SSZ, Digitized by Microsoft® PA 258.S5Tl879 VerS,,y "^ Ml i?iSH^S?Si,.}i?„.SlS ek jP rose composition 3 1924 021 601 376 All books are subject to recall after two weeks. Olin/Kroch Library DATE DUE ~lflPS «B* iiV" tffi** $& "H* ^*^^^^^P^^^^^^^ Interli In 3rary Mi GAYLORD Digitized b / Microsoft® PRINTED IN USA This book was digitized by Microsoft Corporation in cooperation with Cornell University Libraries, 2007. You may use and print this copy in limited quantity for your personal purposes, but may not distribute or provide access to it (or modified or partial versions of it) for revenue-generating or other commercial purposes. Digitized by Microsoft® INTRODUCTION GREEK PROSE COMPOSITION Digitized by Microsoft® 3? tlje game autljor. A First Greek Writer \In Preparation, Homer s Iliad. With Notes for the Use of Junior Students. Books I. and II. forming One Volume. \In the Press. Books III. and IV. forming a Second Volume. \In Preparation. Digitized by Microsoft® [b— 562] INTRODUCTION GREEK PROSE COMPOSITION 2£Ut& (Crercises By A^'SIDGWICK, -M.A. LECTURER AT CORPUS CHRISTI COLLEGE, OXFORD, LATE ASSISTANT-MASTER AT RUGBV SCHOOL, AND FELLOW OF TRINITY COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE. Beaton : GINN AND HEATH 13, TREMONT PLACE MDCCCLXXIX Digitized byffilicrosoft® ^CORNELL UNIVERSITY LIBRARY^ Digitized by Microsoft® PREFACE. IN composing in any language, the various difficulties to be surmounted may be summed up in three classes — Accidence, Syntax, and Idiom. The Accidence is the first step, and must be learnt from the grammar. These Exercises will perhaps be of use to practise, the learner in the cases and inflexions, but a fair acquaintance with them is presumed before starting to write Greek Prose at all. The Syntax must also in the main be learned from the grammar ; but as the grammar is intended primarily for other purposes than to assist in composition, it has been thought advisable to give here some notes on Greek con- structions, arranged so that the learner may readily refer to them, and find what he is likely to want more easily than he could in a grammar. Some hints on Idiom, also, have been given here, so as to guide the student in those places where he is most likely to go wrong, and to suggest to him, without going too much into detail, some ideas on the leading differences between the methods of expression adopted respectively in the English and Greek languages. A few words must be said about the Exercises. It is sometimes the practice to teach composition in the earlier Digitized by Microsoft® PREFACE. stages entirely by short sentences illustrating special con- structions. There is a note on the special construction, an example or two, and then an exercise upon it. Then you pass on to another construction similarly illustrated. This is very systematic ; and it seems as though when the learner has been through a course of such exercises, he ought to know a good deal about the language. The great objection to this plan is that it is dull. No interest in composing can possibly be inspired in the learner who has detached clauses to translate about " the Christian duty of shearing sheep rather than flaying them," or " the lion eating the gardener and the gardener's aunt.'' On the other hand, a connected tale need not be any harder than detached sentences : it may illustrate Greek constructions quite as fully and clearly, and with far more variety ; and it is certain to be more lively. And ' every schoolmaster knows — what, indeed, is only common sense — that in teaching, dulness of method is a more serious obstacle to progress than all others put together. On this system, moreover,, the boy gets to feel at once, what he never can feel about sentences, that he is really composing, writing something, and that it is within his power, if he takes pains, to do really good work, in which he may take pride and pleasure ; it is not a task to be done, but a chance for the exercise of a faculty. And when this idea gets hold of him, progress is certain. I have therefore given the exercises from the first in the form of separate tales, complete in themselves. Many of the stories are not new, but I have endeavoured to put them into a more or less lively shape, and yet one adapted for turning into €»? by ¥Ke 0S£ mlt two parts consist PREFACE. entirely of tales thus written, Part III. containing pas- sages from histories of a kind adapted for more advanced students ; while in Part IV. I have given a few passages of rhetorical pfose to be done in the style of Demosthenes, and a very few at the end, of a dialectic or philosophical kind, for those more advanced boys who have read .a little Plato. For similar reasons, I have put the Notes on Construc- tions and Idiom all together at the beginning, in order that the learner may not be wearied with exercises illustrating special points, but may have all the materials at hand (ready sorted) to solve any difficulty of construction or idiom that may arise. In this way, it is hoped, he will find much less sameness, and at the same time, by con- stant reference to the notes, will gradually learn a good deal more Greek, and in a more permanent way, than he might do by taking up point after point by itself. In this way, also, he learns in a more natural (and not really less systematic) manner, and gets to be more independent than if he is kept in the leading-strings of special exercises illustrating only special points. A further advantage of this arrangement- is that the book may still be useful to the student, when he has ceased to do these exercises. The vocabulary is meant to supply all the common Greek words required in the exercises ; any uncommon ones being given in the notes to each exercise. But the learner should specially attend to one or two points. (1). Always have a Greek-English lexicon at hand, to see what the usage of the Greek word is. Greek compo- sition will be learned five times as quickly if the lexicon is kept as much in*W«^tii#'BHgiS&-Greek vocabulary. PREFACE. (2). When a word is not given, think of synonyms at once ; do not give it up. If you cannot find " astonishment," look out " surprise," and so on. (3). Often you have no need to look out the word at all : when you have recast the sentence into the simple shape fit for Greek Prose, you will find you know the words already. This is especially the case with the later exer- cises (Parts III., IV.) ; and will account for the fact that the vocabulary will be found more complete in the earlier. Por example, words like "wolf," "dog," "table," require looking out. There is one, and probably only one, Greek word 'corresponding to them; but in sentences like "he inquired into the source of her inability," " he poured out invective of the utmost virulence," a little thought dis- closes to us that we only want the Greek for " asked why she could not," " blamed very dreadfully," which -we pro- bably know. The lists given before the vocabulary are intended to assist the student to find pronouns, conjunctions, particles, and prepositions, and also the references to the Notes on Constructions, as easily as possible. It is a constant complaint about grammars, that "it is so hard to find the place." I have done my best to make such a com- plaint impossible here. If everything else fails, let the Table of Contents be tried. The List of Conjunctions is practically an index to the Notes on Constructions: foi example, the learner looks out there " so that," and not only finds the Greek for it, but is referred to the full ex- planation in sections 49-55. The Scheme and Index of Moods are intended to give a general view, to clear the student's mind whefts^to^tetfil many details. The PREFACE. necessary information about the Article -will be found on page 220. A hint in conclusion. The one unfailing way to learn composition — to which all notes, and lists, and books are but secondary — is careful, constant study of the great Greek writers. Whatever Greek books you read, always have them at hand when you are doing composition, and constantly refresh your mind and taste by reading a few lines or sentences. In this way progress will be made, almost unconsciously, with surprising rapidity. Digitized by Microsoft® Digitized by Microsoft® CONTENTS. (1.) NOTES ON CONSTRUCTIONS. 1. Preliminary 2— § 9. Final Sentences § 2. The regular usage h 3. § 4. The mood important Vivid Constetjotion Final indicatives \ 6. Put. Past (with &s) § 7. Relative with future § 8. Verbs of precaution with 5Vais § 9. Same, verb omitted . . § 10 — 5, 13. Deliberative Sentences .. § 10. Regular usage § 11. Interrogative omitted § 12. Vivid construction . . § 13. Negative /t^ .. 19. Conditional Sentences § 14. Regular usage J 15. Oblique conditionals § 16, 17. Participial conditionals § 18. Oblique conditionals, with § 19. &v displaced . . 14—5 20 23 22. Indefinite Sentences § 20. Preliminary . . § 21. Regular usage j 22. Vivid construction -§ 48. Oratio Obliqua § 23. Explanation . . § 24 — § 41. Oblique Statement § 24. [a] Accus. and Infin § 25. ' Saving' and ' Thinking' verbs D flf"Vjfc$ 'afd 'Knowing' verbs »T1 PAGE 1 2 2 2 2 3 3 4 4 5 10 11 12 12 13 13 13 15 15 15 16 16 16 16 CONTENTS. \ 23— \ 48. Oratio Obliqua— Continued. page § 27. Infinitive Attraction .. .. 17 § 28. Subject omitted . . . . . . 18 § 29. Main verb omitted .. ..18 § 30. (b) Finite verb with Sis and 'on . . 19 § 81. The same with vivid const. .. 20 § 32. (c) Verbs of emotion with el . . . . 20 § 33. Dependent clanse . . . . 21 § 34. Dependent: Primary .. .. 21 § 35. „ Historic (subjunctives) 22 §36. ,, ,, (indicatives).. 22 § 37. Same in vivid construction . . . . 22 § 38. Subordinate infinitive .. .. 23 § 39. Ace. inf., with r6 24 § 40. „ infinitive attraction . . 25 § 41. „ negative /t^ . . . . 27 42— § 44. Oblique Question .. . . 27 § 42. Regular usage . . . . . . 27 § 43. Vivid construction . . . , . . 28 § 44. Oblique deliberative . . . . . . 28 § 45— § 48. Oblique Petition .. .. ..29 § 45. Explanation . . . . . . . . 29 § 46. Simple infinitive . . . . . . 29 § 47. Aoc. inf 29 § 48. General hint . . . . . . . . 30 j' 49— § 64. Consecutive Sentences 30 § 49. No subjunctive . . . , . . . . 30 § 50. Construction of Sore .. .. .. 31 § 51, § 52. Ace. inf. ,. .. ., ..31 § 53, § 54. Indicative . . . . . . . . 32 § 55. Other uses of Sore . . . . , . ,33 § 56 ' On condition that' . . . . 33 § 57. Loose use . . . = . . , . ,34 § 68. With comparative , , , . 34 § 59. As connection . . , , , , ,34 § 60. otos and So-os . . . . . . mm 35 § 61. 8' $ and «/>' $ t<= . . . . 35 65, Limitative Sentences .37 66— §. 88. Temporal Sentences 33 § 66. Preliminary . . . . . . . . 38 ! *I" '$g$ized,by Microsoft® 3S 5 GS. ws,°E7reI, edvm 42 § 80. Negative clauses (future) .. ..43 § 81, § 82. „ „ (past) .. ..44 § 83. Uv omitted 44 \ 84, § 85. Notes on vpiv .. . . 45 § 86. 'Until' 45 § 87. „ &r omitted 46 § 88. „ vivid construction . . . . 47 § 89— § 93. Causal Sentences 47 § . 89. Participles 47 § 90. Prepositions 47 § 91. Conjunctions: indicative 48 § 92. ivel, eVeiS^, and us 48 § 93. Sri and 5i6tl ' 48 § 94— § 95. Concessive Sentences 49 § 94. With conjunctions 49 § 95. With uulmp * 9 ' (2.) NOTES ON IDIOM. § 96. Preliminary o0 j 97_§ 106. Abstract and Concrete 51 § 97, § 98. Explanations 51 § 99. Verb used in Greek 52 § 100. Participle 54 1 101. Adjectiv- § 102. Dependent clause .., 55 § 103. Oblique question 56 § 104. Conjunctions 56 § 105. Relatives 57 § m g &m0)§r&m^ eai 57 CONTENTS. \ 107— § 114. Sense \ 107, \ 108. Explanations § 109. Brevity § 110. Metaphor and Picturesqueness \ 111. Prepositions.. § 112. Turns of phrase § 113. Abstract and Concrete again \ 114. English vagueness . . \ 115— § 132. Negatives 5 115, § 116. Difference of oh and /i-t) § 117 — \ 119. ov, negative statement § 120 — § 130. /xii, negative conception § 131. ov fi-fi . . I 132. pi) oil § 133— § 139. Connection § 133, § 134. Clauses § 135. Sentences § 136. Connecting particles § 137. piv § 138. Relative connection § 139. lierre § 140—§ 148. Tenses § 141. Aorist in oblique moods .. § 142. Aorist indicative . . § 143 — § 146. Various uses of aorist § 147. Future passives § 148. Tenses in Oratio Obliqua . . § 149— § 154. Attraction § 150. Relative § 151. oiiSels oaris ov § 152. Adjective (iireptpves, etc.) . . I 153. olos § 154. Sdcatos § 155— § 170. Participles § 156 — § 163. Various relations . . § 164. Accus. absolute § 165 — § 169. Verbs which require part. § 170. imOtiiv and /j.u$tir .. Digitized by Microsoft® CONTENTS. I 171—§ 177. Middle Voice 89 § 171. Explanation 89 § 172. Self-advantage 90 § 173. Intransitive.. . . .. .. ..91 § 174. To get done 91 § 175. Mental 92 § 176. Reciprocal .. .. .. . . 92 § 177. Special uses 92 § 178—5 181. Metaphors 93-9.5 § 182— § 19S. Miscellaneous 95-1C3 § 183. 'Yes' and 'No' 95 § 184— § 188. Interrogations .. .. 90, 97 § 189, § 190. ol>x bvas, /it) '6wo>s, etc. . . 97, 98 § 191. Verba -with different passives . . . . 98 § 192. Idiom of ' fearing ' verbs 99 § 193—^ 195 - Order 100-103 § 193. Naturalness and clearness .. 100 § 194. Emphasis 102 § 195. Relative put first .. ..102 Part I. » II. „ III. .. IV. KXERCISES. 104 135 163 201 LISTS. Pronouns, etc. Conjunctions . . • • • • Particles Prepositions . . . • • • ■ • Scheme of Subjunctive and Optative . . Index of Moods VOCABULARY, etc 220 225 229 231 233 234 237 Digitized by Microsoft® Digitized by Microsoft® NOTES ON CONSTRUCTIONS. § 1. The chief difficulties to the beginner in turning passages of English into Greek are connected with the various uses of the Subjunctive and Optative moods, the Accusative with the Infinitive, the different forms of the Oratio Obliqua, and the proper constructions and employ- ment of the Conjunctions and Particles. Most of these things are not to be found in the dictionaries : while in the grammar, which aims at classifying all the usages of the language in logical order, it is often difficult for the beginner to distinguish between the natural and common forms of expression, and those which are exceptional or irregular. A further difficulty is, that whereas he wants to know the proper usage of Attic prose, such as Thucydides or Demosthenes wrote, he finds along with these in the grammar' the quite different usages of the Epic poetry of Homer, the Ionic prose of Herodotus, the later variations of Aristotle and others, and the innumerable licenses and stretches of idiom which occur in the dramatic and lyric poets. It is the object of the notes and hints here given, to enable him to find his way more easily than he could do with the assistance only of grammars and dictionaries. These notes are arranged as clearly as possible, with dis- tinct numbers by which reference is made to them in the exercises, and a table of contents is given by aid of which they may be readily found at once when required. J J •Digitized by Microsoft® u SIM. G. P.] B NOTES ON CONSTRUCTIONS. I.— FINAL. § 2. Final sentences express intention or purpose, and are usually introduced by one of the conjunctions meaning "*» order that' namely as, ottcos, "va, and jxr\* The regular usage is to employ the subjunctive where the main verb is in a primary tense (pres. fut. perf.), the optative where the main verb is in a historic tense (imp. plup. aor.). [The negative is always p}.] (Primary.) dwjero/^ai rbv 'hrirov 'iva xprjaooixai avra. ' I will buy the horse that I may use htm.' (Historic!) airfjkOov enelOev oirais f«j Ihoifxi. avtov. ' I went away that I might not see him.' § 3.— Note 1. Beginners should notice that it is the mood, not the tense, of xpw<>>ij-<3 elxpv rovs (snXovs ep,6Q>s; NOTES ON CONSTRUCTIONS. j\\Qov em ttjv rmtripav hovXuxrojxevoi. — ThuC. ' They came against our land to enslave it.' 7rpeV/3eiy 'iitejx^av Xoyovs iroirjo-ojiipovs. — THUC. ' They sent ambassadors to discuss.' avWajx^avei Kvpov, as cmoKrevav. — XElsT. ' He seizes Cyrus with the intention of killing him.' [ojs will express well the presumed intention : tfkOev s ^ with the future indicative, after verbs of precaution and consideration and the like. It is not exactly final, but borders closely upon that class, and in some cases shades off into it. The negative, is always ju^. (Primary Time.) oirws to. Tiapovra eniavop6a>6i)creTai M o-koti&v, ml ftfj vpoe\66vTa en TroppoiTepco At/ctci v^as. — Dem. Phil. 2. ( .. Digitized by Microsoft® You must consider Tiow best the present troubles shall he FINAL. 5 set straight, and not advance yet further without your know- ledge.' Xeyeiv Set ko.1 vp&TTtiv 6'wws Zkuvos vavcreTcu. — DEM. Phil. 3. ' We must speak and act with the view of stopping him.' (Historic Time.) This will become, by strict sequence, foot, optative after leading historic verb :* ei7e/ieAetro ottcos y.r\ acriToi ecroivro. — XEN. Cyr. viii. 1, 43. ' He took care that they should not be in want of food.' But more frequently the principle of Vividness (see § 4) will keep the indicative : fTrpaaaov ottcos ns /3o?j#eia rj£ei. — THUC. ' They tried to arrange that help should come.' ei7e/3iW . . . Trpocr&yaiv ttjv yvcip,rjv, ottcos aKpifiis « eA.crop.ai. — Thuc. 5, 26. ' I was alive at the time , . . paying attention with the view of getting accurate information.' 07rws TtXevcrercu TipaeiheTO. — DEM. ' He took precautions that it should sail.' It- may help the learner to enumerate a few of this class of verbs : ctkottco, emp.cikovp.ai, cppovrCfa, /3ovkevca, cpvXaTTco, bpG> } Tip&TTO), p.^yav&p.ai, irapacrKZvci£oikai, biboiKa. § 9.— Note 7. In dialogue, there appears a similar usage without the verb of precaution, with the second person of the future ; amount- ing, in fact, to a bye^'^ffiP^^tMfe'rnfp-ative. * This, however, is rare. NOTES ON CONSTRUCTIONS. Just as we say: 'Mind you go away before 'he comes,' meaning what is really equivalent to an imperative, so in Greek : o7rcos aiYox^p^eis itplv kXdew kKeivov, where the principal verb opa or o-Koiru [' see how you shall go/ literally] is readily understood before the owcos. oitois ovv eaecrde avbpes a£ioi Trjs tXevOeplas. — Xen. ' See then that you be men, worthy of freedom.' ottus p,r\ epeis bri ecrri to. ScoSexa 8is e£. — PLATO. ' Mind you don't toll me 12 is twice 6.' This is a very neat usage, and constant in dialogue : and it is a natural extension of this, as the sentence amounts to an order or prohibition, to use it indirectly after the ordering or prohibiting verb : TrapayyeWet. ottcos fii] ecrovrai. — PLATO. ' Bids them not be.' aTirjyopeves ottcos p,ri a/noKpivoip.rjV. — PLATO. ' You forbade me to answer.' [a/aoKpwoijxrjv is future] II.— DELIBEEATIVE. § 10. Another use of the subjunctive and optative, closely allied to the final, is that which occurs when, not the purpose exactly, but the course to he pursued is being considered ; as in the sentences : 7rot i&> ; ' Whore am I to go ? ' ' Are we to speak, or be silent 1 ' This use, as is natural, is confined to interrogative sentences, and may be employed either directly or indi- rectly. The two given above are direct deliberatives ; if we introduce another verb for them to be subordinate to •, n , ,■■ ■ JJigitized tw Microsoft® ' we shall get the indirect aenberauve : DELIBERATIVE. OVK EX&) 07TOI iO). ' I don't know where to go.' OVK eL\OV OTTOl loi[U. ' I did not know where to go.' And from these examples we see that, exactly as in the final sentences, the regular sequence holds, i.e., after primary tenses of the principal verb the deliberative verb is subjunctive; after historic tenses, optative. A moment's consideration will show that ordinarily the optative is not required in the direct form. The following examples will further illustrate this usage : o-iiK €}(a>v ottcos t&v elpr)p,evaiv e£airakkayfj, v(p(W t §bt money from.' NOTES ON CONSTRUCTIONS. Or again, with el and eire used interrogatively ('whether')' ifiovkivovTO dre KaraKava-coaiv, eire aWo tl xprjacovTai. — Thuc. 'They considered whether they should hum. them, or do something else with them.' [In the deliberation they said KaraKaviJ.€v, and he preserves the mood.] § 13.— Note 3. The negative in the deliberative clause is [J\. III.— CONDITIONAL SENTENCES. § 14. The proper form of conditional sentence in all languages is 'if ... ., then ' The */-clause is called Protasis, the then-cause Apo- dosis. We say ' if ' when we wish to put a case ; and this use is naturally of three kinds : (1) We put a case when we assume a thing as a fact, whether we really think so or not. Thus : ' If you are well, I am glad.' 'If you intend to bathe, you are wise.' ' If he stole the money, he will be condemned.' (2) When the thing has not occurred, but we wish to indicate the consequences, supposing it did occur; and this supposition naturally falls into two classes, according to its character. '. (a) Mar or practical supposition : ' If you come, I shall come too.' 'Should iPM^f7[£oiJ,aL K.ayu>. eav ovTia yivqrcu, evTVXWOiMev. ' (b) Optative in protasis, optative in apodosis : el tovto bptorjv, p:aivoijj.rjv &v. > el hob] p.oi T7ji> ^vyypar)v, d Sot'77 ij.ol T7\v £vyypa(j>rjv, avayvatvai av. ' I said that if he gave me the book I would read it.' (3), put obliquely, would become : ecprjv, d eKettre airrjXdov, zvpeiv av avrov. ' I said that if I had gone away thither, I should have found him.' er]s, el ny Ibeimn/Bnev, ?//xSf bexevOai av ere. 'You said, that if we had not been dining, we shoidd have- welcomed you.' If the oblique depends on a verb in a historic tense, the strict sequence would 'require that any subjunctive or present indicative in the protasis, as in (1) and (2), should become optative. ' Thus (1) would be : /0 ,. , Pigitizqd,by Microsoft® A , {A) evTvxq(Tit.v e^a/xey ei ovtu> yivoiro. CONDITIONAL SENTENCES. But precisely as in the case of on after a past verb [see Orat. Obi., § 27], so with oblique conditional sentences, the primary time is retained in the protasis for the sake of vividness. Thus, in (1) and (2) it is more common to find the livelier forms : (1) yeyrjdevai ekeyov el eS e\ei. (2) evTvyrjcreiv e s et?/ el ev e^ '- (2) (a) i(j>7]v on d eXdoi ai£oii».T]v Kaydr eXeyov on ei cu'rco yivoiTO zbrvyjiaoiixev. (2) (b) and (3) not being primary would not be changed after on. Here again, however, the principle of Vividness would hold, and we should just as often find the strict sequence not observed, and yeyr)0e, exei, eav eXOy d^^o/^at, etc., retained. § 19.— Note 4. It should be observed that where a conditional sentence comes after a verb of saying or thinking (i.e., is oblique), if there is a negative, the av, which is the mark of the con- ditional, has -a tendency to be displaced, and to appear before the principal verb, so that it seems to belong to the wrong verb. Digitized by Microsoft® INDEFINITE. 13 So the natural Greek for ' he said he would not do it ' is ovk av ev avTovs aTTo\al3eiv — THUC. 4. 8. ' Thinking he would not cut them off.' IV.— INDEFINITE. § 20. The moods of indefiniteness, or indefinite fre- quency, in Greek are closely connected with the con- ditionals, and the principle of their usage is precisely parallel to that of the latter. The simplest way will be to compare the definite and in- definite sentences, so that the distinction of mood may be clearly understood to correspond to a distinction of meaning. (Primary.) § 21. (1) Take these two sentences : ■*, (a.) tovto air6\co\e ftp' b eKTrXio/xev. 'This is lost, for which we make our expedition,' or ' the object of our expedition is lost.' (5.) airo\ai\e ecp' b av eKirXiapev. — DEM. ' Whatever be the object of our expedition it is lost.' In (a) the thing which is lost is a particular thing (definite) ; in (6) it is anything whatever (indefinite). (Historic) (2) Again, take these two : (a.) &reiS?) trpose^av, 01 em/3arai e-neip&VTo em^aiveiv. ' When (the ships) had come close, the marines tried to board.' i.e., & particular pair .of ships, on a particular occasion (definite); Digitized by Microsoft® 14 NOTES ON CONSTRUCTIONS. (5.) eitetbij Trposp.C£eiav, ol kmfiarai eireipmvTO iirifiau'eiv. < — Thuc. ' Whenever two ships had come close, the marines tried to board.' i.e., any pair of ships, which happened constantly in the battle (indefinite). From these examples we see what the usage is. When the time is primary, the conjunction or relative has av, and the, verb is subjunctive. When the time is historic, there is no av, and the verb is optative. To give familiarity, let us take these further examples, which it will be sufficient merely to translate, without further explanation. [Nega- tive ixrj.~] (1) Primary : ottol av (TTpaTriybv kKTtep.^r]Te, ot eyQpol KarctyeAStn. — Dem. ' Wherever yon send out a general, your enemies laugh at you.' ocra> av rts [xaWov Z£ekeyxy, • • • ToaovTut avp./3ov\svo-ai )(a\€Tta>T£pov. — Dem. ' The more one proves .... the harder it is to advise.' biiuts av e9i\r) -nupajxeOa irepaCvew. — PLATO. < In whatever way he may be willing let us try to finish it.' So iav is used = ' if ever.' yeka.T€ tjv tutu koibopr]0&in. — Dem. ' You laugh if ever they abuse anybody.' (2) Historic: ottots K€\evo-9eiY) TipoOvp.ia eyiyvero. — THUC. ' Whenever the word was given there was great enthusiasm.' ot be Kai.op.ivov aXKov imfiaXovres ov (pepoiev airrjecrav. Thuc. ' And constantly, while one was burning they threw on the one they were carrying and went away' [of the dead bodies in the plague]. Digitized by Microsoft® ORATIO OBLIQUA. 15 So also d is used = ' if ever.' et Ttji Spiiri bievnaa-fxevov to o-Tpdrevpa, £vvrjye. — THUG. 'If he saw anywhere gaps in. the ranks, he closed them up.' § 22.— -Note 1. When the principal verb is in historic time (especially when the indefinite clause is in Oratio Obliqua), here too, as in other cases, for the sake of Vividness, the primary construction is constantly retained. ihoKei uavriKov ■napatrKevafeaOai bQev av hvvwvTai. — Thuc. ' They resolved to procure a fleet from whatever source they could.' [instead of o8ev bvvawro, the strict sequence.] elprjTO yap, brav ykvr\rai tovto, Initio. ni^ai. — THUC. ''He had been ordered to send a horseman, whenever, this occurred.' eiirev on, enei.bav 7rpos rfj Kaphia. yivryvai, olyj}(T€Tai. — Plato. ' He said that ae . soon as ever it reached his heart, he would be dead ' [of Socrates], V.— OEATIO OBLIQUA. § 23. Perhaps the most important point in mastering the first stages of Greek prose •writing is the thorough under- standing and ready use of all the idiomatic methods of handling the Oratio Obliqua. We have already had to deal with this slightly in treating of the conditional sen- tence and elsewhere : but it is necessary now to go a little more completely into the matter. , We shall assume that it is understood, without further explanation, what g^tio^Obl^ua^, namely, not direct 16 NOTES ON CONSTRUCTIONS. narrative, but the thoughts or sayings of another reported, and not in the original speaker's words, but in the words of the reporter. Now in Latin we have been accustomed to a division of oblique forms of speech into three clearly-distinguished classes ; oblique statement, oblique question, and oblique petition : the three corresponding usages, speaking gener- ally, being accusative with infinitive, subjunctive, and a final sentence with ut. It will probably be simplest if we follow this natural division of sentences, and see what becomes of it in Greek. And first let us begin with the oblique statement, which very often is alone called Oratio Obliqua; being indeed the commonest, and the most distinctly oblique, form. § 24. — I. Oblique Statement. Just as in Latin, so in Greek the accusative with the infinitive is the natural way of expressing the oblique statement. Or, perhaps, we should be more correct in saying that in Greek it is one of the natural ways ; for there are others, as we shall see. § 25. (a.) It is then employed after verbs of saying and thinking [negative ov]. Thus: ol6jj.evoi tt]v PovXtjv oil ifrrjcpielaOai. — Thuo. ' Thinking the senate would not vote.' ov fiefiaCovs (pao-KW etvai Aa,Kebcup.ovCovs. — THUO. ' Saying that the L. were not trustworthy.' kv rats o-irovbcus iyiypanTo evopKov etvai. — THUG. ' It was agreed in the treaty that it should be lawful.' § 26.— Note 1. But verbs of feeling and knowing [perception as ouposed to statement proper] prefer the accusative with the Digitized by Microsoft® UJlt! ORATIO OBLIQUA. 17 participle, and not, as in Latin, the accusative with the infinitive. uSo'res roiy 'Adrjvaiovs ^ajuafoj/ras. — THUO. ' Knowing that the A. were wintering.' eyvaxrav ov irpayQ^o-v tt\v ^vp-jxa^iav. — THUC. ' They found that the alliance had not been concluded.' d)S tfcrOovTO Trpocnrh.iovTas avrovs. — TlIUC. ' When they perceived that they were approaching.' / If, however, the perception-verb is in itself a participle, j to avoid the clumsiness of a double participle, the dependent Vclause may revert to the infinitive. alcrdofxevos ovk av ireiQew avrovs. — THUC. ' Perceiving that he shouloTnoTpersuade them.' § 27. — Note 2. Infinitive Attraction. When the subject .of the main verb is the same as the subject of the oblique verb (or participle) the nominative is used instead of the accusative, by a kind of attraction. ovk e07j avrbs 'a\\' eKiivov crrpar-qyilv. — THTJC. ' He said " not I, but you, are general." ' [Observe that here both constructions occur.] alo6avop.zda yeXotoi oVres.-^PLATO. ' We perceive that we are ridiculous.' It is surprising what clearness is gained by this beautiful usage : we have only to read a report of a speech in an English newspaper to see what a vast improvement some such distinction would make in our own language. For example : ' Mr. Jones observed that Mr. Smith had not behaved with propriety towards him. He (Mr. S.) had trifled with one of his (Mr. J.'s) most cherished convictions, and he (Mr. J.) must say that he (Mr. S.) etc ' In Greek the case ^f^&yy&g^glanatQry parentheses. qiDO.G.P.] ^ NOTES ON CONSTRUCTIONS. % 28. To avoid mistakes it is perhaps better to add that where the two subjects are the same, and where no em- phasis is laid on the subordinate one, the pronoun is usually simply omitted. er) avrbs epelv, as beginners who have mastered the principle of § 27 always think needful to put.] § 29.— Note 3. A very frequent and very neat and delightful use of the Oratio Obliqua is the following. The accusative with the infinitive being so clear a mark of the oblique, it is not necessary always to have a distinct word like 'he said' for it to depend upon. The Greek writers often drop into this construction quite suddenly, if the reader is prepared (by any word or hint preceding) for a sentence in the oblique form. Thus : tovto es v-no^iav koB[jxr]v ov\ fjcrcrrjcr- Oai. — THUC. ' He encouraged them, and urged them not to give in : for (he said that) it was not their spirit that was broken.' [Here Z6apovve leads up to the Orat. Obi.] The following example also resembles these, though there. actually is a word of speaking. KopivOioi avrikeyov, -np6cryr}p.a Troiovjxtvoi ixrj TTpotxLaeLV o/jiutrat yap airots opKOVs. — THUC. 'The Corinthians -^ afeing^e plea that they would not abandon them : for(they said) they had sworn oaths to them.' ORATIO OBLIQUA. 19 So, again : IxTIXavas on ov Kari]\6ev 'i)(j)>v, ap.aprilv eSoKer eXuv yap av rrjv Tiokiv. — THUO. ' He felt lie had made a mistake in not bringing battering ' engines : for (he thought) he would have taken the city.' § 30. (I) It is however equally good Greek and equally common to find, not the accusative with the infinitive, in the oblique statement, but the finite verb with cos or oh. [Negative ovJ] The mistake which beginners (who have learnt Latin) often make here is to use the subjunctive. No verb is ever made subjunctive in Greek by the Oratio Obliqua. The strict rule of the sequence is, as usual, dependent upon the division into primary and historic tenses of the 1 principal 1 verb : and it is to the effect that ws or on in Primary Time does not alter its verb. „ „ ' „ Historic „ takes the Optative. Primary. Xe'yco . — Dem. 1 That Philip has grown powerful I will forbear to mention.' , \oyi tovB' on eixpfUv Trore TMbvav. — DKM. ' Let him reflect that we once had Pydna. [Here Koyia-actOm is Primary, because all Imperatives are, whatever their tense.] Historic. H\eyov on Ttavrbs cl£m kiyoi. — XEJT. ' They said that his advice was excellent.' hiffraptevos on .] hewa eiioCovv, ■nvvQavop.evoi on avp,p,ayjav ireroi'jjvrai. — Thuc. ' They were indignant when they learnt that they had made an alliance.' [Strict sequence ne-noii^ivoi. elev.] And not unfrequently the two usages are mixed. ekeyov on Kvpos p.ev ri6vr]Kev, 'Aptaios be neipevyus e'rj. — Xen. ' They said that Cyrus was dead, and Ariaeus had fled.' keyovres on KpaT^crovai, koL 6 itepCukovi ofl/ce'n lo-otro. • Thuc. 'Saying that they would beat them, and that the passage round (the island) would no longer be. open.' § 32. (e) A special Greek idiom which should be particu- larly noticed is the following. After 6avp.dC*>, fix**"", ayava.KT&, altryyvoiuu, (p6ov&, p.ep., el wv\ dicveiTe e£tez>ai. — Dem. ' I am surprised at this, that you hesitate now to march out.' ayavaKTui, el p) otos t elyl elirelv. — PLATO. ' I am indignant that I cannot express.' beivov TioiovfAevoi,, el fxri eio-ovrai. — THUC. ' Thinking it scandalous that they should not know.' § 33. The principal clause in the oblique statement having now been explained, our next difficulty is to know what to do with the dependent clause. Here, again, Latin is liable to mislead us, since in Latin the dependent verbs in Oratio Obliqua have to be subjunctive. Thus in Latin, 'he said that the coat 'he wore was woollen,' would be ' dixit togam quam hdberet laneam esse.' Once more, then, let us remember that in Greek the sub- junctive is never due to Oratio Obliyua. § 34. (1) When the principal verb is primary. Here the dependent clauses are left just what they would le if it was direct statement, not oblique ; Xeyca on iroXXol eav Xadaxrt. . . . KarayeXaarol eloL— — Plato. ' I say that most people if not found out . . . are ridiculous.' eav 8' vnels Xeyrjre, noirjffeiv epei. — Xen. ' He says that if you say so, he will do what brings him no shame.' Digitized by Microsoft® NOTES ON CONSTRUCTIONS. § 35. (2) When the principal verb is historic. (a) Here, according to the strict sequence, all subjunctives would by rights become optative. £\oyi£ovTO u>s, el jJ.rj p,a\oiVTO, airoa-T^o-owro at Ti6\eis. — Xbn. 'They calculated if they did not fight the cities would revolt.' [Oratio Obliqua turns iav ixa^vrai into d ^ci%oi2>7o.] eyo/xtfev, oaa Trpo\a{3oi, /3e/3a«os tl£eiv. — DEM. ' He thought he should be secure possessor of whatever he took first.' [Oratio Obliqua turns oaa av 7rpoAa/3rj into ocra irpo- Xdfioi.} § 36. (5) If the dependent verb is indicative (in relative sentences, temporal sentences, etc.), still by strict sequence the Oratio Obliqua can turn them into optatives. €ti7€ on avhpa ayoi ov efpfai hioi. — Xen. ' He said he was bringing a man whom they must imprison.' [Oratio Obliqua turns bv Set into bv Se'oi.] cmeKpivaTO on fiavQavoiev h ovk eTtCcrraivTO. — PLATO. ' He answered that they learned what they did not know.' [Oratio Obliqua turns a, iirurruvrai into a iirCo-raivTo.] § 37. But really it is equally common to find both indica- tive and subjunctive, after historic verb, in the dependent clauses ; in the case of the indicative, commoner. The instinct to give the exact words, for Vividness, causes indicative and subjunctive to be retained. The instinct to remind the hearer that you are quoting, causes them tq become optative, and the former instinct is com- monly Stronger. Digitized by Microsoft® ORATIO OBLIQUA. Subjunctive retained ; common : vofjiov ecpacrav etvcu, Stv av ?; to Kp&ros ttjs yrjs, tovtoov ko.1 to, lepa ytyveadtu. — THUC. ' They said it was a law that those who were masters of the territory should also hold the temples.' [Might be, by strict sequence, 8>v eiij.J ■ovk ecpapav liven, iav \ri) us xPW aTa 8"3' — THUC. ' They refused to go unless some one gavo them money.' [Might be' el SofyJ Indicative retained ; very common : Hcpaaav airoKTevdv ois expvin. — THUC. ' They said they would kill the prisoners they had.' [Might be exoiev.] f3£^— Moral. a--' ,,v ' A special usage in the dependent clause of the oblique must be noticed, thoroughly idiomatic but rare. In Thucydides, and still more frequently in Plato, we find, in reporting what somebody else said, that the accu- sative with the infinitive construction (which properly belongs to the principal verb of the Oratio Obliqua), is extended, by a kind of attraction, even to the subordinate sentences. This is a wonderful instance of the flexibility of the Greek language and syntax ; and, as a matter of style, the usage is very effective in keeping well before the mind that what is being said is all reported from another. [In English, this instinct can only be satisfied by the clumsy device of changing the tense, as, 'Mr. Brown observed, that when he came to the meeting he was not expecting to find the general sense there was of the,' etc. ; where one ' was ' = ' was,' the other = ' is ': or else by Digitized by Microsoft® 24 NOTES ON CONSTRUCTIONS. constantly inserting ' he said/ as vulgar people always do in narrative.] ecpcurav avTol tovto av eyeiv el hvvqdrjvai Kparrjcrai. — Thuo. [For ebvvqd^aav.] ' They said they would themselves have had this privilege, had they heen able to conquer.' Xeyerai ore akacrOai avrbv rbv 'AwoAA-co \prjcrai. — THUO. 2, 101. [For TjAaro.] ' It is said that when he was wandering Apollo prophesied.' ecjjrj, eiteibrj ov eKfirjvai r?)z> \j/vxnv, TropeveaOai jxeTa. ttoW&v. —Plato, Eep. x. [For ege/3r) fi fvxn or eK^afy.] ' He said, that after his soul had gone out of him, he went away with a large company.' a4>LKve? 8u' elvai xacr/nare. — PLATO, Eep. x. [For iarlv or ely.] ' He said he came to a place where there were two gulfs.' ireCaeiv yap avTos'Adrjvalovs, oiairep koI vvv avTikeyeiv. — TlIUC. 5, 44. [For avrikeyei or avTLkeyoi.] ' For (he said) he would persuade the Athenians just as he was now speaking against it.' The motive for this is like the motive for the optative, namely, to keep strongly before the reader that it is reported speech, not direct. ■ § 39. Before passing on, it would be well to notice the remaining uses of the accusative with the infinitive, which are so much more extensive than in Latin, and which add so much to the flexibility and power of the Greek. The accus. inf. then is employed : (1) After verbs of requesting, requiring (indirect petition). (2) After &a j3ia[cr&8)fl@ipeeted), making the NOTES ON CONSTRUCTIONS. subject of the inf. nominative if it is the same as the prin- cipal subject. ovbevl -n\kov KSKpirque rrjs -noXem V T ]. — THUC. ' The A. because they would have been glad to go out.' This construction being at once neat and clear is often used. Consider for instance how much more concrete (and distinct therefore to a Greek) is the following general observation of Demosthenes, than it would be in English or Latin: to ev -npaTTiiv Tcaph Trjv a£Cav as poveTv. bioTtep SoKei to (pv\a£ai rayaOa tov KTrjcraaOai, ^akeTno- TipOV. Here the construction occurs four times. It may oc- casionally however become clumsier than the same idea expressed with a conjunction; and then it should be abandoned in favour of the latter. It may also be remarked, that the usage is truly a form of the Oratio Obliqua, as the clause in ace. and inf. is a statement, not directly made, but indirectly contemplated (so to speak) as a cause, condition, fact, idea, origin, notion, etc. Digitized by Microsoft® ORATIO OBLIQUA. 27 gjl— Note 2. The negative in this usage with the article is always' ft?;, not ov. Tapa.TTopi.e6a Ik tov ixrjbey (f>popTl£eiv S>v ex.prjv. — DEM. ' "We are troubled in consequence of taking none of the care we ought.' § 42. — II. Oblique Question. An interrogation depending on some other word is called an oblique question, as for example ' I don't know whp it is ' : where ' who it is ' is the question, and the verb ' know ' makes it oblique. Once more, beware of imitating the Latin idiom here : the subjunctive has no place in the oblique question ; except of course where it would have place in the direct question, i.e., in deliberative sentences. The usage follows the simple rule of the obKque state- ment with on : that is, the indirect question is indicative or optative, according as the principal verb is primary or historic. [Negative ov.] (Primary.) ov povTi£o}[r£ epova-iA — Plato. ' I don't care what they will say.' (Historic.) ripoixrjvMTiov avros eh]) — PLATO. 'I asked where the master was.' So with el interrogative, in sense of 'whether.' jjpero, el tis elr) epiov Tepos. — PLATO. ' He asked if figjf®^ p^gd^wiser than I.' 28 NOTES ON CONSTRUCTIONS. § 43. Note 1, Exactly however as with on after verbs of statement, so here we constantly find the principal verb in the historic time followed by the dependent verb in the indicative : i.e. the sequence is changed for the sake of Vividness, and the same mood and tense is used which the questioner used at the time. eErfTow ere, j3ov\6fJL€vos biairvOeo-dai irepl t&v koycav- rives rjaav.— PLATO. ' I searched for you, as I wanted to hear about your talk, what it had been.' [rwes rjcrav is the direct question too.] r\%6povv ti ttots Xiyei. — PLATO. ' I was at a loss to know what he meant.' [tC Ae'yei direct question.] £j3ov\evovTo riva KaraX.el\jrovai. — DEM. ' They were considering whom they should leave.' This usage transports the reader at once into the state of mind of the person about whom he is reading : and it is this which makes the usage so lively. § 44. — Note 2. If the direct question is (deliberative) subjunctive, then of course, as we have seen above, the subjunctive will be retained, in the primary, or vivid historic construction. As: (Primary.) airopZ 07r&)s eK8<3 ravrrjv. — Dem. ' I am at a loss how I am to give her a dowry.' ( Vivid Historic.) r)pop.r)v irol eK9u>. 'd/S(»^«albytataxB4i!ftgo.' OR A TIO . OBLIQ UA. 19 Or the optative will be used, in the regular historic sequence. i]poy.r\v 6i70t e'A.floifU. h ' I asked where to go.' See above, deliberative sentences. § 10 — § 13. § 45. — III. Oblique Petition. The oblique petition is the name given to any sentence of the form of an order or request (imperative) when it is made to depend on another word. Thus ' Go away,' * Give me sixpence,' ' Take courage,' are direct petitions. ' I bid you go away,' ' She asked me to give her six- pence/ ( The general exhorted them to take courage,' are oblique petitions. § 46. If the oblique petition consists of one simple clause, as in the instances given above, it seems to have very little of the Oratio Obliqua about it. The Greeks use the in- finitive in all such cases, exactly as we do, and there is no further difficulty. [Negative jut/.] irapawai (rot -nidicrOai, 'I advise you to obey.' dfi£ ere hpaaai robe. ' I call upon you to do this.' eiwe crraTriyovs eXiadai. ' He proposed to choose generals.' § 47. But since this infinitive is used after verbs of the idea of a wish, command, advice, order, duty, determi- nation, right, necessity, convenience, etc., it naturally results, that if the subordinate sentence is a long or com- plex one, it passes insensibly into the Oratio Obliqua, so that both the dependent clauses are treated like dependent clauses in oblique statement, and the sentence may quite easilv slide into the oblique statement (as § 29 above). J Digitized by Microsoft® v ' NOTES ON CONSTRUCTIONS. In this way the oblique petition comes to have the character of the Oratio Obliqua, and is rightly classed here. efiovkovro crcfcLcnv, et nva \afiouv, vnapyeiv avrl t&v evbov. —Thug. ' They wished, if they caught anybody, that they should be to them instead of those within.' TTaprjyyeiXav, eTteifo) hunvriuuav, TravTas ava/navecrOai. — Xm. ' They passed the order, that when they had dined, everybody should rest.' [e7retS/; htLtfivrjireiav is past oblique for kirahav beiirvq- irrjTe.] , i\jri]4)[ tufieiuav juot dpyrjv yeveaBai. — DEM. ' I claim exemption from any resentment.' § 48. Observe in the last three instances that the full accusative with the infinitive, and not the infinitive only, is used. It is always possible to express the thing" asked, advised, demanded, etc., as a regular ace. inf. sentence ; and this construction is used whenever it is necessary, or even clearer or more convenient. In general the Greek will naturally follow the English in this matter : where we say 'to do so and so ' (after a verb of asking) it will be infini- tive : where we say ' that so and so should do so and so/ (i.e., where the Subject is expressly inserted) it will be ace. inf. VI.— CONSECUTIVE. § 49. It is necessary also in the consecutive sentence to keep clear of Latin. In Greek the subjunctive has nothing to do with 'SO that.' Digitized by Microsoft® CONSECUTIVE. 31 § 50. I. The regular Greek word for ' so that ' is ware ; and it is found with two constructions : (1) With the accusative and infinitive. (2) Leaving the verb ■ indicative, or exactly what it would have been if <2ore were away, and it were a principal verb. The difference is sometimes expressed by saying that (1) is the natural consequence, whether it actually occurs or not ; (2) is the actual consequence. And this will do very well to describe the distinction on the whole, clearly and truly. It follows at once from this that (1) can be always used, (2) only when you mean to lay stress on the fact that the consequence did happen. [Narrative Stress.] The instances, of which I will give several, will make this more clear. § 51. (1) Accusative and Infinitive [negative ixq] : en tov acpavovs opp,ijiJ.eQa p,era t&v Trpeo-pvrepcav ^eis yap en veoi aurre ToaovTO TTpayna bie\e' ?7«. 3 6 NOTES On constructions. __ Sometimes omitted; which is still more neat: Xpfja-dai oti crp.LKpoTa.TCf e\aCa>, ocrov rr)v bva\epeiav Karair- jSeorat.— Plat. Prot. 334. [' Invalids should] use as little oil as possible (only so much) as to correct the disagreeahleness (of their food).' vep,ojJ,evoi to. avTcov, ocrov airoCrjv. — tThuo. 1. 2. ' Occupying their own pastures, enough to get a subsistence from.' § 61.— Note 1. Another variation of use is ocms used for &> /caKoSofo? elvai. — Xen. Ages. 4. 1. ' To cheat (others) on condition of being (yourself) infamous.' § 64. — 2. Indicative. airovbas wotijcrti/Aeyoi e j direiv, ' so to speak.' e/ccty etvai, ' voluntarily ' (usually after negative) £vve\dim eiiteiv,' to be brief,' ' in a word.' [Lit. 'for a man to speak, summing it all up.'] oa-ov ipi ye elbivai, ' as far as I know.' ro ev epi ye elvai, ' as far as I am concerned.' &s elK&o-cu, 'to form a conjecture.' These infinitivesQBWfcaw&iJj/MttfcjflwsEonsecitiw class. 38 NOTES ON CONSTRUCTIONS. VIII.— TEMPOEAL SENTENCES. § 66. The temporal conjunctions are when, since, whilst, until, after that, lefore that. Although the syntax- of the temporal conjunctions is not difficult, a few hints about their usage miay be of advantage. Except where they are indefinite, (see above, §§ 20 — 22) the temporal conjunctions take the indicative. (The only exception to this rule is vpCv, whose regular construction is accusative with infinitive, ecus and p4xP l > in the sense of ' until,' take subjunctive, but as we shall see, this is due to their indefinite meaning, which is inseparable from them.) As however it is desirable that these notes should be useful for reference, as well as giving a more connected account of the Greek prose usages, I will give with each ' conjunction its regular construction with examples. § 67. ' When,' ' after that.' We shall see below, in the general hints pn Greek prose composition (Notes on Idiom), that the Greek style being much more connected than modern English narrative is wont to be, we have in Greek far more grouping of facts together in the same sentence ; and consequently, if we were to write down the literal translation of Greek narrative, - we should have many more clauses beginning with ' when ' than would be idiomatic in English of the present day. Very frequently this is done by participles agreeing with the Subject : very frequently by genitive absolute. There still remains another way of doing it, by the use of one or other of the temporal conjunctions : and these we will take in order. "8 68. is ) » i ! are the commonest: with the indicative ; TEMPORAL SENTENCES. 39 cos be e-nvdero, Trposrj\9e ry itqXei. — TlIUC. ' When he heard it, he approached the city.' eiieibr) eyevovro eiil rrj biafiacrei.— -TlIUC. ' "When they reached the passage.' IweiSjj he e'So£e Kaipbs eTvai, r)p£e rfjs etpobov. — TlIUO. 7. 5. ' When it seemed to he time, he led the attack.' ette\ £vve\iyr] to biejJ,apTvpop.r\v \eyovras. — DEM. Phil. 2. ' Those who spoke at tho time when I was protesting.' § 70.— Note 1. The indefinite usage Heibav, emp, orav, (&>s av is never used temporal) with subj. and eireiS?), e-nel, pre with opta- tive has been already explained under indefinite sentences. m 20-22.) § 71. 'As soon as.' The idiomatic Greek usage, if stress is to be laid on the immediate sequence of two events, is to employ fzrei raxi^^a- or (commoner) iXous -viko.. — DEM. 'Ever since the mercenaries have' been serving, he conquers his friends.' ws, with the indicative, is also used in the same sense. fjp.epq rpLT-p as o'UoOev &pp.r\aav.- — Tl-IUC. 4. 90. 'On the third day since they started from home.' Othef idioms : 7]p,ipai Se r\o-a.v rfj M.VTi\rjvri eakaKViq iTrrd, ore, 1 etc. — Thuc. 3. 29. ' It was seven days since Mytilene was taken, when,' etc. The sentence may also be inverted in various obvious ways. § 74. ' Wliilst: eats, kv a, iv oo-a, all with indicative [negative ov] : Iv baa fj.ik\eTai ravra, irpoairoXaXe, etc. — DEM. Phil. ' While this delay is going on, they are already lost.' e'eos eVt p,eXXei, eTiavap-vfjo-cu fiovXojAai. — DEM. Phil. 2. 'While he is yet, delaying, I wish to remind you.' ev (o foeo-ri, ' whde he is absent.' [/ue'x/H is rarely used so. - p,e\pi fiyovvTo, irpo6vp,u>s eliro^ieda. — THUC. 3. 10. 'While they were leading, we eagerly followed.'] If it is desired to lay stress on the duration (' all the time that' something happens) oo-ovyj>6vov is used, with the indicative of COUrseP/g/f/zec/ by Microsoft® 42 notes on constructions. § 75.— Note 1. All these are used (with av if primary) in the indefinite construction when the sense requires it. See above, §§ 20 — 22. In this case the negative is p.-'\. TpOCpljV SlOOWU (V 6<7. — Thuc. 4. 69. ' If they destroyed the city before the succour came.' 8ei£cu rep liky'jOei,, irplv tc'Aoj ti e\eiv. — TlIUC. 5. 41. ' To tell the people, before anything was finally settled.' § 78. The infinitive attraction naturally holds here (see §27). ■nplv eKirvcTTOs yeveaOcu Trpocri/ASe. — TlIUC. 4. 70. ' He came up before he was discovered.' § 79. If there is any notion of a race again st tim e, notice especially the neat Greek use of (prop. ' to antici- j. n Digitized by Microsoft® TEMPORAL SENTENCES. 43 cpOdaas bubpap-e itpiv two. Kcakveiv. — Thuc 4. 79. ' He succeeded in traversing (Thessaly) before any one could stop him.' iav &i irplv airoQavelv. — Antipho. 114. ' If they have time to do it before they die.' • § 80. (i) In negative sentences, (1) if the time referred to is future, the indefinite construction is naturally used precisely as with ecus and p.exP' ( see explanation, § 86). Thus (primary) Subjunctive : , ovk. aiiOKpivovixat. irporepov irplv &v irv9(op.ai. — PlAT. Euth. 295. ' I will not answer, till I learn.' v\a^acrOai irplv kv t<5 naOelv wp.€V. — TlIUC. 6. 38. ' We are negligent of 1 precautions, till wo are involved in the disaster.' [koikoI = 'not good'; or rather perhaps the whole phrase means ' we do not take precautions.'] § 84. Note 2. It should be observed in § 80 that irptv with the ace. and inf. may be used in prose even after negative sentences, where there is no idea of ' until,' but it simply means 'pre- viously to.' ov npiv inxo-yeiv, &A.A.' eireiSJj ev r<2 spy® eaixiv, rovsbe vapeKakiorare. — TlIUC. 1. 68. ' Not before suffering, but after we are engaged, you invited - these men.' . ovbe yap tovtiov irplv p.aOe'iv ovhels ij/ucrraro. — XEN. Cyr. iv. 3. ' Not even of this did any one know before learning.' § 85. Note 3. Besides irplv the same meaning is expressed by irporepov rj, irplv 7], Trpoo-Oev ij, with the same constructions. None of them however are nearly as common as -npiv. It is well to notice that irporepov is often used with the principal verb, leading up to irplv with the subordinate clause. Some of the previous examples will illustrate this. §86. 'Until' ecoj, ju.e'xpt, u-xpi (or /xe'xpt ov, ayjii ov), ee &>s Hnaora Zyivero, tJ-e\pi ov Kariiravcrav ttjv ap\fiv. — THUC. 5. 26. '■He has described all the details . . . till they destroyed the empire.' avOd>pp.ovv, £'g)s -nep ot oitKirai anfjpav. — THUC. 7. 19. ' They were moored opposite, till the soldiers weighed anchor.' (6) M e XP' ®' av e y^ y KU >, at cmovbal \j.h>ovtcov. — XeN". ' Until I come lot the treaty stand.' enrovhas enoi^aavro tcos anayysXQem ra kexdivra. — XEN. Hell. 3. 2. ' They made a treaty to last till the negotiations should he announced.' [Converted by past verb from ews av a.TrayyeXdfj.'] § 87.— Note 1. The only point to notice with reference to these in- ' definite usages of 'until' is that, although the common and natural prose use is to employ av when the time is primary, yet the subjunctive is occasionally employed in good prose •ii. j. i rni ^Digitized bu Microsoft® „ , l without av. The fact is the words ku>s, p-expi,, i p-expt,, etc., are by CAUSAL SENTENCES. . 47 nature so indefinite when applied to future time that the Greek mind does not require &v so imperatively to mark the indefiniteness. Thus we find: jue'xpt irAoBs yivrjTai. — THUC. 1. 137. ' Till we can sail.' ecos top ox^ov bKao-mpeQa. — XEN. Cyr. xii. ' Till we can break thro' the crowd.' \ § 88.— Note 2. Also on the often recurring principle of Vividness, even after historic main verb this subjunctive occurs. ej3ov\tvo-av (pvXacro-eiv avrovs l^XP 1 °v 7 ' v k£aiu> ' on the strength of their being allies,' Kara ro fyyyevis, ' on the ground of relationship,') or 8io with the accusative (8io ravra, 8i« fyOpav, etc) Digitized by Microsoft® NOTES ON CONSTRUCTIONS. Especially useful is the construction of ace. inf. with to, governed in this sense by hid (see § 40). ' He ran away, because no ally was present.' aiiibpape Sta to prjbiva £vp,p,a,)(ov Trapelvat. § 91. But the use of causal conjunctions is still commoner, and their rules can be very briefly made clear. The causal conjunctions all take the indicative [nega- tive oi]. § 92. In ordinary cases, where sequence of cause and effect is being related, ewel, ewetSt;, and is are employed, , tTreihr] being perhaps the commonest. These would be employed in such sentences as the fol- lowing where the object is to relate the fact. eTtii \j/v^pov r\v, irvp avfjtjfav. ' As it was cold, they lit a fire.' kireibi] o&x elkov, airs\(iip-qaav. 1 Since they failed to take it they went away.' § 93. "Where however we wish not to relate a fact but to explain a fact (where in English we should say ' because ' rather than ' since' or ' as'), the Greeks prefer SioVi or on. Thus : Oavp-aCere, biori ov p.ep.vr]p.(u. — AESCH. Tim. 'You are surprised because I don't know.' eireurav pqov 8to'n hbriXov f\v. — TlIUC. 3. 36. 'They convinced them more easily because it was plain.' bib. rt; on et ris v Ainrei. f^revadrjcrav 3>v if\m£ov. f]X6op.tv biTios fiorjOo'ip.ev, or /3o7j07jtrODres. Xvirqvp.ai on ovtws rjixaprov. Ihav eXvirovp.t]v, rjyav&KTOvv, lOavpa^ov, etc. (jivXaaaecrdcu. Iv vw el^e <]>vyuv. ovk amapvovp-ai ju?) ovk atrtow etvai. ewei aiirj\6ov. ovk ijdeXe TavTa ■np&TTiiv, or a inrjyyeXXovTO 8e'xec#ai. tovtovs fjbei (ptXovvras avrov. He had confidence in their affection. He knew of many combi- nations to assassinate. Attempt his rescue. ^ He represented the ne- cessity of securing his friend- ship. — To sacrifice his personal feelings, etc. Note. — It is perhaps as well to say that in this and the following sections the examples are selected (with a view to their practical utility) chiefly from the exercises : though care has been taken that they may be of a kind to be also generally instructive tQjfckSeSWWR&SSoft® ■noXXovs fja-dero £vvop.6(rav- ras, etc. ■neipaadai e^eXew, or owai . IcpTJ (jllXoV tKUVOV TTOliltjOat. fieiv. a(j>eh a aires £/3ov\sto, etc. 54 NOTES ON IDIOM. § 100. (2) Instances where the abstract phrase will be best expressed by a participle in Greek. [A little reflection will show that there are many cases where an English phrase may be turned indifferently in two or three of these ways, e.g., either by participle or verb, or again by subordinate sentence : but this may be safely left to the learner's instinct or choice] : With astonishment (anger, 1 dbov Qavjj.a(m>, or as before etc.,) I saw : He said with a smile. Without spcaJcing (shoot- ing, etc.) «-«. In his absence he was con- demned. — He went away with the promise to . . . Started in pursuit. Ihlbv i8a.vjj.aCov. ixeibiacras elire. oibev elirc&v, ovk cupuls to ft£\os, etc. KareKpiOr) aircav. airx eT0 VTtoayoiJ.evos . . . oia>£ovres, or bicoKovTes aire~ hpajiov. i] X^P a V apx°IJ-<=vr] vtio . . . StaXeyojueyon avrov cjAaQov. airopaiv tl xp-tj Spav. aj}a itaa-^iv'i I paid a large sum. irokka cnrebcoKa. Behaving w ith cruelly . aSt/ca irpiaamv . . atrreiov, ya- politeness, etc. pievra cclvtov wapexcav . . . I dispute his guilt. a\3.s Strata biKafav, or tCnaios inents. &i> KptT?js. In a state of felicity. evruxhs &v- A lover of beauty. (pikav to. Kaka. [And similarly, many abstract expressions are done by the neut. adjective: as, 'the instability of fortune/ to acT7a6p.r\Tov ttjs riffls ; ' expediency/ to (riip.a Siaroeircu raSr'a op. oiSets o?8e ouot, oitos eirj. . owoi ioiev. « yeiwata eTtaivzLV avtov ehpaare. Siix craXiriyyos ea-rjixaivero b,n eKaoroVe 8e'oi yevecrOca. (ypmjre cured them. Digitized by Micro£sft®iv. 58 NOTES ON IDIOM. ~ His generosity won their affection. The gratitude he thus won excited him to . . . Had not fortune inter- vened. -■^ Some plan is in progress. This expedition destroyed their reputation. — - His fate was reported. . . Their increased numbers struck him. Their orders were limited to the delivery of the mes- sage. The distance retarded her proceedings. -*" The urgency of his need was such that. . . . ov'rcos ayaBbs tfv alare vcpobpa cvraL ti. 01 be oi'rco acfiaXivTes iJTTOvs hj eyevovro t& afi&tyiart. I'lyyeiXav TedvqKora. Karevorjae irkelovas yevop.i- vovs. ovbev aXXo e"pt)TO avrols ttXijv Xsyeiv ra eweoraAfxeva. fipabvrepov eTipaaae ravra . toctovtov amovcra. ovtoo acpobpa ebei ware. . , . SENSE. § 107. We have seen that one great difference between the idiom of Greek and English lies in the fact that the Greeks preferred often to express in the concrete what we express in the abstract. This is a very important point, and the learner will constantly have to be reminded of it. There are many other ways, however, besides this, in which the greater complexity and artificiality of much English writing (especially in more modern times,) is unsuited to Greek idiom, and requires to be recast in the translating. It is a good general rule, therefore, whenever the learner has to translate into Greek any English phrase at all artificial or idiom»k^&Me^&«H$« Set /^e bpav. ttoloji ixrj^avjj kyjnjro ware . . . jueAAco yap.€iv. Karopd&craL (or fut.) ijp.eXXe. § 110. (2) Some will be due to the metaphorical or picturesque instincts of English. Here a caution is necessary. If the metaphor . is im- portant, if the word is chosen consciously to convey the metaphor, and it is a real loss to the piece to omit it, then it is best to attempt to convey it in Greek. But much more often the metaphor is a worn-out one : i.e., the word is used to express the plain meaning, without any one noticing or attending to the metaphor : in this case the sense must be given and the metaphor abandoned. (See note on metaphors below, where the matter is fully explained.) He came off the victor. He took no end of trouble. They cast about them. He engrossed the conver- sation. Night drew on. It cost -much labour to get. v In my eyes he is the wisest. Siocl He was made a laughing igifized By Microsoft® Digifi ivUrjae simply. TToWa eirowjcre, or oi>Sez/ ov< ebpaae, or iravrl Tpoiru ewetparo, etc. e<7K OTTOVV. ixovos au e\eye, or oviroje knavzro \ak&v, etc. vvt; enfiei. oi/c avev TioWov tiovov e«- riyovfj.a.1 ... or ejuf/ yvl\ikS>s bexea-dai. eroifia r\v airavra, or irape- v e7r' e'ftoO. voaco aniBave. Tipbs tovtois akko ti HBvaz. I charge with stealing. amS>p.ai . . . as e/cAe//e. My hopes were raised 6y # iiiijkiTiae p,e azayyeikas. the announcement. It is for me to do it. \ ep.6v ian bpav. It was for the king to ( tov /3a' reasonable adventure on an h ovk dubs ijv e/creAeo-aij or improbable design. some such turn. He was disappointed by woAAa/a? a.Trpgo-boK7jT(os eVir^e unexpected aecident^0 6d by Mfc ^fo$«fe. 6 4 NOTES ON IDIOM. This ucvjs was far from removing their suspicions. He rejected the advice of several. A work on which their safety depended. He retained complete presence of mind. Who ev,er was the author of the mischief He used the language of rebellion. To prevent confusion arising in chance conflicts. It suited their silication and quality. According to the system of ancient warfare. He perceived the resist- ance he might expect. In order to cover his per- fidy. His conduct was open to the suspicion of concert . . . No extremity would make them fail, (they said). Nothing but invincible courage could have enabled. The passions of the people proved stronger than their principles. §114. (G) Oth Tavra. ■nvOop.evoi ovx rjircnv VTTlilTTeVOV. ttcW&v neidovTUiv ovk ij6e\e. epyov ov e'Set irpbs to acrc/m- Aets etvai, or o eKreAe'trcu e'Set ?) p.r] aatfiaXels elvai. oi/8a/x(3s irapaxdrj. octtls r\v 6 ctZiKrjaas. vj3pi£e rots Ao'yois cos a~o- arrjcToiJievos. 'iva p.r\ tlKTj avp-ju^avres rapa- eT!lT7]hilOV TjV TOtOVTOtS ye OVCTl Kal ovrio StaKet/xeyots. ojs eld>Qecrav ol ndXai ttoAe- povvTes. fjiQiTO p.eff ocnjj bvvdp,ecos avTLarrjvaL peXkoiev. tva p.7] cpavepbs yevoiro -npo- hoTr]s S>v, (or use Xavddvoi). roiavra iiroleL cocrre eticdrcos inrcaiTTeveTO rots woAejutots avp.i:pdo-aeiv. ovk &v crcpakijvaL ov8' av el rt yivono. o£8' av ihwrjOt] el jut) apery arjacrriTos fjv. 6 he brjpos ovra> iOvpovro coore (cat roC fletou (or t?;s Sikjjs) oAtytopfw. eMg"8? fl 8ie vagueness of phrase, THE NEGATIVES. 65 allusiveness of style, etc., compared with the simple pre- cision of the Greek. • He conquered his feel- ings, (i.e. anger). They dreaded the effect of such a tone upon him. The general by the ra- pidity of his movement. It moved them more to Gee, . . Their motives were ques- tioned. (Meaning corrup- tion.) There is no reaction. (Meaning, in desire for the scheme.) The language he used is indescribable, (i.e. he swore fearfully). No one appeared,(i.e. came forward). Kare . tSeHoLKeaav p) rotaSra o.kov- cras yakiiiaivoi. 6 orparijyos dacraov tTraya- yiiiv to (TTpa.T€Vjj.a.' fiya.va.KTow fxceWov IbovTis. iTiT)TlS)VTO O.VTOVS b)S aiayjlO- Kspbels (lev, or us bie8- app.evovs. ovbtv p.e6ev stto- 8ovv. 8avp.aa-[cos as «A.oi8o/3etro ko.1 oiSels itapfjXQe. § 115.— THE NEGATIVES. There are two negatives in Greek, firj, and ov. Fully to understand the difference between them, so as to be certain always to use them right, and to be able to explain all the exceptional and subtle usages, is a matter of some difficulty, which the learner must not expect to grasp completely till he has progressed a considerable way in Greek. At the same time it is necessary, even for elementary Greek com- position, to understand something about the subject, and the outline of the principle may be given in tolerably simple language, so as to help the learner at least over a, good many difficulty/zed by Microsoft® 9ID e'x, ' I advise not/ ovk a£i&, ' I beg you not.'] § 118. Observe that we have used the word statement to include interrogative sentences. § 119. Observe also, that ov is still used, and not .jtuf, when the sentence is put obliquely. The fact that the statement (or question) is reported, makes no difference to the negative. (This is very important, because the rule is often so stated as to beguile the learner into believing that the Oratio Obliqua turns ov into ixrj.) § 120. On the other hand, prj is used where the clause appears as a negative conception. This is chiefly divisible into such heads as sentences expressing jrarpose, consequence, prohibition, yietition (oblique), condition, indefinite, and such ideas. The main usages are given below under their respective heads. § 121. (1) Purpose. In order that I might not tva /j.ri bpaaaijii. do it. So after oirm and m, and in all Final and Delib. sen- tences. § 122. , (2) Precaution, suspicion, etc. I fear this may happen. beboiKa jut) yivyrai tovto. Mind you don't do it. opa ottoos /m) m>t7j &eXov, avdyK-q, etc. § 126. (6) Consequence. They were so ignorant as oiVcos &p.a.9eis rjaav diore to know nothing. juTjSey doivai. [It is instructive to compare this with the usage of ojore with ov, when. not ihe^iatural but the actual con- sequence is related, i.e., when the negative conception is. THE NEGATIVES. 69 abandoned for the negative statement, there being a narrative stress on the fact occurring : They were so ignorant oi'rcos apadets fjres tovs Xoyovs | e£e\4£avTt? rwv re i\0pwv Kal ot eboKow jua/Uara £u/x7rpa£ai ra Tipos tovs 'Adrjvaiovs avbpas as eKarov, | Kal rovruiv nkpi avayKacravres rbv brjfiov ^j/rjepov (pavepciv bieveyKeiv, | &>s KarfyvdcrOrjaav \ eKTeivav, | Kal es o\i.yap\Lav ra /xaAiora KareVr^a-av rrjy •nokiv. Here, independently of smaller subdivisions which might in places be made, there are eight distinct actions de- scribed by verbs or participles. Now in English, it is quite conceivable, if the book were written in one of the more modern styles, that this one sentence might appear somewhat as follows : 'No sooner, however, had they been appointed, than they held a levy of the army. They drew up the various companies apart from each other, and selected certain of their private enemies, and those who were supposed to be most implicated in the recent dealings with the Athenians. These amounted to about a hundred men. They then forced the people to pass a public vote of condemnation upon them; and wheo/^Jsf§Hh^.d?/laee6«®ondeirined, they put CONNECTION. them to death. This done, they established a more oligar- chical form of government in the city.' Notice here : In the Greek there are only three principal verbs, e£eke£a.VTo, tKreivav, KariaT^av, all the other facts being conveyed in subordinate clauses of various kinds. In the English there are no less than seven main "verbs. It is clear that, in translating into Greek, we have to apply the reverse process, and often group the sentences more together, by dint of using participial clauses, and conjunc- tional clauses, according as they seem to fall in naturally. This is especially the case wheD, as in the instance given above, Ave are following the successive acts of the same main subject ; but even where, in English, different subjects come in, they may often be, by a slight recasting of the sentence, really grouped round the main subject, or at any rate coupled to it by conjunctions, or the invaluable genitive absolute. Skill and accuracy in grouping sentences in a natural Greek manner can only be acquired by reading and carefully observing the Greek writers' narratives ; and the vivid descriptions of Thucydides are especially instructive. One very great help to this will be found to be the reverse process of translating Greek from time to time on paper, not into the same continuous and complex style, but into the natural and more jerky and curt English. § 135. (b) But also the learner must carefully notice the connection of sentences with each other. Nothing is so commonly neglected by the beginner in Greek prose as the necessary linking of sentences together, whether by particles or otherwise. Again, let us convince ourselves of this by taking a casual narrative chapter of Thucydides, and writing down all the beginnings of.. sentences ; i.e., all the new starts which he makes afte'F colons or mil stops. Any teacher 74 NOTES ON IDIOM. will find this practical proof a simple and finally effective way of inducing those whom he teaches to imitate their authors in this point. Let us take for example Thucydides, 4. 27, the famous chapter about Kleon and Mkias at Athens ; and if we write clown all the beginnings of the sentences after full stops or colons, they will be found as follows : tv be rats 'A6r\vais — ■navroov be — Kal fieTepJXovTO — KA.e'coi» be — napawovvruiv he — /cat yvovs — Kal es Nuriav. That is, Se four times, km three times. Or again, Chapter 29 : /cat iravra — tov be — ot yap a-TpaTi&rai — Kal aur<3 — Ttporepov fxev yap — ■noXku yap — v (Thuc.), the common oirep Kal kyivero ('which actually occurred, of events foreseen or suspected,) Sirep IjKovo-a (PLAT.), odsv ytyverai (PLAT.) ancW$eJ by Microsoft® 76 NOTES ON IDIOM. § 139. (d) A word should be said too about ware as a connection. In English after mentioning a number of facts or grounds leading up to an action or a conclusion, we often continue (after a full stop) thus : ' Accordingly they decided . . .' or * And so they departed . . .' In Latin this would be Hague or igitur. In Greek this may be neatly done by <2ore, used without altering anything else in the sentence. Thus, after a full stop : Accordingly the matter oiore to epyov vpoix^PV^- prospered . . . — Thuc. 8. 68. Therefore (they said) not &are ovoe tovtovs yelpovs even these were worse . . . t?vcu. — Thuc. 8. 76. [An excellent instance ; for the accus. ihfin. here is due to the Oratio Obliqua, not to wore, else it would be /^ijSe.J See Section 59. TENSES. § 140. Greek like the English is very rich in tenses, and the usage of them is to a great extent very closely analogous in the two languages : but there are some differences, of which it will be well to present the most important. § 141. (1) Aorist in oblique moods. The first thing that strikes any one who carefully looks at the Greek verb, and compares the tenses with English,. is that there is in the subjunctive, optative, imperative, infinitive, not one tense, but two, the present and aorist, which are used apparently at first sight without difference c ■ Digitizes by Microsoft®' of meaning. TENSES. 77 Thus : That I may do it. ha bp&, or ha hpaaco. That I might do, it. ha bpdrjv, or ha SpdaaiM. . Do it. hpa, or Spatrov. To do it. bpav, or bpaaai. where a distinction seems to be made in Greek which we do not make in English. The first notion a learner gets into his head, is that the aorist in these moods is somehow past. This is a complete mistake, and must be carefully guarded against. The learner should get the conception that the only difference between the aorist and present in any mood except the indicative* is the rather fine distinction between the act regarded as a single occurrence, not considering it as protracted (aorist), and the act regarded as extended in time (present). Thus: Svoarjcrai, to fall sick.' voadv, ' to be sick.' ffvTvxyTai; ' to get good luck.' evrvxeh, ' to be lucky.' ( ireffleiv, ' to urge.' [' imam, ' to prevail.' In these cases and others like these there is a real difference due to the tense ; for from the nature of the verb the act beginning or the act completed is different from the process : so -here it is necessary to use one rather than the other. But with many verbs it is not so ; and * jfote. It should perhaps he mentioned as an obvious exception to the above statement about the aorist, that where an indicative aorist is turned by Oratio Obliqua into infinitive, Optative, or Participle, the idea of past-ness will mt^B^MfS^bp^erosoft® 78 NOTES ON IDIOM. there it is obvious, (and there are a vast number of , cases), that it is quite indifferent which we use : either would do equally well. In many cases, again, one would be, not necessary, but more natural than the other: and it is desirable to get into the habit of thinking which is the most natural, and always having them both ready to use. The beginner usually employs the aorist far too little, because, as he thinks from English to Greek, he thinks of \a\xfiaveiv, kan^dvoifii, kap,fidvu>#fi> Tenses. 79 § 144. Again, with conjunctions : When they had reached ibretS?; afykovTo e$i^a-av. the place they disembarked. If I had known,, I should d 'iyvaiv ovk av Zbpaaa. not have done it. § 145. Constantly again, in Oratio Obliqua : He announced that they yyyeiXtv Stl . years. § 147. (4) Future Passives. , There are two future passives which sometimes puzzle , the learner a little : they are in fact quite easy to under- stand. One is formed from the aorisfc (1st or 2nd as the case may be) and is usually called the 1st or 2nd future. Hardly any verb has both of, these, and the meaning is precisely the same. We will call this for clearness the Aorist-future. The other is formed from the perfect, and is usually called by the barbarous name of the paulo-post-futumm ; we will call it the Ite^esfetf%t«ffi9osoft® c So NOTES ON IDIOM. Now the Aorist-future and Perfect-future differ pre- cisely as the aorist and perfect do. The Aorist-future describes a future act. The Perfect-future describes a future state. Take a few instances : Q6.iiTu>, hury. A.F. Tacjirjcro/jLai, ' I shall be buried.' ") P.F. Teddxj/ojj.ai, ' I shall be in the grave.' J biai, hind. A.F. hi6ri aKponokiv, Kal 6 crrpa- rrjybs bebep.evos eirj (or earl). [But the beginner would say ilyov and ?]v.] From these instances the following clear rule may be inferred. In the Oratio Obliqua, in English the tense is changed : in, Greek, you may change the mood, (to Optative, if required,) but you, may not change the tense. ATTRACTION. § 149. .Many idioms in Greek are due to attraction, i.e., to the change of a word in a sentence from what it would naturally and grammgfeieal]®' taasrteb«8inetbing else, usually bidi. a. p.] ** 82 NOTES ON IDIOM. some other case or termination, in consequence of the presence of another ■word, to ■which it is attracted or as- similated. This long definition will be better understood after looking at the instances. § 150. (a) The commonest is the relative attraction. With the treasures which crvv rots 6r]o-avpois o Is 6 nrarrjp his father left. Karekme. — Xen. Cyr. III. i. 33. [Here naturally it would be ovs after KareAnre, but drjaavpois attracts it.J From the cities which he a-nb twv TroXevv &v eiretc-e. — persuaded. Ti-iuc. 7. 21. [For airb t&v ■noKecov as.] This occurs also with the antecedent omitted. In addition to what they T>pbs oh tKTr\s dXrjdrj Xiyeis. — your words are. Phaed. 66, A. "With a wonderful amount pera tSpwros Bavy.acrl.ov oaov. of sweat. — Eep. 350, D. [For {nteptpves icrTLV as, 6avy.ao-Tov icmv otrou.] This is very common with adverbs, as in the first instance. § 153. (d) So again, * a man like you' is naturally in the nominative, 6 olos ov am\p. , This is also attracted in the oblique cases of avrjp. It is hard for people like rols oiW fiy.lv x a ^« 7! ' '*'- — ' us. Xen. Hell. 2. 3.-25. § 154. (e) Another usage which naturally is classed as an attraction is the Greek form of expression : St/caio's ely.i tovto "noielv, meaning ' It is just that I should do this ' (whether the right belongs to the person himself or to other people : i.e., whether in the sense ' I have a right to do this,' or ' I am bound to do this,' ' I deserve to suffer this.') Thus : It is fitting that he should llmios ilcmy dTroAcoAeVai. — perish. ' Dem. I have a right to punish. 8«ciKO[j,ivu>v rZv TroXep/iuv, there, they were gone. ci'xovro. To this we should add some phrases which in English are often expressed by adverbs. At last he died. TeXivrtov anidave. Do it instantly. avvaas bpaaov. For an instance of a number of participial clauses in one sentence we cannot do better than refer to the passage of Thucydides (4. 74) quoted under the head of connection (§ 134). § 157. (2) Means; 'by.' He escaped by running airobpainbiv eawdrj. away. They live by plunder. X.rj'i£oiJ.evoi. (wv aWuv spoke, SieAe'yero. § 159. (4) Cause; ' since/ ' because.' This is why I say so, Ae'yoj tovtov evena, /3ov\o- because I wish . . . v-wos . . . — Plat. So of the pretext, cause assigned, or state of things to le 7 ■ . 1 < Digitized by Microsoft® assumed, witn ws. S6 NOTES ON IDIOM. They are angry, on the ground that they have been deprived. You listen to them, sup- posing thern to know. Let us try, on the as- sumption that you are in earnest. ayava.KTOvv, rjbero — 'XeK. es rr\v ttoXlv aYe avoiyQticrav. — THUC. 4. 130. ota aTacna£ova~n$ rrjs TroKem Trep-novai. — THUC. 8. 95. Inasmuch as he was a child, he liked. . . . . . into the city, seeing it had been opened. As the city was in a state of sedition, they send. These usages are very important and useful, and should be carefully observed. § 161. (5) Purpose, 'in order that.' The future participle with or without &>s. Instances of this have been given sufficiently fully under Pinal Sentences : so that one will suffice. [The is gives the reason as suggested, or avowed, or alleged^] He seized him with the eTA.e avrbv is airoKrevuv. intention of killing him. § 162. (6) (Condition) 'if.' (Neg. /4) They would not have ov yap av epeXev avTols m cared if they had not sup- v-nokan^dvova-i. — Dem. posed. Digitized Micro^ ..._ ^ PARTICIPLES. 87 If any one had heard it fi-rrCar'qa-ev &v tls aKofoas. — he would have disbelieved. Dem. If I heard it I should not anova-as oJk av o-iajmjtrai/xi. be silent. § 163. (7) {Concessive) ' though.' Though we seek we can- • Crjrovvres ovx evpicrKeiv bvva- not find. ixe0a. With little power we oAiya bvvap.evoi 10U0 emx." - try much. povjxsv. [Constantly with Kaivep : as] Although they knew, (cawrfp elbores, TrposeK^vrja-av. they worshipped. — (Xen.) Etc. See Concessive Sentences § 95. § 164. It should further be noticed, in dealing with participles, that in the case of the impersonals efeori, Set, wdpecrn, etc., in the participial construction, it is the accusa- tive absolute, not genitive absolute, which is used. This is a very terse and neat usage, and should specially be observed. When you had a chance e£bv ova ij0e\?j a^tKo/xevos. I departed unawares. ekadov anidtv. He came in first in the ecpOaae rpi^wv. race. "We entered the city just ev rovro touls ; literally, ' having suffered what do you do this ?' is used for ' What ails you that you do this ? ' ' What is the matter with you that you do this ? ' THE MIDDLE VOICE. § 171. To understand thoroughly the use of the middle voice is a matter of time ; but it is necessary to say some- thing about it, for beginners often get a confused idea that the middle voice is simply reflexive, and that if nJirrw means ' I beat,' rtfwro/wtt means ' I beat myself.' It is better, therefore, to state at once plainly that the Middle Voice is not sWijwy fafifflfiffl. " 90 NOTES ON IDIOM. We want to know, however, not merely what it is not. but what it is ; and perhaps the clearest way of putting it is to say that the person's self is not the direct object (of the middle verb), but the indirect or remoter object. Or, to put it another way, In the active verb, the Person is the Agent. „ middle „ „ „ both Agent and JReci- pient; (and not, as in the erroneous theory commented on above, the agent and object). A few instances will make this clear : Xovta to. ip.ci.na, 'I wash Aot5o/ioi ra lp.6.ria, 'I wash clothes.' my clothes.' (jyepco, ' I carry.' , carry. carry off, win. o-t&C®, save. save for self, bring safe home, keep safe, etc. KoixCfa, transport. recover, get back (lost). TijimpS), redress another's redress your own, take Djajtized by Microsoft® J ' wrong. - vengeance on. THE MIDDLE VOICE. 91 § 173. (2) Intransitive. Specially common in verbs of motion. Remember that the middle is used not because the person is acted on (which may accidentally be the ' fact), but because the person derives the advantage; is affected by the result, of the action. Act, Ex. imOeivai, put upon. lull. stop (another). hurry (another). show. deter. •navoi, eireiyoo, cj>aCv, give oracle. fjLavreijca, give prophecy. Ovw, sacrifice (of priest). Med. get entered, (and so) accuse, get done. get oracle given, get a prophecy, get sacrifice offered (of general). 8t/cd£«, dt(#ielWjt-M/crosoftf et decision, go to law. 92 NOTES ON IDIOM. § 175. (4) Mental. There is something so eminently self-affecting about mental actions as opposed to bodily, that we are not sur- prised to find the use of the middle extended to these". Act. Med. Ex. Ttoiziv, make. estimate. rld-ryu, put. consider. (TKOTteLV, look at. reflect on. Under this head comes Sia.vooviJ.ai, not found active. § 176. (5) Reciprocal. A natural extension again is to the case of reciprocity, which is one way of the original agent deriving ultimately to himself the result of the act. Act. Med. Ex. aixeipai, change. exchange. Under this head come the reciprocal words, biaXiyo/j-ai, \ dicLKeXevoucu, I gionpucctfo/uu, whl ch are UOt f0Und actiTa biaj3e/3aLovixai, J The preposition box, expressing mutual action, is ob- viously the natural one to this meaning. §177. (6) Special. A few special usages (where the meaning gets con- siderably altered) may be added ; they will fall, however, under one or other of the previous heads, and all depend really on the same fundamental principle. arrobovvai, give. sell. 8avet£o, lend. borrow. juo-Boa), let. hire. Av&>, release. ransom. (rjiivboD, fMP ^lM$n? soft ®niake truce. METAPHORS. 93 METAPHOBS. § 178. A great deal of difficulty is found by the beginner in the matter of metaphors; and some teachers rather increase than diminish the difficulty by giving sweeping and injudicious general rules. For instance, the following rule I have known to be given : ' Always translate your metaphor into the same, or the corresponding metaphor in Greek.' This rule if followed universally would, as we shall see, land us in many absurdities in Greek. § 179. Now, if we consider the facts of the two lan- guages, the first thing that strikes us is that English is a tongue which is exceedingly full of metaphors, very much more so than either Greek or Latin. A few of these are collected in § 110. But it would suffice to extract nearly any passage of modern English (in whiah. effectiveness of style is aimed at) to convince the student of this. ' Any passage of any length from Maoaulay, or Merivale, or Prescott, would be certain to contain several metaphorical phrases. § 180. The next point we observe is that there is a great deal of difference in the stress laid by the author on the metaphor. Occasionally, if you omitted the meta- phor, you would destroy the whole point of the piece. But much more often the metaphor is only a picturesque way of describing quite a simple idea, and many other metaphors, or even the simple unadorned statement, would do equally well. Often, again, the metaphorical word or phrase is quite worn out, and the writer uses it quite un- consciously, without the smallest stress on the metaphor, and indeed not obsgpg® $&yUSY& metaphor. 94 NOTES ON IDIOM. § 181. !STow, as in Greek metaphors are much rarer, and the natural mode of expression is a simple one, it is an obvious inference that a great many of the metaphors that meet us in English must, in translating, be exchanged for the direct and simple statement. And this is what we have to do. It is only in the first of the three cases mentioned above, viz., where the metaphor constitutes the point of the sen- tence, that the Greek" "would retain it. And this also will generally be where in English the metaphor is expanded into a real simile, so that the piece cannot be adequately rendered without translating also the comparison. But in ordinary cases the sense should be alone thought of, and the particular picturesque or metaphorical form of expres- sion in the English should be abandoned in turning the passage into Greek. For instance, in the phrases, ' He fanned the flame of sedition;' 'He raised the standard of revolt ;' 'While the crash of the throne is rebounding in* our ears ; ' ' The heart of the country is sound ; ' [And many others, see § 110], the metaphor ought to be dropped, and that phrase chosen which will most simply and clearly give the sense. On the other hand, in that fine peroration of Macaulay's, which is given in the Ehetorical Exercises (part 4) : ' Eling wide the gates to that 'force which else will enter through the breach,' the metaphor is really the point of the clause: and to paraphrase it would be to lose the beauty and colouring and force of the original. Consequently we must hero keep it : and smcefcpg^^^^eek rush abruptly into MISCELLANEOUS. 95 a metaphor, but must prepare the way for it, the sentence will best run somewhat as follows : . . . Kai &v neWovcriv eTretSTrr]b'^ae — Plat. Digitized by M/croliftged. MISCELLANEOUS,. 97 'Do not avaricious men a\\o tl ot ye $i\o/ce/>8eis love gain V $iA.o€trs rb nipbos. — Plat. Hipp. § 188. (4) Where the answer is imknown or negative, the Greeks use juow or pj or apa or irorepov. The last is naturally used chiefly in alternative questions: but as every question can be made an alternative [Is it or is it -not ?] -norepov can be used in all questions. §189- Use of ov\ ottoos, m ottois, /jirj on, ov p\ovov. t If we wish to translate into Greek 'I not only went in, but I also dined,' it is simple enough : ov \16vov eisfjkdov aWa Kal ibe(iTvr](ra. and there is no awkwardness to be got rid of. If, however, the verbs are negative, the first clause (' not only not ') contains two negatives : thus ' I not only did not dine, but I did not even go in.' Now rfere, grammatically, it would be possible to say, ov p,6vov ovk iteCirvrja-a, ak\' ovbe eisfjXOov. but the double negative is clumsy, so that the Greeks in- stinctively adopted another method of expression which was neater: and the sentence just- written is therefore not idiomatic. They expressed it as follows : oix oW ihehv^a, AAA.' oio\ e l S rj\6ov which was originally an elliptical phrase, some word of speaking being understood, so that the meaning was, 'Not to speak of my dining, I did not even go in,' which is exactly equivalent to the sense required, ' I did not only not dine, but,' etc Digitized by Microsoft® SIDG.O.r.] NOTES ON IDIOM. § 190. The same is true of /ht; on, p.r) ottos, except that the ellipsis is of .course 'let me not say,' instead of 'I will not say.' 'You were not only not /u?) ovm opx&aQai, &W able to dance, but not even ovb' dpdovadai ibvva(\rj h%pi]TO, 6avovo~i]s he eireXadeTO. ' While she lived he treated her as a friend, but after her death he forgot her.' Where fcocnj and Oavovcri)? are pushed to the front to mark the emphasis. Towards neatness many hints have been given in these notes; much will also be learned by practice. For euphony it is scarcely advisable to lay down any rules. § 195. One other point may perhaps be specially noticed in the matter of order : and that is the great tendency in the rhetorical Greek style to put the £gtoi«e_dauaes first. This is done for the sake of clearness, to which it certainly con- " tributes much : but the less excitable and impulsive English does it to a far less extent. Take one or two examples. 6 oris 8e e'ipyaarai &cnrep eylo t:\4iov /cat Kivb'vveviov, ri an tis tovtov els er.eivovs TiQevq; el \a\ roCro Aeyets, is Bs &v (re i baveiajif tovtov hiip.oo-[q p.io-eladai TTjuosT/xet.- — DEM. Pantaen. 'Why should one class with these (objectionable persons) a man who has made money as I have by voyages and perils 1 Unless you mean to say that any man deserves to be unpopular who lends money to you 1 ' Here the relative Clause \wice comes first. MISCELLANEOUS. 103 ov \10vov 8' ktj) ois rj "EMas vflpl&Tai, vtt' avrov, oibeis rtjuwpciTai, a.Xk' oibe. . . — DEM. Phil. iii. 'No one avenges himself, not merely for the wrongs Greece suffers at his hands, hut not even . . . .' wept a enarepoi oTroi>Sd£ere, ravr' ap,eivov Ifcare'pois «X e '- Dem. Phil. ii. 'Each of you is superior in the points in which you re- spectively take most interest.' a Se vvv aTSOKpiva.jj.evoi to, Movr' av ewjr' e^n](pio-\xivoi, ram 7)877 Ae£o>. ' I will tell you now what answer to give, to feel that you have come to the proper decision.' It ia -worth observing, that the clearness is still further attained in most of the above instances by summing up the relative clause in a single de mons trative word : as tqvxov in the first, and ravra in the two last instances. With these slight hints, it seems best to leave the question of order to be learnt more in detail by practice. Digitized by Microsoft® EXERC-ISES. PAST I . I. — The Borheani. The king of the Bormeani, having discovered that the tribute which the people paid him was becoming yearly less, while the people were increasing, resolved to number the inhabitants that , he might discover and punish those who deceived him. But he considered, that if he ordered the archons to count the men of each city, they would announce a number less than the reality, that their thefts might be concealed. , So he reflected what was best to do, and at last declared that the God had told him in a dream that a great plague was coming on the island : that he hived the Bormeani, however, and would shew them how they might avert the evil. That a great iron sword must be made, and each man must send one needle ; and these being collected, must be melted together in the fire. But whoever failed to send his needle, that he should die of the plague. Accordingly all ■the Bormeani sent needles to the king, fearing much lest they should be stricken with the God's angeT : and thus although they escaped from dying, yet were compelled to pay more tribute i to the king, since he discovered how many "there were in each town. All through, consult Oratio Obliqua § 23— § 48. reality, that which was, (part.). failed, use itf. coheealed, use XavSivu with part, of of theplague [mind the sense]. § 110. verb ' to steal.' 'from' dying: ^ with inf. ; see best, use xpi\ ; see § 42. § 130. II.— Tuns. Now Titus was a notable huntsman, living in the midst of the forests : and as he grew old, and reflected how wonderful his exploits had been, he thought it would be a pity if men forgot Lis name. So he composed a book, wherein he related all manner of marvels. And the other huntsmen hearing that Titus had written a book, ^jgjflSpj^J&ffife^e was a braggart, sent a Part I.] EXERCISES. . 105 man to the city to buy a copy, expecting to enjoy a perusal. But the messenger, being a very ignorant man -was so deceived by the bookseller, that in return for his money he got not the book of Titus, but a Homer, -not worth a drachma. 'So he returned and summoned his companions, and chanced to open the book where the poet relates about Odysseus that he alone could stretch the bow, while the others were unable. And the huntsmen when they heard it immediately jumped up and shouted, paying that this was in good truth the, writing of Titus ; for no one else would have dared to tell so huge a lie. a pity, b~eiv6i> (lit. 'terrible'). chanced, §169. composed: use iroieiaBdt. jump tip, avaifrfiia. expecting to : say, ' as about to.' §6. the writing 0/ (written by). book-seller, $i$XwKi>\-t\s. ! for no one else, see oratio obliqua. in return for, see prep. §29. not the book: use (ikv 08, followed , so huge: use adv., with, vb., 'to by aKki. ■ lie.' § 99. III. — The Dog and the Eovees. Once a youth and a maiden resolved to meet' in a beautiful spot, where was a lake in the, midst of mountains. The youth, 'who had a large and faithful dog, went out (accompanied by him) to the place that was determined on. And he was so eager to see the maiden that he arrived at the lake considerably before the time. And. since he had to wait a long time, and the' sun was very hot, he resolved to bathe. So he undressed, and bade the dog watch them, and jumped into the lake. At last, having enjoyed the water enough, and expecting the maiden to arrive soon, he came out and tried to reeoverhfs clothes. But the dog, not knowing who he was, owing to his being naked, would not even let him come near. And he, after vainly calling" the dog many times, shuddering and at a loss what to do, at last saw the maiden approaching far off. And as he could not get to her Without any clothes, he was .compelled to go back into the water and hide behind,- a rock. And she came up, and seeing only the clothes, naturally thought he was drowned, and began to wail most bitterly. accompanied by, prep., recover, &vafie£aXa. io6 EXERCISES. pPart I. IV. — IONIDES. There was once a man at Athens by name Ionides who was so gentle in his disposition, that he never was angry with any man. Accordingly, his friends were wont to say of him, that if any one were to tread on his foot, he would ask for pardon, because he had been in the way. In the same city there lived a lawyer, who had to examine Ionides in the presence of the judges ; for his brother was on his trial, and Ionides was a witness. But as Ionides gave evidence that his brother had done no wrong, the lawyer tried by abuse to enrage him, in order that he might speak hastily before the judges, and so might be con- victed of false-witness. He, however, being naturally so gentle, disregarded the abuse, and answered whatever he asked truly and quietly. So the lawyer, perceiving that he was labouring in vain, himself got angry, and said to the witness with a bitter smile ' Go away, my friend : for I find that you are a very clever person.' But Ionides, not less gently than before, answered 'as he was going, ' I would say the same of you, if I had not sworn to speak true.' in his disposition, (ace). false witness, tyevtoiiapTvpito (vert). that he never, consec. § 49. whatever, indef . § SO. because, see causal sentences, § 89. witha bitter smile, ye\&vas.- had been, say ' was ' ; see § 148. / would, §c., see conditional sen- had to, use Self. tences, § 14. V. — Kauphateb and his Wife. Kauphates a certain king of the Persians, wronged the citizens so much with his pitiless tyranny, that they took counsel together, and seizing him violently threw him into the prison. He, however, although deserted by all his other friends, had a faithful wife. She being desirous of seeing her husband, asked the jailor to allow 'her to go into the prison : but he was so cruel that he refused, saying that a tyrant deserved no pity. At last, however, he was prevailed upon so far by seeing how beautiful she was and how wretched, that he buffered her to remain one day . with her husband, on condition that she left the prison before night. Accordingly when the night drew on, the jailor opened the door that she might go out : but to his great surprise she went quickly out without saying anything., Next "day Kau- phates remained in bed, his head wrapped up in cloths, as though he were very ill. Finding that he remained so many days, the jailor called in a ph^ei^,/^kfcHBb$*&g the cloths found that Part I.j EXERCISES. 107 it was not Kauphates but Ms wife. Thu3 by her art and faith- fulness the tyrant escaped. tyranny, rvpavvsia, tyrant, rbpavvos. to his great surprise .' put at end, and jailor, £- ninth, emros. in the day, gen. i XIII. — A Cup of Cold Water. Agrippa, having been condemned by Tiberius, on the charge of having spoken insolently of him, was placed in chains before the palace gate. Oppressed with the terrific heat of the sun, he felt that he should die of thirst, unless he could get some water. Seeing Thaumastus, a slave, pass by with a pitcher of water, he entreated him to give him leave to drink. The slave kindly gave him the pitcher ; and having drunk, ' Be sure,' he said, ' Thaumastus, that one day I shah be released from chains, and I shall not forget thy benevolence.' When Tiberius died, Agrippa was not only set free from prison by Caligula, but also soon after was chosen to occupy the throne of Judea. Having obtained this honour, he was not so base as to forget Thau- mastus ; but he sent for him, and told him that he would now pay the price for the water which he had drunk when a captive. So he appointed him steward of the ldng's house. on the charge, use as. § 1S9. occupy the throne, one word. speak insolently, AoiSope'ofiai. as to forget, oonsec. § 40. pittte£^ e - °^>yMm§§ni:f%8. 112 EXERCISES. [Part I. XIV. — Belpis m Bed. Once there was a king Belpis, who was wont to awake very- early in the day, as he had to do a great deal of work. As he grew old, however, so that he was weak with disease and weariness, he could not awake of his own accord : but as he was not willing to leave off working and superintending the affairs of his kingdom until he died, he ordered his slaves to arouse him. But since he knew that when aroused he would he unwilling to rise, and that his slaves would be unwilling to disturb bfm if they saw him angry, he threatened that he would punish them if he slept beyond his appointed time. * Accordingly, one day when the slave had aroused him, he begged that he might sleep a little more : for he was unwell and fatigued. The slave, however, would not allow him to remain in his bed, but even ventured to pull the royal legs. ' I will kill you,' roared his majesty, ' if you do not depart instantly.' ' Onlyarise,' replied the slave boldly, 'and then you will kill me more easily.' ' You are a brave fellow,' said the king, rising, ' and I will give you a talent for being so faithful.' one day, irore. would not allow, ccm&&.ex the meaning. until, § 86. his majesty, sense. for he was imwell, § 29. for being, causal. XV. EuRYTUS AND THE GOLD. When Eurytus arrived at Corinth, bringing with him all that gold and silver which he knew the people had heard of, he was much afraid of the Corinthians, since he knew there were many thieves in the city. Accordingly he devised the following plan. He took some large casks, and filled them with stones and lead, and placed some gold on the top : and then, in the presence of the Corinthians, he set these in the temple of Artemis, as though he had confidence in the sanctity of the place. Eor he said before all that he was afraid of the robbers, and that it was on that account that he deposited the gold with the goddess, that it might be kept more safely. But the rest of the gold he hid secretly in some hollow brazen statues, and he ordered these, as being old and worthless, to be taken out on carts, on the pretext that he was going to sell elsewhere the old brass. So the Corinthians guarded his casks, intending to cast about for some ground for detaining them ; but the real treasure he conveyed safely home. lead, fi.6\v®5os. cast about for, [think of meaning]. as though he had, lis with part. J 159. §109. carts, &iia$,ai. for detaining, ficrre. on the pretext, partic. Digitized by Mtm§W®' gold.' elsewhere, use nAActfe. Parti.] £X£RCIS£S. iv- XVL — Demophon and toe Slave. Demophon, who tad once been a slave, but ran away and escaped to Athens, once saw a slave of a friend of bis eat a fisli which he had stolen from his master and carried into the field. Demophon knew that it was stolen, for he had dined at his friend's the day before, and had seen it on the table. So he told the slave that unless he gave him gold he would accuse , him of the theft. ' What ! ' replied the slave, ' if I prove that not I am a thief, but jovlV 'If you can do that,' said Demophon, ' I will give you the gold.' ' First then,' replied the slave ' I am not a thief, for consider, he who steals takes away something from one man, so that it becomes the possession of another. But I belong to my master no less than the fish ; therefore if I eat this fish I do not steal it, but only move it from thence hither. And moreover if I am starved, I am useless ; so that in eating this I am guarding my master's property, which is the part of a faithful slave. But you, as you have stolen yourself from your master, are a thief ; and so much the more unjust, as you have stolen what is more precious than much gold.' Demophon did not see what to reply, but laughed and paid him the gold. had been, ' was.' in eating (participles). § 158. of the theft (use vert). part (omit). not I, use avToi, and see § 27. as you have . . ., Sac? belong to, ' am possession of.' XVII. — Darius and the Prisoneb, Darius once, accustomed as he was to go about the city, seeing if anyone was suffering anywhere unjust treatment, came to a large prison. And going in he found all the prisoners in a state of the bitterest lamentation, in the hope, that the king might see them and pity them, and so they might be released. And he went round and talked to them all in order, and asked them, why they had been condemned, so as to be put in prison. And one said that his judges had been bribed to condemn him falsely; and another that the witness had given false evidence ; and another pretended that he resembled in face the man who had committed the crime, being himself innocent v But all professed to have done nothing worthy of paying so great a penalty. At last Doj^^t^aflsaaiojSibting alone, and with a siDO.a.p.l i I 114 EXEliClSES. [Parti. gloomy aspect, and he asked him why he was in prison. He replied that he had stolen some gold. ' Get out of the place then ' said the king, as though indignant, ' for is it not a shame that this househreaker should live with such honest men t ' So he was let go, and the others remained in prison. treatment. § 101. evidence. § 99. in a state of. § 100. of paying. § 39. in the hope that, use elirus with opt. get out, use t/nrrarw. had been bribed: put bribed partic, shame that, Zeaibv ei. § 32. and condemn, principal verb. housebreaker, Toix"pix os - XVIII. — Titus and the Beae. Titus the huntsman was one day wandering in the wood when hearing a noise behind a tree, he looked up, and saw a bear embracing the tree with its feet, as if just about to ascend. The tree was between them, so that neither could Titus nor his brother, see the bear (except the claws), nor the bear them. Thereupon Titus silently approached, and seizing the beast by the claws prevented him from climbing, or moving, at all. But neither could he himself let go, for he perceived that the bear would seize him, so he bade his brother run home and fetch his bow. At last after he had waited a long time as though in chains, and, utterly exhausted, was about to let go, he saw his brother approaching. ' Why have you been so long 1 ' said he ; and he replied that he had found the people at home dining, so he had stayed to dinner. ' Catch hold of the claws,' said Titus, ' that I may kill him : for I can manage the bow better.' So his brother caught hold : and then ' I too will go home,' said Titus, ' and when I have had my dinner I will come and kill the bear.' by the claivs (prepositions). stayed to dinner, make 'dined' from climbing (prepositions). Also principal verb. § 130. ' ' cateh hold of. § 173. let go. § 173. manage better, use e/tTreipos, ' sial- ism so long, ' are you away so long.' f ul.' the people at home, use article and when I have had. § 156. adverb ofroi. XIX. — The Boys and the Earthquake. There lived at Corin^^h^w^ad two sons, and who, Part, I.] EXERCISES. 115 as lie was a foolish man, did not carry out the advice of sensible friends about his boys, but trusted in all things to oracle-mongers and impostors of all sorts. And once an old soothsayer came to Corinth, who foretold that after no long interval of time there would be an earthquake in the city, which would destroy not the older people, but the children. At a loss what he should do, the father resolved at last to send the boys out of the way of the danger, considering that he himself was safe. So he sent them to a friend at Athens, begging him by a letter to maintain them and look after them till the earthquake should occur. The children having arrived, at first were orderly, and did nothing else than what they were ordered, only admiring the house and, the animals that were kept there. But at last they took to mischief, injuring the things and beasts in the house. For they shaved the cat, and hung up the monkey by his tail, arid so forth. So at last the Athenian wrote to the Corinthian, say- ing he would rather have their earthquake than such children. carry out advice, do . . . advised. considering that, iis. § 159. § 99. till. § 86. oracle-monger, xpioyjoAi^yos. mischief, itaiiii. lifter , . interval (prepositions) ■ shaved, £vpw. what he should do (deliberative). monkey, m'fhjKoy. § 10 — § 13, ly his tail, gen. XX. — DiOCLES AND THE ROBBEE. Diocles was a philosopher who was so poor that he did not fear lest, he should be robbed, and therefore was accustomed to leave his house at night open and unguarded. For he knew that thieves always find out where gold is collected, before they enter a house : nor would anyone be so foolish as to incur danger of death, except for the sake of the greatest gain. One night, however, Diocles was lying on his bed, when he saw a thief come in, and go round searching everything, in the hope of finding some gold 'or valuable possession. The thief did not perceive that Diocles was awake, as he held his peace and lay cjuite still : yet the philosopher saw him clearly, since it was too dark for the other to see if his eyes were open. At last when he had sought everywhere in vain, he began to utter terrible curses against Diocles, but in a low voice, lest he should wake : and when Diocles heard this, he said ' Hush, my friend ; and do not by any nj^fig e b3 J> fl*gB&>£fl®I indeed am sorry that you are unable, to discover any gold : but if I who live here n6 EXERCISES. [Parti. cannot find any in the day time, how can one expect that a stranger conld light upon it by night ? ' open (use partic). utter curses, ' curse.' before. § 85, etc. in a lino voice, ' speaking quietly ' one night, ' once at night. (or) ' secretly.' held his peace. §110. light upon it (meaning). it was too dark, say, ' on account of the darkness,' etc., or § 58. XXI. — The Athenian - and the Frog. An Athenian once fell in with a Boeotian who was sitting by the roadside, looking at a frog. Seeing the other approach, the Boeotian said his was a remarkable frog, and asked if ha would agree to start a contest of frogs, on condition that he whose frog jumped furthest should receive a large sum of money. The Athenian replied that he would if the other would fetch him a frog, for the lake was near. To this lie agreed : and when he was gone, the Athenian took the frog, and opening its mouth, poured some stones into its stomach, so that it did not indeed seem larger than before, but could not jump. The Boeotian soon returned with the other frog and the contest began. The second frog first was pinched, and jumped moderately : then they pinched the Boeotian frog. And ho gathered himself as though for a leap, and used the utmost effort, but could not move his body the least. So the Athenian departed with the money. When he was gone the Boeotian, wondering what was the matter with the frog, lifted him up and examined him. And being turned upside down, he opened his mouth and vomited out the stones. fell in with, ' met.' for the lake, etc. \ 29. frog, fidrpaxos. pinch, iriefcu t;7 X e 'P'- stare, Trapao-Keudfav. as though for', \ 6. on condition that. \ C9 — \ 64. -utmost effort, say irTtaa Ttx'V- large sum, say ' much.' not the least, ou5' utwvv. XXII.— TlIEODOItUS AND THE GaIXOWS. Theodoras was so clever that whenever he was present at a banquet the company never listened to anyone else, and every- one was delighted w^fch%dt>pmimfed8&ing and laughter. One day be described how he and a friend had been riding together, Parti.] EXERCISES. 117 by night through a desolate country, and they came at last to a hill, on the top of which there was a gallows. As they passed the gallows, Theodoras was anxious to see if there was any dead man there. But on examining closely he discovered that it was empty. So he told his friend that the last resident had gone from home, and that the tene- ment was empty now if any stranger wished to try it. There- upon the friend laughed ; hut wishing to poke fun at Theodoras, said to him, as though he were reflecting how sinful men are, ' Ah, my friend, if the laws of men were just, and we all met with the fate we deserved, where would you be now V ' I should be less happy than I am,' said Theodoras. ' You would, indeed,' said the friend, pointing to the gallows. ' Yes,' said Theodoras, ' for I should be riding alone.' company, use 01 with partio. resident, ' dweller.' incessant, m\is. gone from home, use iKtinixm. talking, \6yoi. tenement (sense). had been riding. § 148. pokeftm, aKimreiv. on the top of, iirt. sinful, ' unjust.' gallows, icvtpuv. the fate, ' the things.' closely (compound verb). Consult here, Orat. Obliq. and Conditionals, § 23 — § 48, and § 11 — § 19. XXIII. — Pheres and Iocles. When King Pheres began to' reign, he resolved that as his father had been so detestable to all men for his perjury and un- trustworthiness, he himself at least would see that truth should be honoured. And since his, land was bounded by a river, and there was only one bridge, which anyone who wanted to visit the country must cross, he ordered that a gallows should be set up close to the bridge, and that each man who came over the bridge should be asked about himself ; who he was, where he came from, and what he was going to do : and if any answered falsely in anywise, he bade them hang him on the gallows. But Iocles the philosopher came that way, who had boasted to his friends that he would give such an answer that they should not know what to do with him : and his friends went with him, wondering what he would say. So when he was asked what he intended to do in Pheres' country, he replied that he was about, to be put to death on the gallows. And this reply perplexed them much : for if thgv^^uji^hjriy g r $$)$$, then his words would I iS EXERCISES. [Parti. be true, and lie -would die innocent : but if they did not kill him, then he was a liar, and deserved the gallows. for. § 111. oj2thegallows,'/nim'theGri'eeksEay. he himself. § 27. what to do with, use ri, xpijfftfai. anyone who. § 1S5. would be true, use f«A.Aa>. gallows, nitpiov. XXIV.— Pheres and Ioachius. When he was a young man, King Pheres, who lived always among flatterers, fancied that he surpassed all people so far in playing the lyre, that not even the famous Lydian players could he compared to him. And hearing one day that Ioachius, who was the best of all mankind at playing the lyre, was coming to the city, he sent for him, and asked hrm if he would teach him his art. This he did, not because he thought he was inferior to Ioachius, but in order that he might be able to show off his excellence. Ioachius, however, pretended to understand him simply, and said he would try to teach him. After Pheres had been practising tinder the guidance of the other for some months, he collected his ministers to hear a musical contest. The king then played on the lyre, and all praised him vehemently ; but seeing Ioachius was silent, he turned and asked him how much he had improved in the art. The master replied : ' king, theije sire three kinds of musicians : some know much, some know little, and some know nothing at all : and your majesty has practised so diligently that you have passed from the third kind to the second.' could be compared, _' were equal.' lenow much, liriorctnai, of skill. at playing, infinitive. your majesty' t sense). guidance. § 100. *' XXV. — Babylonian Marriage. Among many singular laws which the Babylonians have, thte most singular is that about the women. It is as follows : In each village there is a festival once a year, to which all the maidens are collected who are to be married, and when they are all there, a herald, standing up in the midst of the crowd, sells each one in order. And the crowd is always huge, eager to behold and to buy the women. And first the most beautiful is sold, and then whoey^/atojhWasdfefest to look upon. And all Parti.] EXERCISES. ng likewise, until they come to the ugly and shapeless and crippled woinen, whom no one wants to have. For the rich men contend for the most beautiful, and the poorer for those who have less beauty.* And when the sale is over, all the gold is collected, and they count it, how much it amounts to. And from this sum they givo gifts to the ugly ones, that they too may obtain marriage. For even if a man is unwilling to have an ugly wife for her own sake, yet with a dowry he would gladly take her : so that at last all find husbands. among many, say, ' there are both sale is over, use verb ' to sell.' § 99. many other,' etc. amounts to (sense) . are to be (sense). § 109. for her own sake, herself for hoi fir the most, use irepi. , own sake. XXVI. — Padius on a Staircase. Padius was a man who so delighted everybody by his clever- ness, and by his unexpected replies when he was asked questions, that many ridiculous things are related about him. Once, having met a friend in the city, he asked him to come to his new house, which was recently built, to dine with him alone. And after the dinner was ended, he begged him to come with him into the upper room, for he would show him some valuable books which he had. And the friend having ascended, seemed to be very much out of breath : so Padius, wondering what was the matter, asked him if he was diseased in his chest : 'for he would scarcely be so weary if he were well. But the other, fancying he was jesting (since he was fat), answered angrily that he should blame the house, for the staircase was so steep that it nearly killed a man, to climb it. But Padius replied, ' It was built so on purpose, that it might be hard to climb, and easy to descend : for I have learnt by experience that if I go up once a day, I come down ten times.' by unexpected replies, use ' unex- that it nearly hilled, make ' a man ' peotedly replying.' § 39. the subject. are related. § 53. to climb it, part. upper room, impfov. a day, gen. for he would, etc. \ 89., XXVII. — Padius and his Wife. ' Padius, although orpyg^y tyqmmhd® tore grief easily, yet' 120 EXERCISES. [PartJ, when his wife died, "whom he loved excessively, was plunged into the extremity of grief. Nor could any of his acquaintances comfort him, so as to lessen his sorrow, till at last he heard that a friend of his, whom he had loved from his hoyhood, was coming to the city. This man had been absent from home many years : but when he arrived at the city, and heard that the wife of Padius was dead, it seemed best to him not to go at once to his friend : for he feared lest the poor man's grief might only be increased if he saw a stranger in his house. Since, however, the friends of Padius intreated him to go and converse with him, he sent first a messenger to the mourner, and asked if he was willing to talk to him : and Padius replied that he would see him gladly. But when he came and saw how miserable he was, he was at a loss what to say : but after a short silence he thought he should best console him if he did not chatter about other matters, but touched on the grief itself. So he asked, ' When did this calamity occur tc you?' and Padius, weeping bitterly, replied, ' If the poor woman had lived till to-morrow, she would have been dead thirty days.' the extremity. §101. grief increased. {20, lessen, use inaXXavaa. iiknec. § 100. till. § 81. XXVIII. — Padius and Maonius. On another occasion Padius was travelling with a friend, and came by night to an inn : and having discovered that the inn was not full, they went in. And as soon as they had come in Padius perceived a man seated at a distance, and after narrowly observing him, he came close up to his friend, and secretly spoke to him as follows : ' My friend, do you see that person who sits there writing and drinking wine? I think it is a person named Maonius, whom I knew long ago, when I was living in my fatherland.' 'Then,' replied his companion, 'if you think he is a dear acquaintance, why do you stay here chattering to me, and not approach him and welcome him as a true friend should V ' I am not surprised that you speak thus to me,' replied Padius; but if you listen you will confess that I am prudent. For the fact is, I am not certain that it is Maonius : and ho is so timid a man by nature, and so una<£M5mW WfmMy, that if it proves to Part I.] EXERCISES. be not he, but some stranger, he will be in extreme distress from shamo and embarrassment : so I really don't know what to do.' narrowly (sense). society, use to Irepots ijuXfiv or a dear acquaintance, ' dear and,' etc. IvyyeviaBai. and not, ' but not.' proves, use SijAos yiyvioOai. friend should (sense). from shame, see Jill, and Prepo- surprised that. § 32. sitions. certain that, say ' whether.' XXIX. — Padius and Neon. There lived in the same city as Padius a man named Neon, who at the advice of a physician (since he was unwell) resolved to go to Sicily ; but since the physician would not let him go alone, for fear he might be ill on his journey and not find any- one to help him, Neon asked his friends to accompany him. But as they all refused, not being able to leave their affairs, or their wives, or for some such cause, Neon at last managed that it should be proclaimed publicly to the city, that if any young man would go with him to Sicily, and take care of him, he would himself provide all the money and necessaries, whatever was required for the journey. And after this announcement had been made, Neon waited many days, hoping that he should persuade some one to come with him by supplying the', money : tut still no one appeared. At last, just as he was about to abandon hope, and try some other method, Padius came to his house. Neon. did not know him, but when he saw him he was delighted : for he judged he would be a good companion. ' You are the person,' said Padius, ' who proclaimed that you wanted a companion.' ' Certainly,' said Neon, with great joy. ' Then I just come to "tell you that I can't be your companion,' said Padius. at the advice. § 100. by supplying. § 157. for fear. § 100, $ 192. appeared (sense). §114. managed that [that expresses the know (as an acquaintance), -yyoi- result in Greek) . §50. p!fr>. announcement. § 99. certainly. § 183. XXX. — Obstinacy. The Thracians are said to be so hard and obstinate in their disposition, that it ^grfe^^yiMijwsafiSfe to persuade them of EXERCISES-, [Part I. anything, even if one speaks most cleverly. And there was a Thracian, who lived alone without relations, and passed his time so unchangingly that the people in the city said in jest that not even if an earthquake took place would he do anything contrary to his cifetoni, or change his mind ahout anything. And once when he was ill, and did not know what was the matter, he sent for the doctor. And when he came, he asked (the better to discover his complaint) what he had eaten the day lief ore : and the Thracian replied, twelve lampreys. And the doctor laughed, and said it was no wonder he was ill in his stomach after eating so many ,; for had he hut eaten twenty he would have died. But the Thracian persisted it was not owing to the lampreys that he was ill : for he usually dined so. And when the doctor was gone he went out and bought twenty lam- preys, and boiled and ate them : then immediately went to the top of the house and threw himself down, "and was killed. Thus he clearly proved it was possible to eat twenty lampreys and not to die of them. pass time, oicryw. no wonder. § 32. unchangingly, kklvtitus. lamprey, /xvpaiva. anything (negative). to eat and not to die (one should bo the better, 'in order that better.' participle). had eaten, use tv/x^" '- § *^3 and of them (sense). § HI. $ 169. XXXI. — Talihantes and the Ugly Man. There lived in the city a certain man, by name Talirantes, who. was so clever that when he was present at a feast there was much laughter, and all the guests used generally to listen to him alone. But once he went to a banquet where was a man, vain and boorish, who desired to engross the conversation himself, and that the others should be silent. And whenever Talirantes or anybody else tried to speak, this man always interrupted, and began bragging about himself, and his wealth, and his ancestors. , And at last everybody was quite disgusted with him, and looked to Talirantes, hoping that he would say something clever, so that this ignorant person should be vanquished, and hold his peace. But Talirantes only listened, smiling as though he were pleased with the fellow. And he, having boasted much of his noble birth, at length began to praise his mother, saying she was far the most beautiful woman of her time. And this seemed all the more outrageous to ^'%$r%sf ^g s $Phiraself was hideous to Parti.] EXERCISES. 123 behold. But amid the general silence Talirantes, pleasantly smiling, said, ' It was your father then who was less beautiful.' generally, &s ^ttI t& iro\i5. fellow, uvQpunros. engross the conversation, § 110 : of Ms noble birth. § 103. use dyopiinv, ' to harangue.' saying (omit^. and that. § 47. of her time, twv i(p' eavrris. hold his peace. § 110. amid general silence. §100. XXXIL— -Talirantes and Ion. Talirantes happened once to be in the city at the time when a-certain sophist, named Ion, was living there, who professed to be able to teach all philosophy, so that all the citizens eagerly sent their sons to him that they might learn, gladly paying large sums of money. But when two years had gone by, and the young men did not seem to be growing wiser, nay, rather began to despise the sophist and neglect learning, at last the citizens, repenting of their mistake, cast about to got rid of this sophist, and find another more skilful to teach their sons. And one man said he knew of a Sicilian sophist, whose fame was so great, that people came even from Asia to hear him ; this man, he heard, was coming to the city, and if they tried, perhaps they could persuade him to teach the young men instead of Ion. And he, having arrived, and being asked, agreed to do so : and it seemed good to the citizens that the fathers should hear him first, that they might know whether they ought to send their sons. And there was collected so great a crowd to hear him, that they could with difficulty enter; and when he had finished speaking, Talirantes said, ' "Who could have expected we should long for the good Ion so soon?' so that all. § 53. mistake (concrete). § 102. sophist, aoiptorfis. cast about (sense). § 110. nay rather, naWov 11.lv olv. and if they tried, 5 51. XXXIII. — Talirantes and the Princesses. Another time Talirantes was invited to the royal house, that he might delight the two princesses by his conversation, as they were rather dispirited by the death of a dog which they were fond pf. And one of these maidens was ugly, but the other was very beautiful. And Talirantes did by no means converse only with the beautWftfe^TMff r <8Sf?iis very best that they 124 EXERCISES. [Part I. might both be equally pleased, so that there should be no jealousy between them. At last the ugly one, observing that he was most careful to assign her a fair share of the discourse, said smilingly, in order to poke fun at him, ' Talirantes, if my sister and I were to fall into a river before your eyes, which of us would you try to rescue 1 And he embarrassed, and gazing at each in turn at last replied to the ugly one, '0 princess, do you not know how to swim 1 ' Another time a friend who did not perform what he had promised, pleaded an excuse that the time was deficient. Talirantes replied, ' I suppose you have all that there is.' » princesses, ' daughters of the king,' poke fun,