Clarnell lUnitierBitg Slttitatg at^ara. N»ni f orb .Colajrabia. UntveT.s.it^..Lfbrary i.n.exchgsiS9. Cornell University Library PC 2840.M54 Semantics of doublets studied in Old and 3 1924 027 253 222 The original of tliis book is in tine Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924027253222 ALBERT D. MENUT. Ph. D. The Semantics of Doublets studied in Old and Middle French CARRANZA & COMPANY New York, 1922 The Semantics OF Doublets studied in OLD AND MIDDLE FRENCH by ALBERT DOUGLAS MENUT Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy, in the Faculty of Philosophy, Columbia University. NEW YORK 1922 (:()UH1 M- Fo/ (\s^o'^^s TO MY PARENTS, VHO HAVE MADE MY STUDIES POSSIBLE. The following study has been accepted by the De- partment of Romance Languages and Literatures of Columbia University as an original and useful contribu- tion to scholarship. H. A. TODD. August, IQZ2. PREFACE As an undergraduate at the University of Michigan, the author's interest in the subject of Semantics was aroused by the study of Breal's Essai de semantique and Wundt's Volkerpsychologie, which were read in a course in general linguistics given under the supervision of Professor Clarence L. Header. Some time later, while in quest of a subject for a doctoral dissertation, the author received from Professor H. A. Todd, of Columbia Uni- versity, the suggestion that he investigate the problem of the semantics of doublets in the Romance languages. Upon investigation, it was found that the sem^mtics of French doublets had already been treated in a dissertation, tJber die Bedeutungsentwicklung der Scheideworter des franzosischen, by Ewald Thomsen, Kiel, i8go. The brevi- ty of that work, however, and the notable advance which has been made in etymological studies in recent years seemed to warrant a further canvassing of the subject. The present volume is an attempt to present the case in the light of sound and recent methods of linguistic in- vestigation. At the outset it was intended to cover the semantics of Romance doublets in general; but it early became evident that the attempt to make a study of the entire field was too ambitious an undertaking and would involve too long a period of research. The study was accordingly The Semantics of Doublets limited to French doublets, and even here it seemed best to restrict the investigation to words appearing textuaUy in the period preceding 1530, and to concentrate attention upon those groups which upon actual experiment were found to be most interesting and instructive in tkdr semantic development. The practical classification of doublets here presented (namely, according to the various sources — ecclesiastical, legal, etc. — from which they were introduced into the language) was arrived at in- dependently by the present author. It was, in a sense, a gratifying corroboration of the author's method to discover later that a similar plan had been adopted by a German doctoral candidate, Hans Keck, whose dissertation on a kindred subject, Die lateinischen lehnwortlichen Sub- stantiva (Konkreta) im neufranzosichen, Darmstadt, igiy, appeared some time before the inception of the present work, but owing to the vicissitudes of intercommumcation during and immediately after the World Wftr was not obtainable in this country until recently. To reach a thoroughly satisfactory working definition of the term doublets proved to be a knotty problem, which was at last solved with only a relative degree of accuracy. Another investigator might have found it desirable to approach the subject from quite a different angle. The author's preference for the historical rather than the psy- chological approach to the solution of semantic problems will probably meet with little objection on the part of philologists, who, it would appear, are in the main agreed that it is better to await further development of the science The Semantics of Doublets of psychology before attempting to apply psychological methods to the study of semantics. It is hoped that the introduction, as an appendix, of a fairly complete word-list of French doublets etymolo- gically as nearly accurate as possible, will be of general usefulness to those interested in the subject. Without the scholarly advice and unfailing interest of Professor H. A. Todd, of Columbia University, this work would doubtless long since have been consigned to the limbo of unrealized ambitions. For this sympathetic guidance the author wishes to express deep indebtedness. Professors J. L. Gerig and Federico de Onis have given valuable suggestions concerning the treatment of the sub- ject, and have aided in many details of the bibliography. To Visiting Professor Anatole Chamard and to Professors Raymond Weeks and Dino Bigongiari the author owes grateful recognition for painstaking and fruitful criticism of the text. Professors R. H. Fife and A. J. Barnouw have kindly assisted with elucidation of the Germanic etymolo- gies involved. The author's colleague, Mr. E. M. Bowman has kindly aided in the correcting of the proofs. New York City, August, 1922. TABLE OF CONTENTS Page Abbreviations 12 INTRODUCTION I. — Historical 13 II. — Doublets Defined 23 PART I. The Old French Period Chapter I. — Doublets of Ecclesiastical Origin 33 Chapter II. — Doublets of Law-Court Origin 62 Chapter III. — Doublets of Scientific Origin 72 PART II. The Middle French Period Chapter IV. — Humanistic Influence 85 Chapter V. — Influence of the Rhetoriqueurs....... _ 103 Conclusion 12S APPENDIX I. Tentative list of authentic doublets 131 APPENDIX II. Tentative list of pseudo-doublets 161 Bibliography 16S Index to Words Studied in Detail 171 11 ABBREVIATIONS A. Gl. It. Archivio Glottologico Italiano. A. L. L. Archiv fur Lateinische Lexicographic. Brunot Ferdinand Brunot, Histoire de la Langue frangaise. G. Frederic Godefroy, Lexique de I'ancien fran- gais. H. D. T. Hatzfeld, Darmesteter and Thomas, Diction- naire general de la Langue frangaise (Stb edition, 1920). M-L. Wilhelm Meyer-Liibke, Romanisches Etymo- logisches Worterbuch. N. Nyrop, Grammaire historique de la Langue frangaise. R. Romania. W. Thesaurus Linguae Latinae, E. Wolfflin editus. Z. r. Ph. Zeitschrift filr romanische Philologie. 12 THE SEMANTICS OF DOUBLETS STUDIED IN OLD AND MIDDLE FRENCH INTRODUCTION I. — Historical The term 'doublet' is commonly employed to designate each of the members, in a given language, of a group of two or more words having the same etymological origin or etymon; e.g., aout, auguste; bldmer, blasphemer. The study of doublets, as thus understood, began in the seventeenth century. Their presence in French must, one would suppose, have been detected by Menage (1613-1692)^, an et3anologist of surprising range and penetration for his time, as is evidenced by his Origines de la langue jrangaise (Paris, 1650). However, in his printed works, there is no reference to doublets. The word 'doublet' itself, as well as the idea connoted by it, appears for the first time, so far as known, in the unique and ingenious treatise of one Nicholas Catherinot, "avocat du roi et son conseiller au presidial de Bourges," published at Bourges in 1683 and bearing the title Les Doublets de la langue frangaise. In this work the author claims to ' According to several critics it was Menage who is satirized by Molicre in the Femmes Savantes, where he appears as "Vadius" (Act III, sc. 3). 13 The Semantics of Doublets be the discoverer of "doublets," of which he has collected 468 examples, exhibiting in his attempted etymologies the very limited knowledge of philology common to his age. A few examples reproduced from the list of Catherinot will serve to illustrate some of the entertaining and surprising peculiarities of his point of view. Thus,' according to Catherinot, Lat. BATTUEEE givcs battre and tuer " CABALLiCARE " chevauckcr and galoper " OENARE " orner, fournir and garnir " PETRA " pierre and bi^re " VERRUCA " terrue and roche In commenting upon Catherinot's work, Brachet, in his Dictionnaire des doublets," states that he has had occasion to reject 308 of his predecessor's examples. Of the 160 retained by Brachet, it has been found desirable for various reasons, in the present study, to discard in turn a considerable number. Catherinot's characterization of doublets is worthy of being quoted here: "J'appelle doublets les diverses traductions du meme nom. . . Cette recherche servira pour entendre les origines, les differences et les energies des mots, et a quelques autres usages; enfin c'est une curiosite." In point of fact, his work has proved especially valuable in stimulating that same curiosite in others.^ ' Auguste Brachet (1844-1898) Dictionnaire des Doublets fran^ (ais. Paris, 1868-71. ' Catherinot seems to have been a prolific writer of opuscules on varied subjects, principally on questions of law and on history. 14 The Semsntica of Doubleta It may be said, in general, that the eighteenth century was satisfied to accept the philological data and opinions of its predecessor. With the exception of the brilliant article by Turgot in the Encyclopedie — a premonition of the future development of philological science — little advance was made by the grammarians and lexicographers of the siecle de raison, who for the most part were con- tented to remodel, or rather to reproduce, the dictionaries of the preceding century. Serious interest in the direction of lexicology and lexicography was destined to await the appearance, in the first half of the next century, of the epoch-marking studies of the brothers Grimm, Raynouard, Diez and Egger. Beginning with a brief study of Latin doublets by Michel Breal* in 1867, the years following saw the public- ation of various works (in several languages) on the subject of doublets. In 1868, as noted, Brachet published his well- known Dictionnaire des doublets — the first important con- tribution to the study of the subject and the probable inspi- ration of subsequent studies.^ Of these later contributions, that of Carolina Michaelis is most voluminous, providing a catalogue fairly complete for French, Spanish and Por- tuguese." In 1878, Canello^ published a list of Italian The mention of his works occupies some seven pages in the Ca- talogue general de la Bibliotheque Nationale, vol. 24. The opuscle on doublets is there given as consisting of 12 pages in quarto, dated Sept. IS, 1683. * Michel Breal, Les doublets latins, in Memoires de Linguisti- que. Vol. i, p. 162-70. Paris, 1867. " Brachet's etymologies depend largely upon Diez' Etymolo- gisches Worterbuch and are usually satisfactory. ° Studien zur Romanischen Wortschopfung; Leipzig, 1876. In IS The Semantics of DonbleU doublets, and Behaghel* a study of German doublets. All of these treatises concern themselves chiefly with the phonetic development of the forms; for the present day their most valuable feature is the lists which they contain. As for English doublets their compilation was first under- taken by Professor W. W. Skeat in his Etymological Dic- tionary (1888). Carefully considered additions to his list have been made by Professor E. W. Sheldon in Webster's International Dictionary (edition of 189S and following editions) and by E. A. Allen, in the Publications of the Modem Language Association.^ The essential characteristic of doublets is that each member of the group possesses semantic individuality — that is, a connotation differing to some extent from that of its etymological congener. In fact, when no difference of meaning exists, it will be discovered that the group does not constitute a pair of doublets but merely exhibits orthographical variation.^" The purely external form of the words involved is less important than their meaning. In order to establish the existence of a relationship be- this work, a copy of Brachet's list is incorporated with additional groups, much less accurate, by the author. The list of Portuguese doublets is a copy of the work of Coelho, first published in Romania ii, 281-90 (1873). The list of Spanish doublets is original and still remains the only work of its kind dealing with that language. ' A. Gl. It., iii, 28S-419. GU AUotropi Italiani. " O. Behaghel; Die Neuhockdeutschen ZwUlingsworter. Ger- mania, xxiii. " Pub. Modern Lang. Association; xxiii, pp. 18S ff. (1908). '<> Paul, Principien der Sprachgeschickte ii, 210; calls groups like beau, bel; mou, mol; etc., phonetic doublets of euphony. 16 The Semantica of Doublets tween the words investigated, it is necessary to determine their common etymology, and only through acquaintance with the phonetic development of the forms can this be accomplished. Semantics, then, as a science is very largely dependent upon the establishment of an accurate knowl- edge of the phonology of a given language. Thus only can we hope to discover the underlying laws governing the development of meanings in the language. In reviewing Breal's Essai de Semantique,^^ Professor Antoine Thomas thus expresses himself upon this basic consideration:^^ "Or, il faut le proclamer bien haut, im essai de seman- tique n'est possible dans une langue que quand la phone- tique historique de cette langue est connue a fond. La phonetique est la base indispensable de la semantique, comme de la linguistique meme, et toute speculation qui ne se fondera pas sur elle ne sera qu'un aimable jeu d'esprit sans portee scientifique." It was both natural and necessary that philologists should apply themselves first of all to the formulation of definite phonetic principles. Three generations of scholars have dedicated themiselves to the perfecting of the science of et)Tnology, and much yet remains to be accomplished. William D wight Whitney, writing in 1875 in his Life and Growth of Language, pointed out the lack of attention thus far given to the study of the science of significations. "No one has yet tried to classify the processes of signifi- cant change." His own work shows how keen was his Michel Br^l, Essai de Semantique. Paris, 1897, 5th ed. 1921. Essais de Philologie fran(aise; p. 170. Paris, 1897. 17 The Semantics of Doubleta interest in the subject. The attention of philologists was even more forcibly turned toward the study of semantics by the publication, in 1877, of Darmesteter's Creation actuelle des mots nouveaux dans la Langue frangaise et les lots que la regissent. In the well-known Vie des Mots, by the same author, the science was established upon a secure basis. Shortly after the publication of the latter work (1888) there appeared the only study hitherto de- voted exclusively to the semantics of doublets: Ueber die Bedeutungsentwickelung der Scheideworter des Franzo- sischen, inaugural dissertation by E. Thomsen (Kiel, 1890). This work, consisting of sixty pages, is of in- sufficient compass to admit of an adequate treatment of the subject. The conclusions arrived at are based upon generalizations which in no wise exhaust the varied and complex problems involved. Moreover, our etymtological knowledge has been greatly enriched since the appearance of Thomsen 's study. Thomsen was not provided with the solid historical background furnished by the Dictionnaire general nor the secure etymological basis furnished by Meyer-Liibke's Romanisches Etymologisches Wbrter- buch; while to Breal^^ we owe the formulation of a method and the e^x)sition of definite tendencies upon which to base more detailed analysis. Recent interest in the subject of semantics is shown to have been keen by the fact that in 1914 CoUin foimd it possible to list " Since the publication of Br^al's Essai de Simantique, the advance of the science of semantics has been rapid. It was at Breal's suggestion that the older terms 'sematology' and 'semasio- logy' were definitely supplanted by the simpler 'semantics'. 18 The Semantics of Doublets over three hundred titles of books and articles dealing with the general subject.^* For the study of the development of meanings of words It is essential to trace the history and use of the words investigated from their beginnings in the early texts and follow their development through the centuries. Being limited to a study of written documents, we promptly become aware of the inadequacy of the recorded examples. Darmesteter discussed the situation as follows {Diction- naire general, Intro., p. xviii) : "Ce travail serait moins ardu si Ton avait depuis I'origine du franqais des exemples de tous les mots avec leur emploi aux differentes epoques de la langue; on re- trouverait avec certitude, dans cette succession de textes, la marche suivie par la pensee; on pourrait noter le moment oh a commence telle ou telle transformation. Malheureusement, nous ne possedons qu'une tres faible partie des documents ecrits au moyen age; I'absence de textes depuis les origines jusqu'au IX™* siecle, leur rarete du IX?"« au XII™« siecle laissent une lacune considerable dans ITiistoire de la formation de la langue. . . on est reduit au temoignage incomplet, irregulier des ecrits qui nous restent." In spite of the insufficiency of the records, there re- mains an abimdance of material from which may be drawn approximate conclusions concerning the history of words. For the study of the semantics of the French language in particular we are provided with the lexical '* Carl S. R. Collin, Bibliographical Guide to Sematology; Lund, 1914. 19 The SemanticB of Donblets material of the DicHonnaire general and the more recent contributions in learned publications. The Lexique de I'ancien jrangais of Godefroy, defective as it is in many details, is a veritable store-house of information almost untouched up to the present time by the students of semantics. Let us hope that Spanish and Itsilian will ere long be provided with similar resources for research. Since 1900, Wundt^' and other eminent scholars have tried to discover the psychological processes governing the development of meanings; yet up to the present time, we are without any exhaustive and authoritative exposition of the problems involved. To a large extent words change their meaning at the will of him who uses them, in disregard of any fixed rules that have been foimd to be applicable in order to establish methods or definite lines of development. The Greek and Roman grammarians, however, had early learned to ana- lyze the various modes of semantic change; these they designated imder the general term 'figures of speech': metaphor, metonymy, simile — in short, all the so-called figures of speech. Breal pushed the analysis still further by describing the result of the use of the word in figura- tive meanings, — metonymy resulted in 'pejoration,' syn- ecdoche resulted in 'amelioration,' etc. Then the psy- chologists endeavored to explain the mental processes in- volved in mietaphor and the other figures; according to them, these could all be explained on the basis of as- sociative processes. But psychology has not determined " Wilhelm Wundt, Volkerpsychologie; vol. i, p. 541 ff. Leip- zig, edition of 1911. 20 The Semantics of Doablets the limits of probable extension of meaning; it has demon- strated rather that these limits are indeterminable and not to be restricted by scientific definition. So the problems of semantics as a science wait, like history, upon the formulation of those elusive laws which men feel must exist, but which seem to lie just beyond the apprehension of the human mind. Like history, semantics remains an analytical science. Provided we have sufficient documenta- tion we nniay explain the development of the meanings of a given word just as the historian explains the develop- ment of a social or political institution, pointing out the various influences which have served to produce a given result. But since the possible variation of influences or causes is infinite, it is impossible to foresee the develop- ment which will take place for any given word. The complexity of the elements involved precludes the pos- sibility of establishing exact formulae upon which to base predictions of fiirther developments. Those who have most insisted upon the application of psychological prin- ciples to the study of semantics have been reduced to the presentation of a large body of purely historical material, interspersed with occasional intimations to the effect that the change of meaning was due to metaphor or pejoration or to some other of the possible modes of semantic change. The small amount of emphasis laid in actual practice by the advocates of psychological methods upon the psy- chological problems involved, is hardly sufficient to justify the contention that "I'etude des significations est au fond et en demiere analyse une etude psychologique et logique." 21 The Semantics of Donblets (Cf. L. MacGregor, Les Principes logiques de la Seman- tique. Grenoble, 1909, p. 103.) Nevertheless, the value of the study of semantics is in no wise lessened by the restrictions within which lies the sphere of its useful application. In fact, the acknowl- edgement of the limitations of the science is one of the first steps necessary for the practical enlargement of our range of knowledge of the facts; and philologists were naturally first attracted to the positive branch of their science — namely, phonology — for which quite definite processes were discoverable. Since it was found to be more difficult to discover and classify the semantic pro- cesses, the study of them was for a long time unattempted. Various reasons might be offered in explanation of this belated interest in semiantics. First, the study of the latter could begin only when the knowledge of phonetics had been highly developed; second, the external form of the word, apart from its context, furnished the most natural and most obvious material for study; third, the spirit of the age favored experimental science as opposed to the more elusive problems of intuitional or historical science. Toward the end of the nineteenth century, the methods of philology were improved and the field of study expanded. As a result of the increased attention given to semantics, General Linguistics appeared in the curricula of univer- sities where the study of philology had hitherto received scanty attention. The cultural reaction was both im- portant and wide-spread. Teachers for whom phonetics had constituted the sine qua non of instruction in the small classes of philology, foimd in semantics a new and 22 The Semantics of Doublets invigorating source of interest for the basic science of phonology. Of late, scholars have begun seriously to oc- cupy themselves with the problems of semantics, as is clearly demionstrated by the role allotted to the subject by recent grammarians and linguistic scholars generally. (Cf. A. Meillet, Linguistique historique et linguistique generate, Rivista di Scienza, iv, 360-375. Also id.; Lin- guistique, in De la Methode dans les Sciences, Paris, 1919, 2me serie.) Professor Antoine Thomas was probably the first who pointed out that semantics forms a sort of metaphysical branch of philology, completing the concrete science of phonetics much after the fashion of the concept of the fourth dimension in mathematics. Philology is in- complete without it; of itself, semantics is impotent and ethereal. II. — Doublets Defined Repeating here the brief statement set up, for conve- nience, at the beginning of the present study, the term 'doublet' is commonly employed to designate each of the members, in a given language, of a group of two or more words having a common etymological origin, or etymon, in another language. The constituents of a group of derivatives have ordinarily been called doublets whether the group consists of two words or of more than two; the majority of doublet groups, indeed, consist of only two terms, as the name implies. There are, however, in English and the Romance languages a number of groups consisting of three, four, five or even six terms. To call 23 The Semantics of Doublets the members of these larger groups "doublets" is somewhat infelicitous. Philologists have long recognized this, and have endeavored to amend the terminology by offering various substitutes.^® None of these, however, has won general acceptance over the older expression, which has been the common designation since the seventeenth century. What doublets really are may be succinctly indicated by the following illustrations, taken from the English language :^^ from Lat. cohoetem cohort and court " " FACTUM fact and jeat " " CAPiTALE cattle, chattel and capital " Anglo-Saxon uttera outer and utter (comparative of ut) " Lat. POTiONEM poison and potion Of greater importance than the question of terminology is that of definition. On this score there has been con- siderable variety of opinion. What shall we regard as constituting doublets? '" Among Romance scholars, Diez used at different times the terms Dobletten, Scheideworter, ZwUlingsworter, Doppel- worter, Doppelformen, Bifurcazionen. Of these the term SchMe- worter has been most generally employed in Germany. Coelho used the phrase formas divergentes. Canello tried to introduce alldtropi; Tobler, polimorfie; Egger, dittologie and dirivations divergentes. English, Spanish and Italian scholars have generally preferred the customary French form — doublet. " A large proportion of English doublets consist of one term borrowed from the French and one directly taken over from the classical Latin ; e.g., court from French cotir (O.F. cort or curt) and cohort from classical Latin cohortem. 24 The Semantics of Doublets In his list of doublets,^' Profesor Skeat included many groups of distantly related Indo-European cognates, such as beef, cow; cell, hall; chief, head; core, heart; etc.'^" The definition on which he based his classification allowed of this broad interpretation: "Doublets are words which, though apparently dif- ferent in form, are nevertheless, from an etymological point of view, one and the same, or differ only in some unimportant suffix." By the expression "unimportant suffix" one might in- terpret the definition to include as doublets the variant forms of any weak verb like want, wants, wanted, since they are merely different aspects of the same etymon, varying only in an unimportant suffix. Yet no one con- ceives doublets to be of this nature and Professor Skeat himself would promptly have repudiated such examples. Mr. E. A. AUen,^" a recent investigator of English doublets, has substituted for Skeat's vague definition the following: "English doublets are pairs of words in the English language derived by different courses from the same base, Romianic, Teutonic, Arabic, etc." This excludes the groups of Skeat's list consisting of " Concise Etymological Dictionary of the English Language; Appendix. Oxford, 1888. Beefriix€a', a compound of fiXa^Tro 'to harm,' and riiJi£iv 'to speak.' In the De Cultu Feminarum, of Ter- tullian, Chapters 12 and 13, the Greek root is used as the basis of Latin substantival, verbal and adjectival forms: Sed enim dicitur a quibusdam ne blasphemetur nomen in nobis si quid de pristino habitu et cultu detrahamus. Non auferamus ergo nobis et vitia pristina simus et mo- ribus iisdem, si et superficie eadem: et tunc vere non BLASPHEMABUNT Nationcs. Graudis blasphemia, si qua dicitur; ex quo facta est Christiana pauperius incedere. Timebit pauperior videri, ex quo locupletior facta est, et sordidior ex quo mundior. Secundum Gentilium an secim- dum Dei placitum incedere Cbristianos oportet? Optemus tantummodo ne iustae blasphemationis causa simus. Quanto autem blasphemabile est, si quae sacerdotes pudicitiae dicimini, impudicarum ritu procedatis cultae, aut expictae? In Tertullian, blasphemare is used only in connection with the name of the Deity: in the Vulgate (a. d. 384) its use is extended to people and things: e.g., in relating the death of Goliath's son, slain by the hand of Jonathan, son of David's brother Shimea, the Vulgate reads: Hie (the giant) blasphemavit Israel. 1 Paralipomenon 20:7, which in the King James version is translated: "But when he defied Israel." This defiance was in reality a reviling or verbal objurgation uttered against the Israelites. Thus 39 The SemanticB of Donblets there is a trace of the broadening of meaning of this word during the classical period. By the substitution of the idea of 'uttering hatred' for the closely associated and implied idea of 'indulging hatred' against someone or something, the conceptual development of 'blame' was initiated. This semantic change is reflected in all the Romance languages and in English, while the Spanish lastimar shows a development still farther than the rest; in it the emotional element is increased, but the process is still one of analogy and in keeping with the tendency of words to develop abstract and general meanings as a result of frequent and prolonged use. From ecclesiastical Latin (using the expression in a very general sense) are derived the learned forms of the following doublets: ANTIPHONA AUGUEIUM AUREOLA BENEDICTUS BULLA canonicus capitulare [caritatem] CAUSA CRISTIANUS CONTINENTIA DIVINUS *EXALTIARE FERIA antienne antiphone heur augure loriot aureole benoit benet beni benit boule bouille bulle bill chanoine canonique chapitrer capituler cherte charite chose cause cretin chretien contenance continence devin divin exhausser exaucer exalter foire f^rie 40 The Semantics of Doublets FLORERE fleurissant florissant GAUDERE jouir gEudir GRAECA grive grieche grecque gregue GRAMMATiCA grimoirc galamatias grammaire HORA or heure HospiTALE hotel hopital iLLUMiNARE ciiluminer illuminer LAus los lods Lazarum ladre Lazare MANSiONEM maison mansion ORGANUM orgue organe PARABOLA parole parabole PAEADisuM parvis paradis piETATEM pitie pieta piete PSALTERIUM psauticr psaJterion REDEMPTiONEM ranQon redemption SACRAMENTUM scrmcnt sacrement TEMPERARE trempcr temperer TORQUES torche torque TYMPANUM timbre tympan viCARiuM voyer viguier vicaire viGiLiA veille vigile vocALis voyelle vocale^* From the above list the following examples are selected for discussion here: augurium, benedictum, bulla, " In the above list and the lists following, the etymon is given in the first column; the second column in general contains the popular derivatives and the third column the learned forms. A number of deviations from the norm occur, since doublet groups vary in number of members and In characteristics. 41 The Semantics of Doublets CAEITATEM, CAUSA, CHRISTIANUS, DIVINUS, EXALTARE, HOSPITALE, LAUS, PAEADISUM, TEMPERAEE: Heur — augure < augxjrium. Old Fr. eur, heur was dissyllabic {eur),^^ but later, like eu from habutum (mod. Fr. eu) s'eu from saputum (mod. Fr. su) etc., eur became monosyllabic. Similarity in form and meaning of Latin bonum augurium (bon- keur) and bonam hoeam {a la) bonne heure, is doubtless in part accountable for the introduction of the A in modem heur and bonheur. Semantically, eur was formerly used to express the general idea of its etymon: Del due Melcis, s'il puet et eurs li consent. Roman d'Alexandre (in G.). Frequent use with bon led to an elliptical occurrence of eur without the adjective: Amors, eurs et talens Me poroient bien valoir. Ferris de Ferrieres, Chanson (in G.). This use of the unmodified word, in which the neutral idea became positive in meaning, is rare in the written language and occurs in the modern tongue only in the phrase: heur et malheur. In the seventeenth century it was still common: ... Qui I'eut dit? Que notre heur fut si proche et sitot se perdit? Le Cid, iii, 4. ^' This use of the diaeresis was introduced and consistently followed by A. Tobler in his editions of Old French. 42 The Semantics of Doublets Comble d'heur et de jours. . . Racine, Poes. dtv., v, 99. The second edition of the Dictionnaire de I'Academie (1718) admits heur (without bon) only in proverbs. (Cf. Brunot iv, 234, p. 6.) Several other words which have undergone a similar semantic change, e. g., fortune, chance, reussir, have maintained this use to the present time. (Cf. N. iv, 201.) The learned form is found as early as the twelfth century: Maldiz seit hui icist augurs, Icist dons et icist eurs. Roman de Troie, 13735. Orestes ot oi Vaugure. Ibid., 28191. The semantic development of the learned word has been insignificant; it preserves in the modem language the con- notation of its etj^mon. It may be used alone in a neutral sense, or modified by bon, mauvais or malheureux: Oiseau de mauvais augure. Mon coeur meme en conqut im malheureux augure. Racine, Brit, i, 1. By metonymy, an unwelcome visitor, or even an inaus- picious event of any Idnd may be called un oiseau de mauvais augure. The Spanish doublets abur (ahur, agur are merely orthographical variants), agUero and augurio show sem- antic development similar to the French. Abur like Fr. 43 The Semantics of DoubletB heur has acquired a meliorative sense, but is used only as a term of greeting or of farewell: Abur, don Felipe, como se encuentra usted hoy? Abm, amiga mia; hasta la vista. The use of abur is gradually declining in the modem idiom and abur is rarely used in Latin-American speech.^* The semi-popular form aguero is the semantic counter- part of AUGXJRiuM and is in all essentials the same as augurio, which is the slightly modified Latin form. The difference between the two is that subtle one of taste; augurio smacks of bookishness while aguero is so com- pletely assimilated that it passes for colloquial Spanish. Benoit — benet — beni — benit bullettino and biglietto have been completely assimilated by the French forms bulletin and billet. Bouille, referred by M.-L. 1385, and H. D. T. to Spanish bolla, which signifies a tax upon fencing arms or silk stuffs — or the tag used for marking these arti- cles (Italian bollo) —is limited in French to the mean- ing 'tag' or 'price mark.' The term first appears in the Encyclopedie (1751). Bill is borrowed from English bill, which is a doublet of English bull in papal bull. Bill preserves in French its distinctly foreign flavor, being used only in reference to English parliamentary bills; it is most frequently used in the phrase donner un bill (note the gender) d'indemnite a quelqu'un, 'to give sanction to one's acts.' The Spanish doublets bvla and biU correspond semanti- cally to French bulle and biU, respectively. Bola is the general term for spherical shaped objects. It is used also in the sense of 'falsehood,' and in certain dialects means 47 The Semantics of Doublets a 'tiimult' or a 'noisy crowd.' This latter idea is expressed in Castilian by bulla, verbal substantive from Latin bul- LAEE, whence French bouler 'to swell.' Bolla, Cf. French bouUle above. Bollo, which seems to be derived from biMa (change of gender unexplained, as also Italian ftoWo = Sp. boUa) is the name of a Spanish bread, made light and puffy by the use of eggs and milk and generally moulded in round loaves. Bollo is the equivalent of English 'dent' — French entaille or coche. By extension of this latter meaning from effect to cause, bollo means a 'blow.' Hacerse un bollo en la frente. (Cf. Grober, A. L. L., vi, 379.) Examples of the Latin connotations of bulla follow: Fens affluens bullis ingentibus scaturibat. Apuleius, Metamor., 4, 6. Bulla aurea, quo cultu reges soliti sunt esse Etrus- corum. Festus, Ad Verrum Flaccum (in W.). Ipsum sub BULLA nostra apostolicis annotari litteris mandaremus. Papyrus I Marini (A. D. 550; in W.). Chert6 — chariteun grimoire. Because grammars were written in Latin and were thus unintelligible to the unlettered, while the students were always seen studying them, grimoire came to signify any book containing ca- balistic writings, more especially those attributed to the use of witches and alchemists. This pejorative develop- ment is still the connotation of grimoire.^^ '° Compare the English doublets grammar and glamour where the opposite tendency is to be observed. 78 The Semantics of Doublets Galifmtias is derived from grammaticam by Meyer- Lubke, through southern dialects influenced by the Basque kalamatica, which shows semantic differentiation from its Spanish etjmion gramdtica in that it means 'a jabbering' or 'noisy conversation.'^' This meaning is preserved in French, where galimatias is used as a masculine noun, or rarely as an adjective: L'on n'entend que du galimatias. Satire Menipee, 1, 15. Un langage le plus galimatias. . . qu'on se puisse figurer. Sorel, Frangion, 235. Grammaire presents the same fundamental concepts as the Latin etymon; it applies to the rules of speech or to the book containing them. Philippe de Thaun / en franceise raisun ad estrait Bestiaire / un livre de gramaire. Phil, de Thaun, Bestiaire, 1-4. By extension, any book containing the rules of a science or art may be called a grammaire. Epice — espece< SPECIEM. According to Wolfflin (A. L. L., xi, 540), the soundness of whose conclusions would need to be subjected to critical " Is it not likely that the Basque form was derived from the popular Spanish derivative galimatias? This would be a normal phonetic development; historically, the Spanish form appears late in the text; cf. Dice, de Ferreros, Madrid, 1787, also Dice, de la Real Academia, ed. 1884 where galimatias first appears under the sanction of the Academy. 79 The Semantics of Doublets scrutiny, the development of meaning of epice has been traced to an early legal quarrel between the Romans and the Sabines as to the right of possession of wine made from grapes that were either stolen or illegally offered to the wine merchant for pressing; the Romans holding that the wine was no longer to be considered as grapes, but as a new species derived from raw material and therefore a technically different substance, which might be claimed by the merchant. As a result of this controversy, tiie term SPECIES came to be applied to wine. By extension, the other most important products of the soil which required preparation before being ready to eat — grain, and oil — received the same legal designation. Tradesmen began to employ the term species in referring to these staple articles of food, and the further extension of its use led to the general application of the word to all the foodstuffs that were sold by these merchants. A parallel develop- ment is indicated in the French expression, now quite obsolete, epices des juges — the confections offered to a judge by the winner of a law-suit: II me redemandait sans cesse ses epices; Et j'ai tout bonnement couru dans les offices, Chercher la boite au poivre. Racine, Les Plaideurs, ii, 7. The first recorded appearance of the word in French is the following: Coste, canele, peivre, altres bones espices. Voyage de Charlemagne, 211. 80 The Semantics of Doublets Les quatre epices,^^ 'all-spice' and pain d'epice 'dark brown' are phrases of frequent occurrence. Un visage de pain d'epice. ].-], Rousseau, Confessions, 3. The learned form espece is first recorded in the Roman de la Rose (6969, Langlois): Por I'espece avoir toujours vive. It presents the same concepts as the Classical Latin SPECIES. In the modem language it has suffered a deterio- ration which has given it a bad flavor, having come to be used like the English 'sort of or 'kind of,' with a distinctly depreciatory tone. (Cf. Nyrop, iv, 188.) EUe est une espece de drole (she's a strange creature). Species is the etymon of two Spanish terms especia and especie. Of these, the former has been transformed into a first declension form according to the general fate of fifth declension nouns. The meaning of this folk form in Spanish corresponds exactly with that of the Frendi popular form. Especie shows a tendency to expand se- mantically just as espece has done. Verre — vitrela peregrine. In Middle French pirigrin was used to indicate a foreigner domiciled in Rome or in one of the countries under her dominion. — The expression communion peregrine, meaning a sort of ecclesiastical punishment whereby a priest was deprived of the right to preach publicly in the church and was temporarily or permanently lowered in rank, is rarely used in modern French. 102 The Semantics of Doublets Chapter V. — Influence of the Rhetoriqueurs Although the Rhetoriqueurs revelled in intellectual and formal poetry, there was not one among them — Cretin, Jean Marot, Meschinot, Molinet or Jean le Maire — capable, in spite of all their latinizing, of influencing pro- foundly the language. Most of the many neologisms which occur in their writings were never assimilated by the lan- guage, or else were temporarily forgotten and re-introduced as new terms at a much later date. (Cf. Brunot, i, 501.) The "urge" to create a vehicle that should be capable of conveying the delicate and the lofty ideas which were now in larger process of being re-discovered in the classics, led inevitably to an unrestricted borrowing from the nobler tongue. Oresme (Introduction to Aristotle's Ethics) thus excuses himself for his latinizing: Si comme entre innumerables exemples puet apparoir de ceste tres commune proposition: Homo est animal. Car homo signifie homme et fenime, et nul mot de franqoys ne signifie equivalent, et animal signifie toute chose qui a ame sensitive et sent quant Ten la toucbe, et il n'est nul mot en frangoys qui ce signifie precise- ment. Et ainsi de plusieurs noms et verbes et mesme- ment de aucuns sincathegoremes, si comme pluseurs propositions et autres, qui tres souvent sont es livres dessus dis que I'on ne puet bien translater en frangoys. To make his translations intelligible to the reader, Oresme wisely added a table of mots etranges arranged alphabetic- ally, with references to these explanations in the body of the text. 103 The Semantics of Doublets What the vulgar tongue most conspicuously lacked was that rich facility in synonyms which gave such a wealth of expression to the Classical languages. The translator of Les quatre Livres des Rots pointed out this poverty of vocabulary in the vulgar tongue in the following lines of his introduction. (Brunot, i, 517.) Aucune fois, li latins ait plusours mos que en romans nous ne poions exprimer ne dire proprement, tant est imperf aite nostre laingue ; si com on dit ou latin erue, eripe, libera me, pour lesquelz III mos en latin, nous disons un soul mot en romans, ddivre-moi. One of the most natural consequences of this need was the introduction of doublets, a procedure which resulted in making this the most prolific period in the contribution of doublet groups in the entire history of the language. A large proportion of these doublets of the Middle French period were "learned" in form. The following list in- cludes the learned doublets contributed by writers of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries other than Bersuire and Oresme: AESTUAKiAUM eticr estuaire AMYGDALAM amandc amygdale ANATicuLAM uille anille ANNATAM annce annate APPREHENDERE apprendre apprehender ARMATURAM armure armature ASSOPiRE assouvir assoupir AViSTARDAM bitarde outarde 104 The Semantics of Doublets BASTiTA batie bastide BASTONNATA batonnce bastonnade (Spanish) BOMBAGGiNE (Italian) basin bombasin BREVEM brief bref BuccAM bouche bouque CAVALLICATA CAMPUM CAPANNAM CAPAKAzoN (Spanish) CAPPA CAPTIVUM CARONIAM CARTULARIUM CAVARE CENTENARItTM CHARTAM CHOLERAM CINCTURAEE CINGULAKE COCTIONEM COMPLETAS CREDENTIAM CUCULLAM CUCURBITAM CURSARIUM DACTYLE DECADENTIAM DELIBERARE chevauchee cavalcade champ camp (Italian) cabine cabane caparasse caparaqon chape cape chetif captif charogne carogne Chartrier cartulaire chevrer caver centenier centenaire charte carte colere cholera cintrer ceinturer sangler cingler cuisson coction complies completes creance croyance credence coule cucuUe cagoule gourde cucurbite courge coursier corsaire datte dactyle decheance decadence . delivrer deliberer IDS The Semantics of Doublets DICTUM DUCATUM EXAMEN EXPLICATUM EXQUADRA EXSUCARE GAMBATA GRAVEM HEREDITARIUM HEiNG (Germanic) IMPLICARE INCLUDERE TNDUEATUM INFANTEM INGENIARE INQUISITOREM INSIGNIA LIBERATIONEM LIGATUEAM MACULAM MAGISTEALIAM MANDATUM MARK A (Germanic) MEDIANUM METALLEAM MONASTEEIUM MUSCULUM dit dicton dictum duche ducat essaim examen eploye explique equerre escadre escouade essuyer essucquer jambee gambade grief grave heritier hereditaire rang harangue employer impliquer enclore inclure endure indure enfant infant engeigner ingenier enqueteur inquisiteur enseigne insigne livraison liberation liure ligature maiele macule mistral magistral mande mandat marche marque moyen median maille medaille moutier monastere moule muscle muscule 106 The Semantics of Doublets NATALEM NAVIGARE NYCK (Dutch) PALAM PALISATA PALATINUM PALMAM PASSATA PAUSAM PENICILLUM PHALANCEM PHANTASTICUM PLACET PODAGRUM POKKO (Germanic) PRAEDICATOREM PRECAEIA PRESIDENTIAM PULSATIVUM QUAMQUAM RASUM RATIONEM RECOLLECTA RELAXARE RESPECTUM RETORTUM REVENDICARE RHYTHMUM RUPTURAM noel natal nager naviguer niche nique pelle pale palissee palissade paladin palatin paume palme passee passade pose pause pinceau penicille planche phalange palanque fantasque fantastique plait placet pouacre podagre poche poque precheur predicateur priere precaire , preseance presidence poussif pulsatif cancan quanquam rez ras raison ration recolte recollette relaisser relaxer relacher repit respect riorte retorte revancher revendiquer rime rythme roture rupture 107 The Semantics of Doublets SALATA SARCOPHAGUM SCABINUM SEPAKARE SIMULAEE SINISTRAM SOLICITARE SOETEM SPATHULAM STIPULARE SUPERSALTUM salee salade cercueil sarcophage echevin scabin sevrer separer sembler simuler senestre sinistre soucier soUiciter sort sorte epaule spatule etioler stipuler sursaut soubresaut TACTUM TAENIAM TAPPO (Germanic) TELETTAM TERRITORIUM THYRSUM TOCCARE VALENTEM VARIOLAM VIATICUM VINDICARE VIPEEAM VIEGAM tac tact tenie tenia tampon tapon toilette tellette terroir territoire torse thyrse trou toucher toquer vaillant valant verole variole voyage viatique venger vendiquer guivre vipere verge vergue The following are chosen for discussion: Colere — cholera rere, later written raire. The past participle of the earlier form res, presently spelled rez, persisted as an adjectival form along side of rai, the new form created by etymological reaction, which is still used in the modern language in proverbial expressions: 118 The Semantics of Doublets A barbe de fou on apprend a raire. Un barbier rait I'autre (one thief helps another). Rez occurs early in the Old French texts: Res a res li copa I'oreille. Florimont (text in G.). Reis et reis li tranchait roreille. Ibid. Cheulx de Canbray I'abatirent res a res de terre. Froissart, Chroniques, ii, 209. Du sel ont pris et retenu Tant que res furent leur panier. Beaumanoir, Pole Larguece, 224. (1290 circa). The adverbial phrase rez a rez, later altered to ras a ras, was considered old as early as the seventeenth century; Oudin (Grammaire jrancoise; Paris, 1632) states that this phrase is unknown to him; neither Nicot nor Monet mentions the expression. Rez was also used substantively: Le mont Olympe a de haulteur depuis le rez de la plaine d'abas. Amyot, Publius Aemilius, page 892, (1567). Again it was used as an adjective, as modern ras is used: Tout alentour le pais estoit rez et descouvert. Amyot, Artaxerxes, (in C: ^HW). 119 The Semantics of Doublets De moy vir rez seroit orreur Car je sembleroye tigneux. E. Deschamps, Poes. iv, 65. The phrase rez pied or rez terre, once common in the written language, is now nearly obsolete. It persisted vigorously up to the nineteenth century: Puis raza rez pied rez terre, toute la forteresse. Amyot, Demetrius, (in G., 1560). Pauvre theologiens qui ne volaient que rez pied, rez terre. Bossuet, 6^" Avertissement au Prot. lis s'etablissent rarement a rez de terre. Buffon, Ours. The phrase au rez de meaning 'except,' occurs in Middle French: Et commandons au dessus dis que toute le rayme que il ont en leurs maisons, il faut oster dedens VIII jours, au rez de demi-cent. Text of 1344 (in G.). Rez-de-chaussee first appears in Nicot. (Tresor de la Langue Frangoyse, Paris, 1606.) Le mur est a rez-de-chaussee. Ras first occurs in the meaning of 'a measure of grain.' Deux raz d'avoine. Text of 1429 (in G.). It was used to indicate smooth-finished cloth: Des chappeaulx les uns sont ras, les autres sont a poils. Rabelais, Gargantua, xiii. (1542.) 1 20 The Semantics of Doublets In this sense it is still used elliptically as a substantive, both in the masculine and feminine: Elle etait de ras de Chalons. Scarron, Virgile travesti, 4. Etoffes de laine, comme rases, frises et etamines. De Villars, Lettre a Colbert (text in H. D. T.). In the modern language ras most frequently refers to hair. This use is first recorded by Cotgrave (1611): To require or exact of a man more than he can yield. Vouloir prendre un homme ras par les cheveux. Tondre ras im cheval. Extensions of meaning are present in the phrases: Table rase (a tablet without engraving of any kind), (faire table rase 'to make a clean sweep.') Mesure rase (even measure). Batiment ras (vessel without masts). In Spanish, the masculine substantive ras means "identi- ty' or 'equality of level between two or more objects.' The adverbial expression ras con ras means 'on the same level' or 'equally.' The adjective raso is the equivalent of French ras, and like it may be used as a substantive to refer to cloth — in particular to satin goods. Raso is used figuratively in the meaning plain, ordinary, simple, Note: It seems probable that French ras was borrowed from Provencal ras of the same meaning. It is therefore, not a rever- sionary form of Latin rasus. 12 1 The Semantics of Doublets — as in the expression un soldado raso — 'a "buck" private.' Rime — rythme0»"boz- renije, vol. x, pp. 3-11. Petersburg, 189S. RuppERT, Richard, Die spanischen Lekn- und Premdworter in der franzosichen Schriftsprache aus Heereswesen und Politik. Diss. Munick, 1915. Saggau, Heinrich, Die Benemtwu^n der Scluffsgerate und Schiffs- teUe im neuframSsickat. Diss. Kiel, 1905. SAI.0MON, Gerhardt, Die Entstckung und Entwickelung der deutchsen Zviiltingsformeln. Diss. ■Gottingen, IPW. Sapir, Edward, Language; an Introduction to the Study of Speech. New York, 1921. Saraxtw, Christine, Die Italianismen in der framosischen Sprache des i6. Jahrhunderts. Leipzig, 1920. Stengel, E., Ausgaben und Abhandlungen. Marburg, 1882 et seq. Streng, W. O., Haus und Hoj im franzosischen. Diss. Helsingfors, 1907. Sturtevant, E. H., Linguistic Change. Chicago, 1917. Svedelius, Carl, Etude sur la simantique. TTpsala, 1891. Tappolet, E., Wie die Dinge zu ihren Namen kommen. Wissen und Leben. Ztirich, 1911. Thesaurus Linguae Latinae — Editus auctoritate et consilio aca- demiarum quinque Germanicarum. Completed only to the letter G. Munich, 1908-21. Thomas, Antoine, La semantique, etc., in Essais de philologie frangaise. Paris, 1897. Thomsen, Ewald, Vber die Bedeutungsentwickelung der Scheide- worter des franzosischen. Diss. Kiel, 1890. Tobler, Adolphe, Altfranzosisches Worterbuch; edited by E. Lommatsch. Berlin, 1920-'21. Trenel, J., L'ancien testament et la langue frangaise. Paris, 1904. Vaganay, Hugues, Pour I'histoire du frangais modeme. Sfimanische Porschungen, vol. xxxii. Vendryes, Joseph, Le langage. Paris, 1921. 169 The Semantics of Doublets chaire 31 chaise _ _. 31 chariti 49 chattel _ 24, 87 cheptel 88 cherti , ., 48 chief _ 2S CHOLERA 109 choUre 110 chose SO, 128 chritien ; S2 CHRISTIANUS S2 cingler „ _ 31 CINGULARE 31 coeur _ 2S cohort 24 COHORTEM _ 24 cot _ 70 colere _ _ 109 COMMUNICARE . 98 communier _ 98 communiquer _ _ 99 compain _ 31 COMPANIO 31 compter 77 COMPUTARE .-.^ 76 comunicar _ 99 comidgar _ _ 99 conter 76 copain _ 31 COR _ 25 core _ _. 25 corte 90 cosa _ 52 cour - 24, 89 court _ 24 cow .. CREDO critin cv .... 25 25 52 25 Derecho .„ 68 devin S3 DEXTER __ 66 ^ect _ 68 directo 68 WRECTUS 67 ilivin 53 OIVINTJS _ S3 droit _ 67 Employer 110 ensalzar 54 ipke _ _ 80 espece _ 80 especia _ _ 81 especie _ 81 exoltar _. .. 54 EXALTARE 54 exalter _ 54 exaucer 54 exkausser 54 Fafon fact .... faction FACTIONEM FACTUM 24 fantasgtte _ 31 fantastigue _ 31 fashion 92 feat - - 24 172 The Semantics of Donblefi flottaison 77 fluctuation .^ 78 Galimatias 79 galimatias 79 glamour 78 *GOU _ 2S grimoire _ _ 78 grammaire . 78 GRAMMAUCA 78 gramdtica 79 Hallus 2S HAPUT 25 HART 2S head „ 2S heart 2S keur 31, 42 hopital SS, 128 hospital SS HOSPITALE SS hostd SS hotel ...„ SS Implicare impUquer . 110 110 hastimar ^ 38 laus S6 legal _ 100 LEGALIS „ 99 lods S7, 128 los _ S7 loyal - ~ 99 Vidian lis MEDIANUS . 112 menudo „ 69 menue _ 69 MINUTA 69 minute „ 69 minuto 69 may en 113 Hager _ ..... IIS naif 93 natif _ 93 NATIVUS 93 NAVIGARE - lis nmiiguer _™ 118 Of 26 afi 26 orteil 64, 128 outer . . 24 Paladin ,. . 31 palatin 31 PALATINUS ...._ 31 partial 31 PARTIALIS 31 partiel 31 paradis „ S9 PARADISUM S8 parvis -. S9, 128 pilerin _ 101, 127 penance 26 penitence - _ 26 pirigrin 101, 127 PEREGRINUS — 100 PHANTASTICUS 31 poison - 24 lt3 The SemiuiticB of Doublets potion _ 24 POTIONEM „ 24 Quedo _ — . 70 quieto _ 70 QUIETUS 70 quitte 70, 128 Kas 118 Rasa - _ 121 RASUS _ 118 ♦refusare _ 71 refuser _ 72 rez _ 118 rime _ _ 122 ruser 71 RUSTICUS _ 94 rustique 9S rustre - 94 rythme „ 124 RYTHMUS 122 Sackant _ 26 sangler 31 savant _ _... 26 set up 26 Temperar 62 TEMPERARE 60 tempSrer _ 61 templar 62 trahison 62 tremper _. 60 Troie _ 83 truie ..._ 83 Upset _ - 26 utter 24 UTTERA 24 Verre 31 vitre _ 31 VITRUM _ _. 31 Zinit _. 31, 97 zenith _... 97 174 VITA The author was born April 3, 1894, in Newburyport, Mass., and received primary and secondary education in the local public schools. In 1914 he entered the University of Michigan, receiving the degree of A. B. in 1918. In July, 1918, he undertook special wartime work in the U. S. Postal Service in New York City as translator of Romance languages. The following October he accepted a position as instructor in French and Spanish at the University of Pittsburg. In the autumn of 1919 he entered the Graduate School of Columbia University, de- partment of Romance languages and literatures, where he spent the years 1919-1922. He has followed courses under Professors Todd and Weeks, Visiting Professors Le Braz, Le Gras, and Chamard, Professors de Onis, Spiers and Muller. He has been master in French at Trinity School, New York City, 1919-20; instructor in French and Spanish in Columbia College, 1920-22; instructor in French in University Extension, 1919-22; instructor in French in the Summer Sessions at Columbia University, 1921 and 1922. In May, 1922, he was awarded a Fellow- ship for a year's study in Belgium, under the auspices of the "Committee for Relief of Belgium" Educational Foundation. lis