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 Life of the ancient Greelcs. 
 
 3 1924 028 243 016 
 
The original of tliis book is in 
 tine Cornell University Library. 
 
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TWENTIETH CENTURY TEXT-BOOKS 
 
 THE LIFE OF THE 
 
 ANCIENT GREEKS 
 
 WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO A THENS 
 
 BY 
 CHARLES BURTON GULICK, Ph.D. 
 
 ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF GREEK "iN HARVARD UNIVERSITY 
 
 ILLUSTRATED 
 
 NEW YORK 
 
 D. APPLETON AND COMPANY 
 
 I 902 
 
V'A 
 
 
 3 
 
 COPTBIOHT, 1902 
 
 By d. appleton and company 
 
 PuUished December, 1902 
 
 w 
 
TO 
 JOHN WILLIAMS WHITE 
 
PREFACE 
 
 This book aims to present the essential facts of daily 
 life among the Greeks, particularly the Athenians, which 
 experience has proved a boy or a girl may profitably learn 
 while reading Greek authors or studying Greek history in 
 preparation for college. The conjugation of Xvw and the 
 different forms ' of conditional sentences comprehend veri- 
 ties which must be thoroughly acquired and assimilated ; 
 but in the midst of them the pupil is apt to ask, " Who were 
 the Greeks, after all, and how did they live ? " " What did 
 they wear, what did they eat, and what were their houses 
 like?" 
 
 Such questions are pertinent and should be answered. 
 I have therefore ventured to sift and reproduce in as un- 
 technical a form as possible some of the settled knowledge 
 about ancient life which affords useful lessons not only for 
 the schoolboy but also for all educated persons to-day. In 
 order to correlate the subject with the reading usually pur- 
 sued in the schools, I have confined myself to a single 
 period, the fifth and the fourth centuries, and have drawn 
 frequently from the material which Xenophon's Anabasis, 
 in spite of its well-known limitations, yet offers in abun- 
 dance. The references to the Anabasis, however, are not 
 
viii THE LIFE OP THE ANCIENT GREEKS 
 
 scattered throughout the pages of the text, where their 
 constant interpolation would have been a source of irrita- 
 tion rather than a help, but have been gathered in two 
 tables at pages 320-330. 
 
 Teachers generally concur in the opinion that foot-notes 
 are distracting to the student, if not entirely neglected by 
 him, and for this reason other authorities besides Xenophon 
 are not cited, though I should have liked to acknowledge 
 the source, ancient or modern, of some statements which 
 may seem open to question. I have often felt that some 
 of our best texts of the authors are overburdened with an- 
 notation. Perhaps a careful reading of such chapters in 
 the present work as suit the teacher's purpose may do away 
 with the necessity of requiring the pupil to study long 
 notes in the text-books, which necessarily can ofEer but 
 one or two points of view, and which usually conclude by 
 referring the student to a dictionary of antiquities. 
 
 In order to render the pictures more useful, I have 
 added an index of all the objects which they portray, by 
 the use of which the teacher will gain much additional 
 material, and may be able to assign subjects for short com- 
 positions on the externals of Greek life. 
 
 Though the book is intended primarily for students in 
 our secondary schools and in the Freshman year at college, 
 the general reader also, I hope, will find it adapted to his 
 purpose. No knowledge of the Greek language is required, 
 and though the citing of Greek terms could not be avoided, 
 these have either been transliterated or so incorporated 
 within the sentence that their meaning comes first, and the 
 reader who has no acquaintance even with the Greek 
 alphabet may calmly disregard them. 
 
PREFACE IX 
 
 I fear that I may have offended many scholars by cer- 
 tain inconsistencies in spelling. The spelling of Greek 
 names seems to be a matter of temperament ; and whereas 
 I cannot bring myself to give in Eoman type the exact 
 Greek forms of time-honoured names like Aeschylus and 
 CMrisophus, I have found it equally impossible to Latinize 
 such words as Dipylon and lekythos. In general, when a 
 word has ei in the penult, it is so written in order to show 
 the quantity and the modern pronunciation. An excep- 
 tion occurs in Lyceum, which, on account of its familiar 
 occurrence in English, I have not altered, except to the 
 extent of marking the quantity, as in Peloponnesus. A 
 Greek word quoted for the first time is put in italics, 
 thereafter in Eoman. 
 
 Most of the books mentioned in the bibliography have 
 been my teachers, but I am indebted especially to Iwan 
 von Miiller's Griechische Privataltertumer (vol. iv, part 3, 
 of his Handbuch der Massischen Alter tumswissenschafi, 
 3d edition, 1893), and to the great Dictionnaire of Darem- 
 berg and Saglio, so far as it has appeared. My conviction 
 that the Greek house of the fifth century had only one 
 court was reached some years ago, but I am glad to ac- 
 knowledge the help which I have derived from Professor 
 Ernest Gardner's article on the Greek house in The Jour- 
 nal of Hellenic Studies for October, 1901. 
 
 It gives me pleasure to express my gratitude to Pro- 
 fessor Clarence H. Young, of Columbia University, New 
 York ; to Eector W. H. Cushing, of the "Westminster 
 School, Simsbury, Conn. ; to Dr. Theodore Woolsey Heer- 
 mance. Secretary of the American School at Athens ; and 
 to Eector Charles Heald Weller, of the Hopkins Gram- 
 
X THE LIFE OP THE ANCIENT GREEKS 
 
 mar School, New Haven, for their generosity in allowing 
 me the use of photographs taken by them in Greece. My 
 thanks are also due to Mr. F. G. Kenyon, of the British 
 Museum, and to Mr. E. W. B. Ificholson, of the Bodleian 
 Library, for their kind permission to reproduce the papyrus 
 (Pig. 89) first published by Mr. Kenyon in his Palaeography 
 of Greek Papyri, Plate I ; and to the Council of the 
 Society for the Promotion of Hellenic Studies, for permis- 
 sion to copy Plate II in The Journal of Hellenic Studies, 
 1899, and a portion of Plate XII in the same journal, 1890. 
 To Professor Perrin and Professor Wright I am most 
 deeply indebted for their untiring zeal in reading manu- 
 script and proofs, and for the help and inspiration of their 
 scholarly criticism ; nor could I have undertaken and prose- 
 cuted the work without the sympathetic aid and encour- 
 agement of my wife. 
 
 Harvard University, November 1, 190S. 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 CHAPTER PAGE 
 
 I. — Greece, Attica, Athens . . . . , . . . 1 
 
 II. — Athens and its environs 6 
 
 III. — Dwelling-houses . . 31 
 
 IV. — The outward surroundings of Athenian life . . 40 
 
 v. — The people 60 
 
 lVI. — Childhood 71 
 
 JP.1. — School training 79 
 
 VIII. — The occupations of young men 91 
 
 ^X. — Marriage and home . . . . . . . 119 
 
 /X. — Furniture and utensils of the house . . . 137 
 
 " XI. — Articles of food 143 
 
 ^ XII.— Clothing . 153 
 
 ^ ^III. — Care of the body 171 
 
 k'XIV. — Social life and entertainments 179 
 
 XV. — The various callings: the warrior .... 188 
 
 XVI. — The various callings : civic functions . . . 206 
 
 XVII. — The various callings : agriculture and grazing . 216 
 
 XVIII. — The various callings : manufactures and trades . 227 
 
 ^XIX. — Travel and hospitality 251 
 
 XX. — Domestic religion 262 
 
 XXI. — Old age, sickness, death, burial 284 
 
 xi 
 
Xll THE LIFE OF THE ANCIENT GREEKS 
 
 Supplementary matters : page 
 
 1. List of the Athenian magistrates 301 
 
 2. Attic holt days and festivals 306 
 
 8. Bibliography 310 
 
 4. Passages in Xenophon's Anabasis illustrating the text . 320 
 
 5. Sources of the illustrations 830 
 
 6. Index to the illustrations 345 
 
 7. Index of Greek words 352 
 
 8. General index 363 
 
TWENTIETH CENTURY TEXT-BOOKS 
 
 CLASSICAL SECTION 
 
 EDITED BY 
 
 JOHN HENRY WRIGHT, Harvard University 
 BERNADOTTE PERRIN, Yale UniversitV 
 
 ANDREW FLEMING WEST, Princeton University 
 
THE LIFE OF THE ANCIENT GREEKS 
 
 CHAPTER I 
 
 GREECE, ATTICA, ATHENS 
 
 Three great peninsulas — the Spanish, the Apennine, 
 and the Balkan — extend from the European Continent into 
 the Mediterranean Sea. Of these, the last and 
 Bresent most easterly is the smallest, and to-day per- 
 
 haps the least important politically. The 
 contrast between its present weakness and its past influ- 
 ence is great. The modern traveller, even with the plain 
 record of history in his mind, and the evidence of splendid 
 ruins before his eyes, finds it hard to connect in imagina- 
 tion the bare and rocky soil on which he stands with the 
 life of a vigorous and intellectual people — a people who 
 pointed out the way in poetry, art, science, and philosophy 
 to their successors for all time. 
 
 If, however, the traveller climb even a moderate height 
 in this little Greek peninsula, he will quickly discern some 
 of the sources of inspiration to the people who have made 
 the land famous. They are the mountain and 
 the oountrv ^^® ^®*' ^^^ especially the sea. These two, 
 brought compactly and intimately together in 
 alternating capes and gulfs, offer the utmost variety in phys- 
 ical environment, and are typical at once of the change and 
 the stability, the versatility and the soberness, the rest and 
 the unrest, that marked in turn the career of the people. 
 
 Greece — or Hellas, as the Greeks themselves called their 
 home — lies in about the same latitude as Virginia ; but the 
 1 1 
 
2 THE LIFE OP THE ANCIENT GREEKS 
 
 proximity of hills and sea produces a remarkable effect, in 
 that the climate and the Tegetation of the temperate zone are 
 brought within a few miles only of conditions 
 of life that are almost tropical. None of the 
 mountain tops, except Olympus on the northern border, are 
 covered with snow throughout the year ; and yet the snow 
 does not disappear from Parnassus before one may pick 
 and eat oranges and lemons in Sparta, hardly more than a 
 hundred miles to the south. The pine and the fir grew but 
 a few miles away from the fig and the olive ; and even the 
 palm was known on the island of Delos, and the date-palm 
 on Naxos. The air is pure and mild, yet bracing enough in 
 the old days to encourage the vigour and force that we see 
 in the alert and enterprising Athenian and in the warlike, 
 strenuous Spartan. The winds blew with a beneficent 
 regularity which the early Greek mariner observed to his 
 profit, and even in the wintry season they seldom rose to 
 the force of a tropical hurricane. The winters were short, 
 their severity lasting only from November to February. 
 With the early spring came the " Etesian " winds, blowing 
 regularly every morning from the Thracian north, and 
 raising the sea in the narrow channels between the islands 
 into a mighty swell ; this, however, moves so evenly in its 
 rise and fall that it is not dangerous, and the wind sub- 
 sides entirely -when the sun sets. With the evening a gen- 
 tle breeze comes from the south, bringing with it a cooling, 
 healthful breath which the ancient poets often extolled. 
 
 The geological basis of the mountainous regions is 
 chiefly limestone and a kind of tufa, called pons, which 
 The soil and ^^PP^^®*^ serviceable building material for 
 theriverT foundations and walls. The hills were pierced 
 with numerous caves and grottos, which early 
 imagination peopled with nymphs and other woodland 
 divinities (Fig. 2). Often the limestone appears in the 
 form of marble, as in the famous quarries of Attica, Euboea, 
 and Paros. The larger rivers are found mostly in northern 
 
GREECE, ATTICA, ATHENS 3 
 
 and central Greece. The chief are the Aratthus in Epeirus, 
 the Achelous in Acarnania, and the Peneius, with its famous 
 Vale of Tempe, in Thessaly. Others not so large, but im- 
 portant for the literary associations with which the poets 
 have invested them, are the Asopus in Boeotia, the Oephlsus 
 in Attica, the Alpheius in Elis, the Eurotas in Laconia, the 
 Inachus in Argolis. Many streams are nothing but moun- 
 tain torrents swelled by the melting snows in early spring 
 
 Fig. 2. — Caves of Pan and of Apollo on the Acropolis. 
 
 and entirely dry by the end of May. Some lose themselves 
 through the porous soil in underground channels, to reap- 
 pear elsewhere many miles distant. One of these streams 
 is seen in Eig. 3. At the mouths of the rivers are alluvial 
 deposits, usually of great fertility. In many districts, as at 
 Cape Colias in Attica, were beds of white clay, excellent 
 material for the potter ; and coloured earths of metallic 
 composition supplied the painter with his colours. 
 
 Wild animals were plentiful, notably the bear, the wolf, 
 
THE LIFE OF THE ANCIENT GREEKS 
 
 Wild 
 animals. 
 
 the boar, and the deer. Birds of all varieties found homes 
 in the thicker woods of the inland districts, in the reeds 
 that lined the beds of rivers like the Eurotas, 
 and even in the shrines and temples. They 
 were carefully watched by the observant peo- 
 ple, who gave them names from their ample vocabulary. 
 The migration of the cranes, the coming of the swallow in 
 the spring, the song of the nightingale — all were noted in 
 the life and poetry of the people. 
 
 The rivers and bays, too, supplied abundance of fish. 
 Sponges grew thickly in the waters by the coast, and were 
 
 Pig. 3.— Underground stream in Boeotia. 
 
 early used in the gymnasia and the baths (Fig. 119). The 
 Phoenicians taught the Greeks how to obtain a rich dye- 
 ing material from the purpura, or purple fish. The tor- 
 toise was a familiar object, and the song of the cicada was 
 so characteristic of the hot midsummer that this little 
 creature became the "chanticleer" {^x^rrj^) of the Greek 
 
aRBBCE, ATTICA, ATHENS 5 
 
 poets. Nature stood very close to the Greeks, and her 
 influence on their lives was constantly recognized, often 
 gratefully acknowledged. 
 
 So many kinds of folk were gathered under the single 
 name of Hellenes in this compact little country of Hellas, 
 Wide diver- SO diversified were their habits and feelings on 
 sity among- account of the variety of homes offered by 
 the Greeks. mountain, seacoast, and river valley, that we 
 must confine our attention mainly to one division of them. 
 In Attica, in the most easterly portion of this easterly pe- 
 ninsula, in a space not quite two-thirds the area of Ehode 
 Island, we find the forces of Hellenic genius at work most 
 efEectively in the fifth century b. c. ; hence it is from Attica, 
 as it appears during the period from the Persian Wars to 
 the rise of Macedon, that we may derive the best illustra- 
 tions of that genius as it showed itself in the manners and 
 customs of ordinary life. 
 
 This limitation of our work, aside from the fact that 
 
 Athens furnishes the most helpful lessons to be drawn from 
 
 ancient life in the Mediterranean basin, is ren- 
 Limitation of , _ . . , , , . , 
 
 the period dered absolutely necessary when we consider 
 
 and the peo- the long period of Hellenic existence, with its 
 pie to be consequent change in modes of life from the 
 
 studied. Mycenaean age (about 2000-1300 B. c.) down 
 
 to the present, and, above all, when we face the fact, too 
 often forgotten or neglected, that there were Greeks on 
 the islands, Greeks in Africa and Sicily, Greeks in far- 
 away Trapezus and in Massilia, at opposite ends of the world 
 as then known to explorers. All these spoke languages 
 necessarily affected by the tongues of the ruder peoples 
 among whom they lived. Their modes of life, too, changed 
 inevitably, if unconsciously, from those manners and cus- 
 toms which they brought at the beginning from their dif- 
 ferent homes on the Greek mainland. 
 
OHAPTEE II 
 
 ATHENS AND ITS ENVIRONS 
 
 A CHILD born in Athens -when that city was at the height 
 of its power grew up to find himself in a community full of 
 political unrest and even anxiety, stirring with the eager, 
 interesting life of an enterprising, enquiring, and socially 
 gifted people, who had made their city " the hearthstone of 
 Greece," "the council-chamber of Wisdom herself." Like 
 Athena the most cities which had been founded in prehis- 
 centre of toric times, Athens was a settlement grouped 
 Greek life. round a steep and commanding hill. This hill, 
 or Acropolis, rising out of the Attic plain four miles from 
 the sea, stretches from east to west a distance of 1,000 feet 
 or more, and is about 300 feet high. In remote times it had 
 been the home of kings and the refuge of the villagers in the 
 surrounding country from pirates by sea or from northern 
 invaders by land ; but it had become, in the Periclean age, 
 the religious centre of the commonwealth. Here were the 
 most ancient and most sacred shrines and altars ; here the 
 hearth of Hestia, goddess of home and communities, always 
 remained, in spite of the growth of the city at the fdot of 
 the hill and the shifting of town life to lower ground. In 
 the sixth century, to be sure, the Pisistratidae, like the 
 kings long before, had occupied the Acropolis as a conve- 
 nient centre of government and a means to maintain their 
 power ; but its defensive uses, though never quite forgotten, 
 fell away after the Persian Wars, and the great statesmen 
 of the fifth century devoted their energies and taste solely 
 to its adornment. 
 6 
 
Fig. 4.— Athens and vicinity. 
 
8 THB LIFE OF THE ANCIENT GREEKS 
 
 Toward the Acropolis converged roads from many direc- 
 tions. That from the Piraeus ran between the celebrated 
 Long Walls of Pericles, about two hundred and 
 Eoads. gj^^ y^^^g apart, afEording safe communica- 
 
 tion with the harbour town at all times, in war or in peace. 
 Toward the northwest the Sacred Way guided the cele- 
 brants of the Mysteries through the beautiful Dapline pass 
 to Eleusis. Another road extended north to the collier 
 
 Fig. 5. — Mount Penteiicus as seen from the American Scnool of Classical Studies. 
 
 town of Acharnae and to Deceleia. To the northeast, a road 
 passed the steep height of Lycabettus, and crossed or skirted 
 the hills into the plain of Marathon, with the marble quar- 
 ries of Mount Penteiicus on the left ; or it branched to the 
 right and led into the south of Attica, through the rich 
 midland plain, to the villages and towns of the eastern 
 coast. These roads were not paved, like the Eoman mili- 
 tary roads. Indeed, in the matter of building highways 
 the Greeks were far behind the Eomans. The best of the 
 
ATHENS AND ITS ENVIRONS 9 
 
 roads were merely smoothed of all impediments, and laid 
 evenly with sand or gravel or broken stone from the quar- 
 ries. Sometimes artificial ruts were cut in rocky portions 
 of the highways, two or three inches deep, with turnouts at 
 frequent intervals. There was no side-path for persons on 
 foot, who therefore might be forced to stand aside, or climb 
 for safety on a wall, if they met a drove of asses or cattle. 
 Yet we are not to think of these roads as being thoroughly 
 bad. Over the road from Sunium, thirty miles away, mes- 
 sengers could report at Athens the sighting of a vessel 
 bound for Piraeus several hours before it arrived. All 
 roads in Greece used for festival processions, such as the 
 Sacred Way to Eleusis, were carefully kept in repair, and in 
 them the traveller on horseback, or the teamster carting 
 wares into the city, felt consciously the protection which 
 the religious sanctity of the road afforded him. Here and 
 there, at the entrance to some large estate, the owner had 
 built a handsome gate of stone ; and as the road approached 
 Athens and entered the Cerameicus, or Potters' ward, it 
 was bordered by monuments to the dead so beautiful in 
 design and workmanship as to dispel any feeling of gloom 
 or sombreness. 
 
 The makers of these roads had not troubled themselves 
 to shorten distance and time by elaborate grading, and only 
 
 in places where the original ground was very 
 Scenes on the -i .-i ii-iiini 
 
 roads marshy was there a road-bed, banked by sup- 
 
 porting walls. The roads were useful chiefly 
 for heavy teaming : for the transportation of stone from the 
 quarries and ore from the mines, or for carrying the products 
 of the field to the morning market. Most travellers, if not 
 burdened by luggage, could make better time by cutting 
 across hills and mountains through the numerous foot-paths. 
 But the highways offered every temptation to linger. They 
 wound in and out between the hills, over streams, and past 
 neat farms, and presented a charming diversity. Through 
 the plain, north and west of the city, fiowed the Cephlsus, 
 
10 
 
 THE LIFE OP THl ANCIENT GREEKS 
 
 on its way to the bay of Phaleron, its streams protected 
 from the warm sun by green groves of figs and olives, the 
 best in Greece. There were vineyards on the hill slopes, 
 the soil, rich enough though not deep, being carefully pro- 
 tected by intelligent terracing and irrigation. The Ilissus 
 flowed in a shady ravine at the east and south of the Acrop- 
 olis. In the midland districts wheat and barley could be 
 raised in small quantities, and the mountainsides were pro- 
 tected from detrition by deep forests. Yet as early as the 
 fourth century B. c. the ruthless and short-sighted stripping 
 
 HHBBj^fe|^^^^^fe,A -■■ ' '^^^^jk 
 
 ■ 
 
 ^HhhIH'iM 
 
 i 
 
 ^HE^S^®^^^^^^ ■ 
 
 ... -V- '-"^ 
 
 WfS^m^i^" 
 
 
 ^K^St&^^'^t:a.';e'Jir~irsis':Jdrir*e-.: vv^-.t i^i ^?a<SC ■ Z»«fcBjS:'<£'X' 
 
 -.:-^^ffiEa 
 
 PiQ. 6.— The spring Callirrhoe by the Tlissns. 
 
 of timber began, and in the Middle Ages desolation spread 
 through the carelessness of wandering shepherds, who, like 
 sportsmen and campers of to-day, frequently caused wast- 
 ing forest fires (of. page 333). 
 
 The higher slopes were the home of sheep and goats. 
 In the heart of the hills there was building stone in abun- 
 dance, and Pentelicus and Hymettus especially yielded 
 marble for the builder and the sculptor. Metals, too, were 
 found in the hills, and the silver-mines at Laurium, in the 
 south of Attica, are famous for the part they played in 
 
ATHENS AND ITS ENVIRONS 11 
 
 transforming Athens into a sea power. Clay occurred near 
 the city walls, favouring the growth of one of the most 
 conspicuous industries of Athens — vase-making and vase- 
 painting. 
 
 With all its diversity of soil and products, Attica was a 
 snug little country, securely protected from the outside 
 world by Fames (4,200 feet), Pentelicus (3,300 
 SfAttioi"' feet),Hymettus (3,000 feet), and the sea. The 
 Persians realized the danger of risking defeat 
 in such a country, where escape was impossible except 
 through narrow mountain passes. The compactness of the 
 Attic territory is best appreciated from the summit of 
 Lycabettus (the steep hill behind the Acropolis in Big. 1), 
 whence one may see the valleys of the Cephisus and the 
 Ilissus,the mountain walls around, the whole of the Gulf of 
 Aegina, and the coast of Peloponnesus far to the south. 
 
 There is little wonder, then, that the Athenian took 
 pride in his country, and contrasted his own history with 
 that of other peoples — Thessalians, Boeotians, Argives, or 
 Eleans — whose lands had been often overrun by foreign in- 
 vaders. He alone, except the Arcadian, had always lived 
 on his own soil. His was not a coast country exclusively, 
 like that of Corinth or Miletus, nor yet an inland tract, 
 hard to enter and impervious to progress, like Sparta and 
 Thebes. The mountain, the shore, and the plain all fur- 
 nished elements to form the Attic character ; and as this 
 diversity largely accounts for the early social and political 
 history of Athens, so it explains too the later versatility 
 and adaptability of Athenians generally. They were shep- 
 herds of the mountain, farmers of the plain, and seamen or 
 fishers of the coast ; and living as they did so close together, 
 they entered into a thorough knowledge of one another's 
 aims and modes of life. 
 
 The roads from the sea and the interior approached the 
 city through suburbs (irpoao-Tcta), in which the houses were 
 larger and finer than those in the city itself (ao-ru). Here 
 
12 
 
 THE LIFE OF THE ANCIENT GREEKS 
 
 and there were gardens planted round some sacred spring, 
 notably those sacred to Aphrodite in the Ilissus region. 
 The most attractive suburb was the Outer Cerameicus, 
 extending northwest to the Academy, which lay in a de- 
 Suturbs and lightf ul grove of olives fostered and beautified 
 parks of by Oimon. But extensive parks, in the modern 
 
 Athens. sense, were not laid out near Greek cities until 
 
 much later, and then chiefly in Asia. The word paradeisos 
 (irapaStto-os), applied by the Greeks to the great game pre- 
 serves of Eastern princes, is of Persian origin. 
 
 Fig. 7. — A portion of the Themistoclean wall. 
 
 Although the traveller journeying to ancient Athens 
 would have seen in these suburbs a gradual transition from 
 the lonely stretches of field and pasture to 
 the noise and crowds of the city, he would 
 have found himself confronted suddenly and 
 abruptly by the great wall of Themistocles, which encircled 
 the city with a protecting band nearly five miles in circum- 
 
 The city 
 wall. 
 
ATHENS AND ITS ENVIRONS 
 
 13 
 
 ference. This was the wall built in eager haste by men, 
 women, children, and slaves as a defense against Sparta and 
 other Jealous neighbours of Athens (Figs. 7, 233). It was 
 surmounted by towers at frequent intervals, and pierced 
 
 r-'E'.- 
 
 Fig. 8.— Wall of a tower in Messenia, with windows. 
 
 by gates ; some of these were of imposing architecture, like 
 the great Thriasian gate, or Dipylon, at the northwest, 
 which was the Athenian terminal of the Sacred Way. From 
 them the streets (oSot) converged to the agora (dyopd), which 
 formed in every sense the centre of town life. Not all walls, 
 of course, were built in such extraordinary haste, and there 
 are many remains, in Athens and in other parts of Greece, of 
 walls reared with great care and imposing strength. Such a 
 wall, belonging to an ancient fortress in Messenia, is shown 
 in Fig. 8. It is laid with regularly hewn blocks of stone 
 that fit accurately one to another. Mortar was not used. 
 Two windows are seen in the picture — narrow slits formed 
 by cutting ofE the ends of the adjoining blocks at a sharp 
 angle. A vase picture, copied in Fig. 16, which represents 
 
14 
 
 THE LIFE OF THE ANCIENT GREEKS 
 
 The agora. 
 
 the wall of Troy and its gate guarded by Hector and Polites, 
 also shows the even succession of the stone courses. 
 
 The meaning of the word " agora " is explained only par- 
 tially by our " market-place." In Homer it has its etymo- 
 logical sense of "meeting," "assembly," and 
 Xenophon uses it with that meaning in one 
 passage. After a time the name was transferred to the place 
 of meeting, and in the towns it came to refer to the chief re- 
 sort of the men. Thither they went not merely to do busi- 
 ness with the tradespeople and artisans whose booths were 
 there, but also to discuss politics or the news of the day with 
 their associates while they sat under the shade of the plane- 
 trees and poplars, or strolled in the porticoes which lined 
 
 the whole " square." 
 ; ; The houses of the 
 
 oldest families — 
 the Eupatridae — re- 
 mained near this 
 centre until a late 
 period, although the 
 tradespeople finally 
 usurped the agora 
 itself, while the of- 
 fices of the magis- 
 trates were removed , 
 with a few excep- 
 tions, to other parts 
 of the city. Gate- 
 ways erected at va- 
 rious points pre- 
 sented dignified and 
 imposing entrances 
 to the agora. These, 
 to be sure, were more 
 numerous in Roman times, like the gate of Athena Archege- 
 tis here figured (Fig. 9). Besides these, porticoes (c-roai), 
 
 ^\.-j >#iiiW~ 
 
 Fig. 9.— Roman gate of Athena Archegetis, 
 
ATHENS AND ITS ENVIRONS 
 
 15 
 
 which were narrow open structures with pillars supporting 
 a roof, served as a handsome setting to the statues, altars, 
 
 streets. 
 
 Pig. 10.— a paved way at Troy. 
 
 columns, and other decorations through which the daily- 
 crowds made their way (cf. Figs. 31, 33). 
 
 The streets of Athens were notoriously narrow and 
 crooked, chiefly because the city was rebuilt in feverish 
 haste after the Persians destroyed it in 480 
 B. c. Like the country roads, they had no 
 pavement of regularly laid blocks of stone; nor had they 
 sidewalks. The ancient citadels, on the other hand, the 
 knowledge of which we owe to modern excavations, fre- 
 quently show decided superiority in this respect. At Troy, 
 for instance, is a paved way which still exists in fairly good 
 preservation (Fig. 10). In wet weather, therefore, the mud 
 lay deep, and passing was difficult. These unpleasant con- 
 ditions were aggravated by the unrestricted custom of 
 throwing refuse from the house at evening, and since the 
 streets were not lighted at night (page 140), people had to 
 
16 
 
 THE LIFE OF THE ANCIENT GREEKS 
 
 pick their way through mud and filth. As a charm against 
 disease, therefore, in those narrow alleys where light and 
 warmth could not penetrate, it was customary to paint a 
 picture of Apollo, the giver of health, on the walls of the 
 
 Pig. 11.— An ancient spring-house. 
 
 houses. The wider avenues (irXaTciat 6801) were called later 
 plateiai {-irXaruai), whence are derived " place " and " plaza." 
 Some of these were dignified with names, such as " the Street 
 of the Tripods," for example, which ran from the agora east- 
 ward and south below the Acropolis to the theatre. 
 
 In the harbour town, the Piraeus, the streets were not so 
 bad. This port owed its origin virtually to the genius and 
 foresight of Themistocles, and grew rapidly under the lib- 
 eral policy of Pericles, who attracted thither many foreign- 
 ers. Here, under the direction of Hippodamus of Miletus, 
 the streets were laid out in regular lines, with spacious 
 squares and abundant room for the active business plied 
 there. Even in the upper city, the state did not wholly 
 neglect the condition of the streets. A board of commis- 
 sioners called astynomoi {aarvvofLoi), five for Athens and five 
 for the Piraeus, had, among other police duties, general 
 oversight of the streets, and were charged not to allow the 
 obstruction of them by barricades or by doors opening out- 
 
ATHENS AND ITS ENVIRONS 
 
 IT 
 
 ward from dwelling-houses. In particular, just before a 
 religious celebration at which there was to be a procession, 
 these officials were required to clean and level the streets 
 along the line of march. But we hear of no other provision 
 for the regular cleaning of the highways. 
 
 How refuse was removed from the streets we do not 
 know. The Athenians of the fifth century, at all e^e-nts, 
 were not so scrupulous about the disposal of 
 sewage and the draining of waste water from 
 their houses as were the prehistoric inhabitants 
 of Mycenae and Tiryns, where Dr. Schliemann found elab- 
 orate provision for carrying off water used in the bath. 
 But in Athens, as we have seen, the mud and filth in the 
 side alleys must have been intolerable, and until the fourth 
 
 Drainage and 
 sewers. 
 
 Fig. 12. — Plan of Athens, showing the watercourses. 
 
 century there was no restriction even against building 
 drains and gutters (oxeroC) from private houses into the street. 
 On the other hand, the stream called Eridanus on the map 
 (Fig. 12), which ran through the heart of the city from east 
 to west, became in course of time the regular receptacle for 
 2 
 
18 THE LIFE OF THE AjSTCIBNT GREEKS 
 
 waste matter. Accordingly, its bed was walled up and hid- 
 den by bridges and other structures. Air-shafts twenty feet 
 deep were sunk here and there, showing that it was fre- 
 quently inspected ; and it debouched near the Dipylon, 
 whence canals distributed its contents, for fertilizing pur- 
 poses, over the plain between the Cephisus and the Ilissus. 
 The houses of Athens were not supplied individually 
 with running water, as a rule, and its people, as in other 
 Greek cities, were dependent on springs (Kprjvou) 
 or artificial wells {(j>peaTa). A spring of fresh 
 water, which the Greeks, like the Germans and the Portu- 
 guese, called " sweet " {vSwp r/Sv), was endowed with divine 
 attributes in the popular fancy, and its protecting nymph 
 or spirit was devoutly worshipped. The land round the 
 Acropolis contained many such springs, and every house 
 had also its cistern for the retention of rain-water. j!^o 
 
 Pig. 13.— Women at the fountain. 
 
 springs were more famous than Gallirrhoe (Pig. 6), in the 
 Ilissus valley, or the Enneacrimus, which Pisistratus fur- 
 nished with pipes and with basins of sculptured marble. At 
 the Dipylon, too, there was a magnificent fountain, and the 
 growing needs of the city were further met by the building 
 
ATHENS AND ITS ENVIRONS 
 
 19 
 
 of conduits which collected water from the brooks on Penteli- 
 cus, and led it to various fountains inside the walls, at the 
 corners of streets, or in the more open spaces (Figs. 11, 14). 
 
 In the matter of aqueducts, however, the Greeks could 
 never vie with Ro- 
 man engineering 
 skill. JSTothing, 
 therefore, is more 
 characteristic o f 
 Greek daily life 
 than the drawing 
 of water from 
 springs and wells 
 by women and girls 
 {v8po<j}6poi), who, 
 with water-jars 
 (iSpt'ai, Fig. 13) 
 on their heads, 
 issued at early 
 morning in a long 
 procession to some 
 favourite spring, 
 often outside the 
 city walls. At a 
 well, by means of an 
 earthenware buck- 
 et (/caSos) attached to a rope (i/«.as), they drew for themselves 
 the water required that day for household needs. The 
 Greeks under Xenophon and Ghirisophus came upon 
 women performing this task outside an Armenian village. 
 
 "We look in vain in Athens and in all Greece for any- 
 thing that corresponds closely to the police force of a 
 modern city. In general, a democratic state 
 like Athens relied upon its citizens, acting in 
 a private capacity, for the detection of crime, and in many 
 cases actually paid one-half of the fine imposed on a con- 
 
 
 m»^ . 
 
 
 Im 
 
 ^^> 
 
 
 PJH 
 
 '''' iWf 
 
 L^^-.-.__^.-._ ^ 
 
 jfeaagjfenTfr^ 
 
 :/W 
 
 A',9MmmmM 
 
 ■ ■..l:lw^^:.1 
 
 ■■^:-<s 
 
 |*Ak^ 
 
 ^^m 
 
 ^■"i^ 
 
 ^^^BiS 
 
 
 1 ■-« 
 
 "^i^Ki 
 
 m^li^ 
 
 ^IHB^BftiHiift^tfttKf^ 4Kk*^ '^^fiw 
 
 rjp^ p ^ 
 
 ISfc^l^l^m 
 
 ^tM 
 
 ||^'^®#^^Ib^^*^ 
 
 ^^^H 
 
 Fig. 14. — Itemains of a street fountain at PriSne. 
 
20 THE LIFE OP THE ANCIENT GREEKS 
 
 victed person to his accuser. Any one who surprised 
 another in the act of violating the law might hale him 
 before a magistrate ; or, if he felt unable to take such sum- 
 mary measures, he might lay information against the of- 
 fender, whereupon the magistrate himself made the arrest. 
 This system, while it tended to foster a vigorous personal 
 responsibility to the law and a patriotic interest in the 
 welfare of the state, nevertheless encouraged a grave 
 evil in Athenian civilization, the practice of "sycophancy." 
 The "sycophant" (ooiKo^ai/Ti;?), in the Greek sense, was a 
 man who got his living by threatening rich persons with 
 legal process for real or alleged violation of the law, hoping 
 thereby to extort money as the price of silence, or to gain 
 part of the fine laid on his victim, should he be adjudged 
 guilty. 
 
 We may perhaps discern the rudiments of a police board 
 in the astynomoi, who, as we saw (page 16), enforced certain 
 regulations regarding the care of the streets. In the market, 
 too, a special commission, called agoranomoi (dyopavd/Aot), were 
 deputed to keep order. These two boards were attended by 
 slaves belonging to the state, who were armed with bows, 
 and therefore ordinarily called the Bowmen (rofoTai). Since 
 they were of foreign origin, they were also named Scythians 
 {tKvOai) ; or again Peusinioi (Ileuo-iVioi), from a certain 
 Peusin, otherwise unknown, who is said to have been the 
 first to organize them. Similarly London policemen were 
 called " Peelers," from Sir Eobert Peel, who planned their 
 organization. The Bowmen also acted as beadles in the 
 courts and in the public assembly, to prevent undue noise 
 and to eject obnoxious speakers or persons who interrupted 
 the proceedings. 
 
 With all this, however, there was no regular patrol of 
 the city streets in the interests of the personal safety of 
 private citizens, and the dark alleys and the outskirts of the 
 town were infested with footpads, who clubbed the belated 
 citizen and robbed him of his mantle or purse. 
 
CHAPTEE III 
 
 DWELLING-HOUSES 
 
 The Athenians as a rule enjoyed more space and greater 
 comfort in their country houses than in those they occu- 
 External P^®*^ ^^ ^^^ '^^^J- The mere fact that in the 
 
 appearance city houses were huddled closely together with 
 of the houses, party walls connecting them, shows at once the 
 difference between them and the country houses, with more 
 generous space, and a more rambling style, unrestrained by 
 a neighbour's building. The foremost Athenian in town was 
 no better ofE than his poorest neighbour in this regard. To- 
 our notions, houses in Athens were very small, grouped as 
 they were to the number of 10,000 and more in a space lim- 
 ited by a city wall only five miles in circumference. Some 
 rooms, from six to ten feet on a side, seem like mere cells. 
 Even the richest men of the fifth century — excepting now 
 and then a man with enormous wealth like Callias, or of 
 extravagant tastes like Alcibiades — were averse to imitating 
 the beauty and magnificence of temples and public build- 
 ings by rearing large dwellings. The ordinary Greek spent 
 his whole day abroad with other men, and required shelter 
 only for eating and sleeping. Conscious of his importance 
 as the citizen of an imperial city, he found more satis- 
 faction in the aohievementsT-^architectural as well as polit- 
 ical — of that empire than in anything which he as a single 
 individual could produce. Hence the mean appearance of 
 the ordinary dwelling-houses, crowded among the narrow 
 streets and alleys, became a subject of comment among the 
 Greeks themselves. An old writer remarks that a stranger 
 
 31 
 
22 
 
 THE LIFE OF THE ANCIENT GREEKS 
 
 entering the city would at- first sight scarcely believe that 
 this was really the great city of Athens. He would be re- 
 assured, however, after a glimpse at the splendid temples, 
 altars, gateways, and administrative buildings, on which 
 
 Outside. 
 
 Inside. 
 
 Fig. 15. — Restoration of a city gate. 
 
 the Athenians lavished the taste which they did not care 
 to apply to the outward appearance of their private dwell- 
 ings. But if Athens was deficient in this respect, Sparta 
 lacked artistic decoration in a much greater degree. Thu- 
 cydides says that if Sparta were razed to the ground, no 
 student of history in later years could, from the ruins alone, 
 conceive how great her political power had been. 
 
 The building materials in both town and country house 
 were the same. The foundation was laid with rough stone. 
 Materials ^0^ '^^^ i^^o rectangular blocks, but joined to- 
 of house- gether in their natural state, with mud and 
 
 building. smaller stones filling up the crevices. On this 
 was reared the wooden frame of the house. The walls 
 were made of mud squares or bricks (ttAiV^oi) baked in the 
 sun; for the Greeks at this time had not discovered the 
 process of making kiln-dried bricks. When, therefore, a 
 
bWELLING-HOtrSES 
 
 23 
 
 Greek like Xenophon travelled in the Orient, he was struck 
 with admiration of the superior methods of the Babylonians 
 in this branch of building. In the Anabasis he particularly 
 mentions the fact that the " wall of Media " was built of 
 kiln-dried bricks laid in cement, and the foundation of the 
 wall of Mespila was of hewn stone, not rough stone loosely 
 fitted together. These details must have attracted his 
 attention because they were not generally to be found in 
 Greek walls, whether of towns or of houses. So flimsy were 
 the latter, that burglars, instead of entering by a door, com- 
 monly dug their way through the wall, whence they were 
 called " wall-diggers " (rotxwp'wx'")- ^o ^^® vaeii of Plataea 
 made their way secretly, house by house, to a rendezvous in 
 
 Fie. 16.— Gate of a walled city. 
 
 the city, digging through each party wall ; and Xenophon's 
 men in a single night dug through the wall of a tower near 
 Pergamus which was eight plinths thick. This explains 
 why so few remains of Greek dwellings have been preserved. 
 Falling houses were not uncommon, and it would seem as 
 if the situation in Athens were scarcely better than in the 
 
24 
 
 THE LIFE OF THE AlS'ClENT GREEKS 
 
 J 
 
 
 3 
 
 Fi6. 17.— Double window. 
 
 rude hamlets of Babylonia, where a foraging party sent 
 out by the Persians easily wrenched the timbers from the 
 houses^ 
 
 Since the outer wall was extremely likely to crumble 
 away, it was protected in some degree by a kind of stucco 
 
 or plaster made of lime, 
 which was sometimes 
 painted in a single col- 
 our. The front of the 
 house, therefore, pre- 
 sented a perfectly bare 
 aspect to the street, re- 
 lieved on the ground 
 floor only by the door; 
 windows (^upi'Ses), when 
 there were any, were either in the second story, or set so 
 high — nine or ten feet from the ground — that they seemed 
 from the outside to belong to the upper rooms. 
 
 City roofs were regularly flat, whereas the thatch roofs 
 of the country were sloping. Hence in town the roof might 
 become a pleasant resort for the family on warm nights. 
 From it, too, the women raised their lament for Adonis 
 when the annual festival in his honour came round. Clay 
 tiles protected the roof from rain. These some- 
 times proved to be a convenient and dangerous 
 weapon against an invader who penetrated too incautiously 
 into a narrow street. One such tile, flung by a woman from 
 the roof of a house in Argos, cost Pyrrhus his life. Some- 
 times the roof was lined with a row of large clay pots 
 {xvTpai), set up in the curious belief that they would 
 frighten away the birds. The commonest of these were 
 the owls, which became symbolic of Athens and Athena, 
 being regularly figured on the coins of the city (Fig. 199). 
 The proverb " owls to Athens " passed current in an- 
 tiquity as the equivalent of the modern "coals to N"ew- 
 castle." 
 
 The roof. 
 
DWELLING-HOUSES 25 
 
 Such, in general, was the external appearance of a house 
 inhabited by the ordinary citizen. Houses were not num- 
 bered, and even the streets, as we saw, did not always bear 
 fixed names. A man must go himself, or send a slaye, to 
 find out the residence of any one whom he sought. The 
 state, to be sure, kept track of a citizen's family and ward in 
 the register of his deme (page 89). In practical life his house 
 was described as being near some well-known temple, foun- 
 tain, wall, or gate. Moving was not uncommon among the 
 middle and the lower classes, though always recognized as 
 troublesome and undesirable. The favourite quarter for 
 residences was the deme Collytus (KoAXdtos), just north of 
 the Acropolis. Here, unfortunately, the modern city was 
 built in 1834 ; for it has rendered excavation next to im- 
 possible, and greatly restricted our opportunities for learn- 
 ing about the construction and arrangement of houses. 
 
 If, now, we try to gain an idea of the inner arrangement, 
 we find ourselves embarrassed by the meagreness of our in- 
 formation. Excavations in various parts of Greece, Italy, 
 and Asia Minor, while they have yielded immense additions 
 to our knowledge of the architecture of temple and theatre, 
 have, as yet, brought to light very few examples of a Greek 
 house of the fifth century. . We must therefore fall back on 
 Internal ar- what we can gather from ancient writers ; and 
 rangements since their evidence is never given in formal 
 of the house, description, but has to be deduced from mere 
 allusions, often scant enough, the result can be accepted 
 only as uncertain and provisional. We must remember, 
 too, that not all houses were built exactly alike, any more 
 than they are to-day. We may assume the greatest variety 
 in number and arrangement of rooms, according to the 
 location of the house and the means of the owner. The 
 accompanying diagram, therefore, is designed to show only 
 a possible arrangement of the town house, assuming that it 
 contained most of the rooms and appurtenances mentioned 
 by Greek writers. 
 
26 
 
 THE LIFE OP THE ANCIENT GREEKS 
 
 The court. 
 
 We enter at A a 'door which opens into a passage called 
 the thyron {evpd>v, B). This leads into a court (D) open to 
 the sky. The court, or auU {avX-q), was the cen- 
 tral and essential feature of the city house, since 
 it formed the principal means of admitting light and air. 
 In the country house the position of the court was quite dif- 
 ferent. There, it stood in 
 front of the edifice, and was 
 not, strictly speaking, a 
 structural part of it. This 
 made it a survival of the old 
 Homeric arrangement, in 
 which the yard fronting the 
 house was surrounded by a 
 wall on three sides, with the 
 facjade of the building com- 
 pleting the fourth. 
 
 Since the front door {A) 
 of many houses was visible 
 from the court (D) and led 
 almost directly into it, this 
 door was called the " court door " (^ avXuo's 6vpa). In many 
 houses it might be set in a little from the street, so that the 
 recess thus formed made a kind of vestibule (to, 
 irpoOvpa) open to the street. In a rich man's 
 house this might also be extended outward into the street 
 by means of supporting columns, which formed a small porch 
 (see Fig. 96). In this area often stood a little shrine to IIecat6 
 and a symbolic representatioh of Apollo Agyieus — guardian 
 of the streets — in the shape of a pointed column (page 262). 
 Next it an altar may have stood. So also, to invite the pro- 
 tection of Apollo, laurel or bay trees were sometimes set out 
 before the front door ; and there was, further, the inscrip- 
 tion above the door, p.r)hh/ da-iTw kukov {Let no harm enter). 
 One of the household slaves sat in a small room on one side 
 of the entry (F) to act as porter (Ovpwpos) and answer (in-a- 
 
 FlG, 
 
 ■Theoretical plan of a city house. 
 
 Tlie entrance. 
 
DWELLING-HOUSES 
 
 27 
 
 Fig. 19. — Door of a^ house. 
 
 Kovw) a visitor's knock. For this there was a metal knocker 
 (poTTTpov) ; or the person desiring entrance beat on the ^door 
 and called " iral, wai " [Slave !) ! Often the porter was a surly 
 fellow whose wrath 
 was easily roused, es- 
 pecially when a visi- 
 tor pounded too vio. 
 lently with his fists, 
 or kicked in ill-bred 
 fashion with his foot. 
 The door opened in- 
 ward, by a handle or 
 ring called the Ittl- 
 
 a-Traa-T-qp (Fig. 95). 
 
 Opposite the por- 
 ter's room in many houses were stalls for horses (-£') ; for 
 the Greeks, like some villagers in Europe to-day, had no 
 scruples at housing animals under the same 
 roof with themselves. Sot chickens and other 
 birds, especially quails and jackdaws'^ were often kept in 
 the court (Pig. 94). When Xenophon comes upon Arme- 
 nians living in underground houses, in which were also 
 gathered their sheep, goats, cattle, and fowl, he is struck 
 
 not so much by the 
 miscellaneous char- 
 acter of the inmates 
 as by the unusual 
 construction of the 
 dwellings below the 
 ground. 
 
 In many houses, 
 doubtless those 
 nearest the market- 
 place, the rooms Just mentioned served as the workshop 
 {ipyaa-T-qpiov) and salesroom {7r(aXrjTrjpi.ov) of artisans and 
 tradesmen; or physicians had their offices (iWpera) here. 
 
 The rooms. 
 
 01 J 
 
 Pig. 20.— Greek keys. 
 
28 
 
 TAB LIFE OF THE ANCIENT GREEKS 
 
 Fig. 21. — Door opening into a sleeping-room. 
 
 If they had hired their quarters, these were of course en- 
 tirely shut off from the rest of the house. 
 
 Even the modest house of Socrates had its court (D). 
 Such courts were always rectangular, though the rectangle 
 
 \ was not necessarily sym- 
 
 i._ r metrical (see Figs. 36 and 
 
 30). In the better houses 
 it was bounded by a col- 
 umned portico or peri- 
 style. On one side of the 
 court, usually the north, 
 since that was open to the 
 sun's rays, was a hall or 
 living-room ( G) c^led the 
 
 pastas (-TTacTTaS or irapa- 
 
 (T-Tas). This seems to have derived its name from two en- 
 gaged columns or pilasters {M, M), called ■n-apaa-rdBe's, which 
 marked the entrance from the court into this hall ; hence 
 it was not divided by a door 
 from the court, but formed 
 a recess or alcove to it. 
 Here, or in the court if the 
 house were too small to con- 
 tain a pastas, the daily life 
 of the women and children 
 took its course (see Figs. 
 94, 95) ; from here they re- 
 tired to the rooms adjoin- 
 ing the pastas or in the 
 upper story if the mascu- 
 line members of the fam- 
 ily came home with friends 
 who were not kindred. 
 
 Eound the court were grouped the rooms (Sw/iaria, 
 otKij/AttTa, K), which, of course, varied in number and posi- 
 tion with each house (contrast Fig. 26 with Fig. 28). Some- 
 
 FiG. 32.— Door of a storeroom. 
 
DWELLING-HOUSES 
 
 29 
 
 23.— Key resting on a notch of the 
 bolt inside a door. 
 
 times only two sides of the court were thus surrounded, 
 the third being bound by the wall of the house (Figs. 36, 
 28, 39). Some rooms were sleeping-rooms {Koa-Zves, also 
 8a)/taTta) ; some, guest-cham- 
 bers (fev<Sv£s) ; some, store 
 closets (ra/ttcia). At best 
 they were mere cells, with no 
 other opening than the door- 
 ways connecting with the 
 court. These were hung with 
 curtains or portieres (Trapa- 
 iriTaxTfiaTo) or furnished with 
 regular doors. 
 
 These doors were either 
 single or double. ^A single 
 door opening into a bedcham- 
 ber is seen in Fig. 21, with 
 
 an ornamented handle at the top. In Fig. 33 
 a maid is carrying her mistress's jewel-casket 
 back to its place in the storeroom, the door of 
 which is double. She inserts a large key 
 (kA,tjs), which is simply a metal bar bent twice 
 at right angles (see Fig. 20). This she works 
 until its inner end catches against a knob 
 or notch on the bolt inside (Fig. 23), when 
 it becomes easy to thrust the bolt to one 
 side. The key is then pulled out and the 
 door opens by means of the handle, seen 
 in Figs. 31, 22. In locking, it was neces- 
 sary merely to pull the bolt in place by a 
 strap which hung through a hole on the 
 outside of the door (Figs. 15, 23, 33). The 
 strap was then taken off and carried away 
 or thrust back into the hole. A good deal of noise, caused 
 both by the bolts (often in a city gate these were double) 
 and also by the hinges, attended the opening of a door. 
 
 Boots and 
 looks. 
 
 Fig. 24. — Priestess 
 with a Icey. 
 
30 THE LIFE OP THE ANCIENT GREEKS 
 
 There was another kind of key, more like our own, 
 shown in Fig. 24. This was inserted in a slit in the door, 
 such as may be seen at the left in the door of Fig. 95. 
 The hook at the end of the key exactly fitted a hollow in 
 the bolt, and accordingly, when turned to right or left, 
 efEected the locking or unlocking of the door. A " Laco- 
 nian " key with three teeth is mentioned ; but the construc- 
 tion of the lock was complicated and is not entirely certain. 
 
 In the middle of the court stood the altar of Zeus Her- 
 Iceios (Zeiis 'EpKctos), on which the father of the family, as its 
 priest, ofEered sacrifice to Zeus, protector of the family cir- 
 cle. Here, too, were statues of Zeus and of Apollo Patroos, 
 the family god of all lonians. 
 
 At home the master and his friends had their banquets 
 and symposia in the hall of the men, the andron (dvSpwv), 
 which we may place at H. In its relative size, 
 T e men s being larger than most of the other rooms, and 
 in its importance as the scene of indoor life and 
 the daily occupations of the family group, it corresponded 
 to the great hall (fjuiyapov) of the Homeric house. As far as 
 this room, and no farther, strangers might penetrate, and 
 then only if the master of the house was present. The 
 whole of this part of the house, or that to which the andron 
 stood as the centre, was from it termed the andronitis (dv- 
 Spojvtris). But when the adult males were abroad, as they 
 generally were by day, the wife, children, and slaves might 
 gather round the circular hearth (ea-rta) for the business 
 and pleasure of the day, which was either in this room or 
 in the pastas [G). This hearth, the real centre of domestic 
 life, was the scene of many solemn and important religious 
 ceremonies that afEected the welfare of the family. In the 
 houses of the poor it also served as the ordinary cooking 
 hearth. 
 
 Every dwelling, however, provided special quarters for 
 the women and the girls, to which no man outside the im- 
 mediate circle of relatives might have entrance ; and since 
 
DWELLING-HOUSES 31 
 
 all the rooms just mentioned were in plain sight of the 
 court, through which visitors must pass in order to reach 
 the andron, an entirely separate suite was reserved for the 
 
 women. To this they were not, of course, 
 The women s Qij^jged to confine themselves except when the 
 
 male inmates had callers. This suite, like the 
 other rooms we have just seen, may have opened on the 
 court ; in this case a strong door divided it from the court. 
 Such quarters may possibly be recognized in / (Figs. 26 and 
 27), with its adjoining inner room, ^, both of which, though 
 connecting directly with the court, have no connection with 
 the large reception-rooms or andrones recognizable in H. 
 In some houses the women's quarters must have been in 
 the second story, as in the houses of Figs. 28 and 29. The 
 name applied generally to the women's quarters was gynai- 
 konltis (ywaiKwi/irts), and it naturally embraced a larger 
 number of rooms than the andronitis, since at home, dur- 
 ing the master's absence, the women had free range of the 
 house. One of the rooms of the gynaikonitis was the bed- 
 room of the master and the mistress [J in Fig. 18) ; even in 
 prose this retained its ancient and revered name of thalamos 
 (^aXa/Aos). Here the head of the house kept his strong box 
 and his valuables. Here, too, were little images of the 
 patron gods of marriage — the Oeol yafjiTJX.LOL and y€ve6\ioi. 
 
 In many, and probably in most, houses there was a sepa- 
 rate room used as kitchen (oTrravtov), although among the 
 
 poor, whose space was cramped, cooking was 
 
 done also at the hearth in the andron or the 
 pastas. In Fig. 27 the room marked K^ at the left of the 
 entrance A^ seems to have been the kitchen ; in Fig. 28, A'\ 
 at the right of the entrance A^, may perhaps have been 
 the kitchen. The absence of any fireplace in the ruins of 
 these houses may be accounted for by supposing that the 
 inhabitants used portable ovens or braziers, like those shown 
 in Figs. 126 and 129. 
 
 In the earlier ages, and even later in rural districts, an 
 
32 
 
 THE LIFE OP THE ANCIENT GREEKS 
 
 The fire- 
 place. 
 
 open fire was made for cooking on the family hearth 
 {eoTTia). Later an earthenware oven {Kpi^avos, Ka.fitvo's, or 
 iTTvos) kept the fire within bounds. A board or shelf pro- 
 jected over the oven. On it could be ranged 
 dishes, cups, and other utensils {ipyaXeta) for 
 cooking ; also the crane which held the cal- 
 dron, flesh-hooks (Kpedypai, Fig. 137) for pulling meat out of 
 the pot, and the like. The smoke of the fire rose through 
 an opening in the wall or the roof ; but since it was not 
 conducted through a pipe, it must also have blown about 
 until it found its way through doors, chinks, and crevices. 
 The hole in the roof (KaTrvoSoKT]) could be closed with a 
 board or trap-door (ri^Xia). 
 
 We have thus traversed the whole of the first floor, ac- 
 cording to the plan given in Pig. 18. A solid wall, which 
 might mark the beginning of another house, terminates 
 the rooms at the back. Such party walls may be seen in 
 
 Fig. 25, showing the plan of a 
 block of four houses discovered a 
 few years ago in Priene, near Mile- 
 tus. Some houses had more than 
 one entrance, and were according- 
 ly said to be apLtftCOvpoi (see Figs. 
 27 and 28). The second entrance 
 might be at the back or at the side, 
 opening on an adjoining alley. 
 
 The second story was absolute- 
 ly necessary in most Greek cities. 
 Even the large and conveniently 
 arranged house of Fig. 28 had 
 an upper floor, reached by stairs 
 (KXi/ta/ces) made of wood. The second story either covered 
 the whole of the lower portion — except of course the court, 
 which was open to the sky — or else extended over a por- 
 tion of it only. In the former case the house was an 
 oiKiStov StirXow ; in the latter, the upper floor, usually called 
 
 , 25. — Plan of a block of four 
 houses at Priene. 
 
DWELLING-HOUSES 33 
 
 uTrepMov, suggested rather a tower, and was consequently 
 called TTvpyos. Sometimes it projected a foot or two over 
 the street, resembling old houses in Europe to-day. From 
 it windows (OvpiSi?) looked into the street. The upper 
 story was reached by a stairway inside, unless it was let to 
 strangers, in which case steps from the street on the out- 
 side led directly to it, thus avoiding any disturbance of the 
 inmates below. Houses thus let were called synoikiai, 
 "flats" {(rvvoiKiai), in contrast to oikiai (oktai), which were 
 designed for a single tenant. They sometimes had balconies 
 [ir^pChpoiJMi). Although we hear of such tenements mostly 
 in the fourth century, they must have been a profitable in- 
 vestment for citizens in the latter half of the fifth as well, 
 because the state did not allow the numerous foreigners 
 then settling in Attica to own houses. If the upper story 
 were not let out, or used in general as the gynaikonitis, it 
 was devoted to the female slaves. In the Anabasis we read 
 of a loft (dvwyecov) where nuts were drying. 
 
 Some houses, further, had cellars for storing wine in 
 huge jars and casks (ttCOoi, KepapLoi), like those seen in Fig. 
 107 ; and most had cisterns (Aa/cKoi) for catch- 
 ing rain-water. This was especially true in 
 places like Delos, a small island where wells and springs 
 were scarce. But we have already seen that, in the fifth 
 century at least, water was not carried by mjiins under the 
 streets to the houses, and for good drinking water slaves 
 had to be sent to the springs and fountains (Figs. 11 and 13). 
 
 There were no appliances for maintaining an even heat 
 throughout the house. In the low-lying districts of Greece 
 
 . near the sea the climate demanded none. In 
 
 very severe weather, or on the upper levels, 
 portable braziers {ia-xdpai, irvpawoL, see Figs. 136 and 139) 
 supported on tripods, or basins filled with glowing char- 
 coal, could be carried from one room to another at pleas- 
 ure ; and the hearth in the andron could be used for a bon- 
 fire in winter. Curiously enough, conflagrations — except. 
 
34 
 
 THE LIFE OP THE ANCIENT GREEKS 
 
 of course, in war — seem to have been infrequent. The 
 walls of mud or broken stone, perishable as they were other- 
 wise, at least tended to restrict the spread of fire. There 
 was no fire-brigade at Athens ; if a fire occurred, the mar- 
 ket commissioners (dyopavo/xoi), and later the astynomoi 
 (see page 16), probably rendered what aid they could. 
 Arson {■mipKdid., i/jt,TTpr](r//.6s) was punishable with death, being 
 regarded as an attack on life. 
 
 The court furnished most of the light to the rooms. 
 Those on the second floor derived a scanty addition of 
 light from the small windows which looked into 
 the street. Houses which faced the south were 
 preferred when they were obtainable, since the light and 
 heat of the sun in their courts were greater. At night oil 
 lamps were used ; at the entrance of some houses was a 
 niche to hold a lamp at night. Such niches were found in 
 the houses of Figs. 26 and 28. 
 
 We must next see how far the plan of a house sketched 
 above (Fig. 18) on the basis of information given to us by 
 Houses on ancient Greeks agrees with what archaeologists 
 the island of have discovered in our day among the ruins. 
 Delos. j^ ^}jg island of Delos the foundations and 
 
 parts of walls have been laid 
 bare belonging to houses that 
 date from the second century 
 B. c. The ground-plans of some 
 of the houses appear in Figs. 
 26, 27, 28, and 29. They are 
 not, to be sure, free from some 
 Eoman features, such as the 
 handsome mosaic which paves 
 the courts (avXaC) of the houses 
 in Figs. 27 and 29; but they 
 are thoroughly Greek in all es- 
 sential features. In Fig. 26 we see a house very symmet- 
 rically built, forming nearly an exact square, which meas- 
 
 PiG. 26.— House on the hill (Delos). 
 
DWELLING-HOUSES 
 
 35 
 
 ured about fifty feet on each side. The entrance is at A, 
 where the door-posts of marble still stand. In the use of 
 this material the house probably shows an advance on the 
 poorer constructions of rough stone and mud bricks that 
 were erected in the fifth century. At the right of the en- 
 trance is a niche raised to the level of a man's head, for 
 receiving a lamp at night. We pass through the entry 
 (dvpiav) B, and a second door, C, into the court (a-uAi;) D. 
 The shape of this is peculiar, since it opens out on the 
 north side of the house into a long space extending through 
 the entire depth of the house. There was no porter's room. 
 The peristyle in the court had eight columns of the Doric 
 order. The large room, If, was probably a reception-room, 
 which we may call the andron, while J and K may have 
 been apartments for the women exclusively. They also had 
 rooms upstairs, for at was a stairway. Most, if not all, 
 the rooms had windows, but so highly placed — in some 
 cases ten feet above 
 the ground — that it 
 was impossible to see 
 through them. They 
 were designed to give 
 light only. 
 
 In Fig. 27 we see a 
 house of a wholly irreg- 
 ular shape; it proves 
 how the nature of the 
 ground and the space 
 at the disposal of the 
 builder determined the 
 arrangement of each 
 dwelling. This house 
 had two entrances, the 
 principal one being at the corner (A^ B^ C"). At the left, 
 as the visitor entered ^4^ he found in the angle a small 
 stone bench on which he could sit and wait until the por- 
 
 FiG. 37.— House north of the sacred lake (DeloB). 
 
36 
 
 THE LIFE OF THE ANCIENT GREEKS 
 
 ter admitted him. The porter's lodge was at F, on the 
 right. Twelve solid Ionic columns formed the peristyle. 
 In the court {D) were a cistern and a well. The men's hall 
 seems to have been at H, adjoining which were smaller 
 rooms {E^ K^), which may have been men's sleeping-apart- 
 ments. Perhaps the separate women's quarters were at / 
 and K^. The circle in /marks the position of a large wash- 
 basin {Xovrrip, see page 138). At G was the pastas (prob- 
 ably), convenient in its proximity to the women's rooms. 
 The kitchen, however, seems to have been far removed 
 from them, being at K^, at the left of the second entrance 
 {A' B'^ C^) ; it is to be remembered that hot dishes were 
 perhaps not so much in demand as in our northern climate, 
 so that the carrying of food across the court to the andron 
 at H produced no inconvenience. What the large room N 
 was for we do not know. It originally connected with H, 
 but was later separated entirely from the rest of the house, 
 and given an entrance {A') of its own. It may therefore 
 
 have been let out 
 as a shop. It, too, 
 had a cistern. 
 
 The house in 
 Fig. 38 is perhaps 
 the most interest- 
 ing of all. The 
 porter's lodge is at 
 the right {F), and 
 the entrance is rel- 
 atively long. There 
 were twelve Doric columns forming the peristyle, beyond 
 which was the fine large reception-room H. The pastas 
 at G had a floor paved with mosaic, in the Roman fash- 
 ion. The rooms ;S' and T seem to have been a shop, owned 
 and managed by the owner of the house, since it com- 
 municates at the rear with the court. It has, of course, 
 its own entrance from the street {A'). At was a stair- 
 
 PiG. 28.— House in the Street of the Theatre (Delos). 
 
DWELLING-HOUSES 
 
 37 
 
 way, and it is likely that the women's sleeping-rooms were 
 upstairs. 
 
 In Fig. 39 we have a house of simpler construction. 
 The numher of rooms is so small that there must have 
 been a second story, reached probably from some part of 
 the room J. We come first upon an entry over six feet wide, 
 to the left of which was probably the porter's room {F). On 
 the right {E) were probably the accommodations needed for 
 horses and other animals. At the end of the passage is a 
 second door a little wi- 
 der than the first, which 
 opened directly on the 
 spacious court ( D) , about 
 forty-two by thirty-four 
 feet. The twelve col- 
 umns forming the peri- 
 style are clearly made 
 out. They were of white 
 marble, with Doric capi- 
 tals, and nearly ten feet 
 high. In the open space bounded by the columns the floor 
 was paved with a handsome mosaic, a mark of that later 
 Hellenistic luxury which we can not assume for an earlier 
 period. For in the fifth century, and even later, the floors 
 were at best nothing but pebble surfaces stamped and beaten 
 smooth. One side of the court is bounded immediately by 
 the house wall. The large space in the rear was probably 
 the site of the andron. The explorers recovered smaller 
 columns which must have supported the second peristyle, 
 belonging to the upper story. 
 
 The houses unearthed by German excava- 
 tors at Priene may also be safely used to illus- 
 trate the main features of an Athenian house, 
 although they date from the third century B. C, and bear 
 many signs of a luxury which belongs only to the period 
 of Greek history after Alexander the Great. Each house is 
 
 PiQ. 29.— House on tte Inopns (DeloB). 
 
 Houses in 
 Friene. 
 
38 
 
 THE LIFE OP THE ANCIENT GREEKS 
 
 a rectangle, as shown in the diagram (Fig. 35), about fifty- 
 four by seventy-two feet. The area covered by each difEers 
 therefore only a little from the area of the house at Delos 
 represented in Fig. 39. These houses had only one door 
 each, and this opened on the side street. It led directly 
 into the court, without any connecting passage. The walls 
 inside had a coating of marble, therein differing greatly 
 from the ordinary house at Athens two centuries before ; 
 for there the walls of mud or rubble were covered simply 
 with whitewash or stucco. Alcibiades went to the very 
 verge of rash extravagance, it was thought, when he had 
 his walls decorated with paintings. Other traces of ad- 
 vanced interior decoration were found at Priene, such as 
 handsome cornices and mouldings in marble, Ionic half- 
 columns, triglyphs painted in different colours, and other 
 ornamental devices — e. g., a satyr's head in stucco, painted 
 bright red. Little figures of Eros (Love) appeared, per- 
 haps originally hung from the ceiling. 
 We know nothing about the ceilings of 
 a house of the classical period. In the 
 better class of houses they may have 
 been panelled, like the ceilings of tem- 
 ples. 
 
 The only remains known of houses 
 belonging to the fifth century have still 
 . more recently been found in 
 
 Dystus. Dystus, an ancient city of 
 
 Euboea. The houses here 
 were mostly two-storied, and had walls 
 of rough stone laid one on the other 
 much in the fashion of the stone fences 
 in rural New England, with smaller 
 stones fitted into the crevices. A plan 
 of one of these houses is given in Fig. 30. 
 (A) is at the end of a long, descending passageway. On 
 passing the second door (C) the visitor finds himself in a 
 
 Fia. 30.— House in 
 Dystus. 
 
 The front door 
 
DWELLING-HOUSES 39 
 
 long entry which widens out beyond the room F, probably 
 the porter's lodge, into a spacious apartment (D^) large 
 enough to be a court (avki]). In it was a fountain. The 
 real court, however, is seen in D^^ which is surrounded by 
 the rooms X, perhaps sleepmg-rooms, and G, perhaps the 
 pastas. The small room M, which could be securely locked, 
 was probably the storeroom. The passage D^ divided the 
 house into two nearly equal parts. Opposite the part just 
 described was a large room, doubtless the andron, behind 
 which were two other rooms {K, K). It is likely that all 
 that portion of which D^ is the centre was the gynaikonitis. 
 whereas H and the rooms behind were devoted to the men. 
 The contrast between the ancient house, so well adapted 
 to the simpler needs of a people living in a warmer climate 
 than ours, and the ordinary house of northern Europe or 
 America, is seen to be great. The Greek house, depending 
 for light mainly on the court, necessarily included that in- 
 side its walls, whereas the modern house, deriving its light 
 from more numerous windows, or from halls and corridors, 
 has its court or garden or lawn, as the case may be, outside. 
 Though, as we have seen, two-storied houses were common, 
 the stairs, which are so prominent to-day, were an unimpor- 
 tant feature of the ancient edifice. 
 
CHAPTEE IV 
 
 THE OUTWARD SUBBEOUNDINGS OF ATHENIAN LIFE 
 
 Life at Athens in the fifth century was so predominant- 
 ly public in its nature that in the case of the men it is 
 The outdoor almost misleading to speak of their " home 
 life of the life." A change, to be sure, came later, when, 
 ™^''' from the middle of the fourth century, the 
 
 history of society throughout Greece becomes a history of 
 the gradual shifting of men's interests from public to pri- 
 vate matters, from political questions to social and domestic 
 concerns; and, on the intellectual side, we see a change 
 from the vigorous production of great literary works, often 
 offered in public competition, to the quiet and secluded 
 study of them by scholars and critics. We, however, are 
 concerned mainly with the fifth century, the age at once of 
 hope and of accomplishment, and no survey of life at this 
 period can be complete without a glance at the public 
 buildings and other edifices with which men had to do. 
 
 The agora, as we saw, was daily crowded with men. Of 
 course, too great devotion to the market and to the gossips 
 
 that gathered there was not regarded as wholly 
 the aeora respectable. A man who had no other pursuit 
 
 than to lounge there all day was thought to be . 
 a hoodlum, and the word agoraios (d-yopatos), was used by 
 more circumspect persons to denote a street idler. Like 
 all idlers in commercial cities, these agoraioi were ready to 
 join every street brawl, to maltreat a foreign peddler, or 
 to molest a schoolboy. Yet for all that, eminently respect- 
 able citizens resorted daily to the agora as the social centre. 
 40 
 
42 
 
 THE LIFE OP THE ANCIENT GREEKS 
 
 Public 
 building's 
 
 At Athens the agora lay in the lioUow north of the Are- 
 opagus and the Acropolis, in the ward or deme called Oera- 
 meicus. A part of the western side was bounded by a 
 gentle elevation called " Market Hill," the Colonos Ago- 
 raios, at the foot of which stood one of the chief buildings 
 of this district, the King's Portico, o-roa jSaa-i- 
 Aeios, the corridor in which the archon called 
 "the King" had his office. Here also the 
 Court of the Areopagus 
 held their sittings. Hith- 
 er came Socrates to ap- 
 pear before the archon 
 at the summons of his 
 accusers ; and here, five 
 centuries later, St. Paul 
 addressed the Athenians, 
 who then, as they had 
 done before, made this 
 their favourite resort. 
 Farther south stood a 
 group of buildings like- 
 wise dear to the hearts 
 of democratic citizens. 
 The first was a precinct 
 and sanctuary dedicated 
 to the Mother of the 
 Gods, and called the 
 Metroon. Here the state 
 
 archives were kept. The second was the chamber in which 
 the Council of Five Hundred (ySovA.^) held meetings. 
 
 The third edifice was devoted to a committee of the 
 Council called the Prytanes (see page 207), who attended to 
 the routine business of the Council, and offered sacrifice for 
 the weal of the state in the " Eotunda " or TIiolos (®oXos), a 
 structure so called on account of its circular form; it en- 
 closed the sacred hearth of Hestia, a symbol of the depend- 
 
 FlG. 33,- 
 
 -The double portico (stoa) at Perga- 
 mus, restored. 
 
OUTWARD SURROUNDINGS OP ATHENIAN LIFE 43 
 
 Porticoes. 
 
 ence of the state upon the family. The general appearance 
 of the Tholos may be fairly conjectured by a comparison 
 with a similar though handsomer structure built in the 
 fourth century at Epidaurus (Fig. 31). A priest was in 
 attendance to conduct the rites necessary as a preliminary 
 to all public and private business ; and a public slave acted 
 as sacristan and attendant of the Prytanes, who also dined 
 here. Situated near the heart of trade, it was a convenient 
 repository for the official weights and measures. The other 
 magistrates — for example, the chief Archon, the Polemarch, 
 and the six Thesmothetae — must have occu- 
 pied offices near here. There were, further, 
 other porticoes 
 (o-Toai) besides 
 that of the King 
 (;8ao-tA.£6os) : one 
 was the stoa of 
 Zeus Eleutherios ; 
 another was a spe- 
 cial portico for 
 the sale of grain, 
 
 the CTToa aXcfiiTO-Trm- 
 
 Xts; again there 
 
 was the famous 
 
 "Painted Porch," 
 
 a-Toa ttolklXtj, which Cimon's brother-in-law Peisianax had 
 
 reared. Its walls were covered with historical paintings 
 
 by Polygnotus and Micon. 
 
 This gives but a partial idea of the varied scene. There 
 were besides countless altars (Fig. 34 ; see also Pigs. 342, 
 343) and shrines, statues, and especially stelai— i. e., slabs of 
 marble or other stone on which were inscribed public and 
 private memorials of all sorts. Here was also the famous 
 row of Hermai (oi 'Ep/Mu) guarding the agora, as the Herm 
 before each house door guarded the family (Fig. 35). 
 Many of these Hermae were very old, dating back to the 
 
 Fig. 33. — Detail of balustrade in the portico at Pergamus. 
 
44 
 
 THE LIFE OP THE ANCIENT GREEKS 
 
 archaic period of art, and all were held in veneration. 
 At their bases offerings, including even money, were 
 
 laid, and secrets were confided 
 to their ears. The statues of Har- 
 modius and Aristogeiton stood 
 opposite the Metroon, a daily 
 reminder of the struggle that 
 ended in the establishment of 
 democratic institutions in Ath- 
 ens (cf. Fig. 138). 
 
 "While, therefore, this part of 
 the city could not compete with 
 the citadel in the well-ordered 
 and artistic grouping of build- 
 ings, it derived an interest from 
 the very irregularity in which its 
 works of art had been reared ; for 
 they pictured in historic sequence 
 the tastes and needs of the people 
 at different times throughout a 
 period extending from Pisistra- 
 tus to Pericles. One temple, commonly called the The- 
 seium, still stands on Colonos Agoraios, and is the best 
 preserved of all Greek temples (Fig. 36). To 
 understand its 
 construction, we must ex- 
 amine some features that 
 constantly recur in Greek 
 temple architecture. The 
 principle was simple. The 
 sanctuary (vaos, cella) was 
 a space enclosed by solid 
 walls and columns support- 
 ing a dead weight of entab- 
 lature and roof, without the 
 
 later Roman device of dis- Fiq. 35.— An archaic Herm. 
 
 Fig. 34. — Altar of DionysuB. 
 
 Temples. 
 
 ■■p 
 
 
 ^1 
 
 ^Kf^ 
 
 
 ^1ll 
 
 ^^■^-c^S"" 
 
 
 ' ■ 
 
 ^B 
 
 ^^ 
 
 ^^^ 
 
OUTWARD SURROUNDINGS OF ATHENIAN LIFE 46 
 
 tributing the thrust by means of arches. In the earliest 
 construction, which was of wood, we should have seen only 
 a frame of uprights on which the cross-beams were laid. 
 The roof sloped on both sides, meeting at the top in a 
 ridge-pole, and projecting eaves shielded the sides. The 
 ends formed a gable. This shape was retained down to 
 the latest times, after stone had taken the place of wood 
 
 FiQ. 36.— The "Theseium," from the northwest. 
 
 as a material for building ; and so conservative is man in 
 all that concerns his religion, that many details of the 
 original wooden structures were reproduced in conven- 
 tional form, as, for instance, the nail-heads at the bottom 
 of the triglyphs on the entablature (Fig. 37). 
 
 In the space thus enclosed the divinity to whom it was 
 consecrated was supposed to dwell. His presence was usu- 
 ally made real to the worshipper by some object — at first 
 
46 
 
 THE LIFE OP THE ANCIENT GKEEKS 
 
 Bitual 
 statues 
 
 by a mere stone, or roughly hewn pillar of stone or of 
 wood; then by some representation of the god, wooden 
 images more or less crude ; and finally by the 
 statues in mar- 
 ble and other 
 material wrought by the 
 masters of sculpture (see 
 Fig. 353) . Sometimes, how- 
 ever, the image was lack- 
 ing, and the priests usually 
 could narrate some legend 
 to account for its absence. 
 "While the naos {cella) 
 was the essential feature, 
 it was usually entered by 
 a kind of vestibule, called, 
 naturally enough, the pro- 
 naOS (Trpovaos). 
 This, in its 
 simplest con- 
 struction, was formed by prolonging the side walls of the 
 naos, which then terminated in an engaged pillar, or pilas- 
 ter. Between these, and directly opposite the door of the 
 
 naos, were placed two free 
 columns, to aid in support- 
 ing the roof of the pronaos. 
 This construction (Fig. 38) 
 is seen in the plan of the 
 little temple of Themis at 
 Rhamnus, in the northeast- 
 ern part of Attica : A is 
 the naos ; B is the pronaos 
 ending in the piers a a. These were called parastades, in 
 Latin an/ae (cf. the parastas of the private d\v'elling, page 
 28). Thus this kind of temple was regularly designated by 
 the Romans a templmn in antis. A chamber exactly corre- 
 
 Coustruction 
 of temples. 
 
 Fig. 37. 
 
 -Architectural detail from the tem- 
 ple of AthSna at Ilium. 
 
 m 
 
 !^_ 
 
 ' 
 
 ■ 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 I 
 
 — 
 
 
 — 
 
 
 % ■ 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 Ficf. 38.— Temple of Ehamnus, 
 
OUTWARD SURROUNDINGS OF ATHENIAN LIFE 47 
 
 spending to the pronaos might also be built at the rear of 
 the naos ; and a further step was reached when columns 
 were set entirely round the three parts thus formed. The 
 temple is then " peripteral," and this result is achieved in 
 the temple on Colonos Agoraios, from which we started, and 
 to the plan of which we now return (Fig. 39). In this, the 
 naos (-4) remains the most secluded portion of the edifice ; 
 B is the pronaos; Cthe chamber behind the naos (oirto-^dSo- 
 /io?). This temple is built of Pentelic marble, and is forty- 
 four feet wide and one hundred and four feet long. It rests 
 
 Fie. 39.— Plan of the " Theseium." 
 
 on an elevation, technically called stylobate, reached by three 
 steps, the undermost being a common limestone found abun- 
 dantly in the Piraeus. The columns, which are of the Doric 
 order, number six at the front and the rear, and thirteen 
 (counting those at the corners twice) on the sides. Above 
 the columns we can recognize three distinct architectural 
 elements (cf. Fig. 37). First comes the solid, substantial 
 architrave, presenting a perfectly plain outer surface. Above 
 it alternate in regular order triglyphs and metopes, begin- 
 ning with the former. Last is the triangular gable, or pedi- 
 ment. At both ends, east and west, the pediments in this 
 temple were filled with sculptured groups, of which no ves- 
 tige remains. The metopes, which are the rectangular spaces 
 between the triglyphs, extended like them entirely round 
 the temple, to the number of sixty-eight. Of these, eighteen 
 
48 THE LIFE OP THE ANCIENT GREEKS 
 
 ■were adorned with reliefs; the rest may have contained 
 paintings. The metopes of the east front represented some 
 of the Labours of Heracles. On the sides adjoining the 
 east front were figured the exploits of Theseus, in eight 
 metopes, four on each side. 
 
 "We do not know the year when this temple was built, 
 or the god to whom it was sacred. According to a recent 
 theory, it was a temple of Hephaestus, built just before 
 the outbreak of the Peloponnesian War. Hephaestus and 
 Athena were patrons of the potters, who plied their craft 
 in the Oerameicus, of which the hill on which the temple 
 stands was a part. 
 
 There were numerous other temples in this neighbour- 
 hood; but in no part of the city had their construction 
 been planned so systematically, and with re- 
 AoroDolis suits so beautiful and imposing, as on the 
 Acropolis. This was itself a sanctuary, conse- 
 crated chiefly to Athena. Artemis, to be sure, enjoyed a 
 share of the adoration there paid to the gods, and her 
 priests were powerful enough to prevent the building of 
 that portion of the grand gateway to the citadel which 
 trenched on her precincts. Yet Athena reigned, on the 
 whole, supreme ; almost all the edifices — temples, statues, 
 altars, treasure-houses — which stood on the citadel belonged 
 to her worship, or to the worship of divine and heroic be- 
 ings connected with her in ritual and in legend. 
 
 From the market the Acropolis could be approached 
 either by a steep path between it and the Areopagus, which. 
 Approach however, was impassable for wagons, or by a 
 to the longer, gentler rise on a road which wound 
 
 Aoropohs. round the western and southern slopes of the 
 Areopagus. Near the summit the visitor came upon a wide 
 staircase ascending to the gateway, or Propylaea (Pig. 41), 
 built at the instance of Pericles by the architect Mnesicles, 
 who began his work in 437 B. c. Six impressive Doric col- 
 umns stand at the entrance to a hall which is divided into 
 
50 
 
 THE LIFE OF THE ANCIENT GREEKS 
 
 three aisles by Ionic columns (for the style of which cf. Fig. 
 46), three in each row. Passing between them, or through 
 the middle aisle, we reach some steps which lead to five 
 doors in a row piercing a wall — the real gate. From these 
 we enter a rear portico, which, like that in the front, had 
 six Doric columns facing the Acropolis plateau. At each 
 side of the entrance halls are wings. That on the left was a 
 picture salon ox pinalcotheM {invaKoOriKrj). Behind this was 
 
 Fig. 41 —A portion of the Propylaea. 
 
 a spacious hall. The wing on the right is much smaller 
 than the pinakothek^ opposite, and the hall behind it was 
 never finished, because it would have encroached on the 
 domain of Artemis. 
 
 The summit The number of splendid objects that once 
 
 of the met the visitor's gaze as he emerged from the 
 
 Acropolis. Propylaea is too great to admit of detailed 
 mention, much less description. Only a few of the most 
 prominent can be noticed here. Directly in front stood 
 
OUTWARD SURROUNDINGS OP ATHENIAN LIFE 51 
 
 Statue of 
 Athena. 
 
 the great bronze image of Athena made by Phidias. It por- 
 trayed the goddess in her martial character, as indicated in 
 the title Promachos, or Champion, given to the 
 statue in later times. It stood so high that 
 the tip of the spear and crest of the helmet 
 were visible above the roof of the Propylaea to passengers 
 on board ships entering the Saronic Gulf. She bore a 
 shield richly adorned with figures added by an 
 artist after Phidias's day. She wore a helmet 
 and carried a spear. Some notion of Athena 
 as a warrior goddess may be gained from Fig. 
 42 and also Pig. 67. On the visitor's right was 
 the precinct of the Brauronian Artemis, who 
 was worshipped in a very ancient ritual cele- 
 brated by Euripides in the IpJiigeneia among 
 the Taurians. 
 
 But the most conspicuous edifice of all 
 was the Parthenon, known to Athenians in 
 the days of Pericles as the tem- 
 ple of Athena Polias, "guardian 
 of the state." Beneath the foun- 
 dations may be clearly distinguished the be- 
 ginnings of a great temple of Athena pro- 
 jected by Oimon, the predecessor of Pericles. Thei Par- 
 thenon, as we all know, however, was the work of Phid- 
 ias, begun in 447, and finished shortly after 433, by the 
 architect Ictlnus. Its ground-plan may be seen in Pig. 40, 
 and a view of the ruins from the west is given in Pig. 43. 
 It is a Doric peripteral structure, with eight columns at 
 the ends and seventeen on each side. The entrance was at 
 the east end, thereby affording abundant room for the great 
 processions at the Panathenaea (page 374), which would 
 thus be obliged to traverse the length of the temple before 
 the head of the column turned and disappeared in the 
 pronaos from the sight of those in the rear. The number 
 of steps ascending to the stylobate of the temple . was, as 
 
 The 
 Parthenon, 
 
OUTWARD SURROUNDINGS OP ATHENIAN LIFE 53 
 
 usual, uneven, in order that the worshipper might begin 
 the ascent and enter the pronaos with the right foot. This 
 temple, unlike the so-called Theseium, was prostyle ; i. e., 
 instead of pilasters, it had six free columns both before 
 and behind the naos. Within the naos were two parallel 
 rows of columns, ten in each row, 
 connected at the inner end by five 
 other columns. In the space thus 
 marked ofE stood the magnificent 
 gold and ivory statue of Athena, 
 also the work of Phidias. Even 
 the late copy of it, the statuette 
 here figured (Fig. 44), which is 
 practically all we have to judge 
 of the work, is enough to show 
 the richness of Phidias's work. 
 The goddess stood erect, her tu- 
 nic reaching to the feet. On her 
 breast was a head of Medusa ; on 
 her head she wore a helmet adorned 
 with griffins on each side and bear- 
 ing a sphinx at the top (cf. Fig. 
 141). In one hand she held a spear, 
 in the other a Victory, Nik6. At 
 her left rested a huge shield, and 
 near the butt of the spear a snake 
 was figured. Almost every free sur- 
 face, down to the edges of the soles of the sandals on the god- 
 dess's feet, was covered with rich and varied sculptured reliefs. 
 
 Behind the naos, i. e., to the west of it, was the opistho- 
 domos, in which, probably, were stored state treasure and 
 the more valuable offerings entrusted to the goddess for 
 safekeeping ; more particularly special temple property and 
 vessels used in the processions were kept here. 
 
 Both pediments were ornamented with striking scenes 
 in sculpture. The east pediment represented the birth of 
 
 Fig. 44 —Athena Parthenos. 
 
54 THE LIFE OV THE ANCIENT GREEKS 
 
 Athena ; the west, her contest with Poseidon for suprem- 
 acy oyer Attica. All the metopes were filled with reliefs, a 
 Sculptures ^^^^ which illustrates the lavish way in which 
 of the the artistic and the financial resources of the 
 
 Parthenon. state were employed in this supreme crea- 
 tion. They contained scenes from the battles of the Cen- 
 taurs and the Lapithae — a favourite theme with the Athe- 
 nian sculptors of the time. All this adornment was seen 
 from the outside, without entering the temple. Bound the 
 building formed by pronaos, naos, and opisthodomos — to 
 which the columns served as a shell — extended in superb 
 array the celebrated Panathenaic frieze, gracing the outside 
 wall of the naos near the top. To see it one had to enter 
 the portion of the temple covered by the outer columns. 
 It is generally believed that this represents the elaborate 
 procession which formed part of the Panathenaic festival 
 held every four years in honour of Athena. At this a safEron- 
 coloured robe (peplos), specially woven and embroidered 
 with scenes portraying the exploits of the goddess in battle 
 against the giants, was dedicated with solemn ritual (see 
 page 374). 
 
 The roof of the temple was covered with tiles, and sur- 
 mounted at the top and lower corners by acroteria — orna- 
 ments (of. Fig. 349) in terra-cotta bearing conventional de- 
 signs. Eain-water was conducted from the roof by leaders 
 which terminated in lions' heads, from whose mouths the 
 water spouted free of the sides below. The Pentelic marble 
 of which the temple was built was hidden by paint, blues, 
 reds, and gilt or orange predominating. The background 
 of the metopes seems to have been red, the channels of the 
 triglyphs deep blue. 
 
 , A little north of the east front was the great 
 
 altar to Athena ; for it must not be supposed 
 that animals were sacrificed inside a temple. In most sanc- 
 tuaries there were, of course, tables made of silver or gold 
 placed near the cult statue — idol, as the Christian Fathers 
 
OUTWARD SURROUNDINGS OF ATHENIAN LIFE 56 
 
 would call it — to receive the daily gifts of worshippers. 
 These consisted of simple unburnt offerings, such as fruit, 
 flowers, vessels in metal or pottery, cakes, birds, and the like. 
 
 Fig. 45. — The Erechtheium, with the Porch of the Maidens. 
 
 The northern half of the Acropolis was occupied by the 
 
 most ancient, and therefore the holiest, precinct of all. 
 
 Here stands a building, or rather a group of buildings, in 
 
 honour of Athena, with whom were associated 
 The 
 Erechtheium Poseidon, Hephaestus, and the hero Erechtheus. 
 
 This edifice, the Erechtheium (Fig. 45), is of 
 superlative beauty. It contains the famous Porch of the 
 Maidens (often called Caryatides), and the often-copied 
 door of the north porch. 
 
 Another exquisite structure rises at the extreme south- 
 western corner of the Acropolis, and commands a wide 
 view of the western part of the city and the Piraeus. It is 
 
 the little Ionic temple to Athena 'Nik^, better 
 Ath-" ^ N'k ' ^^0''^^ ^^ *^® temple of the Wingless Victory 
 
 (Fig. 46). From an inscription, of which a 
 portion is given in Fig. 193, we know that it was built shortly 
 after the middle of the fifth century. It is amphiprostyle, 
 
56 
 
 THE LIFE OP THE ANCIENT GREEKS 
 
 but has no outer columns surrounding it. A frieze runs 
 entirely round the wall on the outside, presenting on three 
 sides battle scenes, on the fourth an assembly of the gods. 
 
 Besides many altars — one, for example, in front of this 
 temple of N"ik6— statues and yotive offerings everywhere, 
 set up by grateful devotees in the pronaoi or in the inter- 
 columniations of the temples, crowded the citadel on every 
 
 FiQ. 46.— The Temple of AthSna Nike. 
 
 side. These offerings (avaO-^iJMTa) were of many kinds. 
 One large class of them consisted of little images, in metal 
 or in clay, dedicated by persons who had recovered from 
 some illness. Often a limb or other part of the body was 
 represented, according to the nature of the disease. This 
 custom, 'like that of weaving the peplos for the goddess, is 
 kept up in many churches in Greece to-day. 
 
OUTWARD SURROUNDINGS OP ATHENIAN LIFE 51 
 
 Though Athens is to us the type of a Greek city, we 
 must not imagine that the splendours of her Acropolis could 
 . _be equalled in any other Greek city, say Thebes, 
 
 conditions of Or Sparta, or Syracuse. To that extent, there- 
 life at fore, the daily life of her citizens was different 
 Athens. from that of other Greeks ; for their interest 
 and wonder must have been constantly excited, and their 
 imaginations inspired by what they saw about them. On 
 the other hand, the Acropolis had not always presented the 
 rich and varied array which we have just seen, all of which 
 belongs to the latter days of Pericles. The old precinct 
 sacred to Athena and Erechtheus had, to be sure, existed 
 as an object of love and veneration since the days of Homer. 
 Closely connected with it was the ancient temple of Athena 
 Polias, that stood in the middle of the Acropolis in the 
 sixth century. This the Persians ruthlessly destroyed, but 
 its ruins were perhaps visible in Xenophon's day, being 
 kept as a perpetual reminder of the impiety of the bar- 
 barians. 
 
 In a later age, when independent Greece had passed 
 away, and princes with authority derived from Alexander 
 spent their wealth in keeping alive the ancient art, cities 
 like Pergamus, Antioch, and Alexandreia became noted for 
 the splendour of their public buildings. The Acropolis of 
 Pergamus (see Fig. 47) in the days of its pros- 
 ergamus. pgrj^jy almost rivalled that of Athens in mag- 
 nificence. An agora with spacious porticoes, a splendid 
 temple to Athena, a library (Fig. 90) which vied with 
 that of learned Alexandreia, and, above all, the matchless 
 altar to Zeus the Saviour (Zciis ^an-qp), itself a temple on a 
 grand and novel plan (Fig. 338), are some of the chief 
 features in the surroundings of regal Pergamus. 
 
 As for Athens, there remain many structures in the 
 lower town which we shall notice later. Thus, at the south- 
 ern foot of the Acropolis lay the precinct of Dionysus, with 
 its little temple in antis, later obscured by an elaborate 
 
B 
 
 & 
 
 03, 
 
OUTWARD SURROUNDINGS OF ATHENIAN LIFE 59 
 
 portico belonging to the Dionysiac theatre, and superseded 
 by a newer and larger temple a few steps farther south. 
 The agora, also, which on the south was probably prolonged 
 to a considerable distance west of the Areopagus, was filled 
 in this vicinity also with many buildings, such as store- 
 houses for temple and state property (drjo-avpoi). From 
 here one reached the Pnyx, the hill where the people met 
 in full assembly (page 209). Iseav the sacred groves — the 
 Academy, the Lyceum, and Cynosarges — were gymnasia 
 and palaestrae. Everywhere the eye rested on rich and 
 diversified adornment. The wonder is that Athenian writ- 
 ers of the classical period should have regarded them so 
 much as a matter of course, of every-day experience ; for in- 
 formation about them in the literature remains scanty to a 
 tantalizing degree. 
 
CHAPTEE V 
 
 THE PEOPLE 
 
 The population of Athens and Attica comprised three 
 classes — citizens, aliens, and slaves — and in the fifth cen- 
 tury amounted to at least a quarter of a millioiii^^ 
 
 lasses of probably many more. The citizens were such 
 inhabitants. "^ ■' •' . ,„,, i.,.i.i, 
 
 adult males as enjoyed full political rights, 
 
 and their families ; the term astoi {aa-Tol) included them 
 all, whereas polltai {■n-oXtrai) was applied only to the enfran- 
 chised males. The number of the latter before the Pelop- 
 onnesian War was oyer 35,000 — perhaps nearer 40,000 ; with 
 their families, the number of free inhabitants must haye 
 reached 100,000 or over. Most of them lived in the coun- 
 try, visiting Athens only for business or in the exercise 
 of political duties. These formed the sturdy productive 
 portion of the citizens, who felt most keenly the irksome 
 restraint of the city when Pericles compelled them to move 
 into town on account of Spartan invasions. During the 
 Peloponnesian War, therefore, their numbers fell off at a 
 dangerous rate. The great plague, at the very beginning, 
 carried away almost a fourth of the inhabitants of all 
 classes ; the terrible defeat in Sicily still further diminished 
 the population ; and by the end of the war, in 404 b. c, 
 there were scarcely more than 20,000 male citizens left. 
 
 The three classes were kept distinct, at least 
 in their political relation ; only now and then 
 a special vote of the people granted the status of citizen to 
 a foreigner or (most rarely) to a slave for conspicuous patri- 
 otism. According to a law of Pericles, only those persons 
 60 
 
THE PEOPLE 61 
 
 who were born of citizens on both the father's and the 
 mother's side were accorded the full rights of citizenship. 
 The enforcement of this law was somewhat lax during the 
 war, when radical tendencies in the republic predominated ; 
 and Aristophanes — like many other comic poets, a conserva- 
 tive — bitterly ridicules certain foreigners who managed to 
 wriggle into citizenship. The law was enforced anew in 403, 
 when a soberer democracy was restored after the deposition 
 of the Thirty Tyrants ; but, in obedience to the forgiving^ 
 Foreigners spirit of the time, it was not applied to person^ 
 living in born before that year. Further, there were so 
 
 Athens. many foreigners in Athens, and relations with 
 
 her allies were so intimate, that intermarriages were fre- 
 quent, and it was inevitable that many children should be 
 enrolled as future citizens who could not fulfil the law's 
 requirement. We hear of several revisions of the citizen 
 list in Athenian history. The people, however, might vote 
 to confer citizenship upon a foreigner or an Athenian only 
 one of whose parents was of citizen birth, as a reward for 
 distinguished services to the state in peace or in war. The 
 balloting was secret. 
 
 A man in the full possession of all the rights (n/nat) of 
 citizenship was said to be epitlmos (cTrtVt/Aos). Various 
 
 offenses against the state,. such as the bribery 
 rig . ^j officials, embezzlement of public funds, cow- 
 ardice in battle, false witness, neglect of filial duties — for 
 here the state too was concerned — were punished by a dimi- 
 nution or total abrogation of citizen's rights, called atimia 
 (dT6;u,ta). Complete atimia involved the loss of all political 
 privileges and legal redress ; and the exclusion from tem- 
 ples, markets, and other places where citizens congregated. 
 All citizens of the three upper divisions as 
 
 rated by Solon — FenteJcosiomedimnoi, liippeis, 
 Zeugltae — were liable to special taxes in time of war {do-tfto- 
 pai). The lowest class, or Thetes, were exempt. Further, 
 those whose property amounted to more than two talents 
 
62 
 
 THE LIFE OF THE ANCIENT GREEKS 
 
 performed in regular turn certain special services {Xrfrovpyiai, 
 cf. "liturgy") which required considerable outlay. The 
 chief and most expensiye was the equipment of a chorus for 
 a lyrical or dramatic performance. The citizen charged 
 with this duty {choregus, xop^zyos) 
 had to collect the members of the 
 chorus, pay for their training in 
 music, the dance, and the words 
 they were to sing, provide them 
 with costumes and masks, and pay 
 for their keep during their period 
 of training. A generous choregus 
 might in this way win lasting re- 
 nown, for his munificence contrib- 
 uted largely to the winning of the 
 prize coveted by competing cho- 
 ruses; and the victory was record- 
 ed on tablets of marble or bronze 
 erected in conspicuous places, and 
 also, at least in the case of lyric 
 performances, commemorated by 
 the presentation of a tripod to the 
 victorious choregus, who dedicated 
 it to Dionysus, and set it up in the 
 Street of the Tripods, leading to 
 the theatre (see page 16). The 
 gymnasiarcMa was another form of 
 public service, in which the citizen 
 was obliged to pay for the services 
 and the training of those who took 
 part in the torch-races at the Pan- 
 athenaea and other celebrations. 
 Still another form of liturgia was the holiday dinner (icnl- 
 ao-is), at which a citizen entertained the members of his 
 tribe (i^vA^) at the Dionysiac and Panathenaic festivals. 
 Finally, the manning and equipping of a trireme {rpiripap- 
 
 FiG 48 —The choregic monn 
 ment of Lysicrates, 
 
THE PEOPLE 
 
 63 
 
 Public 
 rewards 
 
 X«i) was a very common mode of liturgia, in which, on 
 account of the great expense, two or more citizens were usu- 
 ally associated. The state furnished the hull and the mast, 
 and the trierarchs — for such they were called while perform- 
 ing this service — supplied the rigging, the provisions, the 
 crew, and their pay (see page 199). Sometimes rich citizens 
 made voluntary donations (emSoo-eis) to individuals who 
 they saw were in need of supplies for a military campaign. 
 
 Rewards for public service were often bestowed by the 
 Council or the popular assembly, such as exemption from 
 taxes ; a front seat in public gatherings, espe- 
 cially at the theatre (wpoeSpLa) ; a crown, origi- 
 nally of olive or laurel, later of gold (Fig. 194) ; 
 and maintenance at public expense in the chamber where 
 the Prytanes dined 
 
 (crtrijcris ev irpvTavuio). 
 
 Thus the descendants 
 of Harmodius and Aris- 
 togeiton, and winners 
 at the Olympic games, 
 were honoured in the 
 last - mentioned way ; 
 and Socrates, in all se- 
 riousness, claimed the 
 same reward for his 
 lifelong endeavours to 
 rouse his people to up- 
 rightness and true 
 knowledge. Crowning 
 became especially fre- 
 quent in the fourth cen- 
 tury. The proposal to 
 
 reward Demosthenes in this way, and the opposition called 
 out from Aeschines, his rival, occasioned the best known 
 and most perfect production of Greek oratory — the oration 
 On the Crown. Citizens were sometimes rewarded also by 
 
 Pig. 49.— Marble seat of the priest of Dionysus 
 in the theatre. 
 
64 THE LIFE OP THE ANCIENT GREEKS 
 
 the honorary title of " Benefactor," evepyirrj's. This appella- 
 tion was sometimes conferred by one state on the citizen of 
 another, as Cimon was called the eiepyeri^s of Sparta. In 
 some cases he represented that state in all transactions with 
 his own people, and entertained and aided all citizens who 
 came from it to visit his own. In this capacity, which 
 was partly official, partly friendly, he was called proxenos 
 (irpo^evos), an office which figures conspicuously in the in- 
 ternational history of Greek states (see page 263). 
 
 In external appearance there was little to distinguish 
 the citizen from the free foreign resident, except that 
 individuals among the latter class might retain here and 
 there the dress and bearing peculiar to their home country. 
 The Athenian citizen generally bore himself like a free 
 man, with perhaps a tendency toward arrogance, but with 
 less regard for dignity and composure in gait and attitude 
 than the Eoman maintained. 
 
 The resident foreigners, or metics (/^erotKot), formed a 
 
 class by themselves, since naturalization was not so easy a 
 
 process as it is to-day. They made their home 
 
 , . in Athens or the Piraeus, attracted thither by 
 
 foreigners. , . 
 
 the commercial and social advantages which 
 
 the city afforded. It was part of Pericles's wise policy to 
 
 invite such men to leave the country of their birth and 
 
 settle in the state which he was building up. Herein the 
 
 liberal spirit of Athenian institutions is strongly contrasted 
 
 with the narrow and suspicious attitude of Sparta, whose . 
 
 policy of exclusion {^evrjXaa-ta) was almost as rigid as that 
 
 of China. A well-known example of the wisdom of Pericles 
 
 in this regard is furnished by Cephalus, a Sicilian, whose 
 
 son Lysias became the first really eminent orator of Attica. 
 
 Cephalus passed thirty useful and honourable years in 
 
 Athens, and was a man whom Socrates was glad to visit and 
 
 engage in conversation. At the beginning of the Pelopon- 
 
 nesian War there were at least 10,000 metics in Attica, 
 
 most of them living in the Piraeus ; including their fami- 
 
THE PEOPLE 65 
 
 lies, perhaps 4=5,000. While few of these, doubtless, pos- 
 sessed the integrity and the dignity of Cephalus, still they 
 were on the whole industrious and enterprising, and con- 
 tributed largely to the wealth of the state. This was espe- 
 cially true in ancient communities whose citizens despised 
 trade and manual labor. As a class, however, they were 
 held in dislike by the ordinary citizen, and their relation 
 
 to the natives was somewhat similar to that 
 Disabilities ^^:^^^ ^j^g j^^ j^^j^^ -^ Continental Europe 
 of foreigners. . , -r, . •, . „ -"^ 
 
 to-day. Kace prejudice was of course much 
 
 stronger in antiquity. The indignation with which Apol- 
 lonides is expelled from the company of Cyrus's surviving 
 captains, not only because of his bad advice but also because 
 he was a foreigner, is evidence of this. And so the metics 
 were among the first to fall victims to the cupidity of the 
 Thirty Tyrants. Often, no doubt, some of them placed 
 private gain above the interests of the state, and certainly 
 they were frequently charged with forming " corners " in 
 the market and arbitrarily raising the price of staples in 
 daily use. 
 
 In deference, therefore, to popular opinion, many re- 
 strictions were laid upon metics. After a certain period 
 of residence, every foreigner was required to select a citizen 
 to represent him in all dealings with the state ; for a metic, 
 having no political rights, could not, among other things, 
 conduct a case at law. This citizen, called his Trpoa-raT-qs, 
 seems to have been responsible in a certain degree for the 
 good behaviour of the metic. If a metic failed to choose 
 his representative within the prescribed time, he was liable 
 to prosecution {■ypa(j>rj airpouTaa-iov) before the archon-pole- 
 march, who presided over all cases that affected foreigners. 
 The whole proceeding is analogous to the requirement of a 
 passport in some European cities of all foreigners who 
 purpose to stay longer than a few days. 
 
 Metics were also obliged to pay a special poll-tax (ft-eroi- 
 Kiov) not exacted from citizens, and when a special war-tax 
 5 
 
66 
 
 THE LIFE OF THE ANCIENT GREEKS 
 
 Fig. 50. — A citizen witli liis two sons; the eider is on 
 tlie point of joining the cavalry. 
 
 {ela-<j)opd) was levied, they paid a higher rate than the citi- 
 zens. Their other liabilities were the same as those of 
 citizens. In war they served as hoplites (page 194), but 
 could not be admitted to the ranks of the cavalry, whose 
 members were an aristocratic body of young men with de- 
 cidedly exclusive 
 tendencies. Eich 
 metics were bound 
 to perform the reg- 
 ular liturgies, like 
 rich citizens ; and 
 frequently they ac- 
 quitted themselves 
 of this obligation 
 as loyally and- gen- 
 erously as any citi- 
 zen. In the great 
 festivals, where sac- 
 rifice was offered by and for the state, they were allowed a 
 share of the burnt offerings. Conspicuous worth and loy- 
 alty were sometimes rewarded, at least in certain periods of 
 democratic reaction, by citizenship. Citizenship was cer- 
 tainly more easily obtained by foreigners in Athens than 
 anywhere else in Greece. Ordinarily, however, the reward 
 was limited to requiring the metic to pay no more taxes 
 than the citizen ; to making him, as the phrase was, lo-oriXijs. 
 Sometimes, too, metics were allowed to own houses — Lysias 
 and his brother owned three — or to march in the same ranks 
 with citizens, and not in a special division by themselves. 
 
 There was no period in the history of Greece when so- 
 ciety was not affected by the presence within it of large 
 numbers of slaves (SovXoi, oiKeVai). At Athens 
 almost every family owned at least one, and in 
 the whole state there must have been in all considerably 
 over 150,000. Hipponicus, one of the richest men of Greece, 
 owned 600 ; Lysias's family, who possessed an armour fac- 
 
 Slaves. 
 
THE PEOPLE 67 
 
 tory, kept 130 in the workshop ; the general JSTicias employed 
 1,000 in the mines. But fifty was ordinarily considered a 
 large number for one person to possess. Slaves were usu- 
 ally acquired by purchase, though a few also were born and 
 reared in the master's house. Some were actually Greeks, 
 sold into captivity at the sacking of their native city, as 
 when the Lacedaemonians captured Plataea in 437 b. c, or 
 when the Athenians took Scione and Torone five years later. 
 
 In the retreat of the Ten Thousand under Xenophon, 
 many inhabitants of the interior were kidnapped by the 
 Greeks, for it was a rule, universally recognized, that the 
 conquered became the possession of the conqueror, except 
 ... by special stipulation; as where Tissaphernes 
 
 exempted from slavery the natives in the vil- 
 lages of Parysatis, which he allowed the Greeks to plunder ; 
 and Syennesis managed to have returned all Cilician cap- 
 tives. The terrible suffering of the enslaved Athenians 
 in the quarries of Syracuse after the disastrous end of the 
 Sicilian expedition in 413 b. o. is the most awful example 
 of this custom. Sometimes the great numbers of captives 
 designed for the slave market so impeded the march that 
 their captors were forced to let them go. Traders imported 
 them into Athens from Thrace, Phrygia, Lydia, Paphla- 
 gonia, Syria, and the countries round Pontus. There was a 
 peltast in Xenophon's army who had been a slave kid- 
 napped from Pontus, and who, when the Greeks reached 
 the country of the Macrones, was able to act as interpreter. 
 "For," said he, half pathetically, "I believe this is my 
 native country." 
 
 Slaves were employed in every conceivable way. As 
 house servants, they tended the door (as $vpwp6s, see page 
 36), fetched water from a spring or street 
 m™nt8^' fountain, washed clothing, waited at the table, 
 
 prepared food, and made clothes for the family. 
 Boys going to school were attended by slaves or "ped- 
 agogues" (TratSaycoyot), and the nurses of young children 
 
THE LIFE OF THE ANCIENT GREEKS 
 
 were commonly slave women. The mistress (called SeWotva) 
 usually had a special slave to assist her at her toilet, and 
 the master (SeoTrdriys) when he went out was attended by 
 slaves who acted as body-servants {OepaTrovre?, aKoXovOoi) and 
 messengers. The Athenian, however, rarely made a vulgar 
 display with a large retinue of servants when he went 
 abroad, as the Eoman or the Persian did. Outside of 
 purely domestic uses, slaves were employed as miners, 
 
 Fig. 51.— The American School of Classical Studies, on the site of the LycSum. 
 
 especially in the silver-mines at Laurium, and as agricul- 
 turists and herders ; also as stevedores, boatmen, overseers, 
 and business managers. Many of them often got permis- 
 sion to go out to work for pay, giving a percentage of 
 their earnings to their masters. In this way they actually 
 became well to do, and might subsequently purchase free- 
 dom. Investors frequently bought large numbers of slaves 
 and let them out for hire. 
 
 The state owned many slaves (Stj/^oo-ioi), who served it in 
 
THE PEOPLE 69 
 
 various occupations deemed too menial for citizens. Such 
 
 were the Scythians {%Kv6ai), armed with the how, who kept 
 
 order in public places (page 20). State ac- 
 State slaves. j. j. t j. • xi V 
 
 countants and secretaries were mostly slaves 
 
 or freedmen. Public slaves were also employed in the 
 mint, in public works, such as the making and improve- 
 ment of roads, and as executioners and torturers. Even in 
 battle, when the need was pressing, they were sometimes 
 induced to risk their lives by the promise of freedom. 
 Many served in the battle of Arginiisae (406 B. c), and be- 
 came later the envy of their associates. 
 
 As a rule, the treatment of slaves in Athens was not 
 severe, although it depended entirely on the character of 
 the master, who had unrestricted control over their lives. 
 He might not kill a slave wilfully, however, since that 
 involved the pollution of blood-guiltiness, for which he 
 must atone by some act of expiation to the gods of the 
 state. The law technically shielded the slave against ex- 
 cessive physical maltreatment, but since the slave had no 
 political status, it is not easy to see how he could bring an 
 action against a cruel master. Eeligion protected him 
 better, for he could fly for asylum to the shrine of Theseus 
 in the agora or of the Dread Goddesses (ai St/tvat ) on the 
 Areopagus. The worst that could befall a faithful slave 
 was to be examined under torture if his master were prose- 
 cuted in a legal action (see page 313). On the other hand, 
 the master was sometimes restrained from violence by the 
 fear that his slave might concoct some charge against him 
 for the benefit of his enemies, since, unfortunately, many a 
 family had an ancestral feud with some other ; and in 
 time of war, by the fear that the slave would run off to the 
 enemy. Kindly feelings of humanity also played their 
 part, especially among the more enlightened Athenians. 
 A newly purchased slave was welcomed to the hearth with a 
 shower of confetti (Karaxvo-fjiaTa). Slaves also had access 
 to the feasts and celebrations in which the whole state 
 
70 THE LIFE OP THE ANCIENT GREEKS 
 
 took part; the only exception was the Thesmophoria, a 
 festival of the women from which all men were excluded. 
 During the three days of the Anthesteria they were allowed 
 to come and go with no restraint whatever. It is note- 
 worthy that no uprising of slaves took place in Athens 
 until after the Eoman conquest, though 20,000 ran away 
 to the Spartans while they occupied Deceleia. The same 
 fidelity was displayed in even a greater degree by slaves in 
 the South during our Civil War. 
 
 Freedom was the reward, as we saw, of service rendered 
 in battle. It was bestowed either by the master, or by a de- 
 cree of the people, in which case the master was reimbursed 
 for the loss of his property. Slaves who turned state's evi- 
 dence {ii-qwrai) were sometimes thus rewarded. The freed- 
 man [airiktvOipfn) passed to the condition of metic, and his 
 former master became his patron {irpo<TTd.Tri<s, page 65). 
 
 These, then, were the people that filled the streets and 
 the agora. The women who were also to be seen in the 
 crowds were chiefiy those of the lower classes, 
 whose poverty compelled them to throw aside 
 the conventional Athenian modesty, so far as it related to 
 women, and to mingle with men in their daily occupations 
 in the market or at the fountains. A busy crowd of 
 hucksters vending all kinds of wares filled the larger 
 streets. Here and there a drover, clad in skins, and with 
 his legs wound round with woollen bands in lieu of stock- 
 ings, would be driving in from the hills a flock of sheep 
 or goats. Or a farmer from the plain would be urging 
 on his pack-ass or his mule which drew a creaking cart 
 with solid wheels, laden with wood or market produce (cf. 
 Fig. 285). A modern would have missed the pleasure driv- 
 ing to be seen in a city to-day. It was unseemly for a man 
 to ride in a carriage, at least in the town ; and any one who 
 drove his racing chariot to a banquet, as Themistocles is said 
 to have done when he was a young man, was thought to have 
 attained the extreme of extravagance and presumption. 
 
CHAPTEK VI 
 
 CHILDHOOD 
 
 The child and 
 the state. 
 
 We have now noted some of the external conditions 
 that surrounded a child born at Athens in the middle of 
 the fifth century. Much had been done for 
 his comfort by long centuries of growth, dur- 
 ing which the Greeks had come to be distin- 
 guished from the rest of the world as a Hellenic nation ; 
 years in which this nation, favoured by the climate, the 
 land, and in Attica especially by 
 the sea, had steadily increased in 
 power and promise, learning les- 
 sons from the people of Egypt 
 and the East ; until Athens, after 
 her final struggle with the Per- 
 sians, began her own independent 
 career, and her people, gifted with 
 native genius and the teachings 
 of their fathers, had made a pow- 
 erful state and a tolerably com- 
 fortable city to live in. 
 
 A boy born at this time was, 
 as everywhere, the object of his 
 mother's devotion ; but, more than 
 that, he was, in a sense scarcely 
 
 Fig. 52. — Peasant's child with 
 goat. 
 
 Pride in hoys. 
 
 appreciable to-day, his father's pride. For the 
 father felt assured that through the boy his 
 old age would be cared for ; that the family name and the 
 worship of family gods and ancestors would be perpetu- 
 
 71 
 
72 THE LIFE OF THE ANCIENT GREEKS 
 
 ated after his own death ; that the state would have anoth- 
 er citizen to take his place when he had gone or was too 
 old to remain actively in her service. To have no children, 
 especially male children, was one of the most serious calam- 
 ities that could befall a Greek ; and the state had an in- 
 terest in the matter as well, because it was thought that 
 childlessness tended to loosen the ties between citizen and 
 commonwealth. Hence a man, in making a promise on 
 oath, could attest his sincerity no more solemnly than by 
 calling down destruction upon himself and his children in 
 case he should prove to be a perjurer (page 383). 
 
 Greek education (TraiSeia) began deliberately at birth, 
 where it should always begin. The aim was to make the 
 boy in the image of his father — to conform to 
 eduoation^^ the type of manhood and citizenship which 
 each Greek state held as its own ideal ; to be 
 a gentleman, KaXbs Kdya^os, really a man, worthy of the free- 
 dom which the men of Marathon and Salamis had won. 
 Discipline, and not the mere acquirement of knowledge, 
 was always the object. Far back in Homeric times the 
 father took an active interest in the nurture of his child, 
 and the loss of this oversight in the case of an orphan was 
 felt most keenly. 
 
 The birth jjf a^-boy-wa^ announced by an olive-branch 
 hung on the doorpost ; if the baby was a girl, tufts of wool 
 Customs were displayed. The first bath was given by 
 
 when a child dipping the child in lukewarm water and oil 
 was born. — ^ custom surviving in modern Greek bap- 
 tisms. In Sparta, where spe- 
 /cial measures were taken to 
 make children hardy, the 
 water was tempered with 
 
 ^Wine, which was thought F,a. 53.-Infant in swaddling bands. 
 
 * to impart vigour. In most 
 places except Sparta, the baby was tightly wrapped, like 
 an Indian pappoose, in a narrow woollen band {(nrdpyava). 
 
CHILDHOOD Y3 
 
 twisted round and round from the neck to the feet (Fig. 
 53). The cradle {X-Uvov) or basket was so made that it could 
 be suspended like a swing, or might be rocked on the floor. 
 Artemis and other divinities were in- 
 voked to protect the child, and spe- 
 cial precautions were taken against 
 the " evil eye " and malignant spirits 
 which might bewitch and harm it. 
 Two family festivals celebrated the pig. 54_ciiiid m cradle, 
 birth, both of very ancient sanctity. 
 The first was religious in character, and usually took place 
 five days after birth. The nurse, or some woman of the fam- 
 ily, with the child in her arms, ran round the hearth in the 
 andron, followed by the members of the household. This 
 ceremony— ^the d/i<^t8po/ita — was designed to place the child 
 forever under the care of the family gods. It was followed 
 by a feast, at which shell-fisE were always eaten. The sec- 
 ond festival was the " name-day," in some parts of Europe 
 (e. g., Eussia, Finland, Sweden) held perhaps of greater 
 importance than the birthday. Certainly among the Greeks 
 it was indispensable, for it was then that the father, in the 
 presence of guests, formally recognized the child as his 
 own, committed himself to its upbringing and education, 
 and gave it a name. The naming was celebrated on the 
 tenth day (SexaTiy) with great conviviality and 
 mirth; the guests brought presents (yeviOXiai 
 SoVets), a sacrifice was ofEered to the family gods, and an 
 abundant feast followed. The child received but one 
 name. Very commonly a boy took his grandfather's name, 
 sometimes his father's, in a slightly altered form. Some- 
 times a diminutive or shortened form of the grandfather's 
 name was given ; the orator Lysias, son of Cephalus, was 
 named for his grandfather Lysanias. Or the boy might 
 be named from an intimate friend, or from some god — as 
 Theodotus, Apollodorus — or from some noteworthy experi- 
 ence in his father's life. Later in life a nickname derived 
 
74 THE LIFE OP THE ANCIENT GREEKS 
 
 from some personal peculiarity or association might usurp the 
 place of his real name. Two famous instances are the poet 
 Stesichorus, so-called from his achievements in marshalling 
 lyric choruses, though his real name was Teisias ; and the 
 philosopher Plato, who was first named for his grandfather 
 Aristocles, but who is said to have been dubbed Plato by his 
 teacher in gymnastics, because of his broad shoulders. In 
 every case the father and mother, after careful and some- 
 times even heated discussion, selected a name derived from 
 some word of good omen. On the tenth day, then, the child 
 was presented to its nearest relatives and the most intimate 
 friends of the family ; its right to life and to a name was form- 
 ally recognized by the father, for, unhappily, the exposure 
 of infants, especially of girls, was common in antiquity. 
 Parents, by no means always poor, who wished to relieve 
 themselves of the care and expense of rearing their chil- 
 dren, sometimes placed them in baskets (Fig. 54) or earthen- 
 ware vessels (xijrpat, page 136), and set them secretly in some 
 temple, in the hope that some kind-hearted person might take 
 pity on the little unfortunate and bring it up. Or, when 
 more brutal feelings prevailed, they carried the child to some 
 bleak mountainside to die of exposure or by wild beasts. 
 
 There remained still another ceremony, by which the 
 position of the child as future citizen was also recognized, 
 state reoog- This was at the Apaturia (page 281), an old 
 nition of tlie Ionic family festival held in the late autumn, 
 child. On the last of the three days of this festival- 
 
 called the KovpcSrts — the child born during the preceding 
 year was presented to his father's clansmen, or phratry 
 {<j>paTpt.a), after the sacrifice of a sheep offered by the father. 
 Following it, the brethren of the phratry(<^paTepes) decided 
 by a vote whether or not the boy or girl was the lawful 
 and legitimate ofEspring of Athenian parents. If the legiti- 
 macy of the child was established, the name was enrolled 
 on the register of the phratry {to (jiparepiKov ypaya/iarciov). 
 If not, the child was held to be a bastard (vo^os) before 
 
CHILDHOOD 
 
 75 
 
 the law, and could not aspire to inheritance or to citizen's 
 rights. 
 
 The mother, of course, exercised a general oversight oyer 
 all her children up to their eighth year ; but every households 
 not too poor had its j 
 
 nurse (rpoc^os), either \ 
 
 Care of the 
 child. 
 
 a slave_;gronaan or a 
 
 foreigner, who performed all the 
 common duties of her ofiSce. Spar- 
 tan nurses seem to have been sought 
 after, much as French or German 
 nurses are among us. Tke^^nurse 
 prepared the baby's Joodr-of-ten 
 mingling honey witli -it; in the 
 case of a child still tnntbless, she 
 chewed the food firstiarself . Sh& 
 sung the baby^to sleep with aneient 
 Lullabies, some of which the- great 
 tragic and lyric poets have_ re- 
 produced or imitated. 
 When the child grew 
 to some understand- 
 ing, the nurse told stories out of 
 the great wealth of Greek myth- 
 ology and Aesopian beast fables 
 which circulated among the Greeks 
 from the earliest times ; also ghost 
 stories, chiefly to frighten and sub- 
 due the rebellious : about the hor- 
 rible bugaboo called Mormo ; about 
 Acco, who carried off bad cliildren 
 in a huge sack ; or Lamia, once a 
 princess, who ate her own and others' children ; or EmpUsa, 
 a hobgoblin that took any shape it pleased. If these stories 
 failed to restrain the naughty child, then the sandal was 
 vigorously applied. The methods of discipline were crude, 
 
 Nursery 
 tales. 
 
 FiQ. 55. — Grave mouumeut to 
 a uurse. 
 
16 
 
 THE LIFE OP THE ANCIENT GREEKS 
 
 but not more so than most in TOgue to-day, and only phi- 
 losophers like Plato and Aristotle objected to the homely 
 training of these slave nurses. Their charges grew up to 
 love and honour them. Eurycleia, in the Odyssey, is a good 
 example of the revered nurse ; and monuments placed over 
 nurses' graves^ sti ll ^ 
 
 remani'^o testify to 
 lih-e-^ratitudejeltrfor 
 their labour and_care 
 (seV^ig. 55). ^ 
 
 Children's toys 
 and games are much 
 the same the world 
 over. So the Greek 
 baby had his rattle 
 
 ■' ,x ,1 T ,-, Fig. 56.— Toy cart and pet (log. 
 
 {irXaTayrj), the little 
 
 girl had her pets, and her doll (Koprj) made of 
 painted clay or wax, often with movable hands 
 and feet (see Fig. 331). Baby-houses, toy 
 dishes, tables, wagons, and animals were as interesting then 
 as now. Sometimes the older boys made their own carts 
 (d/taftSes), and hitched to them dogs or goats. For older 
 children, too, there were the swing (aluipa), the ball {a-cftat- 
 pa), the whipping-top (/3e/i/3tf, pd//,/Sos), the hoop (rpoxos). 
 
 Many games resem- 
 bled those played to- 
 day : hide-and-seek 
 (KpuTTTivSa), tug of war 
 (lA/cvo-TivSa), ducks 
 and drakes {iiro<TTpa- 
 Kicr/Aos), and blind 
 man's buff, or the 
 "bronze fly" (xiXk^ 
 fivla), in which the boy who was " it " was struck with whips 
 by the others until he caught one of them. Another 
 amusement among the street gamins, not so innocent, was 
 
 Toys and 
 games. 
 
 Fig. 57.— The swing. 
 
CHILDHOOD 
 
 77 
 
 Fig. 58. — Children playing with cart and doll. 
 
 to catch a beetle {/jkrjXoXovdrj), tie a string to it, and so control 
 its flight. Jackstones, played with knuckle bones {aarpdya- 
 X.01, Fig. 330), "pitching pennies," played with bronze coins 
 (xaXKi^eiv), and hopping with one foot on a greased wine- 
 skin (do-KwAtacr/tos), were other favourites, the last being a 
 sport indulged in by grown people at the Dionysiac festival 
 of the Anthesteria. 
 Boys and girls 
 grew up together 
 under the sole 
 charge of mother 
 and nurse until 
 they were seven 
 years old. From 
 this point, so far as 
 his education was,. 
 
 concerned, the boy parted from his sister, who 
 
 f^ ^^. remained in careful seclusion in the house, and 
 
 eduoation. - ' 
 
 got what little knowledge her mother could 
 impart, depending on her father or brothers for knowledge 
 of what was going on in the world. The boy, on the other 
 handj-was^glaoed under the special charge of. a slave (waiSa- 
 ywyos), whose business it was to follow him .everywher_e=-t(^ 
 sc^o.oLandJiaok,Tin his sports, and in the house. Only in 
 the constant presence of an elder, it was thought, could a 
 boy learn proper modesty and reverence (atSeos), polite bear- 
 ing, and self-restraint in all things (a-uxfipoaTivri), the last 
 being the ideal of Greek ethics. On the same principle, 
 the sons of Persian nobles were educated at court, that 
 they might see nothing of a contaminating and debasing 
 character. The guardian slave, to be sure, was often an 
 illiterate person of foreign origin, and was never a teacher ' 
 iq^the strict sense. But he was assumed to be competent 
 to teacF the boy manners, the proper way to eat, walk, sit, 
 and dress, and could see to it that the boy fell into no bad 
 companionships. Such a tutelage had as much influence 
 
78 
 
 THE LIFE OP THE ANCIENT GREEKS 
 
 for good as that of the old-fashioned Southern " mammy," 
 except in the case of very old and weak slaves, such as 
 the pedagogue whom Pericles assigned to Alcibiades in his 
 
 FiQ. 59.— Playing ball. 
 
 school-days. The sympathetic pedagogue is seen in Fig. 
 318. The slave had power to enforce his direction by cor- 
 poral punishment applied with the rattan (vapOtj^) or the 
 strap (i/ias). From him they learned to rise, stand, and be 
 silent in the presence of their elders; and to wear their 
 mantles carefully folded about them when they went into 
 the street (see the younger lad in Fig. 50). 
 
CHAPTEE VII 
 
 SCHOOL TRAINING 
 
 The Greeks took a broad-view of the meaning of educa- 
 tion (TraiSeta), and made it include all that the boy received 
 Object of from his elders, before he became of age, in the 
 Greek training of his body, mind, and morals. When 
 
 education. the little boy (-TraTs) had grown into a lad {ij.apa.- 
 Kiov), he was introduced to three main branches of disci- 
 pline ; and no matter how poor his parents were, every Greek 
 boy gained some knowledge in all these three. The object, 
 
 it should always be remembered, was the physical and moral^ 
 development of the citizen, and not the acquisition of ex-' 
 pert knowledge. These branches were gymnastic (17 yv- 
 Main /jlvcuttikt^, SC. Texyv)^ ™usic (17 liOva-LK-rj), and read- 
 
 branches of ing and writing {ypafLfhaTa). The lasttwo — i. e., 
 education. music and letters — were sometimes embraced 
 under the single term "music" {jj/yucnKrj), which in clas- 
 sical Greek implies more than the narrower modern term 
 
 79 
 
80 THE LIFE OP THE ANCIENT GREEKS 
 
 music, being made to include the words and thoughts of a 
 
 poet as well as the musical strain to which they were adapted. 
 
 / Instruction in gymnastic was given in the palaestrae 
 
 I (literally " wrestling-grounds," from t:6Xi\, " wrestling "), of 
 
 \ which there were several in Athens (cf. Fig. 72). These were 
 
 laid out in a free and open space, therefore mostly in the 
 
 outskirts of the city, and not too shaded from the sun. 
 
 In accordance with the Greek idea that boys require the 
 
 constant supervision of older persons even in their sports 
 
 — an idea far removed from English and American theory 
 
 and practice — a private teacher, called TratSorpt- 
 Gymnastics. . 
 
 ;8i7s (Figs. 60, 61, 74), gave systematic lessons 
 
 in wrestling (ttciXij), boxing (imy/ti;), running (8jOo/,ios), the 
 broad jump (aAyna), throwing the discus (Bio-Ko^oXia), and 
 casting the spear (d/cov- 
 Tto-ts). All these were 
 taught so universally 
 that it was easy to im- 
 provise " track meet- 
 ings " (dycoves jv/jivlkoQ 
 on almost any occasion. 
 Such are frequently 
 mentioned, therefore, 
 
 by Xenophon, as held Pig. ei.— Practising ae bro»a jump. 
 
 in connection with 
 
 some religious festival ; as when Xenias the Arcadian cele- 
 brates in distant Asia his native festival, the Lycaea, with 
 games, for which the prizes were gold flesh-scrapers or stri- 
 gils (o-TXeyyiSes xP^a-ai) ; or again, when the Greeks, on their 
 safe arrival at the Black Sea, render thanks to Heracles 
 and proceed to hold games, with the Spartan Dracontius as 
 referee. Greek literature everywhere, from Homer to St. 
 Paul's epistles, contains many references to the games and 
 metaphors derived from them ; as when Xenophon speaks 
 of the gods as the ampires (ayiov oOir ai) of the uneven strug- 
 gle between the Greeks and the Persians — and not merely 
 
SCHOOL TRAINING 
 
 81 
 
 Fig. 62. — Elesti-scraper (strigil). 
 
 are those games meant in which professional athletes fig- 
 ured, but also the simple contests of ordinary citizens 
 trained in their youth to understand and enjoy them. 
 
 These exercises were practised naked, the body being) 
 first anointed 
 with oil. This, 
 with the dust 
 and sweat, was 
 scraped off at 
 the close of 
 the contest by 
 
 a kind of comb (a-TXeyyis, called by the Eomans strigilis, 
 Figs. 63, 63), after which the boys took a cold plunge ; for the 
 palaestra was often near a stream. In this way boys added 
 a knowledge of swimming and diving to their 
 other accomplishments, a knowledge assumed as 
 general in Homer and Xenophon. The diver is mentioned 
 in the Iliad, and some of the soldiers at one point during 
 Xenophon's march to the sea took ofE their tunics and 
 swam across a stream ; a few only did not know how to swin;. 
 Boys of aristocratic birth were trained in 
 the use of arms and in military tactics (to. d/x<^t 
 Ttt^eis Kttt oirXo/j.axLa). In the palaestra were also'' 
 practised punching the bag, or a-KtaixaxM, ball playing, tug 
 
 Swimming. 
 
 Military 
 training, 
 
82 
 
 THE LIFE OP THE ANCIENT GREEKS 
 
 Music. 
 
 of war, and other games begun in childhood. At the yearly 
 festival in honour of Hermes the hoys had an opportunity to 
 display their progress; -and at the national games — Olym- 
 pic, Pythian, Nemean, and Isthmian — boys were frequently 
 entered as contestants, and their victories as well as those 
 of professional adult athletes were celebrated by the lyric 
 poets — Pindar, Simonides, Bacchylides, and others. 
 
 j In music, taught by a master of the lyre {KxOapurryfi), 
 
 I the pupil learned to play on the lyre and to sing (Pig. 64) 
 
 to his own accompaniment. The lyre, called in 
 
 Homer (f>6pfiiy^, later KiOdpa, KiOapk, or Xvpa, was 
 
 the ancient national instrument of Hellas, always associated 
 
 with the Hellenic god Apollo. There were many varieties 
 
 ~ of form, and the bUMra, in 
 the strict sense, seems~Mhave 
 had greater resonance than 
 the lyra. In principle, how- 
 ever, they were the same. ■ In 
 
 , the lyre the complete~sEell of 
 
 ) a tortoise was used as a sound- 
 ing-board. Into the natural 
 i openings at either end were 
 'fixed goat's horns, which were 
 i connected near the tips by 
 a cross-piece or yoke {^vyov). 
 
 ■ The strings were drawn tight- 
 ly from this yoke to the shell 
 below, which constituted the base of the instrument, and 
 there were fastened by a bridge (vTroyvpiov). The sounding- 
 box of the kithara was made of thin wood, metal, or ivory, 
 and might be either rectangular or semi-oval in shape. 
 The arms also were of wood or metal instead of horn, and 
 might forjn one piece with the box (Fig. 66). Some forms 
 of it greatly resembled the modern zither (cf. Fig. 95). 
 
 The flute (aiXos) belonged originally in Asia Minor, and 
 though flute-playing was regularly taught, it became les§ 
 
 Fig. 64.— Singing lesson. 
 
SCHOOL TRAINING 83 
 
 popular in the latter part of the fifth century among Athe- 
 nian gentlemen, after the fastidious Alcibiades set the ex- 
 ample of discarding it because it distorted 
 
 the^ flute ^" *^® ^^^^' ^* ^^^ played like the clarinet rath- 
 er than like the modern flute, the mouthpiece 
 being at the end of the pipe or cylinder, not at the side. 
 Originally the pipe had only three or four stops. To in- 
 crease the range, therefore, it was more common, especially 
 at public entertainments, for the player to use two pipes, 
 which had either a single mouthpiece in common or might 
 have each its own. For convenience in holding they were 
 fastened to the player's mouth by leather bands passing 
 
 Fig. 65. — Use of the double flute at the public games. 
 
 round the neck and head, as in Fig. 65. Among the Greeks, 
 therefore, the flute remained as a rule the national instru- 
 ment of the Boeotians only, or was confined to professionals 
 who played it chiefly to accompany dancing, or in march- 
 ing to battle. 
 
 The superiority of the lyre in polite society is typified 
 by the story of Apollo's contest with the Phrygian Mar- 
 syas (Fig. 66) ; and in Homer, it is the Trojans, never the 
 Greeks, who use the flute. All Greeks, but especially Athe- 
 nians, laid stress on some musical attainment, even though 
 great technical skill was not desired ; for when a man en- 
 tered society he must be able to sing to his own accom- 
 
84: 
 
 THE LIFE OF THE ANCIENT GREEKS 
 
 Fig. 66. — Musical contest between Apollo and 
 Marsyae. 
 
 paniment the lyrics and glees that everybody knew. The 
 Greeks also felt profoundly the moral influence that cer- 
 tain musical strains can exert, and the old-fashioned looked 
 
 with disfavour on 
 the artificial varia- 
 tions and wonderful 
 trills which virtuosi 
 began to introduce 
 toward the close of 
 the fifth century. 
 Besides the flute, 
 used for marching, 
 the army also de- 
 pended on the trum- 
 pet (o-aXiri-yf) for 
 signals, for which 
 the Thracians used a horn. "In peace," so ran the fa- 
 mous saying, " sleepers are waked by cocks ; in war, by 
 trumpets." 
 
 Dancing was not one of the subjects taught in the regular 
 curriculum at Athens in its flourishing period, though boys 
 of promise, like Sophocles, for instance, were 
 , often singled out for special instruction in it, 
 that they might appear in the choruses of boys which com- 
 peted at the festivals. But in Crete and Sparta every one 
 could dance, especially in the pyrriche (■irvpp[xv)i ^ panto- 
 mimic war-dance in which young men wearing helmets 
 clashed swords and shields together. Byron in The Isles 
 of Greece and many other writers in England to-day incor-' 
 rectly associate the pyrriche {not pyrrJiic) with Pyrrhus and 
 the Pyrrhic phalanx. In Xenophon's account of its per- 
 formance in the Anabasis it is noteworthy that this and 
 other mimetic dances, or ballets, are not danced by the 
 Athenian soldiers, but by a professional dancing-girl {opxn- 
 a-Tpk), by a Mysian, and by some Thessalians. Still, the 
 pyrrich6 was early imported into Athens, and became by 
 
 Sanoing. 
 
SCHOOL TRAINING 
 
 85 
 
 Beading and 
 writing: 
 
 Materials for 
 writing. 
 
 the beginning of the fourth century a regular feature of 
 the Panathenaic festival (page 374). 
 
 The third branch of education, ypdfifiara (also [{.ova-mrj in 
 the wider sense), comprised reading and writing, for which 
 the boy attended the school (SiSao-KaXaoj/) of 
 the grammatistes {■ypafji.ixaTUTT^'s). In reading, 
 the pupil learned the names, forms, and values 
 of the letters, whence he proceeded to the study of sylla- 
 bles and of whole words, with their 
 changes of inflection. In writing, 
 the teacher wrote a copy and 
 drew lines for the scholar, who, 
 with his hand guided by the teach- 
 er's, tried to imitate the model. The 
 writing was done on wooden tablets 
 (SeArot, Fig. 67) covered 
 with wax ; the instru- 
 ment was an iron graver 
 with" a sharp point {ypaijik, Lat. sti- 
 lus). To wribe, then, was properly 
 to scratch (xapan-eiv), whence let- 
 ters were called " characters " (x«pa- 
 KTijioes). Pupils who had attained 
 proficiency enough to warrant the 
 use of more expensive material 
 wrote _on__papei:,_made~ from the 
 stem of_the papyrus- plant (^t/8-\.os), 
 which grew chiefly in Egypt (page 
 108). With this they used a reed pen (KaA.a/x,os) and ink 
 (ixeXav, cf. atranientum from ater), made of lampblack and 
 gum which had been pounded together in a mortar. School- 
 rooms could not boast of a desk, and in schools which were 
 held in the open air, the scholar was lucky if he had a 
 bench {^aOpov) to sit on. 
 
 The authors read and studied were the epic poets, espe- 
 cially Homer {Iliad and Odyssey), Hesiod, Aesop, and the 
 
 Fie. 67 AthSna with writ- 
 ing-tablets and a writing- 
 point. 
 
86 
 
 THE LIFE OP THE ANCIENT GREEKS 
 
 Authors 
 studied. 
 
 moralists, like Theognis and Solon. The verses were learned 
 by heart, so that their influence on the character and on 
 the whole attitude of the Greek toward life 
 was strong and persistent. The lessons were 
 learned at school, not at home, the pupil re- 
 peating the words aloud 
 after the master, or writ- *^v:o^y|/^. 
 
 ing them at his dictation. / ^^c> 
 
 Not a few Greeks, espe- A 1^ 
 
 cially Athenians, learned c:r— -^a »,aP//^oC 
 in this way to recite the 
 whole Iliad and Odyssey, 
 and were noted for their ex- 
 
 AjV^f'J"^^^ 
 
 Fig. 
 
 ■Boy's handwriting on the wall 
 of a house. 
 
 Teachers. 
 
 cellent memory [fnvrjfwviKol). 
 Although most Greeks 
 were far from illiterate, and set a high value on a knowl- 
 edge of the national literature — it was only 
 at Sparta that a large number of persons 
 were ignorant of reading and writing — still the profession 
 of teacher (ypa/A/iaTto-TiJs) was 
 in low repute. The teachers 
 were freedmen, or citizens who 
 had lost means and social posi- 
 tion, and they depended on the 
 voluntary donations of parents, 
 often rendered in kind instead 
 of in cash, on the last day of 
 the month. Thus the teacher 
 was often at the mercy of a 
 stingy parent, one of whom is 
 related to have deducted a por- 
 tion of the fee because his son 
 was sick one day. The school- 
 rooms — when school was not held in the open air — were 
 ill furnished, with none of the apparatus for comfort and 
 instruction demanded to-day. 
 
 Fie. 69.— A lesson in the poets. 
 
SCHOOL TRAINING 
 
 81 
 
 It was only after tlie fifth century that subjects less 
 
 ethical than reading were added to the course, such as 
 
 geometry, astronomy, and arithmetic. The 
 Mathematics. % , ■" , •" x i m. , , i , 
 
 weeks as a rule were not skilful calculators, 
 
 and the grown man regularly counted with his fingers (iirl 
 
 BaKTvXiov (rvfjuPaXkea-Oca, irejitjra^eii/, cf. Trei/Tc) ; or else, in more 
 
 important financial problems, he used a counting-board (dySa- 
 Kiov). In the fourth cen- 
 tury, when the Athenians 
 began to wake to a con- 
 scious appreciation of the 
 works of art about them, 
 drawing {ypa<j)iKri) was in- 
 troduced into the school 
 course as necessary to the 
 proper understanding of 
 sculpture and painting. 
 
 Thus, under a well-or- 
 dered scheme of work and 
 
 play, citizens' 
 Illiteracy. ^ \ 
 
 and metics 
 
 sons passed their early years. Of course there were street 
 gamins, like the one who grew up to be a sausage-seller, 
 described in a play of Aristophanes, who wandered about 
 the streets and in the agora at will, stealing wares, chiefly 
 food, and acquiring a mere smattering of reading, with lit- 
 tle writing, and no gymnastic or music. But illiteracy in 
 Athens was extremely rare. Even girls must have gained~~^ 
 some knowledge of reading, and often of writ- / 
 ing, according to the ability and willingness of ) 
 
 H 
 
 XPHP^irHCTX 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■3 
 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 -a 
 
 
 t 
 
 I 
 
 
 X 
 
 "a 
 
 
 L 
 
 [> 
 
 
 <1 
 
 n 
 
 
 E. 
 
 T 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 E. 
 
 H 
 
 
 X , 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Fig. 70. — Counting-tooard. 
 
 Training of 
 girls. 
 
 their mothers or nurses to impart instruction 
 to them. In the simpler branches of housekeeping, how- 
 ever, girls of the middle and lower classes were more system- 
 atically taught ; while the richest learned at least how to 
 spin, weave, sew, and embroider. (Compare also pages 
 108 ff., on books and reading.) 
 
88 THE LIFE OP THE ANCIENT QEEEKS 
 
 In ordinary cases, the life of a lad during this early 
 period of training was happy and interesting, with abun- 
 dant variety in town and in the country, in 
 inteMBte school and palaestra, and at the family and state 
 sacrifices. His sports kept him in the open 
 air ; his studies were few enough to admit thorough mastery 
 of them. He learned no languages other than his own ; no 
 history, except what his father told him of their ancestors' 
 exploits, or as he imbibed it incidentally when the teacher 
 commented on the poets ; no geography, though maps were 
 coming into use among scientific men ; no botany, zoology, 
 or algebra. Though, like a modern boy, he played ball and 
 marbles, and fiew kites, he could not skate or coast — snow 
 and ice do not linger in Greece, except in the mountainous 
 portions — and he had no hockey, golf, or tennis. 
 
 The relations between teacher and pupil were not 
 friendly. The Greek believed in the efficacy of corporal 
 Relations punishment — " he that is not flogged can not 
 between be taught," said a poet — and scholars lived in 
 
 teacher and constant dread of the schoolmaster (cf. Fig. 
 ^"^^ ' 60). Xenophon, evidently out of his own ex- 
 
 perience, well illustrates this when he says that Olearchus's 
 soldiers felt toward Clearchus as boys feel toward a teacher ; 
 and Xenophon no more questions the right of teachers to 
 use the rod for the good of their pupils than he questions 
 the similar right of parents. The bitterest lot that could 
 fall to children was, on the death of their father, to be 
 handed over to a cruel or avaricious guardian. The state, 
 however, through its chief archon, exercised a certain con- 
 trol over guardians (emVpoTrot), who, if information of mal- 
 administration of property came to the archon, might be 
 required to render an account of the treatment they had 
 bestowed on their wards {op<f>avoi, iTriKk-qpoi). Institutions 
 for the care of waifs at public expense, such as orphan 
 asylums, did not exist; but the state looked after the 
 orphans of distinguished soldiers who had fallen in battle. 
 
SCHOOL TRAINING 89 
 
 At eighteen, a boy reached his majority, and was once 
 more presented by his father or guardian to the members 
 
 of his father's phratry. The father or guar- 
 The affe of . x j & 
 
 maiority ^^^^ °^ ^^^^ occasion offered a special sacrifice 
 
 — hotireion, Kovpuov (page 74) — the meat of 
 which was distributed to the members. The priest of the 
 phratry also received certain perquisites, such as a cake, 
 two quarts of wine, and a drachma (page 346) in money. 
 Further, the boy had to be enrolled in his father's deme ; 
 for every citizen, after Cleisthenes had systematized the 
 democratic constitution at the close of the sixth century, 
 
 was a member of one of a hundred or more 
 Attica demes (8^/ioi) or districts spread over Attica. 
 
 Originally, the deme was a local, territorial 
 division, according to which the demesmen {Sri/jtoTai) were 
 actual neighbours, and united by a common local interest. 
 But if a man moved away, he still remained a member of 
 his original deme, and into this his sons, too, were enrolled. 
 If the demesmen accepted the youth as properly qualified 
 for citizenship by reason of age and legitimate birth, his 
 name was inscribed in the deme register {Xrj^tapxi-Kov ypa/i- 
 ju.aTetoi'), whereupon he became entitled to citizen's rights 
 and liable (theoretically) to citizen's duties ; he could in- 
 herit property and exercise independent control of it, and 
 he might perform priestly functions, if any such belonged 
 to his family. 
 
 The change from boyhood to manhood was marked by 
 a symbolical act, performed just before the introduction to 
 the phratry. The young man invited friends of his own 
 age to a drinking bout (^olvurri^pta). After a libation to 
 Heracles, his hair, which during childhood had been allowed 
 to grow long, was cut off and dedicated to some river-god. 
 In fact, this ceremony was so typical of the passing from 
 boyhood to man's estate that it gave its name to the sacri- 
 fice, koureion, offered at the time ; this word and the words 
 for " cutting the hair " (/cetpo)) and for " barber " (KoupctJs) 
 
90 
 
 THE LIFE OP THE ANCIENT GREEKS 
 
 are all related. The young man, however, did not enter 
 immediately upon the duties of citizen. After taking oath 
 in the temple of Aglaurus that he would be a loyal citizen 
 all his life, he, with other young men of his age (ephebi, 
 ecjir/jSoi), was placed under the charge of a " mod- 
 ^ *' ^ ^' erator " {<Tu)<j>povLorrrj^), a middle-aged man who 
 saw to it that the youth had instruction and drill in mili- 
 tary tactics, while performing light garrison duty in the 
 
 Fig. 71. — EphSbus receiving parting instructions. 
 
 Piraeus (cf. Fig. 71). At the end of a year the ephebi were 
 marshalled before the whole body of the people, to whom they 
 exhibited their skill in tactics and warlike accomplishments, 
 such as archery, spear-casting, and fighting in heavy armour. 
 The state then presented each with a shield and spear, and 
 for another year the young man was assigned to garrison 
 duty on the frontiers of Attica. Many of the richer young 
 men then joined the ranks of the permanent cavalry (iTTTrets), 
 on passing an examination instituted by the Council, which 
 afiBrmed their rank, their property qualification, their horse- 
 manship, and the good condition of their horses (page 194). 
 
CHAPTER VIII 
 
 THE OCCUPATIONS OF YOUNG MEN> 
 
 The young man of twenty who did not belong to the 
 lowest social class, and who consequently was not obliged 
 to follow any trade, found himself in times of peace free to 
 enjoy many sports and avocations. On the athletic side, 
 the gymnasia were at his disposal — originally 
 " exercising-grounds," situated outside the city 
 walls, where they were afforded the shelter of 
 shade-trees and were adjacent to some stream. The chief 
 of these were the Academy ('AKaSiy/xeia) and the Lyceum 
 (Avicetov), which grew to such importance in the liyes of the 
 
 The 
 gymnasia. 
 
 Pig. 72. — Scene in the palaestra. 
 
 people that they were later adorned with buildings, porti- 
 coes, statues, and seats for non-contestants, and laid out 
 with pleasant paths which became the favourite resorts of 
 strollers. All classes of men thronged hither during the 
 
 91 
 
92 
 
 THE LIFE OE THE ANCIENT GREEKS 
 
 day, but chiefly in the afternoons ; and the philosophers 
 especially found the places so much to their taste, and so 
 suited to their needs in the conversational style in which 
 they carried on their researches, that they have given over the 
 words " Academy " and " Lyceum " to modern languages as 
 
 denoting, not places where 
 bodily training may be had, 
 but centres and sources of 
 mental cultivation. 
 
 We get a good notion of 
 the elaborate arrangements 
 for gymnasium and palaes- 
 tra which were in vogue in 
 later times from a view of 
 the excavations at Olympia. 
 The chief feature of the 
 palaestra was the portico 
 (o-Toa), a whole stadium in 
 extent, from which several 
 rooms branched out, suit- 
 able for bathing and exer- 
 cises of all kinds. That 
 such were adorned with 
 sculptures and wall paintings in most cases is clear from 
 Xenophon, who tells us that in Athens the Lyceum, really 
 a precinct sacred to Apollo Lyceius, contained paintings 
 by one Cleagoras. 
 
 Here the open-air palaestra kept the young man's body 
 exposed to the sun, and made it brown and ruddy with 
 health. Two kinds of wrestling were distin- 
 guished. In the " upright " or " face-to-face " 
 wrestling (iraXij opOrj), the contestants stood 
 upright, and tried, by lifting their opponent from the 
 ground, to throw him. Three throws decided the contest. 
 In the other, called "rolling" (dAiVSijo-is), the struggle con- 
 tinued on the ground, the two rolling over and over until 
 
 Fig. 73.— Niche and statue in tlie portico 
 at Pergamus. 
 
 ■Wrestling 
 and boxing-. 
 
THE OCCUPATIONS OF YOUNG MEN 
 
 93 
 
 one acknowledged himself beaten. In the stadion, also, 
 the youth practised sprinting, either for a 300-yard dash 
 
 Fig. 74.— Wrestling ; marking out a course. 
 
 down one side of the course {Bpo/j^oi;, (rrdSiov) or for a longer 
 distance. In the latter case he might double the post at 
 the end of the course, and finish at the start- 
 ing-point ; this made a diaulos (SiauXos, literally 
 "double flute"; cf. page 83). Or the course might be cov- 
 ered six, twelve, twenty, or twenty-four times, in what was the 
 most strenuous running exercise of all, the doUchos (SoAixos). 
 
 Bunning'. 
 
 ^»'/» 
 
 Fig. 75.— The dromos or stadion (200-yara dash). 
 
94 
 
 THE LIFE OF THE ANCIENT GREEKS 
 
 Another game of the palaestra which was thought becom- 
 ing a free-born youth was javelin throwing, in which the 
 Persian Cyrus also excelled. A rifled motion was given to 
 the javelin by winding a thong {ayKvXyj) tightly round the 
 shaft. The thong was held fast when 
 the spear was thrown, so that it was 
 sent off with a rotary motion (Figs. 
 76, 65). The young man also learned 
 discus throwing and leaping. The 
 throwing of the discus, extraordinarily 
 popular in antiquity from the earliest 
 times, has become better understood 
 in recent years since the modern 
 " Olympic games " were instituted in 
 1896. The adjoining cut (Fig. 77), 
 which is composed of figures derived 
 from vase-paintings {a, b, c), from a 
 coin {d), and from a statue (e), shows 
 the successive positions assumed by 
 the thrower when hurling in proper 
 "form." Figs. 65 and 78 also show the first position, 
 while the contestant is sighting the course; the second 
 position is also given in Fig. 79. In the broad jump, the 
 contestant held in each hand a weight (dAT^pes), shaped 
 
 Fig. 76.- 
 
 -Spear witli thong 
 (oyicuAij), 
 
 a b c d e 
 
 Fig. T7.— Five positions in tlirowing the discas. 
 
 like a dumb-bell, by which he gave himself a greater im- 
 petus (Figs. 61, 79). These three sports, when given at a 
 public festival, were run off to the accompaniment of flute 
 
THE OCCUPATIONS OF YOUNG MEN 
 
 95 
 
 The 
 pentathlon 
 
 Boxing. 
 
 Fis 
 
 Measuring the 
 course just before the 
 throw. 
 
 music. They belonged to the so-called pentathlon {-n-iv- 
 Ta6X.ov), which also included in its five events running and 
 wrestling. , The pentath- 
 lon is a collective name 
 for whatj/ in the regular 
 public contests, was an event by itself, 
 the several sports /in it being of the 
 nature of heats, iust what the order 
 of procedure was/we do not know, but 
 victory in three/ out of the five seems 
 to have decided/the whole. 
 
 Boxing {-mrlfjiri) was practised in such 
 a rough and brutal fashion that it prop- 
 erly belonged only to pro- 
 fessional athletes. In con- 
 junction with wrestling, it formed the 
 most severe of all physical exercises, 
 the so-called panJcration {wayKpaTiov), which demanded the 
 use of all the powers of the combatants. In simple box- 
 ing, the knuckles 
 were often reen- 
 forced by leather 
 straps which were 
 distinguished as 
 "soft" and "hard"; 
 these, in the latter 
 part of the fourth 
 century, had also 
 nails or bosses of 
 lead fixed in them. 
 The result of a 
 contest fought to 
 a finish with such 
 weapons must have 
 been extremely repulsive even when the consequences were 
 not fatal. For this reason, as well as for others, gentlemen's 
 
 Fig. 79.— Discus throwing and jumping. 
 
96 
 
 THE LIFE OP THE ANCIENT GREEKS 
 
 sons did not go in for this sport. To be sure, it came to 
 be recognized with the others as one of the regular events 
 
 Fig. 80.— Boxing with "soft" straps. 
 
 at the national festivals, to be expected with eagerness and 
 applauded with enthusiasm. But the contestants them- 
 selves were usually looked upon as bul- 
 lies, like the Thessalian professional Bo- 
 i'scus, who is mentioned with repugnance 
 in the Anabasis, and the Spartan gov- 
 ernment prohibited the sport altogether. 
 This was not, however, because of its 
 roughness, but because the contest could 
 not end until one competitor had ac- 
 knowledged himself beaten ; and that 
 no Spartan would do. That he did not 
 mind mere brutality in wrestling Xeno- 
 phon shows in his account of the games 
 improvised at Trapezus. Some one had 
 objected to the spot chosen by the Spar- 
 tan director of the games. " How," said 
 he, " are they going to wrestle on such rough and bushy 
 ground?" "All the better," replied the director; "the 
 man who is thrown will be hurt all the more." 
 
 Pig. 81.— Boxer with 
 "hard" straps. 
 
THE OCCUPATIONS OF YOUNG MEN 
 
 97 
 
 Biding. 
 
 The most aristocratic amusement, begun and pursued in 
 early manhood, was riding (tTnriKTj), although the Athenians 
 were not especially good horsemen. In Homer, 
 riding is scarcely known ; war-horses are driven 
 to the chai'iot. Not until the middle of the seventh cen- 
 tury B. c. was horse racing — i. e., a Jockey riding on a single 
 horse (keA.?;?) — introduced at the Olympic games (see Fig. 
 87 ; cf. page 103). In some parts of Hellas — wherever the 
 land was flat, as in Thessaly and Boeotia, in Sicily and 
 southern Italy, Gyrene, and Ionia — there were skilful riders. 
 But in Sparta riding was long neglected, and in Athens, 
 
 although the cavalry (iTnrcis) were an ancient body, it was 
 not until after the Persian wars that riding came into 
 much fashion. Then the state required its richer citizens 
 to keep a horse for field service (see page 194). The Per- 
 sians, like their modern successors the Turks, were expert 
 riders. Cyrus was conspicuous for his love of horses and 
 for his skill in using them. 
 
 In spite of deficiencies which would to us seem ridicu- 
 lous in a rider, the young men of the smart set, like Alci- 
 biades, made the keeping of horses {hr-rroTpo^tLo) fashionable, 
 and many a father, we are told, was ruined by his son's ex- 
 ? 
 
98 
 
 THE LIFE OP THE ANCIENT GREEKS 
 
 Chariot 
 driving', 
 
 travagance in this regard. Most young men preferred to 
 drive their animals to a chariot (ap/jia, 8i<^pos, 8t<^pio-Kos), 
 leaving riding to their jockeys. Chariots were 
 not used by the later Greeks in war, as they 
 had been in Homer ; their use in classical 
 times was confined to the hippodrome. The best breeds of 
 horses were branded with the obsolete letters koppa and 
 san, <p, 9>, whence they were called respectively hoppatias 
 (KOTTTraTtas) and samphoras (o-a/x,<^o/3as). A mark which looks 
 like a brand is seen on the horse in Fig. 343. The price of 
 a good horse was ordinarily ten or twelve minae (about 
 1200) ; this was very high, when we remember that the 
 purchasing power of money was perhaps three or four 
 
 times greater than 
 it is to-day. Xeno- 
 phon, who at the 
 end of his wander- 
 ings owned an ex- 
 cellent horse of 
 which he was very 
 fond, was obliged 
 through lack of 
 means to sell it. 
 He received fifty 
 darics (page 346) 
 for it. It is a pleasure to read that some friends of his 
 arrived later, who bought the horse and returned it to him,, 
 refusing any recompense. 
 
 Hunting was another favourite sport, by no means con- 
 fined to the rich. The farmer had to hunt noxious animals, 
 especially the fox and the hare, for which 
 traps were set. A young man returning home 
 with his hound and a hare he has thus caught is shown in 
 Fig. 83. In Homer, it is the lion, more than the wolf, 
 which is the pest of the sheepfold and cow-pen, but other 
 animals of the chase are well known in Homer, They are 
 
 ;.— Young man with a hare. 
 
 Hunting. 
 
THE OCCUPATIONS OF YOUNG MEN 
 
 99 
 
 the wild boar, the leopard, the wolf, the hare, deer, and 
 wild goats or chamois. In the fifth century the lion sur-- 
 vived only in the mountain wildernesses of Macedonia and 
 Epeirus. Dogs (at kwes) were so essential to the hunter that 
 they gave their name to the sport {Kwrj-ytTiK-i]) 
 when it developed into an art. A work on the 
 art of hunting still survives among Xenophon's writings. 
 The choicest breeds were the great Molossian hounds of 
 
 Dogi 
 
 FiQ. 84.— Home from the chase. 
 
 northern Greece, the Laconian fox-hounds, and the fierce 
 mountain dogs of Arcadia. The woods and hills of Attica, 
 Peloponnesus, and central and northern Greece abounded in 
 game, particularly deer, foxes, hare, birds, and even bears 
 and wolves. Game preserves like that of Cyrus at Celaenae 
 were not owned by Greeks until after the time of Alex- 
 ander the Great. The weapons in commonest use were 
 the javelin (aKovnov), the spear (Sopu, Aoyx»?), the sling 
 {<T<j>ev86vri), and sometimes, as in the heroic 
 age, the bow (to^ov). But a special club with a 
 curved end was used for throwing at hare. Birds were not 
 hunted, properly speaking, but were lured to sticks smeared 
 with birdlime, or to nets and snares. Traps (ve<t)eXai} were 
 set also for wild boar and hare. The hunter usually wore 
 a special costume, of which the most conspicuous features 
 
 Weapons. 
 
100 
 
 THE LIFE OP THE ANCIENT GREEKS 
 
 were his broad-brimmed hat (irerao-o?, page 166) and his 
 boots, whereas neither hat nor boots were worn in ordinary 
 life. The latter were necessary to protect his 
 legs from brambles, for hunting on foot was 
 almost exclusively the rule among the Greeks. The Per- 
 sians used horses, a fact which, Xenophon thinks, requires 
 special mention. At the end of his day's sport, the hunter 
 offered a portion of 
 
 his catch to Arte- "^^j ^J^,^^ "'^^ A d^^ 
 
 mis, dedicating the 
 
 skin at some tree or 
 
 altar in the forest. \^i^}Jh J^ f"', 
 
 Fishing in the 
 eyes of the Greeks 
 was not a sport, 
 though it was occa- 
 sionally included by 
 
 them in the OCCU- Fig. 85.— spoils of the chase dedicated to Artemis. 
 
 pation of hunting. 
 
 Deep-sea fishing was a profitable profession, 
 especially in the harbours of Piraeus and Pha- 
 leron and at Byzantium, where fishermen's boats (dXteuriKa 
 irkoia) were always in the harbour. 
 
 Most of the sports and athletic exercises just described 
 were included in the entertainments of the great national 
 festivals. Here they formed a part of the 
 honour paid to the gods, and were glorified and 
 even sanctified in a way hardly comprehensible 
 to-day. Besides numerous local festivals belonging to the 
 different cities, such as the Panathenaea at Athens, or the 
 Carneia at Sparta, there were four great occasions of na- 
 tional, Pan-Hellenic interest. These were the Olympia in 
 honour of Zeus, held every four years in Elis ; the Pythia, 
 held in honour of Apollo, at Crissa, near Delphi, also every 
 four years ; the Nemea, another Zeus festival, in N"emea 
 (Argos), every two years ; and the Isthmia, in honour of 
 
 Fishing. 
 
 The national 
 festivals. 
 
THE OCCUPATIONS OP YOUNG MEN 101 
 
 Poseidon, held every two years at Corinth. At the Pythia 
 musical contests, as most pleasing to Apollo, were the chief 
 features, but running, wrestling, horse and chariot racing, 
 and all the rest, were events as eagerly watched here as else- 
 where. This festival was held in the winter, in the third 
 year of every Olympiad. At the Nemean and the Pythian 
 
 L 
 
 Fig. 86.— The race-course (o-rdiSior) at Delphi. '" ^ 
 
 games, also, contests in flute and lyre playing, and in sing- 
 ing to their accompaniment, were included with the others. 
 The Nemea came in the second and fourth years of every 
 Olympiad, alternately in winter and in summer. The 
 Isthmia similarly alternated between spring and summer, 
 in the first and third years of each Olympiad. In this way 
 the national festivals never conflicted with one another, 
 and at the Olympia, especially, the whole world of Greeks, 
 from one end of the Mediterranean basin to the other, gave 
 themselves up to the joyful service of the god. A cessation 
 of hostilities (eicexeipta, " a staying of hands "), 
 sanctified by all the instincts of religion, al- 
 lowed the travellers from distant homes to journey undis- 
 turbed to the place of celebration. A motley crowd it was — 
 men of all countries, ranks, and ages. Thus the priest of 
 the Ephesian Artemis, Xenophon tells us, made the long 
 journey to Olympia to attend the spectacle ; but no women 
 were allowed at Olympia. The visitors (Oiiopoi) brought 
 their slaves, who could not be spectators, but who carried 
 tents, bedding, and all that was needed for living. Olym- 
 pia was not a town, in the strict sense, and even if it had 
 
102 
 
 THE LIFE OF THE ANCIENT GREEKS 
 
 been, the inns would not have sufficed to accommodate 
 the immense number of worshippers. 
 
 The contest earliest instituted in the history of Olympia, 
 the one with which every Olympic celebration opened and 
 which, conferred the greatest renown upon the victor, was 
 the short-distance foot-race (o-raSiov, 600 Greek 
 feet ; Fig. 75, cf. page 243). Then came the 
 other running events, the diaulos and the doli- 
 chos (see page 93). "Wrestling, the pentathlon, and boxing 
 were added in later years. For a hundred years these were 
 all the competitions that were open at Olympia. Then, in 
 
 Contests at 
 Olympia. 
 
 Fig. 87. — Entering for tlie horse-race and the chariot-race. 
 
 the seventh century, chariot racing was introduced, and from 
 this time on the older simplicity became lost in the lavish 
 display and reckless extravagance of princes and tyrants 
 and private individuals, among whom Dionysius of Syracuse 
 and Alcibiades of Athens made themselves conspicuous. 
 Here the requirements of the competitors were not so 
 much speed on the part of their horses, as coolness and 
 judgment on their own part, and dexterity in rounding 
 the dangerous post at the end of the stadion (Fig. 86). 
 Xenophon speaks of the bewilderment and confusion which 
 sometimes came upon one in the hippodrome. The result 
 would inevitably be the destruction of the chariot, and per- 
 haps the death of the horses and the driver. Although each 
 
THE OCCUPATIONS OF YOUNG MEN 
 
 103 
 
 driver was supposed to keep to his own part of the course, 
 the struggle to reach the inside at the turning-point was 
 very eager, and it frequently happened that one rival dis- 
 abled another by crashing into his chariot and taking off 
 a wheel. 
 
 In the middle of the seventh century the horse-race 
 (page 97) and the pankration were introduced, both of 
 which tended to foster professional jockeyism and pugil- 
 ism. Not long after, contests of boys were established in 
 running and wrestling. Other modifications and additions 
 came slowly, the most interesting and useful of which was 
 the running in heavy armour (oTrXtVi^s Spofio's, also called StW 
 
 PiG. 88.— Racing in armour. 
 
 Aos, Fig. 88). At Olympia there were no musical or lit- 
 erary contests, unless we except a competition between 
 trumpeters and between heralds, which was inaugurated 
 in the fourth century ; but a poet or singer might often 
 seize the opportunity to attract a group of listeners and 
 make known his works to them. 
 
 The official prizes (ciOXa) bestowed at the 
 national festivals were not valuable in them- 
 selves. They were mere wreaths, " crowns " (of. 1 Corinth., 
 ix, 25). At Olympia it was a crown of wild olive ; at the 
 Pythia, of bay or laurel; at Nemea and the Isthmia, a 
 
 Frizes. 
 
104 THE LIFE OE THE ANCIENT GREEKS 
 
 wreath of parsley. As a badge or token of his success, the 
 victor also received a palm-branch, and was bedecked with 
 ribbons and streamers. But though the prize was incon- 
 siderable in itself, it was perhaps more coveted than any 
 other honour a Greek could gain. To win it he surrendered 
 himself to long months of practice. For the Olympia, he 
 
 had to certify that he had been in training 
 the'eam^s'"^ for ten months preceding t^^ festival; and 
 
 thirty days before it occurred he had to repair 
 to Olympia and exercise under the special supervision of 
 the authorities of Elis. N"one but Greeks were eligible to 
 compete. When, for a single event, the number of candi- 
 dates was too large, the contest was divided into heats. In 
 wrestling and boxing, if an uneven number of applicants 
 were entered for the sport, of course one lucky person would 
 draw a bye. He would then sit at one side (hence he was 
 called the €(l>€8pos) and enjoy a considerable advantage when 
 he finally entered the ring against the tired-out victor of 
 the preceding round. Besides the banquet with which the 
 victor was entertained at Elis, and the privilege of having 
 
 a conspicuous share in the sacrifice and merry- _ 
 
 making amid which the festival ended, his re- 
 turn home was made a triumphal procession, almost a royal 
 progress, by his countrymen. Poets of high renown were 
 hired to compose odes in honour of his victory (iinvLKia). AH 
 the poems of Pindar which we possess to-day, and almost 
 all by Bacchylides, are of this sort. That the returning 
 hero might not enter his native town by the vulgar path, j 
 we are told that a part of the wall was sometimes torn 
 down for his entry. More material rewards were given 
 at local games, e. g., the Panathenaea ; so also at games in- 
 stituted by private persons (see page 80). The Athenians 
 granted an Olympic victor ('OXu/tTrtoviKi^s) the privilege of 
 dining at public expense in the Prytaneium (page 63). 
 Artists were hired to make bronze statues of him, which 
 were set up either at home or at the scene of his victory. 
 
THE OCCUPATIONS OP YOUNG MEN 105 
 
 His name was often used in determining the date of an 
 historical event. Thus Thucydides speaks familiarly of 
 the Olympic festival at which Androsthenes of Arcadia won 
 his first victory in the pankration, as an occasion which 
 would be readily recalled by all his readers. The custom of 
 dating by Olympiads, however, which is practised so largely 
 in Greek histories to-day, was not adopted by historians 
 until a century after Thucydides and Xenophon, when it 
 became an oiflcial mode of reckoning time. Still, among 
 the people it was enough to mention the name of a victo- 
 rious runner at Olympia, or a winning horse at Delphi, to 
 fix the year in popular chronology (see page 343). 
 
 In spite of the harmful tendencies, which finally cul- 
 minated two centuries before Christ in the introduction 
 ^of the pankration for boys, the games had a 
 n uenoe o distinctly educative value, not the least part of 
 
 which was due to the opportunities for travel 
 which they afEorded. Very few Greeks did not, at least once 
 in their lives, go to one of these festivals. Socrates speaks 
 of himself as an exception in this regard ; he was an incor- 
 rigible stay-at-home. 
 
 On the side of mental culture, which began in the 
 schools with the elements of reading and the study of the 
 
 poets, there came a new and momentous influ- 
 
 taUducation ®^°® ™*° *^® ^^"^^^ °* *^® joung men of Athens 
 when, in 437 B. c, Gorgias, the distinguished 
 rhetorician and sophist, came to Athens on an embassy 
 from Leontini, in Sicily. His grace of style, his flowing 
 periods, and his brilliant utterance gave a fresh stimulus 
 to the cultivation of that natural eloquence which was 
 latent in all Greeks, and which finds its illus- 
 tration as early as Homer. The Athenians, 
 especially, were ever lovers of talk (<^tXoXoyoi) and of de- 
 rv.bate, and disposed to hear all sides of a question. Never, 
 V perhaps, has there lived a people with greater mental curi- 
 osity, so eager to hear and learn novelties, as that which 
 
106 THE LIFE OF THE ANCIENT GREEKS 
 
 thronged every morning in the Athenian agora. " For all 
 the Athenians and strangers which were there spent their 
 time in nothing else, but either to tell or to hear some new 
 thing " {Acts, xvii, 21). Their city, since the rule of the 
 Pisistratidae in the sixth century, had been the chief centre 
 of literary efEort, the source of all intellectual inspiration, 
 in Greece. "When, therefore, the new rhetoric was intro- 
 duced among them, they took it up with enthusiasm, and 
 its professors, the sophists, became from that time on the 
 chief educators in Athens, and, in fact, everywhere through- 
 out Hellas. Men like Gorgias of Leontini, Protagoras of 
 Abdera, Hippias of Elis, and Prodicus of Oeos, were fol- 
 lowed, in all the cities which they visited, ex- 
 cept Sparta, by bands of young admirers, who 
 paid them high fees for their instruction in the art (r£x>"y) 
 of public speaking. A typical example is Proxenus, Xeno- 
 phdn's friend, who attached himself to Gorgias because he 
 aspired to a distinguished career (to, ix,e.yaXa irpaTTuv), and 
 left his teacher only when he felt that he had learned how 
 to govern and to carry himself as an equal of the great. 
 The effects of this new and " higher " education were mani- 
 fold and far-reaching. On its worst side, it tended to make 
 Faults of the jo^iig ^i^n less attentive to substance than to 
 sophistic form ; it emphasized victory, the winning of 
 training. one's casc. Over the love of truth and fair play. 
 The teachers themselves held opposing doctrines, which 
 they often urged with acrimony against their rivals. So 
 that, seeming to be contentious themselves, they fostered 
 consciously or unconsciously that spirit of litigation for 
 which Athens was blamed by her neighbours. Some young 
 men, doubtless, developed a fondness for mere disputation 
 without results, a sham brilliancy and show of knowledge, 
 a " smartness " not based on real wit — in short, the quali- 
 ties of mind and the methods of reasoning which are to- 
 day called " sophistical." Men like Gorgias certainly had 
 no conscious intention of injuring the young whom they 
 
THE OCCUPATIONS OP YOUNG MEN lOT 
 
 influenced. This is seen in the case of Proxenus again, 
 who was a soldier of sweet and noble bearing, even if he 
 lacked force in administering discipline ; very different 
 from Menon, the uncouth Thessalian in the Anabasis, who 
 thought that a man who was not a rascal must belong to 
 the uneducated class. 
 — - The training derived from the sophists was in no case so 
 harmful as the lack of it would have been. Without this 
 Merits of the ''^^^ interest inspired by them, most young men 
 sophistic would have had more time to spend in gambling 
 traininir. g^^ ^jjg ^^^ drinking shops (KaTrrjXaa) of the city 
 
 and the Piraeus, or in betting on cock and quail fights. On 
 its best side, the sophistic training offered an education 
 beyond the mere school rudiments. It opened the way to 
 the study of law, of practical politics, of ethical questions, of 
 the natural sciences, and of the Greek language itself. For 
 with his new training, for the first time, the speaker came 
 to recognize consciously the wonderful richness and flex- 
 ibility of his mother tongue, and its surpassing power in 
 description, narrative, argument, invective, and appeal. 
 The sophists at least created an atmosphere. in which alone 
 could be kindled an interest in the deeper moral questions 
 propounded by Socrates and Plato. JSTeither of these would 
 have got an audience had it not been for the preliminary 
 schooling which young men acquired through the new 
 rhetoric. It made possible the work not only of great 
 orators like Lysias, Demosthenes, Aeschines, and the Eo- 
 mans Hortensius and Cicero, but also of historians like 
 Thucydides and Xenophon, and philosophers like Plato, 
 Aristotle, and Epicurus. 
 
 Recitations '^^^ rhapsodes, also, reciters of epic poetry, 
 
 of epic contributed not a little to the intellectual en- 
 
 poetry, tertainment and instruction of the people. 
 
 Crowned with a wreath and carrying a staff as the badge of 
 their ofEice, they were received with honour in all the large 
 cities, especially on the occasion of some religious festi- 
 
108 THE LIFE OP THE ANCIENT GREEKS 
 
 yal. In Athens, at the Greater Panathenaea held every four 
 years, their recitations of Homer formed a conspicuous and 
 time-honoured part of the festival. This part 
 "^^^ of it was held in the Odeium, the "Academy of 
 
 r apso es. Music " built by Pericles. Here, standing before 
 eager listeners, they stirred by their sympathetic and often 
 dramatic declamation the feelings of thousands of people, 
 moving them to delight, to tears, or to anger, according to 
 the mood of the story. In Sparta, too, there were contests 
 between these declaimers. Other poets besides Homer were 
 represented, but the chief class remained the Homeridae 
 {'OfiTjpLSai), who, claiming to be descendants of the great 
 poet, faithfully kept up the tradition of his poems and 
 spread a knowledge of them throughout Greece long before 
 they were committed to writing, and even afterward. 
 
 Besides all these sources of intelligence and knowledge 
 of the world of men and things, the Athenians, and many 
 Books and other Greeks as well, gleaned much from books, 
 general Eeading was far more general in the Periclean 
 
 reading. ^ge than is commonly supposed. A popular 
 
 play of Euripides was immediately published and widely 
 circulated. The same was true of the works of the comic 
 poets. Men as different in character as Euripides the 
 dramatist and Eucleides the archon owned libraries ; and of 
 course the schoolmasters {ypafji,i/.aTia-Tai), poor as they were, 
 owned the works of the poets whom they taught. We hear 
 of reading by lamplight, and this in spite of the physical 
 difficulties in the way. For books were reproduced by 
 handwriting on papyrus (see page 85), an exceedingly light 
 and perishable material derived from the Mblos. This is a 
 large reed or sedge that grew profusely in shallow waters 
 in Egypt. There it was used by the poorest classes in a 
 variety of ways : for mats, baskets, fuel, the 
 joints of boats, and even for food. Although 
 it had to be transported from Egypt to Attica, the mate- 
 rial itself could not have been very costly ; and some of 
 
THE OCCUPATIONS OP YOUNG MEN 109 
 
 the poorer grades of the manufactured " paper " (p^aprijs, 
 xapriov) need not have been expensiye. It -vras prepared by 
 carefully unrolling the inner portion of the stem with a 
 sharp knife. This brought to hand a thin and delicate 
 
 
 '!*' 
 
 4J 
 
 Fig. 89. — An official letter on a papyrus of the third century b. c. 
 
 strip or narrow sheet, which had to be reenforced by plac- 
 ing on it, transversely, another similar strip. The two 
 were then pressed tightly together. If the juice of the 
 plant was insufficient to make them join, a little paste was 
 added. The surface was then made smooth and even, and 
 bleached in the sun. Sheets of this kind were then pasted 
 together at their edges to make long rolls. The whole of 
 the Odyssey could be contained in a roll of ordinary width 
 150 feet long. The Greeks of the fifth and fourth centuries 
 endured the inconvenience of very long rolls. Each roll 
 was called a billion {/3i/3\iov). The whole of Thucydides, 
 the whole of the Anabasis, or of the Hellenica, circulated 
 
 in their authors' lifetime each in a single roll. 
 Division into uQ(jiyi(jed into " books." The inconvenience of 
 
 this was appreciated in the third century by 
 the great librarian Callimachus of Alexandreia, who used to 
 say that a long roll (/tieya fti/3\Cov) was a big nuisance (fniya 
 
110 
 
 THE LIFE OF THE ANCIENT GREEKS 
 
 KaKov). Following his example, the scholars of a later day 
 began to divide the works of classical authors into the 
 " books " with which we are now familiar. These signify 
 the portion of the work contained in a single roll. The 
 Anabasis was at first divided among six rolls, and still later 
 among seven, the number which survives to-day. 
 
 All this convenience of division was unknown in the 
 classical period. Homer, not being as yet divided into 
 
 Fia. 90.— Kuins of the great library at Pergamus. 
 
 " books," was cited by recalling a scene from the poems : 
 thus, " From the Exploits of Diomedes " {Ik rrji Ato/tj^'Seos 
 apuTT-qiyj's) is Herodotus's way of citing Iliad, 6, 289 ff. ; or 
 again, " The Transmission of the Sceptre " {m t^s tov <TK-f]Tz- 
 rpov wapaSoa-ewi), is Thucydides's citation of Iliad, 2, 108. 
 Other impediments to reading arose from the 
 fact that words were not separated, but run to- 
 gether. There was no punctuation or accen- 
 tuation ; in prose, no paragraphing, or numbering of lines. 
 -A. tag, containing a superscription (iiriypafjifiia) which gave 
 
 Difficulties of 
 reading. 
 
THE OCCUPATIONS OF YOUNG MEN 111 
 
 the author's name and a rough title to the work, aided the 
 reader in selecting the roll he wanted. He sat as he read, 
 rolling up one end as he unrolled the other (Fig. 69). Books 
 were kept in cylindrical cases (reuxiy) which were open at the 
 top, and they not infrequently, therefore, suffered from mice. 
 There was an active trade in books (/Si/SAot yeypa/t/ieVai) 
 in the fifth century, of which Athens was the chief centre ; 
 it was long before she yielded her supremacy to Alexandreia 
 and afterward Eome in this matter. A section of her mar- 
 ket, called the Mhlia (cf. page 338), was devoted to the sale 
 of books, which were reproduced and circulated by men 
 called Mbliographoi or bibliopolai {l3t^Xioypd4>ot, ^ipXtoTrSiXai). 
 No better evidence of the extent of this trade is given than 
 by Xenophon, who, speaking of the large number of ship- 
 wrecks in the Pontus on the Thracian coast, mentions 
 books along with beds and chests and other common ob- 
 jects as cast up by the sea. The rolls which contained a 
 single author's works were tied together in separate bundles 
 (Sccr^uai) and shipped in wooden cases. If books were so 
 widely distributed, they must have been widely read. 
 
 While the material derived from papyrus was sometimes 
 used even for letters, accounts, and other business, both 
 
 public and private, tablets (SeATot) were per- 
 t M t ^ haps more common for such purposes. These 
 
 were made of some hard wood, such as box; 
 they were covered with a thin layer of wax, sometimes 
 gypsum, and the writing was done by a graver or stilus 
 (ypac^ts; see Fig. 67). Several of these tablets could be 
 joined together like the leaves in a book, and, in fact, it is 
 from them that the modern book form is derived. To pre- 
 vent the wax or gypsum of one from rubbing against an- 
 other, each tablet had raised edges. Temporary notices, 
 such as those summoning the citizens to military service, 
 were posted, in a similar manner, on boards (TrtVaKEs, mvaKia) 
 covered with gypsum. Warrants and summonses issued by 
 the courts were set down on wax tablets, Prom such mate- 
 
112 
 
 THE LIFE OP THE AlfCIENT GREEKS 
 
 rials the writing could be easily erased, and they never were 
 used for permanent documents. These were entrusted to 
 the stone-cutter and the engraver, who inscribed them on 
 marble or bronze. 
 
 Finally, the theatre exercised an absorbing influence in 
 forming^|;he lives and characters of Athenians. Its educa- 
 ^ tive power was greater than can be measured 
 to-day, for it sprang from the popular religion. 
 Both religioa and the state, therefore — the two were vir- 
 tually one in antiquity — united in its support, and every 
 performance in the theatre recalled to the citizen his 
 dependence upon both, his obligation to both. Attendance 
 
 The theatre. 
 
 Fig. 91.— The theatre at Athens, in its present condition. 
 
 at the dramatic contests was the duty and the privilege of 
 all citizens, even the poorest; for these a fund (deotpiKov) 
 was provided by the state in the last years of the fifth cen- 
 tury, which insured them not only a free ticket, but also 
 spending money for the holiday. 
 
THE OCCUPATIONS OF YOUNG MEN 113 
 
 The performance of a play was not an every-day occur- 
 rence. In Athens it was confined to two festivals held 
 every year in honour of Dionysus. Just as the 
 
 The festiva s national contests in athletic sports crowned 
 of Dionysus. 
 
 and embodied the gymnastic training of Greek 
 
 youth, so also the Dionysiac festivals, with their per- 
 formances in the theatre, strengthened and glorified their 
 education on the mental side. These festivals were the 
 Lenaea and the Greater Dionysia (see page 374). The 
 Lenaea was the older of the two festivals, and closer to the 
 hearts of the common people. It was held in mid- winter, 
 and comedy was the chief feature. The Great Dionysia, 
 held in the spring, was the occasion of display and magnifi- 
 cence before Athens' guests, for the city began, at this time 
 of the year, to fill with strangers — merchants, or travellers, 
 or politicians. Tragedy, on account of its dignity, held the 
 principal place in this festival. 
 
 The sacred precinct of Dionysus, at the foot of the 
 Acropolis on the southeast, was the spot where most of 
 the great dramatists exhibited their works for the first 
 time (Figs. 40, 91). They were often repeated in other 
 towns of Greece where theatres had been, erected. _v^ 
 
 In the precinct was the circular dancing ground, or 
 orchestra {opxw'^pa), all that was really essential to the pro- 
 duction of a piece. It was marked ofE by a 
 The dancing periphery of stone, and in its centre stood. the 
 altar to the god. The ground was not paved j 
 but beaten hard by the tramp of many feet in the dance. 
 For the chorus, which had been developed by slow stages, 
 lasting many years, out of the rude bands of masqueraders 
 who celebrated the god with mirth and jesting 
 at the time of the vintage and harvest, was still 
 felt to be the most important part of the Dionysiac festivi- 
 ties, and retained its prominence until the fourth century. 
 The orchestra was large ; at Athens it was over ninety 
 feet in diameter. Such a space could easily afford ample 
 
114 THE LIFE OF THE ANCIENT GREEKS 
 
 freedom of movement to the fifty men or boys who sang 
 hymns to the gods, particularly Dionysus, in the "dithyram- 
 Numberof l^ic " Contests (page 275). Fifteen men com- 
 ohorus and posed the chorus of tragedy, and twenty-four 
 of actors. ^f comedy, and again, though they danced as 
 well as sang, there was ropm for the free play of both actor 
 and chorus therein. In tragedy and in comedy the number 
 of actors was usually limited to three. They were there- 
 fore obliged to assume different roles, the same actor ap- 
 pearing at one time as a messenger, at another as a maiden, 
 or again as a king. The audience (ol 6euJ/A£vot) in the fifth 
 century sat on wooden benches rising on tiers on the ad- 
 jacent hillside. About the middle of the fourth century 
 Aooommoda- ^^^ orator Lycurgus caused the erection of a 
 tions for the permanent stone auditorium, the remains of 
 audience. which are still to be seen. The word " theatre " 
 {Oearpov) was originally used only of this part of the build- 
 ing — the part occupied by the spectators. The actors, in 
 the early days of the drama, changed their costumes in a 
 tent or booth, in Greek, sJcene. This word has survived and 
 expanded in a wealth of varied associations, in all European 
 languages. At first, however, there was absolutely no 
 Absence of scenery. The progress of the story, the careful 
 elaborate and often brilliant descriptions of the poet, 
 scenery. made it clear to the spectators whence the 
 
 hero had come and whither he was going. Gradually, as 
 poets came to attach less importance to the chorus, and as 
 the actors achieved greater prominence in the piece and 
 came to demand more " setting " and background, the idea 
 was conceived of utilizing one wall of the sJt>ene as a " scene." 
 It was painted as occasion demanded, to represent the 
 fa9ade of a temple or of a palace, the wall of a citizen's 
 house, or the rocks and sands of a desert. With such limi- 
 tations as to scenery, every Athenian, no matter how dizll, 
 was obliged to rely on his own imagination to picture for 
 him the setting, in a degree unknown in modern times; 
 
THE OCCUPATIONS OF YOUNG MEN 
 
 115 
 
 for to-day " spectacular effects " are lavishly provided to 
 make up for the demerits of a play or the spectator's lack 
 of imaginative power. If, to the modern taste, the scenery 
 of a Greek play was deficient, this was counter- 
 balanced by the elaborate costumes, and by the 
 skilful techniquex>f actors and chorus. Extraor- 
 dinary care was devoted to the training of the voice. The 
 actor must be able to sing as well as to declaim ; and the 
 chorus, also, must be trained to sing as one man, and, in 
 
 Training of 
 actors. 
 
 Fig. 93. — Masks used in tragedy. 
 
 addition, learned the dance figures necessary for the proper 
 representation of feelings in pantomime. In tragedy the 
 costumes were ordinarily rich and dignified, as befitted the 
 gods and the heroes of mythical times who were brought 
 
 Fia. 93.— Masks used in comedy. 
 
 on the scene. In comedy there was every variety of gro- 
 tesque aud comic device, especially when the chorus mas- 
 queraded as birds, or wasps, or clouds, or irate old men, as 
 frequently happened. Masks were always used, 
 in tragedy and in comedy, by both actors and 
 chorus. Hearing was more important than seeing in the 
 vast space occupied by the theatre ; it has been estimated 
 that 17,000 people could find places here. While, therefore, 
 
 Masks. 
 
116 THE LIFE OF THE ANCIENT GREEKS 
 
 the modern theatre-goer would have missed the facial ex- 
 pression, the play of features, by which an accomplished 
 actor can convey so much, he would still have felt a com- 
 pensation in the ease with which the well-trained voice 
 carried through the clear Attic air. 
 
 The literary quality of the pieces, produced as they 
 were for the god, and, as it was believed, with his sanction, 
 
 was so high that it has never been surpassed. 
 oontes^t*s° '^^^ ^^^ *^® poets, of course, were equally good, 
 
 and some were positively bad ; yet a high stand- 
 ard was maintained, partly by the fact that dramatic per- 
 formances, like all other public exhibitions in Greece, took 
 on the form and spirit of contests between choruses or 
 between poets. They were a^owes— competitions for a prize 
 — exactly comparable to the severest events in the athletic 
 meetings. These contests lasted throughout three days of 
 the festival, beginning early in the morning and ending at 
 sunset. In their turn also they contributed to inspire that 
 love of agonistic display, whether in athletics, or in public 
 debate, or in court-room speeches, or in rhapsodic recitations, 
 which distinguishes the Athenian of the fifth and fourth 
 centuries above all other men before or since his time. They 
 
 formed and educated in him a power of acute 
 m'^roltaste'" observation, of sane literary Judgment, founded 
 
 on a knowledge of the principles underlying all 
 true poetry which he had learned in school. Coming at such 
 long intervals, in an age when the memory was not spoiled 
 and the attention distracted by the hasty reading of news- 
 papers and magazines, a dramatic performance left an ex- 
 traordinarily deep and lasting impression. In the fifth 
 
 century plays of Aeschylus and Sophocles seem 
 reTjroduoed ^'^ have been reproduced; and as the century 
 
 drew to a close the habit of reading them and 
 producing them for a reading, as well as a listening, pub- 
 lic, became more and more common. Relying on these 
 factors, but especially on the good memories of their au- 
 
THE OCCUPATIONS OF YOUNG MEN IIT 
 
 dience, the comic poets were able to ridicule what they 
 
 thought were defects in tragedy by quoting with mock 
 
 seriousness verses from the tragedians or ap- 
 
 buriesques. plj^g them in inappropriate situations to 
 
 give the effect of burlesque. 
 
 Another factor in maintaining a relatively high stand- 
 ard of literary merit was the archon, or chief magistrate 
 Administra- o^ ^^® state, to whom the poet who proposed 
 tion of the to Compete must first submit his play. The 
 festivals. « King " (6 ySao-tXevs) had charge of the Lenaea ; 
 
 the Chief Archon (o apx^iv par excellence) managed the 
 Greater Dionysia. "We do not know what means these offi- 
 cials employed in approving or rejecting a poet's application. 
 Being, however, responsible magistrates, with the care of 
 august religious ceremonies laid on them, it seems clear 
 that they did not often "grant a chorus," as the phrase 
 was, to an utterly trivial and unworthy production. 
 
 It is to be remembered, however, that taste in regard to 
 literature, manners, and morals is constantly changing. 
 What we should reject to-day as weak or vain or false in a 
 poet's sentiments might often commend itself to an ancient 
 judge because of its simplicity, or patriotism, or rhetorical 
 skill. Hence many poets who are now almost forgotten 
 and whose works are entirely lost were successful competitors 
 against the four dramatists, Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides, 
 and Aristophanes, whom we to-day regard as having attained 
 perfection in their several ways, and who in their own day 
 were the most talked of men of their profession. Yet Eurip- 
 ides, in his long and distinguished career of fifty years, is 
 said to have won only five first prizes. 
 
 Thus we have reviewed the circumstances and influ- 
 ences which affected the lives of men in their young man- 
 hood with a more or less educative force. What has been 
 said about the literary and dramatic contests, however, and 
 about books and reading, would apply as well to the older 
 men, and also to women ; for though women might not at- 
 
118 THE LIFE OP THE ANCIENT aREEKS 
 
 tend the Olympic games, the festivals of their own country 
 were in the main open to them, and they were permitted to 
 attend the performances of tragedy, if not of comedy. These 
 educating influences, of course, were strongest in the latter 
 half of the fifth century, when Pericles was in power. Art, 
 letters, and politics, claimed the interest of the ordinary 
 citizen far more than they do to-day, because it was the 
 policy of Pericles to render the democracy of Athens a 
 leisure class, supported by their slaves and the revenues of 
 the empire. 
 
CHAPTER IX 
 
 MAREIAGB AND HOME 
 
 A YOUNG man in Attica did not, as a rule, marry imme- 
 diately on coming of age. Frequently he waited until he 
 was thirty or over. Association with other men 
 aee™*"''''^^ of his age, his comrades (^Xt/ctSTat) in gymnas- 
 tic and other sports, and military service as 
 well, kept him from making a union which to many Greeks 
 was distasteful ; for girls of even good family were known 
 to be often ill educated, without any positive attraction 
 other than modesty and good character. They were strictly 
 guarded hy their parents within doors, so th^t their knowl- 
 edge of the world was extremely limited and their range of 
 interests narrow. Except at the greater state festivals, when 
 girls sometimes were allowed certain duties, or through a 
 chance glimpse at a window in the upper story, the young 
 Restrictions ™^^ might never see his future wife until the 
 laid on wedding-day. Love-matches, therefore, were 
 
 women. very rare, and marriage (ydfjLO's) in general was 
 
 the result of a prearranged contract between the parents 
 of the bride and the groom, whose wishes were seldom con- 
 sulted as a matter of right. 
 
 In restricting women as they did, the Athenians, like 
 all the lonians, differed widely from other Greeks. People 
 Women in ™ other states, such as Lesbos or Sparta, still 
 other parts retained to a great degree the customs of the 
 of Greece. Homeric age, which were simpler and franker 
 in this regard. In Homer women and girls move more 
 freely in men's society; they enjoy greater reverence, as 
 
 119 
 
120 THE LIFE OP THE ANCIENT GREEKS 
 
 wives and mothers, than we see paid to them by the later 
 Athenians, and they exercise greater influence over the 
 conduct of husbands and sons. In the Homeric age a wife 
 could be obtained only by bringing, in rivalry with other 
 lovers, rich presents to her father {Tropmv aTrepeia-ia tSva), 
 
 Pig. 94.— Women at home. 
 
 and the suitor must prove himself to be a young man of 
 physical and mental distinction ; whereas in Athens, at the 
 later time, the wife's parents offered a dowry as an induce- 
 ment to marriage. The young man's father bore the chief 
 part in the selection of a wife, and chose for his son some 
 daughter of a friend whom he deemed his equal in rank 
 and property. It was the father who arranged with the 
 bride's father or guardian (Ku'pios) all the preliminaries, such 
 as the kind and the amount of the dowry (wpoi'f, 
 ^epvri), the value and extent of the trousseau 
 and other personal belongings she was to bring with her, 
 and other matters, all of a strictly business nature. The 
 arrangement was looked upon as a contract, with sureties 
 
 ^, , given, and as such the betrothal was called 
 Betrothal. , , , , ,,,, ,. jf ■ ■ -l „ 
 
 €yyvr] or eyyvTja-K — " the act 01 giving security 
 
 — for which the presence of witnesses, but not of the be- 
 trothed, was necessary. The bride's guardian had com- 
 plete control over her fate ; he was said " to give her 
 away," and thus the expression " given away " (eK8t8o/;i£Vi?) is 
 
MARRIAGE AND HOME 121 
 
 used of a married woman in the Anabasis. Legally, the 
 bride was a mere chattel, passively submitting to the dis- 
 position of her friends. Of her the verb ya/iS, " marry," is 
 always used in the passive. 
 
 This system, prosaic and unromantic as it seems, in 
 which pecuniary and social advantage was considered above 
 Lack of ro- *^® personal inclination of the parties most 
 mantio eie- concerned, was designed to be an aid to the 
 ment in Greek growth and power of the state. Marriage was 
 marriage. entered into in order that a new family circle 
 might be formed to perpetuate the worship of the gods of 
 home and state, and that the ties between citizens and com- 
 monwealth might be strengthened through well-trained and 
 loyal children. The system produced many happy unions, 
 and not infrequently furnished inspiring examples of devo- 
 tion between husband and wife or parents and children. 
 The marriage of Cimon's sister Elpinice to Oallias is per- 
 haps the most conspicuous love-match of the fifth century, 
 and its effects were far-reaching. To prove his love, Oal- 
 lias is said to have paid the fine of fifty talents which Cimon 
 owed the state, and thus restored him to a long career of 
 eminent public service ; and years later, through Elpinice's 
 good offices, Cimon and Pericles were able to come to an 
 understanding on important matters of state policy. 
 
 Weddings ordinarily were celebrated in the winter ; one 
 of the winter months, Gamelion {Vafj.rjkiu>v, page 341), was 
 sacred to Hera as goddess of marriage ("Hpa 
 montT**'"^' r«/^^'^'°s)- The time of the full moon was pre- 
 ferred, the days of the waning moon avoided, 
 though in general the Greeks were not so fastidious about 
 lucky and unlucky days as were the Eomans. The several 
 acts of the ceremony, however, were performed with a scru- 
 pulous care which attested the importance attached to mar- 
 riage, and the desire that it should be brought to pass in a 
 way to propitiate the favour of the gods. As her wedding- 
 day approached, the bride {vvfi,<j)ri) was called upon to perform 
 
122 
 
 THE LIFE OF THE ANCIENT GREEKS 
 
 little offices of devotion to the protecting diyinities of her 
 community. Some were pathetically significant of the new 
 life she was to lead. Young as she might be — for girls were 
 sometimes married at fifteen, or younger — she must hence- 
 
 FiG. 95. — Women at liome. 
 
 forth consider herself a woman. She was to pass entirely 
 from the care of kindred — father, brother, grandfather, or 
 uncle — to the guardianship of an unknown husband (dv^p). 
 As a token of farewell to the old life, she would 
 the*"o°ds°° ^^ dedicate her girdle, or the toys she had played 
 with as a child, or a lock of her hair, to some 
 divinity, either to a local nymph, or to Artemis. To Artemis 
 all girls in Attica were consecrated when they were ten years 
 old (page 276). 
 
 On the wedding-day the bride and the bridegroom bathed 
 in water brought from some spring of special sanctity by 
 boys or girls belonging to their families. This 
 bath, which had almost the importance of a 
 sacrament in the eyes of a Greek, was called 
 the loutra {Xovrpd) ; the water-carriers specially chosen were 
 the loutroplwroi {\ovTpo<j>6poL). The bride was dressed in 
 some light colour and crowned with a wreath by her brides- 
 maid (vu/A<^eiJTpta). The groom, also dressed in 
 holiday attire, and with a wreath on his head, 
 went with his parents to the bride's house, where the in- 
 vited guests were assembled, and the chief act of the cere- 
 mony began. As the guests entered, each received a cake 
 called sesame {a-rja-afirj), made of sesame seeds pounded and 
 roasted and mixed with honey, the prototype of the modern 
 
 The sacred 
 bath. 
 
 The dress. 
 
MARRIAGE AND HOME 123 
 
 fruit-cake used at weddings. No wedding was complete 
 
 without it. The bride's father then offered sacrifice, called 
 
 in this case to, Trpoydiiia or to, TTDOTcXtta, to the 
 The sacrifioe » / * * 
 
 gods of marriage (Oeol -ya/ATjAiot). Care was 
 
 taken to remove the gall of the yictim, as a sign that no 
 bitterness was to enter into the lives of the married pair. 
 After the sacrifice came the banquet, at which, in addition 
 to the animal just roasted on the altar, the 
 guests partook of a large flat cake, also made 
 of sesame. The women were allowed to be present, con- 
 trary to the usual custom at banquets, though they sat at 
 separate tables, the bride among them, with her veil closely 
 wrapped round her face. The meal ended with a libation 
 and ceremonious wishes for the happiness of the couple. 
 As evening came on, the bride was given over to the groom 
 by her mother, whereupon he led her to the bridal chariot 
 which was to take them to his home. The 
 
 ® . bride sat on a bench (kXlvl's), while the groom 
 
 procession. r i , , 
 
 and his best man (the Trapoxos or irapavvfufxK) 
 
 stood near. The wagon was surrounded by the relatives 
 
 and guests, who formed a procession singing the wedding 
 
 song to Hymenaeus, accompanied by flute or lyre players. 
 
 Behind the chariot followed the mother of the 
 * 1°^^, ^^ bride, holding the nuptial torches. These were 
 
 carried also by other members of the proces- 
 sion. It sometimes happened that the groom lived in a 
 distant city, making a long journey necessary. In this case, 
 of course, the procession would disband at the city gates. 
 A bridal party of this character was met by Xenophon's 
 troops in the road from Babylon when they came upon a 
 certain Orontas who had married the king's daughter. 
 Arrival at Arrived at the door of her new home, the 
 
 the groom's bride found it specially decorated in her hon- 
 house. Qm.^ g^jj^j^ ^}jg couple were showered with con- 
 
 fetti {Karaxva- fiara) by the groom's mother. After eating a 
 quince at the threshold, the bride was led into the bridal 
 
124 THE LIFE OP THE ANCIENT GREEKS 
 
 chamber (ddXafw^), while outside the door the friends sang 
 more wedding-hymns {iTnOaXajjua, epithalamia) and devised 
 jokes, both practical and verbal, at the expense of the door- 
 
 PiQ. 96.— The bridal party arriving at the groom's house. 
 
 keeper. On the next day, or soon after, the couple " re- 
 ceived" their family and friends, before whom the bride 
 stood unveiled for the first time. Presents 
 
 rTRHfiTl tfi 
 
 were brought, which from this circumstance 
 
 were called SSpa ava/caX-uxTijpta, or simply dvaKoAuTrriypia (from 
 
 avaKoXxnTTia, unveil). Another sacrifice and another banquet 
 ended the festivities, and the bride's name was then entered 
 on the roll of the phratry to which her husband belonged. 
 
 Once settled in her new home, she possessed a liberty 
 somewhat greater than that allowed to her as a girl {Kop-q, 
 The wife in TrapOh/o's) ; still her interests and pleasures, if 
 the new she belonged to the upper class, were bound 
 
 home. ijy ^j^g yraX^s of her house, which she might not 
 
 leave without the special permission of her husband. Even 
 then a slave must go with her. Custom excluded her from 
 the banquets and symposia given by her husband in the 
 house. His friends were at most only speaking acquaint- 
 ances of hers, whom she seldom saw except in his presence. 
 Only at the festivals could she appear in public as a matter 
 of right. No wonder that her mental horizon was narrow, 
 
MARRIAGE AND HOME 125 
 
 and her body often injured by her sedentary life, so that 
 she sometimes resorted to the tasteless practice of using cos- 
 metics to correct the paleness caused from such conditions. 
 
 Further, the wife enjoyed no legal status. Her hus- 
 band, as her guardian (icuptos), became her representative 
 Legal dis- before the law, but only in a limited way was 
 qualifications he responsible to the state for her well-being, 
 of women. Divorce for the husband was much easier than 
 for the wife. He might simply " dismiss " her, in the pres- 
 ence of witnesses, provided he returned her dowry to her 
 former guardian, who might also require him to furnish 
 alimony or maintenance (o-itos), so long as she remained 
 unmarried. In case of divorce the children remained with 
 their father. The wife, oh the other hand, found divorce 
 from a cruel or unfaithful husband very difiScult. She 
 must submit in person a written complaint before the 
 archon, and from this the mere physical power of her hus- 
 band might prevent her. 
 
 Still, in families where the sturdy morality of the old 
 Attic period had not been affected by the degeneracy that 
 The wife as ®®* ^^ during the Peloponnesian War, we are 
 manager of not to assume that the life of a young wife 
 the house- -^^as always unhappy. In spite of the restric- 
 ° ■ tions placed on her coming and going, she, 
 
 with the help of her slaves, soon became adjusted to her 
 new surroundings and absorbed in the duties of the home. 
 These comprised, above all, the care of her husband, sick or 
 well, and the nursing of sick slaves (OepaTraa) ; the dispens- 
 ing of household stores (Ta/juaa), in which she was assisted 
 by an elderly slave-woman chosen to be stewardess (ra/tta) ; 
 general oversight over the household property ; and the 
 making of clothes in all its processes — spinning, weaving, 
 sewing, and embroidering. An embroidery frame is pic- 
 tured in Figs. 97 and 99 ; and a girl, with her spinning and 
 basket for holding the yarn, is shown in Fig. 98 ; cf . Fig. 97. 
 A capable wife was always entrusted with her husband's 
 
126 
 
 THE LIFE OP THE ANCIENT GREEKS 
 
 money, though generally he controlled the family purse. 
 Finally, the nurture of her children in their infancy and 
 early youth gave her a moral, if not a social, pre-eminence 
 
 Fig, 97. — The occupations of women. 
 
 in the home, and attached to her their love and respect 
 and the sympathy of her husband. The slaves, too, were 
 apt to become as much devoted to their mistress (8eo-7roiva) 
 as to their master (SeanroTrj's), and through her tact the do- 
 mestic circle (oi oiKeloi) felt a sense of 
 unity which the more restless father, 
 with his many duties abroad, could not 
 give. It must have been in rare cases 
 only that young men ran away from 
 their fathers and mothers, like some of 
 the soldiers who joined Cyrus's army. 
 On the contrary, the Greeks generally 
 had a strong feeling for home and kin- 
 dred, and they were acutely sensitive to 
 the disgrace arising from family quarrels. Twice in the 
 Anabasis the term " brothers " (dSeX^ot) is used as a syno- 
 nym for the nearest and dearest tie existing among men, 
 while " father " (iraT'qp) is used of any benefactor or patron. 
 
 Fia. 98.— Girl Bpinning. 
 
OHAPTEE X 
 
 PUENITUBE AND UTENSILS OF THE HOUSE 
 
 The smallness of the rooms in an ordinary city house 
 and the open-air life of the men deterred the inventive 
 Limited faculty of ancient artisans from devising the 
 
 variety of many kinds of household furniture which mod- 
 furniture. gj.^ jj^g ^^^ g^ colder northern air demand for 
 the comfort of indoor life. Elaborate cupboards, sideboards, 
 wardrobes, fireplaces, and settles were not needed, and 
 therefore were unknown. While, however, modern civili- 
 zation has the advantage in the multiplicity of articles of 
 furniture, it has never attained, except here and there in 
 copies of ancient models, to the number, variety, and beauty 
 we see in the articles which belong in the few classes of 
 furnishings that were absolutely necessary. Taking, for 
 example, the class of drinking vessels by itself, we come on 
 
 -., ,..^ J,- scores of names for the articles in that class, 
 
 Multitudi- 
 
 nous patterns ^^1 "^^ which difEersd in slight ways now quite 
 
 of furniture unknown. Long lists of confiscated chattels 
 of a given {hrurXa grj/iioTrpara) found On official records at- 
 test the inventiveness of the potter, the smith, 
 and the cabinet-maker, and their eagerness to gain variety 
 within the narrow circle which simple tastes marked out 
 for them. 
 
 The couch or bed (kXivyi) was perhaps the most impor- 
 tant of all the household furniture, on account of the many 
 ways in which it was used in the classical period. In Ho- 
 mer (where it is called either Xexos or Se/Avta) we find it used 
 only for sleeping. In later times it was employed not only 
 
 137 
 
128 
 
 THE LIFE OF THE ANCIENT GREEKS 
 
 for rest at night, but also at meals, or as a sofa whereon 
 one might recline while reading or writing, or finally as a 
 bier at the burial of the dead. The couch was 
 made of four strips of wood fitting into each 
 other and supported by four posts. The whole frame was 
 strengthened by ropes; it was therefore not unlike an 
 
 Beds. 
 
 Fig. 99. — Bed, chair, footstools. 
 
 old-fashioned "four-poster." Sometimes the head, and 
 even the foot, had an incline upward, and some couches 
 had backs, thus shaping them much like a modern sofa. 
 The more luxurious beds were inlaid with gold or iyory, or 
 covered with ornamentations in silver or gold. In Armenia 
 the soldiers under Xenophon found bedsteads with silver legs 
 at the headquarters of a Persian commander. The plainness 
 of an ordinary couch was commonly hidden by the abundant 
 coverings, often of rich material. Sometimes a piece of 
 tapestry, permanently attached to the frame, surrounded 
 the four sides like an old-fashioned valance. The mattress, 
 used in later times, was made of linen or wool- 
 len cloth stuffed sometimes with the soft pods 
 of certain plants, sometimes with tufts of wool ; 
 feathers were used in later times. Over the mattress were 
 laid rugs or other soft coverings (raTnjTes, a-Tpw^uara). The 
 
 Bed cover 
 ing-s. 
 
FURNITURE AND UTENSILS OF THE HOUSE 129 
 
 sleeper's comfort was increased by cushions and pillows 
 [■7rpo<TKe<f>aXaia) stuffed with feathers or wool. At night he 
 kept on his tunic or chiton (page 154), since a special night- 
 dress came into use only in later times ; and he covered 
 himself with large robes or mantles (xXaivat), or, if the 
 nights were cold, with the skins of sheep or goats 
 ((«o8ia, o-icrvpai), which he wrapped round himself 
 like an army blanket. The 
 poor used a mere pallet of 
 straw; this was all the sol- 
 dier had when sleeping in 
 barracks or in a permanent 
 camp. Travellers and soldiers 
 on the march 
 lay on the 
 bare ground 
 wrapped in 
 their cloaks or 
 stromata (o-Tpw- 
 /iara) ; the lat- 
 ter were car- 
 ried in linen 
 
 bags called stromatodesmoi {(rTpwiJi.aT6Sea-fi.oi). At a banquet 
 improvised while on the march, at which Xenophon's men 
 entertained the Paphlagonian Korylas, the guests had noth- 
 ing better to recline on than these pallets (o-Ki/AiroSes). 
 
 The bareness of the earth floor was relieved in richer 
 houses by rugs (ramSes), usually imported from Asia Minor 
 or from Carthage. Some of these were as ex- 
 pensive as the costliest " Orientals " imported 
 to-day. In the Anabasis a rug worth ten minae (more than 
 1180) was given as a present to the Thracian prince 
 Seuthes. Eush mats (^opp-oi, xj/iaOoi) were used by poorer 
 people, even to sleep on. 
 
 Among chairs the thronos {6p6vos) was chief. It had de- 
 scended from Homeric times, when we see it occupied by 
 
 Fig. 100.— CoucIl with cushions and valance. 
 
 Bug's. 
 
130 THE LIFE OP THE ANCIENT GREEKS 
 
 the king, or the master or mistress of a family, or tendered 
 to guests to whom special honour was shown. In classical 
 times it became more and more the seat of hon- 
 our for judges, presiding officers, umpires at the 
 national games, and other officials ; in the temples it stood 
 ready to be occupied by the god whose presence was be- 
 lieved to be near. It is mentioned in the Anabasis as the 
 symbol of kingly power. The thronos had arms and a back 
 and straight legs, and stood so high that a footstool, some- 
 times permanently attached to it, was necessary. In daily 
 
 life the diphros {pi^po's) was 
 more useful. In shape it re- 
 sembled not the thronos, but 
 the thrmys {Oprjw?) of the Ho- 
 meric poems. This was a stool 
 without either back or arms. 
 It is often figured in vase pic- 
 
 F.a 101.-A diphros of bronze (vo- ^ ^^^^^ ^ CUshion SOme- 
 
 tive offering) found at Athens. ' 
 
 times appears on it. A special 
 kind (called o/cXaStas Sti^pos) was something like our camp- 
 stool, in that it could be folded. The legs of the diphros 
 might be either straight (Fig. 99) or curved (Fig. 101). 
 Even those which did not fold were frequently carried 
 about to the public assemblies and elsewhere. An easy- 
 chair (kXict^uos) with a back is shown in Figs. 95 and 97. 
 
 In the house, tables {Tpd-n-elai), which ordinarily stood 
 much lower than ours, were used only at meals, and never for 
 such purposes as writing, for instance ; hence the 
 word trapeza is frequently the symbol of hospi- 
 tality. In the market-place they were set in the booths of 
 tradesmen, artisans, and especially money-changers or bank- 
 ers. The surface, which was commonly oval or rectangular, 
 rested on three or on four legs (TpiVoScs, TcrpaTroSes). It was 
 with such tripods or three-legged tables set before them that 
 Xenophon and his friends were entertained at dinner by 
 Seuthes. The legs were curved or straight, with every va- 
 
PURXITURB AND UTENSILS OF THE HOUSE 131 
 
 riety of tasteful ornament (Fig. 103 ; cf. Figs. 130 and 131, 
 where their relatively small size is shown). 
 
 S 
 
 A 
 
 (^^^'?: 
 
 Cheats, 
 
 Fig. 108.— Greek tables. 
 
 In lieu of wardrobes the Greeks had chests, which, like 
 all other objects in the house, afforded opportunity for orna- 
 mentation and display. These chests, or trunks 
 (ki^wtoi, K6/8(OTta), were needed for storing cloth- 
 ing, records, money, and 
 other Taluables. They 
 were secured by seals, by 
 locks, or by ropes intri- 
 cately knotted. Their im- 
 portance in the household 
 and the fact that they 
 formed a staple of com- 
 merce are seen from a 
 passage in the Anabasis, 
 where we read of beds and 
 chests being frequently 
 
 cast up from shipwrecks on the Thracian coast. There 
 were other wooden boxes or crates employed in shipping 
 merchandise (^vXiva revxn)- Besides these larger chests, no 
 household was complete without smaller caskets or cases 
 
 Pio. 103.— Chest and footstool. 
 
132 
 
 THE LIFE OF THE ANCIENT GREEKS 
 
 for ornaments and jewels (Mgs. 23, 95, 136). A beautiful 
 
 specimen of cabinet work is shown in Fig. 104, being a chest 
 
 two metres long, and 
 
 the oldest example of 
 
 Greek woodenware in 
 
 existence. 
 
 With this seeming- 
 ly meagre equipment — 
 beds, chairs, tables, and 
 
 chests — 
 
 the house- 
 hold furnishings in wood were complete. There were no 
 large wall-mirrors or cheval-glasses. Hand-mirrors, made 
 of polished bronze, silver, and even gold, and having richly- 
 ornamented backs and handles, were carefully kept in spe- 
 
 Mirrors. 
 
 Fig. 104. — Greek cabinet-work. 
 
 Pia. 105.— Bronze mirror. 
 
 Pig. 106.— Top of a mirror case of bronze. 
 
 cial boxes (Ao^eta, Fig. 106) to prevent scratching and tar- 
 nishing. Glass mirrors were not known to the Greeks of 
 the classical period, and no mirror of any kind is men- 
 tioned in Homer. 
 
FURNITURE AND UTENSILS OP THE HOUSE 133 
 
 Vessels. 
 
 It is in the multitude and variety of vessels (dyyeia) 
 made of clay, metal, stone, and wicker that the inventive 
 and artistic genius of the Greeks, as applied to 
 the small details of daily life, is most strikingly 
 shown. Vessels of bronze, silver, and gold were set up in 
 the houses of the rich as ornaments or bric4-brac, or were 
 dedicated in the temples as ofEerings in fulfilment of vows to 
 the gods. For domestic needs those in clay, being cheaper, 
 answered all purposes where to-day glass, wood, or tin is em- 
 ployed. Xenophon mentions the self-restraint of his sol- 
 diers in not laying hands on the numerous bronze utensils 
 (xoAKco/iara) with which the houses of the Carduchi (the 
 Kurds of Armenia) were furnished. But even clay uten- 
 sils were painted with extraordinary care and beauty of de- 
 sign, as the Greek vases in all large museums show. Such, 
 we may be sure, were not committed to slaves for daily use, 
 who had to eat and drink out of meaner vessels. At Priene, 
 in the recent excavations there, pottery was found marked 
 "for the grooms," or "for the cooks" (iTTTroKo/xot, ixdyeipoi). 
 
 We may distinguish several main classes of such utensils : 
 
 1. Vessels for stor- 
 ing food, such as wine, ^"^S^-?^ 
 Vessels olive-oil, 
 
 used as honey, wa- 
 
 reoeptaoles. ^er, figs, 
 salt meat, grain, etc. 
 These include the huge 
 pithos {mOos), sometimes 
 six feet high and three 
 feet in diameter, so ca- 
 pacious that when Peri- 
 cles compelled the coun- 
 try people to live in 
 
 crowded Athens during the first year of the Peloponnesian 
 War many camped in these pithoi (popularly called <^t8awai) 
 for shelter. Everybody has heard of Diogenes and his " tub." 
 
 Fig. 107. — Casks found at Troy. 
 
134 
 
 THE LIFE OF THE ANCIENT GREEKS 
 
 Fig. 108.— Amphora. 
 
 These casks, when used for oil or wine, were regularly sunk 
 into the ground to most of their depth. Athenian houses 
 were also provided with cisterns, round 
 or square, which were dug in the ground 
 and then plastered. In these also oil 
 and wine could be stored. Xenophon 
 tells us that even in the mountains, 
 among the wild Carduchi, wine was so 
 plentiful that it had to he kept in this 
 way (ev Xa/cKots KoViarots). Special bins 
 {o-tTTvai) for storing grain also belong in 
 this class. 
 
 The ampJiora (afji.<j)opivs, originally 
 a/A<j!)i<^opevs), so called from its two han- 
 dles, was smaller than the pithos. This 
 might have a foot or base, or else it 
 ended in a point at the bottom ; in this case it lay horizon- 
 tally, or was leaned against the wall. The normal amphora 
 had a capacity of about 
 ten gallons (page 344). 
 Among the provident 
 Mossynoeci large num- 
 bers of amphoras were 
 found by Xenophon's 
 troops containing pick- 
 led dolphin. A variety 
 of the amphora, used 
 especially for storing 
 wine, was the stamnos 
 (Kg. 109). 
 
 The general term 
 applied to jars used in 
 storing liquids to be 
 transported was heror 
 mia {KepdfiLa; cf. Kcpaim's, pottery, whence "ceramic"). In 
 the Anabasis the people of Sinope and Heracleia hospitably 
 
 Fig. 109.— stamnos. 
 
PURNITUHE AND OTENSILS OF THE HOUSE 135 
 
 Fia. 110.— Hydria. 
 
 send abundant wine to the Greeks in these keramia. There 
 were other large jars called UJcoi {(STlkoC), in which Cyrus was 
 in the habit of sending pres- 
 ents of wine to his friends. 
 
 The hydria (ySpia), origi- 
 nally a water-jar, was in ex- 
 tensive use for all purposes. 
 It resembled the older Icalpis 
 (koXxis) mentioned in Homer, 
 and had one or more handles. 
 Girls who carried water from 
 some spring to the house bore 
 these hydrias on their heads, 
 supporting them by means of 
 a pad (jvXr)). The process is 
 clearly seen in the vase pic- 
 ture given in Fig. 13 ; see also Fig. 11. Money was often 
 buried in such vessels, which have preserved it faithfully 
 for modern excavators to find. 
 
 The lekythos (X.'^kvOos) was indispensable to 
 the Greek whenever a small pitcher or jug 
 was required, and many beautiful specimens 
 are extant (Figs. Ill and 136). With it full of 
 oil he went to the gymnasium, the palaestra, 
 or the bath. In the house it was as useful 
 as the hydria. We hear sometimes of lelcythoi 
 made of leather. From it the oil was often 
 poured into a little round flask, whence it 
 could be slowly " dropped " into the hand. 
 These flasks varied greatly in shape. One 
 familiar type, called the alabastos {dXafiaa-Toi, 
 the "alabaster" of the New Testament), is 
 shown in Figs. 113 and 160. Another type, 
 the arylallos (apv/iaXXo's), appears in. a late, 
 but beautiful, example in Fig. 169. Compare also Fig. 73, 
 where it hangs on the wall of the palaestra. 
 
 Fig. 111. 
 LekytUoB. 
 
136 
 
 THE LIFE OF THE ANCIENT GREEKS 
 
 3. Vessels in which liquids were mixed or food was 
 boiled. The mixing bowl was the hrdter {Kpar-qp, in Homer 
 Cooking ves- Kpr/r^p), broad and deep. It had, 
 sels and mix- as a rule, two handles, since it 
 ing bowls. -^as heavy, and must frequently 
 be carried from one room to another. Its 
 base was broad and firm, and it was often set 
 in a kind of huge saucer or stand (woKpariJ- 
 piov), which caught whatever overflowed from 
 the krater in the process of filling and mix- 
 ing. Here we may notice the strainer or col- 
 ander {■^O/jios) through which, the wine had to 
 be filtered, since modern methods of clari- 
 fying were unknown to the Greeks. The 
 strainer was a bronze or silver utensil, shaped 
 somewhat like a cup, and perforated in beau- 
 tiful patterns, like that shown in Fig. 113. 
 The krater was filled only for immediate 
 needs, when the wine was drawn into it from a keramion, 
 and from the krater in turn dipped into the cups. The 
 Armenians, however, seem to have stored 
 their beer in it. Xenophon mentions 
 also their outlandish custom of stoop- 
 ing over and 
 drinking di- 
 rectly from it 
 " like an ox." 
 The most important vessel 
 in the kitchen was the chytra 
 (xvTpa), a kettle or pot having 
 a variety of shapes, with either 
 one or two handles, and com- 
 monly set on a tripod (Fig. 129). 
 Another kitchen utensil was the 
 lebes (A.e/3i?s), also kettle-like in shape, made usually of 
 bronze, and either resting on three legs or set on a tripod. 
 
 Fio. 113. 
 Wine strainer. 
 
 Fig. 114.— Krater. 
 
FURNITURE AND UTENSILS OF THE HOUSE 137 
 
 PiQ. 115.— Wine pitcher. 
 
 3. Vessels for drawing liquids. Chief among these is 
 the wine pitcher (otvoxorj), which had a single handle (Fig. 
 
 115). With this pitcher 
 Vessels for , -i . i j i, t t 
 
 drawing. *^® ^^^^ ^'^^^^ ^<^ dipped 
 
 from the krater into the 
 cups. Another pitcher (the Trpoxovs), 
 was that from which water was poured 
 oyer the hands of the guests after the 
 dinner, and just hefore the symposium 
 began. The hyathos (KvaOo?) had a 
 bowl shaped like the modern cup. It 
 was, however, not used for drinking 
 so much as for drawing, since the han- 
 dle rose high above the brim, giving 
 the effect of a ladle. 
 
 4. Vessels for drinking {irorripia., 
 iKirwiMXTo). The pTiiaU [^idX-q), which belongs to this class, 
 
 was a shallow, saucer-like dish without handles 
 Clips ^"^' °^ ')a&s&. Silver cups of this kind were highly 
 esteemed as presents and prizes. This and the 
 cylix {kvXl^, Fig. 116) were the cups in commonest use at 
 symposia. The cylix had a rather shallow bowl, like the 
 phiale, but differed from it in having two handles and a base. 
 Another cup-like bowl, seen oftenest in the country, was the 
 
 shyphos {(rKv<t}os), with 
 two small handles close 
 to the rim. Similar to 
 this was the Icotylos or 
 IcotyU (Figs. 117 and 
 318). There were also 
 goblets of various shapes, 
 among which the Tcan- 
 tliaros (KOLvOapo?) and the 
 harchesion {Kapxwi-ov) are perhaps the most commonly men- 
 tioned. The kantharos appears in Fig. 145, where it is car- 
 ried by Dionysus and by the Spirit of Comedy preceding 
 
 Fio. 116.— Cylix with tall base. 
 
138 
 
 THE LIFE OP THE ANCIENT GREEKS 
 
 Fig. 117.— Kotylos. 
 
 him. The drinking-horn (Ke/aas), which had descended from 
 the earliest days of primitive man, survived in shape, at 
 least, Such was the rhyton {pv- 
 Tov), made of earthenware or met- 
 al. Some drinking-horns had a 
 small hole in the bottom, which, 
 when not closed up by the thumb, 
 allowed the wine to pass in a 
 steady streanj into the mouth. 
 Actual horns were still used by 
 the Thracians in Xenophon's 
 time. The Armenians knew the practice of drinking 
 through straws. The kothon {kwOihv) was a bottle or flask 
 
 with narrow mouth, 
 frequently carried 
 by soldiers, sailors, 
 and travellers gener- 
 ally, and answered 
 to the modern can- 
 teen. Another bot- 
 tle-like vessel was the lagynos {Xaywo^), which was often 
 encased in wickerwork, as in Italy to-day. 
 
 5. Vessels for washing and bathing. The chernibeion 
 {x^pvi/ielov) was the basin 
 in commonest 
 use for wash- 
 ing the hands. 
 It was employed not only 
 for the chernips (page 267), 
 the ceremonial handwash- 
 ing preliminary to a sacri- 
 fice or other religious func- 
 tion (xeip and the stem vi/3-, 
 wash), but also in domes- 
 tic life. Then there were 
 
 larger bowls (Ao-ur^pcs, A,ou- Pig. 119.— BatWng bowl (AoDTw). 
 
 Fio. 118.— Drinking-horns. 
 
 Bathing' 
 utensils. 
 
PCJRNITURB AND UTENSILS OF THE HOUSE 139 
 
 Tijpia) for bathing when the whole body was not to be im- 
 mersed ; and regular tubs or troughs {irveXoi) large enough 
 for the whole body. These answered to the royal bath-tubs 
 {a.crdfji.Lv6oi or Spoirat) of earlier times, which are mentioned 
 in Homer. In the public baths, of course, there were much 
 larger troughs or tanks, made of slabs of stone or marble, 
 and capable of holding many persons (page 174). They 
 were deep enough for diving, whence their name Tcolym- 
 Mthrai {KoXv/jL^TjOpat, from koXv/jl^S), dive). 
 
 Fia. 120.— Bronze lamp shaped like a boat. 
 
 6. Vessels used for illumination. In Homer, the only 
 device known to light a room, besides the fire on the 
 hearth, was the torch (Xa/i,m-^p). Those used 
 in lighting one's way from room to room were 
 called daides (SaiSes). They were sometimes placed in earth- 
 enware holders, making thus a stationary lamp. The dis- 
 covery that olive-oil — as yet unknown in Homer — could 
 be used for lighting made 
 a most important advance 
 in the history of illumina^ 
 tion, and led further to 
 the manufacture of bronze 
 and terra-cotta lamps {Xv- 
 Xvoi) in great variety. 
 These were often boat- 
 shaped, with two openings. 
 The one, usually in the 
 
 middle, was used in filling the lamp ; the other, at one end, 
 was for the wick {6pvaX\k), which was made of flax. Some 
 
 Fig. 121.— Lamps of terra-cotta. 
 
140 
 
 THE LIFE OF THE ANCIENT GREEKS 
 
 larger lamps had two and three openings for wicks. Fre- 
 quently they were supported on high stands, so that the 
 light might be thrown farther. Niches for lamps were some- 
 times built in the wall of a house, six or seven feet from 
 the ground (page 34). In later times lamps with numer- 
 ous wicks came into use, but on the whole the lighting of 
 a house in the classical period was imperfect and unsatis- 
 factory, and the smell of the wick, unprotected from sudden 
 drafts of air, must hare been nauseating. This was doubt- 
 less counteracted to some extent by the burning of incense 
 
 Pia. 133.— Brazier. 
 
 Fig. 123.— Brazier of terra-cotta. 
 
 Torches. 
 
 {Ovuia/jia) in braziers or censers (^v/icariypta), the beauty of 
 which, to judge from existing specimens, must have added 
 much to the adornment of the home (Figs. 123 and 133). 
 
 Since street-lighting is a comparatively modern inven- 
 tion, torches were needed by all who went abroad at night. 
 The rigorous discipline of the early Spartans 
 required them to dispense even with a torch. 
 An Athenian, however, on a moonless night sent his slave 
 to buy a small torch, which the slave then carried in front 
 of his master. Torches were made of pine-knots, or dry 
 sticks fastened together and smeared with pitch. In Athens 
 they were somewhat expensive, and seem to have been less 
 commonly used than among the Romans. Aristophanes 
 represents the moon as saying that she saves the Athe- 
 nians no less than a drachma a month (eighteen cents) by 
 
FURNITURE AND UTENSILS OP THE HOUSE 141 
 
 Dishes. 
 
 her light. Torches were, however, necessary at weddings 
 (page 123) and funerals (page 395). 
 
 Torches were inconyenient when carried in the hand, 
 on account of the hot pitch which dropped on the fingers. 
 It was this, one of the comic poets tells us, that led to the 
 invention of lanterns [Xvxvovxol). These were cases made 
 of transparent horn or bladders, into which a house lamp 
 could be put. Sometimes a mere basket or small pot was 
 used instead, like the pitchers of 
 Gideon's men, with " lamps within 
 the pitchers " {Judges vii, 16). 
 
 7. Vessels used as dishes. Dish- 
 es and platters, in which solid foods 
 could be kept and served, were of 
 
 many kinds and shapes, 
 
 according to the nature 
 of the food they were designed to 
 hold. Some names of them are 
 tryhlia (Tpv^X-ia), deep dishes, and 
 diskoi or pinahes {Sta-Koi, ircvaKes), 
 
 flat plates or platters. Here we may notice also toilet' 
 boxes (xu^tSes) for holding ointments, rouge, pins, and the 
 like. Many fine specimens have been 
 preserved (of. Figs. 134 and 135). 
 
 8. Basket -ware. This embraces a 
 large number of utensils in wicker- 
 work, used for holding bread, cake, 
 
 flowers, wool, and women's 
 
 handiwork generally. The 
 kalathos {Ko.kado's), not unlike a modern 
 waste-basket in shape and height, was 
 intended especially for wool (Figs. 97, 98). The Icanoun (ko- 
 vovv) was a shallow sacrificial basket, in which were carried 
 the knife, the barleycorns, and the wreath of flowers for 
 the victim's head. The spyris (a-irvpk, in familiar language 
 (j-irvpiSi.ov) was a round market-basket. 
 
 Jio. 124.— Platter, lekythos, 
 and toilet-box. 
 
 Pig. 125. 
 Toilet-box (wvfts). 
 
14:2 THE LIFE OP THE AKCIENT GREEKS 
 
 Wine was frequently carried in goatskins (do-Ko^ from 
 a'f, goat). Indeed, no picture of an ancient street scene 
 would be complete without the hucksters carrying skins 
 (translated " bottles " in the JVew Testament, 
 bags ^' §•' ^' -^^^■^- i^i 1"^) containing wine, water, 
 
 oil, milk, and olives. The skin of the animal 
 was sewn together tightly and covered with pitch, one 
 foot being left open to serve as an outlet. The shape of 
 the goatskin survived ia many vessels of pottery. 
 
 Grain and other dry edibles were transported in sacks 
 {OvXixKoi). "Washerwomen carried their clothes to the river 
 in bags [fjidpa-nroi.). 
 
CHAPTEE XI 
 
 ABTICLBS OF FOOD 
 
 Ancient and modern life offer a striking contrast in 
 the kind and quality of food known to each. As regards 
 the Greeks, the fare was characterized in general by fru- 
 gality and lack of variety, due, of course, to the limited 
 territory from which food supplies could be drawn. In 
 later times, when the victories of Alexander and the fur- 
 ther conquests of the Eomans had introduced to Greece 
 and Italy the products of strange lands, the nature of the 
 food underwent a corresponding change. 
 
 In Homer, bread and meat are the staples which suifice 
 to satisfy the appetites of the warriors in the Iliad or the 
 Homerio suitors in the Odyssey. The flesh of cattle, 
 
 viands and sheep, goats, and pigs was roasted whole on 
 meals. spits hung over huge fires. Steaks, marrow 
 
 sucked from the bones, and especially fat, were eagerly de- 
 voured. Meat was never boiled, but always roasted or 
 broiled. Fish was substituted for it only when the eater 
 could get nothing else, though the poet mentions the prac- 
 tice of fishing by hooks, harpoons, and nets. Barley-meal 
 and wheat-flour were baked without leaven into large loaves 
 or cakes (aproi). Wine (otvos, /ac'^w) was the only drink, and 
 two kinds of it are mentioned — the Pramnian, used espe- 
 cially in making a compound called Icyheon (kvkcwv), consist- 
 ing of barley-meal, grated cheese, and sometimes honey ; the 
 Ismarian, accounted the best, and brought from the sunny, 
 fertile slopes on the coast of Thrace. It was from this 
 region, probably, that the cultivation of the vine extended 
 
 143 
 
144: THE LIFE OP THE ANCIENT GREEKS 
 
 into Attica and the rest of Greece. Milk (yaXa), derived 
 from sheep and goats, was drunk only by such characters 
 as Polyphemus. 
 
 The meals in the Homeric age were the early morning 
 breakfast, apia-rov ; the dinner, BeiTrvov, when hot meat was 
 eaten ; and the evening meal, or supper, SopTrov. 
 
 In the period following Homer, the wealthy lonians in- 
 dulged in a greater luxury of viands. It was at this time 
 that figs (criJKa), quinces (/u.'^Xa kvBwvio), pome- 
 ncreaae o granates (poai), and the olive (IXaa) came into 
 use. The art of cookery developed in all 
 wealthy communities ; and not only in eastern Hellas, but 
 also in Sicily and Lower Italy. In the last-named region, 
 the people of Sybaris, who have become proverbial for their 
 luxurious taistes, granted a patent for one year to the cook 
 who invented a new dainty. In some places the indulgence 
 of the appetite went so far that crude sumptuary laws were 
 passed to check it. In Locris there was a legal prohibi- 
 tion against the drinking of unmixed wine ; for wine was 
 regularly drunk with double its quantity of water. 
 
 In the classical period we find Athens and Sparta pre- 
 eminent for frugality. Food and drink {a-iTa koI irora) 
 Frugality of 'w^ere limited in variety and 
 Athens and generally poor in quality. 
 Sparta. Sparta's ill-savoured black 
 
 broth (yiieAas ^w^uos) was notorious. While 
 the Thessalians were noted, and even 
 denounced, for their good tables and 
 extravagant appetites ; while the profit- 
 able commerce of Corinth and the fer- 
 tile fields of Sicily brought wealth to 
 their inhabitants, which was spent in 
 gratifying the senses; while all Boeo- p^^. m -Movable over,, 
 tians were accounted stupid gluttons, 
 Athens, on the contrary, maintained the golden mean of 
 simpler tastes in this as in other matters. Even among 
 
AETICLBS OF FOOD 
 
 145 
 
 Heat. 
 
 wealthy families an allowance of three drachmas a day 
 (scarcely fifty cents) was deemed extravagant beyond all 
 conception for the maintenance of three children and two 
 servants. A poor man was satisfied with the simple barley- 
 cake (/*a^a) or porridge (etvos) of flour or meal, a dish which 
 had descended from remote times. A few dried figs or a 
 leaf of lettuce or thyme growing wild on the hills would 
 suffice him for a long time. 
 
 Meat (xpeas) was eaten on special occasions, at a ban- 
 quet or public festival, when it was offered to the gods. 
 Hence, meat is often called Jiiereia {Upeia), with 
 reference to its having first been consecrated 
 (Upd). Sheep, pigs, and goats were perhaps the common- 
 est offerings, and therefore most often eaten at domestic 
 sacrifices. A whole lamb could be bought for eight drach- 
 mas, or less than one dollar and a half ; but that sum was 
 beyond the means of many in 
 those days of cheap labour, low 
 wages, and scarcity of money 
 (cf. page 348). Beef, as a rule, 
 was obtained by the poor only 
 at the greater public sacrifices 
 
 ( IxaTO/A/Sai, IcrTiacrets, page 63). 
 
 The army in the field, of course, 
 ate what rations (a-iTia) it could 
 get ; and not infrequently sol- 
 diers serving in foreign coun- 
 tries the products of which were 
 more abundant than those of 
 
 Greece fared better than they would have done at home. 
 Thus, the people of Heracleia, on the Euxine, provided the 
 retreating Greeks with 3,000 medimnoi (see page 344) of 
 grain, 3,000 casks of wine, 30 oxen, and 100 sheep. To 
 have nothing to eat but meat was regarded as extraordi- 
 nary, if not almost as a hardship. Among the hospitable 
 Armenians the Greeks retreating with _Xenophon were 
 10 
 
 Fia. 137. — Hooks {Kpeaypai) for tak- 
 ing boiled meat out of the pot. 
 
146 
 
 THE LIFE OF THE ANCIENT GREEKS 
 
 feasted with lamb, pork, veal, kid, and poultry, with abun- 
 dance of wheat and barley bread. In the camp oxen were 
 roasted whole. A spit large enough to hold an ox over 
 the fire is mentioned in the Anabasis {fiomopo^ S^tXia-KO's). 
 Meat was also boiled at this later period. At a dinner the 
 meat was brought in already carved in proper portions 
 {Kpia veve/jirjijieva), and the guests ate it with their fingers. 
 
 Hot sausages (aAAavTcs) were highly esteemed, and vend- 
 ers of them (dAAavTOTToiXat) did a profitable business in the 
 streets. But the choicest of all food, in the 
 estimation of an Athenian, was fish, both fresh- 
 water and salt, eaten either fresh or salted 
 down {rapLxv)- III tact, the word opson {oij/ov), which prop- 
 erly signified any relish eaten with bread, and sometimes 
 anything at all that was edible, came to be applied to fish 
 as the food of foods. Xenophon mentions with pride the 
 
 Fish and 
 game. 
 
 A>! i.'m 
 
 Fig. 128.— Preparing a fish. 
 
 fact that in the little stream flowing through his estate in 
 Elis there were fish in plenty. But fish from the sea was 
 in ore fri evidence on the Greek table than fresh-water 
 
ARTICLES OF POOD 
 
 147 
 
 Vegetables. 
 
 fish. We hear especially of herrings, sardines, anchovies, 
 and tunny; fishermen, not sailors, were the "old salts" 
 (dXteis) of the Greeks. Their boats (TrXota dXieuTiKo) were 
 equipped for sailing in deep water. Eels were the favour- 
 ite dainty from the inland lakes, especially Lake Copais in 
 Boeotia. Mussels, turtles, and oysters were also eaten ; hut 
 the oyster of the Mediterranean would have seemed small 
 and poor to an American. Game was plentiful and often 
 eaten ; there were hare (Xayws), wild hoars (crves), venison 
 (Kpia i\a.(j}ua), wild ducks (v^rrat), and geese (x?v£s) ; par- 
 tridges (irepSiKes) ; pigeons (TreptoT-epat) ; also quail, thrushes, 
 and blackbirds. Bears (ap/crot) and chamois (SopxaSes) were 
 hunted and doubtless occasionally eaten. 
 
 Many vegetables which are to-day practically essential to 
 life were unknown or undeveloped. It was a world where 
 there were no potatoes, no 
 green corn, no tomatoes, 
 no squash, no melons, though pump- 
 kins from India were known, if not 
 commonly eaten. A few kinds of green 
 vegetables {Xdxava), such as spinach, 
 lettuce, and cabbage, were sold in the 
 market by women (\axavo7r<oA,t8es) ; also 
 peas and beans (grouped together un- 
 der the term ocnrpta), eaten either raw 
 or cooked with oil and vinegar or with 
 honey ; radishes, onions {Kp6fj.iJ.va), gar- 
 lic {(TKopoSa), leeks, and other roots, in- 
 cluding perhaps turnips (yoyyvXlSes). 
 Pease porridge (en/os, Xc/ct^os) was a reg- 
 ular part of the Greek diet. It could 
 be bought from hucksters in the street. 
 The chief products of At- 
 tica, in addition to those just mentioned, which 
 were grown in small gardens, were figs (o-vko) and olives 
 (IXaat). There were some vineyards also, the grapes froni 
 
 Fig. 139.— Movable oven 
 with pot ixvTpa). 
 
 Fruits. 
 
148 THE LIFE OP THE ANCIENT GREEKS 
 
 which, when not used for making wine, were dried into 
 raisins (do-rai^iiSes). Figs, too, were eaten dried; fresh fruit, 
 in general, was not so highly esteemed as it is to-day, be- 
 cause the more wholesome varieties of apples and pears 
 were as yet undeveloped. How far the art of grafting was 
 practised in the fifth century is unknown ; but Xenophon 
 possessed an orchard of cultivated trees {-qfjiipav 8ey8p(ov) 
 which produced all kinds of edible fruits. Apples, pears, 
 and pomegranates good enough to eat were known in the 
 time of the Odyssey. Plums, peaches, apricots, and cher- 
 ries were not introduced until later, some of them in 
 Roman times. Oranges were entirely unknown. While 
 figs were a staple product of Attica, dates (at /3dXavoL tS>v 
 </>otvtKO)v) were imported from Asia Minor. Xenophon re- 
 cords that the dates eaten by Greeks were small, and in 
 their native country were thought fit only for the slaves. 
 
 Nuts (Kapva), eaten raw, were highly esteemed as dessert 
 (rpayT^ixaTa) just before the symposium, since they provoked 
 
 thirst. They often came from the interior of 
 
 Asia Minor, especially the region just south of 
 the Euxine. The commonest were walnuts and almonds. 
 Chestnuts were little known in the fifth century ; Xenophon 
 thinks it necessary to describe them as having no inside 
 division, like the walnut, and he has no special name for 
 them. They grew in Paphlagonia, where the natives ate 
 them boiled. Almonds (d/uvySaXat) were highly relished. 
 An oil or salve of bitter almonds {xp^fm ap,vySdX.ivov) is men- 
 tioned as a useful substitute for olive-oil. 
 
 Grain ((tItos) was known in a considerable variety of 
 forms. We hear of wheat (Trvpoi), barley (KpiOaC), millet 
 
 (jieXivi), Kiyxpos), and Spelt (^etai). But oats and 
 itrproduets ^^^ ^®^^ lacking ; the former was considered a 
 
 mere weed, since it did not grow well in the 
 warm climate of Greece. The Athenians prided themselves 
 on their bread, and fancy baking, the business of the artokopoi 
 (dpTOKoirot), flourished even in frugal Athens. These men 
 
ARTICLES OF FOOD 
 
 149 
 
 made elaborate cooking at home unnecessary. They baked 
 and sold many kinds of bread and rolls from wheat and bar- 
 ley, sometimes sprinkling them with poppy seeds, as in Ger- 
 many to-day, or with the seeds of flax or sesame, which an- 
 swered to caraway-seed. Sesame came from Asia Minor ; the 
 Ten Thousand found it growing, for example, in Cilicia and 
 Bithynia. In Ath- 
 ens, too, lentils were 
 sometimes mixed 
 with the dough, 
 making a peculiar 
 kind of roll called 
 gouros (yoSpos). 
 Leaven or yeast 
 was sometimes em- 
 ployed ; Xenophon 
 mentions raised 
 
 bread {aproi ^v/jurai) 
 
 as forming part of 
 the feast provided 
 bySeuthes. The 
 bread in the market was regularly inspected by the market 
 commissioners (ayopavo/jLoi), who saw to it that the loaves 
 conformed to a standard of weight fixed by 
 them. A very large loaf, measuring three choe- 
 nixes (page 244) was appropriated by a greedy 
 Arcadian at Seuthes's feast. The only sweets that were 
 known consisted of different kinds of cakes {irifLfiaTa, ir6- 
 •n-ava) made with honey. Candy and puddings in the Eng- 
 lish and American sense were not yet devised. Eggs, how- 
 ever, soon came into use in cooking, and sauces of many 
 kinds, chiefly for meat, fish, and game,- were elaborated. 
 (These were called Karaxva-fjuiTa; also ySva-fmTa, since ijSws 
 may be used of anything that is pleasant to the taste, and 
 ■^Sovq is the regular word for " fiavour.") 
 
 Seasoning was done by salt, mustard, garlic, onions, and 
 
 iCSAAirEITANMATpSa/iBq^i 
 
 Fis. 130.— Dessert. 
 
 Bread and 
 cake. 
 
150 THE LIFE OP THE ANCIENT GREEKS 
 
 a few herbs (dpco/Aara), like pennyroyal, marjoram, and sil- 
 phium. Of these, silphium was the favourite, and the peo- 
 ple of Gyrene, on the north coast of Africa, ac- 
 Silphium. qiiired wealth through its export in enormous 
 quantities. But there was no pepper ; there were no other 
 spices, extracts, sugar, or butter. For sugar, honey was 
 used; bees were kept in hives, but wild honey from the 
 woods and mountains, especially Hymettus, was still gath- 
 ered as it had been in more primitive times. Olive-oil was 
 the regular substitute for butter, which did not find favour 
 among the Greeks until very late times. In the fourth cen- 
 tury B. c. it was known only as a Scythian prod- 
 Cheese. ^^|.^ Cheese (Tvpo?) was a favourite article of 
 food, in large measure taking the place of butter at meals. 
 In cooking, oil was used for fish, flesh, and greens alike. 
 Lard or fat seems not to have been used for 
 this purpose. In the Homeric age pieces of fat 
 (o-Ttap) were eaten like any other part of the animal, and 
 the blubber of dolphins was preserved for kitchen needs 
 in Thrace. In Armenia a salve made from lard served in 
 place of olive-oil. 
 
 Wine (oIi/os) always remained the chief drink, in classi- 
 cal as in Homeric times. These were the days before tea, 
 cofEee, cocoa, cordials, spirituous liquors, and 
 mineral waters were known or heard of. Milk 
 {ydXa) was not often drunk except in the country. It was 
 taken from sheep and goats, seldom, if ever, from cows. 
 But though wine was virtually the only drink, the Greeks 
 on the whole were temperate ; the Thessalians were the 
 most conspicuous offenders in overindulgence. Among all 
 Greeks, however, a mere water-drinker was a rare exception, 
 and Demosthenes was scornfully ridiculed for his total ab- 
 stinence. The water-drinking of Persians and Iberians was 
 a subject of remark. 
 
 Of wine there were many sorts. Those most highly 
 prized came from Chios, Lesbos, Thasos, and Secyon. It 
 
AKTICLES OF FOOD 151 
 
 Was put up for export in large goatskins (do-Kot, page 143) 
 or earthenware jars {Kepafjua, page 134), and sometimes pitch, 
 sea-water, lime, or herbs were put in to pre- 
 serve or heighten its flavour. This use of pitch 
 survives in modern Greece. A wine made of dates is men- 
 tioned in the Anabasis. 
 
 Wine was scarcely ever drunk pure (axparos) ; it was 
 mixed with water, which in most cases predominated. 
 Half and half {urov 'uno) was the maximum of 
 wine ever allowed, and this mixture was not 
 so common as that of three parts of water to two of wine. 
 The practical reason for this lay in the greater sweetness 
 and more fiery character of Greek wine, as compared with 
 most wines drunk to-day. Even milder dilutions, such as 
 three to one or five to two, were common. This accounts 
 for the prominence of the mixing bowl (xpanyp) on all occar 
 sions where drinking was in progress. If chilled wine was 
 desired, it was put into coolers (i/ruKTJjpes) with snow or ice. 
 As we saw on page 136, it was cleared with a strainer 
 before drinking. 
 
 The first meal of the day, taken immediately on rising, 
 at dawn, was as simple as the modern European " rolls and 
 coffee." Breakfast consisted of a barley-cake 
 ^1 ^^^ ii^Sia) or roll dipped in a little pure wine, or 
 ahratos ; hence this meal (the apurrov Trpmvov) 
 was also called the ahratisma (dxpaTHr/Aa). A little before 
 noon, when the morning's work in the agora or the courts 
 was over, the Athenian took his luncheon, or ariston {api- 
 oTov) ; it was usually of a simple character, with perhaps 
 some salt fish, or sausages, or ham. The time of day at 
 which this meal was taken is made clear from many pas- 
 sages in the Anabasis, where the context shows that the 
 troops had been up and busy about their duties some time 
 before they partook of the ariston — for them, at least, a 
 combination of breakfast and luncheon. About sunset 
 came the chief and most elaborate meal, the" dinner, or 
 
152 
 
 THE LIFE OP THE ANCIENT GREEKS 
 
 deipnon (SeiTn/oi/). The man of the house, if he had no 
 guests, ate with his wife, who, with the children, sat beside 
 the couch on which he reclined (Fig. 131). As to the hour 
 of meals, we observe among the Athenians the same tend- 
 
 FiG. 131.— A family meal. 
 
 ency to set the dinner later and later in the day that is 
 noticeable in civilized countries to-day, thus crowding out 
 the old-fashioned " supper." So in Athenian town life the 
 supper (SopTTov) disappeared with the custom of lunching at 
 noon and dining at night ; but the phrase " supper time " 
 or " tea time " (a/A^i Sofyn-rja-Tov) survived to denote the early 
 evening. 
 
CHAPTEE XII 
 
 CLOTHING 
 
 The nature and the fashion of clothes which people 
 wear are mostly determined by the climate in which they 
 live and the degree of civilization which they have reached. 
 Fashion and the love of ornament also play their part, but 
 fashion in ancient times, though its influence was distinctly 
 and consciously felt by the Greeks, never prescribed such 
 varieties of costume and rapid changes of style^ 
 e enian ^^^ ^^^ ^^ -^ ^^^^ to-day. As to climate, the 
 
 Athenians enjoyed nearly one hundred and 
 eighty days of entire sunshine and about one hundred and 
 fifty days more of partly sunny weather. The business of 
 living was comparatively simple, and even the poorest had 
 little difficulty in procuring clothing enough to satisfy an- 
 cient notions of comfort and decency, however these might 
 be lacking according to modern ideas. On the other hand, 
 the climate was bracing enough to require more than the 
 scanty clothing of the tFopics. Journeys into the moun- 
 tains brought the hunter, the shepherd, the wood-cutter, 
 or the military patrol into a sharper air, and in midwinter, 
 when the north wind blew on the city from the snow- 
 covered heights of Mount Parnes, the Athenian felt that 
 Boreas was shooting darts at him (cf. page 2). 
 Greek Throughout Greece the general principles 
 
 fashions of dress were the same ; only the amount of 
 
 uniform. covering varied with the altitude and the lati- 
 
 tude. In this, as in other things, the Athenian was guided 
 by a sure and simple taste which demanded moderation 
 
 153 
 
154 
 
 THE LIFE OF THE ANCIENT GREEKS 
 
 The man's 
 chiton. 
 
 (/terpta eo-^ijs). The Contrast between the Greek clothing 
 and the elegant finery of the Persians strongly impressed 
 Xenophon. To the freebooter from Greece, therefore, gar- 
 ments were often acceptable prizes taken in war, and were 
 sometimes given as presents. The art of this period is 
 matchless in its treatment of the details of dress, and we 
 may be sure that it not only reproduced with some fidelity 
 the dress actually worn, but also exercised considerable in- 
 fiuence on popular taste. 
 
 Dress is denoted by the words eo-^^s, Ifj^dna, and oToXrj. 
 But in the Anabasis a-ToXrj is the vaguer term applied to 
 the garments of the natives, not the Greeks. 
 
 The garment worn almost universally was the tunic or 
 chiton (xtTwv), which belonged to the class of clothing that 
 was " put on," or " got into " (a/Sv/Aara, from 
 evSvw), like the soldier's cuirass, or the modern 
 shirt. For it we also have the word x'Turtb-Kos. 
 To make it, in the case of the man's chiton, was a simple 
 matter. A piece of the material to be used was made on 
 the loom, or afterward cut, in the desired length (a b, Fig. 
 132). It was then folded so that c d met a b, making one 
 side closed (ef), the other open {a c-b d). The top {a c-e) 
 rested on the shoulders of the wearer, who kept imin place 
 
 by fastenings — pin^ clasps, 
 or buttons — or by iheans of 
 permanent sewing. In the 
 latter case, of course, a space 
 {g h) had to be left open for 
 the neck. The arms project- 
 ed just below ac and e ; on 
 the closed side (e) a slit was 
 cut for this purpose. The fact that one side was open 
 {ae-bd) was disguised by the belt (^wr;), which gathered 
 the chiton snugly to the body at the waist. The length 
 could be varied to suit the taste and the need of the wearer 
 by simply pulling up the skirt of the chiton and letting 
 
 / 
 
 bd 
 
 a h 
 
 Fia. 132.— Pattern of the man's chiton. 
 
CLOTHING 
 
 155 
 
 the superfluous portion hang in a fold outside the girdle, 
 giving the efEect of a blouse (Eig. 133). This was always 
 done by travellers or soldiers, and the term " well-girded " 
 {ev^(Dvoi) was used of troops especiaM adapted to active, alert 
 
 / 
 
 Fig. 134. — Woman's chiton, with apoptygma. 
 
 moveru^fits, whether they were light-armed or heavy-armed. 
 The t^m survives to-day in the Greek army. The soldier's 
 dagger was attached to the girdle or to a shoulder-strap. 
 
 In Homeric times the material was linen. When the 
 wearer was not engaged in hunting or fighting, the chiton 
 was long, reaching to the ground. Even late 
 lenstb.^ *" ^^ *^^ ^^^ ^^^ fourth centuries, at the reli- 
 gious feasts, in which ancient customs and 
 modes of dress survive the longest, the chiton was linen, and 
 extended to the feet (xt™v iroS^joijs, Eig. 65). On the other 
 hand, as early as Homer the short chiton was worn by hunt- 
 ers, farmers, and artisans ; also by the warrior. So, in the 
 busy fifth century, when the majority of people found it im- 
 
156 
 
 THE LIFE OF THE ANCIENT GREEKS 
 
 possible to retain the long clothes of the aristocratic lonians, 
 they introduced the shorter Doric chiton as the regular 
 mode. The material, too, was more often wool than linen, 
 because little, if any, flax grew in Greece, whereas sheep 
 were raised on every hillside. Xenophon, however, leads us 
 to believe that even this woollen chiton, being short and 
 open, was a poor protection against the cold of the north. He 
 describes the Thracian chiton as encircling the thighs, by 
 which he must mean a kind of shirt and trousers combined. 
 The poor man's tunic was of rough wool ; the rich had tunics 
 of fine wool raised in Attica, Megara, and especially Mile- 
 tus, the sheep of which were the 
 jn „ " merinos " of antiquity. 
 
 d bd 
 
 f '^ u f- 
 
 Fia. 135.— Pattern of the woman's chiton with fold. 
 
 Sleeves were rarely added to a man's chiton. The over- 
 hang at the shoulders (ac, e), which naturally resulted when 
 the arms hung at the side, formed a kind of sleeve 
 
 SlCGVfiS 
 
 extending about half-way to the elbow. The 
 wearing of chitons with long sleeves (xtrolves xetpiSuTot) which 
 reached to the wrists was confined to Persians, to the rather 
 effeminate Greeks of lower Italy, and to the actor's costume. 
 The chiton was the sole garment required and worn in the 
 house. One who was attired in it, without any other cover- 
 The woman's ing, was said to be "in undress," yvfjivoi. 
 ohiton. The chiton worn by women, though its gen- 
 
 eral nature was the same, differed in some details from 
 the man's chiton. A piece of cloth {abed. Fig. 135) 
 
CLOTHINa 
 
 157 
 
 was folded at hi, so that ka-lc measured the distance 
 from neck to waist, or a little less, and Ic h (also Id) was 
 
 Tig. 136.— Woman arranging her chiton with girdle. 
 
 the length of the whole garment from the shoulder to the 
 feet. The cloth was then folded, as in the man's chiton, 
 at e/, so that M-bd formed one side of the garment, ef the 
 other. The upper part of the body {kl- 
 ac, e-m) was in this manner covered by 
 two layers of the material ; the 
 outer layer, which hung in a flap 
 loosely, was called the apoptygma 
 
 (diroTTTvyiJLa). The two parts, 
 front and back, were fast- 
 ened together on the shoul- 
 ders by pins or clasps. Sometimes the 
 open side (H-bd) was sewed up from the 
 armpit to the lower hem of the chiton. 
 Women wore sleeves more often than 
 men, but chitons with half-sleeves were 
 perhaps the rule. The girdle might con- 
 fine the chiton only, or both chiton and -pje, 137 
 outer garment. In addition, bands {(rrpo- chiton with sleeves. 
 
 The upper 
 fold. 
 
158 THE LIFE OP THE ANCIENT GREEKS 
 
 (jiw.) answering to modern stays were sometimes worn under 
 
 the breast. The sleeved chiton, without girdle, appears in 
 
 Fig. 137. 
 
 Over the chiton was thrown a piece of cloth, usually 
 
 single, less often doubled, called JiimaUon (i/Aanov). The hi- 
 
 mation — i/^aTia is also the word for clothes in gen- 
 
 , . * . . eral — was the descendant of the Homeric chlaina 
 
 himation. 
 
 ()(kaA.va., Fig. 11), a long woollen mantle, some- 
 times smooth, sometimes with a thick nap. It hung down 
 the back as far as the calf of the leg, being fastened to- 
 gether at the shoulders with a brooch or clasp. Sometimes 
 it was folded so as to give two thicknesses ; it was then 
 called a " double chlaina " or diplax (xXati/a SmtA.^, harXa^, or 
 StirAots). In classical times the himation was an oblong piece 
 of woollen cloth, the length being to the width in the 
 proportion of about 7 to 5. To be correctly adjusted — 
 and fine gentlemen in Athens were very scrupulous about 
 
 Fig. 138.— The himation : assassination of Hipparchns. 
 
 its orderly arrangement (Koa-fiio)^ afLirwyQ/aa-Oai) — the cloth 
 must be as wide as the distance from the neck to the 
 palf of the leg. In putting it on, one of the long sides 
 
CLOTHING 
 
 159 
 
 was grasped by both hands and swung freely round at the 
 left, so as to cover the left arm and shoulder ; it was then 
 brought round the back and under the right arm, the 
 remaining portion being carried up to and over the left 
 shoulder again, where it hung over the back and rested. If 
 it was not desired to keep the right arm free, the wearer 
 
 Pig. 139.— Pins. 
 
 Fig. 140. — Pin made in preliistoric times. 
 
 Chiton and 
 himation. 
 
 brought the himation over, instead of under, the right arm, 
 adjusting it over the left as described before (Fig. 138). 
 In Sparta the himation was the ordinary garment worn 
 by all persons over twelve years old ; it could be folded 
 double, like the Homeric diplax, whence it re- 
 ceived the name of " double tribon " {rpifiuw 
 SixXovs), tribon being another term often em- 
 ployed for an ordinary outer coat. The Spartans wore no 
 chiton under it. This custom, which in Athens generally 
 was not deemed quite respectable, was, however, imitated 
 even there by persons who, through necessity or affectation, 
 practised austerity or asceticism in clothing or food, espe- 
 cially the later philosophers, such as the Cynics. The frugal- 
 ity of Socrates led him to wear nothing but a poor himation, 
 which he never changed, winter or summer. No wealthy 
 gentleman, however, would ordinarily have thought of ap- 
 
160 THE LIFE OF THE ANCIENT GREEKS 
 
 pearing outdoors a^irm' iv Ifwrta — that is, shirtless with his 
 mantle on — any more than he would have appeared yv/^- 
 vo's, or cloakless, in his tunic merely. Of course the hima- 
 tion, having no fastening at the shoulder, had to be laid 
 aside during any special exertion, as in dancing, or in 
 chopping wood, or in assaulting a height. 
 
 Young men, even of aristocratic and dignified families, 
 often affected a careless and jaunty adjustment of the 
 outer cloak, and the monuments show that 
 e am . ^^^^^ -were many individual ways of putting it 
 on, which varied in small details from the normal manner 
 described above. This was particularly the case with the 
 cMamys (xA.a/x,vs), the distinguishing garment of the ephebi 
 (see page 90 and Fig. 50) on military duty and parade, 
 and of the members of the Attic cavalry. This garment, 
 which was a circular mantle or cape, hung over the back 
 and left shoulder, generally reaching to the waist or some- 
 times even lower. It was gathered round the neck and 
 fastened either in front or on the shoulder by a clasp. The 
 right arm was left free for driving or for holding the lance. 
 To prevent the loose ends from iiying awkwardly about in 
 the wind and impeding the rider, the chlamys was weighted 
 with bits of lead or clay (Fig. 261). The Thracians, on 
 account of the greater severity of the winters in their 
 country, wore long cloaks {l^ipai) which extended to the 
 riders' feet. 
 
 Women's outer garments exhibited great variety and in- 
 ventiveness in shape, draping, colour, and ornamentation. 
 The himation ^^^ though the finer sorts had special names, 
 as worn by such as cJilanis (xXai/t's) and xystis (fvoris), the 
 women. generic term was still himatia, as in the case of 
 
 men (distinguished as t/iarta ywaiKila and t/iaria dvSpeia). 
 
 Sometimes they hung like a shawl, sometimes again they 
 cloaked the whole body and even the head. Separate veils 
 were not so commonly worn by Athenian women as they 
 were in Homer's time, when the hredemnon {Kprihiiwov) was 
 
CLOTHING 
 
 161 
 
 Veils and 
 hoods. 
 
 an essential article of the woman's wardrobe. The women 
 of the masses, at least, more often drew up their himation 
 over the head, or even the fold or flap (dTro- 
 irruy/xa) of the chiton (page 157). Still the veil 
 {Ka\vTrTpa, KoXv^u/Aa) was not whoUy discarded, 
 and was always worn in public by young girls and brides. 
 
 We have seen that the himation, 
 even when draped so as to leave the 
 right arm free, was still wholly un- 
 adapted for strenuous work. In Fig. 
 74 we see how the athlete has wrapped 
 it round his waist in order not to be 
 impeded in his exercise ; and in Figs. 
 64 and 96 it is clear that it had a 
 tendency to fall from the shoulders 
 when the wearer was intent on his 
 work, even though he might be quiet- 
 Working ly seated. "Working men, 
 men's therefore, usually discard- 
 
 garment, g^ ^jjg himation altogeth- 
 er, and wore a garment which was 
 girded at the waist, like the chiton, but 
 the upper part of which was wrapped, 
 in the fashion of a himation, round the 
 back and chest, with the end passing 
 under the right arm and fastened by 
 a clasp on the left shoulder only. In this way the right 
 arm and shoulder (Synos) were left bare and unimpeded; 
 the garment was therefore called exomis (i^<x>ii,k). It is, 
 in fact, a chiton in all respects ; were the chiton worn by 
 Hephaestus in Fig. 145 joined together under, instead of 
 over the right shoulder, it would be an exomis. The rough 
 mountaineers of central Greece wore skins of wild animals, 
 with the hair side turned out ; shepherds usually wore goat- 
 skins. Leather jerkins (o-TroXaSes) were worn by slaves over 
 the regular linen chiton, and sometimes even by soldiers, in 
 11 
 
 Fig. 141.— Pendant for the 
 breast. 
 
162 THE LIFE OP THE ANCIENT GREEKS 
 
 lieu of a metal cuirass. The Macrones, we learn from Xen- 
 ophon, wore tunics of woven hair. Fishermen and sail- 
 ors sometimes donned primitive garments made of plaited 
 rushes ; and the huge goatskin or sheepskin blanket called 
 the sisyra {a-urvpa) was not only used as a bed-covering at 
 night, but also wrapped round the body in cold weather by 
 the person lucky enough to possess one. 
 
 In all cases we note the absence of trousers among the 
 Greeks, although the peasants of Ionia wore a kind of 
 
 Fig. 143. — Scythians clad in trousers. 
 
 leathern greaves (xvij/ttSes) when at work in the fields. But 
 the " many-coloured trousers " (iroiKiAat dva^vpiSe?, Fig. 142) 
 of the Persians and the breeches (/Spa/cat) of the Gauls were 
 by Greeks commonly held in derision. 
 
 The colour of the chiton and the himation varied with 
 the taste of the wearer ; but white predominated in the case 
 of the chiton. Dark colours, either natural or 
 artificial, were worn by the labouring classes 
 in town and country ; black was the colour of mourning. 
 Purple himatia, common enough among the rich and 
 effeminate Aeolians, lonians, and Lydians, and frequently 
 seen in Athens in the days of the tyrants, were, in the 
 democratic fifth century, reserved for festal occasions, 
 though occasionally some person, bent on creating a sensa- 
 tion, would impress the populace by appearing in purple. 
 
CLOTHING 163 
 
 like the orator Gorgias or the madcap Alcibiades. Greek 
 soldiers in foreign pay, like Cyrus's men, were apt to spend 
 their money on the finery of the country where they served, 
 and so, in the review held by Cyrus, we see the men march- 
 
 
 m^ 
 
 MiHij,^^S 
 
 1 
 
 \ u 
 
 ■I'l-'r''-'' 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 Pft 
 
 'y| .M 
 
 mi 
 
 V^'frflfll 
 
 Lu.jXi;Si 
 
 ■LJ 
 
 ■1 
 
 Fig. 143.— Folding garments after the wash. 
 
 ing by in red tunics. The Persian nobles, of course, wore 
 tunics of which the material, colour, and ornamentation 
 made them expensive. 
 
 Among women the use of garments dyed in various 
 colours was more common. We hear of red, yellow, blue, 
 and green; also of shades like saffron {KpoKia- 
 y^jj^ ' Tos), frog-green, . and apple-green (or yellow). 
 
 Women, too, varied the tone by borders 
 (icpacnreSa) of a different hue, which were either woven on 
 the original web or sewed on as a separate piece. Some- 
 times the solid colour was relieved by horizontal or vertical 
 stripes in another colour, the favourite combination being 
 purple stripes on a white or yellow ground. On religious 
 and festive occasions — as, e. g., at weddings — women ap- 
 peared in clothes which had flowers, stars, and other similar 
 patterns woven or embroidered on them. 
 
164 THE LIFE OP THE ANCIENT GREEKS 
 
 To cover the feet was not regarded as such a necessity 
 
 as it is in civilized countries to-day. Not only in the case 
 
 of the poor labourer and 
 Foot-wear. ,^ .. , ., , 
 
 the ascetic philosopher, 
 
 not only in Sparta, where we little ex- 
 pect the amenities of living, but even 
 among the fastidious lonians, it was 
 no crime to be seen in the street 
 without shoes {wroS-qfmTa). The guest 
 invited to a banquet and symposium 
 always took ofE his sandals before tak- 
 ing his place on the couch. Out of 
 
 The sandal *^^ sandals (ireStXa, a-dvSa- p^, 144.-The sandal. 
 
 Xa, Fig. 144), which were 
 merely flat soles of wood or leather fastened by thongs at 
 the instep and big toe, was developed the shoe with uppers ; 
 and this, in turn, was combined with a covering for the 
 ankle, suggested, perhaps, by the greaves of the warrior, 
 making a boot. The material was commonly 
 leather, the preparation and colouring of which 
 were well understood ; but often a rough felt was employed 
 instead. In cases of hardship, as when the soldiers' shoes 
 gave out on the march, rough shoes or brogues were impro- 
 vised of rawhide ; these were made of a single piece of 
 leather tied round the foot and ankle, and were called Icar- 
 iatinai (xap/SaTivai). Some sandals had a bit of leather in 
 front or on the sides, covering a portion of the foot, some- 
 what like a slipper. These appear to have been called 
 hrepldes (/cpTjiriSes). This soon led to the genuine shoe 
 [KoiXa woSiy/taro), laced or buttoned, reaching to the ankle. 
 DifEerent kinds were named from the " country of origin." 
 Colophon, in Asia Minor, manufactured a favourite kind 
 called Colophonia (KoXo^wvta) ; and Sparta produced the 
 Lahonilcai (AaKaviKai), worn by men. Women wore also 
 the "Persian" (Ilepo-tKai) and the "Secyonian" (SeKvuvia) 
 shoe, the distinguishing peculiarities of which it is no 
 
CLOTHING 
 
 165 
 
 longer possible for us to determine. Prominent men some- 
 times set a fashion in shoes, which accordingly took their 
 names from them, so that we hear of shoes bearing the 
 name of Alcibiades or Iphicrates, corresponding to the 
 modern " Bluchers " named from the celebrated Prussian 
 general. The boot (ev8po/j,ts or KoQopvos) was useful in the 
 field, in hunting, or in agriculture, since the covering 
 reached to the calf of the leg. The hothornos (Kodopvo's), 
 like peasants' shoes in Europe to-day, could fit either foot. 
 
 Pig. 145.— Dionysus wearing the kotliornoB. 
 
 Hence the nickname Kothornos was applied to Theramenes, 
 on account of his wavering political convictions. (Since 
 all these were attached with straps, i/acivtcs, the general 
 term for foot-wear was woS^/iara ; " unloose," viroXveo-dai, is 
 used of taking off one's shoe.) 
 
 The use of head-coverings, both among men 
 for the head ^^^ women, was also much more restricted than 
 with us to-day. Most Greeks had thick hair. 
 Premature baldness seems to have been rather uncommon ; 
 at any rate, it was a subject for remark on the part of an- 
 cient wits. The people of Myconos, one of the Cyclades, 
 
166 THE LIFE OP THE ANCIENT GREEKS 
 
 were all said to be bald, though how the notion arose it is 
 hard to see. Certain trades, however, like blacksmithing, 
 demanded a hat of some sort, as did also lengthy journeys 
 ■ in the summer sun. Pelt (ttiXos) or the skin of some ani- 
 mal, especially the dog, was early used in making caps, 
 whence they were called simply " felt " or " dog-skin " 
 (iriXos, Kvvrj). The " felt " (ttiXos), which had no rim, was 
 
 Fig. 146. — "Dressing" garments with oil. 
 
 worn by sailors, artisans, and sometimes invalids, like the 
 obsolete nightcap. Hephaestus wears it in the vase picture 
 reproduced in Pig. 145 ; see also Pig. 198. 
 
 Pox-skins, also, were utilized in the making of caps 
 (aXonrcKai), such as the Thracians wore, which covered both 
 head and ears (cf. Pig. 142). Occasionally dried rushes 
 were plaited together to form what would correspond to 
 our straw hat^. The hat most characteristic of the trav- 
 eller, the hunter, the envoy, the herald, and the messen- 
 ger (including the god Hermes), was the petasos (ireTao-os, 
 Fig. 50). This was also worn by the cavalry, being in fact 
 almost inseparable from the chlamys, the regular riding 
 and travelling cape (page 160). The older form of the 
 petasos — it varied naturally with time and place — showed 
 a sharp point or peak, with a rim turned up in front and 
 back. The later forms had a round crown, either high or 
 
CLOTHING 167 
 
 low, with rims both broad and narrow. The rim was fre- 
 quently wider in front and back than at the sides, and 
 when turned up gave the effect of a sombrero. The sides, 
 too, might be turned down and held close to the ears by 
 means of the strap with which the hat was provided. The 
 strap was firmly tied under the chin, so that when the heat 
 or the weight of the covering became too great, the hat 
 could be thrown back and hung between the shoulders 
 without coming ofE. 
 
 Women wore no hats or bonnets in the ordinary sense, 
 though coverings for the head were numerous, and a kind 
 of petasos was put on in travelling. The himation and the 
 flap of the tunic, as we saw, could be pulled up so as to 
 cover both head and face. Kerchiefs were a favourite cov- 
 ering, often arranged like a modern lady's lace cap. 
 
 The comparative simplicity and tasteful beauty which 
 
 mark the dress and the whole bearing of the Athenian of 
 
 the fifth century are to be found also in the 
 
 ersona ornaments (a-Kcvin) which he wore. Among 
 
 ornaments. ^ " ° 
 
 savages decoration is more important than 
 dress. This is illustrated by the practice of tattooing, 
 which Xenophon notices among the Mossynoeci, a people 
 whom he describes as being more remote from the Greeks 
 in manners and customs than any other through whose 
 country he had passed. All the children of the chieftains 
 there had their backs and chests tattooed with flower pat- 
 terns. The degree and kind of ornamentation adopted by 
 the Greeks at different periods marks with absolute sure- 
 ness their progress or decay in civilization. The semi-Ori- 
 ental fashions of Homeric times prescribed the use of gold 
 and bronze earrings ; of necklaces or collars made either 
 
 of solid bands of gold, such as the streptoi 
 The early (o-TpeTrrot) belonging to Cyrus's Persian nobles, 
 '"^° ' or of strings (opjuoi) of gold, agate, or amber 
 
 beads ; brooches of many kinds {vepovai, -iropTr'ai, Fig. 140) ; 
 bracelets or armlets of gold or bronze ; gold rings set with 
 
168 
 
 THE LIFE OF THE ANCIENT GREEKS 
 
 onyx ; and fancy girdles, sometimes adorned with thick tas- 
 sels. Even circles, stars, or roses in gold were fastened to the 
 
 Fig. 147.— Necklace. 
 
 cloak. All these belonged to the Homeric age ; and many 
 were retained in after years by the lonians and Aeolians or 
 
 the luxurious inhabitants of Magna Graecia. But in Athens, 
 in the classical period, the men gave up many modes of dec- 
 
CLOTHING 
 
 169 
 
 oration which their forefathers had prized. The golden 
 cicada (T£TTt|), with which old-fashioned Athenians had 
 bound up their hair in queues, was discarded when the 
 
 Pie. 149.— Bracelet. 
 
 liG. 160.— Bracelet. 
 
 Bings. 
 
 Fig. 151.— Ring. Fib. 158.— Signet. 
 
 mode of wearing the hair which required that fastening (see 
 page 177) went out of fashion. They gave up, too, the wear- 
 ing of bracelets ; while the wearing of earrings was a sure 
 sign that the person was a for- 
 eigner, not a Greek. 
 
 The chief decoration which 
 the Athenian allowed himself 
 was the ring, dak- 
 tylios (SaKTijAtos), 
 usually provided with a seal, and therefore also called 
 sphragis (o-^payts). Many of the soldiers, Xenophon tells 
 us, wore these, and they especially attracted the eye of 
 the guide who had led them through the 
 Ohalybian territory. The soldier, how- 
 ever, has in every age striven to outdo the 
 ordinary citizen in finery, and the Greek 
 military indulged in rich ornament for 
 their armour, wearing helmets with im- 
 posing plumes, richly chased 
 cuirasses with tassels, shields 
 with pictures and other devices, and the like. 
 The carrying of canes {^aKTrjptai) was almost universal, 
 among old and young (Figs. 35, 72, 74, 83, 136). They were 
 
 Walking 
 sticks. 
 
 Fig. 153.— Earringe. 
 
170 
 
 THE LIFE OP THE ANCIENT GREEKS 
 
 seen even in the hands of soldiers and actors in the the- 
 atre. In Sparta, and among the Laconomaniacs at Athens, 
 canes with crook handles were the fashion (o-KuroAta). 
 
 The women retained a profusion of ornaments. Among 
 them was the diadem or fillet for confining the hair in 
 place. They also wore earrings (h/wTia, iXi- 
 KTripes) of many patterns ; and necklaces and 
 bracelets, especially in the form of a spiral snake (o<^is), 
 and anklets. They carried fans (pittiSk), made of some thin 
 light wood or con- 
 sisting of a bunch 
 of peacock-feathers. On jour- 
 neys in the hot sun their maids 
 attended them with parasols 
 (o-Kia8eia), which were much 
 
 Earrings. 
 
 Fans. 
 
 Fig. 154.— Fan. 
 
 Fig. 155.— Parasol. 
 
 Sunshades. 
 
 like modern sunshades, and could open and shut. Simi- 
 larly the Athenian girls (Kavrjtfiopoc) who were chosen to 
 •carry the baskets (xava, page 141) used in sac- 
 rifice at the state festivals were attended by 
 the daughters of prominent metics, who carried their para- 
 sols for them. These girls were called officially sMadepho- 
 roi {(TKia&7]<^6poi) ; their position was by no means thought 
 to be one of dishonour. 
 
OHAPTEE XIII 
 
 CAEB OF THE BODY 
 
 GrEEEK education, with the emphasis it laid on physical 
 training, inculcated a respect for the body, and prescribed 
 Phvsioal rules for its care which were heeded by most 
 
 qualities and Greeks throughout their whole lives. As a re- 
 appearance of suit, they produced, as it is fair to infer from 
 the Greeks. t^igj]. works of art, a larger proportion of hand- 
 some men and beautiful women than any other people that 
 have ever lived ; and many, even those engaged in mental 
 labour, such as the philosophers and the dramatists, lived 
 to a good old age. As a rule the 
 Greeks were tall, with well-pro- 
 portioned limbs, feet, and hands. 
 Their skin was firm, their muscles 
 supple. They had heads of mod- 
 erate size, round or oval in shape ; 
 straight noses, thin lips, and dark 
 or light brown hair, inclined to be 
 curly. Above all, they were noted 
 for their beautiful eyes, with a gaze 
 keen and steady. They themselves 
 admired tallness in both men and 
 women. Their complexion was by 
 nature fair, but was browned by 
 outdoor life and the habit of exer- 
 cising naked. The sight of some Persian captives, with 
 their white skins, filled them with amusement and deri- 
 sion. Of course, not all Greeks conformed to the type 
 
 171 
 
 Fig. 156. — Portrait bust of a 
 Greek . (the historian Thu- 
 cydides). 
 
172 
 
 THE LIFE OF THE ANCIENT GREEKS 
 
 Socrates. 
 
 just described. Thersites in the Iliad, and Socrates in 
 later times, are notable exceptions. The ugliness of Soc- 
 rates caused even his friends to compare him 
 to a satyr, one of the grotesque attendants of 
 Dionysus. He had a broad nose with spreading nostrils ; 
 his mouth was large, the lips thick, 
 and his eyes protruded like those of a 
 crab. He was disproportionately stout, 
 and walked with a waddling gait. Al- 
 together his appearance entirely be- 
 lied the strength and beauty of his 
 mind and the kindliness of heart which 
 he showed to all. The poet Sophocles, 
 to judge from the well- 
 known statue in the Lat- 
 eran, represented the personal charm 
 of the ideal Greek, as his dramas stand 
 for. the perfection of Greek poetry. 
 
 Regular bathing was early recog- 
 nized as necessary for health and com- 
 fort. In the ruins of the 
 Sir^''' palace at Tiryns, which 
 belong to the Mycenaean 
 age, we may yet see complete arrange- 
 ments for baths in the house, including a channel for draw- 
 ing ofE the water and vessels for holding olive-oil, the use of 
 which, at least in later times, was inseparable from bathing. 
 Baths are frequently mentioned in Homer ; we hear of a 
 kind of tub made of wood or marble (do-a/Atv^os, cf. page 
 139), and a tripod used when the water for bathing was 
 to be heated (called rptWous Xoerpoxoo's) ; also a foot-bath. 
 Warm water (Oepixa Xoerpd.) was used in the 
 house, but baths in rivers or in the sea are also 
 mentioned. The proper performance of religious rites de- 
 manded purity; hence the hands, if not the whole body, 
 were always washed before a sacrifice or a libation. 
 
 Fig. 1B7.— Painted portrait 
 of a woman. 
 
 Hot baths. 
 
CAKE OP THE BODY 
 
 173 
 
 The Spartans maintained the practice of bathing in 
 cold water, avoiding hot, except after extraordinary exer- 
 tion. Even then, the warm bath was followed by another 
 in cold water, with a vigorous rubbing afterward. In the 
 more luxurious parts of Greece the use of warm baths, and 
 even steam baths, became general ; but the custom was con- 
 demned by the more conservative among the Athenians. 
 The hot springs of Sicily were famous, and their first use 
 was ascribed to Heracles, who, according to the myth, re- 
 freshed himself with them after his Labours, and thereby 
 gave a certain sanction to their use by his followers. 
 
 Pig. 158.— At the bath. 
 
 At home bathing was performed with a wash-basin or 
 a fountain in the court, if the house was thus supplied. 
 There was no special bath-room. The bather 
 washed himself with water held in a round or 
 oval basin {XovT-qp, Figs. 119, 158), or else sat in 
 a tub or trough (ttveXos, page 139), while another stood by 
 and poured the water over him. Public baths (/SaXai/eta), 
 with elaborate systems for supplying hot water, 
 and with separate dressing-rooms, were not 
 erected until a somewhat late period. In the fifth century 
 they were not viewed with great favour, on account of the 
 
 Bathing at 
 home. 
 
 Public baths. 
 
174: 
 
 THE LIFE OF THE ANCIENT GREEKS 
 
 Fie. 159.— Aryballos 
 (late form). 
 
 use of hot water, and because the gossip and idling therein 
 tended to undermine the morality of young men who re- 
 sorted to them. Probably the baths of this period were 
 simply attachments of the gymnasia and the palaestrae, 
 outside the city walls. Later, state in- 
 stitutions {PaXavda SrjiiAcna) were built 
 and placed in charge of city officials (the 
 aTTvvoiwt, page 16). At first, as we have 
 noticed, there was no dressing-room (diro- 
 SvT-^piov), so that bathers' clothes were at 
 the mercy of sneak-thieves. The bather 
 might use a separate tub or bathe with 
 others in the tank {jiaKTpa, KoXv/jb^'^dpa, 
 page 139). After the plunge the bath- 
 tender (ySoAai/tus) or one of his assistants 
 stood ready to pour cold water over the 
 head and shoulders, or to supply vari- 
 ous cleansing substances with which the 
 
 bather rubbed himself. Soap, a Saxon inven- 
 tion, was not known until the time of the Roman 
 Empire. Its place was supplied by konia (KovCa), 
 a kind of lye made from ashes, or by nitre (virpov), 
 or by a refined earth brought from the island of 
 Cimolus. But more important than 
 these, in popular regard, was the rub- 
 bing with oil, to keep the skin smooth and soft. 
 The oil was brought from home in a flask {X.rjKvO(K, 
 apv^aXXos, or dXa/Sao-Tos ; page 135). The bather 
 also took care to provide himself with a towel 
 ((S/idAtj/ov) and a strigil (o-rXeyyts, page 81), by 
 which the superfluous liquid was scraped from the body 
 
 before dressing. 
 
 public b*ath '^^^ price of a bath with all these extras 
 
 — the douche, rubbing, lye, and scraping — was 
 
 extremely low : two chalci, less than a cent, was charged. 
 
 Baths were regularly taken at home or in public places by 
 
 Soap. 
 
 Use of oil. 
 
CABB OP THE BODY 
 
 175 
 
 Use of 
 unguents. 
 
 the scrupulous just before going to a banquet, and Plato in 
 his Symposium likes to dwell on Socrates's conformity to 
 this requirement of polite society. 
 
 The fondness for using oil was akin to the liking for 
 salves and perfumes. The perfumery shops (/jLvpoTrmXia) 
 
 were favourite resorts in Athens, and they 
 
 dispensed all kinds of ointments and scents. 
 
 Even in far-away Armenia we hear of oint- 
 ments made of lard, sesame-seeds, bitter almonds, and tur- 
 pentine. But myrrh (fiv'pov) was the most popular in Athens, 
 plosely allied in function to the bath-tender was the bar- 
 ber (Koupevs) ; and no resort was more often visited by the 
 
 Athenian than 
 
 the barber - shop 
 (Kovpdov). Both bath- tender 
 and barber were proverbial for 
 bustling officiousness and gar- 
 rulity. All the news of the 
 day was gathered at the bar- 
 ber's and dispensed by him. 
 The great disaster at Syra- 
 cuse was first heard of in a 
 barber- shop in the Piraeus, 
 and the barber ran all the way 
 to the city, five miles away, to 
 tell the news. The old joke of 
 King Archelaus of Macedon often reappears to-day. " How 
 shall I cut your hair, sire?" asked the barber. "In silence," 
 he answered. 
 
 The mode of wearing the hair differed widely in the 
 several Greek states. In the Homeric period, and for some 
 Mode of time after, the hair was worn long. This fash- 
 
 wearing the ion was expressed by the verb KOfj.a.v, and we 
 ^^"' have " long-haired " (/capr; Kop.aovras), therefore, 
 
 as the standing designation of the Achaeans in the Iliad. 
 One notable exception in the early age of Greece was the 
 
 Pig. 161.— At the barber's. 
 
1Y6 
 
 THE LIFE OF THE ANCIENT GREEKS 
 
 practice of the Abantes in cutting ofE the front of their 
 hair. They were a warlike people in Euboea, accustomed to 
 
 Fig. 162. — Women's head-drees. 
 
 Athenian 
 fashions. 
 
 hand-to-hand fighting, and cut off their hair, so Plutarch 
 says, in order to prevent their enemies from getting a hold. 
 At Athens the athletes kept their hair close-cropped. 
 But the Spartans retained the Homeric custom. Before 
 the Spartan hoy reached his majority his hair was cut regu- 
 larly; after that time he wore it long, and it was the ob- 
 ject of special care, as we read in the story of the Spartans 
 at Thermopylae. In Athens, to be sure, there were not 
 wanting persons who 
 copied Spartan man- 
 ners in all 
 respects; 
 but when 
 the Athenian lad be- 
 came a citizen, and had 
 dedicated to some di- 
 vinity the locks which 
 had grown long in child- 
 hood (see page 89), he thereafter kept his hair moderately 
 trimmed, being of course guided by his own taste. Doubt- 
 less we see the customary treatment of the hair in the ideal 
 statues of Zeus or of Asclepius (Pig. 250) or in the portrait 
 of Thucydides (Mg. 156) which belong to this period. As 
 in other things, so in this also the later Athenian adopted 
 the golden mean. Before the Persian "Wars the men of 
 
 Fig. 163.— Children's hair. 
 
CARE OF THE BODY 177 
 
 Athens wore their hair long, either gathered in a kind of 
 knot (KpiojSuXos) on the top of the head, where it was held 
 
 in place by a gold brooch, 
 or hanging at the back like 
 " a queue. This the Athe- 
 j,jg 1,1 ^|„ „, nian of the time of the Pel- 
 
 oponnesian War discarded 
 (cf. page 169). On the other hand, he avoided an extremely 
 close crop, which was adopted by most slaves ; but these 
 also braided and coiled the hair at the back, possibly ac- 
 cording to the custom of the country whence they had come. 
 The cut of the beard was also a matter of attention. In 
 the older period, as is shown in an old-style vase from which 
 
 Fig. 75 is taken, the beard had an artificial. 
 The beard 
 
 wedge shape, which was sometimes retained in 
 
 later times by slaves and in the caricatures of the comic stage. 
 The citizen of Athens allowed it to take its natural shape, 
 with occasional trimming. The Spartans, like most mili- 
 tary folk, liked to grow a ferocious mustache (/AvVraf), until 
 the Ephors felt they must make a law restraining the cus- 
 tom ; but no Greek ever wore a mustache without a beard. 
 Other parts of the beard were the side-whiskers (yeveiov) 
 and the long beard {n-wymv). To keep the face closely shaved, 
 as was the custom among the free-born after Alexander's 
 time, must have required some courage, for 
 razors {^vpa) were rough and clumsy ; shav- 
 ing at home was practically impossible. 
 
 To the barber's the Athenian repaired to 
 have his nails trimmed and his corns cut. 
 
 The barber also performed cer- 
 the barber ^^^^ minor Surgical operations, ^ 
 
 such as removing warts and su- ^m. les.-Eazor. 
 perfluous hair. On his way from the barber- 
 shop or the ba>th to attend a banquet, the Athenian would 
 stop at a perfumer's and have his hair and beard scented 
 with myrrh ; but this was often supplied by the host. 
 12 
 
178 
 
 THE LIFE OP THE ANCIENT GREEKS 
 
 Pig. 166.— Woman's coiffure. 
 
 The men of Athens, as we 
 saw, gave up the knot or queue 
 
 Women's ^O^n ^J their 
 
 head elders, and the 
 
 ornaments. pare of the hair, 
 
 except the every-day comb- 
 ing after the bath, was left 
 
 to the barber. Brushes had 
 
 not been invented. Women, 
 
 on the other hand, could not 
 
 resort to a hair-dresser's, and 
 
 had to depend on their own 
 
 taste and the help of their 
 
 slaves for the arrangement 
 
 of the hair. Sometimes it 
 
 was left to flow unrestrained 
 
 down the back; but more 
 
 often it was combed back and gathered in a knot, more or less 
 
 high, or in a twist which extended backward — the " Psyche 
 twist " (Fig. 163). Bands or fillets (Tamai) 
 for the hair and brow formed a conspicuous 
 ornament among women. Besides the sim- 
 ple ribbon, there was the wider band of 
 cloth or leather, studded with gold, which 
 served to keep the coil of hair in place; 
 an arrangement of this kind is seen on 
 the head of Hera, Fig. 245. Nets, too, 
 frequently served this end. For this pur- 
 pose were also used combs, hairpins of 
 bronze, ivory, bone, gold, or silver, and es- 
 pecially gold diadems {(rre^dvai). Besides 
 wearing ear-rings, women also hung elab- 
 orate ornaments of gold or silver from 
 
 Fig. 167.— Pendant .1 -j j; .i i n » j_i j. t 
 
 to be hung at the T'"® ^^^^ 0* the head or from the temples 
 
 ear or the temple. (Fig. 167 ; cf. Fig. 141). 
 
OHAPTEE XIV 
 
 SOCIAL LIFE AND ENTERTAINMENTS 
 
 In the outdoor life of the men, in their gatherings in 
 the market, the palaestra, the bath, and the gymnasium. 
 Opportunities ^^d in frequent meetings of tribe and deme, 
 for social and especially phratry, we see numberless op- 
 interoourse. portunities for intercourse and social contact. 
 The attractiveness of barber-shops in the eyes of the male 
 members of the society caused them to be named " wine- 
 less symposia " ; and the whole tendency of Greek life was 
 to find amusement in concourse. The quiet attractions 
 of study and reading, while not seldom appreciated, were 
 nevertheless diminished by physical drawbacks (cf. page 
 108) ; the poorness of the writing materials, the closely 
 written pages, with words undivided one from the other, 
 the inadequacy of the light indoors, except in the court, 
 and everywhere at night, made reading a source of enter- 
 tainment limited to the few. Serious persons took delight 
 in conversation of an improving nature with a few chosen 
 companions, walking about the suburbs or on the banks of 
 the Hissus, or sitting on the stone benches at the gymna- 
 sium. This would happen in the long afternoons, when 
 
 the luncheon (apicrrov) had been followed by a 
 of the^dav"' brief rest at home while the sun was hottest. 
 
 All the games begun and practised in child- 
 hood (page 76) furnished amusement for the adult. Many 
 an hour was whiled away in playing draughts (ireTTeia, Fig. 
 227), or in the game called by the Italians morra, in which 
 the two players suddenly extend one or more of the fingers 
 
 179 
 
180 THE LIFE OF THE ANCIENT GREEKS 
 
 of the right hand and guess at the total number extended 
 by both ; whoever guessed nearest was the winner. In the 
 accompanying picture (Fig. 168) each player grasps with his 
 left hand a short pole to prevent the unfair use of the left 
 hand in the excitement of the game. 
 
 In general, the Greeks went to bed early, and often rose 
 before dawn. All sports, theatrical performances, and so- 
 cial calls occurred during the earlier part of the day ; the 
 
 Fie. 168.— "How many fingers ?" 
 
 sports extended into the afternoon, which generally closed 
 with the bath and the preparations for dinner. The ban- 
 quet (SeiTTvov, eixDxia) was the Only kind of entertainment 
 The banquet. *° '"'hich one might resort at night. It took 
 place almost always after sunset. One or two 
 exceptions are mentioned by Xenophon, but these were due 
 to the varying custom of other localities or to the exigencies 
 of camp life, as when the soldiers were feasted by the Arme- 
 nians and by Seuthes. Also at the state festivals the public 
 entertainment of each tribe (eo-riao-is) took place in the 
 daytime. 
 
SOCIAL LIFE AND ENTERTAINMENTS 181 
 
 To the banquet all were glad to resorb when occasion 
 offered — the old and the young, the grave and the frivo- 
 lous, Socrates and Alcibiades. The recluse or the miser 
 who drank only water, and the churl who never entertained, 
 but ate by himself in the dark, were rare. The host pre- 
 sented his invitation orally, sometimes through a friend or 
 
 slave, often in person ; never by formally writ- 
 invitation ^^^ notes. Often, too, the invitation (kXtjo-k) 
 
 was issued only a day or two previous to the 
 feast, or even on the morning of the day when it was to 
 occur. There was no conventional phrase dictated by so- 
 ciety Sometimes the host announced that he was to en. 
 tertain some distinguished person or celebrate a wedding, 
 and in graceful, complimentary words would entreat the 
 presence of his friend to help him ; or he would call out 
 more familiarly, " Be sure to come to my house " (ottws 
 irapia-a fioi), at the same time stating the reason. Perhaps 
 the most formal phrase, employed when the guests were not 
 intimate friends, was " I invite the gentlemen to dinner " 
 (tovs avSpas iirl SeiTrvov Ka\S>). The guests were at liberty to 
 invite any friends of theirs, and old acquaintances always 
 felt free to drop in unbidden at these hospitable gather- 
 ings. Women were invited only to wedding feasts. 
 
 With the increasing art exhibited in cookery during the 
 last years of the fifth centur.y arose a number of professional 
 
 male cooks (/iayetpot), who were almost always 
 caterers hired for private banquets. Even here the 
 
 wife of the host came into no relation with 
 her husband's social set, and had nothing to do with the 
 ordering of the dinner or the direction of the slaves who 
 attended the guests. The chef brought his own assistants, 
 as well as the utensils required for special dishes, either 
 owned by himself or hired in the agora. 
 
 On arriving, the guests {avvSenrvoi) were greeted with the 
 simple " Hail ! " (xav^), or " You have come just in time " 
 (eis KoXov TjKeis), or the more affected " I salute you " (dcnra- 
 
182 THE LIFE OP THE ANCIENT GREEKS 
 
 ^o/Aai). Handshaking was not so common as with us, since 
 it had a deeper meaning, and was ordinarily reseryed for 
 the formal, ceremonious conclusion of a com- 
 "^^^ pact or treaty. Bowing was regarded with dis- 
 
 favour, as being akin to the slavish salaam of 
 the Persians and other Orientals {irpoa-Kvvrjo-K). By the 
 Greeks this mode of salutation was ofEered only to the gods, 
 on the appearance of an omen or the like. Of course, 
 among members of the family or very intimate friends the 
 embrace {x^po-l TrepiftaXdv) and the kiss (<^tX?;/ta) were as com- 
 mon as they are in Europe to-day. 
 
 On reaching the court of the house, each newcomer re- 
 moved his sandals and allowed his feet to be washed by 
 the slaves before he took his place on a couch. 
 For the men in Athens, unlike the Homeric 
 heroesj reclined at table, usually two on a couch. After all 
 were comfortably settled in the order appointed by the 
 host, and water had been poured over their hands, the 
 small portable tables (page 130) were brought in laden 
 
 with the food, and 
 disposed near the 
 couches. The 
 Thracians hospi- 
 tably placed them 
 Fig. 169.— cyiix with low base. nearest their 
 
 guests. Thin 
 soups, or consommes, were unknown, and broths cooked 
 very thick were rarely served at these special dinners. 
 The obvious reason for this was the lack of spoons, which 
 were not employed for table use until later; when broth 
 was eaten, it was scooped from the plate with 
 pieces of bread (ynvo-TiXat). Solid food, with 
 which the dinner commonly began, was brought in al- 
 ready cut up. The guests helped themselves and ate with 
 their fingers, forks being unknown. Instead of napkins, 
 they wiped their hands with bits of bread (dTro/^aySaXiai), 
 
SOCIAL LIFE AND ENTERTAINMENTS 183 
 
 which were then thrown on the floor to be eaten by the 
 dogs. Vinegar, mustard, and other condiments stood ready 
 in cruets (6|v/3a^a) on each table. Wine was the only 
 drink, and it was taken sparingly during this portion of the 
 entertainment. At the end of the meal each guest took a 
 swallow of unmixed wine in honour of the " Good Divin- 
 ity " (dya^os Sat/Aojv), a ceremony which, in its pious recog- 
 nition of man's dependence on the gods, corresponded 
 somewhat to the saying of grace. After this the tables 
 were removed, the floor swept clean of all crumbs, bones, 
 and the like, once more water was poured over the hands, 
 and then the company sang in unison a paean accompa- 
 nied by the flute-player (avKrjTpk), who was always present 
 on these occasions (Fig. 173). 
 
 And now the symposium began ; besides symposion 
 (o-u/iJToo-tov), a common name for it was potos, the " drink- 
 ing" (ttotos). Smaller tables were set before 
 
 ^. °^°'' the guests, on which were dried fruits, nuts, 
 posium. a 1 ' ) 
 
 and other light viands of a thirst-provokmg 
 nature (see page 148). These 
 constituted the " second tables " 
 
 (SeuTcpat TpaTTE^at, or TpayrifuxTo), 
 
 corresponding to dessert. The 
 feasters anointed the hair and 
 beard with myrrh ; they put gar- 
 lands on their heads, round their 
 necks, and on the breast ; and 
 then the slaves {oivoxooi) mixed 
 the wine in the great bowl (xpa- 
 TTip). "Water predominated in this 
 mixture, as we have seen before 
 (page 151). Three bowls were 
 filled and emptied in the course of an ordinary symposium. 
 The first cupful out of the first bowl was consecrated to 
 the Olympians, especially Zeus ; the first out of the second 
 mixture, to the Heroes ; and from the third, to Zeus the 
 
 Fis. 170.— Krater. 
 
184 
 
 THE JME op the ancient GREEKS 
 
 Saviour. The host then drank to {irpoTrivav) the health of 
 his guests, after which they all drank singly to each oth- 
 er, going round the circle from left to right. 
 Toasts. -When one was challenged to drink with an- 
 
 other, it was considered proper form to empty the cup at 
 a single draught (a/Auo-Tt). At the 
 beginning, the saucer-shaped cups, or 
 phialai, described on page 137, were 
 used ; as the drinking proceeded, the 
 guests called for larger goblets or for 
 drinking-horns. 
 
 As a rule, a toast-master was elect- 
 ed when the symposium began. He 
 
 was called by various names, such as " king," 
 "leader of the drinking," or " symposiarch " 
 (|8ao-iX£vs, S.p)(b>v Trj<: Trdcrews, a-vjjjiroa-Capxoi)- It 
 was his duty to decide on the proportion of water to be 
 mixed with the wine, to indicate when the time had come 
 to exchange the larger for the smaller cups, to prescribe 
 
 Fig. 171.— Drmking-horn. 
 
 The toast 
 master. 
 
 Fig. 172. — The pymposium. 
 
 forfeits for those who had violated the rules of the drink- 
 ing, to conduct the drinking contest, and to propose toasts. 
 Amusements Each guest tried to outdo his neighbour in 
 at the wit, humour, story-telling, and practical jok- 
 
 symposium. j^g . a,nd often the discussion of various topics 
 propounded by the symposiarch, or occurring incidentally, 
 was of a distinctly high order; every guest knew Homer 
 and the lyric poets, and could quote them readily ; every 
 guest, too, in that age of keen wits and stirring national 
 
SOCIAL LIFE AND ENTBRTAIMENTS 185 
 
 ^El^ 
 
 experience, was quick at repartee, eager in debate, always 
 ready, even in support of some whimsical paradox, to cite 
 an illustration out of his own experience or his country's 
 history. For a long period singing remained 
 the chief source of entertainment. The early 
 education of every Greek rendered him competent to take 
 the lyre and sing, at least tolerably, some famous song 
 from Anacreon, or Simonides, or Euripides. Or rounds 
 and catches (o-KoAia) were sung in more boisterous style by 
 all in turn. Especially popular were riddles, 
 conundrums, and catch questions. Another 
 favourite was the game called kottabos (KdrraySos), which 
 consisted in tossing ofE the last drops in the cup in such 
 manner that they hit a small figure, made of clay or metal, 
 the bobbing of which determined the success of the throw. 
 As luxury increased, these simpler amusements gave 
 way to elaborate programmes performed by professional 
 flute and lyre players {avX.rjTpiBes, KiOapia-Tai), 
 fntertlin^I. dancing-girls {6pxv<TrpiBis), and jugglers and 
 contortioners. Eich hosts were also beset with 
 a crowd of needy flatterers (koXokcs), who sought to enter- 
 tain the company by their wit, 
 and thus earn a right to enjoy 
 
 the feast. Their per- 
 Buffoons. . , .-, 
 
 sistence gave them a 
 
 professional character and a spe- 
 cial name, yeXoyroTroioi, and they 
 were tolerated, strangely as it 
 seems to us, even in the best and 
 most dignified society ; their noisy pi^. 173.- jumping over swords. 
 garrulity often usurped the con- 
 versation, and their gluttony and wine-bibbing tended to 
 lower the morality of convivial gatherings ; but, with all that, 
 they were not so much in evidence as the Eoman parasite. 
 
 The flute-girls and the dancers gave exhibitions not only 
 in music and fancy dancing, but also in acrobatic feats, jump- 
 
186 
 
 THE LIFE OP THE ANCIENT OBBEKS 
 
 Theatrical 
 scenes. 
 
 Fig. 174. — Coin of Crete representing the Labyrinth. 
 
 ing over knives, twirling hoops and balls, and enacting dra- 
 matic scenes of subjecbs not ordinarily produced in the clas- 
 sical drama at the Dionysiac festivals. Thus 
 Xenophon in his Symposium describes a rep- 
 resentation of the loves of Dionysus and Ari- 
 adne, given by a 
 dancing boy and 
 girl — a story 
 that -was dear to 
 the Athenian, 
 since it called to 
 mind the ex- 
 ploits of his hero 
 Theseus in the 
 Labyrinth at 
 Crete. Such scenes portrayed in pantomime the romantic 
 elements of a myth not touched on in the "legitimate" 
 plays of the period, except now and then by Euripides ; and 
 their most marked characteristic, as distinguished from the 
 public performances in the theatre, was the fact that 
 women assumed parts in the representation. This practice 
 was significant of great changes that were to come in the 
 remote future ; for not until modern times has the public 
 appearance of women as actresses been countenanced, ex- 
 cept at the imperial courts in the Eoman epoch. 
 
 The party came to an end with a libation to Hermes ; 
 and the merrymakers, if they were young and reckless, 
 departed with flutes and torches to serenade some favourite 
 beauty. Such bands of revellers (Kw/iao-rat) not infrequently 
 infested the streets of Athens at night, and besides the 
 noise with which their loud music troubled good citizens. 
 Social and ^^1 sometimes came to blows among them- 
 politicai selves or with another similar party. Out of 
 
 clubs. associations of boon companions like these 
 
 grew up clubs composed of young men of the aristocrats, 
 who united for political as well as social ends. Later Athe- 
 
SOCIAL LIFE AND ENTERTAINMENTS 187 
 
 nian history was largely determined by the predominance of 
 one or another faction whose origin could be traced from 
 such bands. 
 
 There were also purely dining associations (ipavoi), cor- 
 responding in their purpose to a modern lunch club. In 
 these each member contributed a portion of the viands, as 
 in a modern picnic, or else provided food for all, being 
 afterward repaid by the others. In the later centuries of 
 Athenian history these clubs assumed great importance in 
 social life, and were regularly organized for pleasure and 
 the common worship of some special deity. Under this 
 later system members paid regular monthly dues, some- 
 times amounting to three drachmas. 
 
CHAPTEE XV 
 
 THE VARIOUS CALLINGS: THE WARRIOR 
 
 The Greek, especially the Athenian, regarded himself 
 as an integral part of the state ; his whole life must, 
 according to his view, be devoted to what he 
 interest in conceived to be the duties of a citizen. These 
 the citizen's duties might range from functions as high as 
 functions. generalship or archonship down to attendance 
 at the public assembly (iKKXrjcria) and the law courts (Sixa- 
 oTTjpta), or might resolve themselves into mere gossip about 
 public leaders and public policy. At all events, his life 
 must be free from any impediments to his political func- 
 tions ; he must be independent in his relations with other 
 citizens ; his time must be wholly free (cf. page 118). 
 
 Such ideas about the civic function, cherished by all 
 Greeks, whether their government was democratic or oli- 
 garchical, were possible in a society where slave 
 DUd^ainof ishovLT disposed of all the drudgery of life. 
 The old patriarchal life of Homer was differ- 
 ent. Slaves there were, but even kings joined in the reap- 
 ing, princes tended cattle, and princesses spun yarn and 
 wove it into cloth and took part in the family washing. 
 But in Athens, democratic as we are accustomed to regard 
 its society, Socrates was the only notable figure who had a 
 word in praise of the " dignity of labour." 
 
 All, therefore, who had to work for a living, being to 
 that extent dependent and not free, were in general re- 
 garded with contempt. In so far as they were obliged to 
 sell their time to be placed at the disposal of some one else, 
 188 
 
THE WARRIOR 189 
 
 they were aneleutlieroi {avekeidepoi), deprived of liberty as 
 much as an actual slave (8o€Xos). Further, many artisans, 
 Social like tailors and cobblers, led such a sedentary 
 
 distinction life, outside the invigorating influence of sun- 
 worTerand^ light and fresh air, that physically they could 
 the independ- ^ot measure themselves with the gentleman, 
 ent citizen. eleutJieros (iXevOepo's), who was nurtured in the 
 free life of the market, the gymnasium, and the palaes- 
 tra ; and mentally, their narrow view of the world was sup- 
 posed to make them mean and vulgar {^dvava-os). Hence 
 the industrial arts were called "slavish" {Texyai SovXoirpe- 
 Trets), since they appeared to make men no better than 
 menials ; or " vulgar " {rixvoa Pavava-iKal), with reference to 
 the sordid effect they had on those engaged in them. 
 Hesiod, to be sure, had said that " Labour is no reproach, 
 'tis idlenes^ that is dishonour " ; but the very fact that he 
 said it shows that as early as his day the contrary opinion 
 held sway. 
 
 Some exceptions in the case of certain activities in 
 which citizens engaged may be observed in the cities on the 
 ™, J , coast (e/iirdpia) where commerce flourished on 
 traders a large scale. In Athens there were numerous 
 
 and manufao- wholesale merchants (e/Airopoi) and manufac- 
 turers, turers belonging to the citizen class. These, 
 because of the grander extent of their operations, and the 
 fact that they did not work with their own hands, but 
 merely superintended large numbers of slaves or poorer 
 citizens, were not held in disrepute. Political reformers 
 like Pericles, recognizing the value of a thrifty artisan 
 class, sought occasionally to compensate for the social dis- 
 abilities that attached to artisans by giving them political 
 advantages equal to those enjoyed by persons who derived 
 their income from landed estates. And Solon, long before 
 Pericles, exempted sons from the duty of supporting their 
 parents in old age if the latter had neglected to teach their 
 sons a trade. These exceptions, however, only prove the 
 
190 THE LIFE OP THE ANCIENT GUIEEKS 
 
 general rule ; and as slaves and foreigners (/AeroiKot, see 
 page 64) increased, the poorest citizen often preferred to 
 earn a few obols a day by sitting in the ecclesia or the 
 courts of law, rather than win double the sum as a retail 
 dealer or handicraftsman. In later times, and even to 
 some extent as early as the fifth century, many hired out 
 Citizens as ^^ ^^^ capacity of mercenaries under some for- 
 meroenary eign leader, in the hope of getting suddenly 
 soldiers. j-j^}^ through loot and plunder, and so become 
 
 an " object of envy to their friends at home." This was 
 especially true of the poorer districts of Peloponnesus ; 
 more than one half of Cyrus's Greeks came from Arcadia 
 and Achaia. It was the glimpse of the wealth, as well as 
 the weakness, of Persia which tempted Greeks to become 
 mercenaries and freebooters. 
 
 Since, therefore, the soldier's life came to almost every 
 Greek, we can not gain a complete picture of the ordinary 
 citizen's career without a brief glance at his military and 
 political occupations, considered with special reference to 
 the Athenian. 
 
 The martial spirit of the Athenians in the fifth century 
 is attested not only by their achievements from Marathon 
 (490 B. c.) to Arginusae (406 B. c), but also by 
 service'' their works of art. An extraordinary number 
 
 of vases depict scenes relating to war, and chil- 
 dren were given names like Scyrocles, Naxiades, and N"au- 
 pactus to commemorate their fathers' prowess in battle. 
 The warlike temper of this period was more conspicuous 
 than in the time of Demosthenes, who found it impossible 
 to rouse his people as he desired to resist Philip. With 
 all this, and in spite of the ready response of volunteers 
 (iOeXovrai) to the calls to Service, the normal way to raise 
 an army for a special enterprise was by a draft (jcaraXoyos), 
 in which citizens were listed by lot to serve in the heavy 
 infantry or in the cavalry. In the middle of the fifth cen- 
 tury Athens maintained a standing army of twenty-five 
 
THE WARRIOR 191 
 
 hundred heavy-armed men, hoplites, and a fleet of twenty 
 ships. The usual age for field service extended from the 
 twentieth to the fiftieth year ; but, as we saw before (page 
 90), young men (c</)i;y8oi) between the ages of eighteen and 
 twenty were engaged in light military duties, 
 ^ "fj^ during which they were instructed in the art 
 
 of fighting in heavy armour [oTrXo/ji.a.x'^iv), in 
 throwing the spear, and in tactics (to. d/A^t rafeis). They 
 also served as patrols (TrepiTroXot) on the frontier. Their 
 drill ground was the Lyceum, which also formed the ren- 
 dezvous for the start (efoSos). Spectators were allowed at 
 
 Fia. 175.— Preparing for the rendezvous. 
 
 the drill — a contrast to Spartan practice, which excluded 
 all those not participating. At the end of their two years 
 of preliminary training the ephebi were mustered in the 
 theatre, and each received from the state a spear and shield. 
 Older men might be called upon for military service, 
 even after they were fifty years old, but, as a rule, only 
 for garrison duty. To this they were liable 
 The military ^^^^^ ^^^^ ^^^^ gj^^y_ Socrates served four 
 
 ^^*' times, with conspicuous valour, between the 
 
 age of forty and fifty. 
 
 The hoplites and cavalry were, in Solon's time, recruit- 
 ed only from the three upper classes— Pentecosiomedimni, 
 
192 
 
 THE LIFE OP THE ANCIENT GREEKS 
 
 Hippeis, and Zeugitae. Later, in the Peloponnesian War, 
 the Thetes also were drafted for hoplite service ; and in 
 Divisions of 0^^ great emergency — namely, at Arginiisae in 
 the land 406 B. c. — even slaves were called out. Metics, 
 
 forces. -to the number of three thousand, were kept 
 
 armed for defense. The quota from each tribe (^uA.^) 
 formed a division by itself, called taxis (rafts, or simply 
 <j>vX-j). The number of men in each taxis varied according 
 to the urgency of the call. The first summons to arms in 
 the Peloponnesian War brought out more than one thou- 
 sand men in each tribe. Bach tribal quota had its own 
 commander (ra^iapxo's), and was divided into companies 
 (Xoxoi), each under a captain (Xoxayos). Though each tribe 
 fought, as a rule, by itself, members of different tribes might 
 mess or sleep together. Men grouped as comrades in this 
 way were said to belong to " the same tent " (Iijo-Kijrot). 
 
 At the call to arms, which usually ran, " Eations for 
 three days " {mria ■^fiepZv Tpi&v), the citizen who was to serve 
 in the hoplites 
 
 The soldier's 
 equipment. 
 
 packed his knap- 
 sack or wallet 
 
 (yvXios), and took down his 
 
 lance and shield from the 
 
 chimney, where he kept them, 
 
 the shield being enclosed in 
 
 a case (a-dy/jbo) to protect it 
 
 from smoke and dust and 
 
 prevent tarnishing (Fig. 175). 
 
 The spiders spinning webs in 
 
 the shield are a part of the 
 
 picture of peace which the 
 poet Bacchy- 
 lides gives us. 
 The soldier then adjusted his chiton, often of 
 
 a gay hue, red or purple (hence called (f>oiviKk) ; over this he 
 
 buckled his cuirass {6(!>pa^), which was made of leather or 
 
 The 
 breastplate 
 
 Fig. 176.— Patting on the breastplate. 
 
THE WARRIOR 
 
 193 
 
 linen covered with metal plates or scales, and was fastened 
 in front by clasps running vertically. Strong as it was, 
 it was not seldom pierced by a javelin or an arrow. The 
 shoulder-pieces were drawn from behind over the shoul- 
 der and fastened in front to the main piece on the breast. 
 From the hips downward hung flaps (irrepi^ycs), consisting 
 of pieces of leather or felt, either single or double, de- 
 signed to protect the thighs and the groin. The cuirass 
 made entirely of bronze, and used in the Homeric period^ 
 had been given up. The warrior then strapped round his 
 legs below the knees the greaves {/ci/i7)«.i8£s), made 
 of metal, lined with soft padding to prevent 
 chafing. Another strip of padding round the ankles served 
 as a support for the greaves below. On his head, too, he 
 placed a padded band, tied with a knot at the back, which 
 eased the pressure of the helmet and kept it more firmly in 
 place. The helmet (Kpavos), usually of bronze, 
 but also of leather, had movable cheek-pieces, 
 but the parts which covered nose and forehead were solid. 
 The helmet was surmounted with one or more plumes 
 {X6<l>oi, Figs. 175, 176, and 180) ; generals and taxiarchs had 
 three. A short sword or knife (fi<^os, ixaxaipa) hung at the 
 
 Greaves. 
 
 Helmet. 
 
 Fig. 177.— Greave. Fig. 178.— Helmet. 
 
 Fig. 179.— Helmets. 
 
 left side by a strap from the right shoulder. "With his 
 shield and lance in hand, and a mantle, which was thrown 
 aside when he went into action, the hoplite was now ready 
 to Join his comrades at the rendezvous. The shield was 
 either round or oval, and was heavy, since it often reached 
 13 
 
194 
 
 THE LIFE OF THE ANCIENT GREEKS 
 
 The shield, 
 
 Pig. 180.— Hoplite. 
 
 from the eyes to the knees. Hence an officer, or any other 
 soldier whose duties required him to be thus assisted, was 
 
 frequently attended by a shield bearer (wa- 
 
 o-TTtoT^s). The shield 
 was held by straps, through which 
 the left arm was thrust, the last 
 strap being grasped in the hand. 
 Often its external surface was cov- 
 ered by some device, which was 
 meant to serve as a mere orna- 
 ment, or to symbolize some trait 
 of the wearer or his family, or 
 even to strike fear in the enemy 
 by the frightfulness of the pic- 
 ture (Figs. 88 and 175). The 
 spear (Sopu) was long — ^^sometimes 
 nine feet — and consisted of a stout 
 shaft furnished with an iron head {Xoyxq)- Athens had 
 thirteen thousand hoplites ready for offensive operations 
 at the first inroad of Sparta in 431 b. c. 
 
 Besides these hoplites (oirXiTai), so called from the 
 elaborate and heavy nature of their accoutrement (oTrXa), 
 
 the next important arm of the service was the 
 
 cavalry (iTTTrets), a small and exclusive body of 
 about one thousand men, commanded by two hipparchs 
 (iTnrapxot), each leading five tribal divisions (^uAat). The 
 cavalry, like the hoplites, was recruited by a draft made by 
 the hipparchs from each of the ten tribes ; but naturally 
 the list would be filled up from the richer citizens, or those 
 who were able to keep a horse. Each tribe was commanded 
 by its own phylarch {tj>v\apxoi) ; and no one might enter 
 the cavalry until he had been approved by the Council 
 
 (/3ouX^), after a scrutiny (8o/«;uao-ta) more or 
 require . j^^^ strict, which determined whether he pos- 
 sessed the necessary property qualification and was of 
 genuine Attic descent, whether he was rich enough to 
 
 The cavalry. 
 
THE WARRIOR 195 
 
 own a horse, and whether he knew how to manage one 
 (of. page 90). Most people entertained exaggerated no- 
 tions of the superior safety enjoyed by horsemen on the 
 battle-field, and particularly in a retreat. Many, therefore, 
 when a war broke out, were anxious to join the cavalry, 
 and sometimes managed to do so without the necessary 
 qualifications. The trooper was armed sometimes with a 
 
 ^^ 
 
 ¥m. 181.— Greek sword. 
 
 lance, useful in a charge ; sometimes with a pair of jave- 
 lins (Fig. 186) ; sometimes with a short, dagger-like sword 
 for close combat ; but he had no sabre for a cutting stroke. 
 His cuirass seems to have been heavier than that of the 
 hoplite. Shields were used only when the members of the 
 troop did sentinel duty on foot. 
 
 The Athenian cavalry seems not to have been very 
 efficient, though it was the pride of the Athenians on the 
 occasion of a public parade, and entrance into it was 
 eagerly sought by the young aristocrat. But the Greeks 
 had neither saddle nor stirrups, and often rode without 
 even a saddle-cloth (e^tWtoi' oTpGju,a), so that the rider was 
 easily unseated. The horses were not well trained, and 
 frequently stampeded. Xenophon's words of comfort to 
 his troops when they were in need of cavalry, while half 
 jocose and paradoxical, yet show the weaknesses of the 
 Athenian cavalry — weaknesses which were not shared by 
 the more practised riders of Boeotia, Thessaly, and Syra- 
 cuse. Forty years later, at the battle of Mantineia (363 
 B. c), the Athenian cavalry still felt their inferiority to 
 the Thebans and the Thessalians. In spite of that, their 
 desperate bravery gave them the victory. 
 
 The light-armed soldiers, employed in skirmishing (aKpo- 
 jSoAto-is) and in guerrilla warfare generally, consisted of bow- 
 men (rofoTac), slingers {a-tpevBovrjTai), and javelin-hurlers (axov- 
 
196 
 
 THE LIFE OF THE ANCIENT GREEKS 
 
 Fig. 182.— a slinger 
 
 TurTOLi). Bowmen, to the number of sixteen hundred, were 
 recruited from the Thetes, or that portion of the citizens 
 Tjjg not ordinarily liable to seryice as hoplites, and 
 
 light-armed from the tributary al- 
 service. Hq^ ((ri)jH/ta;^oi, vijo-iioTat) 
 
 of Athens. Sometimes they were 
 mercenaries hired by the state from 
 places not under Athenian rule ; 
 Cretan bowmen were the most noted 
 for their skill. The slingers were 
 always foreign mercenaries or trib- 
 utary allies, and native Greeks nev- 
 er served as "peltasts" (TreXrao-Tat), 
 so often mentioned in the Ana- 
 basis. These were Thracians, who 
 used a light, flat shield called the 
 
 pelts (tteXtij), which was not strengthened by the plates of 
 bronze or layers of hide belonging to the hoplite's shield. 
 The Athenians also employed two hundred mounted bow- 
 men (hnroTo^oTai), chiefly 
 Thracians or Scythians 
 hired or owned as slaves 
 by the state. As con- 
 trasted with 
 Athenian ri . ,i 
 agility. Sparta, there- 
 
 fore, the Athe- 
 nians were capable of 
 more agile tactics. An 
 engineering force was re- 
 quired in sieges, the chief 
 duty of which was to build 
 walls under cover of which 
 the besieging party could 
 occupy a position close to 
 
 the city invested. It was therefore composed of masons, who 
 selected the stones and put them together {\i6oX6yoi, TexToves). 
 
 Fig. 183.— Peltast. 
 
THE WARRIOR 
 
 197 
 
 Fis. 184.— Greek arrow-heads. 
 
 There was no special commissary department. When 
 the rations brought by each man at the start were ex- 
 hausted, the generals and captains sent out 
 ommissary foraging parties, who got what they could for 
 their own company or division. The distri- 
 bution then took place under the supervision of certain 
 officers detailed for this 
 work, called, like the com- 
 missioners in a city mar- 
 ket, agoranomoi (dyopavo- 
 jLiot, page 20). Baggage- 
 carriers (o-KEuo<^opoi) had 
 charge of the provisions 
 and other belongings of of&cers, cavalry, and the richer 
 hoplites. Poorer soldiers had to carry their own supplies 
 (e<^o8ia), which were sometimes given to them by generous 
 comrades. 
 
 The army and the fleet were under the command of 
 ten generals (o-TpaTiyyoi), one from each of the ten tribes. 
 These held joint command, having superseded 
 the archon polemarchos (iroAe/tap;(os) in this 
 ofiBce early in the fifth century B. c. Their first achieve- 
 ment as oflBcers in supreme authority was the victory at 
 Marathon in 490 b. c. 
 
 Although regular drill was kept up both in Athens and 
 Sparta in peace as well as in war, military discipline in 
 Athens seems not to have been very rigid, when measured 
 by modern standards. One reason was the limited author- 
 ity of the generals. They were responsible to 
 the Council of Five Hundred (PovXrj), and on 
 their return from a campaign might be at- 
 tacked in a lawsuit by any sycophant (page 19) on some 
 slight charge. The democratic character of a Greek army 
 is well shown by the fact that all the generals, including 
 Xenophon, who had conducted the Cyrean Greeks safely 
 out of the grasp of Tissaphernes and the Persians, were 
 
 Disoipline. 
 
 Authority of 
 the generals. 
 
198 
 
 THE LIFE OP THE ANCIENT GREEKS 
 
 Pay, 
 
 nevertheless required to render an account to their own 
 soldiers of their generalship. Further, breaches of disci- 
 pline, desertion, and cowardice were punished not by the 
 generals, but by the courts at home, after a regular trial in 
 which the officer whose authority had been violated might 
 be only a witness, or, at most, a prosecutor. For all these 
 reasons, although the value and need of discipline were 
 acknowledged, the spectacle of an undisciplined force was 
 too common in Greek military history, and rigorous officers 
 like the Spartan Clearchus were generally hated. 
 
 In early Greek history citizens were not paid for their 
 services in war. In Athens the custom of paying for mili- 
 tary service doubtless began with the growth 
 of wealth that came with the widening of her 
 empire. The pay {/xio-dos) in Athens was a drachma (page 
 346) a day for a 
 hoplite ; a cav- 
 alryman must 
 have received 
 more, for in time 
 of peace he was 
 allowed a drach- 
 ma daily for his 
 maintenance 
 alone. Public 
 burial was given 
 to soldiers killed 
 in battle, and 
 their families 
 were cared for 
 until the sons 
 became of age. On leaving home for service in the field, 
 the soldier made careful provision for the future of his 
 family, usually making a will and entrusting his money to 
 a near relative or friend. All these preparations for the 
 worst were the more necessary since the chances of get- 
 
 ■ 
 
 ■ 
 
 El 
 
 HH 
 
 
 tf V 
 
 m 
 
 W^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 r 1 
 
 m4 
 
 n 1 
 
 p 
 
 111 
 
 M 
 
 u 2 
 
 Fig. 185.— The solflier's return. 
 
THE WARRIOR 
 
 199 
 
 ting a letter safely to his friends at home were few, and 
 they might never even hear of him again. 
 
 Another way in which the private citizen, especially of 
 the lower class (Thetes), found occupation and rendered 
 public service, was on board the fleet. From 
 e navy. ^-^^ middle of the fifth century twenty triremes 
 were annually in commission, to preserve the Athenian 
 empire and keep the crews 
 in efficient practice. The 
 state had three hundred 
 seaworthy ships at the be- 
 ginning of the Peloponne- 
 sian War. It was the duty 
 of the Council (fiovX-q) to 
 keep the ships up to their 
 full number, and to assign 
 to wealthy citizens in turn 
 the task of equipping them. 
 This task was one of the 
 public services [Xyrovpyicu) 
 by which the state expenses 
 were frequently met (see 
 page 62). The citizen or 
 
 citizens chosen for this- duty were called trierarchs {rpirj- 
 papxoc), and attended to the caulking, rigging, manning, 
 and general equipment. The cost of this was great, often 
 amounting to fifty minae (page 246) ; for the manning and 
 maintenance the trierarch received money from the state, 
 for which he gave strict account at the expiration of his 
 service. 
 
 The earliest kind of ships had fifty rowers seated on 
 the same level, and was undecked. These penteconters 
 (ircvTijKovTopot) were used as war-ships first by 
 Greek ships. ^^^ Phocaeans, who settled Marseilles ; this use 
 survived even after triremes had been invented. We first 
 hear of the trireme, with rowers on three levels, or banks, 
 
 Fia. 186.— Trooper ready to start. 
 
200 
 
 THE LIFE OP THE ANCIENT GREEKS 
 
 in the early part of the sixth century. The earliest had no 
 upper protection for the rowers. Later a wooden protec- 
 tion was devised, but complete decks (KaTao-Tpu/Aara) were 
 as yet unknown during the Persian Wars, so that at Salamis 
 there was room for only four bowmen and fourteen hoplites 
 in each trireme. The need of transporting soldiers in war- 
 ships to distant fighting grounds led to Cimon's improve- 
 ment, by which the ships were given broader beam, and the 
 decks at bow and stern were joined by bridges on which a 
 considerable number of marines could be brought into 
 
 FiQ. 187.— Ship with one bank of oars. 
 
 action. Such ships, however, were chiefly employed as 
 transports for men and horses. For the men-of-war (v^es 
 Taxeiai) such as were in use in the Peloponnesian War, a nar- 
 rower beam was better in manoeuvres, and they accordingly 
 held even fewer hoplites than the ships engaged at Salamis. 
 Being ten in number, the hoplites could effect little and 
 were regarded anyway as landlubbers (xepo-aiot). The ship 
 itself was a mighty weapon in the hands of the rowers; 
 with its powerful ram it was so manoeuvred as 
 to sink the enemy, or at least snap off his oars. 
 For such manoeuvres a trireme was necessari- 
 ly long and relatively narrow ; they were therefore called 
 " long boats " {fjuaKpa TrXoia). The average dimensions may 
 be roughly guessed from the ruins of dock-yards (vewa-oLKoi) 
 in the Piraeus. These have a width of over nineteen feet. 
 
 Size of the 
 trireme. 
 
THE WARRIOR 
 
 201 
 
 and a length varying from about one hundred to one hun- 
 dred and twenty feet. Hence the width of a trireme is 
 supposed to have been about fifteen feet, its greatest length 
 about one hundred and twenty feet. 
 
 Besides being narrow, they had a low board and drew 
 but little water, hardly three feet ; hence operations could 
 
 be carried on in very shoal water and far up a 
 Tlie oaiis. 
 
 stream. We actually hear of cavalry brought 
 
 into action against a trireme in the water; and hoplites 
 
 are known to have waded out from shore and boarded an 
 
 enemy's trireme. The oars (/cwTrai), therefore, must have 
 
 made a rather small angle with the water's surface ; in close 
 
 encounters they were sometimes snapped in pieces by a 
 
 passing ship. Their exact length is unknown ; neither can 
 
 we tell how far apart were the oars in the same row. The 
 
 rowers sat on benches arranged in three rows, each only 
 
 slightly higher than the other (Fig. 188). It is a mistake 
 
 to suppose that the trireme rose very high out of the water. 
 
 Its light draft proves that the hold was not much more 
 
 than seven feet deep, the distance from the water-line to 
 
 FiQ. 188.— Section of a trireme. 
 
 the deck being between three and four feet. The men in 
 the top row, called thranltai {Bpavlrai), wielded, of course, 
 the longest and heaviest oars, and received the highest pay. 
 Those in the middle row were called zygltai 
 (^vyirat), those in the lowest thalamltai {BaXafu- 
 rat). The thalamites (c) sat in the hold (thalamos) of the 
 vessel, his bench being only a little above the water-line. 
 
 The rowers. 
 
202 THE LIFE OP THE ANCIENT GREEKS 
 
 The thranites (a) derived his name from the stool or seat 
 {thrdnos) that rested on the deck, or if a deck was wanting, 
 on the platform (TrapoSos) that surrounded the ship ; he sat 
 perpendicularly over the thalamites. The zygites (5) had 
 his place on the level of the cross-beam {^vy6v) which con- 
 nected and strengthened the ship's sides. He was not di- 
 rectly under the thranites, but probably a man's breadth 
 farther in. Since the oars differed in length according to 
 the row from which they projected — the longest from the 
 topmost, the shortest from the lowest row — considerable 
 practice was necessary in order to get an even stroke. The 
 oar of the thranites seems to have been a foot longer than 
 that of the zygites. The time was given by an ofl&cer called 
 heleustes {KeXevoTrj's), who used a flute, a pipe, or his voice in 
 a rhythmical call. 
 
 A trireme fully manned carried two hundred men. Of 
 these, thirty were officers, marines, and sailors who at- 
 Number of tended to the rigging, the steering, and the 
 men in a raising and lowering of the mainmast. Offi- 
 
 trireme. ^jg^^ records which have been preserved make 
 
 known the fact that there were on board one hundred and 
 seventy oars — presumably sixty-two for the thranitai and 
 fifty-four each for the zygitai and the thalamitai. This 
 must include oars held in reserve against accident — per- 
 haps a score — leaving one hundred and fifty for active 
 service. But not all were in use at the same time, for we 
 hear of companies or " watches " (Adxoi), into 
 which the rowers were divided, doubtless to re. 
 lieve each other on long voyages. It is said that the high- 
 est possible speed for a ship one hundred and twenty feet 
 long can be fully attained by fifty oars, whence it is natural 
 to assume that for long voyages there were three watches 
 of fifty men each, especially since the officers next under 
 the commander (vavapxo's) were called " commanders of 
 fifty " (TrevTTjKovTapxoi). We may, therefore, conjecture that 
 on ordinary occasions fifty rowers were at work (eighteen 
 
THE WARBIOE 
 
 203 
 
 Speed of a 
 trireme. 
 
 OpaviTai, sixteen i,vyiTai, sixteen OaXafUTai), while the remain- 
 ing one hundred rested until their turn came. 
 
 It is impossible, from our scanty evidence, to measure 
 the speed attained by a trireme. Modern estimates vary 
 greatly, from 
 three and a half 
 to fifteen miles 
 an hour. With a fair wind 
 the Greeks under Xenophon 
 were able to sail from Co- 
 tyora, on the Euxine, to Si- 
 nope, one hundred and fifty 
 miles away, in a day and 
 a night. The sails, which 
 were square, aided some- 
 what the progress of the 
 ship, for every trireme car- 
 ried two masts ; but when 
 a fight was to take place 
 near shore, as usually hap- 
 pened, the mainsail was 
 often left on land. All sail 
 was then taken in, and the 
 
 mainmast (la-rbs fiiya?) was lowered and stowed in the hold 
 along the keel (Tpoins). The foremast (io-tos aKdreuts) car- 
 ried a smaller sail, and was not lowered. In battle, there- 
 fore, the propelling of the ship devolved upon 
 the rowers, who had to be trained by long prac- 
 tice to carry out the different manoeuvres em- 
 ployed for running the enemy down. Here, too, consider- 
 able skill was required of the pilot (/cv/Sepv^jjs). In place 
 of the modern rudder, an oar (7r»;8aXiov) projected at each 
 side near the stern; the two were connected by a cross- 
 piece held by the helmsman, and could easily be unshipped 
 when not in use. The pilot had general command over 
 the men in the stern, while another officer in the bow 
 
 Pig. 189.— Going on board. 
 
 ]IIan<Euvres 
 in battle. 
 
204 
 
 THE LIFE OF THE ANCIENT GREEKS 
 
 (the Trpapevs) directed the men in the forward part of 
 the ship. 
 
 The prow, with its sharp edge or " nose," readily sug- 
 gests the head of an animal, and in Greek, accordingly, 
 various terms are used of the parts of the prow 
 ■t^^t^ which carry out this figure. Thus, on each 
 side of the prow {irpKopa) were huge " eyes," 
 {6<f>6aXp.oi, Fig. 190), some of which were actually hawse-holes, 
 while others were purely decorative, as on Chinese boats. 
 The prow also had " ears " (eVojTtSes) or catheads, beams ex- 
 tending forward obliquely, which served as a protection 
 when another ship was rammed. Additional protection was 
 
 furnished by wicker mats, 
 hides, or cloths hanging over 
 the sides. The ram itself (c/a- 
 fioXov) was a sharp beak or 
 spur covered with iron, lying 
 at the water-line or slightly 
 below it. Both stem and stern 
 rose high out of the water 
 (Fig. 189), and the stern-post 
 often ended in an ornamental 
 figure, a swan's or a goose's 
 head. Each ship had a name, 
 sometimes chosen from myth- 
 ology, sometimes selected with reference to the good omen a 
 high-sounding name made for the future success of the ves- 
 sel in war. Some names recently found on an inscription in 
 the Piraeus have a very modern sound, such as the DanaS 
 (^.avdri), the Wonder {®€ap.a), and the Invincible (Hay/cpctTeta), 
 because this modern custom is one of many inheritances 
 from the ancients. 
 
 At the beginning, as at Salamis, officers, marines, and 
 rowers were Athenians. The marines and rowers were 
 regularly taken from the class of Thetes. Later, rowers 
 were also supplied from the metics, slaves, or mercenaries. 
 
 Fio. 190.— Coin showing a ship. 
 
THE WARKIOR 205 
 
 The two special state galleys, the Paralos and the Salor 
 minia, were manned by citizens. 
 
 It is usual to say that the Greeks were timid sailors, 
 and that discipline, though better than in the army, was not 
 perfect. On the other hand, there was some 
 se^amansMp I'^ason for the excessive caution of the Greek 
 sailor in the fact that the trireme had such 
 a low board, and might easily founder in a rough sea. It 
 was sometimes necessary to strengthen the ship by pass- 
 ing ropes lengthwise round it on the outside. Hence, in 
 long voyages the skipper kept as near shore as he could. 
 The fleet bound for Sicily went first to Corcyra, whence it 
 could cross the stormy Adriatic at its narrowest stretch, and 
 then it kept to the eastern coast of Italy until it reached 
 Catana. That the Greeks, when on shipboard, had the 
 true sailor's instincts of neatness and readiness, is attested 
 by Xenophon, who speaks with admiration of the careful 
 way in which ropes, yards, sails, and provisions were stowed, 
 with a view to save space and to have them in readiness 
 when sudden need arose. When not in use the trireme 
 was hauled up on shore, or docks (vewpia) and ship-houses 
 (veaxroiKoi) were built for them in the principal seaports, as 
 at the Piraeus. 
 
 Even in time of peace, therefore, there was abundant 
 occupation in the military and naval service for all classes 
 of citizens. In Athens five hundred men were necessary 
 to guard the dockyards and arsenals, fifty kept watch at 
 the Acropolis, which, however, was probably not otherwise 
 fortified, and some sixteen hundred maintained order in 
 the city and the country districts, particularly on the bor- 
 der ; besides these, two thousand men served in garrisons 
 throughout the various cities and islands belonging to the 
 Athenian empire. 
 
CHAPTER XVI 
 
 THE VARIOUS CALLINGS: CIVIC FUNCTIONS 
 
 We must next glance briefly at the Athenian constitu- 
 tion, in so far as its operation affected the daily life of the 
 The private citizen. And here again the state, made thor- 
 oitizen in oughly democratic by political leaders since Peri- 
 politios. (jjgg came to the front, opened her offices to the 
 
 poorest citizen and paid him for the services he rendered 
 in the courts, in the popular assembly, and in the Council. 
 
 All citizens over thirty years old in good standing were 
 eligible to the Council of Five Hundred, or BouU {PovXrj), 
 Membership t^® highest legislative body in Athens. The 
 in the members were elected annually by lot, fifty 
 
 Council. from each of the ten tribes {<jivXai) ; the wards 
 
 or demes in each tribe were represented in this body of 
 fifty according to the number of demesmen (S-rjixoTai) each 
 contained. Since the lot might fall on an unsuitable can- 
 didate, it was provided that every man so chosen should 
 submit to a public examination {SoKtfma-Ca) before the out- 
 going Council. If 
 igikgw j^^fc ^^, 0^ he was approved, he 
 
 Fig. i9i.-oboi and haif-oboi. officc and entered 
 
 upon his duties on 
 the 14th of the month Skirophorion (about the 1st of July), 
 and held office for one year. Each member (ySouXcui-^s) re- 
 ceived five obols — about fifteen cents — daily, was exempt 
 from military service, and enjoyed the right of a front seat 
 {■jrpoihpia, page 63) in the theatre. 
 306 
 
CIVIC FUNCTIONS 207 
 
 Such a body was obviously too large for the transaction 
 of ordinary routine business. To meet this difficulty, the 
 contingent from each tribe served in turn as a special com- 
 mittee, under the name ot prytanes {irpvTdvui), 
 for handling ordinary matters. The year w^as 
 thus divided into ten parts, each called a prytaneia (irpv- 
 TaveLo), and the order in which the tribes served in this 
 capacity was determined by lot at the beginning of their 
 year of office. The prytanes had their office in a building 
 called the Tholos {66\os), a round structure in the agora 
 near the Council-chamber (ySovAeuTT^ptov ; see page 42). There 
 they took their meals, and offered sacrifice for the pros- 
 perity of the state. Besides receiving reports of officials, 
 giving audience to embassies, and exercising a general 
 police supervision over the city, they prepared the " order 
 of the day," or " docket " (irpoypafi.iJi.a), for the next meet- 
 ing of the Council or the popular assembly. During their 
 prytany, their pay was increased to six obols (one drachma) 
 a day, and from the beginning of the fourth century each 
 prytany received a vote of thanks from the Council and 
 the popular assembly. They chose by lot a chairman (cti- 
 a-TOT-qs) to serve for one day and one night only, in order 
 that he might not have opportunity to gain undue influ- 
 ence. It was his duty to preside at the meet- 
 president ^^^ °^ ^^^ whole Council or of the assembly, 
 and to have in his keeping the state seal and 
 the keys of the temples in which the public funds and 
 documents were deposited. Thus the humblest citizen 
 might, for at least one day in his life, exercise important 
 responsibility. The courage of Socrates, when chosen to 
 be chairman, in refusing to put to the vote an unconstitu- 
 tional motion which called for the summary execution of 
 the generals who fought at Argintisae, has often been told. 
 The entire Council met daily in their chamber (ftovXev- 
 T-qpiov), unless special circumstances called them elsewhere. 
 These sessions were as a rule open to the public, but the 
 
208 THE LIFE OF THE ANCIENT GREEKS 
 
 members were separated from the spectators by a railing 
 (8pv(f>aKTot), and each member had his own seat, distin- 
 guished by some letter of the alphabet. There 
 he ounci - ^^^ ^ platform {prum) in front, which every 
 speaker {p-qTwp) mounted when addressing the 
 Council. In the Council-chamber were statues of the gods 
 " who gave good counsel," Zeus Boulaios and Athena Bou- 
 laia, with an altar, at which prayer was offered at the begin- 
 ning of the session. A clerk {ypafifiaTfvs), chosen during 
 
 W>f^M»>- 
 
 ^ /^^^fTrrP ' P nl/ F I K A I To I At; 
 
 V, • A iJKaAAKP FTA' I J ^■ 
 >■■ NO:i.MHf^0^TH I ' l^{ 
 
 B^Md*.- 
 
 Fib. 192.— a decree of the Council and the popular assemhly. 
 
 each prytany, recorded the decrees {\\iy)<^L<Tp.a.To) of the Coun- 
 cil. At the end of the official year every member gave an 
 account (c^^wa) of his ofl&ce. 
 
 It was, however, in the popular assembly or ecclesia 
 
 (eKKkrja-ia) that the will of the sovereign people found its 
 
 chief expression. Theoretically all Athenians 
 
 e popu ar eighteen years of age might attend its 
 
 assembly. . • r, . j.4. j^ 4. j. 
 
 meetings ; but as a matter of tact, young men 
 
 were prevented from doing so by military service until they 
 were twenty ; and even for some time afterward, the fear of 
 seeming immodest before their elders kept them for a while 
 
CIVIC FUNCTIONS 209 
 
 from active participation in debate {Sriix,r]yop£lv). The at- 
 tendance of six thousand, or about one fifth of the male 
 citizens, was required to transact certain kinds of business. 
 Most of those who came belonged to the city or its imme- 
 diate environs; naturally, the country farmers had little 
 time or inclination to travel to town, so that they, though 
 greatly surpassing the townspeople in number, were insufB- 
 ciently represented. It was therefore the artisans, trades- 
 men, and seamen of Athens and the Piraeus, with such rich 
 citizens as possessed houses in town, who composed the 
 assembly. 
 
 In the fifth century but one meeting of the assembly 
 
 took place in each prytany, or ten in a year. In the fourth 
 
 century there were four meetings, of which 
 
 e 1 era ive occurred on a fixed day, and was deemed 
 
 proceedings. -' ' 
 
 more important than the others (Kvpia iKKXt)- 
 
 a-ia). At this meeting the election of of&cers was confirmed 
 by popular vote, taken by a show of hands {imxeiporovia), 
 and reports on the condition and security of the state, the 
 supply of grain, and such matters, were received. Here, 
 too, were heard public impeachments {da-ayyeXiai) of magis- 
 trates or private citizens, and the decisions of the archon 
 respecting inheritance (cf. page 88), rendered since the last 
 meeting. Once a year a preliminary vote was taken on the 
 question of ostracizing some citizen. Extraordinary cir- 
 cumstances might require a special session {<TvyKXr]Tos Ik- 
 
 kXtjctio) . 
 
 The sessions of the ecclesia were ordinarily held on the 
 hill outside the town called the Pnyx ; sometimes in the 
 agora or the Dionysiac theatre. Each member 
 Voting. received on his arrival a ticket (crvV^oAov) , which 
 
 he later presented to the proper officials, and then received 
 his fee, amounting to an obol at first, but in the fourth cen- 
 tury increased to three, later to nine obols. The business 
 began early in the forenoon with a purificatory sacrifice, the 
 blood of a pig being sprinkled round the place of assembly ; 
 14 
 
210 
 
 THE LIFE OP THE ANCIENT GREEKS 
 
 then followed prayers and imprecations against such speak- 
 ers as might try to deceive the people in their harangues. 
 The prytanes then stated the order of business previously 
 decided on by the Council (page 207) ; any matter lying out- 
 side this order {Trpo/iovkevim) was excluded. The voting on 
 
 The platform {bema) on the Pnyx. 
 
 these matters was by show of hands (xetporovta), and there- 
 fore public ; but secret voting, by ballots cast in urns, was 
 resorted to in cases of ostracism, conferring citizenship, 
 and other matters affecting a single individual. The de- 
 crees recommended by the Council and passed by the 
 ecclesia were inscribed on stone or bronze and set up in 
 conspicuous places (Fig. 193). 
 
 The chairman (eTrto-raTTys) adjourned the meeting, some- 
 times to the following day, if matters of business were left 
 unfinished. This happened immediately when- 
 ever "signs from heaven" (Scoo-r^/Aiai), such as 
 lightning, earthquake, an eclipse, or even a drop of rain, 
 seemed to indicate the displeasure of the gods. 
 
 Although both the Council and the assembly acted on 
 certain occasions in a judicial capacity, their function was 
 
 Adjournment. 
 
CIVIC FUNCTIONS 211 
 
 chiefly legislative. The trial of cases at law was left mostly 
 to the courts {SiKooT-^pm). In these a large body of citizens, 
 
 particularly the older men, not only found 
 e oour s ^^^^ employment, but also indulged that love 
 
 of contest and rivalry of debate which so strik- 
 ingly marked the Athenians. For they sat as jurors or 
 dicasts (StKaoTat) to hear and decide cases pleaded before 
 them, and they followed with interest, if not with favour, the 
 arguments on both sides. From each tribe (<^dX^) about 
 six hundred men, all over thirty years of age, were chosen 
 by lot from those who had announced their desire to serve 
 as dicasts. They formed a body, normally six thousand in 
 number, of whom one thousand acted as substitutes, ready 
 to be called on for judicial service. Each person on whom 
 the lot to act as dicast fell was assigned to one of the ten 
 divisions or courts {SLKaa-Trjpta) into which the whole num- 
 ber was divided ; every tribe had an equal number of its 
 members in each court, or as nearly equal as it was possible 
 to arrange. The court-room to which a man was assigned 
 was designated by a letter (A to K) ; and every man carried 
 a " pass " in the shape of a small boxwood tablet (irivaKiov 
 TTTjf ivov), on which was inscribed his name and the letter of 
 the section to which he belonged. Further, to make sure 
 that the dicast entered the court-room to which he be- 
 longed, he was given a painted staff (/SaKTuipia), the colour 
 of which corresponded to the colour of the paint at the 
 door of each dicastery. 
 
 There was no limit set to the term of service as dicast, 
 and a citizen often continued in this ofiQce until cut off by 
 
 sickness or death. Every year, however, he re- 
 The dicasts. , , -. . i . -i i j i 
 
 newed the oath m which he swore to render a 
 
 verdict according to the laws, or, in cases where no existing 
 
 law seemed applicable, according to his honest judgment, 
 
 without fear or partiality, nor yet in enmity against any 
 
 party to a suit ; to hear both sides with equal attention, to 
 
 refuse bribes, and to uphold the democratic constitution. 
 
212 THE LIFE OF THE ANCIENT GREEKS 
 
 The oath was sworn in the names of Zeus, Poseidon or 
 Apollo, and Demeter. 
 
 If, now, a man had a private grievance against another, 
 he went to the magistrate who had jurisdiction in such a 
 case as his, and handed in a written complaint 
 Pre iminary (|yKA,i;/x,a). If it was accepted, the magistrate 
 appointed a day for the preliminary hearing 
 (avaKpia-is). The plaintiff (6 Siwkwv), in the presence of at 
 least two witnesses [KXijTrjpes), then sought out the accused 
 (o <f)€vy(ov), and summoned him to appear at the appointed 
 time to answer the complaint. This summons was called 
 the Mesis (kXtjo-is, 7rpoKA»?o-ts). At the hearing each party pre- 
 sented in person his 
 own side of the ques- 
 tion, citing witnesses 
 (/ta/DTvpes), laws and 
 decrees, private docu- 
 ments, and other tes- 
 timony bearing on his 
 case. The witnesses 
 
 Fig. 194.— Crown of gold awarfled for public mUSt be adult men 
 
 services. . , . . ' 
 
 either citizens or met- 
 ics. Slaves were allowed to appear as witnesses only in cases 
 of murder; in all others their evidence was extorted on 
 the rack. This kind of testimony, as in the Middle Ages, 
 was regarded as especially trustworthy, and a man under 
 complaint frequently offered his own slaves to be tortured 
 {^aa-avi^eiv) to prove his innocence. He might not, how- 
 ever, testify in his own case. On the conclusion of the 
 hearing, all the documents and evidence in writing were 
 put into an urn (exivos) to await the trial (StKi;, dywi/). 
 
 At the time arranged for the trial, which 
 might take place on any day excepting holi- 
 days and " unlucky days " {-^fiepai diroc^paSes), both parties, 
 with their witnesses, presented themselves before the court, 
 in which sat usually five hundred and one dicasts, presided 
 
CIVIC FUNCTIONS 213 
 
 over by the magistrate before whom the preliminary hear- 
 ing (dvaKpto-is) had taken place. In very important cases 
 two or more dicasteries sat in joint session, making one 
 thousand and one or fifteen hundred and one dicasts in all. 
 The odd number was maintained to prevent a tie vote ; the 
 number of dicasts was never less than two hundred and 
 one. The court-rooms were near the agora; the oldest, 
 called the Heliaia (ijXtata), gave its name to the whole ju- 
 dicial system, and the dicasts were often called heliasts 
 (rjXiaa-Tai). They sat on wooden benches separated by a 
 railing [SpvtjiaKToi) from the spectators, who always thronged 
 to the trial when the participants were well-known citizens 
 or the case affected public interests. Besides the platform 
 (/S^/xo) for the presiding magistrate, there was also one for 
 the speakers and the witnesses. 
 
 The law required every man to plead his own case, 
 whether as plaintiff or defendant. In the latter part of 
 . the fifth century, however, it became the cus- 
 
 speeohes. ^'^^ ^'^^ inexperienced speakers to hire a pro- 
 fessional writer of speeches (Xoyoypd^os) to 
 compose his speech, which he then committed to memory 
 an,d delivered as best he could. The time allowed each 
 speech was limited by the water-clock (KXajniSpa), the flow 
 of which was stopped-when the witnesses were cited. The 
 proceedings began with prayer to the gods, after which the 
 clerk (-ypo/A/taTeiJs) read the complaint (eYKX-qfio.) and denial 
 (dvTco/Aoo-ta) of the contending parties, who were then al- 
 lowed by the presiding magistrate to begin their speeches. 
 The complainant presented his side first, frequently inter- 
 rupting his speech by citing the witnesses whose testimony 
 had been given at the preliminary hearing. 
 These simply mounted the platform at the 
 bidding of the speaker or the court-crier (Krjpvi), listened 
 to the reading of their evidence by the clerk, and acknowl- 
 edged it as their own. There was no cross-examination of 
 witnesses. Following the complainant came the defend- 
 
214 THE LIFE OP THE ANCIENT GREEKS 
 
 ant, who in like manner appealed to his witnesses from 
 time to time in the course of his speech. 
 
 Late in the fifth century, those persons who felt doubt 
 about their ability to present the case with justice to them- 
 selves were allowed to bring in friends to their 
 support; but the case must always be presented 
 first, if only briefly, by the party concerned. By the mid- 
 dle of the fourth century such advocates {crvvrjyopol,) were 
 very common, though they spoke with the special consent of 
 the court, and were understood not to receive any pay for 
 their aid. It is to the advocate, rather than to the speech- 
 writer, that the modern lawyer bears most resemblance. 
 
 After the speeches were over the herald bade the dicasts 
 proceed to a vote, which they cast immediately and on the 
 spot, without discussion among themselves. 
 Mussel-shells were used as ballots (i/fv"/""') in 
 the fifth century. The voter cast his ballot into one of 
 two earthenware vessels (called variously Ka.8oi, or KaBicrKoi, 
 or again v8piai) ; one urn stood for acquittal, the other for 
 condemnation. Just how secrecy was maintained by this 
 method we do not know ; at any rate, it proved unsatisfac- 
 tory, for another mode was adopted for most cases in the 
 fourth century. The dicast received two round bronze bal- 
 lots; one was solid, the other had a hole bored through 
 the centre. The solid ballot (TrX^prjs "W^os) T^as for acquit- 
 tal, the bored [TiTfymrrnxivr] xj/rjcjioi) for Condemnation. The 
 voter, holding this ballot so that the curious might not see 
 
 whether the centre was solid or pierced, now 
 The ballots. i. j xi j- t_ • i • j.i_ 
 
 approached the urns, ot which again there 
 
 were two — one of bronze, the other of wood. Into the 
 
 bronze urn he cast the ballot which he wished to have 
 
 counted, and discarded the other by throwing it into the 
 
 wooden urn. The bronze urn, containing as it did the 
 
 votes that really affected the defendant, was called the 
 
 " deciding urn " {Kvpioi KaSto-Kos) ; the other, into which the 
 
 votes not to be counted were deposited, was called " the urn 
 
CIVIC FUNCTIONS 215 
 
 without validity " {aKvpoi KaSto-Kos). After the votes had been 
 counted, the presiding magistrate announced the result. 
 
 When his duties 
 for the day were 
 
 Pay for serv- Over, 
 ioe in the the di- 
 
 oourts. cast 
 
 presented a ticket 
 
 or check {a-vfib^oXov), which he had received when he entered 
 the court, to the disbursing officers of the treasury, and 
 got his pay. This amounted to two obols in Pericles's time, 
 but was increased to three by Cleon. 
 
 Fig. 195.— Dicast's ticket {uviifioKov). 
 
CHAPTER XVII 
 
 THE VARIOUS CALLINGS: AGRICULTURE AND GRAZING 
 
 While so many Athenians were engaged in war or in 
 politics, the great majority were occupied in more produc- 
 Tjjg tive pursuits to get a livelihood; and these, 
 
 productive however they may have been regarded by phi- 
 oooupations. losophers and aristocrats, were recognized by 
 the more practical thinkers as forming the main support 
 of the state, and representing in their mode of life and 
 ways of thinking the better and more conservative interests 
 of the democracy. This applied particularly to the rural 
 classes, the men engaged in agriculture and grazing. Ob- 
 servers as widely different as" Socrates, the sage, and Aris- 
 tophanes, the comic poet, united in commendation of agri- 
 cultural pursuits, since from them the sustenance and sup- 
 port of the community were derived, and the preservation 
 of healthy bodies and of sound, if old-fashioned, ideas was 
 assured. Although the army, the courts, the sailors of the 
 Piraeus, and the artisans in the ecclesia take up so con- 
 spicuous a position in Attic history, it must not be forgot- 
 ten that the bulk of the population of Attica were farmers 
 or herdsmen, who had little time to travel to town and join 
 with regularity in political movements, and did so only 
 when their interests as a class were threatened. 
 
 The landed proprietors held the highest 
 pursuits. position socially among all classes who worked 
 for a living. They formed, of course, the old- 
 est element in the state, and to a great extent retained 
 their original political, as well as social, preeminence. 
 316 
 
AGRICULTtJEE AND GRAZING 21Y 
 
 Among them were a few rich men who took pleasure in 
 managing their estates themselves, planning the crops, and 
 joining their overseers and slaves in actual labour now and 
 then. These exceptional persons excited wonder, as did 
 Cyrus, when he showed the Spartan admiral Lysander his 
 gardens at Sardis. After looking at the many kinds of 
 trees and flowers, and seeing how carefully they were 
 planted, and how regularly and artistically the paths were 
 
 laid out, Lysander was overcome with admira- 
 oountrv" ^ ^^on. " I congratulate you, Cyrus," he said, 
 
 "on the man who devised all this for you." 
 " Why," said Cyrus, " I made all the measurements and de- 
 signs myself, and I planted some of the trees myself." At 
 which Lysander said, as he looked at Cyrus's handsome 
 clothes and the ornaments he wore : " What ! You really 
 mean that you planted these with your own hands ? " And 
 Cyrus answered : " Yes ; when I am in ordinary health, I 
 never dine before taking active exercise, either in military 
 drill or in farming." - 
 
 In Attica the soil was thin and dry, yet favourable to 
 the raising of some crops. Here, and elsewhere in Greece, 
 
 systematic irrigation (apSeiv) was intelligently 
 ure.^ practised in claSsfcal times to insure enough 
 water, while drainage (oxeteu- 
 €tv) recovered swampy and sub- 
 merged places for tilling. The 
 Attic plain was well watered 
 with canals and ditches (aiXfi- 
 v£s, ox^Toi) dug from the main 
 streams of the Cephisus and 
 Irrigation, ^'^^ Hissus. This 
 drainage, and was necessary for 
 
 terraomg. certain kinds of Fig. 196— Boy with pet deer. 
 
 grain ; and the region extend- 
 ing from the Lyceum to the Academy was a garden of figs 
 and olives. On the hillsides care was taken that the fer- 
 
218 THE LIFE OP THE ANCIENT GREEKS 
 
 tile soil might not be washed away when the melting snow 
 sent down fierce torrents in February and March. This 
 was prevented by terraces, especially necessary in the cul- 
 ture of the vine. 
 
 Although many religious superstitions governed the 
 farmer in his work, nevertheless the experience of centuries 
 had brought down many practical hints and 
 methods ^'^^ helps in cultivating. The value of fertilizers 
 was understood, as was also the need of allow- 
 ing land to recover its fertility by lying fallow (vetos) for a 
 season or more. 
 
 Ploughing was done at three seasons — spring, summer, 
 and autumn. The plough (aporpov) was originally a crooked 
 or forked tree trunk ; later it was made of sepa- 
 ^^ °^ ■ rate parts fitting together and fastened either 
 by thongs or by pegs which nailed them together. There 
 was, first, the beam or stock (eX.vfji.a), the end of which was 
 sharpened and covered with iron to form the ploughshare 
 
 (wvis) ; or sometimes a sep- 
 arate piece was attached to 
 the beam for this purpose. 
 A handle (ex""^i?) rose from 
 the beam at the back, and 
 a pole {Icrro^oivi) extended 
 Pig. i97.-Pioughmg and sowing. * ^om it in front ; at the end 
 
 of this the yoke {t,vy6v) was 
 attached by means of a ring {Kopwvrj). The plough was 
 drawn by oxen and mules ; horses were probably never used 
 for this work. 
 
 The autumn and the early spring were the times for 
 sowing grain and the more substantial crops (KapTro's) for 
 which, as Plato says, the intelligent farmer is 
 content to wait seven months. In the sum- 
 mer were sown lentils, peas, beans, and other garden vege- 
 tables. Xenophon gives a picture of the farmer ploughing 
 (^evyiyXoTciv) and sowing (a-ireipeLv), in a lonely spot infested 
 
AGRICULTURE AND GRAZING 
 
 219 
 
 Hay. 
 
 HarvestiniT' 
 
 by robbers, in the interesting account of a pantomime which 
 he witnessed in Paphlagonia. 
 
 It does not appear that hay was especially cultivated 
 and harvested, though of course a certain amount of dried 
 fodder was necessary when animals were 
 housed for the winter. Any product suitable 
 for use as green fodder was called chilos or chortos (xtA.os or 
 xoproi). This, when dried, was used like hay, under the 
 name of karpM {Kap^t] or simply x'^os)- 
 Grass-land and meadows were scarce in 
 Greece, and were usually given over to flocks 
 and herds in summer-time. 
 
 The harvest-time was the occasion for 
 much sport and frolic in the fields among the 
 reapers, who kept up ancient 
 practices, designed to appease 
 the " corn spirit," which had come down from 
 most primitive times, and which allowed all 
 kinds of practical jokes, especially at the ex- 
 pense of an unlucky passer-by. The reaper 
 used a semicircular sickle (called Speirdvri) 
 and after the grain had been cut down it was 
 bound together carefully in sheaves. One 
 sheaf was left " for luck," dedicated to the spirit of the grain; 
 the rest were gathered into carts or on the backs of the reap- 
 ers, and carried to the threshing-floor (aXwi;), a 
 circular space paved with small cobble-stones. 
 There the grain was spread out evenly a little at a time, and 
 over it horses, mules, or oxen were driven until their hoofs 
 had beaten out the kernels from the chaff and stalks (/caXa- 
 fjiai). Whether flails were ever used is a question. After 
 a thorough tossing and winnowing, done with the lihnon 
 (XiKvov), or cradle, a broad wicker basket which received the 
 grain after threshing, and in which it was tossed in the air so 
 that the wind carried off the chaff, the clean grain was poured 
 into earthen jars (ttiOoi, o-nrvaL, page 133) for storing. 
 
 Threshing. 
 
220 THE LIFE OP THE AKCIENT GREEKS 
 
 In the country grain was ground into flour only as 
 needed. Small quantities could be pounded in stone mor- 
 tars by female slaves. For larger amounts 
 grinding. miUs (juvXai) turned by male or female slaves 
 or by animals were required. The mill had a 
 flat, immovable lower millstone {ij-vXtj) with a hard, rough 
 surface. On it the upper millstone (ovos oXett/s) revolved 
 on an iron pivot by means of a long handle ; the upper stone 
 had a hole in the centre into which the grain was poured. 
 In the cities there were milling establishments {fivXave^) 
 which ground the grain brought from the interior or else- 
 where on a large scale. Flour was called aleura {aXevpa) or 
 alpTiita (aXi^ira), according as it was made from wheat or 
 from barley. 
 
 In Attica grain formed one of the least conspicuous 
 products, and after the ruin wrought to the fields by the 
 Spartan invasions of the Peloponnesian War, 
 omtioa""*' *^® ®™^^^ farmers of Attica no longer tried to 
 compete with the rich grain-fields on the Black 
 Sea. The importation of grain, therefore, became essen- 
 tial to the welfare of the state, which encouraged it by 
 laws restraining Athenian citizens and metics from ship- 
 ping it elsewhere, and laying severe penalties on all who 
 tried to " corner " the grain market. Whoever bought 
 more than fifty phormoi {<^op[ii.oC), or about seventy-five 
 bushels, of grain at a single time was liable to capital 
 punishment. When the grain supply from the East was 
 cut off by Lysander's fleet in 405 b. c, Athens and Attica 
 could no longer hold out, and the Peloponnesian War came 
 to a disastrous close. 
 
 The soil of Attica, however, was well adapted to the 
 cultivation of olives, figs, and grapes. Oil, figs, and wine 
 were therefore abundantly produced, the olives and figs 
 being celebrated the world over. In the cultivation of 
 vines and olives it was usual to dig circular trenches {yvpoC) 
 round each trunk or stalk to insure sufficient moisture. 
 
AGRICULTURE AND GRAZING 221 
 
 The vines were propped by pointed stakes (xa/>aK£s), though 
 sometimes allowed also to climb on trees. Eed wine was 
 
 produced from grapes grown on the hillsides, 
 ineyar s. ^jjj^g ^ij^e ^as produced in the plains. The 
 grapes were pressed or trodden (jraTelv) with the bare feet 
 in large vats (Xrjvoi), from which the wine flowed out into a 
 smaller vessel, usually an amphora (page 134). The vintage, 
 like the harvest, was attended with many old-fashioned 
 customs of a religious nature, all in honour of Dionysus 
 Lenaios, " god of the wine-press." The treaders chanted a 
 song as they worked together in the open fields. 
 
 Olive-oil was used for a great variety of purposes: in 
 the preparation of ointments ; in the " dressing " of linen 
 
 after it came from the loom ; in lighting ; and 
 
 in cooking and eating (page 150). Conse- 
 quently, the oil (eA-aioi/) was of more importance than the 
 fruit (tXaa) itself, though this, too, was a regular article of 
 diet. Olives were picked only when ripe, and put up in 
 brine or dried. Dried olives were shipped and sold in skins 
 (do-Koi). Pigs were dried on crates or boards set out in the 
 sun and wind, and pressed into cakes, as they are to-day. 
 Grapes, in the same way, were made into raisins or currants, 
 a name which still carries the remembrance of their place 
 of origin — Corinth. 
 
 All growing things were regarded as being under the 
 protection of the divinities of nature, Dionysus, Demeter, 
 
 and many lesser gods. But the olive in par- 
 tree"* °'^^^' ticular was the object of religious veneration, 
 
 and like the owl (page 34) was inseparably con- 
 nected with Athena, the special protectress of Attica and 
 Athens. An olive branch frequently appears beside the 
 owl on Athenian coins (Pig. 199). A large number of trees 
 in the Attic plain, called m.oriai (iwpiai), were specially con- 
 secrated to her, and any man who cut down, or eren re- 
 moved, the stump of one of these was sentenced to death 
 by the Areopagus. The moriai were owned by the state, 
 
222 
 
 THE LIFE OF THE ANCIENT GREEKS 
 
 which appointed wardens or supervisors to attend to their 
 preservation ; they were responsible to the Areopagus. The 
 state let out the tending and cultivation of these trees to 
 
 Fig. 199.— Attic decadrachma. 
 
 Cultivated 
 flowers. 
 
 the highest bidder, who then had the disposition and sale 
 of the product in his own hands. 
 
 Flowers, too, were universally cultivated in the country. 
 However reticent in their literature the Greeks of the clas- 
 sical period may be regarding their love of na- 
 ture, their acts show plainly that they had 
 open eyes for all she had to give. The lily, 
 crocus, hyacinth, violet, and rose are familiar friends in 
 Homer. The extraordinary vogue of wreaths {(rTe<j>avoi) 
 for all festive occasions made horticulture a necessity; 
 when nothing better could be obtained, even dry grass was 
 plaited into chaplets. The favourite flowers raised in 
 gardens (k^ttoi) were those just mentioned; but many, 
 like the poppy, grew wild in the fields. The garden 
 beds were commonly edged with borders of 
 parsley and rue. In crowded cities house gar- 
 dens were hardly known until late in the fourth century; 
 but plants were sometimes raised in pots {oa-rpaKa, cf. Fig. 
 94), especially for the festival of Adonis. Groves and 
 enclosures where trees, flowers, and grass grew made the 
 suburbs attractive places for an afternoon stroll (TreptVaros). 
 The state appointed officers to take charge of the for- 
 
 Crardens. 
 
AGRICULTUBB AND GRAZING 223 
 
 ests, but these paid more attention to boundaries and high- 
 ways than to forestry in a scientific sense. As early as the 
 fourth century, Attica was becoming a waste, 
 e ores s. i^gca^ge the state and the people 
 failed to realize the importance of preserving 
 the once rich woodlands of Parnes, Pentelicus, 
 and Hymettus (cf. page 9). The trees were cut 
 down wastefully by lumbermen (vAoTo/x,ot), who 
 found their profit in the great demand for tim- 
 ber (fu'Xa) for house and ship build- Fig. 200. 
 ^'"''^^•"'*' ing, furniture, and fuel. Charcoal- ^"--'j-"- 
 burners were continually busy on Mount Parnes, 
 especially in the deme of Acharnae ; from here they car- 
 ried their baskets of coals into the city, where the cry of 
 " Buy coal " (av^paicas irpiui) rose among the other noises of 
 the street. In the country wood (tjipvyava) was burned more 
 often than charcoal ; and Socrates mentions, as one of the 
 advantages of country over town life, the greater abundance 
 of fuel for fires in the winter-time. On the march, too, 
 wood was gathered wherever it could be found, and split- 
 ting wood was one of the ordinary duties of soldiers in camp. 
 Perhaps most harm was done to the forests by shep- 
 herds and goatherds who deliberately burned down trees 
 „ . in order to gain more pasture-land. No fea- 
 
 ture of country life is more prominent in Greek 
 literature than the tending of herds (vo/j-aL) of sheep, goats, 
 and cows. All these are embraced in the term " possessions," 
 ktene (KT^^vrf), so common in the Anabasis, since they were the 
 chief property of man in the primitive, nomadic state. (The 
 larger animals, like oxen and mules, which could be used 
 for drawing loads, were called in general t^yn, or viro^vyia ; 
 the smaller kinds, sheep and goats, were Trpo- 
 t^sZfe ^" ^'^^"' though Trpo/Sara is also used of sheep only ; 
 all, when out in pasture, were Poa-KruxaTa.) From 
 March until September the herds wandered over the higher 
 mountain slopes, tended by a few lonely shepherds (vo/iets. 
 
224 
 
 THE LIFE OP THE ANCIENT GREEKS 
 
 PovKokoi) and their dogs. In winter they were driven back 
 to the folds and stalls in the plains. Perhaps sheep were 
 the most conspicuous among these animals ; their milk, 
 as well as their flesh and fleeces, was constantly required, 
 and great numbers were consumed in sacrifice. Hogs were 
 kept in droves in the open, not confined in a sty. They 
 were to be seen mostly in places like Arcadia, where the 
 
 Fig. 201.— The mountains of Peloponnesus, seen from Nauplia. 
 
 oaks supplied abundant acorns for their food. Horses 
 were raised in droves only where the plains were extensive, 
 as in Thessaly, Argos, Aetolia, and Acarnania. As draft- 
 animals (viro^vyia), mules Were preferred to horses, and the 
 sure-footed ass was indispensable in the mountain districts. 
 Another feature of hill life was the keep- 
 ing of bees (/neXtTxai), a creature whose activity 
 the Greeks viewed with almost religious awe. They were 
 kept in hives (a-fi'^vrj). Attica was as famous for the honey 
 of Hymettus and Brilessus as for her figs and oil. Xeno- 
 
 Bees. 
 
AGRICULTUKB AND GRAZING 
 
 225 
 
 Somestio 
 fowl. 
 
 phon mentions a honey in Colchis which poisoned and in- 
 toxicated his men. 
 
 Other features of country life were of course the domes- 
 tic animals, more abundant there than in the cities. Among 
 
 domestic fowl, geese 
 
 were the favourites, 
 
 especially in Athens, 
 where, like other animals, they 
 were kept in the court (page 27) ; 
 so, too, were cranes, quail, and 
 doves kept mostly as pets (Fig. 
 203), though also eaten. Chick- 
 ens were introduced from the 
 Orient into Greece in the sixth 
 century. The recollection of their 
 origin survived in the name still 
 given the cock (aXcKTpvwv) in the 
 fifth century, which was common- 
 ly "the Persian bird" (o Ilepo-cKos opvis). Pheasants and 
 peacocks were imported as a great curiosity just before 
 the Peloponnesian War. 
 
 Dogs were exceedingly common, both in town and in 
 country. Some of their best-known traits, such as barking 
 
 Fig. 302. — Woman with crane. 
 
 Via. 203. Woman with pet animal (cat '/). 
 
 at strangers and retreating when faced, madness, and the 
 like, are frequently referred to by Xenophon, but it is in 
 15 
 
226 THE LIFE OP THE ANCIENT GREEKS 
 
 Homer, especially in the Odyssey, that we get the best pic- 
 ture of the dog as faithful guardian of master and house. 
 In the house, they lay at their master's feet 
 while he ate, watching a chance to seize the 
 crumbs that fell from the table. They were mostly of the 
 fiercer breeds, and were indispensable in hunting (page 99). 
 Hence they bore such names as Dromas, and Argos, " the 
 fleet," or Harpalos, " quick at catching the scent." Cats 
 were not a domestic animal in Greece, though known to the 
 Greeks as an Egyptian animal. Tame weasels and martens 
 took their place in protecting the storeroom from mice. 
 
CHAPTER XVIII 
 
 THE VARIOUS CALLINGS: MANUFACTURES AND TRADES 
 
 Uanufaotur 
 ing. 
 
 lu' most families, if not in all, a certain amount of 
 manufacture formed part of the household duties. Thus, 
 many kinds of food were cooked at home, 
 though they might also be procured ready to 
 eat from regular dealers in the market. And 
 more than this, the wife still plied her spinning (!Fig. 98), 
 or worked at the loom, as in the days of Homer, or super- 
 intended the slaves while they prepared the wool for spin- 
 ning — washing, beating, pulling, and combing it. 
 
 Manufacture on a large scale, however, grew up in Ath- 
 ens and in other coast cities in the fifth century, increas- 
 ing in the case of Ath- 
 ens the internal wealth 
 which her political pre- 
 eminence had founded. 
 The various artisans (817- 
 /jiLovpyoi) were not united 
 in guilds or corporations 
 until later times ; but 
 a son generally learned 
 and followed his father's 
 trade, and those who were 
 engaged in the same industry occupied the same quarter 
 of the city, thus giving a semblance of organization for 
 mutual protection. Hence a street might be designated 
 as the " street of the sculptors," or the " street of the box- 
 makers," and the like (cf. page 15). The hereditary sys- 
 
 327 
 
 Fig. 204.— Workman (baker 
 
228 
 
 THE LIFE OF THE ANCIENT GREEKS 
 
 tem certainly tended to increase the eflSciency of the work 
 done. Athenian citizens were not taxed or required to pay 
 any license fee for the trade in which 
 they were engaged ; but metics had to 
 pay such a tax, though not otherwise re- 
 stricted. Most metics plied their busi- 
 ness in the Piraeus, where the number 
 of trades was extraordinary, the di- 
 vision of labour in some cases being 
 minute. 
 
 Among the producers of food we no- 
 tice the millers {iJivXwOpoi). These got 
 their grain — 
 wheat, barley, 
 spelt — from 
 Jobbers (o-ito- 
 
 FiG. 205.-Making bread. T"J'^«')> Who 
 
 bought it 
 from farmers of the interior, or 
 more often from the importers 
 
 (e/iTTopoi), whose ships 
 
 had carried it from 
 Pontus. The mill-houses (/xvXS- 
 ves) were supplied with the mills 
 {/jivXm) before described (page 330), 
 and these were turned by horses, 
 mules, oxen, or slaves; the last, 
 however, were set to their task 
 only as a punishment for extreme 
 misbehaviour. 
 
 The millers sold to the bakers 
 {apTOKoiroi), whose houses were furnished with large earthen 
 
 ovens (KpCpavoi) ; in these they baked loaves 
 
 {aprot) of a size and weight fixed by the mar- 
 ket commissioners, besides barley-cakes (/«.Sfai) and differ- 
 ent kinds of sweet cakes. The baker did not always sell 
 
 Pig. 206.— Baker's moulds. 
 
 Bakers. 
 
MAHUFACTURES AND TRADES 
 
 229 
 
 directly to the consumer, but had his wares dispensed in 
 the streets or the market by bread-sellers (dpTOTrolXai). 
 
 The fullers and dyers played an important part in the 
 making and preservation of clothing. Not only did they 
 
 wash and dye (irXwetv) both the ileeces and the 
 f ^I'rs'"^ finished cloth (whence they were called TrXwets 
 
 and (cva(^€ts), but they also attended to the cut- 
 ting of the cloth into shapes suitable for different garments. 
 In the large cities they had establishments with numerous 
 hands, male and female, freemen and slaves. Such tailor- 
 ing establishments rendered much of the domestic cut- 
 ting, fitting, and sewing for the family wardrobe unneces- 
 sary, at least for the rich. The weaving of linen goods 
 was their work exclusively, this being never done at home, 
 
 where wool alone was the material. Some fac- 
 faotories tories made only one kind of garment. Thus, 
 
 one was devoted to the manufacture of the 
 
 chlamys, another made women's 
 
 shawls, while' the Megarians were 
 
 famous for the exomis (page 161). 
 
 Here, too, women's nets and 
 
 other head coverings were made ; 
 
 but men's hats were 
 Hat makerB. ,^ ^ ■ j- i.-u 
 
 the province oi the 
 
 felt manufacturers (TriXo-Trotot), 
 
 who produced travelling-hats (xe- 
 
 Taa-oi) and workmen's caps {kwoi, 
 
 page 166). 
 
 The tanners {^vpcms or ^vpa-o- 
 
 Sei/'at) usually confined themselves 
 
 solely to dressing the leather, but sometimes 
 Leather man- ^-^ added shoemaking to their business. 
 
 Their yards had to be placed outside the city, 
 on account of the bad smell caused in the processes of tan- 
 ning and dressing. The shoemakers (<tkvtot6iwi) were nu- 
 merous in the neighbourhood of the market. 
 
 Pig. 207.— Loom. 
 
230 
 
 THE LIFE OP THE ANCIENT GREEKS 
 
 Personal ornaments, as we saw (page 167), were con- 
 fined to articles of silver, gold, and bronze. The wearing 
 of precious stones was limited in classical 
 times, and the pearl-fisheries of the Aegean, 
 for example, assumed no importance until later. However, 
 gems cut as intaglios or as cameos were used in signet- 
 
 Jewellers. 
 
 Fig. 208.— a shoemaker's shop. 
 
 rings, earrings, and necklaces ; the principal stones were 
 agate, amethyst, chalcedony, and carnelian, and specimens 
 in European museums to-day still testify to the wonderful 
 skill and taste of the artists who carved them. More com- 
 mon than these were gold and silver ornaments. Gold was 
 brought from the East and from Thrace, and fashioned by 
 goldsmiths {xpva-oxooi) into small objects for personal wear. 
 Silver was more plentiful than gold, though its value rela- 
 tive to gold was much greater than it is to-day. The sil- 
 ver-mines (iJ.€TaXXa) at Laurium (page 10) were productive 
 throughout the fifth century^ and jewellers were able to use 
 silver not only for personal ornaments, but also for vases, 
 large mirrors, lamp-stands, and similar articles. 
 
 House-building, under the general supervision of a 
 master builder (oikoSo/aos), called for the labour of workmen 
 
MANQFACTURBS AND TRADES 
 
 231 
 
 engaged in many different occupations. There were first 
 the quarrymen [XxOorofiot.), who cut stone and marble in the 
 
 quarries of Attica, Argolis, Sicily, and elsewher?. 
 Builders and jj-om the quarries (A.aTo/«,iat) derricks (/ai?x<i- 
 
 val XiOayuyyoi) lifted the blocks into the carts 
 in which they were transported to the city. After being 
 shaped and polished by stone-cutters (XiOo^ooi), the blocks 
 were set in place by masons {XiOoXoyoi), who also used sun- 
 dried bricks or plinths of earth for house walls. The tim- 
 ber, supplied by lumbermen (vXoTo/iot) from the woods of 
 Attica and Euboea, was then treated by the carpenters (re'ic- 
 Toves), who made the frames, upper floors, doors, sills, roof- 
 beams, and shelves. The roofers then put on the tiles 
 (/ccjoa/itSes). When a public building was to be erected, an 
 
 MilfflllSlli 
 N / V 
 
 Fio. 209.— At the forge. 
 
 architect (apxtreKTw) was engaged to draw plans and make 
 contracts for the building of the whole structure. 
 "furniture -^^ regards the manufacture of household 
 
 and cabinet- furniture, the division of labour was again car- 
 makers, ried out to a minute degree. Thus, there were 
 door-makers (OvpoiroLoi), whose specialty was the construction 
 of handsome doors and gates, plated with bronze and other 
 
232 
 
 THE LIFE OP THE ANCIENT GREEKS 
 
 Potters. 
 
 metals, which were required in the temples and other large 
 buildings. For beds there were the Kkivcnroioi ; for chairs, 
 the OpovoTToioi ; for chests, the ki^wtottowi; and the round 
 legs of beds, chairs, and tables were the work of the turn- 
 ers {ropvevTax). Workers in iron and bronze {xoXkm) pro- 
 duced the most varied articles of all, ranging from hairpins 
 and mirrors to plates of metal covering walls, doors, or 
 furniture. Among the most noted iron-workers in antiquity 
 were the Ohalybes, a non-Grecian people. 
 
 The needs of housekeeping were met by the extensive 
 pottery trade for which Athens was famous. From an 
 early time the potters (Kepa/tets) inhabited the 
 portion of the city to the northwest, near the 
 Oolonos Agoraios, to which they gave its name, the Cera- 
 meicus (page 9). Attica had clay-pits, especially at Gape 
 Colias (page 3), yielding material which was excellent for 
 its strength and the facility with which it absorbed colour. 
 Almost every kind of vessel made 
 by the Greek potter has fortunately 
 come down to us in numerous speci- 
 mens, ranging from the rough, hand- 
 made crockery of the most ancient 
 period, like that found near Troy, 
 to the splendid urns turned on the 
 potter's wheel and covered with elab- 
 orate paintings which preserve the 
 fame of Attic and Corinthian art- 
 ists, being stamped with their names 
 or trade -marks. Among the pot- 
 ters some devoted themselves to the 
 larger vessels, like the amphora and 
 the chytra (page 134), while others 
 made smaller pitchers, such as the 
 lekythos, the aryballos, the wine pitcher (page 137), and the 
 like. Other workers in clay produced lamps, modelled re- 
 liefs, made small images especially for household worship. 
 
 Pia. 210.— Interior of a 
 pottery furnace. 
 
MANUFACTURES AND TRADES 233 
 
 and dolls (Ko'pai). The last were often made of wax instead 
 of clay. 
 
 To complete the picture of wide and varied industry, 
 we must add the makers of arms and armour : the manu- 
 facturers of shields, spears, bows, knives, hel- 
 
 faoto^r"" '^®*^' ^^^ breast-plates (ao-7rtSo7rotot, koyxoTroioi, 
 TO^OTTOioi, fiaxaifxyiroioi, Kpavmroioi, OwpaKOjrovot.) ; 
 
 and wagon makers {apfjLaToiroioL, 8i<j>poiroioi, 
 
 ^vyoTTOLoi). Thus we see that the large 
 
 cities were centres of active manufactur- 
 ing concerns which, in the beauty and 
 
 adaptability of their products, could well 
 
 compete with their modern successors. 
 
 The growth of factories was favoured 
 
 by the large number of slaves imported fig. 211. 
 
 into these cities, who worked under an ^''(^p"^'^,'"" 
 
 overseer in the workshop (ipyaa-TrjpLov), 
 attached as a rule to the owner's house. The orator Lysias, 
 who was a metic, inherited from his father an armour man- 
 ufactory, which he carried on with his brother Polemarchus, 
 employing one hundred and twenty slaves. 
 
 As regards the condition of the working classes, we see 
 that the citizens who were day labourers (Thetes, to Otjtikov) 
 Occupations resembled closely the slave class, at least in 
 of the poorer the estimation of others who were well-to-do. 
 classes. Their pay was very small — highest perhaps in 
 
 the country, at the time when they were needed in the 
 harvest-field or at the vintage. In town these people were 
 employed as porters, packers in the manufactories— pot- 
 tery was packed in straw, as with us — waiters at banquets. 
 On the sea they served as common sailors ; fishermen and 
 Social posi- herdsmen also belonged to their class, 
 tiou of The class of artisans {Srjfji.iovpyoi) comprised 
 
 artisans. callings which among us are regarded as the 
 
 most dignified professions. Wherever one of these voca- 
 tions was in disrepute, the cause is found in the fact that 
 
234 
 
 THE LIFE OE THE ANCIENT GREEKS 
 
 the person concerned took money for his services, and was 
 to that extent not independent of others. Even the great 
 artists, painters, and sculptors fell under public contempt 
 
 PiQ. 212.— A vaBe-painter'8 studio. 
 
 simply because they earned money. For the same reason, 
 persons belonging to the more conservative element in poli- 
 tics characterized as greed the eagerness of the dicast for 
 
 his daily stipend (page 315). 
 A few artists, like Phidias, 
 are said to have enjoyed the 
 friendship of eminent men 
 of aristocratic birth ; but 
 most of these stories of in- 
 timacy are later exaggera- 
 tions which have not taken 
 into account the conditions 
 of ancient industrial life. In 
 like manner schoolmasters, 
 teachers of music and gym- 
 nastic, sophists, and even 
 physicians were not highly 
 regarded. Poets, however, enjoyed from time immemorial 
 distinction in society, in spite of the fact that they made 
 themselves rich by writing odes for princes or communities 
 who paid them well for their flattery. Actors, as a class, 
 
 Fig. 213.— Painting a cylix. 
 
MANUFACTURES AND TRADES 
 
 285 
 
 were not disdained ; they stood too close to the popular 
 religion and its celebration in the lyric and dramatic per- 
 formances. Opinion about them yaried according to the 
 talents and the personal character of the individual. Pro- 
 fessional athletes, who came into prominence eyen before 
 the Persian "Wars, were petted and extolled by most peo- 
 ple. Thinking men, however, like the poets Xenophanes 
 and Euripides, were disposed to protest against the wor- 
 ship paid to a class who were often brutal, avaricious, and 
 gluttonous, and it is said that Alexander did not regard 
 them as good soldiers. Musical virtuosi, whose elaborate 
 technique began to excite the people at the end of the 
 fifth century, were nevertheless classed with jugglers, 
 sleight-of-hand performers, and others hired for the enter- 
 tainment of guests at a banquet or a public festival. 
 
 In the early days of Greek history there was small 
 opportunity or desire for commercial intercourse. In Ho- 
 mer we hear of seafarers who undertook voy- 
 ages for gain. These were mostly Phoenicians, 
 often little better than pirates or kidnappers ; 
 they were hence called peirdtai {irupaTai) — i. e., adventur- 
 ers, buccaneers. These men brought into Greece Orien- 
 tal products, con- 
 sisting of rich gar- 
 ments and utensils, 
 implements of war, 
 and slaves, which 
 they bartered for 
 the raw products 
 of Greece. It was 
 n ot until the eight h 
 century b. c. that Greek commerce began, being contempo- 
 raneous with the founding of the great colonies by enter- 
 prising cities like Chalcis, Corinth, and Miletus. These 
 remained for a long period the chief centres {i/j-iropia) of 
 oversea commerce, and their harbours were always filled 
 
 Commerce 
 and trade. 
 
 Fig. 314.— Unloading a trading-ship. 
 
236 THE LIFE OP THE ANCIENT GEEEKS 
 
 with merchant vessels (oXicaSes, yavXoi). Corinth became 
 the first commercial city of the Greek mainland, standing, 
 as it did, midway between eastern and western 
 en res o Hellas, and forming the point of connection be- 
 tween the Greeks of the Peloponnesus and of the 
 north. The Phoenician pirate came to be replaced by the 
 Greek trader, emporos {(.fiTropo^). In spite of the fact that the 
 emporos was often a man of ability and experience, widened 
 by foreign travel, he was yet not regarded with such high 
 esteem as the large manufacturer ; for the latter simply in- 
 vested his capital and left the actual work to overseers and 
 stigma at- slaves. To the emporos attached some of the . 
 taohed to stigma of personal labour {avrovpy ia), since, as 
 trade. goods were never sent on an order, he was 
 
 obliged to journey to all parts of the trading world, and 
 was to that extent a labourer. And yet even he enjoyed 
 higher repute than the petty retail dealer (Ka'jrijAos), whose 
 sedentary life, trivial gains, and reputation for avarice and 
 haggling made him an object of contempt. Especially 
 were the women and girls who plied a small retail trade 
 in the markets under popular disfavour ; but they could 
 hold their own against the most presuming customer by 
 their Billingsgate. 
 
 The importer, on arriving at his destination, sought 
 out his customers, either personally or through agents, and 
 
 showed them samples (Sety/Aara) of his cargo 
 The market in /njvj/ xv/ \tt 
 
 an emporion. (called ra aywyt/ta or yavXiKa xpwo-Ta). In large 
 
 cities a special place, called the deigma (Seiyfia), 
 
 was set apart for this purpose. The Attic deigma was in 
 
 the Piraeus, and formed a sort of Exchange, where all kinds 
 
 of business and speculation were carried on. The retail 
 
 dealers selected their wares (to. <Si/ta) and displayed them 
 
 for sale on tables; their booths (o-Kijvat) were in or near 
 
 the agora. These booths were sometimes made of wicker, 
 
 whence they were called gerra (yippa), the name which was 
 
 applied also to the railings of the same material by which 
 
MANUFACTURES AND TRADES 
 
 237 
 
 they were surrounded. Persons who were not citizens paid 
 to the market commissioners (ayopavd/toi) a market toll or 
 license for the privilege of a site. The wares, especially if 
 they happened to be articles of food, were displayed on plat- 
 ters (irtVaKEs), which covered the tables (eXcoi). So great 
 did the throng of tradespeople in the agora become by the 
 middle of the fifth century, that many of the administra- 
 
 ■Weighing goods for shipment, 
 
 tive ofiBces were removed to other parts of the city. But, as 
 we have before seen (page 14), the centre of the agora was 
 kept free for the groups of citizens who spent their morn- 
 ings there. The porticoes or colonnades (o-roat) which 
 lined the sides served as comfortable strolling places when 
 the sun was high or when there came a burst of drenching 
 rain, such as is apt to fall in Athens in the springtime. 
 
238 THE LIFE OP THE ANCIENT GREEKS 
 
 Portions of these colonnades were later appropriated by 
 tradespeople, who gave to them much the appearance of an 
 Oriental bazaar ; but in classical times their booths were in 
 the open air, protected, when their goods were perishable, 
 by a kind of awning (a-KidSeiov). The retailers (KairrjXoi), 
 
 like the manufacturers, were grouped together 
 ,**" according to their wares. Thus, one portion of 
 
 the agora would be assigned to the wine-dealers, 
 and their district (kukAos) would be spoken of as " the wine " 
 (in the phrase cis tov olvov) ; another was assigned to lamp- 
 sellers ; another to cheese-sellers, and so on. The phrases 
 
 " at the pots," " at the slaves," " at the books " 
 
 Divisions of / , v / , k > ^ , ^ . v o oi ' \ :„ 
 
 ., , . ^ets Tas p^urpas, ets ra avopaTTOoa, eis ra pipMa) in- 
 
 dicated respectively where one might buy pot- 
 tery, slaves, and books. The master of the house, accompa- 
 nied by a slave, did the marketing, sometimes calling in a 
 porter to help carry his purchases home. Later, the mar- 
 keting was entrusted to a special slave, called the agorastes 
 (ayopaoTj^s). The poorer classes, of course, did their own 
 marketing, and had the disagreeable habit of carrying their 
 money in their mouths. All this business was transacted 
 early in the morning, the forenoon being called the time 
 of full market [inpi irX-qOova-av ayopdv, page 340). 
 
 Many wares were hawked about the streets. The dealer 
 
 carried his table (eXeos) in front of him by means of straps 
 
 attached to his shoulders. Thus the streets 
 
 S1;T66t 
 
 venders. *^^ ^ ^^^^ morning would be full of hiicksters 
 
 calling out their goods — the sausage-sellers, 
 
 pease-porridge-sellers, the charcoal-burner, and the farmer 
 
 bringing his goat's milk from the country. 
 
 In comparatively late times there was erect- 
 
 mtnt™f*time' ^^ ^* *^® southern end of the market, where 
 it still stands to-day, a building now known 
 
 as the Horologium, or Tower of the Winds, a restoration 
 
 of which is shown in Fig. 216. It is nearly octagonal, each 
 
 of the sides bearing reliefs representing the winds coming 
 
MANUFACTURES AND TRADES 
 
 239 
 
 Clocks. 
 
 from eight different points of the compass. A bronze Tri- 
 ton once surmounted the slightly conical roof, and showed 
 the townspeople by its revolving the direction of the wind. 
 The edifice also had two contrivances for showing the time 
 of day. One, inside the building, was a water-clock {KXixj/v- 
 Spa), fed by water from a spring on the Acro- 
 polis. The water trickled through small open- 
 ings from one vessel 
 into another. On the 
 outside was a sun-dial 
 
 (yv(il/«.(ov, opoXoyiov). 
 
 This building was 
 probably the succes- 
 sor of less elaborate 
 instruments used in 
 the classical period for 
 telling the time. In 
 some sunny place a 
 perpendicular staff 
 was erected and the 
 length of its shadow, 
 marked off in feet into 
 twelve parts, deter- 
 mined roughly the 
 time of day. In the 
 court-room, as we have 
 seen, and probably in 
 private houses, the 
 
 clepsydra was regularly employed. Here a given quantity 
 of water represented a certain amount of time ; but by none 
 of these methods could the hour of the day be found with 
 accuracy, and on a cloudy day, of course, the dial was use- 
 less. The twelve divisions on the dial or water- 
 Times of day. ^^^^-^^ marking off the natural day into twelve 
 parts, would be shorter in winter than in summer. These 
 divisions, therefore, were comparatively unimportant to the 
 
 Fig. 816.— The " Tower of the Winds.' 
 
240 THE LIFE OP THE ANCIENT GREEKS 
 
 easy-going Greek, and it is not until late times that the 
 word hora (&pa) is used in the sense of "hour." Hence we 
 meet with the vaguest expressions indicating time. In 
 Homer the day has only three parts: ^ais, from sunrise 
 until the forenoon; ft.€a-ov ^/*ap, noon; and M\ri, evening. 
 By Xenophon's time more specific terms had been devised, 
 but even these were general and uncertain in range. In 
 the Anabasis we find these divisions: First, there is the 
 time just before dawn (eois), indicated by the words opOpo's, 
 or Trpb fip.ipa's, or irpos ■qp.ipav. Sunrise is denoted by a/^a rfj 
 7j/Aepa and a/ia rjXiia dvixovTi or avwreWovTi. The morning 
 is in general ewdev or irpu, the middle of the forenoon be- 
 ing a/jujA dyopav irki^Oovcrav or irepl TrX/^Oova-av ayopdv. Then 
 comes noon, which is fiea-ov ly/^epas. The word )«,e(r?;/Aj8pta, 
 
 so common in other writers for "noon," happens always 
 to mean "south" in the Anabasis. The afternoon {hiCkyj) 
 was generally divided into two parts, early and late ; for 
 the latter Xenophon uses the word oi/^e, and the context 
 in other places shows that by MXrj he generally means the 
 early evening. Sunset and evening are expressed in a 
 great variety of phrases : 17X10^ 8vcr/tat and a/xa rjkm Swovti ; 
 " supper-time," d^K^c SopTrrja-rov ; " evening," ia-n-epa. Finally 
 comes night, the beginning of which is denoted by d/*<^i 
 Ki/e<^as. In army life the night (vv^) was divided into 
 watches, (jivkaKai; midnight is /^eo-ai vvktcs. 
 
 To the ordinary frequenter of the market, these divi- 
 sions of the day and night, with the crude dial or water- 
 clock for measuring them, were of less importance than the 
 other divisions of time into months and years. The time 
 of day he could gauge with satisfactory ac- 
 ?h^m*nth^ curacy by glancing at the sun; but to know 
 the day of the month — what day was lucky or 
 unlucky, what required a sacrifice to some divinity, which 
 was the last day of the month, the day for settling with 
 creditors — all this concerned him deeply. 
 
 In general, the Greeks were content to divide the year 
 
MANUFACTURES AND TRADES 
 
 241 
 
 The Greek 
 year. 
 
 into three seasons — spring (eap), summer {depo's), and winter 
 (xet/twv), sometimes adding other designations, like oTrwpa, 
 late summer, and aporos, ploughing-time. Un- 
 fortunately for the Greek calendar, the year 
 was based on the phases of the moon instead 
 of the course of the sun. Each year consisted normally of 
 twelve lunar months, a number which could be made to 
 fit only approximately with one revolution of the earth 
 round the sun. Consequently, it was necessary to devise 
 cycles of years, with intercalary days and months, to make 
 the revolutions of the sun and the moon correspond. The 
 months (/n^ves) were given thirty and twenty-nine days alter- 
 nately ; and in every cycle of eight years — the one adopted 
 in Athens — three months were intercalated, one in the third 
 year, one in the fifth, and one in the last. Even this was by 
 no means accurate, and Aristophanes makes the moon com- 
 plain of her treatment at the hands of the Athenians, since 
 the calendar had become so confused that the festivals of 
 the gods were occurring at wrong times in the year. The 
 civil year began with the first new moon after the summer 
 solstice, the first month usually corresponding 
 with the last week of June and the greater 
 part of July. The names which are given in 
 the following table answer only roughly to our months; 
 each Attic month embraces a varying portion of two of ours. 
 
 The Attio 
 months. 
 
 Hekatombaion 
 
 'VKoron^amv 
 
 July. 
 
 Metageitnion 
 
 McrayciTvioiv 
 
 August. 
 
 Boedromion 
 
 Bor]bpojiia>v 
 
 September. 
 
 Pyanopsion 
 
 U.vavo>\na)V 
 
 October. 
 
 Maimakterion 
 
 MatfiaKTTjptav 
 
 November. 
 
 Poseideon 
 
 IIo(TeiSea>v 
 
 December. 
 
 Gamelion . 
 
 TaiJ.Tj\ta>v 
 
 January. 
 
 Anthesterion 
 
 ' Avdea-TrfpLav 
 
 February. 
 
 Elaphebolion 
 
 'EXa^rj^oXiav 
 
 March. 
 
 Mounichion 
 
 Movvtx'''^^ 
 
 April. 
 
 Thargelion 
 
 eapyrjKimv 
 
 May. 
 
 Skirophorion 
 
 'S.KipOf^opiiiV 
 
 June. 
 
 16 
 
 
 
242 THE LIFE OF THE ANCIENT GREEKS 
 
 The meaning of some of these names is lost in obscu- 
 rity, but it is certain that all are derived from some god or 
 festival, like the modern names for the days of the week. 
 Gamelion, the marriage month (page 121), was sacred to 
 Hera Gamelia, goddess of marriage. Poseideon belonged 
 to Poseidon, and Maimakterion to an ancient cult of Zeus. 
 The first day of the month was called "the new moon" 
 (vovfirivia), and was often set as a date for paying debts; 
 the last day had a double appellation, and was known as 
 the "old and new" {evr] koX via), since the change in the 
 moon's phase on that day marked the end of the old month 
 and the beginning of the new. There was no division into 
 weeks; instead, the month was divided into thirds, with 
 reference to the waxing and the waning moon. The sec- 
 ond of the month, for example, would be spoken of as the 
 " second in the first part of the month " {Sevripa firjvos hrra- 
 fLivov) ; the twelfth would be the " second in the middle 
 part " {Sevrepa /iecrowTos), while in the last part of the month 
 (/A1JV0S (jiOivovTCK) the days were generally counted from the 
 end. 
 
 Years were not dated from any fixed era, but were 
 
 named from prominent officials : in Athens, the first archon 
 
 (o a.px<i>v) gave his name to the year, and an 
 
 Athenian document would be sufficiently dated, 
 
 for example, by the words " in the archonslvp of Callias " 
 
 (etti KaAAtov apxovTot;). In Argos, the year was named from 
 
 the priestess of Hera; in Sparta, from the chief ephor. 
 
 Once in a while a historian could recall a date by reference 
 
 to the victory of some famous athlete at Olympia ; but the 
 
 practice of dating events by Olympiads, beginning with 
 
 the year 776 b. c, was not in vogue among Greeks of the 
 
 classical period (page 105). 
 
 eig ts and Besides the aqoranomoi (ayopavouou see page 
 
 measures. "^ \ i r i ^ x o 
 
 30), there were other market officials, the in- 
 spectors of weights and measures (p-erpovofwi), who were 
 charged with the keeping of the standard weights and 
 
MANUFACTURES AND TRADES 
 
 243 
 
 Linear 
 measure 
 
 Fig. 817.— An official weight. 
 
 measures preserved in the Tholos for the convenience of 
 merchants. In case of dispute, the measure or weight in 
 question was brought before them, 
 and if found correct was stamped 
 with their official mark. 
 
 The principal linear measures 
 were the foot (ttous), the cubit (n-^- 
 XDs), and the fathom 
 (opyvLo). The foot va- 
 ried slightly in length 
 in different parts of Greece ; so that 
 there were three standards — the 
 Attic, the Olympic, and the Aeginetan. Since, however, 
 Attic commerce was predominant in all parts of Hellas 
 by the last quarter of the fifth century, the Athenian 
 standard, both for weights and measures, was familiar to 
 all Greeks, and we may use that as our standard here. 
 The Attic foot, as d-etermined by measurements of the cella 
 of the Parthenon, which was called the Hekatompedon (page 
 51), was 395.7 millimetres, or about 11.65 inches ; one and 
 one-half feet made a cubit, four cubits made a fathom, 
 one hundred fathoms, or six hundred feet, made a sta- 
 dion (oraSioi/). The following table gives more details : 
 
 2 haKTvkoi (finger-breadths) = 1 KovhvKos (knuckle). 
 
 2 KovbvKoi = 1 TraXaoTij (palm). 
 
 4 TToKaarai ^ 16 SwctvKoi = 1 wovs (foot). 
 
 IJ TToSey = 1 TTrjXVi (cubit). 
 
 4 Trfjxeis ^ 6 TToSfs = 1 opyvid (fathom). 
 16f opyvial — 100 TToSer = 1 ir\i6pov (plethrum). 
 
 6 ifkedpa ^ 600 Ttobes ^ 1 arahiov. 
 30 o-rdSta = 1 napaa-ayyrjs (parasang). 
 
 The parasang was a Persian measure, equivalent to 3.31 
 miles. The stadion (o-raStov) was the length of one side of 
 a race-course, and measured at Athens 583 feet 6 inches. 
 The half-plethrum {rip,i7rXe6pov) is also mentioned by Xeno- 
 phon, in addition to the TroSes, ir^x"^) ^^^ a-rdSux. given above. 
 
244 THE LIFE OP THE ANCIENT GREEKS 
 
 In liquid measure, used in measuring oil and wine, the 
 
 units are the hyathos {KvaOoi), the kotyU {kot-vXtj), the chous 
 
 (xoCs), and the 
 
 ™».=„^„ amphoreus (au,- 
 
 measure. -^ ^ ' 
 
 (jioptv's) or me- 
 tretes {ixerprj-rq';). It vill be 
 noticed that many of these 
 names correspond to the 
 names of certain earthen- 
 ware vessels in common use 
 
 (pages 134, 137). The kya- j,,^, gis.-Kotyios or kotyie. 
 
 thos held nearly one-tenth 
 
 of a pint, the chous about six pints, the amphoreus a little 
 over ten gallons. The following table will show the relation : 
 
 6 Kvadoi = 1 KorvKr] (.578 pint, U. S. liquid measure). 
 13 KoTvXai = 1 xo^^ (3.468 quarts). 
 12 x°^^ = 1 afi<f>opevs OT fxiTpriTris {10 A+ gallons). 
 
 In dry measure, used especially for grain, the 
 Dry measure. -■ ■ ±- i i. j-js i. 
 
 denommations are somewhat diiierent : 
 
 6 KvaSoi = 1 kotvXtj (.49 pint, U. S. dry measure). 
 
 4 KoTvXat = 1 x"'"'? (-99 quart). 
 48 xo'wKfs = 1 pihip-vos (1.49-1- bushels). 
 
 The kyathos and the kotyie are each the same in Greek 
 dry and liquid measure, but must be represented by unequal 
 numerals on account of the difference between XJ. S. liquid 
 and dry measure. Bread was measured by the choenix ; a 
 loaf measuring three was appropriated by the greedy Arca- 
 dian at Seuthes's feast. The medimnos contained nearly a 
 bushel and a half. 
 
 Familiar ob j ects in the market-place were the scales, or bal- 
 ance (called o-Ttt^os). This consisted of a beam (^u-yov), from 
 
 the ends of which hung the scale-pans (raXavTa, 
 The scales . 
 
 ■7rXao-riyye),suspendedbychains. Thebeammight 
 
 be held in the hand by means of a ring in the centre ; or, when 
 
 heavy articles were to be weighed, it might turn on a pivot 
 
 permanently fixed. This kind was called trytane (TpvTdvri). 
 
MANUPACTURBS AND TRADES 245 
 
 The talent {rdXavTov), of Babylonian origin, was the 
 heaviest weight, and the one on which all the other de- 
 nominations were based. It varied greatly at 
 Weights. difEerent times and in different places. In 
 
 Attica, in the fifth century, the talent used as the standard 
 for weighing precious metals, drugs, and the like, amounted 
 to about 57.8 pounds. It was divided into sixty minae of 
 one hundred drachmas each. These are also the names of 
 certain money denominations, which we will consider next. 
 
 Fig. 219.— Scales (riKarrix). 
 
 The invention of coined money is ascribed to the Lydians, 
 and is unknown in Homer, where purchases are made by bar- 
 Currency in tsr. Cattle and horses were given in exchange 
 the Greek for other commodities, and sometimes gold, sil- 
 markets. ygr, and bronze were offered in payment, their 
 
 value being determined by weight. Hence it happens that 
 the denominations of weight and of money coincide, and the 
 talent and the mina always remained a weight of money, 
 not a denomination coined in one piece. Into the Attic 
 market came many coins of different states and systems of 
 values— the Euboean, the Corinthian, or the Aeginetan, 
 the copper coins of Western Hellas, the gold of the Eastern 
 
246 
 
 THE LIFE OP THE ANCIENT GREEKS 
 
 Fig. 220.— Attic drachma. 
 
 Money. 
 
 cities and of Persia. The money-changers were kept busy 
 counting out the regular Attic currency in exchange for 
 
 what was brought by foreign 
 merchants from other markets. 
 While the Athenians had a few 
 denominations in gold, such as 
 the small hede {Ikti), 
 Fig. 221), the stand- 
 ard was based in the 
 main on silver. In concluding bargains it was 
 necessary to specify whether the money {xPVH^'^'^) 
 was to be paid in gold or silver. If 
 in the former, it was called chrysion 
 {■)(pv(Tiov); if in the latter, argyrion (apyvpiov). 
 But these words are also used of money in gen- 
 eral. The drachma was the most common unit 
 of exchange. Eeckoned according to the value 
 of silver in the United States, it was worth about eighteen 
 cents. The chief divisions are the obol (Fig. 191), two-obol, 
 and three-obol pieces. In the following table the values are 
 throughout only approximate, and the superior purchasing 
 power of money in ancient times must be considered in 
 trying to iix modern equivalents. 
 
 8 p^oXkoI (bronze) = 1 o/3oXof = 3 cents. 
 
 6 o/3oXot (silver or copper) = 1 Spa^/irj = 18 cents. 
 100 Spax/ial (silver) = 1 pvd (a weight, not a 
 
 coin = 18 dollars). 
 60 p,vat = 1 ToKavTov (^1,080 
 
 dollars) . 
 
 Beside these were the following : The half -obol {fj/juoi- 
 p6Xiov) ; the shekel (o-tyXos), familiar to the Asiatic Greeks, 
 and worth, according to Xenophon, seven and 
 one-half obols ; the daric (SapeiKos), a Persian 
 gold coin, the name of which is wrongly connected with 
 Darius, worth twenty drachmas ; the half-daric (ly/tiSapeiKov) ; 
 and the Cyzicene stater (Kv^iK-qvoi, sc. a-TaTrjp), a coin of the 
 
 Table of 
 Attic money 
 
 Other coins. 
 
MANUFACTURES AND TRADES 
 
 247 
 
 FiG.t-,222. — Attic tetradrachma. 
 
 The mints. 
 
 mixed metal called electrum, consisting of gold and silver, 
 which was used by the Lydians before silver and gold were 
 coined separately. The stater of Cyzicus, a city on the 
 Hellespont, was worth about twenty-eight Attic drachmas. 
 There were also in 
 Attica the didrachma 
 and the tetradrach- 
 ma, pieces of two and 
 four drachmas respec- 
 tively. 
 
 Almost every Greek 
 city possessed and ex- 
 ercised the right to 
 
 coin money. The public mint (dpyvpoKOTrewv 
 Sriiwa-iov), like every other state building, was 
 intimately associated with some god, and temples were 
 often banks of deposit ; in early Solonian times the Athe- 
 nian mint was in the temple of a hero called the " Crown- 
 wearer" (o ST£<^aj')?^opos). Greek coinage was in general 
 kept pure down to the third or second century ; but there 
 were not want- 
 ing individual 
 counterfeit- 
 ers, who made 
 coins of de- 
 based metal 
 
 coin clippers, 
 who decreased 
 their value by 
 
 weight. " Piat " money, or money made of material having 
 Purity of ^° intrinsic value, was circulated from time to 
 early Greek time. Thus Dionysius, tyrant of Syracuse, 
 coinage. forced upon his subjects tin coins, which he com- 
 
 pelled them to receive as tetradrachmas, although they were 
 worth no more than a drachma ; and in the second century 
 
 Fig. 223.— Silver tetradrachma of Laconia. 
 
248 THE LIFE OP THE ANCIENT GREEKS 
 
 the government of Boeotia made drachmas of copper, which 
 it required to pass as legal tender of the value of a silver 
 drachma, though the weight of both was the same. Byzan- 
 tium, Sparta, and some other Peloponnesian cities used iron 
 money. It is said that the Spartans and the Carthaginians 
 used pieces of leather, the nearest approach to the modern 
 use of paper money ; both arise from a desire to lessen the 
 weight of the circulating medium, it being understood that 
 the valueless medium might be at any time exchanged for 
 the real money which it represented. This was the case 
 with the smaller copper coins in Greece, which, as with us 
 to-day, had only a nominal worth, being admittedly of less 
 weight than their face value demanded. 
 
 The price (tiix.-^) of articles in the market was rarely 
 fixed, but had to be arrived at through much haggling and 
 
 bargaining, often loud-voiced and acrimonious. 
 
 The Attic law, however, endeavoured to exer- 
 cise some restraint in relation to grain products and a few 
 others, since it was apt to regard a rise in price, even when 
 due to natural causes, as evidence of conspiracy against the 
 people. Most Greeks looked on Athens as an expensive 
 place to live in, but as compared with modern prices the 
 majority of commodities were cheap, because of the greater 
 scarcity of money and the relatively larger supply of some 
 goods, notably wine. In Solon's time, an ox cost only five 
 drachmas, a sheep only one ; in the later fifth century, 
 prices rose much higher, and a lamb cost eight drachmas, 
 while sheep were worth from ten to twenty drachmas, ac- 
 cording to age, size, and breed, and an ox might cost as 
 high as a mina, though generally much less. Xenophon 
 sold his favourite horse for fifty darics, or about ten minae. 
 The average price of a medimnos of wheat was probably 
 three drachmas ; but in war-time it, of course, mounted 
 rapidly, sometimes increasing at the rate of a drachma a 
 day ; barley usually cost less than wheat. Xenophon says 
 that grain was so scarce at one point in the march across 
 
MANUFACTURES AND TRADES 249 
 
 the Mesopotamian desert that two choenixes of either wheat 
 or barley cost four shekels, or thirty obols. This would 
 make the price of a medimnos of wheat one hundred and 
 twenty drachmas, considerably over a dollar and a half 
 a bushel. Bread was sold in loaves costing an obol, their 
 size varying according to the price of grain. The expensive 
 wine of Chios was worth a mina an amphoreus ; but twenty 
 drachmas an amphoreus, or forty cents a gallon, was re- 
 garded as an extravagant price to pay for ordinary wine. 
 The cost of clothes and shoes was cheap or not according to 
 the value of sheep and oxen ; an inexpensive exomis (page 
 161), the garment of working people, was sold for ten 
 drachmas, and shoes, unless very highly ornamented, could 
 be had for two drachmas. The average cost of living may 
 be further guessed from the wages paid in cer- 
 tain vocations. The Greeks enlisted under Cy- 
 rus originally for a daric a month ; later, their pay was in- 
 creased to a daric and a half, or about a drachma a day. Cap- 
 tains (Aoxayot) got double this sum, and generals (crT/jan/yoi) 
 foiirfold. The offer of a cyzicene (page 246) a month for a 
 soldier's services was regarded as reasonable, and the aged di- 
 cast was glad enough to receive his two or three obols a day. 
 Cripples pensioned by the state subsisted on an obol daily. 
 Bankers (TpaTre^frai.) belonged, in the popular estima- 
 tion, to the class of wholesale merchants (ifji-iropot), although 
 
 they, like 
 
 Banks. ,-■ -n 
 
 the small 
 
 dealers, naturally had 
 
 their tables (rpaTre^ai) 
 
 in one corner of the 
 
 market - place. They 
 
 were most- 
 Money- 1 , . 
 
 changers. ^ ^^^^t'lCS Fia. 284.— Silver coin of Elis, 
 
 or f reed- 
 men. Their business had a threefold nature. First, they 
 were money-changers, taking foreign currency in exchange 
 
250 THE LIFE OV THE ANCIENT GREEKS 
 
 for the local ; for this they charged brokerage. ^Vith their 
 scales they weighed the coins offered to them, in order to 
 detect any that lacked the legal weight ; and they tested 
 the genuineness of the metal by its ring. They were them- 
 selves notorious for sharp practices and wilful mistakes in 
 
 reckoning. Secondly, they were money-lenders 
 1 °^^^" (SavewTTat), ready, but always at a usurious rate, 
 
 to accommodate the spendthrift son of some 
 rich house. The rate of interest was not fixed, or even 
 limited, by law, and ran as high as twelve or eighteen per 
 cent. If the money borrowed was to be invested in what 
 was considered a hazardous enterprise, as in foreign car- 
 goes, the interest might be as high as a third of the prin- 
 cipal. The borrower signed a receipt, subscribed to by 
 witnesses, and gave a pledge of two kinds. One was the 
 hand-shake, a more formal ceremony than among us ; this 
 was called the enechyron (ivix^pov). The other was the bond 
 {iyyvrjo-i's), by which security was offered, such as land or 
 other property, and which constituted a mortgage (viroOi^Kri) 
 on the property until the debt was repaid. Third, the banker 
 received money on deposit {irapaKaraOriKr)). But more often, 
 in classical times, the owner entrusted his money to a 
 friend, or placed it in the keeping of a god in a temple. 
 Sometimes, too, he hid it in jars (vSpiai) in the earth, a 
 fortunate custom which has been the means of increasing 
 widely our knowledge of Greek coinage. 
 
CHAPTEE XIX 
 
 TRAVEL AND HOSPITALITY 
 
 With the increase in trade and the numerous military 
 and colonial enterprises undertaken across the Aegean in 
 the filth century, there grew a desire for travel 
 and exploration such as had never before ex- 
 isted in the heart of the Greek. Socrates speaks of himself 
 as an extraordinary exception, when he tells us that he had 
 never left Athens in all his seventy years except on military 
 duty. 
 
 Yet, with all the increase in travel at this period, the 
 difficulties in the way were considerable. Outside his own 
 state the Greek could claim no rights, either 
 travel political or personal, and one government sel- 
 
 dom held another to account for the life of a 
 citizen travelling in a private capacity. The word xenos 
 (feVos), which is related to the Latin hostis, discloses the 
 ancient suspicion that attached to a foreigner. It meant 
 originally not only " stranger," but also " enemy " ; and 
 even at a later day, when, through long-standing traditions 
 of hospitality, it had come also to mean "guest" and 
 " friend," race prejudice continued to subject the voyager 
 to disdain. This explains why banishment {4>vyv) seemed 
 to the Greeks as severe a punishment as death. It made 
 Attitude ^^^ ^^ outlaw, whose life might be taken with 
 
 toward impunity by any one he met. Friendless as he 
 
 strangers. ^a,s, he could receive no kindness from a host 
 without bringing danger on the latter. Hence Euripides 
 comments with feeling on the host's dislike of an exiled 
 
 251 
 
252 
 
 THE LIFE OP THE ANCIENT GREEKS 
 
 guest. And yet, even as early as Homer, we know that the 
 hard lot of the traveller was mitigated by religious feeling 
 and by an instinctive hospitality, which he shared, and still 
 shares, with the Oriental. Eeligious feeling placed the 
 wanderer at least under the care of Zeus, Protector of 
 Strangers (Zeirs feVtos), and an appeal in his name usually 
 broke down the barrier of dislike. Not only was he suc- 
 cessfully invoked by fugitives, criminal or otherwise, who 
 came as suppliants (iKcVai) to clasp the knees or touch the 
 beard of a host, but 
 
 and tramps {aXrJTai) 
 with no fixed home were, through 
 Zeus, entitled to temporary shel- 
 ter and food. Savage tribes who, 
 like the Thracians of Bithynia, 
 maltreated shipwrecked sailors 
 were classed as " inhospitable "' 
 (afevoi), along with the cruel 
 Laestrygones and the Cyclopes of 
 the Odyssey. Once a stranger 
 had been received at a foreign- 
 er's table (o/torpaTTe^os), and par- 
 taken of his "bread and salt," 
 he was ever after supposed to be 
 entitled to his host's protection. 
 Athens, since the days of Peri- 
 cles, enjoyed a reputation for distinguished hospitality (^i- 
 A.o^£via), in contrast to Sparta, which suffered the odium 
 of excluding foreigners (fevijXao-ia). 
 
 Sometimes the owner of a house in lonely 
 districts built special apartments (fei/wrts), in 
 which he received (iSex^To) and entertained 
 (iievL^e) all strangers who might come, offering them at 
 least shelter and fire. If they made a long stay, they pro- 
 vided their own food, inviting the host to partake with 
 
 Fig. 295. — ^Wayside fountain. 
 
 Treatment 
 of g'uests. 
 
TRAVEL AND HOSPITALITY 
 
 253 
 
 Presents. 
 
 them. To his inTitation, "Enter!" or "I invite you to 
 my hospitality," the grateful answer would be, " 1 accept " 
 (Sexo/Aai). Among the Thracians, guest and host greeted 
 and pledged each other with wine, or sometimes they 
 clasped hands (cf. page 182). On taking leave, which 
 was done in a courteous, formal manner, guest 
 and host interchanged presents, xenia d^evta), a 
 word which was applied also to the entertainment furnished 
 while the stay lasted. Thereafter, both host and guest 
 stood in the relation of xenoi (^eVoi) to each other, a word 
 which has no ex- 
 act equivalent in 
 our language, and 
 is best rendered 
 by " friend " or 
 "guest" (page 
 351). The xenia, 
 which were often 
 mere symbols, 
 such as a signet- 
 ring {cr<j)pa.yk. Fig. 
 153), were treas- 
 ured as heir- 
 looms, and were 
 
 brought out and displayed hy the owners whenever they 
 sought to renew the friendship. 
 
 As travel increased, this primitive hospitality was pos- 
 sible only among the rich or among princes like Gyrus, who 
 maintained this relation with Aristippus of 
 Thessaly and Proxenus of Boeotia. Some 
 prominent citizen of a foreign country, there- 
 fore, was chosen by a state to protect its citizens while in 
 that country. These persons were called proxenoi {irpo^evoi, 
 page 64) ; they differed from modern consuls in that they 
 were citizens of the country in which they resided and 
 exercised their function. Thus Cimon was the proxenos 
 
 Fig. 386.— Gneat and host (Telemachus receiving 
 parting gifts from Nestor). 
 
 Proteotion of 
 foreigners. 
 
254 
 
 THE LIFE OF THE ANCIENT GREEKS 
 
 of Sparta at Athens, and the first duty of a Spartan who 
 had business to transact in Athens would be to seek him 
 and secure his interest. 
 
 The necessity of having regular inns soon 
 arose. Caravansaries, which supplied shelter and a bed- 
 stead, were erected at public cost in places like Olympia, 
 
 Inns. 
 
 Fig. 227.— Playing draughts. 
 
 Delphi, and Delos, to which crowds flocked on the occasion 
 of the national religious celebrations ; sometimes, also, in 
 the emporia, where mer- 
 chants resorted. In the 
 larger cities there were 
 taverns in the modern 
 sense, though much 
 more primitive in char- 
 acter than a hotel of 
 northern Europe or the 
 United States. There 
 
 were two 
 Two kinds. i • j i.-u 
 kinds — the 
 
 KWTrrjXela and the iravSo- 
 
 Kua. The first were nothing but drinking saloons and 
 gambling resorts connected with a wine-seller's shop, pro- 
 
 FiG. 228.— Woman juggler. 
 
TRAVEL AND HOSPITALITY 
 
 255 
 
 ■Juggler and acrobat. 
 
 Tiding luncheon, but no shelter for the night. They cor- 
 responded to the cheaper sort of restaurant, and were 
 avoided by respectable people. The second (TravSoKeia) 
 were, perhaps, a little better. They afforded both lodging 
 and board, and were frequented by travellers of social con- 
 sequence, unless they 
 happened to enjoy the 
 acquaintance (fevia) of 
 some one living in the 
 city. Inns were kept by 
 both men and women 
 
 (TravSoKcts, TravBoKevrpiai), 
 
 who in Athens were usu- 
 ally metics. They some- 
 times tried to make their 
 resorts more attractive by amusements, such as dicing (kd- 
 jSeia). Specimens of dice (xv/Sot, cf. Fig. 330), some unfairly 
 loaded, have come down to us. Another sport of the tav- 
 ern was cock-fighting and quail-fighting ; and jugglers, 
 tight-rope dancers, marionette-players, and keepers of wild 
 animals, especially mon- 
 keys {irW-qKOi), were all K^prjql 
 encouraged to exhibit 
 here. 
 
 Tavern signs appear 
 not to have come into 
 use before Roman times. 
 We have considered 
 some of the hindrances 
 to travel ; others will 
 come into view pres- 
 
 FiG. 330.— Bones need as dice. 
 
 View 
 
 ently. Aside from them, the motives to travel 
 were few, being confined chiefly to the desire 
 to further one's business — in commerce, state- 
 craft, or what not — or to attendance at some one of the 
 religious concourses. The games at the national festivals 
 
 Occasions for 
 travel. 
 
256 
 
 THE LIFE OF THE ANCIENT GREEKS 
 
 (page 100), with the pomp of gorgeous ritual at the sanc- 
 tuaries where they were celebrated, induced many persons 
 every year to brave the dangers of a journey. Citizens were 
 sent out by the several states to represent them at these 
 spectacles in delegations called 6eo>pLai. These were held 
 ordinarily (but see page 101) in the late spring or the sum- 
 mer, when travel, in spite of the heat, was easi- 
 est. Journeys were rarely undertaken in win- 
 ter, especially on the water. Or again, a sick 
 man might take even greater risks in order to 
 reach some celebrated precinct where the gods 
 of healing were known to work wonderful cures. 
 On such an errand he would travel to the cave 
 of Trophonius in Thessaly, or to the temple of 
 Asclepius at Epidaurus (see page 288). Some- 
 times a family of women and children would 
 be sent away for protection during a period 
 of political disturbance in the city. But sel- 
 dom did pleasure form the chief end in view 
 when a man set out from home to journey in 
 another country. City folk who owned estates 
 in the country doubtless spent their summers 
 there (cf. Oepi^w, used of the Persian king in 
 the Anabasis) ; Socrates speaks of the benefits 
 gained by children in the country. But Greek 
 cities never witnessed the wholesale summer migration of 
 families into the country, much less to foreign lands, 
 which characterizes our modern civilization. 
 
 When a Greek started to go abroad (a7ro87y/i,eTv), he took 
 formal leave of his friends and relatives, offered sacrifice 
 
 and made vows for a safe journey, and con- 
 Preparations . riT,. T JJ.1 ITT J_ 
 
 for travel Signed his goods and the money he did not 
 require to the keeping of some friend ; often 
 he made his will. He then dressed in his tunic, which he 
 girded carefully so that his legs might not be impeded, 
 threw his chlamys over his shoulder, and put on the broad 
 
 Fig. 231. 
 
 Jointed doll or 
 
 marionette. 
 
Fig. 232.— Peasant's cart used in the Troad to-day. 
 
 TRAVEL AND HOSPITALITY 257 
 
 petasos to shade his head from the sun, and stout high 
 boots. With enough money to suffice for the journey 
 (ei^oStov), and a slave (irats) to attend him, he was ready to 
 
 depart. If his journey was to be overland, he 
 travel ° might go on foot {-Tre^evw) ; but more often he 
 
 rode (oxoC/Aot) a horse or an ass, the latter espe- 
 cially if his route took him over the mountains, as in Greece 
 itself would general- 
 ly happen. On very 
 rough roads horses 
 were apt to give out 
 sooner than men, be- 
 cause horseshoes were 
 apparently unknown. 
 The Greeks under 
 Xenophon learned to 
 tie large cloths or bags on the fetlocks of their horses to 
 keep them from sinking too deeply in the snow. Wagons 
 
 (auaiai) were not used so commonly, except 
 The use of C ■ .. j. -x -j 
 
 waeons when women were m the party ; it was consid- 
 
 ered effeminate of a man to drive in a wagon. 
 Certainly no ordinary man would show himself in a city street 
 in one. Chariots (apjuara) were used by the Greeks after 
 Homer only for racing, never for ordinary driving (page 98). 
 The wagon, hamaxa, was a rude board platform mounted on 
 four wheels, which often had no spokes, but were made of 
 solid pieces of wood or sometimes also of a single slab cut 
 from a tree trunk. The wheels were held in place on the 
 axles (amoves) by means of a pin. A more sumptuous wagon 
 was the harmamaxa (apfidfjui^a). This was furnished with a 
 tent-like covering (o-ki/i/ij), and was much in use in Asia 
 Minor ; it was comparable to the Western " prairie-schooner." 
 Many roads were passable for wagons (oSoi a/jLa^iroi) even in 
 the mountains, but we have before seen that all Greek 
 highways were far surpassed by the Eoman roads of Italy 
 (page 8). Hence on special occasions, for the passage of 
 17 
 
258 THE LIFE OF THE ANCIENT GREEKS 
 
 an army or a religious procession, roads had to be made 
 over, or even new ones were constructed (oSottoiS). Nor 
 were there any mile-stones or guide-posts, so far as we 
 
 Fig. 233.— a portion of the Themistoclean wall, with the boandary stone of the 
 
 Cerameicus. 
 
 know ; an occasional shrine, with its dedicatory inscription, 
 or a boundary stone, would indicate roughly to the travel- 
 ler in more populous regions his whereabouts. 
 
 Occasionally streams would have to be crossed. In 
 most cases, except at the close of winter, when they were 
 
 swollen by freshets, these could be forded 
 stream ^^ (&a/3aTos). If there was no ford (Tropos), the 
 
 traveller might possibly find a bridge, or else 
 get some one living in the neighbourhood to ferry him 
 across in a small boat or on a raft. Bridges (ycc^upat) built 
 of permanent material seem not to have existed on the 
 Greek mainland in classical times ; the Greeks had a super- 
 stitious aversion to any device that seemed to change the 
 face of nature or contradict the divine order of the uni- 
 verse. This is especially illustrated by their unwillingness 
 
TRAVEL AND HOSPITALITY 
 
 259 
 
 Animals and 
 luggage. 
 
 Pig. 234.— Bridle. 
 
 to construct canals. So, in regard to bridges, they usually- 
 built only slight wooden structures, which might be easily 
 demolished by the river-god if he so pleased. Eafts 
 (o-xeStac) and small boats were perhaps more commonly 
 used for the wider rivers. Small boats were always useful ; 
 in one case we hear of 
 dugouts (TrXota fiovo^vXa) 
 employed in Asia Minor. 
 When the traveller had 
 a wagon, it was drawn by 
 a pair of oxen or mules 
 yoked together (cf. ^ivyrj 
 PouKa and Tj/jtioviKo, ; also 
 ySoSs v<j}' d/x,a^i7s). Hence 
 the word to 
 denote the 
 
 preparation for the start is " yoke up " (dvo^ew- 
 ywixi), which came to be applied even when the animals 
 were not hitched to a wagon, but carried the packs on their 
 backs, bound by girths {Sea-fioi). So the word " unyoke " 
 (/caToAuco), originally applicable to the unyoking of cattle, 
 
 was used in general 
 for "putting up," 
 either at night or for 
 the midday luncheon 
 and rest. The slave 
 or the pack - animal 
 (vTro^vyiov) Carried the 
 master's bedding and 
 wraps {arpw/jiaTa) ; for 
 these also formed part 
 of the traveller's outfit, even when he expected to find inns 
 along the road. They made a considerable bundle, tied 
 up in a linen sack called stromatodesmos (a-Tpw/jiaToSecriJLO';, 
 page 129). 
 
 If the traveller purposed to take a sea voyage, he must 
 
 Fig. 335.— Mule-cart. 
 
260 
 
 THE LIFE OF THE ANCIENT aREBKS 
 
 Sea voyages. 
 
 , V, "^ 
 
 wait until he heard of some vessel going to the port near- 
 est his destination, since there was no regular packet serv- 
 ice. In the fifth century, and afterward, how- 
 ever, it was easy to find some merchant vessel 
 (oX/cas) or grain-ship (ttXoiov a-iTayoijov) bound for some port 
 in Asia Minor or Sicily. The traveller went to the skipper 
 (vaw/cXijpos), got his consent to travel on board, and arranged 
 with him how much he was to 
 pay for his fare [vavX.ov). 
 
 Here we may notice also the 
 lack of any regular facilities for 
 despatching letters by post. A 
 man who had a message to com- 
 municate by letter sent his slave 
 or some other person on whom 
 he thought he could rely. This 
 method, which was the only one 
 available, frequently proved dan- 
 gerous, as the Spartan Pausani- 
 as, when engaged in a treason- 
 able correspondence with Xerx- 
 es, and the traitorous Persian 
 Orontas in the Anabasis, found 
 to their cost. 
 
 It was in such journeys across 
 the sea that the Greeks picked up what they knew of the 
 Greek knowi- language of other peoples, for they learned no 
 edge of other foreign languages at school (page 88). Gen- 
 languages, erally an interpreter {ipfir)V€vi) was necessary 
 in out-of-the-way places. When these were wanting, sign 
 language could always be employed. Themistocles was 
 one of the earliest to set himself deliberately to learning 
 the language and the customs of the Persians. The Greeks 
 had quick ears and active brains, and learned a language 
 sufiiciently for conversational purposes with little trouble. 
 The Greeks of different states seem to have had small dif- 
 
 FiQ. 836.— Tri-form Hecate ("Diana 
 of the Crossways " ). 
 
TRAVEL AND HOSPlTALITy 
 
 261 
 
 ficulty in understanding one another. Thus the Arcadians, 
 who formed the majority of Xenophon's troops, and who 
 spoke a dialect very different from 
 the Attic, were constantly ha- 
 rangued by their officers, speaking 
 in other dialects, and yet under- 
 stood them perfectly. 
 
 The protection of the gods was 
 constantly invoked during a jour- 
 ney. On land, Apollo, 
 Hermes, Hecat6, and 
 Heracles were the spe- 
 cial guardians of the wayfarer ; on 
 the sea, Artemis and, above all, 
 the twin Dioscuri, Castor and 
 Polydeuces. On reaching home 
 safely, the traveller offered thanks 
 in a sacrifice to one of these gods, 
 or to Zeus the Saviour, and paid 
 
 the vows he had made to them while abroad, often dedi- 
 cating some object in the temple of the god. 
 
 The travel- 
 ler's gods. 
 
 Fio 237.- 
 
 ■Eesting at a wayside 
 Herm. 
 
CHAPTEE XX 
 
 DOMESTIC RELIGION 
 
 It is impossible to grasp the full meaning of Greek pri- 
 vate life without taking into account the deep significance 
 p ,. of the popular religion, both domestic and 
 
 influence of public, and the influence it exerted constantly 
 Greek on the lives of all citizens. In every enterprise 
 
 religion. ^j^g gods were a man's first consideration ; " to 
 
 begin with the gods " his first duty. To be sure, there were 
 not wanting scofEers, like Menon in the Anabasis, who 
 laughed at those who were scrupulous in matters of relig- 
 ion (oo-tot) ; but the universal horror caused by the mutila- 
 tion of the busts of Hermes in the streets of Athens, just 
 before the Sicilian expedition set off, shows how deep were 
 the respect and faith that attached to the outward symbols 
 of religion. The Greek was rare who, on undertaking any 
 new enterprise, failed to consult a god first, and gain his 
 consent to carry out what he had in mind. In every im- 
 portant act, especially if it involved a promise, the gods 
 were called to witness. 
 
 Wherever he turned, in the street or in the house, the 
 Greek met with some reminder of the allegiance he owed 
 to the gods of his fathers. Just in front of the 
 Hermae. main door of the house stood a pedestal sur- 
 
 mounted with a head of Hermes (Figs. 35, 237) ; and a row 
 of these Hermae was conspicuous in the agora at Athens 
 (page 43). At the street-crossings or in the public squares 
 were little shrines to Hecat6, and statues or symbolic 
 representations of Apollo Agyieus, guardian of streets, were 
 263 
 
264 
 
 THE LIFE OP THE ANCIENT GKBEKS 
 
 placed in dark streets ; failing these, a bay-tree, sacred to 
 Apollo, was planted instead. In the court of the house 
 was an altar (/Jw/aos, page 30) of Zeus Herkeios, protector of 
 enclosures. Here the father offered sacrifice 
 House gods, j^^ himself and his family. A small statue of 
 Zeus and of Apollo stood near. In the andron the hearth 
 was itself an altar to Hestia, goddess of 
 hearth and home ; and sometimes a little 
 clay image of Hephaestus, god of fire, stood 
 on the shelf over the hearth. Scarcely a 
 single room lacked its appropriate divin- 
 ity. In the storerooms (ra/iteia) were im- 
 ages of those gods whose special province 
 was to keep safe the household possessions 
 {6iol KT-qa-ioi) ; in the bedroom of the mas- 
 ter and the mistress were placed figures 
 of the gods of marriage {6eol ya/A^A.tot, Oeol 
 yeveOXioL, page 31). 
 
 Every trade and handicraft looked to 
 some special divinity for protection. The 
 artisan generally invoked Athe- 
 na ; metal-workers in particu- 
 lar, Hephaestus and Prome- 
 theus. Hermes was the god of commerce, 
 and there was a whole host of minor divin- 
 ities and heroes whose sanction and help 
 were required for every form of industrial 
 activity. A common practice was to confide one's secret 
 cares to the earth or to the sky, in the belief that the 
 divinities of earth or sky would hear and render aid. 
 
 „. . , The form of a prayer Uiyv) was simple. 
 
 The form of ,, , ,. », -, „, ^ . 
 
 prayer. though sometimes often repeated. The peti- 
 
 tioner did not kneel, but stood upright, unless 
 he was praying to the gods of the underworld, when he 
 might knock on the ground to rouse their attention. Usu- 
 ally, however, he stood with outstretched hands, with palms 
 
 Gods of 
 trades. 
 
DOMESTIC RELIGION 265 
 
 uppermost, and addressed by name the god or gods ; if his 
 invocation was general, so as to include them all, he would 
 add : " Or whatever else thou art called," or " Whatever 
 thou desirest to be called." There are many myths which 
 illustrate the fear of omitting by chance any divinity in a 
 prayer or sacrifice ; and the altar " to the unknown god," 
 which St. Paul found at Athens in later times, was designed 
 to include any divine power whose existence might not 
 already be recognized in the company of the traditional 
 gods. 
 
 One of the commonest acts of daily life was the ofEering 
 of sacrifice (dvo-ia), the motive of which was threefold : 
 first, it might convey a petition, in the belief 
 that through an ofEering the gods would be 
 more inclined to grant the request ; it was often accompa- 
 nied with avow or promise («!xo/tai) to dedicate an offering 
 if the prayer were granted, and the liver, the lobe, and other 
 internal organs of the victim were carefully inspected to 
 see if the omens were favourable. Such a sacrifice pre- 
 ceded every important step involving a serious change in 
 the petitioner's mode of life. It was necessary before a 
 journey. Second, it expressed thanksgiving, and was often 
 the fulfilment of a vow (diro^vctv) previously made. Such 
 were the sacrifices offered by the Greeks in the Anabasis for 
 safe guidance and restoration to home. And third, it might 
 be designed to atone for some offense : it was expiatory. To 
 offer a sacrifice, it was by no means necessary to go to a 
 temple ; though in expiatory sacrifices a sanctuary of pe- 
 culiar solemnity and holiness, like that of the Eumenides 
 (Furies), was often felt to be more appropriate. But altars 
 by the wayside were sufficient (cf. Fig. 243), 
 and merely to lay a wreath on a statue was 
 accounted an acceptable offering. Further, the altar for 
 burnt offerings rarely stood inside a temple, since this 
 would have converted the sanctuary into a slaughter- 
 house, and the smoke would have damaged many a beau- 
 
266 THE LIB'S OP THE ANCIENT GREEKS 
 
 tiful statue or relief (page 54). Hence, altar and temple 
 are mentioned separately by Xenophon when he tells us of 
 the sanctuary which he built to Artemis. And if a temple 
 was not always required, much less was a priest (lepevs). 
 
 Although sacrifices occur constantly in the 
 Priests . 
 
 Anabasis, the word " priest " is never men- 
 tioned. Every adult male who had previously purified him- 
 self with lustral water and had put on a wreath was quali- 
 fied to perform the ceremony, provided, of course, he was 
 not under the gods' displeasure through some impious act, 
 such as murder or profanation. The duties of a priest, 
 which were hereditary, were confined to ministrations in 
 some temple or at some shrine or altar of special signifi- 
 cance, or at a festival, such as the Eleusinian mysteries. 
 When, however, omens were to be taken from the sacri- 
 fice, a soothsayer (/Aai/rts) was called in, and 
 00 sayers. ^^ army set out without taking at least one 
 along. Arexion of Arcadia, Basias of Elis, Eucleides of 
 Phlius, and Silanus of Ambracia, the last especially, figure 
 conspicuously in the Anabasis. A constant attendant at a 
 sacrifice might learn the art of divination in an amateur 
 fashion ; but when the omens were persistently unfavour- 
 able, the soothsayer was invited to conduct the sacrifice. 
 
 K"o man might approach the gods in prayer or sacrifice 
 
 unless he was pure in their sight. A murderer must first 
 
 have some one make an expiatory offering to 
 
 ^ ^f^""? the gods and to the spirit of his victim, before 
 purification. ° . 
 
 he himself could commune with a divinity. 
 Hence, frequent purification of a whole community, some- 
 times attended with fasting, took place in certain festivals 
 during the year, for fear that the displeasure of the gods 
 might be visited on it through the presence of some trans- 
 gressor. The Greeks under Xenophon, at his and the 
 soothsayers' advice, underwent this ceremony (xa^ap/^ds). 
 
 This ceremonial purification was accomplished in vari- 
 ous symbolic ways, mostly by washing the hands with lus- 
 
DOMESTIC RELIGION 
 
 267 
 
 tral water (xipvuj/) brought from a particular spring. When 
 a death occurred in the family, a vessel of water, drawn 
 
 from outside, was placed outside the door, in 
 purifioation order that the inmates, when they went out, 
 
 might first purify themselves of the pollution 
 of death before mingling with their neighbours. A bride 
 and groom first purified themselves in the bath {Xovrpa, 
 page 133), that the gods might sanction the union. Fire 
 
 Pig. 240.— Ceremonial purification for murder (Orestes). 
 
 also was believed to have a purifying power. Five days 
 after a child was born the nurse carried him round the 
 hearth in the andron, followed by members of the household 
 (a^<^i8/3o/ita, page 73). Branches of myrtle and of bay were 
 also symbols of ceremonial purity, and were used to sweep 
 the altar and the ground round it before the sacrifice began. 
 All the sacrificial vessels must likewise be purified. The 
 cup from which a libation was to be poured must be thor- 
 oughly washed, and sometimes cleaned with sulphur. 
 
 Sacrifices were either bloodless or involved the killing 
 {a-<j>a.TTO}) of a live victim. In the first, the worshipper, with 
 
268 
 
 THE LIFE OF THE ANCIENT GREEKS 
 
 hands washed and a garland on his head, simply laid on the 
 
 altar fruits or cakes. Bloodless ofEerings, consisting of cakes 
 
 baked in animal forms, were often brought by 
 
 Nature of the ^^^ j. j^gtead of an animal. Blood offerings 
 onfinusrs ■ 
 
 were usually made with cattle, sheep, goats, and 
 
 swine. The victims were called Mereia (Upeia) ; sometimes 
 also tJiymata {evfmia). The kind of animal depended on 
 the god or the occasion. Pigs were offered whenever puri- 
 fication — i. e., expiation — was sought, and must be entirely 
 
 consumed, no parts being eaten 
 by the worshipper ; this hap- 
 pened often to Demeter, and in 
 the offering which Xenophon, 
 "according to ancestral cus- 
 tom," made to Zeus Meilichios. 
 Sheep and goats were perhaps 
 the commonest offerings, but 
 goats were not acceptable to 
 Athena in Athens. Bulls were 
 frequently offered to Dionysus 
 and to Zeus. Smaller creatures, 
 like birds, especially doves, were offered by the poor, and 
 cocks regularly to Asclepius. It was unlawful to sacrifice 
 swine to Aphrodite. Horses were not sacrificed by the 
 Greeks, except perhaps in deference to the custom of other 
 countries, as when Xenophon, while in Armenia, gave his 
 old horse to be fattened and offered to the Sun. The 
 Greeks did not eat horseflesh, and the taste of wild asses' 
 meat was evidently new to Xenophon ; hence such animals 
 were considered unfit for sacrifices where the worshipper 
 partook of the victim. Only in expiation, when the animal 
 was always burnt entire (oXoKawui), were such creatures elig- 
 ible, as, for instance, dogs to Hecat6. 
 
 The animal must be sound, if possible. An old animal 
 must be set aside and especially fattened to be an accept- 
 able sacrifice, and it was unusual to offer as victim one which 
 
 Fio. 241.— Sacrifice. 
 
DOMESTIC RELIGION 269 
 
 had been yoked to the plough. White animals were neces- 
 sary for the gods of Olympus ; black for the gods of the 
 Thesaori- underworld. If the animal came willingly to 
 floial cere- the altar, that was interpreted as a favourable 
 °">iiy- omen. The ceremony began when the person 
 
 officiating as priest approached the altar, with attendants 
 who led the victim, while others carried the sacrificial bas- 
 ket (Kavovv) in which lay the knife (fiaxoLLpa) used for the kill- 
 
 Fie. 242.— Sacrifice. 
 
 ing. All the participants had garlands on their heads, and 
 the ground about the altar and the altar itself were swept. 
 The head of the victim also was wreathed. Then the 
 lustral water (xepval/), contained in a basin called the cherni- 
 ieion (xepvi^eiov, page 138), was passed round the assembly 
 from left to right, each person sprinkling his hands, head, 
 beard, and clothes. The priest, or whoever made the offer- 
 ing, after all had purified themselves in this way, called 
 for silence on the part of all who might be passing near the 
 altar and the group round it, so that no sound or word of 
 ill omen might reach the ear of the divinity' whose presence 
 was believed to be near, and sprinkled barleycorns, which 
 he took from the basket, on the altar and the victim. He 
 then cut off a lock of hair from the victim's head and cast 
 
270 THE LIFE OF THE ANCIENT GREEKS 
 
 ib into the fire ; this was the " consecration," or " prelim- 
 inary sacrifice " {Korapyim). Sometimes the hair was divided 
 among the participants, who then severally threw it into 
 the fire. The priest then forced the animal to kneel, and 
 drew its neck upward if the sacrifice were to an Olympian 
 divinity, downward if to the underworld gods. Then with 
 his knife he stabbed the animal in the neck, while an at- 
 tendant held a bowl {o-^ayelov) to catch the blood as it 
 spurted out ; or, if a treaty were to be concluded, and the 
 parties desired to dip hands or swords in the blood, it might 
 be received in a shield. On one occasion, Xenophon tells 
 us, the soothsayers allowed the blood to flow into a river 
 between their army and the enemy, doubtless to secure 
 the help of the river-god. 
 
 A flute-player accompanied the ceremony with loud 
 notes on the flute, the object of which seems to have 
 been to drown the cries of the animal. The women in the 
 company, too, maintained a shrill ejaculation {okokvy-q), as 
 a welcome to the divinity present, and also to greet him 
 when the omens were favourable. In Homeric times, the 
 thighs were sliced separately, wrapped in two layers of fat, 
 and after wine had been poured over them were consumed 
 entirely for the benefit of the gods, who were thought to 
 receive the savour {Kvia-q) of the fat with special delight. 
 In later times, when temple ritual had become more elabo- 
 rate, the parts of the victim that were consumed for the 
 gods varied with the place and the purpose of the sacrifice. 
 
 The rest of the animal was then cut up and roasted for 
 the benefit of the participants, who drew off their portions 
 with meat-hooks, being forks with five prongs (Tre/^xol^SoXa), 
 or with long spits (/SovTrdpos o/SeAwr/cos). In Athens it 
 was the custom for a man who had sacrificed at a public 
 altar to carry home the meat, either to be eaten there, or 
 distributed as presents among his friends. In many pre- 
 cincts, however, it was unlawful to carry any meat away. 
 At Epidaurus (page 290) the worshippers were obliged to 
 
DOMESTIC RELIGION 
 
 271 
 
 The libation. 
 
 consume it all within the precinct (irepi'iSoXos). Some of the 
 meat left over from the state sacrifices found its way into 
 markets, whence meat was frequently called hiereia (page 
 145) ; such meat caused the early Christians much embar- 
 rassment and anxious discussion (see 1 Corinthians viii). 
 
 Another form of sacrifice, very common in private life, 
 was the libation (ottoi/St;), in which wine was poured, or a 
 few drops of it tossed, from the saucer-like cup 
 called the phiale {<l>idXij, page 137). This 
 might be done in connection with a burnt sacrifice ; or it 
 formed part of the ceremony at a banquet, when it con- 
 cluded the drinking, and was followed by the singing of a 
 paean. To some divin- 
 ities it was unlawful 
 to pour wine. Honey, 
 milk, and oil were used 
 in libations to the 
 Nymphs, the Muses, and 
 the Eumenides (Furies). 
 
 All these acts of re- 
 ligion, happening daily 
 in the life 
 Signs from ^f ^ Greek, 
 the gods. ' 
 
 kept him 
 
 conscious of his rela- 
 tions to the gods, and were the expression of his belief that 
 he could commune with them. If that were true, then they 
 could give signs to him, and this every Greek firmly be- 
 lieved. In every sacrifice the movements of the victim, the 
 way in which the fire leaped up or died down, the colour 
 and the condition of the inner organs, were all carefully 
 viewed to determine the nature of the sign from the gods 
 . which they were believed to reveal. If the 
 
 omens were favourable, as interpreted by one 
 or all of these methods of divination {/jiovTiK-q), it was the 
 signal for congratulation and exultation among all the par- 
 
 Fio. 243.— Lftation. 
 
272 THE LIFE OF THE ANCIENT GREEKS 
 
 ticipants ; the god was believed to favour his worshippers 
 by actually coming near therq, and his presence was greeted 
 by the cries (SXoXvy^) of the women once more. If, on the 
 other hand, the omens were not favourable, other victims 
 were tried until favourable omens were received, or until it 
 became obvious that none were to be expected. 
 
 There were many other ways in which, according to 
 universal popular belief, the gods showed signs to mortals. 
 Thus, a dream was a vision sent by them, 
 especially by Zeus, and must be recognized by 
 at least a libation. Thunder and lightning also indicated 
 Zeus's will ; a chance meeting at morning in the street, as 
 of a slave or an ass, was believed to have influence on the 
 person for the rest of the day. A sneeze was an omen, 
 
 Fie. 244.— A good omen. 
 
 always happy in import. But the most important branch 
 of the divining art was the watching of the flight or move- 
 ments of birds ; so common was this method that the word 
 for " bird " and " omen " is the same (opvts, oJcovos). When 
 Cyrus's army moved out of Ephesus an eagle was seen 
 perched at the right of the road ; its screeching and the 
 fact that it was passive and not in flight were interpreted 
 
DOMESTIC RELIGION 
 
 273 
 
 Oracles. 
 
 to portend danger and glory combined. Generally, all 
 birds seen on the right, or coming from the east, were 
 thought to be auspicious (aio-ios). In ■watching birds, the 
 seer (/tavTts) took up a station facing the north. 
 
 The will of the gods was also manifested through oracles ; 
 these were responses uttered in verse of more or less am- 
 biguous meaning, to enquirers at some temple of special sanc- 
 tity, as at Delphi, or Dodona, or at the oracle of 
 Zeus Ammon in Libya, or of Apollo Didymaeus 
 near Miletus. Socrates, in spite of the fact that he was 
 tried and put to death for alleged atheism, believed as 
 firmly as any other Greek in their efficacy. Again, a man 
 in doubt about any duty which he thought was owing to 
 the gods, might consult one of the persons known as eze- 
 getai (efijyjjrai), who made a special study of ancestral cus- 
 toms and laws relating to religion. They gave advice, for 
 instance, to one who had unintentionally committed homi- 
 cide, telling him the proper mode of expiating the act and 
 how to dispose of the corpse. They were frequently called 
 in to direct funeral rites, that nothing might be omitted 
 which was needed to gain the approbation of the gods. 
 
 We have already seen how much the great national fes- 
 tivals at Olympia, Delphi, Nemea, and the Isthmus con- 
 tributed to the en- 
 tertainment and the 
 inspiration of Greek 
 life (pages 100 fE.). 
 The daily 
 occupa- 
 tions of 
 all Greeks, even of 
 women and children, 
 were constantly interrupted by other important festivals, 
 which in Athens were celebrated with splendid processions 
 (wjootroSot, TTo/tjrai), sumptuous sacrifices at the expense of the 
 state, beautiful accessories in the shape of temples, costly 
 18 
 
 Home 
 festivals. 
 
 Fig. 245.— Coin of Elis (Olympia). 
 
274 THE LIFE OF THE ANCIENT GREEKS 
 
 vessels and robes, and general gaiety. At the beginning 
 of the Attic year, in the month Hekatombaion (page 341), 
 
 came the Panathenaea, with contests in sing- 
 Panathenaea ^^S) A^*® ^^^ ^J^^ playing, and recitations of 
 
 epic poetry by the rhapsodes ; in the stadion 
 occurred athletic and gymnastic contests rivalling those 
 at Olympia, in which the competitors strove for prizes of 
 oil made from Athena's sacred trees (page 231) and for 
 painted vases — the predecessors of the modern cups— on 
 which the contest was figured. Conspicuous also was the 
 war-dance called pyrrich6 {imppCx^, page 84) ; and there 
 was a regatta, for which, however, only the ordinary ves- 
 sels, and no special racing craft, were available. The 
 chief glory of the festival was the grand procession 
 (tto/xtt^), which was marshalled in the outer and the inner 
 Oerameicus. From here it proceeded over a broad course 
 made for it in the agora till it came to a temple called the 
 Eleusinion, where it turned to the left, passed the north- 
 western slope of the Acropolis, and so on to its gates. 
 In the procession was borne the peplos (ttcttAos, page 54), 
 a robe specially woven to deck the statue of Athena ; 
 it was spread out like a sail on the mast of a ship or 
 "barge" mounted on wheels. The word "carnival" is 
 perhaps a reminiscence of this ancient float, from the 
 Latin currus navdlis. 
 
 In the winter came various celebrations in honour of 
 Dionysus, god of nature and the vine, the object of which 
 was to wake the sleeping spirit of generation and render 
 him propitious for the coming of spring and the sowing of 
 the crops. In the country especially the rustics made merry, 
 smearing their faces with wine lees, and dancing amid jokes 
 
 and buffoonery round the altar of the god. In 
 es iva s ^j^^ ^.^^ ^ festival was held somewhat later, 
 
 called the Anthesteria, and also accompanied 
 with general merrymaking. The wine-casks were opened, 
 p,nd all, even slaves, were allowed perfect holiday and lib- 
 
DOMESTIC RELIGION 215 
 
 erty to drink in honour of the god. The last day of the 
 festival was a sort of All Souls' Day, being devoted to the 
 gods of the underworld and the spirits of the dead. With 
 the coming of spring was celebrated the Greater or " City " 
 Dionysia, a festival revived with great pomp by the Pisis- 
 tratidae, and the most important of all to us, since most of 
 the great tragedies were enacted there. In fact, all the 
 people, down to the humblest, who were supplied by the 
 state treasury with money to watch the spectacles (to Oewpi- 
 
 FiQ. 846.— The tripod, prize of the dithyrambic contest. 
 
 Kov, page 113), were treated to an imposing review of their 
 great literary achievements, given in the order in which 
 the several kinds of literary expression, epic, lyric, and 
 dramatic poetry, had originated. There were contests 
 among the rhapsodists, who recited epic poetry ; contests be- 
 tween choruses, consisting of fifty men or boys from each 
 tribe, specially trained to render lyrics composed in honour 
 of Dionysus and other gods, and called dithyrambs. The 
 prize, which was eagerly coveted, was a bronze tripod, after- 
 
276 THE LIFE OP THE ANCIENT GREEKS 
 
 ward set up with an appropriate inscription in a street east 
 of the Acropolis leading to the theatre, called the Street 
 of the Tripods (page 16). Then came contests between 
 the comic poets, and last, between the poets of' tragedy. 
 
 A curioiis festival, in which little girls took part, was 
 held in the month Mounichion in honour of Artemis. The 
 
 girls, dressed to represent bears, and actually 
 omen s called " bears " (ap/croi), danced in the precinct 
 
 of the goddess, offering various articles shaped 
 like bears to her. The women also had festivals of their 
 own, to which no man was admitted. One was the Thes- 
 mophoria, in honour of Demeter, held in the autumn at 
 the time when grain was sown, and accompanied with fast- 
 ing and the wholesale killing of pigs to propitiate the 
 goddess. 
 
 The Mysteries of Eleusis, however, formed the very 
 centre of the worship of Demeter, to participate in which 
 
 almost every man, woman, and child in Athens 
 ^ . J aspired. Beginning with certain local mystic 
 
 rites in the little town of Eleusis, the centre 
 of a grain-producing district, the festival was early appro- 
 priated by the Athenian state when Athens came to pre- 
 dominate over the other settlements in Attica. Although 
 the celebration was little known outside of the Athenian 
 dominion at the time of the Persian wars, by the end of 
 the fifth century the political power of Athens had at- 
 tracted the eyes of all votaries of Demeter throughout 
 Greece to this festival, and from that time until the year 
 396 of our era, when Alaric and his Goths destroyed Eleusis 
 at the instance of the monks who followed him, the Eleu- 
 sinian rites exerted a strong force in unifying the religious 
 instinct of all Greeks. ISTaturally, only Athenians were 
 eligible to initiation in the beginning; later, all Greeks 
 might ofEer themselves. Women might be received into 
 the rites, and also children, but only to the first grade or 
 degree of membership. 
 
DOMESTIC RELIGION 217 
 
 The gods who were most prominent in this worship — 
 there were others whose names it was not lawful to men- 
 tion — were Demeter, her daughter Persephone, and the 
 child lacchus, who was identified with Dionysus. The 
 chief festival occupied nine days in the autumn, in the 
 month Boedromion ; but a festival of less pomp was held 
 in the early spring in Anthesterion, not at Eleusis, but in 
 the district Agrae, on the Ilissus, which served as a prepa- 
 ration to the rites of the autumn. In later times the cele- 
 bration at Agrae took place at intervals of several years 
 in the autumn, in order that strangers might not be 
 obliged to journey to Athens twice. 
 
 The candidate for initiation presented himself to some 
 former initiate a fortnight or more before the festival be- 
 The course S^^- The person consulted became his guide 
 of the or mystagogos (/xDo-Taymyds) throughout the en- 
 
 ceremony. ^ij.g ceremony. He examined the candidate to 
 find out whether he was free from sin or other religious 
 impediment, and advised him how to make himself accept- 
 able to the gods by private sacrifices ; in case of doubt on 
 this point, one of the exegetai mentioned above (page 273) 
 was consulted. Nothing like the solemnity of a confession, 
 in the religious sense, was required, only an afiirmation or 
 oath that the candidate was pure. In later times, therefore, 
 the complaint arose that many mystagogues were irresponsi- 
 bly helping to admit unworthy persons. A small fee was 
 exacted in the post-classical period. Meantime the Hiero- 
 phant (t€po</)ai'Tr/s),or chief priest of the Mysteries, received 
 the names of all intending initiates, who were formally 
 assembled in Athens on the 15th day of Boedromion, and 
 instructed regarding the fast which they were to undergo 
 during the succeeding nine days ; for they must abstain 
 from all food by day, and certain viands were entirely pro- 
 hibited even at night. 
 
 On the following day, the 16th, the Hierophant and his 
 assistant, the Torch-bearer (S^SoSxos), took their station in 
 
278 THE LIFE OE THE ANCIENT GREEKS 
 
 the Painted Porch (o-too, ttoikiXti, page 43) and made a formal 
 proclamation {■Trpopprjo-K), in which they warned all strangers 
 and murderers to keep out of the way, and ordered the 
 initiates (fj-varai) to betake themselyes to the sea, either at 
 the Piraeus or at two small sacred streams of salt water 
 (called the ■P€tToi) which were on the way to Eleusis. 
 Each participant thereupon took with him a pig to be 
 offered the next day to Demeter, which he washed at the 
 same time that he bathed himself. On the 17th the King 
 Archon, who represented the state on all religious occa- 
 sions, offered sacrifice (hence called Stor^pia) for the com- 
 monwealth in the temple at Athens called the Eleusinion. 
 At this ceremony visiting delegations from other states 
 {OewpoL, page 256) may have assisted. After the public 
 sacrifice each initiate offered his pig to Demeter. The 18th 
 was a day sacred to AsQ|ppius, the healer, and was also the 
 day on which there arrived from Eleusis certain mystic 
 symbols — a cradle, a ball, a top, jackstones, mirror, and 
 fleece — which the legend referred to the childhood of 
 lacchus, and which were to be carried in the procession. 
 
 In the forenoon of the 19th the procession started from 
 the agora, passed out of the city through the Dipylon 
 
 (page 13), and crossed the plain of the CephTsus 
 pro^oession. ^^ *^^ Sacred Way. Guarding the symbols 
 
 and the image of lacchus, crowned and hold- 
 ing a torch, came the Hierophant, the Torch-bearer, the 
 Sacred Herald (icrjpv^), and the attendant at the altar (o ivl 
 Pu)p,<S), with many other priests and priestesses, grouped in 
 a kind of hierarchy, whose rank and function cannot be de- 
 fined with certainty in every case. The Hierophant figured 
 most prominently throughout the ceremony; he was an 
 elderly man who held ofl&ce for life, and belonged to the 
 ancient family of the Eumolpidae at Eleusis. The oflBce 
 of the Torch-bearer was also hereditary. The priests wore 
 long raiment {a-ToXrj) and Oriental turbans or mitres, which 
 caused a Persian soldier at Marathon to mistake the Torch- 
 
DOMESTIC RELIGION 279 
 
 bearer Callias for a king. They and their followers, the 
 initiates, also wore wreaths of myrtle and ivy. The initi- 
 ates were otherwise attired as usual, and not, as has often 
 been supposed, in long chitons. Women were allowed to 
 journey in wagons; but military parades did not form a 
 conspicuous feature of the procession until later times. On 
 the way the procession would stop at certain points to per- 
 form mystic acts, the meaning of which was explained by 
 remote legends : there were baths at the Cephlsus ; the 
 mysfcai were halted to have saffron threads tied on the right 
 wrist and right foot as a charm against the evil eye ; and 
 families who possessed hereditary priesthoods paused to 
 perform ceremonies peculiar to their own cults. It was not 
 strictly, to our notions, a solemn procession. The crowd 
 gave itself up to noise and boisterous jesting, singing 
 loudly, and shouting with acclain^ the name of lacchus, 
 particularly when the image of the infant god reached 
 Eleusis. In this way the whole of the 19th passed, and 
 though the distance traversed is only a dozen miles, the 
 arrival at Eleusis took place amid the light of torches 
 at midnight. 
 
 What took place at Eleusis during the all-night cere- 
 monies (TTai/i/ux'Ses) which followed is known only imper- 
 jjjg fectly; for the ancient initiates were faithful 
 
 ceremonies to their VOWS of secrecy, and very little knowl- 
 at Eleusis. edge of the rites performed within the sacred 
 enclosure (irepiPoXo^) has transpired. A price was set on 
 the head of a man who divulged the mysteries, and death 
 or banishment and confiscation of property were visited on 
 any one who travestied or profaned them in any way. Bo- 
 sides, it seems certain that those initiates, at least, who 
 were admitted to the first degree understood only imper- 
 fectly the meaning of what they were permitted to see. 
 
 The morning of the 30th was spent in sacrifices, the 
 victims of which, we may be sure, were chiefiy swine, since 
 that animal, as we have seen in the case of the Thesmo- 
 
280 THE LIFE OP THE ANCIENT GREEKS 
 
 phoria (page 276), was sacred to Demeter, and its blood was 
 deemed especially efficacious in expiation and propitiation 
 (cf . Fig. 340) ; furthermore, it had been the custom from 
 the remotest times to cut up swine's flesh and spread it 
 over the grain-fields, in the belief that thus the goddess 
 would grant fertility and an abundant harvest. Other 
 divinities, both gods and goddesses, were invoked in sacri- 
 fice on the 21st. 
 
 The ceremony on the night of the 32d belonged pri- 
 marily to the new initiates, and constituted the initiation 
 (/ivijo-is) proper. A principal feature was the drinking of 
 the kykeon (cf. page 143), a mixture which consisted of 
 barley-meal, water, and mint. Certain relics and sacred 
 objects were then exposed by the Hierophant (hence his 
 name) to the view of the mystai assembled in the temple 
 of the two goddesses (the reXea-T-qpiov). This edifice, which 
 was completed after the Peloponnesian War, was of peculiar 
 construction, having a lower and an upper story, with an 
 opening in the middle of the roof to admit light. The 
 unusual character of the building probably tended to in- 
 crease the awe of the people gathered there. The scenes 
 which the priests caused to be enacted were essentially 
 dramatic, and probably portrayed the sorrows of Demeter 
 as she searched the world over for her lost daughter. 
 
 A higher grade of initiates, consisting of those who 
 had been admitted to the first stage at least one year before, 
 were permitted to witness the ceremonies of the 23d day. 
 These were also dramatic, and probably revealed more con- 
 cerning the origin of lacchus, the mystical union of 
 Persephon^ with Zeus, and the final joy of Demeter. The 
 initiate who had witnessed these last scenes (e-TroirTijs, e^opos) 
 was accounted most fortunate, as having attained the full- 
 ness of knowledge and perfection in this world. The word 
 used of the ceremony, telete {TeXerrj), signifies perfection. 
 
 In the home there frequently occurred festivals or cere- 
 monies of a more domestic character. The father of a bride. 
 
DOMESTIC RELIGION 
 
 281 
 
 for instance, performed a special sac- 
 rifice before her wedding (called ra 
 
 irpoydiLia OX to, irporeXeia, 
 
 celebrations. P^^® ^^3), to propitiate 
 the gods of marriage ; in 
 Athens they were Artemis, Aphro- 
 dite, Zeus and Hera, Peitho (Per- 
 suasion), and the Erinyes (Furies). 
 Again, all the members of a family 
 and its intimate friends were called 
 in to join in the sacrifice which took 
 place ten days after a child was horn ; 
 this feast (the yeviOXia or Se/caTi;, page 
 73), gave occasion for great merry- 
 making. Birthdays, however, were 
 not observed by the Greeks, at least 
 during the lifetime of the person. 
 After his death there was a yearly 
 sacrifice, held on his birthday, and 
 called genesia or eniausia ; the festival 
 was paid for by a fund provided in 
 his will. Still another festival which 
 concerned the home was the Apatu- 
 ria, held in October, and lasting three 
 days. Since it involved the interests 
 of all families belonging to a phratry, 
 it was held in the common assembly 
 room or house of that phratry, and 
 not in a private house. On the last 
 day of this festival all the children 
 born in the families of its members 
 since the last meeting were present- 
 ed to the members ((^pdrepcs). The 
 member who acted as priest (itpciis rov 
 Aios (j>paTpLov) offered, on behalf of 
 the father or guardian of the child. 
 
282 THE LIFE OP THE ANCIENT GREEKS 
 
 a sheep called meion (/teiov), i. e., lesser, in contradistinction 
 to the more important sacrifice called koureiou (page 89), 
 which the father ofEered for a son who had attained his 
 majority and been admitted on that day as a regular 
 member of the phratry. Rhapsodic contests took place 
 at this festival also. 
 
 Boys in school enjoyed a special holiday on the occa- 
 sion of the Hermaea and the Museia. The first was in 
 honour of Hermes, the protecting genius of 
 School palaestra and gymnasium. The boys were 
 
 dressed in their best clothes, ofEered sacri- 
 fices, and were permitted unrestrained liberty in games 
 and sports. The Museia was a school festival, to which 
 the parents, in the name of the boys, contributed offer- 
 ings for sacrifice. 
 
 In the language of eyery-day converse the Greeks made 
 frequent reference to their gods. Oaths in the name of 
 " all "the gods and goddesses," and mere exple- 
 °^*^^' tives, like " By Zeus," or " By Apollo " H ^'«. 
 
 vat fia i^ia, oil fjia Tov Aia), frequently began a sentence. Some- 
 times they were uttered in strong asseveration or even indig- 
 nation, approaching in character to modern profanity ; but 
 the Greek was always restrained from blasphemy by his 
 conscious personal attitude towards his deities, and the 
 belief that perjury (^imopKia) was sure to be visited with 
 the lasting displeasure of the god whose name had been 
 taken in vain. An oath accompanied the allegation of a 
 plaintiff and defendant and their witnesses at the prelim- 
 inary hearing (ava/cpio-ts, page 312) before a trial. When 
 the oath was to be especially solemn, the person swearing 
 it laid his hand on an altar or statue ; and in concluding 
 a treaty between warring parties, the oath, generally sworn 
 in the name of three gods, was further strengthened by 
 dipping the hand or sword in blood. Often the swearer 
 invoked destruction (i^wkeia) upon himself and his chil- 
 dren if he should prove to have perjured himself. 
 
DOMESTIC RELIGION 
 
 283 
 
 A very common haj)it which seems to us vindictive and 
 hateful in the extreme was the practice of writing out 
 curses against enemies, or against those who 
 were supposed to exert an evil magical influ- 
 ence, on tablets, which were hung as amulets 
 round the neck, or placed near some shrine. 
 Imprecation (KaTopacrOaL) meets one frequent- 
 ly in the pages of Greek literature. People 
 took measures especially to avoid the harm 
 wrought by the "evil eye," which they at- 
 tributed to others very much as witchcraft 
 has been ascribed to unfortunate victims in 
 later times. An amulet with mystic signs (Fig. 348) was 
 considered to have potency against the wicked influence. 
 
 Fig. 248. 
 Amulet against 
 the "evil eye." 
 
CHAPTEE XXI 
 
 OLD AGE, SICKNESS, DEATH, BURIAL 
 
 Old age (yrjpas) was contemplated with varying feelings 
 in different parts of Greece. In Sparta and in Thebes, where 
 Popular sen- *^^ traditions of an olden time were maintained 
 timent re- with a stricter conservatism than in Athens, and 
 garding old jn more remote and primitive districts gen- 
 *^'' erally, untouched by the smart fashions set by 
 
 some of the younger Athenians, the aged enjoyed the rever- 
 ence and afEection of the young and middle-aged alike. In 
 such places the young readily rose and offered them places 
 at any gathering ; and in public and private their counsel 
 was sought first and their sanction deemed indispensable 
 for any important undertaking. Hence they were regu- 
 larly selected in older times, and wherever older fashions 
 prevailed, to represent public opinion on an embassy, so 
 that " elders " and " envoys " were expressed in the same 
 terra, wpco-ySets. Among the lonians, however, and even 
 among some persons in Athens, old age was often deemed 
 a calamity, which cut short the power to enjoy life on the 
 material side which the luxurious desired, and the loss of 
 which is constantly mourned in Greek poetry. But all 
 Greeks, probably, would have prayed to be delivered from 
 old age by an early death rather than to undergo it childless. 
 The hope of every parent was to rear children who should 
 comfort his or her advancing years (yr;po;8ocrKciv). There is 
 a mingled tone, half of pity, half of contempt, expressed in 
 the interesting diminutives (found also in other languages) 
 which Xenophon uses in reference to some forlorn old men 
 284 
 
OLB AGE, SICKNESS, DEATH, BURIAL 285 
 
 and ■women abandoned in a town along with a few sheep and 
 oxen (yepovTia, ypaSta, " little old men," " little old women "). 
 The cessation of a man's active physical force at the age of 
 sixty was recognized by the state ; he was then exempt 
 from military duty, and became an " old man " (yepoiv), who 
 in war, for instance, would be spurned as a hostage. 
 
 Fia. 249.— Temple of Asclepius at Epidaurus (restoration). 
 
 With all the advantages of matchless climate and con- 
 stant outdoor life, at least among the free citizen class, 
 and in spite of the extraordinary care bestowed 
 
 laiityto ^^ ^jj^g body and its systematic training in 
 disease. j j o 
 
 gymnastics, the Athenians and other Greeks 
 
 of course were subject to the diseases (voo-ol) that afflict 
 
 all men. Their houses, in the first place, lacked proper 
 
 sanitary appliances. The streets were not regularly 
 
 cleaned, and people were allowed to throw offal in some of 
 
 them ; for there were as yet no boards of health. The 
 
 drinking-water of Athens was not especially noted for its 
 
 healthfulness, as was that of Corinth. The apparatus avail- 
 
286 
 
 THE LIFE OP THE ANCIENT GREEKS 
 
 Treatment of 
 disease. 
 
 able for crippled and maimed persons was of the roughest 
 kind — two canes instead of one, or the like. If eyes gave 
 out, which might happen in cases of great exposure or 
 unusual strain, there were no goggles or eyeglasses to re- 
 lieve the sufEerer. 
 
 And yet, by the middle of the fifth century, a consider- 
 able amount of skill in the treatment of disease had been 
 
 acquired, partly 
 
 from Egypt and 
 
 the Orient, part- 
 ly from observation and expe- 
 rience (ifn-Trapia). By the end 
 of the century the arts of sur- 
 gery and medicine had been 
 raised to the dignity of sci- 
 ences through the genius of 
 the Ionic physician Hippo- 
 crates. Many of the methods 
 of that time would not, of 
 course, be tolerated to-day. 
 Mixed with scientific knowl- 
 edge was a good deal belong- 
 ing to the realm of supersti- 
 tion and folk-lore, so that, for 
 example, a person suffering 
 pain would have young pup- 
 pies applied to the spot af- 
 fected, in the belief that they 
 would absorb it themselves 
 
 and thus relieve the patient. Overdosing was common. 
 Wine was constantly prescribed even when the sick man 
 was in a high fever, and Ohirisophus, Xenophon's able and 
 trusted helper, died from an overdose of drugs while suf- 
 fering a fever. 
 
 Two centuries before Hippocrates, Egypt had taught 
 the Greeks the use of a few primitive surgical instruments, 
 
 Pig. 350.— Asclepius. 
 
OLD AGE, SICKNESS, DEATH, BURIAL 
 
 287 
 
 and both medicine and surgery were further advanced by 
 the Asclepiadae, an association or guild of practitioners 
 who professed to trace descent from Asclepius, 
 the god of healing. Many of the Asclepiadae 
 were priests of this god at temples which were 
 noted for famous cures. Later, apprentices were admitted 
 from families who were not akin. Cities like Athens em- 
 ployed at public cost " state physicians " {iarpol 
 8riix6(TLoi, or 8)7/u,ocrt6uovT€s), who gave their serv- 
 ices free to the poor. Democedes, a celebrated physician 
 who came to Aegina from Croton, in Italy, was paid a 
 talent for a year's service, more than four times the pay of 
 the generals in the Athenian army. At the end of the 
 year he was attracted. to Athens by the fee of one hundred 
 
 Medicine and 
 surgery. 
 
 Physicians. 
 
 Fig. 251. — Physician^e instruments. 
 
 minae, but the Athenians were in turn outbidden by Poly- 
 crates, tyrant of Samos, who increased his pay to two 
 talents. Another famous physician and writer, attached to 
 the court of Artaxerxes, was Otesias, who cured the king 
 Social 0^ ^^^ wound dealt him by Cyrus at Cunaxa. 
 
 standing of Greek physicians did not practise some one 
 
 physicians. branch of their art as a specialty, but were 
 always " general practitioners," and were required to learn 
 the whole of both surgery and medicine. As has been said. 
 
288 THE LIFE OP THE ANCIENT GREEKS 
 
 the measures they took were more heroic and drastic than 
 modern science would approve, and some were noted for 
 ruthless cutting, bleeding, and cauterizing, as well as for 
 administering such quantities of drugs (<^apjuaKa) that poi- 
 soning ensued. Hence they were often looked on with dis- 
 like, and the 
 fact that they 
 =*p took pay rele- 
 
 FiG. 258.— Phyeician's spoon. gated them, in 
 
 the opinion of 
 the free citizen, to the same class with tradesmen and 
 artisans. In spite of all this, they often deserved, and in 
 fact often received, high praise for conscientious devotion 
 to the patient's welfare and for their dignified and cheer- 
 ful bearing in the presence of the sick. Their 
 phy^s^oians pupils they taught with an earnestness that 
 marked them as having the true scientific spirit. 
 The pupils began their course when very young, and regu- 
 larly attended their masters at the patient's bedside. There 
 they learned not only the methods of their science, but 
 also proper deportment toward the patient and his family. 
 A regular corps of army surgeons seems not to have 
 existed, but there were few armies, except perhaps those 
 made up of mercenaries, which did not include one or two 
 physicians drafted with other citizens or metics. In Xeno- 
 phon's army eight men volunteered to act as physicians in 
 caring for the numerous wounded during the retreat. 
 
 Besides those physicians who worked independently or 
 in company with other Asclepiadae, there were priests be- 
 Heaith longing to the temples of the gods of healing- 
 
 resorts. Apollo, Artemis, Hecat6, and later, Serapis— 
 
 who offered relief in sickness. Their methods, 
 however, were based mainly on ritual observance and re- 
 ligious practice, such as the art of divination, especially 
 through dreams. The notion was universally held that the 
 gods who caused the afQiction could, when properly ap- 
 

 19 
 
290 THE LIFE OP THE ANCIENT GREEKS 
 
 proached with sacrifice, indicate the cure by signs and 
 dreams. Hence, both in Athens and elsewhere, and espe- 
 cially in the fourth century at Epidaurus, the precinct of 
 Asclepius became a kind of sanatorium, throiiged with 
 patients who devoutly lay at night in or near the temple 
 waiting for the dream that should give them 
 the directions required. Having got it, they 
 told it to the priest, who interpreted it in hard cases. The 
 grateful convalescents then made offerings to the god, which 
 generally consisted of small images of the hand, leg, or 
 whatever part of the body had been diseased. These 
 images, made of marble, clay, wax, or the precious metals, 
 were then hung up in the temple, with an inscription re- 
 cording the name of the patient, a description of the dis- 
 ease, and the manner of its cure. 
 
 The temples of Asclepius {'Aa-KXTyn-ieta) 
 usually stood in healthful regions, some- 
 times near mineral springs ; and though 
 the cure was always regarded as the mi- 
 Fia. 254Zv6tive eye. raculous intervention of the " kindly " 
 god, it was doubtless furthered by wise 
 prescriptions given by the priest in regard to diet, fresh air, 
 exercise, and legitimate amusements. The votive tablets, 
 also, constituted in course of time a record of large experi- 
 ence which could be relied on for similar cases in the future. 
 Within the domestic circle the methods of cure for 
 slight ailments were more primitive and superstitious. 
 
 „ Among them, magic incantations (iTrwSai) 
 
 Home cures. i f i,- j; • • j. mn "• - ■> 
 
 ranked chief m importance. These were gen- 
 erally crooned by old women called in to exorcise the evil 
 spirit which was thought to possess the patient. Amulets 
 were thought to be an efficient preventive and remedy on 
 the same theory of a possessing demon. There were male 
 quacks (yoijTes), too, who were ready to apply their drugs 
 at lower prices and to befool patients with their pompous 
 magic. In the market were druggists (^ap/^aKOTrSXat) 
 
 ''*»ftU!j«*'' 
 
OLD AGE, SICKNESS, DEATH, BURIAL 
 
 291 
 
 through whom many might avoid the employment of the 
 
 more expensive, if more enlightened, physicians. 
 
 If- the patient felt that recovery was hopeless, he made 
 
 his will {SiaO'^KT]). In Athens this was a privilege not al- 
 lowed to women or minors. The last wishes 
 
 Last sickness. . , , i j m / . / \ 
 
 might be , expressed orally (eTna-KiprTui) or m 
 
 writing. The testator began with a pious formula, such 
 as, " It shall be well ; but if aught happen, this is the dis- 
 position of his goods" (eo-rai /tev ev- iav 8i n (rvfjijiaivrj, TaSe 
 SUOero) ; or else the 
 phrase," Be it entrust- 
 ed to good fortune " 
 {rvxy o-yO'Oy), preced- 
 ed. Then followed 
 the phrase, "This is 
 thedispositioni make 
 of my effects" (raSc 
 
 SmTiOefJML irepl t5v kot 
 
 il^avTov). The be- 
 quests, with the ex- 
 ception of a legacy 
 here and there to a 
 friend, or a special 
 gift to a son, were 
 limited in certain 
 Eestriotions w^ys by the law. The testator was obliged to 
 governing respect the ties of kindred, and since every 
 '^i^lS' citizen was a member of a clan or yeVos, the 
 
 prior rights of that clan over outsiders must be considered. 
 If a man had legitimate sons (iratSts yvrja-Loi), by which, as 
 we saw (pages 61, 74), were meant those born of parents who 
 could trace descent on both sides through a genuine line of 
 j^ , . Attic citizens, his property went directly to those 
 
 sons. A son could not be disinherited. If the 
 dying man had no sons, he might designate a young man to 
 be his adopted son, under the condition that the young man 
 
 Fig. 255. — Votive tresses. 
 
292 THE LIFE OP THE ANCIENT GREEKS 
 
 marry the daughter of the house, if there were any. Adop- 
 tion was a prerequisite to inheritance for a male not sprung 
 from the testator. The children of the adopted son were 
 regarded as descendants of the adopting father, and there- 
 fore preserved his ancestral worship and paid homage at 
 his tomb ; for the primary object of adoption was to ob- 
 tain what descendants alone could insure, a regular main- 
 tenance of the family cult and worship of the family's 
 ancestors. After these arrangements had been specified in 
 the will, it then set forth directions 
 about freeing favourite slaves, about 
 presents {Stopeal) to friends, votive of- 
 ferings {ava$ij/jMTa) to the gods, and 
 
 finally it contained mi- 
 Frovisious of ± j- ,■ i , .i 
 
 the will ^ directions about the 
 
 burial and disposition of 
 the corpse, concluding with an im- 
 precation against any who' might neg- 
 lect or violate its provisions. The ^ „„ „ 
 
 ^ Fig. 856.— Bronze dog 
 
 contents of the will were kept secret (votive offering), 
 
 until after death, but were read Just 
 
 before the last rites (to, vo^itpfi^va) were begun. It was 
 signed and sealed in the presence of witnesses chosen from 
 the family or intimate friends, and deposited in the care of 
 some citizen or public officer, or in a temple. Sometimes 
 several copies were made and stored in difEerent places. 
 The chief archon had jurisdiction in all testamentary dis- 
 putes. The will was not valid if the testator's mind was 
 unbalanced or if undue influence could be proved. 
 
 _ ,. . „ The burial customs of the Greeks were re- 
 
 Aeli^ioiis 
 
 importance markable for the scrupulous care with which 
 attaching to every detail, enjoined as it was by religion, was 
 burial rites, carried out. Without burial, it was believed 
 that the unfortunate spirit of the dead must wander in 
 eternal unrest, visiting with reproach his neglectful kins- 
 men. To the corpse that lacked proper burial Charon 
 
OLD AGE, SICKNESS, DEATH, BUEIAL 
 
 293 
 
 would refuse passage over the Styx. If the body of a man 
 were lost in shipwreck or in battle, his friends were bound 
 to erect an " empty monument " or cenotaph (K£i/oTa<^toi/) 
 and perform all the other rites as they would had they re- 
 covered the body. If a traveller came upon an unburied 
 corpse and failed to give at least symbolic burial by throw- 
 ing over it three handfuls of earth, he was looked upon as 
 accursed, and as one who would be haunted by the spirit of 
 the dead. Hence, after a battle, a herald was always sent 
 
 Fig. 257.— At the tomb. 
 
 out with his staff (KfjpvKeiov), answering to the modern flag 
 of truce, to arrange for the privilege of picking up the 
 bodies of the dead. 
 
 -. ^ , Thus it is easy to see that when a man died 
 
 the Greek his family felt bound by the strictest commands 
 burial of religion to execute the last rites as he would 
 
 ceremony. ^^^^^ wished them to be performed. The names 
 given to these rites, "that which is right," "that which 
 is customary," or " incumbent " (to. SiVaia, rot vo/^t^o/ievo, 
 or TO. irpoa-qKovTo.), show the obligation that was felt to be 
 
294 
 
 THE LIFE OE THE ANCIENT GREEKS 
 
 imposed. While the loud wailing of mourners hired to 
 sing ancient and half-intelligible dirges {Oprjvoi) may per- 
 haps seem to us undignified, yet there were influences which 
 tended to make the funeral ceremonies a pious and solemn 
 act of great impressiveness. Among these influences were 
 first the laws restraining excessive demonstrations of grief 
 and the extravagant expenditure of money for the burial. 
 Further, the Eleusinian Mysteries and the belief in a life 
 after death, which was derived from the Egyptians, lent 
 further dignity to the rites of mourning, though all Greeks, 
 of course, did not share in the Mysteries. 
 
 The women of the family first washed the body carefully, 
 anointed it with perfumed unguents, and dressed it in 
 clean chiton and himation. The garments of 
 the dead were white (in Homer of linen), either 
 plain or ornamented with embroidery or col- 
 oured stripes. The lips and eyes were closed, and a wreath 
 was placed on the head, of laurel, olive, or parsley. During 
 the day immediately following the death the body thus lay 
 in state on a couch (kA,6V»j), which was decked with garlands 
 
 Care of the 
 dead body. 
 
 Fia. 258.— The prothesis. 
 
 given by relatives and friends. The laying out of the body 
 was called the prothesis (wpo^eo-is). On the floor round the 
 couch stood the pitchers (X-^kvOol) that were to be buried 
 with the deceased. All this day the women stood near 
 singing the dirge, to which the men added a refrain. Solon 
 
OLD AGE, SICKNESS, DEATH, BUEIAL 
 
 295 
 
 forbade the extravagances we read of in Homer, such as 
 tearing the cheeks with the finger-nails, violently beating 
 the breast, and rending the chiton. But in funeral customs 
 the habits of people are rigid, and, in spite of his laws, ex- 
 treme modes of showing grief persisted. 
 
 On the following day the procession (eK<^opa) and the 
 burial took place. This always happened before sunrise, 
 The prooes- because religion taught that the light of the 
 sion to the sun was polluted by the sight of a corpse, 
 grave. ipjjg same feeling that death was a pollu- 
 
 tionT^prompted the custom in Athens of interring bodies 
 outside the limits of the city. In primitive Athens this 
 had not been observed, and 
 the Spartans retained their 
 ancient habit of burying in- 
 side the city. In the coun- 
 try persons were buried on 
 their own estates. The body 
 was borne on the same couch 
 on which it had lain during 
 the prothesis, and the gar- 
 lands and pitchers were car- 
 ried with it to the grave. 
 Sometimes the head of the 
 deceased was crowned with a 
 chaplet of gold leaf for the 
 progress to the grave ; re- 
 mains of these gold chaplets 
 have been found in graves 
 recently excavated. The 
 body-bearers {veKpo<j)6poi) were 
 friends or family slaves ; but 
 
 professionals could also be hired for this office. The pro- 
 cession started with a signal given on the flute, which then 
 accompanied the song of mourning as the funeral party left 
 the house. In front of the bier (xXtVi?) marched the male 
 
 FlQ. 2S9. 
 
 -Group from a funeral 
 monument. 
 
296 THE LIFE OP THE ANCIENT GREEKS 
 
 relatives in the order of relationship down to the sons of 
 cousins; these were followed by the male friends of the 
 dead. Behind the bier the female relatives, extending to 
 the same degree of relationship, closed the short and mod- 
 est procession. All other women, whether related or not, 
 were excluded, except distant kinswomen over sixty years 
 of age. All the mourners wore dark clothes, either black 
 or gray. The men had their hair shorn close. 
 
 If the deceased came of a wealthy family, the interment 
 or cremation, whichever had been decided on, took place 
 
 on a highroad or near some resort frequented 
 the^b'odj."^ by the living. The suburb called the Outer Ce- 
 
 rameicus, just beyond the Dipylon, became a 
 beautiful burying-ground filled with splendid and tasteful 
 monuments (page 9). For the poorer classes there were 
 public burial-places, where corpses were interred either 
 singly or in numbers (veKpoTroXeis). Cremation {KaTaKaUaOaC) 
 was costlier than simple burial (KaroprTTeo-^at), and therefore 
 generally confined to the rich, except in the event of a 
 plague, such as that which afflicted Athens in the early 
 years of the Peloponnesian "War. Those who died in battle 
 or in foreign lands were cremated, if possible ; in the latter 
 case, that the ashes of the dead might be carried home and 
 buried in their native soil. If it were possible, the body of 
 a man struck by lightning was buried on the spot where 
 he fell, since it was felt that he had met with a special vis- 
 itation of Zeus ; the corpse, as being something sacred 
 (tcpos) to the god, must not be removed. 
 
 After calling three times on the spirit of the dead, the 
 mourners placed the remains, if they had been burnt, in an 
 
 urn of clay or bronze ; if the corpse was to be 
 for^th ^b r ^iii^i^'i merely, it was laid in a coffin, soros 
 
 (o-opos), usually of cypress wood or earthenware, 
 sometimes of metal. Stone or marble sarcophagi did not 
 come into use until Eoman times. The coffin was then 
 lowered into the grave, which was frequently excavated in 
 
OLD AGE, SICKNESS, DEATH, BURIAL 
 
 297 
 
 the rock. This made a natural coflBn called tlieke (OrJKrj), 
 and the soros was then sometimes dispensed with. Again, 
 the body, whether it had been placed in a coffin or not, 
 might be laid out in a tomb or vault (ra^os) ; only in ex- 
 traordinary cases, probably, was a body put into an earth 
 grave [fioOpo's) without a coffin. The Athenians buried their 
 dead with the head lying toward the west, the feet toward 
 the east. Beside the dead were placed the pitchers (Xj^ku- 
 6oi), which had surrounded his couch during the pro thesis, 
 and various other articles which had been connected with 
 the dead during his lifetime, or were thought necessary for 
 
 Pig. 360.— Charon's boat. 
 
 his long journey— money, ornaments, tools, toys, food, and 
 drink — according to age, sex, and calling. The money 
 (usually an obol) was often placed in the mouth of the de- 
 ceased ; we have seen that people carried it thus in their 
 daily marketing. The obol was thought to be the price 
 {vavXov) of Charon's ferrying over the Styx. 
 
 Beside the mound (rvfifto^, x'^f^^ cr^ixa.) a 
 
 monuments, "lonument was ordinarily reared. In earlier 
 
 times, before the Persian wars, it was customary 
 
 to erect a huge stone urn (k^KvOoi) over the grave. The urn 
 
 survived in later times, but it became more usual to place 
 
298 
 
 THE LIFE OF THE ANCIENT GREEKS 
 
 a slab of stone or marble (o-t^Xi;), sculptured in relief, with 
 a life-size portrait of the dead. The name of the dead 
 and sometimes of the friend who erected the memorial 
 
 were inscribed near the re- 
 lief. Sometimes Doric or 
 Ionic columns (klovcs) were 
 erected in place of these ste- 
 lai. These were surmounted 
 by some figure, such as an 
 eagle or siren. The stele 
 later developed, by the ad- 
 dition of columns on the 
 sides, into a miniature fa- 
 cade, showing pillars, archi- 
 trave, and pediment. This 
 served as a frame for elabo- 
 rate portraits, in sculpture, 
 of the deceased and his fam- 
 ily. Many of these, depict- 
 ing some pleasant scene out 
 of the home life of the de- 
 parted still remain to testify 
 to the kindlier and more affectionate traits of the Greek 
 character. 
 
 Eeturning from the grave, the mourners set about 
 purifying themselves and their house, on the theory, as 
 before explained, that death brought pollution in the sight 
 . of the gods. The water for purification was 
 
 oustoms"^ brought in a special vessel {apSdviov) from an- 
 other house, and kept at the front door. Three 
 days were then spent in fasting, which was broken by the 
 funeral banquet {irepiSenrvov). At this a place was set for 
 the dead, as if he were the host, and his good qualities 
 were set forth while the mourners strove to comfort one 
 another, and to eat and drink once more. On the ninth or 
 tenth day a sacrifice was offered at the tomb, which was 
 
 Fib, 261.— Monument to Dexilens. 
 
OLD AGE, SICKNESS, DEATH, BURIAL 299 
 
 decorated with ribbons and chaplets. The period of public 
 mourning ended finally on the thirtieth day, when another 
 sacrifice and another banquet were held. Citizens who fell 
 in battle were buried at public expense (Srifioa-La) with spe- 
 cial honours, notably with a eulogy pronounced by some 
 eminent man ; such eulogies were not customary at a pri- 
 vate burial before Eoman times. The missing dead were 
 given a symbolic burial, in that an empty couch {kXlvt] 
 K€v^) was borne for them in the procession, and a ceno- 
 taph was erected to their memory. 
 
 Graves were everywhere cherished with thoughtful piety. 
 The stelai were anointed with oil, and decorated with rib- 
 bons and wreaths. In their vicinity were planted shade 
 
 Fig. 262.— The funeral banquet. 
 
 trees, especially cypress and poplars, and flowers, notably 
 the asphodel, with large thick white leaves and yellow, 
 white, and bluish flower. Into this garden, which often 
 contained fountains, friends came in the belief that their 
 presence was helpful to the dead, whose spirit would be 
 there to note their coming. Especially were the dead re- 
 membered in the festival of the Anthesteria (page 374) 
 
300 
 
 THE LIFE OP THE ANCIENT GREEKS 
 
 and at the Nekysia (veKva-ia), a day devoted to them in the 
 month Boedromion. 
 
 From the tomb the modern explorer has gathered some 
 of his most instructiye mate- 
 rial for composing the pic- 
 ture of ancient life. The grave 
 of the Mycenaean warrior, the 
 last resting-places (icoi/iijTi^pta) 
 of the early Christian, alike 
 prove to be sources of inti- 
 mate knowledge concerning 
 Greek life. The seeker finds 
 arms and armour, ornaments 
 of silver, gold, and copper, the 
 toys that were dear to the 
 child, the objects of household 
 use cherished by the adult, 
 coins and vases which bear con- 
 temporary witness to the life 
 they adorned, and form, as it 
 were, a picture within a pic- 
 ture. Out of the grave rises the spirit of ancient Hellas 
 to-day, and offers lessons of simplicity, faith, and beauty 
 that may not be forgotten. 
 
 Fig. 263.— The so-called "nioaruing 
 AthSna." 
 
SUPPLEMENT AEY MATTEES 
 
 1. LIST OF THE ATHENIAN MAGISTRATES 
 
 The general term for magistrates is archontes (apxavres) ; 
 for public oflftce, arche {apxn)- Election or sortition, the latter 
 being employed for all offices except the generalship and a few 
 others, took place in the spring, allowing time for the public 
 scrutiny {hoKijiacrla, at. p. 206) of each officer, since office was 
 held from the 1st of Hekatombaion. White and black beans 
 were used in the election by lot (hence the phrase cmo Kvifiov). 
 All but the military offices were annual, and all underwent an 
 examination {eSBwa) at the close of service. 
 
 Administrative 
 
 The Nine Archons, also called collectively Thesmothetai 
 {pi ivvia Spxovres, Sea-fioderai) . For a long period the Thetes were 
 ineligible to the office. At the end of their service the archons 
 became members of the Council of the Areopagus (p. 42). 
 
 The first archon (o apxo>v par excellence) is sometimes called 
 in modern books the Archon Eponymous, because his name 
 was used in dating records (p. 243). His office was in the Pry- 
 taneium,where he was assisted by two aids (jrdpeSpoi) appointed 
 by himself. In the courts he presided at cases which concerned 
 family interests, the protection of orphans, the apportioning of 
 orphan heiresses, the appointment of guardians, and divorce. 
 He managed the City Dionysia (pp. 113, 275). He conducted 
 the expiatory rites at the Thargelia (p. 310). 
 
 The second archon was called the King (6 ^aa-iKeis). His 
 office was in the King's Portico (p. 43). With the name, he 
 also retained the religious duties of the ancient Attic kings, and 
 had general oversight over temples and altars. He represented 
 the state in the celebration of the Mysteries (p. 276), conducted 
 
 301 
 
302 THE LIFE OP THE ANCIENT GREEKS 
 
 the Lenaea (p. 113), and managed the torch races (\afnra8r)- 
 Spo/ilai) at all festivals where they occurred. In the courts he 
 had jurisdiction in all cases that pertained to religion, and 
 therefore presided over the Areopagus when it convened to 
 try murderers, since bloodshed involved religious uncleanness. 
 His wife took a conspicuous part in the Authesteria, when she 
 was symbolically married to Dionysus. 
 
 The third archon was called the Polemarch (6 iroXeiiapxas). 
 As his name signifies, he originally was commander-in-chief, 
 but was superseded by the generals (p. 197). He offered the 
 state sacrifices to Artemis Agrotera and Enyalius (both divin- 
 ities of war) at the festival of Marathon (p. 306), and also the 
 sacrifice for dead warriors {iinTdcfyia, p. 307) and for Harmodius 
 and Aristogeiton. In the courts he had jurisdiction where for- 
 eigners, particularly metics, were concerned. 
 
 The other six archons, styled Thesmothetai, attended to the 
 revision of the laws, and when conflicts were discovered, rec- 
 ommended to the Council the repeal of old laws, or the passing 
 of new ones. They presided at the examination of public of- 
 ficers ; in certain cases of endeixis, where information of mis- 
 demeanour had been laid before them ; impeachment {Acrayye- 
 \ia) ; and in cases brought on by the proposing of some uncon- 
 stitutional measure {ypa(j)rj napavoiiav) ; in general, they took 
 charge of all cases that did not belong to some other magistrate. 
 They decided when a case should be heard and assigned the 
 court-rooms to the several magistrates. 
 
 The Eleven (oi IvSexa), an executive board. These superin- 
 tended the prisons and executed the death penalty by admin- 
 istering poison (KiBveiov, "hemlock"). 
 
 The Astynomoi (ol d<TTvv6px)i), ten in number, five for Athens, 
 five for the Piraeus (see pp. 16, 20). 
 
 The Agoranomoi {ol a.yopav6p.oi), distributed like the Asty- 
 nomoi (see pp. 20, 34). 
 
 The Metronomoi (see p. 242). 
 
 The Commissioners of Grain {ol a-iTo<^v\aK(s). They were ten 
 in number until the latter half of the fourth century, when 
 twenty were chosen for Athens, fifteen for the Piraeus. They 
 noted the amount of grain imported, exercised control over the 
 importers and the retailers of breadstuffs, and enforced a legal 
 standard of weight and price. 
 
LIST OP THE ATHENIAN MAGISTRATES 303 
 
 The purchasers of grain (ol o-iricai), specially chosen in times 
 of famine to buy grain for distribution to the poor. 
 
 Overseers of the Port (eVt/iieX>;Tai E>n-op/ou), ten in number, 
 who had functions allied to those of the grain' commissioners. 
 Athenian law, in order to insure a sufficient supply of grain 
 (cf. p. 220), required that two-thirds of all grain coming to the 
 Piraeus should be lauded and sold in Athens. 
 
 Superintendent of the Springs (d eVi ras Kfjrjvas). This was an 
 important office which required experts, and therefore was filled 
 by election, not by lot. The officer chosen repaired spring- 
 houses and water conduits. 
 
 Repairers of the Eoads (oSottoioi), five in number, road com- 
 missioners. 
 
 Eepairers of the Temples (ot UpZv iirurKevaa-rai). To these 
 were appropriated annually thirty minae for the repair of 
 Athenian shrines. 
 
 Superintendents of Public Works (cVtorarat rav 8i]fioa-iav 
 epymv) were elected as occasion arose. 
 
 Purchasers of Oxen {Poavai) were distinguished citizens 
 elected to the honorary office of buying oxen for the sacri- 
 fices. 
 
 Athlothetai {affKo64Tai} managed the Greater Panathenaea 
 held every four years. They retained office for the unusual 
 term of four years. 
 
 Financial 
 
 The Apodektai (ot arrobinTai), ten in number, were general 
 treasurers, receiving war-taxes, market and other tolls, and all 
 debts due the state, which were determined by a list given to 
 them by a commissioner (Sij/ido-ios) of the council. 
 
 The Kolakretai {ol KcoXaKperai) were an ancient board, number 
 unknown, which managed the public dinners (o-i'tt^ctis ev vpvra- 
 vfia, p. 63) and paid the jurymen. In the sixth century they 
 seem to have had higher functions, but in the fifth many of 
 their powers were transferred to the Apodektai. 
 
 The Poletai (ol 7ra>Xr]Tal) were ten officers who had charge of 
 the collection of state dues. They leased the mines, farmed out 
 the taxes to tax-gatherers for a lump sum, and made contracts 
 for public works. They sold confiscated property, especially of 
 those whose war-taxes had not been paid, or of metics who had 
 not paid their market tolls or procured a patron (p. 65), 
 
304 THE LIFE OP THE ANCIENT GREEKS 
 
 The Praktores (oi irpaKTopes) were collecting agents, probably 
 ten in number, who secured the payment of fines imposed by 
 the courts. 
 
 Comptroller of the Treasury {dyriypacj)evs tijs SiotKrjo-eas) had 
 charge of the money paid into the treasury at the Prytaneion 
 by the Apodektai. He rendered an account during each pryt- 
 any (p. 207). 
 
 Stewards of the Funds of Athena {rajiiai rav UpHv xpiy/iaTmv 
 Tris ' Kdrivaias). These were ten men chosen only from the Pen- 
 takosiomedimni. They had the keeping of the temple or tem- 
 ples of Athena and of Nike, with all the treasures of the 
 Acropolis. 
 
 Stewards of the other Gods (rofiiat rav SKkav dean). These had 
 charge, under the preceding, of the treasures of other divinities, 
 which were transferred in 454-3 B. c. to the temple of Athena 
 Polias on the Acropolis. 
 
 Stewards of the Greeks (fKKrjvoTapiac) were treasurers of the 
 Confederacy of Delos. They originally had their office in Delos, 
 and represented the several states which formed the league. 
 Later the treasury was removed to Athens, and only Athenians 
 were chosen to the office, one from each tribe. They received 
 the tribute of the dependent allies, which was paid each year at 
 the time of the Greater Dionysia. This fund was kept separate 
 from all others, though one-sixtieth was devoted as an offering 
 {mrapxrj) to Athena. Payments from this fund, which was 
 appropriated for public buildings and military enterprises, were 
 controlled by them. 
 
 The Syndics (oJ a-ivdiKoi) were a temporary board chosen at 
 the restoration of the democracy in 403 B. c. to recover, so far 
 as possible, money and property illegally appropriated by the 
 Thirty Tyrants. 
 
 The following magistrates are mentioned chiefly in the rec- 
 ords of the fourth century : 
 
 The Treasurer of the People (rapias tov Sr)pov) controlled 
 money used in erecting and restoring records of legislative 
 decrees. He paid travelling expenses of ambassadors and the 
 expenses of making honorary crowns (p. 63). 
 
 Treasurers of the Theoric Fund (oi eVi t6 deapiKov, p. 112), in- 
 stituted by Eubiilus between 354-339. Eubiilus brought about 
 a decree by which all balances of money in the state treasury 
 
LIST OF THE ATHENIAN MAGISTRATES 305 
 
 should be given to the people to enable them to take part in 
 the state festivals. These treasurers held office from one Pana- 
 thenaea to the next following. 
 
 Treasurer of the Military Funds (rafiias tS>v a-Tpantoniwv), es- 
 tablished at the instance of Demosthenes on the abolition of 
 the system of Eubiilus in 339. He dispensed the balances which 
 were formerly in the hands entirely of the theoric officials. 
 
 Late in the fourth century a single official, called 6 eVi rj 
 hioiKTjaei, took the place of the Apodektai, and in conjunction 
 with the Poletai saw to the contracts for public works, the 
 making of honorary crowns and statues, and paid the expenses 
 involved in setting up the decrees of the people in stone or 
 bronze. 
 
 Military 
 
 The Generals (a-Tparriyoi, p. 197). At the beginning, one 
 was elected (by show of hands, x"poTovia) from each tribe ; 
 later, all the ten were elected from the whole body of citizens, 
 rive had special duties : the first (o inl tovs d^rXiVar) took com- 
 mand in foreign campaigns ; the second (d eVi t-ijv x'^P"-") con- 
 ducted defensive operations at home ; the third (6 eVl Tijy Mowi- 
 Xtav) and the fourth (d eVl nyv 'Akttiv) maintained the defense of 
 the ports ; the fifth (d eir\ ras (rvjijiopias) managed the trierarchies 
 and conducted legal procedure concerning them when neces- 
 sary. Theoretically all the generals had equal power ; practi- 
 cally the chief command might be assigned by the ecclesia to 
 one or more of them, or as agreed on by the others ; sometimes 
 also each took command in turn. They had diplomatic as well 
 as military functions, made treaties, and in general conducted 
 foreign affairs. 
 
 The Taxiarchs (oi ra^lapxai) were ten officers, each command- 
 ing the hoplites of a single tribe. 
 
 The Captains (oi Xoxayoi) commanded small detachments 
 under the Taxiarchs. 
 
 The Hipparchs (oi lirirapxoi) were two cavalry officers. Under 
 them were the phylarchs, ten in all, one for each tribe. 
 
 Captains of Ten (ol SeKdSapxoi) were cavalry officers appointed 
 by the Hipparchs. 
 
 30 
 
306 THE LIFE OP THE ANCIENT GREEKS 
 
 2. ATTIC HOLY DAYS AND FESTIVALS (lopraO 
 
 Metageitnion 
 
 12th. The Kronia (to Kpovia). Originally a rural festival, 
 sacred to Kronos and Rhea. Masters and slaves ate together. 
 It was deemed old-fashioned in Aristophanes's time. 
 
 16th. The Synoikia (to ^wo'iKia). In honour of Athena and 
 Hestia. It celebrated Theseus's consolidation of Attica. Blood- 
 less offerings were made for peace. 
 
 21st-29th. The Panathenaea (iravaSrjvaia, p. 274). The Lesser 
 Panathenaea (ra luKpa or ra kot iviavrov) were held annually ; 
 the Greater (to jifyaKa), every four years, in the third year of 
 each Olympiad. 
 
 21st-22d-23d. Musical contests. 
 
 24th-25th. Gymnastic contests. 
 
 26th. Horse-racing and chariot-racing. 
 
 27th. The pyrriche (p. 84). 
 
 28th. Torch-race at night. 
 
 The great procession [iroimrj), with sacrifice of cattle and 
 sheep to Athena, followed by general feasting. 
 
 29th. Boat-race. 
 In this month (or when the sun was in Virgo) occurred also 
 the Heracleia (ra 'H/DaxXfia), in honour of Heracles, and the 
 Adonia (ra "AStoj/ta), celebrated especially by women. The first 
 day was given over to the lament for the disappearance (a(f)avi(r- 
 fios) of Adonis ; the second, to the symbolic search for his body. 
 Plants that grew and faded quickly were set before the street 
 door and the entrance to the temple of Adonis. 
 
 BOBDROMION 
 
 3d. Celebration of the victory at Plataea (479 B. c). 
 
 5th. The Genesia (to yevia-ia, ra veKvcna, or to vefiiaia, p. 299). 
 A day devoted to the dead ; the Erinyes were believed to be 
 abroad on this day, ready to avenge the neglect of departed 
 spirits. 
 
 6th. Holiday in celebration of the victory at Marathon 
 (490 B. c). Sacrifice, conducted by the polemarch, of 500 goats 
 to Artemis Agrotera and to Enyalius. 
 
ATTIC HOLY DAYS AND FESTIVALS 307 
 
 13th. The Charisteria (to ^ap'o'T'^p'" iXevB^pias). Thanksgiv- 
 ing for the fall of the Thirty Tyrants (403 b. c). 
 
 15tli-33d. The Eleusinia (to. 'EXeva-ma, see pp. 276 S.). 
 
 Pyanopsion 
 
 7th. The Pyanopsia (to nvavoyj/ia) ; literally, the Feast of 
 Beans. A festival in honour of Apollo and the Horai, attended 
 with offerings of beans, pease, lentils, and other products of the 
 earth. A conspicuous feature was the branch (dpecnavrj) of 
 olive or laurel, which was decorated, much like a Christmas 
 tree, with white and purple tufts of wool and with fruits and 
 cakes, and carried by a young lad, specially chosen for the 
 honour, to the temple of Apollo. There it remained until the 
 next year. 
 
 7th. The Oschophoria (to da-\o(l>6pta). Two young men from 
 each tribe carried, as they raced with one another, branches 
 loaded with grapes from the temple of Dionysus, near the 
 theatre, to the temple of Athena Skiras at Phaleron. 
 
 8th-llth. The Theseia (to efja-cia) was celebrated with splen- 
 did offerings to Theseus and Aegeus, at which the poor were 
 fed free. 
 
 9th. Contests of trumpeters and heralds. 
 10th. Torch-race and gymnastic contests. 
 11th. Horse-race. 
 
 13th. The Epitaphia (ra eViTO^ia). Public burial of dead 
 warriors. Empty couches or coffins of cypress wood were 
 carried for those whose bodies had not been recovered. An 
 oration (Xdyos e'jrcTd(j)ios) was delivered in the Cerameicus. 
 
 About this time also was held the Apaturia (ra arraToipia, 
 pp. 74, 381), which lasted three days. At the beginning of the 
 first day, i. e., at evening, the members of a phratry supped at 
 the assembly room of the phratry ; this day was called the 
 dorpia (Sopwla). The second day (called the dvdppva-ts) was 
 devoted to the gods, notably Zeus and Athena, or any other 
 divinity who was the object of a phratry 's special devotion. 
 The third day (KovpcSins) was occupied chiefly with the regis- 
 tration of infants and young men in the register of the phratry, 
 as described on page 74. 
 
 10th-14th. The Thesmophoria (to Ofo-fiocfiopta, p. 276), a fes- 
 tival of the women of Attic birth in honour of Demeter. 
 
308 THE LIFE OP THE ANCIENT GREEKS 
 
 10th. The Stenia (to o-Trjvia), attended with much scurri- 
 lous jesting, during which the women went from Athens to 
 Halimus, at Cape Colias, and there spent the night. 
 
 11th. At Halimus were celebrated Aphrodite and her 
 attendant spirits, the Genetyllides. 
 
 12th. The return (avobos) of the women to Demeter's 
 temple in Athens. 
 
 13th. The Nesteia (vrja-Tcla), a very strict fast. 
 
 14th. The Kalligeneia (ja KaWiyeveia), a day of rejoicing 
 after the fast, in which Demeter was extolled as the mother 
 of a beautiful child (Persephone). 
 
 POSEIDEON 
 
 19th. The rural Dionysia (ra Kar aypovs Aiovia-ia), This was 
 the rustic celebration of Dionysus in the several demes, attended 
 sometimes with scenic performances, as at Acharnae, Aixone, 
 Eleusis, Icaria, Piraeus, Salamis, and Thoricus. The head man 
 of the deme, or demarch, conducted the festival, the expenses 
 of which were paid by each deme. Besides other rustic sports, 
 the askoliasmos (p. 77) was especially prominent. 
 
 The Haloia (ra 'AXma) was a festival held in Athens and 
 Eleusis in honour of Demeter and Dionysus. No blood offer- 
 ings were allowed. 
 
 Gamelion 
 
 12th. The Lenaea (ra Aijvaio, or 6 iirl Arjvala dyav, p. 113). A 
 festival in honour of Dionysus of the wine-vat, attended with 
 the broaching of the new wine, just fermented. A procession 
 and scenic contests marked the festival. The Theogamia (ra 
 deoyajiia, or iepos yafios) celebrated the marriage of the gods, 
 particularly Zeus and Hera, and the conception of Hephaestus. 
 
 Anthesterion 
 
 llth-13th. The Anthesteria (ra 'AvBea-Ttjpia, p. 274). A fes- 
 tival to Dionysus, which bore many resemblances to the Roman 
 Saturnalia and the modern Christmas. 
 
 11th. The Opening of the Wine-casks (ra ivi6oiyia). 
 
 12th. The Feast of Pitchers, or clioes day (x6es). There 
 
 was a procession, with a mystic marriage of the wife of the 
 
 king archon to Dionysus. With this has been compared the 
 
 marriage of the Doges of Venice with the sea. A drinking 
 
ATTIC HOLY DAYS AND FESTIVALS 309 
 
 contest gave occasion for extraordinary license and merry- 
 making'. 
 
 13th. The Feast of Pots {xirpoi). Vegetables were offered 
 in pots to the dead, to whom the day was devoted. 
 18th-21st. The Lesser Mysteries (ra cV "Ay pas). In later 
 times these were also held in the autumn (see p. 277). Deme- 
 ter, Kore, and Dionysus were celebrated at Agrae, on the Ilis- 
 sus. A " truce of God " was proclaimed to insure the protection 
 of the celebrants. 
 
 23d. The Diasia (ra Atoo-ia). A solemn propitiatory cere- 
 mony to Zeus Meilichios, with liolocausts of swine. For these 
 the poor were allowed to substitute images of animals made of 
 
 dough. 
 
 Elaphebolion 
 
 8th-13th. The Greater, or City, Dionysia (Aiowo-ta ra iv 
 aarfi, or Aiomcna ra fieyoKa, pp. 113, 375). 
 
 8th. The Proagon. This embraced a formal announce- 
 ment, in lieu of written programmes, of the lyric and the 
 dramatic contests which were to ensue. Ohoregi, actors, and 
 choruses appeared in the theatre in holiday, but not theatri- 
 cal, attire. 
 
 9th. A procession, in which the image of Dionysus was 
 carried from his ancient temple (the Lenaion) to the theatre, 
 marched through the Cerameicus, attended with singing, 
 dancing, and revel (kS^os). 
 
 10th. Lyric contests of the choruses of boys and men. 
 
 llth-13th. Dramatic contests. 
 
 MOTJNICHION 
 
 6th. Supplication of Apollo at the Delphinion (ra Ae\(f>iviaT), 
 on the coast, in memory of the rescue of Theseus and the seven 
 youths and seven maidens from the Minotaur. 
 
 16th. The Mounichia (to Mouvi'xia). The Aianteia (to AUv- 
 Teia), in memory of Ajax, son of Telamon. The Brauronia {ra 
 Bpavpavia), a purificatory ceremony, in which Artemis and the 
 sacrifice of Iphigeneia at Aulis were commemorated. Rhap- 
 sodes recited the Iliad. Women and girls (dressed as bears, p. 
 276) made offerings to Artemis. 
 
 19th (?). The Olympieia (to 'oXu/in-ieto), in honour of the 
 Olympian Zeus, whose precinct was near the Ilissus. 
 
310 THE LIFE OP THE ANCIENT GREEKS 
 
 Thargblion 
 
 6tli. Sacrifice of a ram (lepios) to Demeter Chloe. 
 
 6th-7tli. The Thargelia (ja 0apyrjKia). A solemn purifica- 
 tory festival to Apollo and Artemis, to avert pestilence. Scape- 
 goats {(jjapfiaKot) were driven forth to remove the sins of the 
 people. An offering was made of the first fruits of the year. 
 
 6th-7th. The Delia (to AijXta). A festival held at Delos, but 
 restored and managed chiefly by the Athenians. A sacred 
 vessel (tempi's) was despatched from Athens, during which no 
 public executions were allowed, since the city was to be purified 
 of all guilt. 
 
 19-21st. These days were devoted to cleansing certain 
 shrines. The Kallynteria, held on the 19th, was a purification 
 of the Erechtheion. The Plynteria, a dread and solemn rite, 
 was devoted to Athena, and was attended with the formal 
 cleaning of the image of Athena Polias in the sea at Phaleron. 
 
 On the 19th and 20th occurred the Bendideia, established 
 during the Peloponnesian War in honour of the Thracian god- 
 dess Bendis. Besides a procession, there was a relay race on 
 horseback, the riders striving to carry a lighted torch to the 
 goal. 
 
 Skirophorion 
 
 13th. The Skira (to. Sxipa), a festival of agricultural signifi- 
 cance, was celebrated by a procession to the suburb Skira in 
 honour of Athena Skiras, and with the spreading of gypsum or 
 lime (a-Kipa) on the earth. 
 
 The Arrephoria (ij 'hpprf^opia) was an offering made by girls 
 in a cavern in the gardens of Aphrodite (p. 11). The offerings 
 were of a secret nature, intended to secure fruitfulness. 
 
 14th. The Dipolia (to. iuiroKia, or ^ov^ovia). an ancient and 
 curious ceremony in honour of Zeus Polieus. The slayer of 
 the bull used at the sacrifice struck the animal with an axe as 
 if in anger and fled. The axe was then tried for the murder 
 and thrown beyond the border. 
 
 3. BIBLIOGRAPHY 
 
 The best works in English are cited first in alphabetical 
 order; then follow others which are sometimes still useful, 
 though now in part antiquated. French and German works 
 
BIBLlOGKAPHY SU 
 
 are given last, but all of them are important for an understand- 
 ing of details and the study of controverted questions, and 
 many are indispensable on account of the lack of similar trea- 
 tises in English. Other pertinent works are cited among the 
 sources of the illustrations. 
 
 (a) General 
 
 1. American Journal of Archaeology : the journal of the Ar- 
 chaeological Institute of America, from 1885. New series, 
 from 1897. New York. 
 
 2. P. Gardner and F. B. Jevons. A Manual of Greek Antiq- 
 uities. London and New York, 1895. 
 
 3. P. Gardner. Classical Archaeology in Schools. Oxford, 
 1902. 
 
 4. Journal of Hellenic Studies : published by the Society for 
 the Promotion of Hellenic Studies. London, from 1880. 
 
 5. J. P. Mahaffy. A Survey of Greek Civilization. Mead- 
 ville. Pa., 1896. 
 
 6. J. P. Mahafly. Social Life in Greece from Homer to Me- 
 nander, 3d edition. London, 1875. 
 
 7. J. P. MahafPy. Greek Life and Thought from the Age of 
 Alexander to the Roman Conquest, 2d edition. London, 
 1896. 
 
 8. Nettleship and Sandys. A Dictionary of Classical Antiqui- 
 ties, Mythology, Religion, Literature, and Art. Based on 
 No. 34. 3d edition. London, 1895. 
 
 9. T. Schreiber's Atlas of Classical Antiquities. Edited for 
 English use by W. C. F. Anderson, with a preface by Percy 
 Gardner. London, 1895. Same as No. 33. 
 
 10. W. Smith, W. "Wayte, and G. E. Marindin. A Dictionary 
 of Greek and Roman Antiquities, 3d edition, 2 vols. Lon- 
 don, 1890-1891. 
 
 11. Alice Zimmern. The Home Life of the Ancient Greeks ; a 
 translation of No. 21. London, 1895. 
 
 12. W. A. Becker. Charicles ; translated by Eev. F. Metcalfe, 
 4th edition. See No. 20. London, 1874. 
 
 13. W. H. Browne. Greece and Rome ; a translation of No. 23. 
 New York, 1882. 
 
 14. C. C. Felton. Lectures on Greece, Ancient and Modern, 2 
 vols. 1867. 
 
312 THE LIFE OF THE ANCIENT GREEKS 
 
 15. Guhl and Koner's Life of the Greeks and Romans, de- 
 scribed from antique monuments. Translated from the 
 3d German edition by F. Hueflfer. New York, 1875. See 
 No. 28. 
 
 16. J. P. Mahafify. Old Greek Life. London, 1876 ; New York, 
 1888. 
 
 17. A. Rich. A Dictionary of Roman and Greek Antiquities, 
 5th edition. London, 1890. 
 
 18. J. A. St. John. The Hellenes, 2 vols. London, 1844. 
 
 19. A. Baumeister. Denkmaler des klassischen Altertums, 3 
 vols. Munich, 1884-1888. 
 
 20. W. A. Becker. Charikles ; neu bearbeitet von H. G611, 3 
 vols. Berlin, 1877-1878. 
 
 21. H. Bliimner. Leben und Sitten der Griechen. Leipzig, 
 1887. 
 
 22. C. Daremberg et E. Saglio. Dictionnaire des antiquites 
 grecques et romaines d'apres les textes et les monuments. 
 Paris, from 1873. 
 
 23. J. von Falke. Hellas und Rom ; eine Kulturgeschichte des 
 klassischen Altertums, 2d edition. Stuttgart, 1878-1880. 
 
 24. A. Forbiger. Hellas und Rom ; populare Darstellung des 
 offentlichen und hauslichen Lebens der Griechen und 
 Romer. Leipzig, 1876. 
 
 25. G. Fougeres. La vie publique et privee des Grecs et der 
 Romains. Paris, 1894. 
 
 26. P. Giraud. La vie privee et la vie publique des Grecs. 
 Paris, 1890. 
 
 27. H. G611. Kulturbilder aus Hellas und Rom, 2 vols., 3d edi- 
 tion. Leipzig and Berlin, 1880. 
 
 28. Guhl and Koner. Das Leben der Griechen und Romer, 
 6th edition by R. Engelmann. Berlin, 1893. 
 
 29. K. F. Hermann. Lehrbuch der griechischen Privatalter- 
 tlimer, 3d edition by H. Bliimner. Freiburg, 1882. 
 
 30. R. Menard et C. Sauvageot. La vie privee des anciens. 
 Paris, 1880-1883. 
 
 31. I. V. Miiller. Die griechischen Privataltertiimer. Munich, 
 1893. 
 
 32. R. Opitz. Das hausliche Leben der Griechen und Romer. 
 Leipzig, 1894. Vol. vi of Seemann's Kulturbilder aus dem 
 klassischen Altertume. 
 
BIBLIOGRAPHY 313 
 
 33. Theodor Schreiber. Kulturhistorischer Bilderatlas ; Part 
 I, Altertum, 2d edition. Leipzig, 1888. With text by K. 
 Bernhardi. 
 
 34. O. Seyflfert. Lexikon der klassischen Altertumskunde. 
 Leipzig, 1882. 
 
 35. K. L. Weisser. Bilderatlas zur Weltgeschichte, 2d edition. 
 Stuttgart, 1881-1882. 
 
 (&) Special 
 
 To Chapter I. — E. Abbott. History of Greece, chap. i. 
 
 K. Baedeker. Greece. A Handbook for Travellers. English 
 2d edition, 1893. 
 
 S. J. Barrows. The Isles and Shrines of Greece. Boston, 1898. 
 
 0. Diehl. Excursions in Greece. Translated by E. R. Perkins. 
 London, 1894. 
 
 E. A. Freeman. Studies of Travel in Greece and Italy, 2 vols. 
 New York, 1894. 
 
 H. Kiepert. Manual of Ancient Geography. English transla- 
 tion. London, 1881. 
 
 J. P. Mahaffy. Rambles and Studies in Greece, 3d edition. 
 London, 1887. 
 
 H. F. Tozer. Lectures on the Geography of Greece. 1873. 
 
 H. F. Tozer. A History of Ancient Geography. Cambridge, 
 1897. 
 
 C. Wordsworth. Greece, Pictorial, Descriptive, and Historical. 
 Revised by H. F. Tozer. London, 1882. 
 
 Bursian. Geographic von Griechenland, 2 vols. 1862-1868. 
 
 Lolling. Topographic von Griechenland, in vol. iii of I. v. 
 Miiller's Handbuch der klassischen Altertumswissenschaft. 
 
 Neumann and Partsch. Physikalische Geographic von Grie- 
 chenland. 1885. 
 
 A. Philippson. Der Peloponnes. Berlin, 1892. 
 
 To Chapter II. — Encyclopaedia Britannica, s. v. Athens. 
 
 T. H. Dyer. Ancient Athens. London, 1873. 
 
 J. G. Frazer. Pausanias, Description of Greece. London, 
 
 1898. 
 Harrison and Verrall. Mythology and Monuments of Ancient 
 
 Athens. London, 1890 ; New York, 1894. 
 Johnson's Universal Cyclopaedia, s. v. Athens. 
 
314 THE LIFE OF THE ANCIENT GREEKS 
 
 Smith's Dictionary of Antiquities, s. v. Agora, Agoranomi, 
 
 Astynomi, Sycophantes. 
 E. Curtius and J. A. Kaupert. Karten von Attika. Berlin, 
 
 1897. 
 E. Curtius. Die Stadtgeschichte von Atlien. Berlin, 1891. 
 Guides-Joanne, vol. i. Athenes et ses environs. Paris, 1890. 
 C. Wachsmuth. Die Stadt Atlien im Altertum. 1874-1890. 
 
 To Chapter III. — E. Gardner. Journal of Hellenic Studies, 
 
 xxi, 1901, pp. 293 S. 
 Gardner and Jevons (No. 2), pp. 21-45. 
 P. Gardner. New Chapters in Greek History, chap. iv. (on the 
 
 palace at Tiryns). 
 J. L. Myres. Journal of Hellenic Studies, xx, 1900, pp. 128 ff. 
 
 (on the Homeric house). 
 Smith's Dictionary (No. 10), s. v. Andron, Antae, Aula, Cla- 
 
 vis, Domus, Focus, Paries, Peristylium, Scalae, Tapites, 
 
 Tegula. 
 Baumeister (No. 19), s. v. Haus, Heizung, Thuren. 
 Becker-GoU (No. 20). Excursus I to Scene III. 
 Bulletin de correspon dance hellenique, 1895, pp. 485-546. 
 Daremberg et Saglio (No. 22), s. v. Domus. 
 K. Lange. Haus und Halle. Leipzig, 1885. 
 P. Gardner. New Chapters in Greek History, chap. viii. 
 
 To Chapter IV. — Harrison and Verrall, pp. 343 ff. 
 Baumeister, s. v. Pergamon. 
 A. Boetticher. Die Akropolis von Athen. 1888. 
 O. Jahn and A. Michaelis. Arx Athenarum a Pausania De- 
 scripta in usum Scholarum. Bonn, 1901. 
 
 To Chapter V.— Gardner and Jevons, pp. 454-463 ; 611-629. 
 
 G. Gilbert. The Constitutional Antiquities of Sparta and 
 Athens, translated by E. J. Brooks and T. Nicklin. Lon- 
 don, 1895. 
 
 Smith's Dictionary, s. v. Civitas, Servus, Libertus. 
 
 Schoemann. The Antiquities of Greece, translated by E. G. 
 Hardy and J. S. Mann. London, 1880. 
 
 A. Boeokh. Die Staatshaushaltung der Athener, 3d edition by 
 Max Frankel. 1886. 
 
 Biichsenschiitz. Besitz und Erwerb. Halle, 1869. 
 
BIBLIOGRAPHY 316 
 
 G. Busolt. Die griechischen Staats- und Rechts-Altertiimer. 
 
 Munich, 1892. 
 Fustel de Coulange. La cite antique. Paris, 1898. 
 K. F. Hermann's Lehrbuch der griechisclien Staats-Altertiimer, 
 
 by V. Thumser. 1889. 
 G. F. Schoemann. Griechische Altertiimer, 4th edition by 
 
 J. H. Lipsius. Berlin, 1896. 
 
 To Chapter VI : Smith's Dictionary of Antiquities, s. v. Incu- 
 nabula, Amphidromia, Nomen, Vannus, Paedagogus, 
 Aeora, Apodidraskinda, Basilinda, Chelidonia, Myinda, 
 Ostracinda, Pila, Pupa, Trochus, Turbo. 
 
 L. Grasberger. Erziehung und Unterricht im klassischen 
 Altertum. Wiirzburg, 1864-1881. 
 
 L. Grasberger. Stichnamen. 2d edition, 1883. 
 
 J. L. Ussing. Erziehung und Unterricht bei den Griechen und 
 Romern. Berlin, 1885. 
 
 To Chapter VII.— E. Abbott. Hellenica, pp. 67 fP. (The 
 
 Theory of Education in Plato's Republic, by R. L. Nettleship.) 
 J. P. Mahaffy. Old Greek Education. New York, 1882. 
 W. L. Newman. The Politics of Aristotle, vol. iii, pp. xxxix ff. 
 
 Oxford, 1903. 
 Smith's Dictionary of Antiquities, s. v. Ludus litterarius. 
 
 Abacus, Arithmetica, Atramentum, Buxum, Calamus, 
 
 Capistrum, Libellus, Liber, Stilus, Tabulae, Lyra, Syrinx, 
 
 Tibia. 
 Baumeister's Denkmaler, s. v. Musik, Floten, Saiten-Jnstru- 
 
 mente. 
 T. Birt. Antikes Buchwesen. 
 K. Dziatzko. Untersuchungen iiber ausgewahlte Kapitel des 
 
 antiken Buchwesens. Leipzig, 1900. 
 P. Girard. L'Education athenienne, 3d edition. Paris, 1891. 
 
 To Chapter VIII.— P. Gardner. New Chapters in Greek His- 
 tory, chap. ix. 
 
 S. P. Lambros and N. G. Polites. The Olympic Games, B. c. 
 776-A. D. 1896. Athens and London, 1896. 
 
 Smith's Dictionary, s. v. Athletae, Cursus, Discus, Halteres, 
 Lampadephoria, Lucta, Palaestra, Pancratium, Pentath- 
 liim, Pugilatus. 
 
316 THE LIFE OP THE ANCIENT GREEKS 
 
 F. Gr. Kenyon. The Palaeography of G-reek Papyri, especially 
 
 chapters i-ii, pp. 1-33. Oxford, 1899. 
 J. H. Putnam. Authors and their Public in Ancient Times. 
 
 New York, 1894. 
 Sir E. M. Thompson. Handbook of Greek and Latin Palae- 
 ography, 1893. 
 H. N. Fowler. A History of Ancient Greek Literature, pp. 179- 
 
 266. New York, 1902. 
 A. Haigh. The Attic Theatre, 2d edition. Oxford, 1898. 
 Smith's Dictionary, s. v. Theatrum, Tragoedia, Comoedia. 
 K. F. Hermann's Lehrbuch der griechischen Biihnenalter- 
 
 tiimer, by A. Muller. Freiburg, 1886. 
 W. Dorpfeld and E. Eeisch. Das griechische Theater. Athens, 
 
 1896. 
 J. Bintz. Die Gymnastik der Hellenen. Giitersloh, 1878. 
 A. Boetticher. Olympia. Berlin, 1886. 
 
 O. H. Jager. Die Gymnastik der Hellenen. Stuttgart, 1881. 
 J. H. Krause. Die Gymnastik und Agonistik der Hellenen, 
 
 2 vols. Leipzig, 1841. 
 
 To Chapter IX. — Contemporary Review. July, 1878, and 
 March, 1879. 
 
 C C. Felton. Greece, Ancient and Modern, i, pp. 343 fiP. 
 
 Guhl and Koner, pp. 185-195. 
 
 H. W. Hayley. The Social and Domestic Position of Women 
 in Aristophanes (in Harvard Studies in Classical Phil- 
 ology), vol. i, 1890, pp. 159-186. 
 
 J. P. Mahaffy. Social Life, pp. 52, 142, 274 ff. 
 
 Smith's Dictionary, s. v. Dos, Gamelia. 
 
 St. John's Hellenes, i, 401-424 ; ii, 1-49. 
 
 Baumeister's Denkmaler, s. v. Hochzeit, Spinnen, Weberei, 
 Sticken. 
 
 To Chapter X.— S. Birch. History of Ancient Pottery. Lon- 
 don, 1873. 
 
 Collignon. Manual of Archaeology. Translated by J. H. 
 Wright, pp. 261-324. 
 
 Von Falke. Greece and Rome, -pp. 89-91. 
 
 Smith's Dictionary, s. v. Amphora, Ampulla, Area, Arybal- 
 lus, Calathus, Calix, Calpis, Candelabrum,, Cantharus, 
 Carchesium, Cathedra, Cista, Cotyle, Crater, Cyathus, 
 
BIBLIOGRAPHY 317 
 
 Dolium, Fax, Hydria, Lanterna, Lectus, Lucerna, Mensa, 
 ■ Patera, Psycter, Pulvinus, Pyxis, Rhyton, Scyphus, Sella, 
 
 Speculum, Stamnus, Taeda, Thronus, Vas. 
 J. M. Miller. Die Beleuchtung im Altertum. Wiirzburg, 1885. 
 H. Weiss. Kostiimkunde. Stuttgart, 1881, pp. 368-398. 
 
 To Chapter XI.— A. de Oandolle. Origin of Cultivated 
 Plants. New York, 1885. 
 
 T. D. Seymour. Homeric Viands (in Proceedings of the Amer- 
 ican Philological Association, vol. xxx, 1899, p. xxvi). 
 
 Smith's Dictionary, s. v. Opson, Vinum, Cena. 
 
 Baumeister's Denkmaler, s. v. Bdckerei, Brot, Mahlzeiten, 
 Loffel. 
 
 V. Hehn. Kulturpilanzen und Hausthiere, 6tli edition. Ber- 
 lin, 1894. 
 
 O. Keller, Thiere des classischen Alterthums. Innsbruck, 1887. 
 
 To Chapter XII. — Lady M. M. Evans. Chapters on Greek 
 
 Dress. London, 1893. 
 Gardner and Jevons, pp. 49-67. 
 
 T. Hope. The Costume of the Ancients. London, 1875. 
 Smith's Dictionary, s. v. Calceus, Crepida, Emhas, Endromis, 
 
 Pera, Soccus, Solea, Cothurnus, Tunica, Palla, Pallium, 
 
 Amictus, Exomis, Tribon, Vestis, Cingulum, Strophium, 
 
 Pilleus. 
 Zimmern. Home Life, pp. 2-77. 
 Baumeister's Denkmaler, s. v. Kleidung, Chiton, Chlamys, 
 
 Himation, Gurtel, FussbeMeidung, Schuhmacher. 
 J. Boehlau. Quaestiones de re vestiaria Graecorum. Weimar, 
 
 1884. 
 F. Studniczka. Beitrage zur Geschichte der altgriechischen 
 
 Tracht. Vienna, 1886. 
 H. Weiss. Kostiimkunde. Stuttgart, 1881, i, 302-337. 
 
 To Chapter XIII. — P. W. Nicolson. Greek and Eoman Bar- 
 bers (in Harvard Studies in Classical Philology), vol. ii, 
 1891, pp. 41-56. 
 
 Smith's Dictionary, s. v. Barba, Coma, Culter, Forfex, Mustax, 
 Pecten, Volsella. 
 
 Baumeister's Denkmaler, s. v. Haartracht, Barttracht, Bar- 
 biere, Scheren, Nadeln, Kdmme. 
 
 Bintz. Gymnastik der Hellenen, pp. 70-74. 
 
318 THE LIFE OF THE ANCIENT GREEKS 
 
 To Chapter XIV.— H. W. Hayley. The Kon-a/Soy KaraKTos in 
 
 the Light of Recent Investigations (in Harvard Studies in 
 
 Classical Philology), vol. v, 1894, pp. 73-82. 
 Smith's Dictionary, s. v. Aenigma, Corona, Cottabus, Mappa, 
 
 Erani, Parasiti, Symposium, Micare digitis, Nuces, Par 
 
 impar ludere. Tali, Tessara. 
 St. John's Hellenes, ii, pp. 125-219. 
 Baumeister's Denkmaler, s. v. Symposion, Krdnze, Kottabos, 
 
 Oaukler, Komos. 
 Becq de Fouquieres. Les jeux des anciens. Paris, 1869. 
 
 Anastasios N. Maltos. TLepii tS>v <TV)ino(Tiav tS>v TraXmmp iWripatv 
 
 ivaia-ifios Siarpifirj. Athens, 1880. 
 Ohlert. Ratsel und Gesellschaftsspiele. Berlin, 1885. 
 C. Sittl. Gebarden und Gesten der Griechen und Eomer. 
 
 Leipzig, 1890. 
 
 To Chapter XV. — S. P. Bunting. Res nautica apud antiquos. 
 
 Oxford, 1897. 
 G. C. V. Holmes. Ancient and Modern Ships. London, 1900, 
 
 pp. 27-38. 
 Smith's Dictionary, s. v. Clipeus, Exercitus, Gladius, Hasta, 
 
 Navis, Pelta, Strategus. 
 C. Torr. Ancient Ships. Cambridge, 1894. 
 A. Bauer. Die griechischen Kriegsaltertiimer (in I. v. Miiller's 
 
 Handbuch), 2d edition. Munich, 1892. 
 Baumeister's Denkmaler, s. v. Seewesen. 
 A. Breusing. Die Nautik der Alten. Bremen, 1886. 
 A. Breusing. Die Losung des Trierenratsels. Bremen, 1889. 
 A. Cartault. La triere athenienne. Paris, 1880. 
 H. Droysen. Heerwesen und Kriegsflihrung. 1889. 
 R. Bins. Das Rudern bei den Alten. Danzig, 1896. 
 M. Fickelscherer. Das Kriegswesen der Alten. Leipzig, 
 
 1888. 
 Graser. De veterum re navali. Berlin, 1864. 
 R. Haack. Ueber attische Trieren, in Zeitschrift des Vereines 
 
 deutscher Ingenieure, xxxix. 1895. 
 J. Kopecky. Die attischen Trieren. Leipzig, 1890. 
 H. Liers. Das Kriegswesen der Alten. Breslau, 1895. 
 E. Luebeck. Das Seewesen der Griechen und Romer. Ham- 
 burg, 1890. 
 
BIBLIOGRAPHY 319 
 
 E. Stahlecker. Ueber verschiedene Versuche der Eekon- 
 struktion der attischen Triere. Ravensburg, 1897. 
 
 H. Weiss. Kostiimkunde, pp. 337-355. 
 
 To Chapter XVI. — Gardner and Jevons, pp. 680-661. 
 Gilbert. The Constitutional Antiquities of Sparta and Athens, 
 pp. 265-310, 391-416. 
 
 A. H. J. Greenidge. A Handbook of Greek Constitutional His- 
 tory. London, 1896. 
 
 B. E. Hammond. The Political Institutions of the Ancient 
 Greeks. London, 1895. 
 
 Smith's Dictionary, s. v. Boule, Cheirotonia, Dokimasia, Ec- 
 
 clesia, Psephus, Prytaneium. 
 K. r. Hermann's Lehrbuch der griechischen Eechtsaltertiimer, 
 
 by T. Thalheim. Freiburg, 1884. 
 Meier and Schoemann. Der attische Process, new edition by 
 
 J. H. Lipsius. Berlin, 1883-1887. 
 
 To Chapter XVII. — Smith's Dictionary, s. v. Agricultura. 
 H. Bliimner. Kunstgewerbe im Altertum. Leipzig and Prague. 
 H. Bliimner. Teohnologie und Terminologie der Gewerbe und 
 
 Kiinste bei Griechen und Romern, 4 vols. Leipsig, 1875- 
 
 1887. 
 Biichsenschiitz. Besitz und Erwerb. 
 W. Richter. Handel und Verkehr, in Seemann's Kulturbilder 
 
 aus dem klassischen Altertume. Leipzig, 1886. 
 
 To Chapter XVIII.— Smith's Dictionary, s. v. Artifices, 
 
 Fullo, Mola. 
 Catalogue of Greek Coins of the British Museum. 
 P. Gardner. The Types of Greek Coins. Cambridge, 1883. 
 G. F. Hill. Handbook of Greek and Roman Coins. London, 
 
 1899. 
 W. Ridgeway. The Origin of Metallic Currency and Weight 
 
 Standards. Cambridge, 1892. 
 
 F. Hultsch. Metrologie, revised edition. Berlin, 1882. 
 
 To Chapter XIX.— Smith's Dictionary, s. v. Caupona, Cur- 
 
 rus, Hospitium, Jugum, Plaustrum. 
 Baumeister, s. v. Wirtshduser. 
 
320 
 
 THE LIFE OP THE ANCIENT GREEKS 
 
 To Chapter XX. — Gardner and Jevons, pp. 335-286. 
 
 Smith's Dictionary, s. v. Eisiteria, Exodia, Eleusinia, Sacri- 
 ficium, Thesmophoria. 
 
 Bouche-Leclercq. Histoire de la divination dans I'antiquite. 
 Paris, 1880. 
 
 A. Mommsen. Die Feste der Stadt Athen in Altertum. Leip- 
 zig, 1898. 
 
 C. Petersen. Der Hausgottesdienst der alten Griechen. Cas- 
 sel, 1851. 
 
 Preuner. Hestia- Vesta. Tiibingen, 1864. 
 
 O. Seemann. Die gottesdienstlichen Gebrauche der Griechen 
 und Romer. 
 
 To Chapter XXI.— Century Magazine. April, 1882. 
 
 P. Gardner. New Chapters in Greek History, chaps, x, xi, xii. 
 
 J. P. Mahaflfy. Social Life, pp. 290 S. 
 
 Smith's Dictionary, s. v. Chirurgia, Diaetetica, Medicina, 
 Medicus, Pharmacopola, Superstitio, Ardanion, Cenota- 
 phius, Funus, Mausoleum, Sepulchrum, Stele. 
 
 Baumeister's Denkmaler, s. v. Aerzte, Apotheken, Ashlepios, 
 Hippokrates. 
 
 P. Kavvadias. Fouilles d'Epidaure. Athens, 1891. 
 
 F. G. Welcker. Kleine Schriften, iii, 1 fE. 
 
 4. PASSAGES IN XBNOPHON'S ANABASIS ILLUSTRATING 
 THE TEXT 
 
 (a) Arranged according to Books 
 
 PAGE OF 
 BOOK I THE TEXT 
 
 1,9 246 
 
 1,10 253 
 
 2,7 12,99,100 
 
 2,8 83 
 
 2, 10 80,104 
 
 2, 16.... 163, 192, 257 
 3,17 260 
 
 3, 18 236 
 
 2,21 257 
 
 2,22 148 
 
 2,24 254 
 
 PAGE OF 
 BOOK I THE TEXT 
 
 2,27. 67 
 
 3, 17 200 
 
 3,21 246,349 
 
 4, 6 335,236,260 
 
 4, 9 147 
 
 4, 10 12 
 
 4, 13 246 
 
 4, 18 358 
 
 5,1 149 
 
 5,3 147,368 
 
 5, 5 319,330 
 
 PAGE OF 
 BOOK I THE TEXT 
 
 5, 6 344,346,348 
 
 5,7 319 
 
 5,8 163,167 
 
 5, 10.... 151, 219,359 
 
 5, 13 323 
 
 6, 1 81 
 
 6, 7 382 
 
 6, 10 182 
 
 7, 1 240 
 
 7, 3 72 
 
 7,4 190 
 
PASSAGES IN XENOPHON'S ANABASIS 
 
 321 
 
 PAQB OF 
 BOOK I THE TEXT 
 
 7,6 340 
 
 7, 9 282 
 
 7,15 260 
 
 7,18 246,266 
 
 8,1 151, 240, 
 
 259, 261 
 
 8,3 154 
 
 8,8 240 
 
 8,16 57 
 
 8,20 102 
 
 8,21 182 
 
 8,26 287 
 
 8,29 167 
 
 9,3 77 
 
 9, 5....81, 94, 97, 119 
 
 9,6 147 
 
 9,11 264 
 
 9,25 135 
 
 9,26 147 
 
 9,27 219 
 
 10,8 156 
 
 10,15 240 
 
 10,17 152,340 
 
 10,19 151,259 
 
 BOOK II 
 
 1,2 340 
 
 1,3 340 
 
 1,4 130 
 
 1,6 145,223 
 
 1,7 81, 192, 240 
 
 3,1 240 
 
 2,3 420 
 
 2,9 270 
 
 3,18 240 
 
 3,14 240 
 
 2,16 33,340 
 
 3,21 240 
 
 8, 1 240 
 
 21 
 
 PAQE OF 
 BOOK II THE TEXT 
 
 3,11 169 
 
 8,13 317 
 
 8,14 151 
 
 8, 15.... 126, 148,183 
 
 3,16 150 
 
 8, 17 68 
 
 3,37 144 
 
 3,38 3S0 
 
 4,7 350 
 
 4, 8 128 
 
 4,11 219,228 
 
 4, 12 23 
 
 4,18 217 
 
 4,14 12 
 
 4,27 67 
 
 4,28 150,259 
 
 5,7 363 
 
 5,9 358 
 
 5, 10 104 
 
 5,37 181 
 
 6,4 246 
 
 6, 10 198 
 
 6,12 88 
 
 6,16 106,246 
 
 6,25 107,262 
 
 BOOK III 
 
 1,3 126,240 
 
 1, 5 262,273 
 
 1,13 273 
 
 1,19 154,223 
 
 1,31 80 
 
 1,22 282 
 
 1,26 361 
 
 1,31 65,169 
 
 1, 83 240 
 
 1,87 192 
 
 1, 88 198 
 
 2,4 252 
 
 PAGE OF 
 BOOK III THE TEXT 
 
 2,7 169 
 
 2, 9 182 
 
 2,10 282 
 
 2, 12.... 145, 265,272 
 
 2, 18 195 
 
 2,22 258 
 
 3,34 258 
 
 2,25 171 
 
 2,26 136,190 
 
 2,39 198 
 
 3, 35 225 
 
 3,1 151 
 
 3, 6 155 
 
 8, 11 240 
 
 8, 20.... 161, 194,195 
 
 4,10 23 
 
 4,16 195 
 
 4,19 258 
 
 4, 30 288 
 
 4,34 ....240 
 
 4,87 259 
 
 4,47 257 
 
 5,2 233,240 
 
 5,9 223,259 
 
 5,10 259 
 
 5,15 240,256 
 
 BOOK IV 
 
 1, 5 240 
 
 1,8 188 
 
 1,12 67 
 
 1,18 161 
 
 1,19 298 
 
 1,34 130 
 
 3, 1 240 
 
 3,7 155 
 
 3,18 293 
 
 2,20 194 
 
 2,22 134 
 
322 
 
 THE LIFE OP THE ANCIENT GREEKS 
 
 PAGE OF 
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 3,8 240 
 
 3, 11.... 142, 158, 223 
 
 3,12 81 
 
 3,13 272 
 
 3,18 270 
 
 3,19 270,271 
 
 3,20 155 
 
 3,25 137,354 
 
 4,1 240 
 
 4,8 240 
 
 4, 9 145,147,271 
 
 4, 12.... 156, 158, 223 
 
 4, 13.... 148, 150, 175 
 4,21 128, 137, 
 
 148, 183 
 5,7 286 
 
 5, 9 19,240 
 
 5, 10 260,261 
 
 5,13 165,286 
 
 5,14 164,165 
 
 5,21 240 
 
 5, 24.... 121, 122,147 
 
 5,25 27,219,223 
 
 5,26 136 
 
 5,27 138 
 
 5,28 181 
 
 5,30 180 
 
 5,31 145 
 
 5, 32.... 136, 183, 184 
 
 5, 33.... 154, 222,260 
 
 5,34 260,261 
 
 5,35 268 
 
 5,36 257 
 
 6, 1 259 
 
 6,8 151 
 
 6,17 223 
 
 6,22 151 
 
 7,2 223 
 
 7,6 243 
 
 PAGE OF 
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 7,13 154 
 
 7, 15 193 
 
 7,26 169 
 
 7, 27... 137, 167, 169, 
 
 240, 246 
 
 8,3 162 
 
 8,4 67,261 
 
 8,7 262 
 
 8, 8 258 
 
 8,20 224,225 
 
 8,22 5 
 
 8,23 252,253 
 
 8, 25.. 80, 93, 261, 265 
 
 BOOK V 
 
 1, 11 200,203 
 
 1,12..... 260 
 
 1,13 258 
 
 1, 15 199 
 
 1, 16 236 
 
 2,3 223 
 
 2,9 266 
 
 2,10 195 
 
 3, 1 258 
 
 3,4 265 
 
 3,7 101,250 
 
 3, 8 99,100,146 
 
 3, 9 148, 246, 
 
 265, 266 
 
 3,10 147 
 
 3, 12 147 
 
 3, 13 265 
 
 4,2 253 
 
 4,4 260 
 
 4,11 259 
 
 4, 13.... 129, 154, 259 
 
 4,27 148 
 
 4, 28... 133, 134, 146, 
 
 148, 150, 219 
 
 PAGE OF 
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 4,29 33 
 
 4,32 167 
 
 4, 34 84,167,171 
 
 5, 1 232 
 
 2 253 
 
 4 257 
 
 5, 5 273 
 
 5,24 252 
 
 5,25 252 
 
 6, 4 283 
 
 11 253 
 
 6,13 67 
 
 6, 16 266 
 
 19 236 
 
 23 242, 246, 
 
 249 
 
 29 266 
 
 31 242 
 
 3 14 
 
 7, 6 240 
 
 7, 9 290 
 
 7, 13 145,271 
 
 7, 15 192 
 
 7, 17 284 
 
 7,23 197 
 
 7,24 147 
 
 7,25 81 
 
 7,26 225 
 
 7,30 293 
 
 7, 32 265 
 
 7,35 266 
 
 1-26 197,236 
 
 5 192 
 
 6 282 
 
 9 297 
 
 18 88,288 
 
 20 204 
 
 23 96 
 
 24 225 
 
PASSAGES IN XENOPHON'S ANABASIS 
 
 323 
 
 PAGE OF 
 BOOK VI THE TEXT 
 
 1,2 154 
 
 1,3 253 
 
 1,4.... 129, 137,138, 
 145, 268 
 
 1,6 84,183,271 
 
 1,6 295 
 
 1,7 84 
 
 1,8 84,218 
 
 1, 10 84 
 
 1,11 273 
 
 1,12.... 84, 167, 274 
 
 1,14 203 
 
 1,15.... 134, 244, 253 
 
 1,22 262,272 
 
 1,30 181,184 
 
 2,3... .134,145,344 
 
 2,4 145,246 
 
 2,10 190 
 
 2, 15 261 
 
 3,6 240 
 
 3,18 262 
 
 3,22... 284 
 
 3,23... 240 
 
 3,24 126 
 
 4,2 201,252 
 
 4,4 18,223 
 
 4,6 147,149 
 
 4,8 126 
 
 4,9 293 
 
 4,11 286 
 
 4,13 266 
 
 4,15 265 
 
 4,20 268 
 
 4,22 259, 266, 
 
 269 
 
 4,23 133,142 
 
 4,25 268 
 
 4,26 151,240 
 
 5,1 151 
 
 PAGE OF 
 BOOK Vr THE TEXT 
 
 5, 2.... 240, 265, 266, 
 268, 272, 273 
 
 5, 5 293 
 
 5,7 240 
 
 5,8 272 
 
 5,24 261 
 
 5,25 57 
 
 5,31 240 
 
 5,82 240 
 
 6,1 147 
 
 6,35 253,355 
 
 BOOK vn 
 
 1,3 252 
 
 1, 8 253 
 
 1,16 27 
 
 1, 19 205 
 
 1,20 100,147 
 
 1,27 199,205 
 
 1,29 126 
 
 1,37 147 
 
 1,40.... 253, 268,269 
 
 2, 6 252 
 
 2, 12 260 
 
 2, 13 200 
 
 2, 16 240 
 
 2,19 260 
 
 2,21.... 219 
 
 2, 23.... 138, 184, 253 
 
 2,31 126 
 
 2,33 226 
 
 2, 36 246,249 
 
 2,38 136 
 
 3, 1 240,250 
 
 3, 10 246,249 
 
 3, 18 129,137 
 
 3,20 257 
 
 3,21 130, 146, 
 
 149, 180 
 
 PAGE OF 
 BOOK VII THE TEXT 
 
 3,22 182,251 
 
 3,23 149,244 
 
 3,24 138,183 
 
 3,25 261 
 
 3,26 183,184 
 
 3, 27.... 139, 137,160 
 
 3,32 84 
 
 3,33 185 
 
 3, 34 240 
 
 3,39 126 
 
 4,3 133 
 
 4,4... 156, 160, 166 
 
 4, 13 250 
 
 4,14 126 
 
 4,15 34 
 
 4,18 154 
 
 4,19 253 
 
 4,24 285 
 
 5,3 348,359 
 
 5, 5 283 
 
 5, 14.... Ill, 131,360 
 6,1 246 
 
 6, 3 253 
 
 6, 6 240 
 
 6, 8 260,361 
 
 6, 11 282 
 
 6, 18 282 
 
 6.23 250 
 
 6.24 236 
 
 6, 38 126 
 
 6,43 260 
 
 7,48 283 
 
 7, 53 246 
 
 8, 1 92,246,266 
 
 8,2 257,282 
 
 8,4 268.309 
 
 8, 6..98, 346,348, 253 
 
 8, 14 23,146,270 
 
 8, 19 268 
 
324 
 
 THE LIFE OP THE ANCIENT GKBEKS 
 
 (b) Arranged according to the Pages of this Book 
 
 5. Greeks at Trapezus, 4, 8, 
 22. 
 12. Parks, 1, 3, 7 ; 1, 4, 10 ; 2, 
 
 4, 14. 
 
 14. Agora in sense of " meet- 
 ing," 5, 7, 3. 
 
 18. vSap fi8i, 6, 4, 4. 
 
 19. Women at fountain, 4, 
 
 5, 9. 
 
 33. Bricks and cement, 2, 4, 
 13. 
 hewn-stone foundation, 
 
 3, 4, 10. 
 
 digging through a wall, 
 7, 8, 14. 
 24. Timbers wrenched from 
 
 houses, 3, 3, 16. 
 27. KOTTT-o) used of knocking 
 at a gate, 7, 1, 16. 
 underground dwellings, 
 
 4, 5, 25. 
 
 33. Loft, dvayfcciv, 5, 4, 29. 
 
 34. Conflagrations in war, 7, 
 
 4,15. 
 57. Zeis 2aTrip, 1, 8, 16 ; 6, 5, 
 
 35. 
 65. Foreigners and their 
 
 treatment, 3, 1, 31. 
 
 67. Kidnapping, 5, 6, 13 ; 3, 
 
 4,27. 
 captives freed, 1, 2, 27 ; 
 
 4, 1, 13. 
 origin of slaves, 4, 8, 4. 
 
 68. Personal retinues, 2, 3, 17. 
 72. Greek freedom, 1, 7, 3. 
 77. Persian education, 1, 9, 3. 
 80. The Lycaea, 1, 2, 10. 
 
 80. Games to Heracles, 4, 8, 
 
 25. 
 umpires, 3, 1, 21. 
 
 81. Swimming, 4, 3, 13 ; 5, 7, 
 
 35. 
 military tactics, 8, 1, 7 ; 1, 
 9, 5 ; 1, 6, 1. 
 
 83. Apollo and Marsyas, 1, 
 
 3,8. 
 
 84. Dancing to the flute, 6, 
 
 1,5. 
 Thracian horn as signal, 
 
 7, 3, 33. 
 dancing, 6, 1, 8 ; 6, 1, 11 ; 
 
 5, 4, 34. 
 pyrriche, 6, 1, 12. 
 Kapwaia, a mimetic dance, 
 
 6, 1, 7. 
 
 TTfpa-iKov, a mimetic dance, 
 
 6, 1, 10. 
 
 88. Schoolmasters, 2, 6, 13; 
 
 5, 8, 18. 
 93. Paintings in the Lyceum, 
 
 7, 8, 1. 
 
 93. (rrddtov, 4, 8, 35. 
 
 94. Javelin throwing, 1, 9, 5. 
 
 96. Boiscus, 5, 8, 33. 
 
 97. Cyrus as a horseman, 1, 
 
 9, 5. 
 
 98. Price of a horse, 7, 8, 6. 
 
 99. Animals of the chase, 5, 
 
 3, 8. 
 game preserves, 1, 2, 7. 
 100. Hunting on horseback, 1, 
 
 2,7. 
 fishing, 5, 3, 8 ; 7, 1, 
 
 20. 
 
PASSAGES IN XBNOPHON'S ANABASIS 
 
 325 
 
 PAGE 
 
 101. 
 
 102. 
 
 104 
 
 106. 
 
 107. 
 111. 
 119. 
 120. 
 121. 
 122. 
 123. 
 
 126. 
 
 128. 
 129. 
 
 130. 
 
 131. 
 133. 
 
 134. 
 
 135. 
 136. 
 
 A journey to Olympia, 5, 
 
 3,7. 
 Confusion in the hippo- 
 drome, 1, 8, 20. 
 e<pe8pos, 2, 5, 10. 
 prizes, 1, 2, 10. 
 Proxenus and Gorgias, 
 
 2, 6, 16. 
 Menon, 2, 6, 26. 
 Book trade, 7, 5, 14. 
 fiXiKiSyrai, 1, 9, 5. 
 eK&iSoiievr), 4, 1, 24. 
 yofiovficUf 4, 5, 24. 
 dvfjp, 4, 5, 24. 
 Wedding procession, 2, 
 
 4,8. 
 Secnrikijs, 2, 3, 15; 7, 4, 
 
 14. 
 o(" oZKcIot, 3, 2, 26 ; 7, 1, 29. 
 runaway boys, 6, 4, 8. 
 a8e\0oi, 8, 1, 8 ; 7, 2, 81 ; 
 
 7, 3, 89 ; 6, 3, 24 ; 7, 2, 
 
 38. 
 warfip, 7, 6, 38. 
 beds, 4, 4, 21. 
 (TTpafiorobciTiios, 5, 4, 13. 
 a-Kijiirohes, 6, 1, 4. 
 rugs, 7, 3, 18 ; 7, 3, 27. 
 dpovos, 2, 1, 4. 
 tripods, 7, 3, 21. 
 chests, 7, 5, 14. 
 dyycia and Tfii^ri, 6, 4, 33 ; 
 
 7, 4, 3 ; 5, 4, 28. 
 ;^aXKi»/iaTa, 4, 1, 8. 
 XoKKot, 4, 2, 22. 
 amphoras, 5, 4, 28. 
 Kcpdfua, 6, 1, 15 ; 6, 2, 3. 
 ^rxot, 1, 9, 25. 
 Kpariip, 4, 5, 26 ; 4, 5, 32. 
 
 PAGB 
 
 137. iroTTipia and eWu/iara, 6, 1, 
 4 ; 4, 3, 25 ; 4, 4, 21 ; 
 7, 3, 18. 
 (piaKai as presents, 4, 7, 
 27; 7,8,27. 
 188. Drinking-horns, 6, 1, 4; 
 7, 2, 28 ; 7, 3, 24. 
 drinking through straws, 
 
 4, 5, 27. 
 142. 6v\aKoi, 6, 4, 28. 
 
 fidpO-lTTOl,, 4, 3, 11. 
 
 144. o-ira KOI TTord, 2, 3, 27. 
 
 145. Upfta, 4, 4, 9 ; 6, 7, 13 ; 6, 
 
 1,4. 
 goats eaten, 3, 2, 12. 
 (Tirla, 6, 2, 4. 
 eating meat, 2, 1, 6 ; 4, 
 
 5, 31. 
 
 146. ^OVTTOpoS 6fif\i(TK0S, 7, 8, 14. 
 
 carving, 7, 3, 21. 
 raplxv, 5, 4, 28. 
 flsh, 5, 3, 8. 
 
 147. Fishing boats, 7, 1, 20. 
 hares, 4, 5, 24. 
 
 boars, 5, 3, 10 ; 5, 7, 24. 
 venison, 1, 5, 2 ; 5, 3, 10 ; 
 
 5, 7, 24. 
 geese, 1, 9, 26. 
 pigeons, 1, 4, 9. 
 bears, 1, 9, 6. 
 chamois, 1, 5, 2 ; 5, 3, 10. 
 vegetables, 4, 4, 9 ; 6, 4, 
 
 6 ; 7, 1, 37. 
 fruits, 6, 4, 6 ; 6, 6, 1 ; 4, 
 
 4, 9 ; 5, 3, 12. 
 
 148. Dates, 2, 8, 15. 
 
 nuts, 2, 8, 15 ; 5, 3, 9 ; 5, 
 
 4, 28 ; 4, 4, 13. 
 grain, 1, 2, 23 ; 5, 4, 27. 
 
326 
 
 THE LIFE OF THE ANCIENT GREEKS 
 
 148. aproKOTTOi, 4, 4, 21. 
 
 149. Sesame, 1, 2, 22 ; 6, 4, 6. 
 leavened bread, 7, 3, 21 ; 
 
 7, 3, 23. 
 flavour, 2, 3, 16 ; 1, 5, 1. 
 
 150. Cheese, 2, 4, 38. 
 oil, 5, 4, 28 ; 4, 4, 13. 
 
 blubber of dolphins, 5, 4, 
 28. 
 
 151. Date wine, 1, 5, 10 ; 2, 3, 
 
 14. 
 &piaTov, 1, 10, 19, of. 1, 8, 1 ; 
 
 6, 5, 1 ; 3, 3, 1 ; 4, 6, 8. 
 SeZwvov, 2, 2, 4 ; 2, 2, 3 ; 4, 
 
 6, 22 ; 6, 4, 26. 
 
 153. Supper time, 1, 10, 17. 
 
 154. Clothes, 3, 1, 19 ; 4, 3, 25 ; 
 
 4, 7, 13; 6, 1, 2; 7,4, 
 
 18 ; 4, 5, 33. 
 ivSva, 1, 8, 3. 
 ^iTtovla-Kos, 5, 4, 13. 
 
 155. eilCavoi, 7, 3, 46 ; 4, 3, 20 ; 
 
 6, 3, 15 ; 3, 3, 6 ; 4, 2, 
 7 ; 5, 4, 23. 
 
 156. Thracian chiton, 7, 4, 4. 
 yv/ivos, 1, 10, 3. 
 
 158. ifidna, 4, 3, 11 ; 4, 4, 12. 
 
 160. fftpai, 7, 4, 4. 
 
 ifidTLa yvvaiKeia, 7, 3, 27. 
 
 161. a-TToXdSes, 3, 3, 20 ; 4, 1, 18. 
 
 162. Hair tunics, 4, 8, 3. 
 trousers, 1, 5, 8. 
 
 163. Eed tunics, 1, 2, 16. 
 
 164. KapPdrivai, 4, 5, 14. 
 
 165. i/iai/rts, 4, 5, 14. 
 vwo\v€(Tdai, 4, 5, 13. 
 
 166. aXajTCKai, 7, 4, 4. 
 
 167. o-KEu^, 4, 7, 27 ; 6, 1, 12. 
 tattooing, 5, 4, 33. 
 
 167. (TTpejTTol, 1, 5, 8 ; 1, 8, 39. 
 169. Earrings worn by a man, 
 3, 1, 31. 
 
 rings, 4, 7, 27. 
 
 finery in clothes, 3, 2, 7. 
 
 ^aKTtipim, 3, 3, 11 ; 4, 7, 26. 
 171. Tall women, 3, 2, 35. 
 175. Ointments, 4, 4, 13. 
 
 180. Soldiers' feasts, 4, 5, 30; 
 
 7, 3, 31. 
 
 181. (TiJvSeHrvoi, 3, 5, 27; 4, 5, 
 
 28; 6,1,30. 
 
 182. Salutation, 1, 6, 10 ; 1, 8, 
 
 31 ; 3, 2, 9 ; 3, 3, 13. 
 Thracian hospitality, 7, 3, 
 33. 
 
 183. Flute-player, 6, 1, 5. 
 TTOTor, 3, 3, 15 ; 7, 3, 26. 
 garlands, 4, 5, 32. 
 olvoxooi, 4, 4, 31 ; 7, 3, 34. 
 
 184. ivpomveiv, 4, 5, 33; 7, 2, 
 
 33 ; 7, 3, 26. 
 
 (TVfl.TTO(Tlapf(OS, 6, 1, 30. 
 
 185. yeXcoroTroioi, 7, 3, 33. 
 
 190. Foreign wealth, 1, 7, 4; 
 
 3, 2, 26. 
 Greeks in Cyrus's army, 
 6, 2, 10. 
 
 191. ra d/i^l Ta^fis, 3, 1, 7. 
 
 192. Ta^iapxos, 3, 1, 37. 
 ^va-Krjvoi, 5, 7, 15 ; 5, 8, 5. 
 shield coverings, 1, 3, 16. 
 red chitons, 1, 3, 16. 
 
 193. ivripvyes, 4, 7, 15. 
 
 194. viraxTTntTTTis, 4, 3, 30. 
 imrapxoi, 3, 3, 30. 
 
 195. Greek cavalry and horse- 
 
 manship, 3, 2, 18 ff. ; 
 
PASSAGES IK XENOPHON'S ANABASIS 
 
 327 
 
 PAQB 
 
 195. aKpofiSKitns, 3, 4, 16 ; 5, 3, 
 10. 
 
 197. ayopavofioi, 5, 7, 23. 
 
 generals render an ac- 
 count, 5, 8, 1-26. 
 
 198. Army discipline, 3, 1, 38 ; 
 
 3, 2, 29. 
 Clearchus, 2, 6, 10. 
 
 199. Number of Athenian 
 
 ships, 7, 1, 27. 
 jrevTrjKovTopoi, 5, 1, 18 ; 6, 
 6, 5. 
 
 200. Ship manoeuvres, 1, 3, 17 ; 
 
 3, 5, 11 ; 4, 5, 36 ; 7, 2, 
 13. 
 fiaxpa TrXoia, 5, 1, 11. 
 
 201. KSirrai, 6, 4, 2. 
 
 203. Speed of a ship, 6, 1, 14. 
 unshipping a rudder, 5, 
 
 1,11. 
 
 204. irptopevs, 5, 8, 20. 
 
 205. Triremes hauled on 
 
 shore, 7, 1, 19. 
 Vfapia, 7, 1, 27. 
 
 217. Irrigation, 2, 3, 13 ; cf. 1, 
 
 2, 22 ; 2, 4, 13. 
 
 218. Rural pursuits in panto- 
 
 mime, 6, 1, 8. 
 
 219. Fodder, 4, 5, 25. 
 
 XtXos:, 1, 5, 7 ; 1, 9, 27 ; 7, 
 
 2, 21. 
 Xopros, 1, 5, 5 ; 3, 4, 11. 
 Kdp(f>r), 1, 5, 10. 
 KoKapm, 5, 4, 27. 
 
 220. ovos aXeTT/f, 1, 5, 5. 
 
 222. Chaplets, 4, 5, 33. 
 
 223. iiXa, 6, 4, 4. 
 
 fuel, 4, 3, 11 ; 1, 5, 12 ; 2, 
 1, 6 ; 2, 4, 11 ; 4, 4, 12. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 223. vop,ai, 3, 5, 2. 
 
 Krijvri, 3, 1, 19 ; 4, 5, 25 ; 4, 
 
 7, 2 ; 5, 2, 3. 
 irpo^ara, 3, 5, 9. 
 ^oo-KrjpaTa, 3, 5, 2. 
 
 season for pasturage, 4, 6, 
 17. 
 
 224. a-privri and poisonous hon- 
 
 ey, 4, 8, 20. 
 
 225. Dogs, 3, 2, 35 ; 5, 7, 26 ; 5, 
 
 8, 24 ; 7, 2, 33. 
 232. Chalybes, 5, 5, 1. 
 
 235. efiTTopia, 1, 4, 6. 
 
 236. ep.nopos, 5, 6, 19. 
 cargoes, 5, 1, 16 ; 5, 8, 1. 
 Tb. &vLa, 1, 2, 18 ; 7, 6, 24. 
 
 240. &p6pos, 2, 2, 21 ; 4, 3, 8. 
 
 ■jrpo fjpepas, 7, 3, 1. 
 
 TTpos fipipav, 4, 5, 21. 
 
 a/ta T§ Tjpepa, 2, 1, 2 ; 4, 1, 
 
 5 ; 6, 3, 6. 
 apu rjXia avexovTi, 2, 1, 3 ; 
 
 2,3,1. 
 e(od€v, 4, 4, 8 ; 6, 3, 23. 
 Trpo), 2, 2, 1 ; 6, 5, 2 ; 7, 6, 6. 
 d^<^( ayopav TrXrjSova-av, 1, 8, 
 
 1 ; 2, 1, 7. 
 pecrov Tjpipas, 1, 8, 8 ; 4, 4, 
 
 1; 6,5,7. 
 pso-rjp^pla, 1, 7, 6 ; 3, 5, 15. 
 6^1,4, 2, 2, 16 ; 6, 5, 31. 
 SeflVT,, 2, 2, 14 ; 3, 3, 11 ; 3, 
 
 4, 34 ; 8, 5, 2 ; 4, 2, 1 ; 
 
 7, 2, 16. 
 ijXi'ou Svtrpai, 6, 4, 26 ; 6, 5, 
 
 32 ; 7, 3, 34. 
 apa rjXiio bivovTi, 2, 2, 13 ; 
 
 2,2,3; 1, 10, 16; 2, 2, 
 16 ; 5, 7, 6. 
 
328 
 
 THE LIFE OF THE ANCIENT GREEKS 
 
 240. a/icfn dopTrrjO-Tov, 1, 10, 17. 
 ((rwipa, 3, 1, 3 ; 4, 7, 27 ; 6, 
 
 3,23. 
 Kvifjias, 4, 5, 9. 
 (f)vXaKal, 4, 1, 5. 
 fiea-ai vvktcs, 1, 7, 1 ; B, 1, 
 38. 
 
 242. vovfiTjvia, 5, 6, 23 ; 5, 6, 31. 
 
 243. riii.'m\€6pov, 4, 7, 6. 
 
 244. xo'"'?. 1. 5, 6 ; 7, 3, 23. 
 piSi/ivos, 6, 1, 15 ; 6, 2, 3. 
 
 246. xP^°''-°^< 1) li 9 i li '^^ 1^- 
 apyipiov, 1, 4, 13. 
 money, 7, 8, 1 ; 2, 6, 16 ; 
 
 5, 3, 9 ; 7, 7, 53. 
 half-obol, 1, 5, 6. 
 shekel, 1, 5, 6. 
 
 daric, 1, 1, 9 ; 1, 3, 21 ; 1, 
 7, 18 ; 2, 6, 4 ; 4, 7, 27 ; 
 7, 8, 6. 
 
 half-daric, 1, 3, 21. 
 
 stater, 5, 6, 2 ; 7, 2, 36 ; 7, 
 3, 10 ; 6, 2, 4. 
 248. rip.r,, 7,5,2; 7, 8, 6. 
 
 price of grain, 1, 5, 6. 
 
 250. Guarantees, 7, 6, 23 ; 2, 3, 
 
 28 ; 2, 4, 7 ; 2, 5, 3 ; 7, 
 3,1. 
 
 iyyvSi, 7, 4, 13. 
 
 deposits of money, 5, 3, 
 7; 1,3,3. 
 
 251. ^ivos, 7, 3, 22 ; 1, 1, 10 et 
 
 passim. 
 
 252. Zfvs ^ivms, 3, 2, 4. 
 cruel Thracians, 6, 4, 2. 
 6/ioT/)d7refos, 3, 2, 4. 
 eS^X^™' 4, 8, 23 ; 5, 5, 24 ; 
 
 6, 1, 3 ; 7, 2, 6. 
 e^eVtff, 5, 5, 25 ; 7, 6, 3. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 253. Invitation to hospitality, 
 
 7, 6, 3. 
 pledging with wine, 7, 2, 
 
 28. 
 clasping hands, 7, 4, 19. 
 leave taking, 7, 1, 8 ; 7, 1, 
 
 40. 
 IcVw, 7, 8, 6 ; 4, 8, 23 ; 5, 
 
 5, 2; 6, 1,15; 6, 1, 3; 
 
 7, 6, 3. 
 Trpo^evoi, 5, 4, 2 ; 5, 6, 11. 
 
 254. KanrjXrm, 1, 2, 24. 
 
 255. ^evia, 6, 6, 35. 
 
 256. deplCa, 3, 5, 15. 
 a.7ro8rjficlv, 7, 8, 4. 
 
 257. ec^oStov, 7, 3, 20 ; 7, 8, 2. 
 TTf^evo), 5, 5, 4. 
 oxoO/iai, 3, 4, 47. 
 
 horses in the snow, 4, 5, 
 36. 
 
 Appajxa^a, 1, 2, 16. 
 68ol apa^iToi, 1, 2, 21. 
 
 258. dSoTToiS, 3, 2, 24; 4, 8, 8; 
 
 5, 1, 13 ; 5, 3, 1. 
 Sta^ards, 1, 4, 18 ; 2, 5, 9 ; 
 
 3, 2, 22. 
 y4(j>vpai, 3, 4, 19. 
 
 259. <TX€Bim, 1, 5, 10 ; 2, 4, 28 ; 
 
 3, 5, 9. 
 povo^vXa, 5, 4, 11. 
 tfib"?, 7, 5, 2. 
 ^oCy i(/)' 6p,d^ris, 6, 4, 22. 
 ava^evyvvpi, 3, 4, 37 ; 4, 6, 1. 
 hea-pol, 3, 5, 10. 
 KaToKico, 1, 8, 1 ; 1, 10, 19. 
 (rrpcopaT6de(rpos, 5, 4, 13. 
 
 260. 5Xk(£9, 1, 4, 6. 
 
 TrXoToi/ (TiTayMydj;, 1, 7, 15. 
 vmiKKripos, 7, 2, 12 ; 7, 5, 14. 
 
PASSAGES IN XENOPHON'S ANABASIS 
 
 329 
 
 PAGE 
 
 360. vavXov, 5, 1, 13. 
 epfirjvfvs, 1, 2, 17 ; 4, 5, 10 ; 
 
 4, 5, 34; 5, 4, 4; 7, 2, 
 19 ; 7, 6, 8 ; 7, 6, 43. 
 
 sign language, 4, 5, 33. 
 
 361. References to language, 
 
 3, 1, 36 ; 4, 8, 4 ; 7, 3, 
 35 ; 1, 8, 1 ; 7, 6, 8 ; 4, 
 
 5, 10 ; 4, 5, 34. 
 offerings for safe return, 
 
 4, 8, 35 ; 6, 2, 15 ; 6, 5, 
 34. 
 
 263. To begin with, the gods, 
 
 6, 3, 18 ; of. 3, 5, 7. 
 Menon, 3, 6, 35. 
 consulting a god, 3, 1, 5 ; 
 
 6, 1, 23. 
 calling gods to witness, 4, 
 8,7. 
 
 364. dxi 1, 9, 11. 
 
 365. ev<ria, 4, 8, 25 ; 5, 3, 9 ; 6, 
 
 4, 15 ; 6, 5, 2. 
 dwoSveiv, 3, 2, 13 ; 4, 8, 25. 
 altar and temple separate, 
 
 5, 3, 9. 
 
 266. itdvrets, 1, 7, 18 ; 5, 6, 16 ; 
 
 6, 4, 13; 6, 5, 3; 7, 8, 
 1 ; cf . 5, 2, 9 ; 5, 6, 39 ; 
 6, 4, 23. 
 
 Kodapfios, 5, 7, 35. 
 268. Up^La, 7, 1, 40; 6,1,4; 6, 
 4, 25 ; 6, 5, 2. 
 dufiara, 6, 4, 20 ; 7, 8, 19. 
 
 Zeus Meilichios, 7, 8, 4. 
 horse to the sun, 4, 5, 
 
 35. 
 meat of wild asses, 1, 
 
 5,2. 
 
 368. animal specially fattened, 
 
 4, 5, 35. 
 
 /Sous iff) diid^rjs, 6, 4, 32. 
 
 369. Garlands at sacrifice, 7, 1, 
 
 40. 
 
 270. Blood of sacrifice runs 
 
 into a shield, 2, 2, 9. 
 blood of sacrifice runs 
 
 into a river, 4, 3, 18. 
 oXoKvyfj, 4, 3, 19. 
 ^ovjropos d/SeX/o-Kos, 7, 8, 14. 
 
 271. Meat of sacrifice sold, 5, 
 
 7, 13. 
 meat called Upeia, 4, 4, 9. 
 singing a paean, 6, 1, 5. 
 373. Favourable omens, 4, 3, 
 
 19. 
 no omens forthcoming, 
 
 6, 5, 8 ; cf. 6, 5, 3. 
 dreams from Zeus, 4, 3, 
 
 13 ; 3, 1, 12 ; 6, 1, 23. 
 sneeze as omen, 3, 3, 9. 
 ipvK, 3, 2, 9. 
 
 273. aia-ios, 6, 5, 3. 
 
 Socrates and oracles, 3, 
 
 1,5. 
 religious processions, 6, 1, 
 
 11 ; 5, 5, 5. 
 
 274. Pyrriche, 6, 1, 12. 
 
 383. Oath by all the gods and 
 goddesses, 7, 6, 18. 
 vrj Ata, etc., 1, 7, 9 ; 5, 8, 6 ; 
 
 7, 6, 11. 
 
 profanity, 7, 5, 5 ; 7, 8, 2 ; 
 
 5, 6, 3. • 
 blasphemy, 3, 1, 23 ; 3, 3, 
 
 10. 
 swearing with hand on 
 the altar, 1, 6, 7. 
 
330 
 
 THE LIFE OP THE ANCIENT GREEKS 
 
 PAGE 
 
 
 PAGE 
 
 283. 
 
 Imprecation, 5, 6, 4 ; 7, 7, 
 
 288. 
 
 
 48. 
 
 
 284. 
 
 TrpeV/SfW, 6, 7, 17. 
 
 290. 
 
 285. 
 
 yepovTia, 6, 3, 22. 
 
 old men rejected as hos- 
 tages, 7, 4, 24. 
 
 293. 
 
 286. 
 
 Eyes injured, 4, 5, 13. 
 ifineipla, 4, 5, 8. 
 death from overdosing, 6, 
 4,11. 
 
 
 287. 
 
 Ctesias, 1, 8, 26. 
 
 295. 
 
 288. 
 
 Cauterizing, 5, 8, 18. 
 
 297. 
 
 Volunteer surgeons, 3, 4, 
 
 30. 
 yorjTes, cf. yorjTeio), 5, 7, 9. 
 Cenotaph, 6, 4, 9. 
 care of the dead, 6, 5, 
 
 5 S. 
 
 KTJpVKeWV, 5, 7, 30. 
 
 bodies recovered after a 
 battle, 4,1, 19 ; 4,2,18; 
 5, 7, 30 ; 6, 4, 9. 
 
 EK^e'po), of burial, 6, 1, 6. 
 
 ^66pos, 5, 8, 9. 
 
 5. SOURCES OP THE ILLUSTRATIONS 
 
 Coloured Frontispiece. Eed-flgured cylix by Brygos. First 
 half of fifth century B. c. Heydemann, Iliuper- 
 sis, Taf. I. 
 
 PIQ. PAGE 
 
 From a photograph. 
 
 '^(jlrjiifpls 'ApxaioXoyiKi'j, 1897, Uiva^ 2. 
 
 From a photograph. 
 
 Curtius. Stadtgeschichte von Athen, Taf. IV. 
 
 From a photograph. 
 
 From a photograph. 
 
 From a photograph. 
 
 From a photograph. 
 
 From a photograph. 
 
 Normand. La Troie d'Homere, PL VII. 
 
 Early archaic amphora by Clitias and Ergotimus. 
 
 About 540 B. C. Museo Etrusco, Florence. Benn- 
 
 dorf, Vorlegeblatter, 1888, Taf. II. 
 Athen. Mittheilungen, 1888, Taf. VI. 
 Black-figured Volcentian hydria from Athens. 
 
 Sixth century. British Museum. Gerhard, Aus- 
 
 erlesene Vasenbilder, CCCVII. 
 Jahrbuch des arch. Instituts, 1897, Anzeiger, p. 183. 
 Restoration, proposed by Diels, of a Homeric door ; 
 
 modified from Benndorf, Heroon von Gjolbaschi, 
 
 p. 35. See Diels, Parmenides, p. 136. , 
 
 1 
 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 7 
 
 5 
 
 8 
 
 6 
 
 10 
 
 7 
 
 12 
 
 8 
 
 13 
 
 9 
 
 14 
 
 10 
 
 15 
 
 11 
 
 16 
 
 12 
 
 17 
 
 13 
 
 18 
 
 14 
 
 19 
 
 15 
 
 22 
 
FIG. 
 
 PAGB 
 
 16 
 
 33 
 
 17 
 
 34 
 
 18 
 
 36 
 
 19 
 
 27 
 
 SOURCES OF THE ILLUSTfiATIONS 331 
 
 Same as Fig. 11. 
 
 Eed-flgured vase of good style. Fifth century. 
 
 Millingen, Peintures antiques de vases grecs, 30. 
 Original drawing. 
 Athenian pyxis of the " severe " style in the Louvre. 
 
 Early fifth century. Stackelberg, Die Graber der 
 
 Hellenen, Taf. XXXII. 
 
 30 37 Temple keys on Attic and other monuments of 
 
 Roman times. Diels, Parmenides, p. 136. 
 
 31 28 Pifth-century red-figured amphora from Attica. 
 
 Berlin Museum. Arch. Zeitung, 1883, Taf. VII, 3. 
 22 28 Eed-figured hydria of the " fine " style. Fifth cen- 
 tury. British Museum. Gerhard, Trinkschalen, 
 Taf. XXVIII. 
 
 Jahrbuch des arch. Instituts, 1899, Anzeiger, p. 13. 
 
 Late red-figured amphora from Cumae. Berlin 
 Museum. Diels, Parmenides, p. 146. 
 
 Jahrbuch des arch. Instituts, 1897, p. 180. 
 
 Bulletin de correspondance hellenique, 1895, PL V. 
 
 Bulletin de correspondance hellenique, 1895, PI. 
 III. 
 
 Bulletin de correspondance hellenique, 1895, PL V. 
 
 Bulletin de correspondance hellenique, 1884, PL 
 XXI. A second door entering the court was found 
 since the publication of the plate, but the explorers 
 have not reported its exact position. See Bulle- 
 tin, 1895, p. 506, note 1. 
 
 Athen. Mittheilungen, 1899, p. 465. 
 
 Defrasse et Lechat. Epidaure, PI. XII. Professor 
 Dorpfeld regards this as an altar building. 
 
 Ussing. Pergamos, p. 71. 
 
 Ussing. Pergamos, Taf. IV. 
 
 From a photograph. 
 
 Eed-figured amphora from Depoletti. Early fifth 
 century. Gerhard, Auserlesene Vasenbilder, 
 CCLXXVI, 1. 
 
 From a photograph. 
 
 Normand. La Troie d'Homere, PL XIII. This 
 temple belongs to the time of Alexander. 
 
 23 
 
 39 
 
 34 
 
 29 
 
 25 
 
 32 
 
 36 
 
 34 
 
 37 
 
 35 
 
 38 
 
 36 
 
 39 
 
 37 
 
 30 
 
 38 
 
 31 
 
 41 
 
 33 
 
 42 
 
 33 
 
 43 
 
 34 
 
 44 
 
 35 
 
 44 
 
 36 
 
 45 
 
 37 
 
 46 
 
38 
 
 46 
 
 39 
 
 47 
 
 40 
 
 49 
 
 41 
 
 50 
 
 42 
 
 51 
 
 43 
 
 53 
 
 44 
 
 53 
 
 45 
 
 55 
 
 46 
 
 56 
 
 47 
 
 58 
 
 48 
 
 62 
 
 332 THE LIFE OP THE ANCIENT GREEKS 
 
 Guhl and Koner, Eng. edition, p. 11. 
 
 Gulil and Koner, Eng. edition, p. 23. 
 
 Curtius. Stadtgescliichte von Athen, Taf. V. 
 
 From a photograph. 
 
 Terra-cotta plaque. G-erhard, Gesammelte akade- 
 mische Abhandlungen, Taf. XXV. Gerhard 
 believed this to be a representation of Athena 
 Skiras. 
 
 From a photograph. 
 
 Varvakeion statuette, of Pentelic marble, in Central 
 Museum, Athens. Height, about 3 feet 5 inches. 
 Athen. Mittheilungen, 1881, Taf. II. 
 
 From a photograph. 
 
 From a photograph. 
 
 Pontremoli et Collignon. Pergame, PI. XII. 
 
 This monument, shown in a restoration, was reared 
 by Lysicrates, choregus of the tribe Akamaiitis 
 for a chorus of boys, in 335 B. c. It is nearly 34 
 feet high, and is one of the earliest examples of 
 the Corinthian order. Guhl and Koner, Eng. edi- 
 tion, p. 106. 
 
 49 63 From a photograph. 
 
 50 66 Red-figured stamnos, good period. Early fifth cen- 
 
 tury. Gerhard, Auserl. Vasenbilder, CCXC. 
 
 51 68 From a photograph. 
 
 52 71 Terra-cotta from the Aeolic city of Myrina, near 
 
 Smyrna. Pottier et Eeinach, La Necropole de 
 Myrina, II, PI. XLIII. 
 
 53 72 Terra-cotta in Berlin. Gerhard, Gesammelte akade- 
 
 mische Abhandlungen, Taf. LXXX. 
 
 54 73 The child Hermes ; the petasos foreshadows even in 
 
 infancy his office as messenger. Eed-flgured 
 cylix, good style, in Museo Gregorio, Rome. 
 Fifth century. Lenormant et Dewitte, Elite, III, 
 PI. LXXXVI. 
 
 55 75 Conze, Attische Grabreliefs, Taf. LXXXIV, 333. 
 
 Fifth century. 
 
 56 76 Athenian vase. Stackelberg, Graber. Late fifth 
 
 century, Taf. XVII. 
 
SOURCES OF THE ILLUSTRATIONS 333 
 
 FIG. PAGE 
 
 57 76 Eed-flgured Volcentian vase in Munich. Late fifth. 
 
 century. Annali dell' Institute, 1857, Tav. d'agg. A. 
 
 58 77 Red-flgured oinochoe. Probably fourth or third 
 
 century. Heydemann, Griechische Vasenbilder, 
 Taf. XII, 3. 
 
 59 78 Roman relief . Ann. dell' Inst, 1857, Tav. d'agg. BC. 
 
 60 79 Red-flgured cylix, perhaps by Duris. Early fifth 
 
 century. Edward Jekyll Collection. Gerhard, 
 Auserl. Vasenbilder, GCLXXI, 1. 
 
 61 80 Red-figured cylix of Pamphaeus and Euphronius 
 
 (early fifth century), from Orvieto. Bourguignon 
 collection, Naples. Arch. Zeitung, 1884, Taf. XVI. 
 
 62 81 Silver strigil 25 cm. long. It is broken into three 
 
 parts, but still shows the chain to which an ary- 
 ballos or alabastos was attached. Eeinach, Anti- 
 quites du Bosphore Cimmerien, PI. XXXI, 3. 
 
 63 81 Red-figured Volcentian cylix. Fifth century. Brit- 
 
 ish Museum. Gerhard, Auserl. Vasenbilder, 
 CCLXXVII. 
 
 64 82 Cylix belonging to the period of transition from the 
 
 " severe " style. About 475 B. c. Leyden Museum. 
 Jahrb. des Inst., 1889, p. 36. 
 
 65 83 Red-figured cylix of the " severe " style by Epicte- 
 
 tus, from Vulci. Late sixth century. Berlin Mu- 
 seum. Gerhard, Auserl. Vasenbilder, CLXXII, 1. 
 
 66 84 From a photograph. 
 
 67 85 Red-figured Panathenaic amphora, with cover, from 
 
 Vulci. Fifth century. Munich. Gerhard, Auserl. 
 Vasenbilder, GCXLIV. 
 
 68 86 From graffiti of the second century B. c. Bull, de 
 
 corresp. hellenique, 1895, p. 474. 
 
 69 86 Caeretan cylix, Campana collection. Fifth cen- 
 
 tury. Ann. deir Inst., 1856, Tav. XX. 
 
 70 87 Marble plaque from Salamis. Length, 1 m. 5 cm. ; 
 
 width, 75 cm. The symbols may be explained 
 (according to Boeckh) thus : X = 1000 ; ^H = 500 ; 
 H = 100;P^ = 50; A = 10; r = 5; (- = Idrachma; 
 C = ^ obol ; T = 1^ obo], or TeTaprrniopiov ; X = ^ 
 obol, or x"^""^' (see p. 246). 
 
FIG. 
 
 PAOB 
 
 71 
 
 90 
 
 72 
 
 91 
 
 334 THE LIFE OP THE ANCIENT GREEKS 
 
 Same as Fig. 64. Jahrb. des Inst., 1889, p. 29. 
 Red-figured cylix from Basseggio. Style of Bry- 
 
 gos, according to Hartwig. Early fifth century. 
 
 Gerhard, Auserl. Vasenbilder, CCLXXIX, 2. 
 
 73 92 From the stoa which adjoins the temple of Athena. 
 
 Pontremoli et Oollignon, Pergame, p. 113. 
 
 74 93 Same as Fig. 60. Gerhard, CCLXXI, 2. 
 
 75 93 Black-figured Panathenaic amphora in Munich. 
 
 About 540 B. c. Mon. dall' Inst. X, PI. XL VIII, 1. 
 
 76 94 Cylix of the Campana collection in the Louvre. 
 
 Daremberg et Saglio, I, p. 226. 
 
 77 94 Modified from Six's order in Gazette archeologique, 
 
 1888, PI. XXIX, 10. Six puts a in the third po- 
 sition, which seems to me impossible. 
 
 78 95 Cylix of the best period, by Duris. Early fifth cen- 
 
 tury. Arch. Zeitung, 1883, Taf. II. 
 
 79 95 Black-figured amphora in Wiirzburg. Late sixth 
 
 century. Gerhard, Auserl. Vasenbilder, CCLX. 
 
 80 96 Red-figured cylix by Duris. Early fifth century. 
 
 British Museum. Jiithner, Antike Turngerathe, 
 p. 66. 
 
 81 96 Panathenaic amphora. Probably fourth century. 
 
 British Museum. Jiithner, p. 83. 
 
 82 97 Cylix from Vulci in Munich. Much restored in 
 
 modern times. Ascribed by Klein to Euphro- 
 nius, by Hartwig to Onesimus. Early fifth cen- 
 tury. Arch. Zeitung, 1885, Taf. XI. 
 
 83 98 Same as Fig. 50. 
 
 84 99 Origin unknown. Millin, Peintures de vases, I, 
 
 18. 
 
 85 100 From the base of a candelabrum. Roman. Vati- 
 
 can Museum. Gerhard, Antike Bildwerke, Taf. 
 LXXXIII. 
 
 86 101 Bull, de corresp. hellenique, 1899, PI. XIII. 
 
 87 102 Red-figured hydria (by Hypsis ?). Early fifth cen- 
 
 tury. Munich. Gerhard, Auserl. Vasenbilder, II, 
 
 cm. 
 
 88 103 Red-figured cylix of the "severe" style. Berlin. 
 
 Gerhard, CCLXI. 
 
FIG. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 89 
 
 109 
 
 90 
 
 110 
 
 91 
 
 112 
 
 92 
 
 115 
 
 93 
 
 115 
 
 94 
 
 120 
 
 SOURCES OF THE ILLUSTRATIONS 335 
 
 Papyrus in the Bodleian Library, Oxford. Kenyon, 
 
 Palaeography of Greek Papyri, PI. I, p. 37. 
 Pontremoli et Collignon. Pergame, p. 138. 
 From a photograph. 
 Guhl und Koner. Leben der Griechen und Eomer, 
 
 p. 461, Fig. 671. 
 Ihid., Pig. 672. 
 Terra-cotta imbrex, found at Eretria in 1891. Dated 
 
 by Hartwig 440-430 B. c. 'E^i//i. apx- 1897, Uiv. 
 
 10,2. 
 
 95 122 Athenian pyxis, seen in Fig. 124. About 440 b. c. 
 
 Stackelberg, Graber, Taf. XXXIV. 
 
 96 124 Red-figured cylix of the fifth century. Berlin. 
 
 Benndorf, Vorlegeblatter, 1888, Taf. VIII. 
 
 97 126 Cylix from the Museion hill outside of Athens. 
 
 Stackelberg, Graber, XXXIII. 
 
 98 126 Athenian lekythos, seen in Fig. 124. Late fifth 
 
 century. Stackelberg, XXXIV. 
 
 99 128 The love-sick Phaedra. Krater of Apulian style, 
 
 about 300 B. c. A winged Eros above the seated 
 figure at the left has been omitted. British Mu- 
 seum. Mon. dair Inst., 1854, Tav. XVI. 
 
 100 129 Vase from Lower Italy, in the Louvre. About 
 
 300 B. c. Millin, Peintures de Vases, I, 69. 
 
 101 130 De Bidder. Catalogue des bronzes trouves sur 
 
 I'Acropole d'Athenes, Pig. 82, p. 133. 
 
 102 131 Tables from different vases of about 400 B. c. Arch. 
 
 Zeitung, 1884, p. 181. 
 
 103 131 Paris and Helen. Bell-shaped krater. Perhaps 
 
 about 350 B. C. Berlin. A figure of Eros in the 
 arms of Helen has been omitted. Millingen, 
 Peintures antiques de vases grecs, XLII. 
 
 104 132 A coffin of the fourth century B. c. It is made of 
 
 cypress and yew. Eeinach, Antiquites du Bos- 
 phore Cimmerien, PI. LXXXI. 
 
 105 132 From Athens. Probably belongs to the latter half 
 
 of the sixth century b. c. Height, 16 inches. 
 Catalogue of the Bronzes, Greek, Roman, and 
 Etruscan, in the British Museum, PI. IV. 
 
336 THE LIFE OP THE ANCIENT GREEKS 
 
 106 132 From Elis. Perhaps of the fourth century b. c. 
 
 Diameter, 6 inches. Ibid., PI. XXXII. 
 
 107 133 From^ a photograph. 
 
 108 134 Red-figured amphora of the "severe" style from 
 
 Athens. Early fifth century. Jahrbuch des 
 Inst, 1891, Anzeiger, p. 23. 
 
 109 134 Latter part of fifth century. Height, 35 cm. Greek 
 
 Vases in the Ashmolean Museum, Fig. 31, p. 27 . 
 
 110 135 Hydria in Berlin. Fifth century. Arch. Zeitung, 
 
 1884, Taf. XIII. 
 
 111 135 Lekythos of the latter part of the fifth century. 
 
 Height, 31 cm. Journal of Hellenic Studies, 
 1891, p. 317. 
 
 112 136 Red-figured alabastos from Athens. I Early fifth 
 
 century. Berlin. Dumont et Chaplain, Les cera- 
 miques de la Grece propre, I, PI. VII. 
 
 113 136 Silver strainer, measuring llj cm. Reinach, Bos- 
 
 phore Cimm., Pi. XXXI, 10. 
 
 114 136 Red-figured krater at Weimar. Fifth century. 
 
 Arch. Zeitung, 1848, Taf. XIII. 
 
 115 137 Black-figured oinochoe. Late sixth century. Ger- 
 
 hard, Auserl. Vasenbilder, II, CXX. 
 
 116 137 Red-figured cylix, fifth century. Berlin. Arch. 
 
 Zeitung, 1848, Taf. XXI. 
 
 117 138 Kotylos in National Museum, Naples. Early fifth 
 
 century. Journal of Hellenic Studies, 1899, 
 p. 227, Fig. 8. 
 
 118 138 Millin. Vases peints, II, 1. 
 
 119 138 Red-figured cylix (interior). Early fifth century. 
 
 The inscription reads ■!rpo(ray{opfia). Gerhard, 
 Auserl. Vasenbilder, CCLXXII, 6. 
 
 120 139 De Ridder. Catalogue des bronzes trouves sur 
 
 I'Acropole d'Athenes, p. 140, Fig. 95. 
 
 121 139 Lamps belonging to a period earlier than the fourth 
 
 century B. o. Ohnefalsch-Richter, Kypros, Taf. 
 
 CCX, 15, 17. 
 123 140 From Athens or Euboea. The lower portion is of 
 
 iron. Jahrbuch des Instituts, 1899, p. 65. 
 133 140 From Tanagra. Early. Ibid., p. 63. 
 
SOURCES OF THE ILLUSTRATIONS 337 
 
 124 141 Same as Figs. 95 and 98. Stackelberg, Graber. 
 
 Taf. XXXIV. 
 135 141 Red-fig-ured pyxis from Athens. Middle of fifth 
 
 century. Cf. Fig. 211. Klein, Grieohische Vasen 
 
 mit Lieblings-Inschriften, p. 88. 
 
 126 144 Perhaps of the second century B. c. Jahrbuch des 
 
 Instituts, 1890, p. 137. 
 
 127 145 These have often been described as neiinafioXa. 
 
 Ibid., 1891, p. 174, Figs. 2, 3. 
 
 128 146 Black-figured oinochoe. Late sixth century. 
 
 Wreaths on the men's heads have been omitted. 
 Berlin. Gerhard, Auserl.Vasenbilder, CCCXVI, 1. 
 
 129 147 From Asia Minor. Hellenistic period. Height, 
 
 without the pot, 54 cm. Jahrb. des Inst., 1897, 
 p. 16L 
 
 130 149 Funeral relief from Byzantium. Some think the 
 
 plaques are writing-tablets. Revue archeologi- 
 
 que, 1877, PL II. 
 Funeral relief. Clarac, Musee de sculpture, 159. 
 Original drawing. 
 Statue of a Thessalian ruler, Sisyphus I. Bull, de 
 
 corr. hellenique, 1899, PL XXIV. 
 
 134 155 Statue of Parian marble, from Pergamus. Berlin. 
 
 Pontremoli et Collignon, Pergame, p. 146. 
 
 135 156 Original drawing. 
 
 136 157 Red-figured alabastos (= Fig. 160). From Elateia, 
 
 though of Attic origin. Middle of the fifth cen- 
 tury. Klein, Griech. Vasen mit Lieblings-In- 
 schriften, p. 152. 
 
 137 157 Middle or end of fourth century b. c. Dumont et 
 
 Chaplain, Les ceramiques de la Grece propre, I, 
 PL XXXIX. 
 
 138 158 Red-figured stamnos, of the " severe " style (480-450 
 
 B. C). Wiirzburg. Arch. Zeitung, 1883, Taf. 
 XII. 
 
 139 159 The pin at the right is of gold, with a winged lion ; 
 
 that at the left has a negro head, set in sardonyx. 
 Eeinach, Antiquites du Bosphore Cimmerien, 
 PI. Xlla, 12, 14. 
 33 
 
 131 
 
 153 
 
 132 
 
 154 
 
 133 
 
 155 
 
338 THE LIFE OP THE ANCIENT GREEKS 
 
 140 159 G-eometric period. Perhaps before 700 B. o. Cata- 
 
 logue of Bronzes in the British Museum, p. 372, 
 Fig. 85. 
 
 141 161 Of gold. Weight, 84.35 grammes. Reinach, Bos- 
 
 phore Cimmerien, PL XIX. 
 
 142 162 Vase with figures in relief. Greek workmanship of 
 
 good period. lUd. PI. XXXIII, 2. 
 
 143 163 Red figured stamnos from Vulci. Middle of the 
 
 fifth century. The scene has been variously 
 interpreted. Folding garments for a wedding, 
 or the peplos for Athena, has been suggested. 
 Gerhard, Auserl. Vasenbilder, CCOI. 
 
 144 164 Greek portrait-statue, of the fifth century, in the 
 
 Louvre. Jahresbericht des oester. Instituts, 1900, 
 p. 81. 
 
 145 165 Red-figured vase, perhaps of Syracusan workman- 
 
 ship, in the Louvre. Late fifth or early fourth 
 century. Millin, I, 9. 
 
 146 166 Red-figured oinoohoe from Athens (460-400 B. C). 
 
 Dumont et Chaplain, Les ceramiques de la Grece 
 propre, I, PI. VIII. 
 
 147 168 Of gold. Reinach, Bosphore Cimmerien, Plate 
 
 Xlla. 
 
 148 168 Of gold. Ihid. 
 
 149 169 The spiral is of silver, the lions' heads of gold. 
 
 Ihid. 
 
 150 169 Silver, with gold lions' heads. End of fifth cen- 
 
 tury. Ihid., p. 138. 
 Of electrum. Ihid., PL Xlla. 
 Intaglio in rock crystal. Ibid., p. 138. 
 The ring at the right is of electrum ; that at the 
 
 left, of gold, representing Eros with a lyre. Ihid., 
 
 PL Xlla. 
 Origin unknown. Millin, I, 29. 
 From Lower Italy. Vatican. Perhaps about 400 
 
 B. 0. Ihid., II, 70. 
 156 171 Bust in Holkham Hall. Copy of a fifth-century 
 
 original. Michaelis, Die Bildnisse des Thuk^- 
 
 dides, Taf. II. 
 
 151 
 
 169 
 
 152 
 
 169 
 
 153 
 
 169 
 
 154 
 
 170 
 
 155 
 
 170 
 
ma. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 157 
 
 172 
 
 158 
 
 173 
 
 159 
 
 174 
 
 160 
 
 174 
 
 161 
 
 175 
 
 SOUKCBS OF THE ILLUSTRATIONS 339 
 
 Not earlier than the second century a. d. From 
 Egypt, Fayum district. Girard, La peinture an- 
 tique, p. 254, Fig. 152. 
 
 Same as Fig. 63. 
 
 Vase of Xenophantus. Third century. Height, 
 38 cm. Arch. Zeitung, 1856, p. 163. 
 
 Same as Fig. 136. 
 
 Terra-cotta from Tanagra. Third century. British 
 Museum. Arch. Zeitung, 1875, Taf. XIV. 
 
 162 176 Eed-flgured pyxis from Athens (450-400 B. c). Brit- 
 
 ish Museum. Dumont et Chaplain, Les cerami- 
 ques de la Grece propre, I, PI. IX. 
 
 163 176 Probably a figure of Eros. Roman period. Jahr- 
 
 buch des Instituts, 1891, Anzeiger, p. 26. 
 
 164 177 Of iron. From Aegea in Aeolis. Bull, de corr. hel- 
 
 lenique, 1891, p. 286. 
 
 165 177 Perhaps from Cyprus. Catalogue of Bronzes in the 
 
 British Museum, p. 319, Fig. 75. 
 
 166 178 From the grotto of Vari. Photographed by Dr. 
 
 Waller. 
 
 167 178 Gold of extraordinary purity. Weight, 18 grammes. 
 
 Eeinach, Bosphore Cimmerien, PI. Xlla. 
 
 168 180 Hydria in Hotel Lambert, Paris. Fifth century. 
 
 A figure of Eros, at the right, is omitted. Annali 
 deir Instituto, 1866, Tav. d'agg. U. 
 
 169 182 Eed-flgured cylix. Probably fourth century. Ger- 
 
 hard, Gesammelte akademische Abhandlungen, 
 Taf. LXXXI. 
 
 170 183 Eed-figured bell krater from Boeotia, now in Athens. 
 
 Probably of the fifth century. Journal of Hel- 
 lenic Studies, 1899, p. 270. 
 
 171 184 From Italy. Millin, I, 32. 
 
 172 184 Fourth century. Benndorf, Das Heroon von Gjol- 
 
 baschi-Trysa, p. 177. 
 
 173 185 Vase in Naples Museum. Museo Borbonico VII, 
 
 Tav. LVIII. 
 
 174 186 Silver coin from Knossos, Crete, showing the head 
 
 of Minos. Collection Photiades Pacha, PI. VI, 
 1237, 
 
340 THE LIFE OP THE ANCIENT GREEKS 
 
 Fie. PAGE 
 
 175 191 Eed-flgured cylix, perhaps by Brygos. Early fifth 
 
 century. Vatican. Gerhard, Auserl. Vasenbilder, 
 OOLXX. 
 
 176 192 Vase from Lower Italy. Late fifth century. Mil- 
 
 lin, I, 39. 
 
 177 193 Greave of gilded bronze. Fifth or fourth century. 
 
 Height, 41 cm. ; weight, 407 grammes. It was 
 lined with soft leather, sewed on through the eye- 
 lets which pierce the edges at top and bottom. 
 It is thin and elastic, but very strong. Reinach, 
 Bosphore Cimmerien, PL XXVIII. 
 
 178 193 Bronze helmet, 34 cm. high, from Vulci. Catalogue 
 
 des Bronzes antiques de la Bibliotheque Natio- 
 nale, p. 659, No. 2013. 
 
 179 193 Helmets of beaten iron. That on the right is 
 
 Athenian of the fifth century, and is 31.5 cm. 
 high. That on the left is of the fifth or fourth 
 century. It is 28 cm. high, and weighs 953 
 grammes. Reinach, Bosphore Cimmerien, PI. 
 XXVIII. 
 
 180 194 Red-figured amphora. Fifth century. Gerhard, 
 
 Auserl. Vasenbilder, CCLXVIII. 
 
 181 195 Bronze sword. Length, 21f inches. Catalogue of 
 
 Bronzes in the British Museum, p. 343, Fig. 78. 
 
 182 196 Fifth century. Guhl und Koner, Leben der 
 
 Griechen und Romer, p. 403, Fig. 563. 
 
 183 196 Red-figured cylix by Chachrylion, belonging to 
 
 O. Rayet. Early fifth century. Rayet et Colli- 
 gnon, La ceramique grecque, p. 175. 
 
 184 197 Mostly from Greece. The third from the end is 
 
 from Athens. Catalogue of Bronzes in the Brit- 
 ish Museum, p. 347, Fig. 80. 
 
 185 198 Red-figured Tyrrhenian amphora (but black-figured 
 
 on the cover). Early fifth century. Wiirzburg. 
 Gerhard, Auserl. Vasenbilder, CCLXVII. 
 
 186 199 Red-figured vase. Middle fifth century. Monu- 
 
 menti dall' Institute, 1882, Tav. XXXVIII. 
 
 187 200 Archaic black-figured lebes in Munich. Sixth cen- 
 
 tury. Gerhard, Auserl. Vasenbilder, CCLIV, 2. ' 
 
SOURCES OF THE ILLUSTRATIONS 341 
 
 FIG. PAGE 
 
 188 201 Original drawing, based on R Haack : Ueber at- 
 
 tische Trieren, in Zeitschrif t des Vereines deutscber 
 Ingenieure, vol. xxxix, 1895. 
 
 189 203 Eed-figured amphora. Fourth century. Ruvo. 
 
 Arch. Zeitung, 1846, Taf. XLV. 
 
 190 204 A. Bauer, Die griecbiscben Kriegsaltertiimer, Taf. 
 
 IX, Fig. 40. 
 
 191 206 Fifth century. Head and Poole, Catalogue of Greek 
 
 Coins in the British Museum, XIII, PL IV, 11, 
 12. 
 
 192 208 Inscription of about 450 B. c. See page 55. 'e0i;/xe- 
 
 pls dpxaioKoyiKTj, 1897, Uiv. 11. 
 
 193 210. From a photograph. Curtius and others regard 
 
 this as an altar to Zeus Hypatos. 
 
 194 212 Probably belongs late in the fourth century. 
 
 Length, 29 cm. ; weight, 134 grammes. Eeinach, 
 Bosphore Cimmerien, PI. IV. 
 
 195 215 Fifth century. 'Eiprjfifpls dpx- 1887, column 55. 
 
 196 217 Attic red-figured oinochoe. Fourth or fifth cen- 
 
 tury. Berlin. Heydemann, Griechische Vasen- 
 bilder, Taf. XII, 2. 
 
 197 218 Black-figured cylix from Vulci. Sixth century. 
 
 Berlin. Panofka, Bilder antiken Lebens, Taf. 
 XIV, 6. 
 
 198 219 Terra-cotta statuette from Tanagra. Annali dell' 
 
 Instituto, 1858, Tav. d'agg. O. 
 
 199 222 Fifth century. Head and Poole, Catalogue, XIII, 
 
 PI. Ill, 1. 
 
 200 323 Bronze, probably of the third century B. c. Height, 
 
 14 cm. The tongue is lost. Eeinach, Bosphore 
 Cimmerien, PI. XXXI, 1. 
 301 234 From a photograph. 
 
 202 235 Eed-figured lekythos. Probably fourth century. 
 
 Heydemann, Griechische Vasenbilder, Taf. IX, 4. 
 
 203 325 Apulian style. Late fourth or third century. Euvo. 
 
 Jabrbuch des Instituts, 1899, p. 137. 
 
 204 327 Same as Fig. 161. 
 
 305 328 Terra-cottas from Athens. ''Et^rip.epis dpx- 1896, Uiv. 
 
 306 13 and 11. 
 
209 
 
 231 
 
 210 
 
 232 
 
 211 
 
 233 
 
 212 
 
 234 
 
 342 THE LIFE OF THE ANCIENT GREEKS 
 
 FIG. PAGE 
 
 207 229 Black-figured cylix, later period, of Theban work- 
 
 manship. P. Gardner, Greek Vases in the Ash- 
 molean Museum, PI. XXVI, 262. 
 
 208 230 Black-figured amphora from Orvieto. Late sixth 
 
 century. Monument! dall' Instituto, XI, Tav. 
 XXVIIII, 1. 
 
 Same as Fig. 208. Monument! XI, Tav. XXVIIII, 2. 
 
 Corinthian plaque in Berlin. Probably sixth cen- 
 tury. Eayet et Collignon, La ceramique grecque, 
 p. xiv, Fig. 5. 
 
 Same as Fig. 125. 
 
 Hydria in Caput! collection. Euvo. Dated by 
 Hartwig 460-450 B. c. Eayet et Collignon, p. iii, 
 Fig. 1. 
 
 213 234 Fragment of a red-figured cylix owned by Hartwig. 
 
 Best " severe " style, fifth century. Jahrbuch des 
 Instituts, 1899, Taf. IV. 
 
 214 235 Sketch by Assmann from a relief in the Cathe- 
 
 dral of Salerno. Eoman. Jahrbuch, 1889, p. 
 103. 
 
 215 237 Early cylix from Cyrene, found at Vulci. Sixth 
 
 century. On account of the Cyrenaic origin, it is 
 natural to think of silphium as the product which 
 is here being weighed. Some scholars declare it 
 to be wool. Monument! aall' Instituto I, Tav. 
 XLVII. 
 
 216 239 Eestoration. Stuart and Eevett, Antiquities of 
 
 Athens, I. PI. XIV. 
 
 217 243 Bronze from the Piraeus (weight, four minae). The 
 
 inscription reads 8rif),6{a-tov). In the centre is a 
 head of Athena with the word neTpovo/imv inscribed 
 round it. Length, 9.2 cm. ; present weight 1,821 
 grammes. Catalogue des bronzes antiques de la 
 Bibliotheque Nationale, p. 674, No. 2232. 
 
 218 244 Eed-flgured kotylos of the " fine " style. Latter half 
 
 of the fifth century B. o. Height, 20 cm. Greek 
 vases in the Ashmolean Museum, p. 26, Fig. 30. 
 
 219 245 Archaic vase by Taleides. Sixth century. Louvre. 
 
 Millin, II, 61. 
 
234 
 
 249 
 
 225 
 
 252 
 
 226 
 
 253 
 
 SOURCES OP THE ILLtJSTRATlONS 343 
 
 t-IG. PAGE 
 
 220 246 Fifth century. Head and Poole, Catalogue XIII, 
 
 PI. IV, 5. 
 
 221 246 Fifth century. Weight, 1.40 gramme. Said to be 
 
 the only example of this denomination in ex- 
 istence. Collection Photiades Pacha, PI. IV, 529. 
 
 222 247 Fifth century. Head and Poole, XIII, PI. Ill, 8. 
 
 223 247 Silver tetradrachma, date unknown. Weight, 17.75 
 
 grammes. It shows an archaic statue, either, of 
 the Apollo of Amyclae or of Aphrodite armed. 
 Collection Photiades Pacha, PI. V, 1090. 
 
 Weight, 12.10 grammes. Ihid., 1033. 
 
 Botticher, Baumkultus der Hellenen, Fig. 54. 
 
 Red-figured amphora from Apulia. Probably late 
 fourth century, though it is inscribed with let- 
 ters of Attic style. Eevue archeologique, 1845, 
 Taf. XL. 
 
 227 254 Black-figured amphora. About 540 B. C. British 
 
 Museum. On the right is Achilles, on the left 
 Ajax. Klein, Grriech. Vasen mit Lieblings-In- 
 schriften, p. 45. 
 
 228 254 Red-figured lekythos. Probably fourth century. 
 
 Heydemann, Grriech. Vasenbilder, Taf. IX, 3. 
 
 229 255 Gruhl und Koner, Leben der Griechen und Romer, 
 
 p. 447, Fig. 646. 
 
 230 255 Pottier et Reinach, La Necropole de Myrina, I, 
 
 217. 
 
 231 256 Neurospaston from Athens. Birch, Ancient Pot- 
 
 tery, p. 130. 
 Normand, La Troie d'Homere, p. 17. 
 From a photograph. 
 
 Vase from Lower Italy. Louvre. Millin, I, 39. 
 Athenian Vase. Sixth century. Panofka, Cabinet 
 
 Pourtales, PI. VIII, 3. 
 
 236 260 The Metternieh hekataion, said to have been brought 
 
 from Aegina. Probably of the fourth century. 
 Height, 57 cm. Arch.-Epigr. Mittheilungen aus 
 Oesterreich, 1880, Taf. III. 
 
 237 261 A. Cartault, Terres cuites grecques, PI. V. 
 
 238 263 Pontremoli et Collignon, Pergame, PL VII. 
 
 232 
 
 257 
 
 233 
 
 258 
 
 234 
 
 259 
 
 235 
 
 259 
 
344 THE LIFE OF THE ANCIENT GREEKS 
 
 FIG. PAGE 
 
 339 364 Bronze statue. Berlin. Jahrbuch des Instituts, 
 
 1890, Anzeiger, p. 165. 
 
 340 367 Red-figured krater in the Louvre. Perhaps early 
 
 third century. Apollo holds a young pig over 
 the head of Orestes. At the right is Artemis ; be- 
 fore them, the ghost of Clytaemestra. Two sleep- 
 ing Erinyes at the left. Monument! dall' Insti- 
 tuto, IV, Tav. XLVII. 
 
 241 368 Vase from Lower Italy. Perhaps early third cen- 
 tury. Millin, I, 51. 
 
 343 369 Red-figured oxybaphon from Lower Italy. Fifth 
 century. Arch. Zeitung, 1845, Taf. XXXVI, 3. 
 
 343 371 Red-figured oinoohoe in the Louvre. Late fifth cen-. 
 
 tury. Badly preserved. Bulletin de corr. helle- 
 nique, 1895, 103. 
 
 344 372 A goddess driving a four-horse chariot. Fourth 
 
 century. Millin, I, 85. 
 
 345 373 Collection Photiades Pacha, PI. V, 1031. 
 
 346 375 Red-figured stamnos, beautifully executed, in Mu- 
 
 nich. Middle fifth century. Gerhard, Auserl. 
 Vasenbilder, II, LXXXI. 
 247 381 Red-figured krater from Altemura, in British Mu- 
 seum. Late fifth or early fourth century. Jour- 
 nal of Hellenic Studies, 1890, PI. XII. 
 
 Jahn, Aberglaube des bosen Biicks, Taf. Ill, 6. 
 
 Defrasse et Lechat, Epidaure, PI. III. 
 
 From a photograph. 
 
 Bull, de corr. hellenique, 1877, PL IX. 
 
 Spoon used to pour ointment on the eyes. t^Jata- 
 logue of Bronzes in the British Museum, p. 313, 
 Fig. 55. 
 
 Defrasse et Lechat, Epidaure, PI. IV. 
 
 De Ridder. Catalogue des bronzes trouves sur 
 I'Acropole d'Athenes, p. 333, Fig. 196. 
 
 Millingen, Ancient Unedited Monuments, PL XVI, 3. 
 
 De Ridder, p. 165, Fig. 134. 
 
 About 400 B. C. The chlamys on the young man is 
 of a reddish-brown colour in the original. Jour- 
 nal of Hellenic Studies, 1899, PI. II. 
 
 248 
 
 383 
 
 249 
 
 385 
 
 250 
 
 386 
 
 261 
 
 387 
 
 253 
 
 388 
 
 353 
 
 889 
 
 354 
 
 290 
 
 355 
 
 391 
 
 356 
 
 392 
 
 357 
 
 393 
 
INDEX TO THE ILLUSTRATIONS 
 
 345 
 
 PIG. PAGB 
 
 358 394 Apulian vase. Late fourth century. Naples Mu- 
 seum. Panofka, Bilder antiken Lebens, XX, 1. 
 859 398 From a photograpli. 
 
 360 397 Athenian lekythos. Late fifth century. Panofka, 
 
 XX, 7. 
 
 361 398 From a photograph. 
 363 399 Clarac, Musee, 156. 
 363 300 From a photograph. 
 
 6. INDEX TO THE ILLUSTRATIONS 
 
 
 FIGURES 
 
 Acropolis 
 
 . 1, 2, 40, 47. 
 
 Alabastos . 
 
 31, 95, 97, 113, 136, 160. 
 
 Altars .... 
 
 34, 85, 109, 169, 193 (?), 338, 242, 243. 
 
 Amphora 
 
 108, 172, 210, 213, 358. 
 
 Anklet .... 
 
 173. 
 
 Architecture 
 
 7-11, 13-16, 31-33, 36, 37, 41, 43, 
 
 
 45-48, 55, 71, 90, 94-96, 216, 338, 
 
 
 349, 353, 257. 
 
 Arrows 
 
 184. 
 
 Aryballos . 
 
 73, 159, 313. 
 
 Athena 
 
 24, 43, 44, 67, 141, 199, 330-333, 363. 
 
 Bags .... 
 
 197, 215, 219. 
 
 Bakers .... 
 
 204-206. 
 
 Ball .... 
 
 59, 338, 329. 
 
 Baskets 
 
 54, 97, 98, 136, 197, 203, 338, 242, 257. 
 
 Beard .... 
 
 11, 19, 35, 50, 60, 66, 69, 71, 73, 74- 
 
 
 76, 80, 82, 83, 87, 99, 108, 138, 138, 
 
 
 143, 156, 161, 173, 174, 175, 182, 
 
 
 304, 308, 309, 334, 336, 227, 242, 
 
 
 245, 350. 
 
 Birds .... 
 
 94, 199, 303, 330-224, 244. 
 
 Boats .... 
 
 120, 140, 260. 
 
 Boots . . . 
 
 99, 103, 145, 208, 337, 343, 358, 260. 
 
 Boundary stone . 
 
 233, 337. 
 
 Bows .... 
 
 143. 
 
 Boys .... 
 
 50, 53, 58, 59, 64, 119, 339. 
 
 Boxer's straps 
 
 65, 80, 81. 
 
34:6 
 
 THE LIFE OP THE ANCIENT GREEKS 
 
 
 FIGURES 
 
 Boxing 
 
 60, 80, 81. 
 
 Bracelets .... 
 
 99, 149, 150, 162, 168, 212, 240. 
 
 Braziers .... 
 
 122, 123. 
 
 Bread 
 
 204, 205. 
 
 Breastplate .... 
 
 42, 175, 176, 180, 185, 186, 243. 
 
 Bridles 
 
 186, 196, 234, 243, 244. 
 
 Broad jump .... 
 
 61, 79. 
 
 Buckles .... 
 
 50, 94, 103, 140, 241. 
 
 Burial 
 
 258. 
 
 Caps 
 
 108, 142, 145, 197, 226. 
 
 Cat 
 
 203. 
 
 Caves 
 
 2,3. 
 
 Chairs, see Diphros, Klismos, Thronos. 
 
 Chariot .... 
 
 87, 244. 
 
 Chest 
 
 103. 
 
 Children .... 
 
 52-54, 56-59, 180, 163, 196. 
 
 Chiton, men's 
 
 19, 52, 65, 66, 79, 99, 103, 130, 132, 
 
 
 133, 142, 145, 161, 172, 175, 176, 
 
 
 182, 198, 219, 228, 226, 258, 261. 
 
 Chiton, women's 
 
 19, 21, 22, 24, 42, 44, 55, 57, 67, 78, 
 
 
 94^99, 103, 108, 109, 131, 134-137, 
 
 
 143, 145, 146, 154, 155, 162, 168, 
 
 
 172, 185, 202, 203, 208, 212, 226, 
 
 
 228, 229, 236, 240, 244, 246, 247, 
 
 
 257-260, 262, 263. 
 
 Chiton, children's 
 
 52, 56, 59. 
 
 Chlamys .... 
 
 50, 71, 84, 103, 106, 108. 241, 257, 
 
 
 258, 260, 261. 
 
 Choregic monument . 
 
 48, 246. 
 
 Chytra 
 
 128, 129. 
 
 Coins 
 
 174, 190, 191, 199, 220-224, 245. 
 
 Couches .... 
 
 94, 99, 100, 130, 172, 258. 
 
 Counting-board . 
 
 70. 
 
 Cuirass, see Breastplate. 
 
 
 Cushions .... 
 
 94, 99, 100, 180, 229, 258. 
 
 Cylix 
 
 88, 116, 169, 218. 
 
 Dancing .... 
 
 247. 
 
 Dessert 
 
 130. 
 
 Dice 
 
 230. 
 
INDEX TO THE ILLUSTRATIONS 
 
 347 
 
 Diphros 
 
 Discus . 
 Dishes . 
 Dogs 
 
 Door-handles 
 Doors . 
 
 Drinking-horns 
 
 Earrings 
 
 Embroidery frame 
 
 Ephebus 
 
 Erechtheium 
 
 Exomis . 
 
 Expiation 
 
 Fans . 
 
 Fish . 
 
 Flesh-hooks . 
 
 Flower-pots . 
 
 Flute . 
 
 Food . 
 
 Foot-stools . 
 
 Fountains . 
 
 Games . 
 
 Gates . 
 
 Girdles, men's 
 
 Girdles, women's 
 
 Goats . 
 
 Grave monuments 
 
 Greaves 
 
 Hair, mode of wearing the 
 
 FIOTJRES 
 
 94, 99, 101, 143, 146, 154, 175, 208, 
 
 209, 211-213, 219, 259. 
 65, 77-79. 
 
 102, 124, 208, 226, 262. 
 35, 56, 72, 83, 84, 128, 185, 256. 
 15, 21, 22, 95, 216. 
 
 15, 16, 19, 21, 22, 94-96, 162, 172, 
 216, 249. 
 
 118, 171. 
 
 137, 153, 168, 199, 245, 257. 
 
 97, 99. 
 
 50, 237, 243, 257, 261. 
 
 45. 
 
 260. 
 
 240. 
 
 99, 154. 
 
 128, 140, 189. 
 
 127. 
 
 94, 162. 
 
 64-66, 79, 172, 242, 247. 
 
 102, 128, 130, 131, 226. 
 
 69, 99, 103, 130. 
 
 11, IB, 14, 225. 
 
 168, 227, 228. 
 
 9, 15, 16. 
 
 133, 134, 142, 145, 258. 
 
 136, 145, 154, 226, 229, 240, 244, 263. 
 
 52, 241. 
 
 55, 257, 259, 261. 
 
 16, 175, 177, 180, 183, 227. 
 
 11, 13, 17, 19, 21, 22, 24, 35, 50, 56- 
 61, 63, 64^66, 68, 69, 71-76, 78- 
 84, 87, 94^100, 103, 108, 109, 128, 
 130, 136-138, 142, 143, 154-158, 
 161-163, 166, 168, 169, 172, 174- 
 176, 182, 183, 185, 189, 196, 198, 
 203, 205, 208, 209, 212, 219, 222- 
 224, 226-228, 236, 240-242, 245- 
 247, 250, 255, 257-262. 
 
348 
 
 THE LIFE OF THE ANCIENT GREEKS 
 
 Harness 
 
 Hats, see Petasos, Pilos. 
 
 Head-dress . 
 
 Helmets 
 
 Hermae 
 Himation, men's . 
 
 Himation, women's 
 
 Horses . 
 
 House . 
 Hunting 
 Hydria . 
 Images . 
 J'ackstones . 
 Javelin . 
 Jewel-caskets 
 Jugglers 
 Jumper's weights 
 Kantharos . 
 Keys 
 Klismos 
 
 Kneading-trough 
 Knives . 
 Kotylos 
 Labyrinth . 
 Ladder . 
 Lamps . 
 Lebes . 
 
 FIGURES 
 
 . 50, 71, 83, 87, 234, 335, 248, 244. 
 
 . 17, 55, 57, 94^99, 103, 108, 109, 146, 
 162, 168, 172, 173, 176, 185, 202, 
 203, 226, 229, 247. 
 
 . 42, 44, 67, 88, 175, 176, 178-180, 183, 
 185, 186, 199, 211, 212, 220-222, 
 227, 263. 
 
 . 35,237. 
 
 . 19, 35, 50, 60, 61, 64, 66, 69, 71, 72, 
 74, 80, 82-84, 96, 99, 100, 114, 138, 
 131, 133, 136, 138, 145, ]69, 172, 
 173, 175, 180, 186, 189, 203, 208, 
 209, 212, 213, 226, 227, 237, 340, 
 342, 347, 250, 358, 359. 
 
 . 17, 19, 34, 43, 55, 57, 73, 94-99, 103, 
 130, 131, 143, 146, 155, 163, 185, 
 312, 340, 363. 
 
 . 50, 71, 83, 87, 106, 186, 334, 343, 344, 
 361. 
 
 . 18, 35-30. 
 
 . 83-85. 
 
 . 11, 13, 110, 158, 168, 246. 
 
 . 34, 35, 44, 73, 141, 336, 337, 350, 353. 
 
 . 230. 
 
 . 65. 
 
 . 32, 95, 99, 136, 137, 162. 
 
 . 173, 228, 229. 
 
 . 60, 61, 79. 
 
 . 145, 313, 358. 
 
 . 30, 33-34. 
 
 . 55, 64, 69, 95, 97, 146, 303, 213, 338. 
 
 . 305. 
 
 . 66, 128. 
 
 . 117, 313, 318. 
 
 . 174. 
 
 . 189. 
 
 . 130, 131, 173. 
 
 . 346. 
 
INDEX TO THE ILLUSTRATIONS 
 
 349 
 
 
 FIGURES 
 
 Lekythos 
 
 . 95, 111, 124, 136, 213, 257. 
 
 Libation 
 
 . . . . 108, 109, 243. 
 
 Library 
 
 . 90. 
 
 Loom . 
 
 . 207. 
 
 Lyre 
 
 . 66, 95, 96, 172, 258. 
 
 Maidens, Porch of the . 45. 
 
 Marsyas 
 
 . 66. 
 
 Masks . 
 
 . 92,93. 
 
 Mediisa . 
 
 . 42. 
 
 Mirrors . 
 
 . 94, 97, 105, 143, 162, 257. 
 
 Mirror-case 
 
 . 106. 
 
 Mixing-bowls . . . 113, 170, 172, 212, 229. 
 
 Mules . 
 
 . 235. 
 
 Necklaces 
 
 . 147, 148, 157, 176, 203, 240, 244. 
 
 Nike . 
 
 . 44. 
 
 Nurse . 
 
 . 55. 
 
 Oar 
 
 . 260. 
 
 Odeum of Herodes Atticus 1. 
 
 Oil flasks 
 
 . 21, 72, 82, 95, 97, 112, 136, 159, 160 
 
 
 213. 
 
 Orator's platform . . 193. 
 
 Ovens . 
 
 126, 129, 206. 
 
 Ox 
 
 . 197,246. 
 
 Palaestra 
 
 . 72,74. 
 
 Papyrus 
 
 . 89. 
 
 Parasol . 
 
 . 155,258. 
 
 Parthenon 
 
 . 1, 40, 43. 
 
 Pavement 
 
 . 10. 
 
 Pendants 
 
 . 141, 167. 
 
 Pergamus 
 
 . 47. 
 
 Petasos . 
 
 . 50, 52, 54, 71, 237, 243, 257. 
 
 Phial e . 
 
 . 108, 172. 
 
 Physician's i 
 
 nstruments . 251, 252. 
 
 Pig . 
 
 . 240. 
 
 Pilos . 
 
 . .66, 182, 185, 198, 226, 260. 
 
 Pins . 
 
 . 139, 140. 
 
 Pitchers 
 
 . 108, 109, 115, 146, 236, 258. 
 
 Pithos . 
 
 . 107. 
 
 Plough . 
 
 . 197. 
 
350 
 
 THE LIFE OF THE ANCIENT GREEKS 
 
 Porticoes 
 
 . 31-33,47,73, 
 
 Portraits 
 
 . 156, 157. 
 
 Prayer . 
 
 . 239. 
 
 Priestess 
 
 . 24. 
 
 Propylaea 
 
 . 1, 2, 41. 
 
 Rings . 
 
 . 151, 152. 
 
 Roof . 
 
 . 31,48,216. 
 
 Rope . . . ■ 
 
 . 60. 
 
 Running 
 
 . 75. 
 
 Sacrifice 
 
 . 241, 242. 
 
 Scales . 
 
 . 215, 219. 
 
 Serpents 
 
 . 44, 250. 
 
 Shears . 
 
 . 161, 164. 
 
 Shepherd 
 
 . 198. 
 
 Shields . 
 
 . 16, 42, 44, 67, 88, 142, 175, 176, 180, 
 
 
 183, 226, 227. 
 
 Ships . 
 
 . 140, 187, 188-190, 214. 
 
 Shoes . 
 
 . 24, 71, 99, 103, 130, 133, 144, 154, 
 
 
 155, 173, 203, 208, 226, 240, 241, 
 
 
 250. 
 
 Shrine . 
 
 . 236. 
 
 Signet . 
 
 . 152. 
 
 Sleeves . 
 
 . 13, 19, 44, 103, 226. 
 
 Sling . . . 
 
 . 182. 
 
 Spears . . . . 
 
 . 16, 19, 24, 42, 50, 71, 76, 85, 103, 142, 
 
 
 175, 180, 183, 185, 186, 226, 227, 
 
 
 240, 243, 257, 263. 
 
 Spinning 
 
 . 97, 98, 162. 
 
 Spits . 
 
 . 242. 
 
 Sponges 
 
 . 119. 
 
 Stadion 
 
 . 86. 
 
 Stamnos 
 
 . 109. 
 
 Stele . 
 
 . 55, 257. 
 
 Strigil . 
 
 . 62, 63, 71, 72. 
 
 Strom ata 
 
 . 100. 
 
 Strophos 
 
 . 240. 
 
 Swaddling bands . 
 
 . 53. 
 
 Swing . 
 
 . 57. 
 
 Swords . 
 
 . 138, 173, 175, 181, 185, 189, 209, 240. 
 
INDEX TO THE ILLUSTEATIONS 
 
 351 
 
 Tables . 
 
 FIGURES 
 
 . 21, 102, 130, 131, 172, 208, 258, 262. 
 
 Tablets . 
 
 . 67. 
 
 Temples 
 
 . 31, 36-40, 47, 249, 253. 
 
 Theatre 
 
 . 47, 49, 91. 
 
 Tholos . . . . 
 
 . 31. 
 
 Thronos 
 
 . 49,215. 
 
 Thucydides . 
 
 . 156. 
 
 Ticket . 
 
 . 195. 
 
 Toilet-boxes . 
 
 . 124, 125. 
 
 Tools . 
 
 . 74, 145, 185, 197, 208, 209, 211-213. 
 
 Torches 
 
 . 96, 236. 
 
 Tower of the Winds 
 
 . 216. 
 
 Toys . 
 
 . 56-58,230. 
 
 Trainers 
 
 . 60, 61, 74. 
 
 Travellers . 
 
 . 226, 237, 243, 260. 
 
 Trees . 
 
 . 85,225,243,244. 
 
 Tripod . 
 
 . 246. 
 
 Trousers 
 
 . 142, 185, 229. 
 
 Valance 
 
 . 100. 
 
 Vaulting on horse 
 
 . 82. 
 
 Votive offerings . 
 
 . 85, 243, 246, 254r-256. 
 
 Wagons 
 
 . 232,235. 
 
 Walking-sticks . 
 
 . 35, 71, 72, 74, 82, 83, 99, 136, 138, 
 
 
 203, 208, 209, 212, 226, 247, 258. 
 
 Walls . 
 
 . 7, 8, 10, 15, 16, 41, 45, 46, 90, 233. 
 
 Warriors 
 
 . 16, 106, 142, 175, 176, 180, 182, 183, 
 
 
 185, 186. 
 
 Wash-bowl . 
 
 . 119, 158. 
 
 Weather-vane 
 
 . 216. 
 
 Weights 
 
 . 217. 
 
 Whips . 
 
 . 60, 61, 74, 80, 87. 
 
 Windows 
 
 . 10, 17, 226. 
 
 Wine-pitchers 
 
 . 108, 109, 115, 172, 209, 210, 212. 
 
 Women 
 
 . 13, 17, 19, 21, 22, 24, 55, 57, 94-100, 
 
 
 108, 109, 112, 130, 131, 134, 136, 
 
 
 137, 143, 145, 146, 154, 155, 157, 
 
 
 162, 166, 168, 172, 173, 176, 185, 
 
 
 202-204, 228, 229, 243, 247, 257- 
 
 
 260, 262, 
 
352 
 
 THE LIFE OF THE ANCIENT GREEKS 
 
 Wreaths 
 
 Wrestling 
 
 Writing 
 
 Yarn 
 
 FiaTJRES 
 
 94, 96, 145, 189, 194, 212, 241, 242, 
 
 257, 258. 
 74, 218. 
 67-69, 89. 
 98. 
 
 7. INDEX OF GREEK WORDS 
 
 
 
 PAGE 
 
 
 PAGE 
 
 dyados Sai/iav 
 
 . 183. 
 
 
 dXXavrey 
 
 . 146. 
 
 dyyela . 
 
 . 133. 
 
 
 dWavTOTrSiXai 
 
 . 146. 
 
 ayiaiKr] 
 
 . 94. 
 
 
 oX/io . 
 
 . 80. 
 
 dyopd . 
 
 . 18,40. 
 
 aKrrjpcs 
 
 . 94. 
 
 dyopatos 
 
 . 40. 
 
 
 aXipiTa 
 
 . 220. 
 
 dyopavofioi . 
 
 . 20, 
 
 34, 149, 
 
 oKar) . 
 
 . 219. 
 
 
 197, 237, 242. 
 
 dXffljreKai 
 
 . 166. 
 
 dyopaarris . 
 
 . 238. 
 
 
 ap-a^ai . 
 
 . 257. 
 
 dya>v 
 
 . 80, 
 
 116, 212. 
 
 dfia^iSes 
 
 . 76. 
 
 dyaivodfTai . 
 
 . 80. 
 
 
 diivySdkat . 
 
 . 148. 
 
 d8eX(f>oi 
 
 . 126. 
 
 
 ap,v(rrl 
 
 . 184. 
 
 &6\a . 
 
 . 103. 
 
 
 dp,<f)l SopTTTJO'TOV 
 
 . 152, 240. 
 
 alda>s . 
 
 . 77. 
 
 
 dp(j)iSp6p,ia . 
 
 . 73, 267. 
 
 alwpa . 
 
 . 76. 
 
 
 dp^iOvpoi . 
 
 . 82. 
 
 'AjcaSrjpeia . 
 
 91. 
 
 
 dp.(j}opciis 
 
 . 134, 244. 
 
 OKoKovdoi 
 
 . 68. 
 
 
 dva^evywp.1 . 
 
 . 259. 
 
 aKovriov 
 
 99. 
 
 
 dvadrip-ara . 
 
 . 56, 292. 
 
 aKovniTis 
 
 80. 
 
 
 dvaKaKvTTTTipia 
 
 124. 
 
 dKOVTUTTai . 
 
 . 195. 
 
 
 dvaKpitris 
 
 . 212,213,282 
 
 dxpaTUTfjia . 
 
 151. 
 
 
 dva^vplhes . 
 
 . 162. 
 
 aKparos 
 
 151. 
 
 
 dvhpwv 
 
 . 80. 
 
 dKpo^oKuns . 
 
 195. 
 
 
 dvhptoinTLS . 
 
 . 80. 
 
 aKvpos KadiCTKOS 
 
 215. 
 
 
 dueXfv6epoi . 
 
 . 189. 
 
 diKdpa<TTos . 
 
 . 135, 
 
 174. 
 
 avdpoKes 
 
 228. 
 
 oXeKTpvav 
 
 . 225. 
 
 
 avT<iyp,o<rLa . 
 
 . 213. 
 
 oKevpa 
 
 220. 
 
 
 avayeoiv 
 
 . 88. 
 
 dXTJTat . 
 
 352. 
 
 
 amoves . 
 
 . 257. 
 
 dXteif . 
 
 . 147. 
 
 
 dneXevdepos . 
 
 . 70. 
 
 oKifVTLKa nXoia 
 
 100. 
 
 
 dvoSrip.e'LV 
 
 . 256. 
 
 dXip8rj(Tts 
 
 . 92. 
 
 
 dirodveiv 
 
 . 265. 
 
INDEX OP GREEK WORDS 
 
 353 
 
 AirofiaySaKiai 
 
 . 182. 
 
 
 ^oKavoi t5>v 
 
 <l>oi- 
 
 diroTrrvyfia . 
 
 . 157, 
 
 161. 
 
 VLKoav 
 
 . 148. 
 
 apyvpwv 
 
 . 246. 
 
 
 ^dvava-os 
 
 . 189. 
 
 dpyvpoKOTTUov 
 
 . 247. 
 
 
 ^a(rai>i(eiv 
 
 . 212. 
 
 dpSdviov 
 
 . 299. 
 
 
 ^aa-iXeus 
 
 . 117. 
 
 apSeiv . 
 
 . 217. 
 
 
 0f>^'l 
 
 . 76. 
 
 apiVTOv 
 
 . 144, 
 
 151, 179. 
 
 ^W" • 
 
 . 208, 213. 
 
 apKToi . 
 
 . 276. 
 
 
 ^t^\ioypd(poi . 111. 
 
 apjia . 
 
 . 98, 257. 
 
 jSi^Xiov 
 
 . 109. 
 
 &pp,dpa^a \ . 
 
 . 257. 
 
 
 ^i^\io7rS)\at 
 
 . 111. 
 
 apoTOS . 
 
 . 241. 
 
 
 ^I'/3Xot yeypappe- 
 
 apoTpov 
 
 . 318. 
 
 
 vai . 
 
 . 111. 
 
 aproi . 
 
 . 149, 
 
 228. 
 
 ^i/3Xos. 
 
 . 85,108. 
 
 dproKoiroi 
 
 . 148, 
 
 228. 
 
 /3lK0t . 
 
 . 135. 
 
 dpTtmaXai . 
 
 . 229. 
 
 
 ^66pos . 
 
 . 297. 
 
 dpvfiaKKos 
 
 . 135, 
 
 174. 
 
 ^oa-KrjpaTa 
 
 . 223. 
 
 apxiTeKTiov . 
 
 . 231. 
 
 
 ^ovKoXoi 
 
 . 224. 
 
 apxa>v . 
 
 . 117, 
 
 242. 
 
 Qov\evTr)ptov 
 
 . 207. 
 
 dpiijMTa 
 
 . 150. 
 
 
 ^OvKfVTTjS 
 
 . 206. 
 
 dadpLvBot 
 
 . 139, 
 
 172. 
 
 ^ovXrj . 
 
 . 42, 194, 197 
 
 htrKkyj-jrieia . 
 
 . 290. 
 
 
 
 199, 206. 
 
 dxTKoi . 
 
 . 142, 
 
 151, 321. 
 
 j3oCs . 
 
 . 359. 
 
 d<TKa\ia<Tp6s 
 
 . 77. 
 
 
 jSpaKOi . 
 
 . 162. 
 
 daTa<l>lb€S 
 
 . 148. 
 
 
 ^vpa-cU, /3up(roSe'- 
 
 a<jToi . 
 
 . 66. 
 
 
 yjfai . 
 
 . 329. 
 
 atTTpdyoKot . 
 
 . 77. 
 
 
 /3(B/ior . 
 
 . 264. 
 
 aa-Tv . 
 
 . 11. 
 
 
 ydXa . 
 
 . 144, 150. 
 
 aoTvvopoi 
 
 . 16, 20, 34. 
 
 TaiirjXiwv 
 
 . 121. 
 
 drtpla . 
 
 . 61. 
 
 
 yapS) . 
 
 . 121. 
 
 avXri . 
 
 . 36. 
 
 
 yavXoi . 
 
 . 236. 
 
 avKtfpis 
 
 . 183, 
 
 185. 
 
 yeXwTOTTOioi 
 
 . 185. 
 
 avKos . 
 
 . 82. 
 
 
 yevedXia 
 
 . 281. 
 
 avK&ves 
 
 . 217. 
 
 
 yevidXim Soa-eis . 73. 
 
 avtavpyla 
 
 . 236. 
 
 
 y eve top. 
 
 . 177. 
 
 a^tratv. 
 
 . 160. 
 
 
 yevema 
 
 . 381. 
 
 fiddpov. 
 
 . 85. 
 
 
 yems . 
 
 . 291. 
 
 ^aKTrjpiai 
 
 . 169. 
 
 
 yepovna 
 
 . 285. 
 
 ^akaveia 
 
 . 173. 
 
 
 yeppa . 
 
 . 236. 
 
 ^oKavcis 
 
 . 174. 
 
 
 ye(f)vpm 
 
 . 358. 
 
354 
 
 THE LIFE OP THE ANCIENT GREEKS 
 
 
 
 PAGE 
 
 
 PAGE 
 
 yrjpas . 
 
 284. 
 
 
 drjfxoTai 
 
 . 89, 206. 
 
 yrjpofioa-Kelv 
 
 284. 
 
 
 diaBrjKTj 
 
 . 291. 
 
 yva>iia>v 
 
 239. 
 
 
 biavKos 
 
 . 93. 
 
 yoyyvkiBes . 
 
 147. 
 
 
 didaaKokelov 
 
 . 85. 
 
 y6rjT€S . 
 
 290. 
 
 
 BcKaa-Tal 
 
 . 211. 
 
 yovpos . . . 
 
 149. 
 
 
 8tKacrT7)pia 
 
 . 188, 211. 
 
 ypajxixara 
 
 79, 
 
 35. 
 
 dUrj . 
 
 . 212. 
 
 ypafiparevs . 
 
 208, 
 
 213. 
 
 dioa-rjixiai 
 
 . 210. 
 
 ypap.p,aTi,(TTr)S 
 
 85, 86, 108. 
 
 SiirXai 
 
 . 158. 
 
 ypa<prj onrpoa-Ta- 
 
 
 
 8m\ots 
 
 . 158. 
 
 (TiOV . 
 
 65. 
 
 
 SitTKo/SoXia 
 
 . 80. 
 
 ypa(^iKr) 
 
 87. 
 
 
 SicTKOS . 
 
 . 80, 141. 
 
 ypa<j)is. 
 
 85, - 
 
 Lll. 
 
 hi<ppUTKOS 
 
 . 98. 
 
 yvp,vacinKi] . 
 
 79. 
 
 
 hi(f>pos . 
 
 . 98, 130. 
 
 yvp,v6s . 
 
 159, 
 
 160. 
 
 boKipaa-'ia 
 
 . 194, 206. 
 
 yvvaiKtavtTiS . 
 
 31. 
 
 
 boKixos 
 
 . 93. 
 
 hahov-j(os 
 
 277. 
 
 
 dopnov. 
 
 . 144, 152. 
 
 Satdes . 
 
 139. 
 
 
 Sopv 
 
 . 99, 194. 
 
 SaKTvXios 
 
 169. 
 
 
 &ov\ot . 
 
 . 66, 189. 
 
 Aavdrj . 
 
 204. 
 
 
 bpiwdvr] 
 
 . 219. 
 
 baveiiTTai 
 
 250. 
 
 
 bpo'iTai 
 
 . 139. 
 
 SapeiKos 
 
 246. 
 
 
 Spofios . 
 
 . 80, 98. 
 
 Selypara 
 
 236. 
 
 
 hpv^aKTOi 
 
 . 208, 213. 
 
 Sfiirvov 
 
 144, 
 
 151, 180. 
 
 bcajxariov 
 
 . 28. 
 
 deKarr] . 
 
 73, 74, 281. 
 
 hapa avaKoK 
 
 VTTTrj- 
 
 deXroL , 
 
 85. 
 
 
 pia . 
 
 . 124. 
 
 tefivia , 
 
 127. 
 
 
 hapeal . 
 
 . 292. 
 
 SevBpa . 
 
 148. 
 
 
 eap 
 
 . 241. 
 
 8ia-iJ,ai . 
 
 111. 
 
 
 iyyir] . 
 
 . 120. 
 
 Seir/xoi . 
 
 259. 
 
 
 iyyviqins 
 
 . 120, 250. 
 
 ficVTTotva, Sca-TTo- 
 
 
 
 tyKKrijia 
 
 . 212, 213. 
 
 TT)S . 
 
 68, 126. 
 
 edeXovrai 
 
 . 190. 
 
 Sevrepm Tpdwe^at. 
 
 183. 
 
 
 ela-ayyeXiat 
 
 . 209. 
 
 Sfjiir/yopcip . 
 
 209. 
 
 
 els Tov olvov 
 
 . 238. 
 
 brjiiiovpyoL . 
 
 227, 
 
 233. 
 
 fl<r(f>opa 
 
 . 61, 66. 
 
 Sfjp.01 . 
 
 89. 
 
 
 eKaToppai 
 
 . 145. 
 
 Sr)pj}0-ia 
 
 299. 
 
 
 eKexfipia 
 
 . 101. 
 
 STjp,oineioiiT€S 
 
 287. 
 
 
 eKKXr](Tia 
 
 . 188, 208. 
 
 Brip6(Tioi 
 
 68. 
 
 
 eKira/iara 
 
 . 137. 
 
INDEX OP GREEK WORDS 
 
 355 
 
 CKTri 
 
 246. 
 
 cVwTl'SfS 
 
 . 204. 
 
 iK(j)opd. 
 
 395. 
 
 epavoi . 
 
 . 187. 
 
 i\da . 
 
 144, 147, 231. 
 
 epyaXela 
 
 . 32. 
 
 eXatov . 
 
 321. 
 
 ipya(TTripiov 
 
 . 37, 233. 
 
 eXeot . 
 
 337, 338. 
 
 ''Eppal . 
 
 . 43. 
 
 cXevdepos 
 
 189. 
 
 epprjvfvs 
 
 . 360. 
 
 fKlKTrjplS 
 
 170. 
 
 eaOifS . 
 
 . 154. 
 
 iXKvaTivSa . 
 
 76. 
 
 coTi'a . 
 
 . 30,33. 
 
 €\viJ,a . 
 
 218. 
 
 cVrt'ao-if 
 
 . 62, 145, 180. 
 
 (fjifioXov 
 
 204. 
 
 ea-^dpai 
 
 . 33. 
 
 efiireLpia 
 
 286. 
 
 (TVOS . 
 
 . 145, 147. 
 
 ifiiropia 
 
 189, 235. 
 
 eiifpyeTrjS 
 
 . 64. 
 
 iflTTOpOl 
 
 189, 228, 236, 
 
 eil^covoi 
 
 . 155. 
 
 
 249. 
 
 eiiOvva . 
 
 . 208. 
 
 ifinprjCTfios . 
 
 34. 
 
 lixn ■ 
 
 . 264. 
 
 evdpopLS 
 
 165. 
 
 eva>xia . 
 
 . 180. 
 
 ivhipara 
 
 154. 
 
 fCpcSpos 
 
 . 104. 
 
 ivixvpou 
 
 250. 
 
 efjjTjPoi 
 
 . 90, 191. 
 
 eviavirta 
 
 281. 
 
 itptinnov 
 
 . 195. 
 
 evwna . 
 
 170. 
 
 e<j)6diov 
 
 . 257. 
 
 eiriyriTai 
 
 273. 
 
 ffjiopos 
 
 . 280. 
 
 ?|oSos . 
 
 191. 
 
 ix^rX-q . 
 
 . 318. 
 
 i^aiXeta 
 
 282. 
 
 ixivos . 
 
 . 313. 
 
 e^Qip^LS . 
 
 161. 
 
 ^etat 
 
 . 148. 
 
 eTTtSdo-ets 
 
 63. 
 
 (eipai . 
 
 . 160. 
 
 iiTiypappa . 
 
 110. 
 
 (eiyrj . 
 
 . 333, 359. 
 
 eiriBdKdpia . 
 
 134. 
 
 ^€vyr}XaT€lv . 
 
 . 318. 
 
 iiriKkr^poi 
 
 88. 
 
 Ziis . 
 
 . 30, 57, 353, 
 
 STTlViKia 
 
 104. 
 
 
 381. 
 
 iiriopKia 
 
 383. 
 
 ^vylrai 
 
 . 301. 
 
 (irmXa SrjpioirpaTa 
 
 127. 
 
 fuydv . 
 
 . 83, 202, 218, 
 
 liTicTKrj'rrTto . 
 
 291. 
 
 
 244. 
 
 eTTLO'TrafTTrjp . 
 
 27. 
 
 ftoi/i; . 
 
 . 154. 
 
 iniiTTdTrjS 
 
 207, 210. 
 
 fjBovri . 
 
 . 149. 
 
 iniTipos 
 
 61. 
 
 fiSvo-para 
 
 . 149. 
 
 inixeipoTovia 
 
 209. 
 
 fjdpos . 
 
 . 136. 
 
 eiroTTTrjs 
 
 280. 
 
 fjXiala . 
 
 . 213. 
 
 fTroarrpaKKrpos 
 
 76. 
 
 r)XiatTTaL 
 
 . 213. 
 
 iirmbai 
 
 290. 
 
 jjXiKiSiTai 
 
 . 119. 
 
356 
 
 THE LIFE OF THE ANCIENT GREEKS 
 
 
 PAGE 
 
 
 PAGE 
 
 fj/iepai dtrocjipdSes. 212. 
 
 larpoi Srjpocrioi 287. 
 
 fjiiiSapfiKov 
 
 . 246. 
 
 Upd 
 
 . 145. 
 
 r]p,in\e6pov 
 
 . 243. 
 
 iepeia . 
 
 . 145, 268. 
 
 TljlKO^oKlOV 
 
 . 246. 
 
 iepevs . 
 
 . 266,281. 
 
 "Hpa . 
 
 . 121. 
 
 iepos . 
 
 . 296. 
 
 i)XiTr)S . 
 
 . 4. 
 
 Upo<i>dvrqs 
 
 . 277. 
 
 doKapXrai 
 
 , 201. 
 
 IKeTCU . 
 
 . 252. 
 
 Bakapos 
 
 . 31, 124. 
 
 ipds 
 
 . 19,78,95,165 
 
 Q4apa . 
 
 . 204. 
 
 ipdna . 
 
 . 154, 158, 160 
 
 Biarpov 
 
 . 114. 
 
 Ittvos . 
 
 . 32. 
 
 dcol yaprjkio 
 
 . 31, 123, 264. 
 
 inwapxoL 
 
 . 194. 
 
 yfvedXio 
 
 t . 31, 264. 
 
 iirTrels . 
 
 . 90, 97, 194. 
 
 XTTja-lOl 
 
 . 264. 
 
 'nrniKTi . 
 
 . 97. 
 
 dfpanela 
 
 . 125. 
 
 IwiroKopoi 
 
 . 133. 
 
 6epa.novT€S 
 
 . 68. 
 
 liriroTo^drai 
 
 . 196. 
 
 depi^a . 
 
 . 266. 
 
 iinroTpo<j)ia 
 
 . 97. 
 
 deppa Xoerpc 
 
 . . 172. 
 
 la-ov la-cp 
 
 . 151. 
 
 depos . 
 
 . 241. 
 
 l<TOTcXrjS 
 
 . 66. 
 
 Bewpevoi 
 
 . 114. 
 
 la-ro^ofvs 
 
 . 218. 
 
 Beapiai 
 
 . 256. 
 
 ICTTOS . 
 
 . 203. 
 
 dfapiKov 
 
 . 112, 275. 
 
 KdSuTKOS 
 
 . 214. 
 
 6e<opoi . 
 
 . 101, 278. 
 
 Kd8os . 
 
 . 19, 214. 
 
 6i)Kr) . 
 
 . 297. 
 
 Kadappos 
 
 . 266. 
 
 BoKos . 
 
 . 42, 43, 207. 
 
 KoKados 
 
 . 141. 
 
 Bpav'iTai 
 
 . 201. 
 
 KaXdpai 
 
 . 219. 
 
 dprjvoi . 
 
 . 294. 
 
 KoKapos 
 
 . 85. 
 
 Bprjvos . 
 
 . 130. 
 
 KoKos Kayadi 
 
 s . 72. 
 
 6p6vos . 
 
 . 129. 
 
 koXttis . 
 
 . 135. 
 
 BpvdKKls 
 
 . 139. 
 
 KdXvppa 
 
 . 161. 
 
 BiiXaKoi 
 
 . 142. 
 
 KaXvirrpa 
 
 . 161. 
 
 Bvpara 
 
 . 268. 
 
 Kdpivos 
 
 . 32. 
 
 dvpiapa 
 
 . 140. 
 
 Kavrj(j>6poi 
 
 . 170. 
 
 6vpa . 
 
 . 26. 
 
 Kavovv . 
 
 . 141, 170. 
 
 GvpiSes. 
 
 . 24, 33. 
 
 KairriXcla 
 
 . 254. 
 
 6vpa>v . 
 
 . 26, 35. 
 
 KdirrjXos 
 
 . 236, 238. 
 
 3vpatp6s 
 
 . 26, 67. 
 
 KanvoSoKt] 
 
 . 32. 
 
 6v(ria . 
 
 . 265. 
 
 KairrjXcia 
 
 . 107. 
 
 dapa^ . 
 
 . 192. 
 
 Kap^dnvai 
 
 . 164. 
 
 laTpeiov 
 
 . 27. 
 
 Kapnos . 
 
 . 218. 
 
INDEX OP GREEK WORDS 
 
 367 
 
 Kapva . 
 
 . 148. 
 
 KoSopUOS 
 
 165. 
 
 Kap(j)r] . 
 
 . 219. 
 
 KOiprjTTipia 
 
 300. 
 
 KoraKaleaBai 
 
 . 296. 
 
 Koirmv . 
 
 29. 
 
 KaToKoyos 
 
 . 190. 
 
 KoKaKiS 
 
 185. 
 
 KaraXva 
 
 . 259. 
 
 KoXofjiavia . 
 
 164. 
 
 KUTapatrdm 
 
 . 283. 
 
 KoXvpPrj6pai 
 
 139, 174. 
 
 Korapyna 
 
 . 270. 
 
 Kopav . 
 
 175. 
 
 KaTaarpaiiaTa 200. 
 
 Kovia . 
 
 174. 
 
 KaTa^v(rp.aTa 
 
 . 69, 123, 149. 
 
 KoTTTrarias . 
 
 98. 
 
 KaTOpVTTeaB 
 
 It . 296. 
 
 k6p7) . 
 
 76, 124, 233. 
 
 Kiyxpos 
 
 . 148. 
 
 KOpavr) . 
 
 218. 
 
 Kflpa . 
 
 . 89. 
 
 Ko<rfita}s ap7Tiu-j(- 
 
 
 KeXfvcrrris 
 
 . 202. 
 
 veitrBai 
 
 158. 
 
 kAtjs . 
 
 . 97. 
 
 KcrrraPos 
 
 185. 
 
 K€VOTa<j}tOV 
 
 . 293. 
 
 KOTvXrj . 
 
 244. 
 
 Kepaficls 
 
 . 232. 
 
 Kovpeiov 
 
 89. 
 
 Kepap-M 
 
 . 184. 
 
 Kovpe'iov 
 
 175. 
 
 Kepapides 
 
 . 231. 
 
 Kovpevs 
 
 89, 175. 
 
 Kipapoi 
 
 . 33, 134. 
 
 KOVpfWTLS 
 
 74. 
 
 Kepas . 
 
 . 138. 
 
 Kpduos . 
 
 193. 
 
 KrJTTOl . 
 
 . 222. 
 
 Kpao'ireda 
 
 163. 
 
 KrjpvKeiov 
 
 . 293. 
 
 Kparrjp 
 
 136, 151, 183 
 
 Kfjpv^ . 
 
 . 213,278. 
 
 Kpedypat 
 
 32, 145. 
 
 KL^hrjKos 
 
 . 247. 
 
 Kpias . 
 
 145 flf. 
 
 Ki/StoTja, (Ci/3c 
 
 UToi . 131. 
 
 KpTjhepvov 
 
 160. 
 
 KL$dpa . 
 
 . 82. 
 
 Kprjvai . 
 
 16, 18. 
 
 Kidapia-TrjS 
 
 . 82, 185. 
 
 KprjTflSes 
 
 164. 
 
 (Cloves . 
 
 . 298. 
 
 Kpi^ams 
 
 32, 228. 
 
 KKe\jrv8pa 
 
 . 213, 239. 
 
 Kpi6at . 
 
 148. 
 
 kX^s 
 
 . 29. 
 
 KpOKCOTOS 
 
 163. 
 
 KKfjO-CS . 
 
 . 181, 212. 
 
 Kpoppva 
 
 147. 
 
 K\r]Trjpes 
 
 . 212. 
 
 KpvnrivBa 
 
 76. 
 
 icKipaKes 
 
 . 32. 
 
 Kpa^vXos 
 
 177. 
 
 kKivt) . 
 
 . 127, 294, 295. 
 
 KTrjvr] . 
 
 223. 
 
 
 299. 
 
 KvaOos . 
 
 137, 244. 
 
 kKivIs . 
 
 . 123. 
 
 Kv^epvrjTrjS . 
 
 203. 
 
 Kva<j)fls 
 
 . 229. 
 
 Kvjieia . 
 
 255. 
 
 KvrjplSes 
 
 . 162, 193. 
 
 KV^lKrjVOS 
 
 246. 
 
 Kvia-rj . 
 
 . 270. 
 
 KVKemv . 
 
 146. 
 
358 
 
 THE LIFE OP THE ANCIENT GREEKS 
 
 
 PAGE 
 
 
 
 PAGE 
 
 kvkKos . 
 
 238. 
 
 Xvxvoi . 
 
 . 139. 
 
 
 KVVCS . 
 
 99. 
 
 Xvxvovxoi 
 
 . 141. 
 
 
 Kvvij 
 
 166, 229. 
 
 pdyeipoi 
 
 . 133, 
 
 181. 
 
 KvvrjycTiKi'i . 
 
 99. 
 
 paCa . 
 
 . 145, 
 
 151, 238 
 
 Kvpia inKkqaia 
 
 209. 
 
 paKTpa 
 
 . 174. 
 
 
 Kvpios . 
 
 120, 125. 
 
 paKpa TrXoia 
 
 . 300. 
 
 
 KVpiOS Kddl,(TKOS 
 
 214. 
 
 paVTlKYj 
 
 . 271. 
 
 
 Ka>8ia . 
 
 129. 
 
 pdvTis . 
 
 . 266, 
 
 373. 
 
 Ka>6a>v . 
 
 138. 
 
 papa-iTTOi 
 
 . 142. 
 
 
 KODfiaa-Tai 
 
 186. 
 
 pdprvpes 
 
 . 213. 
 
 
 Kutirai . 
 
 201. 
 
 pdxatpa 
 
 . 193, 
 
 369. 
 
 \ayvvos 
 
 138. 
 
 peyapov 
 
 . 30. 
 
 
 Xa;^a)ff . 
 
 147. 
 
 pfSipvos 
 
 . 344. 
 
 
 XczKKot . 
 
 33, 143. 
 
 pedv . 
 
 . 143. 
 
 
 hoKaviKai 
 
 164. 
 
 pelov . 
 
 . 282. 
 
 
 \apT7Tr\p 
 
 139. 
 
 peipdKLOv 
 
 . 79. 
 
 
 Xaroptat 
 
 231. 
 
 peXav . 
 
 . 85. 
 
 
 \dxava. 
 
 147. 
 
 piXas fcBjuds 
 
 . 144. 
 
 
 \4^r,s . 
 
 136. 
 
 pfXivr] . 
 
 . 148. 
 
 
 \eKt6os 
 
 147. 
 
 piXiTTai 
 
 . 224. 
 
 
 \€xos . 
 
 127. 
 
 peraXXa 
 
 . 230. 
 
 
 'KfjKvdos 
 
 135, 174, 394, 
 
 peroiKiov 
 
 . 65. 
 
 
 
 297. 
 
 pirocKoi 
 
 . 64, 190. 
 
 \rjvoi . 
 
 221. 
 
 perpririis 
 
 . 344. 
 
 
 Xrj^iapxiKov ypap- 
 
 
 perpia iaSrjS 
 
 . 154. 
 
 
 pareiov 
 
 89. 
 
 pcypovopof. 
 
 . 242. 
 
 
 XTjTovpylai 
 
 62, 199. 
 
 pt]8€V (l(riTO) 
 
 KaKOV 26. 
 
 
 XlKVOV . 
 
 73, 219. 
 
 prjXa . 
 
 . 144. 
 
 
 Xoyoypaf^os . 
 
 213. 
 
 pr)XoX6vSr} 
 
 . 77. 
 
 
 \6yxri . 
 
 99, 194. 
 
 pfjves . 
 
 . 247. 
 
 
 XovTrjp . 
 
 36, 138, 139, 
 
 prjvvTat 
 
 . 70. 
 
 
 
 173. 
 
 prjxo-vat 
 
 . 331. 
 
 
 XovTpd. 
 
 123, 267. 
 
 pia-Qos . 
 
 . 198. 
 
 
 \o(}>€ia . 
 
 132. 
 
 pvrjpovLKot 
 
 . 86. 
 
 
 Xofjioi . 
 
 193. 
 
 poplai . 
 
 . 331. 
 
 
 Xoxayos 
 
 193, 349. 
 
 pov(rtKrf 
 
 . 79. 
 
 
 Xoxoi . 
 
 193, 202. 
 
 pirja-is . 
 
 . 380. 
 
 
 AvKeiov 
 
 91. 
 
 pvXai . 
 
 . 220. 
 
 
 Xvpa 
 
 82. 
 
 pvXaBpol 
 
 . 228. 
 
 
INDEX OF GREEK WORDS 
 
 359 
 
 
 
 PAGE 
 
 
 PAGE 
 
 /ivXaves 
 
 . 320, 
 
 328. 
 
 6 SiaKtov 
 
 . 212. 
 
 fivpov . 
 
 . 175. 
 
 
 68ol 
 
 13, 15, 357 
 
 fiva-rayayos 
 
 . 277. 
 
 
 6 cVl 0(O/iM . 
 
 . 378. 
 
 llV<TTaL . 
 
 . 278. 
 
 
 OtKCLOl . 
 
 136. 
 
 jiiiTTa^ 
 
 . 177. 
 
 
 OlKcVoi . 
 
 . 66. 
 
 liva-TiXai 
 
 . 182. 
 
 
 oUrifia . 
 
 . 28. 
 
 vaos 
 
 . 44. 
 
 
 OlKtaL . 
 
 . 33. 
 
 vdpBtj^ 
 
 . 78. 
 
 
 oIkISiov SittXovv 
 
 . 33. 
 
 vavapxos 
 
 . 302. 
 
 
 olKoSojiOS 
 
 . 330. 
 
 vavKXrjpos 
 
 . 260. 
 
 
 otvLaTrjpia 
 
 . 89. 
 
 vav\ov . 
 
 . 260, 
 
 297. 
 
 olvos . 
 
 . 143. 
 
 veLQS 
 
 . 218. 
 
 
 olvoxorj 
 
 137. 
 
 veKpoTToKeis 
 
 . 396. 
 
 
 OIVOXOOL 
 
 183. 
 
 V€Kpo<l)6pOt 
 
 . 395. 
 
 
 olavos . 
 
 272. 
 
 vcKvaia 
 
 . 299. 
 
 
 oxXaSiar 8i<j)pos 
 
 130. 
 
 v€Cl)4Xai 
 
 . 99. 
 
 
 okKciScs 
 
 336, 260. 
 
 veapia . 
 
 . 305. 
 
 
 dXoKaurm 
 
 268. 
 
 VCaXTOlKOl 
 
 . 300, 
 
 205. 
 
 oXoKvyrj 
 
 270, 272. 
 
 vrj ^ia . 
 
 . 383. 
 
 
 'OXvpmoviKrjS 
 
 104. 
 
 vrjes Tax^Mi 
 
 . 300. 
 
 
 'Op.r)pi&ai 
 
 108. 
 
 vqaiSyrm 
 
 . 196. 
 
 
 OfiorpaTTe^os . 
 
 252. 
 
 vfJTTM . 
 
 . 147. 
 
 
 OVOS aXcTTjS . 
 
 220. 
 
 virpov . 
 
 . 174. 
 
 
 o^v^afpa 
 
 183. 
 
 v66oi . 
 
 . 74. 
 
 
 otna-Bobop-os . 
 
 47, 63. 
 
 vofmi . 
 
 . 333. 
 
 
 dn-XiTot. 
 
 191, 194. 
 
 vofjieis . 
 
 . 323. 
 
 
 oirXop.ax^'tv . 
 
 191. 
 
 voa-oi . 
 
 . 385. 
 
 
 onrdviov 
 
 31. 
 
 vovjirfvia 
 
 . 343. 
 
 
 OTTapa . 
 
 241. 
 
 vvp,(j)evTpta 
 
 . 122. 
 
 
 opyvid . 
 
 243. 
 
 vip.(f)ri . 
 
 . 121. 
 
 
 opp.01 . 
 
 167. 
 
 ^evrjKaa-ia 
 
 . 64,252. 
 
 opvis 
 
 272. 
 
 ifvia . 
 
 . 253. 
 
 
 6p<f>avoL 
 
 88. 
 
 ^evia . 
 
 . 255. 
 
 
 &pXr}<TTpa . 
 
 113. 
 
 ^evos . 
 
 . 251. 
 
 
 opxW'P'-^ 
 
 . 185. 
 
 §€va>v . 
 
 . 39,353. 
 
 oa-irpta . 
 
 . 147. 
 
 |l(^OS . 
 
 . 193. 
 
 
 oa-TpaKa 
 
 . 223. 
 
 liXa . 
 
 . 333. 
 
 
 6 <l)€vyoiv 
 
 . 312. 
 
 ^va-Tis . 
 
 . 160. 
 
 
 6<p6aXp.OL 
 
 204. 
 
 d/SeX/o-Kos 
 
 . 146, 
 
 270. 
 
 S(l>is . 
 
 . 170. 
 
360 
 
 THE LIFE OP THE ANCIENT GREEKS 
 
 
 PAGE 
 
 
 PASK 
 
 ox^Tevfiv 
 
 . 217. 
 
 irepovai 
 
 . 167. 
 
 O^fToi . 
 
 . 17, 217. 
 
 ircpo-iKai 
 
 . 164. 
 
 oylrov 
 
 . 146. 
 
 nepa-iKos opvis 
 
 . 225. 
 
 UayKpareia . 
 
 . 204. 
 
 neraa-os 
 
 . 100, 166, 229 
 
 TrayKpartov . 
 
 . 95. 
 
 TrcTTfla 
 
 . 179. 
 
 iraibayayos . 
 
 . 67, 77. 
 
 TtriSdKiov 
 
 . 203. 
 
 iraiScta. 
 
 . 72,78. 
 
 irfjxi's . 
 
 . 243. 
 
 naiSfS yvfjo-ioi 
 
 . 291. 
 
 niOrjKot 
 
 . 255. 
 
 iraiboTpi^T]! . 
 
 . 80. 
 
 irldoi . 
 
 . 33, 133, 151, 
 
 TTois 
 
 . 27, 79. 
 
 
 219. 
 
 TrdKi] . 
 
 , 80, 92. 
 
 TTlKoTIOLol 
 
 . 229. 
 
 iravSoKeia 
 
 . 254. 
 
 mXos . 
 
 . 166. 
 
 '!Tavw)(i8cs . 
 
 . 279. 
 
 TVLvaKes 
 
 . Ill, 141, 337. 
 
 Trapd&eia-os . 
 
 . 12. 
 
 irivaKiov 
 
 . Ill, 211. 
 
 irapaKaTaBriKq 
 
 . 250. 
 
 TrivaKodrjio] . 
 
 . 50. 
 
 Trapdwpfjjos . 
 
 . 123. 
 
 TrXda-nyye . 
 
 . 244. 
 
 Trapandrao-fia 
 
 . 29. 
 
 irXarayri 
 
 . 76. 
 
 napaa-dyyrjs . 
 
 . 243. 
 
 TrXaTclm 
 
 . 16. 
 
 irapaa-rdSes . 
 
 . 28. 
 
 TrXedpov 
 
 . 243. 
 
 irapBivos 
 
 . 124. 
 
 irXrip-qs ■^cjios 
 
 . 214. 
 
 irdpohos 
 
 . 202. 
 
 nXivBoi 
 
 . 22. 
 
 7rdpo)(os 
 
 . 123. 
 
 irXoia . 
 
 . 147, 259, 260. 
 
 iratrrds 
 
 . 28. 
 
 irXvveis 
 
 . 229. 
 
 irarrjp . 
 
 . 126. 
 
 iToXijiapxos . 
 
 . 197. 
 
 TTf'SiXa . 
 
 . 164. 
 
 troXlrai 
 
 . 60. 
 
 TreipSrai 
 
 . 235. 
 
 vojiiral 
 
 . 273,274. 
 
 irckTatTTal . 
 
 . 196. 
 
 ircmava 
 
 . 149. 
 
 TTfppaTa 
 
 . 149. 
 
 TTopirai . 
 
 . 167. 
 
 jTfpiTafioXa . 
 
 . 270. 
 
 TTord . 
 
 . 144. 
 
 TTfvrrjKovTapxoi 
 
 . 202. 
 
 TTOTTfpia 
 
 . 137. 
 
 TVfVTTjKOVTOpOI. 
 
 . 199. 
 
 •KOTOS . 
 
 . 183. 
 
 weirXos 
 
 . 274. 
 
 ■KOVS 
 
 . 243. 
 
 iripbiKes 
 
 . 147. 
 
 irpdo-^eis 
 
 . 284. 
 
 TTepl^oKos 
 
 . 271,279. 
 
 7rpod(rTeia 
 
 . 11. 
 
 TTfpiBflTTVOV . 
 
 . 298. 
 
 TTpo^ara 
 
 . 223. 
 
 irepLhpop.oi . 
 
 . 33. 
 
 ■rrpo^ovXcviia 
 
 . 210. 
 
 ■nepliraTos 
 
 . 222. 
 
 7rpoydp.ta 
 
 . 123,281. 
 
 neplnoXoi 
 
 . 191. 
 
 'np6ypap.ua . 
 
 . 207. 
 
 TTfpia-Tepm . 
 
 . 147. 
 
 TrpoeSpia 
 
 . 63,206. 
 
INDEX OP GEEEK WORDS 
 
 361 
 
 irpodea-is 
 
 . 294. 
 
 Se/ivai 
 
 . 69. 
 
 vpoBvpa 
 
 . 26. 
 
 aijfia . 
 
 . 297. 
 
 irpoi^ . 
 
 . 120. 
 
 a-TjO-apri 
 
 . 122. 
 
 irpoKktjo-is 
 
 . 212. 
 
 <riy\os 
 
 . 246. 
 
 irpovaos 
 
 . 46. 
 
 (rtTTVac 
 
 . 134, 219. 
 
 irpo^evos 
 
 . 64, 253. 
 
 auTvpiu 
 
 . 139, 162. 
 
 irptmlvetv 
 
 . 184. 
 
 a-'tTa . 
 
 . 144. 
 
 irpopprjo-is 
 
 . 278. 
 
 (TLTqcns iv 7 
 
 rpvTa- 
 
 irpoo-Ke^aKa 
 
 a . 129. 
 
 Vflco 
 
 . 63. 
 
 7rpO(TKVVrj(TtS 
 
 . 182. 
 
 (riTia . 
 
 . 145, 192. 
 
 npoa-oSoi 
 
 . 273. 
 
 a-iTOwaXm 
 
 . 228. 
 
 irpoaTanjs 
 
 . 65, 70. 
 
 (TITOS . 
 
 . 125, 148. 
 
 TvpoTeXeLa 
 
 . 123,281. 
 
 a-K€vo(j>6poi 
 
 . 197. 
 
 npoxovs 
 
 . 137. 
 
 a-Krjvrj 
 
 . 114, 236, 257. 
 
 TrpvTdvfis 
 
 . 207. 
 
 aKidbeia 
 
 . 170, 238. 
 
 Trpcapevs 
 
 . 204. 
 
 <rKiaSri(j)6po 
 
 I . 170. 
 
 Trrepvyes 
 
 . 193. 
 
 (TKiapaxia 
 
 . 81. 
 
 TTTaxol 
 
 . 252. 
 
 a-KipjrodfS 
 
 . 129. 
 
 1TVyp,Tj . 
 
 . 80, 95. 
 
 (TKoXta 
 
 . 185. 
 
 iriifKoi, . 
 
 . 139, 173. 
 
 a-KopoSa 
 
 . 147. 
 
 wv^is . 
 
 . 141. 
 
 2Kv6ai 
 
 . 20, 69. 
 
 jrvpavvoi 
 
 . 33. 
 
 a-KvToKia 
 
 . 170. 
 
 TTvpKdid 
 
 . 34. 
 
 <TKVT0T6p,0l 
 
 . 229. 
 
 irvpoi . 
 
 . 148. 
 
 a-fiTivr] 
 
 . 224. 
 
 irvpplxri 
 
 . 84,274. 
 
 (TOpOS 
 
 . 296. 
 
 iraiyiav . 
 
 . 177. 
 
 tnrdpyava 
 
 . 72. 
 
 'nQiXr^ripiop 
 
 . 27. 
 
 irneipeiv 
 
 . 218. 
 
 'PeiTol . 
 
 . 278. 
 
 a-TToXdScs 
 
 . 161. 
 
 pr]Ta>p . 
 
 . 208. 
 
 (TTTOvBr] 
 
 . 271. 
 
 pmiScs 
 
 . 170. 
 
 a-TTvpls 
 
 . 141. 
 
 pom 
 
 . 144. 
 
 (TTablOV 
 
 . 93, 102, 243. 
 
 pOfl^OS . 
 
 . 76. 
 
 (TTaQpos 
 
 . 244. 
 
 pOTTTpoP 
 
 . 27. 
 
 (TTaTrip 
 
 . 246. 
 
 pVTOV . 
 
 . 138. 
 
 (TTeap 
 
 . 150. 
 
 <Tayp.a . 
 
 . 192. 
 
 (TT€<j>dvai, 
 
 . 178. 
 
 (rdXiriy^ 
 
 . 84. 
 
 (TTi<\>avoL 
 
 . 222. 
 
 
 . 98. 
 
 a-Trjkq 
 
 . 297. 
 
 o-dvSaKa 
 
 . 164. 
 
 a-rXeyyis 
 
 . 80, 81, 174. 
 
 SeKvoixia 
 
 . 164. 
 
 (TTod . 
 
 . 42,43,237,278 
 
362 
 
 THE LIFE OF THE ANCIENT GREEKS 
 
 
 
 PAGE 
 
 
 PAGE 
 
 (ttoXtj . 
 
 . 154, 
 
 278. 
 
 Ta(f>os . 
 
 . 297. 
 
 OTpaTrjyot 
 
 . 197, 
 
 249. 
 
 TeKTOVCS 
 
 . 231. 
 
 (rrpeirTol 
 
 . 167. 
 
 
 TcXecrTrjpiov 
 
 . 280. 
 
 (TTp6<pi.a 
 
 . 157, 
 
 158. 
 
 TlKeTTj . 
 
 . 280. 
 
 a-Tprnfiara 
 
 . 128, 
 
 259. 
 
 T€Tpcatobes 
 
 . 130. 
 
 OTpaipaT6he<Tp.os . 129, 
 
 259. 
 
 TeTpVTTTjfieVT] 
 
 ^n- 
 
 a-iyKKrjTos 
 
 -kkXj)- 
 
 
 (j)OS . 
 
 . 214. 
 
 (Tta . 
 
 . 209. 
 
 
 t4tti^ . 
 
 . 169. 
 
 (TVCS . 
 
 . 147. 
 
 
 Teixi ■ 
 
 . Ill, 131, 133. 
 
 <TVKa . 
 
 . 144, 
 
 147. 
 
 "X""? ■ 
 
 . 106, 189. 
 
 (TVKOfjydvTTjS 
 
 . 20. 
 
 
 TrjXia , 
 
 . 32. 
 
 trvfi^oKov 
 
 . 209, 
 
 215. 
 
 Ttp.^ .^ 
 
 . 248. 
 
 (TVfip.axoi 
 
 . 196. 
 
 
 Toix<>>pvxoi 
 
 . 23. 
 
 (rvp.7ro<xlapxB 
 
 s . 184. 
 
 
 TO^OV . 
 
 . 99. 
 
 (Tvfiirofriov 
 
 . 183. 
 
 
 To^araL 
 
 . 20, 195. 
 
 avvhsmvoi 
 
 . 181. 
 
 
 TpayrjfMTa 
 
 . 148, 183. 
 
 (Fvvrjyopot 
 
 . 214. 
 
 
 Tpdirc^ai 
 
 . 130, 249. 
 
 (TwoikIoi 
 
 . 33. 
 
 
 Tpan€^iTai 
 
 . 249. 
 
 <JV(TKr)VOl 
 
 . 192. 
 
 
 Tpi^av. 
 
 . 159. 
 
 (r(j)ayfiov 
 
 . 270. 
 
 
 Tpiripapxia 
 
 . 62,199. 
 
 (T^aipa 
 
 . 76. 
 
 
 Tpmovs 
 
 . 130,172. 
 
 fT^OTTO) 
 
 . 267. 
 
 
 Tpcmis . 
 
 . 203. 
 
 (T^evhovr) 
 
 . 99. 
 
 
 Tpo(j)6s 
 
 . 75. 
 
 0'(j>€vdovrJTaL . 
 
 . 195. 
 
 
 TpipXia 
 
 . 141. 
 
 a-CJJpayis 
 
 . 169, 
 
 253. 
 
 TpvTdvtj 
 
 . 244. 
 
 o";(e8mt 
 
 . 259. 
 
 
 TvKrj . 
 
 . 135. 
 
 trioTfjpia 
 
 . 278. 
 
 
 TVp^OS 
 
 . 297. 
 
 friiXJypovio-Trjs 
 
 . 90. 
 
 
 TVpOS . 
 
 . 150. 
 
 a-axjipoa-ivT) . 
 
 . 77. 
 
 
 rixv dyadij 
 
 . 291. 
 
 rmvlai . 
 
 . 17a 
 
 
 vSpia . 
 
 . 19, 135, 214, 
 
 ToKavTov 
 
 . 244. 
 
 
 
 250. 
 
 ra jLteyaXa TrpaTTetv 106. 
 
 
 vXoTOfJuOl 
 
 . 223,231. 
 
 Ta/iieia 
 
 . 125. 
 
 
 VVVLS . 
 
 . 218. 
 
 Tap,ifiov 
 
 . 29, 264. 
 
 vnaKovco 
 
 . 27. 
 
 Ta vopi.^6p.evc 
 
 1 . 292. 
 
 
 inaa-Trio-Tris . 
 
 . 194. 
 
 Ta^iap^os . 
 
 . 192. 
 
 
 iircpmov 
 
 . 32. 
 
 TO^lS . 
 
 . 192. 
 
 
 virohr)p,aTa . 
 
 . 164, 165. 
 
 TcinjfTes 
 
 . 128. 
 
 
 vTvo^vyia 
 
 . 228, 224, 259. 
 
 raplxv ■ 
 
 . 146. 
 
 
 VTTo6f]Kr) 
 
 . 250. 
 
GENERAL INDEX 
 
 363 
 
 
 
 
 PAGE 
 
 
 PAGE 
 
 viroKpaTTjpiov 
 
 136. 
 
 
 xdpTfjs 
 
 109. 
 
 inoKvea-Bm 
 
 
 165. 
 
 
 X^l-POiV 
 
 241. 
 
 viroKvpiov 
 
 
 82. 
 
 
 XeipoTovia . 
 
 210. 
 
 (pdpiJLaKa 
 
 
 288. 
 
 
 X^pvifieiov . 
 
 138, 269. 
 
 <\>appaKOTrS> 
 
 Vat . 
 
 290. 
 
 
 Xf'pctV' 
 
 138, 267, 269 
 
 <\)epvi) . 
 
 
 120. 
 
 
 X^po'o.'ioi 
 
 200. 
 
 <pid\r] . 
 
 
 187, 
 
 271. 
 
 X^P'^i' nepi^oKeiv . 
 
 183. 
 
 <f}idaKi'at 
 
 
 133. 
 
 
 XVV€S . 
 
 147. 
 
 (j>iKrjpa 
 
 
 182. 
 
 
 ;^tXoff . 
 
 219. 
 
 (piKoKoyoi 
 
 
 105. 
 
 
 Xi'Tav . 
 
 154-156. 
 
 <l>iko^€via 
 
 
 252. 
 
 
 X^alva 
 
 129, 158. 
 
 tpOlVlKLS 
 
 
 192. 
 
 
 X^apvs 
 
 160. 
 
 ^6pp,(.y^ 
 
 
 82. 
 
 
 X^avis . 
 
 160. 
 
 (jjoppol 
 
 
 129, 
 
 220. 
 
 Xolvi^ . 
 
 244. 
 
 (pparsptKov 
 
 ypap- 
 
 
 
 Xoprjyos ^ . 
 
 63. 
 
 pareiov 
 
 
 74. 
 
 
 Xopov biBovat 
 
 117. 
 
 (ppdrepes 
 
 
 74, 281. 
 
 Xopros. 
 
 219. 
 
 (jipeara 
 
 
 18. 
 
 
 Xois . 
 
 244. 
 
 (jypvyava 
 
 
 223. 
 
 
 Xpfipara 
 
 246. 
 
 <t>vy^ . 
 
 
 251. 
 
 
 Xplp-a . 
 
 148. 
 
 (l>v\ap^os 
 
 
 194. 
 
 
 Xpvo-lov 
 
 346. 
 
 (j>vXrj . 
 
 
 62, 
 
 192, 194, 
 
 Xpva-oxdoi . 
 
 330. 
 
 
 
 206, 211. 
 
 xirpaL . 
 
 24, 74, 136. 
 
 Xalpe . 
 
 
 181. 
 
 
 xS>pa . 
 
 397. 
 
 Xal^Ke'ts 
 
 
 232. 
 
 
 \jrT](j)ia-p^Ta . 
 
 208. 
 
 p^aXx^ pvla 
 
 
 76. 
 
 
 '^rj<^oi . 
 
 314. 
 
 Xahil^eiv 
 
 
 77. 
 
 
 •^jrladoL . 
 
 129. 
 
 Xa^KmpaTa 
 
 
 133. 
 
 
 ^vKTrjpes 
 
 151. 
 
 xdpaKes 
 
 
 221. 
 
 
 &via . 
 
 236. 
 
 XapaKTrjpfS 
 
 
 85. 
 
 
 i>pok6yiov . 
 
 239. 
 
 
 
 8. 
 
 GBNER/ 
 
 lL INDEX 
 
 
 Academy, 
 
 59, 91 
 
 
 
 Advocates, 214. 
 
 
 Acropolis, 
 
 6,42, 
 
 48. 
 
 
 Aged, 284. 
 
 
 Acroteria, 
 
 54. 
 
 
 
 Agones, 116. 
 
 
 Actors, 114, 234. 
 
 
 
 Agora, 13, 14, 40 
 
 58, 236 £P. 
 
 Ad5nis, 24 
 
 222. 
 
 
 
 Agoraios, 40. 
 
 
 Adoption, 
 
 291. 
 
 
 
 Agoranomoi, 20, 
 
 34. 
 
364 
 
 THE LIFE OP THE ANCIENT GREEKS 
 
 Agriculture, 216 ff. 
 Akratisma, 151. 
 Alabastos, 135. 
 Alcibiades, 21, 83, 97, 102. 
 Alexandreia, 57. 
 Almonds, 148. 
 Altars, 30, 44, 54, 265. 
 Amphora, 134. 
 Amulets, 283. 
 
 Amusements, 179, 184, 254. 
 Andron, 30, 31, 33, 35, 37, 39, 
 
 73. 
 Andronitis, 30, 31. 
 Animals, 3, 27, 76, 259. 
 Antae, 46. 
 
 Anthesteria, 70, 77, 299, 308. 
 Apaturia, 74, 281. 
 Apollo, 26, 30, 83, 92, 100. 
 Apoptygma, 157. 
 Apples, 148. 
 Aqueducts, 18, 19. 
 Archons, 42, 43, 117, 301. 
 Areopagus, 42, 48, 301. 
 Arithmetic, 87. 
 Armour, 192 ff. 
 Army, 190 ff. 
 Arson, 34. 
 
 Artemis, 100, 101, 122. 
 Artisans, 127, 166, 189, 227 ff. 
 Artists, 104, 234. 
 Aryballos, 135. 
 Asclepi'adae, 228. 
 Astoi, 60. 
 
 Astynomoi, 16, 20, 34, 302. 
 Athena, 48, 51, 53. 
 Athens, 6 fl., 21, 25, 42 ff., 
 
 105 ff. 
 Athletes, 235. 
 Atimia, 61. 
 Attica, 6 ff., 220 ff. 
 
 Bags, 142. 
 Bakers, 148 ff., 228. 
 Balconies, 33. 
 Ballots, 214. 
 Ball-playing, 76, 78. 
 Banks, 249. 
 
 Banquets, 104, 123, 180 ff. 
 Barbers, 175. 
 Barley, 143, 145, 148. 
 Baskets, 125, 141, 170, 269. 
 Bastards, 74 f. 
 Bathing, 138, 172 ff. 
 Baths, 135, 172 ff. 
 Beans, 147. 
 Beard, 177. 
 Bears, 147. 
 Beds, 127 ff. 
 Beef, 145. 
 Bees, 150, 224. 
 Benches, 35, 85, 123. 
 Biblion, 109, Hi. 
 Biers, 128, 295. 
 Birds, 24, 27, 147, 235. 
 Birthdays, 73, 281. 
 Boats, 147. 
 Body, care of, 171 ff. 
 Bolts, 29. 
 Books, 108. 
 Boots, 100, 164 ff. 
 Bowmen, 20, W, 196. 
 Bows, 99. 
 Boxes, 131, 141. 
 Boxing, 80, 95, 102. 
 Boys, 77, 88 ff., 103, 105. 
 Bracelets, 167 ff. 
 Brands on horses, 98. 
 Braziers, 31, 33, 140. 
 Bread, 143, 145, 149, 228. 
 Breakfast, 144, 151. 
 Breastplates, 192 ff. 
 
GENERAL INDEX 
 
 365 
 
 Breeches, 162. 
 Bricks, 32. 
 Brides, 120 ff. 
 Bridges, 258. 
 Brooches, 167. 
 Broth, 144. 
 Buffoons, 185. 
 Builders, 231. 
 Building materials, 22. 
 Burglars, 23. 
 Burial customs, 292 ff. 
 Burlesques, 117. 
 
 Cabbage, 147. 
 
 Cabinet-work, 132. 
 
 Cakes, 149. 
 
 Calendar, 240 ff. 
 
 Callias, 21. 
 
 Callirrhoe, 18. 
 
 Canes, 169. 
 
 Carneia, 100. 
 
 Carpenters, 231. 
 
 Caryatides, 55. 
 
 Cattle, 150. 
 
 Cavalry, 66, 90, 97, 194. 
 
 Caves in Greece, 2. 
 
 Cephisus, 3, 9 f. 
 
 Cement, 13, 22. 
 
 Cenotaphs, 293. 
 
 Cerameicus, 9, 12, 42, 48. 
 
 Chairs, 139 ff. 
 
 Chariots, 70, 97, 101, 102, 257. 
 
 Cheese, 150. 
 
 Chernibeion, 138. 
 
 Chests, 131. 
 
 Chickens, 37, 146. 
 
 Children, 38, 71 ff., 136. 
 
 Chiton, 129, 154 ff. 
 
 Chlamys, 160. 
 
 Chlanis, 160. 
 
 Choregus, 62. 
 
 Chorus, 62, 113. 
 
 Chytra, 136. 
 
 Cicada, 4, 169. 
 
 Cisterns, 18, 33. 
 
 Citizens, 19, 21, 60 ff., 188 ff. 
 
 Classes of inhabitants, 60 ff. 
 
 Climate of G-reece, 2, 153. 
 
 Clocks, 213, 239. 
 
 Clothing, 153 ff., 229. 
 
 Clubs, 186. 
 
 Cock fights, 107, 255. 
 
 Coffins, 296. 
 
 Coins, 24, 245 ff. 
 
 Collytus, 25. 
 
 Colonos Agoraios, 42, 44, 47. 
 
 Comedy, 114. 
 
 Commerce, 335. 
 
 Commissary, 197. 
 
 Confetti, 69, 133. 
 
 Cooking, 30, 31, 144. 
 
 Cooks, 133, 144, 181. 
 
 Couches, 137 ff., 153, 183, 394. 
 
 Council of Five Hundred, 42, 
 
 63, 90, 194, 197, 199, 206. 
 Court of the house, 36, 38, 34, 
 
 35, 36. 
 Courts of law, 311 ff. 
 Cradles, 78. 
 Cremation, 396. 
 Crowns, 63, 103. 
 Ctesias, 387. 
 Cups, 137. 
 Currency, 245. 
 Curtains, 29. 
 Cushions, 129. 
 Cynosarges, 59. 
 
 Dancing, 62, 84, 185. 
 Daric, 98, 246. 
 
366 
 
 THE LIFE OP THE ANCIENT GREEKS 
 
 Dates, 2, 148. 
 
 Dead, care of the, 293. 
 
 Dedications, 89, 122. 
 
 Delos, houses in, 34 ff. 
 
 Demes, 25, 89. 
 
 Democedes, 287. 
 
 Demosthenes, 63. 
 
 Dessert, 148. 
 
 Diaulos, 93, 102. 
 
 Dice, 255. 
 
 Dinner, 144, 151. 
 
 Dionysiac festivals, 59, 62, 77, 
 
 113, 274. 
 Diphros, 130. 
 Diplax, 158. 
 Dipylon, 13, 18. 
 Discus, 80, 94 f. 
 Disease, 285. 
 Dishes, 141. 
 Dithyramb, 114. 
 Divination, 266, 271. 
 Divorce, 125. 
 Dogs, 99, 225. 
 Dolichos, 93, 102. 
 Dolls, 76. 
 Doors, 24, 29, 35. 
 Doric columns, 48. 
 Dowry, 120. 
 Drachma, 89, 246. 
 Drainage, 17 f. 
 Draughts, 179. 
 Drawing, 87. 
 Dread goddesses, 69. 
 Dreams, 272, 290. 
 Dress, 153 ff. 
 Drinking-horns, 138. 
 Driving, 70. 
 Drugs, 286, 290. 
 Dyers, 229. 
 Dystus, house in, 38. 
 
 Earrings, 170. 
 
 Education, 72 ff., 78 ff. 
 
 Eels, 147. 
 
 Eleusinian Mysteries, 8, 276 ff., 
 
 294. 
 Embroidering, 125. 
 Enneacrunus, 18. 
 Envoys, 284. 
 Ephebi, 90, 160. 
 Epidaurus, Tholos at, 43. 
 Epithalamia, 124. 
 Epitimos, 61. 
 Erechtheium, 55. 
 Eridanus, 17. 
 Etesian winds, 2. 
 Evil eye, 73, 283. 
 Exomis, 161 ff. 
 Exposure of infants, 74. 
 
 Family, 126. 
 Family gods, 31, 71. 
 Fans, 170. 
 Fashions, 163 ff. 
 Felt, 166. 
 
 Festivals, 273 ff., 306 ff. 
 Figs, 2, 144, 148. 
 Finances, 303. 
 Finery, 162, 167 ff. 
 Fire, 34. 
 
 Fish, 4, 143, 146. 
 Fishermen, 100, 147. 
 Fishing, 100, 143, 147. 
 Flax, 139. 
 Flesh-hooks, 32. 
 Flour, 220. 
 Flowers, 222. 
 Flute, 82, 123, 185. 
 Food, 143 ff., 182. 
 Foot-wear, 164 ff. 
 Foreigners, 33, 64 ff., 351. 
 
GENERAL INDEX 
 
 367 
 
 Forests, 10, 223. 
 Fountains, 18 if. 
 Fowls, 225. 
 Freedom, 68, 69, 70. 
 Frugality, 144. 
 Fruit, 144, 147. 
 Fuel, 233. 
 Fullers, 229. 
 Funerals, 293 S. 
 Furniture, 127 it. 
 
 Game, 13, 99, 147. 
 
 Gramelion, 121. 
 
 Games, 76 S., 179, 255. 
 
 Gardens, 11 f. 
 
 Garlic, 147, 149. 
 
 Garrison duty, 90. 
 
 Gates, 18, 14, 21. 
 
 Generals, 197, 305. 
 
 Girdles, 154 ff. 
 
 Girls, 77, 87, 119 S., 170. 
 
 Goats, 145. 
 
 Goatskins, 142. 
 
 Gods, 361, 264 fP. 
 
 Gorgias, 105. 
 
 Grafting, 148. 
 
 Grain, 133, 134, 142, 143, 148 fl. 
 
 Grapes, 147, 148. 
 
 Graves, 296 fP. 
 
 Grazing, 233. 
 
 Greater Dionysia, 113. 
 
 Greaves, 164, 193. 
 
 Greece, physical characteris- 
 tics of, 1 fF. 
 
 Greek manners and deport- 
 ment, 64, 68, 77, 78, 384. 
 
 Greek names, 73. 
 
 Greeks, physical characteris- 
 tics of, 171. 
 
 Greeks, wide diversity among, 5. 
 
 Groves, 13, 59. 
 Guardians, 88, 130 fe. 
 Guest, 29, 252. 
 Gymnasia, 91 ff., 135. 
 Gymnasiarchia, 63. 
 Gymnastic, 79 S., 91 ff. 
 Gynaikonitis, 31, 83, 39. 
 
 Hair, mode of wearing the, 
 
 175 ff. 
 Hats, 100, 165. 
 Head-dress of women, 178. 
 Health resorts, 388. 
 Hearth, 30. 
 Heating, 88. 
 Hecate, 36. 
 Helmets, 198. 
 Hera, 121. 
 Heralds, 393. 
 Hermai, 43, 363. 
 Hestia, 6. 
 Hierophant, 377. 
 Himation, 158. 
 Hippeis, 61, 90, 194. 
 Hippocrates, 386. 
 Hippodamus of Miletus, 16. 
 Hippodrome, 103. 
 Homer, 85 fP. 
 Honey, 147, 150. 
 Honorary titles, 64. 
 Hoplites, 66, 190 S. 
 Horns for drinking, 138. 
 Horologium, 338. 
 Horses, 37, 90, 97, 103, 195, 318, 
 
 324. 
 Hospitality, 352 S. 
 Housekeeping, 87, 125. 
 Houses, 31 ff., 280. 
 Hucksters, 238. 
 Hunting, 98. 
 
368 
 
 THE LIFE OF THE ANCIENT GREEKS 
 
 Hydria, 19, 135, 250. 
 Hymettus, 10, 11, 150, 224. 
 
 Ilissus, 10, 11, 18. 
 
 Illiteracy, 87. 
 
 Illumination, 15, 34, 108, 139. 
 
 Imprecation, 283. 
 
 Incantation, 290. 
 
 Incense, 140. 
 
 Inhabitants of Athens, 60 ff. 
 
 Ink, 85. 
 
 Inns, 254. 
 
 Interment, 295. 
 
 Interpreters, 360. 
 
 Ionic columns, 50, 298. 
 
 Irrigation, 217. 
 
 Isthmia, 100. 
 
 Jars for water, 19, 135. 
 Javelins, 99, 196. 
 Javelin throwing, 94. 
 Jerkins, 161. 
 Jewel-caskets, 131. 
 Jewellers, 230. 
 Jumping, 80, 94. 
 
 Kalathos, 141. 
 Kalpis, 135. 
 Eantharos, 137. 
 Karchesion, 137. 
 Keramia, 134. 
 Kerchiefs, 167. 
 Kettles, 136. 
 Keys, 29 f. 
 
 King's Portico, 42, 43. 
 Kitchen, 31, 36. 
 Koppatias, 98. 
 Kothon, 138. 
 Kotyle or kotylos, 138. 
 Koureion, 89. 
 
 Krater, 136 S. 
 Kyathos, 137. 
 Kykeon, 143, 280. 
 
 Labourers, 233. 
 Laconian key, 30. 
 Lamps, 34, 35, 108, 139. 
 Languages, 360. 
 Lanterns, 141. 
 Law courts, 211 ff. 
 Leaping, 80, 94. 
 Lebes, 136. 
 Lekythos, 135. 
 Lenaea, 113. 
 Lentils, 149. 
 Lettuce, 147. 
 Libations, 183, 271. 
 Libraries, 57, 108. 
 Lighting, 15, 34, 108, 139. 
 Liturgia, 62, 66. 
 Lofts, 33. 
 Long walls, 8. 
 Loutra, 122. 
 Lucky days, 132. 
 Luxury, 127, 144. 
 Lycabettus, 8, 11. 
 Lyceum, 59, 91. 
 Lyre, 82, 138. 
 
 Magistrates, 14, 20, 301 ff. 
 Maidens' Porch, 55. 
 Majority, age of, 89. 
 Mantles, 129, 158 ff. 
 Manufacturers, 166, 227 ff. 
 Marble quarries, 2, 8, 10. 
 Market, 13, 14, 40, 58, 236 ff. 
 Marriage, 31, 61, 119 ff. 
 Marsyas, 83. 
 Masks, 115. 
 Masons, 196, 231. 
 
GENERAL INDEX 
 
 369 
 
 Masts, 203. 
 Mathematics, 87. 
 Mats, 139. 
 Measures, 243 ff. 
 Meat, 143, 145. 
 Media, wall of, 23. 
 Medicine, 286. 
 Men, life of, 40. 
 
 occupations of young, 91 ff. 
 
 demeanour of, 158-160. 
 Mespila, wall of, 23. 
 Metals, 10. 
 
 Metics, 64 S., 170, 228. 
 Metopes, 47. 
 Metroon, 42. 
 
 Military training, 81, 90, 190 flp. 
 Milk, 144, 150. 
 Millet, 148. 
 Mills, 220, 228. 
 Mina, 98, 129, 246. 
 Mines, 10, 68, 230. 
 Mints, 247. 
 Mirrors, 132. 
 Money, 245 S., 808. 
 Months, 240 £E., 306 S. 
 Moriai, 221. 
 Mountains, 1, 10, 11. 
 Music, 79, 82, 123, 185. 
 Mycenae, 5, 17. 
 Myrrh, 175. 
 
 Mysteries of Eleusis, 276 fP., 
 394. 
 
 Name day, 73. 
 Naos, 44 ff. 
 Navy, 199 ff. 
 Necklaces, 167 ff. 
 Nemea, 100 f. 
 Nicknames, 74. 
 Nike, 50, 55 ff. 
 24 
 
 Nurses, 75 f. 
 Nuts, 148. 
 
 Oars, 201. 
 
 Oaths, 90, 282. 
 
 Obol, 246. 
 
 Occupations, 188 ff. 
 
 Odeium, 108. 
 
 Odes on athletic victories, 104. 
 
 Oikiai, 38. 
 
 Oil, 133, 139, 147, 148, 150, 174, 
 
 220 ff. 
 Old age, 284. 
 Olives, 2, 144. 
 Olympiads, 105. 
 Olympic games, 97, 100 ff. 
 Omens, 272. 
 Onions, 147, 149. 
 Opson, 146. 
 Oracles, 273. 
 Orchestra, 113. 
 Ornamentation in dress, 162, 
 
 163. 
 Ornaments, 162, 167 ff., 178. 
 Orphans, 72, 74, 88. 
 Ovens, 33. 
 Owls, 24. 
 
 Painters, 3. 
 Palaestra, 80, 92, 135. 
 Panathenaea, 51, 62, 100, 104, 
 
 274. 
 Pankration, 95, 103, 105. 
 Pantomimes, 186, 218. 
 Paper, 109. 
 Papyrus, 85, 108. 
 Parasols, 170. 
 Parastas, 28, 46. 
 Parks, 11 f. 
 Parthenon, 51 ff. 
 
370 
 
 THE LIFE OP THE ANCIENT GREEKS 
 
 Pastas, 28, 30, 36. 
 Pasturage, 223. 
 Pavements, 8, 15, 34, 36, 37. 
 Pears, 148. 
 Peas, 147. 
 
 Pedagogues, 67, 77, 78. 
 Pediments, 47. 
 Pens, 85. 
 
 Pentakosiomedimnoi, 61, 301. 
 Pentathlon, 95, 102. 
 Pentelicus, 10, 18. 
 Peplos, 54, 56, 274. 
 Perfumes, 175. 
 Pergamus, 23, 57. 
 Pericles, 16, 64, 108, 118, 121. 
 Peristyle, 28, 36, 37. 
 Petasos, 100, 166, 257. 
 Peusinioi, 20. 
 Phiale, 187. 
 Phidias, 51, 53. 
 Phratry, 74, 89, 124, 281. 
 Physical characteristics, of 
 Greece, 1 S. 
 of the Greeks, 171 S. 
 Physicians, 27, 286 S. 
 Pigs, 145, 268. 
 Pillows, 129. 
 Pilots, 203. 
 Pinakotheke, 50. 
 Pins, 167 flf. 
 Piraeus, 16, 64. 
 Pitchers, 135 ff. 
 Pithos, 133. 
 Platters, 141. 
 Plays, 113 ff. 
 Ploughs, 218. 
 Poets, 103, 104, 234. 
 Police, 16, 19. 
 Politai, 60. 
 Pomegranates, 144. 
 
 Popular assembly, 63, 208 £f. 
 
 Population of Attica, 60 S. 
 
 Poros, 2. 
 
 Porridge, 145, 147. 
 
 Porters, 26, 36, 67. 
 
 Porticoes, 14, 28, 42, 43, 57, 237. 
 
 Poseidon, 101. 
 
 Potters, 3. 
 
 Pottery, 10 f., 232. 
 
 Poultry, 27, 146. 
 
 Prayers, 264. 
 
 Prices, 248. 
 
 Priene, 32, 37, 38. 
 
 Priests, 30, 89, 266. 
 
 Prizes, 103. 
 
 Processions, 8 f., 16, 123, 278, 
 
 295. 
 Pronaos, 46 flf. 
 Propyl aea, 48 flF. 
 Prothesis, 294. 
 Proxenos, 64, 253. 
 Prytaneium, 42, 63, 104, 301. 
 Prytanes, 42, 43, 63, 207. 
 Purification, 266, 298. 
 Purple, 4. 
 Pyrrhus, 24. 
 Pyrriche, 84, 274. 
 Pythia, 100 f. 
 
 Quinces, 144. 
 
 Radishes, 147. 
 Raisins, 148. 
 
 Reading, 79, 85, 108, 179. 
 Reaping, 219. 
 Refuse, 16, 17. 
 Religion, 262 ff., 292. 
 Rhapsodes, 107. 
 Rhyton, 138. 
 Riding, 97, 
 
GENERAL INDEX 
 
 371 
 
 Rings, 167 S. 
 Rivers of Greece, 2 f. 
 Roads, 7. 
 Roofs, 24. 
 Rooms, 28 f. 
 Rotunda, 42. 
 Rowing, 201. 
 Rugs, 128, 129. 
 Running, 80, 101, 102. 
 
 Sacks, 142. 
 
 Sacred springs, 11, 18. 
 Sacred Way, 8, 13. 
 Sacrifices, 89, 123, 265 ff. 
 Sailors, 166, 202. 
 Salesrooms, 27. 
 Salt, 149. 
 Salutation, 181. 
 Salves, 148, 175. 
 Samphoras, 98. 
 Sandals, 75, 164. 
 Sauces, 149. 
 Sausages, 146. 
 Scales, 244. 
 Schools, 79 ff., 282. 
 Seasoning, 149. 
 Sesame, 122, 149. 
 Sewers, 17 f. 
 Sewing, 125. 
 Sheep, 145. 
 Shepherds, 10. 
 Shields, 193. 
 Ships, 199, 260. 
 Shoemakers, 229. 
 Shoes, 164 ff. 
 Shops, 14, 27, 36. 
 Sickness, 125, 285 ff. 
 Sidewalks, 9, 15. 
 Silphium, 150. 
 Silver, 10, 
 
 Singing, 82, 123, 185. 
 Sisyra, 162. 
 Skene, 114. 
 Skins, 129, 142, 166. 
 Slaves, 26, 27, 66 ff., 125, 126. 
 Sleeping-rooms, 29. 
 Sleeves, 156. 
 Slings, 99, 195 ff. 
 Soap, 174. 
 
 Socrates, 28, 105, 172. 
 Soldiers, 190 ff. 
 
 Solonian division of the citi- 
 zens, 61. 
 Soothsayers, 266. 
 Sophists, 105. 
 Soup, 144, 182. 
 Sowing, 218 f. 
 Sparta, 22, 164, 100, 173. 
 Spears, 99, ig"4. 
 Spear-throwing, 80, 94. 
 Speech- writers, 213, 214. 
 Spelt, 148. 
 Spices, 149, 160. 
 Spinach, 147. 
 Spinning, 125 f. 
 Spits, 146. 
 Sponges, 4. 
 Springs, 11, 18. 
 Stadion, 93, 102. 
 Stairs, 32, 35. 
 Stamnos, 134. 
 Stilus, 85, 111. 
 Storerooms, 29. 
 Strainers, 136, 151. 
 Strangers, 251. 
 Straps, 19, 78, 95. 
 Streets, 12, 15, 16, 20, 63, 70, 227. 
 Strigils, 80, 81. 
 Stromata, 129. 
 Suburbs, 11, 
 
372 
 
 THE LIFE OF THE ANCIENT GREEKS 
 
 Sun-dials, 239. 
 Sunshades, 170. 
 Supper, 144, 152. 
 Surgery, 287. 
 Swaddling bands, 72 fif. 
 Swimming, 81. 
 Swings, 76. 
 Swords, 193. 
 Symposium, 183. 
 Synoikiai, 33. 
 
 Tables, 130 ff., 183. 
 Talent, 246. 
 Tanners, 229. 
 Taxes, 61 £E.', 65. 
 Teachers, 79 S., 86, 88. 
 Temples, 44 ff. 
 Templum in antis, 46, 57. 
 Tenements, 33. 
 Thalamos, 31. 
 Theatre, 57 ff., 63, 112 ff. 
 Themistocles, wall of, 13. 
 Theseium, 44 ff. 
 Thesmophoria, 70, 276. 
 Thetes, 61. 
 Tholos, 42, 43, 207. 
 Threshing, 219. 
 Thronos, 130. 
 Time of day, 229. 
 Titles, 64. 
 Toasts, 184. 
 Tombs, 297. 
 Torches, 123, 139. 
 Tortoise, 4. 
 
 Tower of the Winds, 238. 
 Toys, 76 ff. 
 
 Traders, 14, 189, 235 ff. 
 Tragedy, 113. 
 Trainers, 80, 90. 
 Trapezus, 5, 
 
 Traps, 99. 
 Travel, 105, 251 S. 
 Tribes of citizens, 62. 
 Tribon, 159. 
 Triglyphs, 45 ff. 
 Tripods, 62, 130, 275. 
 Triremes, 62 f., 200 ff. 
 Troughs, 139. 
 Trousers, 162. 
 Trumpets, 84. 
 Trunks, 131. 
 Tubs, 133, 139. 
 Tunic, 154 ff. 
 
 Umpires, 80. 
 
 Underground streams, 3 f. 
 Upper story, 32. 
 Utensils, 32, 133 ff. 
 
 Vase painting, 10, 234. 
 
 Vegetables, 147. 
 
 Vegetation, 2. 
 
 Vehicles, 257. 
 
 Veils, 124, 160, 161. 
 
 Vessels, 19, 24, 33, 36, 133 ff., 
 
 174, 183. 
 Vestibule of the house, 26. 
 Vinegar, 147. 
 Voting, 210, 214. 
 Votive offerings, 290 ff. 
 
 Wages, 145, 198, 206, 215, 249. 
 Wagons, 257. 
 Walking-sticks, 169. 
 Wall of Athens, 12 f., 21. 
 
 at Messenia, 13. 
 
 of dwellings, 22 f. 
 
 of Media, 22. 
 Warriors, 190 S. 
 Washing, 138. 
 
GENERAL INDEX 
 
 3Y3 
 
 Water-supply, 18, 33, 285. 
 Weapons, 192 tf. 
 Weaving, 125. 
 Weddings, 119 &., 141. 
 Weights and measures, 43, 
 
 242 ff. 
 Wheat, 143, 148. 
 Wicks, 139. 
 Wills, 291. 
 Windows, 24; 33. 
 Wine, 133, 143, 144, 150 ff., 183, 
 
 220 f., 286. 
 Witnesses, 213. 
 Women, 28, 30, 35, 68, 70, 119 ff ., 
 
 156 ff., 186, 236, 279, 294. 
 
 Woodenware, 131, 132. 
 Workshops, 37, 36. 
 Wreaths, 103. 
 Wrestling, 80, 92, 101, 103. 
 Writing, 79, 85. 
 Writing-tablets, 85, 111. 
 
 Xystis, 160. 
 
 Year, 241. 
 Yeast, 149. 
 
 Zeugitai, 61. 
 
 Zeus, 30, 57, 100, 208, 353, 261, 
 264, 383. 
 
 (1) 
 
 THE END 
 
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