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 Applied forms.a sequel to "Musical form 
 
 3 1924 022 495 539 
 
 CORNELL 
 
 UNIVERSITY 
 
 LIBRARY 
 
 MUSIC 
 
Cornell University 
 Library 
 
 The original of this book is in 
 the Cornell University Library. 
 
 There are no known copyright restrictions in 
 the United States on the use of the text. 
 
 http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924022495539 
 
AUGENEKS EDITION, No. 9188. 
 
 Applied Forms 
 
 A SEQUEL TO 'MUSICAL FORM.' 
 
 BY 
 
 EBENEZER PROUT, B.A. (London) 
 
 Hon. Mus. Doc. Trin. Coll. Dublin and Edinburgh, 
 and Professor of Music in the University of Dublin. 
 
 FOURTH EDITION. 
 
 LONDON : 
 
 AUGENER & CO. 
 
 [entered at stationers' hall.] 
 Copyright for all Countries.] [Rights of Translation Reserved. 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 With the present volume the treatment of Musical Forms, begun 
 in the preceding volume of this series, is completed. So many 
 enquiries for the book have been addressed both to the author 
 and to the publishers during the time of its preparation, that a 
 few words of explanation seem due to readers, to account for the 
 delay in its appearance. 
 
 In the preface to Musical Form it was said that that work had 
 involved more labour than any of its predecessors. But the 
 compilation of that volume proved to be mere child's play in 
 comparison with the research necessary for the present one, 
 which has required more than eighteen months' hard work to 
 complete it. This has been the inevitable result of the system 
 on which the author has worked. Though he has consulted 
 numerous theoretical treatises, he has in no case taken either his 
 statements or his illustrations at second hand ; in every single 
 instance he has gone direct to the works of the great masters 
 both for his rules and for his examples. What this involves may 
 be judged from one or two illustrations. Before writing the three 
 paragraphs on the Minuet (§§ 71-73), the author examined every 
 minuet in the complete works of Handel, Bach, Couperin, 
 Corelli, Mozart, Beethoven, and Schubert, the whole of Haydn's 
 83 Quartetts, all the symphonies (about fifty) which he possesses 
 by the same composer, and a number of miscellaneous specimens 
 by other writers. The result of all this work occupies less than 
 three pages. Even more laborious were the preliminary investi- 
 gations for the sonata form (Chapters VII. and VIIL). About 
 1,200 movements were carefully examined before a line of the 
 text was written ; and this task occupied the whole of the author's 
 spare time for nearly a month. When it is added that every 
 separate form has been dealt with on the same plan, it is hoped 
 that no further apology for the tardy publication of the volume 
 will be needed. 
 
 The greater part of the present work is devoted to the 
 evolution of the larger forms from the two typical forms, the 
 simple Binary and simple Ternary, treated of in the ninth and 
 
iv Preface. 
 
 tenth chapters of Musical Form. In order to assist beginners in 
 composition with practical hints on matters not often touched 
 upon in theoretical treatises, the study of these forms is preceded 
 by a chapter on Pianoforte Writing. Students, even though they 
 may themselves play the piano well, often write uncomfortably or 
 incorrectly for the instrument ; and it is hoped that the directions 
 here given will assist them in various points on which the 
 author's experience has shown him that they are apt to go wrong. 
 
 As being the simplest, the Dance Forms (Chapter III.) are 
 the first dealt with. It has been impossible to describe all the 
 existing varieties ; it would, besides, have been of little practical 
 utility. But all the more important dances to be met with either 
 in older Suites, or in the compositions of the great masters, are 
 treated of, and the student who understands these will have little 
 difficulty with the analysis of others. The smaller instrumental 
 forms, nearly all of which are simple binary or ternary, and the 
 different variation forms occupy Chapters IV. and V. 
 
 In treating of the older Rondo form (Chapter VI.) the author 
 found himself upon more debateable ground. Here the various 
 theorists differ widely ; in fact, hardly two are in complete 
 agreement. Instead, therefore, of following any preceding writer, 
 the author thought it best to try to evolve some system for 
 himself by the study of the best models. The plan here adopted 
 will probably not commend itself to all readers ; but it is at least 
 a logical carrying out of the general principles laid down in 
 Musical Form. By regarding the older Rondo as an extension of 
 the ternary form, in precisely the same manner in which that 
 form is an extension of the binary, a clear line of demarcation 
 between the two is established, and the analysis becomes sim- 
 plified. 
 
 The Sonata Form, the most important, and in some respects 
 the most perfect of the instrumental forms, fills the two following 
 chapters. Many writers consider this form to be binary ; and this 
 view was long held and taught by the author himself. Closer 
 investigation, however, convinced him that it was more accurate 
 to regard this form as ternary ; the reasons for adopting this view 
 are given in the seventh chapter of this volume. The term 
 " second subject " is employed in a larger sense than that gener- 
 ally given to it, because the form of the movement thus becomes 
 much easier to analyze than if such expressions as "auxiliary," 
 "subsidiary," &c, are employed. In treating of the 'Free 
 
Prb-face. v 
 
 Fantasia' it has been found impossible to give more than 
 general directions to the composer, because of the infinite variety 
 to be met with in this part of the movement. It is hoped that 
 the examples selected and analyzed will sufficiently show the 
 principles underlying thematic development in general. The 
 recapitulation of a sonata movement has been dealt with at some 
 length, because there is far more irregularity to be found here 
 than is generally supposed. The various modifications of Sonata 
 form, including the modern Rondo, naturally occupy the next 
 place in the volume. 
 
 The student is often much troubled in his attempts at analysis 
 by meeting with movements which he is unable to explain as 
 belonging to any of the categories described in the earlier chapters 
 of this volume. An effort to assist him is made in Chapter XI. 
 The mixed and irregular forms there spoken of are so Protean in 
 their disguises that any attempt at classification was more than 
 ordinarily difficult. The author dares not flatter himself that he 
 has exhausted the subject. All that has been possible for him 
 here has been to select and analyze some representative examples. 
 The student who is thoroughly familiar with the normal forms 
 will soon learn to recognize the variations when he meets with 
 them, and must try to do for himself with other movements what 
 is done for him here with those selected for analysis. 
 
 After dealing with the separate forms of the different move- 
 ments, their combination into larger works naturally follows as 
 the next step. This subject is treated in the chapter on Cyclic 
 Forms. A chapter on Organ Music, in which some practical 
 directions are given as to writing for the 'king of instruments,' 
 concludes the portion of the volume which deals with instrumental 
 music. 
 
 It was the author's original intention to have treated vocal 
 music at much greater length than he has done in the final 
 chapter. His first idea has. been modified, partly because the 
 instrumental forms had required much more space than he had 
 expected, but chiefly because, on going carefully into the subject, 
 he found that such a method of treatment as he at first designed 
 would have necessitated writing a complete history of the rise and 
 progress of vocal music. This would not only have increased 
 the size of the volume inordinately, but it would have been 
 beyond the scope of the present series, which is intended to be 
 educational rather than historical. The vocal forms differ from 
 
vi Preface. 
 
 the instrumental chiefly in their greater freedom, resulting from 
 their association with words. It is hoped that enough has been 
 said to guide the student in his examination of the works of the 
 great masters for himself. 
 
 It cannot be too strongly impressed upon the learner that 
 mastery of form cannot be acquired merely by reading this or 
 any other book. A thorough knowledge of it can only be 
 obtained by carefully studying and analyzing the works of the 
 great composers. It is in this way that the author has learned 
 whatever he knows about the subject ; and just as the works of 
 other theorists have been of use to him in showing him what to 
 look for, he hopes that the present volume may assist students in 
 investigating for themselves the glorious heritage bequeathed to 
 us by the immortal masters of the past and present centuries. 
 Without a knowledge of their principal compositions no musician 
 can be said to be fully equipped for his work. 
 
 Though, as already said, nothing in the present volume ,has 
 been taken at second hand, it would be disingenuous of the 
 author not to acknowledge the help he has obtained in preparing 
 this book from the labours of others who have preceded him. 
 He would especially mention Dr. Marx's 'Composition,' Dr. 
 Hugo Riemann's ' Katechismus der Kompositionslehre,' and the 
 numerous admirable articles by Dr. Hubert Parry in Grove's 
 ' Dictionary of Music,' as having been of great service to him. 
 
 As on so many previous occasions, the author has again to 
 acknowledge the kind assistance he has received from his friend 
 Dr. C. W. Pearce in the correction of the proofs. He has also to 
 thank his friend and colleague, Professor Mahaffy, of Trinity 
 College, Dublin, for many valuable suggestions. 
 
 The present volume will be followed, should the author's life 
 and health be spared, by two volumes on the Orchestra, which 
 will complete the series commenced six years ago with Harmony -. 
 Its Theory and Practice. 
 
 London, January, 1895. 
 
TABLE OF CONTENTS. 
 
 [N.B. — The numbers refer in every instance to the sections, not to the pages.] 
 
 CHAPTER I. — Introduction page i 
 
 Summary of preceding volume, I, 2 — The evolution of music, 3 — Abstract 
 music rarely to be met with, 4 — The form of music influenced by the 
 medium through which it is presented, 5 — Applied Form defined, 6 — 
 Difference between vocal and instrumental music, 7 — Two classes ot 
 instruments : polyphonous and monophonous, 8 — Different kinds of vocal 
 music, 9 — Plan of the present volume, 10, II — The best masters in com- 
 position, 12. 
 
 CHAPTER II.— Pianoforte Writing page 5 
 
 Considerations to be borne in mind when writing for the piano, 13 — The piano 
 the most useful instrument for the composer, 14— Its inherent defects, 15 
 — Uniformity of tone-quality, 16 — Its natural shortcomings stimulate the 
 imagination, 17 — Interlacing of the two hands, 18 — Example by Liszt, 19 
 — Sustained melodies best in the medium of the instrument, 20 — The 
 pedal, 21 — Explanation of its mechanism, 22, 23 — Increases the volume 
 of tone, 24 — " Sympathetic resonance," 25, 26 — The principal use of the 
 pedal ; example by Schumann, 27 — Repetition of melody notes as accom- 
 paniment, 28 — The pedal used to obtain wider positions of harmony, 29 — 
 The soft (una cordd) pedal, 30 — Position of the harmonies in writing for 
 the piano, 31 — Variation in number of parts, 32 — Number of voices in 
 polyphonic music for the piano, 33 — Passages in only two or three parts, 
 34 — Treatment of broken chords and arpeggios, 35 — Relaxation of the 
 strict laws of part-writing, 36-38 — Dissonances in arpeggios should be 
 resolved in the octave in which they are taken, 39 — Treatment of isolated 
 low notes in the bass, 40 — The technique of the piano must be considered 
 while writing for it, 41 — Composing at the piano, 42. 
 
 CHAPTER III.— The Dance Forms page 23 
 
 Why dance forms are studied first, 43 — Difference between dance music and 
 dance forms, 44 — The old Suite, 46 — Its indispensable movements, 47 — 
 All the movements were in binary form, 48 — The Allemande, 49-51 — 
 The Courante, 52-55— The Sarabande, 56-59— The ' Double,' 58 — The 
 Cigue, 60-63 — The Gavotte, 64-67 — The Passepied, 68 — Explanation of 
 
viii Contents. 
 
 the term 'Trio,' 69— The BoiirrSe, Jo— The Minuet, 71— Minuets with 
 more than one Trio, 72 — The modern Minuet, 73 — The Scherzo, a 
 development of the Minuet, 74 — Innovations introduced by Beethoven, 
 75— Scherzos with two trios, 76— The ternary form abandoned, 77 — The 
 Waltz, 78-81— The modern ' Valse de Salon' ; Chopin's Waltzes, 82— 
 ' Sets ' of Waltzes, 83— The Mazurka, 84, 85— The Polonaise, or Polacca, 
 86— Example by Bach, 87— Ditto by Schubert, 88— The Marche aux 
 Flambeaux, 89— The Bolero, 90, 91— The Tarantella, 92— The March, 
 93 — March forms, 94-96 — Rate of speed, 97— Example by Beethoven, 98 
 — Modern Suites, 99 — Directions for work, IOO. 
 
 CHAPTER IV.— The Smaller Instrumental Forms ... page 63 
 
 The smaller forms mostly simple binary or simple ternary, 101 — Pieces written 
 for children, 102 — The forms of Beethoven's Bagatelles, Op. 33, 103 — 
 Ditto of the first book of Mendelssohn's 'Lieder ohne Worte,' 104— 
 Ditto of Schumann's ' Phantasiestucke,' 105 — Modern pianoforte music, 
 106 — The Etude, 107 — Cr'amer's ' Studio : ' harmonic framework of the 
 fourth study, 108 — Example of an Etude by Steibelt, 109 — Ditto by 
 Henselt, no — The larger form of Etude : the studies of Chopin, Henselt, 
 Heller, and Clementi,' III — The Prelude, 1 12 — Its simplest form, 113 — 
 Example by Handel, '114 — A Prelude in the form of an Etude, 115, 116 
 — Preludes in the larger binary form, 1 1 7 — Bach's organ preludes ; the 
 preludes founded on chorals, 118 — Larger organ preludes, 119 — Analysis 
 of Bach's Prelude in F minor, 120-123 — The largest forms, 124 — Use of 
 the fugato in a prelyde, 125 — The preludes of Beethoven, Mendelssohn, 
 and Chopin, 126 — The Fugue, 127 — Outline of its form, 128, 129 — The 
 fugue form a modification of simple ternary, 130-133 — Directions for 
 work, 135. - _^ 
 
 CHAPTER V.— The Variation Forms page 85 
 
 Incidental variation, 136 — Variation defined, 137 — The Ground Bass ; example 
 by Purcell, 138 — The Chdconne, 139, 140 — The Passacaglia, 141 — Beet- 
 hoven's ' 32 Variations ' a inodern Chaconne, 142 — The Air with Varia- 
 tions, 143 — Form of the theme, 144 — 'Its character, 145 — Longer themes, 
 146 — Strict and free variations, 147 — The older and the newer style, 148 
 — Strict variations, 149 — Analysis of Mozart's Variations on "Je suis 
 Lindor," 150-153 — Other jvariations by Mozart, 154 — Beethoven's vari- 
 ations, 155 — Analysis of the ' Six Variations,' Op. 34, 156-162 — Beet- 
 hoven's later variations, 163 — The variations of Schubert, Weber, and 
 Mendelssohn, 164 — The modern style of variation, 165 — Rhythm of the 
 variations, 166— Canonic/variation, 167 — Double Variations, 168 — Varia- 
 tion on two themes, 169, 170 — Variations in vocal music, 171 — The 
 Introduction, 172 — General summary of principles, 173-176 — The di- 
 versity of variation forms, 177. 
 
 CHAPTER VL— The Older Rondo Form page 107 
 
 The larger forms, 178 — The Rondo: meaning of the name, 179 — Two kinds 
 of Rondo, 180 — Example by Couperin, 181 — Analysis of the same, 182 
 Number of episodes, 183 — Their key, 184 — Rondo by Bach analyzed, 185, 
 186 — The rondos of Haydn, &c, 187 — Their development from the ternary 
 form, 188 — Minuets in rondo form, 189 — Choice of keys for the episodes, 
 190, 191 — Rondo by Haydn analyzed, 192-195 — Analysis of Dussek's 
 'La Consolation,' 196, 197 — Ditto of Mozart's Rondo in A minor, 
 
Contents. ix 
 
 199, 20 ° — Beethoven's Andante in F, 201 — Analysis of Beethoven's 
 Rondo in C, Op. 51, No. 1, 202, 203 — Ditto of rondo in Sonata, Op. 53, 
 204 — Other examples, 205 — Rondos with three episodes, 206 — The 
 principal subject only one sentence ; example by Mozart, 207 — Analysis 
 of rondo from Mozart's trio in E flat, 208, 209 — Irregular rondos ; 
 example by Beethoven, 210 — The double variation sometimes a rondo, 
 211 — Some pieces incorrectly described as rondos, 212 — Directions to 
 the student, 213. 
 
 CHAPTER VII.— The Sonata Form : the Exposition ... page 127 
 
 Definition of the Sonata Form, 214 — It is found in other works besides sonatas, 
 215 — The essential difference between a Rondo and a movement in Sonata 
 form, 216 — The old Sonata form : example by Scarlatti analyzed, 217 — 
 The "bridge-passage," 218 — How to find the limits of the second subject, 
 219 — The second part of the movement, 220 — Modifications of detail, 221 
 • — Later examples of the old form, 222 — The modern form developed by 
 C. P. E. Bach, 223 — Difference between the old and the modern Sonata 
 forms, 224 — The Exposition of a sonata movement ; the first subject : 
 example by Beethoven, 225 — Ditto by Haydn, 226 — Ditto by Schumann, 
 227 — Ditto by Mozart, ending with a half cadence, 228 — Ditto by Beet- 
 hoven, 229 — Its rhythmic construction explained, 230 — Long first sub- 
 jects, 231 — Subjects with a preface, 232 — The bridge-passage; how to 
 know where it begins, 233 — Example by Mozart, 234-236 — Material 
 of the bridge-passage : its course of modulation, 237 — Very short bridge- 
 passages, 238 — The second subject, 239 — Key of the second subject ; 
 the old rule, 240 — Beethovens innovations, 241 — Second subject in 
 the mediant, major and minor, 242 — Ditto in the submediant, 243 
 — Key of the second subject in a minor movement, 244 — The practice 
 of Beethoven, 245 — Second subject in the dominant major, 246 — 
 Second subject in flat keys, 247 — The "sections" of the second 
 subject, 248— A second subject indivisible into sections, 249— Analysis 
 of movement by Haydn, 250-252— Ditto of exposition of ' Eroica ' 
 symphony, 253 — Many sections in the same key, 254 — The second 
 subject of a minor movement in two keys, 255 — The first section in a 
 different key from the following, 256— Change of mode, 257— Change 
 of tonic, 258— Example by Beethoven (Op. 10 No. 3) analyzed, 259— 
 Incidental modulation, 260— Unity of style, how obtained, 261 — The 
 second subject beginning in a remote key ;" examples, 262 — This procedure 
 peculiar to major movements, 263 — An unusual close, 264 — Determination 
 of the limits of the second subject, 265 — The codetta, 266 — Repetition 
 of the exposition, not obligatory, 267 — Summary of the chapter, 268-274. 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. — The Sonata Form (continued) : The Develop- 
 ment, and Recapitulation page 158 
 
 Freedom of the form in the second and third parts of a sonata movement, 275 — 
 The Free Fantasia, 276 — How it differs from the second part of a genuine 
 ternary form, 277 — The free fantasia the test of a composer's genius ; 
 supremacy of Beethoven, 278 — Analysis of free fantasia of his sonata, 
 Op. 7, 279-281 — Ditto of Haydn's symphony in G, 282-285 — Thematic 
 development, 286 — The free fantasia in Beethoven's Pastoral Symphony, 
 287-290 — Fragments of themes worked separately ; example from Beet- 
 hoven's Waldstein sonata, 291 — Contrapuntal development, 292— Intro- 
 duction of episode, 293— Examples, 294-297— A slow introduction 
 brought in again during free fantasia, 298— Example by Clementi, 299— 
 An episodical andante, 300— General principles for the construction of the 
 
Contents. 
 
 free fantasia, 301 — Choice of keys — 302, 303.— Course of modulation, 304, 
 305 — Methods of thematic development, 306 — Episode, 307 — The return 
 to the first subject, 308— Examples, 309-312— The Recapitulation, 313— 
 The regular form, 314— The first subject; often with new counterpoint, 
 315 — The Bridge-Passage, 316 — Omission of the bridge-passage, 317- 
 Key of the second subject, 318, 319 — The second subject in more than 
 one key, 320, 321 — Treatment of the second subject in a minor movement, 
 322-326 — Irregular recapitulations, 327 — The first subject in the sub- 
 dominant, 328 — The second subject preceding the first, 329 — Abridg- 
 ment or omission of first subject, 330 — Extension of first subject, 331 — A 
 first subject beginning in a different key from that in which it ends, 332 — 
 Abridgment of the second subject, 333 — The second subject considerably 
 altered, 334, 335 — Exceptional key for second subject, 336 — The entire 
 recapitulation of a minor movement in the tonic major key, 337 — Very 
 irregular recapitulation, 338 — The Coda, 339 — Example by Beethoven, 
 340 — New themes introduced in the coda, 341, 342 — Alteration of tempo, 
 343 — The infinite variety of the sonata form, 344. 
 
 CHAPTER IX.— Modified Sonata Forms page 195 
 
 Modified sonata forms defined, 345 — The Abridged Sonata Form, 346— How 
 it differs from the old sonata form, 347 — Adagio from Beethoven's sonata, 
 Op. 10 No. I, analyzed, 348-353 — Analysis of slow movement from 
 Beethoven's sonata in D minor, 354 — Ditto from Mozart's sonata in F, 
 35S> 356 — Mendelssohn's Presto Agitato in B minor, 357, 358 — The 
 exposition in this form never repeated, 359 — The Overture, 360 — Its old 
 form, 361 — The overture in sonata form, 362 — The overtures of Mozart 
 and Beethoven, 363-365 — A slow introduction common, 366 — Overtures 
 by Weber, Spohr, and Mendelssohn, 367 — Exceptional repeat of the 
 exposition, 368 — Modern opera overtures, 369— The Concerto: meanings 
 of the word, 370 — Form adopted by Mozart and Beethoven for the first 
 movement; the double exposition, 371 — The difference between the two 
 expositions, 372 — The second exposition often longer than the first, 373 
 ■ — Mozart's practice in this respect, 374, 375 — Beethoven's method, 376 
 — The second exposition more ornamented, 377— The first exposition 
 ending on the dominant, 378 — Entry of the solo instrument, 379— The 
 second and third parts of the movement, 380 — The Cadenza, 381 — The 
 modern concerto form introduced by Mendelssohn, 382 — The Sonatina, 383 
 — Example by Kuhlau analyzed, 384 — Vague use of the name, 385, 386. 
 
 CHAPTER X. —The Modern Rondo (Rondo-Sonata) Form page 212 
 
 The later Rondo form a modification of the Sonata, 387 — The rhythmic form 
 of the first subject, 388 — Its song-like character, 389 — The exposition, 390 
 — Difference between second subject and episode, 391 — Key of second 
 subject, 392 — Repetition of first subject at close of exposition, 393 — 
 Episode, 394 — Recapitulation, 395 — General summary of the form, 396 
 — Analysis of rondo in Beethoven's sonata, Op. 14, No. I, 397-399 — 
 Ditto in Beethoven's sonata, Op. 22, 400-402 — Rondos without episode, 
 403 — Analysis of Schubert's Rondo, Op. 107, 404-408 — An irregular 
 rondo analyzed, 409-410 — This form always employed either as a separate 
 movement or as a finale, 411. 
 
 CHAPTER XI. — Mixed and Indefinite Forms page 227 
 
 What are meant by mixed and indefinite forms, 412 — Mixed Forms, 413 
 
 Analysis of finale of Weber's sonata in D minor, 414, 415 — Ditto of 
 
Contents. xi 
 
 andante from same sonata, 416 — Example from Mozart's sonata in D, 417, 
 418 — Ditto from Beethoven's sonata, Op. 2, No. 1, 419 — Other examples 
 by Beethoven, 420-422 — Schubert's Impromptu in F minor analyzed, 
 423, 424 — Finale of Schubert's quintett, Op. 114, 425, 426 — Indefinite 
 Forms, 427 — The Introduction, 428, 429 — The Toccata, 430, 431 — The 
 Capriccio, 432, 433 — The Intermezzo, 434, 435 — The Fantasia, 436 — 
 Fantasias in one movement, 437 — The subjects in a fantasia recurring, 
 438 — Fantasias with detached movements, 439 — The Sonata quasi Fan- 
 tasia, 440 — Operatic fantasias and transcriptions, 441. 
 
 CHAPTER XII.— Cyclic Forms page 242 
 
 Definition of Cyclic Form, 442 — The process of evolution, 443 — The typical 
 cyclic form, and its variations, 444 — Unity of character, 445 — The most 
 important modern cyclic form developed from the Suite, 446 — The three- 
 movement form, 447 — Usual order of movements, 448 — All the move- 
 ments in the same key, 449 — Choice of key for the middle movement, 
 450-452 — The slow movement in a key in the second degree of relation- 
 ship, 453 — Ditto in an unrelated key, 454 — The slow movements of works 
 in a minor key, 455-456— The form of the second movement, 457 — The 
 second movement in quick tempo, 458 — Form of the finale, 459T-Irregular 
 arrangement of movements, 460, 461 — The two-movement form, 462 — 
 Contrast in the movements, 463 — The four-movement form, 464 — 
 General plan of the movements, 465 — The order of the middle movements 
 optional, 466 — Four-movement works without a slow movement, 467 — 
 Deviations from the normal form, 468, 469 — Different methods of obtain- 
 ing unity, 470-472 — Cyclic works in more than four movements, 473 — 
 The modern Suite, 474 — Quartetts in five movements, 475 — The Serenade, 
 476 — The Cassation and Divertimento, 477 — The Concerto: its regular 
 form, 478 — Concertos in four movements, 479— Irregular forms : Bruch's 
 violin concertos, 480 — Saint-Saens' piano concertos, 481, 482 — Liszt's 
 concertos, 483 — The Symphonic Poem, 484, 485. 
 
 CHAPTER XIII.— Organ Music page 258 
 
 Some knowledge of the instrument desirable, 486 — The manuals, 487 — The 
 registers, 488 — Eight-feet stops, 489 — Foundation stops, 490, 491 — 
 Mutation stops, 492 — Compound stops, 493 — Flue-stops and reed-stops, 
 494 — Differences of quality, 495— The pedal organ, 496 — Passages for the 
 pedals, 497— Organ music generally written on three staves, 498 — Combi- 
 nation of different manuals; 499 — Sustaining power of the organ : legato 
 and staccato, 500 — The expressionless character of the instrument, 501 — 
 Pedal points, 502 — Varieties of organ tone, 503— Directions for register- 
 ing, 504— Alterations of tone quality, 505 — Use of the pedals, 506— The 
 melody on the pedals, 507 — Polyphonic writing, 508 — The forms of organ 
 music, 509 — Bach's organ sonatas, 510 — Mendelssohn's organ sonatas, 511 
 — The sonata form in organ sonatas, 512 — Variety of the movements, 513 
 — Widows organ symphonies, 514 — Smaller forms of organ music, 515 — ■ 
 Duets for the organ, 516 — The tone style of composition for the organ, 517. 
 
 CHAPTER XIV.— Vocal Music page 272 
 
 Writing for voices, 518 — Association of music with words, 519 — The accents 
 of words and music must correspond, 520 — Care in selection of words, 
 521 — Position of cadences, 522 — Example of faulty accents, by Handel, 
 523 — Compass of the voices, 524, 525 — The "registers," 526 — Ineffective 
 
xii Contents. 
 
 example, by Schumann, 527— Use of the upper notes ot the voice, 528, 
 529— Unvocal writing, 530— Examples, 531, 532— Cross accents, 533— 
 Vocal music without words: Solfeggi, 534— 'Bouche fermee, 535~ 
 Vocal forms : Recitative, 536— Recitativo a tempo, 537 —Examples referred 
 to, 538— Choral Recitative, 539— The Strophic Song, 540— The " durch- 
 componirtes Lied," 541 — Songs in ternary form, 542— Ditto in the older 
 rondo form, 543, 544— Ditto in sonata form, 545— Songs with more than 
 one movement : The Scena, 546-548— The accompaniments of songs, 549 
 — Pieces for more than one solo voice : the vocal canon, 550 — The Glee : 
 the male alto voice, 551, 552— The Part Song; 553— The Madrigal, 554 
 —The Motell, 555— The Anthem, 556— Ditto with orchestral accompani- 
 ment, 557— The Church Cantata, 558— The Church Service, 559 — Fugal 
 writing for voices, 560 — Examples of good subjects, 561 — The Mass, 562 
 — The largest vocal works : Cantata, Oratorio, Opera, 563, 564 — The 
 indefiniteness of the larger vocal forms, 56?. 
 
Applied Forms. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 i. In the preceding volume of this series, bearing the title of 
 Musical Form, we treated the question of the gradual develop- 
 ment of musical compositions from their simplest elements. It 
 was seen in that volume how everything springs ultimately from 
 the embryo, or germ, which we name the motive. We saw how 
 by the combination of two motives we obtain a section, how two 
 sections form a phrase, and how a second phrase added to a first 
 makes a sentence, or period {Musical Form, Chapters II., III.). 
 It was also shown that the four-bar phrase and the eight-bar 
 sentence constituted the normal form, and that all sentences and 
 phrases of any other length were not new and distinct forms, but 
 merely variations of the normal form, of which we have just 
 spoken. 
 
 2. Proceeding a little further, we showed that, by carrying on 
 this process of building up, we obtained by the combination of 
 two sentences the simplest of all complete forms — that known as 
 the Binary Form. It was seen how the binary form could be 
 expanded and modified in various ways without losing its essential 
 characteristics. By adding an episode to an already complete 
 binary form, and then repeating the first part of the movement, 
 either entirely or partially, we obtained the Ternary Form — the 
 only other typical form ; and in concluding the volume it was 
 said that all the larger forms, which still remain to be noticed, 
 were developed from one or the other of these two typical forms, 
 the Binary and Ternary. 
 
 3. We have briefly summarized in these few words the 
 contents of our last volume, in order to impress strongly upon 
 the student a point which we have several times had occasion to 
 mention — that all music is an organic growth, and that the binary 
 and ternary forms are developed from the simplest motives by as 
 natural a process of evolution as that by which an oak grows out 
 of an acorn. When, later in the present volume, we deal with the 
 
2 Applied Forms. [Chap. i. 
 
 largest and most perfect of the forms, such as the Sonata form, 
 we shall find the same process still carried on, though composers 
 themselves may be often but imperfectly conscious of it. It is 
 this development from simple motives, often by a process which 
 might be compared to spontaneous generation, which gives unity 
 of structure to the fugues of Bach and the symphonies of 
 Beethoven 
 
 4. Hitherto we have treated merely of form in the abstract. 
 It is true that our illustrations have been taken from works of all 
 kinds, vocal and instrumental ; but in our analyses we have not 
 concerned ourselves with the differences of structure resulting 
 from the nature of the instruments, whether organ, pianoforte, 
 orchestra, or vocal organs, which were the media employed by 
 the composer for the presentation of his ideas. But, as a matter 
 of fact, purely abstract music is very seldom to be met with. We 
 see. it in the examples of chord-progression, &c, to be found in 
 theoretical treatises ; but we can only point to one work in 
 standard musical literature that may be truly considered to be 
 abstract music. This is Bach's " Art of Fugue." Though in the 
 best-known edition (that of Czerny) it appears as pianoforte 
 music, it was not (excepting the two fugues for two claviers) 
 written as such by the composer. This is seen very clearly from 
 the fact that in the autograph all the fugues are written in open 
 score — a procedure which Bach never adopted with his pianoforte 
 or organ fugues— and that it contains passages which cannot 
 possibly be played as they are written, by two hands. 
 
 5. When a composer sits down to write a piece of music, its 
 form will be to a greater or less extent influenced by the nature 
 of the instruments for which he is writing. For example, many 
 passages which are perfectly easy for the piano are either difficult 
 or impossible for the violin, and vice versd ; while in composing 
 vocal music it is necessary to take into account the compass and 
 capabilities of the voice or voices written for. As an illustration 
 of what has just been said, let the student compare the solo part 
 of Beethoven's violin concerto with the arrangement of the same 
 work by its composer as a pianoforte concerto, and notice what 
 important alterations are made in order to adapt the music to the 
 technique of the keyed instrument. We do not mean to say that 
 the abstract form of the work is changed ; the sentences and 
 phrases have the same number of bars as before, but very 
 considerable modification is made in the details of the com- 
 position. 
 
 6. As distinguished from the abstract fotni treated of in our 
 last volume, form considered in its relation to the medium 
 through which it is presented to the hearer is called Applied 
 Form and it is this with which we have now to deal. The same 
 term is also used to describe the larger forms of instrumental and 
 vocal music, which are developed out of the two typical forms, 
 
Chap, i.] Introduction. 3 
 
 the Binary and the Ternary, with which the student is already 
 acquainted. 
 
 7. Music is broadly divided into two kinds — instrumental and 
 vocal ; and there is a very great difference in the treatment of the 
 two. This will be seen at once, if we remind the student that, 
 while all the notes of vocal music can be played on an instrument 
 such as the piano, by far the greatest part of instrumental music 
 cannot possibly be sung. This distinction, it should be added, is 
 comparatively modern ; instrumental music is of much more recent 
 origin than vocal ; and the first edition of some of the old 
 madrigals describes the music as " apt for voices or viols." 
 
 8. Musical instruments may further be divided into two classes 
 — those which are capable of producing complete harmony 
 by themselves, and those which can only produce one note at a 
 time. To the former class belong all keyed instruments, such as 
 the piano, with its various precursors (harpsichord, clavichord, 
 &c), the organ, and the harmonium. In the latter class are 
 included all wind instruments. ' The stringed instruments can, it 
 is true, produce more than one note at a time ; but it is impossible 
 to obtain from them continuous full harmony, as from a piano or 
 organ ; we therefore include them in the second class. The first 
 of these two classes we will call polyphonous instruments ; the 
 second, monophonous instruments. The harp, though really a 
 polyphonous instrument, is seldom employed, except in the 
 orchestra. The whole question of orchestral composition will be 
 dealt with in later volumes of this series • the only instrumental 
 music of which we shall treat in the present work, will be that 
 written for such polyphonous instruments as the piano and organ. 
 
 9. Vocal music also may be divided into that which is written 
 for one voice, and that written for more than one. In the former 
 case it is evident that, in order to obtain any complete harmonic 
 effects, the music must have an accompaniment of one or more 
 instruments. By far the most common accompaniment for a 
 vocal solo is that of the piano ; though examples are also to be 
 met with of songs accompanied by the organ, harp, or guitar. 
 Music written for more than one voice may be either accompanied 
 or unaccompanied. 
 
 10. As a large part of the present volume will be devoted to 
 the examination of music written for the pianoforte, it will be 
 advisable in the first place to give the student some practical 
 hints as to writing effectively for that instrument. We shall then 
 speak in detail of the various forms of pianoforte music, beginning 
 with the smallest. Some of these have been already met with in 
 the last volume; others will be new to us. From the smaller 
 forms, which will be found to be mostly either simple binary or 
 simple ternary, we shall proceed to the larger forms, Rondo, 
 Sonata, &c. We shall find that these are either extensions or 
 modifications of the ternary form. Our study of instrumental 
 
 E 2 
 
4 Applied Forms. t cha P' *• 
 
 forms will be completed by some notice of the organ and organ 
 music. 
 
 ii. In treating of vocal music, it will be needful to give some 
 explanation of the mechanism of the voice itself, and to follow 
 this by an examination of the relation of words to music — a point 
 on which the most serious mistakes are often made by students. 
 The principal forms of unaccompanied and accompanied vocal 
 music will then be spoken of, treating in the latter case only of 
 music accompanied by the piano or organ. 
 
 12. It will be seen that the field of research covered by the 
 present volume is very large; it embraces, in fact, the entire 
 range of music, both vocal and instrumental ; for the forms of 
 orchestral compositions and of chamber music (that is, music 
 written for two or more solo instruments) are in all essentials 
 identical with the forms of pianoforte music. When, later, we 
 come to speak of the orchestra, we shall not have to concern 
 ourselves at all with the form of the music, but only with the means 
 by which it is presented. Those who carefully study this and the 
 preceding volume of the series will, it is hoped, know enough of 
 the subject of musical form to need no further instruction than 
 such as they can obtain for themselves by the examination of 
 the works of the great masters. If these works are seriously 
 approached with the requisite preliminary knowledge, more can 
 be learned from them than from all the theoretical works that 
 were ever written. Without in the least undervaluing the great 
 services rendered to the cause of musical education by such 
 distinguished theorists as Marx, Hauptmann, Lobe, or Dr. 
 Riemann, we say unhesitatingly that the best masters in com- 
 position are Bach, Mozart, Beethoven, and the other immortal 
 composers, who have brought our art to its present state of 
 advancement. From the student's point of view, no text-books 
 in the world can ever be so beneficial as a thorough study of the 
 masterpiece of musical literature. 
 
Chap, ii.] Pianoforte Writing. 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 PIANOFORTE WRITING. 
 
 13. It may be fairly assumed that every student who attempts 
 composition will have at least some acquaintance with the piano- 
 forte. We have no intention, therefore, in the present chapter of 
 writing anything in the nature of a pianoforte school, or of saying 
 anything about the technique of the instrument, in the sense in 
 which that word is generally understood, as applying to fingering, 
 touch, &c There are, however, some general principles con- 
 cerning the method of writing for the piano, and certain important 
 considerations which the student should bear in mind ; and it is 
 of these that we are now about to speak. 
 
 14. If a musician has a practical acquaintance with one 
 instrument only, there can be no question that the piano is the 
 most useful one for him to know. It has the largest compass of 
 any keyed instrument ; * it is capable of executing any kind of 
 passages that lie within the reach of two, or (in the case of a duet) 
 of four hands; and music written for any other instrument, or 
 combination of instruments, can be reproduced upon it, at least 
 approximately, by being suitably transcribed. For these reasons 
 it is most desirable that every student should have some know- 
 ledge of the piano. 
 
 15. On the other hand, there are certain shortcomings, 
 inherent to the nature of the instrument, which the composer has 
 carefully to take into account in writing for it. Foremost among 
 these is the inability to sustain a sound of uniform strength. As 
 soon as a note has been struck on the piano, the amplitude of 
 vibration, and therefore the tone, of the sounding string begins to 
 diminish. It is true that our modern grand pianos-possess far 
 more sustaining power than the instruments of the last century ; 
 but even with ours, the diminution of the tone very soon 
 becomes perceptible. A crescendo on a holding note is of course 
 absolutely impossible. It should be added that the sustaining 
 power becomes continually less as we ascend to the higher part 
 of the compass of the instrument. 
 
 16. Another point to be noticed with regard to the piano is, 
 that its tone is almost uniform in quality throughout its entire 
 compass. When we come to treat of orchestral instruments, it 
 
 * Of course it is possible on a large organ to obtain both higher and lower 
 notes by means of 32-ft. and 2-ft. stops ; but such cannot be used alone ; and, 
 in the ordinary sense of the words, the statement in the text is correct. 
 
Applied Forms. 
 
 [Chap. II. 
 
 will be seen that their quality varies considerably in their different 
 registers — grave, medium, and acute ; in singers also there is a 
 difference between the chest-voice and the head-voice. But on 
 the piano, except with the extremely low bass notes, there is 
 hardly any difference in quality, though, as said in the last 
 section, the sustaining power varies in different parts of the 
 instrument. 
 
 17. Dr. Marx, in his admirable " Kompositionslehre," has called 
 attention to the fact that the very shortcomings of the piano to 
 which we have just alluded are, from one point of view, an 
 advantage to the musician. He says that there is no instrument 
 which so readily calls upon the imagination and fancy, both of 
 performer and hearer, to supply its natural defects. If, for 
 instance, we play a slow and sustained melody, or succession of 
 harmonies, we know that, as a matter of fact, there will be a 
 diminuendo upon every note. But the mind carries on the 
 preceding chord to the next one, as if it were sustained at a 
 uniform strength. As an example, let anyone play the following 
 passage from Schumann's " Humoreske " : — 
 
 Schumann: Humoreske, Op. 20. 
 
 Ped. 
 
 Ped. 
 
 JJ-P g=\ m — i—mi =1 m — H 
 
 ST * s^ ' ^cz)^=^'£j^=y^ " 
 
 CpT^ "•-=' T^ T^ 
 
 
 Ped. 
 
Chap. II.] 
 
 Pianoforte Writing. 
 
 The effect produced by this passage is to all intents the same as if 
 it were played on the organ. Though there is a perceptible de- 
 crease of tone on each chord, the mind is hardly conscious of 
 this, and the imagination supplies what is wanting, and carries on 
 the sound of each chord undiminished to the next one. 
 
 1 8. The passage just quoted illustrates another point of piano- 
 forte writing which may here be touched upon. It will be seen 
 that the hands are here, so to speak, interlaced — the thumb of the 
 left hand striking a higher note than the thumb of the right. Had 
 facility of performance been the only point regarded, Schumann 
 would have written the passage thus : — 
 
 Ped. 
 
 Ped. 
 
 This would not only have been much easier, but it would have 
 allowed the real bass of the harmony, which Schumann has written 
 in small notes, to be sustained by the hand, instead of by the pedal. 
 But if the student will play both the passages, he will find that the 
 effect of the two is quite different. The composer's object here 
 was to give a certain prominence to the melody in the middle 
 voice : — 
 
 (We have reduced the length of the notes by one-half, and written 
 in * time, to show the melody more clearly.) This secondary 
 melody produces here an effect somewhat analogous to that which 
 it would have if given on the high notes of the violoncellos in the 
 orchestra; and to obtain this, Schumann employs a somewhat 
 
Applied Forms. 
 
 [Chap. II. 
 
 constrained position of the left hand, which almost forces the 
 player to bring out strongly the notes played by the thumb. 
 
 19. This effect of the interlacing of the two hands has been 
 often employed by modern writers for the piano, and by none with 
 more skill than by Liszt, the greatest pioneer in the domain of 
 pianoforte technique that the world has yet seen. An extract 
 from his transcription for pianoforte solo of Beethoven's symphony 
 in C minor will illustrate this point. 
 
 Liszt : Transcription of Beethoven's Symphony in C minor. 
 
 Here, in order to reproduce the composer's idea, it is most 
 important to mark strongly the sforzando on the single notes 
 (DJf and Gfl) on the third beat of each alternate bar ; and if the 
 student will try it, he will find it impossible to do this in any other 
 way than that in which it is here arranged. No rules can be given 
 for the employment of such effects as these ; the composer's feel- 
 ing for what he requires will be the only guide. 
 
 20. We spoke in § 17 of the hearer's imagination helping him 
 to supply the defects of the instrument in regard to sustaining 
 power. In the upper part of its scale this deficiency is especially 
 perceptible ; it is generally, therefore, advisable not to write a 
 cantabile melody at a high pitch. This can be sometimes done, 
 as in the following passage by Beethoven : — 
 
 Beethoven : Bagatelle, Op. 119, Nc. 11. 
 
 f« - S" tfi^pfe -fO r: 
 
 Here, as in the passage by Schumann quoted in § 17, we are not 
 really conscious of the decrease of tone on the long holding notes, 
 
Chap, ii.] Pianoforte Writing. 9 
 
 because the mind carries each one on till the following note of the 
 melody is sounded. In the majority of cases, however, it is best 
 to give such passages to the medium part of the instrument. Let 
 the student examine Mendelssohn's " Lieder ohne Worte," and he 
 will find that, with hardly an exception, the melodies are placed in 
 that part of the instrument which has the most singing power. 
 
 21. The sustaining power of the piano is considerably increased 
 by the correct use of the pedal. It would be hardly needful to 
 refer to the proper function of the pedal, were it not for the com- 
 mon experience of pianoforte teachers, that when students see the 
 pedal marked in a. piano passage, they often take it to indicate the use 
 of the soft {una corda) pedal (§ 30). This misapprehension probably 
 arises from the fact that the right pedal (properly the " damper 
 pedal") is so often spoken of as the "loud pedal." It is perfectly 
 true that by putting down this pedal' the tone (as we shall show 
 directly) is increased ; but this is not its principal function. A 
 clear understanding of its correct employment is most important 
 to anyone who wishes to write well for the piano. 
 
 22. Anyone who has even an elementary knowledge of the 
 mechanism of the piano is aware that against each of the notes, 
 produced by two or three strings in unison, is placed a piece of felt 
 called a " damper." So long as the damper is pressing against the 
 strings, they are unable to vibrate. When a key is pressed down, a 
 hammer strikes the strings opposite to that key ; the same move- 
 ment lifts the damper off those strings, and allows them to vibrate 
 while the key remains down. As soon as the finger leaves the 
 key, the damper is released and falls back upon the string, stopping 
 its vibration. If there were no dampers, each note would con- 
 tinue to sound after the finger had left the key, until the vibrations 
 died away of themselves. 
 
 23. When the pedal is pressed down by the foot — and here let 
 it be distinctly understood, that when the word " pedal " is used 
 without qualification the damper-pedal is always meant — the 
 dampers are lifted from the whole of the strings simultaneously. 
 The result of this is, that now, when the finger quits a key, the 
 damper, being held off by the pedal, does not fall back on the 
 string ; consequently the note that has been struck continues to 
 sound as if the finger were still holding it down. Of this the 
 student can convince himself by putting down the pedal and 
 striking a chord staccato. The chord will be sustained until he 
 releases the dampers by raising his foot from the pedal. 
 
 24. Now let him try another simple experiment. Let him, 
 without putting down the pedal, strike a single note, for instance, 
 the C below the treble staff, with moderate force. Then let him 
 put the pedal down, and strike the same note again, with as nearly 
 as possible the same strength as before. He will notice a per- 
 ceptible increase in the volume of tone. This is because other 
 strings of the piano, which are free to vibrate now that the dampers 
 
io Applied Forms. [Chap. 11. 
 
 are not pressing against them, are set in vibration by the pheno- 
 menoti known as " sympathetic resonance." 
 
 25. For a full explanation of this phenomenon we must refer 
 our readers to Chapter III. of Helmholtz's " Sensations of Tone," 
 and content ourselves here with quoting his general definition : — 
 
 " This phenomenon is always found in those bodies which when once set 
 in motion by any impulse, continue to perform a long series of vibrations be- 
 fore they come to rest. When these bodies are struck gently, but periodically, 
 although each blow may be separately quite insufficient to produce a sensible 
 motion in the vibratory body, yet provided the periodic time of the gentle 
 blows is precisely the same as the periodic time of the body's own vibrations, 
 very large and powerful oscillations may result. But if the periodic time of the 
 regular blows is different from the periodic time of the oscillations, the resulting 
 motion will be weak or quite insensible." {Sensations of Tone, p. 56.) 
 
 26. This law applies to the case we are now discussing ; the 
 sound of the middle C struck by the finger sets in vibration the 
 same note on all the other strings capable of producing it. We 
 know that strings when vibrating sound, not only their fundamental 
 tone, but some of their earlier produced upper partials (Harmony, 
 § 40). In the present instance, middle C is one of the earlier 
 upper partials of all the following notes— 
 
 ^ 
 
 ~o — = — — — — — =r 
 
 and it will be sounded with greater or less strength on each of 
 these strings, if by raising the dampers we allow them to vibrate 
 freely. Though each separate upper partial will be comparatively 
 weak, yet together they will considerably reinforce the strength of 
 the note struck. ' If a whole chord be sounded when the pedal is 
 put down, the same process of course goes on with each note. 
 This is the true reason of the pedal being called the " loud " 
 pedal. 
 
 27. This, however, is a comparatively subordinate object of 
 the use of the pedal. Its chief use, as said above, is to sustain 
 the sound ; and by its proper employment the player is often able 
 to obtain effects which without its aid would require three, or even 
 four hands. The following passage illustrates this point : — 
 
 Schumann : Etudes Symphoniques, Op. 13. 
 
 -3- 1 ' 
 
 'tJ — — — — *a — cgn ^ r~T"^FT 1^ 
 
 . =f =f T =F =t .-4-*!- -*! < 4 
 
 umpre col Pe dale. 
 
Pianoforte Writing. 
 
 q -fl jOT" $£&£n& ^J3i--±&^ 5Jtt 
 
 \^r^. 
 
 W v 
 
 H ^gg 
 
 
 J5 ..55 _ J3- J55 q -^- - -S -TT3- 
 
 
 
 HfcsE* 
 
 _N—>. 
 
 r Ttr^grjtr^-^p^rr^.-^? 
 
 
12 
 
 Applied Forms. 
 
 [Chap. II. 
 
 j? 8 *!^ 
 
 •p'l^'T "Wj ===== _ - 
 
 tfS p p a C BSa „M B KSUJ 
 
 ■KB- a ■*«■ n-*3-»Sa-i -S--S» ;-«-»-*««y 
 
 It will be seen that in the first four bars of the above there are two 
 sustained melodies, one above and the other below the harmony 
 given in the semiquaver triplets ; while, in the latter half of the 
 extract, the melody of the bass is heard in three, and even in four 
 octaves. It is obviously impossible to sustain these melodies 
 except by the use of the pedal. 
 
 28. A more usual, and not less characteristic, employment of 
 the pedal is seen in our next example : — 
 
 Kl'1-i.aw: ' Les Fleurs Animees,' No. 5. 
 (The melody marked : the accompaniment PP) 
 
Chap. II.] 
 
 Pianoforte Writing. 
 
 13 
 
 Here a simple melody is sustained in the middle of the instrument, 
 while both hands execute arpeggios above and below. Notice 
 that the left hand in every bar strikes the note which has been 
 already heard as a melody note, but with less force. This repeti- 
 tion of a note, given first as a melody and then as an accompani- 
 ment, is sometimes used with entire chords, as in the following 
 passage : — 
 
 S. Heller : Etudes, Op. 43. 
 
 Zb — 1 ! 
 
 1 1 i 1 
 
 —j — t- 
 
 n= 
 
 -i— 1 ; 
 
 
 
 zsts=j|=^rg=j 
 
 
 V 
 
 V 
 
 
 V 
 
 1 J _j 
 
 V 
 
 V 
 
 V V 
 
 — 1 — 1 — 1 — 1 — r 
 
 — 1 — ' — 1 — I — 1 — f~ 
 
 V «J tor -»--*--*--*- -*• 
 
 -*--* 
 
 J 
 
 ■•- J- J- 
 
 **■ 
 
 *--*- -*■-»■-*■ 
 
 =355^^ 
 
 V 
 Fed. 
 
 V V 
 * Fid. 
 
 * Fed. 
 
 V 
 
 m 1 d 1 1 g i 
 
 •/>«£ 
 
 iVrf. 
 
 iW. 
 
 Here the real outline of the passage, as well as the actual melodic 
 and harmonic effect obtained is this : — 
 
 , ..to 
 
 -m- ^ -r -tt-^r -J--0- \)pr -*■ -j 
 
 Observe here another instance of the interlacing of the two hands 
 spoken of in § 18. 
 
 29, One more use of the pedal still remains to be mentioned. 
 It is often employed to obtain fuller harmony and wider positions 
 of chords than would be possible without its aid. An excellent 
 example of this effect is the commencement of the adagio of 
 Mendelssohn's sonata in D, Op. 58, for piano and violoncello : — 
 
14 
 
 Applied Forms. 
 
 [Chap. n. 
 
 Adagio* 
 
 Mendelssohn : Sonata, Op. $B. 
 
 
 Semfre arpeggiando col Pedah, **—^ 
 
 30. A word should be said here as to the proper use of the 
 soft {una cordd) pedal. When this pedal is pressed down by the 
 foot, the hammers are shifted a little to one side, so as only to 
 strike one string for each key. Hence results a great difference 
 not only in the volume but in the quality of tone ; and the 
 misuse of this pedal (unfortunately but too frequent) by incom- 
 petent players, in order to obtain a factitious and illegitimate piano, 
 is as grave an offence against art as the no less common abuse 
 of the damper pedal. But, for the production of a veiled and 
 ethereal tone, the soft pedal is most useful. In the adagio by 
 Mendelssohn quoted in our last paragraph, the opening bars are 
 repeated near the end of the movement an octave higher, and una 
 corda, with a charming effect. Other examples of the legitimate 
 use of the soft pedal are to be seen in the slow movements of 
 Beethoven's concerto in G, and of his sonata in B flat, Op. 106, 
 as well as in many of Liszt's pianoforte pieces. We strongly 
 advise students in writing for the piano to be very sparing in 
 indicating the employment of the soft pedal. 
 
 31. A very important consideration in writing for the piano is 
 the position of the harmonies. As a general rule, it is not good 
 to have the hands too widely separated from one another, because 
 the effect is thin, as in the following extract from the first move- 
 ment of Beethoven's great sonata in B flat, Op. 106 : — 
 
 Beethoven: Sonata, Op. 10G. 
 
 -9-b— 
 
 J5 
 
 *- 
 
 ^= f - -±.ji.± 
 
 <EQ:t 
 
 W- 
 
 £H£& 
 
 -r- . 
 
 mjfcizJ 
 
 -1 1 — 1 — 
 
 
 — 1 
 
 1 — 
 
 — 1 — 
 
 
 zr 
 
 j — m 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1— 1 — ' — 1 — 
 
 ~3~~ 5S ' j — 
 
 1 
 
 
 22-s-S 
 
 ±t= 
 
 1 9 — 
 
 -=Uj — J- 
 
 -rg. 
 
 ^? 
 
 -%- 
 
 5* 
 
 Fed. 
 
Chap. II.] 
 
 Pianoforte Writing. 
 
 IS 
 
 This passage is not quoted with any intention of fault-finding ; it 
 is quite evident that the composer's idea could not be otherwise 
 expressed ; but the great distance between the two hands, especi- 
 ally in the third and fourth bars, certainly produces a feeling of 
 emptiness, if the passage is regarded simply in its sensuous effect 
 on the ear. But in this case the imagination to some extent fills 
 up the gap, and one is scarcely conscious of the real thinness of the 
 passage. Here we see an illustration of what was said in § 17. 
 In general, however, it will be best to keep the hands nearer 
 together. 
 
 32. Except in polyphonic writing, such as fugues, it is not 
 necessary to keep throughout to the same number of parts in 
 writing for the piano. In this matter considerable freedom is 
 allowed to the composer. A passage from one of Haydn's sonatas 
 will illustrate this point : — 
 
 Adagio. 
 
 Haydn : Sonata in E flat, No. i. 
 
 Here the number of parts varies from three to seven. Frequently 
 when a sforzando or forte effect is required, the harmony, as here, 
 becomes fuller. Jn such cases, it is not considered that consecu- 
 tive octaves are produced by the filling up, though it will be better 
 and safer for the student to avoid such doublings of the leading 
 note as are seen in the third bar of the above passage. It is 
 also best, in general, not to double such dissonant notes of the 
 harmony as have fixed resolutions, though it must be added that 
 
i6 
 
 Applied Forms. 
 
 [Chap. ir. 
 
 in the pianoforte works of the great masters considerable licence is 
 often to be found in this respect. 
 
 33. In polyphonic writing, it should always be remembered 
 that each additional voice not only adds to the technical difficulty 
 of the music, but also renders it less easy for the hearer to follow 
 the progression of the separate parts. Considerably more than 
 half of Bach's fugues for the clavier are for three voices only, and 
 even in these we frequently find passages of considerable length 
 written in two-part harmony. For example, in the great fugue in 
 A minor, for three voices, 
 
 we find that, not reckoning the first part of the exposition before 
 the third voice enters, there are more than 60 bars, or about a 
 third of the whole fugue, in which only two notes are sounded 
 at once. 
 
 34. It is not merely in fugues, however, that the preference of 
 composers for writing for the piano in only two or three parts is 
 exhibited. Many movements in the sonatas of Haydn and Mozart 
 are chiefly in harmony of two or three parts only, though, as will 
 be seen directly, the effect of fuller harmony is obtained by the 
 way in which these parts are disposed. A very familiar example 
 of this style of writing is seen in the Rondo of Beethoven's 
 " Sonate Pathetique," more than half of which is in two-part har- 
 mony. The tendency of the modern school of piano writing, 
 from Schumann onwards, is toward the employment of fuller 
 chords ; but the practice of the great masters sufficiently shows 
 how possible it is to obtain excellent effects from the instrument 
 without keeping all the fingers continually at work. 
 
 35. In writing for the piano in only two or three parts, large 
 use is generally made of broken chords and arpeggios ; and the 
 treatment of these is a matter requiring considerable experience, 
 but about which it is, unfortunately, all but impossible to lay 
 down more than very general rules. Of these, the most important 
 is, that in broken chords each note should be considered as 
 forming a separate part of the harmony. The opening of the 
 Rondo of the "Sonate Pathetique," above referred to, will 
 illustrate our meaning : — 
 
 A llegro. 
 
 Beethoven : Sonate Pathetique. 
 
Chap. II.] 
 
 Pianoforte Writing. 
 
 17 
 
 If we examine the harmonic structure of the left hand part of this 
 passage, we find it to be as follows : — 
 
 K 
 
 =ys= 
 
 e- , s P tff iL 
 
 =s= 
 
 Here we have an example of what was said in § 32 — that it is not. 
 always necessary to keep to the same number of parts in writing 
 for the piano. But the point to which we wish particularly to 
 direct the attention of the student is, the treatment of the 
 dissonances. The chords of the dominant seventh in the first 
 bar, of the dominant minor ninth in the fifth, and of the 
 augmented sixth in the sixth, are all resolved as regularly as they 
 would be in the strictest vocal writing. 
 
 36. It is, however, by no means uncommon, whether in 
 arpeggios or in full chords, to find the rules of correct part-writing 
 departed from, sometimes for technical, at other times for aesthetic 
 reasons. We give one example of each : — 
 
 ^ Beet hoven : Sonata in E flat, Op. 7. 
 
 IS, -I: he 
 
 -0 — m- — -m 
 
 In the first bar of this passage is seen the second inversion of the 
 chord of the seventh on D. The C is here resolved by the B in 
 the left hand of the following bar. In the last chord but one is 
 the fourth inversion of the dominant eleventh in the key of C. 
 The C being the dissonant note against the D, should resolve by 
 falling a semitone. But at the end of the last century, when this 
 sonata was composed, it was unusual to write a stretch of a tenth 
 
i8 
 
 Applied Forms. 
 
 [Chap. II 
 
 on the piano, even fcr the left hand, as Beethoven has done in 
 the second bar of our extract ; while a tenth in the right hand 
 would have probably been almost without precedent. The 
 general use of the tenth in pianoforte music was first introduced 
 several years later by Weber. Beethoven, therefore, resolves his 
 C in the lower octave, with a position of the chord which does 
 not sound so well, owing to the major third low down in the bass. 
 A modern composer would unquestionably have written the 
 passage thus : — 
 
 37. In our next example 
 
 Weber : Variations on " Vien qua, Doriha bella," Op 7. 
 
 there are in reality consecutive fifths between the second and 
 third bars in the left hand. The harmony is evidently 
 
 But the licence is here tolerated for the sake of euphony. It may 
 be taken as a general rule that thirds in close position do not 
 sound well in the lower part of the piano, nor, indeed, mostly on 
 any instruments. Had Weber written the figure in the third 
 bar 
 
 though the passage would have been grammatically more correct, 
 the effect would have been so far inferior, that he was fully 
 justified here in writing what he did, in spite of the fact that the 
 
Chap. II.] 
 
 Pianoforte Writing. 
 
 19 
 
 strict letter of the law is broken thereby. Since the time of 
 Weber and Chopin, who were the first freely to use widely 
 dispersed positions of harmony on the piano, such passages as 
 that just given as a correction of Weber's text have become 
 almost obsolete, though they are often to be found in the works 
 of older composers. 
 
 38. Another case in which consecutives are justified by 
 broken harmony is seen in the following passage : — 
 
 Beethoven : Sonata in G, Op. 31, No. 1. 
 
 A dagio grazioso. 
 
 Here the semiquaver passage in the right hand is merely the 
 harmony 
 
 with the notes played alternately, instead of together. The 
 consecutive sevenths, therefore, in the right hand between the 
 fourth and fifth quavers of the second bar, and the consecutive 
 fifths between the sixth and seventh quavers, are only apparent, 
 not real. 
 
 39. It will be seen, from the passages above given, that it is 
 impossible to lay down hard-and-fast lines as to when and how 
 far the strict rules of harmony may be relaxed in writing for the 
 piano. Much must be left to the judgment and experience of 
 the composer. Two general principles may be here added for 
 the guidance of the student. First, it is hardly ever good to 
 resolve dissonances, even in arpeggio passages, in a higher octave 
 from that in which they are taken.* A pupil of the author 
 recently wrote in a pianoforte piece the following — 
 
 * There is less objection to resolving them in the lower octave, because the 
 first upper-partial of the lower note gives the resolution in its correct position. 
 Even this, however, is seldom good, and the rule given in the text had better 
 be strictly adhered to by pupils. 
 
 C « 
 
20 
 
 Applied Forms. 
 
 [Chap, ir. 
 
 Here the G in the second bar is a suspension, which is resolved 
 two octaves too high. The correct manner of writing the passage 
 would be : — 
 
 (i) 
 
 tfc 
 
 40. The other important principle to be mentioned here is 
 that when, as in modern music so frequently happens with broken 
 chords or arpeggios, the first note of a beat in the bass is in a 
 lower octave than the rest of the harmony, we must consider it as 
 if held on to the next accented note, and be careful in general to 
 put that next note in the same octave. To illustrate this point, 
 we quote the left-hand part only of a passage from an Etude by 
 J. C. Kessler. 
 
 J. C Kessler : Etude in C sharp minor. 
 
 It is needless to give the right-hand part, as that does not affect 
 the harmonic structure of the passage. It is quite evident that 
 the real bass of the harmony is 
 
 If, at the beginning of the second bar, the upper E is taken as 
 the first note (as in the second crotchet of the same bar), the 
 seventh will be resolved an octave too high, and there will be a 
 somewhat similar fault to that shown in our last paragraph. It 
 must not be supposed that it is always wrong to change the 
 position of the bass note into another octave ; we see examples of 
 such a change in the first and last bars of the above passage ; but 
 when this is done, it is best for it to be after a concord, and not 
 after a discord. 
 
 41. One useful piece of advice has still to be givs'n to the 
 
chap, ii.) Pianoforte Writing. 21 
 
 student before concluding this chapter. We have already spoken 
 of the necessity of considering the nature of the instrument in 
 regard to its sustaining power and the quality of its tone. But it 
 is also most important to bear in mind its technique, that is to 
 say, to consider how the passages lie under the hands of the 
 performer. A very common error with beginners is to write 
 music which the Germans describe as " unklaviermassig," i.e., 
 unsuitable to the key-board. It is impossible to define in precise 
 terms what is and what is not uncomfortable to play. In saying 
 " uncomfortable," we do not mean merely difficult. Many 
 passages are to be found (for example, in the works of Chopin 
 and Liszt) which require a great deal of practice before they can 
 be correctly played, yet which, when once mastered, are perfectly 
 comfortable and most effective. This is because the composers 
 we have named had an intimate knowledge of the technique of 
 the instrument, and never lost sight of it when writing. But we 
 also meet not infrequently with passages which are as ineffective 
 as they are difficult, because the peculiarities of the instrument 
 have been insufficiently considered. Such are the too frequent 
 use of very full harmony in both hands, especially if accompanied 
 by rapid changes in position. Many passages, even of single 
 notes, which would be perfectly easy, for instance, on the violin 
 are almost or quite impracticable on the piano, e.g. — 
 
 Allegro. 
 
 *•■*- 
 
 Stringed instrument players when composing for the piano are 
 often disposed to think of their own instrument rather than of 
 that for which they are writing ; though it is not likely that any 
 one would write so absurd a passage as that just given. The best 
 safeguard against injudicious and ineffective writing is a practical 
 knowledge of the piano; and this is not the least among the 
 many reasons why an acquaintance with the instrument is so 
 valuable to the composer. 
 
 42. While, however, it is very necessary that the student 
 should think of the instrument for which he is writing, the 
 practice of composing at the piano is to be strongly deprecated, 
 even for beginners. We are perfectly well aware that some 
 eminent composers, notably Meyerbeer, were in the habit of 
 doing this ; but that fact proves nothing in its favour. To every 
 one who aspires to compose at all, notes of music ought to convey 
 absolutely as distinct ideas as the letters of a word. Unless the 
 symbols of musical notation call up in the 1 student's mental ear 
 just as clear impressions of a sound as the words of a book which 
 he is reading to himself, and, conversely, unless he is able to 
 write down unhesitatingly and correctly on music-paper any 
 
22 Applied Forms. chap. n. 
 
 succession or combination of sounds which may present them- 
 selves to his imagination, it is utterly useless for him even to 
 attempt the simplest form of composition. Music picked out 
 painfully and laboriously, a note or a chord at a time, on the 
 piano, does not deserve the name of music at all. On the other 
 hand, if the student has a free flow of ideas, the frequent stopping 
 to try them over on the piano will only be likely to check 
 inspiration. We by no means wish to discourage the habit of 
 improvisation at the piano, provided that there is some plan and 
 connection of ideas (see Musical Form, §§ 3, 4), and that the 
 improvising does not degenerate into mere " maundering ; " very 
 often the imagination may be stimulated for composition by a 
 " preliminary canter ; " and, after writing, it will of course be well 
 to play over a piece and see whether it is susceptible of improve- 
 ment ; but the act of composition itself should be a purely mental 
 process without any aid from the external ear. Orchestral players 
 often complain that modern composers write pianoforte passages 
 for their instruments ; may not this be in some cases the result of 
 the music having been written at the piano ? If the student finds 
 himself unable to write without an instrument, he must first 
 acquire the power — quite possible to everybody with natural 
 musical aptitude— of what the late Dr. Hullah used to call 
 "hearing with the eye, and seeing with the ear." Till he has 
 done this, it is useless for him to try to compose ; as soon as he 
 can do it, he will no longer require the piano. 
 
Chap, in.] The Dance Forms. 2 , 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 THE DANCE FORMS. 
 
 43. The first of trie applied forms of which we shall treat are 
 those known as the Dance Forms. We select them to commence 
 with, not only because they are in general among the simplest and 
 clearest of all forms, but also because, in consequence of the 
 variety of their rhythmic figurations, commonly spoken of as their 
 "rhythms " {Musical Form, § 180), the study and practice of them 
 is very valuable in developing the musical feeling of the student. 
 
 44. It is necessary in the first place to call attention to the 
 difference between Dance Music, in the strict sense of the term, 
 and music merely written in dance form. In the former case, the 
 music has to be so constructed as to correspond exactly to the 
 regular steps of the dance. Hence we find that, with hardly an 
 exception, dance music is written in regular four- and eight-bar 
 rhythm throughout; we scarcely ever meet with a sentence or 
 phrase of irregular length. But in music written in dance form, 
 but not intended for dancing, irregular rhythms are by no means 
 uncommon. Let the student compare the two examples from 
 minuets by Mozart, given in §§ 314 and 264 of Musical Form. 
 That quoted in § 314 was written for the Royal Balls, at Vienna. 
 Here the steps of the dancers had to be considered, and the 
 cadences occur at every fourth bar throughout the piece. But 
 the minuet, of which we give the first two sentences in § 264, is 
 taken from a string quartett. The composer no longer writes 
 under the same restrictions; consequently, he is quite free to 
 reduce his sentences to seven-bar rhythm by the elision of an 
 unaccented bar. At the beginning of the trio of the same 
 minuet (quoted in Musical Form, § 232) two four-bar phrases are 
 extended to five-bar, by the insertion of an unaccented bar. The 
 passage in § 314 is an example of dance music, while those in 
 §§ 264, 232 are specimens of music in dance form. 
 
 45. The different varieties of dance forms are so numerous 
 that it would be quite impossible, even were it desirable, to 
 describe them all within the limits of one chapter. An entire 
 volume would be required to do justice to the subject. As a 
 matter of fact, the study of the greater number of these forms 
 belongs rather to musical history than to practical composition ; 
 
24 Applied Forms. [Chap. in. 
 
 we shall confine our attention to those which are of special 
 importance, either as being parts of the old Suite, out of which 
 our chief modern instrumental forms were developed, or because 
 of their being frequently met with in the music of the present 
 day. 
 
 46. The ancient Suite consisted of a series of movements in 
 dance form, all of which were in the same key. In the larger 
 Suites (such, for example, as Bach's so-called " English Suites ") 
 the first dance was usually preceded by a prelude ; in smaller 
 Suites (e.g., in Bach's " French Suites ") this movement was mostly 
 wanting. 
 
 47. Every complete Suite of regular form contained four 
 movements which were indispensable. These were the Alle- 
 mande, Courante, Sarabande, and Gigue. Besides these, the 
 composer was at liberty to introduce between the Sarabande and 
 the Gigue any other dance forms that he chose. In the Suites of 
 Bach, which are the most perfect existing models of the form, the 
 additional dances most frequently introduced are the Gavotte, the 
 Bourree, the Passepied, and the Minuet.* We now proceed to 
 describe each of the movements we have named. 
 
 48. In one respect all these dances resemble one another. 
 They are all in the simple binary form treated of in Chapter IX. 
 of Musical Form, and consist of two parts, each of which is re- 
 peated. The first part usually ends with a modulation ; if the 
 movement is in a major key, this modulation is to the key of the 
 dominant ; in a minor key the modulation is either to the key of 
 the relative major or to the dominant minor, both being equally 
 common. Sometimes, however, the first part does not modulate, 
 but ends with a half cadence on the dominant, or (more rarely) 
 with a full cadence in the tonic key. In the majority of these 
 movements the sentences are of regular construction, that is, they 
 consist of some multiple of 4 — either 8, 12, or 16 bars; but occa- 
 sionally we find extension of sentences, by the formulae 6=4, &c, 
 with which the student is already familiar. An example of this 
 will be seen in the Bourree from Bach's sixth French Suite, given 
 in § 327 of Musical Form. 
 
 49. The Allemande, the first of the four indispensable move- 
 ments of the old Suite, has in general a less regular rhythmic 
 construction than other dance forms — that is to say the cadences 
 come at less regular intervals. This probably arises from the fact 
 
 * Many other dances are to be met with in the Suites of the old composers ; 
 we can here only mention some of their names, referring readers who wish for 
 further information to F. W. Bohme's " Geschichte des Tanzes." Among the 
 chief of these were the Chaconne, Loure, Pavane, Polonaise (not the modern 
 Polonaise, to be described later in this chapter), Siciliana, Tambourin, 
 Rigaudon, &c. A description of all these would occupy too much space, and 
 would be of comparatively little use to the student. Of the Chaconne we 
 shall have something to say when we come to speak of the variation form 
 (Chapter V.). 
 
Chap. III.] 
 
 The Dance Forms. 
 
 25 
 
 that at the time of the development of the Suite the Allemande as 
 a dance was entirely obsolete. It was a moderately quick move- 
 ment in \ time— therefore a compound time {Musical Form, § 36) 
 with two accents in each bar, and it always begins with one or 
 more short notes before an accented beat, generally with a semi- 
 quaver or a quaver, less frequently with a group of three semi- 
 quavers (see Bach's Partita, II.), and exceptionally with a whole 
 crotchet of up-beat (Bach, Partita III.). Its special characteris- 
 tics are the continual movement (mostly in semiquavers, though 
 sometimes triplet semiquavers or demisemiquavers are also to be 
 met with) in the voices, and the general richness of the harmonies. 
 50. As an example of this form, we give the Allemande from 
 Bach's fifth French Suite : — 
 
 J. S. Bach : Suites Fransaises, No. 5. 
 
26 
 
 Applied Forms. 
 
 [Chap. in. 
 
 (6=7) 
 
c^p- 1"-] The Dance Forms. 27 
 
 We said just now that the common time (C) of the Allemande 
 was a compound time, with two accents in the bar. That this is 
 the case, is proved by the position of the cadences, all of which, 
 excepting the last of each part, of which we shall speak directly, 
 come at the third beat of Bach's bars. Whenever in common 
 time the last chords of the cadences are found at the third beat of 
 the bar (unless with feminine endings) this proves the time to be 
 compound. In order to show the rhythmic construction of the 
 piece, we divide each bar of the original into two by means of 
 dotted bars. The ends of the sentences and phrases are clearly 
 defined by the cadences, and it will be seen that, as is so often the 
 case, the bar-lines of the original do not indicate the position of 
 the strong accents. The first two sentences are perfectly regular 
 in their construction ; but in the third Bach contracts his sentence 
 by (6 = 7), so as to bring the final chord of the cadence at the 
 beginning of a bar, and then restores the sentence to its normal 
 length by the prolongation of the final chord. We have inten- 
 tionally chosen an example containing a rhythmic irregularity ; but 
 in many cases Bach brings in his final chord at the regular distance, 
 and therefore at the third beat of his bar. 
 
 51. The second part of this Allemande contains only two sen- 
 tences, each of which is extended to twelve bars, the former by 
 the addition of an after-phrase, the latter by the familiar formula 
 (4 = 2) which is twice repeated. Those readers who have studied 
 the preceding volume of this series will readily understand the 
 system on which we have marked the accented bars. The close 
 of the second part is an exact transposition into the key of the 
 tonic of the corresponding passage of the first part ; it should also 
 be noticed that, though differently divided, the total lengths of the 
 two parts is exactly the same. This is frequently, but by no means 
 invariably, the case ; if there is a difference, the second part, and 
 not the first, should be the longer {Musical Form, § 345). 
 
 52. The Courante, which in a Suite follows the Allemande, 
 is a movement in quick triple time, of which there are two distinct 
 varieties, one in \, and the other in \ time. With Bach, both forms 
 are equally common ; Handel (whose Suites, it may be remarked 
 in passing, are much less regular in form than Bach's, and seldom 
 include all the four essential movements) always writes his 
 Courantes in | time. Like the Allemande, the Courante in both 
 its forms begins with an up-beat — generally only a single note 
 (quaver or semiquaver), occasionally with more than one. We 
 will first speak of the Courante in 1 time. 
 
 53. A special feature of this dance is the prevalence of dotted 
 notes, and the fact that cross accents are always met with in the 
 cadences at the end of each part, which are therefore in \ time. 
 The first half of the Courante in Bach's fourth English Suite will 
 show this clearly : — 
 
28 
 
 Applied J'orms. 
 
 [Chap. III. 
 
 J. S. Bach : S uites A nglaises, No. 4. 
 
 (8) r r 
 
 Here, though the movement is evidently in | time, the cadence is 
 unmistakably in \. 
 
 54. The cross accents we have just spoken of are sometimes 
 in a Courante to be seen in other places than the cadence, as in 
 the following example by Couperin : — * 
 
 Coupehin : Pieces de Clavecin, Book 1. 
 
 The original text has only two flats in the key-signature, according to the 
 practice of the time for movements in minor keys. We have adopted the 
 usual modern notation, to render it easier for the student to read. 
 
Chap. III.l 
 
 The Dance Forms. 
 
 29 
 
 \V av» 
 
 f F 
 
 In this piece several of the bars are most distinctly in \ time, while 
 others as clearly conform to the time-signature. This mixture of 
 times was a frequent feature of the dance. In a Suite in E flat by 
 Bach, we exceptionally find a Courante with the signature of \, 
 containing cross-accents of the same kind. 
 
 55. The other kind of Courante, in \ time, is mostly simpler 
 in construction, and generally consists largely of running passages, 
 as in the following : — 
 
3° 
 
 Applied Forms. 
 
 [Chap. III. 
 
 It has been sufficient in all these examples to give only the first 
 half of the pieces. The second half is in each case similarly con- 
 structed, and closes, of course, in the key of the tonic. Some- 
 times the second half is of the same length as the first, but not 
 infrequently it is longer by one sentence, or one phrase. Also, as 
 with the Allemande, it is by no means unusual to meet with 
 extended sentences of irregular length. 
 
 56. The third movement of a Suite is the Sarabande. This 
 is a slow dance in triple time, written indifferently with \ or \ as 
 the time-signature. It begins on the first beat of a bar, and its 
 most characteristic features are the frequent occurrence of the 
 rhythmic figure J J . J*| J J | or J J . >\ J . J* J | and the 
 prevalence of feminine endings to the cadences. Its rhythmic 
 construction is usually far more regular than that of the Alle- 
 mande or Courante ; the first part usually consists of one sentence 
 of eight bars (occasionally extended to twelve by the addition 
 of a second after-phrase), while the second part mostly contains 
 two eight-bar sentences. In only one of Bach's works (the 4th 
 Partita) do we find any departure from this regular four and 
 eight-bar formation ; though in a few other of the Partitas we 
 meet with so-called Sarabandes in which the characteristic figures 
 of that movement are altogether wanting. 
 
 57. As our first example we give the first eight bars of the 
 Sarabande in the sixth English Suite by Bach : — 
 
 :-*J- _1 
 
 . J. S. Bach : Suites Anglaises, No. 6. 
 
 _Ji 1. r>i 
 
 3 rJif 1 ' 
 
 J vv* 
 
 **=£ 
 
 r %=*? 
 
 tP>- 
 
 T~m 
 
 PES 
 
 %gi fts. 
 
 -fc-4fr=- 
 
 [tm=£ 
 
 Here the characteristic figure is clearly seen in the first and fifth 
 bars ; the sentence ends with a half cadence in the tonic key. 
 
Chap. III.] 
 
 The Dance Forms. 
 
 3i 
 
 The second part consists of two eight-bar sentences, the first of 
 which ends with a full cadence in the key of F, while the second, 
 of course, concludes in the key of the tonic. 
 
 58. It is not uncommon with Bach to find the Sarabande 
 followed by a variation, known as a " Double." The subject of 
 the Variation forms will be treated of in a later chapter of this 
 volume ; it is enough now to say that in the Double the melodies 
 were ornamented while the harmony remained the same. As a 
 specimen of this procedure we give the first four bars of the 
 Double of the Sarabande of which we have quoted the com- 
 mencement : — 
 
 J. S. Bach : Suites Anglaises, No. 6. 
 
 n 
 
 In two of Bach's English Suites (Nos. 2 and 3) we find similar 
 variations entitled "Les agrements de la meme Sarabande," i.e., the 
 embellishments of the same Sarabande. We occasionally, though 
 much more rarely, find " Doubles " also to the Allemande and 
 Courante. 
 
 59. As a particularly perfect and characteristic specimen of 
 the Sarabande, we give a little known piece from Handel's 
 'Terpsichore.' It is written for stringed instruments, and we 
 have compressed the score on two staves : — 
 
 Handel: 'Terpsichore.' 
 
 Largo assai. 
 
Applied Forms. 
 
 [Chap, in 
 
 As in our last example, the first part ends with a half cadence in 
 the tonic ; but it is at least as common to find it end with a 
 modulation to some nearly related key. In the second part of 
 this Sarabande will be seen instances of the feminine endings 
 spoken of above as a common feature of this dance. 
 
 60. The last of the four indispensable movements of the 
 regularly constructed Suite was the Gigue (also written " Gique," 
 or, in its Italian form, " Giga "). This was a quick dance in triple 
 time, most commonly | or \, sometimes also £ or ]J. When 
 intended for dancing, the rhythmic structure was mostly quite 
 regular, as in the following simple example from Handel's ballet 
 ' Terpsichore ' : — 
 
 Handel: 'Terpsichore.' 
 
 XT r v cf tt " 
 
 £&* *£L, 
 
Chap. IN.]] 
 
 The Dance Forms. 
 
 33 
 
 if — f — i* - ^ — » i* g - 1 — UJ-J »»g ~f 
 
 The first part of this Gigue consists of an eight-bar sentence 
 regularly divided into two phrases of equal length. The second 
 part contains only one sentence of eight bars extended to sixteen ; 
 the last eight bars can clearly not be considered as a new sentence, 
 as they contain only repetitions and confirmations of the cadence. 
 We have marked the eighth bar after the double bar as (8 = 4), 
 because the inverted cadence here proves that the sentence is not 
 completed ; a new after-phrase is added, and the repetition of this 
 after-phrase (8 = 4 again) gives sixteen bars as the whole length 
 of the sentence. The point which we wish to emphasize is, that 
 the cadences come regularly at every fourth bar throughout. 
 
 61. In the Suites of Bach, in whose works all the dance-forms 
 are seen in their highest development, the Gigue often assumes 
 larger dimensions, and much greater complexity. He frequently 
 treats it in the free fugal style, in which, as we already know 
 {Musical Form, § 269), there are great irregularities of rhythmic 
 structure. To illustrate these, we give the Gigue from the third 
 English Suite : — 
 
 J. S. Bach : Suites Anglaises, No. 3. 
 
[Chap. III. 
 
 'f£j£?^=£== 
 
 ■^i ^ i . ^ 
 
 i i J* J -JVj — J^^^n 
 
 ^r^Hsr 
 
 F i*f r [»> 
 
 
 V 
 
 
 H=S) 
 
 f ffi -i J i JTT3 . i r3+-i — 
 
 — pn— r 
 
 ^Fr^r^i 
 
 
 
 — *— - — s-s-^ 
 1 ' I—*— 1 
 
 *• (8) 
 
 =2u£- 
 
 *8* 
 
 7^ 
 
 — — ! — 1 — 
 
 | .. . 
 
 r°y^ 
 
 _T^*— , : « Jte^S- J—S^i= 
 
 te 
 
 
 
 W * ' ' * 
 
 , m : * ■ f» f ff- 
 
 —O «— 
 
 , » * . | = 1 s- 
 
 \ 
 
 ' ' 
 
 
 
 — 'J" ^T* ^ 1 
 
 (3) 
 
The Dance Forms. 
 
 1 p h , 
 
 
 Jf. m 
 
 JT"1 : '■■","■ , i 1 
 
 17 
 
 J ^s- — 
 
 1 *i 
 
 =^J*=t-^cs^F"j=l 
 
 <s b ■ i- —. h 
 
 V 
 
 
 
 - -«r 
 (4) * 
 
 Eft* 
 
 -<■ — =■ 
 
 
 : V, 
 
 ^» ^- 
 
 
 
 
 g , _i r-i 
 
 $L 
 
 -r , 
 
 V* « 
 
 "^^ 
 
 ^ • 
 
 f ^ 
 
 — m h * 
 
 • r 
 
 pfraJg-, ^- 
 
 V 
 
 
 
 
 
 — < — t- *— 
 
 1 ' l ~ r 
 
 («"" 
 
 
 D 2 
 

 
 
 
 
 *~— 
 
 
 » m 
 
 
 
 iff 4-JZ3-L^T^r* — ^fl 
 
 
 **>-*4 
 
 
 
 '^ r 
 
 *■* + 
 
 -^■b— ^^^*J 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 (8=5) 
 
 **i^ - 
 
 
 
 
 (8) J 
 
Chap, in.] The Dance Forms. 
 
 37 
 
 As y is compound time, containing two accents in each bar, it is 
 needful for our analysis to change it to % by the addition of dotted 
 bars throughout. It will be seen that, as is so frequently the case 
 in compound time {Musical Form, § 37), the strong accents come, 
 in the majority of cases, on the third beats of Bach's bars ; the 
 distinction between the strong and weak accents was often disre- 
 garded by the great composers. The first sentence of eight bars 
 is quite regular ; but at the entry of the third voice we see the 
 conversion of an accented into an unaccented bar (compare the 
 fugue by Bach in § 270 of Musical Form); a similar conversion 
 (8 = 1) is seen at the end of the sentence, as is clearly shown by 
 the position of the following cadences — our only guide in analyzing 
 sentences and phrases. Notice the addition of a section to the 
 fore-phrase at (4a), and the feminine ending of the fore-phrase at 
 the fourth bar before the double bar. 
 
 62. The second part of this Gigue begins with the fugal 
 treatment of the inverted subject. Here the rhythmic irregu- 
 larities become more frequent than in the first part ; the student 
 who understands the principles laid down in Chapter VIII. of 
 Musical Form will find comparatively little difficulty in following 
 our analysis. It should be observed that in spite of the irregularity 
 of the separate sentences, there is a certain uniformity in the out- 
 line of the piece as a whole, the first part containing altogether 
 twenty bars of " time, and the second twenty-four ; both numbers, 
 it will be seen, being multiples of 4. It will, however, be found 
 quite impossible to divide it into regular eight-bar sentences, as 
 many of the cadences will be in the wrong places. 
 
 63. In two instances Bach writes his Gigues in simple quad- 
 ruple time — in the sixth Partita ((£), and the first French Suite (Q), 
 and in the fourth Partita we see a Gigue in ,° 6 time. These, however, 
 are quite exceptional cases. The Gigue in the first Partita, though 
 the time-signature is C. is on ty an apparent exception ; the con- 
 tinual flow of triplets throughout makes it really in ™ time. The 
 student who wishes to write a Gigue had better use either | or " 
 time, and will also do well (at least at first) to avoid complicated 
 rhythms. 
 
 64. It was said in § 47 that between the Sarabande and- the 
 Gigue other dance forms were often introduced. A brief descrip- 
 tion of the most important of these will complete this portion of 
 our subject. One of the most frequently met with is the Gavotte. 
 This was a quick dance in duple time (two minims to the bar), 
 beginning with a half-bar, which usually contained two crotchets, 
 for one or both of which quavers might be substituted. In its 
 early form, the first part of a Gavotte contained one sentence, and 
 the second the same, both of normal length. An example of 
 such a Gavotte is the following, from Couperin's "Pieces de 
 Clavecin ": — 
 
38 
 
 Applied Forms. 
 
 [Chap. III. 
 
 Gayetnent. 
 
 Couperin : Pifeces de Clavecin, Book I. 
 
 &)f 
 
 65. In the works of Bach and Handel, the Gavotte frequently 
 assumes larger dimensions. The example from Bach's ' Franzos- 
 ische Ouverture,' given in § 323 of Musical Form, contains two 
 eight-bar sentences in the second part; while in the sixth English 
 Suite of the same composer, the first part of the Gavotte contains 
 eight bars (one sentence), and the second twenty-four, these being 
 not divided into three eight-bar sentences, but into two, each of 
 which is extended to twelve bars. Still greater extension is to be 
 seen in the Gavotte which forms the final movement to Handel's 
 overture to ' Semele.' Here the first part contains twelve bars, 
 and the second thirty-six ; in other words, there are three sentences 
 in the second part and one in the first, and each sentence is 
 extended to twelve bars. 
 
 66. We give for our next example a Gavotte by Handel, in 
 which we find a contracted, instead of an extended sentence — a 
 rather unusual case : — 
 
Chap. III.] 
 
 The Dance Forms. 
 
 39 
 
 j-* i J J*1 i — £=• 
 
 Handel: 'Ottone.' 
 
 JL^ J--J- J.J. -J-f . J 
 
 ■iv r 
 
40 
 
 Applied Forms. 
 
 .Chap. III. 
 
 rs&H 
 
 -s=- 
 
 "-Br 
 
 1 — r 
 
 i 
 
 — o—&— 
 
 —m J 1 1— 
 
 . .St 1 
 
 
 
 -r— f 5 - 
 .*. j. 
 
 — *_ 
 
 — « H— 
 
 1 
 
 » 
 
 1 
 ■J- 
 
 m — 
 I - 
 
 -•- 
 
 i , 
 
 — « — 
 
 — i — 
 
 -»iJ- s — 
 i i 
 
 i i 
 • — *- 
 
 -j= — 1= 
 -i 
 
 —m 
 
 l 
 
 1 
 
 1 1 M. 
 
 -> • - 
 
 n — w=r 
 ' 1 ' — 
 
 1 — 
 
 4 
 
 The first two sentences of this piece are quite regular ; but the 
 third contains only six bars, and an examination shows us that the 
 first section of the fore-phrase has been elided. The final sen- 
 tence is again of the normal length. 
 
 67. Unlike the Allemande, Courante, Sarabande, and Gigue, 
 the Gavotte was often followed by a second, similar to it in form 
 and rhythm, but usually more or less contrasted in character. 
 This second Gavotte was often indicated as " Alternativo," and 
 after it was played, the first was to be repeated. If the first 
 Gavotte were in a major key, the second would be in the same 
 key ; but if the first were in a minor key, the second would be 
 either in the tonic major or in the relative major. It should be 
 remembered that, while each Gavotte considered separately is in 
 the simple Binary form, the two taken together form a movement 
 in Ternary form (see Musical Form, §§ 314, 351). Sometimes 
 (as in the third and sixth of Bach's English Suites) the second 
 Gavotte was written on a "drone bass," i e., on a tonic pedal ; in 
 that case it was called a " Musette." 
 
 68. The Passepied was a movement in I time, beginning on 
 the third quaver of the bar, and of a lively character. Handel 
 seldom if ever uses it, but several beautiful specimens of the 
 dance are to be found in the works of Bach. We give, as one of 
 the most perfect in its form, the Passepied from the ' Franzosische 
 Ouverture ' : — 
 
 J. S. Bach : 'FranzOsische Ouverture.' 
 
The Dance Forms. 
 
 
 It will be seen that the first part of this piece contains one eight- 
 bar sentence, and the second three. Extensions of sentences are 
 comparatively rare in the Passepied ; in general, the normal 
 rhythm is adhered to. 
 
 69. Like the Gavotte, the Passepied is often followed by a 
 second, after which the first is repeated. We quote the second 
 Passepied which follows our last example, not only because of its 
 intrinsic beauty, but because it illustrates a point of considerable 
 importance : — 
 
 J. S. Bach : 'FranzGsische Ouverture.' 
 
 fg ;ja^^=g=S: 
 
42 
 
 Applied Forms. 
 
 [Chap, in 
 
 Passepied /., Da Capo, 
 
 It will be seen that this second Passepied is written in three-part 
 harmony throughout. This was often done by the older com- 
 posers when one dance was followed by another of the same form, 
 the method being adopted for the sake of obtaining contrast. 
 The second movement, being in three-part harmony, was often 
 described as the Trio ; and this name continued to be used long 
 after it had ceased to be the custom to write the second dance in 
 three parts only. This is the explanation of the terms " Minuet 
 and Trio," " Scherzo and Trio," &c, so often to be met with in 
 modern compositions. 
 
 70. The Bourree was a lively dance in duple (f) time, very 
 similar in character to the Gavotte, from which, however, it is 
 easily to be distinguished by the fact that it always begins on the 
 fourth crotchet of the bar — the phrases and sentences therefore 
 ending on the third crotchet — while the Gavotte always begins 
 on the third crotchet. A second Bourre'e, which may also be a 
 Musette (§ 67), sometimes follows the first one. A good specimen 
 of the Bourree will be seen in § 327 of Musical Form. The 
 Rigaudon is almost, if not quite, identical with the Bourree. 
 
 71. The last of the old dances to be described, here is the 
 most important of all, because it is the only one which has 
 survived as an integral part of modern instrumental compositions. 
 This is the Minuet. In its older form it was a rather stately 
 dance in 4 or \ time, beginning with an accented note, i.e., on 
 the first beat of the bar. Bach's minuets are always written 
 in \ time ; so are those of Couperin, with one exception. On 
 the other hand, Handel shows a preference for \ time, though 
 examples written in \ are not infrequent (see, for instance, the 
 minuet from the overture to 'Berenice,' given in § 326 of 
 Musical Form). The minuet was often followed by a second, 
 which, if written in three-part harmony : , was frequently described 
 as a "Trio," the first being then repeated. The second minuet 
 
Chap. III.] 
 
 The Dance Forms. 
 
 43 
 
 might be either in the same key as the first, or in a related key. 
 As an example of this form, we give the Minuet and Trio from 
 Bach's third French Suite : — 
 
 — J. S. Bach : Suites Frangaises, No. 3. 
 
 j^g^ 
 
 rJffz 
 
 J^ 
 
 -r-f-ft- 
 
 ^'U ' J =t 
 
 (4) 
 
44 
 
 Applied Forms. 
 
 [Chap. III. 
 
 m f^=f=^f^ -_ 
 
 i I I i lj -J- J J I Menuet) da Capo. 
 
 (4) 
 
 (8) 
 
 It is seldom that in the minuet much rhythmic irregularity is to 
 be seen ; the most common is that which is shown here — the 
 extension of a sentence by the addition of a second after phrase. 
 Exceptionally, however, we find, in an overture in F for clavier 
 by Bach, a minuet written in three-bar rhythm throughout. 
 
 72. When a minuet is followed by a trio, the form of the 
 piece, considered as a whole, becomes ternary, as we have already 
 explained. But occasionally more than one trio is introduced. 
 A striking, instance of this will be seen in the first of Bach's 
 so-called " Brandenburg Concertos." The minuet of this concerto 
 has three trios, the first and third being strictly in three parts, 
 while the second is a Polonaise written in four-part harmony. 
 After each trio the minuet is repeated. The third trio is written 
 in I time — an anticipation of the procedure of Beethoven and 
 
chap, in.] The Dance Forms. 45 
 
 Schumann. When a minuet has more than one trio, the form 
 ceases to be ternary, and becomes a Rondo, as will be seen later 
 in this volume (Chapter VI.). 
 
 73. The minuet in the works of more modern composers 
 (from Haydn onwards) differs materially in character from the 
 older minuet which we have been describing. In the first place, 
 the tempo (which is always ,) is considerably faster, and the 
 stateliness of the old dance gives place to a feeling of merriment 
 and sometimes, one might say, of jollity. This change was due 
 to Haydn, to whom also is most probably owing the innovation 
 of commencing on the third beat of the bar instead of the first, 
 an alteration which gives greater lightness to the music. Handel 
 never begins a minuet otherwise than on the first beat, and Bach 
 only once.* But Haydn in his earliest quartetts sometimes 
 begins on the third beat, as if experimentally, while in the later 
 quartetts and symphonies we find a predominance of the newer 
 form. With Mozart both are about equally common ; but in Beet- 
 hoven's works not more than one in four of the movements 
 written in this form commences on the first beat. Besides this, 
 as the minuet was now treated, not as a dance, but as an abstract 
 dance-form, far greater irregularities in the rhythmic construction 
 are admitted. As examples of the whole, or part, of minuets 
 written in this modern, free style, we refer our readers to the 
 passages quoted in Musical Form, §§ 232, 233, 240, 264, 283, 
 and 285. 
 
 74. A still more modern development of the minuet is the 
 Scherzo, which we owe to the genius of Beethoven. It is true 
 that this name had been applied to a minuet by Haydn, who, in 
 his set of six quartetts, Op. 33, calls the minuets either " Scherzo " 
 or " Scherzando." But the term is here used only to denote the 
 character of the music as being " playful ; " for these movements 
 do not differ, except in name, from the corresponding movements 
 which, in other works, Haydn calls "Minuets." But, with 
 Beethoven, the character of the movement is changed. His 
 scherzos are more fantastic, more freakish (if the expression may 
 be allowed), than his minuets. It is difficult to define in words 
 wherein the difference consists ; but the student will feel it for 
 himself if he will compare the scherzos of the first two piano trios 
 of Beethoven's Op. 1 with the minuet in the third trio of the 
 same set. Frequently, also, the form is considerably enlarged, 
 most striking examples of this being the scherzo of the trio in B 
 flat, Op. 97, and of the ninth symphony, which latter nearly 
 approaches the complete " Sonata Form," to be spoken of in a 
 later chapter. 
 
 75 Though in the further development of the scherzo it 
 
 * In the second Minuet (Trio) of his Claviersuite in E flat 
 
46 Applied Forms. [Chap. in. 
 
 almost, if not entirely, ceases to belong to the dance-forms of 
 which we are treating in this chapter, it will be convenient to 
 complete our notice of the subject in this place. Another 
 innovation introduced by Beethoven was the writing of the move- 
 ment in other than the 4 time of the minuet, from which it was 
 developed. In the string trio in C minor, Op. 9, No. 3, the 
 Scherzo is in 3 time ; while in the piano sonatas in E flat, Op. 3 1, 
 No. 3, and A flat, Op. no, the Scherzo is written in \ time, and 
 in the quartetts in B fiat, Op. 130, and C sharp minor, Op. 131, 
 the two Prestos (J) are really scherzos in common time. In the 
 Scherzos of the Pastoral and Choral Symphonies, both of which 
 are in \ time, Beethoven writes the trios in common time. 
 
 76. We said above (§ 72) that with the older minuets more 
 than one trio was occasionally introduced. The same thing is to 
 be found in the more modern forms. Mozart, though he never 
 writes more than one trio to the minuets of his quartetts or 
 symphonies, has several times introduced two in his Serenades, 
 Divertimenti, and other instrumental works. ,A familiar example 
 will be found in the clarinet quintett. Beethoven only twice 
 gives two trios to a minuet, and both times in his earlier works — 
 the string quintett, Op. 4, and the trio, Op. 25, for flute, violin, 
 and viola. On the other hand, he sometimes, after the minuet 
 (or scherzo) has followed the trio, repeats the latter, and concludes 
 with a second repetition of the minuet, as in his fourth and seventh 
 symphonies, the trio in E flat, Op. 70, No. 2, and the quartett 
 in E minor, Op. 59, No. 2. The first to introduce two trios in 
 the scherzo of a symphony was Schumann ; examples will be seen 
 in his symphonies in B flat and C, and also in his pianoforte 
 quintett in E flat. If more than one trio is introduced, it is 
 advisable, for the sake of variety, that at least one of them should 
 be in a different time from that of the scherzo. 
 
 77. In many examples of the modern scherzo the ternary 
 form of the old minuet and trio is frankly abandoned. Here, 
 again, the example was set by Beethoven in his pianoforte sonata 
 in E flat, Op. 31, No. 3, and his great quartett in F, Op. 59, 
 No. 1, both of which movements are in sonata form. Mendels- 
 sohn, who was especially happy in his scherzos, has followed in 
 the same direction ; excellent specimens of scherzos in this form 
 will be seen in his " Scotch " symphony, his octett, and his piano 
 trio in D minor. Chopin, in his scherzos for piano, adheres to the 
 ternary form, but gives it larger dimensions. The composer of a 
 scherzo is free to use his own judgment as to the form whicli he 
 may select. 
 
 78. Coming now to speak of some of the more important of 
 the modern dance-forms, the first to be noticed is the Waltz (Fr. 
 Valse, Ger. Walzer). This dance, of German origin, was also 
 known, for that reason, as " Deutsche," the name being occasionally 
 
Chap. III.] 
 
 The Dance Forms. 
 
 47 
 
 met with as "Teutsche." The Waltz is invariably in quick triple 
 time, mostly 4, occasionally \, and may begin either on the 
 first or third beat of the bar. Nearly fifty waltzes were written 
 by Mozart, under the name of " Deutsche Tanze," all of which 
 consist of two sentences, each of eight bars in length, each half 
 being repeated ; and each is followed by a trio (§ 69) of 
 precisely similar construction, to which in one set of dances 
 Mozart has given the name " Alternative " These "Deutsche 
 Tanze " are mostly written in sets, containing from six to twelve 
 numbers in each, and a " Coda " is added at the end of some of 
 the sets. The following example (written for orchestra, but tran- 
 scribed here on two staves) will show the form clearly : — 
 
 aJT'-l^ 
 
 Trio. s 
 
 v — J" J" 1 1 1 
 
 =1 ''I'- - * * 1 
 
 r r r 
 
 m — , — , ' 1 ; J i- 
 
 r r If! I 
 p k " 
 
 . ,h. , 1 j r . T 
 
 lCJJ /' ' ' ' ' ' 
 
 .. r JF- ... ! , -1 _, 
 
 • — ^ — * — i-z 
 
 — ' -' — — -■— 
 
 1 <i -3 
 
 (8) 
 
 "J* 1 "S^ -*■ •*- 
 
4 8 
 
 Applied Forms. 
 
 [Chap. III. 
 
 
 79. Beethoven's waltzes, also entitled "Deutsche Tanze," 
 are of the same construction as Mozart's. The same is the case 
 with the majority of Schubert's. This composer was especially 
 prolific in this form, having written more than 200 waltzes for 
 piano solo, the majority of which have no trios, but consist 
 merely of two eight-bar sentences. We quote one of these, as 
 probably the first example of a syncopated effect which Gounod 
 has popularized in his waltz in ' Faust,' and which has often 
 since been imitated : — 
 
 Schubert : is Deutsche T&nze, No. a. 
 
 80. In the earlier specimens of the waltz, such as those we 
 have given, very little modulation is to be found, and that only to 
 the most nearly related keys. Schubert was the first to enlarge 
 the form in this respect. In many of his waltzes {e.g., in some of 
 
Chap. III.] 
 
 The Dance Forms. 
 
 49 
 
 the "Valses sentimentales," Op. 50, "Valses nobles," Op. 77, 
 and "Letzte Walzer," Op. 127) he modulates into keys in the 
 second degree of relationship, and also considerably extends the 
 form. The Waltz in F (No. 10, Op. 127) is one of the most 
 striking examples of the free form adopted by Schubert : — 
 
 4-^-J L^-4 
 
 Schubert: » Walzer, No. 10. 
 i. k±~< . , , '- ' - • ■ 
 
 ^— f 
 
 iisekikJx^jL 
 
 (.Link.) 
 
5» 
 
 Applied Forms. 
 
 I , 8t><j 
 
 [Chap. III. 
 ...» 
 
 ' -^-p-^g-^^-e ** i*^ 5 ^ 
 
 *=^=*^=f=*=3 
 
 1 Fine. W 
 -•- ■»• -g- 
 
 ■*" ' [— p g 1 
 
 
 
 l - b i r r %~* 
 
 
 (8) Z>a Cayto. 
 
Cha P- hi-] The Dance Forms. 
 
 Si 
 
 This waltz begins with two bars of the dominant, /"and in unison, 
 serving as an introduction, and forming no part of the first 
 sentence. Then follows the first part of the waltz, consisting of 
 one eight-bar sentence modulating to the dominant. The second 
 part contains three sentences, of which the first and third are 
 preceded by a link {Musical Form, § 368). The first of these 
 sentences is in A flat major, the second in E major, and the third 
 in F. The following trio, in B flat, also contains three sentences, 
 of which the second begins in G flat, modulating back to the 
 dominant of the original key. It will be seen that no modula- 
 tion, except that in the first sentence of the waltz, is to a nearly 
 related key. 
 
 8r. Irregular rhythmic formations, such as the link here seen, 
 are rarely to be found in waltzes, though the addition of a four- 
 bar phrase to a sentence is not uncommon. Quite exceptionally, 
 however, in a little known waltz by Schubert in G flat, the first 
 sentence consists of two phrases of six bars each. But in general, 
 even in the larger waltzes, the rhythmic construction is perfectly 
 regular, except sometimes in the introduction and coda. 
 
 82. The extension of form of which we have just given an 
 example by Schubert prepared the way for the modern " Valse de 
 Salon," of which Chopin's waltzes are perhaps the most perfect 
 examples. These works are so well known and so easily 
 accessible that it is needless to quote any of them here. Their 
 forms are mostly very clear ; the larger waltzes, (Op. 18, Op. 34, 
 Nos. 1 to 3; Op. 64, Nos. 2 and 3; Op. 69, No. 2; Op. 70, 
 No. 3 ; and the waltz without Opus-number in E minor) are in 
 ternary form, which in two cases (Op. 18 and Op. 34, No. 1) is 
 considerably extended. The other waltzes are all in binary form, 
 excepting Op. 42, in A flat, which is a kind of cross-breed between 
 the binary and ternary forms, and belongs to the " mixed forms " 
 referred to in Musical Form, § 396. More modern compositions 
 of this class mostly follow the model of Chopin's waltzes. 
 
 83. Waltzes for dancing purposes (as distinguished from those 
 composed simply as pianoforte pieces) are often written in sets , 
 that is, four or five short waltzes, each generally consisting of two 
 sixteen-bar sentences, sometimes of three (in which case the third 
 is usually a repetition of the first), are arranged to follow one 
 another, and are mostly preceded by an introduction, which need 
 not be in waltz time or rhythm, and followed by a coda, containing 
 a reference to some of the subjects already heard. This plan of 
 construction is as old as Mozart ; we find it in the first set of his 
 "Deutsche Tanze" (No. 509 in Kochel's Catalogue), which 
 contains six waltzes with trios, each one being connected with the 
 following by a passage a few bars in length, and concluding with 
 a coda seventy-five bars in length, partially founded upon the 
 subject of the trio of the sixth waltz. 
 
 e 2 
 
52 
 
 Applied Forms. 
 
 [Chap. Ill, 
 
 84. Another dance which requires a short notice, in con- 
 sequence of the importance given to it by Chopin, is the 
 Mazurka. This is a dance of Polish origin, in rather quick 
 4 time, the special feature of which is the accentuation of the 
 weak beats of the bar, especially in the accented bars (the second 
 and fourth) of a phrase, sometimes in other bars also. This will 
 be seen in the following examples, which are the beginnings of 
 two of Chopin's mazurkas : — 
 
 .Ibl'P'j JT^?^? 
 
 — m , r 1 — ; 
 
 Chopin : Mazurka, Op. 7, No. 3. 
 
 1 1 
 
 1 ■ 1 
 
 ,.*,*■ II .J J 
 
 ' b>? ~ 4 J — £M-*— 
 
 £-£-1 — 
 
 " f [ 4) — fW» J hH-*- 1 
 
 We have omitted the first eight bars, which are merely intro- 
 ductory, and do not show the characteristic rhythmical figure of 
 the dance. It will be noticed that in all the accented bars strong 
 emphasis is given to the third crotchet, and that the first beat of 
 the bar is generally subdivided. 
 
 85. Our next example shows also the accentuation of the 
 second beat : — 
 
 Chopin : Mazurka, Op. 6, No. 3. 
 
Ch?jv III.] 
 
 The Dance Forms. 
 
 53 
 
 Here again we have omitted the first eight bars for the same 
 reason as in our last quotation. We should add that the rhythmic 
 figure is not always so clearly defined by Chopin as in the examples 
 just given. These will suffice to show the character of the 
 mazurka, which seldom contains rhythmic irregularities such as are 
 seen in the above passage. The smaller specimens are in simple 
 binary, and the larger in simple ternary form. We refer students 
 who wish to investigate them more thoroughly to the complete 
 collection of Chopin's mazurkas, of which several good editions, 
 are published. 
 
 86. A dance of considerable interest from its employment by 
 the great composers is the Polonaise, or Polacca. This dance 
 is of Polish origin, like the mazurka, which it also resembles in 
 being in triple time, though much slower than the dance just 
 named. A very characteristic feature of the Polonaise is seen in 
 the feminine endings of all the principal cadences. This is less 
 pronounced in the older specimens of this form than in the more 
 modern ; in the best examples, such as those of Beethoven, 
 Weber, and Chopin, the tonic chord in the chief cadences is de- 
 ferred to the third beat of the bar, as in the following cadence from 
 Weber's " Grande Polonaise," Op. 21: — 
 
 Like the other dances of which we have been treating, the Polo- 
 naise is in simple binary form, which may be extended to ternary 
 form by the addition of a trio. Sometimes, as for example in 
 Chopin's favourite Polonaise in A flat, Op. 53, the form is of con- 
 siderable development. In the same composer's Polonaise in Fj( 
 minor, Op. 44, a mazurka is introduced as the trio ; this, however, 
 is an exceptional case. 
 
 87. As Chopin's Polonaises are generally accessible, we prefer, 
 to give two less known examples, the first one showing the older 
 form : — 
 
54 
 
 Applied Forms. 
 
 tChap. Ill 
 
 J. S. Bach : Suite in B minor. 
 
 ----- r^_ 
 
 
 The Suite from which this movement is taken is written for strings 
 and flute. We have transcribed the score on two staves, but 
 several crossings of the inner parts are not shown in our arrange- 
 ment. The flute doubles the melody in the upper octave. The 
 first part contains exceptionally only four bars, the repetition of 
 which completes the eight-bar period. The feminine endings of 
 the cadences are here not very decided, and consist merely of 
 changes in the position of the tonic chord. In the original score 
 this Polonaise is followed by a " Double" (§ 58) of a peculiar kind ; 
 instead of being a mere ornamentation of the melody, as usual, 
 the melody is itself made the bass of the Double, and a florid 
 counterpoint for the flute is added above it. 
 
 88. Our next example is the first of a set of four Polonaises 
 written for pianoforte duet by Schubert, and illustrates some of the 
 more modern features of the dance : — 
 
Chap. III.] 
 
 The Dance Forms. 55 
 
 Schubert : Polonaise, Op. 75, No. 1. 
 
 X t £*r 
 
 . ESSE ESSE SSSS ESSE CS S S SB ' 
 
 Pj— J r~i 1 p I ul i ! \m. 1 1 1* i l«"i 1 l«- 1 1 r~ 1 
 
 -l » g~* F" 
 
 '*>r £j 
 
 ■i- 4- 4- -L ' f 
 
 | 
 
 -^- J -p- 
 
 *•■**■ «TS Sfe ^SssN. 
 
 
56 
 
 Applied Forms. 
 
 t C!iap. III. 
 
 c . Sv. 
 
 r. *t 
 
 It will be seen that every sentence ends with the characteristic 
 cadence referred to in § 85. Another point often to be noticed in the 
 Polonaise is the rhythmic figure of accompaniment £_£f f * f f 
 which we see here in the second part, and which was probably 
 borrowed from the Spanish Bolero. Other examples of a similar 
 accompaniment will be found in Beethoven's Polonaise for pianc 
 solo, Op. 89, and in Chopin's Polonaise in CjJ minor, Op. 26, 
 No. 1. 
 
 89. An interesting variety of the Polonaise is the Marche 
 aux Flambeaux (Ger. " Fackeltanz "), a stately processional 
 music used in some royal courts at weddings. In rhythmical 
 structure and in its cadential formulae it is identical with the form 
 already spoken of; but the finest models of this variety (those 
 written by Meyerbeer) are more extended in their development, 
 containing several trios, or episodes, and therefore belonging 
 (like the minuets referred to in § 72) to the Rondo form. 
 
 90. The Bolero is a Spanish dance in J time, having some 
 resemblance to the Polonaise, but differing from it in the absence 
 of the feminine endings to the cadences, and somewhat more lively 
 
Chap. III.] 
 
 The Dance Forms. 
 
 57 
 
 in character. It is characterized by the peculiar rhythmic figure 
 
 s 
 
 of the accompaniment ( *y * * f 
 
 or 
 
 L£9'CJ1CJ P ) 
 
 which we saw also in Schubert's Polonaise, § 88), and in general this 
 figure is heard for one or more bars before the melody of the 
 Bolero itself begins. It will be well to remind the student that 
 such introductory bars form no part of the first sentence (Musical 
 Form, § 265). 
 
 91. As a specimen of this dance we give the first sentence of 
 the Bolero in Weber's ' Preciosa ' : — 
 
 Weber: 'Preciosa.' 
 
 
 1 JJ2. jjj. j. 
 
 
 -u — » — < 4 -)j- — C — 5- 
 
 "= ^ s» ^ 
 
 'M^. ^j* ^£g_ j^g 
 
 * m..m_M. 
 
 Another good example will be found in the ballet in the first act 
 of Auber's ' Masaniello.' Chopin's Bolero in A minor, Op. 19, 
 though containing the characteristic figure of the dance, is irregular 
 in its rhythmic construction, as it begins with two five-bar phrases. 
 
58 
 
 Applied Forms. 
 
 [Chap. III. 
 
 The explanation, of course, is that the piece, though written in 
 dance form, was not intended for dancing. 
 
 92. The Tarantella is a Neapolitan dance in rapid \ tempo. 
 It usually commences with an up-beat, though examples are not in- 
 frequent (e.g., Chopin's Tarantelle, Op. 43, and Heller's in A flat, 
 Op. 85, No. 2) of the theme beginning on the accent. The dance 
 is so generally known that it will suffice to give the commence- 
 ment of one as an example : — 
 
 / r-fn 
 
 3-«U_«_ 
 
 Si 
 
 Auber: 'Masaniello.' 
 
 -%=&=&-- 
 
 u r c 1 c r c r it r u r 
 
 g= g=g=i= g=g=g= 
 
 rsa^J^ 
 
 rrC 
 
 ^-*yj,j^ _jaa. 
 
 _ SEfES±S=gEg=^gEgIgEifeSE 
 
 The Saltarello, of which a very fine specimen will be found in 
 the finale of Mendelssohn's Italian Symphony, is closely related 
 to the Tarantella. 
 
 93. Though not itself a dance, the March is so nearly akin 
 to the dances in its form that the present chapter is the proper 
 place for treating of it. Like the various dances, the march was 
 originally designed to accompany regular steps — those of soldiers 
 when marching. For this reason it was always written in duple or 
 quadruple time, with strongly marked rhythmical figures, and in 
 general with the normal construction of four and eight bars. The 
 older marches, such as those to be seen in Handel's operas, were 
 
Chap, in.] The Dance Forms. 
 
 59 
 
 in small binary form, divided into two parts, each of which was 
 repeated. The same form is to be seen in the marches by Mozart, 
 though with somewhat more extended developments, and in the 
 march in Beethoven's ' Fidelia' Not infrequently the march was 
 followed by a trio, sometimes by more than one ; the form then 
 became ternary or rondo, as the case might be. 
 
 94. Just as we have seen that from the dances were developed 
 the dance-forms, so from the marches grew the march-forms ; that 
 is, pieces written in the time and with the rhythmical figures of the 
 march, but which were not intended for marching purposes. Of 
 these the numerous marches by Schubert for piano duet are 
 examples. They are all in ternary form (with a trio), but differ 
 largely in their dimensions, some of them being developed at con- 
 siderable length. To the same category belongs the War-March 
 of Priests in Mendelssohn's ' Athalie,' which, though part of the 
 incidental music to Racine's tragedy, is directed in the score to be 
 played " before the 4th act." The magnificent march in Spohr's 
 symphony ' Die Weihe der Tone,' and the Funeral Marches of 
 Beethoven, Chopin, and others, are also specimens of march form, 
 as distinguished from the march proper. 
 
 95. In theatrical and operatic music the form of the 
 march is largely influenced by dramatic considerations. Thus, 
 the unusual length of the grand march (with chorus) in the 
 second act of ' Tannhauser ' — 2 1 1 bars of rather slow quadruple 
 time — arises from its having to accompany an elaborate procession 
 upon the stage. On the other hand, most operatic marches (e.g., 
 those in the first act of Mozart's ' Clemenza di Tito,' and in the 
 third act of Weber's ' Euryanthe ') are comparatively short. 
 
 96. A march can begin either on the fourth or first beat of a 
 bar, the former being, perhaps, the! more common. In the some- 
 what rare case in which a march is written in \ time, it commonly 
 begins on the last quaver. Schubert's two marches, Op. 121, are 
 exceptionally written in \ time ; in the first the theme begins on 
 the first quaver of the bar, and in the second on the last. 
 
 97. With regard to their rate of speed marches differ widely. 
 Religious marches, such as those in Gluck's ' Alceste ' and 
 Mozart's ' Zauberflotej' are of course in slow time, as also are 
 the funeral marches of Handel, Beethoven, and Chopin. On the 
 other hand some of the "Quick Steps" (Ger. Sturmmarsche) 
 approach nearly to a presto, and we find almost any intermediate 
 rate of speed in the marches by the best composers. But the 
 form itself differs but little in the various specimens, and in the 
 majority of cases it will be found to be the simple binary or ternary 
 form. 
 
 98. So many collections of marches are published that it is 
 needless to give many specimens here. For the sake of complete- 
 ness, we conclude with a short and very characteristic march by 
 Beethoven : — 
 
6o 
 
 Applied Forms. 
 
 [Chap. III. 
 
 Beethoven : 'Egmont.' 
 
 # n Vivace. 
 
 
 
 — T^ 
 
 -. 1 'l * 
 
 ^i^ 
 
 p/9 
 
 J. Jl v .j. v — 
 p.1 1 1 1 1-1-^-5 
 
 — C-^— 
 
 i — f=t=Js- 
 
 1 1 1 1 
 
 p|^-l-3==±| 
 
 
 V 
 
 
 
 
 
 (4) 
 
Chap III.] 
 
 The Dance Forms. 
 
 61 
 
 This march is a specimen of a very simple binary form. The first 
 four bars are introductory ; the first sentence begins at the fifth 
 bar, which we therefore mark as (5 = 1). The march contains 
 three sentences, one in the first part and two in the second, the 
 third sentence being the repetition of the first. There is no trio. 
 
 99. We mentioned in § 46 that the ancient Suite consisted of 
 a series of dance movements, sometimes preceded by a prelude, 
 all of which were in the same key, though the mode sometimes 
 alternated between the major and the minor. Composers of the 
 present day sometimes write pieces to which they give the name 
 of Suites, but which have little in common with the old form be- 
 yond the name, and which may be therefore called Modern 
 Suites. In these the movements are not always in the same key. 
 For example, Joachim Raff's Suite for piano, Op. 91, contains a 
 Fantasia and Fugue in D minor, a Gigue with variations in the 
 same key, a ' Cavatina ' in B flat, and a March in D major. Of 
 these movements, neither the Cavatina nor the March is a dance, 
 and the name " Suite " is applied here, and in similar cases, so 
 loosely, that it is hardly too much to say that it may be given to 
 any work consisting of a series of movements, some of them being 
 dances, which are not in sonata form. 
 
 100. The student can now exercise his invention and ingenuity 
 in the composition of dances after the model of those shown and 
 described in this chapter. He should be careful to keep the form 
 as clear and distinct as possible — for instance, not to write a waltz 
 so that it might be mistaken for a mazurka, or vice versd ; each 
 dance has its own special characteristics, which must be considered 
 in writing. We also strongly recommend that, with very rare excep- 
 tions, the normal four- and eight-bar rhythm should be strictly 
 adhered to. One of the chief advantages to be derived from the 
 
62 Applied Forms. [Chap. in. 
 
 writing of dance music is the cultivation of the rhythmic feeling, 
 especially in students with whom this is naturally at all vague or 
 uncertain. When the smaller dance forms are mastered, and the 
 larger ones are to be attempted, occasional extensions, &c, of 
 sentences may be introduced ; but it should not be forgotten that 
 rhythmic irregularity is less suitable to dance music than to almost 
 any other form of composition. 
 
cup. iv.] The Smaller Instrumental Forms. 63 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 THE SMALLER INSTRUMENTAL FORMS. 
 
 101. We have now to speak of the smaller instrumental forms, 
 other than the dance forms described in the last chapter. These 
 a r e mostly, though not exclusively, met with in music written for 
 the piano, and, with a few exceptions, are composed on a plan 
 with which the student is already acquainted — that is to say, they 
 are generally either in simple binary or in simple ternary form. 
 They occur under such various names that it is impossible 
 to give an exhaustive catalogue of them ; we must content our- 
 selves with a short account of such as are most frequent ; if the 
 construction of these be understood, little difficulty will be found 
 in analyzing others, whatever they may be called; for the difference 
 is rather in name than in form. 
 
 102. With the exception of the Etude, the Prelude, and the 
 Fugue, of which we shall speak later in this chapter, but few of 
 the forms now to be noticed will require detailed description. 
 As was said in Musical Form (§ 379), nearly all small pieces — of 
 course we are now excluding rondos and movements in sonata 
 form — are written either in the simple binary or the simple ternary 
 form. Among the shortest and most concise of these are the 
 various pieces written for the use of children. The great com- 
 posers have thought it not beneath their dignity to compose such 
 works. We need only instance Schumann's " Kinderscenen," 
 Op. 15, and "Album fiir die Jugend," Op. 68; Mendelssohn's 
 "6 Kinderstiicke," Op. 72, and, of more recent date, Heller's 
 charming "Album pour la Jeunesse," Op. 138. With very few 
 exceptions, these are written in the simple binary form, while the 
 exceptions are almost exclusively in ternary form. 
 
 103. In pieces of somewhat large development, under what- 
 ever names they may be known, the same two forms are almost 
 always to be found, sometimes in a modified shape. As an 
 illustration of this, we take Beethoven's " 7 Bagatellen," Op. 33, 
 and describe the form of each. We select this work, because the 
 music is easily accessible, and the forms are sufficiently varied to 
 be fairly representative of the class of pieces of which we are now 
 speaking. No. 1 (Andante grazioso, in E flat, f) is in simple 
 ternary form ; the first part extends to the second double bar ; 
 the episode beginning in E flat minor is only twelve bars in 
 
64 Applied Forms. [Chap. iv. 
 
 length. . A " link " of six bars leads to the repetition of the first 
 part, slightly more ornamented, and followed by a short coda. 
 No. 2 (Scherzo, Allegro, C major, \) is an ordinary scherzo with 
 trio, and therefore (Musical Form, § 314) in simple ternary form. 
 No. 3 (Allegretto, F major, |) is a simple binary form, repeated 
 with a little embellishment. No. 4 (Andante, A major, fj is, like 
 No. r, in ternary form ; but the first part on its repetition is 
 varied by additional entries of the subject in the bass. No. 5 
 (Allegro ma non troppo, C major, I) is again a very clear ternary 
 form, with a coda of fifteen bars. No. 6 (Allegretto quasi 
 Andante, D major, 4) is another ternary form, with a very short 
 middle section of only one sentence, which is extended to ten 
 bars by a cadential repetition. No. 7 (Presto, A flat major, f) is 
 less regular in structure than the other numbers. It resembles a 
 scherzo of two sentences, followed by a trio in the same key, after 
 which the scherzo is repeated in a varied form, then the trio 
 unchanged, and again the scherzo with further variation. The 
 principal theme appearing not less than three times, the move- 
 ment seems to belong to the rondos, of which we shall speak 
 later in this volume. On the other hand, the two sentences (bars 
 21 to 36), which we have spoken of as "trio," are so little 
 contrasted with the principal theme that they can scarcely be 
 considered episodical. The fact is that the form is here some- 
 what indeterminate, and it would probably be no less correct to 
 consider the whole piece as far as bar 36 as a larger binary form 
 repeated with ornamentation, as in No. 3. It is not uncommon 
 to meet with movements such as this, of which one cannot define 
 the class with certainty. 
 
 104. It is evidently impossible to treat of all the varieties of 
 form to be found in the enormous number of small pianoforte 
 pieces existing. We will take two other well-known collections, 
 and explain their construction, and the student ought then to 
 have little difficulty in analyzing others for himself. We first take, 
 the first book of Mendelssohn's "Lieder ohne Worte." No. 1 
 (Andante con moto, E major, C) is a simple binary form, the first 
 sentence being repeated. No. 2 (Andante expressivo, A minor, jj) 
 is also a binary form, with a rather long coda. No. 3 (Molto 
 Allegro e vivace, A major, |) is in a condensed sonata form, 
 which, as will be seen when we treat of this form later in this 
 volume, is a modification of the ternary form. No. 4 (Moderato, 
 A major, C) is again a simple binary form, preceded by a short 
 introduction, which is repeated as a coda. No. 5 (Poco agitato, 
 F sharp minor, 4) is another condensed sonata form, but less 
 regular than No. 3 ; while No. 6 (Andante sostenuto, G minor, £) 
 is a simple binary form. 
 
 105. The other collection of pieces that we shall examine is 
 Schumann's " Phantasiestiicke," Op. 12. The first piece ("Des 
 Abends ") is in binary form, each part being repeated, and the 
 
chap, iv.] The Smaller Instrumental Forms. 
 
 65 
 
 second repeat written out in full. No. 2 (" Aufschwung ") is 
 given complete in Musical Form, § 386, and is there shown to be 
 in ternary form. No. 3 (" Warum ") is a small binary form ; the 
 piece contains only two extended sentences, the first of sixteen 
 bars, and the second of twenty-six. No. 4 (" Grillen ") has the 
 form of a Minuet and Trio, and is therefore ternary ; on the 
 repetition the middle portion of the first part, which at first 
 appeared in F minor, is transposed into B flat minor. No. 5 
 (" In der Nacht "), the longest of the set, is a large ternary form, 
 with an extended middle section beginning at the " Etwas 
 langsamer," in F major. Nos. 6, 7, and 8 are also in simple 
 ternary form, which is so clear as to require no explanation. 
 
 106. Of the twenty-one separate pieces contained in the three 
 collections we have just been examining, we find that eighteen, or 
 six out of seven, are either in simple binary or simple ternary 
 form. As our selection was made quite at random (for we chose 
 the first sets of pieces that happened to occur to us), it is probable 
 that the result obtained gives us a fair average, and thus bears out 
 what was said in § 101. If, instead of taking our specimens from 
 the works of the great composers, we examine the pianoforte 
 music of the present day, we obtain similar results. The form 
 may be more or less disguised by repetition or variation ; but 
 when we analyze it we shall generally find either the simple binary 
 or the simple ternary form as the basis underlying the piece. We 
 now pass on to notice a few forms which possess special features 
 of their own, and shall first direct our attention to the Etude, or 
 Study. 
 
 107. As indicated by its name, the Etude was in the first 
 instance a piece written merely to afford practice to the student 
 in overcoming some technical difficulty. In the simplest kind of 
 exercises nothing else is aimed at ; and we accordingly find that 
 they have no complete form in the sense in which we have been 
 using that word. Take, for example, the two following, from 
 Czerny's universally known " 101 Exercises" : — 
 
 Czerny : 101 Exercises, No. i. 
 
66 
 
 Applied Forms. 
 
 [Chap. IV. 
 
 Czerny : toi Exercises No. 38. 
 
 The first of these Exercises is intended to give equality of power 
 to the fingers; the second is a study in arpeggios. It will be 
 seen that neither forms a complete musical sentence ; both consist 
 simply of alternations of tonic and dominant harmony. 
 
 108. The examples just given show the most elementary kind 
 of Etude. Excepting in such little pieces written for beginners, 
 we generally find the form more clearly marked, though irregu- 
 larities of rhythmic construction are by no means infrequent, 
 especially in studies written with a purely technical object. Such, 
 however, in the case of modern studies are the exception. One 
 of the first composers who endeavoured to give artistic interest to 
 technical work was J. B. Cramer, in his celebrated " Studio per il 
 Pianoforte."* The plan adopted in most of these studies is to 
 take a particular figure and employ it more or less continuously 
 throughout the whole piece, as an ornamentation of some clearly 
 defined harmonic outline. An example will best illustrate our 
 meaning. Cramer's Studies are so universally accessible that it 
 is needless to quote any of them in full here. We will take 
 No. 4 in the first book, beginning : — 
 
 The pattern of triplet semiquavers announced in this bar is 
 continued to the end of the piece, as also is the figure of staccato 
 quavers in the left hand. We here give the harmonic framework 
 of the whole study : — 
 
Chap. iv.] The Smaller Instrumental Forms, 67 
 
 Cramer : Studio, No. 4. (Outline.) 
 
 jM> 
 
 wmmmm 
 
 ■*&+ 
 
 «fc=s 
 
 
 1 '°'i 
 
 F 2 
 
b8 
 
 Applied Forms. 
 
 rChap. IT. 
 
 The student should compare this with the original text. As the 
 time-signature (if) of the right-hand part is the compound time of 
 I, it is clear that we have here two accents in the bar, and that 
 the time is therefore compound also in the wider sense of the 
 term given in Musical Form, § 36, because it is quadruple, and 
 not duple. This is also proved by the fact that most of the 
 cadences come on the half bar, which is never the case in a 
 genuine duple time, except with feminine endings. In order to 
 show the true structure of the sentences, we therefore divide each 
 bar by means of dotted bars. It will be seen that the piece is in 
 simple binary form, some of the sentences being extended. We 
 have not marked any rests or indications of staccato in the left 
 hand part, because we wish to impress on the student what we 
 have often had occasion to mention — the mental effect of rests. 
 It must never be forgotten that during a rest the mind always 
 retains the impression of the preceding harmony. 
 
 109. Let us now adopt the opposite process, and, instead of 
 analyzing an Etude, put one together, beginning with the harmonic 
 outline. We will suppose that the piece is to be a study on broken 
 chords, with practice for the weaker fingers of the right hand. We 
 begin by writing down, or if not, by at least having in our minds, 
 the harmonic progressions. Let us make the first sentence, thus :— 
 
 This passage is the framework of the commencement of a study 
 by Steibelt. The inaccurate harmonic progression in the right 
 hand between the third and fourth bars is an illustration of what 
 was said in Chapter II. of this volume (§§ 36-39) of the freedom 
 which composers allow themselves in writing for the piano. 
 Steibelt fills up the above outline in the following manner : — 
 
chap, iv.] The Smaller Instrumental Forms. 
 
 69 
 
 Steibelt : Etudes, Op. 78, No. 68. 
 
 S 53= f 4 J3 
 
 no. One other example, of more recent date, will suffice for 
 this part of our subject. It is the opening sentence of a study by 
 Henselt ; it will be needless to give the harmonic outline, which 
 is perfectly clear : — 
 
 Henselt : Etude, Op. a, No. 3. 
 
70 
 
 Applied Forms. 
 
 [Chap. IV. 
 
 in. It must by no means be imagined that an Etude is 
 always worked out on one pattern, as in the examples we have 
 hitherto given. Often a larger form is adopted, with much greater ' 
 variety of figure. In such cases there will be little if any differ- 
 ence between an Etude and the smaller forms that we have pre- 
 viously described, excepting that, as the Etude is written with a 
 didactic purpose, a larger amount of technical difficulty may prob- 
 ably be found. The Etudes of Chopin and Henselt, for example, 
 are with hardly an exception beautiful little pieces, in simple binary 
 or simple ternary form, in which are introduced the special 
 technical effects characteristic of their composer's styles. Stephen 
 Heller's Etudes (among the most charming of any existing) were 
 avowedly written less as studies for executive difficulty than to 
 teach correct phrasing, and a good style of playing. In Clementi's 
 celebrated " Gradus ad Parnassum " we find many numbers which 
 are quite as much aesthetic as technical in their scope. Some are 
 regularly developed sonata movements in form ; others are com- 
 plete canons or fugues. On the title-page of the " Gradus " 
 Clementi describes the pieces as " Exercises in the strict and 
 elegant styles." An examination of a very large number of Etudes 
 of all styles, and of different dates, justifies the generalization that 
 the Etude may be written in any form that the composer may 
 select, while, as a matter of fact, the great majority are either in 
 the simple binary or simple ternary form. 
 
 ii2. A very important form, from its frequency, is the 
 Prelude ; at the same time it must be said that there is 
 perhaps hardly any name for a composition which is applied in 
 so many different ways. To such an extent is this the case, that 
 it is almost impossible to lay down any fixed rules for the student 
 as to what a Prelude should or should not contain. All that 
 can be done here is to give a description of some of the chief 
 kinds of Preludes to be found in the works oi the great masters, 
 
Chap, iv.] The Smaller Instrumental Forms. 
 
 7i 
 
 with such remarks as may be necessary to explain their con- 
 struction. 
 
 113. The etymological meaning of the word "Prelude" is a 
 piece played before something else — in other words, an introduc- 
 tion. Sometimes this consists of only a few chords, as in the 
 short Prelude (entitled " Fantasia ") to Bach's great Fugue for 
 Clavier in A minor : — 
 
 J. S. Bach : Fugue in A minor. 
 
 It may be well to add, for the information of students, that the 
 "Arpeggio" indicates that the chords are to be played in the 
 following, or some similar manner : — 
 
 5 &c 
 
 We have here a simple harmonic progression of the nature of an 
 improvisation, which evidently is not of the usual four- and eight- 
 bar construction. 
 
 114. A more extended example of the same kind of Prelude 
 will be seen in the first Suite of Handel's " Suites de Pieces pour 
 le Clavecin" (First Collection), in which similar arpeggios to 
 those just shown are interspersed with passing notes and other 
 ornamentations. The piece is too long to give in full ; we quote 
 the first half only : — 
 
 Handel : Suite de Pieces, No. 1. 
 
Applied Forms. 
 
 [Chap. IV. 
 
 Here again it is perfectly obvious that there can be no question of 
 normal rhythmic structure. In pieces of this kind, as in many 
 examples of the Fantasia, there is no regular form. Another Pre- 
 lude by Handel, very similar in character to the above, is that in 
 B flat which opens the first Suite in the Second Collection. 
 
 115. Another kind of Prelude frequently to be met with in the 
 works of Bach closely resembles the Etude in the persistence with 
 which one rhythmic figure is worked throughout. In such cases 
 the form is mostly the simple binary, the plain harmonic progres- 
 sions being more or less elaborately ornamented. As an example 
 of this form we give the framework of the first Prelude of the 
 " Wohltemperirtes Clavier " : — 
 
 Bach : Wohltemperirtes Clavier, Prelude 1. (Outline.) 
 
 10 y 1— g — 
 
 — & — ?»* — > 
 
 -s>- 
 
 rz> 
 
 -W-- r= =H 
 
 
 — s» & 
 
 •SB- * 
 
 « 
 
 na=F- — wr-- 
 
 hg=J3Eg-J_g-l 
 
 1 r s— H=3 
 
 (« 
 
 (8=5) (6) 
 
 (8) 
 
Chap, iv.] The Smaller Instrumental Forms. 
 
 73 
 
 (7) (8=5) 
 
 By comparing this outline with the original it will be seen that the 
 Prelude is written in pure five-part harmony almost throughout. 
 It contains three sentences, the first, which ends with a full 
 cadence in the dominant key, being extended to eleven bars ; 
 the second is of normal length, and the third is extended to 
 sixteen bars. The simple binary form here is quite clear. 
 
 1 1 6. It is comparatively seldom that each harmony extends 
 over a whole bar, as in the example just given. Usually the 
 changes are more frequent. To illustrate this, we give the be- 
 ginning of the sixth Prelude in the same work : — 
 
 Bach : Wohltemperirtes Clavier, Prelude 6. (Outline.) 
 
 mmmmmm 
 
 Here it is evident that the crotchet is the unit of measurement, 
 not the minim, as in the first Prelude. The time is therefore 
 quadruple, and in order to understand the rhythmic structure we 
 divide each bar into two by dotted bars. (Compare the examples 
 in §§ 50, 61, and 108.) Here we find a piece beginning in the 
 middle of a sentence (Musical Form, § 266) ; for after the cadence 
 with which the Prelude opens we have to the end of our extract a 
 perfectly regular eight-bar sentence, of which it is clear that the 
 first bar forms no part. This Prelude again is in simple binary 
 form, with various extensions of its sentences in its latter half. 
 
74 
 
 Applied Forms. 
 
 [Chap. IV 
 
 117. In other Preludes of the " Wohltemperirtes Clavier," 
 especially in the second book, we see the larger binary form in 
 which each part is repeated. We gave one of these in § '330 of 
 Musical Form. Even finer and more extended examples are the 
 Preludes in G sharp minor (No. 18), and B flat (No. 21) of the 
 second book. No. 5 (in D major) is a very remarkable anticipa- 
 tion of the modern sonata form, to be treated of later in this 
 volume. 
 
 ii 8. In Bach's Preludes for the organ we find further varieties 
 of form. Of the distinctive characteristics of organ music we shall 
 speak later in this volume (Chapter XIII.) ; at present we are con- 
 cerned merely with the essentials of the form, and not with the 
 manner of its presentation. Many of the smaller Preludes are 
 founded upon chorals, and in these we find great diversity of treat- 
 ment. Sometimes the melody is merely accompanied by a florid 
 counterpoint, as in the three Preludes on the choral " Wer nur den 
 lieben Gott lasst walten" (Peters, V. 56, 57)* ; at other times the 
 choral itself is treated in canon, and accompanied by free parts. 
 Of this the prelude on " Liebster Jesu, wir sind hier" (quoted in 
 Double Counterpoint, § 399) is a good example, while others, more 
 extended, are those on " Gottes Sohn ist kommen " (Peters, V. 20), 
 and " Dies sind die heil'gen zehn Gebot " (Peters, VI. 50). Many 
 of the preludes are in fugal form, while some are elaborate Fanta- 
 sias, among the finest examples of the latter being " Ein' feste 
 Burg" (Peters, VI. 58) and " Komm, heiliger Geist, Herre Gott" 
 (Peters, VII. 4). 
 
 119. The organ preludes not founded upon chorals are nearly 
 all in simple binary form, sometimes comparatively short, some- 
 times extended to considerable length. In only one case — the 
 first of the "Eight small Preludes and Fugues" (Peters, VIII. 
 48) — do we find the form we referred to in § 117, which Bach so 
 frequently employs in his Clavier Preludes, in which each part is 
 repeated. 
 
 120. As a fair average specimen of the large binary form used 
 by Bach in the organ preludes, we will analyze that in F minor 
 (Peters, II. 29) : — 
 
 J. S. Bach : Organ Prelude in F minor. 
 
 ■-■*■-. \ m J i J_ 
 
 * For the identification of the preludes spoken of, we give references to the 
 Peters edition of the organ works. The Roman numerals indicate the volumes, 
 and the Arabic the pages. 
 
Chap, iv.] The Smaller Instrumental Forms. 
 
 75 
 
 7- <*&&-* 
 
 =3 J-luusJ J-*— - —J a, 
 
 (8=1) 
 
 
7 6 
 
 Applied Forms. 
 
 [Chap. IV. 
 
 
 25 === ^-n^ ^.Fn^ 
 
 =*=*= 
 
 i — i — T r 
 
 (2) 
 
 I" I 
 
 r2 ..ra 
 
 :£= 
 
 ■I- 
 
 Kg 
 
 felBS 
 
 B gjgg 
 
 ;l 1 
 
 - r-i — , 
 
 
 r ^^EE 
 
 (8) 
 
Chap, iv.] The Smaller Instrumental Forms. 
 
 77 
 
 '(£b~^ ^~^ mJ ^' 
 
 fi A!!> 'CTte fflS 
 
 F 33 J 
 
 3SSS3 
 
 J-U- 
 
 S*F* 
 
 ^=p=^5 
 
 tr 
 
 T""T 
 
 J— *. 
 
 pEfci 
 
 j-. ^Ji^ p£E 
 
 45 
 
 it** 
 
 =HEEEEE=_^3 
 
 1; 
 
 fin 
 
 "'^T^ 
 
 (8) 1 
 
 1" " 
 
 .^S 
 
 "^^r ^~^" 
 
7 8 
 
 Applied Forms. 
 
 [Chap. IV, 
 
 
 SHEE 
 
 
 r ^rfrffwFr % -rsrfrwr 
 
 55 
 
 swt er 
 
 i 
 
 -I 1 1— «i 1— r J— I 
 
 mmm 
 
 j-j-j- 
 
Chap. iv.] The Smaller instrumental Forms. 
 
 79 
 
 C6)r _ir 
 
 We have numbered every fifth bar for convenience of reference. 
 Though, as will be seen directly, the two-part form of this prelude 
 is perfectly clear, its rhythmic analysis offers considerable difficulty, 
 as, indeed, is almost always the case with polyphonic music 
 {Musical Form, § 269). 
 
 121. The first part of this binary form extends to bar 32, 
 ending with a full close in C minor. Though it contains four 
 sentences, they are not each of eight bars' length. In the first 
 sentence we find at bar 4 the insertion of an unaccented bar (3a) ; 
 for the cadence at bar 5 shows the end of the fore-phrase. Bar 6 
 repeats the cadence of bar 5, and is therefore (4a). Similarly bar 
 9 is a repetition of bar 8, and is (6a), and the first sentence ends 
 at bar n. The next sentence is contracted, ending in bar 17. 
 The cadence of the fore-phrase is found at bar 14 ; counting back 
 from this point, we find that bar n is (8 = 1); while between bars 
 16 and 17 an unaccented bar (7) is elided. The third sentence 
 extends to bar 25, and is regular in construction, while in the 
 fourth sentence an unaccented bar (3) is elided after bar 27. 
 
8o 
 
 Applied Forms. 
 
 [Chap. IV. 
 
 122. Before proceeding to analyze the second part of this very 
 fine prelude, let us look at the thematic structure of the first part. 
 The first eight bars are built entirely on the motive 
 
 the first three notes of which furnish the material for much that 
 follows (see bars n to 13, and 21 to 24}; as the student who 
 understands what was said about the development of the motive 
 in Chapter VII. of Musical Form will readily see. Two other 
 motives are also employed — 
 
 BarS. 
 
 and the ascending scale passage in the bass of bar 17, with its 
 counterpoint in contrary motion — 
 
 i 
 
 ^;--*-,»- r -T\, -r — t f 
 
 rf3— ! r 5 -f- n * M I - I 
 
 1 
 
 123. As is very frequently the case with the old binary form, 
 the second part commences with the transposition into the domi- 
 nant key of the opening sentence of the first part. This sentence 
 extends here to bar 43, and contains the same additional bars (3a), 
 (4a), and (6a), as the corresponding sentence at the beginning oi 
 the prelude. The next sentence (bars 43 to 51) is normal in 
 length and sequential in construction, and leads back to F minor, 
 the tonic key. Sequence is also a prominent feature of the follow- 
 ing sentence (bars 51 to 60), which is prolonged by additional 
 third and fourth bars. The last sentence, which extends from bar 
 60 to the end of the piece, is more complex in its construction 
 than any of the preceding, and furnishes a good example of the 
 kind of difficulties to be met with in the analysis of music of 
 irregular rhythmic structure. The first part is simple enough ; 
 down to bar 68 the construction is normal ; but the inverted 
 cadence in this bar (I I with feminine ending) shows that the sen- 
 tence is not completed at its eighth bar, which has therefore a 
 double function. Looking ahead, we see there is no other cadence 
 till the end of the piece ; we therefore count backwards from the 
 last bar. Bar 75 is evidently (7) and the preceding bar (6), while 
 the florid cadence in bars 71 to 73 is only a free prolongation of 
 
chap, iv.] The Smaller Instrumental Forms. 8i 
 
 the harmony of bar 70, which is therefore (5), and we see that bar 
 68 is (8 = 4), the following bar being (4a) because it is simply a 
 repetition of the preceding harmony. 
 
 124. In some of the other organ preludes we see still larger 
 developments of the binary form. In the great Prelude in C minor 
 (Peters, II. 56) the first part contains 49 bars, and the second 95. 
 In the Preludes in E minor (Peters, II. 64), B minor (II. 78), and 
 E flat (III., 2), we find such a number of themes that these pieces 
 cannot be classed as simple binary, but would deserve the name of 
 "Fantasia" which Bach has used in many cases, both with his 
 organ and clavier works, for the movements preceding his fugues. 
 The same name might even more appropriately be applied, in 
 consequence of the irregularity of its construction, to the Prelude 
 of the great Fugue in A minor (Peters, II. 54), which begins : — 
 
 125. It is not uncommon in the larger forms of prelude, as 
 seen in Bach's works, to find extensive use made of fu.ga.to 
 passages {Fugue, § 358). The organ Prelude in B minor referred 
 to above is an instance of this, and several other good examples 
 will be found in the preludes of the English Suites. Of the form 
 of the fugues which so frequently follow the preludes we shall have 
 something to say directly. 
 
 126. The same diversity of form and character which we have 
 found in the Preludes of Handel and Bach is also to be observed 
 in those of more modern composers. Beethoven's "Two Preludes 
 through all the Major Keys " (Op. 39) have no regular form at all, 
 but are like improvisations on short themes of two bars each, with 
 almost incessant modulation. His Prelude in F minor is more 
 regular, and an imitation of the contrapuntal style of Bach's 
 Preludes. Mendelssohn's Preludes (Six Preludes and Fugues for 
 Piano, Op. 35 ; Three Preludes and Fugues for Organ, Op. 37 ; 
 Three Preludes, Op. 104, and Prelude in F minor (without Opus- 
 number) are very diverse in form, the simple binary being the 
 most frequent. Chopin's 24 Preludes (Op. 28) are again widely 
 different from each other, both in form and character. The 
 majority of them resemble short Etudes, but some (e.g., No. 6, 7, 
 and 20) are in small binary form, while one (No. 15, in D flat) is 
 a regular ternary movement. It may, in fact, be said that a com- 
 poser in writing a prelude is free to adopt almost any form that 
 may seem good in his own eyes, so long as he abstains from 
 writing in the larger instrumental forms (Rondo, Fugue, or Sonata 
 forms), for which the name " Prelude " would be inappropriate. 
 
 127. Though not strictly speaking one of the smaller instru- 
 mental forms, the Fugue is so frequently found in connection with 
 
82 Applied Forms. (Chap. iv. 
 
 the Preludes of which we have just spoken, that the present is the 
 most suitable place for saying something about its form. The 
 details of fugal construction have been fully dealt with in an earlier 
 volume of this series ; but, for the sake of those readers who may 
 not possess that volume, it will be well to say a few words here 
 upon the subject. 
 
 128. It is scarcely needful to remind the student that a fugue 
 is a composition founded upon one subject (except in the case ot 
 double or triple fugues), which appears successively in all the 
 parts in turn. The appearance of the subject in the second voice 
 (termed the " Answer ") will be at the distance of a fourth or 
 fifth above or below the subject, and in general the subject and 
 answer will enter alternately till each voice is engaged. This part 
 of the fugue, which is entirely confined to the two chief keys of 
 the piece,* tonic and dominant, or (more rarely) tonic anc] sub- 
 dominant, constitutes the exposition of the fugue, which is some- 
 times followed by a second exposition, called the counter-exposition, 
 in which the entries are in different order (Fugue, § 207). 
 
 129. The exposition, or counter-exposition, is succeeded by an 
 episode— that is, a passage in which for a time neither the subject 
 nor the answer is heard. Modulations are mostly made by means 
 of the episodes, which introduce entries of the subject in other 
 keys than those of the exposition. These are called '" middle 
 entries." Their number varies in different fugues ; sometimes two 
 or more of such entries will be introduced in succession, forming 
 groups of middle entries ; in other cases each entry will be divided 
 from the next following by an episode (see Bach s Organ Fugue 
 in G minor given on page 38 of Fugal Analysis). After these 
 various middle entries the music returns to the key of the tonic, 
 in which at least one entry of the subject is heard. 
 
 130. In this very brief outline of a fugue we have said nothing 
 about such matters as real and tonal answers, counter-subject, 
 entries by inversion, augmentation, or diminution, or stretto, De- 
 cause these matters do not in the least affect the construction of 
 the fugue from the point of view from which we are now regarding 
 it. We are merely considering its general form as a whole ; and 
 the student will have little difficulty in seeing that we have here a 
 ternary, or three-part form — not the simple ternary spoken of in 
 Chapter X. of Musical Form, but an " applied " ternary form. 
 
 131. To understand this clearly, let us bear in mind what is the 
 essential peculiarity of the ternary form as we know it. The first 
 part is a simple binary form; the second part consists of an 
 episode in some different key from the first part ; while in the third 
 part the first subject, either complete or in part, returns in the tonic 
 key. Now we have no exact analogy to this in a fugue, for the 
 
 * We sometimes find incidental modulations to other keys in the course of 
 the subject (Fugue, §§ 40, 41), but these do not affect the general rule here 
 given, as each entry will end in one of the two principal keys. 
 
Chap, iv.] The Smaller Instrumental Forms. 83 
 
 word " episode " is used in a different sense, and the episodes of a 
 fugue, instead of being strongly contrasted with its principal ideas, 
 are generally developed from them (Fugue, Chapter VII.). But if 
 we look at the ternary form from the point of view of its course 
 of modulation, we shall see the analogy at once. The first part 
 of the ternary form is in the tonic, and nearly related keys ; the 
 second part is the modulating portion to other keys than those 
 of the first part ; and the third part brings back the keys of the 
 first part. 
 
 132. Now let us apply this to a fugue. The first part consists 
 of the exposition (and counter-exposition, if there be one), in the 
 two keys of the subject and answer. The second part, termed the 
 " middle section " of the fugue, begins with the first episode that 
 modulates, or with the first entry of the subject in some other key 
 than those of subject and answer, if (as occasionally happens) there 
 is no modulation till after the first episode. The third part (" final 
 section ") of the fugue commences with the return of the subject 
 in the original key, provided that this be not followed by another 
 entry in some other key than that of tonic or dominant. In that 
 case the entry in the tonic will form part of the middle section. 
 An example of this will be seen in Bach's Fugue in E minor given 
 in § 298 of Fugue. 
 
 133. If the student will examine the collection of fugues in 
 Fugal Analysis, he will find the three sections marked in each case. 
 We refer him to that volume for fuller information than we have 
 space to give him here. We have, however, said enough to show 
 that every regularly constructed fugue is written in a modification 
 of ternary form. Such irregular fugues as are not in this form 
 have been described and explained in Fugue, Chapters XL 
 and XII. 
 
 134. Nearly all small instrumental pieces belong to one or 
 other of the forms we have been describing in this chapter, unless 
 they are Variations, Rondos, or Sonata movements, each of which 
 we shall now proceed to discuss. The irregular formations some- 
 times to be found will be dealt with in a later chapter, under the 
 heading of " Mixed Forms." 
 
 135. The student may now begin to compose pieces in the 
 various small forms described in this chapter. He will be 
 allowed a great amount of liberty in the details, but there are two 
 important points that he should bear in mind. First, he should 
 have a definite outline of the piece in his mind before he begins 
 writing, and not put down whatever happens to come into his 
 head. This especially refers to the course of modulation, which 
 should always be carefully thought out, and well balanced. The 
 other point to be particularly regarded is clearness of tonality. If 
 the music is so vague as to leave any doubt as to what key it is 
 in, or if it is so restless that there is a new modulation every bar 
 or two, the effect will most certainly be weak and unsatisfactory. 
 
 o 2 
 
84 Applied Forms. rchap. iv. 
 
 It ought to be added that we are not including the fugue among 
 the forms which the student can attempt merely after reading this 
 chapter. To write a fugue it will be needful to study the volume 
 on Fugue in the present series, or some other work treating of the 
 same subject. 
 
Chap.Y.] The Variation Forms, 85 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 THE VARIATION FORMS. 
 
 136. In speaking of the Simple Ternary Form in Chapter X. 
 of Musical Form, it was said (§ 359) that in the third part of a 
 piece written in this form the chief subject was often varied or 
 embellished, and we gave in the same section an Adagio from one 
 of Haydn's quartetts which illustrated this point. Variation of 
 this kind, whkh is of almost constant occurrence in the ternary 
 form, may be termed incidental variation. We have now to speak 
 of the variation as an independent form of itself — a form, it 
 should be added, of considerable importance, and of almost 
 infinite variety. 
 
 137. By the word " Variat ion " in its musical sense is meant 
 the presentation of the same thought, or series of thoughts,~under 
 different aspects Thus the many developments of a motive 
 which we~sEowed in Musical Form (§§ 172-176) are from one 
 point of view variations of the motive. The word is, however, 
 employed in a somewhat different way when we speak of the 
 Variation form. In this a simple theme, which is in almost all 
 cases a s mall binary form, is announced, and then repeated with 
 modifications 5F melody, harmony,~time, key, or anyTd m&nat ion 
 of- these, as many times as the composer may choose. The 
 variations may either constitute an independent piece "by them- 
 selves, or they majJ^iji^ne~nTOVeTri^ iU ' uf a largerworkrguch as 
 arsohata, quartett, or symphony. 
 
 138.' The simplest^ and probably the oldest, form of variation 
 is that known in England as a Ground Bass, and abroad by its 
 Italian name, Basso ostinato {i.e. "obstinate bass"). This is a 
 composition in which a theme, generally of four or eight bars, 
 though occasionally of other lengths, was continually repeated, 
 every time with different upper parts. The harmonic framework 
 usually underwent little change, but fresh melodies were super- 
 posed. Many good examples of this form will be seen in the old 
 instrumental works of early English composers, such as Blow 
 and Henry Purcell. The Ground Bass was also frequently used 
 in vocal compositions. As an interesting example we give the 
 air " When I am laid in earth," from Purcell's ' Dido and 
 ^Eneas ' : — 
 
86 
 
 Applied Forms. 
 
 [Chap. v. 
 
 Puecell : • Dido and jEneas.' 
 Voice. 
 
Chaa V.l 
 
 The Variation Forms. 
 
 87 
 
 Here the variations are not separated from one another, but 
 continuous, as is almost always the case with a Ground Bass. It 
 is worthy of notice that the chromatic scale descending from tonic 
 to dominant, with which this theme begins, was also used in a 
 slightly different form as a " Ground " by Handel in the opening 
 chorus of ' Susanna,' founded on this theme, 
 
 and by Bach in his Church-Cantata " Weinen, Klagen," the first 
 chorus of which he subsequently developed into the sublime 
 " Crucifixus " of his great Mass in B minor. In the latter work 
 the bass assumes the following form : — 
 
 Other good examples of a Ground Bass will be found in Handel's 
 choruses " To song and dance " (' Samson '), " Almighty Ruler " 
 (' Joshua '), and " O Baal, monarch of the skies " (' Deborah '). 
 
 139. Closely allied to the Ground Bass are the Chaconne 
 and Passacaglia (Fr. " Passecaille "). Both of these were 
 originally dances, and the former is to be found in the Ballet 
 music of some of Gluck's operas. But in the instrumental works 
 of Bach and Handel we meet with them as variation forms. In 
 Handel's " Suites de Pieces " we find a " Passacaille " (sic) in the 
 seventh Suite of the first book, with fifteen variations, and in the 
 second book there are two Chaconnes, both in G major, the 
 themes being nearly identical, the former of which has twenty-one, 
 and the latter no fewer than sixty-two variations. To illustrate 
 this form we quote the theme and the first few bars of some of 
 the more characteristic variations of the second Chaconne : — 
 
88 
 
 Applied Forms. 
 
 [Chap. v. 
 
 Chaconnb. 
 
 Handel : Suites dc Pifeces, Book a. 
 
 Var. 
 
 rA=!= 
 
 Va». 
 
 ^g^Epg^ ^^g^ g^gg 
 
 ■I trSnir 
 
 LJ U3 i&c 
 
 i?T"£ 
 
 r I m. r i gV r r 
 
 P 
 
 U- 
 
 I &c 
 
 :^~ 
 
 Var. 3. 
 
 a_I^L_x. 
 
 Var. 7. 
 
 
 Var. 17. 
 
Chap. V.] 
 
 •The Variation Forms. 
 
 89 
 
 6m- -m-m-m- -m- -m- m- 
 
 Var. 45. 
 
 I j J J. J 
 
 t^^^^^^M 
 
 -g=g=S 
 
 /f-p-ff-*— l—Titj 
 
 
 
 = 
 
 L r * 
 
 r— rf.-p) 
 
 Var. S9. 
 
 -g 
 
 * 1 
 
 ' MP 
 
 fe-K * 
 
 r 
 
 m m1 
 
 i frrf 
 
 j 1 
 
 — =* 
 
 &c. 
 
 iL, ! 1 
 
 m m T" 
 
 V 
 
 
 -m 
 
 
 
 -,»r»F 
 
 rsr[-p|-rfcS= 
 
 Var. 62. 
 
 
90 
 
 Applied Forms. 
 
 (Chap. v. 
 
 Most of these variations contain no change of harmony, tha 
 alterations being mostly in melodic outline (as in Variations 7, 
 23, 32, &c), or in rhythmic figure (as in Variations 4, 9, and 41). 
 We give the last variation in full ; it will be seen that it is a little 
 canon in the octave, the harmonic outline of which closely 
 resembles, except in the third bar, the original theme. The 
 whole of the piece may be examined with advantage by those 
 who wish to see how much can be done with a very common, not 
 to say threadbare, sequence of chords. 
 
 140. Bach's treatment of the Chaconne and Passacaglia is 
 freer than Handel's. His well-known Chaconne for violin with- 
 out accompaniment consists of a theme of eight bars, of which 
 the second half is a slightly varied repetition of the first, with 
 thirty variations, in some of which the harmonic treatment is very 
 free. In several of the variations the mode is changed from 
 minor to major, and the piece ends with the repetition of the 
 theme in its original simple form, the final cadence being altered, 
 to make a more satisfactory close. 
 
 141. In Bach's great Passacaglia in C minor for the organ 
 we find even greater freedom. The work is founded upon the 
 following Ground Bass, which, it will be seen, is of the normal 
 eight-bar construction : — 
 
 This theme is first announced by the organ pedals without any 
 harmony, as in the example by Purcell, given in § 138. Above 
 this bass Bach then proceeds to write variations. In the first four 
 the bass remains unchanged, and different harmonies are added 
 above it. In the fifth, ninth, and tenth variations, the bass is 
 itself varied by the introduction of rests and ornamental notes. 
 In the eleventh and twelfth variations the theme appears as a 
 melody in the upper part instead of the bass, and in the 
 thirteenth variation we find it in the middle of the harmony, with 
 one part above and one below. In the fourteenth and fifteenth 
 variations the long notes of the theme are no longer present, but 
 its harmonies are suggested by broken chords and arpeggios. 
 From the sixteenth to the twentieth variation the subject re- 
 appears in its original form in the bass, with new counterpoints 
 
Ch.<p. V.) 
 
 The Variation Forms. 
 
 9i 
 
 in the upper parts. An elaborate double fugue of 124 bars, 
 founded upon the beginning of the theme, 
 
 l iirm -i 
 
 concludes the work. 
 
 142. Before leaving this part of our subject, it will be well 
 to notice here a more modern example r>f thp r.harr?nn p, w> 
 
 referJO_EeethovenYThirty-tWQ_yari3tior)S for Piann in r rninnr 
 
 This piece is so generally familiar that it will only be necessary to 
 say a few words about it. The subject, with its descending 
 chromatic scale in the bass, 
 
 ! *" Pt.s>>' 
 
 B4 
 2 
 
 •s 
 
 of which we have given the harmonies, has much resemblance to 
 that quoted in § 138. Our space will not allow us to give an 
 analysis of these variations ; we strongly advise the student to 
 make one for himself, and to notice the different ways in which 
 Beethoven changes.. the harmonic framework, while never so far 
 disguising the original as to render the theme unrecognizable. 
 Of Beethoven's other variations we shall speak later in this 
 chapter. 
 
 143. A much more common form than that of the Ground 
 Bass or Chaconne (at least, with modern composers) is that 
 known as the "Air with Variations," or simply "Variations." 
 This may be either an independent piece of itself, or it may form 
 part of a larger work, such as a sonata, quartett, or symphony. 
 The same general principles apply to the writing of variations in 
 both these cases. 
 
 144. The first thing to be considered in variations is the 
 choice of the theme. It is not every subject that is equally well 
 suited for variation. If it be too- short, the piece as a whole 
 is likely to be scrappy and fragmentary; if it be too long, the 
 music will probably become discursive and rambling. As a 
 matter of fact, a theme that is to be varied will be almost always 
 in simple binary form, and in the majority of cases will be found 
 to consist of two sentences of eight bars each. The thirty- two 
 variations by Beethoven, spoken of in § 142. offers one of the few 
 modern examples of a theme_cgnsi$ting of onl y one sentence. 
 
 ~~T4"37~rrtSTurther desirable that the theme to be varied should 
 
 (a) T.S., the abbreviation of Tasto solo, indicates that there is no harmony 
 above the bass. 
 
g 2 Applied Forms, [Chap. v. 
 
 be simple, and at the same time sufficiently striking in character 
 to be easily recognized in the different metamorphoses it has to 
 undergo. To this end variety of cadence will be found very helpful. 
 It is true that we sometimes find very beautiful variations in 
 which this point is disregarded — a familiar example being the 
 variations of Mozart's sonata in A ; but this piece is successful 
 in spite of, not because of, the monotony of the cadences, all of 
 which are either half closes or full closes in the tonic key. 
 
 146. It was said just now that t he majority of themes for 
 variations were of ^sixteen bars in len gth. Examples ot such 
 themes will be seen in"§§ 316, 317 of Musical Form. But_it_is_ 
 by no means uncommon to find more . extej3d_e4_,_bi&ary_Jojms' 
 
 -taken as trle"~subjects "for, variations. The variations by Mozart, 
 referred to in the last paragraph, are an example of this; so are 
 the variations in Beeth oven's so nata.jn_A fl"t, <">p 9*7, and his 
 Variations in F, Op. 34, and on Diabelli's Waltz, Op. 120. For 
 tRe^impTeF variations",'" whlcH ""should be studied "first, "the small 
 sixteen-bar theme will be best adapted. 
 
 147. Dr. Marx^in his_" Composition.". -diyidea_variations in£o 
 twq^ia^esrz-Formal--and-C-ha*a<jter-^ariatiaris^ Under the former 
 name he includes .tho.se..in. which- .the .oxigimliQixEoiitoTheme 
 is more or less closely preserved, though there may be chan ges 
 of rhythm, of mode (from major to minor, ~ oF vice versd ), of 
 harmony, or of "the. form of accompaniment, _ while _by character- 
 variations" he means those in which there are important changes 
 in the original form of the theme, . such, for instance, as its 
 conversion into a March, a Waltz, or. a~ Fugue. It is, however, 
 often very difficult to decide in which of these two classes many 
 variations should be included; it willjje simpler^t herefo re, to 
 speak of variations as _ Strict jor.-Free ; by 3ie35rmerlar£__.meant 
 those in which the outline of the theme is more or less closely 
 adhered to ; by the latter those in which it is widely departed 
 from. Nearly all the . variatians_bj. JVlMartj anrj ;the majority of 
 those by Beethoven, belong to the forme r class , while Schumann's 
 <x Sy mphonic Variations^" Op. _f ^"afford - an excellent example of 
 thejatter. 
 
 148. It would be both interesting and profitable to trace the 
 gradual development of the variation form from the simple 
 "Doubles" of the old Suites (§ 58) to the very free variations of 
 modern composers. This, however, our space will not allow, and 
 we must refer students to the admirable article on " Variations " 
 by Dr. Hubert Parry, in the fourth volume of Grove's Dictionary 
 of Music. The general tendency towards ever-increasing freedom 
 of form will be seen in the successive examples that we are about 
 to mention. 
 
 149. In the earlier examples_ pf what w^ have_termed the 
 " strict " variation, the lSrmomc~outline is mostly" presj^vedTntjact, 
 whHe~tll5"variations gradually beconTCynTOre^elaborate or florid. 
 
Chap. V.] 
 
 The Variation Forms. 
 
 93 
 
 Look, for example, at Handel's Variations in E, known as " The 
 Harmonious Blacksmith." The piece is so familiar that quotation 
 is superfluous ; it will be remembered that the theme mostly moves 
 in quavers ; in the first variation we have broken harmony in semi- 
 quavers for the right hand ; in the second, similar passages for the 
 left hand ; in the third variation we find triplet semiquavers for the 
 right, and in the fourth, for the left hand ; while the fifth and last 
 variation contains ascending and descending scale passages in 
 demisemiquavers. The changes of harmony are very slight and 
 unimportant. 
 
 150. Though in the strict variations of later composers 
 (Haydn, Mozart, or Beethoven) we find the harmonic outlines 
 less closely adhered to, the same general principles are observed. 
 As an illustration of this, we give the commencement of some of 
 Mozart's variations on the French air ' Je suis Lindor.' We select 
 this piece because it is one of which the composer evidently 
 thought well, as he frequently selected it to play at his concerts, 
 and mentions it in one of his letters as a piece " which has 
 something for everybody." The first part of the theme is the 
 following — 
 
 Allegretto, 
 
 Mozart : Variations on ' Je suis Lindor.' 
 
 The second part of this theme also consists of one sentence, the 
 after-phrase of which is extended to five bars by repetition of its 
 first bar, and then repeated with a varied cadence. On this air 
 Mozart has written twelve variations, which we proceed to describe. 
 151. The first variation shows the melody embellished by 
 auxiliary and passing notes, and accompanied by simple chords in 
 the bass, with a change of harmony at the third and fourth bars : — 
 
 Var. 1. 
 
 it 
 
 feg5^ jgB£^ F£^ 
 
94 
 
 Applied Forms. 
 
 [Chap. v. 
 
 In the second variation, the theme appears in almost its original 
 form in the right hand, accompanied by moving semiquaver 
 passages of scales and arpeggios for the left : — 
 
 legato. 
 
 The third variation shows more florid embellishments of the 
 subject, as will be seen from the first bars, 
 
 while in the fourth we see triplet semiquavers in the right hand, 
 with "cross-hand" passages for the left, such as are often to be 
 found in the music of Mozart's time : — 
 
 Var. 4. 
 
Chap. V.] 
 
 The Variation Fokms. 
 
 95 
 
 The fifth and sixth variations present the theme in a simple form, 
 but with broken octaves, in the fifth for the right, and in the sixth 
 for the left hand. Quotation is unnecessary. 
 
 152. Variation 7 (Maestoso) shows the theme in a new 
 aspect. The bold chords with which it opens are followed by scale 
 passages for both hands alternately, the harmonic outline remaining 
 practically unchanged : — 
 
 Var. 7. Maestoso. 
 
 «p 
 
 The eighth variation is in the tonic minor key. It was usual in 
 this form to change the mode from major to minor, or vice versA, for 
 at least one variation. An early example of this will be seen in 
 Handel's Chaconne in G major (not the one quoted in § 139) with 
 2 1 variations, in which the variations Nos. 9 to 1 6 are in the key of 
 G minor. More frequently however, the change was only made, 
 as here, for one variation : — 
 
 Var. 8. Minore. ^ 
 
 153. The ninth and tenth variations are the counterparts of one 
 another. In the former the dominant is sustained in the treble, 
 and in the latter the tonic in the bass through nearly the whole 
 variation : — 
 
 Var. 9. Maggiore. 
 
The eleventh variation shows a special characteristic of Mozart's 
 treatment of this form. In fourteen out of fifteen sets of variations 
 from his pen (not counting those which are single movements of 
 larger works, such as sonatas and quartetts) we find one variation 
 Adagio — nearly always the penultimate variation of the set. The 
 effect is to change the character of the theme, though its melodic 
 and harmonic outlines are generally closely reproduced. These 
 slow variations are always elaborately ornamented, and are in many 
 cases the most beautiful of the whole. We give the commence- 
 ment of the present one :— 
 
 Var. ii. Molto adagio. 
 
 The final variation is free (§ 147). Here the time is changed to f, 
 and the form to that of a minuet :— 
 
Chap. V.] 
 
 The Variation Forms. 
 
 97 
 
 Var. 12. Tempo di Menuetto. 
 
 This final variation is extended by means of a short coda. 
 
 154. The analysis of these variations by Mozart will, it is 
 hoped, enable the student sufficiently to understand the older 
 variation form. If he will procure Clementi's sonata in B flat, 
 Op. 12, No. 1, he will find, as the finale of that sonata, a set of 
 variations on the same theme, which it will be very interesting for 
 him to compare with the variations by Mozart that we have just 
 been examining. We recommend him also to analyze for himself 
 Mozart's variations on " Unser dummer Pobel meint" and " Ein 
 Weib ist das herrlichste Ding," as well as those in the sonatas in 
 A major and D major. 
 
 155. In the hands of Beethoven the variation form was c on- 
 siderably enlarged. One of the most striking characteristics of this 
 -greatesL til all composers excepting Bach was his power of ex- 
 tending andjnodi fying, without ever destrpy ing^the f orm's"employ e"d 
 by~his~~predecessors. Tri e "larger num ber „of his variations for 
 ■ptanti u o l o a re ui r rl yworks ) m these he mostly follows the lines 
 laid'down -by-Mozart, Though h e O H ry~eTCTpTio nauy" ( as In" the vari- 
 ations -co- "-¥rerri- arrroTe"" ^nfl~*''TaTirMn u nd ScherzerTy avails 
 himself of the Aitctgftr variation | which MozarFuses so effectively. 
 But in his more important variations we find much greater freedom. 
 As an interesting example, we give an analysis of the " Six Varia- 
 tions on an Original Theme," Op. 34. 
 
 156. The theme on which these variations are founded is, as 
 usual, in the simple binary form. It commepces with a sentence 
 of the normal eight-bar construction, ending with a full close in the 
 tonic key. This is followed by a phrase of four bars modulating 
 to the dominant, and extended to six bars by a double repetition 
 of its cadence, after which the first sentence is repeated without 
 modification. We quote the first four bars : — 
 
 Beethoven : 6 Variations, Op. 34. 
 
 157. A peculiarity of this piece is that Beethoven introduced 
 into it an innovation which neither he nor, so far as we are aware, 
 
98 
 
 Applied Forms. 
 
 [Chap. v. 
 
 any later composer has ever repeated. No two consecutive varia- 
 tions are in the same key or in the same time. The first variation 
 is in D major ; the harmonic outline of the theme undergoes but 
 slight alteration, but it is very elaborately embroidered with florid 
 ornamentation in the upper part. The tempo is approximately the 
 same as that of the theme : — 
 
 158. In the second variation we find an entire change in the 
 spirit of the music. The dotted rhythmic figure in the first bar, 
 and the semiquaver arpeggio and scale passage in the third are 
 strongly contrasted with the dreamy, almost religious, character of 
 the subject. This contrast is intensified in the second part of the 
 variation ; the theme is, in fact, completely metamorphosed, though 
 the harmonic outline is in the main unchanged : — 
 
 Var. z. Allegro ma non troppo. 
 
Chap. V.} 
 
 The Variation Forms. 
 
 99 
 
 159. Again another strong contrast ! To the vivacity of the 
 second variation succeeds the tranquil flow and repose of the third, 
 in G major, with the quietly moving legato quavers in both hands. 
 Yet the resemblance to the original theme is never for a moment 
 obscured ; the harmonic outline of every bar remains unchanged, 
 though chromatic notes (both passing and harmony notes) are 
 frequently introduced :- 
 
 160. In the fourth variation the theme is again transformed- 
 now to a stately minuet : — 
 
 Var. 4. Tempo di Menu etto. 
 
 161. Now let us pause for a moment to notice the order of 
 keys which Beethoven has hitherto observed. It will be seen that 
 each variation is alternately a minor and a major third lower than 
 the preceding, and stands therefore in the second degree of rela- 
 tionship {Musical Form, § 83) to that which has gone before it. 
 As the keys are all major, it is clear that lowering the tonic a minor 
 third always leads to a key with more sharps, and a major third 
 always to one with more flats. In the fifth variation Beethoven 
 again lowers his tonic a minor third ; but he changes the mode. 
 
Applied Forms. 
 
 [Chap. v. 
 
 This variation is therefore in the relative minor of the preceding, 
 and takes the character of a funeral march : — 
 
 Var. 5. Marcia allegretto, 
 
 life 
 
 162. A "link" ot six bars of the chord of C major, to which 
 at the fourth bar the dominant seventh is added, leads back to the 
 original key of F for the final variation : — 
 
 Var. 6. Allegretto. 
 
 Wi 
 
 Trrn _F5tj^ „Jtjt^3 
 
 *M= ?— '— *~=l 
 
 Jpr^ 
 
 =£•=&)» 
 
 -?• ErfspTf-ffeVr 
 
 This variation is followed by a long coda, the latter part of which 
 is really, though not so entitled, a seventh variation in which the 
 theme (Adagio molto, f) is heard alternately in the right and left 
 hands, and even more elaborately ornamented than in the first 
 variation. We strongly recommend this piece to the attention of 
 the student as an excellent example of the free style of variation. 
 We also advise the study of Beethoven's ' Fifteen Variations and 
 Fugue ' (Op. 35) and of the variations in the sonatas Ops. 26 and 
 57, and of those in the great Trio in B fiat. We cannot too often 
 repeat that more is to be learned from a careful analysis of existing 
 masterpieces than from any number of text-books. 
 
Chap, v.] The Variation Forms. ioi 
 
 163. In Beethoven's later works he developed the. ^variation 
 form still further; Wefind great freedom in the variations of the 
 pianoforte sonatas, Ops. 109 and in, and of the string quaftetts 
 Th E flac, Gp.*i 277 and C sharp rhinor7 Op. 131. Most remarkable 
 of all are the Thirty-three Variations on a Waltz by Diabejli, Op. 
 120 , which Drr~FTiihert ParryJ^ eyrellpntly describes as " trans- 
 formations rather than variations." In rriany of 1Rese7Trie~tneme 
 is so far changed that its recognition is not easy ; sometimes 
 hardly anything remains beyond the final cadence of each sentence. 
 We have not here space to analyze this great work, but we must 
 refer our readers to the excellent article by Dr. Parry, already 
 referred to. Those who can read German will also find an 
 interesting analysis of the variations in the third volume of Marx's 
 "Composition." 
 
 164. The variations by Schubert, Weber, and Mendelssohn, f 
 though extremely interesting as illustrating the technique of those 
 composers in pianoforte writing, present little new as regards the 
 variation form. For the most part they would be classed among 
 the strict rather than the free variations, though it must be acknow- 
 ledged that it is very difficult, if not impossible, to draw a hard 
 and-fast line of demarcation between the two styles. In the 
 variations which form the middle movement of Weber's sonata in 
 D minor, Op. 49, is to be seen an innovation worth noticing. The 
 theme, which is preceded by an introduction four bars in length, 
 consists of two eight-bar sentences, and is followed by four varia- 
 tions. Between the second and third variation is introduced an 
 episode of 31 bars, and between the third and fourth a second 
 episode of 16 bars. Here, therefore, we see a modified variation 
 form, approximating to the older Rondo form which will be spoken 
 of in the next chapter. % 
 
 165. The more modern compose rs, such as Schumann, Brahms , 
 and Raff, almost inyariabjjrwrite : tfieir variations in tHe lree rather 
 tfianTn the "strict style, The finest examples by SchumanrTarethe 
 '•"ErnrleT SympKbniques en Forme de Variations," Op. 13, the 
 Variations for two Pianos, Op. 46, and those which form the slow 
 movement of the string quartett in F, Op. 41, No. 2. Of these 
 the variations for two pianos are the most regular, and the most 
 
 * See his article "Variations" in Vol. IV. of Grove's "Dictionary of 
 Music." 
 
 t We recommend the student to examine the following variations by these 
 masters : — 
 
 Schubert : Andante con moto from Sonata in A minor, Op. 42 ; Impromptu in B flat, 
 Op. 142, No. 3 ; Variations on " Death and the Maiden " in the String Quartett in D minor. 
 
 Weber: Variations on *'Vien qua, Dorina bella," Op. 7; Variations on the Romance 
 from ' Joseph,' Op. 28 ; Variations on " Schone Minka," Op. 37. 
 
 Mendelssohn : Variations Serieuses, Op. 54 ; Variations in E flat, Op. 82 ; Variations 
 in B flat, Op. 83 ; Variations in D, Op. 17, for piano and violoncello. 
 
 % This movement is analyzed in a later chapter of this volume ( § 416). 
 
102 Applied Forms. [Chap. v. 
 
 perfect as regards their form, while the " Etudes Symphoniques " 
 are the richest in their artistic contents. In this great work, which 
 is too well known to need analysis, freedom is carried almost to an 
 extreme. As in the Thirty-three Variations by Beethoven, spoken 
 of in § 163, often nothing but the bare harmonic outline of the 
 original theme remains. The same is the case in many of the 
 variations by Brahms,* and with Raffs brilliant " Giga con 
 Variazioni" in his Suite, Op. 91. 
 
 166. In the large majority of cases (though numerous excep- 
 tions are to be met with) the length of the sentences, even in 
 variations in the free style, will be the same as in the original 
 theme. This is the case in 22 out of 33 variations in Beethoven's 
 Op. 120, while in many other cases, when there is a difference 
 it arises from the repetition of one of the phrases or sentences. 
 As a general rule, t he main tenance ofthe rhythm unchanged 
 is one of the simplest as well as one ^FtheTest 'methods of 
 preserving the unity of the composition. It liriould~~'be added 
 that this does not apply to the final variation,, which, ~aFTeast 
 in modern compositions, is almost always extended by means of 
 a coda. 
 
 i67.-^AJtind of ftee-JKarJation-riot-yet.^p Qken of is Cano nic 
 Variation,. This is sometimes employed incidentally, as injhe 
 seventh of Beethoven's "Fifteen Variations, Op. 3~sT~bTtrttieTm est 
 examples are those by Bach in his ' Thirty Variations ' for clavier, 
 and his " Canonic Variations for Organ on the Choral, ' Vom 
 Himmel hoch da komm' ich her. 1 " Extracts from both these 
 works will be found in Double Counierboint and Canon, §§353, 
 369-371, and 402-405. The 'Thirty Variations' may be de- 
 scribed as an anticipation by a hundred years of the free variations 
 of Beethoven, Schumann, and Brahms. Though they are inimit- 
 able, they will none the less repay study. 
 
 168. When, as is so frequently the case, t he theme for varia- 
 tions c onsists of two eight-bar sentences, each of which is repeated, 
 it is not uncommdn"tb~meeT wltlTwhat may be described lis 'Double 
 Var iations. ^ In these, instead of the repetitioHS of each half~being 
 identical, a seco nd_yariatioTrorthe first half precedes the first varia- 
 tion_ofjhe_ second hal£"~The third variatjonTrl'thef Andante of 
 Beethoven's sonata- in FminoTy&p: 57, is^a jamiliar example of 
 this. Arpeggios and scale passages in demisemiquavenTforl rleleft 
 haruTaccompany sustained notesjn the right hand durmg-theiifst 
 eight bars ; on the repetition of the sentenceThe"sustainea~notes are 
 given to the left hand, and the moving passages to the right. At 
 other times much greate r alterations are made, as in the following 
 example from Beethoven's sonata, Op," 109"": — 
 
 * Variations on a Theme by Schumann, Op. 9 ; Two Books of Variations, 
 Op. 21 ; Variations and Fugue on a Theme by Handel, Op. 24; Variations 
 for Orchestra on a Theme by Haydn, Op. 56. 
 
Chap. V.] 
 
 The Variation Forms. 
 
 103 
 
 Beethoven : Sonata, Op. 109. 
 
 At (a) we give the first sentence of the theme ; at (b) are the first 
 four bars of the second variation. The figure here shown is con- 
 tinued to the end of the sentence (the eighth bar), but instead of 
 this sentence being repeated it is followed by an entirely new 
 variation, as at (<r). The second sentence of the theme is then 
 treated in the same way, being first varied after the model at (b) 
 and then as at (c). Here therefore we have double variations — in 
 fact two variations in one. 
 
 169. A form of variation differing in some respects from any 
 yet noticed is that to which Haydn appears to have been partial, 
 as it is frequently met with in his quartetts and symphonies. This 
 is a different kind of double variation to that just noticed, being 
 written upon two themes, instead of one. In this form each theme 
 has always the same tonic, but the mode is changed. One of the 
 best examples is to be seen in Haydn's charming symphony in C 
 
104 / Applied Forms. [Chap. v. 
 
 major (No. 3 of Rieter-Biedermann's edition). The slow move- 
 ment is built upon two themes, each of which is a simple binary 
 form. The first theme, of sixteen bars, is given complete in 
 Musical Form, § 316. This is followed by a second theme in F 
 minor, also containing two sentences, the first of normal length, 
 and the second extended to fourteen bars. As with the first 
 theme, each sentence is repeated. We next find a variation of the 
 first theme, followed by a variation of the second theme. The 
 second theme, however, does not end as before with a full cadence, 
 but with an interrupted cadence, leading back, through a codetta 
 of six bars, to the first theme, of which a second variation is then 
 given, and a coda of 26 bars concludes the movement, the plan of 
 which is as follows : — 
 
 (a) First theme (F major). 
 (p) Second theme (F minor). 
 
 (c) Variation of first theme. 
 
 (d) Variation of second theme. 
 
 (e) Second variation of first theme, followed by coda. 
 
 170. Haydn's Variations for the piano in F minor furnish 
 another example of this same form, which will be familiar to many 
 of our readers. Curiously enough, it was never employed by 
 Mozart, and only once by Beethoven — in the second movement 
 of his piano trio in E flat, Op. 70, No. 2. Since the time of 
 Beethoven it seems to have been almost entirely disused.* 
 
 171. The variation form is occasionally to be found in vocal 
 as well as in instrumental music. A once very popular example of 
 this is to be seen in the air " Ah ! je veux briser ma chaine," in the 
 second act of Auber's ' Diamans de la Couronne,' which is 
 nothing but a brilliant set of vocalises for the soloist, and offers no 
 special features for remark in its form. Far more interesting from 
 an artistic point of view is the finale of Beethoven's Choral Sym- 
 phony, which consists of an introduction and a series of free 
 variations on the theme of the ' Ode to Joy.' 
 
 172. We have just spoken of the variations in Beethoven's 
 symphony as preceded by an introduction. This, though by no 
 means necessary, can always be used if the composer wishes. It 
 is seldom to be met with unless the variations form an independent 
 piece, and not merely one movement in a " cyclic form," that is, 
 a work consisting of several movements. There are no rules as to 
 the form which this introduction shall take ; in general it has the 
 character of an improvisation or a fantasia. In the Choral 
 Symphony the introduction to the variations consists of a recitative 
 for the basses of the orchestra interrupted by reminiscences of the 
 preceding movements of the symphony. A very good example of 
 
 * The author of this book has adopted it for the slow movement of his 
 second Organ Concerto ; but he is not aware of any other instance of its 
 employment by a contemporary composer. 
 
Chap, v.] The Variation Forms. 105 
 
 an introduction to variations is found in Beethoven's Variations 
 for piano, violin, and violoncello, Op. 121, which is chiefly a 
 development of the theme of the first bar : — 
 
 ft 
 
 Another specimen will be found in Chopin's Variations for piano 
 and orchestra on " La ci darem," Op. 2. 
 
 173. We conclude this chapter with a general summary of the 
 chief points which the student should bear in mind in beginning 
 to write variations for himself. He should first of all be careful 
 in the selection of the theme which he intends to vary. This 
 should be of moderate length— preferably of two, or at most three 
 eight-bar sentences, — it should be varied in its cadences, and of 
 sufficiently distinctive character to be easily recognizable on its 
 repetition in a varied form. This last stipulation applies chiefly to 
 the strict variations. 
 
 174. Among the principal means of varying a theme a re the 
 followingT^ 1 ' — 
 
 I. Ornamentation of the melprly witlirm<- all-prat-inn r»f thf> 
 
 original harmony. This is the simplest kind of variation, and 
 trrafwhlch is'mosTfrequently found in the older examples of this 
 form. It includes the embellish ment of the melo dy by auxiliary 
 and passing~notes, diatomc^r^rlrornatic, the dispersing of the 
 harmony by means of arpeggios and "broken chords, various com- 
 binations of these devices, &c7 
 
 II. Changingjh e harmony of the theme, e ither with or witho ut 
 modification"!)? its melodic form. When this is done, it will be 
 mostly advisable' to introduce few or no changes in the melody, 
 not only because thus it remains easier to recognize, but still more 
 because the effect thus produced is often much more striking. 
 As examples of this may be instanced the sixth variat ion in 
 Beethoven's Fifteen Variations, Op. 35, and the sixth of Weber's 
 Variations on "Vien qua, Dorina bella." If only this and the 
 preceding method of varying be used, the variations will in 
 general be strict. 
 
 175. III. By changing the te?npo and the rhythmic figur ation 
 of the theme, as-hrthTrexample by ±Jeethoven analyzed m"% 156- 
 162,- we— obtain further variations, departing much more widely 
 from the original form of the subject. We shall then have free 
 variations. Not infrequently such variations take an entirely new 
 form (March._M inuet. Polacca —JSEalse.— &c), .jar.„£3Z£n*_as in 
 Beethoven's " Thirty -three Variations," are transformed to a 
 Fughetta or Fugue. ' In"suc7Tcal^es7"the"bond of connection with 
 the theme is sometimes the general harmonic outline^ at other 
 times little more than the rhythmic structure of the music, and the 
 
io(5 Applied Forms. [Cnap. v. 
 
 position of the cadences. In variations of this kind, more skill is 
 required to preserve the artistic unity of the work than in the 
 simpler and stricter variations previously described. 
 
 176. IV. It is mostly advisable, whether the variations be 
 strict or free, that the length of their sentences shall_be the^same 
 as in the theme. This is the usual practice of the great masters, 
 andean observance of this rule will conduce greatly to the clear- 
 ness of form of the composition. The exceptions to be met with 
 are almost always in free, seldom if ever in strict variations. The 
 final variation is in general extended by a coda ; here the rule just 
 given does not apply, though in most cases the variation itself 
 which precedes the coda will be of the same length as the theme. 
 
 177. Of all existing forms there is none which shows such 
 infinite diversity as (from its very nature) does the variation form. 
 It has therefore been impossible to deal with it exhaustively. All 
 that has been attempted has been to show the fundamental prin- 
 ciples underlying the form, and to. illustrate the application of 
 these principles by reference to the works of the great composers. 
 
Chap. vi. 1 The Older Rondo Form. 107 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 THE OLDER RONDO FORM. 
 
 178. Having in our preceding chapters dealt with the most 
 important of the smaller instrumental forms, we have now to treat 
 of those larger forms which are the developments from the earlier 
 and more primitive varieties, especially from the dance forms. It 
 would be highly interesting, did our space permit, to trace the 
 gradual growth of instrumental music from the simplest binary 
 form to the modern sonata and symphony; but this would be 
 beyond our scope, as the present volume is not a history of music, 
 but a text-book of composition. The historical side of the 
 question cannot be altogether overlooked ; but we can only refer 
 to it incidentally, as bearing on our examples ; and students" who 
 wish to investigate the matter thoroughly must go elsewhere for 
 their information. 
 
 179. The first of the larger forms of which we have to speak 
 is the Rondo (Fr. " Rondeau "). This was originally a dance, 
 the music to which was sung, while the performers danced in a 
 circle, holding one another's hands. The music began with a 
 chorus ; one of the dancers then sang a solo, after which the 
 chorus was repeated as a refrain. Other solos followed, the 
 chorus being repeated after each. The chorus itself was called 
 the 'Rondeau,' and the various solos 'Couplets.' The 
 Rondeau, as a dance measure, was always in common time. 
 Before long, movements in triple time were also composed in this 
 form ; and, although these could not be used for the dance, the 
 name 'Rondo' was still applied to them. The dance itself is 
 long since obsolete ; but the name and the musical form remain 
 to this day. In general terms, then, a Rondo may be described 
 as a piece of music with a refrain — that is, in which the principal 
 subject recurs at the end of each division of the piece. It is to 
 be met with both in instrumental and vocal music. 
 
 180. There are two kinds of Rondo, differing so widely from 
 one another that it will be needful to keep them quite distinct. 
 The older Rondo form is the direct descendant of the dance 
 described in the last section; the more modern Rondo is a 
 modification, or variation, of the sonata form, of which we have 
 as yet said nothing. It is the former of which we shall treat in 
 this chapter, deferring our notice of the latter until the sonata 
 form has been explained. 
 
 181. We said above that the name 'Rondeau' was applied 
 
io8 
 
 Applied Forms. 
 
 [Chap. VI. 
 
 not only to the composition as a whole, but also to the principal 
 subject, which served as the refrain. In the older examples of 
 the form which we have examined, the name is always spelt in the 
 French way, as we have spelt it here ; the Italian form ' Rondo ' 
 is almost universal in modern compositions. In many examples 
 by Couperin we find the name given on each resumption of the 
 principal theme, while the connecting episodes still retain the 
 name 'Couplets,' given to them when the music was vocal, as 
 explained in § 179. As a very characteristic example of this form, 
 we give the Rondeau from the Eighteenth Suite (or, as he calls it, 
 ' Ordre ') by Couperin : — 
 
 Tendrement, sans lenteur. 
 
 Couperin : Fifeces de Clavecin, Ordre 18. 
 
 
 1.1 
 
Chap. VI.] 
 
 The Older Rondo Form. 
 
 109 
 
 
 g r-r!*-r-^ = 8; ==t 
 
 1 u 
 
 =K=tS= 
 
 (4) 
 
 i i -J-i 1 Al j ^-J 1 Al j JKt 
 
no 
 
 Applied Forms. 
 
 [Chap. VI. 
 
 We have given the rhythmic analysis, that the construction may 
 be more easily followed. 
 
 182. The principal subject, here called ' Rondeau,' is a 
 regular sentence, eight bars in length. This is generally the case 
 in these older rondos ; that in Bach's second Partita, in which the 
 subject is sixteen bars long, is only an apparent, not a real 
 exception ; for the sixteen bars of \ time in that piece are really 
 the equivalent of the eight bars of % seen in the present example, 
 as the principal accents come only on every second bar. (Com- 
 pare the sixteen-bar sentence by Schubert, quoted in Musical 
 Form, § 72.) The episodes ('Couplets') are less regular in 
 
Chap, vi.] The Older Rondo Form. hi 
 
 length The first contains only six bars, the first section of the 
 fore-phrase being elided. This episode is in the dominant key. 
 The second episode is longer ; it consists of a complete sentence 
 in the key of D minor, followed by another abridged sentence of 
 six bars, similar in construction to the first episode. In this a 
 return is made through the dominant key to the chief subject. 
 The third episode, which is in the tonic key, and contains no 
 modulation, consists of only one sentence, the after-phrase of 
 which is repeated in a varied form. The unusually large number 
 of embellishments in the right-hand part are characteristic of 
 Couperin's style. 
 
 183. The rondo just analyzed contains three episodes. In 
 these older rondos there was no fixed number of episodes ; in the 
 majority of cases we find two, three, or four; but a much larger 
 number is occasionally to be seen. In Couperin's eighth Suite is 
 a Rondo in B minor, containing no fewer than eight ' Couplets.' 
 This piece, however, is a Passecaille (§ 139), and, though Couperin 
 has given it also the title of 'Rondeau,' it is in reality a 
 combination of the rondo and the variation forms. 
 
 184. It will be seen that in the rondo given above no two 
 episodes are in the same key. This is an important point to be 
 considered in composition ; the episodes should always be con- 
 trasted with the principal subject in their character, and mostly in 
 their key also. It is, however, not unusual to find a final episode 
 in the key of the tonic. This would be very bad for a first 
 episode ; towards the close of a piece, after the course of modula- 
 tion is ended, a digression without leaving the tonic key is 
 admissible. 
 
 185. We will now analyze the "Rondeau" of Bach's Partita 
 in C minor, to which we referred incidentally in § 182, and which 
 illustrates some points in the construction of the older rondos not 
 shown in the example by Couperin. Our space will not allow us 
 to give the movement here ; but this is the less necessary, as the 
 work is readily accessible in the Peters edition. This piece is 
 much more regular in its rhythmic construction than the rondo 
 by Couperin. The principal subject, in C minor, consists of one 
 sentence of sixteen bars, without any modulation ; the fore-phrase 
 ends in the eighth bar with a half cadence, and the after-phrase 
 at the sixteenth, with a full cadence. There are three episodes, 
 each being a complete sixteen-bar sentence ; the first begins in E 
 fiat major, and modulates to F minor, the fore-phrase ending with 
 a full cadence in that key, while the after-phrase, instead of ending 
 with a full cadence (as was the case in all the episodes in 
 Couperin's rondo), finishes with a half cadence in C minor ; the 
 return of the chief subject is thus more closely connected with 
 what has preceded. 
 
 186. After the repetition of the chief subject comes the 
 second episode. This is in the key of the relative major ; the 
 
ii2 Applied Forms. [Chap. vi. 
 
 fore-phrase ending with a half cadence (feminine ending), and the 
 after-phrase with a full cadence in E flat. We then have the 
 chief subject, now with the fore-phrase varied, though the after- 
 phrase retains its original form. The third episode is in G minor, 
 and is in strong contrast with those that have preceded. The 
 chief subject then appears for the last time, but now with a new 
 variation, not only of the fore-phrase, but of the after-phrase also. 
 This variation of the chief subject of a rondo on its subsequent 
 appearances is a very frequent and characteristic feature, not only 
 of the form we are now discussing, but of the rondos of Mozart 
 and Beethoven. 
 
 187. The older rondo form, as found in the works of more 
 modern composers, from Haydn onwards, though resembling in 
 many respects the rondos just analyzed, has special features of its 
 own. These will be best understood if we consider the rondo as 
 an extension of the ternary form by precisely the same process by 
 which the ternary form was developed from the binary. Those 
 who have studied Chapter X. of Musical Form will remember 
 that the ternary form contains the three following parts : — 
 
 (1) Principal subject, which is in itself a complete binary 
 form of at least two sentences. 
 
 (2) Episode, which may be, but is not of necessity, also a 
 complete binary form. 
 
 (3) Repetition of chief subject, entire or in part, with or 
 without variation or embellishment. 
 
 188. Now if to an already complete ternary form we add a 
 second episode, and then once more repeat the whole or part of 
 the chief subject, we have exactly the older rondo form, as we 
 find it in the works of Haydn, Mozart, Dussek, or Beethoven, 
 and their successors down to the present time. It is evident 
 that a rondo of this kind will contain five parts, instead of the 
 three met with in the ternary form. The student will never 
 have any difficulty in distinguishing between the two forms, if 
 he will only remember that in a ternary form the principal subject 
 never occurs more than twice, and in a rondo never less than three 
 times. 
 
 189. Though not properly to be classed among rondos, a 
 moment's thought will show us that a minuet or scherzo which 
 contains two trios will be really in rondo form. Take, for 
 exampl the Minuet in Mozart's clarinet quintett, or the scherzo 
 of Schumann's symphony in B flat. The two trios in these works 
 correspond to the two episodes spoken of above. After each trio 
 the minuet or scherzo is repeated, giving us in all the three 
 appearances of the chief subject, which is the special characteristic 
 of the rondo form. 
 
 190. When a minuet has two trios, it is not uncommon to 
 find one of them in the same key as the minuet itself. This is 
 the case in the clarinet quintett of Mozart, referred to in the last 
 
Chap. VI.] 
 
 The Older Rondo Form. 
 
 "3 
 
 paragraph. But in a genuine rondo the episodes are almost 
 invariably in different keys from the chief subject ; and the next 
 question to be considered is, which are the most suitable keys 
 for the episodes? The answer is very simple: the episodes 
 may be in any key the tonic of which is consonant to the 
 original tonic; but the keys most frequently employed are the 
 following : — 
 
 For a rondo in a major key (i) the subdominant, (2) the 
 relative minor, (3) the tonic minor, and, somewhat less frequently 
 (4), the dominant. 
 
 For a rondo in a minor key (1) the relative major, (2) the tonic 
 major, (3) the submediant major, (4) the dominant minor. 
 
 191. In addition to the keys just named, we occasionally find 
 an episode in a key that is in the second degree of relationship. 
 For example, in Beethoven's Rondo a Capriccio in G, Op. 129, 
 one of the episodes is in E major. Such cases are comparatively 
 rare ; and the student will do well, in his first attempts at compos- 
 ing a rondo, to restrict himself to the keys we have given above. 
 It ought to be hardly necessary to remind him that, as the same 
 modulation should never be made twice in succession, the two 
 episodes must never be in the same key. 
 
 192. As an example of the form we are now describing, we 
 give the Rondo from Haydn's sonata in D major, No. 7 of 
 Breitkopf & HarteFs edition. We select this movement, not only 
 because it is perfectly clear and regular in its construction, but 
 also because it is short : — 
 
 Presto, ma nan troppo. 
 
 Haydn : Sonata in D. No. 7. 
 
 J" 
 
 (8=4) 
 
114 
 
 Applied Forms, 
 
 [Chap. VI. 
 
Chap, vi.] The Older Rondo Form. 
 
 «S 
 
 ' 1 ^ 1 U " - 1 — — »* 
 
 (4) 
 
Applied Forms. 
 
 CChap. VI. 
 
chap, vi.] The Older Rondo Form. 117 
 
 The principal subject of this rondo is a small binary form of two 
 sentences, the first, of the normal length, ending in the dominant, 
 and the second extended to twelve bars by the addition of a 
 second after-phrase. As is very frequently the case in older 
 examples of this form, each sentence is repeated. 
 
 193. The first episode is in the tonic minor. Like the chief 
 subject, it is a complete binary form, the first sentence ending in 
 F major, and regular in length, and the second returning to D 
 minor. This second sentence contains twelve bars ; but there is 
 not here (as in the second sentence of the principal subject) an 
 additional after-phrase; instead of this, each phrase, as will be 
 seen from our analysis, is extended by two bars. This episode is 
 followed by an exact repetition of the whole of the principal subject. 
 
 194. It is evident that it would have been quite possible for 
 the movement to end here. Had it done so, it would have been 
 a very good example of a short and simple ternary form. The 
 addition of a second episode makes the piece into a rondo. This 
 new episode is in the subdominant key. It is worthy of notice 
 that when one of the episodes of a rondo is in the subdominant, 
 it is almost invariably the second, and not the first episode for 
 which this key is chosen. The reason no doubt is that the 
 subdominant being the key out of which the tonic is derived as a 
 dominant, an early modulation into it has a tendency to reduce 
 the real tonic to a subordinate or secondary position, and thus to 
 confuse the feeling of the tonality. It is exceedingly rare, and 
 certainly not advisable, to make a first principal modulation to the 
 key of the subdominant. 
 
 195. The second episode of the rondo we are examining is, 
 like the first, a complete binary form. It is followed by a con- 
 necting sentence, of irregular construction, serving as a "bridge- 
 passage " to reintroduce the original key and the chief subject. In 
 this subject the accompaniment is now varied in the repetition of 
 the first, as . well as throughout the second sentence. The move- 
 ment has no coda, the end of the chief subject being only followed 
 by two repetitions of the tonic chord. 
 
 196. Very similar in form to the example just given, though 
 on a considerably more extended scale, and in slow time, is 
 Dussek's favourite Andante known as' "La Consolation." The piece 
 is preceded by an introduction (§ 172), constructed of material 
 quite independent of the subjects of the rondo itself. It is 
 needless to quote a movement so generally familiar as this ; a short 
 analysis will be sufficient. The chief subject of the Andante is a 
 short binary form, each part of which is repeated. The first part 
 contains one sentence, and the second two, all being of the 
 normal eight-bar construction. The first sentence ends, not, as 
 usual with a major subject, in the dominant, but in the key of the 
 relative minor, G minor. The first episode is in the tonic minor 
 key. It is, like the chief subject, a complete binary form, the first 
 
n8 Applied Forms. tchap. vi. 
 
 part (one eight-bar sentence) closing in the relative major (D flat), 
 and the second part (two sentences of fourteen and eight bars 
 respectively) ending' with a full cadence in B flat minor. Both 
 parts of this episode are repeated. 
 
 197. The principal subject then recurs; the first sentence is 
 given in its original form and then repeated with a variation in 
 triplet semiquavers ; the two following sentences are only given 
 once, but varied like the first by triplets. The second episode, in 
 E flat, also consists of two sentences, both repeated; the first 
 modulates to the dominant (B flat), and the second ends with a 
 full close in E flat. This episode is therefore again a complete 
 binary form. It is followed by a rather long bridge-passage of 
 eighteen bars, leading back to the principal subject, of which we 
 find now a second variation, in demisemiquavers, after which a 
 coda of fifteen bars concludes the piece. 
 
 198. If we compare " La Consolation" with Haydn's rondo, 
 we cannot but be struck with the great similarity of the general 
 outline. In both pieces not only the principal subject, but both 
 the episodes, are of complete binary form, with repetition of both 
 parts. An even more important point of resemblance is seen in 
 the order of modulation. In each case the first episode is in the 
 tonic minor, and the second in the subdominant major. In both 
 pieces also, a bridge-passage connects the second episode with the 
 final return of the principal subject. The two movements may be 
 taken as types of one of the common varieties of the older rondo 
 form. 
 
 199. In the majority of rondos, however, the different sections 
 of the work are not so clearly separated from one another by 
 double bars as in the examples we have just analyzed. In Mozart's 
 Rondo in A minor, for instance, a beautiful specimen of this form, 
 which students will do well to examine, the chief subject is a 
 binary form, thirty bars long, without repetition of either of its 
 parts ; an episode in F major, thirty-four bars in length, which 
 immediately succeeds, is followed by a bridge-passage of sixteen 
 bars leading back to the repetition of the chief subject, of which 
 only the first sentence is now given, but with new ornamentation. 
 The second episode is in A major; its first sentence of nine bars 
 is repeated ; but the second sentence (15 bars) leads into another 
 long bridge-passage through which the return is made to the key of 
 A minor, and the final appearance of the chief subject. The 
 whole of this is now heard, with further embellishments, and a 
 coda of twenty-four bars concludes the rondo. 
 
 200. To avoid misapprehension, it should be said that when 
 we speak of the subject being in A minor, the first episode in 
 F, and so on, it is not to be inferred that the music remains in 
 those keys throughout the whole of the subject or episode, as the 
 case may be, but only that those are the principal keys, from which 
 incidental modulations are made. 
 
Chap. VI.] 
 
 The Older Rondo Form. 
 
 119 
 
 201. Very similar in its general form to the rondo just spoken 
 of is Beethoven's Andante in F, beginning : — 
 
 Here the first episode modulates to, and is mostly in the key of 
 the dominant, while the second, consisting of two sentences, each 
 repeated, is in the key of the subdominant. The principal subject 
 is varied on each repetition, and the coda is of unusual extent 
 and importance. 
 
 202. A few new features will be seen in the next example we 
 will take — Beethoven's Rondo in C, Op. 51, No. 1. The principal 
 subject, beginning 
 
 Beethoven : Rondo in C, Op. 51, No. 1. 
 
 consists of two sentences, the first eight bars long, and the second 
 extended to nine. The first episode is in the dominant key and 
 begins at bar 1 7, thus — 
 
 It ends at bar 38 with an inverted cadence in G over a tonic pedal, 
 and is followed by a bridge-passage, leading back through the 
 harmony of the dominant seventh of C to the return of the prin- 
 cipal subject in bar 43. Of this only the first sentence is now 
 repeated, with some florid ornamentation in the after-phrase. 
 
 203. The second episode, in C minor, begins at the 51st bar, 
 and is in strong contrast to what has preceded it : — 
 
 Modulating first to E fiat, and touching afterwards on F minor and 
 G minor, it ends with a full cadence in C minor at bar 72, and 
 is followed by another long bridge-passage, in which at bar 75 
 the chief subject is introduced in the key of A flat, with a new 
 
Applied Forms. 
 
 [Chap. VI. 
 
 variation in triplets.* Only a fragment of the subject is heard in 
 this key, the close of the first sentence being altered, so as to finish 
 with a half-cadence in C minor at bar 83. Alternations of the 
 dominant and tonic harmony of C minor lead back to the principal 
 subject in C major at bar 91. The whole of the first sentence is 
 now repeated with some slight variation, and also the first six bars of 
 the second sentence. At bar 105 Beethoven commences his coda 
 with a sudden modulation to D flat, returning at bar 116 to the 
 original key of C major, in which key a new idea is introduced, 
 but only briefly treated. The rondo ends with a reminiscence in 
 the bass (bar 131) of the opening theme. 
 
 204. One of the grandest examples of this form, and also one 
 of the most extended in its developments, is the Rondo of 
 Beethoven's great sonata, Op. 53. The principal subject, which 
 is of extreme simplicity, 
 
 Beethoven : Sonata, Op. 53. 
 
 and is twice repeated with varied accompaniment, extends to bar 
 62. It is followed by a passage of eight bars, which should be 
 regarded as a codetta, rather than as a bridge-passage ; for by the 
 latter term is meant a passage leading directly into what follows. 
 The eight bars (62 to 70) in this rondo do not do this, but are 
 merely cadential in the key of C, and therefore a continuation or 
 prolongation of the close of the preceding subject. The first 
 episode, which begins with a unison passage in broken octaves, 
 
 /■_« — 1 1 — , — .- — s! — e? — ^-S_,S — 5 ffi - > 
 
 extends from bar 70 to bar 98, and is in the key of A minor 
 throughout. At bar 98 commences a bridge-passage, founded 
 
 * It is very rare with modern composers to find the chief subject of the 
 rondo in any but the tonic key. C. P. E. Bach, however, often introduces his 
 chief subject in many different keys, sometimes even in those unrelated to the 
 principal tonic. See, for instance, his Rondo in E major, in the third book of 
 the ' Sonaten fur Kenner und Liebhaber.' 
 
Chap, vi.] The Older Rondo Form. 121 
 
 upon the first four bars of the principal subject, and leading back 
 to the return of that subject in bar 113. This is given in its com- 
 plete form, and without a note of alteration, and on its conclusion 
 in bar 175 it is followed immediately by the second episode, the 
 principal key of which is C minor, and which (like the first episode) 
 begins in unison : — 
 
 Tf^rrr~ 
 
 This subject on its immediate repetition is accompanied by semi- 
 quaver triplets, written in free double counterpoint in the octave. 
 The second episode modulates through A flat and F minor, and 
 after returning to C minor ends at bar 220. It is followed by an 
 unusually long bridge-passage of 92 bars, which deserves to be 
 carefully analyzed. On examining it the student will find that it is 
 almost entirely developed from the first four bars of the chief sub- 
 ject. It modulates freely, and entirely through flat keys : — A flat 
 (bar 221), F minor (bar 225), D flat (bar 229), E flat minor (bar 
 242), F minor (bar 246), B flat minor (bar 257), E flat minor (bar 
 263), D flat (bar 271), and C minor (bar 275). After alternations 
 of tonic, dominant, and supertonic harmony in this key, the domi- 
 nant chord is reached in bar 295, to which at bar 299 the dominant 
 seventh is added, and this harmony is continued till the final return 
 of the principal subject in bar 313. Only the last 32 bars of this 
 subject now reappear, and at bar 344 the coda begins with a repe- 
 tition of the short codetta seen in bars 62 to 70. This codetta 
 is now considerably extended and leads into the prestissimo (bar 
 403), in which the chief subject is given by diminution. It should 
 be noticed that though the notes of the subject are written of the 
 same length as at first, the difference in the tempo reduces them to 
 about half their original time value. This is clearly shown by the 
 entry of the subject in minims at bar 485, where the notes have 
 approximately their original length. Let the student notice that 
 much of this prestissimo is again developed from the commence- 
 ment of the chief subject; this will be clearly seen in the left- 
 hand part of the passage beginning at bar 441. The entire move- 
 ment is an exceptionally fine example of the capabilities of this 
 older rondo form in the hands of such a master as Beethoven. 
 
 205. Other excellent examples of this form are to be found in 
 the final movements of Weber's sonata in C, Op. 24 (the so-called 
 "Moto Continuo") and Schubert's sonatas in D major, Op. 53, 
 and G major, Op. 78. Of more modern composers, Schumann 
 was very partial to the form, which he sometimes treats with 
 considerable, freedom. His popular 'Arabeske' (Op. 18) .is a 
 very familiar example, with its principal subject in C major, and its 
 two episodes in E minor and A minor respectively. We also refer 
 
122 Applied Forms. [Chap. vi. 
 
 students to Nos. 2 and 8 of the ' Kreisleriana ' (Op. 16), Nos. 1, 
 2 and 3, of the ' Nachtstiicke ' (Op. 23), and No. 3 of the ' Three 
 Romances ' (Op. 28) as good specimens of this form. It should 
 be mentioned in passing that in No. 2 of the ' Kreisleriana ' the 
 first episode is in \ time, while the rest of the movement is in f. 
 Though not very often to be met with, a change of time for one of 
 the episodes is quite allowable for the sake of contrast. 
 
 206. In describing this form we said in § 188 that as it con- 
 tained two episodes, with three appearances of the chief subject, 
 it naturally divided into five parts. This is the case in all the 
 rondos that we have been analyzing ; but though it is the form to 
 be met with in the large majority of cases, we occasionally find 
 rondos with three episodes. Two of Dussek's finest sonatas fur- 
 nish excellent examples of this. In his sonata in E flat, Op. 75, 
 the rondo has three episodes, the first modulating to the key of the 
 dominant, the second to the relative minor, and the third to the 
 subdominant. In the same composer's last sonata (known as 
 " L'Invocation ") the rondo, in F minor, has the first episode 
 mostly in A flat, the second in B flat minor and D flat major, and 
 the third in F major. Schumann's Novellettein D major (Op. 21, 
 No. 5) is another instance of a movement in rondo form with 
 three episodes. 
 
 207. In all the examples hitherto examined the principal sub- 
 ject of the rondo has been a complete binary form, consisting of 
 at least two sentences. But we occasionally meet with rondos in 
 which the principal subject is only one sentence in length. This 
 is the case in the Rondo of Mozart's little sonata in C major, 
 written for beginners (" Fur Anfanger "). This movement, which 
 will be readily recognized by its commencement — 
 
 is quite short, containing only 73 bars, and is noticeable for the 
 perfect regularity of the four- and eight-bar periods throughout. 
 Only at the final cadence is one additional bar of tonic harmony 
 appended. In this rondo the chief subject, of eight bars, is 
 repeated, and the first episode (in the dominant key) sounds far 
 more like a continuation than a contrast, especially as the last four 
 bars of the principal subject are used in a slightly modified form. 
 The episode is also eight bars long, and a bridge-passage of four 
 bars brings back the chief subject. Then follows a second episode 
 in A minor, also largely founded upon the opening theme ; after 
 which the chief subject recurs, and is followed by a short coda. 
 Had not Mozart expressly called this movement 'Rondo,' we 
 should certainly not have so regarded it ; for one of the most dis- 
 tinctive features of the rondo form— contrast of episode — is almost 
 entirely wanting. As it is, we are compelled in analyzing it as a 
 
Chap. VI.] 
 
 The Older Rondo Form. 
 
 123 
 
 rondo to consider the chief subject as ending in bar 8 ; otherwise 
 there is only one episode, and the piece is no longer a rondo. Had 
 not the composer himself so described it, we should have said that 
 the movement was in ternary form. 
 
 208. In general, if after one eight-bar sentence ending in the 
 tonic (as in the movement we have just been discussing) the first 
 modulation, supposing the piece to be in a major key, is to the key 
 of the dominant, it is better to regard what follows as belonging to 
 the chief subject rather than as episode, because in the majority of 
 cases the music will be more of a continuation than a contrast. 
 As an illustration of this we will take the rondo of Mozart's lovely 
 trio in E flat for piano, clarinet, and viola. It opens with a 
 sentence of eight bars, the melody of which is first given to the 
 clarinet, and then repeated on the piano : — 
 
 Mozart : Trio in E flat 
 
 At bar 17 there is a modulation to the dominant, and the clarinet 
 continues with the following theme : — 
 
 This certainly suggests a continuation of, rather than a contrast to 
 what has preceded, and a little later, at bar 36, we find further 
 evidence to support this view in the introduction of the first two 
 bars of the opening sentence treated in imitation between the 
 clarinet and the viola :— 
 
124 
 
 Applied Forms. 
 
 [Chap. VI. 
 
 For the sake of clearness we have omitted the arpeggios in the 
 piano part, which fill up the harmony. At bar 5 9 the first sentence 
 is repeated by the piano alone, and we have now a complete binary 
 form, of rather unusual extent — 66 bars. 
 
 209. The first episode begins at bar 67 with a bold subject 
 allotted to the viola : — 
 
 If the student will compare this with the example {b) in the pre- 
 ceding paragraph, he will see at once what we mean by the 
 difference between continuation and contrast. This episode 
 consists of two sentences, each of which is repeated ; and at bar 
 91a bridge-passage, seventeen bars in length, leads back to the 
 original key, and the first return of the principal subject (bar 108). 
 Of this, as often happens when, as here, it is of considerable 
 extent, only the first sentence is repeated, now as a viola solo, 
 accompanied by quaver triplets for the piano. To this immediately 
 succeeds the second episode in A flat, beginning at bar 116 thus : — 
 
 W CI > 
 
 The right hand of the piano part doubles in the lower octave the 
 passage in thirds of the clarinet and viola. This second episode is, 
 like the first, a complete binary form, the first part containing six- 
 teen bars, and the second (which is repeated), twenty-two. At bar 
 153 begins a second bridge-passage, leading to the third entry of 
 the chief subject (first sentence only), at bar 168. At bar 175 
 begins a long coda, in the course of which the first sentence of the 
 chief subject once more makes its appearance (bar 185). Toward 
 the end of the coda (bar 212), a portion of the second bridge- 
 passage is heard in the tonic key. 
 
 210. We sometimes find rondos so constructed that it is very 
 difficult, if not impossible, to decide with certainty how they should 
 be analyzed. Take, for instance, the rondo of Beethoven's sonata 
 in D, Op. 10, No. 3. Two analyses are here quite possible. We 
 may consider the chief subject as consisting (like that in Mozart's 
 rondo spoken of in § 207) of only one sentence, ending on the first 
 note of bar 9. In that case, there will be three episodes, beginning 
 respectively at bars 9, 33, and 64. But this analysis is open to 
 objection ; first, because the passage commencing at bar 9 has its 
 
Chap. VI.] 
 
 The Older Rondo Form. 
 
 '25 
 
 first six bars m the tonic key, and a first episode will always be in 
 some other key than the tonic ; and secondly, because the third 
 episode (bar 64) is in the first part of it a mere repetition of the 
 first episode, while its second part brings forward no new subject, 
 and is merely free thematic treatment of the first three notes of 
 the principal subject. If, on the other hand, we regard the chief 
 subject as a large binary form, the second part of which begins at 
 bar 9, and which ends at bar 33, we are met by the difficulty that 
 we find no proper second episode. After the episode which 
 begins in B fiat at bar 35, the chief subject recurs at the end of 
 bar 55 ; its second part modulates through G major (bar 68) to 
 B minor (bar 72) ; but the passage between bars 72 and 83, where 
 the chief subject makes its last appearance, cannot, as we pointed 
 out just now, be considered as episode, because it contains no 
 new material. The fact is that we have in this movement a rondo 
 of irregular construction ; and we have analyzed it in some detail 
 to show the student that it is quite impossible to lay down any 
 rules for these larger forms which shall be applicable in all cases. 
 The more extended the form, the more room there is for variation 
 in the details ; and although the rules given in this chapter are 
 observed by composers in the large majority of instances, numerous 
 examples are, nevertheless, to be found in which they are more or 
 less widely departed from. 
 
 211. In analyzing Dussek's "La Consolation" in §§ 196, 197, 
 we called attention to the variation of the theme on each repetition. 
 The double variation form on two themes, spoken of in the last 
 chapter (§§ 169, 170), may be regarded as a variety of the rondo 
 form. Here, as we saw, we have three appearances of the chief 
 subject; but instead of two episodes, we have one episode 
 repeated in a varied form. The minuet or scherzo with two trios 
 (§ 76), or with one trio repeated, as frequently with Beethoven, is 
 another variety of the rondo. 
 
 212. Sometimes pieces are called rondos which are hot so in 
 reality. Mozart's Rondo in D, 
 
 has no resemblance whatever either to the form described in this 
 chapter or to the other rondo form to be spoken of later. It is a 
 regularly constructed sonata-form movement, a form of which we 
 shall treat in the Dext chapter. The same is the case with another 
 movement by Mozart, entitled in some editions ' Rondo in B 
 flat':— 
 
 % 
 
 SE 
 
 f£=t 
 
 £1 • .»: 
 
 &c. 
 
126 Applied Forms. [Chap. vi. 
 
 This also is a complete sonata movement. The popular " Rondo 
 alia Turca " of Mozart's sonata in A is also distinctly not a rondo, 
 but is in ternary form. Mendelssohn's ' Rondo Capriccioso,' 
 again, has much more of the ' Capriccio ' than the ' Rondo ' 
 about it. It departs so widely from any acknowledged rondo 
 form that it ought rather to have been entitled simply ' Capriccio.' 
 213. The student will, it is hoped, have now a sufficient idea 
 of the construction of a rondo to be able to write one if he 
 desires. We recommend him, above all things, to aim in the first 
 instance at clearness of form. The different parts of the move- 
 ment should be readily recognizable, without their being of 
 necessity square cut, or of uniform length. In constructing his 
 episodes, let him not forget that they should be well contrasted 
 with the principal subject, while not destroying the unity of his 
 work as a whole. Exactly how this is to be effected cannot be 
 taught ; it is here that his musical feeling must come to his aid. 
 If he has a natural aptitude for composition, he will not be likely 
 to go far astray ; if not, he had much better leave it alone. 
 
Chap. vii.) The Sonata Form: the Exposition. 127 
 
 CHAPTER VII 
 
 THE SONATA FORM : THE EXPOSITION. 
 
 214. We have now to treat of the most important, and, with 
 perhaps the single exception of the fugue, the most artistic of the 
 larger forms — that commonly known as the Sonata Form. The 
 word 'Sonata' is derived from the Italian verb suonare, "to 
 play," and was originally applied to instrumental music — " that 
 which was played," as distinguished from ' Cantata '—vocal music, 
 "that which was sung." But in its modern sense the word 
 'Sonata' is restricted to a composition for one or two instru- 
 ments, containing at least two movements, of which one is 
 generally, though not invariably, in the form to be described in 
 this chapter. The different movements to be found in a sonata 
 will be spoken of later in this volume, when we come to deal with 
 Cyclic forms (Chapter XII.) ; for the present it will suffice to say 
 that by the sonata form is meant that form which is to be found 
 in the very large majority of the first movements, very frequently 
 also in the finales, and sometimes in the middle movements as 
 well. 
 
 215. It is not merely in sonatas that this form is met with. 
 There are very few trios, quartetts, quintetts, or symphonies in 
 which it is not employed for at least one of the movements ; and 
 it might just as appropriately be called ' Symphony Form,' indeed 
 this name is occasionally given to it. It is also found, with 
 modifications which will be described in a later chapter, in many 
 overtures and concertos. From the frequency of its employment 
 in first movements, it is sometimes called " first movement form." 
 But the name " Sonata Form " is far the most usual ; and if the 
 student will remember that it is by no means the only form to be 
 found in a sonata, but that it describes that which is generally met 
 with in the first movement, there can be no confusion from its 
 employment. 
 
 216. Before proceeding to speak in detail of the construction 
 of a movement written in sonata form, it will be well to point out 
 the essential difference between this form and the older rondo 
 form treated of in the last chapter. We know that in a rondo 
 there is always one principal subject — never more than one — and 
 that between the appearances of this subject are interspersed 
 
128 
 
 Applied Forms. 
 
 [Chap. VII. 
 
 episodes of a more or less strongly contrasted character. The 
 essential characteristic of the rondo form is diversity. In the 
 sonata form, on the other hand, there are always two principal 
 subjects, and although incidental episodical matter is frequently 
 introduced, there are no independent episodes of the kind with 
 which we are familiar in the rondo. The place of episode is 
 supplied chiefly by the development of material to be found in 
 the principal subjects themselves. In other words, the special 
 characteristic of the sonata form is unity. For this reason some 
 theorists describe it as a "movement of continuity" — an appro- 
 priate but rather clumsy name, while they call the ternary and 
 older rondo forms " movements of episode." How the unity of 
 which we have spoken is to be obtained will be seen when we 
 come to describe the different parts of a movement in sonata form. 
 217. In the early part of the last century the name 'Sonata' 
 was frequently given to a piece consisting of only a single move- 
 ment, of binary form. The so-called ' Sonatas ' of Domenico 
 Scarlatti are of this kind ; and, as the modern sonata movement 
 springs directly out of this older form, we analyze a short example 
 by Scarlatti, that the student may be able to follow more intelli- 
 gently the larger forms to be afterwards examined. 
 
 D. Scarlatti : Sonata in G. 
 
 ■m- 
 
Chap, vii.] The Sonata Form: the Exposition. 
 
 129 
 
 ^s^ Bt ^r~^^ t s^^ ^^^ 
 
 (2) 
 
 (2a) 
 
 (4) 
 
 ( a* ^^^- 
 
130 
 
 Applied Forms. 
 
 [Chap. VII, 
 
 This movement consists of two parts, the first containing 37 bars, 
 and the second 41. The first part opens with a subject in the key 
 of the tonic, consisting of a single eight-bar sentence extended to 
 twelve bars by the repetition of the after-phrase. At (a) begins a 
 passage modulating to the key of the dominant to introduce the 
 second subject. Such a passage we call a "bridge-passage" (§ 195); 
 it differs from the " link," that we have several times met with, in 
 this ' respect — that a link is a passage connecting two sentences, 
 but itself, from its want of cadences, forming no part of a sentence, 
 while a bridge-passage will contain at least a complete phrase or 
 sentence, and connects not merely two sentences, but two distinct 
 subjects, or (in the case of a rondo,) a subject and an episode. In 
 sonatas, whether of the older form now under notice, or of the 
 more modern structure, as seen in the works of Beethoven, a 
 bridge-passage of greater or less extent is almost invariably inter- 
 posed between the first and second subjects. 
 
 218. The bridge-passage of the present sonata, though con- 
 taining eight bars, does not form a complete sentence, because 
 each pair of bars is repeated, as shown by our analysis (2, 2a, 4, 
 4<z). At (b) the second subject is introduced ; it is in the key of 
 the dominant, and, like the first subject, it consists of only one 
 sentence. By means of various repetitions it is extended to 1 7 bars. 
 
 219. Here the student may naturally enquire, How are we to 
 know exactly where the second subject begins ? The answer is 
 generally very simple. In the first part of a sonata movement 
 the second subject is always in some other key than the tonic — 
 we shall presently discuss the question which are the proper keys 
 to be used — but when this subject reappears later in the movement 
 it will be in the tonic key. All that is needful in most cases — 
 exceptions will be dealt with later — is to look at the latter part of 
 the movement, and to see how much of what is at first in the 
 dominant (or whatever other may be the key of the second sub- 
 ject,) is found transposed into the key of the tonic. In the 
 present case everything from (b) down to the double bar which 
 ends the first part of the movement is found later, at {d), trans* 
 
Chap, vii.] The Sonata Form: the Exposition. 131 
 
 posed, with very trifling modification, into the key of G, while the 
 bars preceding (6) are not so transposed. We therefore know that 
 the second subject begins at (£). 
 
 220. The first part of this sonata, then, is thus constructed : 
 First subject, in G ; bridge-passage, modulating to D ; second 
 subject in D, with a passing touch upon the minor mode. The 
 second part of this movement is the exact converse of the first. 
 It begins with the first subject, of twelve bars, in the key of the 
 dominant ; then follows at (c) a new bridge-passage, constructed 
 on the same material as the first one, but now modulating from 
 the dominant back to the key of the tonic, and extended by four 
 bars ; lastly, at (d) we have the second subject transposed into the 
 tonic key. It was usual, with the older sonatas, to repeat both 
 parts of the movement, just as in the old dances (Allemandes, 
 &c.,) which were the germs out of which this form developed. 
 
 221. We have chosen for our illustration a particularly perfect* 
 example of this old form ; but it will be well to add that in many 
 cases the construction is somewhat less clear than in the movement 
 we have given. Especially do we frequently find modifications of 
 the first subject when it appears in the second part of the move- 
 ment. Sometimes it is only hinted at, and its thematic material 
 is differently treated. As examples of this, let the student 
 examine the preludes Nos. 9 and 12 of the second part of Bach's 
 ' Wohltemperirtes Clavier,' both of which are in modified old 
 sonata form. It is seldom, also, that the different parts of the 
 movement are as distinctly marked off from one another as in the 
 piece we have been analyzing. 
 
 222. The sonatas of Scarlatti date from the first half of the 
 last century ; for the composer (born 1683, died 1757) was a con- 
 temporary of Handel ; but the form continued in use till consider- 
 ably later, being only gradually supplanted by the more modern 
 sonata form of which we shall speak presently. Examples of the 
 older form may be seen in Clementi's sonatas in B flat, Op. 10 
 No. 3 (finale), and in G, Op. 38 No. 1 (first movement), in the 
 two allegros of Haydn's sonata in G (No. 21 of Breitkopf and 
 Hartel's edition), and in some of the earlier symphonies and 
 sonatas of Mozart. Probably the latest instance of its employ- 
 ment is the finale of Schubert's sonata in A minor, Op. 164. At 
 the present time it is entirely obsolete. 
 
 223. The invention, or, perhaps we should rather say, the 
 development of the modern sonata form is usually attributed to 
 Carl Philip Emanuel Bach. It is true that he was the first to 
 introduce it systematically ; but his illustrious father, who seems to 
 have anticipated, by a kind of prophetic instinct, nearly all modern 
 discoveries, has left us at least one or two movements which are 
 
 * " Perfect " that is, as regards its form j but the harmony, with its 
 consecutive fifths and octaves, is very faulty. 
 
132 
 
 Applied Forms. [Chap, vn. 
 
 perfect examples of this form. One is the prelude in D, No. 5 
 of the second book of the ' Wohltemperirtes Clavier ; ' another 
 will be seen in the prelude in G beginning 
 
 J. S. Bach : Prelude and Fughetta in G. 
 
 =3 — ,-J*-J — =^-d^=^J5P. 
 
 If, after reading this and the following chapter, the student will 
 examine the two movements here referred to, he will find that they 
 both fulfil all the requirements of the modern sonata form. It is 
 none the less true that the general introduction of this form was 
 due to Emanuel Bach and Haydn. 
 
 224. The essential points of difference between the older and 
 the modern sonata form are two. In the older form, as we have 
 seen, at the end of the first part, the first subject reappears at once 
 in the same key in which the second subject has just been heard. 
 In the modern form, the first subject, when repeated, is in the tonic 
 key, as at first ; occasional exceptions will be noticed in the next 
 chapter, when we come to speak of the recapitulation. But a far 
 more important difference is, that in the later form the reappear- 
 ance of the first subject does not follow the close of the first part 
 immediately, but is preceded by developments, more or less 
 extended, of the material announced in the first part. After this 
 
 1 comes the recapitulation, in which both first and second subjects 
 are generally reintroduced in the tonic key. The effect of this 
 addition is to change the form of the movement. The older 
 sonata form is, as we have seen, a large binary ; the modern be- 
 comes a modified ternary, the three parts being (I.) the exposition, 
 or the announcing of the first and second subjects ; (II.) the 
 development of these subjects, which takes the place occupied in 
 the regular ternary form by the episode ; (III.) the recapitulation 
 of the first and second subjects. The student will see how appro- 
 priate the name " applied form " is to a movement of this kind ; 
 it is a free application of the more regular ternary form which he has 
 already studied. We shall now treat in detail of these three parts 
 of a sonata movement, beginning with the exposition. As we shall 
 draw our illustrations from symphonies, quartetts, &c, as well as 
 from sonatas, it will be well to remind the student of what we said 
 in § 215 — that the name 'sonata form' applies equally to all 
 other compositions written on the same model. 
 
 225. The exposition of a sonata movement consists of three 
 parts : the first subject, the bridge-passage, and the second subject. 
 In the older examples of the form to be found in the works of 
 Haydn and Mozart, and also in many specimens by Beethoven, 
 
Chap, vii.] The Sonata Form: the Exposition. 
 
 133 
 
 the first subject contains one, or at most two sentences, either or 
 both of which may be extended beyond the regular eight-bar 
 formation; it usually ends either with a full cadence or a half- 
 cadence in the key of the tonic. ) We first give a few examples of 
 first subjects that end with a full close in the tonic key. 
 
 Allegro. 
 
 Beethoven : Sonata, Op. 10, No. 2. 
 
 ^B ^.?4*a»jjr5^ 
 
 This subject consists of a single sentence, extended to twelve bars 
 by the addition of a second after-phrase. The inverted cadence 
 in B flat at the eighth bar proves that the sentence is not completed 
 there. 
 
 226. Our next example contains two sentences. 
 
 Allegro moderato. 
 
 Haydn : Quartett, Op. 64, No. 5. 
 
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134 
 
 Applied Forms. 
 
 [Chap. VII. 
 
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 The first sentence is quite regular in form ; the second has an 
 additional after-phrase. It is seldom that a subject twenty bars 
 long is to be found which, like this one, contains not the least 
 trace of a modulation. 
 
 227. Our third illustration is somewhat different. 
 
 Allegro, molto vivace. 
 
 Schumann : 1st Symphony. 
 
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Chap, vii.j The Sonata Form: the Exposition. 
 
 135 
 
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 -f -*• .r t- t- -I- 1- *■ m m T- * 
 
 Here the two sentences are both of the normal length ; but the 
 after-phrase of the first modulates to the dominant key ; while the 
 fore-phrase of the second is in the key of the subdominant. 
 
 228. Less frequent than the ending with a full cadence, yet 
 still not uncommon, is the ending of the first subject with a half 
 cadence in the tonic key. 
 
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 Mozart : Symphony in G minor. 
 
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136 
 
 Applied Forms. 
 
 [Chap. VII. 
 
 This subject consists of one extended sentence ; for the passage 
 following the full cadence in G minor has evidently the character 
 of a continuation of what has preceded, and must be regarded as 
 a new after-phrase rather than as a new sentence. 
 
 229. We seldom in a first subject meet with modulation 
 beyond the nearly-related keys. Beethoven, however, sometimes 
 introduced a sequential repetition of the opening phrase at a 
 distance of a tone or a semitone. The commencement of the 
 Waldstein Sonata is a good illustration of this. 
 
 Allegro con brio. 
 
 Beethoven : Sonata, Op. 53. 
 
 
chap, vii.] The Sonata Form: the Exposition. 
 
 i37 
 
 
 ■gr * ' 4 j j . 4r 4 4 4 4 4. ' -4 -» fr4 
 
 (4a) 
 
 f^ g^^gfe te 
 
 Here the first four bars are repeated a tone lower, in B Hat. 
 Similar passages are to be seen in the same composer's sonatas, 
 Op. 31 No. 1, and Op. 57— the transposition in the latter case being 
 a semitone higher. In the passage we are now examining, it will 
 be seen that the half cadence is on the dominant of C minor. The 
 major key reappears in the following bar. 
 
 230. A word must be said in passing on the manner in which 
 we have marked the division of the phrases here. In Musical 
 Form (§ 39,) it was said that the accented bars were those in which 
 the cadences occurred. It will be seen that at the beginning of 
 this extract the change from dominant to tonic harmony occurs at 
 the third and seventh bars, and not, where we have indicated the 
 (4) and (4a), at the fourth and eighth. It would be quite possible 
 to assume that each phrase begins with the elision of an unaccented 
 bar, and that the fourth bar is prolonged over twa But further 
 investigation has convinced the author that, while the rule above 
 referred to applies in the large majority of cases, there are excep- 
 tions in which it is preferable to look at the passage as a whole, 
 and to consider the phrase as commencing with an accented bar 
 and ending with an unaccented. To this we have an exact analogy 
 in poetry ; phrases commencing with an unaccented bar correspond 
 to the iambic metre (~-|~-|~-|~-), while those in which 
 the accented bar comes first are the equivalent of the trochaic 
 ( |_w|-~|-„). In such cases, however, the application of 
 
138 
 
 Appued Forms. 
 
 (Chap. VII. 
 
 the general law is seen as soon as we reckon by what we may call 
 the " larger metre," i.e., throw two bars into one. For instance, in 
 the passage just quoted : — 
 
 « a --l— -I— °,\ 
 
 Bfe*- 
 
 The opening of Beethoven's eighth symphony, with its trochaic 
 metre — 
 
 Beethoven : 8th Symphony. 
 
 is a similar case. The third and seventh are evidently the accented 
 bars of this passage ; but they are really the accented halves of 
 the second and fourth bars of the "larger metre " — 
 
 231. Though in general a first subject is rather short, we 
 sometimes find it of considerable length. The first subject of 
 Beethoven's sonata in A, Op. 2 No. 2 is 32 bars long, and that 
 in his Pastoral symphony contains 53. In such cases as these it 
 will be generally found that the length results from the repetition 
 of a few motives or phrases, and not from the presentation of 
 many different themes. 
 
 232. Occasionally the first subject is preceded by a few intro- 
 ductory, or prefatory bars. The opening of Weber's sonata in 
 
Chap, vn.) The Sonata Form: the Exposition. 
 
 139 
 
 C, Op. 24 (quoted in § 268 of Musical Form,) is an illustration of 
 this ; here the subject does not begin till the last crotchet of the 
 fourth bar. A still more striking example is the commencement 
 of Beethoven's 9th symphony, in which the first subject does not 
 enter till the sixteenth bar. This is, of course, an altogether 
 different case from that in which the introduction forms a separate 
 movement in different time, as, for instance, in Beethoven's first 
 and second symphonies. 
 
 233. The first subject of a sonata movement is followed by 
 the bridge-passage, by which modulation is made leading to the 
 key of the second subject. It is important to know exactly where 
 the first subject ends, and the bridge-passage begins. For example, 
 in the Waldstein sonata, quoted in § 229, it looks at first as if the 
 passage immediately following the pause belonged to the first 
 subject. The same is the case in Mozart's symphony in G minor 
 (§ 228). In general there is no difficulty in determining the limits 
 of the first subject, if it is remembered that it nearly always ends 
 with a full close or a half close in the tonic key, and that as soon 
 as the music begins to modulate toward the key of the second subject, 
 we have reached the bridge-passage. The last full cadence or 
 half cadence in the tonic key before the commencement of such 
 modulations shows the end of the first subject 
 
 234. To make this clear, we quote the bridge-passage in 
 Mozart's G minor symphony, beginning with the last note of the 
 first subject — the last bar of our extract in § 228 : — 
 
 Mozart : Symphony in G minor. 
 
 ULJ2 1 ft 
 
 1 — ^— 1 «— ]■ «_|_ 
 
 (8=1) 
 
140 
 
 Applied Forms. 
 
 [Chap. VII. 
 
 The key of the second subject in this movement is B flat, which, 
 as we shall see presently, is the most usual key for the second 
 subject of a sonata movement in G minor. The bridge-passage 
 therefore modulates toward that key. Its first bars are a repetition 
 of the opening of the first subject, but a variation of the harmony 
 at the fourth bar induces a modulation to B flat, and thence to 
 F major. The bridge-passage ends with a cadence in that key, 
 which, it need hardly be said, is the dominant of the key in which 
 the second subject is to appear. 
 
 235. The above passage illustrates two points : first, that when 
 the first subject ends with a half cadence on the dominant, the 
 bridge-passage frequently begins with a repetition of the opening 
 bars. For other examples of the same procedure see the first 
 movements of Beethoven's sonatas in C, Op. 53 and F minor, 
 Op. 57, and the last movement of the sonata in G$ minor, Op. 27 
 No. 2, in all of which the bridge-passage opens with the com- 
 mencement of the first subject. 
 
 236. The other point shown by this extract is the ending of 
 the bridge-passage on the dominant harmony of the key in which 
 
chap, vii.] The Sonata Form: the Exposition. 
 
 141 
 
 the second subject is going to enter. Though occasional excep- 
 tions are to be met with, it would probably be safe to say that in 
 nine cases out of ten the bridge-passage ends in this same way. 
 With the older composers we sometimes find it end with a half 
 close in the tonic key — that is, on the tonic chord of the new key. 
 In Haydn's sonata in B flat (No. 14 of Breitkopf and Hartel's 
 edition,) it finishes thus, and the second subject follows immediately 
 in the key of F. A similar case will be seen in the first move- 
 ment of Beethoven's sonata in C, Op. 2 No. 3. 
 
 237. No rules can be given as to either the length or the 
 material of the bridge-passage. The only general principle to be 
 laid down is, that the modulations should be toward the key of 
 the second subject, and not away from it. For instance, if a 
 movement began in C major, and the second subject were, as 
 usual, in G, it would be very unwise to go through the keys of F 
 or B flat (which lie on the opposite side of the tonic) in the bridge- 
 passage. On the other hand, we often find the second subject 
 approached through its tonic minor, as for instance in the first 
 movement of Mozart's sonata in F beginning 
 
 Here the first subject ends in bar 22 with a full cadence in F, the 
 bridge-passage begins in D minor, and at bar 29 modulates to C 
 minor, continuing in this key till it comes to a half cadence in 
 bar 40. The second subject enters in C major at the next bar. 
 
 238. The bridge-passage is occasionally very short, consisting 
 of only a few bars. Thus in Beethoven's sonata in F, Op. 10 
 No. 2, of which we quoted the first subject in § 225, the bridge is 
 only six bars in length, and it ends, not on the dominant of C (in 
 which key the second subject enters), but the dominant of its 
 relative minor, A minor. Even shorter is the bridge in the first 
 movement of Schubert's unfinished symphony in B minor. The 
 first subject ends at bar 38 with a full cadence in the tonic, and the 
 entire bridge-passage is 
 
 followed immediately by the second subject in G major. 
 
 239. In most modern sonata movements the second subject, 
 which follows the bridge, is of considerably greater extent than the 
 first. We have seen that the first subject seldom contains more 
 than two sentences, or if it contain more, that this will generally be 
 the result of repetitions. But in the second subject it is by no 
 means unusual to find three, four, or even more sentences, each 
 containing some entirely new thought.] Of this we shall give 
 
142 , Applied' Forms. [Chap. vn. 
 
 examples later. Some writers therefore speak of " tributaries to 
 the second subject," " concluding subject," &c, but this nomen- 
 clature often renders it difficult to define the limits of the second 
 subject itself. ( We therefore prefer to use the term in a wider sense, 
 and to include under the general name " second subject " every- 
 thing contained between the end of the bridge-passage and the 
 close of the exposition. The term "group of second subjects" 
 would be more strictly accurate, but awkward ; and there will be 
 no confusion if the student remembers that the second subject 
 almost always contains at least two distinct ideas, and frequently 
 more. ) 
 
 240. The first question which we have to consider is, what are 
 the proper keys in which to introduce the second subject? We 
 have already seen (§ 224,) that the older sonata form, out of which 
 the form which we are now discussing was developed, was a simple 
 binary, on a rather large scale. In this form the first principal 
 modulation was always to a nearly related key — almost invariably 
 to the dominant in a major movement, and in a minor movement 
 either to the relative major or to the dominant minor. In all 
 works in sonata form down to the time of Beethoven (in the com- 
 positions of C. P. E. Bach, Haydn, Mozart, Clementi, Dussek, 
 &c.,) this relationship of keys prevails J and although, as will be 
 
 • seen directly, Beethoven and his successors have at times employed 
 other keys for the second subjects, yet in the large majority of 
 cases, they too adhered to the practice of the great composers who 
 had preceded them. 
 
 241. The great innovation made by Beethoven in the sonata 
 form was the introduction of the second subject in a major move- 
 ment in a key which was in the second, instead of in the first 
 degree of relationship to the tonic. These keys, as the student 
 will know (Musical Form, § 83), are those which are at the distance 
 of a major or minor third above or below the tonic.) But 
 Beethoven does not take any one of these four keys at random 
 for a sufficiently obvious reason. Two of them contain more flats 
 (or fewer sharps) in their signature than the tonic. It should be 
 remembered that every major key is derived from keys that contain 
 more flats than itself; thus C is the dominant of F, and the 
 mediant of A flat. On the other hand, keys containing more 
 sharps are generated from the tonic ; G is the dominant, and E the 
 mediant of C, both being found as upper-partials of that note. ( If - 
 therefore a modulation is made into a flatter key, the tonic at once 
 sinks into a subordinate position as a derived key. For this 
 reason Beethoven never introduces his second subject in the key 
 of the subdominant, and only in one single instance in the flat 
 submediant,4-in the first movement of the quartett in B flat, Op. 
 130, where the second subject is in G flat major. The movement 
 is irregular in form, and can hardly be taken as a precedent ; but 
 it should be noticed that the key of G flat is too remote from the 
 
chap. vii.] The Sonata Form: the Exposition. 143 
 
 tonic to cause such a feeling of disturbed tonality as would have 
 been the case had the second subject been in E flat. ( In every 
 other instance of a modulation to a key in the second degree of 
 relationship, Beethoven goes to the sharp side of his tonic — either 
 the major third above or the minor third below. 
 C 242. As examples of major movements in which the second 
 subject is in the key of the mediant, the student should examine 
 the first movements of the pianoforte sonatas in G major (Op. 31 
 No. 1) and C major, Op. 53, both of which subsequently modulate 
 to the mediant minor, and end in that key.J Less frequently the 
 major mediant continues to the end of the exposition, as in the 
 finales of the piano trio in E flat, Op. 70 No. 2, and the string 
 quartett in F, Op. 135. Occasionally the second subject is 
 throughout in the mediant minor — the relative minor of the 
 dominant (finale of symphony in A ; first movement of quartett 
 in E flat, Op. 127). There is no example in Beethoven of a second 
 subject in the key of the flat mediant — the minor third above the 
 tonic. 
 
 243. The submediant is also to be found in several of 
 Beethoven's works as the key for the second subject. J In the first 
 movements of the great trio in B flat, Op. 97, and the piano sonata 
 in the same key (Op. 106), the second subjects are in G major; in 
 the first movement of the quintett in C, Op. 29, the second subject 
 begins in A major, but alternates between that key and A minor, 
 the exposition ending in the latter. In the first movement of the 
 symphony in F (No. 8,) the second subject begins in the sub- 
 mediant (D major), and then modulates to and closes in the 
 dominant. The flat submediant, as already mentioned, is only 
 once employed by Beethoven for a second subject. 
 
 244. With movements in a minor key, we find in the older 
 sonata form (as in the Suite forms from which it was developed) 
 that the relative major and the dominant minor are about equally 
 common as keys for the second subject. J Scarlatti shows a decided 
 preference for the latter. Of eighteen sonatas in minor keys by 
 him which we have examined, the second subject is in the 
 dominant minor key in thirteen cases, and in only five is it in the 
 relative major. With C. P. E. Bach the proportions are nearly 
 equal, but m oder n co mpos ers far more frequently select the relative 
 major, though, as will be seen directly, numerous examples of the 
 dominant minor are also to be met with. Haydn and Mozart 
 almost invariably introduce their second subject in the relative 
 major key ; we have only met with one instance in each composer 
 of the employment of the dominant minor — in the first movements 
 of Haydn's ' Farewell Symphony ' in F sharp minor, and of 
 Mozart's string quartett in D minor, No. 13. 
 
 245. Beethoven uses the dominant minor key much more 
 frequently for his second subject, chiefly (though not exclusively) 
 in his piano sonatas. Let the student examine the sonatas in F 
 
1 44 Applied Forms. [Chap. vu. 
 
 minor, Op. 2 No. 1 (finale), in C sharp minor, Op. 27 No. 2 
 (finale), in D minor, Op. 31 No. 2 (first and third movements), 
 and in E minor, Op. 90 (first movement), and he will see this key- 
 relationship of the two subjects in each case. But, as with the 
 major key, Beethoven also introduces his second subject some- 
 times in the key of the submediant (see the first movements of the 
 Choral Symphony, the quartett in F minor, Op. 95, and the piano 
 sonata in C minor, Op. in). His example has been followed by 
 Schubert in the first movements of his ' Tragic Symphony ' (No. 
 4), and of the unfinished symphony in B minor, and by Brahms 
 in his piano quintett in F minor. 
 \ 2/\fi. Another innovation due to Beethoven is the employment 
 of the dominant major, instead of the dominant minor for the 
 second subject in a minor movement. This is only found once in 
 his works — in the first movement of the ' Kreutzer ' sonata in A 
 minor, in which the second subject opens in E major, though it 
 very soon modulates to E minor, in which key it ends. J But the 
 example set by Beethoven was followed by later composers, one of 
 the most familiar instances being the first movement of Mendels- 
 sohn's trio in D minor, in which the second subject begins in A 
 major, though the latter part of it is in A minor. Schubert in two 
 sonatas in A minor, Op. 143 (first movement), and Op. 164 
 (finale), has the second subject ending as well as beginning in E 
 major. A similar case is seen in the first movement of Brahms's 
 piano quartett in G minor, Op. 25, the second subject of which 
 is in D major. 
 
 247. Raff, in his third symphony ('Im Walde'), has tried an 
 experiment which has seldom, if ever, been repeated, and which 
 certainly cannot be commended. The key of the symphony is F 
 major, and in the first movement the second subject is in B flat— 
 the subdominant. We have already shown (§ 241,) why this key 
 has a disturbing effect upon the feeling of tonality, and a study of 
 Raff's symphony certainly has not induced us to alter our unfavour- 
 able opinion of that selection of a key for the second subject. 
 Raff has also employed the flat submediant and the flat mediant 
 for his subjects — the former in the first movement of his 'Lenore' 
 symphony in E major, which has the second subject in C, and the 
 latter in the first movement of his sonata for piano and violoncello 
 in D (Op. 183), which has the second subject in F major. In 
 these cases, though their expediency is doubtful, the greater 
 remoteness of the tonics renders the effect much less objectionable 
 than when the second subject is in the subdominant. 
 
 248. We said above that the first subject of a sonata move- 
 ment usually contains only one principal idea, or " theme " — to 
 use a somewhat vague but convenient term ; and that this generally 
 consists of not more than two, or at most three sentences. (^ The 
 second subject, on the other hand, is in most cases far more 
 extended. We often find as many as three or four different ideas 
 
chap. vii.] The Sonata Form: the Exposition. 
 
 H5 
 
 presented in succession, each complete in itself, and most 
 frequently e nding with a ful l M c,ad png6 ' This was why we said 
 above (§ 239) that the term " group of second subjects " would be 
 more strictly accurate, though not very convenient. We prefer 
 to speak of the different themes introduced as " sections " of the 
 second subject. J The context will always prevent any confusion 
 as to the meaning of the word " section," which we have employed 
 in quite a different sense in Musical Form (§51). 
 
 249. In any but the smallest examples of the sonata form it 
 is very rare to find a second subject containing less than two 
 sections. Almost the only instances of this that we can cite from 
 important works are the first movements of Beethoven's sonata in 
 E minor, Op. 90, and of Schumann's symphony in C, in which 
 they are certainly indivisible. These, however, are quite ex- 
 ceptional cases. 
 
 250. In modern compositions the second subject is mostly 
 constructed of entirely different thematic material from the first ; at 
 the same time, the contrast must not be too violent ; the second 
 subject ought rather to be like a continuation of the train of thought 
 of the first. The older composers frequently sought to obtain this 
 by founding the first section of the second subject on a portion of 
 the first subject presented in a new aspect.1 An extract from the 
 finale of one of Haydn's quartetts will illustrate this. We first 
 give the first subject— 
 
 Haydn : Quarleit, Op. 7j, No. i. 
 
146 
 
 Applied Forms. 
 
 [Chap. VII 
 
 It will be seen that we have here a sentence extended to twelve 
 bars by the addition of a second after-phrase. This sentence is 
 repeated, staccato throughout and with varied harmony, completing 
 the first subject. 
 
 251. A bridge-passage, 25 bars in length, commencing 
 
 and ending with a pause on the chord of the dominant seventh of 
 G, leads to the second subject, which, as illustrating more than 
 one point requiring notice, we quote in full. 
 
 Haydn : Quartett, Op. 74, No. 1. 
 
 •gg jgs£jffi -i^ F Hg js^jffl 
 
chap. vii.] 2'he Sonata Form: the Exposition. 
 
 147 
 
 W^^^^X^t^^^zs- 
 
148 
 
 Applied Forms. 
 
 [Chap. vn. 
 
 (&»)<!• ' 
 
 This second subject has three sections. The first, containing 
 26 bars, consists of two extended sentences, and is founded 
 chiefly upon the first two bars of the first subject, treated con- 
 trapuntally with a semiquaver accompaniment. The first sentence 
 ends with an inverted cadence, and the second begins with the 
 inversion of the theme and its counterpoint as seen at the com- 
 mencement of our extract. A new continuation is given, which 
 leads to a full close in G major at the 26th bar. 
 
 252. The second section of the subject is piano throughout, 
 and presents a new theme. It commences with a sentence of six 
 bars (the first and fifth being elided — see Musical Form, § 254), 
 This sentence is repeated and prolonged by an additional after- 
 phrase. The third section contains only one sentence of regular 
 eight bar length, extended to fifteen bars by repetitions of the 
 final cadence. It will be noticed that it is on a double pedal 
 throughout. The entire second subject contains fifty-seven bars, 
 as against twenty-four of the first subject. Of the double bar 
 with the sign of repetition at the end of the subject we shall 
 speak presently. 
 
 253. It will be seen that in the passage just examined all the 
 sections of the second subject are in the same key, only a few 
 transient modulations being introduced in the'first section. This 
 was the g ener al, though not the invariable, practice of the olde r 
 masters, and even with later composers the same method is 
 frequently to be met with. As a striking instance of this, let the 
 student examine the first movement of Beethoven's 'Eroica 
 symphony. We find here a very long exposition, of 148 bars. 
 The second subject begins at bar 45, after a half-cadence in the 
 key of B flat, with the following theme — 
 
chap, vii.] The Sonata Form: the Exposition. 
 
 149 
 
 Beethoven : 3rd Symphony. 
 
 At bar 65 there is a modulation for four bars to G minor, followed 
 by one of two bars' length to C minor, after which a return is made 
 to B flat, and the first section ends with a full close in that key at 
 bar 83. The second section commences in the same key — 
 
 (We quote only enough to enable the student to identify the 
 passage.) This section contains a transient modulation to D fiat, 
 and finishes in B flat at bar 109. The third and final section 
 opens thus — we give the outer parts only — 
 
 
 f ,r f * ■* f r fr f r-. 
 
 (X) » 
 
 : — | 1 1 
 
 •f *f 
 
 &=st±a! 
 
 -J-^J 1 * J J J J . W J * J J J ' ** J — J4*-jJ 
 
 &0. 
 
 This section, extending to bar 148, again contains none but 
 transient modulations. Of the 104 bars of this very long second 
 subject, scarcely more than a dozen are in any other key than 
 B flat 
 
 254. Many similar instances to the above might be quoted ; it 
 will suffice to refer to one. In Beethoven's piano sonata in E flat, 
 Op. 7, the second subject contains five sections, all in B flat. 
 They begin respectively at bars 41, 59, 93, 111 and 127. The 
 second section is remarkable as containing an unusual modulation 
 into the key of the supertonic (C major,) at bar 81 ; but with this 
 exception the music hardly ever leaves the key of B flat. 
 
 255. On the other hand, we often find that the second sub- 
 ject begins in some different key from that in which it ends. 
 To notice first a not very frequent case, we said above (§ 244), 
 that in a minor movement the second subject could be either in 
 the relative major or in the dominant minor key. Occasionally 
 
'5° 
 
 Applied Forms. 
 
 [Chap. VII. 
 
 the first part of the second subject is in one of these keys, and 
 the continuation in the other. A very familiar example of this is 
 seen in the first movement of Mendelssohn's trio in C minor. 
 The second subject contains three sections, the first opening 
 in E flat. 
 
 tf Mendelssohn : Trio in C minor, Op. 66. 
 
 (a) Viol. 
 
 The second section begins with a fresh treatment in G minor of 
 the first subject — a procedure very rarely to be met with ; and a 
 new continuation leads up to the third section, of which we quote 
 the opening phrase — 
 (t) 
 
 The second subject ends in G minor. We can recall no other 
 example of this use of the two keys for the second subject in the 
 works of later composers ; but similar instances are to be seen in 
 the first movements of dementi's sonatas in F sharp minor (Op. 
 26 No. 2,) and B minor (Op. 40 No. 2), and in the finale of 
 Dussek's sonata, Op. 10 No. 3. It is worth noticing that in all 
 the examples we have found the relative major key precedes the 
 dominant minor. 
 
 256. Much more common than the case just noticed is that in 
 which the first section of the second subject is in a different key 
 from those that follow. Occasional instances of this are to be 
 met with in Haydn. In the first movement of his quartett in 
 A major, Op. 20 No. 6, the second subject begins in E minor,, 
 the key of E major not being introduced till the eleventh bar. 
 The first two sentences of this second subject seem to hesitate 
 between E minor and E major; and it is not till the closing 
 
Chap. vii. i The Sonata Form: the Exposition. 151 
 
 sentence that the major key is finally established. In another 
 early quartett by Haydn (that in D major, Op. 17 No. 6), the 
 second subject of the first movement begins in C major, and its 
 first sentence ends with a half-cadence in A minor. To this 
 succeeds the usual key of A major — the dominant being in the 
 time of Haydn the invariable key for the second subject of a 
 movement in a major key (§ 240). 
 
 257. The examples we have just referred to are quite ex- 
 ceptional in the works of Haydn, and we find no parallel instance 
 in Mozart, who, as regards form, was less of an innovator than 
 his older contemporary. / It was Beethoven who was the first to 
 employ this procedure with any frequency. The commonest case 
 with him is the introduction of the second subject in the usual 
 key, but with the mode changed — minor instead of major. In 
 such cases the first section of the second subject generally 
 modulates freely. \ We find examples of this method as early as 
 the three sonatas' (Op. 2,) dedicated to Haydn. In the first 
 movement of the second sonata (in A major), the second subject 
 begins at bar 58 in E minor; thence it modulates through 
 G major and B fiat major, and by a sequential passage of con- 
 tinually changing tonality (bars 69 to 75) to the chord of the 
 dominant minor ninth of E; at bar 84 the key of E major is 
 introduced, and continues to the close of the exposition, in bar 
 116. The third sonata of the same set shows a similar case. 
 The second subject of the first movement begins at bar 27 in 
 G minor, and does not reach G major till the commencement of 
 its second section in bar 47. Another example of the same 
 method is the first movement of the Sonata ' Pathetique.' Here 
 the second subject, which is in the normal key of E flat, has a 
 preliminary modulating section beginning in E flat minor. 
 
 258. Beethoven, however, does not always restrict himself to 
 the same tonic for these preliminary sections. In his sonata in 
 D, Op. 28 (first movement,) the second subject begins at bar 63 
 in F sharp minor, the normal key of A major not being estab- 
 lished till later. The second subject of another sonata in D 
 (Op. 10 No. 3) begins in B minor; the whole exposition is most 
 instructive, and we shall proceed to give a short analysis of it. 
 
 259. The first subject, beginning in unison, extends to bar 16. 
 It contains only one sentence ; the fore-phrase ends on the pause 
 in the fourth bar, and the after-phrase is extended to six bars ; the 
 after-phrase is then repeated in a varied form. The bridge- 
 passage, which is founded upon the fore-phrase of the first sub- 
 ject, is only six bars long ; it is in unison throughout, and ends 
 with a pause on F sharp, in the 22nd bar. On the last crotchet of 
 this bar the second subject enters ; the first section begins in the 
 key of B minor with an eight-bar sentence modulating to F sharp 
 minor. The sonata is so familiar that it will be sufficient to quote 
 the melody only. 
 
r 5 2 
 
 Applied Forms. 
 
 [Chap. VII. 
 
 Beethoven : Sonata, Op. 10, No. 3. 
 
 From F sharp minor the music returns at bar 35 to A major, in 
 which key (after a passing reference to the relative minor at 
 bar 44) a full cadence concludes the first section of the second 
 subject in bar 53. The second section commences in the same 
 bar with an entirely new theme in A major — a seven-bar sentence, 
 the first bar being elided. 
 
 On its repetition in A minor the passage breaks off suddenly on 
 the G$ in the sixth bar, and in the next bar continues thus — 
 
 =t=f 
 
 t=f 
 
 i=^= 
 
 ^;*^ J J-tH 1 J -IJ^hai 
 
 $m. 
 
 (4) 
 
Chap, vii.] The Sonata Form: the Exposition. 153 
 
 Notice particularly the motive in the bass of the first bar — 
 
 Here we have the first four notes of the first subject ; and from 
 this germ all the rest of this second section is developed. We 
 see it both direct and inverted in the latter part of the above 
 extract, which is continued sequentially in the following bars ; it 
 is also present — though not so recognizable at first sight — in the 
 descending scale passage of bars 85 to 91 : 
 
 260. It is not very often that so much incidental modulation 
 is to be met with in a second subject as that which is seen in the 
 section we have just examined. A return having been made to 
 the key of A, the third section, which began in bar 93, remains 
 throughout in that key, excepting a transient suggestion of D in 
 the first phrase. Like the final section in the movement by 
 Haydn given in § 251, it is mostly built upon a tonic pedal, which 
 here, contrary to general custom, is at first in the middle of the 
 harmony. The melody commencing in bar 93 
 
 is obviously suggested by the commencement of the first subject, 
 
 * -St 
 
 especially in its rhythmic figure. It appears three times in 
 different octaves ; on its repetitions the pedal note takes its usual 
 position as the lowest part of the harmony. The quiet passage 
 which follows 
 
 may have been suggested by the commencement of the melody 
 quoted at (a) above. If we substitute an ascending for a 
 
154 Applied Forms. [Chap. vn. 
 
 descending second as the first interval, and take the passage in 
 augmentation 
 
 we see that the progression is identical. This may be intentional, 
 but it may also be an accidental coincidence ; in either case it 
 gives unity to the music. The bars following our last extract 
 form a codetta ; we shall speak of this later in the chapter. 
 
 261. We have analyzed this exposition in considerable detail, 
 because it affords an excellent illustration of a matter most diffi- 
 cult to explain except by illustration — how to obtain unity of 
 style between the first and second subjects. We said in § 250 
 that the second subject, while different from the first, should be, 
 as it were, a continuation of the same train of thought ; the 
 present movement shows admirably how this can be effected. 
 (_ 262. Occasionally the second subject begins in a key ex- 
 tremely remote from that in which it ends. In Beethoven's 
 pianoforte concerto in E flat, it begins in B minor (the enhar- 
 monic of C flat minor) ; it then modulates to C flat major, whence 
 it goes suddenly into B flat major, ending in that key. Some- 
 what similar is the second subject in Schubert's great sonata in 
 B flat major. It commences in F sharp minor, and modulates 
 through A major, B minor, and D minor, before it reaches F, the 
 dominant of the original key. So much modulation is extremely 
 rare. 
 
 (_ 263. It is worthy of notice that the commencing of the 
 second subject in a key other than its principal key seems to be 
 peculiar to movements in major keys.j We have met with no 
 examples of the same thing in a minor movement, excepting the 
 alteration in the mode of the tonic (§ 257). The use in the minor 
 key of both the relative major and the dominant minor, spoken of 
 in § 255- is a different matter. 
 
 264. (.Quite exceptionally a second subject in a minor key 
 ends in the minor mode after beginning in the major.) The first 
 movement of Beethoven's sonata in F minor, Op. 57, gives an 
 example of this. The second subject begins at the end of bar 35 
 in the key of A flat major; at bar 42 it modulates to A flat minor, 
 and all the rest of the subject, down to its close in bar 65, is in 
 the latter key. We cannot find in Beethoven's works any other 
 instance of this procedure, though there is some resemblance to it 
 in the ' Kreutzer ' sonata spoken of in § 246. There is, how- 
 ever, this difference — that in that case the minor key was the 
 normal one ; here it is the reverse. The same thing will be found 
 in the first movement of Brahms's symphony in C minor, in 
 which the second subject begins in E flat major and ends in 
 E flat minor. 
 
Chap, vii.] The Sonata Form: the Exposition. 
 
 i55 
 
 265. A point which often gives the student some trouble is, 
 the determination of the limits of the second subject. This he 
 will understand better after we have spoken in the next chapter 
 Of the recapitulation of a sonata movement / for the present it 
 will suffice to say that in general the second subject reappears in 
 the recapitulation in the tonic key ; and if the student observes 
 how much of that which in the exposition is in the dominant key 
 (if the movement be major), or in the relative major or dominant 
 minor (if it be minor), is found transposed into the tonic, he will 
 generally be little at a loss to know where the second subject 
 begins. If the second subject begins in a different key from that 
 in which it ends, we shall most likely find the same relationship 
 of keys in the recapitulation.! For instance, the movement which 
 we have just been analyzing (§ 259,) began in B minor and finished 
 in A. In the recapitulation we find the keys to be E minor and 
 D. Again, in Beethoven's sonata Op. 28, the second subject, 
 which is mostly in A, commences in F sharp minor — its relative 
 minor ; in the recapitulation it begins in B, the relative minor of 
 D, proceeding to that key at the same point where in the exposi- 
 tion the music modulated to A. 
 
 266. There is in general little difficulty in ascertaining where 
 the second subject ends ; because in the majority of cases the 
 whole exposition is repeated, and the repeat shown by a double 
 bar. ) In general there is here a full cadence in the key of the 
 second subject, as in the example by Haydn given in § 251, 
 where we have shown the repeat marks. (Sometimes, however, 
 the second subject ends a little earlier, and is followed by a few 
 bars leading back to the first subject, or onwards to the second 
 part of the movement. ) This is the case with Beethoven's sonata 
 of which we gave the close of the second subject at § 260 (c). 
 The last bar of that extract is continued as follows — 
 
 m 
 
 i 
 
 Beethoven : Sonata, Op. 10, No. a. 
 
 ^ivjr±± 
 
 WtS 
 
 «= 
 
 r> 
 
 pp 
 
 m 
 
 I- I ! 
 
 =P= 
 
 ^m 
 
 ifjz 
 
 rml&z 
 
 This passage, it will be seen, is founded on the opening notes of 
 
156 Applied Forms. [Chap. vn. 
 
 the first subject. (Compare § 259.) It leads back through the 
 harmony of the dominant seventh to the tonic key. Such a 
 passage we call a codetta. When it is present, the end of the 
 second subject will be at the last full cadence in the key of that 
 
 .subject before the double bar. 
 
 I 267. The repetition of the exposition, though customary, 
 especially with the older composers, is by no means obligatory. 
 It is very rarely omitted by Haydn ; but we find more than 
 twenty symphonies by Mozart in which there is no repeat. Beet- 
 hoven also frequently dispenses with it in his larger works — e.g. 
 the Choral Symphony, the quartetts in F (Op. 59 No. 1,) and 
 F minor (Op. 95), the sonata for piano and violin in C minor, 
 Op. 30 No. 2, the piano sonatas, Op. 57 and Op. 90, &c. With 
 later composers the omission is still more common. In order to 
 ascertain in such a case where the second subject ends, observe 
 its key, or if there be more than one key, the key of its final 
 section. We shall learn in the next chapter that the second part 
 of the movement (the development,) seldom begins in the same 
 key in which the second subject ends, or, at any rate it will- not 
 have a full cadence in that key. In such cases therefore, as also 
 when there is a codetta, the last full cadence in the key of the 
 second subject shows the end of that subject, whether there be a 
 repeat or not. The student who has carefully read this chapter 
 ought to have no difficulty in deciding what the key of the second 
 subject is. 
 
 268. We shall now conclude this chapter with a summary, 
 giving as briefly as we can the points to be considered in writing 
 the exposition of a movement in sonata form. 
 
 The exposition forms the first of the three parts of a sonata 
 movement, and is itself divided into three parts, viz. : (i.) the first 
 subject, (ii.) the bridge-passage, (iii.) the second subject. 
 
 269. (i.) The first subject, which is occasionally preceded by 
 an introductory passage (§ 232), begins and ends in the key of 
 the tonic, and seldom contains much modulation. It mostly 
 consists of two or three sentences, sometimes of only one, and is 
 not divisible into sections, like the second subject. In the large 
 majority of cases it ends either on the tonic or dominant chord of 
 the tonic key. 
 
 270. (ii.) The bridge-passage is that portion of the movement 
 which modulates from the tonic key towards the key in which the 
 second subject is to be introduced. It varies greatly in length, 
 consisting sometimes of only a few bars, and at other times being 
 of considerable extent, and containing two or three sentences. It 
 sometimes begins with a continuation of the first subject; at 
 other times it is constructed of entirely new material. It usually 
 ends on the dominant, or the dominant seventh, of the key in 
 which the second subject is about to enter ; but when the second 
 subject is in the dominant key, it occasionally ends with a half 
 
Chap, vii.] The Sonata Form: the Exposition. 157 
 
 cadence on the tonic (§ 236) ; it may also end on the dominant 
 of the relative minor of the new key (§ 238). 
 
 271. (iii.) The second subject comprises all that follows the 
 bridge-passage, as far as the end of the exposition. Whereas the 
 first subject hardly ever contains more than one principal theme 
 (though this may be extended or repeated,) the second subject — 
 at all events in modern music — almost invariably has at least two 
 parts, which we call ' sections ' separated from one another by 
 full cadences ; and it is not unusual to find as many as four or 
 five. These sections, while differing from one another, and from 
 the first subject, should still be in keeping with it; in other words, 
 the contrast should not be too strong. 
 
 272. The keys available for the second subject are: For a 
 major movement (1) the dominant — the most usual key, (2) the 
 mediant (major or minor), (3) the submediant major, (4) the rela- 
 tive minor (rare), (5) the flat submediant major, and (6) the flat 
 mediant major. Both these are very rare and hardly to be recom- 
 mended. For a minor movement the second subject may be in 
 (1) the relative major, (2) the dominant minor, (3) the dominant 
 major, (4) the submediant major. 
 
 273. In addition to the keys just named, the minor modes of 
 the various major keys are also available ; but these are very 
 rarely used for the final section of the second subject. It is not 
 necessary that all the sections should be in the same key ; but, 
 with rare exceptions, the final section is in a nearly related key to 
 the original tonic. 
 
 274. The second subject, and with it the exposition, generally 
 ends with a full cadence, followed by a repeat of the whole 
 first part of the movement. Sometimes a few bars of codetta 
 are added, to lead back to the first subject. In many cases, 
 especially in modern compositions, there is no repeat of the 
 exposition ; but it is followed immediately by the second part of 
 the movement 
 
158 Applied Forms. [Chap. vm. 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 THE SONATA FORM (CONTINUED) : THE DEVELOPMENT AND 
 RECAPITULATION. 
 
 275. In the preceding chapter we have treated of the first of 
 the three parts of which a sonata movement is composed — the 
 exposition, and we have seen that while its details are in many 
 respects subject to modification, its general outline remains the 
 same in all cases. We always find two principal subjects con- 
 nected by a bridge-passage, which effects the modulation from 
 the key of the tonic, in which the first subject invariably appears, 
 to the key (whatever that may be,) in which the second subject 
 commences. But in the second part of the movement — the de- 
 velopment, and, to a less degree in the third — the recapitulation, 
 there is far greater variety. So much is this the case with the 
 development, that it is absolutely impossible to give any rules as 
 to what the composer should do, though, as we shall see presently, 
 several general principles may be laid down to' guide him as to 
 what he should not do. 
 
 276. It is no doubt because of the impossibility of formu- 
 lating any regular rules for the construction of this part of the 
 movement that it is frequently described in English text-books as 
 the " Free Fantasia," — that is, the portion of the movement in 
 which the composer is left free to follow his own fancy. In 
 Germany it is termed ' Durchfuhrung,' i.e. 'development'; and 
 we shall use both names indifferently ; " development " is the 
 more strictly accurate, but "free fantasia" is frequently more 
 convenient. 
 
 277. When speaking in the last chapter (§ 224,) of the sonata 
 form as a modification of the ternary, we said that the develop- 
 ments of which we have now to speak took the place occupied in 
 the regular ternary form by the episode. Students will be aware 
 that the object of episode is to furnish relief and contrast to the 
 principal subjects. In the same way, the developments which 
 precede the repetition of the principal subjects in the recapitula- 
 tion have to furnish relief and (to a certain extent) contrast ; but 
 there is an important difference between the two forms. In the 
 ternary form, as also in the Rondo form described in Chapter VI. 
 of this volume, the contrast is secured by the introduction of 
 entirely new material ; here, on the other hand, while (as will be 
 
Chap. via.] The Sonata Form: the Development. 
 
 iS9 
 
 seen later) episodical matter is not wholly excluded, we obtain 
 the contrast chiefly by the presentation of the material of the expo- 
 sition under new aspects. This is because the essential character- 
 istic of the sonata form is unity ; in other words it is a " move- 
 ment of continuity" (§ 216). 
 
 278. It is in the developments of this second part that the 
 composer's genius has the fullest scope ; and it is here that the 
 chief difference is seen between first-class and second-class work- 
 manship. There are many composers who can find beautiful 
 themes for their first and second subjects, who seem, whether 
 from insufficient study, or from want of the necessary attention 
 and self-criticism, to fail more or less completely in this part of 
 the movement. It is here that the supremacy of Beethoven as 
 an instrumental composer shows itself so conspicuously. In hih 
 developments there is nothing rambling, nothing incoherent ; he 
 has an inexhaustible faculty for presenting his ideas in fresh 
 aspects, yet always logically connected with one another, each 
 growing naturally out of the preceding, and leading as naturally 
 into what follows. In this respect he has never been equalled ; 
 and for this reason we shall take most of our illustrations of 
 development from his works. 
 
 279. The first example that we give is from his well-known 
 sonata in E flat, Op. 7. It will be hardly necessary to say that 
 we never find the whole material of an exposition treated in the 
 second part This would be impossible without extending the 
 movement to enormous length. The composer is free to choose 
 whichever of his subjects he prefers for treatment. In the present 
 case, Beethoven has selected three short fragments from the 
 exposition, which we here quote — 
 
 (a) Bare 1 to 4. Beethovek : Sonata, Op. 7. 
 
i6o 
 
 Applied Forms. 
 
 [Chap. VIII. 
 
 The passage at (a) is the opening of the first subject ; (£) is the 
 beginning of the bridge-passage; and (c) is the commencement 
 of the last section of the second subject. The exposition ends 
 at bar 136 with a full cadence in the key of B flat. 
 
 280. We now give the whole development ("free fantasia ") of 
 this movement, to show how Beethoven treats these three 
 subjects. 
 
 Beethoven : Sonata, Op. 7. 
 
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 1 |» 1 "]- 
 
 
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 >.*. r .„ 
 
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 w%**-* 
 
 
 
 -—-si — 
 
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 1 rT^- 
 
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chap, viii.] The Sonata Form: the Development. \6i 
 
102 
 
 Applied Forms. 
 
 [Chap. vm. 
 
 (Recapitulation.) 
 
 A very bold effect is obtained at the commencement by altering 
 the harmony of the first notes of the subject. The passage at 
 (a) of the last section here appears as the dominant seventh of 
 C minor, instead of as the tonic of E flat. In this key follows at 
 the fifth bar the scale passage from (6) imitated two bars later in 
 the right hand, which is thus in contrary motion with the bass. 
 These scales are continued in a free sequence through the keys of 
 A flat and F minor ; after which the bars quoted at (<r) § 279 from 
 the second subject are given, first in F minor, then a tone higher 
 in G minor. After a half close in this key, and a sudden change 
 from ff to p, an unexpected modulation (with an enharmonic 
 change of Eb to Df,) brings the music into the key of A minor. 
 Here the theme (a) is again presented in a varied form, pp, and 
 followed by a new melody, the only episodical matter introduced, 
 which appears to have been suggested by, rather than taken from, 
 the passage at bar 9 1 of the exposition — 
 
 The whole passage is then repeated in D minor, and a beautiful 
 modulation (analyzed in § 11 1 of Musical Form,) leads back at 
 once to E flat, after the dominant seventh of which the first 
 subject is introduced, and the recapitulation begins. 
 
 281. Now let us notice the course of the modulations. The 
 keys passed through are the following: C minor, A flat major, 
 F minor, G minor, A minor, D minor, this last being immediately 
 followed by E flat. It would not be reasonable to draw con- 
 clusions from a single instance; for the present we merely ask 
 the student to observe that no key is touched upon more than 
 once, and that the two keys of the first and second subjects — 
 E flat and B flat, the chief keys of the exposition — are avoided 
 altogether. 
 
 282. For our next example we give the free fantasia of Haydn's 
 symphony in G (No. 1 1 of Breitkopf and Hartel's edition), as an 
 excellent illustration of the thematic development of a few simple 
 subjects. As with our last example, we first quote the passages 
 from the exposition which Haydn has chosen as the material for 
 the developments. 
 
cup. viii.i The Sonata Form; the Development. 163 
 
 Haydn : Symphony in G. 
 
 At (a) is the opening of the first subject, which is preceded by a 
 tolerably long introduction in slow time ; (6) is the commence- 
 ment of the second section of the second subject. 
 
 283. The middle part of this movement is quite different in 
 the method of treatment from that in Beethoven's sonata just 
 analyzed. The exposition ends with a full cadence in the key of 
 D major. As Haydn intends to commence his free fantasia in 
 the key of B flat, he prefixes two bars' rest (not quoted) to the 
 beginning of his second part, no doubt, to render the sudden 
 modulation less abrupt. 
 
 Haydn : Symphony in G. 
 
164 
 
 Applied Forms. 
 
 [Chap. vm. 
 
 /■fr-^— 1-r- 
 
 pS=! 
 
 
 — 1 
 
 ■m- -~~ ■ 
 
 - li t*- 
 
 -O—— i»-i— i — pp — ! — R — , — fsq — | — -j-t 
 
 
 
 ^i ' 
 
 — 1 . A* 1 . b^J -W — JJ-* — --J--W = — 
 
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 ■ ^j^- 1 
 
 s_» w \— 
 
 J 1^ 
 
 '^ r 
 
 '-* ' " '- '•£-* 
 
chap. via.] The Sonata Form; the Development. 165 
 
 
 f-^M — r*i rrrii 1 — r-, rrrii i . f - . 
 
 1 — ' 1 
 
 
 L — 1 J 
 
 -*• 
 
 1 
 
 gvj | **-.!,i I ! r*i ! , . "I I ! - T - I 
 
 
 J T~-^4* * * * * 1 . —Sjd » » * J ^ _l* = = = l 
 
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 ^?j^;j f t _ 
 
 f ft 
 
 |S— 
 
 
 J5SJ3j_ 
 
 J5M 
 
 J35 
 
 je: 
 
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 v r 
 
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 • '• • r~~ 
 
 „ : 
 
 rf f tf ,V r * -if-, f- r*»f ^g 
 
The first six bars are, as will be seen, a transposition of (b) into 
 the new key of B flat. It is not at all uncommon to commence 
 a free fantasia by the transposition, as here, of a phrase — some- 
 times, though more rarely, of a whole sentence — into some new 
 key. Such a device, however, should be sparingly resorted to, 
 and only for short passages, because transposition is not develop- 
 ment. In the present case, great freshness of effect is obtained 
 by the unexpected modulation to a key in the second degree of 
 relationship. Immediately on the conclusion of this phrase, 
 Haydn begins his thematic development. This is founded almost 
 entirely on the first three notes of the passage taken from the 
 second subject, 
 
 m 
 
 w= 
 
 for it will be seen that the quaver passage at (a) is merely a slight 
 alteration of the same figure by adding G as an auxiliary note 
 between the two Fs. 
 
 284. From B flat Haydn first modulates to C minor, and 
 thence, by means of the chord of the augmented sixth, to D 
 
Chap, viii.] The Sonata Form: the Development. 167 
 
 minor. A powerful unison passage, founded upon the figure 
 quoted above, leads to a half cadence on the dominant of that 
 key. The whole passage is then repeated a tone higher than 
 before, but considerably extended toward its close by the un- 
 expected introduction of the key of F major, delaying the half 
 cadence in E minor. This is reached at the ff, and prolonged 
 for four bars. The passage which follows is evidently a modifi- 
 cation of the beginning of the first subject. We have it first in 
 E minor, then in succession in D major, A minor, and G major. 
 
 285. We have now returned to the tonic key, and we know 
 therefore that we are near the end of the developments ; for 
 except incidentally, in modulating between other keys, the 
 tonic key should not be employed in the free fantasia. We shall 
 see the reason for this later. In the movement we are now 
 examining there is no further modulation, excepting slight passing 
 references to C major and A minor (both nearly related keys to 
 G) ; but the music continues in G and the free fantasia ends on 
 the first inversion of the chord of the dominant seventh, con- 
 tinued for six bars, with the same persistent figure that we have 
 seen nearly throughout the developments. The student will not 
 fail to notice what perfect unity of style is secured by this method 
 of treatment Observe, before we leave this movement, the 
 course of modulation ; — B flat, C minor, D minor, E minor, F 
 (incidentally), E minor again, D major, A minor and G. 
 
 286. The thematic development illustrated by our last ex- 
 ample was first systematically employed by Haydn, though some- 
 thing similar is to be found in many of the episodes of Bach's 
 fugues. But, as applied to the sonata form, Haydn may be fairly 
 credited with the invention ; and his skill in this direction has 
 been equalled by few, and only surpassed by one — Beethoven. 
 The varieties of thematic treatment are literally numberless, and 
 their management can only be taught in one way, — by example. 
 It is impossible within the limits of such a volume as this to give 
 many lengthy extracts. We must content ourselves with referring 
 our readers to the works of the great masters, and confine our 
 quotations to short passages which will render our remarks in- 
 telligible. The two examples we have already given will help to 
 show how the free fantasia is to be made into a homogeneous 
 whole. 
 
 287. Our last extract, from Haydn's symphony, showed a free 
 fantasia developed almost entirely from one small germ. We 
 will now analyze the same portion of the first movement of 
 Beethoven's Pastoral Symphony, where we shall find similar treat- 
 ment of two or three different motives. We give the opening of 
 the symphony, from the first subject of which the developments 
 are almost entirely constructed. 
 
i68 
 
 Allegro ma non tro$$o. 
 
 Applied Forms. [Chap, vm. 
 
 Beethoven : Pastoral Symphony. 
 
 r-fer — — > 
 
 -J^g rn i^-CT^-. — 
 
 — Sfc£3=l 
 
 p 
 
 Wj-rM ]- = 
 
 [ , 1 . 1 _J 1 
 
 _LJ^_?_J_ 
 
 Y^~- — jq 
 
 ,^s»a g 
 
 ^- L-ES ' -I ' (=•* 
 
 hp 
 
 The exposition of this movement ends in the key of C with a 
 prolonged close on the tonic during twenty bars, and is continued 
 by a codetta (§ 266,) of four bars, founded upon the first bar of 
 the above quotation. 
 
 288. We now give the codetta, and the opening bars of the 
 free fantasia. 
 
Chap. viii.] The Sonata Form: the Development. 
 
 169 
 
 After treating the first bar by itself in the codetta, Beethoven 
 begins his development with working a two-bar section, con- 
 sisting of the first and second bars of the subject. A repetition 
 a fourth higher of the preceding eight bars brings the music into 
 the key of B flat ; and the second bar of the first subject is now 
 worked by itself. With a boldness justified by the result, 
 Beethoven dares to repeat this figure twelve times on the chord 
 of B flat, and then twenty- four times on the chord of D major. 
 The passage ends thus 
 
 P 
 
 =£» 
 
 ST- 
 
 =frc 
 
 «Rc 
 
 c? 
 
 &± 
 
 &= 
 
 ^^ 
 
 =H^ c: 
 
 «-fiS 
 
 dim. 
 
 289. Beethoven next takes the last two notes of the above 
 figure and repeats them for four bars. The first phrase of the 
 first subject is then given in the key of G major, with a new 
 counterpoint above the last two bars. 
 
 
 -^ es-C__ 'r*i h-T^I 'r~*71 J ei 
 
 H£ f 
 
 |_^Jg^riQ=^g=^_"_~ _ | ~& jjf -j 
 
 
 H= 1 ^j | ir-t-i-ls^-j j— -gj--3 
 
 
 r r 1 
 
 It will be seen that the inversion of the two bars follows imme- 
 diately, and is succeeded by a repetition in G of the passage 
 previously heard in B flat, of which we quoted the commence- 
 ment at the end of our extract in § 288. As before, the figure is 
 heard for twelve bars on the chord of G, and then for twenty- 
 four bars on the chord of E major, leading to a repetition of our 
 last quotation a tone higher than before. 
 
17c 
 
 Applied Forms. 
 
 [Chap. VIII. 
 
 290. Probably the composer by this continued reiteration of 
 the same figure intended to depict the impression produced by 
 the sameness, without monotony, of the sounds of nature. No 
 doubt he now felt that he had treated this one figure sufficiently ; 
 at the end of the passage of which we are now speaking, he 
 therefore introduces a different part of the first subject. Our 
 next quotation begins at the transposition of the fourth bar from 
 the end of our last extract. 
 
 
 -.*& yfe 
 
 -L J — J" J " — •-* m- —m* m- --»■*-»■ —m-'^-m- —m- *-m- - -m- i"^ 
 
Chap. viii.] The Sonata Form: the Development. 171 
 
 sis sis sis ss 
 
 J? * 
 
 sjs 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 J. • J* -J p J- 
 
 ypb 1 ^SJ l '— 1 
 
 tzf—fn 'r^~ 
 
 
 ^-r-^ — ^^ 
 
 (Recapitulation.) 
 
 The theme now heard will be seen in the last four bars of our 
 example § 287. It is given in succession in A major, D major, 
 G minor, C major, and finally F major, with an inverted dominant 
 pedal, leading back by means of a plagal cadence to the re- 
 capitulation, as seen in the last bars of the above passage. 
 
 291. The working of small fragments of his themes was a 
 favourite procedure with Beethoven. One method, to which he 
 was especially partial will be best explained by an illustration. In 
 § 229 we gave the first subject of his ' Waldstein ' sonata, Op. 53 ; 
 we now give the commencement of the second part of the same 
 movement. To save space we give the melody only. 
 
172 Applied Forms. [Chap. viii. 
 
 Beethov en : Son ata, Op. 53. 
 
 In the first four bars of this passage the fore-phrase of the first 
 subject is transposed into F major ; in the two following bars the 
 last two bars of the subject are imitated in G minor. At (a) 
 there is a treatment by diminution, the last two bars being com- 
 pressed into one. The two next bars are imitations of the 
 preceding; but at (b) the last half only of the bar is treated. 
 Four bars later, at (c) the first half of the bar is developed 
 separately, till a half cadence in F minor is reached at the end of 
 our extract. In the passage which immediately follows our 
 quotation the second section of the second subject is similarly 
 treated. Beethoven takes first a four-bar phrase, then the second 
 half of it, and lastly its final bar, and develops these portions in 
 turn. This chopping of his subjects up into small pieces, and (if 
 the expression may be allowed,) squeezing the last drop of juice 
 out of them, is one of the striking characteristics of Beethoven's 
 developments. Another excellent example will be seen in the 
 sonata in D, Op. 28.* 
 
 * Whenever in this chapter a work is spoken of without any part being 
 specially indicated, it is always ^as first movement that is being referred to. 
 
Chap. viii.] The Sonata Form: the Development. 173 
 
 292. Sometimes the developments will be more contrapuntal 
 in style than in the examples we have hitherto been examining. 
 Many good specimens of this kind of free fantasia will be found 
 in Haydn's quartetts. As we cannot quote them here, we refer 
 students who have access to the scores to such movements as the 
 vivace of the quartett in C, Op. 50 No. 2. 
 
 and the allegro spiritoso of the quartett in F, Op. 74 No. 2. 
 
 In both these movements the subjects are treated by imitation in 
 the free fugal style. The same thing will be seen in Beethoven's 
 later sonatas — in Op. 106 and Op. in, and in the finale of Op. 
 101.. The last named movement has an extended, though some- 
 what free fugato, which occupies the whole of the free fantasia. 
 It will suffice to quote the opening bars. 
 
 Beethoven' : Sonata, Op. iox. 
 -tr- 
 
 
 Ep=&c. 
 
 
 ,. B 
 
 
 The interval of .entry of the second voice shows, of course, that 
 we have here a fugato, not a fugue (Fugue, § 358). Mozart's 
 sonata in D, beginning 
 
 may also be examined with advantage, because of the passages of 
 canonic imitation to be found in the free fantasia. 
 
 293. There is one very important question in connection with 
 the free fantasia on which we have not yet touched. This is, the 
 introduction of episodical matter. Those examples of develop- 
 ment which we have hitherto been analyzing have been entirely 
 founded upon the material of the exposition. But this is by no 
 means the invariable practice of composers. In many works we 
 find a large amount of new matter introduced in the course of 
 
174 
 
 Applied Forms. 
 
 [Chap. VIII. 
 
 the developments, and occasionally the whole second part of a 
 sonata movement consists of episode. It is impossible to lay 
 down any rules as to when, or how much episodical matter should 
 be introduced. In this the composer's feeling must be his guide ; 
 but it is important to remember that the new material must always 
 be in keeping with the character of the movement. The nature 
 of the episodes will be best understood from examples. 
 
 294. Our first illustration will show the introduction of epi- 
 sodical matter as a new counterpoint to the chief subject of a 
 movement. The first subject of the allegro of Beethoven's fourth 
 symphony begins 
 
 fa\ &% ^ I s N Beethoven : 4th S 
 
 Symphony. 
 
 In the first part of the free fantasia of this movement the first 
 and second bars of the above extract are developed at some 
 length in the keys of F major and D minor, the dominant chord 
 of the latter key being at last followed by the tonic major. In 
 this key our last quotation is repeated exactly— a major third 
 higher — and followed by 
 
 w ' ; — ^ r r~" 
 
 Here the first subject is heard in the tenor, and is accompanied 
 by an entirely new melody in octaves, of which no suggestion has 
 been given in the exposition. The two subjects are afterwards 
 introduced together in the keys of G minor and E flat. This is 
 an example of what may be called incidental episode. The 
 remaining developments of this' free fantasia are most instructive ; 
 we strongly advise the student to analyze the movement for 
 himself. 
 
Chap, viii.] The Sonata Form: the Development. 175 
 
 295. More frequently the episodes are entirely independent of 
 the themes of the exposition. As striking examples of this kind 
 may be mentioned the episodes in the ' Eroica ' symphony, and in 
 Mendelssohn's ' Italian ' symphony in A major. Both works are 
 so well known that it will be sufficient to quote the melodies of 
 the passages to which we refer. 
 
 Beethoven : 3rd Symphony, Op. 55. 
 
 (<0 ~' ' '" 
 
 In both these movements considerable use is made later of these 
 episodes in the codas, of which we shall speak presently. 
 
 296. Sometimes the material of the exposition is but little 
 employed in the developments ; and the greater part of the free 
 fantasia is made from episodical matter. This is the case in 
 Beethoven's sonata in E major, Op. 14 No. 1, as will be seen by 
 a short extract. 
 
 Beethoven : Sonata, Op. 14, No. x. 
 Allegro., ^ • 
 
176 
 
 Applied Forms. 
 
 [Chap. VIII. 
 
 This passage, which is the opening of the free fantasia, begins 
 with a suggestion in the first two bars of the commencement of 
 the first subject. A new continuation (bars 3 and 4) introduces 
 an episodical theme on which all the rest of the developments are 
 founded until the music returns to the dominant of E minor. 
 The first notes of the first subject are then heard (over a dominant 
 pedal) in the tenor and treble part of the harmony alternately, till 
 at the end of the pedal point the recapitulation begins with the 
 return of the first subject. Another example of extensive use of 
 episodical matter will be seen in Beethoven's sonata in F, Op. 10 
 No. 2. 
 
 297. Occasionally, the second part of a sonata movement 
 consists entirely of episode, there being absolutely no develop- 
 ment of the material of the exposition. We find an instance of 
 this in the first movement of Mozart's sonata in D beginning 
 
 Another example will be seen in the finale of his sonata in C, 
 No. 10. The movement will be identified by its opening bars. 
 
 ~Jr 
 
 This movement is in regular sonata form, including the repeat of 
 the whole exposition; but the second part is not only entirely 
 episodical, but (what is still more unusual,) contains hardly any 
 modulation, being all in the keys of G major, and of C minor 
 and major. This movement is referred to here, not as a model, 
 but as an exception. With Mozart's sonata movements in general 
 more episode and less thematic treatment will mostly be found in 
 the free fantasia than with either Haydn or Beethoven ; though 
 numerous works might be named in which his thematic develop- 
 ments are fully equal in interest to those of his great contem- 
 poraries, showing clearly that it was choice, not inability, that 
 caused him in so many instances to prefer the more episodical 
 style of treatment. 
 
 298. When the first movement cf a sonata is preceded by a 
 slow introduction, this is occasionally introduced — sometimes in a 
 varied form — at the beginning or in the course of the free 
 fantasia. A very familiar example of this is furnished by 
 Beethoven's Sonate Pathe'tique, which is too well known to need 
 
Chap. viii.] The Sonata Form: the Development. 
 
 177 
 
 quotation. At the end of the exposition, the opening bars of the 
 Grave are introduced, leading, by means of a beautiful enhar- 
 monic modulation to the key of E minor, in which the free 
 fantasia begins. Let the student notice that the fourth and fifth 
 bars of the free fantasia are a development, or rather a modifi- 
 cation, of the first bar of the introduction, with the omission of 
 the first note. , - — -^ 
 
 / ,1. u \tP r \ f — 1« 
 
 A similar case is seen in Beethoven's quartett in E flat, Op. 127, 
 in which the short Maestoso which opens the work is repeated at 
 the close of the exposition, and again near the end of the free 
 fantasia. 
 
 299. Another very fine, though much less generally known 
 instance of the same procedure will be found in Clementi's sonata 
 in G minor, Op. 34 No. 2. Here, however, the first subject of 
 the allegro is itself developed from the short introduction, as will 
 be seen from a quotation of the commencement of the sonata. 
 
 to 
 
 Largo e sostenuto. 
 
 Clementi : Sonata, Op. 34, No. 2. 
 
l 7 8 
 
 Applied Forms. 
 
 [Chap. VIII. 
 
 The exposition of this movement, which is quite regular, extends 
 to 73 bars, and ends in the key of B flat, the relative major, 
 which, as we already know, is the usual key for the second subject 
 of a minor movement. The free fantasia begins in C minor, and, 
 after various modulations, ultimately reaches the dominant of 
 A minor through a passage too long to quote, but which is 
 founded upon the last four bars of the Largo. At the 43rd bar, 
 the common time of the introduction is resumed, and a remark- 
 able metamorphosis of the opening theme appears in C major. 
 
 (5) Largo. Legato. 
 
 
 V 4 4- --^l 
 
 __y-*,i-«« l .W. l .jt^.~ * w - — -"' 
 
 fz fi fz & 
 
 vx a /. A — = — jit 
 
 B -i t ||ii 1»»W;V-i fcfeifc=j 
 
 \l A _j. . -i-p 
 
 — 1 h i ' 
 
 This Largo continues for nine bars, and is followed by a return 
 to the Allegro (|) which seven bars later introduces the re- 
 capitulation. 
 
 300. A somewhat similar, though not exactly parallel case 
 will be found in the finale of Beethoven's string quintett in C, 
 Op. 29. The movement is a Presto (§) in C major. Toward 
 the end of the free fantasia there is a half close in A minor, 
 leading to an Andante con moto e scherzoso in A major, eighteen 
 bars in length, entirely episodical, and which is repeated in 
 C major in the course of the coda which ends the movement. 
 
 301. It would require, not a part of a chapter, but an entire 
 volume to deal fully with the possibilities of thematic develop- 
 ment, as shown in the works of the great masters. From the 
 various examples we have quoted and referred to, it is hoped 
 that the student will have a fair idea of the general line he should 
 adopt in trying to write developments for himself. Before pro- 
 ceeding to speak of the third part of a sonata movement — the 
 recapitulation — we will give a few general principles for his 
 guidance. It has been already said that strict rules cannot be 
 laid down for this part of the composition ; but the principles we 
 are now about to give are deduced from the actual practice of 
 the great composers. 
 
 302. The first, and one of the most important rules to be 
 borne in mind is, that the chief keys of the exposition — that is, 
 the tonic of the movement and the key in which the second 
 
chap, viii.] The Sonata Form: the Development. 179 
 
 subject appears — should be avoided as much as possible in the 
 free fantasia, or, at most, only employed incidentally, that is, in 
 the course of modulation between other keys. The only ex- 
 ception to this rule is that it is not uncommon to begin the free 
 fantasia in the key in which the exposition ended ; but as soon as 
 this key has been left and the modulation has begun, it should 
 not be returned to in the course of the further developments. 
 
 303. The reason for the rule just given is that, as the second 
 subject is generally of considerable extent, sometimes (as we saw 
 in the last chapter,) containing three or four sections, which in 
 the majority of cases are all in the same key, there would be too 
 much monotony of tonality were the key of the second subject to 
 be much used during the second part of the movement. The 
 same consideration renders the employment of the tonic key 
 objectionable. True, we hear but little of it in the exposition ; 
 for the first subject is generally short, and the modulation begins 
 at once in the bridge-passage ; but we shall see presently that a 
 great part of the recapitulation has to be in the tonic key, and it 
 would therefore be most unadvisable to use the same key to any 
 great extent for the developments. 
 
 304. Any other key than the two just named may be freely 
 employed at the discretion of the student for the free fantasia ; 
 but there are one or two cautions to be given him in this matter. 
 In the first place, it is not good to continue too long in any one 
 new key, lest the mental impression of a fresh tonic be produced 
 on the hearer. Especially is this the case with regard to the 
 subdominant key. It would be most unwise to write the last part 
 of a free fantasia in this key; because the tonic, returning im- 
 mediately afterwards, would certainly have the effect of being a 
 dominant of the key just quitted. The final return to the tonic 
 key is almost always made from a key on its sharp side — at all 
 events in a major movement. 
 
 305. Another point which it is important to remember is, that 
 after a modulation has been made to any key, and that key has 
 been quitted, it is not good to introduce it again, except transition- 
 ally, that is, for the sake of passing conveniently between other 
 keys, as in a compound modulation. We know already that in a 
 smaller composition it is hot good generally to make the same 
 modulation twice ; and this principle holds good also of the free 
 fantasia. 
 
 306. The material of the second part of a sonata movement 
 should consist chiefly of developments. For this reason, a mere 
 repetition or exact transposition of matter from the exposition is 
 weak, if it be continued without modification for more than a 
 few bars. Among the principal means of development are (1) 
 the repetition of a subject with varied harmonies; (2) the 
 separate working of small fragments of a subject, as in the 
 'Pastoral Symphony' analyzed in §§ 288-290; (3) the addition 
 
i8o 
 
 Applied Forms. 
 
 [Chap. VIII. 
 
 of new counterpoints to the subjects ; (4) the contrapuntal treat- 
 ment of the subjects themselves; whether by fugal, canonic, or 
 free imitation. Which of these methods (and the list is not 
 exhaustive,) the composer may select is left entirely to his own 
 taste and judgment. He is also quite free as to the choice of 
 the subjects he may propose to treat. 
 
 307. The introduction of episodical matter is another point 
 as to which no rules can be given. The only advice we can offer 
 is, that such matter should be not so different in character from 
 the rest of the movement as to produce an effect of incongruity. 
 The amount of episode to be introduced is quite optional; in 
 general it will be best to keep on the safe side, and rather use too 
 little than too much. 
 
 308. The free fantasia must always end in such a way as to 
 lead back to the key in which the recapitulation begins. This is 
 mostly, though, as will be seen later, not invariably, the tonic. 
 In the majority of cases the close of the free fantasia is on the 
 dominant, or dominant seventh chord ; not infrequently a dominant 
 pedal is introduced. Examples of this procedure are too common 
 to need quotation ; they are to be met with everywhere. Less 
 frequently other methods are adopted. In the first movement of 
 Beethoven's symphony in C minor, and in the finale of the sonata 
 in the same key, Op. 10 No. 1, the return is made through the 
 chord of the diminished seventh on the leading note — another 
 position of dominant harmony. In the ' Pastoral Symphony ' we 
 see (§ 290,) the recapitulation reached by means of a plagal 
 cadence. 
 
 309. Some interesting examples are met with in the works of 
 the great masters of a return to the first subject in a major key 
 through the dominant of a nearly related minor key. In Haydn's 
 quartett in E major, Op. 54 No. 3, the free fantasia ends with a 
 dominant pedal, eight bars long, in C sharp minor, the first 
 subject following at once in E major. 
 
 Haydn : Quartett, Op. 54, No. 3. 
 
 ft m ff . 1st Subject. I 
 
 . 1 .1... 
 
 1 r\ 
 
 
 
 
 &r b r r r 
 
 * 
 
 ^J 
 
 ""XT A 
 
 \ZJc 
 
 1 j J J 
 
 
 f-i . 
 
 m r — 
 
 
 
 
 L* j — T~ 
 
 %&—ZL i 
 
Chap. viii.] The Sonata Form: the Development. 
 
 181 
 
 310. Our next illustration, also from Haydn, shows a some- 
 what different modulation. 
 
 Haydn : Symphony in D. 
 
 Here the free fantasia ends in F sharp minor ; the dominant 
 seventh in that key is resolved at the seventh bar of our extract 
 on the submediant chord of the same key, which is quitted as 
 the tonic of D major, and followed at once by the first subject in 
 that key. 
 
 311. A differently managed modulation between the same 
 two keys will be seen at the return of the first subject in 
 Beethoven's second symphony. Here the free fantasia ends with 
 a half cadence in F sharp minor. 
 
 Beethoven : 2nd Symphony. 
 
 -C = 1- N 1 . . te 1 .,. ft, I 
 
 At the third bar there is a sudden piano on the dominant. The 
 addition of the A in the fifth bar changes the C sharp from the 
 root to the third of the chord, and leads back at once to the key 
 of D, and the resumption of the first subject. 
 
 312. We had noted several other passages for quotation, but 
 must content ourselves with referring our readers to such ex- 
 amples as the return to the first subject in Beethoven's symphony 
 
182 
 
 Applied Forms. 
 
 ■ [Chap. VIII. 
 
 in B flat, No. 4, and in his sonatas in E flat, Op. 31 No. 3, 
 E minor, Op. 90, and B flat, Op. 106. For our last illustration 
 of the return to the first subject, we give an interesting passage 
 by Mozart in which free sequential imitation is employed. 
 
 Mozart : Piano Quartett in G miner. 
 
 It is difficult to show the part-writing of this passage clearly on 
 two staves ; it consists chiefly of a dialogue between the piano 
 and the strings, the scale passages being allotted to the former, 
 and the responding harmonies to the latter. In the last three 
 bars before the re-entry of the first subject the strings and piano 
 imitate each other. 
 
 313. The third part of a sonata movement is termed the 
 Recapitulation ; in this the material of the exposition is repeated, 
 with more or less important modification. A moment's thought will 
 show the student that it would be impossible to repeat the exposition 
 as the third part of the movement without modification, for the 
 
chap. viii.] The Sonata Form: the Recapitulation. 183 
 
 very simple reason that it never ends in the key of the tonic. 
 In a regularly constructed recapitulation, therefore, the second 
 subject, as well as the first, is introduced in the tonic key, and 
 either the first bridge-passage is modified, so as to lead to the 
 dominant of the tonic key, instead of to the dominant of the 
 key in which the second subject appeared in the exposition, or 
 else an entirely new bridge-passage is written. Exceptionally, as 
 we shall see later, the bridge-passage is altogether omitted in the 
 recapitulation. 
 
 314. There is far more variation to be met with in the 
 recapitulation than is generally supposed. Before dealing with 
 the numerous irregularities to be found in this part of the move- 
 ment, it will be well to speak of the usual form, as we find it in 
 the great majority of sonata movements in the works of the 
 great masters. 
 
 315. In a regularly constructed recapitulation, the close of the 
 free fantasia is immediately followed by the reappearance of the 
 first subject in the tonic key. In many cases, perhaps in most, 
 the subject reappears in its original form — possibly with a little 
 more ornamentation (as, for instance, in Beethoven's sonata in D, 
 Op. 28), but practically unaltered, though it is by no means 
 uncommon to find it accompanied by a new counterpoint. As 
 an illustration of this we give the beginning of the first subject of 
 the allegro of Haydn's quartett in G. Op. 76 No. 1. 
 
 Haydn : Quartett, Op. 76, No. 1. 
 
 _ r 
 -m. 
 
 This passage is then repeated in simple two-part harmony. In 
 the recapitulation it is treated in the following manner — 
 
 
 1 «**L 
 
184 
 
 Applied Forms. 
 
 [Chap. VIII. 
 
 The first four bars have a counterpoint in quavers above them, 
 and the opening of the subject is then given to the first violin, 
 and answered in canon at the octave and tenth below by the 
 second violin and viola. More familiar examples of the addition 
 of a new counterpoint to the first subject in the recapitulation 
 will be seen in the first movement of Mendelssohn's symphony 
 in A minor, and in the slow movement of Beethoven's Pastoral 
 Symphony. 
 
 316. In the majority of cases, the bridge-passage in the 
 recapitulation is constructed from the same material as in the 
 exposition ; but it is frequently shortened, and the course of 
 modulation is usually varied, so as to end on the dominant of 
 the key in which the second subject is now to appear. In general 
 this will be the tonic key; the exceptions will be discussed presently. 
 If the bridge- passage in the exposition ends with a half cadence in 
 the tonic key, it is possible, though rare, for the bridge-passage in 
 the recapitulation to be identical with that in the exposition. An 
 example of this will be found in Haydn's sonata in B flat, referred 
 to in § 236. 
 
 317. Occasionally in the recapitulation the bridge-passage is 
 altogether dispensed with, and the second subject follows imme- 
 diately on the close of the first. This is the case in the first 
 movement of Beethoven's sonata in F, Op. 10 No. 2, and in the 
 finale of his sonata in C sharp minor, Op. 27 No. 2. In the first 
 movement of Weber's sonata in E minor, Op. 70, the second 
 subject in the recapitulation follows the first immediately, but the 
 bridge-passage is repeated almost note for note as the beginning of 
 the coda. 
 
 318. If, in the exposition of a movement in a major key, the 
 second subject has been in the dominant, it will in the recapitu- 
 lation be in the key of the tonic. This rule may be taken as 
 invariable; in several hundreds of movements that we have 
 examined we have not found a single exception to it. If in the 
 first part the second subject has been in some other key than the 
 dominant, there is less regularity. For example, in Beethoven's 
 sonata in C, Op. 53, the second subject is in the exposition in the 
 key of the mediant, major and minor ; in the recapitulation, it 
 begins in the submediant (A major), and modulates through A 
 minor to C major. The last part of the subject, which in the 
 exposition was in E minor, is repeated in C minor, the return to 
 the major key being reserved for the coda. 
 
chap. vin.] The Sonata Form: the Recapitulation. 185 
 
 319. In two other movements in which Beethoven has put his 
 second subject in the mediant — the first movement of the sonata 
 in G, Op. 31 No. 1, and the finale of the piano trio in E flat, Op. 
 70 No. 2 — the second subject in the recapitulation is first given 
 in the key of the submediant major, and then repeated in the key 
 of the tonic. Observe in all these cases, that as the submediant is 
 a perfect fifth below the mediant, the tonal relation of these two 
 appearances of the second subject is the same as if the keys had 
 been, as usual, dominant and tonic. In the rare cases in which 
 the second subject begins in the mediant minor (§ 242), it is found 
 in the recapitulation in the tonic key. When the second subject 
 is in the submediant in the exposition (§ 243), it is also Beethoven's 
 practice to introduce it in the tonic in the recapitulation. 
 
 320. When the different sections of the second subject are not 
 all in the same key (§ 256,) we usually find that their relation to 
 one another in the recapitulation will be the same as in the expo- 
 sition. If the second subject at first began in the dominant minor, 
 and then proceeded to the dominant major (as in Beethoven's 
 sonatas in A major and C major, Op. 2, Nos. 2 and 3), we shall 
 find it in the recapitulation in the tonic minor and major. If, on 
 the other hand, it began with a different tonic from that with which 
 it ended — in which case the last key will always be the dominant 
 — we shall almost invariably find that the first section of the second 
 subject will, in the recapitulation, be in a key bearing the same 
 relation to the tonic which the key in the exposition bore to the 
 dominant. 
 
 321. A few examples will make this perfectly clear. We will 
 take the same movements which we referred to in the last chapter 
 (§§ 256, 258). In Haydn's quartett in D, Op. 17 No. 6, the 
 second subject in the exposition begins in C major and ends in A 
 major ; the first of these keys is a minor third higher than the 
 second. In the recapitulation, that part of the second subject 
 which was in C appears in F — a minor third higher than D — and ' 
 that which was in A is transposed to D. In Beethoven's sonata in 
 D, Op. 28, the second subject begins in F sharp minor, and pro- 
 ceeds to A major ; in the recapitulation the keys are B minor and 
 D major. Again in the same composer's sonata in D, Op. 10 
 No. 3, the second subject begins in B minor before going to A 
 major, the former key being the supertonic minor of the latter. 
 In the recapitulation, the second subject begins in E minor, the 
 supertonic minor of D. As all these three movements happen 
 to be in the key of D, it is very easy for the student to notice 
 that the same method is carried out in each case. 
 
 322. In movements in a minor key, if the second subject is in 
 the dominant minor (§§ 244, 245,) the transposition in the re- 
 capitulation is simply to the tonic minor. But in the more 
 frequent cases in which the second subject is at first in the relative 
 major, there are two courses open to the composer. The plan 
 
i86 
 
 Applied I'orms. 
 
 [Chap. VIII. 
 
 most frequently adopted by the older masters was to introduce the 
 second subject in the tonic minor key. This, of course, necessi- 
 tated some alteration both of its melody and harmony. As an 
 example, we give the beginning of the second subject in the first 
 movement of Mozart's symphony in G minor. In the exposition 
 it is in B flat major. 
 
 Mozart : Symphony in G minor. 
 
 !*-J t=L 
 
 In the recapitulation we find it in G minor. 
 (*) 
 
 It is evident that the whole character of the subject is altered by 
 this change to the minor mode. 
 
 323. In order to avoid the change of character just spoken of, 
 the older masters sometimes, and modern composers more fre- 
 quently, transpose the second subject in the recapitulation into 
 the key of the tonic major. This procedure is more common with 
 Haydn than with Mozart, who, as we have already had occasion to 
 remark, was not much given to innovation in matters of form. 
 
Chap. via.] The Sonata Form: the Recapitulation. 187 
 
 With Beethoven, we mostly find the tonic minor for the second 
 subject in his earlier 'works, while in the later the tonic major 
 is often to be met with. When the second subject in the recapitu- 
 lation is in the tonic major key, the movement can either end in 
 that key, or return to the minor mode for the coda. Examples of 
 both are common. \_dL- 
 
 324. Occasionally in a minor movement if the first subject 
 be at first in the relative major, it is in the submediant in the 
 recapitulation. This is the case in the first movement of 
 Mendelssohn's symphony in C minor. The obvious reason is 
 to preserve the usual tonal relation of the two entries of the second 
 subject. (Compare §319). In such cases a return is, of course, 
 subsequently made to the tonic key. 
 
 325. If the second subject in a minor movement be in the 
 submediant major, it will generally in the recapitulation be in 
 the tonic major. This is the practice of Beethoven. Schubert, 
 however, in two cases where he has his second subject in the 
 submediant — in the first movements of the ' Tragic ' symphony, and 
 of the unfinished symphony in B minor — uses the relative major 
 for his second subjects in the recapitulation, returning later to 
 the tonic key ; and the effect, though unusual, is certainly not 
 bad. 
 
 326. If the second subject of a minor movement be in two 
 keys, the relationship of the two will generally, though not in- 
 variably, be preserved in the recapitulation. (Compare § 320). 
 Thus, in dementi's sonata in B minor, Op. 40 No. 2, the second 
 subject in the exposition has its first part in D major, and the 
 second in F sharp minor; in the recapitulation the keys are G 
 major and B minor. In Beethoven's sonata in F minor, Op. 57, 
 the second subject begins in A flat major and ends in A flat minor. 
 In the recapitulation it begins in F major and ends in F minor. 
 An exception to this general rule will be seen in Mendelssohn's 
 trio in C minor. The second subject, part of which we quoted in 
 § 254, begins in E flat and ends in G minor. In the recapitulation 
 the theme that was in E flat major appears, not in A flat, but in C 
 major, and the last part of the subject is transposed to C minor. 
 
 327. Hitherto we have spoken only of those recapitulations 
 which are tolerably regular in their form ; but it must be added 
 that such regularity is by no means invariable. It is quite im- 
 possible to enumerate all the variations to be met with in this 
 part of the movement; we must confine ourselves to the more 
 important, and to those which may be regarded as to some extent 
 typical. 
 
 328. The first thing to be noticed is, that it is possible for the 
 recapitulation to commence with the first subject, not in the key 
 of the tonic, but in that of the subdominant. It is a very curious 
 thing that examples of this are almost exclusively found in the 
 works of two composers, utterly unlike in almost every respect — 
 
1 88 Applied Forms. [Chap. vm. 
 
 Clementi and Schubert. We meet with it in at least three of 
 dementi's sonatas ; viz. : those in E flat, Op. 10 No. 3, in B flat, 
 Op. 14 No. i, and in B flat, Op. 25 No. 3. Schubert does the 
 same in his second and fifth symphonies, in his piano quintett in 
 A, Op. 114, and in his piano sonatas in B major, Op. 147, and A 
 minor, Op. 164. The only other instances of this procedure that 
 we have found are in Mozart's sonata in C, No. 15, and in 
 Hummel's trio in E flat, Op. 96. The object evidently is, that 
 the key relationship of first and second subjects in the recapitu- 
 lation may be the same as in the exposition ; but the expediency 
 appears to be at least doubtful, as the effect of beginning the 
 recapitulation in another key than the tonic is hardly satisfactory. 
 In the ternary form, of which we have already seen that the 
 sonata form is a variation, the return of the tonic key is one of 
 the chief characteristics of the third part of the movement. 
 
 329. Sometimes, though comparatively seldom, we find in the 
 recapitulation that the re-entry of the second subject precedes that 
 of the first. This is the case in the first movement of Mozart's 
 sonata in D beginning 
 
 and also of his great sonata in the same key for piano and violin. 
 Other examples may be seen in some of Haydn's symphonies, in 
 Spohr's octett, Op. 32 (first movement,) and double quartett, Op. 
 65 (finale,) and in the first movement of Dvorak's piano quartett 
 in E flat, Op. 87. 
 
 330. It is not very unusual to find considerable abridgment of 
 the subjects in the recapitulation. For instance, in Schubert's 
 piano quintett in A. Op. 114, not only does the recapitulation 
 begin in the subdominant key (§ 328), but the first twenty-four 
 bars are omitted altogether. A similar thing is seen in the first 
 movement of Mendelssohn's string quartett in F minor, Op. 8o, 
 where only the final sentence of the first subject appears in the 
 recapitulation. In a few cases, the first subject is entirely omitted. 
 Examples of this will be seen in the first movement of Clementi's 
 sonata in G, Op. 39 No. 2, and in the finale of Dussek's sonata in 
 B flat, Op. 35 No. 1. 
 
 331. On the other hand, we occasionally find the first subject 
 extended in the recapitulation. Beethoven's sonata in F, Op. 10 
 No. 2, affords a good illustration of this. The free fantasia ends 
 on the dominant of D ; and the first subject (which we quoted in 
 § 225,) is given in its complete form in that key. It is then con- 
 tinued as follows ; to show the connexion we quote the last chord 
 of the full cadence in D, 
 
Chap. vin.) The Sonata Form: the Recapitulation. 189 
 
 Beethoven : Sonata, Op. 10. No. 2. 
 
 The last eight bars of the first subject are then repeated in the 
 key of F as before. The whole first subject now contains 27 bars, 
 instead of twelve, as in the exposition. 
 
 332. It is unusual to find the first subject beginning, as here, 
 in a different key from that in which it ends ; another interesting 
 example will be found in the recapitulation of Weber's sonata in 
 C, Op. 24. The passage is too long to quote ; the student who 
 examines the movement will see that in the exposition the first 
 subject consists of two perfectly regular eight-bar sentences, the 
 first ending on the dominant, and the second with a full cadence 
 on the tonic. In the recapitulation the first subject is introduced 
 in E flat ; the first six bars are almost unaltered, except in their 
 key ; but there is a new continuation, modulating through F 
 minor and C minor back to C major. Instead of two sentences 
 as before, there is now only one long sentence extended to seven- 
 teen bars. 
 
 333. The alteration of the second subject in the recapitulation 
 is much more frequent than that of the first. Sometimes part of 
 it is omitted, as in Haydn's quartett in G, Op. 77 No. 1, in which 
 the flowing melody with which the second subject opens, 
 
 is not heard at all in the recapitulation, most probably because 
 Haydn has used it so extensively in the free fantasia. Again, in 
 the finale of Dussek's sonata, Op. 10 No. 3, the second subject, 
 as already mentioned (§ 255,) is in two keys, the first section 
 being in G major, and the second and third in B minor. In the 
 recapitulation the first section does not reappear at all. 
 
 334. Sometimes considerable variation will be found in the 
 recapitulation of the second subject. In Beethoven's sonata in F, 
 of which we were speaking just now (§ 331), the second subject 
 begins in F major, but has a new continuation, passing through 
 
190 
 
 Applied Forms. 
 
 [Chap. VIII. 
 
 F minor and A flat before returning to the tonic key. At other 
 times the general outline remains the same but the details are 
 much altered. A good example of this is seen in the finale of 
 Dussek's sonata in G minor, Op. 10 No. 2. In the exposition, 
 the second subject commences thus — 
 
 t * Vivace, con spirito. 
 
 Dussek : Sonata, Op. to, No. 2. 
 
 In the recapitulation the passage is modified as follows — 
 
 ^ — 
 
 -^ P"« •■■•■• ^ -^ ""» 
 
 1 /? ** 
 
 
 pp 
 
 «?5— i — i*^3 P^3 — 1 — ^^ — ^~i — ■ 
 
 \Q — 4=^ — = 
 
 — '^ H L ^=- — ^—^ 
 
 ^■* 
 
 ^.^«.^.j».it qp^t 
 
 r rfit 
 
 335. Occasionally the second subject is so far altered in the 
 recapitulation as to be almost a new subject, though constructed 
 on the same lines as before. A very interesting example of this 
 (far too long, unfortunately for quotation,) is seen in the first 
 movement of Haydn's quartett in B flat, Op. 76 No. 4, which the 
 student should examine. We give another illustration of the 
 same point, from Mozart's little known quintett for horn and 
 strings. We quote the melody only of the second subject, giving 
 it first as in the exposition, 
 
Chap. viii.] The Sonata Form: the Recapitulation. 191 
 
 W Mozart : Horn Quintett . 
 
 and then as it appears in the recapitulation. 
 
 If these two subjects are compared, it will be seen that there is a 
 strong " family likeness " between them, especially in their 
 rhythmic figures, but that the melodies are entirely different.* 
 
 336. An exceptional choice of key for the second subject by 
 Beethoven deserves to be mentioned. In the finale of his sonata 
 in E flat, Op. 31 No. 3, the second subject, which in the exposi- 
 tion is in B flat, appears in G flat major, the final sentence being 
 repeated in E flat minor, and the coda being approached through 
 the dominant of that key. 
 
 337. Occasionally in a minor movement, the entire recapitu- 
 lation is in the tonic major key, the first subject being altered in 
 the same way which we saw with the second subject in § 322. 
 We have only met with two instances of this — in the first move- 
 ments of Spohr's second symphony, in D minor, and of Weber's 
 sonata in D minor, Op. 49. The latter movement ends in the 
 major key ; Spohr returns to D minor for the coda. 
 
 338. One very irregular kind of recapitulation has still to be 
 noticed — if, indeed, it can be called by that name. In a few 
 movements which we cannot but consider as being in sonata 
 form, neither the first nor the second subject is repeated after the 
 free fantasia; but a long coda, made of entirely new material, 
 
 * The explanation of the difference is that the passages quoted are written 
 for the horn ; and the technique of that instrument is such that an exact 
 transposition of the first passage would have been extremely difficult. Mozart 
 therefore modified it, and thus made it not only easier, but more effective, and 
 better adapted to the nature of the instrument. 
 
192 
 
 Applied Forms. 
 
 [Chap. VIII. 
 
 takes its place. A comparatively early example of this will be 
 found in the finale of Hummel's sonata in F minor, Op. 20 ; 
 while Schumann does the same thing in the first movement of his 
 symphony in D minor, and in the finale of his symphony in C. 
 Though in all these cases the end justifies the means, the plan is 
 not to be recommended ; for it unquestionably detracts from the 
 unity that ought to characterize this form. 
 
 339. With the close of the recapitulation, a sonata movement 
 may, and frequently does end ; but it may also be followed by a 
 coda. In the majority of the sonatas of Haydn and Mozart the 
 coda is not to be found ; it is also wanting in some of the earlier 
 works of Beethoven — e.g. in the sonatas, Op. 2 No. 2, Op. 10 
 Nos. 1 and 2, and Op. 22. But with modern composers we 
 usually find, especially in works laid out on a large scale, a coda 
 of more or less extent and importance. As in the case of the 
 free fantasia, it is impossible to give any rules as to what the 
 coda should contain ; this is entirely at the composer's discretion. 
 Sometimes it is quite short, as in Beethoven's sonata in F minor, 
 Op. 2 No. 1, in which the coda is nothing but an extension of 
 the last sentence of the second subject. In other cases it is of 
 considerable length ; and it is then not unusual to find develop- 
 ment of some of the themes which had not been treated in the 
 free fantasia. 
 
 340. As an illustration of this, we will take the coda in Beet- 
 hoven's sonata, Op. 7, which we select because in § 280 we quoted 
 the whole of the free fantasia. The second subject of this sonata 
 contains five sections (§ 254) ; but of these only a part of the 
 fifth was employed in the free fantasia. One of the most impor- 
 tant — the second, which begins at bar 59 thus — 
 
 («> 
 
 Beethoven : Sonata, Op. 7. 
 
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 becomes an imoortant feature in the coda, where it is developed 
 as follows — 
 
Chap. vin.] The Sonata Form: the Recapitulation. 193 
 
 ZT l [£f ^ r p 
 
 A-.j- 4 J- te'-f : 
 
 The end of this extract is followed by further developments of 
 the themes given as (c) and (a) in § 279, bringing the movement 
 to a close. 
 
 341. Sometimes, though not very frequently, the coda brings 
 forward an entirely new theme. A good example is found in the 
 first movement of Schumann's symphony in B flat, of which we 
 gave the first subject in § 227. The coda begins with a quicken- 
 ing of the time (Animate), and thematic treatment of the first 
 subject for more than fifty bars. At bar 57 of the coda, the 
 following new idea is presented. 
 
 Sc humann : ist Symphony. 
 
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194 
 
 applied Forms. 
 
 [Chap. VIII. 
 
 These bars are then repeated, and the train of thought con- 
 tinued for some little time before the return of the commence- 
 ment of the first subject, which is given in augmentation. 
 
 342. Another beautiful example of the introduction of new 
 matter in the coda is seen in the finale of Mendelssohn's sonata 
 in D for piano and violoncello. As the work is tolerably well 
 known, it will suffice' to quote the opening bars of the passage to 
 which we refer. 
 
 espress. 
 
 Mendelssohn : Sonata in D, Op. 58. 
 
 343. When the final movement of a cyclic work, such as a 
 sonata or symphony, is in sonata form, we almost always, at least 
 in modern compositions, find a coda appended, in order to give 
 more importance to the conclusion of the work. In such cases 
 we sometimes find an alteration (which is generally a quickening,) 
 of the tempo. As examples of this may be named the finales of 
 Beethoven's symphony in C minor, and sonata in F minor, Op. 
 57. The same thing is also sometimes found in a first movement, 
 as in the sonata just referred to, and in Schubert's great symphony 
 in C, No. 7. 
 
 344. The form we have been discussing in this and the pre- 
 ceding chapter is so infinitely rich in its varied possibilities, that 
 it has been impossible to treat it exhaustively; it is hoped that 
 enough has been said to enable the student to make further 
 investigations for himself. Once more we repeat what we have 
 so often said before, — that more will be learned from analyzing 
 the works of the great masters than in any other way. The 
 student will best master the subject by carefully examining all 
 the sonatas, trios, quartetts, or symphonies within his reach and 
 noticing their structural peculiarities, resemblances and differ- 
 ences. The best models of form are Haydn, Mozart, Beet- 
 hoven, and Mendelssohn. 
 
chap, ix.] Modified Sonata Forms. 195 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 MODIFIED SONATA FORMS. 
 
 345. In the Sonata Form which we have been discussing in 
 the last two chapters we have seen that, while there was room for 
 very considerable variety in the details of treatment, the essential 
 outlines of the form remained the same in every case. But we 
 frequently meet with movements evidently closely allied to 
 the form of which we have been speaking, which nevertheless 
 present points of difference sufficient to prevent our regarding 
 them as regular sonata movements. Such may be termed modified 
 sonata forms. The most important of these — the later Rondo 
 form — will be discussed by itself in the next chapter ; in the 
 present one we shall speak of others, which more nearly approxi- 
 mate to the normal form already described. 
 
 346. The first of these is that which we name the Abridged 
 Sonata Form. We know (§ 224,) that the regular sonata form 
 contains three parts— the exposition, the development, and the 
 recapitulation. Of these the development is sometimes quite 
 short ; in other cases it is the longest of the three sections of the 
 movement. In the abridged sonata form of which we are now 
 speaking, the middle part of the movement (the " free fantasia,") 
 is entirely wanting. At the end of the exposition the music 
 returns at once to the tonic key, and the recapitulation com- 
 mences. 
 
 347. It will be obvious that the effect of this compression is 
 to reduce the movement from a ternary to a binary form ; and it 
 would seem at a first glance as if it were merely reverting to the 
 old sonata form described and illustrated in §§ 217-220. There 
 is, however, one important difference between the two. In the 
 older sonata form, the first subject was introduced at the beginning 
 of the second part in the same key in which the second subject 
 had been given in the first part of the movement. In the 
 abridged sonata form, on the other hand, the first subject re- 
 appears in the tonic key, exactly as it would do in a fully 
 developed sonata movement, and the whole of the second part, 
 with possible occasional transitions to related keys, will be, like an 
 ordinary recapitulation, in the tonic key. 
 
 348. The abridged sonata form is most frequently, though by 
 no means exclusively, employed for the slow movements of cyclic 
 
196 
 
 Applied Forms. 
 
 [Chap. IX. 
 
 works (sonatas, &c.) ; and a short analysis of two or three move 
 ments written in this form will be sufficient to illustrate its special 
 features. We will first take the Adagio molto of Beethoven's 
 sonata in C minor, Op. 10 No. 1, as a particularly clear and 
 perfect example. The movement contains 112 bars, of which 
 forty-five belong to the first part. 
 349. The first subject, beginning 
 
 Adagio molto. 
 («> ' i 
 
 Beethoven : 
 
 Sonata, Op. 10, No. i. 
 
 contains two perfectly regular sentences of eight bars each, of 
 which the first ends with a half cadence, and the second with a 
 full cadence in the tonic key. At bar 17 begins the bridge- 
 passage, which is only seven bars long, and which leads through 
 the dominant seventh of E flat to the second subject in that key, 
 
 350. This second subject consists of one extended sentence 
 twenty-one bars in length ; if the student will analyze it, he will 
 see that both the fore-phrase and the after-phrase are repeated in 
 a varied form, and that the after-phrase is prolonged by cadential 
 extensions and repetitions. It ends at bar 44 with a full cadence 
 in E flat. A single chord of the dominant seventh, ff, reintroduces 
 
Chap. IX.] 
 
 Modified Sonata Forms. 
 
 197 
 
 the original key and the first subject. We quote trie passage, 
 beginning with the last three bars of the second subject. 
 
 End of 
 ^^ and Subject. 
 
 1st Subject. 
 
 351. The first subject is now repeated with more orna- 
 mentation, both of melody and harmony, and is followed at bar 
 62 by the second bridge-passage. This is constructed of the 
 same material as the first one, the first part being absolutely 
 identical ; but it is now extended to nine bars, and the latter part 
 is varied, so as to end on the dominant seventh of A flat, instead 
 of on that of E flat, as before. The second subject is then 
 introduced in the tonic key, with only very slight modifications, 
 and at bar 91 it is followed by a coda, twenty- two bars long, 
 founded upon the commencement of the first subject with a new 
 and very beautiful continuation. 
 
 352. This Adagio illustrates two points frequently seen when 
 the sonata form, whether complete or (as here) abridged, is used 
 for a slow movement. Note, in the first place, that the second 
 subject is not divisible into sections. We said in § 248 that in 
 most cases the second subject could be so divided, but we were 
 then speaking of the sonata form as usually found in allegro 
 movements. In slow movements, on the other hand, the second 
 subject is generally much shorter — sometimes, as we shall see 
 directly, even shorter than the first. 
 
 353. The other point to be noticed is that in slow movements 
 the subjects (more especially the first subject,) are generally varied, 
 or perhaps it will be better to say ornamented, in the recapitula- 
 tion. We saw in the last chapter (§ 315,) that this was occasion- 
 ally done even in an allegro ; but with an adagio or andante it is 
 rather the rule than the exception. The student will no doubt 
 remember that the same thing is very frequently to be seen in the 
 simple ternary form {Musical Form, § 359). 
 
 354. For our next illustration we select the Adagio of 
 Beethoven's sonata in D minor, Op. 31 No. 2. The movement 
 
198 
 
 Applied Forms. 
 
 [Chap. IX 
 
 is too well known to need quotation ; it will suffice to refer to the 
 numbers of the bars. As in the example last analyzed, the first 
 subject contains two sentences, and ends with a full cadence in 
 the tonic at bar 17. The bridge-passage commences in the same 
 bar. The reason we do not consider the four following bars as a 
 prolongation of the final cadence of the first subject — for the 
 modulation does not begin till bar 22 — will be clear to the 
 student, if he compares the corresponding passage in the second 
 part of the movement (bars 60 to 63). The bridge-passage ends 
 in bar 30 with a half cadence in F, and the second subject 
 consists of only one eight-bar sentence, ending in bar 38. The 
 return to the first subject, instead of consisting, as in our last 
 example, of only a single chord, is a "link" {Musical Form, 
 § 368,) five bars long, formed of the chord of the dominant minor 
 ninth. The first subject is then repeated, its second sentence 
 being accompanied by elaborate ornamental passages for the left 
 hand. A modification of the first bridge-passage leads to the 
 second subject in the tonic key ; and a coda of twenty-three bars, 
 chiefly founded upon the "link" and the first subject, concludes 
 the movement, which, it will be seen, furnishes further illustration 
 of both the points mentioned in §§ 352, 353. 
 
 355. The Adagio of Mozart's sonata in F (No. 12) shows 
 much resemblance to the movements last examined, but has one 
 or two points of difference that deserve notice. The movement 
 commences thus — 
 
 Mozart : Sonata in F, No. 12. 
 
 Legato. 
 
 Though the first subject as printed contains only eight bars, yet 
 an examination of the music shows that we have here quadruple 
 time with two accents in the bar, and that these eight bars are 
 really equivalent to sixteen (see Musical Form, § 36). This first 
 subject therefore, like the two by Beethoven examined above, 
 contains two sentences, the first ending with a half cadence 
 (feminine ending,) in bar 4. The fore-phrase of the second 
 sentence (bars 5 and 6) is the same as that of the first sentence, 
 but in the minor mode ; and the after-phrase modulates to F 
 minor (the dominant minor of B flat minor) and ends with a full 
 cadence in that key, but with a major third (Tierce de Picardie), 
 to lead back to the dominant of the original key. 
 
 356. It is unusual, we might almost say exceptional, for the 
 first subject to end in the key of the dominant; but Mozart's 
 doing so in this case renders a bridge passage superfluous ; 
 
Chap. IX.] 
 
 Modified Sonata Forms. 
 
 199 
 
 consequently the second subject follows immediately on the final 
 cadence of the first 
 
 The second subject, excepting a momentary transition to G minor, 
 is in the key of F major throughout, and ends with a short tonic 
 pedal, after which the return is made at once, as in our example, 
 § 350, through one bar of the chord of the dominant seventh, to 
 the tonic key and the first subject. 
 
 
 
 First Subject. 
 
 . ten.' 
 
 n-r> g}*7^ 
 
 *v **** 
 
 —^ 
 
 1 ' """^s 
 
 +- -"r * 1- ft » Ffr . 1- -f-r 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 &c 
 
 The first subject is ornamented, as usual, and on its close is 
 followed immediately by the second subject, now in B flat. This 
 is also much ornamented. The movement contains no coda ; or 
 the close of the second subject there is only a final cadence ovei 
 a tonic pedal. We quote the last two bars of the movement. 
 
 to tr 
 
 lttZlr*\*tw.J' . J^Nl 
 
 2 ■» r-^^\ — is fr 
 
 — — =5 — , — ,rri ■rrr^^m—m — „ 
 
 
 \ Sr j^ J "" J «J W 
 
 - ^»--SL.p---*- 1 -* 
 
 357. A very good example of this form in an allegro will be 
 seen in Mendelssohn's 'Andante cantabile e Presto agitato' in 
 B major and minor. The Andante, in B major, is a very regular 
 and complete simple binary form ; the Presto which follows has 
 an exposition like that of a fully developed sonata movement. 
 
200 
 
 Applied Forms. 
 
 [Chap. IX. 
 
 After four, bars of introduction the first subject begins thus — we 
 give the melody only. 
 
 Mendelssohn : Presto Agitato. 
 
 The first subject contains two sentences, the latter extended by 
 the repetition of the last two bars of the after-phrase. The 
 bridge-passage 
 
 leads to the key of A major in which the second subject 
 commences. 
 
 The first part of the second subject modulates from A to D 
 major, and thence to F sharp minor, in which key the latter half 
 of the subject is given. Its second section begins 
 
 358. The second subject ends in F sharp minor, and thus 
 furnishes an example similar to those which we have already seen 
 (§ 2 55>) °f a second subject of a minor movement in more than 
 one key. At the close, the tonic, F sharp, is treated as a 
 dominant, and the return is made at once to B minor by an 
 inverted pedal. 
 
 (jul ■Tp 
 
 
 
 1 i ™ !■ !■ 1 
 
 w * J ti J 
 
 J M> J M Ml M> A 
 
 1 M mi Ml Ml A 
 
 J Ml Ml m Ml Ml d ! 
 
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 1 1 
 
Chap. IX.] 
 
 Modified Sonata Forms. 
 
 First Subject. 
 
 The first subject then reappears unaltered; we have said above 
 that ornamentation is most frequent in the repetition of the 
 subjects in slow movements. The bridge-passage is modified as 
 usual, and the second subject is then given in the keys of D 
 major, G major, and B minor — in each case the fifth below the 
 key in which the corresponding part appeared in the exposition. 
 A long coda concludes the movement. 
 
 359. It should be noticed that in this abridged sonata form of 
 which we are now speaking, the repetition of the exposition, 
 which is so common a feature of the complete sonata form, is 
 never met with. The reason is evident; there would be too 
 great monotony if the subjects were heard three times in suc- 
 cession without the relief afforded by the free fantasia. It is true 
 that in the old sonata form, which also had no developments, both 
 parts were frequently repeated ; but in these variety was obtained 
 by the introduction of the first subject in a different key in the 
 second part. 
 
 360. A species of composition in which the abridged sonata 
 form is often met with is the Overture. The form of the 
 overture varies so much that it is impossible to classify it 
 definitely; the present will be as appropriate a place as any to 
 say a few words about it. 
 
 361. The name 'Overture' (Fr. 'Ouverture' = an opening,) 
 was originally applied to the instrumental piece, of one or more 
 movements, played at the commencement of an opera, or oratorio. 
 It is also several times used by Bach as the title of the first 
 movement of a Suite or Partita. The overtures of Bach, Handel, 
 and their contemporaries are mostly in the form of a prelude and 
 fugue, the former in slow and the latter in quick time. The 
 fugue is not seldom followed by one (sometimes by more than 
 one) dance movement, the minuet being that most commonly 
 selected. The name 'Overture' would appear at this time to 
 have been restricted to the form we are describing ; for we find 
 that in Handel's oratorios 'Athalia,' and 'Saul,' in which the 
 instrumental introduction is not m the form of a prelude and 
 fugue, the composer calls the movement not 'Overture' but 
 ' Sinfonia.' 
 
 362. The development by Emanuel Bach and Haydn of the 
 sonata form soon led to its introduction in the overture. We find 
 it, — sometimes the old sonata form (§ 217), sometimes the 
 modern, more or less complete, in several of the overtures to 
 Mozart's early operas; while in French opera a good example. 
 
202 Applied Forms. l Cha P- 1X - 
 
 dating from the last century, of a full sonata movement will be 
 seen in Sacchini's overture to 'CEdipe a Colone' (1786). 
 
 363. In the overtures of Mozart and Beethoven the sonata 
 form is mostly employed, sometimes with and sometimes without 
 modification. Mozart's youthful operas are in some cases pre- 
 ceded by a short symphony in three movements, but in his later 
 and better known works the sonata form is always used for the 
 overtures. In those to 'Don Juan,' ' Der Schauspieldirektor ' and 
 'Cosi fan tutte,' we find the form complete, and the structure 
 quite regular ; the overture to ' Titus ' is also a fully developed 
 sonata movement, in which, however, the second subject in the 
 recapitulation precedes the first (§ 329). In the overtures to 
 'Figaro' and 'Idomeneo' the close of the exposition is followed 
 by a short passage leading back at once to the recapitulation ; 
 these movements are therefore in the abridged sonata form of 
 which we have already spoken in this chapter. The overture to 
 ' Idomeneo ' is further irregular, inasmuch as the second subject 
 does not appear in the recapitulation. The overture to ' Die 
 Zauberflote' is often spoken of as a fugue; it is in reality a 
 sonata movement of which the first subject is in fugal form. An 
 example of a genuine fugued overture will be seen in Beethoven's 
 Concert Overture in C, Op. 124, generally known as ' Die Weihe 
 des Hauses.' 
 
 364. Sometimes the place of the free fantasia of an overture 
 otherwise in sonata form is taken by an incidental slow move- 
 ment. Examples of this will be found in Mozart's overture to 
 ' Die Entfuhrung aus dem Serail' (' II Seraglio,') and Beethoven's 
 first overture (Op. 138,) to 'Leonora.' In Mozart's overture (as 
 also in that to ' Don Juan,') the recapitulation is not completed, 
 as the movement in each case leads without a break into the first 
 number of the opera. 
 
 365. The majority of Beethoven's overtures are in full sonata 
 form. In addition to the two (Ops. 124 and 138,) of which 
 we have just spoken the only exceptions are the overtures to 
 'Prometheus,' which is in condensed sonata form, and to the 
 'Ruins of Athens,' which is so irregular as to be in reality a 
 fantasia for orchestra. In all the other overtures the sonata form 
 is clearly to be traced. 
 
 366. A slow introduction, as in Mozart's overtures to 'Don 
 Juan,' ' Cosi fan tutte,' and the ' Zauberflote,' and in Beethoven's to 
 ' Egmont,' ' Leonora,' ' Namensfeier,' and others, is far more 
 common in overtures than in either symphonies or sonatas. It 
 is hardly necessary to say that in speaking of the sonata form of 
 the overtures we are referring to the allegro movements which 
 follow such introductions where they exist. 
 
 367. It is not our purpose here to write a history of the 
 overture, or to trace its development ; we are concerned simply 
 with its form. The overtures of Weber, Spohr, Cherubini, and 
 
Chap, ix.] Modified Sonata Forms. 203 
 
 Mendelssohn mostly follow the lines laid down by Mozart and 
 Beethoven. In the overtures to 'St. Paul' and 'Elijah' 
 Mendelssohn has adopted the fugue form, combining it in the 
 former case with a choral. The same composer's overture to 
 ' Athalie ' deserves a word of mention on account of a peculiarity 
 in its structure. The introduction to this overture is in the key of 
 F major, while the allegro that follows begins in D minor and ends 
 in D major, the overture thus closing with a different tonic from 
 that with which it commenced. Such a procedure is extremely 
 rare,* and is certainly not to be recommended for imitation. 
 
 368. An important point to be noticed with regard to the use 
 of the sonata form in overtures is, that the exposition should never 
 be repeated, as is so often done in a sonata or symphony. The 
 only case that we have met with in which there is a repeat of the 
 first part is Mendelssohn's Overture for a Military Band, Op. 24. 
 As this piece was the work of a boy of fifteen, it should be regarded 
 as an exception, rather than as a precedent. 
 
 369. Many modern opera overtures are constructed on themes 
 taken from the work which they precede. The first to do this 
 systematically was Weber, in his overtures to ' Der Freischiitz,' 
 ' Euryanthe ' and ' Oberon ' ; but he did it while carefully preserving 
 the sonata form. Some more recent composers, however, merely 
 string together themes from their work, sometimes with the addition 
 of fresh material, in an incoherent manner ; the result being that, 
 however effective, such overtures are practically formless. An 
 example of this kind will be seen in Herold's popular overture to 
 'Zampa,' which cannot be classified under any known form. 
 Another excellent illustration of the same kind is Rossini's overture 
 to ' Guillaume Tell,' the subjects of which are not taken from the 
 opera itself. We are not condemning these, and similar pieces, as 
 music ; we are simply pointing out to the student the existence of a 
 certain class of overture the form of which cannot be strictly defined. 
 
 370. A very important modification of the sonata form is that 
 to be seen in the first movement of the Concerto, as treated by 
 Mozart, Beethoven, and their contemporaries and immediate 
 successors. In its modern sense the word ' Concerto ' is employed 
 to describe a work written for a solo instrument with orchestral 
 accompaniment ; but in the last century it was also applied to 
 pieces written for orchestra without special solo parts, t For 
 
 * A somewhat similar case may be seen in Weber's overture to ' Preciosa,' 
 in which the introduction is in A minor, while the two following movements 
 are in C major, in which key the piece ends. 
 
 t Bach, in his cantatas " Bringet dem Herrn Ehre seines Namens," " Es 
 wartet Alles auf dich," "Nimm was dein ist und gehe hin," and "Siehe zu, 
 dass deine Gottesfurchtnicht Heuchelei sei," has entitled the opening choruses 
 ' Concerto ' ; and at the beginning of the cantata " Mein Gott, wie lang' ach 
 lange," he uses the same word to describe an accompanied recitative. Evi- 
 dently he thought of it in its original meaning — a concert, or combination of 
 instruments and voices. 
 
ici. Applied Forms. (Chap. ix. 
 
 example, of Bach's six so-called 'Brandenburg Concertos,' four 
 have parts for one or more solo instruments, while the other 
 two (Nos. 3 and 6,) have no such parts. The same is the case 
 with some of Handel's Oboe Concertos, which, as regards the 
 composition of the orchestra (though not as regards the form,) 
 more nearly resemble the symphony. The modern form of the 
 concerto was fixed by Mozart, in whose works nearly fifty examples 
 for various instruments are to be found. This form was also 
 adopted by Beethoven, Weber, Spohr, and (with some modifi- 
 cations, to be mentioned presently,) by later composers. 
 
 371. In the concertos of Mozart and Beethoven, the first 
 movement is always in a modified sonata form, and we have now 
 to explain the nature of the modifications. Of these the most 
 important is the double exposition. We have already seen (§§ 266, 
 267,) that in the regular sonata form the repetition of the expo- 
 sition is very common. In the concerto form, as fixed by Mozart 
 and adopted by Beethoven, we find instead of this, two different 
 expositions, the first for the orchestra alone, and the second for 
 the solo instrument accompanied by the orchestra. If we examine 
 the entire series of Mozart's concertos, we shall find that this 
 form did not spring full grown out of his brain, like Minerva from 
 the head of Jupiter, but that it was gradually evolved. The 
 earlier concertos contain only a short orchestral introduction, in 
 which little more than the first subject of the movement appears ; 
 but in all the later examples we find the double exposition of 
 which we are now speaking. 
 
 372. It is not to be supposed, however, that the two expositions 
 in a concerto are identical ; far from it. In the first place, the 
 first exposition, for orchestra alone, differs from the exposition of a 
 sonata in the fact that it always ends in the key of the tonic — 
 in the majority of cases, with a full cadence in that key. The 
 object of this is, to lead to the entry of the solo instrument, 
 generally with the first subject, less abruptly than if the orchestra 
 had ended in some other key. This first exposition therefore in 
 its form more nearly resembles the recapitulation than the ex- 
 position of a sonata; and this resemblance is increased by the 
 fact that the second subject, when it appears in the first exposition, 
 is almost invariably in the key of the tonic, and not in that of the 
 dominant, or (with a minor movement,) in the relative major. 
 
 373. We have just said "the second subject, when it appears 
 in the first exposition " ; and this brings us to the next point of 
 importance. The first exposition rarely contains all the material 
 to be found in the second. Sometimes the difference in length 
 between the two is very slight ; for example, in Mozart's concerto 
 in A major (No. 23) the first exposition contains 66 bars, and the 
 second 71, while in Beethoven's concerto in C minor, Op. 37, the 
 respective lengths of the two expositions are in and 116 bars. 
 On the other hand, it is not uncommon to find the second 
 
Chap. IX.] 
 
 Modified Sonata Forms. 
 
 205 
 
 exposition far longer than the first. In Beethoven's violin 
 concerto the first exposition is 88 bars long and the second 136, 
 while in Mozart's piano concerto in C minor, the disproportion is 
 greater still, the second exposition containing 166 bars, as com- 
 pared with 99 in the first. 
 
 374. There is a curious and interesting difference to be noticed 
 between the practice of Mozart and Beethoven in the treatment of 
 this double exposition. When the second exposition is consider- 
 ably longer than the first, as in the examples referred to above, 
 (and others might be given,) this generally arises with Mozart 
 from the introduction into the second exposition of new themes, 
 which had not been heard at all in the first one. In the concerto 
 in C minor, for instance, the second subject (if it can be so called) 
 of the first exposition begins thus — 
 
 Mozart : Concerto in C minor, No. 24. 
 , W Allegro. 
 
 Neither this theme nor its continuation (for which we must refer 
 the student to the work itself,) is to be found in the second 
 exposition, though both are used in the recapitulation. On the 
 other hand, the second exposition contains two important themes 
 in its second subject, beginning 
 (*> 
 
 and 
 
 neither of which is seen in the first exposition. 
 
2O0 
 
 Applied Forms. 
 
 [Chap. IX. 
 
 375. Somewhat similar cases are found in other concertos of 
 Mozart. In the piano concerto in G (No. 17,) the first theme of 
 the second subject 
 
 Mozart : Concerto in G, No. 17. 
 
 !-*3— -r^f-- r 
 
 'ff.T- 
 
 •r-^ 
 
 .i^^krf- "7>, 
 
 tr 
 
 
 
 
 =j=ir*-r-rp^ 
 
 
 ri ' )^' 
 
 i ' r~t~ j 
 
 J. &c 
 
 U*-ttP %- 
 
 S* 1"L S"* 
 
 -+-S0IT- 
 
 
 
 J 1 1 — 
 
 does not appear in the first exposition at all, though the second 
 theme is found in both; in this movement the first exposition 
 has 74 bars and the second 97. Again, in the last of the four 
 concertos for piano in C which Mozart wrote, beginning 
 
 A llegro maestoso. 
 
 the two expositions have quite different second subjects, and that 
 of the first exposition furnishes the material for nearly the whole 
 of the free fantasia, which, as in a sonata or symphony, forms the 
 second part of the movement. 
 
 376. In Beethoven's concertos, on the other hand, the greater 
 length of the second exposition mostly arises, not from the intro- 
 duction of new subjects, but from the larger development of those 
 that have already been heard in the first exposition. A very good 
 example of this will be found in his violin concerto. The work is 
 so accessible * that it is needless to make quotations ; an exami- 
 nation of the movement will well repay the student. 
 
 377. As a concerto is a piece written for the display of a solo 
 instrument, (occasionally of more than one,) the second exposition 
 will always be more florid than the first. In general the subjects 
 are given in a more varied and ornamented form by the solo 
 instrument (whether alone or accompanied,) than on their first 
 presentation by the orchestra. 
 
 378. We said above that the first exposition usually ended 
 with a full cadence in the tonic key. Occasionally, however, it 
 leads more directly into the second, without a full close. This is 
 seldom found in Mozart, as in his piano concerto in C, No. 21, 
 where the solo instrument enters on dominant harmony ; but 
 Beethoven in all his later concertos (in G, Op. 58, in E fiat, 
 Op. 73, and in the violin concerto,) introduces the solo instrument 
 on a chord of the dominant seventh, evidently to obtain greater 
 continuity in the music. 
 
 * The score is published in the Peters edition. 
 
Chap. IX.] 
 
 Modified Sonata Forms. 
 
 207 
 
 379. When speaking in § 371 of the double exposition, it was 
 remarked that the first exposition was for orchestra alone. In 
 general the solo instrument does not enter till the second 
 exposition. It is often stated that the introduction of the piano 
 at the beginning of his concertos in G and E flat was an innova- 
 tion of Beethoven's ; but the same thing had been already done 
 by Mozart in a very fine, though little known, concerto in E flat, 
 of which we give the opening bars. 
 
 M 
 
 Allegro. 
 
 =JEq» 
 
 M 
 
 *5C 
 
 Mozart : Concerto in E flat, No. 9. 
 tr ti. ! — 
 
 S» 
 
 ff*2 
 
 ^ 
 
 'f I 
 
 ->-^-t 
 
 fgfce 
 
 T 
 / Orchestra. Kano (Solo) . 
 
 **-r* g -*,7 
 
 T » L. 
 
 Orch. — 
 
 a= 
 
 tt 
 
 -tt 
 
 -&z_~ 
 
 Piano. 
 
 =PES 
 
 =t±t 
 
 Neither in this case, nor in those by Beethoven just named, does 
 the solo instrument reappear till the second exposition. 
 
 380. The second and third parts of the first movement of a 
 concerto are devoted, as in the sonata, to the development and 
 recapitulation. The commencement of each part is given to the 
 orchestra alone, the solo instrument having always a rest at this 
 point. In Czerny's 'School of Practical Composition' (almost 
 the only theoretical work, by the way, that gives a detailed 
 account of the concerto form,) the author speaks of the first 
 movement as consisting of a tutti for the orchestra, followed by 
 the first, second, and third solos for the pianist, the solos being 
 divided from one another by shorter tuttis than the first. It will 
 be readily seen that Czerny's first "-tutti" corresponds to what 
 we have here described as the first exposition, while the three 
 solos are the second exposition, development, and recapitulation. 
 
 381. A specialty of this form to which we have not yet referred 
 is the introduction of a Cadenza towards the close of the move- 
 ment. It was the custom of Mozart and Beethoven to introduce 
 in the last orchestral tutti of the recapitulation a pause, always on 
 the second inversion of the tonic chord, to allow of a brilliant 
 improvisation on the part of the soloist. Such an improvisation 
 was called a ' Cadenza,' and in it the performer was expected not 
 only to show his technical skill, but his ability in treating material 
 taken from the movement itself. Mozart has left us 35 cadenzas 
 
208 Applied Forms. [Chap. ix. 
 
 written for his own concertos — sometimes two or three for the 
 same work ; and Beethoven also wrote cadenzas for his concertos. 
 He seems to have felt, however, that there was danger of an 
 extemporized cadenza being out of keeping with the character of 
 the rest of the movement ; and in his last piano concerto (in E 
 flat, Op. 73,) after the customary pause for the orchestra on the 
 | chord, he writes out in full the cadenza that he wishes played, 
 adding a note " Non si fa una Cadenza, ma s'attacca subito il 
 seguente," i.e. " Do not make a cadenza, but go on at once to the 
 following." In more recent concertos, the cadenza is either dis- 
 pensed with altogether (as in Mendelssohn's two piano concertos 
 and in Brahms's concerto in D minor,) or written out in full by the 
 composer himself, as in Mendelssohn's violin concerto, and the 
 piano concertos of Schumann, Raff, and Rheinberger. It should 
 further be remarked that the cadenza is sometimes introduced 
 after a chord of the dominant seventh, instead of a f chord, and 
 that Mendelssohn in his violin concerto has placed it between the 
 free fantasia and the recapitulation, instead of, as usual, toward 
 the close of the latter.* 
 
 382. A very important innovation in the concerto form was 
 made by Mendelssohn, He dispensed altogether with the double 
 exposition, and introduced the solo instrument at the commence- 
 ment of the movement. With this alteration the concerto becomes 
 in all essentials identical with the sonata form. The example ot 
 Mendelssohn has been followed by Schumann, and by most later 
 composers, though Brahms in his first piano concerto, Op. 15, has 
 adhered to the older form, and given a complete double exposi- 
 tion. The two piano concertos by Liszt are so irregular in their 
 form that they are in reality more like rhapsodies or fantasias than 
 concertos of the kind we have been describing. 
 
 383. One more modification of the sonata form has still to be 
 spoken of — the Sonatina. The name is the Italian diminutive 
 of ' Sonata,' and means literally ' a small sonata,' but it is often 
 somewhat loosely applied. We find it once in the clavier works 
 of Handel, as No. 10 in the Third Collection. This 'Sonatina' 
 is nothing more than a small piece for harpsichord, 19 bars long, 
 and in simple binary form (Musical Form, Chap. IX.) ; it is not 
 therefore a sonatina in the modern sense of the term. The same 
 may be said of the only piece entitled ' Sonatina ' in Bach's works 
 . — the short instrumental introduction to the cantata " Gottes Zeit 
 ist die allerbeste Zeit." 
 
 384. The Sonatina properly so called is a sonata on a very 
 small scale. In many cases both first and second subjects are 
 extremely short, the bridge passage is wanting altogether, and 
 
 * A cadenza similar to that here described will occasionally be found in 
 pianoforte sonatas. Examples may be seen in the first movements of dementi's 
 sonatas in C, Op. 36, No. 3 ; B flat, Op. 46, and A major, Op. 50 No. I, and 
 of Beethoven's sonata in C major, Op. 2 No. 3. 
 
Chap. IX.] 
 
 Modified Sonata Forms. 
 
 209 
 
 there is little or no free fantasia. The general outline of the 
 sonata form is preserved, and that is all. As an example we give 
 the first movement of a very short sonatina by Kuhlau. 
 
 Allegretto. Kuhlau : Sonatina in G, Op. 55, No. 2. 
 
 / nit ' 
 
 P- ■ 
 
 
 
 1.1 ; 
 
 (« 
 
 &*- 
 
 
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 l - " - ! — it — ^ — 
 
 T» *- -P- M. 
 
 '-r 1 f 1 ■* 1 — 1 
 
 
 V 
 
 
 
 
 (8) — —j rrr 
 
 -St ^ (8) 
 
 • »*~ h 1 ■ -l ■■ ■■-) "^fri - 
 
 Hj— P^Tj ffl-M^ 
 
 j^gg^-i^ 
 
 
 _P 1 fV • 
 
 a 1 ■'■iij - * ■" 
 ■ *s 
 
 ■v. 1 
 
 * (Sa) 
 
 4^= 
 
 i-rr^ 
 
 *l«.ff-. 
 
Applied Forms. 
 
 [Chap. IX 
 
 
 /^ #fffr^- r^tPr-r 
 
 i-f — 
 
 fr- Vr 
 
 
 
 
 
 mf 
 
 ■'" 1 
 
 1 ' 
 
 V ST ' '* ' -*— 1 
 
 
 
 -— S-s 
 
 .=- j 
 
 The first subject contains only one eight-bar sentence, ending 
 with a half cadence ; the second subject, in the dominant, follows 
 at once without a bridge-passage. This subject also consists of 
 only one sentence, extended to twelve bars by prolongations of 
 the cadence. Instead of a free fantasia, a single eight-bar sentence 
 leads back at once to the return of the first subject, now varied 
 
Chap, ix.] Modified Sonata Forms. 211 
 
 and extended, which is followed by the second subject in the 
 tonic key. There is no coda. 
 
 385. It must not be supposed that all sonatinas are as concise 
 in their form as that which we have just given. To save space 
 we selected one of the shortest we could find. It is in fact 
 impossible to lay down any absolute line of demarcation between 
 the Sonatina and the Sonata. For example, Clementi's sonatas, 
 Ops. 37 and 38, are in some editions called sonatinas ; while 
 Beethoven's sonatina in G, Op. 79, the first movement of which is 
 201 bars in length, is more extended in its developments than 
 either of the two sonatas, Op. 49, which in all respects are more 
 really sonatinas than Op. 79. The same is still more the case 
 with the same composer's ' Two Easy Sonatas ' in G major and 
 F major, which are strictly sonatinas, and not properly sonatas at 
 all. 
 
 386. In some examples of the sonatina, the sonata form is 
 altogether abandoned. In the six sonatinas, Op. 20, by Dussek, 
 in Nos. 1, 2, and 5, the first movement is in simple binary form, 
 and is followed by a short movement in the older rondo form. In 
 two other examples by the same composer (Op. 28, Nos. 2 and 5,) 
 both the movements are in simple binary form. In such cases 
 the name ' Sonatina ' ceases to be strictly applicable. The same 
 remark will apply to the two easy sonatas by Beethoven of which 
 we spoke just now, the first of which, at all events, is a sonata 
 only in name. 
 
Applied Forms. 
 
 [Cnap. X. 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 THE MODERN RONDO (RONDO-SONATA) FORM. 
 
 387. In Chapter VI. of this volume we dealt with the older 
 Rondo form, and we remarked (§ 180,) that there was another 
 kind of Rondo, differing altogether from the one there treated of, 
 and which was a modification of the sonata form. We have now 
 to explain the construction of the more modern rondo. 
 
 388. As in the older rondo, so in that now under considera- 
 tion, the opening subject is almost invariably a simple binary 
 form of two sentences, ending with a full cadence in the tonic 
 key. If we compare in any of Beethoven's sonatas the first 
 subject of the first movement with that of the rondo, we can 
 hardly fail to be struck with the greater simplicity of the rhythmic 
 construction in the latter. It is very rare for the opening of a 
 rondo to be in any but perfectly regular four- and eight-bar 
 rhythm. The only exception to this that we can recall is in the 
 rondo of Haydn's Piano Sonata in C, No. 16, the first subject 
 of which was quoted in § 230 of Musical Form, as an example of 
 six-bar rhythm. It is rather curious that the later rondo form 
 is extremely rare in Haydn's works, though common enough in 
 those of Mozart and Beethoven. 
 
 389. The rhythmic regularity of which we have just spoken 
 generally gives a song-like character to the opening of a rondo, 
 which further helps to distinguish it from a movement in sonata 
 form. This will be clearly seen if we quote the commencement 
 of a few rondos by various composers. To save space, we give 
 the melody only of the first sentences. 
 
 (a) Allegretto grazioso. 
 
 Mozart : Sonata in B fiat, No. 13, 
 
 -I — r 
 
 («) Allegro. 
 
 (8) 
 
 Mozast : Sonata in E flat, for Piano and Violin. 
 — — ' — • ^ ■ • **• — *. 
 
 -*3* 
 
 TO 
 
 iriJ*. 
 
Chap, x.] The Modern Rondo Form. 2 1 3 
 
 if) Pico Allegretto egrazioso. Beethoven : Sonata, Op. 7. 
 
 t I ; I ■ h . 1 1 _ . m _ __ 1 J ■ 
 
 The student will do well to compare the first movements of the 
 works from which we have quoted with the themes here given. 
 He will at once perceive the difference in character of which we 
 are speaking. 
 
 390. The opening of a modern Rondo form so closely follows 
 the plan of a sonata movement that it can be appropriately 
 described as the ' Rondo-Sonata ' form — the name which we give 
 in our heading as the second title. The first subject is followed, 
 not (as in the older rondo) by an episode, but by a bridge-passage, 
 leading in a major movement to the key of the dominant, and in 
 a minor movement to that of the relative major, to introduce the 
 second subject, which here follows the same rules with regard to 
 its tonality as in a sonata movement. It is worth noticing that 
 Beethoven, who made many innovations as to the key of the 
 second subjects in his sonata movements (see §§ 241-246), never 
 tried similar experiments in his rondos. In these the second 
 subject is always in the dominant or the relative major, according 
 as the movement is in a major or a minor key. * 
 
 391. Here the student may very naturally ask, Why not call 
 this theme, in the dominant or the relative major, as the case may 
 be, the first episode? for we read in the sixth chapter that a rondo 
 contains one principal theme, interspersed with episodes. This 
 question has been not infrequently put to the author by his own 
 pupils ; and, as the distinction is not always understood, it is as 
 
 * The second subject of the rondo in the sonata. Op. 49, No. I, is an 
 apparent exception to this rule ; but the movement is irregular in form, as we 
 shall show later in this chapter 
 
214 Applied Forms. [Chap. x. 
 
 ' well to make it clear. An episode never appears more than once 
 in the course of a movement, though it may be referred to later in 
 the coda ; but we shall see presently that what we are now speak- 
 ing of as ' second subject ' will be heard subsequently in the tonic 
 key, just as in a sonata movement. Any subject which is heard 
 twice in different keys, the second being the tonic, can never in a 
 
 . regularly constructed movement be regarded as episode. 
 
 392. The second subject in a modern rondo is generally 
 shorter than the corresponding portion of a movement in sonata 
 form, seldom containing more than two sections, and not in- 
 frequently only one. This second subject always ends on the 
 dominant, or dominant seventh of the tonic key. In the somewhat 
 rare cases in which the form is used for a movement in a minor 
 key,* the second subject ends in the relative major, but is followed 
 by a codetta modulating back to the tonic key, and ending on its 
 dominant harmony. 
 
 393. We now come to the first important respect in which 
 this form differs from the true sonata form. We have already 
 learned that in a movement in sonata form, either the whole 
 exposition is repeated, or the free fantasia follows the second 
 subject — possibly with a codetta between the two (§§ 266, 267). 
 But in the rondo-sonata form the whole exposition is never repeated, 
 while the first subject invariably is so. Here is a rule which will 
 enable the student to distinguish without fail between the two 
 forms. ' This additional appearance of the first subject gives, as 
 we shall see presently, the three entries which are alike distinctive 
 of the older (§ 188,) and of the modern rondo forms. With this 
 re-entry of the first subject the first part of the movement concludes 
 — always, be it observed, in the tonic key. 
 
 394. In the second part of a rondo-sonata movement is seen 
 the other fundamental distinction between it and the sonata form. 
 In the latter, the second part consists chiefly of development of 
 the material of the subjects announced in the exposition, and, 
 though the introduction of episodical matter is not infrequent, 
 episode generally occupies only a subordinate position. In the 
 rondo-sonata, on the other hand, we find exactly the converse; 
 the second part of the movement begins with an entirely new 
 episodical subject, in a different key from those of the first and 
 second subjects. The keys generally chosen for the episode are, 
 in major movements, either the subdominant major, the relative 
 minor, or the tonic minor; in his minor movements Beethoven 
 puts his episode into the submediant major, while Schubert, in 
 the rondo of his sonata in A minor, Op. 42, has the episode 
 in the tonic major, as has also Mozart in the rondo of his sonata 
 
 * In the entire collection of Beethoven's works, only three minor move- 
 ments are written in the Rondo-sonata form. Curiously enough, all three are 
 in C minor ; they are the finales of the Sonata Path&ique, of the sonata for 
 piano and violin, Op. 30, No. 2, and of the piano concerto in C minor, Op. 37. 
 
Chap. X.] 
 
 The Modern Rondo Form. 
 
 2!S 
 
 in the same key. Occasionally a major key in the second degree 
 of relationship is selected for the episode. Thus Beethoven in 
 his Rondo in G, Op. 51 No. 2, has the episode in E major. This 
 piece also furnishes a somewhat rare example of a change of 
 tempo for the episode, the Rondo being in £ time {Andante cantabile 
 egraziosd), and the episode in | {Allegretto). 
 
 395. The end of the episode, in whatever key it may appear, 
 is so contrived as to modulate back to the dominant harmony 
 of the tonic key, exactly as is the case with the close of the 
 free fantasia in a sonata form. The recapitulation which succeeds 
 follows exactly the lines of the corresponding portion of a sonata 
 movement, but with this difference, that the first subject is more 
 frequently (though not invariably) ornamented on its reappearance. 
 A bridge passage leads in due course to the second subject, now 
 almost always in the tonic key, and the movement concludes with 
 a coda, in which the first subject is frequently introduced for, 
 the fourth time. 
 
 396. Before analyzing a few examples of this form, it will be 
 well to summarize it in a few words. It will be seen from our 
 description that we have here, as in the sonata, another variety of 
 ternary form. Its three parts are the following : — 
 
 Part I. First subject. Bridge passage. Second subject, 
 followed by codetta, leading back to dominant of the tonic key. 
 Repetition of first subject. 
 
 Part II. Episode, ending on dominant harmony of tonic 
 key. 
 
 Part III. First subject. Bridge passage. Second subject 
 (in tonic key). Coda. 
 
 397. The movements now to be analyzed will not only illus- 
 trate the general outline above given, but will also show some 
 points that we have not yet had opportunity to refer to. As 
 a short and simple example, we first take the rondo of Beethoven's 
 sonata in E major, Op. 14 No. 1. The student is advised to 
 number the bars of his copy tor reference. In our own numbering 
 we do not include the half bar with which the movement begins, 
 as it contains no strong accent. 
 
 398. The first- subject of the rondo begins with a simple 
 sentence of eight bars — 
 
 (a) AUegm commotio. 
 
 (It is sufficient to quote only the melody.) This subject is then 
 
2l6 
 
 Applied Forms. 
 
 [Chap. x. 
 
 repeated as far as the sixth bar, and the bridge passage begins 
 with imitative treatment of the descending scale in the first 
 subject. 
 
 The bridge is only seven bars long, and at bar 21 the second 
 subject follows. 
 
 This subject is unusually concise; it consists of only one sentence, 
 the after-phrase being a slightly varied repetition of the fore-phrase. 
 The last two chords of the above extract form a " link " which leads 
 at once to the repetition of the first subject, now in a complete 
 form. 
 
 399. A codetta, formed from the material of the first subject, 
 leads to the episode, which begins at bar 47 in the key of G major 
 — a key in the second degree of relationship to the original tonic 
 (§ 394). We give the first bars. 
 
 
 
 r- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 f^J-W. 
 
 fym-i 
 
 
 - r«i,J""n 
 
 flfc 
 
 ■rp, 
 
 - aL *- 
 
 "1 
 
 -1 
 
 
 'J-'"' 1 
 
 J ' 
 
 l 1 *r- 
 
 %=*=£- 
 
 — =4- 
 
 -a 
 
 
 
 -1 
 
 * 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
Chap. X.] 
 
 The Modern Rondo Form. 
 
 217 
 
 This episode modulates through A minor and B minor back to G 
 major (bar 60), and thence to E minor (bar 64), concluding with 
 a half cadence on the dominant of that key (bar 83). We then 
 reach the recapitulation. The first subject is given unchanged in 
 E major, and the bridge-passage is transposed a tone lower than 
 before, and is now in A major, instead of B major. The intro- 
 duction of the second subject in the key of the subdominant 
 at bar 98 is most unusual, and the modification of the after-phrase, 
 with the return through F major to the tonic key, is as beautiful 
 as it is unexpected and original. 
 
 (*> .. 
 
 >, J~ . 1 fi^n-l 
 
 i A " r "i 1 _j 
 
 p 
 
 gfgfe 1 — 
 
 "up ' f- up- J 
 
 1 pp 
 
 1 f _ : 
 
 \ ,L 
 
 ! r ^ | "r j= 
 
 -*— ' 1 
 
 The coda, which immediately follows the pause, is mostly con- 
 structed from the first subject. We see it with syncopations in 
 the upper part (bar 108,) and in the bass (bar 112), while at 
 bar 121 the melody is modified by the introduction of passing 
 notes and rests ; and the coda-ends with a portion of the bridge- 
 passage transposed into E, and with the final cadence modified. 
 
 400. For our next example we take the Rondo of Beethoven's 
 sonata in B flat, Op. 22. The form here is the same as in the 
 movement just analyzed, but it is on a larger scale, the present 
 rondo containing 199 bars as against 131 of the rondo in E. The 
 first subject, beginning 
 
 (a) Al leirretto. 
 
 Beethoven : Sonata, Op. 22. 
 
 contains two sentences ; the first, eight bars long, ends with a full 
 cadence in the dominant key, and the second, which, by a 
 cadential repetition, is extended to ten bars, ends in bar 18 with a 
 full cadence in B flat. The bridge-passage, six bars in length, 
 modulates to the dominant key; it will be recognized by its 
 commencement. 
 
218 
 
 Applied Forms. 
 
 [Chap, x 
 
 The second subject consists of one eight-bar sentence, of which 
 we quote the fore-phrase — 
 
 The after-phrase is a varied repetition of the tore-phrase, and ends 
 with a full cadence in F. On the last note of this cadence begins 
 a codetta, the first eight bars of which consist of arpeggios modu- 
 lating to B flat minor, and ending at bar 40 on the dominant 
 of that key. Passages of imitation, founded on the beginning of 
 the first subject, lead back at bar 49 to the return of that subject, 
 given complete and without any alteration. 
 
 401. At bar 67 the episode begins in B flat minor, with 
 a modification of the bridge-passage (bar 18). The proper 
 subject of the episode appears a little later, at bar 72. 
 
 lffiA^ fvr *'^-rj% f 
 
 1 ' 1 Ml 1 1 1 1 1 SS=f- 
 
 m , It , ^— . BSgsq— ' 
 
 
 P 2 ^ j,* >'***■» * 
 
 "d 11* * I i i 1 ' 
 
 This passage, in three-bar rhythm, is repeated an octave higher, 
 and the cadence is prolonged by two bars. At bar 80 the first 
 bars of the episode are treated contrapuntally, 
 
The Modern Rondo Form. 
 
 219 
 
 till bar 95, when the subject before given in F minor is repeated 
 in B flat minor. At bar 103 begins the return to the first subject. 
 The first two bars of this subject appear in the bass in G fiat 
 major, then a tone higher in A fiat minor, and a continuation 
 of the music through B fiat minor leads back to the first subject, 
 now in the middle part of the harmony. 
 
 (e) 
 
 
 
 
 &5 ^2 
 
 sj —- j— 1 
 
 r=^ 
 
 ' fP '-" ^ 
 
 \ M -' I \}0M jl ':K3*L- * — : — 
 
 
 z^jabjfaab] 
 
 
 I IS B.j-1 | 
 
 
 ?*JJjJJJJJJJ^^Wj- 
 
 1 
 
 1 ^_ s 
 
 
 ^-3^ 
 
 
 -m 
 
 
 1st Subject 
 
Applied Forms. 
 
 [Chap. X 
 
 In the second sentence the melody appears again in the upper 
 part, but the octaves are now broken. The bridge-passage, 
 beginning at bar 129, is extended by two bars, and introduces 
 the second subject at bar 137 — now in the key of B flat. 
 
 402. The coda of this movement is of considerable extent — 
 54 bars. It begins with the first bars of the codetta (bar 32) now 
 transposed to the tonic key, and with a new continuation, leading 
 to the key of E flat. In this key the fore-phrase of the first 
 subject is heard, and continued with thematic developments 
 through C minor back to B flat. The whole of the first subject 
 is now repeated, with a new variation in triplets. 
 
 Though it is very common to find a reference to the first subject 
 in a coda, it is rather rare to find it repeated (as here,) in its 
 entirety. It will be seen that we have in this movement four 
 complete appearances of the first subject, of which the third and 
 fourth are varied. At bar 182, a new theme, evidently suggested 
 by the bridge passage, is heard, and the movement concludes 
 with a last reference (bar 194,) to its opening bars. 
 
 403. It will be seen that in the rondo we have just analyzed 
 there is much more thematic development than in that in E. 
 In some cases thematic development takes the place of episode, — 
 or perhaps it would be more strictly accurate to say that the 
 episodical matter, if it can be so called, is developed from the 
 first subject of the movement. This is the case in the finale of 
 Beethoven's Sonata quasi Fantasia in E flat, Op. 27, No. 1, 
 which, though not entitled 'Rondo' is really in the form now 
 under notice. The first subject begins 
 
 Beethoven : Sonata, 0^. 27, No. x. 
 
 (0) 
 
 
 tr 
 
 i^s mM> rr ^ r 
 
 ^¥ 
 
 
 cres. &c. 
 
 ii*T.-h-¥, =r- 
 
 
 
 , ^— " !■ 1 -h St- 
 
 !w-!Mr4 — 
 
 nj%3*3£ 
 
 *J»':-HJJ-^- 
 
 L ** L ~ L E5=l 
 
 This subject contains two eight-bar sentences, the second of 
 which is repeated, the whole subject thus containing 24 bars. 
 The bridge-passage extends to bar 35, and the second subject 
 begins on the last quaver of that bar. It contains two sections, 
 of which the second, commencing at bar 56, is built on the tonic 
 pedal of B flat. At bar 72, A flat is added to the tonic chord of 
 B flat, thus converting it to the dominant seventh of E flat 
 (§ 39 2 )> t0 lead back to the return of the first subject at bar 82. 
 
Chap. X.1 
 
 The Modern Rondo Form. 
 
 The first sixteen bars appear unchanged ; but the second sentence 
 is modified on its repetition (bar 98), and modulates to E flat 
 minor, and thence to G flat, in which key the following theme 
 appears at bar 106. 
 
 It will be seen that both the subject in the bass and the counter- 
 point in semiquavers are suggested by the opening bars of the 
 movement quoted at (a) above. Properly speaking, there is no 
 real episode in the movement. Similar examples, and perhaps 
 even more pronounced, will be seen in the Rondos of Beethoven's 
 sonatas in G, Op. 31 No. 1, and E minor, Op. 90, and of his 
 sonata in C minor, Op. 30, No. 2, for piano and violin. 
 
 404. As the examples hitherto analyzed have all been taken 
 from sonatas, we give as our next illustration one which forms a 
 complete piece by itself — Schubert's Rondo in A, Op. 107, for 
 piano duet — a work of the utmost interest from its intrinsic 
 beauty, as well as a characteristic specimen of this form. The 
 first subject, commencing with the following melodious theme, 
 
 Schubert : Rondo. Op. 107. 
 (a) All egretto, quasi And antino* 
 
 Jjjj^jj,^]^ , jjsjgs 
 
222 
 
 Applied Forms. 
 
 [Chap, x 
 
 consists of four eight-bar sentences, of which the third is a 
 repetition of the second, and the fourth an ornamented version of 
 the first. The bridge-passage begins in F sharp minor, 
 
 ' 1 \ m * m — 
 
 and modulates to the key of the dominant, ending, not (as usual,) 
 with a half cadence, but with a full cadence in that key. 
 
 405. The second subject contains two sections ; the first 
 opening thus — 
 
 In the after-phrase of this sentence the two upper parts are 
 inverted, and the continuation of the music shortly introduces 
 the second section, with a charming five-bar rhythm — 
 
Chap. X.] 
 
 The Modern Rondo Form. 
 
 223 
 
 A full cadence in the key of E is repeated and prolonged over a 
 tonic pedal, after which 'the return to the first subject is made 
 through the following graceful passage — 
 
 
 The first subject is then repeated in its entirety, and is followed 
 by the episode, which begins in C major, with the following 
 vigorous theme in the bass accompanied by arpeggio triplet 
 semiquavers in the upper parts. 
 
 &c. 
 
 406. The episodical portion of this movement is comparatively 
 short — 37 bars, — and it is interesting as showing a combination 
 of the two methods that we have noticed in previous examples. 
 The first fourteen bars are constructed from new material ; but 
 from the fifteenth bar, the second section of the second subject 
 (§ 405 (6),) is introduced with a new accompaniment of triplets, 
 first in B flat, then, by a remarkable enharmonic change, in B 
 major, next through D minor, and so back to C, and A minor, 
 after which the recapitulation begins with the first subject in 
 A major. 
 
224 
 
 Applied Forms. 
 
 [Chap. x. 
 
 407. This recapitulation, which is quite regular, is followed by 
 a long and very beautiful coda. At the end of the second 
 subject, on a tonic pedal, as before, an interrupted cadence leads 
 at once to F major, and the subject, § 405 (U) is heard in the 
 tenor. 
 
 A modulation back through A minor introduces the passage of 
 which we quoted the opening at § 405 (c), at the end of which the 
 first subject appears for the last time, now in the tenor, and with a 
 counterpoint in semiquavers above it. 
 
 The whole subject is given in this form, and the movement 
 concludes with fragments of the first and second subjects. 
 
 408. We have analyzed this rondo in some detail, as being a 
 
Chap- x.] The Modern Rondo Form. 225 
 
 particularly good example of the form we are now treating ; and 
 we advise the student to procure the piece for himself, and 
 examine it thoroughly. It is one of the ripest and most 
 characteristic of Schubert's works, and he will certainly not regret 
 making its acquaintance. 
 
 409. It is very seldom that much irregularity is met with 
 in this form, of which the variations are mostly much less 
 important than those of the sonata form. Occasionally, how- 
 ever, we find a movement which it is impossible to consider other 
 than a rondo, but which departs somewhat widely from the out- 
 line we have given. Such a case is seen in the Rondo of 
 Beethoven's little sonata in G minor, Op. 49 No. 1, to which we 
 referred in the foot-note of § 390. It begins with a first subject 
 of two perfectly regular eight-bar sentences, both ending with a 
 full cadence in G major, the tonic key. The music then modu- 
 lates at once to G minor, and after four (unison) bars of " bridge," 
 a new theme is introduced in the tonic minor. This cannot be 
 considered a second subject, for it does not afterwards reappear 
 in a different key : neither can it be regarded as episode, because 
 we find it again in the same key at bar 68. It can only be called 
 a prolongation of the bridge-passage. It is of irregular rhythmic 
 construction, the fore-phrase containing three bars with a feminine 
 ending, and the after-phrase five, which are extended to seven by 
 the repetition of the cadence- The after-phrase modulates to 
 B flat major, in which unusual key the second subject makes its 
 appearance at bar 32. This second subject contains two sections, 
 each of which is composed of two eight-bar sentences. At the 
 end of the subject (bar 64) the unison passage (bars 16 to 20,) is 
 repeated, and is followed by the prolongation of the bridge- 
 passage. This has its after-phrase varied so as to end in G minor, 
 and to lead back through the chord of the dominant seventh to 
 the first subject, in G major as before. This is immediately 
 succeeded by the second subject, now also in G major, after 
 which a coda, developed from the first subject, concludes the 
 movement. 
 
 410. It will be seen that the keys in which the second subject 
 is introduced are those which would be usual if the key of the 
 piece were G minor, instead of G major; but it is altogether 
 exceptional to find a second subject of a major movement in the 
 major key of the flat mediant (§ 247). The explanation is that 
 the whole movement, as we have seen, is irregular in form ; and 
 it is for that reason that we have analyzed it. 
 
 411. It is worthy of notice that the rondo-sonata form is 
 always met with either as an independent piece, as in Beethoven's 
 Rondo in G, Op. 5 1 No. 2, or the Rondo by Schubert analyzed 
 above, or as the finale of a cyclic form, such as a sonata or 
 quartett. If a rondo is found, as is not uncommon, 'in a middle 
 movement, or even a first movement of a large work, it is 
 
226 Applied Forms. [Chap. x. 
 
 always in the older rondo form described in Chapter VI. 
 Though the examples analyzed in this chapter have all been 
 taken from pianoforte music, the form is frequently used also for 
 symphonies, quartetts, &c. ; but in the majority of instances it 
 will be found that in such cases, there is very little or no episode, 
 but that the middle section of the movement mostly consists of 
 thematic development, as in the sonatas referred to in § 403. 
 Such a movement evidently differs from a sonata movement only 
 in the additional entry of the first subject at the end of the 
 exposition, the third appearance of this subject making the move- 
 ment into a Rondo. 
 
Chap. XI.] 
 
 Mixed and Indefinite Forms. 
 
 227 
 
 CHAPTER XI. 
 
 MIXED AND INDEFINITE FORMS. 
 
 412. In the preceding chapters of this volume we have dealt, 
 as fully as our space permitted, with the principal forms to be 
 met with in the instrumental works of both older and more 
 recent composers. Many pieces are, however, to be found which 
 cannot be properly classified under any of the divisions of which 
 we have treated, but which either partake of the characteristics of 
 more than one, or are so vague in their form and outline as to 
 refuse to be brought under any. It is of these we have now 
 to say a few words; the former we call mixed, and the latter 
 indefinite forms. We shall speak first of the mixed forms. 
 
 413. The available combinations of the different forms with 
 which we are already acquainted are so numerous that it is quite 
 impossible to treat them exhaustively. The plan we shall adopt 
 will be to take various examples of mixed forms from the works 
 of the great composers, and to show in what their peculiarities 
 consist. When the student understands how they are constructed, 
 he will probably find little difficulty in analyzing for himself such 
 others as he may meet with. 
 
 414. Hardly less difficult than the exhaustive treatment of 
 these mixed forms is their systematic classification. In many 
 cases, indeed it is almost impossible to decide with certainty 
 whether the amount of variation from a normal form is sufficient 
 to entitle a movement to be classed among the mixed forms or 
 not. Take, for instance, the finale of Weber's sonata in D minor. 
 The composer himself calls it ' Rondo,' but an examination of 
 the movement shows that -it differs widely, both from the old 
 Rondo form treated of in Chapter "VI., and from the Rondo- 
 sonata form examined in the last chapter. The first subject will 
 be recognized — 
 
 Weber: Sonata in D minor, Op. 49. 
 
22S 
 
 Applied Forms. 
 
 [Chap. XI. 
 
 This sentence is followed by a second, extended to twelve bars, 
 and ending at bar 20 with a full close in the tonic key. The 
 long passage that succeeds (bars 21 to 84,) is difficult to 
 characterize. It cannot be called an episode, for it scarcely 
 leaves the key of D, neither is it a bridge-passage, for it leads, 
 not to an episode or a second subject, but to a return of the 
 chief subject at bar 84. The first real episode begins in G major 
 at bar 129. 
 
 This is extended at considerable length, and ends in bar 196. A 
 long codetta, founded upon the first subject, leads back to a 
 second return of that subject at bar 229. The close is now 
 modiSed, so that the music modulates to B minor, and thence to 
 A minor. 
 
 415. After a half close in A minor, a new episode com- 
 mencing 
 I 
 
 is introduced in the key of A major. This, both in tonality and 
 character, resembles a second subject, and, as will be seen 
 directly, it appears again, later in the movement, in the tonic 
 key. With all respect to Weber, it must be remarked that 
 this rondo is very faulty in its form. The almost universal 
 practice of the great composers is to make the first important 
 modulation, for a piece in a major key, to the dominant side, 
 so as to preserve the supremacy of the tonic key. It would 
 have been unquestionably better had Weber introduced this 
 subject in A before that in G. So far as we can see, nothing 
 is gained by departing from the usual method. A long passage, 
 
Chap. XL] 
 
 Mixed and Indefinite Forms. 
 
 229 
 
 mostly founded on the opening bars of our last quotation, 
 leads back to the third appearance (bar 358,) of the first sub- 
 ject. This is followed at bar 392 by the repetition of the 
 entire first episode— see § 414 (b)— now transposed into A 
 major. The irregularity in the form of the movement is now 
 strikingly apparent. We have called this theme in G major 
 "episode," for want of another word; but the fact of its 
 appearing a second time prevents its being really an episode 
 (§ 39 1 )- Ifj on the other hand, we call it a second subject, 
 it is most unadvisable that it should first appear in the sub- 
 dominant key and subsequently in the dominant. It is 
 immediately succeeded by the theme which was before heard 
 in A, and which is now transposed into D (bar 459). The 
 movement ends with a coda, in which the first subject is 
 heard for the last time. The whole must be regarded as an 
 irregular combination of the older and the modern rondo 
 forms, and therefore a mixed form. From its peculiarities of 
 construction, we do not recommend it for imitation. 
 
 416. The Andante con moto of the same sonata furnishes 
 another example of a mixed form — here, however, much easier 
 to account for and justify. It is a simple combination of the 
 variation and older rondo forms. After an introduction four 
 bars long, the theme is announced. It is in simple binary 
 form, consisting of two sentences, each eight bars in length. 
 It will suffice to quote the fore-phrase of the first sentence. 
 
 Weber : Sonata in D minor, Op. 49. 
 
 
 ^-^ j-ji 
 
 J-SiJ 
 
 1 J7T3 nj^- 
 
 TTT^i 1 > " 
 
 
 ■ r f f 
 
 u 
 
 1 
 
 II 
 
 1 ^ 'ml *^tri 
 
 g g g g t 
 
 -*- s * * 
 
 f =r* f 
 
 dpyrrb^A — 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 —w — m — up — 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 
 M^v 
 
 1 
 
 
 =*- 
 
 &c 
 
 This theme is twice varied, after which comes an episode, mostly 
 in G minor, but with incidental modulations to other keys. 
 Though its commencement is founded upon the theme, 
 
 its continuation is quite different. It is thirty-one bars long, 
 and is followed by the third variation. To this succeeds a 
 second episode in E flat, 
 
230 
 
 Applied Forms. 
 
 (Chap. XI. 
 
 only twelve bars long, after which a codetta of four bars, which 
 is nothing but a repetition of the fore-phrase of the second 
 sentence of the theme, leads to the final variation. A coda of 
 eleven bars concludes the movement. 
 
 417. The finale of Mozart's piano sonata in D (|,) shows a 
 not unusual compromise between sonata and rondo forms. The 
 first subject begins 
 
 (a) Allegretto. Mozart : Sonata in D, No. 17. 
 
 £fcj E— --^-J -- ^- ■- m Mm ' » - I ' m 0H m | tJ = 
 
 The second subject contains three short themes of which we 
 quote the commencements, that the student may be able to 
 identify them. 
 
 m a) 
 
 fm-Q (2) !i>i"-rp!£f " r Tr 
 
 
 &c. &c. 
 
 ,». * m n-fl p r-M II 
 
 ggs^eP^z 
 
 l^^ * "1 — l/TK* 1 ' *^ ~P ~H 
 
 The first, as is not uncommon with Haydn and Mozart, is 
 developed from the first subject. At the end of the sentence 
 the first two bars of which are seen at No. 3, the exposition is 
 completed, and a codetta of six bars leads back to the return 
 of the first subject. 
 
 418. Thus far the movement is in the regular Rondo-sonata 
 form described in the last chapter ; but from this point it 
 more resembles a sonata movement. It contains nothing that 
 can be called episode ; all that follows, down to the recapitulation, 
 
Chap. XI.] 
 
 Mixed and Indefinite Forms. 
 
 231 
 
 is thematic development. We know already (§ 403,) that cases 
 of this kind are not uncommon in the modern rondo form ; 
 but the peculiarity here is, that the first subject does not appear 
 at all at the beginning of the recapitulation — perhaps because 
 it has been almost continuously present in the developments. 
 The recapitulation commences with the second subject, and the 
 first is not heard again till the coda. It would be possible to 
 regard this as one of those cases in which the second subject 
 precedes the first in the recapitulation (§ 329) ; but this assump- 
 tion will not make the form a regular sonata form, as we still 
 have the additional entry of the first subject at the end of the 
 exposition. It is in fact a mixed form, partaking of the 
 characteristics of both rondo and sonata forms, with more of 
 the former than the latter. 
 
 419. The converse case will be seen in the finale of Beet- 
 hoven's sonata in F minor, Op. 2 No. 1. This movement as 
 a whole must be regarded as in sonata form ; for the entire 
 exposition is repeated, which is never the case in a rondo. But 
 the middle section of the movement, instead of free fantasia, 
 contains an episode of a character strongly contrasted with the 
 principal subjects. 
 
 Beethoven : Sonata, Op. 2, No. 1. 
 
 \ it. 
 
 This feature of the movement prevents our considering it a 
 regular sonata form ; it is another mixed form — a sonata move- 
 ment with a rondo-like episode in place of the usual free fantasia. 
 420. The adagio of the third sonata in Beethoven's Op. 2 
 shows yet another mixed form. This is a combination of ternary 
 with irregular sonata form. The chief subject is in E major; 
 at bar 11 the key changes to E minor, and the music modulates 
 to G. In this key what may be described as a second subject 
 appears at bar 19. Note that G would not be a suitable key 
 were the movement in regular sonata form. It would be more 
 appropriate as the key for an episode in either ternary or older 
 rondo form ; but this is not an episode, as it is introduced later 
 (bar 59,) in the tonic key of E major. The movement therefore 
 resembles a sonata form in the double appearance of the second 
 
232 
 
 Applied Forms. 
 
 [Chap. XI. 
 
 subject ; while the key in which that subject first appears, and 
 the absence of anything like development render it possible also 
 to regard the movement as an irregular ternary, with an unusually 
 long coda (beginning at bar 53,) in the course of which a great 
 part of the episode, as well as the whole first subject, is repeated 
 in the tonic key. The third repetition of the first subject (bar 
 67,) might induce us to consider this as a rondo were it not 
 that there is no new episode, but only a modified repetition of 
 the first one, after the second appearance of the first subject. 
 
 421. A somewhat, though not altogether, parallel case to that 
 just noticed will be seen in the first movement of Beethoven's 
 sonata in F, Op. 54. Here we have a combination of the simple 
 ternary and older rondo forms. It commences with a subject, 
 twenty-four bars long, but consisting of only one sentence 
 extended by repetitions. We give the fore-phrase : — 
 
 In temfo d 'jtn Menttetto. 
 
 Beethoven : Sonata, Op. 54, 
 
 .it -p- 
 
 The fore-phrase is repeated, and the after-phrase prolonged by 
 a double repetition of its first section. Like the fore-phrase, 
 the after-phrase is given twice. It is followed by a new idea, 
 beginning in octaves with both hands. 
 
 Though episodical in character, this can hardly be called a 
 regular episode, for it is still in the tonic key. It modulates 
 to the key of the dominant, and is then repeated, with some 
 modification, in the key of A flat. From this key modulations 
 
Chap. XL] 
 
 Mixed and Indefinite Forms. 
 
 2 33 
 
 are made through F minor and D flat back to the dominant of F. 
 The first subject is then repeated with some embellishments, 
 after which a few 'bars only of the octave passage quoted at {b) 
 above are heard, and the first subject is given for the third 
 time, with a more florid variation than before. A coda, as 
 usual, concludes the movement. It will be seen that we have 
 here the three appearances of the chief subject characterizing 
 the rondo form, but that, instead of a second episode, there is 
 only a partial repetition of the first one. The movement is, 
 as we said above, a combination of the ternary with the older 
 rondo form. 
 
 422. Another example of a mixed form will be seen in the 
 finale of Beethoven's sonata in F sharp, Op. 78. This is a 
 movement which is very difficult to analyze with certainty, by 
 reason of the indefiniteness of its form. The first subject, 
 which is a large binary form, extends to bar 47, and ends in 
 the tonic key, F sharp major. At bar 57 a new theme is 
 presented, in D sharp major and minor. As this theme appears 
 subsequently (bar 116,) in the tonic key, it must be considered 
 a second subject, not an episode (§ 391). The movement can 
 be therefore neither in ternary nor in older rondo form. But 
 it is certainly not in rondo-sonata form ; for in this the second 
 subject would appear in the dominant key, and would be fol- 
 lowed, as we saw in Chapter X., first by the return of the first 
 subject in the tonic key, and then either by an episode or by 
 developments. As a matter of fact it leads back at bar 89 to 
 the first subject in the subdominant key. At bar 116 the second 
 subject, as just now mentioned, appears in the tonic key, and 
 at bar 150 the first subject is heard for the last time, with a 
 new prolongation serving as coda. The whole movement is 
 very irregular, and is a kind of cross-breed between sonata and 
 rondo forms. 
 
 423. Schubert's well-known Impromptu in F minor, Op. 142 
 No. 1, shows a mixed form of another kind. It begins like a 
 sonata movement, the first subject 
 
 Allegro moderato. 
 to 
 
 Schube&t : Impromptu, Op. 142, No. t. 
 
234 
 
 Applied Forms. 
 
 [Chap. XI. 
 
 ending in F minor at bar 13. A long and very interesting 
 bridge-passage introduces at bar 45 the second subject in the 
 normal key of the relative major. 
 
 To this subject is appended at bar 69 an entirely new theme, 
 beginning in A flat minor and modulating freely. 
 
 i 
 
 #6 
 
 W 
 
 Sinistra. ' 
 
 ~d 
 
 i2g_ g j j a b 
 
 Appassionato. 
 
 J^T j J±\ \ Jfjl JI5I J^ „5 Tj J5pJ3p. 
 
 Rfc** 
 
 
 
 ^» 
 
 1 
 
 '-kt 
 
 
 
 
 
 w-T! 
 
 t=^ — 
 
 = — 1= — 
 
 
 V- J.J ■ 
 
 E 
 
 -p — 
 
 
 It at last returns to A flat major (bar in,) the passage last 
 quoted being repeated in the major mode, and with a new 
 continuation. At bar 130 a return is made to the first subject. 
 
 424. It might be imagined that we had here a modification 
 of the regular sonata form by the substitution of an episode 
 
Chap, xi.] Mixed and Indefinite Forms. 235 
 
 for the free fantasia. But the subsequent repetition (beginning 
 at bar 197,) in the keys of F minor and major of the whole 
 of this portion of the movement negatives this hypothesis. 
 After the first subject has been repeated, a modification of the 
 bridge-passage leads to the resumption of the second subject, 
 now in F major, followed, as we have just said, by the whole 
 of what, for want of a better name, we may call the intermediate 
 section of the piece. It would be, of course, possible to regard 
 the whole of this section as a continuation of the second subject. 
 In this case the movement would be in the abridged sonata 
 form described in Chapter IX. ; but the whole passage beginning 
 with our last quotation is so episodical in character that it is 
 better to consider the movement as irregular. 
 
 425. Another irregular movement by Schubert must next be 
 noticed. This is the finale of his .piano quintett in A, Op. 114. 
 The form is probably absolutely unique — at least in modern 
 music. The movement contains 472 bars, and is divided into 
 two exactly equal parts of 236 bars each. The first part is like 
 the exposition of a sonata movement, but with the second subject, 
 beginning at bar 84, in the key of D major — the subdominant. 
 The whole first part is nlarked to be repeated. The curious 
 point about the movement is, that the second part is, with the 
 exception of a few slight changes in the distribution of the 
 stringed instruments, an exact transposition of the first. All 
 which in the exposition was in A is now in E, and all that was in 
 D is now in A. There is not a single bar of coda. We have in 
 this finale a fusion of the old sonata form, described in §§ 21 7- 
 221, with the more modern form. From the older form is 
 borrowed the parallelism of the two halves of the movement 
 (compare the sonata by Scarlatti irr § 217), while the preservation 
 of the relation of the keys of the first and second subjects in 
 both parts of the movement is a feature of the modern sonata 
 form to be found when the first subject in the recapitulation is in 
 the key of the subdominant (§ 328). 
 
 426. Another curious point about this movement is the 
 presentation of the second subject, and the close of the ex- 
 position in the subdominant key. This is as unusual as it is 
 mostly unadvisable (§ 241). In the present case, however, the 
 bad effect is neutralized by the introduction of the first subject 
 immediately afterwards in the dominant key — a key, be it noticed, 
 exactly as far on the sharp side of the tonic as the subdominant 
 is on the flat side ; so that between the two the equilibrium is 
 maintained. The student need hardly be reminded that the more 
 usual course of modulation is the converse, — first to the dominant 
 key, and later to the subdominant. 
 
 427. Space will not allow of our analyzing several other 
 examples of mixed forms which we had noted ; the varieties are 
 so many that it would in any case have been impossible to 
 
236 • Applied Forms. [Chap. xi. 
 
 exhaust the subject. We now proceed to say a few words about 
 the indefinite forms. There are some names which are so 
 variously applied as to render accurate definition an impossibility ; 
 and it is of these that we have now to speak. 
 
 428. A few words may first be said as to the Introduction. 
 This differs from all the other forms we are considering in the 
 fact that it is never complete, but always leads into the following 
 movement. It is invariably in slow time, 1 and ends mostly with a 
 half cadence on the dominant of the key of the following move- 
 ment,* which will have the same tonic as the introduction itself, 
 though the mode is sometimes changed from major to minor, and 
 vice versa. The material of the introduction is mostly quite 
 different from that of the movement into which it leads, though 
 sometimes, as in Beethoven's Sonata Pathe'tique, and in his 
 Sonata Op. 81, the subject is reintroduced in the following 
 allegro. It is mostly met with at the commencement of a work 
 in cyclic form, such as a symphony, quartett, or sonata ; but it is 
 also sometimes to be found before other movements than the first. 
 In Beethoven's Septett, Op. 20, the finale is preceded by a short 
 introduction, as also is the fugue in his great sonata, Op. 106. 
 In the 'Waldstein' sonata (Op. 53,) an introduction to the rondo 
 takes the place of the slow movement. 
 
 429. The introduction is also not infrequent before variations 
 and rondos, when these form independent pieces. Examples of 
 the former will be seen in Beethoven's variations, Op. 35, and in 
 Chopin's Variations on ' La ci darem,' Op. 2, and of the latter in 
 Hummel's Rondo in A, Op. 56, and Schubert's Introduction and 
 Rondo, Op. 145. The form and style of these and other Intro- 
 ductions differ so widely that no rules can be given to the student 
 as to how they should be written. He will best learn how to set 
 to work by examining for himself as many specimens as possible: 
 
 430. The Toccata derives its name from the Italian verb 
 toccare, to touch — that is, to play a keyboard instrument. In the 
 seventeenth century the word was used, according to Michael 
 Praetorius (Syntagma Musicum,) to describe " a prelude which an 
 organist improvises out of his own head, before a motett or fugue, 
 with mere single chords and flourishes (Colorature)." Many of 
 the Toccatas of Bach, both for clavier and organ, correspond to 
 this description, though Bach frequently includes the fugues that 
 follow such preludes under the same name, as in the Toccatas for 
 clavier in C minor, F sharp minor, and D minor. At other 
 times he restricts the name Toccata to the showy and florid 
 prelude, as in the organ Toccatas in F major and D minor. 
 Marx in his ' Composition ' (Vol. III. p. 42,) speaks of the 
 Toccata as a higher kind of Etude, devoted to something more 
 than a merely technical end. All authorities are agreed that the 
 
 * In the introduction of Mendelssohn's Capriccio in A minor, Op. 33 
 No. 1, the close is made on the chord of the diminished seventh. 
 
Chap, xi.] Mixed and Indefinite Forms. 237 
 
 name is used so loosely that it is impossible to distinguish it from 
 a prelude or a fantasia. 
 
 431. In some cases a Toccata is a free improvisation on 
 one particular figure. For example, the second movement of 
 Beethoven's sonata in F, Op. 54, which is founded almost en- 
 tirely on the figure of the commencement 
 
 Allegretto. 
 
 is best described as a Toccata, though the composer has not 
 given it that name. Schumann's Toccata for the piano (Op. 7,) 
 is in reality a study in double notes, written in regular sonata 
 form. Beyond these generalizations it is not possible for us 
 to go. 
 
 432. No less variable are the forms to be met with under the 
 name of Capriccio, or Caprice. Like the Fantasia, to be 
 spoken of later, the name of the piece implies that the composer 
 is free to follow his own whims. , It is found three times in the 
 clavier works of Bach, and the pieces bearing it are absolutely 
 different in form. The Capriccio in B flat (' On the departure of 
 his beloved brother ') is a descriptive fantasia in six movements ; 
 that in E major is a free fugue ; while the Capriccio which forms 
 the finale of the Partita in C minor is a contrapuntal movement 
 in binary form. Of the two Capriccios in Handel's ' Suites de 
 Pieces ' that in G minor is a free two-part fugue, and that in 
 F major is in the old ternary form, with a Da Capo. 
 
 433. In more recent compositions we find the name applied 
 to works of very various forms. The Caprices of August 
 Eberhard Miiller are really elaborate Etudes written in sonata 
 form. Weber's Capriccio in B flat (' Momento Capriccioso,' Op. 
 12,) belongs to the mixed forms, being a compound of the ternary 
 and the older rondo form. Of the various examples to be seen 
 in Mendelssohn's works, the Capriccio in B minor, Op. 22, for 
 piano and orchestra, consists of an introduction and an allegro 
 in sonata form ; the three Capriccios, Op. 33, for piano solo are 
 similarly constructed, excepting that the second has no intro- 
 duction ; while the Capriccio in F sharp minor, Op. 5, and the 
 'Scherzo a Capriccio' in the same key are in ternary form. 
 Stephen Heller applies the name 'Caprice' to several of his 
 transcriptions of songs by Schubert and others. These examples 
 will sufficiently show the vagueness with which the term is used. 
 
 434. Another of these indefinite forms is the Intermezzo. 
 The name signifies an intermediate movement of some large work, 
 and it is frequently used in this sense. Schumann several times 
 employs it instead of ' Trio ' ; e.g. in his sonata in F sharp minor, 
 
23S Applied Forms. [Chap. xi. 
 
 Op. 11, the third movement of which he entitles 'Scherzo e 
 Intermezzo,' and in his Romance in B major, Op. 28 No. 3, 
 where the two trios (for such they undoubtedly are,) are called 
 'Intermezzo 1, 2.' In the well-known Novelletten, Op. 21, it is 
 even more clearly seen that Schumann considered the two terms 
 convertible ; for in Nos. 2 and 3 the middle part of the move- 
 ment is called ' Intermezzo,' while in No. 8 a similar part is 
 called ' Trio.' 
 
 435. It is not only to a middle section of a movement that the 
 name is applied ; we often find it given to a middle movement of 
 a cyclic work. The third movements of Mendelssohn's piano 
 quartett in F minor, Op. 2, and string quartett in A minor, Op. 13, 
 and the third movement of his quintett in A, Op. 18, are all called 
 ' Intermezzo ' ; and so are the fourth movement of Schumann's 
 ' Faschingsschwank,' Op. 26, and the second movement of his 
 piano concerto. An examination of these works, in some of 
 which the Intermezzo replaces the scherzo and in others the slow 
 movement, will clearly show the student why we include this 
 among the " indefinite " forms. Sometimes the name is given to 
 quite independent pieces, as in Schumann's 'Six Intermezzi,' 
 Op. 4, the fourth of which is a small binary, while the other five 
 are all in ternary form. 
 
 436. The last form of which we have to speak is the Fantasia 
 — one of the most indefinite and varied of them all. The name 
 originally meant an improvisation, in which the composer followed 
 his own fantasy ; and many, especially of the older fantasias have 
 no distinct form which it is possible to describe. Bach mostly 
 employs the word in the same sense as 'Prelude,' as, for example, 
 in the Chromatic Fantasia and Fugue in D minor, or the Fantasia 
 and Fugue in A minor ; but he sometimes also treats the Fantasia 
 as an independent form. Curiously enough, the only Fantasia by 
 Handel, (which is to be found in the third set of his ' Suites 
 de Pieces,') is a very regularly constructed movement in old 
 sonata form. The fantasias of more recent composers generally 
 consist of a series of movements following one another without a 
 break, in various keys, not always even ending with the same tonic 
 with which they begin. For example, Hummel's Fantasia in E 
 flat, Op. 18, begins in that key, and ends in G minor, while 
 Beethoven's Fantasia in G minor, Op. 77, has the last movement 
 in B major. These, however, may be regarded as exceptional 
 cases ; in the majority we find the usual law of tonality, about 
 which we shall have something to say in our next chapter, 
 adhered to, 
 
 437. Occasionally a Fantasia is in one movement and one 
 tempo throughout. This is the case in Mozart's Fantasia in C 
 minor — not the one usually prefixed to the sonata in the same 
 key, but a smaller work beginning 
 
Chap. XI.] 
 
 Mixed and Indefinite Forms. 
 
 239 
 
 Mozart : Fantasia in C minor. 
 
 if. 
 
 which is, moreover, far more regular in its form than the majority 
 of such movements, being in fact a sonata movement with epi- 
 sodical matter in place of the free fantasia. The second and 
 third of Mendelssohn's three Fantasias, Op. 16, are also single 
 movements, the second being a very condensed and rather irregu- 
 lar sonata form, while the third is a simple binary. It is worth 
 noticing, as illustrating the indefinite meaning attached to the 
 names, that Mendelssohn has entitled these three pieces ' Fantasias 
 or Caprices.' 
 
 438. Composers often endeavour to give a certain unity to 
 the fantasia by reintroducing the first subject near the end 
 of the piece. Mozart does this in his larger Fantasia in C minor, 
 with which most readers will probably be acquainted, and in the 
 fine Fantasia in F minor, written for a mechanical organ, but best 
 known in its arrangement as a piano duet. This work is in three 
 movements, each leading into the following. The first is an 
 introduction and fugue in F minor ; then comes an Andante in A 
 flat major, and the final movement is a second fugue, on the 
 same subject as the first, but with new countersubjects and more 
 elaboration. Similar treatment will be found in Schubert's mag- 
 nificent Fantasia in F minor, Op. 103, for piano duet, in which 
 the first allegro is followed by a Largo, and this by a Scherzo and 
 trio, both of these movements being in F sharp minor ; after 
 which we find a finale founded upon the subjects of the first 
 movement. 
 
 439. Though the different movements of a Fantasia are, as 
 was said above, often connected with one another, we sometimes 
 meet with examples in which such a piece contains detached 
 movements, like a sonata or a quartett. Such is the case in 
 Schumann's great Fantasia in C, Op. 17. The first movement, 
 in C major, is an irregularly constructed ternary form, the episode 
 being in C minor ; the second movement is a March in E flat 
 
240 
 
 Applied Forms. 
 
 [Chap. XI 
 
 with a trio in A flat ; and the finale is a slow movement of irregular 
 form, in C major. Mendelssohn's Fantasia in F sharp minor, Op. 
 28, has also three detached movements, the third of which is in 
 regular sonata form — a rare thing in a fantasia. 
 
 440. The work just spoken of shows the transition to the 
 Sonata quasi Fantasia of which Beethoven gives us two examples 
 in his Opus 27. Mendelssohn's Fantasia is, in fact, built on the 
 same lines as Beethoven's Sonata quasi Fantasia in C sharp minor. 
 Beethoven's applies the term to sonatas of irregular form, and one 
 or two of his other sonatas {e.g. Op. 54 and Op. 109,) might also 
 have been called ' quasi Fantasia ' with hardly less appropriateness 
 than those to which he hasgiven the name. Joachim Raff has also 
 written a 'Fantasia-Sonata' (in D minor, Op. 168). in which not 
 only are the movements continuous, but the subjects of the first 
 movements reappear in a metamorphosed shape in the finale. 
 What we mean by this will be seen by an example. After some 
 preludial matter, the first subject of the opening allegro begins 
 thus — 
 
 A Itegro patetico. 
 
 Raff : Fantasie-Sonate, Op. 168. 
 cres - • 
 
Chap. XI.] 
 
 Mixed and Indefinite Forms. 
 
 241 
 
 In the finale the same theme is given in the following shape — 
 
 Allegro molto. 
 
 (J) +.4L +. ■'■ fr +.*. m- * £- 
 
 The second subject is also similarly transformed. This process, 
 commonly known as the " metamorphosis of themes " is largely 
 employed by Liszt in his 'Symphonic Poems,' which are in 
 reality Fantasias for orchestra. 
 
 441. There is another kind of Fantasia, quite different from 
 those of which we have been speaking. In this variety, the 
 chief themes are not original, but are taken from the works 
 of other composers. Such Fantasias are mostly founded on 
 operas, sometimes on songs, in which case they are frequently 
 called ' transcriptions.' They have no definite form, but usually 
 contain an introduction and one or more themes with variations, 
 interspersed with episodical matter. They are mostly intended for 
 showy concert pieces. Thalberg, Liszt, Heller, Raff, and others 
 have left us good specimens of fantasias of this kind, of which 
 the artistic value is for the most part comparatively small. 
 
242 Applied Forms. [Chap. xii. 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 CYCLIC FORMS. 
 
 442. We have now, as far as our space would allow, treated 
 separately the various forms to be found in the instrumental 
 works of the great composers, and we have seen that they 
 were mostly extensions or variations of the two typical forms, 
 the binary and the ternary, which were explained in Chapters IX. 
 and X. of Musical Form. But some of these forms, and more 
 especially the Sonata Form, are mostly found, not as independent 
 pieces, but as parts of a larger work consisting of two, three, four, 
 or even more movements. The term Cyclic Form is applied to 
 works in which two or more movements are combined to form a 
 homogeneous whole. 
 
 443. We have more than once had occasion in this and the 
 preceding volume to point out the gradual evolution of the larger 
 art-forms from the smaller ; we have seen how the ternary form 
 is developed from the binary, and how the sonata form, the 
 various rondos, and the fugue are developed as extensions of 
 the simple ternary. The same process of development, though 
 differently applied, may be seen in the construction of the larger 
 art-works with which we have to deal in this chapter. 
 
 444. To make this clear, let the student remember what 
 is the essence, as distinguished from the mere accidents of 
 ternary form. It is the element of contrast produced by the 
 insertion of an episode in a different, though related, key to 
 that of the principal theme, sometimes also {Musical For?n, §§ 398, 
 399,) in a different tempo, after which the chief subject is repeated, 
 generally with some modification. Now suppose that, instead of 
 these three parts of one movement, we have three different 
 movements, the second contrasted in key and tempo with the 
 first and third, and that this latter, instead of being a 
 more or less varied repetition of the themes of the first, is 
 constructed of new material, having the same tonic, and a 
 character which is in keeping with the first movement; we then 
 have the three-movement form which we may regard as the 
 typical Cyclic Form. Of this the two-movement form is a con- 
 traction by the omission of the middle movement, while pieces 
 in four and five movements are extensions, by the insertion 
 of more than one middle movement. 
 
Chap, xii.] Cyclic Forms. 243 
 
 445. We have just spoken of the last movement of a cyclic 
 work having a character which is in keeping with the first. 
 This unity of character is extremely difficult to define in words ; 
 but the student will understand our meaning if he will take two 
 pieces in the same key and by the same composer, and observe 
 how inappropriate, the last movement of the one would be as 
 a finale for the other. Take, for instance, Beethoven's two 
 sonatas in C minor, Op. 10 No. 1, and the ' Pathe'tique,' and 
 exchange their last movements. We select these two works 
 because they both belong to the same period of the composer's 
 production. It is impossible not to feel that the unity of both 
 works would be destroyed if the exchange we are suggesting 
 be made. That this unity of which we are speaking was really 
 considered by the composer, is proved by an interesting fact. 
 We know from Ries that Beethoven originally wrote the finale 
 of his ' Kreutzer ' sonata for the sonata in A major, Op. 30 No. 1, 
 but that he found, on reflection, that it was too brilliant to be in 
 keeping with the rest of that work, and that he subsequently 
 replaced it by the variations which are published as the final 
 movement 
 
 446. The oldest of the cyclic forms were the Suite and the 
 Overture — the latter, of course, only when it contained more 
 than one movement, as in many of Handel's overtures. The 
 Suite has been described in Chapter III. (§§ 46-48), and the 
 Overture in Chapter IX. (§ 361). From the suite was developed 
 the most important of the modern cyclic forms, that used for the 
 sonata, trio, quartett, and other chamber music, and in the 
 orchestra for the symphony and the now nearly obsolete serenade. 
 As the different kinds of works we have enumerated are all 
 constructed on the same plan, there will be no occasion to treat 
 them separately. The form taken as a whole is often conveniently, 
 though loosely, spoken of as "classical form," from its general 
 adoption by all the great masters of instrumental music from 
 Haydn onwards. 
 
 447. We will first speak of such cyclic works as are in three 
 movements — this being, as we have said, the typical form of 
 which others are variations. With modern composers this form 
 is almost entirely confined to chamber music written for two, 
 or at most three instruments; in quartetts and symphonies 
 the four-movement form is almost always employed, though 
 symphonies in three movements are to be met with among 
 the earlier works of Haydn. Mozart also shows considerable 
 partiality for this form, no fewer than nineteen of his symphonies, 
 among them some of his finest, containing only three movements. 
 With piano sonatas down to the time of Beethoven the four- 
 movement form was very rare. Haydn only uses it once in 
 34 sonatas, and ^Clementi only once in 64, while not one of 
 
244 Applied Forms. [Chap. xn. 
 
 Mozart's pianoforte sonatas has more than three movements." 
 Even Beethoven, though many of his sonatas have four movements, 
 has given us twelve with three, while of his piano and violin 
 sonatas only three out of ten have a fourth movement. 
 
 448. For a cyclic work in three movements, by far the 
 most frequent order is, that the first movement shall be an 
 allegro in sonata form, with or without an introduction ; the 
 second will be a slow movement of some kind (Andante, 
 Larghetto, Largo, or Adagio), while the third and final move- 
 ment will again be a quick movement, in the same key (or, 
 at all events, with the same tonic,) as the first. There is in 
 general far more variety in the form selected for the third 
 than for the first movement. It may be in complete sonata 
 form, in any of various rondo forms, in variation form, or even 
 in ternary form. Which the composer may select will depend 
 largely upon the character and form of the two preceding 
 movements. To this general scheme numerous exceptions are 
 to be found ; of these we shall speak presently. We shall first 
 notice the form most frequently to be met with. 
 
 449. We have spoken above of this three-movement form 
 as a development of the principles on which the ternary form 
 is constructed (§ 444). We know that the episode which con- 
 stitutes the second part of a ternary form is always in a different 
 key from the first part. Similarly, the second movement of a 
 cyclic form is in the overwhelming majority of works in a 
 different key from the first. The exceptions are so rare that 
 even a musician so well read as A. B. Marx says in his 'Com- 
 position' (iii. 222,) that he does not know a single case. They 
 are, nevertheless, to be found. In three of dementi's sonatas, 
 those in D, Op. 39 No. 3, in B minor, Op. 40 No. 2, and the 
 ' Didone abbandonata' in G minor, Op. 50 No. 3, all the three 
 movements are in the same key. Other examples are seen in 
 Mozart's beautiful Concertante Quartett in E flat, for four 
 wind instruments with orchestra, in his Serenades in D for 
 strings and kettle-drums, and in E flat for wind instruments, 
 and in his Notturno in D for four orchestras, all of which 
 works are in three movements, each in the tonic key. In 
 Schubert's string quartett in E flat, Op. 125 No. 1, all four 
 movements are in the same key. These examples simply prove 
 that the rule is not without exception. 
 
 450. The choice of key for the second movement of a cyclic 
 
 * The sonata in B flat in four movements contained in most editions of 
 Mozart's sonatas, beginning 
 
 is not an original work, but an arrangement by some unknown editor of 
 movements from other compositions. 
 
chap, xii.] Cyclic Forms. 
 
 245 
 
 form is guided by the same considerations which influence us 
 in the selection of a key for the episode in a simple ternary 
 form. In an enormous majority of cases this second movement 
 will be in a related key to that of the first, and a nearly related 
 key is more often met with than one in the second degree of 
 relationship. If the work be in a major key, the subdominant 
 is most frequently chosen for the middle movement, as in 
 Beethoven's sonata in G, Op. 31, No. 1 (Adagio in C major), 
 arid Mozart's three sonatas in B flat, all of which have slow 
 movements in E flat. The subdominant appears to be a 
 preferable key, for the middle movement, to the dominant, 
 because, if the work is regular in form, and the first movement 
 has been in sonata form, the dominant will most likely have 
 been chosen for the second subject of that movement, and will 
 thus have had considerable prominence in the exposition. 
 Nevertheless, many examples are to be found of a middle 
 movement in the dominant key (Haydn, Sonata in E flat, 
 No. 3, Beethoven, Sonata in D, Op. 12 No. 1, Piano Quintett in 
 E flat, Op. 16, &c). 
 
 451. Of the nearly related minor keys, the one most usually 
 chosen for the second movement of a work in a major key is 
 the relative minor, and this is much less common with later 
 than with earlier composers. It is frequently to be found in 
 the works of Haydn and Mozart, but less often in those of 
 Beethoven, e.g. in the slow movements of the Eroica symphony, 
 the pianoforte concerto in G, Op. 58, and of the quartetts in 
 F, Op. 18 No. 1, and C, Op. 59 No. 3.* We meet with two 
 instances in the works of Schubert (the trio in E flat, Op. 100, 
 and the great symphony in C), one in Mendelssohn (quartett 
 in D, Op. 44 No. 1), and two in Schumann (the quintett, 
 Op. 44, and the Concertstiick for four horns, Op. 86). 
 
 452. Much rarer is the employment of the mediant minor 
 (the relative minor of the dominant). It is never once found 
 in Beethoven, and only twice each in Mozart (fifth string 
 quartett, and sonata in E flat for piano and violin), Schubert 
 (sonata for four hands in B flat, and solo sonata in E flat, 
 Op. 122), and Mendelssohn (quartett in E flat, Op. 12, and 
 quintett in B flat, Op. 87). It is also once employed by 
 Weber — for the slow movement of his sonata in A flat. Of 
 the employment of the supertonic minor for a second movement 
 we have found no instances, probably because its tonic would 
 be dissonant to the tonic of the first movement. 
 
 453. It is by no means unusual to find the slow movement 
 in a key which is in the second degree of relationship. Of 
 
 * These quartetts, like several other of the instances to be quoted directly, 
 have four movements ; but it will be seen later in this chapter that the prin- 
 ciples guiding the selection of key for the slow movement are the same for 
 works with four movements as for those with three. 
 
246 Applied Forms. ichap. xii. 
 
 these the tonic minor, as in Beethoven's sonata in A, Op. 12 
 No. 2, and his trio in D, Op. 70, No. 1, is probably the most 
 common ; for the tonic minor is the nearest to the tonic 
 major of all the keys in the second degree of relationship 
 {Musical Form, § 87). The minor subdominant is less frequent ; 
 an instance of its employment will be seen in the second move- 
 ment of Mendelssohn's Italian symphony. The major keys 
 of the major and minor mediant and submediant were all used 
 by Haydn in his quartetts and symphonies, and many examples 
 are to be seen in the works of Beethoven {e.g. in the piano 
 sonatas Op. 2 No. 3, Op. 7, and the concertos in C major 
 and E flat). With Mozart the employment of these keys was 
 less frequent. 
 
 454. It is possible, though rarely advisable, to introduce the 
 second movement in an unrelated key to the first. Probably 
 the earliest instance of this is. to be found in a sonata by C. P. E. 
 Bach. The key is G, and the slow movement is in F sharp 
 minor. Haydn's sonata in E flat (No. 1) has the second 
 movement in E major, and the same relationship will be seen 
 in Brahms's sonata in F, Op. 99, for piano and violoncello, in 
 which the slow movement is in F sharp major. Among other 
 examples may be named the adagio in F sharp minor of Beet- 
 hoven's sonata in B flat, Op. 106, and the andante of Schubert's 
 sonata in B flat, which is in C sharp minor. 
 
 455. If a cyclic work be in a minor key, the second move- 
 ment will, with extremely rare exceptions be in a major. In 
 many cases the relative major is the key selected, as in Mozart's 
 piano quartett in G minor, Beethoven's piano trio in C minor, 
 Mendelssohn's trio in the same key, and Schubert's sonata in 
 A minor, Op. 42. The submediant major, the next most nearly 
 related key {Musical Form, § 82), is also frequently to be met 
 with, as in Mozart's sonata in A minor, and Beethoven's sonatas 
 in C minor, Op. 10 No. 1, and F minor, Op. 57. The tonic 
 major, though seldom if ever employed by Mozart, is found as 
 the key of the slow movements in three of Haydn's quartetts — 
 those in F minor, Op. 20 No. 5, B minor, Op. 64 No. 2, and 
 D minor, Op. 76 No, 2. It is also frequently used by Beethoven 
 (sonata in A minor, Op. 23, quartett in E minor, Op. 59, No. 2, 
 &c). Of the choice of the dominant major for the slow move- 
 ment of a work in a minor key we can only recall one instance — 
 Schubert's sonata in A minor, Op. 164, which has the second 
 movement in E major. 
 
 456. As with works in major keys, so in those with minor, 
 we occasionally find the second movement in an unrelated key. 
 One of Emanuel Bach's sonatas in B minor has the slow move- 
 ment in G minor. Haydn's quartett in G minor, Op. 74 No. 3, 
 has the adagio in E major. The same relation of keys is 
 noticeable in Mendelssohn's piano concerto in G minor, and in 
 
Chap, xii.] Cyclic Forms. 
 
 247 
 
 Beethoven's quartett in F minor, Op. 95, the second movement 
 of which is in D major. Another example from Beethoven is 
 seen in his concerto in C minor, of which the slow movement 
 is in E major. As with works in a major key, the cases we have 
 just quoted must be regarded as exceptional. 
 
 457. In the choice of the form for the second movement 
 considerable variety is offered to the composer. Sometimes a 
 slow movement is in full sonata form, as in Beethoven's sym- 
 phonies in D and B flat, and in the sonata, Op. 106. This 
 form, however, is seldom used except for works laid out on a 
 large scale, and in four movements, though an example of its 
 employment in a work in three movements may be seen in 
 Mozart's so-called ' Strinasacchi sonata ' for piano and violin in 
 B flat. More frequently however, the abridged sonata form is 
 to be met with. This form was described in our ninth chapter, 
 and we refer our readers to the analyses of slow movements 
 which were there given (§§ 348-356). At other times the simple 
 ternary form will be selected. Examples of such slow movements 
 are given in Chapter X. of Musical Form. The variation form 
 is also not infrequent for the middle movement (Mozart, Sonata 
 in F for piano and violin, Beethoven, sonatas, Op. 14 No. 2, 
 and Op. 57). Occasionally the older rondo form (Chapter VI.,) 
 is met with, as in the slow movement of Dussek's very fine 
 sonata in E flat, Op. 75, and in Mozart's sonata in the same key 
 (No. 41) for piano and violin. Sometimes the middle movement 
 consists merely of an introduction leading into the finale, as in 
 Haydn's sonata in D, No. 7, and Beethoven's sonata, Op. 53. 
 
 458. We sometimes find the middle movement of a cyclic 
 work in three movements in quick tempo, instead of slow. In 
 Haydn's sonata in C sharp minor, No. 6, the second movement 
 is an allegro con brio in A, and in six of his sonatas (Nos. 22, 23, 
 24, 28, 33, 34,) the place of the slow movement is taken by a 
 minuet and trio. Similar examples will be seen in Beethoven's 
 sonatas Op. 10 No. 2, and Op. 14 No. 1. It will mostly be 
 found in such cases that the preceding movement is of a some- 
 what quiet character ; but the composer must be guided by his 
 feeling in the form that he may choose. This is a matter on 
 which no definite rules are possible. 
 
 459. In the form of the finale of a work in three movements 
 there is quite as much variety as in the middle movements. 
 Perhaps on the whole either the older rondo or the rondo-sonata 
 form is the most common, but the sonata form is often employed, 
 as also is the variation form — e.g. in Mozart's sonata in D, No. 6, 
 and Beethoven's sonata in A, Op. 30 No. 1. Haydn was very 
 partial to the ternary form in his smaller works ; it is to be found 
 in several of his sonatas and trios. 
 
 460. Before proceeding to speak of cyclic forms in two and 
 four movements, a few words should be said as to the irregularities 
 
248 Applied Forms. [Chap. xii. 
 
 often to be met with in the arrangement of the movements. In 
 the normal form the first movement will always be in regular 
 sonata form, the second a slow movement of some kind, (or 
 occasionally a minuet,) and the finale will be in one of the forms 
 mentioned in the last paragraph. But to this regular plan many 
 exceptions are to be found. Mozart's piano sonata in A major 
 has the first movement in variation form, the second is a minuet 
 and trio, and the finale is in ternary form (§ 212). The same 
 composer's sonata in G for piano and violin (No. 35,) begins 
 with a long introductory adagio, the first part of which has the 
 form of an exposition of a sonata movement, while the second 
 part is incomplete, and leads into an allegro in G minor in full 
 sonata form ; the finale is an air with variations in G major. 
 Again, Mozart's trio in E flat for piano, clarinet, and viola, has 
 for its first movement an andante in sonata form, but without 
 repeat of the exposition. This is followed by a minuet and 
 trio in B flat, and the work concludes with the rondo which 
 we analyzed in Chapter VI., §§ 208, 209. 
 
 461. It would be impossible to speak of half the varieties to 
 be met with in these irregular cyclic forms ; we will conclude 
 this part of our subject by referring to two well-known examples 
 by Beethoven. The sonata in C sharp minor, Op. 27 No. 1 
 contains an adagio, an allegretto in the form of a minuet and 
 trio, and a. presto in complete sonata form. It thus resembles, 
 as we shall see presently, a regular four-movement sonata, with 
 the first movement omitted. Had it been preceded by a first 
 movement, the adagio would have been in some other key than 
 C sharp minor. The other example is the sonata in E major, 
 Op. 109. The first movement is a mixed form, combined from 
 ternary and older rondo ; the "second movement {prestissimo,) 
 is an irregular sonata form, and the finale is in variation form. 
 
 462. The two-movement form, as was said above (§ 444) is 
 a contraction of the typical form by the omission of the middle 
 movement. This form was a favourite with the older piano 
 composers, — Haydn, Clementi, and Dussek ; curiously enough, 
 Mozart never employed it for his sonatas for piano solo, though 
 we find more than a dozen of his sonatas for piano and violin 
 in only two movements. Beethoven also adopted it several 
 times in his sonatas, some of his finest {e.g. Op. 90, in E minor, 
 and Op. in, in C minor,) being in this form. We have met 
 with no example of a later date than Beethoven, unless we reckon 
 as coming under this category Mendelssohn's ' Serenade and 
 Allegro giojoso' Op. 43 — in any case an exceedingly irregular 
 piece, as the first movement is in B minor and the second in D 
 major. 
 
 463. If a work be in two movements, it is mostly desirable 
 that these should be contrasted in form. True, we sometimes 
 find sonatas in which both movements are in regular sonata form, 
 
chap, xii.] Cyclic Forms. 
 
 249 
 
 as in two very fine examples by Dussek— the sonatas in D, Op. 9 
 No. 3, and E, Op. 10 No. 3 ; but far more frequently the forms 
 are different. Thus, in Haydn's beautiful sonata in C, No. 16, 
 the first movement is in double-variation form (§ 169), and the 
 second is a rondo. In Dussek's sonata in G minor, Op. 10 
 No. 2, the first movement (Grave) is a large binary form of 
 irregular construction, and the following allegro is in regular 
 sonata form. In dementi's sonata in E flat, Op. 35 No. 2, the 
 first movement is in very condensed (not abridged) sonata form 
 (Lento), without repeat of the exposition, and the second move- 
 ment (presto) is a regular sonata movement. In Mozart's sonata 
 in E minor, for piano and violin, the first movement is in sonata 
 form, and the second is a minuet and trio. In Haydn's sonata 
 in G, No. 13, the first movement is in double-variation, and the 
 second in simple ternary form. In Dussek's sonatas in G, Op. 35 
 No. 2, B flat, Op. 39 No. 3, and A major, Op. 43, and in 
 Beethoven's sonata in E minor, the first movement is in sonata 
 form, and the second is a rondo. In Mozart's sonata in A 
 (No. 29,) for piano and violin, and in Beethoven's sonata in 
 C minor, Op. in, the first movement is in sonata, and the 
 second in variation form ; while in Beethoven's sonata in F, Op. 
 54, the first movement is a mixed and the second an indefinite 
 form, as we saw in the last chapter. These examples (and many 
 more might be given,) will sufficiently show the student what 
 variety is possible in the two-movement form, which, it should be 
 added, is seldom, if ever, found, except in sonatas. 
 
 464. The four-movement form, the most important of all, is 
 an extension of the typical three-movement form by the addition 
 of a second middle movement. The older composers, Haydn, 
 Mozart, and their contemporaries, restricted the use of this form 
 almost entirely to orchestral music, or to chamber music for 
 several instruments (quartetts, &c). Beethoven was the first who 
 frequently used it for solo sonatas, which, since his time, are quite 
 as often written with four movements as with three. 
 
 465. In cyclic works (whether sonatas, trios, quartetts, or 
 symphonies,) in four movements, if the form be regular, the two 
 middle movements will almost invariably be a slow movement, 
 and a minuet and trio, or scherzo. With extremely rare ex- 
 ceptions, the slow movement will be in a different key from the 
 first allegro, while in the large majority of cases the minuet or 
 scherzo will have the same tonic as the first and last movements. 
 The first movement will be in sonata form, and the finale either 
 in the same form (as in Beethoven's symphony in C minor), or, 
 more commonly, in one of the rondo forms, the rondo-sonata 
 form being more frequently adopted by modern composers. If 
 the variation form has not been already employed for the slow 
 movement, it is sometimes used for the finale, as in Beethoven's 
 quartett in E flat, Op. 74. Beethoven sometimes writes a fugue 
 
250 Applied 1<orms. [Chap. xn. 
 
 as the final movement of a cyclic work, as in his quartett in C, 
 Op. 59 No. 3, his sonata for piano and violoncello in D, Op. 102 
 No. 2, and his solo sonatas, Ops. 106 and no. Some of Haydn's 
 quartetts, and Mozart's quartetts in F major (No. 8) and D 
 minor (No. 13,) also conclude with a fugue. The last movement 
 may also be in one of the mixed forms. An example of this will 
 be found in the finale of the 'Eroica' symphony, which is a 
 combination of the variation and the free fugue form. 
 
 466. It is entirely at the option of the composer whether the 
 slow movement or the scherzo (or minuet) shall follow the first 
 allegro. In most cases the slow movement precedes the scherzo, 
 but we find several works in which this order is reversed. As 
 examples may be mentioned Beethoven's quartett in F, Op. 59 
 No. 1, his trio in B flat, Op. 97, his sonatas Ops. 106 and no, 
 and the choral symphony, in all of which the scherzo is the 
 second movement. An examination of these, and other similar 
 cases, would seem to show that the scherzo is introduced im- 
 mediately after the allegro when the latter is serious in style, as in 
 all the examples we have referred to. Beethoven appears to have 
 felt that in such cases a slow movement would not offer sufficient 
 contrast to what had preceded. 
 
 467. In a few cases, which are mostly to be met with in 
 Beethoven's works, neither of the middle movements is a slow 
 movement, in the ordinary acceptation of that term. In the 
 eighth symphony, in F, Op. 93, the second movement is the 
 popular allegretto scherzando, in abridged sonata form (§ 346), 
 and the third is a minuet (not scherzo,) and trio. In his pianoforte 
 sonata in E flat, Op. 31 No. 3, the two middle movements are a 
 scherzo and a minuet. The former is in duple time, and in 
 regular sonata form, and the slow minuet that follows takes the 
 place of the more usual andante or adagio. In the trio in E fiat, 
 Op. 70 No. 2, both the middle movements are marked allegretto. 
 The former, which serves as slow movement, is, as we have already 
 said (§ 170), the only example in Beethoven's works of the 
 double variation form ; the latter is a minuet and trio, with the 
 repetitions described in § 76 as sometimes to be met with in 
 movements of this form. 
 
 468. As with works in three movements, so with those in 
 four, we often meet with instances in which the normal form is 
 widely departed from. To mention first two familiar examples 
 by Beethoven, — the sonata in A flat, Op. 26, has no movement in 
 sonata form ; the first is an air with variations, the second a 
 scherzo, the third (the famous 'Funeral March') is in simple 
 ternary, and the finale in modern rondo form. The Sonata quasi 
 Fantasia in E flat, Op. 27 No. 1, has the first movement in ternary 
 form, the second is a scherzo, the Adagio introducing the finale 
 is in simple binary form, while the finale is in modern rondo 
 form. In Haydn's quartett in F minor, Op. 55 No. 2, the slow 
 
Chap, xii.] Cyclic Forms. 
 
 2S 1 
 
 movement, which is in double-variation form, and of considerable 
 dimensions {Andante piu tosto Allegretto, \, 202 bars— not counting 
 the repeats,) precedes the allegro in sonata form. In this work 
 all four movements have the same tonic, the order being, Varia- 
 tions (F minor and major), Allegro, in sonata form (F minor), 
 minuet (F major,) with trio (F minor), finale, again in sonata form 
 (F major). Haydn frequently in his sonatas, trios, and quartetts, 
 employs the variation form for the first movement, and a solitary 
 instance of the same by Mozart may be seen in his quartett in C, 
 No. 10. 
 
 469. Exceptionally, when the first allegro is preceded by a slow 
 introduction, the allegro itself will not be in the same key as the 
 introduction. An instance of this will be seen in Beethoven's 
 sonata, Op. 102 No. 1, for piano and violoncello. The key of 
 the work, as is proved both by its commencement and close, is 
 C major; but after an introductory andante of 27 bars, the 
 succeeding allegro is in A minor. Schumann's first string quartett 
 (in A minor, Op. 41 No. 1,) has an introduction {Andante es- 
 pressivo,) of 33 bars leading to an allegro in F major. A some- 
 what similar case is seen in Mendelssohn's quartett in E flat, 
 Op. 12, but with this difference, that it is here the finale, instead 
 of the first movement, which is not in the key of the tonic. The 
 finale here is in C minor, but it is followed by a long coda in 
 E flat, founded upon the first subject of the first allegro. In this 
 way Mendelssohn gives unity to the work as a whole. 
 
 470. This unity of a cyclic work, to which we incidentally 
 referred earlier in this chapter (§ 445), is a consideration which 
 should never be left out of mind. Composers have sometimes 
 sought to attain it by making each movement lead into the 
 following without a break, as in C. P. E. Bach's symphonies, and 
 some of his sonatas, in Haydn's sonata in A, No. 26, and in 
 Mozart's symphony in D, No. 23. At other times express 
 directions are given, if a movement has ended, as usual, with 
 a full cadence, that there is to be no pause. Mendelssohn has 
 done this in his symphony in A minor, as also has Schumann in 
 his symphony in D minor, originally entitled 'Introduction, 
 Allegro, Romanze, Scherzo, and Finale, in one movement.' But 
 he has done more than this. The theme of the introduction 
 appears again in the Romanze, and the first subject of the finale 
 is identical with one of the most important episodes in the first 
 allegro. In his symphony in C major, Schumann uses what we 
 may term the "motto " of his introduction 
 
 P 
 
 *?==> -■ — ■=; m- m 
 
 at the end of the first allesrro, of the scherzo, and of the finale, 
 
252 
 
 Applied Forms. 
 
 [Chap. XII. 
 
 and further develops the second subject of his finale from the 
 opening bars of his adagio. 
 
 471. In speaking just now (§ 469,) of Mendelssohn's quartett 
 in E flat we referred to the reintroduction of the theme of the 
 first allegro towards the end of the work. Other instances of the 
 same manner of giving unity to the composition as a whole are to 
 be seen in Beethoven's sonata in A, Op. 101, and in his sonata 
 for piano and violoncello, in C, Op. 102 No. 1. In both these 
 pieces the opening bars of the work recur just before the last 
 allegro. In Mendelssohn's solo sonata for piano, in E, Op. 6, 
 the theme of the first movement is heard, as in the quartett above 
 spoken of, at the end, and not at the beginning, of the finale. 
 
 472. Another method of obtaining unity of style is, to write 
 more than one movement on what is virtually the same subject, 
 but in a modified form. Of this we saw an example in the last 
 chapter in the Fantasie-Sonate of Raff (§ 440). One of the most 
 interesting instances of this method is seen in Schubert's string 
 quartett in E fiat, Op. 125 No. 1. In this work, not only are all 
 the four movements in the same key (§ 449), but all are made 
 from the same material, — the ascending scale of E flat. This will 
 be clearly seen from the first bars of each movement, 
 
 (a) A llcgro moderate. 
 
 Schubert : Quartett in E flat, Op. 125, No. 1. 
 
 (J) Allege 
 Q h tt 
 
 •v. 
 
 
 
 . . 
 
 , j. m-k^f 
 
 ■*- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 &c 
 
 «-J ~^- 
 
 
 . . . 
 
 
 1 [ ' ' i~ s"" 1 
 
 
 
 
 473. Sometimes, though comparatively seldom, a cyclic work 
 will contain more than four movements. In Raff's first symphony, 
 entitled, ' An das Vaterland,' there are five movements — an allegro 
 in D major, a scherzo in D minor, a larghetto in B flat, an allegro 
 dramatico in G minor, and a finale consisting of a larghetto 
 sostenuto in D minor leading into an allegro deciso trionfante in D 
 major. We find examples in Schumann's works of pieces in 
 more than four movements. His third symphony (in E flat), has 
 a second slow movement preceding the finale. His ' Faschings- 
 schwank aus Wien,' Op. 26, consists of an Allegro, a Romanze, 
 
chap, xii.] Cyclic Forms. 253 
 
 Scherzino, Intermezzo, and Finale. The allegro offers a rare 
 instance of the employment of the old rondo form for a first 
 movement ; the finale is in sonata form, and the three intermediate 
 movements are in simple binary and ternary forms. A more 
 recent example of a symphony in five movements is seen in 
 Goldmark's 'Landliche Hochzeit' ('Rustic Wedding'). The 
 work, though entitled a symphony, has little in common with the 
 regular symphonic form, the five movements of which it consists 
 being the following : 1. Wedding March : Variations ; 2. Bridal 
 Song: Intermezzo; 3. Serenade: Scherzo; 4. 'In the Garden:' 
 Andante ; 5. Dance : Finale. 
 
 474. Another cyclic form in which more than four movements 
 are sometimes met with is the Modern Suite. This differs widely 
 from the older Suite treated of in Chapter III., inasmuch as it is 
 not necessary that all the movements should be in the same key, 
 nor that they should all be dance forms, though such forms are 
 frequently to be met with in them. The word ' Suite ' is, in fact, 
 used very loosely by modern composers, and might be applied to 
 almost any cyclic work other than a symphony or sonata. To 
 show how different may be the component parts of two works 
 both bearing the same name, we will give the list of movements 
 in two examples. Bizet's 'Petite Suite d'Orchestre ' ('Jeux 
 d'Enfants,') contains a March, a Berceuse, an Impromptu, a Duo, 
 and a Galop, all of which are written in binary form. On the 
 other hand, the ' Nordische Suite ' by the Danish composer Asger 
 Hamerikj which has also five movements, consists of an Intro- 
 duction and Scherzo, entitled ' Im Walde ' (In the Forest), a 
 Volkslied, a Springtanz, a Minuet, and a Bridal March. In 
 its modern acceptation, the word 'Suite' is as indefinite as 
 ' Capriccio.' 
 
 475. The string quartett may be said to have been invented 
 by Haydn, and the four-movement form which he adopted has 
 been the model for all composers who have succeeded him. But 
 it is an interesting fact that of his first twelve quartetts, Ops. 1 
 and 2, no fewer than eleven have five movements, while the 
 twelfth (Op. 1 No. 5,) has only three. The additional movement 
 in every case is a second minuet, the two minuets being always 
 the second and fourth of the five movements. This renders 
 highly probable the inference that the quartett form was developed 
 from that of the Serenade, about which it will now be needful to 
 say a few words. 
 
 476. The Serenade (Ital. = 'Serenata') was a somewhat 
 indefinite cyclic form, which is described in detail in Jahn's 
 'Mozart' (Vol. I., pp. 306, sqq.). According to Jahn, it fre- 
 quently commenced, and sometimes ended with a March ; a well- 
 known example of this will be found in Beethoven's Serenade- 
 Trio for strings, Op. 8. But a more distinctive feature was, that 
 in the majority of cases, a minuet was introduced between every 
 
254 Applied Forms. [Chap, xil 
 
 Andante and Allegro. Here will be seen the resemblance to the 
 early quartetts of Haydn spoken of in the last paragraph. In 
 general the first movement (with or without an introductory 
 March,) was in sonata form ; the last movement was an Allegro, 
 or Presto ; and frequently two slow movements of different 
 character were introduced, separated from one another and from 
 the Allegro by Minuets. The result is that we sometimes find a 
 serenade containing as many as eight movements. For instance 
 Mozart's large Serenade in D, known as the ' Haffner Serenade,' 
 begins with an introductory allegro maestoso, leading into an 
 allegro molto, in regular sonata form ; to this succeeds an andante 
 in G, with violin obligato; the third movement is a minuet in 
 G minor, with a trio in G major. Next comes a long Rondo in 
 G, of 453 bars. This, being a middle movement, is in the older 
 rondo form ; the rondo-sonata form is seldom if ever found 
 except as a final movement. The fifth movement is another 
 minuet and trio in D, major and minor, and the sixth an andante 
 in A major. A third minuet, with two trios follows, and the finale 
 consists of an introductory adagio, and an allegro assai, again in 
 sonata form, and of large development, the movement containing 
 474 bars. Other similar examples might be given ; but this one 
 will suffice as an illustration. 
 
 477. The Cassation and Divertimento were similar in form 
 to the Serenade, but differed from it in the fact that they were 
 written for solo instruments, each string part being only played 
 by one instrument, while the Serenade was for full orchestra. 
 Beethoven's Trio in E fiat, Op. 3, for violin, viola, and violoncello, 
 with its two slow movements and two minuets, is in its form a 
 Divertimento, as also are his Septett, Op. 20, and Schubert's 
 Octett. The choice and order of movements, both in the 
 Serenade and the Divertimento, is left largely to the discretion of 
 the composer. 
 
 478. Another important cyclic form is that of the Concerto. 
 We spoke in § 370 of the old meaning of the word; we are now 
 using it in its modern sense, as a work written for one (occasion- 
 ally more than one) solo instrument with accompaniments for the 
 orchestra. From the time of Bach down to a comparatively 
 recent date, the concerto was always written in the three-move- 
 ment form which we have spoken of (§ 444,) as the typical cyclic 
 form. All the concertos of Bach, Mozart, Beethoven, Mendels- 
 sohn and Schumann contain an allegro, a slow movement and a 
 finale, which is mostly in rondo form. Of the double exposition 
 of the first movement, as found in the works of Beethoven and 
 Mozart, we spoke in detail in Chapter IX. (§§ 371-379). We 
 have now to deal with the principal modifications of the concerto 
 form introduced by modern composers. 
 
 479. It is rare to find a concerto with more than three move- 
 ments. Perhaps the best known instance is Brahms's second 
 
chap, xii.] Cyclic Forms. 255 
 
 concerto for the piano, (in B flat, Op. 83,) which has been not 
 inaptly described by an annotator as " a symphony with pianoforte 
 obbligato," and which is quite symphonic in its form. Another ex- 
 ample, though not quite parallel, will be seen in Scharwenka's 
 concerto in B fiat minor, Op. 32. The first allegro of this work 
 has a regular exposition in sonata form, but an adagio, 7 1 bars in 
 length, takes the place of the free fantasia, and is followed by the 
 recapitulation of the allegro. The second movement is a scherzo, 
 and the finale is in a somewhat free sonata form. Tschaikowsky's 
 concerto in B flat minor, Op. 23, has also four movements, the 
 first allegro being preceded by an introductory andante, 106 bars 
 long, in large binary form, and in the key of D flat major, though 
 the tonality of B flat minor is suggested by the first two bars. 
 The three movements that follow are in the usual form, though 
 rather free in treatment 
 
 480. Much more frequent than the introduction of a fourth 
 movement in a concerto, is the departure from the normal form 
 described in § 478. Two of Max Bruch's violin concertos illus- 
 trate this. In his first (Op. 26 in G minor,) the first movement 
 is simply a prelude {Allegro moderato,) resembling an incomplete 
 sonata form, and leading into an extended and very beautiful 
 adagio. The finale is in sonata form. The same composer's 
 second violin concerto (in D minor, Op. 44,) begins with an 
 adagio ma non troppo, in sonata form ; but the second movement, 
 entitled ' Recitative,' has no distinct form at all, and resembles 
 a fantasia. The third movement begins in B flat, and ends in 
 D major — a seeming irregularity, which, however, is justified on 
 examination, as the first part of the movement, though in the 
 same tempo as that which follows, is really only of the nature 
 of an introduction, and connects the finale with the second 
 movement, which ends with a half cadence in B flat. The 
 proper first subject of this finale does not appear till the signature 
 is changed to D major. 
 
 481. Even greater irregularities are to be met with in the 
 piano concertos of Camille Saint-Saens. The first (in D major,) 
 is tolerably regular, though the preceding of the first allegro 
 by an introduction is unusual ; but the second, and best known 
 of the four — that in G minor, Op. 22 — is very free in construction. 
 The first movement is an andante sostenuto, in large binary form ; 
 the second (allegro scherzando,) has the form of a sonata move- 
 ment, and the character of a scherzo ; while the final presto is 
 in free sonata form with the rhythmic figures of a Tarantella. 
 
 482. Saint-Saens' third Concerto (in E flat, Op. 29,) departs 
 still more widely from the usual model in its first movement, 
 which is a kind of free rhapsody on the opening subject — 
 
 Moderato assai. 
 
256 
 
 Applied Flrms. 
 
 [Chap. XII. 
 
 a theme strongly suggestive of the commencement of Schubert s 
 great symphony in C. The whole movement is most irregular in 
 form, the tempo being changed at least six times. In his fourth 
 Concerto (in C minor) further irregularities are to be seen. Ine 
 first movement begins with a theme followed by two variations, 
 and continues with an andante in A flat, in which key it ends. 
 The concerto contains only two movements; but the second 
 includes an allegro vivace, an andante, and another allegro. The 
 whole form is most irregular, and the material of this movement 
 is mostly made from transformations, or 'metamorphoses of 
 themes already heard in the preceding. 
 
 483. The concerto just spoken of appears to be modelled 
 on those of Liszt, about which a few words must here be said. 
 It is impossible to regard Liszt's works bearing that name as 
 concertos in the ordinary acceptation of the term ; they are rather 
 brilliant rhapsodies for piano and orchestra in which one or 
 two chief themes are ingeniously metamorphosed, and interspersed 
 with episodical matter of more or less importance. 
 
 484. A few words may be said in concluding this chapter on a 
 form of which Liszt has left us several examples — the Symphonic 
 Poem. These are a series of orchestral pieces written to illustrate 
 a more or less definite programme. The order of their move- 
 ments, &c, therefore depends upon the subject selected for 
 illustration ; and hardly two are identical in this respect. But 
 Liszt has endeavoured to secure artistic unity by presenting his 
 principal subjects under different aspects,— in fact by the " meta- 
 morphosis of themes " of which we have more than once spoken. 
 As an illustration of his method, we quote the leading theme 
 of the third Symphonic Poem, ' Les Preludes.' It first appears 
 in the following simple form, in unison. 
 
 Liszt : ' I,« rrfludes. 
 (a) Andante. ** 
 
 Shortly after, the tempo is changed, and the theme is heard 
 in the bass with arpeggios above it. 
 
 {b\ Andante maestoso. 
 
 The two forms of the theme which we next find are somewhat 
 more modified : 
 
 {c) L'isttsso tempo. 
 
Chap. XII.] 
 
 Cyclic Forms. 
 
 (d) L'isttsso tempo. 
 
 2S7 
 
 The programme of the work is given in an extract from Lamartine's 
 ' Meditations Poe"tiques ' ; and the passages last quoted are evi- 
 dently designed to illustrate the words " Love forms the enchanted 
 aurora of all existence." 
 
 485. The "storm which interrupts the first pleasures of 
 happiness " is depicted in the two metamorphoses of the theme 
 which next succeed — 
 
 (a) Allegro, ma non troppo. 
 
 {6) Allegro tempestuoso. 
 
 &c. 
 
 The author next speaks of the calm of a life in the country, 
 as a rest for the soul tossed by tempests. Liszt illustrates this 
 by a new change in the form of the theme. 
 
 (f) Un poco pin moderate 
 
 molto riten. ad lib. 
 
 The call of duty to the field of battle gives one more transforma- 
 tion of the subject. 
 
 (d) Allegro marziale animato. 
 
 These illustrations will sufficiently explain the composer's method, 
 which may be best described as a free application and modifi- 
 cation of the variation form treated of in Chapter V. of this 
 volume. 
 
258 Applied Fosms. tchap. xiii. 
 
 CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 ORGAN MUSIC. 
 
 486. Though no absolutely new forms are to be met with 
 in organ music, it is of great importance that any one who 
 attempts to write for the instrument should have some knowledge 
 of its special peculiarities. It need hardly be added that for 
 this purpose it is highly desirable that a composer thould have 
 at least some practical acquaintance with the instrument ; without 
 this it is almost impossible that he should write in the most 
 effective manner. But inasmuch as even organists themselves 
 appear sometimes when writing to overlook points of importance 
 in the treatment of the instrument, it will be advisable to say 
 something on this matter before v proceeding to speak of the 
 forms of organ composition. 
 
 487. It would be beyond our scope, even had we the needful 
 space, to enter into any detailed description of the mechanism of 
 the organ. For such we must refer our readers to the standard 
 works on the subject, e.g. the excellent volume by Hopkins and 
 Rimbault. It will suffice to say here that the organ is an 
 instrument with from one to four (or occasionally even five) 
 keyboards, each of which, except as regards its compass, exactly 
 resembles the keyboard of the piano. In modern organs the 
 compass of each "manual" (as it is termed, because the keys 
 
 Ul- 
 
 are played by the hands), is from ss= 
 
 •SJfc " ' u F G A or even C 
 
 the last being rare, and mostly found on instruments designed 
 for concert rather than for church use. Where an organ has 
 two manuals, these will be the 'Great' and 'Swell,' the latter 
 being so called because the pipes are enclosed in a box furnished 
 with shutters which can be opened by a pedal moved by the 
 foot of the player. If there are three manuals, the third is the 
 'Choir,'* while a fourth will be the 'Solo Organ'; this last is 
 
 * The word " third " here does not refer to the position of the manuals, of 
 which the choir is the lowest, the great next, the swell the third, and the solo, 
 when there is one, the fourth. 
 
Chap, xiii.] Organ Music. 259 
 
 only met with on very large instruments. The most powerful 
 ' stops ' (§ 488,) are placed upon the great organ, though the 
 solo organ, when present usually contains some powerful reeds. 
 In the extremely rare cases in which there is a fifth manual, 
 this will be the ' Echo Organ.' 
 
 488. While, however, the compass of the manuals is only from 
 four-and-a-half to (at the utmost) five octaves, this by no means 
 represents the actual compass of the organ itself. Whereas on 
 the pianoforte each key when pressed down gives only one sound, 
 a large number of sounds, differing both in quality and in pitch, 
 may be produced by the pressing of a single key on the organ. 
 Each row of keys is furnished with " registers " (in England more 
 commonly called "stops"), each of which has one pipe* in 
 connection with each key. Each stop therefore gives a complete 
 chromatic scale, of approximately the same quality of tone, for 
 every note on the manual. 
 
 489. It was said just now that the various stops differ in 
 pitch. In some of these, and the most important, the sound 
 produced corresponds to the notation. Thus, when the lowest 
 
 key is pressed down, the note heard is < e?~i — , exactly as 
 
 it would be on the piano. As. an open pipe producing this sound 
 is eight feet in length, any stop in which the notes produced are 
 in unison with the notation is called an "eight-feet stop." If 
 the pipes, instead of being open, are closed at the top, the 
 effect of which is to lower their pitch by an octave, the C we 
 have just given will be produced by a pipe only four feet 
 in length; but as the pitch is the same as with an open pipe 
 of eight feet, such a stop is said to be "of eight-feet tone." 
 In other words, the term "eight-feet" is applied to all stops, 
 whether the pipes be open or closed, which give sounds in unison 
 with the notation. 
 
 490. The pitch of an organ pipe depends upon the length 
 of the vibrating column of air within it. Every student of acoustics 
 knows that if a string or air-column produce a certain sound, 
 the half of that string or column will give a note an octave 
 higher, the fourth two octaves higher, and so on. As the tone 
 of the organ would be exceedingly dull were only unison stops 
 employed, we always find, even in small instruments, stops of 
 a higher pitch. An octave stop, that is, one in which every note 
 sounds an octave higher than its notation, will evidently have 
 its lowest pipe four feet long ; it is therefore called a " four- 
 feet stop " ; while one that when the lowest key is pressed down 
 
 gives the note (fy r = will, for a similar reason, be called a 
 
 * In the " mixture '' stops to be presently described, there are often as 
 many as four or five pipes to each key. 
 
260 Applied Forms. tchap. xiu. 
 
 " two-feet stop." It should be said here that, except occasionally 
 for special solo effects, such stops are never used without the 
 unison stops; they are simply employed to give more brightness 
 to the unison tone by the reinforcement of the upper-partials. 
 The unison tone should always predominate. 
 
 491. On all large modern organs will also be found stops 
 sounding an octave lower than the notation. This is the con- 
 verse case to that just noted. If the lowest pipe of a unison 
 stop is eight feet long, it is evident that a pipe an octave lower 
 in pitch must be sixteen feet long. A stop of this kind, generally 
 called in England a "double" stop, is described as a "16-feet 
 stop," if the pipes be open, and as "of 16-feet tone" if they be 
 stopped. All the stops hitherto described, giving the unison, or 
 the octaves, higher or lower, of the key pressed down, are called 
 "foundation" stops. 
 
 492. In addition to the class of stops we have described, 
 there are two others to be mentioned— those known as " muta- 
 tion " and " compound " stops. By " mutation " stops are meant 
 those which give some different note from that shown by the key 
 pressed down. If, for instance, such a stop is drawn, and when 
 
 the lowest key is put down we hear the sound H=*=E, which 
 
 is a twelfth above the note sounded by the same key on the 
 eight-feet stop, which is always taken as the standard from 
 which others are reckoned, the stop is called the ' Twelfth,' 
 and is a " mutation " stop. Such stops always give one of the 
 upper partial tones of the unison (8-feet) stops, — generally the 
 twelfth (the third note of the harmonic series), occasionally the 
 major third (fifth note of the series). In large organs, when 
 there is a 16-feet stop on the manual we sometimes find a Quint, 
 or double-twelfth, giving the third upper partial of the 16-feet 
 tone. 
 
 493. If two or more of these upper partial tones of the unison 
 stops are acted upon by the same draw-stop, so that one cannot 
 be sounded without the others, such a stop is called a " com- 
 pound " stop. Unlike the mutation stops, the names of which 
 generally indicate their pitch, the compound stops are mostly 
 called by such indefinite names as Sesquialtera, Cornet, Mixture, 
 Furniture, &c. It is extremely rare to find any but the consonant 
 upper partials of the 8-feet tone (the major thirds, fifths, and 
 octaves,) introduced in either mutation or compound stops. The 
 object of both kinds of stops is to give additional brilliancy to 
 the organ tone by the reinforcement of the various upper partials 
 of the 16- and 8-feet tone; and it is the business of the organ- 
 builder to voice these stops in such a manner as not to render 
 these over-tones too prominent, otherwise the organ becomes 
 what is known as ' screamy.' 
 
ch, ip . xin.] Organ Music. 261 
 
 494. There is another classification of organ stops, according 
 to the manner in which their tone is produced. If the air in 
 the pipe is set in vibration by blowing against a sharp edge, called 
 the lip, the stop is said to be a " flue-stop " ; if the sound is 
 
 ■produced by blowing against an elastic tongue called a 'reed,' 
 the stop is a "reed-stop."* The large majority of stops in all 
 organs are flue-stops ; but reeds are also to be found in all except 
 very small instruments. 
 
 495. It was said in § 488 that the stops of an organ differed 
 not only in pitch but in quality. The pitch of a note depends 
 upon the length of the pipe, the quality upon its form. There 
 is hardly any limit to the varieties of tone to be found in a very 
 large organ ; but this is a matter into which it is impossible to 
 enter here. The student, if he has not a practical knowledge 
 of the instrument, must consult some good book on the subject, 
 such as Hopkins and Rimbault's work, above referred to. 
 
 496. A very important feature of the organ, not yet men- 
 tioned, is the Pedal Organ. The Pedals (as their name implies,) 
 are keys to be played with the feet. They are arranged in the 
 same way as the manual keys, but are much larger and broader, 
 and, to avoid the risk of pressing two together by the foot, are 
 separated from one another. On modern organs they have 
 
 usually a compass of two octaves and a fourth, from gf=r= 
 
 to & — < — ; but on many old organs, and on some modern 
 
 continental ones, the upward limit of the pedal board is E, D, 
 or even occasionally C. It must here be pointed out that the 
 true pitch of the pedal organ is an octave lower than that noted, 
 
 being really from ^5 , - to &tEf—- . On the manuals, as has 
 
 been already said, the 8 -feet stops are the unison stops; on the 
 pedals, on the other hand, 16-feet stops are the unison stops, and 
 the 8-feet stops, where they are found, are reckoned as octave stops. 
 A "double" stop on the pedal organ will be a 3 2 -feet stop; 
 this is only to be met with on the very largest instruments. It 
 is very important that the composer should bear this difference 
 of pitch between manuals and pedals in mind, when writing for 
 the organ, and if he wishes the pedal part to be played on 8-feet 
 stops alone, he must expressly indicate this, as Mendelssohn has 
 done in the first variation of his sixth organ sonata. 
 
 '497. Though the keys of the pedal board are arranged in the 
 same way as those of the manuals, it will be evident that many 
 rapid passages that would be perfectly easy for the hands would 
 
 * For an explanation of the production of the tone in flue-stops and reed- 
 stops, see Sedley Taylor's "Sound and Music " (Macmillan & Co.). 
 
262 
 
 Applied Forms. 
 
 [Chap. xm. 
 
 be quite impossible for the feet. But, as two notes lying near 
 one another can' always be played with the same foot— one with 
 the heel, and the other with the toe— more execution is possible, 
 even on the pedals, than those unacquainted with the organ 
 might imagine. The two following passages from Bach's organ 
 works will show what is practicable. 
 
 Bach : Organ Fugue in D major. 
 
 These passages illustrate both the alternate use of the two feet 
 and the employment of the heel and toe of the same foot. 
 
 498. Music for the organ is generally written on three staves 
 — one for each hand, as for the piano, and a third for the pedals. 
 In old English organ music, where the part for the pedals was 
 unimportant, mostly consisting of a few long holding notes, this 
 part was often written on the left-hand staff, but in modern music 
 a separate line is always given to it. Sometimes, for the sake 
 of clearness, it is expedient to use more than three staves. The 
 following passage from Mendelssohn's organ sonata in F minor 
 will illustrate this point 
 
 Me ndelss ohn : 1st Organ Sonata. 
 
 <! M A i 
 
Chap. X1IIJ 
 
 Organ Music. 
 
 263 
 
 The ' Clav. I.,' 'Clav. II.' is the abbreviation for 'Clavier I., II.' 
 the German equivalent of our word ' Manual.' The composer's 
 intention is here plainer than it would have been had he com- 
 pressed the manual parts on two staves. 
 
 499. The passage just given illustrates also another matter — 
 the combination of the different manuals in organ music. In the 
 above extract they are used alternately ; but they are quite as 
 frequently employed together, one hand playing on each, as in 
 the following quotation from the adagio of the same sonata. 
 
 Clav. 1. 
 
 Mendelssohn : 1st Organ Sonata. 
 
 Clav. 
 
 
 In such cases the composer sometimes prescribes the registering ; 
 at others he gives, as Mendelssohn has done here, only the 
 indications for the two manuals, leaving the choice of stops to the 
 taste of the performer. 
 
264 Applixd Forms [Chap. xm. 
 
 500. In one important respect, which must always be borne 
 in mind by the composer, the organ differs from all other 
 instruments, excepting those which we may describe as its distant 
 relatives, the Harmonium and American Organ. Owing to its 
 construction, it is capable of sustaining the same sound, un- 
 changed in quality and power, for any length of time that may 
 be desired. In the piano the tone begins to diminish in intensity 
 as soon as the note has been struck ; while on both stringed and 
 wind instruments there are limits to the duration of the sound, 
 depending in the former case on the length of the bow, and in 
 the latter on the capacity of the player's lungs. But on the 
 organ there is no such restriction. A key pressed down either 
 by finger or foot, admits the air to the pipe until that key is 
 released, when the sound ceases instantaneously. Hence the 
 necessity for the most perfect legato in organ playing. It is 
 not intended to imply that the staccato is never admissible on 
 the organ. It is sometimes employed, especially by modern 
 writers ; but its use is exceptional, and the legato style is certainly 
 that which best befits the nature of the instrument. 
 
 501. Owing to the unvarying strength of every sustained tone, 
 the organ must be regarded as, in a certain sense, the most 
 expressionless of all instruments. Accentuation, in the sense 
 in which that word may be applied to the piano or violin, does 
 not exist upon the organ. No difference in the player's touch 
 makes the slightest alteration in the strength of the tone. With 
 the exception of the comparatively slight difference made by 
 opening or closing the swell-box in which the pipes acted upon 
 by one of the manuals are enclosed, any crescendo or diminuendo 
 is impossible without changing the stops, which in most cases 
 modifies not only the power, but the quality of the tone. The 
 gradations from piano to forte are made, so to speak, by leaps 
 and bounds. This immobility of tone is one of the most 
 striking characteristics of the organ, and one that especially 
 fits it for the service of the church, in which the personal 
 element occupies only a subordinate position. Marx in his 
 ' Composition ' speaks of it as " the dogmatic instrument, firm 
 and immovable as dogma itself." As a substitute for accent, 
 in the sense in which that word is employed in pianoforte 
 playing, the organist has recourse to phrasing, to which can 
 often be advantageously added the tempo rubato, — that is a 
 slight dwelling upon what would be the accented notes. Care 
 must, however, be taken that such modifications of the time 
 are so small as not to destroy, or even to obscure the rhythm 
 of the music. 
 
 502. It is no doubt owing to this sustaining power that 
 " pedal points " are so frequently met with and so effective 
 on the organ. The name itself is derived from the instrument, 
 and a pedal point is called in Germany " organ point " (Orgel- 
 
Chap, xni.] Okgan Music. 265 
 
 punkt). Perhaps the most striking example of its employment 
 is to be seen in Bach's great Toccata in F, which commences 
 with a tonic pedal 54 bars long, followed shortly afterwards by 
 a dominant pedal of the same length. Other fine specimens 
 of pedal points, though less extended than those just referred 
 to, will be found in Bach's Pastorale in F, of which nearly the 
 whole first movement is constructed on pedals, and in several 
 of Mendelssohn's organ sonatas. 
 
 503. Into the question of the varieties of organ tone we 
 have not space to enter here. For the composer who practically 
 understands the instrument, the information would be super- 
 fluous, and one who does not himself play the organ will dc 
 well to leave the registering to the performer, and merely to 
 indicate generally the kind of effect that he desires. One or 
 two general hints may nevertheless be given. 
 
 504. In addition to such general indications as /, mf,f,lkc., 
 it is sometimes desirable that the composer for the organ should 
 prescribe more definitely the kind of tone that he wishes. For 
 example, a piano passage might be marked 'Great, 8 feet,' 'Choir, 
 8 feet ' (or ' 8 and 4 feet') ' Swell, with reeds, 8 ft.,' or in various 
 other ways. Such a course is especially advisable when two 
 manuals are being played simultaneously, as in our example to 
 § 499. It is true that Mendelssohn has not here prescribed 
 any special stops ; but in a note at the beginning of the sonata 
 he explains that this is because stops bearing the same name 
 differ nuch in different instruments, and adds that the quality 
 of tone of two manuals used together must always be contrasted. 
 It may be well to add to what has just been said that if 
 it is desired to thicken the tone by the 'doubles' (16-feet 
 stops,) this had better be expressly marked, thus, ' 16 and 8 feet,' 
 '16, 8, and 4 feet,' &c. 
 
 505. The changing of the quality of tone on any manual 
 can be effected to a limited extent, that is, as regards a few 
 of the most frequently used combinations, by means of what 
 are called 'composition pedals.' These are mechanical con- 
 trivances acted upon by the player's foot, which throw in or 
 out certain of the draw-stops. Sometimes 'composition-knobs' 
 placed immediately under the key-boards, and pressed by the 
 player's thumbs, answer the same purpose. Many French organs, 
 and some English, have instead of these a system of 'ventils,' 
 qr valves, which cut off the wind from the pipes without acting 
 upon the draw-stops. But, inasmuch as only a few combinations 
 are possible by these means, and as the arrangement of the 
 composition pedals differs very much in various instruments, it 
 is well, if much changing of the stops be desired, to leave one 
 hand pt liberty for a moment, if possible, from time to time, 
 to allow the player to make the desired alterations. 
 
 506. Though in general the bass of the harmony is given 
 
266 
 
 Applied Forms. 
 
 [Chap. XIII. 
 
 to the pedals, it is not advisable that they should be used 
 continuously. A very agreeable contrast is often obtainable by 
 giving the bass to the manual, with 8-feet tone only. Mendelssohn 
 has done this in the Adagio of his sonata in F minor quoted 
 above. For the first forty bars the bass is played on the manuals 
 alone, and the pedals enter for the first time, with the 16- 
 and 8-feet tone, at the 41st bar — the beginning of our extract 
 in § 499. 
 
 507. Bach, in a few of his arrangements of Chorals for the 
 organ, has employed the pedals not for the bass of the harmony, 
 but for giving out the melody of the choral. He has done 
 this when the real bass was so florid that it would have been 
 difficult to play with the feet. An interesting example of this 
 method is seen in the choral 'Wo soil ich fliehen hin,' of 
 which we quote a short extract, beginning at the sixth bar — 
 
 Clav. I. 8 ft. 
 
 Bach : ' Wo soil ich fliehen hin.' 
 
 This is a trio for two manuals and pedal. The first manual 
 (right hand,) gives the sounds as they appear in the notation. 
 
Chap, xiii.] Organ Music. 267 
 
 The second manual (16 feet,) sounds an octave lower than written, 
 while the pedal (4 ft.) instead of sounding, as usual, an octave 
 lower than its notation, sounds an octave higher, the result 
 being that in the third and fifth bars of this quotation, the 
 melody in the pedal really lies above the right hand part of 
 the manual, and is at the top of the harmony.* This passage 
 also illustrates the possibility of obtaining three different qualities 
 of tone on the organ simultaneously. 
 
 508. Owing to the necessity for a perfect legato in organ 
 playing (§ 501), it is advisable in polyphonic writing, especially 
 in fugues with florid subjects, not to write for too many inde- 
 pendent parts ; for this would render a clear performance very 
 difficult, or even impossible. If we examine the organ fugues 
 of Bach, which are the most perfect models of this style, we 
 shall find that, though they are mostly for four parts, it is 
 only in a comparatively small portion of the fugue that all are 
 heard together. For example, the favourite fugue in G minor, 
 
 contains 115 bars; from these we exclude the first seventeen, 
 which contain the exposition, as not bearing upon the point 
 in question. Of the remaining 98 bars only 30 are in four 
 parts, while 46 are in three, and the rest in only two-part harmony. 
 Where the subject is less florid, and the motion less animated, 
 a larger proportion of four-part harmony may be used ; but even 
 in such cases it will be well to have frequent rests in one or 
 other of the parts. For an instance we refer to Bach's ' Dorian' 
 fugue in D minor (see Fitgal Analysis, Fugue No. 6). Here the 
 subject is slow and stately, and no note shorter than a quaver 
 is to be found throughout the whole piece. Nevertheless, about 
 75 bars, or more than one-third of the whole fugue, is in three- 
 part harmony. 
 
 569. The forms of organ music are very varied, but, as they 
 mostly belong to one or another of those with which the student 
 is already acquainted, few of them will need detailed description. 
 Take, as an illustration, one of the commonest of the organ forms 
 —the Prelude and Fugue. The difference between the organ 
 fugues of Bach and his numerous fugues for the harpsichord, 
 such as the ' Forty-Eight ' is not a difference in the form, but 
 in the medium of its presentation. Granted that many of the 
 
 * It is extremely rare in England, though somewhat more common in 
 Germany, to find a 4-feet stop on the pedal organ. To realize Bach's effect 
 when that stop is wanting, three manuals would be required ; and the pedals 
 (with no stops of the pedal organ drawn) would have to be coupled to a 4-feet 
 stop on that manual which was not being played on by either hand. 
 
268 
 
 Applied Forms. 
 
 [Chap. XIII. 
 
 organ works are laid out on a larger scale than the majority 
 of the clavier fugues, though this is not always the case, we 
 still find, when we come to analyze them, that the framework 
 is the same. We have already spoken of the form both of the 
 Prelude and of the Fugue in Chapter IV. of this volume. The 
 Fantasia, Toccata, Variation, Chaconne and Passacaglia are all 
 forms with which the reader will be familiar from the earlier 
 part of this book. But it will be well to say something of the 
 Organ Sonata, as its form often differs considerably from the 
 sonata form which we studied in Chapters VII., VIII. and XII. 
 
 510. Bach's six sonatas for the organ are in reality trios 
 for two manuals and pedal, written strictly in three-part harmony 
 throughout,* and in the imitative contrapuntal style. Each 
 sonata contains three movements, all of which are either in simple 
 binary or ternary form. The first and last movements are always 
 in quick tempo (allegro, or vivace^) except in the third sonata, 
 which has an andante for its first movement ; while the middle 
 movement, as usual in sonatas, is in every case slow (adagio, largo, 
 &c). The fourth sonata has an introductory adagio of four bars. 
 The style of the music will appear from the following examples, 
 which are the opening bars of the first and second movements 
 of the second sonata. 
 
 Bach : Organ Sonata, No. 2, in C minor. 
 
 * The only instances in which a fourth note is added to the harmony are 
 in the first movement of the second sonata — one of the passages being seen in 
 the sixth bar of our extract (a) below — and at the end of the first movement 
 of the sixth sonata. In all these cases an additional note is necessary as the 
 resolution of a dissonance in the preceding chord. 
 
270 
 
 Applied Forms. [Chap. xiii. 
 
 511. The sonata form has been largely employed by modern 
 writers for the organ since the example was set by Mendelssohn. 
 It is a curious thing that in his six Organ Sonatas, Op. 65, there is 
 only one movement (the first movement of the first sonata in 
 F minor,) which is in what we know as the modern sonata form ; 
 and even here we find considerable freedom. The second move- 
 ment of this sonata, from which we quoted in § 499, is in simple 
 binary form ; the third movement {Andante, Recti.) is simply an 
 introduction to the finale, which is a mixed form, more resembling 
 a toccata than anything else. A somewhat similar form is em- 
 ployed for the finale to the fifth sonata. The first movement 
 of the fourth sonata (in B flat,) is a large ternary form ; while the 
 sixth sonata begins with a set of variations on the choral ' Vater 
 unser in Himmelreich.' Nearly all the other movements in the 
 sonatas are either simple binary forms or fugues, with or without 
 introductions. 
 
 512. It is not easy to see why Mendelssohn should have 
 (as it would appear,) so studiously avoided the sonata form in 
 these works ; for more modern writers have shown that it is by 
 no means unsuited for the instrument. We find several move- 
 ments written in this form in the organ sonatas of Merkel, 
 Rheinberger, and others ; but it is worth mentioning that we 
 have met with no instances in these of the repetition of the 
 exposition, so commonly found in sonatas for the piano. 
 
 513. There is in general much more variety to be found 
 in the character and order of the different movements of an 
 organ sonata than in those of a piano sonata. For example, 
 no two of Mendelssohn's sonatas have the same arrangement 
 of the movements. Nos. 3 and 6 end with a quiet andante ; in 
 the second and fourth, the finale is a fugue; while in the first 
 and fifth the form of the last movement, as we said just now, 
 is free, resembling the indefinite form of the toccata (§ 430). 
 No less diversity is to be found in more modern sonatas. To 
 give but two instances from the sixteen organ sonatas of Rhein- 
 berger, — his Pastoral Sonata in G, Op. 88, contains a Pastorale in 
 binary form, an Intermezzo (andante con moto.) which is only 
 an introduction leading into the third movement, and a Fugue. 
 His tenth sonata (Op, 146, in B minor,) consists of a Prelude 
 and Fugue, an Air with Variations, and a Fantasia (adagio,) 
 leading into a finale in sonata form. The fugue, being particu- 
 larly suitable to the character of the instrument, forms one of 
 the movements of most organ sonatas; we find it in four out 
 of Mendelssohn's six sonatas, and in nearly all of Rheinberger's. 
 On the other hand, the scherzo is very seldom to be found, 
 probably because of its being too light in character; the only 
 example we have met with is in Rheinberger's eighth sonata. The 
 only definite rule to be given to the composer as to his movements- 
 
chap, xiii.] Organ Music. 271 
 
 is, that the first and last should, as in other cyclic works, have the 
 same tonic. 
 
 514. Somewhat akin to the organ sonatas are the works which 
 C. M. Widor (organist of the Church of St. Sulpice, Paris,) has 
 published under the name of ' Symphonies for the Organ.' Each 
 of these is a collection of pieces, sometimes as many as six in 
 number, very various in form, in which the organ is treated in 
 orchestral style. They are sometimes very free, not to say vague, 
 in construction, but are full of inventive power, and admirably 
 adapted to show off the resources of a large instrument; but 
 it may be doubted whether such movements as the Scherzo in 
 No. 2, or the Intermezzo in No. 6, however effective in its way, 
 would not, by reason of their light staccato style, be far more 
 effective on the orchestra than on the organ. 
 
 515. In addition to the more important forms of which we 
 have spoken, smaller movements are often written for the organ, 
 such as Andantes, Marches, 'Meditations, 5 &c. The form of 
 such pieces will be mostly either the simple binary or the simple 
 ternary. The ' OfTertoire,' so often met with as the title of an 
 organ piece, is a very vague and indefinite name. It means a 
 piece written for performance during the offertory at Divine 
 service; and the form may be whatever the composer may 
 choose to select. 
 
 516. Occasionally organ music, like that for the piano, is 
 written for two performers. In such a case, the music will be on 
 six staves — three for each player, and there will be a double pedal 
 part, the ' Secondo ' player taking only the lower half of the 
 pedal board and the ' Primo' the upper half, for obvious reasons.* 
 A fine example of such a duet will be seen in Merkel's organ 
 sonata for two players, Op. 30, in D minor. 
 
 517. There is a tendency among a certain school of organ 
 writers to adopt what may be best described as a ' tawdry ' style 
 of composition, with clap-trap effects for vox humana, tremulant, 
 &c. Against such a style an emphatic protest should be made. 
 From its very nature the organ is the most dignified of all instru- 
 ments, and it is as unbecoming to degrade it to cheap and showy 
 display as it would be to compel an archbishop to dance a pas 
 seul, or to sing a music-hall song. Let the student take for his 
 model Bach (though he can never hope to equal him,) and 
 Mendelssohn, rather than Batiste et hoc genus omne. 
 
 * Bach in his Choral Preludes occasionally writes a double pedal part (one 
 for each foot,) for a single player, as in his preludes on " Aus tiefer Noth" 
 and "An Wasserfliissen Babylon." 
 
Applied Forms. [Chap. xiv. 
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 VOCAL MUSIC. 
 
 518. Hitherto we have treated only of the various forms of 
 instrumental music; we have now to complete our subject by 
 saying something about such music as is written for voices, either 
 with or without instrumental accompaniment. Though there will 
 be found to be little that is new in the forms of vocal music, these 
 being for the most part nearly or quite identical with the instru- 
 mental forms with which the student may now be assumed to 
 be familiar, there are several important considerations to be 
 borne in mind in writing for voices, quite irrespective of the form 
 of the music ; and it will be well, before proceeding to speak of 
 vocal forms, to give a few hints for the guidance of young com- 
 posers on certain points which are too frequently overlooked or 
 disregarded. 
 
 5ro. The human voice is the most perfect, and, when 
 properly trained, and directed by artistic feeling on the part of 
 the possessor, one of the most delightful of all musical instru- 
 ments. It must, of course, be understood that we are using the 
 word "instrument" here in its widest sense as equivalent to "tone 
 producer." It is not only capable of the minutest shades of 
 intonation, but is unsurpassed in its capabilities of expression. 
 But this expressive power is closely connected with the fact that, 
 with rare exceptions, to be presently noticed, all vocal music is 
 associated with words. Instrumental music, not being so asso- 
 ciated, is often spoken of as "absolute" music, and deals with 
 ideas of a nature which is seldom capable of being translated 
 into any words. It has been said that " where speech ends music 
 (that is, absolute music) begins " ; and from this point of view 
 instrumental music would rank higher than vocal. On the other 
 hand it cannot be denied that in countless instances the com- 
 bination of music with words heightens the effect of both. As a 
 familiar example may be named the air " He was despised " in 
 the ' Messiah.' Beautiful as the music is in itself, it would lose a 
 great part of its emotional power, were it not inseparably asso- 
 ciated with the text which it so admirably illustrates. 
 
 520. One of the most important points to be considered in 
 vocal composition is the adaptation of the music to the words. By 
 this we do not mean merely that the music should illustrate the 
 sense of the words, e.g. that grave and serious words should not 
 
Chap. XIV.] 
 
 Vocal Music. 
 
 273 
 
 he set to lively music, and vice verscL; for this is a matter that 
 will be self-evident to every thoughtful composer. Even in this 
 matter, however, the great masters themselves are not always 
 beyond reproach. Mendelssohn, in one of his charming letters, 
 speaks of a mass of Haydn's which he had heard as being 
 " scandalously merry " ; and it must be admitted that much of the 
 church music of the last century, and even of this, leaves much to 
 desire on the score of appropriateness of sentiment. This, however, 
 is not the point to which we are now referring. We are speaking 
 now of the absolute necessity of making the accents of the music 
 correspond with the accented syllables of the text. All teachers 
 of composition know how common it is for pupils, when beginning 
 to write songs, to put such unimportant words as articles or 
 prepositions on the accented beats of the music. As an example 
 of the kind of mistake to which we are referring, we give a 
 passage from an old song called 'The Pilot' written by John 
 Davy, an English composer of the early part of the present 
 century.* 
 
 («) 
 
 The sig-nals of dis- tress he hears, And to the foun-d'ring ves - sel steers, 
 
 In the first bar of this extract, the word " of" is placed upon the 
 second accent, and in the third bar "to" is on the strongest 
 accent of the bar. Let anybody read the lines, emphasizing the 
 words thus — 
 
 "The signals ^distress he hears, 
 And to the found'ring vessel steers," 
 
 and the absurdity becomes manifest at once. It would have been 
 far more correct to have altered the music slightly, and written 
 
 The sig • nals of dis- tress he hears, And to the foun-d'ring ves • sel steers, 
 
 521. Here it will be well to digress for a moment, to impress 
 upon the student the importance of care in the selection of words 
 for setting. Especially is this necessary in the case of songs 
 which, like that from which we have just quoted, contain several 
 stanzas, all set to the same music. A much greater freedom in 
 the position of the accents is allowable in poetry than in music ; 
 and when (as in the above lines,) the accents of the words are at 
 
 * John Davy, (born 1765, died 1824,) was a composer of songs and 
 incidental music to plays, much of which in its time enjoyed considerable 
 popularity. He is now only remembered by one song, " The Bay of Biscay," 
 which is still sometimes heard in our concert-rooms. 
 
274 
 
 Applied Forms. 
 
 [Chap. XIV. 
 
 irregular intervals, it is advisable to modify the melody accord- 
 ingly ; this, indeed, is the practice of the great composers. 
 
 522. Another point, somewhat akin to that just noticed, is, 
 that the cadences in the music must correspond in their position 
 with the breaks in the sense of the words. Nothing produces a 
 more absurd effect than the introduction of a cadence of any 
 kind between words which should be closely connected. Davy's 
 song, above referred to, gives a ludicrous example of this mistake 
 also. In the third verse are found these lines — 
 
 " His steady orders all obey, 
 And now the vessel on her way 
 Pursues, the Pilot bent to save," &c. 
 
 Davy has set the second and third lines thus — 
 
 And now the ves - sel on her way Pur - sues, the Pi - lot bent to save ; 
 
 ,- -„. __„ 1 1 , — I ^-m-. r-. — rB,— L 
 
 The second bar, it will be seen, introduces a full cadence in 
 C major, and the next phrase begins on the last note of the bar. 
 It is absurd enough to make a full close at "on her way," but the 
 effect of the following line is still more ridiculous ; for the quaver 
 rest after " pursues " does not detach that word from what follows. 
 The third and fourth bars form 'one phrase; and the words, 
 as here set, if they have any meaning at all, mean that the vessel 
 is pursuing the Pilot ! Scarcely less comical is a well-known 
 passage in Balfe's once very popular song, " Come into the 
 garden, Maud," where Tennyson's 
 
 " Queen rose of the rosebud garden of girls" 
 
 is distorted into 
 
 " Queen of the rosebud, — garden of girls." 
 
 523. Even the great masters have not always been free from 
 the fault of insufficient attention to the accentuation of the words. 
 One example from the works of Handel will be sufficient to show 
 this. In the song " Praise ye the Lord " in ' Solomon,' the com- 
 poser has set iambic verses, in which the accent occurs on every 
 second syllable, in slow triple time, with the accent on every third 
 note, thus — 
 
Chap. XIV.] 
 
 Vocal Music. 
 
 275 
 
 Praise ye the Lord for all his mer - cies past, for all his mer-cies 
 
 past, Whose truth, whose jus - tice will for 67 - er last. 
 
 Here the accented notes of the third, fifth, and ninth bars are set 
 to what are evidently the unimportant words of the text, as will be 
 felt at once, if the student will read the text without reference to 
 the music above it. Such cases are comparatively rare with com- 
 posers of the first rank, though common enough with imperfectly 
 trained musicians. 
 
 524. It is a matter of great importance for the composer, 
 whether writing for one voice alone or for different voices in com- 
 bination, to consider carefully the question of their compass. It 
 is impossible to define this accurately within a note or two, 
 because there is so much difference in individuals ; but a general 
 approximation may be given, which will be sufficiently near to 
 serve as a guide for the student. It will be known to every one 
 that the male voice is in pitch about an octave lower than the 
 female voice of the same kind. To understand what is meant by 
 these words, it must be remembered that there are three classes 
 of voice — high, medium, and low, the female voices being called 
 respectively Soprano (or Treble), Mezzo-Soprano, and Contralto, 
 and the corresponding male voices, Tenor, Baritone, and Bass. 
 To these must be added the Male Alto, an artificial voice, seldom 
 to be met with except in this country. 
 
 525. The average compass of the six kinds of voices just 
 enumerated is about the following — 
 
 SOPRANO. 
 
 Mezzo-Soprano. 
 
 Contralto. 
 
 Tenor. 
 
 It must be distinctly understood that the compass here given is 
 only approximate. For instance, it is not uncommon, especially 
 with young people, to find soprano voices easily able to reach 
 the upper C, or even (though less frequently,) D ; while, on 
 the other hand, some contraltos can sing down to F, and many 
 basses can touch E, or even D below the staff. But in writing 
 
276 
 
 Applied Forms. 
 
 [Chap. XIV. 
 
 for the voice it is not advisable to reckon upon an exceptional 
 compass. 
 
 526. The student must not suppose that, even within the 
 limits above assigned, it is a matter of indifference for what part 
 of the voice he writes, just as, in writing for the piano, he might 
 use any part of the key-board that he chose. Each voice contains 
 what are known as different "registers," the sounds obtained 
 from these varying in quality, and being produced by different 
 methods. The question of voice-production is one into which 
 we have no room to enter here; the student will obtain the 
 needful information in any good treatise on singing ; we must 
 confine ourselves to the practical results. The lower notes of 
 the voice are mostly the weakest ; this is especially the case 
 with the soprano and tenor. Though in the table given above 
 we have indicated C as the lowest note of the tenor voice, it 
 will not be advisable in general to write much below the E on 
 the first space, the tone of the notes below this being generally 
 thin and ineffective. On the higher part of the voice, on the 
 other hand, the notes are powerful, and sometimes even piercing ; 
 but it is important to remember that they are produced with 
 more effort, and that the voice soon becomes fatigued if too 
 many high notes are introduced in succession. 
 
 527. The great composers are not always sufficiently careful 
 in the matter of writing effectively for the voice. We give an 
 example from Schumann of a tenor solo passage written for a 
 part of the compass so, low that hardly one singer in ten can 
 produce a good tone. 
 
 It C m 
 
 lev ' 'fl tj* ,l l 
 
 SCHUM 
 
 ' 1 "" ' 1 "! — ""ZT" 
 
 ann: 
 
 «Das 
 
 'aradies und c 
 
 ie Peri.' 
 
 
 
 j_4_ 
 
 & 
 
 tj"^ 1 • q* - 
 
 qjs=J 
 
 so plotz - lich bricht 
 
 528. Too free employment of the upper notes is even more 
 to be deprecated. Not only, as already said, are they fatiguing 
 to the singer, but they are almost necessarily produced with a 
 feeling of effort which is very unpleasant to listen to. In this 
 matter Beethoven was the greatest offender. In the finale of 
 the choral symphony the soprano voices have to sing the upper 
 A for thirteen bars, while in his great mass in D the voices are 
 still more thoughtlessly treated. The worst example in Beethoven, 
 however, is to be found in one of his least known works — the 
 incidental music to ' King Stephen.' In the final chorus he has 
 written a passage for the trebles which is as cruel as it is all but 
 impracticable. 
 
Chap. XIV.] 
 
 Vocal Music. 
 
 277 
 
 Beethoven : ' King Stephen.* 
 
 dank 
 
 bar. .... weiht, ihm dank • bar weiht, ihm dank • bar weiht. 
 
 This is written, it must be remembered, not for an exceptional 
 solo voice, but for a chorus. One wonders, in reading it, whether 
 it was ever really sung as written; if it was, the effect in per- 
 formance must have been absolutely painful. 
 
 529. It must not be supposed that the use of these higher 
 notes is prohibited ; far from it. They are often most effective, 
 especially in dramatic music ; but they should be employed with 
 moderation and judgment. It will be well here to recommend 
 the student to be careful, when writing high notes, as to the 
 vowels on which they are to be sung. It is much more difficult 
 to produce them on a syllable such as " me," which requires the 
 mouth to be nearly closed, than on a broad open vowel, such 
 as " far." 
 
 530. A very important caution to be given to the student 
 is not to write unvocatty— that is, uncomfortably for the singer. 
 It is not easy to define exactly in so many words what is meant 
 by this, though an experienced composer knows well enough. 
 The student will best understand it by a few examples. Music 
 may be unvocal because of difficulties either in the intervals, or 
 in the rhythmic subdivisions of the time — the former being the 
 more common. It must be remembered that the voice is not 
 a mechanical instrument, like the piano. On the latter the player 
 has only to know what is the next note to strike, and he has 
 mostly no difficulty in striking it. But with the voice it is different. 
 Unless a singer has a clear conception in his mind of the relation 
 of the note which he is about to sing to that which he has just 
 sung, it will often be impossible for him to sing in tune, and he 
 may even fail to hit the right note at all. This is especially the 
 case with choral music, which is mostly written for singers less 
 perfectly trained than solo-singers. Hence music in which the 
 tonality is vague, doubtful, or constantly varying, is always 
 difficult to sing. For this reason, augmented intervals (seconds, 
 fourths, fifths, or sixths) and most chromatic intervals should be 
 introduced with great discretion. The more certain the singer 
 is of his key,' the more correct will be his intonation. 
 
 531. As an illustration of this kind of unvocal writing, we 
 give a well-known passage from the finale of Beethoven's Choral 
 Symphony. 
 
278 
 
 Applied Forms. 
 
 [Chap. XIV. 
 
 Bbethoven : 9th Symphony. 
 
 _JteB m- 
 
 Ihr 
 TtNOR, 
 
 der, Mil 
 
 =t 
 
 den SchSp 
 
 fer Well ? 
 
 Such' 
 
 berm Ster • - • 
 
 This extract, which is without harmony, being accompanied 
 simply in the unison and octave, is preceded by a cadence in 
 the key of D major. The difficulty here arises from the un- 
 defined tonality. The bass passage suggests G minor rather 
 than any other key ; but the entry of the tenor is not in that 
 key, and what has just been heard in the bass gives the tenor 
 no help in finding the first note, E natural, which is a diminished 
 fifth below the last note of the bass. The entry of the treble 
 on B flat, after the F sharp in the alto, is also very difficult. Of 
 course the passage can be sung, but it is none the less most 
 uncomfortably written for the voices. 
 
 532. The other kind of difficulty to which we have referred 
 is rhythmic, and is less frequently met with than that of which 
 we have just spoken. Accents displaced by means of syn- 
 copation, and what are known as " cross accents " {Musical Form, 
 § 287,) are a fruitful source of trouble to singers, especially to 
 chorus singers. In solo music syncopation is not infrequent, 
 as in the familiar passage of the air, "With verdure clad," in 
 Haydn's ' Creation,' beginning 
 
 though even a soloist would find such a passage troublesome were 
 the syncopation long continued; but for a chorus it would be 
 almost impracticable. Even more troublesome to sing is a 
 figure employed by Beethoven in the fugue which ends the 
 ' Credo ' of his great Mass in D. 
 
 Allegro, coil. Jtioto. 
 
 Beethoven : Mass in D. 
 
 m-, 
 
Chap. XIV.] 
 
 Vocal Music. 
 
 279 
 
 Considered from a musical point of view, the work from which 
 we are quoting is one of the grandest in the whole range of art ; 
 but neither this, nor the fact that Beethoven was the greatest 
 composer of the present century should blind us to his short- 
 comings as a writer for voices ; and there is no doubt that the 
 reason why the Mass in D is hardly ever heard is that it presents 
 such enormous difficulties to the singers. Even the greatest 
 genius may sometimes go astray. 
 
 533. As an example of cross accents we give a fine passage 
 by Brahms — 
 
 Brahms : ' Schicksalslied. 
 
 r « |( ' 
 
 Ulegn 
 
 '■ 1 , 
 
 1— 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1- ' 
 
 1 
 
 . 1 
 eg i 
 
 ZEr — E~~ w 
 
 Wie 
 
 1 
 
 T ^|— 
 
 Was - ser 
 
 1 1 
 
 M. .«- 
 
 1 
 
 von 
 
 1 
 
 -1 1— 
 
 Klip - pe 
 1 1 
 
 Jt — 
 
 1 
 zu 
 
 ■m- 
 
 — 1 va- 
 
 -1 r 3 
 
 Klip - pe 
 
 A kj. 
 
 1 
 
 ge 
 
 1 
 
 -•- 
 
 ffr 
 
 =^1 'i 
 
 - wor - fen, 
 
 -1- 1 - ■ 1 
 
 ^bb4 f I— -■' = 
 
 
 
 r t0- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 This is not quoted as being unvocal ; but it is difficult for a 
 chorus because of the sudden contradiction of the triple-time 
 accent which has been established in the preceding part of the 
 movement. Such passages require great care and judgment for 
 their introduction. 
 
 534. Before proceeding to speak of the more important vocal 
 forms, it will be well to say a few words about vocal music 
 without words. Of this there are two kinds. That most com- 
 monly met with is found in what are known as Solfeggi, or 
 Vocalises — exercises written for training the voice, and therefore 
 corresponding in their aim to the Etudes spoken of in Chapter 
 IV. of this volume. Such Vocalises are intended to be sung on 
 an open vowel sound, such as ah, and the form is quite at the 
 discretion of the composer ; that most frequently adopted being 
 the small binary form. 
 
 535. The other sort of vocal music without words is that 
 known by the French name of bouche fermk. This is simply 
 humming, with the mouth closed, and is sometimes employed 
 as a choral accompaniment to a solo, as at the beginning of the 
 ' Gloria ' of Gounod's Cecilian Mass. 
 
 Gounod : Cecilian Mass. 
 
 Chorus. . 
 
 fjfip 
 
280 Applied Forms. [Chap. xiv. 
 
 Another very effective example of the use of this device will be 
 seen in the song " C'est la corvette," in the second act of Auber's 
 ' Hayde"e,' in which the refrain is similarly accompanied. It is 
 less often used in solo music, though an instance will be found in 
 Solveig's first song in Grieg's music to 'Peer Gynt.' Unless 
 for very special effects, we advise students to abstain from its 
 employment, as it has a tendency to approach dangerously near 
 to clap-trap. 
 
 536. Coming now to the forms of vocal music properly so 
 called, we speak first of that written for a single voice, and 
 commence with that which, if we may so speak, is intermediate 
 between song and speech. This is what is known as Recitative. 
 Marx in his great treatise on Composition, to which we have so 
 often referred, defines Recitative as "speech raised to musical 
 precision " (or " definiteness," German, ' Bestimmtheit '). Of 
 this there are two varieties, — free Recitative, and Recitative 
 a tempo. The former is simply musical declamation, in which 
 the object of the composer should be to express as accurately as 
 possible the sense of the text by the inflexions of the music, just 
 as a good reader would deliver it; while the performer is left 
 absolutely free in tempo, so as to be able to declaim it with more 
 expression. Such recitative as this was formerly accompanied 
 mostly only by harpsichord or piano with chords spread in 
 arpeggio, and was then known as recitativo secco (literally " dry " 
 recitative), or, in English as "plain" or "simple" recitative. 
 But where the sentiment of the words required it, in opera or 
 oratorio, the orchestra was used instead of the harpsichord, not 
 merely to accompany with chords, sustained or detached, but 
 to heighten the emotional effect by instrumental passages 
 interspersed between the vocal phrases. Such was called 
 accompanied recitative. As examples of the recitativo secco may 
 be named "Behold a virgin shall conceive" and "Then shall 
 the eyes of the blind be opened " in the ' Messiah,' while " Thy 
 rebuke hath broken his heart," from the same work, is an example 
 of the accompanied recitative. It should be added that the 
 former is now almost, if not entirely, obsolete. 
 
 537. The other variety of recitative is the recitativo a tempo. 
 In this the vocal portion is declamatory, rather than melodious, 
 just as is the case with the simple recitative ; but the accompani- 
 ment consists, not of plain chords, but of some rhythmic figure or 
 figures, so that it is impossible for the singer to vary the time at 
 his discretion. Referring again to the ' Messiah ' for illustrations, 
 we see examples in the recitatives relating the Nativity. The 
 first and third of these ("There were shepherds," and "And the 
 angel said unto them,") are recitativo secco ; while the second 
 ("And lo ! the angel' of the Lord,") and the fourth ("And sud- 
 denly there was with the angel,") are recitativo a tempo. In 
 
Chap, xiv.] Vocal Music. 281 
 
 " Comfort ye " we see the first part a tempo, and the latter part 
 (" The voice of him that crieth in the wilderness ") free in time, 
 but accompanied by the orchestra. In " For behold darkness," 
 which is a tempo throughout, the middle portion, at the words 
 " But the Lord shall arise upon thee," is in a more definite 
 melodic form than that of ordinary recitative, and approaches 
 nearer to the character of a song. Such a passage is called 
 Arioso, though Handel has not given it that name. Bach 
 frequently introduces an arioso at the end (sometimes in the 
 middle,) of his recitatives. 
 
 538. We have selected all our illustrations from the ' Messiah,' 
 because that work is in everybody's hands ; but the student who 
 would learn how to write recitative effectively must examine many 
 models. In Handel's works the recitatives in ' Samson ' are par- 
 ticularly worthy of his attention, while he will find a remarkably 
 fine, though little known specimen in the opening recitative, 
 " Vain, fluctuating state of human empire ! " in ' Belshazzar.' The 
 magnificent recitatives in Bach's 'Passion Music,' and in his 
 Church Cantatas should be also examined. Those of Gluck's 
 operas deserve careful study, being admirable in the truthfulness 
 of their expression, and those of Mozart are also excellent models. 
 Beethoven wrote very little recitative; but those in 'Fidelio,' 
 and the "Ah! perfido, spergiuro!" deserve close examination. 
 Spohr and Mendelssohn in their oratorios are also very successful 
 in their treatment of this form, which is, from its very nature, so 
 indefinite that it can only be acquired by the study of the best 
 examples. 
 
 539. Occasionally in modern music recitative has been written 
 for chorus, instead of for a solo voice. This is known as Choral 
 Recitative. Perhaps the earliest instance of its employment is in 
 the chorus " He sent a thick darkness " in Handel's ' Israel in 
 Egypt,' of which all the last part, though not so called, is really 
 recitative in its form and style. Mendelssohn has used it twice in 
 ' Elijah ' (" The deeps afford no water," and " Go, return upon 
 thy way "), and we also find it in his music to ' Antigone ' and 
 • CEdipus at Colonos.' 
 
 540. Music written for a single voice varies widely both in 
 form and dimensions, ranging from the simplest 'Volkslied,' or 
 popular air, to the most elaborate scena. The form and style of 
 the music will to a great extent depend upon the text. The 
 simplest form is that which may be described as the Strophic 
 Song — that is, a song of which the words consist of several 
 strophes, or stanzas, the music being the same for all. Most 
 national airs, Volkslieder, &c, are of this kind, as are also a large 
 number of the smaller songs of the great composers (Schubert, 
 Mendelssohn, Schumann, &c). The musical form of such pieces 
 is always the simple binary, sometimes containing only two 
 
282 Applied Forms. [Chap. xiv. 
 
 sentences, sometimes three or four. Several examples of songs 
 of this kind are given or referred to in Chapter IX. of Musical 
 Form (§§ 318-320, 328). The majority of ballads* is also in the 
 same form. 
 
 541. A larger form of song, containing much more variety in 
 its outlines, is that which is known in Germany as a " durch- 
 componirtes Lied" — literally a "through-composed song." We 
 have no exact equivalent for this term, probably because the form 
 itself is comparatively seldom employed by English composers. 
 Here the form depends very largely upon the words. This will 
 be best seen by examining a collection of songs containing both 
 forms. We select Schubert's ' Die schone Miillerin,' as being well 
 known and easily accessible. The cycle contains in all twenty 
 songs; several of these (Nos. 1, 7, 8, 9, 13, 14, 16, and 20,) are 
 strophic, having the same music for each stanza; No. 10 
 (Thranenregen,) is also strophic, but the music of the last stanza 
 differs from that of the preceding. No. 3 ('Halt'), though com- 
 posed throughout, is a large binary form; Nos. 5, n, 12, 17 and 
 19 are ternary, Nos. 12 and 17 having long codas. In 'Der 
 Neugierige' (No. 6,) and 'Trockne Blumen' (No. 18,) we see a 
 kind of double binary form — the first two stanzas set to the same 
 music, and the remaining ones to a different melody, the mode 
 changing in the latter from minor, for the first part, to major for 
 the second. The remaining numbers of the series are in more or 
 less irregular forms, and cannot be exactly classified. In such 
 cases unity is often preserved (as in ' Wohin ') by the persistence 
 of one figure of accompaniment The question whether any 
 particular poem should be set strophically or not is one which 
 must be left entirely to the judgment of the composer. 
 
 542. Many sorigs are written in the simple ternary form, on a 
 larger scale than those above referred to from the 'Schone 
 Miillerin.' Such are all those written in the old da capo form, so 
 common in the middle of the last century. The application of 
 the ternary form to vocal music was spoken of in Musical 
 Form §§ 392-398, and we refer our readers to what was there 
 said. 
 
 543. The older Rondo form can also be used for vocal music. 
 An exceedingly beautiful example of this will be seen in the bass 
 song " Schlummert ein, ihr matten Augen," in Bach's Cantata " Ich 
 habe genug." To save space, we give in our quotations only the 
 
 * The word "ballad " is here used in the sense commonly given to it in 
 this country ; the German ' Ballade ' is a different form altogether, and is 
 either a poem set for one voice, and composed throughout, as in Schubert's 
 ' Erl King ' or Schumann's ' Belsatzar,' or sometimes a species of cantata for 
 chorus and orchestra, with or without solo voices. Mendelssohn's ' First 
 Walpurgis Night ' is a Ballade of this kind. 
 
Chap. XIV.] 
 
 Vocal Music. 
 
 283 
 
 voice part and the bass, which Bach has figured so fully that 
 students will readily see the harmony. After an orchestral pre- 
 lude of nine bars in which the chief subject of the song is 
 announced, the voice begins as follows — 
 
 Bach : Cantata, " Ich habe genug." 
 
 The continuation of this melody leads at bar 27 to the close 01 
 the principal subject in the tonic key, after which the opening 
 symphony is repeated. The first episode commences at bar 37, 
 
 In i W p 
 
 r I**" 
 
 ^-f-^=^* 
 
 1 f ' f aJwF — r-i 
 
 Welt, 
 
 1 1* 1 w - 
 
 ich blei - be nicht mehr bier, 
 
 bab' ich doch kein 
 
 11 11 ^^J^[ 
 
 v L£ 
 
 
 -^-s^r^^ 
 
 
 — S 6 « 77 648 6 a <« 7 
 
 4 fl — 6 3 
 
 3 
 
 and ends at bar 48, with a full cadence in G minor. Note, in 
 passing, that the first principal modulation is to the dominant side 
 of the original tonic. The chief subject is then repeated, with a 
 slight alteration in the first bars, and followed by one bar of 
 interlude for orchestra, leading to the second episode — 
 
284 
 
 Applied Forms. 
 
 [Chap. XIV. 
 
 This episode is mostly in the keys of F minor and C minor, but 
 it ends with a full cadence in A flat, after which the first 36 bars 
 of the song are repeated da capo. It will be seen that there is 
 here a perfectly regular rondo form, with two episodes in different 
 keys, and that the whole movement follows exactly the form 
 described in Chapter VI. of this volume. 
 
 544. In the vocal compositions of Mozart several good 
 examples of the older rondo form are to be found. We refer 
 students to the air "L'amero, saro costante" in 'II Re Pastore,' 
 and to the two Concert Arias " Io ti lascio " and " Mia speranza 
 adorata " as fine specimens. The songs " Non piu di fiori " in ' La 
 Clemenza di Tito,' and "Non mi dir" in 'Don Giovanni,' are 
 also in rondo form, though both are less regular in their con- 
 struction than the movements we have just named. We cannot 
 recall any instance of the modern rondo (Rondo-Sonata) form 
 being employed in vocal music. 
 
 545. Though less common than the older rondo form, the 
 sonata form is sometimes to be found in songs, especially in the 
 operas of Mozart. Our space will not allow us to give illustra- 
 tions ; students will find examples which deserve careful analysis 
 in the airs " Zeffiretti lusinghieri " and " Se colil ne fati e scritto " 
 in 'Idomeneo' and in the allegro of the song "Ach, ich liebte" 
 in the first act of 'Die Entfiihrung aus dem Serail.' All these 
 movements are in regular sonata form ; the modified sonata forms 
 are much more frequently met with. 
 
 546. Hitherto we have spoken only of single vocal movements -, 
 but we often find songs and other compositions in which there is 
 more than one movement. Some of the examples to be found 
 in Schubert's songs, e.g. ' Der Wanderer,' contain several changes 
 of tempo ; and such are even more common in dramatic music 
 than in that intended for the concert room. A form frequently 
 found in opera is that known as the Scena. This is a develop- 
 ment from the older Italian cantata, of which many specimens are 
 
Chap, xiv.] Vocal Music. 285 
 
 to be seen in the works of Carissimi, Scarlatti, and Handel. 
 These cantatas consisted of two or more airs, generally (though 
 not invariably,) connected by recitatives. The form of the 
 separate movements was entirely at the discretion of the com- 
 poser. The modern Scena always begins with a recitative, which 
 is mostly followed by two movements, the first in slow, and the 
 second in quick tempo. These movements will be in one of the 
 various forms that we have described in this chapter ; but it is not 
 at all unusual to find more than two movements following the 
 first recitative. The form of the Scena as a whole depends 
 almost entirely upon the text to which it is set. Among the 
 finest examples in dramatic music may be named Marx's scena 
 " Durch die Walder," in the first act of ' Der Freischutz,' that for 
 Agathe " Wie nahte mir der Schlummer," in the second act of 
 the same opera, and the well-known " Ocean, thou mighty 
 monster" in 'Oberon.' Beethoven's 'Fidelio' also contains two 
 magnificent examples of this form— the " Abscheulicher " in the 
 first act, and " Gott ! welch' Dunkel hier " in the second. 
 
 547. The term 'Scena' is sometimes applied only to the 
 opening recitative, when followed by other movements as de- 
 scribed above, the whole piece being thus designated ' Scena ed 
 Aria.' Inasmuch, however, as that which follows the recitative is by • 
 no means invariably in song form throughout, but frequently (as 
 in the examples from the 'Freischutz' above referred to,) contains 
 more recitative passages, it seems better to give the name ' Scena ' 
 to the entire composition, rather than to restrict it to the first 
 portion. 
 
 548. The Scena is also to be found in music written for the 
 concert-room, though not so frequently as in opera. Beethoven's 
 " Ah perfido " is an example of this, as also is Mendelssohn's 
 " Infelice ! " — this piece, it should be remarked, being entitled 
 ' Concert Aria.' Mozart has also left us a large number of concert 
 pieces of this kind, some of which, however, were written to be 
 introduced, according to the custom of the time, into operas by 
 other composers. 
 
 549. In writing the accompaniments to a vocal solo, whether 
 such be for the piano or the orchestra, no account need be taken 
 of the difference in pitch between the male and female voice. 
 Thus, a tenor solo can be accompanied like one for soprano, and 
 the bass like the alto. But when in part-music male and female 
 voices are used together, the difference of an octave in their 
 pitch must be carefully attended to. 
 
 550. Pieces written for more than one solo voice (duets, trios, 
 &c.,) have in general the same forms as those written for one 
 voice only. But it is possible also with these to employ imitation, 
 more or less strict ; and we sometimes find entire movements 
 written in canon. The quartett in the first act of ' Fidelio ' is a 
 well-known instance of this, and another excellent example will 
 
286 Applied Forms. [CKap. xiv. 
 
 be seen in the trio from Cherubini's ' Faniska' given in § 330 of 
 Double Counterpoint. Still more common, especially in duets, are 
 incidental passages of imitation, as in the duet " O death, where 
 is thy sting?" in the 'Messiah.' Numerous examples of this 
 kind will be found in Handel's Chamber Duets, in those of 
 Clari, Steffani, and other Italian composers, and _ in Marcello's 
 Psalms. The employment of such imitative devices does not 
 affect the form of the movements, which will for the most part, be 
 either binary or ternary. 
 
 551. A species of composition for solo voices which is peculiar 
 to England is the Glee. The name has nothing to do with 
 merriment, for serious glees are quite as common as lively 
 ones; it is derived from the Anglo-Saxon word gligg, which 
 signifies ' music' A glee is for at least three voices, frequently 
 for four, and sometimes for five, and should not be sung by 
 more than one voice to a part. It may be either for mixed 
 voices, that is, for male and female voices together, or, perhaps 
 more commonly, for male voices alone. In the latter case the 
 upper part (or, if there are five voices, occasionally the two upper 
 parts,) are given to the alto voice.* 
 
 552. The form of the glee varies so much that it is im- 
 possible to generalize concerning it. In the shorter specimens, 
 such as Stevens's "The cloud-capt towers," Spofforth's "Hail, 
 smiling morn," or Paxton's "Breathe soft, ye winds," the time 
 is unchanged throughout; but more elaborate examples (e.g. 
 Webbe's " Discord, dire sister," and " When winds breathe soft,") 
 often contain several movements in different tempi. As the form 
 selected by the composer largely depends upon the words which 
 he is setting, such glees more nearly resemble the fantasia than 
 any of the instrumental forms described in the earlier chapters 
 of this volume. Here it may be said once for all that in 
 vocal, music, excepting in the smaller varieties, the forms are 
 almost always more indefinite and more difficult to analyze than 
 in instrumental, because of the disturbing element introduced 
 by the text which has to be set, and which can never be 
 left out of consideration by the composer. 
 
 553. Nearly akin to the glee is the Part Song. The chief 
 differences between the two are that, whereas the glee is written 
 for solo voices the part-song is for chorus, and that the latter 
 is generally more homophonic than the former. The part-song 
 also is frequently strophic in its construction, as in Mendelssohn's 
 
 * The male alto voice, referred to in § 523, which is so frequently 
 employed in glees and in English church music, is an artificial, or "falsetto" 
 
 voice, the compass of which is from jj j| t 5 j The composer 
 
 should be careful not to exceed this compass in writing glees or church music, 
 as in many of our cathedrals and churches only male altos are to be found. 
 Even within this compass the extreme notes should be used sparingly. 
 
Chap, xiv.] Vocal Music. 287 
 
 " O forest, deep and gloomy," and in many other specimens by 
 the same composer. Excellent examples of the part-song will be 
 seen in the works of Weber, Schubert, and Mendelssohn, and, 
 of English writers, in the compositions of Henry Smart, Sullivan, 
 J. L. Hatton, and others too numerous to mention. 
 
 554. A form now nearly obsolete, but which formerly was one 
 of the most important in vocal music, was -the Madrigal. The 
 origin of the name is involved in deep obscurity, but the nature 
 of the composition can be clearly seen from the numerous existing 
 specimens by Flemish, Italian, and English composers. The 
 Madrigal is much older than either the Glee or the Part- Song, 
 and differs essentially from both in its construction. The more 
 ancient examples, being anterior in date to the introduction of 
 modern tonality, are mostly written in the older church modes. 
 But an even more important difference is seen in the fact 
 that, whereas the Glee and Part-Song are chiefly homophonic, 
 the Madrigal is essentially polyphonic in style, abounding in 
 passages of imitation, canon, &c. Hence it results that, while 
 in the more modern forms the rhythmic construction is generally 
 very clear, and the cadential formula? frequent, continuity is 
 one of the chief features of the madrigal form, as it is also 
 of the fugue. It is not meant by this that no full cadences 
 are to be met with in madrigals, but only that such are less 
 frequent than in glees or part-songs, and that, as with fugues, 
 they often furnish the starting point for a new departure. Among 
 the best models for the student who wishes to write in this 
 old form are the madrigals of Luca Marenzio, Palestrina, and 
 Orlando di Lasso among the Italians, and those of Gibbons, 
 Wilbye, and Weelkes among English composers. 
 
 555. Very similar to the Madrigal was the older form of 
 the Motett. This was almost always written to sacred words, 
 while the Madrigal was mostly a secular composition, though 
 'Madrigali spirituali' were published by Palestrina and Felice 
 Anerio. The motett was generally, though not invariably, poly- 
 phonic in construction, and was at first written for voices alone. 
 The term was subsequently applied somewhat differently. The 
 motetts of Sebastian Bach were intended to be sung with organ 
 accompaniment,* and in one instance, that of the motett " Der 
 Geist hilft uns'rer Schwachheit auf," orchestral parts exist in the 
 composer's own handwriting. A special feature of the motett is 
 that the instrumental accompaniment doubled the voices, and 
 was only obbligaio in most exceptional cases. With more modern 
 motetts, however, free orchestral accompaniments are sometimes 
 to be found, as in Haydn's fine motett " Insanse et vanse curse," 
 while Mendelssohn's ' Three Motetts for Female Voices,' Op. 39, 
 
 * This is clearly shown by Spitta, in his great work on Bach, and there 
 can be little doubt that the performance of these great works by an unaccom- 
 panied choir is not in conformity with the composer's intentions. 
 
288 Applied Forms. [Chap. xiv. 
 
 have an organ accompaniment which is in many places inde- 
 pendent of the voices. It will be seen that so many different 
 kinds of composition are met with under the same name that 
 the ' Motett ' is almost as vague in its meaning as the instru- 
 mental terms Toccata and Capriccio. 
 
 556. Closely approximating to the Motett are the Anthems 
 of the old English church composers. Here, again, we find 
 such great differences in the form of various specimens as to 
 render it quite impossible to generalize. In some cases, as for 
 instance in Farrant's "Lord, for thy tender mercies' sake," the 
 music is mostly homophonic, and very simple, while many 
 anthems abound in passages of imitation,' and regular fugues 
 are often to be found. ' In cathedrals and in many of the larger 
 churches the choir is divided, half of the singers sitting on 
 the south and half on the north of the aisle, the former being 
 known as the 'Decani,' or dean's side — that is, the side on 
 which the dean's stall is placed — and the latter as the ' Cantoris,' 
 or precentor's side. In many anthems antiphonal effects are 
 obtained by the alternate employment of the two halves of the 
 Choir. Anthems are further divided into ' Full ' and ' Verse ' ; 
 the former being those written for chorus throughout, and the 
 latter containing passages for one or more solo voices, such being 
 called "verse" passages. 
 
 557. Though the anthem is generally accompanied by the 
 organ alone, numerous examples are to be found of the employ- 
 ment of the orchestra also. Many of the anthems of Purcell, 
 Blow, and other early English composers, have instrumental 
 accompaniments, as also have the anthems which Handel wrote 
 for the Duke of Chandos, for the coronation of George II., for 
 the Funeral of Queen Caroline, &c. These anthems are in several 
 movements, and resemble large sacred cantatas, containing not 
 only choruses, but airs, duets, &c. ; the form of the separate 
 movements being largely influenced, as in all vocal music, by 
 the text. 
 
 558. The Church Cantata, a form largely cultivated in 
 Germany in the last century, took in the Lutheran service nearly 
 the same place as the anthem in the Anglican. Nearly two 
 hundred specimens of this class of composition exist from the 
 pen of J. S. Bach, all being with orchestral accompaniment. 
 Some are for solo voices, and consist of two or three songs, 
 divided by recitatives, the last movement being generally (though 
 by no means invariably,) a choral for the full choir, accompanied 
 by instruments in unison with the voices. The larger number of ' 
 the cantatas are written for chorus with solos, and these mostly 
 begin with a chorus, sometimes founded upon a choral : this is 
 followed by various airs, divided, as in the solo cantatas by reci- 
 tatives, and a choral, sometimes with florid orchestral interludes 
 and accompaniments, at other times accompanied in unison, mostly 
 
Chap xiv.] Vocal Music. 289 
 
 concludes the work. In nineteen instances Bach commences his 
 cantatas with an orchestral introduction, and twice he introduces 
 an instrumental movement in the middle of the work. 
 
 559. The Church Service is the name given to the musical 
 setting of the Canticles and the Communion Service in the Book 
 of Common Prayer. The Morning Service consists of the ' Te 
 Deum,' (more rarely the ' Benedicite opera omnia,') and either 
 the ' Benedictus ' or the ' Jubilate ' ; the Communion Service 
 generally contains settings of the ' Kyrie,' the Nicene Creed, 
 ' Sanctus ' and ' Gloria in Excelsis,' frequently also of the 
 ' Benedictus ' and ' Agnus Dei ' ; while the Evening Service 
 includes either the ' Magnificat ' and ' Nunc Dimittis,' or less 
 frequently the 'Cantate Domino' and 'Deus misereatur.' The 
 form and style of these pieces varies greatly according to the 
 purpose for which they are intended. If written for an ordinary 
 parochial choir, or for congregational use, they should be simple 
 and easy of performance ; if written for a cathedral, a greater 
 degree of elaboration is allowable, and indeed advisable. It is 
 quite impossible to give any precise rules ; the student will best 
 learn how to write by studying the numerous existing specimens 
 by distinguished composers, ancient and modern. But it may 
 be said that a plain, diatonic and dignified style is far more 
 suited to the service of the church than the sentimental writing, 
 with cloying chromatic harmony, which is to be seen in some 
 of the modern examples of so-called sacred music. 
 
 560. Both in church services and in anthems, fugal writing 
 is not infrequently to be found ; and a word may be appropriately 
 said here as to the treatment of choral fugue. The whole 
 structure of fugue has been treated in detail in previous volumes 
 of this series ; what is now to be said relates to the choice of 
 subjects for vocal fugues. Though in the works of Bach and 
 Handel, and occasionally also with more modern composers, 
 choral fugues are to be found written upon florid subjects, with 
 'divisions,' as they are called, of semiquavers, it is generally 
 advisable to select subjects of a more stately character, moving 
 with one, or at most two, notes to a syllable. Such a subject as 
 the following, 
 
 Handel : "Alexander Balus.' 
 
 ffi ^M-JB^rff I g p |g ^ T'r l XT 
 
 A -men, A. -• - men. 
 
 interesting though it be from a musical point of view, seems to 
 our modern ideas more fitted for a solfeggio than for a choral 
 fugue, and the same thing may, with all deference, be said of 
 the subjects of several of the fugues in Bach's Church Can- 
 tatas, which are certainly more instrumental than vocal in 
 their character. 
 
^9° 
 
 Applied Forms. 
 
 [Chaii. XIV. 
 
 561. As particularly good examples of subjects for choral 
 fugues, we give the following, by the great masters. 
 
 <«) 
 
 Bach : Cantata, " Ich hatte viel Bekiimmcrniss. 
 
 Lob, und Eh-re und Preis, und Gewalt, seiimserm GottvonEwigkeit zu E-wig-keit, 
 {V) Handel : 'Belshazzar/ 
 
 And ev-'ry step he takes on his de- vot-ed head pre ■ ci - pi - tates the thun- o'er rW-n 
 (c) Gsaun : Tassion Oratorio. 
 
 Las-set uns auf* se-hen auf Jesum,den An-fang-er und Voll- en - der des Glau-bena* 
 (d) Haydn : 3rd Mass. 
 
 =e=t 
 
 g 
 
 w 
 
 Io glo ■ ri - a De • i Pa - tris, 
 
 Mozart : Vespers. 
 
 ■ f 
 
 Lau ■ da - te pu - er - i Do - mm - urn. 
 
 Cherubini : 1st Mass. 
 
 In glo - ri • a De i Pa - tris, De ■ i Pa • trip 
 
 (j?) Mendelssohn : 114th Psalm. 
 
 Hal-le lu-jah! Hal-le lu - jah I Sing to the Lord for ev - er-more. 
 {A) Brahms : Ein deutsches Requiem. 
 
 Herr, du bist wtlr - dig zu neh- men Preis und - Eh • ■ re und Kraft. 
 
 These subjects have been chosen as being very various in style : 
 but,' in spite of their differences in character, they all resemble 
 one another in these respects, that each has easily recognizable 
 melodic features, and the declamation of the words is broad and 
 clear in every case. A well-selected subject is, if possible, of 
 even more importance in a vocal than in an instrumental fugue. 
 
 562. We spoke in § 559 of the Church Service. This is a 
 species of composition peculiar to English music ; its equivalent 
 in Roman Catholic countries is the Mass. This is a setting 
 of the Communion Service of the Roman Church, and consists 
 of five parts, the ' Kyrie eleison,' ' Gloria in excelsis,' ' Credo, 
 
chap, xiv.] Vocal Music. 291 
 
 ' Sanctus ' and 'Benedictus,' and 'Agnus Dei.' To these is some- 
 times added the ' Offertorium ' and ' Graduate,' which correspond 
 nearly to our anthems. In shorter masses (' Missa Brevis,') each 
 section is generally complete in one movement ; but in those 
 written for the festival services of the church the music is much 
 more extended, the ' Gloria ' and ' Credo ' being each frequently 
 divided into three, four, and occasionally even more movements. 
 In such cases, the final clauses of the ' Gloria ' (" Cum sancto 
 spiritu "), the ' Credo ' (" Et vitam venturi ") and the ' Sanctus ' 
 (" Osanna in excelsis,") are generally treated fugally. As models 
 tor the student, we recommend especially the masses of Cherubini 
 and Schubert, and the mass in C of Beethoven. Haydn's and 
 Mozart's masses may also be studied with advantage, from the 
 point of view of their construction ; but it must be remembered 
 that musical taste has much changed since these works were 
 written, and that in Haydn's masses especially we meet with 
 much that, however delightful as music, seems altogether unsuited 
 to the character of the words. It is not with any intention of 
 disparaging Haydn that we say that such lively movements as the 
 " Kyrie ' in his first and second masses are absurdly inappropriate 
 as a musical illustration of such words as "Lord, have mercy 
 upon us ! Christ, have mercy upon us ! " 
 
 563. Of the largest forms of vocal composition — the Cantata, 
 Oratorio, and Opera, — only a few words can be said here. As 
 with so many of the other works of which we have spoken in 
 this chapter, it is impossible to generalize concerning their 
 forms, because these depend largely, one might almost say 
 entirely, upon the libretti. Further, it would be necessary to 
 write a lengthy history of both oratorio and opera, and this would 
 be beyond the scope of the present volume. While the principal 
 instrumental forms, such as the Sonata and Rondo, may be said 
 to have been practically fixed by Beethoven, and his immediate 
 successors, the opera and oratorio are still in the process of 
 development ; and there is as much difference between one of 
 Handel's operas and, let us say, Gounod's ' Faust ' or Wagner's 
 ' Lohengrin ' as there is between a sonata of Scarlatti and one 
 of Beethoven. The same thing, though to a less extent, is 
 true of oratorio. Compare, for instance, Handel's ' Messiah ' 
 with Gounod's 'Redemption,' or his 'Jephtha' or 'Judas 
 Maccabseus' with Parry's 'Judith,' and it will be felt at once 
 that the former breathe the spirit of the eighteenth, and the 
 latter of the nineteenth century. For this reason it is impossible 
 to give any rules for the composition of such large works. The 
 student who has thoroughly mastered the various forms treated 
 in this volume should have little difficulty, assuming him to 
 be naturally gifted, in applying them to the different movements 
 contained in the oratorio or opera. But it is most important that 
 he should be well acquainted with the chief masterpieces of both 
 
292 Applied Forms. [Chap. xiv. 
 
 schools. In oratorio he should know those of Handel, Haydn, 
 Mendelssohn, and Spohr, besides the more recent works pro- 
 duced in this country (the special home of oratorio,) by Sterndale 
 Bennett, Sullivan, Mackenzie, and Parry. 
 
 564. The study of operatic literature offers a still wider field 
 for investigation. The student should have at least a fair ac- 
 quaintance with the great operas of Gluck ('Armide,' 'Alceste,' 
 ' Orphee ' and the two ' Iphigenias '), Mozart, and Cherubini 
 (' Les deux Journe'es,' ' Medde,' ' Faniska ' and ' Lodoiska '). 
 He should of course be familiar with Beethoven's 'Fidelio,' 
 Weber's ' Freischiitz,' 'Euryanthe' and 'Oberon,' and the prin- 
 cipal works of Wagner. Nor should the Krench school, as illus- 
 trated by Boieldieu, Auber, Meyerbeer and Herold, be neglected'; 
 while in Italian opera, the best specimens of Donizetti, Bellini, 
 Rossini, and Verdi should be studied. This appears to be what 
 Americans call "a large order"; but everyone who aspires to 
 distinction as a composer must study the masterpieces of his 
 art, not for the purpose of slavish imitation, but because by this 
 means only can a complete knowledge of the various forms be 
 acquired. Not long since a candidate for a musical degree at 
 one of our Universities was examined as to his knowledge of the 
 works of the great masters, and he replied that " he never studied 
 them, for fear of destroying his own originality." The man 
 failed, and rightly so; for, as we have continually insisted 
 throughout the whole of this series, more is to be learned from 
 the example of the greatest composers than is possible in any 
 other way. 
 
 565. We have dealt in this chapter with the forms of vocal 
 music,- — as regards the larger forms, in a necessarily incomplete 
 manner. This, as has been incidentally said, is the inevitable 
 result of the disturbing influence exercised over the form by the 
 words. Beyond general outlines it is impossible for us to go. 
 Even the instrumental forms, though far more definite than the 
 larger vocal forms, cannot be thoroughly mastered from such a 
 text-book as this. The student must analyze for himself, must 
 carefully note what has been done by his predecessors, and, 
 unless he is sure of being able to improve on their procedure, 
 should go and do likewise. And this analytical process is even 
 more necessary with vocal music. All that we can do is to put 
 him on the right track for his own investigations, and to wish him 
 God speed ! 
 
ANALYTICAL INDEX. 
 
 %* The numbers refer to the paragraph, not the pages. 
 
 Abridged sonata form {see Modified 
 
 Sonata Forms, I.). 
 Absolute music, 519. 
 Abstract music, 4. 
 
 Accompaniments to Vocal music, 549. 
 Airwith variations (see Variation Forms, 1. ). 
 Allemande (see Dance Forms, 1. ). 
 Alto voice, male, compass of (see note to 
 
 page 286). 
 Ancient suite (see Dance Forms, II.). 
 Anthem (see Vocal Forms, I.). 
 Applied form denned, 6. 
 Arioso (see Vocal Forms, X.). 
 Arpeggios and broken chords, treatment 
 
 of, in pianoforte writing, 35-40. 
 
 Bagatelles of Beethoven referred to 
 and analyzed, 103 ; Binary and Tern- 
 ary form in, 103. 
 
 Ballad Form, 540. 
 
 Baritone voice, compass of, 525. 
 
 Bass voice, compass of, 525. 
 
 Bolero {see Dance Forms, Hi.). 
 
 Bouche Fekmee, meaning of, 533 ; ex- 
 amples in chorus by Gounod, and 
 Auber, 535 ; example in solo voice 
 by Grieg, 535. 
 
 Bourree (see Dance Forms, iv.). 
 
 Bridge Passage — and Link, difference 
 between, 217 ; defined, 195, 217, 233 ; 
 in Modern rondo form— examples, 
 390, 396, 398-403 ; in Older rondo form 
 — examples, 195, 198, 199, 202-204 ; in 
 Sonata lorm — examples, 217, 218, 220, 
 233-238 ; length of, 237,238 ; material 
 of, 237 ; modulation in, 233, 237. 
 
 Broken chords and arpeggios, treatment 
 of, in pianoforte writing, 35-40. 
 
 Cadenza, defined, 381 ; examples referred 
 to, 381. 
 
 Canonic variations (see Variation Forms, 
 11.). 
 
 Cantata, 563. 
 
 Canioris, meaning of, 556. 
 
 Caprice (see Indefinite Forms, 1.). 
 
 Cassation and Divertimento (see Cyclic 
 Forms, v.). 
 
 Chaconne (see Variation Forms, in.). 
 
 Choral recitative (see Vocal Forms, x.). 
 
 Church cantata (see Vocal Forms, in.). 
 
 Church service (see Vocal Forms, iv.). 
 
 Classical form, origin of, 446. 
 
 Clearness of tonality, importance of, in 
 composition, 135, 530. 
 
 Coda in Abridged sonata form— ex- 
 amples, 351, 354, 358 ; in Dance 
 forms — examples, 81, 83 ; in Modern 
 rondo form — examples, 396, 399, 402, 
 407 ; in Older rondo form— examples, 
 197, 199, 201, 203, 204 ; in Sonata 
 forms — examples, 339-342 ; in Varia- 
 tion forms — examples, 153, 162, 176. 
 
 Codetta in Modern rondo form, 392, 
 399 ; in Older rondo form, 204 ; in 
 Sonata form, 266, 274. 
 
 Compositionpedalsandknobs (see Organ). 
 
 Compound common time defined — ex- 
 ample of, 50. 
 
 Compound stops (see Organ n.). 
 
 Concerto (see Modified Sonata Forms, 
 11.). 
 
 Concerto as a Cyclic form (see Cyclic 
 Forms, vi.). 
 
 Contralto voice, compass of, 525 
 
 Contrapuntal development, 292 (see Sonata 
 Form, II.). 
 
 Courante (see Dance Forms, v.). 
 
 Cyclic Forms : — Classical form, 446 ; 
 defined, 442 ; Modern cyclic forms de- 
 veloped from the Ancient suite, 446; 
 process of evolution, 443 ; Typical 
 
294 
 
 Analytical Index. 
 
 cyclic form, the 7"Ar«-movement form, 
 444; its variations, the Two-movement 
 form, the .Fear-movement form, and 
 those forms containing More than four 
 movements, 444 ; Unity of character 
 in, 445 ; different methods of obtain- 
 ing unity, 470-472 ; used for Sonatas, 
 Trios, Quartetts. and other chamber 
 music, 446 ; used in the Orchestra for 
 Symphonies and Serenades, 446. 
 /. TWO MOVEMENT FORM. 
 A contraction of the Typical three 
 movement form, 462 ; contrast in 
 form of the two movements desirable, 
 463 ; examples by Haydn, Clementi, 
 Dussek, Mozart, Beethoven, Mendels- 
 sohn, referred to, 462 ; seldom found 
 except in Sonatas, 463. 
 //. THREE MOVEMENT FORM. 
 An introduction sometimes precedes 
 the first movement, 448 ; Keys of the 
 different movements, 448 ; Order of the 
 movements — Regular, 448 ; — Irregu- 
 lar, 460, 461 ; the Typical form, 447 ; 
 used mostly in chamber music for two 
 or at most three instruments, 447. 
 The First movement— an allegro in 
 Regular sonata form, 448 ; an Intro- 
 duction sometimes precedes the first 
 movement, 448 ; Irregular move- 
 ments : an Andante ; Variation form, 
 460, 461. The Second movement — 
 a Slow movement : Andante, Lar- 
 ghetto, Largo, or Adagio, in a dif- 
 ferent key to the first movement, 448. 
 Choice of key — (a) for a Cyclic work 
 in a Major key — in nearly related key, 
 450-452 ; in key in the second degree 
 of relationship, 453 ; in unrelated key, 
 454 ; (i) for a Cyclic work in a Minor 
 key, 455, 456. Form of: Full sonata, 
 Abridged sonata, Older rondo, Rondo- 
 sonata, Variation, simple Ternary, 457. 
 Irregular movements : second move- 
 ment exceptionally in the same key 
 as the first — examples by Clementi, 
 Mozart, Schubert, referred to, 449 ; 
 second movement sometimes in quick 
 tempo instead of slow, 458 ; examples 
 by Haydn and Beethoven referred 
 to, 458. The Third movement — a 
 quick movement, 448. Form of: Com- 
 plete sonata, Variation, Older rondo, 
 Rondo-sonata, or simple Ternary, 448. 
 
 Key : the same as the first movement, 
 or at all events with the same 
 tonic, 448 ; Irregular movements, 460, 
 461. 
 
 ///. FOUR MOVEMENT FORM. 
 An extension of the typical three 
 movement form, 464; Form of the 
 four movements, 465 ; Keys of the 
 four movements, 465; Order of the 
 two middle movements optional, 466 ; 
 two middle movements usually a slow 
 movement and a Minuet and Trio, or 
 scherzo, 465 ; Irregular movements, 
 468, 469. 
 
 IV. IN MORE THAN FOUR 
 MOVEMENTS, rarely met with, 473 ; 
 examples by Raff, Schumann, Gold- 
 mark, referred to, 473 ; Forms of the 
 various movements, 473. 
 
 V. CASSATION AND DIVERTI- 
 MENTO. Choice and order of the 
 movements left to the composer, 
 477 ; examples by Beethoven and 
 Schubert referred to, 477 ; how they 
 differ from the Serenade, 477. 
 
 VI. CONCERTO, defined, 478; 
 usually in three movements, 479 ; 
 examples by Brahms, Scharwenka, 
 and Tschaikowsky, 479 ; Irregular 
 movements, 480 ; examples by Max 
 Bruch, 480 ; Saint-Saens, 481, 482 ; 
 Liszt, Metamorphosis of themes, 
 
 483- 
 
 VII. MODERN SUITE. The Old 
 and Modern suite, difference between, 
 474; wide application of the word 
 "Suite," 474 ; examples by Bizet and 
 Hamerik, 474. 
 
 VIII. SERENADE. A work for 
 Full orchestra, 476 ; derivation of the 
 name, 476 ; example by Mozart re- 
 ferred to, 476 ; Form of the various 
 movements, 476 ; Keys, 476 ; some- 
 times containing as many as eight 
 movements, 476. 
 
 IX. STRING QUARTETT. The 
 invention of Haydn, 475 ; with five 
 movements — examples, 475. 
 
 X. SYMPHONIC POEM, defined, 
 484 ; Metamorphosis of themes, 
 484 ; example by Liszt — the Themes, 
 analyzed, 484. 
 
 Damper pedal (see Pianoforte — Pedals). 
 
Analytical Index. 
 
 295 
 
 Dance Forms :— Dances form and dance 
 music, difference between, 44 ; direc- 
 tions for writing in, 100 ; Form in, 48 ; 
 Modulation in, 48 ; regular and ir- 
 regular rhythm, 44 ; varieties of, 45. 
 /. ALLEMANDE, described, 49 ; 
 first of the four indispensable move- 
 ments of the Ancient suite, 49 ; its 
 special characteristics, 49 ; exatnplehy 
 Bach analyzed ; rhythmic construc- 
 tion, 49-51. 
 
 //. ANCIENT SUITE. Additional 
 dances sometimes introduced, 47 ; 
 described, 46 ; each movement in the 
 same key, 46; Form of each move- 
 ment, 48 ; its indispensable move- 
 ments, 47 ; Modulations, 48 ; Old and 
 Modern suites, 99 ; Rhythmic construc- 
 tion, 48. 
 
 III. BOLERO, described, 90 ; its 
 origin, 90 ; its special characteristics, 
 90 ; example by Weber, 9r. 
 
 IV. BOURREE, described, 70; dif- 
 ference between Bourree and Gavotte, 
 70 ; its special characteristics, 70 ; 
 often followed by a second one, 70 ; 
 the second Bourree is sometimes writ- 
 ten on a tonic pedal, in which case it 
 is called a Musette, 70. 
 
 V. COURANfE, described, 52; 
 second of the four indispensable 
 movements of the Ancient suite, 52 ; 
 its special characteristics, S3 ; two 
 distinct varieties in % and J time, 52. 
 (a) The Cozerante in § time — cross 
 accents, 53 ; described, S3 ; example 
 by Bach, 53 ; example by Couperin, 
 54. (6) The Courante in f time — de- 
 scribed, ss ; example by Bach, 55 ; 
 mostly simpler in construction, 55. 
 
 VI. GAVOTTE, described, 64; its 
 special characteristics, 64. (a) Its 
 earlier and simplest form, 64 ; ex- 
 ample by Couperin, 64. (i) Its later 
 development — example by Handel, 
 65 ; often followed by a second 
 Gavotte, 67 ; the second Gavotte is 
 sometimes written on a tonic pedal, 
 in which case it is called a Musette, 67. 
 
 VII. GIGUE. Fourth of the four in- 
 dispensable movements of the Ancient 
 suite, 60 ; described, 60 ; its rhythmic 
 construction, 60 ; its special character- 
 istics, 60. (a) The gigue for dancing 
 
 —example by Handel analyzed— 
 regularity of cadence, 60. (i) The 
 gigue as a dance form — example 
 by Bach analyzed, 61, 62 ; irregular 
 rhythmic construction, 61, 62 ; treat- 
 ment in the free Fugal style, 61 ; the 
 time in, 63. 
 
 VIII. MARCH, described, 93; in 
 theatrical and operatic music, 95 ; 
 march forms, 94-96 ; rate of speed, 
 97 ; simple Binary or Ternary form 
 mostly used, 97 ; example by Beet- 
 hoven, 98. 
 
 IX. MARCHE AUX FLAM- 
 BEA UX, described, 89 ; its form, 89 ; 
 its rhythmic construction, 89 ; the 
 finest models by Meyerbeer, 89. 
 
 X. MAZURKA, described, 84 ; em- 
 ployment of rhythmic figure, 84 ; its 
 origin, 84; its rhythmic construction, 
 
 85 ; its special characteristics, 84 : 
 examples by Chopin, 84, 8s ; their 
 form, 85. 
 
 XI. MINUET, (a) The old Minuet 
 —described, 71 ; often followed by 
 a second one which, if written in 
 three-part harmony, was described 
 as a Trio; rhythmic construction, 
 71 ; example by Bach, ' 71 ; when 
 followed by a trio, the form of 
 the whole becomes Ternary, 72 ; 
 when followed by more than one trio, 
 the whole becomes Rondo form, 72. 
 (i) The modern Minuet — described, 
 73 ; how it differs from the older form, 
 73 ; rhythmic construction, 73 ; ex- 
 amples referred to, 73, 
 
 XII. MODERN SUITE, described, 
 99 ; Old and Modern suites, 99 ; use 
 of the word Suite, 99. 
 
 XIII. PASSEPIED, described, 68; 
 its rhythmic construction, 68 ; its 
 special characteristics, 68 ; example 
 by Bach, 68 ; often followed by a 
 second one in three-part harmony, 
 and called a " Trio," 69 ; example 
 by Bach, 69. 
 
 XIV. POLONAISE or POLACCA, 
 described, 86; its form, 86 ; its origin, 
 
 86 ; its special characteristics, 86, 88 ; 
 the Older form, example by Bach, 87 ; 
 the Modern form, example by Schubert, 
 88 ; rhythmic figure of accompani- 
 ment, 88. 
 
296 
 
 Anal ytica l Index. 
 
 XV. RIGA UDON, described, 70 ; 
 almost, if not_ quite, identical with 
 the Bourree, 70. 
 
 XVI. SARABANDE. Third of the 
 four indispensable movements of the 
 Ancient suite, 56 ; described, 56 ; 
 its rhythmic construction, 56 ; its 
 special characteristics, 56 ; sometimes 
 followed by a variation known as a 
 " Double " — examples by Bach, 57, 
 58 ; example by Handel, 59. 
 
 XVII. SCHERZO. A development 
 of the Minuet, 74 ; innovations intro- 
 duced by Beethoven, 75 ; Scherzos 
 with two trios, 76 ; Ternary form 
 abandoned, 77 ; examples referred to 
 by Beethoven, 74-77. 
 
 XVIII. TARANTELLA, described, 
 92 ; its origin, 92 ; example by Auber, 
 92. The Saltarello — described, 92 ; 
 example by Mendelssohn referred 
 to, 92. 
 
 XIX. WALTZ, described, 78 ; its 
 origin, 78 ; Mozart's waltzes ; their 
 form — the Coda, 78 ; example by 
 Mozart, 78 ; Beethoven's waltzes, 79 ; 
 Schubert's waltzes, 79, 80 ; examples by 
 Schubert, 79, 80 ; modulations in, 80 ; 
 employment of the Link, 80 ; irregular 
 rhythmic formations exceptional, 81. 
 Valse de salon — Chopin's waltzes, 82 ; 
 their form, 82. Waltzes for dancing 
 —how written, 83 ; the Coda, 83. 
 
 Decani, meaning of, 556. 
 
 Development, meaning of, 276 ; means of 
 
 {see Sonata Form, 11.). 
 Divertimento and Cassation (see Cyclic 
 
 Forms, v.). 
 Double, denned ; example by Bach, 58. 
 Double exposition, meaning of, 371. 
 Double variations (see Variation Forms, 
 
 IV. and viii.). 
 Doubling of dissonant notes in Pianoforte 
 
 writing, 32. 
 
 Episode, in the Older rondo form (see 
 Rondo Form, I.) ; in the Modern 
 rondo form (see Rondo Form, 11.) ; 
 in Sonata form, sometimes found in 
 place of the ' ' Free " fantasia, 296, 297 
 (see Sonata Form, 11. ). 
 
 Etude (see Instrumental Forms, the 
 smaller, 1.). 
 
 Evolution of music, 1-3. 
 
 Exposition — of a Fugue, 128 ; of a Sonata 
 (see Sonata Form, 1.) ; Double, 371. 
 
 Fantasia (see Indefinite Forms, II.). 
 
 First movement form (see Sonata Form). 
 
 First subject in Older rondo form (see 
 Rondo Form, 1.) ; in Modern rondo 
 form (see Rondo Form, 11.) ; in Sonata 
 form (see Sonata Form, I.). 
 
 Flue stops (see Organ, 11.). 
 
 Form, applied, defined, 6. 
 
 Form in music influenced by the nature 
 of the instruments for which it is 
 written, 5. 
 
 Form in pianoforte music of small dimen- 
 sions is mostly found to be simple 
 Binary or simple Ternary, 102, 106. 
 
 Form, modern rondo(««RondoForm, 11.). 
 
 Form, older rondo ( see Rondo Form, I. ). 
 
 Form, sonata (see Sonata Form). 
 
 Forms, dance (see Dance Forms). 
 
 Forms, indefinite (we Indefinite Forms). 
 
 Forms, mixed (see Mixed Forms). 
 
 Forms, modified sonata (see Modified 
 Sonata Forms). 
 
 Forms, organ (see Organ Music) 
 
 Forms, smaller instrumental (see Instru- 
 mental Forms, the smaller). 
 
 Forms, variation (see Variation Forms), 
 
 Forms, vocal (see Vocal Forms). 
 
 Foundation stops (WOrgan, 11.). 
 
 Four-movement form (see Cyclic Forms, 
 in.). 
 
 Free fantasia (see Sonata Form, n.). 
 
 Fugal form in the Overture (see Modified 
 Sonata Form, in.). 
 
 Fugue (see Instrumental Forms, in.). 
 
 Full, meaning of the word when found i.n 
 Anthems, etc.), 556. 
 
 Gavotte (see Dance Forms, VI.). 
 Gigue (see Dance Forms, vn.). 
 Glee (see Vocal Forms, v.). 
 Groundbass (see Variation Forms, v.). 
 
 Harmonies, position of, in Pianoforte 
 
 writing, 31. 
 How to write for the voice (see Vocal 
 
 Music). 
 
 Incidental variation defined, 136. 
 
 Indefinite Forms: — 
 
 /. CAPRICCIO or CAPRICE, 
 defined, 432 ; freedom of, 432 ; 
 
Analytical Index. 
 
 297 
 
 examples referred to by Bach, Handel, 
 August E. Miiller, Weber, Mendels- 
 sohn, Stephen Heller, 433. 
 //. FANTASIA, denned, 436 ; most 
 indefinite and varied of all forms, 436 ; 
 the Old and Modern forms, 436. (a) 
 Fantasias with several connected move- 
 ments, 436 ; examples referred to by 
 Hummel and Beethoven, 436. (t) 
 Fantasias in one movement, 437 ; 
 examples referred to by Mozart and 
 Mendelssohn, 437 ; unity obtained by 
 the redurrence of the first subject at 
 the end, 438 ; examples referred to by 
 Mozart and Schubert, 438. (c) Fan- 
 tasias with detached movements — ex- 
 amples referred to by Schumann and 
 Mendelssohn, 439. id) Sonata quasi 
 fantasia— two examples referred to 
 by Beethoven, 440 ; example referred 
 to by Mendelssohn, 440 ; example 
 by Raff analyzed ; Metamorphosis of 
 themes, 440. (e) Operatic fantasias and 
 transcriptions — defined, 441; examples 
 referred to by Thalberg, Liszt, Heller, 
 and Raff, 441. 
 
 III. INTERMEZZO, described, 434. 
 (a) As a middle section of a movement 
 — example by Schumann, 434. (i) As 
 a middle movement of a Cyclic work — 
 examples referred to by Mendelssohn 
 and Schumann, 435. (c) As an In- 
 dependent piece — examples referred to 
 by Schumann, 435. 
 
 IV. INTRODUCTION, defin°d, 428 ; 
 ends mostly with half cadence in 
 the key of the following movement, 
 428 ; material of the introduction, 
 428 ; met with ch'efly at the com- 
 mencement of a work in Cyclic form, 
 428 ; mostly in slow time, 428 ; ex- 
 amples referred to by Beethoven, 428 ; 
 sometimes met with before Variations 
 and Rondos when these form separate 
 pieces, 429; examples referred to by 
 Beethoven, Chopin, Hummel, 429. 
 
 V. TOCCATA, defined, 430; deriva- 
 tion of the word, 430; loose appli- 
 cation of the name, 430 ; examples 
 referred to by Bach, 430 ; Beethoven, 
 431 ; Schumann, 431. 
 
 Instrumental Forms (Smaller), are 
 usually in either simple Binary or 
 simple Ternary form, 101. Pieces 
 
 written for children — examples by 
 Schumann, Mendelssohn, and Heller, 
 102. Bagatelles — Beethoven's ' ' 7 Baga- 
 tellen," referred to and analyzed, 103. 
 Leider ohne Worte — by Mendelssohn, 
 first book, referred to and analyzed, 
 104. Phantasiestiicke — by Schumann, 
 referred to and analyzed, 105. 
 /. J&TUDE, may be written in 
 any form, in ; simple Binary and 
 simple Ternary most common, in ; 
 examples by Czerny of the most 
 elementary kind of Etude — no com- 
 plete form, 107 ; example by Cramer 
 analyzed, 108 ; its rhythmic con- 
 struction, 108 ; example by Steibelt 
 analyzed, 109 ; example by Henselt, 
 no ; the Studies of Chopin, Henselt, 
 Heller, and Clementi, in. 
 //. PRELUDE, defined, 113; mean- 
 ing of the word, 113 ; various appli- 
 cation of the name, 112. (a) Its 
 simplest form — example by Bach, 113; 
 example by Handel, 114 ; example 
 by Bach, its harmonic and rhythmic 
 construction, 115 ; example by Bach, 
 its harmonic and rhythmic construc- 
 tion, 116. (b) In tlie larger Biliary 
 form — examples referred to by Bach, 
 117. (c) Organ preludes of Bach — the 
 preludes founded on chorales ; ex- 
 amples referred to, 118 ; the Larger 
 organ preludes, 119 ; example by 
 Bach analyzed, 120-123 ; its rhythmic 
 construction, 121-123 ; employment 
 of the larger Binary form, 120. {d) 
 The largest forms, 124 ; examples re- 
 ferred to by Bach, 124 ; use of Fugalo, 
 125 ; the Preludes of Beethoven, Men- 
 delssohn, and Chopin, 126. 
 ///. FUGUE. Fugue form a modi- 
 fication of simple Ternary, 130-133 ; 
 Exposition and Counter-exposition, 
 128 ; the Subject and Answer, 128 ; 
 the Episode, 129 ; Modulations, 129 ; 
 Middle entries, 129 ; Return to key of 
 tonic, 129. 
 
 Instrumental and vocal music— difference 
 between, 7. 
 
 Instruments, musical, two classes of, 8. 
 
 Intermezzo (see Indefinite Forms, ill.). 
 
 Introduction {see Indefinite Forms, 1 v. ). 
 
 Irregular rondos (see Rondo Forms, 1. 
 and II.). 
 
398 
 
 Analytical Index. 
 
 Keys for Episodes in Older rondo form, 
 
 184 ; in Modern rondo form, 39 (.. 
 Keys for movements of Ancient suite, 
 
 46 ; Modern suite, 474, 99. 
 Keys for Second subjects in Sonata form, 
 
 240-247. 
 Keys for various movements of Cyclic 
 
 forms, 448-456. 
 
 Lieder ohne Worte — Mendelssohn's first 
 book analyzed, 104. 
 
 Link and Bridge Passage, difference be- 
 tween, 217. 
 
 Madrigal (see Vocal Forms, VI.). 
 
 Manuals of the organ (see Organ, I.). 
 
 March (see Dance Forms, vin.). 
 
 Marche aux flambeaux (see Dance Forms, 
 IX.). 
 
 Mass (see Vocal Forms, VII.). 
 
 Mazurka (see Dance Forms, X.). 
 
 Means of development, 306 (see Sonata 
 Form, 11.). 
 
 Metamorphosis of themes, examples, 482, 
 484, 485. 
 
 Mezzo-soprano voice, compass of, 525. 
 
 Minuet, the Old and Modern (see Dance 
 Forms, xi.). 
 
 Minuets, in Ternary form — in Rondo form 
 (see Dance Forms, XI.). 
 
 Mixed Forms : — Available combinations 
 very numerous, 413 ; defined, 412. 
 (a) Irregular combination of the Older 
 and Modern rondo forms, 414, 415 ; 
 example by Weber analyzed, (i) Com- 
 bination of the Variation and Older 
 rondo forms ; example by Weber 
 analyzed, 416. (c) Combination of 
 the Sonata and Rondo forms, 417, 
 418 ; example by Mozart analyzed, 
 417, 418 ; recapitulation commences 
 with Second subject, 418. (d) Sonata 
 movement, with Episode in place of 
 "Free fantasia," example by Beet- 
 hoven analyzed, 419. (e) Com- 
 bination of Ternary with Irregular 
 sonata form ; example by Beet- 
 hoven, 420. (/) Combination of 
 Ternary and Older rondo form, ex- 
 ample by Beethoven, 421. (g) Com- 
 bination of Sonata and Rondo forms, 
 example by Beethoven, 422. (A) A very 
 irregular form, 423 ; example by Schu- 
 bert, 423, 424. (i) A unique example 
 
 of irregular form by Schubert, 425, 
 
 426. 
 Modern cyclic forms developed from the 
 
 Ancient suite, 446. 
 Modern rondo form (see Rondo Form, II.). 
 Modern sonata form (see Sonata Form). 
 Modern suites {see Dance Forms, XII., 
 
 and Cyclic Forms, VII.). 
 Modified Sonata Forms : — defined. 
 
 34S- 
 
 /. ABRIDGED SONATA FORM. 
 A binary form, 347 ; defined, 346 ; 
 exposition never repeated, 359 ; how 
 it differs from the Old sonata form, 
 347 ; its employment in cyclic works, 
 348 ; no development, 346 ; orna- 
 mentation of subjects in recapitulation, 
 353- i a ) Example of slow movement 
 by Beethoven analyzed, 348-353 ; ex- 
 position immediately followed by the 
 recapitulation, 346, 350 ; second sub- 
 ject not divisible into sections, 352 ; 
 the ornamentation of subjects in the 
 recapitulation, 353 ; the Coda, 351. 
 (5) Example of slow movement by 
 Beethoven analyzed, employment of 
 the link, 354 ; the Coda, 354. (c) 
 Example of slow movement by Mozart, 
 no bridge passage, 356. (d) Example 
 of quick movement by Mendelssohn 
 analyzed, 357, 358 ; a long Coda, 358. 
 II. CONCERTO. Defined, 370; 
 form of the Modern concerto fixed 
 by Mozart and adopted by" Beet- 
 hoven, Weber, and Spohr, 370 ; 
 modern meaning of the word, 370; 
 old meaning of the word, 370. (a) 
 The Double exposition, 371 ; difference 
 between the two expositions, 372, 373 ; 
 first exposition for orchestra alone, 
 371 ; second exposition for Solo instru- 
 mer t, 371 ; examples referred to by 
 Mozart and Beethoven, 373 ; the 
 practice of Mozart, 374, 375 ; the 
 practice of Beethoven, 376 ; the Solo 
 instrument— its entry, 379. (b), (c) 
 Development and recapitulation — The 
 cadenza — defined, 38 1 ; introduced on 
 second inversion of tonic chord, 381 ; 
 or, sometimes on a dominant seventh 
 chord, 381. The Modern concerto 
 form - innovation by Mendelssohn, 
 382 ; the double exposition dispensed 
 with, 382 ; effect of this on the form— 
 
Analytical Index. 
 
 299 
 
 adoption of this form by Schumann 
 and Brahms, 382. 
 
 III. OVERTURE. Derivation of 
 the word, 361 ; defined, 361 ; its 
 old form, 361. Various forms used 
 for — Abridged sonata form, 362 ; 
 Modern sonata form, 362 ; Old sonata 
 form, 362, 363 ; the Fugal, 363, 
 367; the Overtures of Mozart and 
 Beethoven, examples referred to, 
 363-365 ; the Overtures of Weber, 
 Spohr, and Mendelssohn, examples 
 referred to, 367, 368. Modern opera 
 overture, 369 ; various methods of 
 writing, 369 ; (i) in Regular form, 
 examples referred to by Weber, 369 ; 
 (ii) in Irregular form, examples re- 
 ferred to by Herold and Rossini, 369. 
 
 IV. SONATINA. Defined, 383, 384; 
 derivation of the word, 383 ; examples 
 by Kuhlau analyzed, 384; sonata 
 form sometimes abandoned, 386 ; 
 vague use of the name, 383, 385, 
 386. 
 
 Modulation in composition, 135. 
 Motett (see Vocal Forms, vin.). 
 Musette {see Dance Forms, IV. and VI.). 
 Music, vocal, different kinds of, 9. 
 Music, evolution of, 1-3. 
 Musical instruments, two classes of, 8. 
 Mutation stops {see Organ, II.). 
 
 Older rondo form (see Rondo Form, 1.). 
 
 Old sonata form {see Sonata Form). 
 
 Opera, 563. 
 
 Opera overtures, 369. 
 
 Operatic fantasias and transcriptions (see 
 Indefinite Forms, 11. («)). 
 
 Oratorio, 563. 
 
 Organ (The): — Composition pedals and 
 knobs, 505 ; defined, 487 ; varieties of 
 organ tone, 503. 
 
 /. THE MANUALS. Their com- 
 pass, 487, 488 ; the Great, Swell, 
 Choir, Solo, and Echo organs, 487. 
 //. THE STOPS OR REGISTERS. 
 Compound stops — defined, 493 ; Sesqui- 
 altera, Cornet, Mixture, Furniture, 493; 
 object of these stops, 493 ; voicing, 493. 
 Defined, 488; difference in "pitch" 
 of the various stops, 489, 490 ; differ- 
 ence in pitch depends - upon the 
 length of the pipe, 489, 490, 49s ; 
 difference in quality upon the 
 
 shape of the pipe, 495 ; Double stops 
 — 16-feet stops, 491 ; 8-feet stops — the 
 unison stops, 489; 8-feet stops and 
 8-feet tone, 489 ; Flue stops defined, 
 494; Foundation stops defined, 491. 
 Mutation stops, defined, 492 ; the 
 Twelfth, 492; the Quint or double 
 twelfth, 492. Octave stops, defined, 
 490 ; open pipes and stopped pipes, de- 
 fined, 489, 491 ; Reed stops, defined, 494 ; 
 16-feet stops and 16-feet " tone," 491 ; 
 unison stops the 8-feet stops, 489. 
 III. THE PEDAL ORGAN. Its 
 compass, 496 ; double stops — 32-feet, 
 496 ; 16-feet stops the unison stops, 
 496. 
 
 Organ Music :—How to write — Com- 
 position pedals and knobs, 505 ; Ex- 
 pression, crescendo, and diminuendo, 
 501 ; Manuals, combination of, 499 ; 
 how to indicate, 498 ; Pedal passages, 
 heel and toe, 497 ; pedal points, 
 organ point, 502 ; pedal solos, 507 ; 
 pedals not to be used continuously, 506 ; 
 phrasing, tempo rubato, 501 ; Poly- 
 phonic writing, 508 ; sustaining power 
 of the organ, 500 ; three staves mostly 
 used in organ music, occasionally four 
 are used, 498. Variety of organ tone 
 — how to indicate, 503, 504 ; how to 
 vary, 504 ; use of the Doubles, 504. 
 
 Organ Music, Forms in : — 
 
 THE ORGAN SONATA. Bach's 
 organ sonatas, 510 ; in simple Binary 
 or simple Ternary form, example, 510 ; 
 Mendelssohn's Organ sonatas, 511, 
 512; "Sonata form" in, 511, 512; 
 variety in the movements as contrasted 
 with Pianoforte sonatas, 513 ; Rhein- 
 berger's Organ sonatas, 513 ; Organ 
 symphonies of C. M. Widor, 514 ; 
 smaller forms of organ music, 513 ; 
 duets, 516 ; clap-trap, 517. 
 
 Organ preludes (see Instrumental Forms, 
 II.). 
 
 Organ Sonata (see Organ Music). 
 
 Overture (see Modified Sonata Forms, 
 III.). 
 
 Part-song (see Vocal Forms, IX.). 
 Passacaglia (see Variation Forms, VII. \ 
 Passepied (see Dance Forms, XIII.). 
 Pedal organ (see Organ, III. ). 
 Pedal point, defined, 502. 
 
300 
 
 Analytical Index. 
 
 Phantasiestiicke of Schumann referred to 
 and analyzed, 105. 
 
 Pianoforte (The): — Its inherent de- 
 fects, 15 ; most useful of instruments 
 to the composer, 14; uniformity of 
 tone-quality, 16, 
 
 THE PEDALS. (a) ' The Damper 
 pedal, 21 ; increases the volume of 
 tone — the reason, 24 ; its mechanism 
 explained, 22, 23 ; its principal uses, 
 27 ; examples by Schumann, 27 '• 
 Kullak, 28 ; Heller, 28 ; sympathetic 
 resonance, 25, 26 ; use of, to obtain 
 wider positions of harmony, 29. (b) 
 The Una corda pedal, 30 ; its me- 
 chanism explained, 30 ; its use, 30 ; 
 examples referred to, 30. 
 
 Pianoforte pieces of small dimensions 
 mostly written in simple Binary or 
 simple Ternary form, 106. 
 
 Pianoforte Writing :— Broken chords 
 and arpeggios, treatment of, 35 ; com- 
 posing at the piano, 42 ; consecutive 
 Fifths, 37, 38 ; consecutive Octaves, 
 32 ; dissonances in arpeggios should 
 be resolved in the same octave in 
 which they are taken, 39 ; doubling 
 of dissonant notes, 32 ; doubling of 
 leading note, 32 ; interlacing of hands, 
 18 ; examples by Liszt, 19 ; passages 
 in only two or three parts — the 
 number of parts, 33, 34 ; Polyphonic 
 writing, 33 ; position of the harmonies 
 in, 31 ; relaxation of the strict laws of 
 part-writing in, 36-38 ; repetition of 
 melody notes as accompaniment, 28 ; 
 sustained melodies best in medium 
 part of the instrument, examples re- 
 ferred to, 20 ; example by Beethoven 
 of sustained melody at high pitch, 20 ; 
 technique of the instrument to be i 
 considered, 41 ; treatment of isolated 
 low notes in the bass, 40 ; variation in 
 the number of parts, 32. 
 
 Polonaise, or polacca (see Dance Forms, 
 
 XIV.). 
 
 Polyphonic writing in organ music, 508 ; 
 
 in pianoforte music, 33. 
 Prelude (see Instrumental Forms [the 
 
 smaller], 11.). 
 
 Quint (see Mutation Stops, Organ, 11.). 
 Recapitulation (see Sonata Form, in.). | 
 
 Recitative (see Vocal Forms, X.). 
 
 Relaxation of the strict laws of part- 
 writing in Pianoforte writing, 36-38. 
 
 Rigaudon (see Dance Forms, XV. ). 
 
 Rondo Form, an extension of Tern- 
 ary form, 187, 188 ; defined, 179 ; 
 found in both instrumental and vocal 
 music, 179 ; meaning and derivation of 
 the word "Rondo," 179; " Rondeau" 
 and " Couplets," 179 ; rondo origin- 
 ally a dance, described, 179 ; Rondo 
 and Sonata form — difference between, 
 216 ; two varieties — the Older and 
 Modern rondo form, 180. 
 /. THE OLDER RONDO FORM, 
 (a) The old form— example by Bach 
 referred to and analyzed, 185, 186 ; 
 example by Couperin — the Principal 
 subject, 182; the Episodes, 182; their 
 number, 183 ; keys, 184 ; the final epi- 
 sode, necessity for contrast, 184. (b)The 
 more modern form, 187 ; an essential 
 characteristic of Rondo form, 188 ; 
 change of time for one of the episodes 
 allowable, 205 ; defined, 187, 1R8 ; 
 developed from the simple Ternary 
 form, 187, 188 ; double variations 
 sometimes in Rondo form, 211 ; 
 episodes almost invariably in some 
 different key to principal subject, 190 ; 
 Irregular rondos — example -by Beet- 
 hoven, 210 ; keys for the episodes, 190, 
 191 ; Minuet or Scherzo with two Trios 
 in rondo form, 189, 190 ; some pieces 
 incorrectly described as rondos — 
 examples referred to, 212 ; Three 
 episodes sometimes found — examples 
 referred to, 206 ; variation of principal 
 subject on repetition, 197 ; example 
 by Haydn analyzed, 192-195; example 
 by Dussek referred to and analyzed, 
 196, 197 ; example by Mozart referred 
 to and analyzed, 199, 200 ; examples 
 by Beethoven referred to and analyzed, 
 201-204 '• examples by Weber, Schu- 
 bert, and Schumann referred to, 203 ; 
 examples by Mozart referred to and 
 analyzed, 207-209. 
 
 //. THE MODERN RONDO FORM. 
 (Rondo-sonafa form) — A modification 
 of the "Sonata-form," 387; defined, 
 388, 396 ; always met with either as 
 an independent piece or as the 
 Finale of a Cyclic form. 411 ; 
 
Analytical Index. 
 
 301 
 
 thematic development sometimes takes 
 the place of the episode, 403. (a) The 
 Exposition, always ends in the tonic 
 key, 393 ; first subject invariably re- 
 pealed at the end of the exposition, 
 393 ; the whole of the exposition never 
 repeated, 393. The First subject— its 
 length, 38S ; its rhythmic form, 388 ; 
 its song-like character — examples, 389; 
 is followed by a Bridge passage, 390. 
 The Second subject— difference be- 
 tween second subject and episode, 
 391 ; followed by Codetta, 392 ; gener- 
 ally shorter than in sonata-form, 392 ; 
 how it ends, 392 ; key of, 390. Re- 
 petition of first subject, 393 ; exposition 
 ends in tonic key, 393. (6) The 
 Episode — change of tempo sometimes 
 found — example referred to by Beet- 
 hoven, 394 ; end of episode contrived 
 to lead to the recapitulation, 395 ; in 
 a different key from first and second 
 subjects, 394 ; keys usually chosen for 
 — practice of Beethoven, Schubert, 
 and Mozart, 394 ; thematic develop- 
 ment sometimes takes ' the place of 
 episode, 403. (c) The Recapitulation 
 — first subject sometimes ornamented, 
 39S ; the Coda, 395. (d) Examples 
 analyzed — by Beethoven, 397-399 ; by 
 Beethoven — thematic developments, 
 400-402. (e) Rondos without episode 
 — examples by Beethoven referred to 
 and analyzed, 403 ; example by 
 Schubert analyzed, 404-408. (/) 
 Irregular rondos — example by Beet- 
 hoven analyzed, 409, 410. 
 Rondo-sonata form {see Rondo-form, II.), 
 
 Saltarello (see Dance Forms, xvm.). 
 
 Sarabande [see Dance Forms, XVI.). 
 
 Scena (see Vocal Forms, XI.). 
 
 Scherzo (see Dance Forms, XVII. ). 
 
 Second subject — in modern rondo form 
 (see Rondo Form, II.) ;— in sonata 
 form (see Sonata Form, 1.). 
 
 Serenade (see Cyclic Forms, VIII.). 
 
 Smaller instrumental forms (see Instru- 
 mental Forms). 
 
 Sonata Form— and Modern rondo-form, 
 difference between, 390, 393; and 
 Older rondo form, difference be- 
 tween, 216 ; best models — Haydn, 
 Mozart, Beethoven, and Mendelssohn, 
 
 344 ; derivation and original meaning 
 of the word ' ' Sonata " — its modern 
 sense, 214 ; first movement form, 215 ; 
 infinite variety of sonata form, 344 ; 
 used not only in sonatas, but in Trios, 
 Quartetts, Quintetts, and Symphonies, 
 and also with modifications in Con- 
 certos and Overtures, 215. The old 
 Sonata form — defined, 217 ; difference 
 between Sonata form and a Rondo, 
 216 ; example by Scarlatti analyzed, 
 217-220 ; later examples of the old 
 form referred to by Clementi, Haydn, 
 Mozart, Schubert, 222 ; this form now 
 entirely obsolete, 222. 
 THE MODERN SONATA FORM. 
 Difference between the Oldan&Modern 
 form, 224; its introduction due to 
 C. P. E. Bach and Haydn, 223 ; the 
 modern form is a modified Ternary, 
 224 ; the older form is a large Binary, 
 224 ; the three divisions of a Sonata 
 form are : (i) the Exposition, (ii) the 
 Development, (Hi) the Recapitulation 
 225 ; unity of style, how obtained, 
 261. 
 
 /. THE EXPOSITION. Defined 
 225, 268-274 ; i ts three parts are : (a 
 the First subject, (b) the Bridge pas- 
 sage, (c) the Second subject, 225 
 repetition of, not obligatory, 267. 
 (a) The First subject — examples end- 
 ing with full cadence in tonic key, 
 225-227; examples by Beethoven, 
 225 ; by Haydn, 226 ; by Schu- 
 mann, 227 ; ending with half cadence 
 in tonic key, examples by Mozart, 
 228 ; by Beethoven, 229 ; by Beet- 
 hoven, 230, 231 ; how to determine 
 the limits of the First subject, 233 ; 
 Introduction consisting of a few bars 
 sometimes precedes the first subject, 
 232 ; long first subjects, examples 
 referred to by Beethoven, 231. (b) 
 The Bridge passage, defined, 233, 270 ; 
 example by Mozart analyzed, 234-236 ; 
 frequently begins with repetition oi 
 the commencement of the first sub- 
 ject, 233 ; how to know where it begins, 
 233 ; immediately follows the first 
 subject, 233 ; its course of modula- 
 tion, 237 ; length of, 237, 238 ; material 
 of, 237 ; usually ends on the dominant 
 harmony of the key of the second 
 
302 
 
 Analytical Index. 
 
 subject, 236. (c) The Second subject — 
 change of mode in, examples referred 
 to by Beethoven, 257 ; change of tonic 
 in, examples referred to by Beethoven, 
 258, 259 ; defined, 239, 271 ; examples 
 of, by Haydn, 250, 251 ; by Beethoven, 
 253 ; by Mendelssohn, 255 ; by Beet- 
 hoven, 259; how to determine the 
 limits of the second subject, 265, 266 ; 
 in remote key, examples referred to by 
 Beethoven and Schubert, 262 ; in two 
 keys, examples by Mendelssohn, Cle- 
 menti, and Dussek, 255; incidental 
 modulation in, 260. Keys for, (i) in 
 Major movements, 240-243 ; (ii) in 
 Minor movements, 240, 244-247 ; 
 length of, 239, 248, 271 ; material of, 
 example by Haydn, 250, 251 ; modu- 
 lation in, 253, 255, 256 ; Sections of, 
 248, 249 ; their key, 253 ; sub- 
 dominant key not advisable for — 
 why, 247 ; unity of style, how ob- 
 tained, 261 ; use of flat keys for, 247. 
 The Codetta, example by Beethoven, 
 266 ; repetition of exposition not 
 obligatory, 267. 
 
 //. THE DEVELOPMENT. A 
 key once quitted should not be 
 again introduced, except transition- 
 ally, 305 ; Contrapuntal development, 
 examples referred to by Haydn, Beet- 
 hoven, and Mozart, 292 ; Course of 
 modulation, 304, 305 ; examples by 
 Beethoven, 281 ; by Haydn, 285 ; de- 
 fined, 276 ; free fantasia, consisting 
 partly of episode, 296 ; consisting en- 
 tirely of episode, 297 ; how it ends, 308 ; 
 freedom of the form in the second 
 and third parts of a movement in 
 sonata form, 275 ; general principles 
 for the construction of the "Free 
 fantasia," 301-306; how it differs 
 from the second part of a genuine 
 Ternary form, 277 ; how to end the 
 free fantasia, 308 ; examples by 
 Haydn, 309, 310 ; by Beethoven, 311, 
 312; by Mozart, 312 ;■ Incidental 
 episode, example by Beethoven, 294 ; 
 independent episodes, example by 
 Beethoven, 295 ; introduction of epi- 
 sode, 293, 307 ; keys of the first and 
 second subjects best avoided in the 
 free fantasia, 302 ; the reason for this, 
 303 ; material used for development, 
 
 example by Beethoven, 279-281; ex- 
 ample by Haydn, 282-285 ; means of 
 development, 306 ; not to remain too 
 long in any one new key — why, 304 ; 
 return to the tonic key, how to 
 manage, 304; slow introduction to a 
 sonata sometimes made use of in the 
 "free fantasia," examples by Beet- 
 hoven referred to, 298-300 ; example 
 by Clementi analyzed, 299 ; sub- 
 dominant key, effect of, 304 ; Thematic 
 development, 286 ; example by Haydn 
 analyzed, 282, 283 ; example by Beet- 
 hoven analyzed, 287-290 ; working of 
 small fragments of themes, 291. 
 
 ///. THE RECAPITULATION. 
 Defined, 313 ; immediately follows the 
 "free fantasia, 315. (a) Regular 
 recapitulations — First subject : some- 
 times reappears with ornamentation, 
 example by Beethoven referred to, 
 
 315 ; sometimes accompanied with a 
 new counterpoint, 315 ; example by 
 Haydn, 315 ; examples referred to by 
 Mendelssohn and Beethoven, 315. 
 Bridge passage — generally modified, 
 
 316 ; occasionally unaltered, example 
 referred to by Haydn, 316 ; some- 
 times omitted altogether, examples by 
 Beethoven and Weber, 317. Second 
 subject : keys for, in movements in 
 Major keys, examples by Beethoven, 
 318, 319 ; when in more than one key, 
 320, 321 ; keys for, in movements in 
 Minor keys, 322-326 ; when in two 
 keys, 326. (b) Irregular recapilula~ 
 lions, 327. Mrsl subject: abridged: 
 examples by Schubert, Mendelssohn, 
 Clementi, and Dussek, 330 ; beginning 
 in a different key to that in which it 
 ends, examples referred to by Weber, 
 332 ; extended, example by Beethoven, 
 331 ; not in the tonic key — the object 
 of this, examples by Clementi, Schu- 
 bert, and Hummel, 328 ; omitted 
 altogether, examples referred to by 
 Clementi and Dussek, 330. Second 
 subject: alteration of second subject 
 more frequently met with than that 
 of the first subject, examples re- 
 ferred to by Haydn and Dussek, 
 333 ; examples referred to by Beet- 
 hoven and Dussek, 334 ; examples re- 
 ferred to by Haydn and Mozart, 33s ; 
 
Analytical Index. 
 
 3°3 
 
 exceptional key for, example re- 
 ferred to by Beethoven, 336; occa- 
 sionally recapitulation of a minor 
 movement in tonic major, 337 ; ex- 
 ample referred to by Spohr and 
 Weber, 337 ; preceding the first sub- 
 ject, 329 ; examples referred to by 
 Mozart, Haydn, Spohr, and Dvorak, 
 329. Very irregular recapitulation, 
 338 ; examples referred to by Hum- 
 mel and Schumann, 338. (c) Tie 
 Coda, 339 ; alteration of tempo in, 343 ; 
 examples referred to by Beethoven 
 and Schubert, 343 ; entirely new 
 themes introduced in, examples by 
 Schumann and Mendelssohn, 341, 
 342; follows the recapitulation, 339; 
 generally found in the works of 
 modern composers, 339, 343 ; of vari- 
 able length, 339 ; themes not previ- 
 ously treated sometimes developed in, 
 339 ; example by Beethoven, 340. 
 
 Sonata forms, modified (see Modified 
 Sonata Forms). 
 
 Sonata, organ (see Organ Music). 
 
 Sonatina (see Modified Sonata Forms, 
 
 IV.). 
 
 Songs (see Vocal Forms, XII.). 
 Soprano voice, compass of, 525. 
 Strophic song (see Vocal Forms, XII.). 
 Stops or registers of the organ (see 
 
 Organ, 11.). 
 String Quartett (see Cyclic Forms, IX.). 
 Suite, ancient (see Dance Forms, 11.). 
 Suite, modern (see Dance Forms, xii., 
 
 and Cyclic Forms, VII.). 
 Symphonic poem (see Cyclic Forms, X. ). 
 Symphony form or sonata form, 215. 
 
 Tarantella (see Dance Forms, xvm.). 
 Tempo rubato, 501. 
 Tenor voice, compass of, 525. 
 Ternary Form applied to : — Fugue, 
 
 130-133 ; Sonata, 224 ; the Older 
 
 rondo form, 187, 188 ; the Modern 
 
 rondo form, 396. 
 Thematic development (see Sonata Form, 
 
 H.). 
 Three-movement form (see Cyclic Forms, 
 
 II.). 
 Toccata (see Indefinite Forms, v.). 
 Transcription (see Indefinite Forms, 11. e). 
 Trio, original meaning of the word, as 
 
 applied in Minuet and Trio, Scherzo 
 
 and Trio, 6g. 
 
 Two-movement form (see Cyclic Forms, 
 
 I.). 
 Typical cyclic form and its variations, 
 
 444 and 447. 
 
 Una corda pedal (see Pianoforte— Pedals). 
 Unity of character in the different move- 
 ments of cyclic works, 445, 470-472. 
 
 Valse de salon (see Dance Forms, xix.). 
 
 Variation Forms, as an independent 
 form, 136; change of mode in, 161 ; 
 change of time in, 153; Coda, 153, 
 162, 176 ; diversity of these forms, 
 177 ; incidental variations, 136 ; Intro- 
 duction — examples referred to by 
 Beethoven and Chopin, 172 ; length 
 of the sentences, 176, iv. Means 0/ 
 varying a theme— (a) Ornamentation 
 of the melody, 174, 1. ; (i) Changing 
 the harmony, 174, 11. ; (c) Changing 
 the tempo and rhythmic figuration, 
 175, III. ; older and newer style in, 
 148 ; strict and free variations, 147 ; 
 the theme, its form, etc., 137, 156, 
 173 ; variation defined, 137 ; variety 
 of key and time, 157. 
 /. AIR WITH VARIATIONS, as 
 an Independent piece, 143 ; as a 
 movement of «. Cyclic work, 143 ; 
 cadences in, 145 ; change of key, 152. 
 157, 161 ; change of mode, 152, 161 ; 
 change of time, 153, 157 ; choice of 
 the theme, 173 ; cadences in, 145 ; 
 its character, 145 ; its form, 144 ; its 
 length, 144 ; Coda, 153, 162, 166 ; 
 defined, 143 ; final variation and coda, 
 166 ; "Formal" and " Characteristic" 
 variations, 147 ; long themes — ex- 
 amples referred to by Mozart and 
 Beethoven, 146 ; Older and Newer 
 styles of, 148; rhythm of the variations, 
 166 ; strict and free variations defined, 
 147 ; variations of Mozart — example 
 analyzed, 150-153 ; example referred 
 to, 154 ; variations of Beethoven, 155 ; 
 example analyzed, 156-162 ; variations 
 of Schubert, Weber, and Mendelssohn, 
 164 ; variations of Schumann, Brahms, 
 and Raff, 165,; variety of cadence, 145. 
 //. CANONIC VARIATIONS, 
 examples referred to by Bach and 
 Beethoven, 167. 
 
 ///. CHACONNE, defined, 139; 
 example by Handel, 139 ; examples by 
 
3°4 
 
 Analytical Index. 
 
 Bach, 140 ; Modern example by Beet- 
 hoven, 142. 
 
 IV. DOUBLE VARIATIONS, 
 defined, 168 ; example analyzed by 
 Beethoven, 168. 
 
 V. GROUND BASS, denned, 138; 
 example by Purcell, 138. 
 
 VI. IN VOCAL MUSIC. Ex- 
 amples referred to by Auber and 
 Beethoven, 171. 
 
 VII. PASSACAGLIA, defined, 
 139 ; derivation of the word, 139 ; 
 example by Bach, 141. 
 
 VIII. VARIATION ON TWO 
 THEMES, defined, 169; example by 
 Haydn referred to and analyzed, 169 ; 
 examples by Haydn and Beethoven 
 referred to, 170. 
 
 Variation in number of parts in pianoforte 
 writing, 32. 
 
 Verse — meaning of the word when found 
 in Anthems, etc. , 556. 
 
 Vocal Forms : — 
 
 /. ANTHEM, both Homophonic and 
 Polyphonic, 356 ; decani and cantoris, 
 meaning of, 556 ; form largely influ- 
 enced by the text, 557 ; full, — verse, 
 meaning of, 536 ; orchestral accom- 
 paniment occasionally employed, 557 ; 
 organ accompaniment mostly used, 
 SS7 ; variety of form in, 556, 557- 
 //. CANTATA, ORATORIO, 
 OPERA. Indefiniteness of the larger 
 vocal forms, 565 ; works to study in 
 oratorio and opera, 363. 
 ///. CHURCH CANTATA. 
 Numerous exam pies by Bach, 558 ; of 
 German origin, 558 ; orchestral accom- 
 paniments in, 358 ; written for solo 
 and chorus, 558. 
 
 IV. CHURCH SERVICE, defined, 
 SS9 ; Fugal writing — choice of subjects, 
 examples, 559. 
 
 V. GLEE, defined, 531 ; its form 
 — examples referred to by Spofforth, 
 Stevens, Paxton, Webbe, 552. 
 
 VI. MADRIGAL. A form now 
 nearly obsolete, 554; continuity one 
 of its chief features, 5S4 ; mostly 
 written to secular words, 333 ; Poly- 
 phonic in style, 534 ; the best models, 
 
 S55- 
 
 VII. MASS, defined, 362 ; examples 
 referred to by Cherubini, Schubert, 
 Mozart, Beethoven, Haydn, 562. 
 
 VIII. MOTETT. A special feature 
 — the accompaniment doubling the 
 voices, sss ; examples by Haydn and 
 Mendelssohn, 535 ; mostly written to 
 sacred words, 533 ; similar in style 
 to the Madrigal, 533; sometimes 
 written with free orchestral accom- 
 paniment, 353. 
 
 IX. PART-SONG, defined, 333; dif- 
 ference between Glee and Part-song, 
 333 ; Homophonic in character, 533 ; 
 examples referred to, 333. 
 
 X. RECITA TIVE. Accompanied 
 recitative — example, 536 ; Arioso, 
 defined, 337 ; Choral recitative, de- 
 fined, S39 ; examples referred to by 
 Handel and Mendelssohn, 339 ; de- 
 fined, 536 ; Plain recitative, 336 ; 
 Recitative a tempo defined, 336, 537 ; 
 Recitativo secco, 336, 537 ; two varie- 
 ties, 536. 
 
 XI. SCENA, as an independent 
 form, 348 ; defined, 346 ; in Opera, 346 ; 
 the Modern form, 346 ; examples re- 
 ferred to, 346 ; the Old form, 346 ; 
 examples referred to, 346. 
 
 XII. SONGS. Binary form in— ex- 
 amples referred to, 340; form de- 
 pendent on the words, 341 ; Older 
 rondo form in, 343 ; examples referred 
 to by Bach, 343 ; by Mozart, 344 : 
 Sonata form in — examples referred to 
 by Mozart, 543; Strophic song, de- 
 fined, 340 ; Ternary form in, 342 ; 
 Through-composed song, "durch- 
 componirtes Lied," 341. 
 
 Vocal Music : — Accent in the poetry to 
 be carefully noted, 320 ; compass and 
 quality of voices to be carefully con- 
 sidered, 524. Duets, Trios, Quartetts, 
 350 ; different kinds of, 9 ; example of 
 ineffective writing for tenor by Schu- 
 man, 527 ; faulty setting of words to 
 music — example by John Davy, 320, 
 322 ; by Balfe, 322 ; by Handel, 323 ; 
 hints on writing for the voice, 527- 
 S33 ; rhythmic difficulties — cross 
 accents — examples, syncopation — ex- 
 amples, 532 ; setting words to music, 
 320 ; unvocal writing, 530 ; use of the 
 upper notes of the voice, 326-329 ; 
 bad example by Beethoven, 328; 
 vague tonality — use of augmented 
 and chromatic intervals, 330 ; writing 
 
Analytical Index. 
 
 3°5 
 
 accompaniments, 549. Vocal music 
 without words. Bouche fermee — ex- 
 amples by Auber, Gounod, Grieg, 
 535 ; solfeggi and vocalises, 534. 
 
 Vocal music — Variation forms in (see 
 Variation Form, VI.). 
 
 Voice (The) : — Compass of, the soprano, 
 mezzo-soprano, contralto, tenor, bari- 
 
 tone, bass, 525 ; the Male alto, page 
 286 (note) ; the different register?. 
 526. 
 Voice — Unvocal writing, 530, 
 
 Waltz (see Dance Forms, xix. ). 
 Writing accompaniments to Vocal Music, 
 549- 
 
MUSICAL ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 Auber, " Masaniello," 92. 
 
 Bach, Cantata, " Ich habe genug," $43 ; 
 Cantata, ' ' Ich hatte viel Bekiimmer- 
 niss," 561; Choral, "Wo soil 
 ich fliehenhin," 507 ; ' Franzosische 
 Ouverture,' 68, 69 ; Organ Fugue in 
 D major, 497 ; Organ Fugue in G 
 minor, 508 ; Organ Prelude in F 
 minor, 120 ; Organ Sonata, No. 2, 
 in C minor, 510 ; Passacaglia, in C 
 minor (Organ), 141 ; Prelude to 
 Fugue in A minor, 113 ; Prelude and 
 Fughetta in G, 223 ; Suite in B minor, 
 87 ; Suites Anglaises, No, 3, 61 ; 
 Suites Anglaises, No. 4, S3 '• Suites 
 Anglaises, No. 6, 57, 58 ; Suites 
 Franchises, No. 3, 71 ; Suites Fran- 
 chises, No. 5, 5°i 55 ; Wohltem- 
 perirtes Clavier, Prelude i, 115 ; 
 Wohltemperirtes Clavier, Prelude 6, 
 116. 
 
 Beethoven, Andante in F, 201 ; Baga- 
 telle, Op. 119, No. 11, 20; ' Egmont,' 
 98 ; ' King Stephen, ' 528 ; Mass in 
 D, 532 ; Rondo in C, Op. 51, No. 1, 
 202 ; Six Variations, Op. 34, 156-162 ; 
 Sonata, Op. 2, No. 1, 419 ; Sonata, 
 Op. 7, 36, 279, 280, 340, 389 ; Sonata, 
 Op. 10, No. 1, 349, 350 ; Sonata, Op. 
 10, No. 2, 225, 331 ; Sonata, Op. 10, 
 No. 3, 259, 260, 266 ; Sonata, Op. 14, 
 No. 1, 296, 398, 399 ; Sonata, Op. 22, 
 400-402 ; Sonata, Op. 27, No. 1, 403 ; 
 Sonata, Op. 31, No. . 1, 38, 389; 
 oonata, Op. 53. 204, 229, 291 ; Sonata, 
 Op. 54, 421, 431 ; Sonata, Op. 101, 
 292 ; Sonata, Op. 106, 31 ; Sonata, 
 Op. 109, 168 ; Sonata Pathdtique, 35, 
 29b ; Symphony, Second, 311 ; Third, 
 B 53i 2 9S ; Fourth, 294 ; Eighth, 230 ; 
 Ninth, 531 ; Pastoral, 287, 288-290 ; 
 Thirty-two Variations, 142. 
 
 Brahms, " Ein deutsches Requiem," 561 ; 
 ' Schicksalslied,' 533. 
 
 Cherubini, First Mass, 561. 
 
 Chopin, Mazurka, Op. 6, No. 3, 85; 
 
 Mazurka, Op. 7, No. 3, 84. 
 Clementt, Sonata, Op. 34, No. 2, 299. 
 Couperin, Pieces de Clavecin, Ordre 
 
 18, 181 ; Pieces de Clavecin, Book I. 
 
 54. 64. 
 Cramer, Studies, No. 4, 108. 
 Czerny, 101 Exercises, No. 1, 107 ; No. 
 
 38, 107. 
 
 Daw, John, * The Pilot, ' 520-522. 
 Dussek, Sonata, Op. 10, No. 2, 334. 
 
 Gounod, Cecilian Mass, 535. 
 Graun, Passion Oratorio, 561 
 
 Handel, 'Alexander Balus,' 560; 
 ' Belshazzar,' 561; 'Ottone,' 66; 
 ' Solomon,' 523 ; Suites de Pieces, 
 No. i, 114 ; Suites de Pieces, Book 
 II., 139; 'Terpsichore,' 59, 60. 
 
 Haydn, 'Creation,' 532; Quartett, Op. 
 50, No. 2, 292 ; Quartett, Op. 54, 
 No. 3, 309 ; Quartett, Op. 64, No. 5, 
 226 ; Quartett, Op. 74, No. 1, 250, 
 251 ; Quartett, Op. 74, No. 2, 292 ; 
 Quartett, Op. 76, No. 1, 315; 
 Quartett, Op. 77, No. 1, 333; 
 Sonata in D, No. 7, 192 ; Sonata in 
 E flat, 32 ; Symphony in D, 310 ; 
 Symphony in G, 282, 283 ; Third 
 Mass, 561. 
 
 Heller, S., Etudes, Op. 45, 28. 
 
 Henselt, i. tude, Op. 2, No, 3, no. 
 
 Kessler, J. C. , Etude in C sharp minor, 
 
 40. 
 Kuhlau, Sonatina, Op. 55, No. 2, 384. 
 Kullak, " Les Fleurs Animees," No. 5, 
 
 28. 
 
 Liszt, Transcription of Beethoven's 
 Symphony in C minor 19 ; " Les 
 Preludes," 484, 485. 
 
Index to Musical Illustrations. 
 
 3°7 
 
 Mendelssohn, First Organ Sonata, 
 498, 499; "4'h Psalm, 561; Presto 
 Agitato, 3S7, 358; Sonata, Op. 58, 
 2 9» 34 2 1 Symphony, Fourth, 29s ; 
 Trio in C minor, Op. 66, 255. 
 
 Mozart, Concerto in C, 375 ; Concerto 
 in E flat, No. 9, 379 ; Concerto in G, 
 No. 17, 375 ; Concerto in C minor, 
 No. 24, 374 ; Fantasia in C minor, 
 437 ; Horn Quintett, - 335 ; Piano 
 Quartett in G minor, 312 ; Rondo in 
 D, 212 ; Rondo in B flat, 212 ; Sonata 
 in B flat, 389 ; Sonata in C major, 
 207 ; Sonata in D, 292, 297, 329 ; 
 Sonata in D, No. 17, 417 ; Sonata in 
 E flat, 389 ; Sonata in F, No. 12, 355, 
 356 ; Sonata in F, 237 ; Symphony in 
 G minor, 228, 234, 322 ; Trio in E flat, 
 208 ; Variations on " Je suis Lindor," 
 150-153 ; Vespers, 561 ; Waltz, 78. 
 
 Pukcell, ■ Dido and .lEneas,' 138. 
 
 Raff, Fantasie-Sonate, Op. 168, 44a 
 
 Saint-Saens, Third Concerto, 482. 
 
 Scarlatti, Sonata in G, 217. 
 
 Schubert, Impromptu, Op. 142, No. 1, 
 423; Polonaise, Op. 75, No. 1, 88 
 Quartett in E flat, Op. 125, No. 1 
 472 ; Rondo, Op. 107, 404-407 
 Sonata in A, 389 ; 12 Deutsche Tanze 
 No. 2, 79 ; 20 Waltzer, No. 10, 80 
 Unfinished Symphony, 238 
 
 Schumann, 'Das Paradies und die 
 Peri,' 527; Etudes Symphoniques, 
 Op. 13, 27 ; First Symphony, 227, 
 341 ; Humoreske, Op. 20, 17, 18 ; 
 Symphony in C major, 470. 
 
 Steibelt, Op. 78, No. 68, 109. 
 
 Weber, ' Preciosa,' 91 ; Sonata in D 
 minor, Op. 49, 414-416; Variations 
 on " Vien qua, Dorina Bella," Op. 7, 
 37- 
 
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