The ordinary importation of manufactured goods of this class is 6 millions, bringing up the home consumption to 28 millions sterling, equal to 8 shillings per inhabitant, against 15 shillings in the United Kingdom, and 10 in France. This branch of manufacture shows some progress, the trade returns for 1894 showing, as compared with those of 1884, u, decline of 20 per cent, in the value of imported goods, and a corresponding increase in the weight of raw fibre imported, the latter having risen from 130,000 to 160,000 tons. The census of 1890 gave the following particulars as to goods of this class manufactured in the United States : — Goods. Hands. Wages, £. Output, £. Twine . . . 13,000 900,000 6,900,000 Bagging . . 7,000 500,000 4,200,000 Sundries . . 11,000 1,100,000 4,100,000 Total . 31,000 2,500,000 15,200,000 THE UNITED STATES 295 The average value of output to each hand employed was £500 sterling, or three times the average product of textile operatives in the United Kingdom. Clothing stands high among the list of manufactures, the output in 1890 reaching 111 millions sterling, an increase of 80 per cent, over 1880. The principal seat of this industry is New York, viz. : — Operatives. Output, £. £ per Hand. New York. . 133,000 42,500,000 819 Other States . 226,000 68,500,000 303 Total . . 359,000 111,000,000 808 Notwithstanding the enormous production of dry goods, it is insufficient for the wants of the people, as will be seen in the following table, imports signifying net imports : — Production, £. Importa, £. Consumption, £ Cottons . 55,800,000 4,500,000 60,300,000 Woollens . . 44,400,000 4,100,000 48,500,000 Silks . . 18,100,000 5,100,000 23,200,000 Clothing . . 111,000,000 4,600,000 115,600,000 Sundries . . 42,600,000 7,300,000 49,900,000 Total . . 271,900,000 25,600,000 297,500,000 Imported goods are a little more than 8 per cent, of the consumption, which averages 85 shillings per inhabitant, this ratio being much higher than in any country except Great Britain. It must be observed that values are inflated by the system of Protection, making the prices of dry goods very oppressive to the great bulk of the population. The value of textiles, exclusive of clothing, consumed by the American people is 182 millions sterling per annum, equal to 52 shillings per inhabitant, against 62 in the United Kingdom. Hardware. — The production of iron multiplied exactly fifty- fold between 1830 and 1890, amounting in the latter year to 9,200,000 tons, a quantity far in excess of the production of any other country. Steel was first manufactured in 1808, but only a small lot of 900 tons : the production rose to 3,400,000 tons in 1889, being one-third of the world's output. 296 iNDVSTRtnS AND WEALTH OF NATIONS All metallic industries may be reduced to two classes, the returns for 1890 showing as follows : — Product, £. Operativee. Wages, £, Machinery . 86,000,000 248,000 30.800,000 Hardware . 143,300,000 536,000 61,400,000 Total . . 229,300,000 784,000 92,200,000 This gives an average of £292 product and £117 wages to each operative, being much higher as to product and wages than falls to operatives in Europe. Imports and exports of iron and steel manufactures balance one another, and the consumption of iron averages 300 lbs. yearly per inhabitant, being about the same as the consumption of bread. The value of goods consumed in 1890 was 229 millions sterling, as shown above, say £4 per inhabitant. Leather. — This industry quintupled in forty years, the value of boots, shoes, and other leather manufactures rising from 19 millions in 1850 to 106 millions sterling in 1890. Not- withstanding the millions of live-stock on the prairies the country does not supply sufficient hides for home use : the quantity of leather made yearly is about 240,000 tons, of which one-fourth is made from 100,000 tons of imported hides. Lumher. — The output of sawmills has multiplied exactly ten-fold since 1850, the amount in 1890 reaching 123 millions sterling, and the mills employing 373,000 hands : this gives an average product of £330 per hand. These hands appear to earn a lower wage than most others, the average for saw- mills in 1890 being only £76 per man. Flour. — The value of this item has quadrupled in forty years, rising from 28 millions in 1850 to 107 millions sterling in 1890 ; but the quantity of flour milled has increased in a greater measure, prices having fallen in the interval. Meat-packing. — This first figured among manufactures in 1870, since which year it has multiplied in value twelve-fold, amounting in 1890 to 118 milUons £, representing about 3 million tons of meat. THE UNITED STATES 297 Summary. — The various branches of manufacture, according to the census of 1890, were distributed among the various sec- tions of the Union as follows : — Millions £ Sterling. States. Textiles. Hardware. Food. Sundries. Total. New England . 96 29 20 167 312 Middle . . 129 111 96 424 760 South . . 12 14 23 98 147 West . . 35 75 190 433 733 Union . . .272 229 329 1,122 1,952 In the foregoing table textiles include clothing, and hard- ware all metallic industries except jewellery. The relative importance of manufactures is greatest in New England, where the output in 1890 averaged £67 per inhabitant, as compared with £54 in the Middle States, £8 in the Southern, and £29 in the Western. The amount of product and of wages, and the averages per operative, were as follows : — Millions £,. Operatives. £ per Hi Product. md. states. Product. Wages. Wages New England . 312 86 885,000 353 98 Middle . . 760 195 1,810,000 420 108 South . 147 35 459,000 320 76 West . 733 160 1,559,000 470 102 Union . . . 1,952 476 4,713,000 414 101 The product per hand is highest in the Western, but the highest average of wages is in the Middle States, which is perhaps because the cost of living is much higher in the latter. On the whole the condition of the working classes seems much better now than it was forty years ago ; the average wage per operative rose from £51 in 1850 to £101 in 1890, an increase of 98 per cent., while the output per operative rose only 88 per cent., namely from £220 to £414. Thus the operative at present receives in wages 24|^ per cent. of the gross value of goods produced by him, as compared with 23 per cent, in 1850. The amount of wages paid to operatives in 1890 represented one-sixth of the total earnings of the people. 298 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS MINERALS As regards quantity the mining products almost equal those of Great Britain, while in point of value they surpass those of any country in ancient or modem times. The weight of mineral stuff raised has been approximately as follows : — Tons of Mineral. Tear. Coal. Iron Ore. Quartz. &c. Total. 1830 . 1,300,000 400,000 90,000 1,790,000 1870 . 33,000,000 3,200,000 3,100,000 39,300,000 1894 . 165,000,000 10,800,000 4,200,000 180,000,000 The above is exclusive of building and lime stone, of which 23 million tons were used in 1892, and if this were added to the figures for 1893 the total would exceed 200 million tons. The value of mineral products has multiplied nearly five-fold since 1850, showing as follows : — Millions £ Sterling. fear. CoaL Gold. Silver. Sundries, Total. 1850 ... 5 10 4 19 1894 ... 39 8 6 41 94 The official returns are confusing, as they give the value not of ores, but of metals obtained from them; moreover, they put the value of silver at 64 pence instead of 28 pence (the real market price) per ounce. In this way the mining product for 1894 is made to reach 109 millions sterling or 527,000,000 dollars, viz. :— Non-metallic. Millions @. MetalUc. Millions S. Coal . . 186 Iron . 65 Stone . . 37 Silver . . 64 Petroleum . 36 Gold . . 40 Sundries . 50 Copper, &c. . . 49 Total . . .309 Total . . .218 The value of iron ore was only $22,000,000, and that of the silver produced $28,000,000, so that the real value of mining products did not really exceed 94 millions sterling. THE UNITED STATES 299 The number of miners in 1880 was 234,000, who raised 104 million tons of minerals, being an average of 440 tons each ; if we take 400 tons as the present average the number of miners would be 575,000, the weight of mineral raised having been approximately 230 million tons in 1894. Ironstone. — ^The production of this mineral in 1840 was only 600,000 tons, but it rose rapidly with the construction of rail- ways, reaching 13,300,000 tons in 1889, and declining in later years. The yield is usually 40 per cent. iron. Coal was first discovered in Pennsylvania in 1768, but sixty years elapsed before the output reached a million tons. From the year 1830 the production increased so rapidly that twenty years later Pennsylvania had constructed 7 canals and 27 rail- ways expressly for carrying coal. American coal is for the most part bituminous, only 30 per cent, of what is raised being anthracite. The coal-fields cover an area of 195,000 square miles, that is about the size of Prance. Coal and iron are found mostly in the Middle and Western States, the output of 1890 showing : — Tons Raised. Middle. "Western. Southern. Total. Coal . . 84,700,000 40,200,000 16,400,000 141,300,000 Ironstone . 3,300,000 8,300,000 2,900,000 14,5&0,000 Lead and Copper. — Lead mines were first opened in 1829, in Missouri and Colorado, the ore giving about 70 per cent, of metal : the production of metallic lead in 1892 reached 200,000 tons, having more than doubled since 1880. Copper-mines were worked by the French Jesuits of Lake Superior as far back as the seventeenth century, but the industry in modem times may be said to date from 1843, when the United States Government bought the Lake Superior copper-fields from the Chippeway Indians. At present 900,000 tons of ore are raised yearly, from which 150,000 tons of bar-copper are extracted, valued at 7 millions sterling. Among other minerals may be mentioned zinc, the production reaching 80,000 tons of metal, worth £1,200,000. 300 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS Petroleum was first discovered near Pittsburg in 1845, and the first Oil company was formed nine years later at New York, but no petroleum worth mention was raised till 1859. In the last thirty-six years no fewer than 60,000 wells have been sunk, of which 6000 are now working. The production has been as foUows : — Millions of BaiTola. 1859-80. 1881-93. 36 years. Raised . . 172 440 612 Exported . 80 172 252 Home use . 92 268 360 The production during the last three years has averaged 50 million barrels, or 2100 millions of gallons ; and the ex- portation 17 million barrels, or one-third of the output. The value of crude petroleum at the pit's mouth raised in the above thirty-five years was 118 millions sterling, but the value of the refined oil, ready for market, was nearly four times as much, showing approximately as follows : — Millions £ Sterling. 1859-80. 1881-98. 35 Tears. Exported . . 117 123 240 Home use ... 98 118 216 Total . . .215 241 456 The value of petroleum refined in the last twenty-three years reached 368 millions sterling, which exceeds by 3 mil- lions the total production of gold and silver in the United States during the same period. Gold and Silver. — Gold was found in North Carolina early in the present century, and in 1850 Professor Whitney esti- mated the total yield until then at no more than 21 tons, worth hardly 3 millions sterling. It was in 1849 that the first Californian discovery took place at Captain Sutter's mill, and the new gold-fields quickly dazzled the world. Silver was found in Storey County, Nevada, by J. H. Comstock and James Phinney in 1858, and the Comstock mine proved so rich in both precious metals that it produced in six years THE UNITED STATES 301 (1871-76) no less than 105 tons of gold and 1600 of silver, together worth 28 millions sterling. The total product of precious metals in forty-four years has been : — Tons. Value, Millions £. Period. 1850-69 . 1870-89 . 1890-93 . Gold. . 1,525 . 1,104 201 Silver. 2,130 20,980 7,270 Gold. 213 154 28 Silver. 18 151 45 Totaf. 231 305 73 44 years . 2,830 30,380 395 214 609 Colorado in 1892 produced 30, Montana 20, California 15, and the other States 35, per cent, of the aggregate value of gold and silver produced in the Union. 1820. 1840. 1860. 1880. 1896. 15 20 75 140 161 11 24 84 171 182 26 44 159 311 343 COMMERCE The strength of the United States lies in its internal development, and hence the growth of its trade with foreign countries is relatively slow, showing as follows : — Millions £ Sterling. 1820. 184 Imports . Exports . Total . The foreign trade of 1896 averaged only £5 per inhabitant, against £18 in the United Kingdom. It is manifest that trade has been cramped and hindered in all directions by the protective tariffs : these have had the effect of stimulating manufactures, but at an enormous cost to the American people. Suffice it to compare the aggregate of imports and exports for the last fourteen years, which shows that there has been a great excess of exports, or, in other words, a "balance of trade" largely in favour of the United States, a proof that the trade with foreign countries is on an unsatis- factory footing, viz., imports 2104, exports 2352, surplus exports 248, millions sterling. The old fallacy of the " mer- 302 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS cantile system," whicli is still in force among Protectionists, supposed that the value of surplus exports came back in bullion, but the official tables of the United States show the reverse : the imports and exports of the precious metals have been as follows : — Millions £ Bterling. Period. Imported. Exported. Surplus exported, 1871-80 ... 64 127 63 1881-90 . . 101 107 6 1891-95 ... 58 122 64 25 years . . 223 356 133 Notwithstanding the fact that since 1881 the exports of merchandise have exceeded imports by 18 millions sterling per annum, there has been at the same time an outflow of precious metals averaging 4 J millions sterling yearly. The net outflow of the past twenty-five years has been 60 per cent, silver, 40 per cent, gold, the total current of bullion in that period showing as follows : — Millions £ Sterling. Gold. Silver. Total. Imported . . .150 73 223 Exported . . 202 154 856 Net export . .52 81 133 The trade relations of the United States with other countries are shown in the subjoined table of average imports and exports of merchandise during five years ending June 1894, which is as follows : — Millions £ Sterling. Imports Exports from. to. Total. Ratio Great Britain . 34 94 128 36-2 Germany . 18 19 37 10 '4 France . . 14 13 27 7-6 Cuba . . 14 4 18 5-1 Canada 8 10 18 51 Various . 78 48 126 35-6 Total . . .166 188 354 lOO'O The returns for 1894 compared with those of 1884 show that commercial relations with Great Britain, Canada, and THE UNITED STATES 303 France are declining, and those with other countries are on the increase. The four principal seaports are New York, Boston, Philadelphia, and New Orleans, and these make up three-fourths of the foreign trade, the aggregate of imports and exports showing in 1893 as follows in millions £. New York 186, Boston 34, Philadelphia 24, New Orleans 21, other ports, 92, total 357. Thus New York stands for more than half the foreign trade of the United States. Shipping. — The Protective policy adopted after the civil war of 1861-65 has in a manner driven American shipping from the high seas. In 1830 no less than 90 per cent, of foreign trade was done on American bottom, but in 1894 the ratio had fallen to 13 per cent., the amount showing as follows at various dates : — ,,.,,. . _, ,. Millions £ Sterling. Flag. 1S30. 1S60. 1S80. 1S94. American . . .25 106 54 41 Others ... 3 53 257 281 Total . . . 28 159 311 322 At the ordinary estimate of 5 per cent, for freight it appears that the American people pays a tribute of 14 millions sterling per annum to foreign shipping. Meantime the shipping used for coasting or internal waters has trebled in fifty years, viz. : — Nominal Tonnage. Carrying Tear. Ocean. Coasting, ;',ooo 3,2;^:',ooo 12,S90,0>>J 6,(&j,»j 4.50,000 SIO.fMO 1,000 ft. -tons. Pence. 8-9 12-8 9-9 14-3 18-4 16-3 li-0 11« 8-4 10-5 111 U-3 91 \ij3a.fm 10-; No. Ylll.— Product of Mines, Fonsti, a-i Fl^.^ries. Millions £ Sk United Kingdom France Germany . Bussia Austria Scandinavia Belgium . Other States Europe United States Canada Australia . Total Mines. Foresis. '■;Rit?r-R=f, r^rai 78 2 ^7 16 14 " 33 34 13 4t 12 40 ^ 34 10 IS — '-'S 2 13 3 20 10 1 11 7 15 4 26 169 116 24 3(19 94 120 10 2»4 5 17 4 26 14 1 20 282 258 39 079 No. IX. — Freiglii Earnings. Millions £ Sterling per Annum. Bailwajs. Shipping. Beads, &C. ^ Goods. Passengers. Total. Total United Kingdom . 46 38 84 54 31 169 France . 32 23 55 5 66 126 Germany . . 52 19 71 9 62 142 Russia . 2S 7 35 3 70 108 Au-itria 25 7 32 1 43 76 Italy . 6 4 10 3 34 47 Other States . 19 12 31 14 94 139 Europe . 208 110 ;us 89 400 807 United States . Hill 57 .1.1;> 23 SI 3-V Canada 7 3 10 3 s 21 Australia . 6 3 il .1 7 IS Total . 387 173 .i(;o 117 496 1,173 COMPARATIVE TABLES 381 No. X. — Areas Cultivated and Waste. Millions of Acres. United Kingdom France Germany . Bussia Austria Italy . Spain . Portugal Sweden and Norway Denmark . Holland Belgium Switzerland Danub. States . Greece. Europe United States Canada Australia . Argentina . Total . . 548-0 854-1 1,715-0 2,645-5 3,982-0 (The grain column is, of course, included in tlie second.) '-'■ All Mountain ^ Grain. Crops. Pasture. Forest. &c. Total. 8-9 20-1 27-8 3-0 26-3 77-2 . 3a-6 66-9 23-1 20-7 19-8 130-5 . 38-0 65-2 21-7 34-5 12-1 133-5 . 172-8 255-0 334-0 498-0 254 1,341-0 . 41-9 52-3 33-1 43-0 21-1 149-5 . 20-4 38-2 14-8 10-1 7-7 70-8 . 20-8 32-2 21-0 16-4 55-5 125-1 . 2-6 3-9 7-7 1-2 8-0 20-8 4-6 9-0 6-1 64-4 110-9 190-4 3-0 4-5 2-6 0-6 17 9-4 1-4 2-3 2-8 0-6 2-1 7-8 2-4 3-7 1-8 1-2 0-6 7-3 0-9 1-3 3-9 2-1 2-9 10-2 . 17-9 23-1 20-9 10-2 14-0 68-2 1-2 2-3 5-9 2-0 5-7 15-9 . 373-4 580-0 527-2 708-0 542-4 2,357-6 . 150-0 225-5 132-5 466-0 1,098-0 1,922-0 9-8 19-9 15-3 1,250-0 834-8 2,120-0 . 5-3 16-2 802-0 180-0 1,024-8 2,023-0 . 9-5 12-5 238-0 41-5 482-0 774-0 9,196-6 No. XI. — Ordinary Grain Crops (1892-95). Millions of Bushels. Wheat. Barley Oats. Maize. Eye, &e. Total. Busb. Per Acre United Kingdom 49 73 167 — 12 301 34 France , 303 44 216 27 134 724 20 Germany . 122 104 176 280 682 18 Russia . 322 236 590 105 867 2,120 12 Austria . 196 113 170 136 165 780 19 Italy 122 8 18 68 17 233 11 Spain 88 59 12 42 31 232 11 Portugal , 8 2 1 14 5 30 11 Sweden and Norway 4 17 70 — 37 128 28 Denmark . 4 21 31 28 84 28 Holland . 5 5 15 16 41 30 Belgium . 18 3 26 27 74 31 Switzerland . 2 2 3 3 10 11 Danub. States . 101 46 18 101 12 278 15 Greece , 7 3 736 — 4 2 16 13 Europe . 1,351 1,.513 497 1,636 5,733 16 United States . 467 88 824 2,151 45 3,575 24 Canada . 48 18 104 7 24 201 20 Australia , 38 2 17 9 66 12 Argentina 77 6 — 42 — 125 13 Total 1,981 850 2,458 2,706 1,706 9.700 18 382 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS No. Xll.— Cattle. 1 dumber (OOO's om itt =d). Value. ililUons £.. Horses. Cattle. Sheep. Pigs. Goats. United Kingdom 2,100 10,900 30,900 4,200 600 202 Prance 3,100 12,900 20,700 6,100 1,500 232 Germany . 3,800 17,600 13,600 12,100 3,100 303 Russia 20,800 27,600 48,200 10,700 1,300 350 Austria 3,600 14,200 14,400 9,100 1,400 161 Italy. 1,200 5,000 6,900 1,800 1,800 92 Spain 900 2,100 16,500 1,900 2,800 46 Portugal . 150 600 3,000 1,000 900 11 Sweden and Norway . 650 3,500 2,700 800 400 41 Denmark . 400 1,700 1,300 800 — 26 Holland . 300 1,500 700 1,100 200 28 Belgium . 300 1,400 400 700 200 22 Switzerland 100 1,200 300 400 400 18 Danub. States . 900 3,600 13,000 2,300 4,200 42 Greece 100 400 2,900 — 2,500 5 Knrope 38,400 104,200 175,500 53,000 21,300 1,579 United States . 18,200 50,900 42,300 44,200 451 Canada 1,400 4,200 3,500 1,700 47 Australia . 1,900 13,300 121,200 1,100 — 120 Argentina . 4,400 ^,900 80,200 300 — 51 Total . 64,300 195,500 422,700 100.300 21,300 2,248 No. XIII. — Production of Heat. Tons Yearly. Lbs Beef. Mutton. Pork. Tot.-U. Inhab. United Kingdom 590,000 320,000 190,000 1,100,000 63 France 700,000 210,000 380,000 1,200,000 67 Germany . 880,000 150 000 490,000 1,320,000 68 Russia 1,380,000 480,000 430,000 2,290,000 50 Austria 710,000 140,000 360,000 1,210,000 62 Italy . . . . 250,000 70,000 70,000 390,000 30 Spain 100,000 260,000 70,000 430,000 56 Portugal . 30,000 30,000 40,000 100,000 48 Sweden and Norway , 170,000 28,000 32,000 230,000 73 Denmark . 85,000 10,000 35,000 130,000 130 Holland . 80,000 10,000 40,000 130,000 60 Belgium . 75,000 5,000 30,000 110,000 89 Switzerland 60,000 5,000 15,000 80,000 57 Danub. States . 175,000 150,000 75,000 400,000 78 Greece 20,000 40,000 — 60,000 60 Europe 5,305,000 1,908,000 2,167,000 9,380,000 67 United States . 2,410,000 370,000 2,050,000 4,830,000 160 Canada 210,000 35,000 65,000 310,000 140 Australia . 290,000 260,000 20,000 570,000 315 Total 8,215,000 2,573,000 4,302,000 15,090.000 75 COMPARATIVE TABLES 383 No. XIY.— Value of Products Yearly. Millions £ Sterling. Grain. Sreon Crops. Meat. Dairy. Sundries. Total. United Kingdom 50 130 76 154 55 56 33 46 16 30 230 416 Germany . 109 258 153 112 63 87 60 45 32 38 417 540 120 90 51 37 21 319 Italy . Spain . Portugal . 53 88 20 20 23 204 39 5 55 13 20 4 12 2 9 2 135 26 Sweden and Norway 15 8 11 8 4 46 Denmark . 12 7 6 8 2 35 Holland 6 12 6 10 2 36 Belgium . 12 17 5 8 2 44 Switzerland 2 7 4 6 1 20 Danub. States . 38 19 16 6 4 83 Greece 2 7 3 1 1 14 Europe 851 818 407 302 187 2,565 United States . 217 269 163 87 77 813 Canada 21 12 11 9 4 by Australia . 10 12 8 7 33 70 Argentina . 15 9 10 1 11 46 Total 1,U4 i;i20 599 406 312 3,551 No. XV. — Product per Acre, Value. Shillings Acres, Millions. Millions £ Sterling. Per Acre. ' All' All ' All' Tillage. Farms. Tillage. Products. Tillage. Farms. United Kingdom 20-1 47-9 126 230 126 96 France 66-9 90-0 284 416 84 92 Germany . 65-2 86-9 262 417 81 96 Eussia 255-0 589-0 370 540 29 18 Austria 52-3 85-4 210 319 80 75 Italy . . . 38-2 53-0 141 204 74 77 Spain . 32-2 53-2 94 135 59 51 Portugal . 3-9 11-6 18 26 92 45 Sweden and Norway 9 161 23 46 51 61 Denmark . 4-5 7-1 19 35 84 99 Holland . 2-3 5-1 18 36 156 141 Belgium 3-7 5-5 29 44 156 160 Switzerland 1-3 5-2 9 20 138 77 Danub. States . 23-1 44-0 57 83 49 38 Greece 2-3 8-2 9 14 78 58 34 Europe 580-0 1,107-2 1,669 2,565 47 United States . 225-5 358-0 486 813 43 45 Canada 19-9 35-2 33 57 33 32 Australia . 16-2 818-2 22 70 28 2 Total 841-6 2,318-6 2,210 3,505 53 30 384 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS No. XVI. — Agricultural Capital. V-alue, Millions £ Sterling. £ Sterling. Land. Cattle. Sundriea. TotaL Per Acre. Per Hand. United Kingdom 1,686 202 189 2,077 43 823 France 2,580 232 281 3,093 34 430 Germany . 1,977 303 228 2,508 29 268 Russia 2,113 350 247 2,710 5 79 Austria . 1,473 161 163 1,797 21 138 Italy 1,180 92 127 1,399 27 204 Spain 1,056 46 110 1,212 23 297 Portugal . 138 11 15 164 14 190 Sweden and Norway 212 41 25 278 18 198 Denmark . 205 26 23 254 39 635 Holland . 240 28 27 295 38 640 Belgium . 300 22 32 354 63 492 Switzerland 138 18 16 172 32 350 Danub. States . 420 42 46 508 12 137 Greece 94 5 10 109 14 15 165 Europe . 13,812 1,579 1,539 16,930 196 United States . 3,314 451 377 4,142 12 385 Canada . 230 47 28 305 9 268 Australia . 236 120 36 392 9 890 Total 17,592 2,197 1,980 21,769 220 No. XVII. — Production of Food. Tons (OOO's omlttted). Wine, Total, Mimon Equivalent Grain. Potatoes. Meat. Gallons. Tods Grain. United Kingdom 7,520 6,100 1,100 — 18,400,000 France . 18,100 12,800 1,200 880 40,800,000 Germany , 17,040 31,800 1,520 80 40,600,000 Kuasia 53,000 14,100 2,290 70 76,700,000 Austria . 19,500 10,000 1,210 112 33,630,000 Italy 6,700 750 390 730 17,330,000 Spain 5,S00 1,500 430 596 15,700,000 Portugal . 7.-1O 270 100 SO 2,4;W,000 Sweden and Norway 3,200 2,100 230 — 5,740,000 Denmark 2,100 450 130 — 3,290,000 Holland . 1,020 2,250 130 — 2,810,000 Belgium . 1,850 3,000 110 — 3,930,000 Switzerland . 250 1,200 80 22 1,510,000 Danub. States 6,950 — 400 180 11,950.000 Greece . 400 240 60 36 1,320,000 Europe . 144,180 87,160 9,380 2,786 276,140,000 United States . 89,400 7,480 4,830 30 130,8;W,000 Canada . 5,020 1,200 310 — 7,900,000 Australia 1,650 600 670 4 6,450,000 Argentina 3,100 — 410 15 6,550,000 Total . . 243,350 96,440 15,500 2,835 427,870,000 (Grain includes what is used for the people and also for cattle.) COMPARATIVE TABLES 385 No. XVIII. — Vcdue of Food Produced for Human, Use. Millions fi Sterling. Dairy. Sundries Graiu. Meat. Liquor. Total United Kingdom . 25 88 65 56 85 71 33 46 48 57 243 318 Germany 83 175 63 87 70 22 60 46 95 91 371 420 Austria 80 51 29 37 64 261 Italy . Spain . Portugal Sweden and Norway 42 20 38 20 40 160 22 20 37 12 14 105 5 10 4 11 7 5 2 8 6 7 24 41 Denmark 5 6 2 8 2 23 Holland 4 6 5 10 7 32 Belgium 8 5 12 8 5 38 Switzerland . 2 4 2 6 2 16 Danub. States . 26 16 7 6 3 58 Greece . 2 . 577 3 407 2 394 1 302 2 440 10 Europe . 2,120 United States 97 . 674 163 570 61 455 87 389 127 567 635 Total . 2.655 No. XIX. — Value of Food Consumed. Millions £ Sterling Shillings, per Inhab Grain. Meat. Liquor Dairy. S iin dries Total. United Kingdom 61 91 92 55 82 381 194 France 95 62 66 44 73 340 176 Germany . 102 72 71 62 99 406 158 UuBsia 151 86 23 43 91 394 74 Austria . 76 45 28 36 69 244 114 Italy . . . 45 18 36 20 38 167 104 Spain 25 20 33 12 13 103 114 Portugal . 6 4 5 2 6 23 96 Sweden and Norway 14 11 5 6 7 43 122 Denmark . 6 3 2 3 2 16 144 Holland . 13 6 5 5 9 38 160 Belgium . 15 7 13 9 7 61 164 Switzerland 4 5 3 4 5 21 140 Danub. States . 17 16 6 6 5 60 87 Greece 2 632 3 449 1 389 1 308 3 499 10 90 Europe 2,277 124 United States . . 90 722 129 578 63 452 85 393 158 657 525 150 Total . 2,802 126 2 B 386 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS No. XX. — Vahie of Manufactures Produced. MiUions £ SterUng. Tex- Hard- Cloth- Sun- £per tiles. ware. Leather : Food. mg. dries. Total. Inbab. United Kingdom I'Jl 142 59 127 84 273 876 22 France 115 47 45 113 69 207 596 15 Germany . 108 105 66 135 69 207 690 13 liussia 76 15 57 59 57 116 380 4 Austria 56 19 40 81 39 93 328 8 Italy . 37 4 16 52 23 58 190 6 Spain . 19 5 14 34 14 35 121 7 Sweden and ) Norway ) ' 8 7 8 14 7 18 62 9 Holland . 8 1 5 13 5 17 49 11 Belgium 17 19 6 36 10 30 118 19 Switzerland 12 2 3 7 5 12 41 14 Other States 11 658 3 369 17 336 35 15 397 34 115 6 Europe 706 1,100 3,566 10 United States 161 229 106 329 111 1,016 1,952 2s Colonies 7 826 5 603 8 450 43 19 527 76 158 17 Total 1,078 2,192 5,676 12 No. XXI. — Production of Textiles. Value £ Sterling (OOO's omitted). Cottons. Woollens. Silks. Linens, &c Total. United Kingdom 92,100 61,700 6,000 31,400 191,200 France . 22,400 44,700 28,200 19,800 115,100 Germany 35,400 42,200 16.500 14,100 108,200 Russia . 20,400 29,000 3,200 23,900 76,500 Austria . 18,400 14,500 4,500 18,300 55,700 Italy 12,900 5,800 9,000 9,200 36,900 Spain 8,800 6,600 900 3,100 19,400 Scandinavia . 3,300 4,200 — 1,600 9,100 Holland . 4,600 2,100 — 1,300 8,000 Belgium . 5,200 5,300 900 5,500 16,900 Switzerland 3,200 1,600 6,400 600 11,800 Other States 2,800 5,400 200 1,100 9,500 Europe . 229,500 223,100 110,800 129,900 658,300 United States 55,800 44,400 18,200 42,600 161,000 Colonies . 2,100 2,900 — 2,000 7,000 Total 287,400 270,400 94,000 174,500 826,300 COMPARATIVE TABLES 387 No. XXII. — Consumption of Ghief Manufactures. United KiDgdom 122 Millions £ Sterling. « , Hard- Textiles, ware. Leatlier. Total. France Germany . Russia Austria Italy . Spain . Scandinavia Belgium . Other States Europe United States Total 91 92 76 52 31 18 13 13 30 46 94 22 19 6 6 5 13 12 56 37 60 57 39 16 13 11 6 22 274 174 246 165 110 53 37 29 32 64 538 319 317 1,174 182 222 108 512 720 541 425 1,686 Shillings per Inhabitant. Hard- Textiles, ware. Leather. Total. 62 47 36 15 23 20 21 28 41 26 29 53 32 24 37 4 9 4 7 11 41 12 17 64 25 28 19 23 11 18 10 15 24 19 17 17 31 19 138 90 96 30 50 34 43 63 101 55 63 148 76 No. XXIII. — Consumption of Textiles. United Kingdom France . Germany Bussia . Austria . Italy . Spain . Belgium Other States Europe . United States Total . Cottons. 40,100 19,800 29,000 20,500 18,300 13,500 7,100 5,000 15,600 168,900 60,300 Value £ Sterling (OOO's omitted). Woollens. 45,000 36,000 39,800 29,400 14,100 7,100 6,900 5,500 18.600 202,400 48,500 Silks. 19,000 20,000 10,200 3,500 4,000 3,000 1,500 1,400 2,600 65,200 23,200 Linens, &c. 17,400 15,600 13,300 22,600 15,900 7,400 2,800 1,300 5,000 101,300 49,900 229,200 250,900 88,400 151,200 Total. 121,500 91,400 92,300 76,000 52,300 31,000 18,300 13,200 41,800 537,800 181,900 719,700 No. XXIV. — Production and Consumption of Hides. Production, Tons. Consumption, Tons. United Kingdom . France . Germany Russia . Austria Italy . Other States Europe . United States Canada Australia Argentina, &c. Total . Cow. 49,000 58,000 79,000 124,000 64,000 22,000 69,000 Sheep. 40,000 27,000 18,000 65,000 19,000 9,000 54,000 Pig, &c. 13,000 20,000 36,000 48,000 27,000 6,000 27,000 465,000 232,000 177,000 228,000 57,000 135,000 19,000 5,000 6,000 60,000 162,000 5,000 188,000 46,000 12,000 Total. 102,000 105,000 133,000 237,000 110,000 37,000 160,000 874,000 420,000 30,000 227,000 359 000 Hides. = Leather. 196,000= 118,000 150,000= 90,000 220,000= 132,000 190,000= 114,000 133,000= 80,000 53,000= 32,000 180,000= 107,000 1,122,000= 673,000 510,000= 306,000 40,000= 24,000 120,000= 72,000 118,000= 71,000 960,000 610,000 340,000 1,910,000 1 910,000=1,146,000 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS No. XXV. — Growth of Commerce. Total Imports, millions £. 167 643 1,441 Exports, millions £. 1830. 1860. 1894. 1830. 1860. 1894. United Kingdom 42 210 408 46 165 274 France 25 84 154 26 83 123 Germany . 22 65 198 24 65 148 Russia 10 22 56 12 26 68 Austria . 7 21 58 8 27 66 Italy 13 33 44 11 19 41 Spain 4 14 32 3 11 27 Scandinavia 4 13 50 4 12 39 Holland . 17 25 121 13 20 93 Belgium . — 21 63 — 19 52 Other States . 8 152 30 538 69 9 156 33 480 55 Europe 1,253 986 United States . 13 74 136 15 70 186 Canada 2 12 24 1 11 24 Australia . — 19 28 — 16 40 172 577 1,236 No. XXVl.— Internal Trade. Millions £ Sterling per Annum. Agri- Manu- Mining, "" £per culture. factures. &c Imports. Total. Inhab United Kingdom 230 876 87 417 1,610 41 France 416 596 85 154 1,201 31 Germany . 417 690 48 198 1,353 26 Russia 540 380 64 56 1,030 10 Austria . 319 328 28 58 733 18 Italy 204 190 8 44 446 15 Spain 135 121 8 32 296 17 Portugal . 26 29 2 8 65 14 Sweden and Norway 46 62 19 31 158 23 Denmark . 35 19 1 19 74 34 Holland . 36 49 1 121 207 43 Belgium . 44 118 11 63 236 37 Switzerland 20 41 1 35 97 32 Danub. Stiites . 83 57 5 22 167 15 Greece 14 10 1 309 4 29 13 Europe . 2,565 3,566 1,262 7,702 21 United States . 813 1,952 224 136 3,125 45 Canada . 57 98 26 24 205 39 Australia . 70 85 20 28 203 48 Argentina 46 40 — 19 105 26 Total 3,561 5,741 579 1,469 11,340 25- COMPARATIVE TABLES 389 No. XXVIl.—Bailways (1894). Mil lions. Millions £. Net Miles Proiit Open. Passengers. Goods, Tons. Capital. Receipts. on Cai United Kingdoir 20,910 912 325 985 84 3-8 France 24,970 337 97 663 55 3-5 Germany . 27,850 521 242 555 71 4-5 Eussia 23,100 55 79 349 35 4-2 Austria 18,320 199 215 371 32 3-2 Italy . 8,800 51 17 184 10 1-9 Scandinavia 8,060 33 18 54 5 2e Belgium . 2,820 97 45 75 8 4-2 Holland . 2,320 24 9 46 3 30 Switzerland 2,270 40 10 44 4 3-8 Other States 11,160 23 2,292 11 1,068 173 3,499 11 318 3-2 Europe 150,580 3-5 United States 180,000 541 638 2,260 223 3-2 Canada 16,000 14 21 186 10 1-6 Australia . 13,620 91 12 139 9 3 Cape Colony 2,840 8 1 28 3 5-0 India . 18,780 146 33 192 16 4-4 Spanish Americf I 28,880 24 8 324 21 2-5 Various 9,480 19 3,135 9 1,790 117 6,745 10 610 3 The World 420,180 31 No. XXVIII. — Traffic Returns of Railways. No. Carried per Mile. £ Sterlinpr per Mile. Goods Capital. ReceiptF Expenses. Proflf. geis. Tons.' United Kingdom 47,100 4,034 2,259 1,775 43,500 15,500 France . 27,300 2,195 1,253 942 13,000 3,900 Germany . 19,900 2,564 1,664 900 18,700 8,700 Eussia 15,100 1,610 970 640 2,400 3,400 Austria . 20,300 1,510 860 650 10,500 11,700 Italy . 20,900 1,265 858 407 5,800 1,900 Sweden and Norway 6,000 530 340 190 3,300 2,100 Denmark 10,000 940 750 190 9,100 3,000 Holland . 19,800 1,340 740 600 14,700 5,500 Belgium . 26,500 2,566 1,467 1,099 34,300 16,000 Switzerland . 19,400 1,857 1,107 750 17,600 4,400 Europe . 23,200 2,120 1,310 810 15,100 7,100 United States . 12,500 1,270 867 403 3,000 3,600 Canada . 11,600 610 428 182 900 1,3.50 Australia . 10,200 798 497 301 6,700 900 Cape Colony . 9,700 1,150 670 480 2,800 350 India 10,200 850 400 450 7,700 1,800 The World . 16,000 1,450 955 495 7,400 4,200 390 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS No. XXIX. — Groidh of Railways. Miles Open Capi tal, Mill ons £. £per 1850. 1870. 1894. 1860. 1870. 1894. (1894). United Kingdom 6,620 15,540 20,910 240 530 985 25 France 1,890 9,770 24,970 57 274 663 17 Germany . 3,640 11,730 27,850 61 204 555 11 Russia 310 7,100 23,100 5 119 349 3 Austria 9G0 5,950 18,320 20 120 371 9 Italy . 270 3,830 8,800 5 75 184 6 Spain . 80 3,200 6,710 1 51 108 6 Scandinavia 20 1,730 8,060 — 13 54 6 Belgium 550 1,800 2,820 13 43 75 12 Other States 130 2,650 9,040 2 47 155 6 Europe 14,470 63,300 150,580 404 1,476 3,499 10 United States 9,020 53,400 180,000 60 497 2,260 32 Colonies, &c. 60 11,.540 89,600 1 124 986 — Total 23,550 128,240 420,180 465 2,097 6,745 Total No. XXX. — -Growth of Sliipping. Tons Register. Carrying-Power. Flag. 1842. 1894. 1842. 1894. British . 2,.570,000 8,960,000 2,860,000 26,870,000 United States 2,180,000 4,680,000 2,770,000 11,250,000 French . 630,000 890,000 660,000 2.360,000 German . 550,000 1,550,000 580,000 4,220,000 Italian . 460,000 780,000 490,000 1,410,000 Spanish . 280,000 680,000 290,000 2,120,000 Scandinavian 620,000 2,380,000 630,000 4,060,000 Various . 2,090,000 2,965,000 2,200,000 6,320,000 9,380,000 22,885,000 10,480,000 58,610,000 No. XXXI.— Shipping in 1894. Tons Register. Flag- Steam. Sail. Total. Tons Carrying Power, British . 5,970,000 2,990,000 8,960,000 26,870,000 German . 890,000 660,000 1,5.50,000 4,220,000 French . 490,000 400,000 890,000 2,360,000 Norwegian 240,000 1,260,000 1,500,000 2,220,000 Spanish . 480,000 200,000 680,000 2,120,000 Russian . 240,000 510,000 750,000 1,470,000 Italian 210,000 570,000 780,000 1,410,000 Swedish . 180,000 370,000 550,000 1,090,000 Greek . 135,000 340,000 475,000 880,000 Dutch 180,000 110,000 290,000 830,000 Danish . 140,000 190,000 330,000 750,000 Austrian . 130,000 120,000 250,000 640,000 European 9,285,000 7,720,000 17,005,000 44,860,000 United States 2,190,000 2,490,000 4,680,000 11,250,000 Canadian . 250,000 580,000 830,000 1,580,000 Austr.alian 180,000 190,000 370,000 920,000 Total . 11 ,905,000 10,980,000 22,885,000 .58,610,000 COMPARATIVE TABLES 391 No. XXXII.- —Money of all Nations. Millions £ Sterling. rifilH Raf.io Qold. Silver. Paper. Total. Per Gent. United Kingdom 85 24 41 150 67 France 187 140 139 466 40 Germany . 132 45 61 238 65 Bnssia. 92 10 189* 291 32 Austria 26 25 68 119 22 Italy . 20 7 65* 92 22 Spain and Portugal 9 35 47 91 10 Soandinavia 7 3 13 23 30 Holland . 6 12 17 35 17 Belgium 12 10 18 40 30 Otlier States 8 8 13 29 27 Europe 684 319 671 1,.574 37 United States 130 131 243 504 26 Canada i 1 8 13 30 Australia . 29 1 4 34 85 The Bast . 56 205 41 302 19 Other States 18 51 110 179 10 Total 821 708 1,077 2,606 31 The above is exclusive of South American " shin-plasters " (£170,000,000). * Inconvertible notes, i.e. dishonest money. No. XXXIII — Earnings Millious £ Yearly. Agricul- Manufac- Com- House- Profes- ~^ £per ture. tures, &c. merce. rent. sions, &c Total. Inhab TJnited Kingdom 138 625 330 150 280 1,423 36 France 250 333 246 118 252 1,199 31-2 Germany . 250 393 277 92 272 1,284 24-7 Russia 324 244 211 47 178 1,004 9-5 Austria . 192 192 149 37 137 707 16-7 Italy . . 122 103 92 27 92 436 14-0 Spain 81 68 61 14 49 273 15-5 Portugal . 16 16 14 4 14 64 13-6 Sweden and Norway 28 50 33 8 23 142 20-6 Denmark . 21 11 14 4 10 60 27-3 Holland , 22 26 43 10 23 124 25-8 Belgium . 26 70 49 8 28 181 28-3 Switzerland 12 21 20 6 12 70 23-3 Danub. States . 50 33 32 7 25 147 12-9 Greece 8 6 6 2 6 28 12-5 Europe . 1,540 2,091 1,577 533 1,401 7,142 19-3 TJnited States . 488 1,200 640 267 521 3,116 44-0 Canada . 34 75 41 7 26 183 36-0 Australia . 42 62 41 21 49 215 61-2 Argentina 28 20 21 7 19 96 24-0 Total 2,132 3,448 2,320 836 2,016 10,751 23-0 The second column includes manufacturing, mining, forestry and fisheries; the third comprises trade and transport earnings ; tlie fifth domestic wages, professional earnings and public salaries. 392 INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OP NATIONS No. XXKIY.— Wealth (1895). Millions £ Sterling. " Rail- Merchan- ~^ Farms. ways, Houses. dise. Sundries. Total. United Kingdom 2,077 985 2,490 805 5,449 11,806 France 3,093 663 2,159 601 3,174 9,690 Germany . 2,508 555 1,755 677 2,557 8,052 Russia 2,710 349 1,019 515 1,832 6,425 Austria . 1,797 371 719 367 1,258 4,512 Italy 1,399 184 503 223 851 3,160 Spain 1,212 108 280 148 632 2,380 Portugal . 164 23 77 32 115 411 Sweden and Norwaj 278 40 152 80 240 790 Denmark 254 14 69 37 132 506 Holland . 295 46 178 104 257 880 Belgium . 354 75 175 118 266 988 Switzerland 172 44 91 49 136 492 Dannb. States . 508 36 136 83 263 1,026 Greece 109 6 31 15 61 222 Europe 16,930 3,499 9,834 3,854 17,223 51,340 United States . 4,142 2,260 4,446 1,563 3,939 16,350 Canada . 305 186 145 103 264 1,003 Australia . 392 139 174 88 283 1,076 Argentina 198 88 107 53 170 616 Total . 21,967 6,172 14,706 5,661 21,879 70,385 No. XXXV.- —Wealth per Inhabitant. £ sterling per Inhabitant. Percentage. United Kingdom France Germany . Russia Austria . Italy Spain Portugal . Sweden and Norway Denmark Holland . Belgium . Switzerland Danub. States Greece Europe . United States . Canada . Australia Argentina General Average Rural. 53 80 48 26 41 45 69 .35 40 115 61 56 57 44 60 45 59 60 93 40 48 Urban. 249 172 108 35 63 56 66 52 74 115 122 98 107 46 51 94 175 136 163 105 107 Real. 106 123 72 30 61 53 76 46 53 124 87 75 76 49 57 64 111 73 !)7 ,18 71 PersonaL 196 129 84 31 53 48 59 41 61 106 96 79 88 41 44 75 123 123 159 96 84 TotaL 302 252 156 61 104 101 135 87 114 230 183 154 164 90 101 139 234 196 256 154 155 Real. 35-4 48-8 46-3 48-8 48-6 53-2 56-1 52-4 46-0 54-1 47-5 48-1 46-5 541 56-3 460 47-3 37-4 38-1 38-4 46-0 Personal. 64-6 51-2 537 51-2 51-4 46 8 43-9 47-6 54 45-9 52-5 51-9 53-5 45-9 437 54-0 527 62-6 61-9 61-6 54 COMPARATIVE TABLES 393 No. XXXYL— Public Debts. United Kingdom France . Germany Eussia Austria . Italy Spain Portugal Sweden and N Denmark Holland . Belgium . Switzerland Danub. States Greece . Europe . United States Canada , Australia urway Millions £ Sterling £per Inhab. National. Local. Total. Real Debt. 629 230 859 859 22 1,220 180 1,400 1,370 35 604 — 604 117 2 703 — 703 495 5 655 — 555 324 8 505 48 653 423 14 293 — . 293 293 16 148 — 148 133 28 25 10 35 12 2 n — 11 1 — 92 20 112 90 19 88 — 88 30 5 13 — 13 13 4 67 — 67 33 3 33 1 489 34 33 15 4,986 5,476 4,226 12 188 237 425 425 6 64 5 69 67 13 210 30 240 107 26 Total . . 5,448 761 6,209 4,815 11 Where blanks occur the amount of municipal debt is unknown. Real debt is that which remains after deducting value of State railways. No. XXXVII. — Debt, Wealth, Taxes and Earnings per Head. £ per Inhabitant. " Net. Net Wealth. Debt. Wealth. Earnings. Taxes. Earnings. United Kingdom . . 302 22 280 36-0 3-1 32-9 France . . 252 36 216 31-2 3-7 27-5 Germany . 156 12 144 24-7 2-6 22-2 Eussia . 61 7 54 9-6 1-0 8-5 Austria 104 13 91 16-7 2-0 14-7 Italy . . 101 18 83 14 2-7 11-3 Spain . . 135 16 119 15-5 1-7 13-8 Portugal 87 31 56 136 1-8 11-8 Sweden and Norway . 114 5 109 20-6 1-5 191 Denmark . 230 5 225 27-3 2-2 25-1 Holland . 183 23 160 25-8 3-3 22-5 Belgium . 154 14 140 28-3 2-1 26-2 Switzerland . . 164 4 160 23-3 1-8 21-5 Danub. States 90 6 84 12-9 1-3 11-6 Greece . . 101 16 86 12-3 1-8 10-5 Europe . . 139 15 124 19-3 2 1 17-2 United States . 234 6 228 44-0 2-5 41-5 Canada . 196 14 182 36 1-6 34-4 Australia . 256 57 199 51-2 2-5 48-7 General Average . . 155 14 141 23-6 2 '2 21-4 Debt ratio includes national and local, without any deduction for State railways or other assets. Taxes include all, national and local, but not the proceeds of Crown lands, post ofBce, or State railways. APPENDIX Population. — jThe birth and death rates for five years, 1888-92, gave the following averages per thousand inhabi- tants yearly : — Births. Deaths. Births. Deaths. England 307 19-5 Austria . 39-4 297 Scotland 30-9 197 Italy 37-3 26-5 Ireland 227 19-1 Spain . 29-6 25-4 France 22-5 22-2 Sweden . 277 167 Germany 37-8 25-2 Holland . . 330 20-2 Russia . 45-0 31-0 Belgium . 30-0 21-2 Eussia and Austria have the highest rates both for births and deaths, while France and Ireland stand lowest for births, Sweden and Ireland for deaths. The number of legitimate children born to 100 marriages in 1888-92 was : — Russia Ireland 531 492 Holland Italy 457 451 I Germany . I England , 420 389 Belgium Prance 369 284 If we compare the total number of births with that of marriages at two periods we find : — England France Germany Austria Hungary Births ■per 100 Marriages. 1860-80. 1888-92. 407 304 406 310 Italy . Holland . 439 456 Belgium 419 486 Sweden 404 484 Denmark . 1860-80. 440 422 408 414 360 1888-91 489 472 405 474 446 England and Belgium show a decline, all the others a rising ratio. The proportions of married and unmarried persons, per thousand inhabitants, are shown as follows (single including widowed) :- Single. MiuTied. Single. Marriecl. England . . 663 337 XS. States . 644 356 Scotland . . 703 297 France 598 402 Ireland . 736 264 Italy 648 352 Prussia . 660 340 Belgium . 683 317 Scandinavia . 670 330 Spain 640 360 APPENDIX 395 The working-age being taken as from fifteen to sixty years we may divide population into workers and non-workers thus, per 1000 inhabitants : — r— Non- Non- Workers, workers. Workers, workers. France . 608 392 United States . 575 425 Sweden . 597 403 Belgium . . 566 434 Italy . . 595 405 Germany . . 564 436 Austria . 584 416 United Kingdom 557 443 The number of females to 1000 males in various countries is — England . 1,064 France . 1,014 Austria . 1,032 U. States 953 Scotland . 1,072 Germany 1,038 Italy . 995 Canada . 965 Ireland . 1,028 Russia . 1,012 Belgium 1,006 Australia . 866 Steam. — "Steam-power enables 1 man to do as much work as 120 in the last century. .1 bushel of coal, value 3 pence, will raise 20,000 gallons of water from a depth of 350 feet in a few minutes, which would take 20 men 10 hours to raise with a pump, at a [_cost of 40 shillings. Steam does for £1 what would cost £160 by hand." — Quart. Revieio. Grain. — The production of grain has increased 31 per cent, in the last twenty years, as appears when we compare the average crops of the world for 1892-95 with Neumann Spallart's table for the decade 1871-80 :— Tons of Grain Yearly, Wheat Barley Oats Maize Kye Total . Exports of Wheat- foUows, in tons : — From United States Russia . River Plate India . Roumania Canada Austria Total 1871-80. 48,600,000 19,400,000 46,700,000 38,400,000 39,200,000 1892-95. 50,300,000 41,300,000 61,500,000 55,500,000 42,600,000 . 192,300,000 251,200,000 -The annual shipments averaged as 1876-80. 2,910,000 1,820,000 30,000 180,000 430,000 110,000 290,000 1881-90. 3,120,000 2,250,000 140,000 850,000 525,000 115,000 380,000 1891-95. 4,470,000 2,000,000 1,040,000 800,000 730,000 240,000 150,000 5,770,000 7,380,000 9,430,000 396 APPENDIX Cattle. — The live-stock of Europe, as given by Malchus, in 1826 was as follows (OOO's omitted) :— Horses. Cattle. Sheep. Kgs. United Kingdom 1,900 10,500 44,100 5,300 France . 2,550 6,700 35,200 4,000 Germany 2,440 9,970 17,300 4,500 Russia . 12,000 19,000 36,000 15,800 Austria . 1,900 9,900 12,000 5,500 Italy . 1,600 3,500 6,500 2,500 Spain . 1,600 2,500 13,000 1,000 Portugal 540 650 1,200 700 Scandinavia . 1,250 4,200 3,500 1,550 Low Countries 570 2,500 1,200 1,400 Switzerland . 100 800 500 250 Europe . . . 26,400 70,300 170,600 J3,000 Wool-clip. — The world's clip is now nearly 1,100,000 tons, as compared with 270,000 tons in 1826. The annual pro- duction in 1893-95 and its equivalent in washed wool were : — Europe . United States . River Plate Tons. Washed. 351,000 = 211,000 135,000 = 101,000 154,000= 53,000 Australia Cape Colony . The East, &c. . Tons. Washed. 305,000 = 168,000 43,000= 32,000 98,000= 59,000 making up 1,086,000 unwashed, or 624,000 tons washed. Production of Fibre. — For the whole world see p. 30. production in Europe is as follows, in tons : — The Wool. Flax, iteo. Total. United Kingdom . . 66,000 14,000 80,000 France . . 37,000 53,000 90,000 Germany . 25,000 55,000 80,000 Russia . . 106,000 474,000 580,000 Austria . 25,000 115,000 140,000 Other States . 92,000 43,000 135,000 Europe . . . 351,000 754,000 1,105,000 Cotton. — According to Ellison the consumption was : — Tons Yeai-ly. IS(!r-T'2. 1879-34. 1894. Great Britain . 473,000 618,000 730,000 Continent . 310,000 542,000 852,000 United States . 183,000 377,000 505,000 India . 53,000 1,690,000 203,000 Total . . 'J6d,000 2,290,000 APPENDIX 397 Iron and Steel. — Bessemer's and like inventions have had the effect of producing steel at one-eighth of the previous cost: steel plates fell from £40 a ton in 1860 to £5 in 1894, and steel rails are now at 70 shillings a ton, as compared with JU in 1870. So late as 1870 the question of iron versus wooden ships was debated at the Iron and Steel Institute, but so rapidly did iron assert itself that in 1879 the new vessels launched in the United Kingdom were 88 per cent, iron, 12 per cent, wooden. In 1893 the proportion was 96 per cent, steel, 4 per cent, of iron or wood. Freight. — The ordinary cost of sending a ton of goods 100 miles is : by sea 6 pence, by canal 2 shillings, by railway 8 shillings, by highroad 30 shillings. Railway rates per ton 100 miles are approximately as follows : — Pence. Pence. Pence. Pence. U. States . 42 I Germany . 80 I G.Britain 88 I Italy . . 110 Belgium . 80 | France. . 85 | Austria . 100 | Ireland . 120 At a meeting of the Royal Statistical Society, London, on June 16th, 1896, Mr. Price Williams showed tables to the effect that the London and North-Western Railway tariff averaged 88 pence a ton per 100 miles for merchandise, and 42 pence for minerals. Sir 0. Boyle and Mr. Jeans con- sidered that the ordinary goods charges by rail were much higher. If we adopt the above figures of Mr. Price Williams it follows that the mean haulage in Great Britain is 55 miles, and the daily goods traffic of the United Kingdom 50,000,000 ton-miles, i.e., half a million tons carried 100 miles. There has been a notable reduction of freight charges by land and water in the last twenty years : the freight on a ton of grain from Chicago to Liverpool is now 16 shillings, as compared with 67 shillings in 1873. The average goods tariff by rail in the United States for carrying a ton 100 miles has been as follows : — Year. Pence. Year. Pence. 1870 . , . . 141 I 1885 .... 53 1880 .... 68 1893 .... 42 Missing Page Missing Page 400 APPENDIX Production of Gold since 1850. ?aIuo, £ Stei ■ling (OOO's ( imitted). Bquiv. Tons of Gold Year. V. States. Australia. Russia. Various. Total. 1851 . , 11,600 1,400 3,600 2,200 18,800 134 1852 . . 12,700 12,200 3,600 2,200 30,700 220 1853 . 13,700 13,000 3,400 2,200 32,300 231 1854 . . 12,700 9,600 3,400 2,200 27,900 199 1855 , , 11,600 12,000 3,500 2,200 29,300 209 1856 11,600 13,200 3,500 2,300 30,600 219 1857 . 11,500 11,600 3,900 2,300 29,300 209 1858 . 10,600 12,100 3,900 2,300 28,900 206 1859 . 10,500 12,200 3,600 2,300 28,600 204 1860 . 9,800 11,200 3,600 2,300 26,900 192 1861 . 9,000 11,000 3,500 2,400 25,900 185 1862 . 8,200 11,300 3,500 2,400 25,400 181 1863 . 8,400 11,400 3,300 2,400 25,500 182 1864 . 9,700 10,000 3,400 2,400 25,500 182 1865 . 11,200 10,300 3,400 2,400 27,300 195 1866 , . 11,200 10,400 4,100 2,300 28,000 200 1867 . . 10,900 9,900 4,100 2,300 27,200 194 1868 . . 10,100 10,400 4,200 2,300 27,000 193 1869 , , 10,400 9,700 4,300 2,300 26,700 191 1870 . , 10,400 8,500 4,300 2,300 25,600 182 1871 . 9,700 9,900 4,400 2,500 26,500 189 1872 . 8,200 9,000 4,700 2,600 24,500 176 1873 . 8,200 8,400 4,800 2,700 24,100 172 1874 . 7,700 7,200 4,800 2,800 22,500 161 1875 , . 7,700 6,900 4,800 3,000 22,400 160 1876 . 8,400 6,900 4,700 3,200 23,200 166 1877 . . 9,900 6,300 5,700 3,200 25,100 179 1878 10,700 6,100 5,900 3,300 26,000 186 1879 , 8,200 6,100 5,900 3,200 23,400 167 1880 , , 7,600 6,300 5,700 3,300 22,900 163 1881 . 7,300 6,400 4,700 4,000 22,400 160 1882 , . 6,900 6,200 4,600 3,800 21,500 154 1883 , . 6,300 5,600 4,600 4,300 20,800 149 1884 , . 6,500 6,000 4,600 4,700 21,800 15« 1885 6,700 5,800 4,200 5,100 21,800 156 1886 , 7,400 6,600 4,200 5,200 22,400 160 1887 . 7,000 5,800 4,200 5,100 22,100 158 1888 . 7,000 6,000 4,500 5,500 23,000 164 1889 . 6,900 7,000 4,900 5,800 24,600 176 1890 . 6,900 6,400 4,700 6,800 24,800 177 1891 . 6,600 6,600 4,700 7,500 25,400 181 1892 . 6,400 7,200 4,800 9,200 27,600 197 1893 . 7,100 7,500 4,800 11,900 31,300 223 1894 . 8,200 8,700 5,700 15,100 37,700 270 44 years 399,800 375,300 190,700 170,000 1,136,300 8,107 APPENDIX 401 Production of Silvm Tons. since 1850. — South United ^ Value, Period. Mexico. America. States. Various. Total. £ Sterling. 1861-65 2,330 1,090 40 970 4,430 40,300,000 1866-60 2,240 950 30 1,300 4,520 41,100,000 1861-65 2,360 950 870 1,330 5,510 50,100,000 1866-70 2,600 1,160 1,5:0 1,440 6,700 60,300,000 1871-75 3,010 1,870 2,820 2,150 9,850 86,900,000 1876-80 3,280 1,750 4,900 2,320 12,250 95,800,000 1881-85 3,760 1,820 5,690 2,770 14,040 106,300,000 1886-90 4,730 2,100 7,640 3,180 17,650 117,000,000 1891-9i 0,520 1,720 6,790 30,290 4,490 18,620 103,200,000 a year 3 29,830 13,400 19,950 93,470 701,000,000 The value of silver, as stated above, is according to London market price in each period. The tables are Soetbeer's dowu to 1890, and from the Australian and United States Mint Reports since. The production of gold has now reached 280 tons, or £39,000,000 yearly, being 49 tons more than the greatest previous yield on record. The new gold-fields of the Band, South Africa, first came into notice in 1888, and have since yielded £33,000,000, their annual product now reaching £8,000,000. The product of precious metals in forty-four 44 years 218-2 333-6 149-2 701-0 '°^"- jrold. Millions £. Equivalent Period. U. States. Australia Russia. Various Total. Tons. 1861-60 . 116-3 108-5 36-0 22-5 283-3 2,023 1861-70 . 99-5 102-9 38-1 23-5 264-0 1,885 1871-80 86-3 73-1 51-4 29-8 240-6 1,718 1881-90 . 68-9 60-8 45-2 50-3 225-2 1,610 1891-94 28-3 30-0 20-0 43-9 122-2 871 44 years 399-3 375-3 190-7 170-0 1,135-3 8,107 Silver, Millions £. United Spanish " Period. States. America. Various. Total. Tons. 1851-60 0-6 60-2 20-6 81-4 8,950 1861-70 . . 21-4 63-6 25-4 110-4 12,210 1871-80 . . 64-3 81-9 36-5 182-7 22,100 1881-90 . . 93-9 87-5 41-9 223-3 31,690 1891-94 . . 380 40-4 24-8 103-2 18,520 93,470 402 APPENDIX The price of silver, and its relative value compared with gold have been : — Pence Oz. to Pence Oz. to Tears. per Oz. 1 Oz. Gold Tear. per Oz. 1 Oz. Gold. 1841-50 . 60'5 15-5 1890 . . 47-7 19-6 1851-60 . 61-5 15-2 1891 . . 45-0 20-8 1861-70 . 60-8 15-4 1892 . . 39-8 23-5 1871-75 . 59-2 15-8 1893 . 35-6 26-3 1876-80 . 52-5 17-8 1894 . . 29-0 32-3 1881-90 . 47-6 19-6 1895 . . 29-9 31-3 Sea-borne Specie. — The amounts sent over sea in thirty- four years were : — Period. 1861-70 1871-80 1881-94 34 years 1861-70 1871-80 1881-94 34 years 484 Gold Imported, MUlioils £. Britain. France. tr. states. Various. Total. 171 189 31 121 512 180 151 42 131 504 241 163 99 245 738 592 493 172 Exported. 497 1,754 112 119 113 168 512 172 90 74 168 504 200 115 116 307 738 324 303 643 1,754 1861-70 1871-80 1881-94 34 years 1861-70 1871-80 1881-94 34 years 352 Silver Imported, Millions £. 93 132 129 92 111 101 12 18 43 277 166 163 474 427 436 354 304 73 Exported, 606 1,337 91 119 142 78 48 84 22 73 84 283 187 126 474 427 436 210 179 596 1,337 Period. 1861-70 1871-80 1881-94 34 years 1861-70 1871-80 1881-94 34 years APPENDIX Total, Bullion Im ports. Various. 398 297 408 G. Britain. France. . 264 281 . 312 262 . 370 254 U. States. 43 60 142 Total 986 931 1,174 . 946 797 245 Exports. 1,103 3,091 . 203 . 291 . 342 197 138 199 135 147 200 451 355 433 986 931 1,174 836 534 482 1,239 403 3,091 UNITED KINGDOM Population. — Between 1821 and 1894 the aggregate popu- lation of ten principal cities of the United Kingdom rose 270 per cent., while the rest of the population increased only 62 per cent. The cities showed as follows : — 1821. 1861. 1894. London . 1,275,000 2,804,000 4,350,000 Manchester . 134,000 441,000 726,000 Glasgow . . 147,000 395,000 687,000 Liverpool . . 119,000 444,000 613,000 Birmingham 107,000 296,000 492,000 Leeds 84,000 207,000 389,000 Sheffield . 42,000 185,000 338,000 Dublin 227,000 305,000 362,000 Belfast . 37,000 121,000 274,000 Edinburgh 138,000 202,000 271,000 10 cities . 2,310,000 6,400,000 8,502,000 Occupations — -The occupations of the people in 1891 were :- England. Scotland. Ireland. U. Kingdom Agriculture 1,337,000 249,000 941,000 2,527,000 Manufactures . 7,336,000 1,033,000 657,000 9,026,000 Trade . 1,400,000 181,000 95,000 1,676,000 Professions 926,000 111,000 208,000 1,245,000 Domestics 1,901,000 203,000 288,000 2,342,000 Total . 12,900,000 1,777,000 2,139,000 ( " Manufactures " includes also mining.) 16,816,000 404 APPENDIX Steam-power. — This has grown six- fold since 1860, horse- power showing approximately as follows : — Year. Fixed. Locomotives. Steamboats. Total. 1860 . 700,000 1,100,000 350,000 2,150,000 1880 . . 2,000,000 3,300,000 2,510,000 7,810,000 1896 . . 2,200,000 4,800,000 5,740,000 12,740,000 The allotment among the three kingdoms, at page 61, is in this manner : fixed, according to the ratios of factory opera- tives; railway, according to gross earnings J steamboat, accord- ing to registered tonnage in each kingdom. Agriculture. — The returns for 1895 showed the productive area, in acres, thus : — Wheat Barley Oats . Rye, &c. England. . 1,385,000 . 1,960,000 . 2,30.5,000 495,000 Scotland. 35,000 215,000 1,010,000 20,000 Ireland. 35,000 170,000 1,215,000 20,000 U. Kingdom. 1,455,000 2,345,000 4,530,000 535,000 All grain . . 6,146,000 1,280,000 1,440,000 8,865,000 Potatoes Turnips Vetches, &c. 415,000 . 1,445,000 . 750,000 136,000 480,000 25,000 710,000 316,000 125,000 1,260,000 2,240,000 900,000 Green crops . 2,610,000 640,000 1,675,000 isjooo 1,150,000 1,285,000 100,000 16,000 4,400,000 Grasses Flax . Fruit, &o. . . 3,200,000 595,000 . 12,550,000 . 16,255,000 6,060,000 100,000 626,000 Under crops Pasture 3,510,000 1,385,000 3,990,000 11,190,000 20,060,000 27,830,000 Total cultivated . 27,805,000 4,895,000 15,180,000 47,880,000 The returns for 1896 show that the area under grain is 235,000 acres less than the above figures for 1895. The pro- ductive area is now 3,000,000 acres more than in M'Culloch's time (1846), viz. : — England Scotland Ireland Total lS-46. 26,270,000 4,400,000 15,200,000 44,870,000 1S95. 27,805,000 4,896,000 15,180,000 47,880,000 APPENDIX 405 M'Cullooh's estimate of rural products in 1846 was as follows : — £ Sterling (OOO'a omitted). Grain , , Green crops Hay and straw Meat . Dairy . Sundries Total . England. Scotland. Ireland. U. Kingdom . 51,800 9,700 15,500 77,000 . 28,700 5,300 7,600 41,600 . 13,000 2,400 3,600 19,000 . 26,000 6,300 14,200 46,500 . 13,400 2,400 3,600 19,400 . 9,100 1,900 3,500 14,500 142,000 28,000 48,000 218,000 Caird's estimate for the United Kingdom in 1878 amounted to 261 millions sterling, including 87 for grain, 39 for sundries, and 135 millions for pastoral products. Harris's estimate of crops and value of cattle in 1894 was ; — £ No. £ Wheat . . 8,510,000 Horses . 2,060,000 39,200,000 Oats . . 15,800,000 Cattle . 11,210,000 108,500,000 Barley, &o. . 13,840,000 Sheep . 31,770,000 40,600,000 Straw . 12,230,000 Pigs . 3,280,000 4,900,000 Green crops . 44,800,000 Asses . 1,000,000 Hay . . 33,520,000 Poultry. Total . 3,000,000 Total . . 128,700,000 197,200,000 The value of products compared with the number of hands in 1846 and 1894 was as follows : — Product, Hands. Millions £. £ per Hand. 1846. 1894. 1846. 1894. 1846. 1894 England . . 1,760,000 1,337,000 142 147 81 110 Scotland . 299,000 249,000 28 28 93 112 Ireland . . 1,460,000 941,000 48 65 33 58 218 230 62 91 U. Kingdom . 3,519,000 2,527,000 Estates and Farms. — There are 19,000 estates and over a million farms in the United Kingdom : — Estates, Farms, Acres Number. Acres. Number. Acres. per Farm. England . 10,070 22,010,000 463,000 27,880,000 60 Scotland . 2,710 18,160,000 80,000 4,890,000 60 Ireland . 6,495 17,720,000 515,000 15,110,000 30 TJ. Kingdom 19,275 57,890,000 1,048,000 47,880,000 46 4o6 APPENDIX The assessed rental compares with what it was fifty years ago thus : — England . Scotland . Ireland . 1846, £. 40,200,000 5,600,000 8,630,000 1894, £. 40,060,000 6,250,000 9,890,000 United Kingdom . . 54,430,000 56,200,000 The Land Commissioners in Ireland in the last fifteen years have cut down half the rents of the kingdom by 20 per cent, and left the other half unreformed. The following table shows the reformed and unreformed in each province in 1895 : — Reformed, £. Valuation of Unre- formed, £. Old Bent. Judicial. Total, £. Ulster . 1,910,000 1,540,000 1,270,000 2,810,000 Leinster 1,620,000 1,290,000 1,930,000 3,220,000 Connaught . 760,000 600,000 680,000 1,280,000 Munster 1,690,000 1,310,000 1,610,000 2,920,000 Total . 5,980,000 4,740,000 5,490,000 10,230,000 The unreformed rents are known to be at least 10 per cent, over the above official (Griffith's) valuation. Hence the real land rental of Ireland is £10,800,000. Land-taxes. — The taxes that fall on farmers have risen 70 per cent, since 1846, viz. : — JiugUud, £. Scotland, £. Ireland, £. U. Kingdom, £. Tithes . . 3,010,000 3,010,000 Rates . . 3,900,000 550,000 850,000 5,300,000 Income-tax 1,200,000 200,000 1,400,000 Land-tax 950,000 50,000 1,000,000 Stamps, &o. . 1,100,000 150,000 250,000 1,500,000 Total . 10,160,000 950,000 1,100,000 1890. 12,210,000 England, £. Scotland, £. Ireland, £. U. Kingdom, £. Tithes . . 4,050,000 4,050,000 Rates . 8,300,000 1,400,000 2,100,000 11,800,000 Income-tax . 1,200,000 200,000 250,000 1,650,000 Land-tax 1,050,000 50,000 1,100,000 Stamps, &c. . 1,600,000 250,000 350,000 2,200,000 Total . 16,200,000 1,900,000 2,700,000 20,800,000 APPENDIX 407 Value of Land. — In April 1889 the Times published a record of all landed estates (over 30 acres) sold by auction at London, situate in England and Wales, from 1780 to 1880, which sum up thus :- Rent per Price per Period. Acres. Rental, £. Price, £. Acre, SMI. Acre, £. 1781-1800 72,000 76,000 2,430,000 21 338 1801-1820 136,000 152,000 4,920,000 22 36-2 1821-1840 246,000 221,000 5,830,000 18 23'7 1841-1860 189,000 261,000 6,880,000 28 36-4 1861-1870 122,000 153,000 5,250,000 25 430 1871-1880 109,000 163,000 5,590,000 30 23 51-3 100 years 874,000 1,026,000 30,900,000 351 Food-supply. — The importations of grain in thirty-five years have been : — Tons (000 s omitted). Period. Wheat. Barley. Oats. Maize, &c. Total. 1861-70 18,000 3,500 3,800 7,500 32,800 1871-80 28,500 5,700 6,200 16,500 56,900 1881-90 38,500 7,800 7,000 18,200 71,500 1891-95 24,000 5,500 3,800 10,100 43,400 35 years . 109,000 22,500 20,800 58,100 204,600 The consumption of wheat in the United Kingdom, per inhabitant, rose steadily till 1880, and has since declined, viz. : — ' Pounds Wheat yearly per Head. ^ -^ ^ Price, Period. Native. Imported. Total. £ per Ton. 1881-50 ... 255 32 287 13-8 1851-60 . 1861-70 1871-80 1881-90 1891-95 218 93 311 13-6 201 134 335 12-8 165 213 378 12-8 120 260 380 9-0 78 282 360 7-0 The production of grain and meat in forty-five years has been : ^^^^ Yearly. Pounds per Inhab. Period. Grain. Meat. Grain. Meat. 1851-60 . 9,750,000 950,000 780 79 1861-70 . . 9,700,000 1,040,000 720 77 1871-80 . 8,500,000 1,050,000 570 71 1881-90 . . 7,820,000 1,080,000 470 65 1891-95 . . 7,580,000 1,100,000 440 63 4o8 APPENDIX Imports of meat from foreign countries have more than doubled in twenty years, the weight in tons being as follows : — 1876. 1885. 1895. Beef 100,000 182,000 258,000 Mutton 56,000 86,000 227,000 Bacon . 145,000 222,000 292,000 Lard . 27,000 44,000 67,000 Poultry . 16,000 18,000 Total . . 328,000 550,000 862,000 Beef and mutton include live cattle : oxen as 750 lbs., sheep 90 lbs., dead meat. Cattle. — The live-stock of the United Kingdom has increased much since 1846, viz. : — Year. Horses. Cattle. Sheep. Pigs. 1846 . 2,050,000 7,950,000 27,900,000 3,690,000 1896 . 2,110,000 10,900,000 30,800,000 4,280,000 The number of cows and sheep to 100 inhabitants in 1895 England. Scotland. Ireland. TJ. Kingdom. Cattle ... 17 25 95 28 Sheep . . 67 140 90 75 The number and value of cattle shipped from Ireland to Great Britain in 1894 were : — Horses. Cattle. Sheep. Pigs. Total. Number 34,000 827,000 958,000 587,000 Value, £ 340,000 8,270,000 1,440,000 1,170,000 11,220,000 Dairy. — There are 4,000,000 milch cows, which give an average of 350 gallons milk. The consumption is estimated thus, in millions of gallons : — Used as Howai-d. Tumbull. Bear. Sheldon. Mean. Milk . 570 5;i5 570 616 588 Butter . 564 450 616 540 542 Cheese . . 306 240 '^24 224 248 Total . 1,439 1,285 1,410 1,380 1,378 The mean of the above estimates shows an annual pro- duction of 90,000 tons of butter and 110,000 of cheese : each ton of butter takes 6000 gallons of milk, and each of cheese 2300 gallons. APPENDIX 409 Ganals. — A statement published in 1890 showed 3814 miles of navigable rivers and canals in the United Kingdom, of which the railway companies owned 1200 miles : total annual traffic, 34 million tons : estimated gross receipts, £1,700,000. House-property. — The rental of London is £40,000,000, having quadrupled in half a century : it was only £9,600,000 in 1841. There are 700,000 houses and 2100 miles of streets. Building sites in 1886 showed a maximum price of £29 per square foot, equal to £1,260,000 per acre. The house-property of London represents a value of 670 millions sterling, or £160 per inhabitant, against £218 per head in Paris. Textile Manufactures : 1851-1894. Value, Millions £ Sterling. ^ Total, Cottons — 1851-60. 1861-70. 1871-80. 1881-94. 44 years Make 562 830 1,020 1,486 3,898 Export 381 596 719 997 2,693 Home use . 181 234 301 489 1,205 WooUens — Make 366 508 555 753 2,182 Export 128 237 262 319 946 Home use . 238 271 293 434 1,236 safes- Make 173 146 108 113 540 Export 7 10 11 8 36 Home use . 166 136 97 105 504 Linens — Make 328 165 170 173 636 Export 57 95 82 88 322 Home use . 71 70 88 85 314 Jute and Hemp — Make 70 100 156 212 538 Export 11 16 33 47 107 Home use . 59 84 123 165 431 Total make 1,299 1,749 2,009 2,737 7,794 Export 584 954 1,107 1,459 4,104 Home use 715 n_ i 795 902 1,278 \ 3,690 (Silk exports were merely of yarn.) Woollens. — In a report dated 1886, Sir J. Behrens, of Bradford, valued the output of British woollen goods at £60,400,000 per annum. 410 Iron follows ; APPENDIX and Steel. — The output has Iron, Tons (OOO's omitted). Make. Export. Home. 32,500 12,200 20,500 47,400 18,700 28,700 65,500 24,200 41,300 102,400 34,700 67,700 been steel, approximately as Tons (OOO'B omitted). Period. 1851-60 . 1861-70 . 1871-80. 1881-93 . Make. 900 1,700 8,300 36,000 Export. 200 350 3,800 14,600 Home. 700 1,350 4,500 21,400 43 years . 247,800 89,800 158,000 46,900 18,950 27,950 Great Britain made 248 million tons of iron in forty-three years, of which 90 millions were exported : of the remainder 111 millions were used in iron manufactures, and 47 millions converted into steel. As regards the latter 28 million tons were used for manufactures and 19 millions exported. Copper, Lead, dse. — The output was approximately : — Copper, Tons (OOO's omitted). Lead, Tons (OOO's omitted). Period. Make. E.^cport. Home. Make. Export. Home. 1851-60 . 590 260 830 790 250 540 1861-70 . 910 460 450 1,070 890 680 1871-80 . 930 560 370 1,410 380 1,030 1881-93 . 1,760 810 950 2,150 580 1,570 43 years . 4,190 2,090 Tin. 2,100 5,420 1,600 Zinc. 8,820 1851-60 . 90 20 70 200 30 170 1861-70 . 130 40 90 220 60 160 1871-80 . 180 60 120 810 60 250 1881-9a . 280 70 210 830 110 720 43 years 680 190 490 1,560 260 1,300 Leather. — The output, export, and home consumption of leather wares were approximately : — • Millions £ Sterling. Period. 1851-60 . 1861-70 . 1871-80 . 1881-93 . Make. Export. Home Use. 330 18 812 410 23 387 450 35 415 720 52 668 43 years 1,910 128 1,782 APPENDIX 411 Liquor. — The consumption of spirits and beer in the United Kingdom per inhabitant were : — Gallons per Head. ^^ Year. Spirits. Beer. Year. Spirits. Beer. Year. Spirits. Beer. 1853 . I'lO 27-1 I 1870 . 101 32-8 I 1890 . 1-02 800 1860 . 0'93 25-8 | 1880 . 1'09 27'8 | 1895 . 1-00 29-7 As regards the consumption of spirits in the three king- doms official returns distinguish only what is home-made : if we allot what is imported in the ratio of tonnage entries the total consumption in 1895 will appear as follows : — Home-made. Imported. Total. Per Head. England . . 20,400,000 6,400,000 26,800,000 0-88 Scotland . . 6,500,000 1,000,000 7,500,000 1-80 Ireland . 4,200,000 600,000 4,800,000 I'OS U. Kingdom . 31,100,000 8,000,000 39,100,000 I'OO Newspapers. — "Sell's Press Directory" gives London circu- lation as 4,800,000 daily. The consumption of printing-paper (after deducting for books) indicates that the circulation of the three kingdoms, between dailies and weeklies, is about 42,000,000 weekly. In 1841 no daily paper was published in England outside London. The present circulation, say 174,000,000 papers monthly, is distributed at page 82 among the three kingdoms according to the ratio of letters passing through the Post Office. Shipping. — The ownership of vessels in 1894 was as follows, in tonnage : — ° Carrying- Tons per Steam. Sail. Total. power. 100 Inliab. England . 4,510.000 1,920,000 6,430,000 19,960,000 66 Scotland . 1,380,000 930,000 2,260,000 6,250,000 151 Ireland . 130,000 140,000 270,000 660,000 15 U. Kingdom 5,970,000 2,990,000 8,960,000 26,870,000 69 Tonnage entries in 1894 were as follows : — Tons per Sea-goin. Debt. British, 108. Copper, V. Hardware, Mining. manufactures, British, 80, 410. Cork forests, Portugal, 214. Corvde labour, 175. Cotton exports. United States, 428. imports. Great Britain, 89. manufactui'es, Austria, 179. Belgium, 253. France, 119. Germany, 141. Great Britain, 70, 409. Italy, 193. 438 INDEX Cotton manufactures, Russia, 162. Spain, 204. Sweden, 224. United States, 293. production, 30. Craigle on meat, 6. Creteld sillc industry, 142. Crisis, banking, in Australia, 345. Crops, all, value of, 23, 383. of grain, 381. Currant crop, Greece, 276. Currents of trade, 41, 90. Customs, V. Finance. — British, 103. Czar's private forests, 161. Dairy products, all nations, 383. Canada, 320. • Denmark, 234. France, 413. Great Britain, 408. Holland, 242, 422. Switzerland, 260. United States, 289, 426. Danube navigation, 182. Danubian States, agriculture, 267. commerce, 270. earnings, 272. finances, 273. forests, 269. manufactures, 270. population, 266. wealth, 272. Death-duties, British, 104. Death-rate of nations, 394. Debt, V. Finances. Debt of all nations, 393. Denmark, agriculture, 233. commerce, 236. — - earnings, 237. finances, 238. forests and fisheries, 235. manufactures, 235. population, 232. wealth, 237. Density of population, 18, Diamond-fields, S. Africa, 357. Distilleries, v. Liquor. Dudley smelting process, 75. Dufferin, Lord, on Manitoba, 318. Dundee linen-mills, 73. Dutch farmers, S. Africa, 354. Durban coal-fields, Cape Col., 356. Eakninob of nations, 11, 391. East, absorption of specie, 42. Easy class in United Kingdom, 101. Eden on manufactures, 80. Eggs, V. Poultry. Ellison on cotton industry, 71, 306. Emigration, European, 15. from Austria, 173. Belgium, 249. Denmark, 232. France, 109. Germany, 135. Great Britain, 59. Holland, 240. • Ireland, 59. Italy, 188. Norway, 219. Portugal, 211. Russia, 157. Spain, 200. Sweden, 219. Switzerland, 259. to Algeria, 109. Argentina, 361. Australia, 332. Canada, 316. Cape Colony, 355. • United States, 281. Uruguay, 371. Energy, how measured, 2. of all nations, 378. Australia, 332. ■ Austria-Hungary, 171. Belgium, 250. Canada, 317. Danubian States, 267. Denmark, 233. France, 111. INDEX 439 Energy of Germany, 137. Great Britain, Gl, Greece, 275. Holland, 241. Ireland, 61. Italy, 189, 433. Norway, 220. Portugal, 212. Russia, 157. Spain, 201. Sweden, 220. Switzerland, 260. United States, 285. Engel on labour, 2. England, V. Great Britain. English language, 14. Entre Eios, area, population, 3C1. Europe, agriculture, 381. area, 377. cattle, 382. commerce, 388. debt, 393. earnings, 391. emigration, 15. energy and steam, 378. forests and fisheries, 380. grain-crops, 381. hardware, 33, 386. internal trade, 388. manufactures, 386. mining, 380. occupations, 378. population, 377. railways, 389. shipping, 390. taxes, 393, 398. vital statistics, 394. wealth, 392, 398. Excise, V. Finances. Faotobies, v. Manufactures. value estimated, 12. Fahlbeck on Sweden, 229. Falbe on Denmark, 233. Fall of prices, 40, 399. Famatina Mining Co., 366. Famines in Europe, 21. Feathers, ostrich, 354. Felkin on Hosiery, 72. Felluer on Hungary, 186. Females, v. Sexes. Fibre, production of, 30, 396. consumption of, 30. Finances of aU nations, 52, 393, 398. Argentina, 370. Australia, 349, 433. Austria-Hungary, 186, 420. Belgium, 257. Canada, 329. Cape Colony, 360. Danubian States, 273 Denmark, 238. France, 133, 415. Germany, 154. Great Britain, 102, 406, 412, Greece, 279. Holland, 248. Italy, 198. Norway, 230. Portugal, 217. Russia, 171. Spain, 210. Sweden, 230. Switzerland, 265. United States, 312. ■ Uruguay, 375. Fish as an item of food, 28. Fisheries of all nations, 380. Australia, 336. Belgium, 252. Canada, 322. Denmark, 235. France, 116. . Germany, 140. Great Britain, 69. Holland, 244. Ireland, 69. Italy, 192. Norway, 223. Portugal, 214. Russia, 162. Spain, 203. 440 INDEX Fisheries, Sweden, 223. United States, 292. Fixed engines, v. Steam-power. Flax, V. Linen. Flogging farmers' wives, 233. Flour, grain equivalent, 5. Food all reduced to grain, 5, 384. and earnings compared, 50. consumed, its value, 385. production, Europe, 22, 384. Food-supply, Argentina, 384. Australia, 384. Austria-Hungary, 176. Belgium, 250. Canada, 319. Danubian States, 268. Denmark, 234. — France, 116. Germany, 139, 417. Great Britain, 66, 407. Greece, 276. Holland, 243. Ireland, 66. Italy, 191. Norway, 221. Portugal, 212. Kuasia, 160. Spain, 202. Sweden, 221. Switzerland, 260. United States, 289, 426. Foreigners in Denmark, 232. France, 109. Germany, 136. Holland, 240. Italy, 189. Russia, 157. Spain, 200. Switzerland, 259. United States, 282. Forests of all nations, 26, 380. Australia, 336. Austria-Hungary, 178. Belgium, 252. Canada, 321. Danubian States, 269. Forests, Denmark, 235. France, 116. Germany, 140. Great Britain, 69. Greece, 277. Holland, 244. Italy, 192. Norway, 223. Portugal, 214. Russia, 161, 170. Spain, 203. Sweden, 223. Switzerland, 261. United States, 291, 296. Foville on manure, 413. value of land, 130. Fowl as an item of food, 6. France, agriculture, 111. commerce, 125. earnings, 128. finances, 133. forests and fisheries, 112, 116. manufactures, 117, 123. mining, 120, 124. population, 109. wealth, 129. Fray Bentos beef-factory, 373. Frederick the Great's sheep, 141. Freight, v. Transport. French Canadians, 315. French settlers abroad, 109. Freycinet's railways, 127. Furniture of houses, 12. Geemans in United States, 283. Germany, agriculture, 137, 416. commerce, 148. earnings, 151. finances, 154. forests and fisheries, 140, 153. manufactures, 140, 417. mining, 146, 417. population, 135, 416. wealth, 152, 416. Giffen on wealth, 412. Gladstone's finances, 82, 108. INDEX 44 r Glass industry, Austria, 180. Belgium, 254. France, 121. Great Britain, 81. Goats of all countries, 382. Angora, Cape Colony, 354. Gold, consumption yearly, 37. production, 35, 400. sent over sea, 42, 402. Gold-mining, Australia, 337. Hungary, 182. Eussia, 165. South Africa, 401. United States, 300. Goldsmith on Switzerland, 265. Goods traffic, all nations, 38, 47. France, 414. United Kingdom, 93. Goschen's finances, 108. Gotha canal, Sweden, 228. Goulburn's finances, 108. Grain-crops, 381. exports, all countries, 395. Argentina, 362. Australia, 333. Austria, 176. . Canada, 320. ■ Danubian States, 268. ■ Russia, 160. United States, 286, 425. imp'orts, Belgium, 251. Denmark, 234. • France, 113. Germany, 139. Great Britain, 67, 89. Greece, 276. Holland, 242. Italy, 191. Norway, 221. Portugal, 212. Spain, 202. Sweden, 221. Switzerland, 260. sent over sea, 41. Grand Trunk Railway, Canada, 326. Graux on Belgium, 257. Great Britain, agriculture, 62. commerce, 89. earnings, 95. finances, 102. forests and fisheries, 69. manufactures, 70. mining, 68, 87. population, 58. wealth, 96. Greece, agriculture, 276. commerce, 278. ■ — - earnings, 279. finances, 279. forests, 277. manufactures, 277. population, 275. wealth, 279. Green crops, all nations, 383. Guarantees, French railway, 127 Gustavus tariff, Sweden, 223. Guyot on house-property, 132, taxation, 398. Hall on Canada, 318. Hardware, all nations, 386. ■ Austria- Hungary, 180. Belgium, 253. France, 120. Germany, 142, 417. Great Britain, 75, 410. Italy, 193. Portugal, 214. Russia, 164. Spain, 205. Sweden, 224. Switzerland, 262. United States, 295, 427. Hargraves finds gold, 338. Harris on agriculture, 405. Haussmann improvements, 132. Hay crop, v. Agriculture. Hemp, v. Manufactures. Hermann on Russia, 158. Hidalgos of Spain, 203. Hides, V. Leather. production of, 387. 442 INDEX Holland, agriculture, 241, 422. commerce, 245. earnings, 247. finances, 248. forests and fisheries, 244. manufactures, 244. population, 240. wealth, 247. Homestead Law, United States, 287. Canada, 320. Horse-power measured, 3. Horses of all nations, 382. Hosiery, British, 72. Hoskold on Argentine mines, 366. Hotels in Switzerland, 264. House-property, all nations, 392. Argentina, 369. Australia, 348. Austria, 186, 420. Belgium, 257. Canada, 328, 431. Cape Colony, 360, Danubian States, 273. Denmark, 238. France, 131. Germany, 153. Great Britain, 99, 409. Greece, 279. Holland, 247. Hungary, 186. Ireland, 99. Italy, 197. Norway, 230. Portugal, 217. Russia, 170. Spain, 209. Sweden, 230. Switzerland, 264. United States, 311. Uruguay, 375. House-rent, all nations, 391. Hudson Bay Territory, 318. Hungary, v. Austria-Hungary. Huuamen in Denmark, 233. IMMIOBANTS into U. Kingdom, 59. Imports, V. Commerce. Incidence of taxation, 53, 393. Income-tax, British, 103. German, 151. Indigent class. Great Britain, 102. Infant mortality, 156. Internal trade, all nations, 10, 388. Argentina, 367. Australia, 344. Austria, 183. Belgium, 255. Canada, 325. Cape Colony, 358. Danubian States, 271. Denmark, 237. France, 126. Germany, 149, 417. Great Britain, 92. Greece, 278. HoUand, 246. — Hungary, 183. Ireland, 92. Italy, 195. Norway, 227. Portugal, 215. Russia, 168. Spain, 207. Sweden, 227. Switzerland, 263. United States, 303. ■ Uruguay, 374. Investments abroad, British, 99. French, 132. Ireland, agriculture, 62. earnings, 96. finances, 106, 412. manufactures, 87. mining, 88. population, 58. wealth, 97. Irish in Argentina, 365. Australia, 331. Canada, 315. United States, 283. Iron and steel, all nations, 30. ■ Austria, 180. INDEX 443 Iron and steel, Belgium, 253. France, 121. Germany, 143, 417. Great Britain, 76. Italy, 193. Russia, 164. Spain, 205. Sweden, 224. United States, 295. Ironstone production, 35. Irrigated lands, Holland, 241. Spain, 209. Italy, agriculture, 190, 420. commerce, 194. earnings, 196. finances, 198. forests and fisheries, 192. manafactures, 193, 421. mining, 194. population, 188. wealth, 197, 421. Jacqdabd loom, 118. Jews in Unssia, 157. Jonkoping matches, Norway, 224. Junta de Medios, Spain, 208. Juraschek on Portugal, 212. Spain, 201. Jute industry, 29, 75. Kapuhda copper-fields, 339. Kauri gum. New Zealand, 336. Kimberley diamond-fields, 357. Kolb on manufactures, 122. Krupp's factory, 145. Lacoste on earnings, 128. Lafone's copper-mines, 366. Lambert coal-mine, Belgium, 254. Land Commission, Ireland, 405. Land tax, Austria, 175. Belgium, 252. Danubian States, 267. Great Britain, 102, 406. Holland, 244. Russia, 171. Land tenure, Australia, 334. Austria, 177, 419. • Belgium, 251. Canada, 320. Cape Colony, 354. ■ Danubian States, 267. Denmark, 233. France, 115, 413. Germany, 138. Great Britain, 115, 405. Greece, 277. • Holland, 243. Hungary, 177, 419. Ireland, 405. Italy, 192, 421. Norway, 222. ■ Poland, 169. Portugal, 213. Russia, 159. Spain, 202. Sweden, 222. Switzerland, 261. United States, 291. Land value, v. Wealth. United Kingdom, 64, 407. Lang on Sweden, 221. Laurium mines, Greece, 277- Laveleye on rural affairs, 17. Lead industry, v. Hardware. manufacture, British, 80, 410. Leather production, 31. manufactures, 386. Austria, 180. Belgium, 253. Denmark, 235, France, 121. Germany, 144. Great Britain, 80, 410 Holland, 244. Italy, 193. Russia, 164. Spain, 205. Sweden, 224. United States, 296, 427. Leipzig printing trade, 145. Leroy Beaulieu on wealth, 132. 444 INDEX Levaaseur on manufactureB, 120. agriculture, 413. Levi on wages, 79. Liebig's beef factory, 373. Liege arms factory, 253. Life, loss of, in mines, 87. Linen industry, Austria, 179. Belgium, 253. France, 119. Germany, 141. ■ Great Britain, 73, 409. Italy, 193. Bassia, 163. Spain, 204. United States, 294. Liquor trade, Austria, 181. Belgium, 253. Denmark, 235. France, 122. Germany, 144. Great Britain, 84, 411. Holland, 244. Ireland, 84. Bussia, 164. Sweden, 224. Liquor consumed, value of, 385. Lloyd's Eegister (1840), 43. Loans, British, 107. Local subsidies, British, 103. taxes of nations, 53. Locomotives, v. Steam-power. force of, 4. London house-property, 409. Loss on Pitt's loans, 107. Losses, farmers', 64. Louis Napoleon's finances, 133. railways, 126. Louis-Philippe's finances, 133. Lowe on British finances, 107. Luxemburg iron ore, 253. Lyons, silk trade, 118. M 'Arthur's sheep, Austi-nlia, 334. M'CuUoch on agriculture, 63, 404, ■ • manufactures, 80. wealth, 96. M'Gregor on Germany, 142. M'Pherson on hardware, 79. Machinery in Denmark, 235. France, 112. Germany, 145. . -— Great Britain, 84. United States, 427. Maize crop, all nations, 381. Malchus on Spain, 201. table of live-stock, 396. Malt, barley equivalent, 5. consumption, Great Britain, 84. Germany, 144. Malou on Belgium, 257. Manitoba wheat lands, 318. Manufactures of all nations, 386. Argentina, 365. ■ Australia, 337, 433. Austria-Hungary, 178, 419. Belgium, 252. Canada, 322. Cape Colony, 356. Danubian States, 270. Denmark, 235. France, 117. Germany, 140. Great Britain, 69, 409. Greece, 277. Holland, 244. Italy, 193, 421. • Norway, 224. Portugal, 214. ■ Bussia, 162. Spain, 203. Sweden, 224. Switzerland, 261. United States, 292, 427. Uruguay, 373. number of hands, IS. Manure in France, 413. in Russia, 161. Marble, Italian, 194. Margarine in Holland, 242, 422. Marriages, births to, 394. Married and unmarried, ratios, 395. Marrying ages, 59. INDEX 445 MasBalskl on Belgium, 257. Meat, V. Food-supply. annual produotion, 382. exports from Argentina, 365. Australia, 433. Austria, 176. Canada, 320. Holland, 242. Ireland, 68, 408. Italy, 191. Bussia, 160. United States, 289, 428. imports into Belgium, 251. France, 114, Germany, 139. Great Britain, 89, 408. Greece, 276. Switzerland, 260. supply of Europe, 22. value produced, 383. Meejers' tenure in Holland, 244. Melbourne, house-property, 349. Mennonite emigrants, 157, 318. Merchandise, v. Wealth. sea-borne, 40. value estimated, 12. Merino sheep in Germany, 141. Australia, 334. Cape Colony, 354. Metals, V. Hardware. sent over sea, 41. Michigan saw-mills, 291. Middle-class in France, 132. Germany, 152. Great Britain, 100. Mining, all nations, 34, 380. in Australia, 337. Austria-Hungary, 181. Belgium, 254. Canada, 324. France, 124. Germany, 146, 417. Great Britain, 87. Greece, 277. Italy, 194. Norway, 225. Mining in Russia, 165. Spain, 206. Sweden, 225. United States, 298. Mining Commission report, 88. lives lost in, 87. Misery of Russian Moujiks, 161, Mississippi, freight on, 398. Missouri copper mines, 299. Money of all nations, 391, 429, V. Banking. Montana mining product, 428. Monteith's mill, Glasgow, 70. Montreal house property, 328. shipping entries, 431. Moujiks in Russia, 159, 161. Mourad Bishop, his land-law, 233. Murray Eiver sheep farms, 334. Mutton, V. Meat. Natal, v. Cape Colony. National debt, v. Debt. Negroes in United States, 282. Neumann, v, Spallart. New South Wales, v. Australia. New York, trade of, 303, 428. New Zealand, v. Australia. Newspapers in U. Kingdom, 82, 411. France, 122. Neymark on French stocks, 132. Nobles in Austria, 175. Denmark, 233. Germany, 137. Greece, 277. Portugal, 213. Russia, 159. Spain, 203. Sweden, 220. North-west provinces, Canada, 315. Norway, agriculture, 220. commerce, 226. earnings, 229. finances, 230. forests and fisheries, 223. manufactures, 224. mining, 225. 446 INDEX Norway, population, 219. wealth, 229. Oats crop, all nations, 381. Obedenaire on Eouraania, 269. Occupations of all nations, 378. United Kingdom, 60, 403. Oddy on Germany, 141. Oil factories, France, 122. Ontario, area, population, 315. Operatives, v. Manufactures. Ostrich farming, 354. Pampas, sheep-farming in the, 364. Pantaleoni on wealth, 197, 421. Paper industry, British, 82. French, 122. German, 145. Paper-money of all nations, 391. American, 306. Greek, 279. Italian, 196. Russian, 169. South American, 368. Paris house-property, 131. Parnell, Sir Henry, on Canada, 431. Pas-de-Calais collieries, 124. Passengers by railway, 389. Pastoral area of nations, 381. products, D. Agriculture, Pebrer on Cape Colony, 359. Peel's income-tax, 104. Penal laws on wool, 72. Pennsylvania coal-fields, 299, 428. Peas, steel, manufacture, 77. Petroleum in Austria, 182. Canada, 324. Roumania, 270. Russia, 166, 419. United States, 300, 428. Phylloxera in France, 112. Pigs, number in all nations, 382. Pitt's income-tax, 104. Pitt's American thresher, 427. Plum orchards in Servia, 268. Poland, agriculture, 160, 418. Poland, manufactures, 418. population, 156. Polders of Holland, 246. Population, all countries, 377. Argentina, 361. Australia, 33L Austria, 173. Belgium, 249. Canada, 315. Cape Colony, 353. Danubian States, 266. Denmark, 232. France, 109. Germany, 135, 416. Great Britain, 58. Greece, 275. Holland, 240. Hungary, 173. Ireland, 58. Italy, 188. Norway, 219. Poland, 156. Portugal, 211. Russia, 156. Spain, 200, 421. Sweden, 219. Switzerland, 259. United States, 281, 423. — - Uruguay, 371. Porcelain, v. Pottery. Pork, v. Meat. Port-entries, v. Shipping. Porter on agriculture, 62. manufactures, 119. wealth, 412. Portugal, agriculture, 212. commerce, 215. earnings, 216. finances, 217. forests and fisheries, 214. manufactures, 214. population, 211. wealth, 217. Post-office, British, 104. Potato crop, all nations, 384. United Kingdom, 63, INDEX 447 Potato, grain equivalent, 6. Pottery in Bohemia, 180. France, 121. United Kingdom, 81. Price, Williams, on railways, 397. Price-levels (100 years), 399. Prices, decline of, 40. Private banks. Great Britain, 94 Probate returns, Australia, 347. Belgium, 257. Italy, 197. United Kingdom, 100, 398. Probyn's table of money, 49. Professional earnings, 11. Protective duties, France, 125. Australia, 342. Kussia, 167. Spain, 203. Sweden, 223. United States, 32, 303. Prussia, v. Germany. Public buildings. United States, 311. Pardon on linen-mills, 74. Qdbbnbland, v. Australia. Quarries, British, 88. Quartz, average yield, 37, 338. Quebec, area, population, 315. Railway capital, 389. employees, 38. steam-power, 20. traffic, 48. Railways of all nations, 389. Argentina, 367. . Australia, 344. Austria, 183. Belgium, 256. Canada, 326. Cape Colony, 358. Danubian States, 271. Denmark, 237. France, 126. Germany, 149. Great Britain, 93. Greece, 278. Kiulways, Holland, 246. Hungary, 183. Ireland, 93. Italy, 195. Norway, 227. Portugal, 216. Russia, 168. Spain, 207. Sweden, 227. Switzerland, 263. United States, 304, 429. Uruguay, 374. Rand gold-fields, South Africa, 401. Rates, United Kingdom, 406, 412. Revenue, v. Finances. Rheims woollen mills, 117. River Plate wool, 364, 372. Robinson's finances, 108. Rosebridge coal-mine, 254. Roskild, convention of, 233. Rouen cotton mills, 119. Roumania, v. Danubian States. Royalties on mining, 88. Rural population, 17, 377. Russia, agriculture, 158, 418. commerce, 167. earnings, 169. finances, 171. forests and fisheries, 161. manufactures, 162, 418. mining, 165, 419. population, 156, 418. wealth, 170, 418. Rye crop of all nations, 381. St. Etiknnb sUk factories, 118. St. Helens glass factory, 81. St. Lawrence, farms along, 317. Salt production, Germany, 147. Portugal, 215. Russia, 166. Switzerland, 262. Santa FS, area, population, 361. Sauerbeck's price-level, 399. Savings-banks, Italy, 421. — Prussia, 417- 448 INDEX Savings-banks, United Kingdom, 412. Sawdust for bread, 220. Saxony, v. Germany. Schiff on Austria, 186. Schnabel on Italy, 190. Schubert on Bussia, 162. Scotch settlers in Cape Colony, 353. Scotland, v. Great Britain. Seaborne bullion, 402. merchandise, 40. Seamen of all flags, 38. British, 91. Seed, saving in, 112. Serfs in Austria, 175. Danubian States, 267. Denmark, 233. Russia, 158, 418. Sei-via, v. Danubian States. Sevres porcelain, 121. Sexes, ratios of, 395. Sheep of all nations, 382. Shipbuilding in Greece, 277. Norway, 225. United Kingdom, 83. United States, 303. Shipping of all flags, 390. Argentina, 367. Australia, 343. Austria, 182. Belgium, 255. Canada, 325, 430. Denmark, 236. France, 126. Germany, 149. Great Britain, 91, 411. Greece, 278. Holland, 245. Italy, 390. Norway, 226. Portugal, 215. Russia, 167. Spain, 207. Sweden, 226. United States, 303. Ship's earnings and value, 10, 44. Ships made of steel, 77. Siberian mines, 165. Sicily, sulphur mines, 194. Silesia, linen mills, 141. Silk fabrics, all nations, 386. Austria, 180. Belgium, 253. France, 118. — ■ Germany, 142. Great Britain, 75, 409. Italy, 193. Bussia, 163. Spain, 204. Switzerland, 261. United States, 294. Silver, consumption, 37. price of, 402. production yearly, 36, 401. sent over sea, 402. Silver-mines, Australia, 339. Austria, 182. Germany, 147. Bussia, 165. Span. -America, 401. United States, 301. Slate quarries, British, 88. Slaughter of cattle, 5. Sleswig-Holstein, loss of, 232. Soetbeer on earnings, 151. precious metals, 401. Sound dues abolished, 422. Spain, agriculture, 201, 421. commerce, 206. earnings, 208, 422. ■ finances, 210. forests and fisheries, 203. manufactures, 203. mining, 206. population, 200, 421. wealth, 208. Spallart on Austria, 184, 419. Germany, 142. grain-crops, 395. ■ Portugal, 212. ■ Spain, 201. Spanish- America, silver mining, 401. paper-money, 368. INDEX 449 Specie, v. Gold, Silver. Spirits, V. Liquor. Squatters' runs, Australia, 334. South Africa, 355. Stamp-duties, British, 104. Statesman's Tear-bqolt, 94, 210. Steam, saving of labour, 395. Steamboats, v. Shipping. Steam-power, all nations, 379. Australia, 332, 431. Austi-ia-Hungary, 174. Belgium, 250. Canada, 317. Danubian States, 267. Denmark, 233. France, HI. Germany, 137. Great Britain, 61, 403. Greece, 275. Holland, 241. Ireland, 61. Italy, 189. Norway, 220. Portugal, 212. Russia, 157. Spain, 201. Sweden, 220. Switzerland, 260. United States, 285, 424. Steel, V. Iron. rails, 47. vessels, 77. Stein's land reform, 138. Sternegg on Austria, 185. Stevenson on manufactures, 72, 79. Stewart diamond, Cape Colony, 357. Stockings, v. Hosiery. Stone quarries, British, 88. United States, 298. Strebinski on Russia, 161, 170. Struensee's land reform, 233. Styria, ironworks, 180. sheepfarms, 178. Subsidies, local. Great Britain, 103. Sugar consumption, U. Kingdom, 89. industry, Austria, 1 81. Sugar industry, Argentina, 363. Belgium, 253. France, 122. Germany, 144. Russia, 164. Sulphur-mines, Sicily, 194. Sutter's gold discovery, 300. Sweden, agriculture, 220. commerce, 226. earnings, 229. finances, 230. forests and fisheries, 223. manufactures, 224. mining, 225. population, 219. wealth, 229, 422. Swedish farmers in U. States, 219. Switzerland, agriculture, 200. commerce, 262. earnings, 263. finances, 265. forests, 261. ■ manufactures, 261. population, 259. wealth, 263. Sydney, house-property, 349. Takiff, v. Protective. Tarnowitz steam-engine, 141. Tasmania, v. Australia. Taxation, incidence of, 53, 393. Taxes, v. Finances. Team charges, 46. Telegraphs, British, 105. effect on gold, 42. Textiles, v. Manufactures. Thiers' Protective system, 125. Tillage area of nations, 381. products, value of, 383. Timber, v. Forests. consumption, G. Britain, 69, 89. sent over sea, 41. Tin industry. Great Britain, 78, 410. mines, Austr-^lia, 340. Tisserand on agriculture, 114. Tithes in England, 406. 2 F 45° INDEX Tolosan on manufactures, 117. Tonnage, v. Shipping. Toronto, house-property, 328. Trade, v. Commerce, Internal. Traffic V. Railway, Shipping. Tramways, United Kingdom, 9. Transport, land and water, 37. earnings, 380. Transvaal gold product, 36, 358. Travellers in Switzerland, 204. Treasury British report, 106. United States, money in, 307. Tula, factories at, 164. Turnip crop. United Kingdom, 63. Tyrol silk industry, 180. United Kingdom, k. Great Britain. United States, agriculture, 286, 424. commerce, 301, 428. earnings, 307, 429. finances, 312. forests and fisheries, 291. manufactures, 292, 427. mining, 298, 428. population, 281, 423. wealth, 308, 429. Ural gold-fields, 165. Urban population, 16, 377. Uruguay, agriculture, 371. commerce, 373. earnings, 374. finances, 375. manufactures, 373. mining, 373. population, 371. wealth, 374. Utah silver mines, 428. Varignt on Wealth, 398. Vansittart's finances, 108. Victoria, v. Australia. Viebahn on Germany, 138, 152. Vienna house-property, 186. municipal taxes, 420. Vineyards, v. "Wine. Vital statistics, 394. Volga navigation, 168. Wages, v. Manufactures. War, American (1776), 107. (1861), 423. Bonaparte, 107. Crimean, 108. Franco-German, 130, 133. Waste lands of all countries, 381. Watchmaking at Geneva, 262. Water-power in Italy, 433. Switzerland, 260. United States, 3. Water, transport by, 38. Wealth, components of, 11. of all nations, 392. Argentina, 369. Australia, 347, 432. Austria, 185, 420. Belgium, 256, 422. Canada, 327, 431. Cape Colony, 359. Danubian States, 272. Denmark, 237. France, 129, 415. Germany, 152. Great Britain, 96. Greece, 279. Holland, 247. • Hungary, 185. Ireland, 96. Italy, 197, 421. — Norway, 229. ■ Portugal, 217. Russia, 170, 418. Spain, 208. Sweden, 229, 422. Switzerland, 263. United States, 308, 429. Uruguay, 374. Wedgewood pottery, SI. Weights and measures, 13. Wheat, V. Grain. crop, all nations, 381. exports, 395. INDEX 451 Windmills in Holland, 3. Wine, consumption, TJ. Kingdom, 84. production, Argentina, 363. Australia, 384. Austria, 176. Cape Colony, 356. Danubian States, 268. ■ France, 116. Germany, 139. ■ Greece, 276. Hungary, 176. Italy, 191. Portugal, 212. Russia, 160. Spain, 202. Switzerland, 260. United States, 289. Wolowski on wealth, 415. Wood-pulp industry, Sweden, 224. Wool, clip of all nations, 396. exports, Argentina, 364. Australia, 334, 431. Cape Colony, 354. imports. United Kingdom, 73. Woollen fabrics, all nations, 386. Austria, 179. Woollen fabrics, Belgium, 253. France, 117. Germany, 141. Great Britain, 72, 409. Italy, 193. Russia, 163. Spain, 204. Sweden, 224. United States, 293. Working-class, British, 101. French, 132. Working-power, v. Energy. Wurtemberg, 0. Germany. Yeats on machinery, 71. Zehdkn on Austria, 180. France, 119. Germany, 145. • Switzerland, 262. Zinc industry, Belgium, 254. Germany, 143. Great Britain, 79, 410. Zurich tan -yards, 262. Zuyder Zee, pumping out, 247. Printed by Ballantvne, Hanson & Co. Edinburgh and London